U^P, A.iV .>■,.■ ,,' V, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 UN IVER.5ITY 
 or ILLINOIS ^ 
 
 BI0U)6A 
 
 ■if 
 
 BIOLOGY 
 
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 Latest Date stamped below. A 
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 University of Illinois Library 
 
 L161— H41 
 
THE 
 
 ANIMAL KINGDOM, 
 
 ARRANGED IN CONFORMITY WITH ITS ORGANIZATION. 
 
 BY THE BARON CUVIER, 
 
 PERPKTUAL SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ETC. ETC. ETC. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, 
 ^ND ABRIDGED 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, &c. 
 BY H. M'MURTRIE, M.D. &c. &c. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 G. & C. & H. CARVILL. 
 
 MDCCCXXXII. '-iK 
 
Entered according to the act of congress, ia the year 1831, by G. & C. & H. 
 Carvill, in the clerk's office of the southern district of New York. 
 
 Philadelphia : 
 
 Printed by James Kay, Jun. & Co. 
 
 Printers to the American Philosophical Society. 
 
 No. 4, Minor Street, 
 

 ^^x 
 
 TO 
 
 TEACHERS OF YOUTH 
 
 IN 
 
 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF THEIR PUPILS, 
 
 IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 IN THE FIRM BELIEF 
 
 THAT WHILE IT WILL BE FOUND TO AMUSE, AS WELL AS INSTRUCT, 
 
 TO INVIGORATE THE MEMORY, EXERCISE THE JUDGMENT, AND 
 
 BRING ALL THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES INTO A STATE 
 
 OF THE GREATEST ACTIVITY, IT WILL ALSO TEND TO 
 
 PRODUCE THAT ELEVATION OF CHARACTER 
 
 WHICH INEVITABLY RESULTS 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE STUDY OF NATURE. 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Archive 
 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/animalkingdom1832cuvi 
 
REMARKS. 
 
 In presenting this abridgement of the well known " Animal 
 Kingdom" of the Baron Cuvier to those who are charged with 
 one of the most honourable and responsible offices of the 
 Republic, that of directing the education and forming the 
 minds of those into whose keeping its future prosperity and 
 happiness must be inevitably committed, I beg leave to 
 anticipate the possible charge of interested adulation, by de- 
 claring that 1 have no pecuniary concern in the work, which 
 is, exclusively and entirely, the property of its enterprising 
 publishers. 
 
 To say that I am not interested in its adoption by our 
 Teachers, would be false, for 1 must confess I look anxiously 
 for that event, but from other motives than the " auri fames.'* 
 
 The schools of continental Europe have long been supplied 
 with works on the Natural Sciences, more particularly so call- 
 ed, expressly prepared for that purpose by order of Govern- 
 ment, while here they are as yet among the desiderata. A 
 little reflection will soon convince every intelligent mind, that 
 an elementary course of Zoology may be pursued by the pupil, 
 without interfering with the usual matters to which alone his 
 attention is at present directed, and that of course the argu- 
 ment of " time lost" falls to the ground. But when care- 
 ful investigation shall have convinced it, that while of all 
 studies the one in question tends most powerfully to strengthen 
 the memory, exercise the judgment, discipline tlie mind, and 
 bring every intellectual faculty of the pupil into a state of the 
 greatest activity, it also tends to elevate his moral character to 
 
VI REMARKS. 
 
 that lofty standard which is the necessary result of that train of 
 thought and inquiry which finally leads him from the creature to 
 the Creator, it will admit it to be " time gained" and with the 
 most usurious interest. The vast number and variety of facts 
 to be retained in this study, and the necessity of classing them 
 in the mind, begets a habit of mental activity, analysis, and 
 order, that is of incalculable value to the possessor in the com- 
 mon business of life, enabling him to disentangle and arrange 
 the most confused and chaotic matters with certainty and 
 despatch. 
 
 In compressing the four large volumes of my edition of the 
 " Animal Kingdom" into its present form, I have endeavour- 
 ed to retain the whole of what I consider its great and leading 
 points, and as much of such of the details of the organization, 
 instincts and habits of the animals of which it treats, as could 
 with propriety be presented to the consideration of those 
 youthful minds for whose use it is intended. The whole has 
 been sedulously, and I hope so thoroughly expurgated, that 
 it may be placed in the hands of females, without the slightest 
 fear of their encountering a word or idea that could ofiend the 
 most fastidious delicacy, or sully that purity of imagination 
 and thought which forms one of the brightest ornaments of the 
 sex. 
 
 H. M'MURTRIE. 
 
 Pine Street, Philadelphia, 
 December 1831. 
 
EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 It is always customary with writers on Natural History to 
 aflSx to every genus and species the name of its founder and 
 describer, and for the sake of brevity, when it is long, to 
 signify the same either by the first letter or syllable, where 
 that name is well known, and by putting it in full in the op- 
 posite case. Thus SIMIA, Lin., or L. means that Linnaeus 
 is the founder of the genus Simia, and S. troglodytes, L. 
 means that he first described that particular species of Ourang. 
 Most frequently, however, the contracted name refers to the 
 discoverer and describer of the species which precedes it. 
 
 L. or Lin. stands for 
 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 Fab., 
 
 Fabricius. 
 
 Lat., 
 
 
 Latreille. 
 
 Geofif., . 
 
 . 
 
 Geofiroy. 
 
 Illig., . 
 
 
 Illiger. 
 
 Cuv., 
 
 
 Cuvier. 
 
 Fr. Cuv., 
 
 
 Frederick Cuvier 
 
 Buff, 
 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 Pall., . 
 
 
 Pallus. 
 
 Lam., 
 
 
 Lamarck. 
 
 Gm., 
 
 
 Gmelin, 
 
 
 &C.& 
 
 c. &c. 
 
INTRODUCTIOlSr. 
 
 AS correct ideas respecting natural history are not very generally 
 formed, it appears necessary to begin by defining its peculiar ob- 
 ject, and establishing rigorous limits between it and neighbouring 
 sciences. 
 
 In our language and in most others, the word nattjke is vari- 
 ously employed. At one time it is used to express the qualities a 
 being derives from birth, in opposition to those it may owe to art ; 
 at another, the entire mass of beings which compose the universe ; 
 and at a third, the laws which govern those beings. It is in this 
 latter sense particularly that we usually personify Nature, and, 
 through respect, use its name for that of its Creator. 
 
 Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treats of the nature of these 
 three relations, and is either general or particular. General phy- 
 sics examines abstractedly each of the properties of those movable 
 and extended beings we call bodies. That branch of them, styled 
 Dynamics, considers bodies in mass; and proceeding from a very 
 small number of experiments, determines mathematically the laws 
 of equilibrium, and those of motion and of its communication. Its 
 different divisions are termed Statics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, 
 Mechanics, &.c. «Sz.c., according to the nature of the particular bo- 
 dies whose motions it examines. Optics considers the particular 
 motions of light, whose phenomena, which, hitherto, nothing but ex- 
 periment has been able to determine, are becoming more numerous. 
 
 Chemistry, another branch of general physics, exposes the laws 
 by which the elementary molecules of bodies act on each other; the 
 combinations or separations which result from the general tendency 
 of these molecules to re-unite; and the modifications which the va- 
 rious circumstances capable of separating or approximating them 
 B 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 produce on that tendency. It is purely a science of experiment, 
 and is irreducible to calculation. 
 
 The theory of heat and that of electricity belong either to Dyna- 
 mics or Chemistry, according to the point of view in which they are 
 considered. 
 
 The ruling method in all the branches of general physics consists 
 in insulating bodies, reducing them to their greatest simplicity, in 
 bringing each of their properties separately into action, either by 
 reflection or experiment, and by observing or calculating the results; 
 and finally, in generalising and connecting the laws of these pro- 
 perties, so as to form codes, and, if it were possible, to refer them 
 to one single principle into which they might all be resolved. 
 
 The object of Particular Physics, or of Natural History — for 
 the terms are synonymous — is the special application of the laws 
 recognised by the various branches of general physics to the numer- 
 ous and varied beings which exist in nature, in order to explain the 
 phenomena which each of them presents. 
 
 Within this extensive range, Astronomy also would be included; 
 but that science, sufficiently elucidated by Mechanics, and completely 
 subjected to its laws, employs methods differing too widely from 
 those required by Natural History, to permit it to be cultivated by the 
 students of the latter. 
 
 Natural History, then, is confined to objects which do not allow of 
 exact calculation, nor of precise measurement in all their parts. 
 Meteorology also is substracted from it and united to general phy- 
 sics; so that, properly speaking, it considers only inanimate bodies 
 called minerals, and the different kinds of living beings, in all of 
 which we may observe the effects, more or less various, of the laws of 
 motion and chemical attraction, and of all the other causes analysed 
 by general physics. 
 
 Natural History, in strictness, should employ similar methods with 
 the general sciences; and it does so, in fact, whenever the objects 
 it examines are sufficiently simple to allow it. This, however, is 
 but very rarely the case. 
 
 An essential difference between the general sciences and Natural 
 History is, that in the former, phenomena are examined, whose con- 
 ditions are all regulated by the examiner, in order, by their analysis, 
 to arrive at general laws; whereas in the latter, they take place under 
 circumstances beyond the control of him who studies them for the 
 purpose of discovering amid the complication, the effects of known 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 general laws. He is not, like the experimenter, allowed to subtract 
 them successively from each condition, and to reduce the problem 
 to its elements — he is compelled to take it in its entireness, with all 
 its conditions at once, and can perform the analysis only in thought. 
 Suppose, for example., we attempt to insulate the numerous pheno- 
 mena which compose the life of any of the higher orders of animals; 
 a single one being suppressed, every vestige of life is annihilated. 
 
 Dynamics have thus nearly become a science of pure calculation, 
 Chemistry is still a science of pure experiment; and Natural History, 
 in a great number of its branches, will long remain one of pure 
 observation. 
 
 These three terms sufficiently designate the methods employed in 
 the three branches of the natural sciences; but in establishing be- 
 tween them very different degrees of certitude, they indicate, at the 
 same time, the point to which they should incessantly tend, in order 
 to attain nearer and nearer to perfection. 
 
 Calculation, if we may so express it, thus commands Nature, and 
 determines her phenomena more exactly than observation can make 
 them known; experiment compels her to unveil; while observation 
 pries into her secrets when refractory, and endeavours to surprise 
 her. 
 
 There is, however, a principle peculiar to Natural History, which 
 it uses with advantage on many occasions; it is that oi the conditions 
 of existence^ commonly styled final causes. As nothing can exist 
 without the re-union of those conditions which render its existence 
 possible, the component parts of each being must be so arranged as 
 to render possible the whole being, not only with regard to itself 
 but to its surrounding relations. The analysis of these conditions 
 frequently conducts us to general laws, as certain as those that are 
 derived from calculation or experiment. 
 
 It is only when all the laws of general physics and those which 
 result from the conditions of existence are exhausted, that we are 
 reduced to the simple laws of observation. 
 
 The most effectual method of obtaining these is that of compa- 
 rison. This consists in successively observing the same bodies in the 
 different positions in which nature places them, or in a mutual com- 
 parison of different bodies; until we have ascertained invariable 
 relations between their structures and the phenomena they exhibit. 
 These various bodies are kinds of experiments ready prepared by 
 Nature, who adds to or deducts from each of them different parts, 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 just as we might wish to do in our laboratories; showing us, herself, 
 at the same time their various results. 
 
 In this way we finally succeed in establishing certain laws by which 
 these relations are governed, and which are employed like those 
 that are determined by the general sciences. 
 
 The incorporation of these laws of observation with the general 
 laws, either directly or by the principle of the conditions of exist- 
 ence, would complete the system of the natural sciences, in render- 
 ing sensible in all its parts the mutual influence of every being. To 
 this end, should those who cultivate these sciences direct all their 
 eflfbrts. 
 
 All researches of this nature, however, pre-suppose means of dis- 
 tinguishing clearly, and causing others to distinguish, the bodies they 
 are occupied with; otherwise we should be continually confounding 
 them. Natural History then should be based on what is called a 
 System of Nature; or a great catalogue, in which all created beings 
 have suitable names, may be recognised by distinctive characters, 
 and be arranged in divisions and subdivisions, themselves named and 
 characterised, in which they may be found. 
 
 In order that each being may be recognised in this catalogue, it 
 must be accompanied by its character: habits or properties which 
 are but momentary cannot, then, furnish characters — they must be 
 drawn from the conformation. 
 
 There is scarcely a single being which has a simple character, 
 or can be recognised by one single feature of its conformation; a 
 union of several of these traits are almost always required to dis- 
 tinguish one being from those that surround it, who also have some 
 but not all of them, or who have them combined with others of 
 which the first is destitute. The more numerous the beings to be 
 distinguished, the greater should be the number of traits; so that to 
 distinguish an individual being from all others, a complete descrip- 
 tion of it should enter into its character. 
 
 It is to avoid this inconvenience, that divisions and subdivisions 
 have been invented. A certain number only of neighbouring beings 
 are compared with each other, and their characters need only to 
 express their difl^erences, which, by the supposition itself, are the 
 least part of their conformation. Such a re-union is termed a genus. 
 
 The same inconvenience would be experienced in distinguishing 
 genera from each other, were it not for the repetition of the opera- 
 tion in uniting the adjoining genera, so as to form an order., the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 orders to form a class, &-c. Intermediate subdivisions may also be 
 established. 
 
 This scaffolding of divisions, the superior of which contain the 
 inferior, is called a method. It is in some respects a sort of dic- 
 tionary, in which we proceed from the properties of things to arrive 
 at their names; being the reverse of the common ones, in which we 
 proceed from the name to arrive at the property. 
 
 When the method is good, it does more than teach us names. If 
 the subdivisions have not been established arbitrarily, but are based 
 on the true fundamental relations, on the essential resemblances of 
 beings, the method is the surest means of reducing the properties of 
 beings to general rules, of expressing them in the fewest words, and 
 of stamping them on the memory. 
 
 To render it such, we apply an assiduous comparison of beings, 
 directed by the principle of the subordination of characters, which 
 is itself derived from that of the conditions of existence. The parts 
 of a being possessing a mutual adaptation, some traits of character 
 exclude others, while on the contrary, there are others that require 
 them. When, therefore, we perceive such or such traits in a being, 
 we can calculate before hand those that co-exist in it, or those that 
 are incompatible with them. The parts, the properties, or the traits 
 of conformation, which have the greatest number of these relations 
 of incompatibility or of co-existence with others, or, in other words, 
 that exercise the most marked influence upon the whole of the being, 
 are called the important characters, dominating characters; the 
 others are the subordinate characters, all varying in degree. 
 
 This influence of character is sometimes determined rationally, 
 by the consideration of the nature of the organ. When this is im- 
 practicable, we have recourse to simple observation; and a sure mark 
 by which we may recognise the important characters, and one which 
 is drawn from their own nature, is their superior constancy, and 
 that in a long series of different beings, approximated according to 
 their degrees of similitude, these characters are the last to vary. 
 
 That they should be preferred for distinguishing the great divisions, 
 and that in proportion as we descend to the inferior subdivisions, we 
 can also descend to subordinate and variable characters, is a rule 
 resulting equally from their influence and constancy. 
 
 There can be but one perfect method, which is the wa^Mra^wie^Aod!. 
 We thus name an arrangement in which beings of the same genus 
 are placed nearer to each other than to those of the other genera; the 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 genera of the same order nearer than those of the other orders, &c. 
 &c. This method is the ideal to which Natural History should tend; 
 for it is evident that if we can reach it, we shall have the exact and 
 complete expression of all nature. In fact, each being is determined 
 by its resemblance to others, and difference from them; and all these 
 relations would be fully given by the arrangement in question. In 
 a word, the natural method would be the whole science, and every 
 step towards it tends to advance the science to perfection. 
 
 Life being the most important of all the properties of beings, and 
 the highest of all characters, it is not surprising that it has in all ages 
 been made the most general principle of distinction; and that natu- 
 ral beings have always been separated into two immense divisions, 
 the living and the inanimate. 
 
 Of Living Beings^ and Organization in general. 
 
 If, in order to obtain a correct idea of the essence of life, we 
 consider it in those beings in which its effects are the most simple, 
 we quickly perceive that it consists in the faculty possessed by cer- 
 tain corporeal combinations, of continuing for a time and under a 
 determinate form, by constantly attracting into their composition a 
 part of surrounding substances, and rendering to the elements, por- 
 tions of their own. 
 
 Life then is a vortex, more or less rapid, more or less complicated, 
 the direction of which is invariable, and which always carries along 
 molecules of similar kinds, but into which individual molecules are 
 continually entering, and from which they are continually departing; 
 so that the form of a living body is more essential to it than its 
 matter. 
 
 As long as this motion subsists, the body in which it takes place is 
 living — it lives. When it finally ceases, it dies. After death, the 
 elements which compose it, abandoned to the ordinary chemical 
 affinities, soon separate, from which, more or less quickly, results the 
 dissolution of the once living body. It was then by the vital motion 
 that its dissolution was arrested, and its elements were held in a tem- 
 porary union. 
 
 All living bodies die after a certain period, whose extreme limit 
 is fixed for each species, and death appears to be a necessary conse- 
 quence of life, which, by its own action, insensibly alters the struc- 
 ture of the body, so as to render its continuance impossible. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 In fact, the living body undergoes gradual, but continual changes, 
 during the whole term of its existence. At first, it increases in 
 dimensions, according to proportions, and within limits, fixed for 
 each species and for each one of its parts; it then augments in den- 
 sity in the most of its parts: — it is this second kind of change that 
 appears to be the cause of natural death. 
 
 If we examine the various living bodies more closely, we find they 
 possess a common structure, which a little reflection soon causes us 
 to perceive is essential to a vortex such as the vital motion. 
 
 Solids, it is plain, are necessary to these bodies, for the mainte- 
 nance of their forms; and fluids for the conservation of motion in 
 them. Their tissue, accordingly, is composed of network and 
 plates, or of fibres and solid laminae, within whose interstices are 
 contained the fluids; it is in these fluids that the motion is most con- 
 tinued and extended. Foreign substances penetrate the body and 
 unite with them; they nourish the solids by the interposition of their 
 molecules, and also detach from them those that are superfluous. 
 It is in a liquid or gaseous form that the matters to be exhaled tra- 
 verse the pores of the living body; but in return, it is the solids which 
 contain the fluids, and by their contraction communicate to them 
 part of their motion. 
 
 This mutual action of the fluids and solids, this transition of mole- 
 cules, required considerable affinity in their chemical composition; 
 and such is the fact — the solids of organized bodies being mostly 
 composed of elements easily convertible into fluids or gases. 
 
 The motion of the fluids needing also a constantly repeated action 
 on the part of the solids, and communicating one to them, required 
 in the latter both flexibility and dilatability; and accordingly we find 
 this character nearly general in all organized solids. 
 
 This structure, common to all living bodies; this areolar tissue, 
 whose more or less flexible fibres or laminae intercept fluids more or 
 less abundant; constitutes what is called the organization. As a 
 consequence of what we have said, it follows, that life can be enjoyed 
 by organized bodies only. 
 
 Organization, then, results from a great variety of arrangements, 
 which are all conditions of life; and it is easy to conceive, that if its 
 effect be to alter either of these conditions, so as to arrest even one 
 of the partial motions of which it is composed, the general move- 
 ment of life must cease. 
 
 Every organized body, independently of the qualities common to 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 its tissue, has a form peculiar to itself, not merely general and exter- 
 nal, but extending to the detail of the structure of each of its parts; 
 and it is upon this form, which determines the particular direction of 
 each of the partial movements that take place in it, that depends the 
 complication of the general movement of its life— it constitutes its 
 species and renders it what it is. Each part co-operates in this 
 general movement by a peculiar action, and experiences from it 
 particular effects, so that in every being life is a whole, resulting from 
 the mutual action and re-action of all its parts. 
 
 Life, then, in general, pre-supposes organization in general, and 
 the life proper to each individual being pre-supposes an organization 
 peculiar to that being, just as the movement of a clock pre-supposes 
 the clock; and accordingly we behold life only in beings that are 
 organized and formed to enjoy it, and ail the efforts of philosophy 
 have never been able to discover matter in the act of organization, 
 neither per se, nor by any external cause. In fact, life exercising 
 upon the elements which at every moment form a part of the living 
 body, and upon those which it attracts to it, an action contrary to 
 that which, without it, would be produced by the usual chemical 
 affinities, it seems impossible that it can be produced by these affini- 
 ties, and yet we know of no other power in nature capable of re- 
 uniting previously separated molecules. 
 
 The birth of organized beings is, therefore, the greatest mystery 
 of the organic economy and of all nature: we see them developed, 
 but never being formed; nay more, all those whose origin we can 
 trace, have at first been attached to a body similar in form to their 
 own, but which was developed before them — in a word, to a parent. 
 So long as the offspring has no independent existence, but partici- 
 pates in that of its parent, it is called a germ. 
 
 The place to which the germ is attached, and the cause which 
 detaches it and gives it an independent life, vary; but this primitive 
 adhesion to a similar being is a rule without exception. The sepa- 
 ration of the germ is called generation. 
 
 Every organized being re-produces others that are similar to itself, 
 otherwise, death being a necessary consequence of life, the species 
 would become extinct. 
 
 Organized beings have even the faculty of reproducing, in degrees 
 varying with the species, particular parts of which they may have 
 been deprived — this is called the power of reproduction. 
 
 The development of organized beings is more or less rapid, and 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 more or less extended, as circumstances are more or less favourable. 
 Heat, the abundance and species of nutriment, with other causes, 
 exercise great influence, and this influence may extend to the whole 
 body in general, or to certain organs in particular: thence arises the 
 impossibility of a perfect similitude between the offspring and parent. 
 
 DiflTerences of this kind, between organized beings, form what 
 are termed varieties. 
 
 There is no proof, that all (he differences which now distinguish 
 organized beings are such as may have been produced by circum- 
 stances. All that has been advanced upon this subject is hypothe- 
 tical. Experience, on the contrary, appears to prove, that, in the 
 actual state of the globe, varieties are confined within rather narrow 
 limits, and go back as far as we may, we still find those limits the 
 same. 
 
 We are thus compelled to admit of certain forms, which, from 
 the origin of things, have perpetuated themselves without exceeding 
 these limits; and every being, appertaining to one or other of these 
 forms, constitutes what is termed a species. Varieties are acciden- 
 tal subdivisions of species. 
 
 Species should be defined, the re-union of individuals descended 
 one from the other, or from common parents, or from such as resem- 
 ble them, as strongly as they resemble each other. But although this 
 definition is strict, it will be seen that its application to particular 
 individuals may be very difficult, where the necessary experiments 
 have not been made. 
 
 Thus then it stands — absorption, assimilation, exhalation, develop- 
 ment and generation are functions common to all living bodies; birth 
 and death the universal limits of their existence; an areolar, con- 
 tractile tissue, containing within its laminae fluids or gases in motion, 
 the general essence of its structure; substances almost all suscepti- 
 ble of conversion into fluids or gases, and combinations capable of 
 an easy and mutual transformation, the basis of their chemical com- 
 position. Fixed forms that are perpetuated by generation distinguish 
 their species, determine the complication of the secondary functions 
 proper to each of them, and assign to them the parts they are to 
 play on the great stage of the universe. These forms are neither 
 produced nor changed by their own agency — life supposes their ex- 
 istence, its flame can only be kindled in an organization already 
 prepared, and the most profound meditation and lynx-eyed and deli- 
 C 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cate observation can penetrate no farther than the mystery of the 
 pre-exiatence of the germs. 
 
 Divisions of organized beings info Animals and Vegetables. 
 
 Living or organized beings have always been subdivided into ani- 
 mate beings, that is, such as are possessed of sense and motion, and 
 into inanimate beings, vehich are deprived of both these faculties, 
 and are reduced to the simple faculty of vegetating. Although the 
 leaves of several planks shrink from the touch, and the roots are 
 steadily directed towards moisture, the leaves to light and air, and 
 though parts of vegetables appear to oscillate without any apparent 
 external cause, still these various motions have too little similarity 
 to those of animals, to enable us to find in them any proofs of per- 
 ception or will. 
 
 The spontaneity in the motions of animals required essential mo- 
 difications even in their purely vegetative organs. Their roots not 
 penetrating the earth, it was necessary they should be able to place 
 within themselves a supply of aliment, and to carry its reservoir 
 along with them. Hence is derived the first character of animals, 
 or their alimentary canal, from which their nutritive fluid penetrates 
 all other parts through pores or vessels, which are a kind of internal 
 roots. 
 
 The organization of this cavity and its appurtenances required 
 varying, according to the nature of the aliment, and the operation it 
 had to undergo, before it could furnish juices fit for absorption; 
 whilst the air and earth present to vegetables nought but elaborated 
 juices ready for absorption. 
 
 The animal, whose functions are more numerous and varied than 
 those of the plant, consequently necessitated an organization much 
 more complete; besides this, its parts not being capable of preserv- 
 ing one fixed relative position, there were no means by which exter- 
 nal causes could produce the motion of their fluids, which required 
 an exemption from atmospheric influence; from this originates the 
 second character of animals, their circulating system, one less essen- 
 tial than that of digestion, since in the more simple animals it is 
 unnecessary. The animal functions required organic systems, not 
 needed by vegetables — that of the muscles for voluntary motion, and 
 serves for sensibility; and these two systems, like the rest, acting 
 only through the motions and transformations of the fluids, it was 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 necessary that these should be most numerous in animals, and that 
 the chemical composition of the animal body be more complex than 
 that of the plant; and so it is, for one substance more (azote) enters 
 into it as an essential element, whilst in plants it is a mere acciden- 
 tal junction with the three other general elements of organization, 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. This then is the third character of 
 animals. 
 
 From the sun and atmosphere, vegetables receive for their nutri- 
 tion water, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen; air, which 
 contains oxygen and azote; and carbonic acid, which is a combina- 
 tion of oxygen and carbon. To extract their own composition from 
 these alinients, it was necessary they should retain the hydrogen 
 and carbon, exhale the superfluous oxygen and absorb little or no 
 azote. Such, in fact, is vegetable life, whose essential function is 
 the exhalation of oxygen, which is effected through the agency of 
 light. 
 
 Animals also derive nourishment, directly or indirectly, from the 
 vegetable itself, in which the hydrogen and carbon form the principal 
 parts. To assimilate them to their own composition, they must get 
 rid of the superabundant hydrogen and carbon in particular, and 
 accumulate more azote, which is performed through the medium of 
 respiration, by which the oxygen of the atmosphere combines with 
 the hydrogen and carbon of their blood, and is exhaled with them in 
 the form of water and carbonic acid. The azote, whatever part of 
 the body it may penetrate, seems always to remain there. 
 
 The relations of vegetables and animals to the surrounding atmos- 
 phere are therefore in an inverse ratio — the former reject water and 
 carbonic acid, while the latter produce them. The essential func- 
 tion of the animal body is respiration; it is that which in a manner 
 animalizes it; and we shall see that the animal functions are the more 
 completely exercised, in proportion to the greatness of the powers 
 of respiration possessed by the animal. This difference of relations 
 constitutes the fourth character of animals. 
 
 Of the forms peculiar to the organic elements of the animal body, 
 and of the principal combinations of its chemical elements. 
 
 An areolar tissue and three chemical elements are essential to 
 every living body; there is a fourth element peculiarly requisite to 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that of an animal; but this tissue is composed of variously formed 
 meshes, and these elements are variously combined. 
 
 There are three kinds of organic materials or forms of texture, 
 the cellular membrane^ the muscular fibre., and the medullary matter., 
 and to each form belongs a peculiar combination of chemical ele- 
 ments, as vi'^ell as a particular function. 
 
 The cellular substance is composed of an infinity of small fibres 
 and laminae, fortuitously disposed, so as to form little cells that com- 
 municate with each other. It is a kind of sponge, which has the same 
 forni as the body, all other parts of which traverse or fill it, and 
 contracting indefinitely, on the removal of the causes of its tension. 
 It is this power that retains the body in a given form and within cer- 
 tain limits. 
 
 When condensed, this substance forms those lamina called mem- 
 branes; the membranes, rolled into cylinders, form those more or 
 less ramified tubes named vessels; the filaments called fibres are 
 resolved into it, and bones are nothing but the same thing indurated 
 by the accumulation of earthy particles. 
 
 The cellular substance consists of a combination well known as 
 gelatine., characterised by its solubility in boiling water, and forming, 
 when cold, a trembling jelly. 
 
 We have not yet been able to reduce tlie medullary matter to its 
 organic molecules; to the naked eye, it appears like a sort of soft 
 bouillie, consisting of excessively small globules; it is not suscepti- 
 ble of any apparent motion, but in it resides the admirable power of 
 transmitting to the mind the impressions of the external senses, and 
 conveying to the muscles the orders of the will. It constitutes the 
 greater portion of the brain and the spinal marrow, and the nerves 
 which are distributed to all the sentient organs are, essentially, mere 
 fasciculi of its ramifications. 
 
 The fieshy or muscular fibre is a peculiar sort of filament, whose 
 distinctive property, during life, is that of contracting when touched 
 or struck, or when it experiences the action of the will through the 
 medium of the nerve. 
 
 The muscles, direct organs of voluntary motion, are mere bundles 
 of fleshy fibres. All vessels and membranes which have any kind 
 of compression to execute are armed with these fibres. They are 
 always intimately connected with the nervous threads, but those 
 which belong to the purely vegetative functions contract, without 
 
INTRODUCTION. ^l 
 
 the knowledge of the individual, so that, although the will is truly a 
 means of causing the fibres to act, it is neither general nor unique. 
 
 The fleshy fibre has for its base a particular substance called 
 fihrine^ which is insoluble in boiling water, and which seems natu- 
 rally to assume this filamentous disposition. 
 
 The nutritive Jluid or the blood, such as we find in the vessels 
 of the circulation, is not only mostly resolvable into the general 
 elements of the animal body, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and azote, 
 but it also contains fibrine and gelatine, almost prepared to contract 
 and to assume the forms of membranes or filaments peculiar to 
 them, all that is ever wanted for their manifestation being a little 
 repose. The blood also contains another combination, which is 
 found in many aninial fluids and solids, called albumen whose cha- 
 racteristic property is that of coagulating in boiling water. Besides 
 these, the blood contains almost every element which may enter into 
 the composition of the body of each animal, such as the lime and 
 phosphorus which harden the bones of vertebrated animals, the iron 
 from which it and various other parts receive their colour, the fat 
 or animal oil which is deposited in the cellular substance to supply 
 it, &c. All the fluids and solids of the animal body are composed 
 of chemical elements found in the blood, and it is only by possessing 
 a few elements more or less, that each of them is distinguished; 
 whence it is plain, that their formation entirely depends on the sub- 
 straction of the whole or part of one or more elements of the blood, 
 and in some few cases, on the addition of some element from else- 
 where. 
 
 These operations, by which the blood nourishes the fluid or solid 
 matter of all parts of the body, may assume the general name of 
 secretions. This name, however, is often appropriated exclusively 
 to the production of liquids ; while that of nutrition is more espe- 
 cially applied to the formation and deposition of the matter necess- 
 ary to the growth and conservation of the solids. 
 
 The composition of every solid organ, of every fluid is precisely 
 such as fits it for the part it is to play, and it preserves it as long as 
 health remains, because the blood renews it as fast as it becomes 
 changed. The blood itself by this continued contribution is changed 
 every moment, but is restored by digestion, which renews its matter 
 by respiration, which delivers it from superfluous carbon and hydro- 
 gen, by perspiration and various other excretions, that relieve it 
 from other superabundant principles. 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 These perpetual changes of chemical composition form a part of 
 the vital vortex, not less essential than the visible movements and 
 those of translation. The object of the latter is, in fact, but to pro- 
 duce the former. 
 
 Of the forces which act in the Animal Body. 
 
 The muscular fibre is not only the organ of voluntary motion, for 
 we have just seen that it is also the most powerful of the agents 
 employed by nature to produce those transmutations so necessary 
 to vegetative life. Thus the fibres of the intestines produce the 
 peristaltic motion, which causes the alimentary matter therein con- 
 tained to pass through them ; the fibres of the heart and arteries are 
 the agents of the circulation and through it of all the secretions, &c. 
 
 Volition contracts the fibre through the medium of the nerve ; and 
 the involuntary fibres, such as those we have mentioned, being also 
 animated by them, it is probable that these nerves are the cause of 
 their contraction. 
 
 All contraction, and generally speaking, every change of dimen- 
 sion in nature, is produced by a change of chemical composition, 
 though it consist merely in the flowing or ebbing of an imponderable 
 fluid, such as caloric ; thus also are produced the most violent move- 
 ments known upon earth, explosions, &c. 
 
 There is, consequently, good reason to suppose that the nerve 
 acts upon the fibre through the medium of an imponderable fluid, 
 and the more so, as it is proved that this action is not mechanical. 
 
 The medullary matter of the whole nervous system is homoge- 
 neous, and must be able to exercise its peculiar functions wherever 
 it is found ; all its ramifications are abundantly supplied with blood 
 vessels. 
 
 All the animal fluids being drawn from the blood by secretion, 
 we can have no doubt that such is the case with the nervous fluid, 
 and that the medullary matter secretes it. 
 
 On the other hand, it is certain that the medullary matter is the 
 sole conductor of the nervous fluid ; all the other organic elements 
 restrain and arrest it, as glass arrests electricity. 
 
 The external causes which are capable of producing sensations 
 or causing contractions of the fibre are all chemical agents, capable 
 of eflecting decompositions, such as light, caloric, the salts, odorous 
 vapours, percussion, compression, d:.c. &c. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 It would appear then that these causes act on the nervous fluid 
 chemically, and by changing its composition ; this appears the more 
 likely, as their action becomes weakened by continuance, as if the 
 nervous fluid needed the resumption of its primitive composition, to 
 fit it for a fresh alteration. 
 
 The external organs of the senses may be compared to sieves, 
 which allow nothing to pass through to the nerve, except that species 
 of agent which should affect it in that particular place, but which 
 often accumulates it so as to increase its effect. The tongue has its 
 spongy papillae which imbibe saline solutions ; the ear, a gelatinous 
 pulp which is violently agitated by sonorous vibrations ; the eye, 
 transparent lenses which concentrate the rays of light, &c. &c. 
 
 It is probable, that what are styled irritants, or the agents which 
 occasion the contractions of the fibre, exert this action by producing 
 on the fibre, by the nerve, a similar effect to that produced on it by 
 the will ; that is, by altering the nervous fluid, in the way that is re- 
 quisite to change the dimensions of the fibre which it influences : 
 but with this process the will has nothing to do, and very often the 
 ME is entirely ignorant of it. The muscles separated from the body 
 preserve their susceptibility of irritation, as long as the portion of 
 the nerve that remains with them preserves the power of acting on 
 them — with this phenomenon the will has evidently no connexion. 
 
 The nervous fluid is altered by muscular irritation, as well as by 
 sensibility and voluntary motion, and the same necessity exists for 
 the re-establishment of its primitive composition. 
 
 The transmutations necessary to vegetable life are occasioned by 
 irritants ; the aliment irritates the intestine, the blood irritates the 
 heart, &c. These movements are all independent of the will, and 
 generally (while in health) take place without the knowledge of the 
 individual ; in several parts, the nerves that produce them are even 
 differently arranged from those that are appropriated to sensation or 
 dependent on the will, and the very object of this difference appears 
 to be the securing of this independence. 
 
 The nervous functions, that is, sensibility and muscular irritability, 
 are so much the stronger at every point, in proportion as their ex- 
 citing cause is abundant ; and as this cause or the nervous fluid is 
 produced by secretion, its abundance must be in proportion to the 
 quantity of medullary or secretory matter, and the amount of blood 
 received by the latter. 
 
 In animals that have a circulating system, the blood is propelled 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 through the arteries which convey it to its destined parts, by means 
 of their irritability and that of the heart. If these arteries be irri- 
 tated, they act more strongly, and propel a greater quantity of blood ; 
 the nervous fluid becomes more abundant and augments the local 
 sensibility ; this, in its turn, augments the irritabihty of the arteries, 
 so that this mutual action may sometimes be carried to a great ex- 
 tent. It is called orgasm^ and when it becomes painful and perma- 
 nent, inflammation. The irritation may also originate in the nerve 
 when exposed to the influence of acute sensations. 
 
 This mutual influence of the nerves and fibres, either intestinal or 
 arterial, is the real spring of vegetative life in animals. 
 
 As each external sense is permeable only by such or such sensible 
 substances, so each internal organ may be accessible only to this or 
 that agent of iri-itation. Thus, mercury irritates the salivary glands, 
 cantharides irritate the bladder, &.c. These agents are called spe- 
 cijics. 
 
 The nervous system being homogeneous and continuous, local 
 sensations and irritation debilitate the whole, and each function, by 
 excessive action, may weaken the others. Excess of aliment 
 weakens the power of thought, while long continued meditation 
 impairs that of digestion, &c. 
 
 Excessive local irritation will enfeeble the whole body, as if all 
 the powers of life were concentrated in one single point. 
 
 A second irritation produced at another part may diminish, or 
 divert, as it is termed, the first : such is the eftect of blisters, pur- 
 gatives, &-C. 
 
 Brief as our sketch has been, it is sufficient to establish the poss- 
 ibility of accounting for all the phenomena of physical life, from the 
 properties it presents, by the simple admission of a fluid such as we 
 have defined. 
 
 Summary idea of the Functions and Organs of the bodies of 
 Animals, and of their various degrees of complication. 
 
 After what we have stated respecting the organic elements of the 
 body, its chemical principles and acting powers, nothing remains 
 but to give a summary idea of the functions of which life is composed, 
 and of their appropriate organs. 
 
 The functions of the animal body are divided into two classes : 
 
- INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 The animal functions, or those proper to animals, that is to say, 
 sensibility and voluntary motion. 
 
 The vital, vegetative functions, or those common to animals and 
 vegetables, i. e., nutrition and generation. 
 
 Sensibility resides in the nervous system. 
 
 The most general external sense is that of touch ; it is seated in 
 the skin, a membrane that envelopes the whole body, which is tra- 
 versed in every direction by nerves whose extreme filaments expand 
 on the surface into papilla?, and are protected by the epidermis and 
 other insensible teguments, such as hairs, scales, &c. «Sz-c. Taste 
 and smell are merely delicate states of the sense of touch, for which 
 the skin of the mouth and nostrils is particularly organized : the first, 
 by means of papillae more convex and spongy ; the second, by its 
 extreme delicacy and the multiplication of its ever humid surface. 
 We have already spoken of the ear and the eye. In fine, sensations 
 more or less painful may originate in every part of the body through 
 accident or disease. 
 
 Many animals have neither ears nor nostrils, several are without 
 eyes, and some are reduced to the single sense of touch, which is 
 never absent. 
 
 The action received by the external organs is continued by the 
 nerves to the central masses of the nervous system, which, in the 
 higher animals, consists of the brain and spinal marrow. The more 
 elevated the nature of the animal, the more voluminous is the brain 
 and the more is the sensitive power concentrated there ; the lower 
 the animal, the more the medullary masses are dispersed, and in the 
 most imperfect genera, the entire nervous substance seems to melt 
 into the general matter of the body. 
 
 That part of the body, which contains the brain and principal 
 organs of sense, is called the head. 
 
 When the animal has received a sensation, and this has occasioned 
 volition, it is by the nerves, also, that this volition is transmitted to 
 the muscles. 
 
 The muscles are bundles of fleshy fibres whose contractions pro- 
 duce all the movements of the animal body. The extension of the 
 limbs and every elongation, as well as every flexion and abbreviation 
 of parts, are the eflfects of muscular contraction. The muscles of 
 every animal are arranged, both as respects number and direction, 
 according to the movements it has to make ; and when these motions 
 require force, the muscles are inserted into hard parts, articulated 
 D 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 one over another, and may be considered as so many levers. These 
 parts are called bones in the vertebrated animals, where they are 
 internal, and are formed of a gelatinous mass, penetrated by particles 
 of phosphate of lime. In the MoUusca, the Crustacea, and Insects, 
 where they are external, and composed of a calcareous or horny 
 substance that exudes between the skin and epidermis, they are 
 called shells, crusts and scales. 
 
 The fleshy fibres are attached to the hard parts by means of other 
 fibres of a gelatinous nature, which seem to be a continuation of the 
 former, constituting what are called tendons. 
 
 The configuration of the articulating surfaces of the hard parts 
 limits their motion, which are also restrained by cords or envelopes, 
 attached to the sides of the articulations, called ligaments. 
 
 It is from the various arrangements of this bony and muscular 
 apparatus, and the form and proportion of the members therefrom 
 resulting, that animals are capable of executing the innumerable 
 movements that enter into walking and leaping, flight and natation. 
 
 The muscular fibres, appropriated to digestion and the circulation, 
 are independent of the will ; they receive nerves, however, but the 
 chief of them are subdivided and arranged in a manner which seems 
 to have for its object their independence of the will. It is only in 
 paroxysms of the passions and other powerful affections of the soul, 
 •which break down these barriers, that its empire is perceptible, 
 and even then it is almost always to disorder these vegetative func- 
 tions. It is, also, in a state of sickness only that these functions 
 are accompanied with sensations : digestion is usually performed un- 
 consciously. 
 
 The aliment divided by the jaws and teeth, or sucked up when 
 liquids constitute the food, is swallowed by the muscular movements 
 of the hinder parts of the mouth and throat, and deposited in the 
 first portions of the alimentary canal that is usually expanded into 
 one or more stomachs ; there it is penetrated with juices fitted to 
 dissolve it. Passing thence through the rest of the canal, it receives 
 other juices destined to complete its preparation. The parietes of 
 the canal are pierced with pcres which extract from this alimentary 
 mass its nutritious portion ; the useless residuum is rejected. 
 
 The canal in which this first act of nutrition is performed is a 
 continuation of the skin, and is composed of similar layers; even the 
 fibres that encircle it are analogous to those which adhere to the 
 internal surface of the skin, called the fleshy pannicle. Throughout 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 the whole interior of this canal there is a transudation which has 
 some connexion with the cutaneous perspiration, and which becomes 
 more abundant when the latter is suppressed ; the absorption of the 
 skin is even very analogous to that of the intestines. It is in the 
 lowest order of animals that the useless residuum is rejected by the 
 mouth, their intestines resembling a sac, with but the one opening. 
 
 Even among those where the intestinal canal has two orifices, 
 there are many in which the nutritive juices being absorbed by the 
 parietes of the intestine, are immediately diffused throughout the 
 whole spongy substance of the body : such, it would appear, is the 
 case with all Insects. But from the Arachnoides and Worms up- 
 wards, the nutritive fluid circulates in a system of closed vessels, 
 whose ultimate ramifications alone dispense its molecules to the 
 parts that are nourished by it ; the vessels that convey it are called 
 arteries, those that bring it back to the centre of the circulation, 
 veins. The circulating vortex is here simple, and there double and 
 even triple (including that of the vena portae) ; the rapidity of its 
 motion is often assisted by the contractions of a certain fleshy appa- 
 ratus called a heart, which is placed at one or the other centres of 
 circulation, and sometimes at both of them. 
 
 In the red-blooded vertebrated animals, the nutritive fluid exudes 
 from the intestines, white or transparent, and is then termed chyle; 
 it is poured into the veins where it mingles with the blood, by two 
 peculiar vessels called lacteals. Vessels similar to these lacteals, 
 and forming with them an arrangement called the lymphatic system, 
 also convey to the venous blood the residue of the nutrition of the 
 parts and the products of cutaneous absorption. 
 
 Before the blood is fit to nourish the parts, it must experience 
 from the circumambient element the modification of which we have 
 previously spoken. In animals possessing a circulating system, one 
 portion of the vessels is destined to carry the blood into organs in 
 which they spread it over a great surface to obtain an increase of 
 this elemental influence. When that element is air, the surface is 
 hollow, and is called lungs; when it is water, it is salient, and is 
 termed branchiae. There is always an arrangement of the organs 
 of motion for the purpose of propelling the element into, or upon, 
 the organ of respiration. 
 
 In animals destitute of a circulating system, air is diffused through 
 every part of the body by elastic vessels called trachetB ; or water 
 acts upon them, either by penetrating through vessels, or by simply 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 bathing the surface of the skin. The respired, or purified blood is 
 properly qualified for restoring the composition of all the parts, and 
 to effect what is properly called nutrition. This facility, which the 
 blood possesses, of decomposing itself at every point, so as to leave 
 there the precise kind of molecule necessary, is indeed wonderful ; 
 but it is this wonder which constitutes the whole vegetative life. 
 For the nourishment of the solids we see no other arrangement than 
 a great subdivision of the extreme arterial ramifications, but for the 
 production of fluids the apparatus is more complex and various. 
 Sometimes the extremities of the vessels simply spread themselves 
 over large surfaces, whence the produced fluid exhales ; at others it 
 oozes from the bottom of little cavities. Before these arterial ex- 
 tremities change into veins, they most commonly give rise to parti- 
 cular vessels that convey this fluid, which appears to proceed from 
 the exact point of union between the two kinds of vessels ; in this 
 case the blood vessels and these latter form, by interlacing, particu- 
 lar bodies called conglomerate or secretory glands. 
 
 In animals that have no circulation, in Insects particularly, the 
 parts are all bathed in the nutritive fluid : each of these parts draws 
 from it what it requires, and if the production of a liquid be neces- 
 sary, proper vessels floating in the fluid take up by their pores the 
 constituent elements of that liquid. 
 
 It is thus that the blood incessantly supports the composition of 
 all the parts, and repairs the injuries arising from those changes 
 which are the continual and necessary consequences of their func- 
 tions. The general ideas we form with respect to this process are 
 tolerably clear, although we have no distinct or detailed notion of 
 what passes at each point, and for want of knowing the chemical 
 composition of each part with sufiicient precision, we cannot render 
 an exact account of the transmutations necessary to effect it. 
 
 Besides the glands which separate from the blood those fluids that 
 are destined for the internal economy, there are some which detach 
 others from it that are to be totally ejected, either as superfluous, 
 or for some use to the animal, as the ink of the cuttle-fish, and the 
 purple matter of various Mollusca, See. 
 
 There is a process or phenomenon, infinitely more diflicult to 
 comprehend than that of the secretions — the production of the germ. 
 We have even seen that it is to be considered as almost incompre- 
 hensible ; but the existence of the germ being admitted, the subject 
 presents no particular difficulties. As long as it adheres to the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 parent, it is nourished as if it were one of its organs, and when it 
 detaches itself, it possesses its own life, which is essentially similar 
 to that of the adult. 
 
 The germ, the embryo, the fcetus, and the new-born animal, have 
 never, however, exactly the same form as the adult, and the differ- 
 ence is sometimes so great, that their assimilation has been termed a 
 metamorphosis. Thus, no one not previously aware of the fact 
 would suppose that the caterpillar is to become a butterfly. 
 
 Every living being is more or less metamorphosed in the course 
 of its growth ; that is, it loses certain parts, and developes others. 
 The antennae, wings, and all the parts of the butterfly were enclosed 
 beneath the skin of the caterpillar ; this skin vanishes along with the 
 jaws, feet, and other organs, that do not remain with the butterfly. 
 The feet of the frog are enclosed by the skin of the tadpole ; and 
 the tadpole, to become a frog, parts with its tail, mouth, and bran- 
 chiae. The child, at birth, loses its placenta and membranes ; at a 
 certain period its thymus gland nearly disappears, and it gradually 
 acquires hair, teeth, and beard ; the relative size of its organs is 
 altered, and its body augments in a greater ratio than its head, the 
 head more than the internal ear, &,c. 
 
 The place where these germs are found, and their germs them- 
 selves are collectively styled the ovary; the canal through which, 
 when detached, they are carried into the uterus, the oviduct; the 
 cavity in which, in many species, they are compelled to remain for 
 a longer or shorter period previous to birth, the uterus. 
 
 Of the Intellectual Functions of Animals. 
 
 The impression of external objects upon the individual, the pro- 
 duction of a sensation or of an image, is a mystery into which the 
 human understanding cannot penetrate; and materialism an hypo- 
 thesis, so much the more conjectural, as philosophy can furnish no 
 direct proof of the actual existence of matter. The naturalist, 
 however, should examine what appear to be the material conditions 
 of sensation, trace the ulterior operations of the mind, ascertain to 
 what point they reach in each being, and assure himself whether 
 they are not subject to conditions of perfection, dependent on the 
 organization of each species, or on the momentary state of each 
 individual body. 
 
 To enable a being to perceive, there must be an uninterrupted 
 
30 INTRODUCTIOTf. 
 
 communication between the external sense and the central masses 
 of the medullary system. It is then the modification only expe- 
 rienced by these masses that the mind perceives: there may also be 
 real sensations, without the external organ being affected, and which 
 originate either in the nervous chain of communication, or in the 
 central mass itself; such are dreams and visions, or certain acci- 
 dental sensations. 
 
 By central masses, we mean a part of the nervous system, that is 
 so much the more circumscribed, as the animal is more perfect. In 
 Man, it consists exclusively of a limited portion of the brain; but in 
 Reptiles, it includes the brain and the whole of the medulla, and of 
 each of their parts taken separately, so that the absence of the 
 entire brain does not prevent sensation. In the inferior classes this 
 extension is still greater. 
 
 The perception acquired produces the image of the sensation 
 experienced. We trace to without the cause of that sensation, and 
 thus acquire the idea of the object that has produced it. By a 
 necessary law of our intelligence, all ideas of material objects are 
 in time and space. 
 
 The modifications experienced by the medullary masses leave 
 impressions there which are reproduced- and thus recal to the mind 
 images and ideas; this is memory, a corporeal faculty that varies 
 greatly, according to the age and health of the animal. 
 
 Similar ideas, or such as have been acquired at the same time, 
 recal each other; this is the association of ideas. The order, ex- 
 tent and quickness of this association constitute the perfection of 
 memory. 
 
 Every object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities or 
 with all its accessary ideas. 
 
 Intelligence has the power of separating these accessary ideas 
 of objects, and of combining those that are alike in several differ- 
 ent objects under a general idea; the object of which no where 
 really exists, nor presents itself per se — this is abstraction. 
 
 Every sensation being^ more or less agreeable or disagreeable, 
 xperience and repeated essays soon show what movements are re- 
 uired to procure the one and avoid the other; and with respect to 
 his, the intelligence abstracts itself from the general rules to direct 
 he will. 
 
 An agreeable sensation being liable to consequences that are not 
 so, and vice versa, the subsequent sensations become associated with 
 
INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 the idea of the primitive one, and modify the general rules framed 
 by intelligence — this is prudence. 
 
 From the application of these rules to general ideas, result cer- 
 tain formulas, which are afterwards easily adapted to particular cases 
 — this is called reasoning. 
 
 A lively remembrance of primitive and associated sensations, and 
 of the impressions of pleasure or pain that belong to them, consti- 
 tutes imagination. 
 
 One privileged being, man, has the faculty of associating his gene- 
 ral ideas with particular images more or less arbitrary, easily im- 
 pressed upon the memory, and which serve to recal the general ideas 
 they represent. These associated images are styled signs; their 
 assemblage is a language. When the language is composed of 
 images that relate to the sense of hearing or of sounds, it is termed 
 speech, and when relative to that of sight, hieroglyphics. Writing 
 is a suite of images that relate to the sense of sight, by which we 
 represent the elementary sounds, and by combining them, all the 
 images relative to the sense of hearing of which speech is composed; 
 it is therefore only a mediate representation of ideas. 
 
 Although, with respect to the intellectual faculties, the most per- 
 fect animals are infinitely beneath man; it is certain that their intel- 
 ligence performs operations of the same kind. They move in 
 consequence of sensations received, are susceptible of durable affec- 
 tions, and acquire by experience a certain knowledge of things, by 
 which they are governed independently of actual pain or pleasure, 
 and by the simple foresight of consequences. When domesticated, 
 they feel their subordination, know that the being who punishes them 
 may refrain from so doing if he will, and when sensible of having 
 done wrong, or behold him angry, they assume a suppliant and depre- 
 cating air. In the society of Man they become either corrupted or 
 improved, and are susceptible of emulation and jealousy: they have 
 among themselves a natural language, which, it is true, is merely the 
 expression of their momentary sensations, but Man teaches them ta 
 understand another, much more complicated, by which he makes 
 known to them his will, and causes them to execute it. 
 
 To sum up all, we perceive in the higher animals a certain degree 
 of reason, with all its consequences, good and bad, and which ap- 
 pears to be about the same as that of children ere they have learned 
 to speak. The lower we descend from Man the weaker these facul- 
 ties become, and at the bottom of the scale we find them reduced 
 
32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to signs (at times equivocal) of sensibility, that is, to some few slight 
 movements to escape from pain. Between these two extremes, the 
 degrees are infinite. 
 
 In a great number of animals, however, there exists another kind 
 of intelligence, called instinct. This induces them to certain actions 
 necessary to the preservation of the species, but very often alto- 
 gether foreign to the apparent wants of the individual; often also 
 very complicated, and which, if attributed to intelligence, would sup- 
 pose a foresight and knowledge in the species that perform them 
 infinitely superior to what can possibly be granted. These actions, 
 the result of instinct, are not the effect of imitation, for very fre- 
 quently the individuals who execute them-Jiave never seen them 
 performed by others: they are not proportioned to ordinary intelli- 
 gence, but become more singular, more wise, more disinterested, in 
 proportion as the animals belong to less elevated classes, and in all 
 the rest of their actions are more dull and stupid. They are so 
 entirely the property of the species, that all its individuals perform 
 them in the same way without ever improving them a particle. 
 
 The working Bees, for instance, have always constructed very 
 ingenious edifices, agreeably to the rules of the highest geometry, 
 and destined to lodge and nourish a posterity not even their own. 
 The soUtary Bee, and the Wasp also, form highly complicated nests, 
 in which to deposit their eggs. From this egg comes a worm, which 
 has never seen its parent, which is ignorant of the structure of the 
 prison in which it is confined, but which, once metamorphosed, con- 
 structs another precisely similar. 
 
 The only method of obtaining a clear idea of instinct is by admit- 
 ting the existence of innate and perpetual images or sensations in 
 the sensorium which cause the animal to act in the same way as 
 ordinary or accidental sensations usually do. It is a kind of perpe- 
 tual vision or dream that always pursues it, and it may be considered, 
 in all that has relation to its instinct, as a kind of somnambulism. 
 
 There is no visible mark of instinct in the conformation of the 
 animal, but, as well as it can be ascertained, the intelhgence is always 
 in proportion to the relative size of the brain, and particularly of its 
 hemispheres. 
 
 Of Method, as applied to the Animal Kingdom. 
 From what has been stated with respect to methods in general, we 
 
INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 have now to ascertain what are the essential characters in animals, 
 on which their primary divisions are to be founded. It is evident 
 they should be those which are drawn from the animal functions, that 
 is from the sensations, and motions; for both these not only make 
 the being an animal, but in a manner establish its degree of ani- 
 mality. 
 
 Observation confirms this position by showing that their degrees 
 of development and complication accord with those of the organs of 
 the vegetative functions. 
 
 The heart and the organs of the circulation form a kind of centre 
 for the vegetative functions, as the brain and the trunk of the nervous 
 system do for the animal ones. Now we see these two systems 
 become imperfect and disappear together. In the lowest class of 
 animals, where the nerves cease to be visible, the fibres are no longer 
 distinct, and the organs of digestion are simple excavations in the 
 homogeneous mass of the body. In insects the vascular system even 
 disappears before the nervous one; but, in general, the dispersion of 
 the medullary masses accompanies that of the muscular agents: a 
 spinal marrow, on which the knots or ganglions represent so many 
 brains, corresponds to a body divided into numerous rings, supported 
 by pairs of limbs longitudinally distributed, &c. 
 
 This correspondence of general forms, which results from the 
 arrangement of the organs of motion, the distribution of the nervous 
 masses, and the energy of the circulating system, should then be the 
 basis of the primary divisions of the animal kingdom. We will 
 afterwards ascertain, in each of these divisions, what characters 
 should succeed immediately to those, and form the basis of the pri- 
 mary subdivisions. 
 
 General distribution of the Animal Kingdom into Four Great Di- 
 visions. 
 
 If, divesting ourselves of the prejudices founded on the divisions 
 formerly admitted, we consider only the organization and nature of 
 animals, without regard to their size, utility, the greater or less 
 knowledge we have of them, and other accessary circumstances, we 
 shall find there are four principal forms, four general plans, if it may 
 be so expressed, on which all animals seem to have been modelled, 
 and whose ulterior divisions, whatever be the titles with which natu- 
 ralists have decorated them, are merely slight modifications, founded 
 E 
 
34 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 on the development or addition of certain parts, which produce no 
 essential change in the plan itself. 
 
 In the first of these forms, which is that of Man, and of the ani- 
 mals most nearly resembling him, the brain and principal trunk of 
 the nervous system are enclosed in a bony envelope, formed by the 
 cranium and vertebrse; to the sides of this intermedial column are 
 attached the ribs, and bones of the limbs, which form the frame 
 work of the body; the muscles generally cover the bones, whose 
 motions they occasion, while the viscera are contained within the 
 head and trunk. Animals of this form we shall denominate 
 
 Animalia Vertebrata, 
 
 Or vertebrated animals. They have, all, red blood, a muscular 
 heart, a mouth furnished with two jaws, one situated either above or 
 before the other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste 
 placed in the cavities of the face; never more than four limbs, the 
 sexes always separated, and a very similar distribution of the me- 
 dullary masses and the principal branches of the nervous system. 
 
 By a closer examination of each of the parts of this great series 
 of animals, we always discover some analogy, even in species the 
 most remote from each other; and may trace the gradations of one 
 same plan from Man to the last of the Fishes. 
 
 In the second form there is no skeleton; the muscles are merely 
 attached to the skin, which constitutes a soft contractile envelope, in 
 which, in many species, are formed stony plates, called shells, whose 
 position and production are analogous to those of the mucous body. 
 The nervous system is contained within this general envelope along 
 with the viscera, and is composed of several scattered masses con- 
 nected by nervous filaments; the chief of these masses is placed on 
 the oesophagus, and is called the brain. Of the four senses, the 
 organs of two only are observable, those of taste and sight, the lat- 
 ter of which are even frequently wanting. One single family alone 
 presents organs of hearing. There is always, however, a complete 
 system of circulation, and particular organs for respiration. Those 
 of digestion and secretion are nearly as complex as in the Vertebrata. 
 We will distinguish the animals of this second form by the appella- 
 tion of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 Animalia Mollusca, 
 
 Or soft animals. Although, as respects the external configura- 
 tion of the parts, the general plan of their organization is not as 
 uniform as that of the Vertebrata; there is always an equal degree 
 of resemblance between ihem in the structure and the functions. 
 
 The third form is that remarked in Worms, Insects, &c. Their 
 nervous system consists of two long cords, running longitudi- 
 nally through the abdomen, dilated at intervals into knots or gan- 
 glions. The first of these knots, placed over the (Esophagus, and 
 called brain, is scarcely any larger than those that are along the ab- 
 domen, with which they communicate by filaments that encircle the 
 oesophagus like a necklace. The covering or envelope of the body 
 is divided by transverse folds into a certain number of rings, whose 
 teguments are sometimes soft, and sometimes hard; the muscles, 
 however, being always situated internally. Articulated limbs are 
 frequently attached to the trunk; but very often there are none. 
 We will call these animals 
 
 Animalia Articulata^ 
 
 Or articulated animals, in which is observed the transition from 
 the circulation in closed vessels, to nutrition by imbibition, and the 
 corresponding one of respiration in circumscribed organs, to that 
 effected by tracheae or air-vessels distributed throughout the body. 
 In them, the organs of taste and sight are the most distinct; one 
 single family alone presenting that of hearing. Their jaws, when 
 they have any, are always lateral. 
 
 The fourth form, which embraces all those animals known by the 
 name of Zoophytes, may also properly be denominated 
 
 Animalia Radiata, 
 
 Or radiated animals. We have seen that the organs of sense and 
 motion in all the preceding ones are symmetrically arranged on the 
 two sides of an axis. There is a posterior and anterior dissimilar 
 face. In this last division, they are disposed like rays round a cen- 
 
36 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tre; and this is the case even when they consist of but two series, 
 for then the two faces are similar. They approximate to the homo- 
 geneity of plants, having no very distinct nervous system or particu- 
 lar organs of sense; in some of them, it is even difficult to discover 
 a vestige of circulation; their respiratory organs are almost univer- 
 sally seated on the surface of the body, and the lowest of the series 
 are nothing but a sort of homogeneous pulp, endowed with motion 
 and sensibility. 
 
FIRST GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 
 
 The bodies and limbs of vertebrated animals being supported by 
 a frame-work or skeleton composed of connected pieces that are 
 movable upon each other, their motions are certain and vigorous. 
 The solidity of this support enables them to attain considerable size, 
 and it is among them that the largest animals are found. 
 
 The great concentration of the nervous system, and the volume^f 
 its central portions, give energy and stability to their sentiments, 
 whence result superior intelligence and perfectibility. 
 
 Their body always consists of a head, trunk and members. 
 
 The head is formed by the cranium which contains the brain, and 
 by the face which is composed of two jaws and of the receptacles of 
 the senses. 
 
 The trunk is supported by the spine and the ribs. 
 
 The spine is formed of vertebrje, the first of which supports the 
 head, that move upon each other, and are perforated by an annular 
 opening, forming together a canal, in which is lodged that medullary 
 production from which arise the nerves, called the spinal marrow. 
 
 The spine, most commonly, is continued into a tail, extending 
 beyond the posterior members. 
 
 The ribs are a kind of semicircular hoops which protect the sides 
 of the cavity of the trunk; they are articulated at one extremity with 
 the vertebrae, and most generally at the other with the sternum : 
 
38 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 
 
 sometimes, however, they do not encircle the trunk, and there are 
 genera in which they are hardly visible. 
 
 There are never more than two pairs of members, but sometimes 
 one or the other is wanting, or even both. Their forms vary ac- 
 cording to the movements they have to execute. The superior 
 members are converted into hands, feet, wings or fins, and the infe- 
 rior into feet or fins. 
 
 The blood is always red, and appears to be so composed as to 
 sustain a peculiar energy of sentiment and muscular strength, but in 
 various degrees, corresponding to their quality of respiration : from 
 which originates the subdivision of the Vertebrata into four classes. 
 
 The external senses are always five in number, and reside in two 
 eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the teguments of the tongue, and those 
 of the body, generally. In some species, how^ever, the eyes are 
 obliterated. 
 
 The nerves reach the medulla through the foramina of the ver- 
 tebras or those of the cranium ; they all seem to unite with this 
 medulla, which, after crossing its filaments, spreads out to form the 
 various lobes of which the brain is composed, and terminates in the 
 two medullary arches called hemispheres, whose volume is in pro- 
 portion to the extent of the inteUigence. 
 
 There are always two jaws, the greatest motion is in the lower 
 one, which rises and falls ; the upper jaw is sometimes immovable. 
 Both of these are almost always armed with teeth, excrescences of 
 a peculiar nature, which in their chemical composition are very 
 similar to that of bone, but which grow by layers and transudation; 
 one whole class, however, that of Birds, has the jaws invested with 
 horn, and the genus Testudo, in the class of Reptiles, is in the same 
 case. 
 
 The intestinal canal traverses the body, experiencing various 
 enlargements and contractions, having appendages and receiving 
 solvent fluids, one of which, the saliva, is discharged into the mouth. 
 The others, which are poured into the intestine only, have various 
 names: the two principal ones are the juices of the gland called the 
 pancreas, and bile, a product of another very large gland named the 
 liver. 
 
 While the digested aliment is traversing its canal, that portion of 
 it which is fitted for nutrition, called the chyle, is absorbed by par- 
 ticular vessels styled lacteals, and carried into the veins ; the residue 
 
ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 39 
 
 of the nourishment of the parts is also carried into the veins by vess- 
 els analogous to these lacteals, and forming with them one same 
 system called the lymphatic system. 
 
 The blood which has served to nourish the parts, and which has 
 just been renewed by the chyle and lymph, is returned to the heart 
 by the veins — but this blood is obliged, either wholly or in part, to 
 pass into the organ of respiration, in order to regain its arterial na- 
 ture, previous to being again sent through the system by the arteries. 
 In the three first classes this respiratory organ consists of lungs, that 
 is, a collection of cells into which air penetrates. In Fishes only, 
 and in some Reptiles, while young, it consists of branchiee or a series 
 of laminae, between which water passes. 
 
 In all the Vertebrata, the blood which furnishes the liver with the 
 materials of the bile is venous blood, which has circulated partly in 
 the parietes of the intestines, and partly in a peculiar body called 
 the spleen, and which, after being united in a trunk called the vence 
 porta^ is again subdivided at the liver. 
 
 Subdivision of ike Vertebrata into Four Classes. 
 
 We have just seen how far vertebrated animals resemble each 
 other; they present, however, four great subdivisions or classes, 
 characterised by the kind or power of their motions, which depend 
 themselves on the quantity of their respiration, inasmuch as it is 
 from this respiration that the muscular fibres derive the strength of 
 their irritability. 
 
 The quantity of respiration depends upon two agents: the first is 
 the relative amount of blood which is poured into the respiratory 
 organ in a given instant of time; the second is the relative amount 
 of oxygen which enters into the composition of the surrounding 
 fluid. The quantity of the former depends upon the disposition of 
 the organs of circulation and respiration. 
 
 The organs of the circulation may be double, so that all the 
 blood which is brought back from the various parts of the body by 
 the veins, is forced to circulate through the respiratory organ, pre- 
 vious to resuming its former course through the arteries; or they 
 may be simple, so that a part only of the blood is obliged to pass 
 through that organ, the remainder returning directly to the body. 
 
 'J'he latter is the case with Reptiles. The (juantity of tiieii respi- 
 
40 ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 
 
 ration, and all their qualities which depend on it, vary with the 
 amount of blood thrown into the lungs at each pulsation. 
 
 Fishes have a double circulation, but their organ of respiration 
 is formed to execute its function through the medium of water; and 
 their blood is only acted on by the portion .of oxygen it contains, so 
 that the quantity of their respiration is perhaps less than that of 
 reptiles. 
 
 In the Mammalia the circulation is double, and the aerial respi- 
 ration simple, that is, it is performed in the lungs only; their quan- 
 tity of respiration is, consequently, superior to that of Reptiles, on 
 account of the form of their respiratory organ, and to that of Fishes 
 from the nature of their surrounding element. 
 
 The quantity of respiration in Birds is even superior to that of 
 Quadrupeds, not only because they have a double circulation and an 
 aerial respiration, but also because they respire by many other cavi- 
 ties besides the lungs, the air penetrating throughout their bodies, 
 and bathing the branches of the aorta, as well as those of the pul- 
 monary artery. 
 
 Hence result the four different kinds of motion for which the four 
 classes of verteb rated animals are more particularly designed; 
 Quadrupeds^ in which the quantity of respiration is moderate, are 
 generally formed to walk and run, both motions being characterized 
 by precision and vigour; Birds, which have more of it, possess the 
 muscular strength and lightness requisite for flight; Reptiles, where 
 it is diminished, are condemned to creep, and many of them pass a 
 portion of their lives in a kind of torpor; Fishes, in fine, to execute 
 their motions, require to be supported in a fluid whose specific gra- 
 vity is nearly as great as their own. 
 
 All the circumstances of organization peculiar to each of these 
 four classes, and those especially which regard motion and the ex- 
 ternal sensations, have a necessary relation with these essential 
 characters. 
 
 The Mammalia, however, have particular characters in their 
 viviparous mode of production, in the mammse by which they suckle 
 their young, &c. 
 
 The other classes, on the contrary, are oviparous, and if we com- 
 pare them to the first, we shall find such numerous points of resem- 
 blance as announce a peculiar system of organization in the great 
 general plan of the Vertebrata. 
 
MAMMALIA. 41 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 MAMMALIA. 
 
 The Mammalia are placed at the head of the animal kingdom, 
 not only because it is the class to which Man himself belongs, but 
 also because it is that which enjoys the most numerous faculties, the 
 most delicate sensations, the most varied powers of motion, and in 
 which all the different qualities seem combined in order to produce 
 a more perfect degree of intelligence, the one most fertile in resources, 
 most susceptible of perfection, and least the slave of instinct. 
 
 As their quantity of respiration is moderate, they are designed 
 in general for walking on the earth; but with vigorous and continued 
 steps. The forms of the articulations of their skeleton are, conse- 
 quently, strictly defined, which determines all their motions with the 
 most rigorous precision. 
 
 Some of them, however, by means of limbs considerably elon- 
 gated, and extended membranes, raise themselves in the air; others 
 have them so shortened, that they can move with facility in water 
 only, though this does not deprive them of the general characters of 
 the class. 
 
 The upper jaw, in all these animals, is fixed to the cranium; 
 the lower is formed of two pieces only, articulated by a projecting 
 condyle to a fixed temporal bone; the neck consists of seven verte- 
 brae, one single species excepted which ha^ nine; the anterior ribs 
 are attached before, by cartilage, to a sternum consisting of several 
 vertical pieces; their anterior extremity commences in a shoulder- 
 blade that is not articulated, but simply suspended in the flesh, often 
 resting on the sternum by means of an intermediate bone, called a 
 clavicle. This extremity is continued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a 
 hand, the latter being composed of two ranges of small bones called 
 the carpus, of another range called the metacarpus, and of the 
 fingers, each of which consists of two or three bones, termed pha- 
 langes. 
 
 With the exception of the Cetacea, the first part of the posterior 
 extremity, in all animals of this class, is fixed to the spine, forming 
 F 
 
42 MAMMALIA. 
 
 a girdle or pelvis, which, in youth, consists of three pairs of bones, 
 the ilium which is attached to the spine, the pubis which forms the 
 anterior part of the girdle, and the ischium, the posterior. At the 
 point of union of these three bones is situated the cavity with which 
 the thigh is articulated, to which, in its turn, is attached the leg, 
 formed of two bones, the tibia and fibula; this extremity is termi- 
 nated by parts similar to those of the hand, i. e. by a tarsus, meta- 
 tarsus and toes. 
 
 The head of the mammalia is always articulated by two condyles, 
 with the atlas, the first vertebra of the neck. 
 
 The brain is always composed of two hemispheres, united by a 
 medullary layer, called the corpus callosum^ containing the ventri- 
 cles, and enveloping four pairs of tubercles, named the corpora 
 striata or striated bodies, the thalami nervorum opticorum or beds 
 of the optic nerves, and the nates^ and testes. Between the optic 
 beds is a third ventricle, which communicates with a fourth under 
 the cerebellum, the crura of which always form a transverse promi- 
 nence under the medulla oblongata, called the pons Varolii, or 
 bridge of Varolius. 
 
 The eye, invariably lodged in its orbit, is protected by two lids 
 and a vestige of a third, and has its crystalline fixed by the ciliary 
 processes — its sclerotic is sim.ply cellular. 
 
 The ear always contains a cavity called the tympanum, or drum, 
 which communicates with the mouth by the Eustachian tube; the 
 cavity itself is closed externally by a membrane called the membrana 
 tympani, and contains a chain of four little bones, named the incus 
 or anvil, malleus or hammer, the os orbiculare or circular bone, and 
 the stapes or stirrup; a vestibule, on the entrance of which rests the 
 stapes, and which communicates with three semicircular canals; and 
 finally, a cochlea, which terminates by one canal in the vestibule, and 
 by the other in the tympanum. 
 
 Their cranium is subdivided into three portions; the anterior is 
 formed by the two frontal and ethmoidal bones, the middle by the 
 two ossa parietalia and the os ethmoides, and the posterior by the 
 OS occipitis. Between the ossa parietalia, the sphenoidalis and the 
 OS occipitis, are interposed the two temporal bones, part of which 
 belong properly to the face. 
 
 In the foetus, the occipital bone is divided into four parts: the sphe- 
 noidal into two halves, which are again subdivided into three pairs 
 of lateral wings; the temporal into three, one of which serves to 
 
MAMMALIA. 43 
 
 complete the cranium, the second to close the labyrinth of the ear, 
 the third to form the parietes of the tympanum, &c. These bony 
 portions, still more numerous in the earliest period of the fcetal ex- 
 istence, are united more or less promptly, according to the species, 
 and the bones themselves finally become consolidated in the adult. 
 
 Their face consists of the two maxillary bones, between which pass 
 the nostrils; the two intermaxillaries are situated before, and the two 
 ossa palati behind them; between these descends the vomer, a bony 
 process of the os ethmoides; at the entrance of the nasal canal are 
 placed the ossa nassi; to its external parietes adhere the inferior 
 turbinated bones, the superior ones which occupy its upper and pos- 
 terior portion belonging to the os ethmoides. The jugal or cheek 
 bone unites the maxillary to the temporal bone on each side, and 
 frequently to the os frontis; finally, the os unguis, and pars plana of 
 the ethmoid bone occupy the internal angle of the orbit, and some- 
 times a part of the cheek. In the embryo state these bones also 
 are much more subdivided. 
 
 Their tongue is always fleshy, connected with a bone called the 
 hyoides, which is composed of several pieces, and suspended from 
 the cranium by ligaments. 
 
 Their lungs, two in number, divided into lobes, and composed of 
 an infinitude of cells, are always enclosed, without any adhesion, in 
 a cavity formed by the ribs and diaphragm and lined by the pleura; 
 the organ of voice is always at the upper extremity of the trachea; 
 a fleshy curtain, called the velum palati, establishes a direct com- 
 munication between their larynx and nasal canal. 
 
 Their residence on the surface of the earth rendering them less 
 exposed to the alternations of cold and heat, their tegument (hair) 
 is but moderately thick, and in such as inhabit warm climates, even 
 that is rare. 
 
 The Cetacea, which live exclusively in water, are the only ones 
 that are altogether deprived of it. 
 
 The young are nourished for some time after birth by a fluid (milk) 
 peculiar to animals of this class, which is produced by the mammae 
 at the time of parturition, and continues to be so as long as is necess- 
 ary. It is from the wiamwKB that this class derives its name, and 
 being a character peculiar to it, they distinguish it better than any 
 other that is external. 
 
44 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Division of the Mammalia into Orders. 
 
 The variable characters which form essential differences among 
 the Mammalia are taken from the organs of touch, on which depends 
 their degree of ability or address, and from the organs of manduca- 
 tion, which determine the nature of their aliment, and are all closely 
 connected, not only with every thing relative to the function of di- 
 gestion, but also with a multitude of other differences relating even 
 to their intelligence. 
 
 The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is estimated by 
 the number and the pliability of the fingers, and from the greater or 
 less extent to which their extremities are enveloped by the nail or 
 the hoof. 
 
 A hoof which completely envelopes the end of the toe, blunts its 
 sensibility, and renders the foot incapable of seizing. 
 
 The opposite extreme is when a nail, formed of one single lamina, 
 covers only one of the faces of the extremity of the finger, leaving 
 the other possessed of all its delicacy. 
 
 The nature of the food is known by the grinders, to the form of 
 which the articulation of the jaws universally corresponds. 
 
 To cut flesh, grinders are required as trenchant as a saw, and 
 jaws fitted like scissars, having no other motion than a vertical one. 
 For bruising roots or grains, flat-crowned grinders are necessary, 
 and jaws that have a lateral motion; in order that inequalities may 
 always exist on the crown of these teeth, it is also requisite that 
 their substance be composed of parts of unequal hardness, so that 
 some may wear away faster than others. 
 
 Hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and have flat- 
 crowned grinders, inasmuch as their feet preclude the possibility of 
 their seizing a living prey. 
 
 Animals with unguiculated fingers were susceptible of more 
 variety; their food is of all kinds, and independently of the form of 
 their grinders, they differ greatly from each other in the pliability 
 and delicacy of their fingers. There is one character with respect 
 to this, which has immense influence on their dexterity, and greatly 
 multiplies its powers; it is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the 
 finger for the purpose of seizing minute objects, constituting what is 
 properly called a hand; a faculty which is carried to its highest per- 
 
MAMMALIA. 45 
 
 fection in man, in whom the whole anterior extremity is free and 
 capable of prehension. 
 
 These various combinations, which strictly determine the nature 
 of the different mammalia, have given rise to the following orders: 
 
 ORDER I. 
 BlMANA(l). 
 
 Man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its 
 order. As his history is the more directly interesting to ourselves, 
 and forms the point of comparison to which we refer that of other 
 animals, we will speak of it more in detail. 
 
 We will rapidly sketch every thing that is peculiar in each of 
 his organic systems, amidst all that he shares in common with other 
 Mammalia; we will examine the advantages he derives from these 
 peculiarities over other species; we will describe the principal varie- 
 ties of his race and their distinguishing characters, and finally point 
 out the natural order in which his individual and social faculties are 
 developed. 
 
 Peculiar Conformation of Man. 
 
 The foot of Man is very different from that of the Monkey; it is large; 
 the leg bears vertically upon it; the heel is expanded beneath; the toes 
 are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe, longer and larger than 
 the rest, is placed on the same line with, and cannot be opposed to them. 
 This foot, then, is peculiarly well adapted to support the body; but cannot 
 be used for seizing or climbing, and as the hands are not calculated for 
 walking, Man is the only true bimanous and biped animal. 
 
 The whole body of Man is arranged with a view to a vertical position. 
 Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on all fours; 
 his short and nearly inflexible feet, and his long thigh, would bring the 
 knee to the ground; his widely separated shoulders and his arms, too far 
 extended from the median line, would ill support the upper portion of 
 his body. The great indented muscle, which, in quadrupeds, suspends, 
 as in a girth, the body between the scapulae, is smaller in Man than in any 
 one among them. The head is also heavier, both from the magnitude of 
 the brain and the smallness of the sinuses or cavities of the bones; and yet 
 
 (1) Animals with two hands. 
 
46 MAMMALIA. 
 
 the means of supporting it are weaker, for he has neither a cervical ligament, 
 nor are his vertebrx so arranged as to prevent their flexure forwards; the 
 result of this would be, that he could only keep his head in the same line 
 with the spine, and then his eyes and mouth being directed towards the 
 earth, he could not see before him; — in the erect position, on the contrary, 
 tlie arrangement of these organs is every way perfect. 
 
 The arteries which are sent to his brain, not being subdivided as in many 
 quadrupeds, and the blood requisite for so voluminous an organ being car- 
 ried into it with too much violence, frequent apoplexies would be the con- 
 sequence of a horizontal position. 
 
 Man, then, is formed for an erect position only. He thus preserves the 
 entire use of his hands for the arts, while his organs of sense are most 
 favourably situated for observation. 
 
 These hands, which derive such advantages from their liberty, receive 
 as many more from their structure. Tlie thumb, longer in proportion than 
 that of the Monkey, increases its facility of seizing small objects. All the 
 fingers, the annularis excepted, have separate movements, a faculty possess- 
 ed by no other animal, not even by the Monkey. The nail, covering one 
 side only of the extremity of the finger, acts as a support to the touch, 
 without depriving it of an atom of its delicacy. The arms to which these 
 hands are attached, are strongly and firmly connected by the large scapula, 
 the strong clavicle, &c. 
 
 Man, so highly favoured as to dexterity, is not at all so with respect to 
 force. His swiftness in running is greatly inferior to that of other animals 
 of his size. Having neither projecting jaws, nor salient canine teeth, nor 
 claws, he is destitute of offensive weapons; and the sides and upper parts 
 of his body being naked, unprovided even with hair, he is absolutely with- 
 out defensive ones. Of all animals, he is also the longest in attaining the 
 power necessaiy to provide for himself. 
 
 This very weakness, however, is but one advantage more — it compels 
 him to have recourse to that intelligence within, for which he is so emi- 
 nently conspicuous. 
 
 No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and convolutions of the 
 hemispheres of the brain, that is, in the part of this organ which is the 
 principal instrument of the intellectual operations. The posterior portion 
 of the same organ extends backwards; so as to form a second covering to 
 the cerebellum; the ver)' form of his cranium announces this magnitude of 
 the brain, while the smallness of his face shows how slightly that portion of 
 the nervous system which influences the extei-nal senses predominates in 
 him. 
 
 These external sensations, moderate as they all are in Man, are neverthe- 
 less extremely dehcate and well balanced. 
 
 His two eyes are directed forwards; he does not see on two sides at once, 
 like many quadrupeds, which produces more unity in tlie result of his sight, 
 and concentrates his attention more closely on sensations of this kind. The 
 ball and iris of his eye vary but little; this restrains the activity of his sight 
 to a limited distance, and a determined degree of hght. His external ear, 
 
BIMANA. 47 
 
 possessing but little mobility or extent, does not increase the intensity of 
 sounds, and yet, of all animals, he best distinguishes the various degrees of 
 intonation. His nostrils, more complicated than those of the Monkey, are 
 less so than those of all other genera; and yet he appears to be the only 
 animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be affected by un- 
 pleasant odours. Delicacy of smell must have some influence on that of 
 taste, and independently of this Man must have some advantage in this re- 
 spect over other animals, those at least whose tongues are covered with 
 scales. Lastly, the nicety of his tact results, both from the delicacy of his 
 teguments, and the absence of all insensible parts, as well as from the form 
 of his hand, which is better adapted than that of any other animal for suiting 
 itself to every little superficial inequality. 
 
 Man is pre-eminently distinguished in the organ of his voice; of all the 
 Mammalia, he alone possesses the faculty of articulating sounds, its probable 
 causes being the form of his mouth and the great mobility of his lips. 
 From this results his most invaluable mode of communication, for of all the 
 signs which can be conveniently employed for the transmission of ideas, 
 variations of sound are those wliich. can be perceived at the greatest dis- 
 tance, and are the most extensive in their sphere of operation. 
 
 The whole of his structure, even to the heart and great vessels, appears 
 to have been framed with a view to a vertical position. The heart is placed 
 obliquely, on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to the left, thereby oc- 
 casioning a distribution of the aorta, dlff"eringfrom that of most quadrupeds. 
 
 The natural food of man, judging from his structure, appears to consist 
 of the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables; his hands offer 
 him every facility for gathering them; his short, and but moderately strong 
 jaws on the one hand, and his canini being equal in length to the remaining 
 teeth, and his tubercular molares on the other, would allow him neither to 
 feed on grass nor to devour flesh, were these aliments not previously pre- 
 pared by cooking. Once, however, possessed of fire, and those arts by 
 which he is aided in seizing animals or killing them at a distance, every 
 living being was rendered subservient to his nourishment, thereby giving 
 him the means of an infinite multiplication of his species. 
 
 To complete the hasty sketch of the anatomical structure of Man requi- 
 site for this introduction, we will add, that he has thirty-two vertebrae, of 
 •which seven belong to the neck, twelve to the back, five to the loins, five 
 to the sacrum, and three to the coccyx. Seven pairs of his ribs are united 
 with the sternum by elongated cartilages, and are called true ribs; the five 
 following pairs are denominated false ones. His adult cranium is formed 
 of eight bones; an occipitalis, two ossa temporis, two parietalia, and the 
 frontal, ethmoidal and sphenoidal bones. The bones of his face are foiu-- 
 teen in number, two maxillaries, two ossa malse, each of which joins the 
 temporal to the maxillary bone of its own side by a kind of handle called 
 the zygomatic arch; two nasal bones, two ossa palati behind the palate, a 
 vomer between the nostrils, two turbinated bones of the nose in the nos- 
 trils, two lacbi7mals (unguis) in the internal angles of the orbits and the 
 
48 MAMMALIA. 
 
 single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw has sixteen teeth; four cutting 
 incisors in the middle, two pointed canines at the corners, and ten tubercu- 
 lated molares, five on each side. At the extremity of the spine of his sca- 
 pula, is a tuberosity called the acromion, to which the clavicle is attached, 
 and over its articulation is a point called the coracoid process with which 
 certain muscles are connected. The radius revolves upon the ulna, owing 
 to the mode of its articulation with the humerus. The carpus has eight 
 bones, four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remaining 
 parts of the hand and foot may be easily counted by the number of fingers 
 and toes. 
 
 Physical and Moral Development of Man. 
 
 Scarcely has the body gained the full period of its growth in height, be- 
 fore it begins to increase in bulk; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue, the 
 different vessels become gradually obstructed, the solids become rigid, and, 
 after a life more or less long, more or less agitated, more or less painful, 
 old age arrives with decrepitude, decay, and death. Man rarely lives be- 
 yond a hundred years, and most of the species, either from disease, acci- 
 dent, or old age, perish long before that term. 
 
 The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer than her milk, 
 from this it obtains an education both moral and physical, and a mutual 
 attachment is created that is fervent and durable. The nearly equal num- 
 ber of the two sexes, the difficulty of supporting more than one wife, when 
 wealth does not supply the want of power, all go to prove that monogamy 
 is the mode of union most natural to our species. From the long period of 
 infantile weakness springs domestic subordination, and the order of society 
 in general, as the young people which compose the new families continue 
 to preserve with their parents those tender relations to which they have 
 so long been accustomed. This disposition to mutual assistance multiplies 
 to an almost unlimited extent those advantages previously derived by insu- 
 lated Man from his intelligence; it has assisted him to tame or repulse other 
 animals, to defend himself from the effects of climate, and thus enabled him 
 to cover the earth with his species. 
 
 In other respects, he appears to possess nothing resembling instinct, no 
 regular habit of industry produced by innate ideas; his knowledge is the 
 result of his sensations and of his observation, or of those of his predecess- 
 ors. Transmitted by speech, increased by meditation, and applied to his 
 necessities and his enjoyments, they have originated all the arts of life. 
 Language and letters, by preserving acquired knowledge, are a source of 
 indefinite perfection to his species. It is thus he has acquired ideas, and 
 made all nature contribute to his wants. 
 
 There are very different degrees of development, however, in Man. 
 
 The first hordes, compelled to live by fishing and hunting, or on wild 
 fruits, and being obliged to devote all their time to search for the means of 
 subsistence, and not being able to multiply greatly, because that would have 
 
BIMANA. 49 
 
 destroyed the game, advanced but slowly. Their arts were limited to the 
 construction of huts and canoes, to covering themselves with skins and the 
 fabrication of arrows and nets. They observed such stars only as directed 
 them in their journeys, and some few natural objects whose properties 
 were of use to them. They domesticated the Dog, simply because he had 
 a natural inclination for their own kind of life. When they had succeeded 
 In taming the herbivorous animals, they found in the possession of numerous 
 flocks a never failing source of subsistence, and also some leisure, which 
 they employed in extending the sphere of their acquirements. Some in- 
 dustry was tlien employed in the construction of dwellings and the making 
 of clothes: the idea of property was admitted, and consequently that of 
 barter, as well as wealth and difference of conditions, those fruitful sources 
 of the noblest emulation and the vilest passions: but the necessity of search- 
 ing for fresh pastures, and of obeying the changes of the seasons, still 
 doomed them to a wandering life, and limited their improvements to a very 
 narrow sphere. 
 
 The multiplication of the human species, and its improvement in the arts 
 and sciences, have only been carried to a high degree since the invention 
 of agriculture and the division of the soil into hereditary possessions. By 
 means of agriculture, the manual labour of a portion of society is adequate 
 to the maintenance of the whole, and allows the remainder time for less ne- 
 cessary occupations, atthe same time that the hope of acquiring, by industry, 
 a comfortable existence for self and posterity, has given a new springto emu- 
 lation. The discovery of a representative of property or a circulating me- 
 dium, by facilitating exchanges and rendering fortunes more independent 
 and susceptible of being increased, has carried this emulation to its highest 
 degi'ee, but by a necessary consequence it has also equally increased the 
 vices of effeminacy and the furies of ambition. 
 
 The natural propensity to reduce every thing to general principles, and 
 to search for the causes of every phenomenon, has produced reflecting men, 
 in every stage of society, who have added new ideas to those already 
 obtained, nearly all of whom, while knowledge was confined to the few, 
 endeavoured to convert their intellectual superiority into the means of domi- 
 nation, by exaggerating their own merit, and disguising the poverty of their 
 knowledge by the propagation of superstitious ideas. 
 
 An evil still more irremediable, is the abuse of physical power: now that 
 man only can injure man, he is continually seeking to do so, and is the only 
 animal upon earth that is forever at war with liis own species. Savages 
 fight for a forest, and herdsmen for a pasture, and as often as they can, 
 break in upon the cultivators of the earth to rob them of the fruits of their 
 long and painful labours. Even civihzed nations, far from being contented 
 with their blessings, pour out each other's blood for the prerogatives of 
 pride, or the monopoly of trade. Hence, the necessity for governments to 
 direct the national wars, and to repress or reduce to regular forms the 
 quarrels of individuals. 
 
 G 
 
50 MAMMALIA. 
 
 The social condition of man has been restrained, or advanced by circum- 
 stances more or less favourable. 
 
 The glacial climates of the north of both continents, afld the impenetrable 
 forests of America are still inhabited by the savage hunter or fisherman. The 
 immense sandy and salt plains of central Asia and Africa are covered with a 
 pastoral people, and innumerable herds. These half civilized hordes as- 
 semble at the call of every enthusiastic chief, and rush like a torrent on 
 the cultivated countries that surround them, in which they establish them- 
 selves, but to be weakened by luxury, and in their turn to become the prey 
 of others. This is the true cause of that despotism which has always crush- 
 ed and destroyed the industry of Persia, India, and China. 
 
 Mild climates, soils naturally irrigated and rich in vegetables, are the 
 cradles of agriculture and civilization, and when so situated as to be shel- 
 tered from the incursions of barbarians, every species of talent is excited; 
 such were (the first in Europe) Italy and Greece, and such is, at present, 
 nearly all that happy portion of the earth. 
 
 Varieties of the Human Species. 
 
 Three races appear veiy distinct — the Caucasian or ■white, the Mongolian 
 or yellow, and the Ethiopian or negro. 
 
 The Caucasian, to which we'belong, is distinguished by the beauty of the 
 oval formed by his head, varying in complexion and the colour of the hah*. 
 To this variety, the most highly civilized nations, and those which have 
 generally held all others in subjection, are indebted for their origin. 
 
 The Mongolian is known by his high cheek bones, flat visage, narrow 
 and oblique eyes, straight black hair, scanty beard and olive complexion. 
 Great empires have been established by this race in China and Japan, and 
 their conquests been extended to this side of the Great Desert. In civiliza- 
 tion, however, it has always remained stationary. 
 
 The Negro race is confined to the south of mount Atlas; it is marked by 
 a black complexion; crisped or woolly hair, compressed cranium, and a flat 
 nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, 
 evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe; the hordes of which it con- 
 sists have always remained in the most complete state of utter barbarism. 
 
 The race from which we are descended has been called Caucasian, be- 
 cause tradition and the filiation of nations seem to refer its origin to that 
 group of mountains situated between the Caspian and Black seas, whence, 
 as from a centre, it has been extended like the radii of a circle. Various 
 nations in the vicinity of Caucasus, the Georgians and Circassians, are still 
 considered the handsomest on earth. The principal ramifications of this race 
 may be distinguished by the analogies of language. The Armenian or Sy- 
 rian branch, stretching to the south, produced the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, 
 the hitherto untameable Arabs, who, after Mahomet, were near becoming 
 masters of the world; the Phenicians, Jews and Abyssinians, which were Ara- 
 bian colonies; and most probably the Egyptian. It is from this briinch, 
 
BIMANA. 51 
 
 always inclined to mysticism, that have sprung the most widely extended 
 forms of religion — the arts and literature have sometimes flourished among 
 its nations, but always enveloped in a strange disguise and figurative style. 
 
 The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch is much more extended, and 
 was much earlier divided, notwithstanding which, the most numerous affini- 
 ties may be observed between its four principal languages — the Sanscrit, 
 the present sacred language of the Hindoos, and the parent of the greater 
 number of the dialects of Hindostan; the ancient language of the Pelasgi, 
 common mother of the Greek, Latin, many tongues that are extinct, and 
 of all those of the south of Europe; the Gothic or Teutonic, from which are 
 derived the languages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the 
 German, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and other dialects; and finally, 
 the Sclavonian, from which spring those of the north-east, the Russian, 
 Polish, Bohemian, &c. 
 
 It is by this great and venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, that 
 philosophy, the arts, and the sciences have been carried to the greatest 
 perfection, and remained in the keeping of the nations which compose it 
 for more than three thousand years. 
 
 It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, who came from the north, whose 
 tribes, once very numerous, are now confined to its most eastern extremity, 
 and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa into Spain, now confound- 
 ed with the many nations whose posterity have intermingled in that pen- 
 insula. 
 
 The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the Indians, and 
 their descendants to the present hour bear great marks of resemblance to 
 the people of Europe. 
 
 The predatory tribes of the Scythian and Tartar branch, extending at 
 first to the north and north-east, always wandering over the immense plains 
 of those countries, returned only to devastate the happier abodes of their 
 more civilized brethren. The Scythians, who, at so jemote a period, 
 made irruptions into upper Asia; the Parthians, who there destroyed the 
 Greek and Roman domination; the Turks, who there subverted that of the 
 Arabs, and subjugated in Europe the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian 
 people, all swarmed from this prolific branch. The Finlanders and Hun- 
 garians are tribes of the same division, which have strayed among the 
 Sclavonic and Teutonic nations. Tiielr original country, to the north and 
 north-east of the Caspian sea still contains inhabitants who have the same 
 origin, and speak similar languages, but mingled with other petty nations, 
 variously descended, and of different languages. The Tartars remained 
 unmixed longer than the others in the country included between the mouth 
 of the Danube to beyond the Irtlsch, from which they so long menaced 
 Russia, and where they have finally been subjugated by her. The Mon- 
 goles, however, have mingled their blood with that of those they conquered, 
 many traces of which may still be found among the inhabitants of lesser 
 Tartary. 
 
 It is to the east of this Tartar branch of the Caucasian race that the Mon- 
 
52 MAMMALIA. 
 
 golian race begins, whence it extends to the eastern ocean. Its branches, 
 the Calmucs, &c. still wandering- shepherds, are constantly traversing the 
 desert. Thrice did their ancestors under Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane, 
 spread far the terror of their name. The Chinese are the earliest and 
 most civilized branch not only of this race, to which they belong, but of all 
 the nations upon earth. A third branch, the Mantchures, recently con- 
 quered, and still govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all 
 the hordes which extend to the north-east of Siberia, subject to Russia, 
 are also to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race; 
 and such also is esteemed the fact, with regard to the original inhabitants 
 of various islands of that Archipelago. With the exception of a few Chi- 
 nese literati; the different nations of the Mongoles are universally addicted 
 to Buddism, or the religion of Fo. 
 
 The origin of this great race appears to have been in the mounfadns of At- 
 lai, but it is impossible to trace the filiation of its different branches with 
 the same certainty as we have done those of the Caucasian. The history 
 of these wandering nations is as fugitive as their establishments, and that of 
 the Chinese, confined exclusively to their own empire, gives us nothing 
 satisfactory with respect to their neighbours. The affinities of their lan- 
 guages are also too little known to direct us in this labyrinth. 
 
 The languages of the north of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, as well 
 as that of Thibet, are somewhat allied to the Chinese, at least in their mo- 
 nosyllabic structure, and the people who speak them have features some- 
 what resembling other Mongoles. The south of this peninsula, however, is 
 inhabited by Malays, whose forms approximate them much nearer to the In- 
 dians, whose race and language are extended over all the coasts of the islands 
 of the Indian Archipelago. The innumerable little islands of the southern 
 ocean are also peopled by a handsome race, nearly allied to the Indians, 
 whose language is very similar to the Malay; in the interior of the lai'gest 
 of these islands, particularly in the wilder portions of it, is another race 
 of men, with black complexions, crisped hair, and negro faces, called Al- 
 fourous. On the coast of New Guinea, and in the neighbouring islands, 
 we find other negroes, nearly similar to those of the eastern coast of Africa, 
 named Papuas; to the latter, are generally referred the people of Van-Die- 
 men'sland, and those of New Holland to the Alfoui-ous. 
 
 These Malays, and these Papuas are not easily referable to either of the 
 three great races of which we have been speaking, but can the^brmer be 
 clearly distinguished from their neighbours, the Caucasian Hindoos and the 
 Mongolian Chinese? As for us, we confess we cannot discover any suffi- 
 cient characteristics in them for that purpose. Are the Papuas Negroes, 
 which may formerly have strayed into the Indian ocean ? "We posess neither 
 figures nor descriptions sufficiently precise to enable us to answer this 
 question. 
 
 The northern inhabitants of both continents, the Samoiedes, the Lap- 
 landers, and the Esquimaux, spring, according to some, from tlie Mongolian 
 
BIMANA. 53 
 
 race, while others assert that they are mere degenerate offsets from the 
 Scythian and Tartar branch of the Caucasian stock. 
 
 We have not yet been able to refer the Americans to any of the races of 
 the eastern continent; still, they have no precise nor constant character 
 which can entitle them to be considered as a particular one. Their copper 
 coloured complexion is not sufficient; their generally black hair and scanty 
 beard would induce us to refer them to the Mongoles, if their defined fea- 
 tures, projecting nose, large and open eye, did not oppose such a theory, 
 and correspond with the features of the European. Their languages are as 
 numberless as their tribes, and no demonstrative analogy has as yet been 
 obtained, either with each other, or with those of the old world. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 QUADRUMANA(l). 
 
 Independently of the anatomical details which distinguish it from 
 Man, and which have been given, this family differs from our spe- 
 cies in a very remarkable way. All the animals belonging to it 
 have the toes of the hind feet free and opposable to the others, and 
 the toes are all as long and flexible as fingers. In consequence of 
 this, the whole species climb trees with the greatest facility, while it 
 is only with pain and difficulty they can stand and walk upright; their 
 foot then resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis 
 being unfavourable to an equilibrium. They all have intestines 
 very similar to those of man; the eyes directed forwards. The brain 
 has three lobes on each side, the posterior of which covers the cere- 
 bellum, and the temporal fossae are separated from the orbits by a 
 bony partition. In every thing else, however, they gradually lessen 
 in resemblance to him, by assuming a muzzle more and more elon- 
 gated, a tail and a gait more like that of quadrupeds. Notwithstand- 
 ing this, the freedom of their arms and the complication of their 
 hands allow them all to perform many of the actions of man as well 
 as to imitate his gestures. 
 
 They have long been divided into two genera, the Monkeys and 
 the Lemurs^ which, by the multiplication of secondary forms, have 
 now become two small families, between which we must place a 
 
 (1) Animals with four hands. 
 
54 MAMMALIA. 
 
 third genus that of the Ouistitis^ as it is not conveniently referable to 
 the one or the other. 
 
 SiMiA, Lin. 
 
 The Monkeys are all quadrumana, which have four straight incisors in 
 each jaw, and flat nails on all the extremities; two characters which ap- 
 proximate them them more nearly to Man, than the subsequent genera; 
 their molars have also blunt tubercles like ours, and their food consists 
 chiefly of fruits. Their canine teeth, however, being- longer than the rest, 
 supply them with weapons we do not possess, and which require a hollow 
 in the opposite jaw, to receive them when the mouth is closed. 
 
 They may be divided, from the number of their molar teeth, into two 
 principal subgenera, which are again subdivided into numerous groups. 
 The 
 
 MoNKETS, properly so called. 
 Or those of the eastern continent, have the same number of grinders as 
 Man, but otherwise differing from each other by characters, which have 
 formed the grounds of the following subdivisions. The 
 
 SiMiA, Erxl. — ^PiTHEctrs, Geoffr. 
 
 The Ourangs(l), are the only monkeys of the ancient continent which 
 have no callus on the seat. Their nose is not prominent, they have no 
 cheek-pouches, nor a vestige of a tail. Some of them have arms long 
 enough to reach the ground when standing — their legs, on the contrary, 
 are very short. 
 
 S. satyrus, L. (The Ourang-Outang.) Of all animals, this Ourang is 
 considered as approaching most nearly to Man in the form of hishead, height 
 of forehead, and vohime of brain; but the exaggerated descriptions of some 
 authors respecting this resemblance, are partly to be attributed to the fact 
 of their being drawn from young individuals only; and there is every reason 
 to believe, that with age, their muzzle becomes much more prominent. 
 The body is covered witli coarse red hair, the face bluish, and the hinder 
 thumbs very short compared with the toes. His lips are susceptible of a 
 singular elongation, and possess great mobility. His history has been 
 much disfigured by mingling it with that of the other great monkeys, that 
 of the Chimpanse in particular. After a strict and critical examination, I 
 have ascertained that the Ourang-Outang inhabits the most eastern coun- 
 tries only, such as Malabar, Cochin China, and particularly the great island 
 of Borneo, whence he has been occasionally brought to Europe by the way 
 of Java. When young, and such as he appears to us in his captivity, he is 
 a mild and gentle animal, easily rendered tame and affectionate, which is 
 
 (1) Oran^ is a Malay word signifying reasonable being, which is applied 
 to man, the ourang- ou tang, and the elephant. Outang means lytW, or of the 
 woods; hence. Wild Man of the Woods. 
 
QUA DRUM AN A. 55 
 
 enabled by his conformation to imitate many of our actions, but whose 
 intelligence does not appear to be as great as is reported, not much sur- 
 passing even that of the Dog. 
 
 There is a monkey in Borneo, hitherto known only by his skeleton, called 
 the Pongo, which so closely resembles the Ourang-Outang in the propor- 
 tions of all his parts, that we are tempted to consider him an adult — if not 
 of the species of the Ourang-Outang, at least of one very nearly allied to it. 
 He is the largest monkey known, and in size is nearly equal to Man. 
 
 The arms of the remaining Ourangs reach only to the knee. They have 
 no forehead, and the cranium retreats from the crest of the eye-brow. The 
 name of CiiiMPAifSES might be exclusively applied to them. 
 
 S. Troglodytes, L. (The Chimpansd) is covered with black or brown hair. 
 Could any reliance be placed on the accounts of travellers, this animal 
 must be equal or superior to man in stature, but no part of it hitherto seen 
 in Europe indicates this extraordinary size. It inhabits Guinea and Congo, 
 lives in troops, constructs huts of leaves and sticks, arms itself with clubs 
 and stones, and thus repulses men and elephants. Naturalists have gene- 
 rally confounded it with the Ourang-Outang. When domesticated he soon 
 learns to walk, sit, and eat like a man. We now separate the Gibbons 
 from the Ourangs. 
 
 HiLOBATES, lllig. 
 
 The Gibbons have the long arms of the true Ourangs, and the low fore- 
 head of the Chimpans6, along with the callous seat of the Guenons, differ- 
 ing however from the latter in having no tail or cheek-pouch. They all 
 inhabit the most remote pai-ts of India. 
 
 S. lar. L. (The Black Gibbon) is covered with coarse black hairs, and 
 has a whitish circle round his face. There are several other species. 
 
 CERcopiTHEctrs, Erxl. 
 
 The long-tailed monkeys have a moderately prominent muzzle (of 60°); 
 cheek-pouches; tail; callosities on the seat; the last of the inferior molars 
 with four tubercles like the rest. Numerous species, of every variety of 
 size and colour, abound in Africa, live in troops, and do much damage to 
 the gardens and fields under cultivation. They are easily tamed. 
 
 Simia rubra, Gm. (The Patras.) Red fawn colour above, whitish 
 below; a black band over the eyes, sometimes surmounted with white — 
 from Senegal. The 
 
 Semsopithectts, Fred. Cuv. 
 Differs from the Long-tailed Monkeys, by having an additional small 
 tubercle on the last of the inferior molares. These animals inhabit eastern 
 countries, and their long limbs and very long tail give them a very peculiar 
 appearance. Their muzzle projects veiy little more than that of the Gib- 
 bons, and like them, they have callosities on the seat. They appear, 
 
56 MAMMALIA. 
 
 likewise, to have no cheek-pouches; their larynx is furnished with a sac. 
 The one longest known is the 
 
 Sim. nemmus, L. Remarkable for its lively and varied colouring; body 
 and arms grey; hands, thighs and feet black; legs of a lively red; the tail 
 and a large triangular spot upon the loins, white; face orange; he has a 
 black and red collar, and tufts of yellow hairs on the sides of the head; 
 inhabits Cochin China. 
 
 Macacus, or MACAauEs. 
 
 All the animals of this denomination have a fifth tubercle on their last 
 molars, and callosities and cheek pouches like a Guenon. The limbs are 
 shorter and thicker than in a Semnopithecus; the muzzle more projecting, 
 and the superciliary ridge more inflated than in either the one or the other. 
 Though docile when young, they become unmanageable when old. They 
 all have a sac which communicates with the larynx under the thyroid car- 
 tilage, and which, when they cry out, becomes filled with air. 
 
 Sim. silenus and leonina, L. (The Maned Macaque.) Black; ash-col- 
 oured mane and whitish beard which surround the head. From Ceylon. 
 
 Some of the Macaques are distinguished by a short tail. 
 
 M. rhesus. (The Pig-tailed Baboon.) Greyish; a fawn-coloured tinge 
 on the head and crupper, sometimes on the back; face flesh-colour; tail 
 reaching below the hamstrings. From Bengal. 
 
 iNtrus, Cuv. 
 The Inui are mere Macaques, which have a small tubercle in lieu of a 
 tail. 
 
 Ctnockphaltts, C.(1) 
 
 The Dog headed-Monkeys, together with the teeth, cheek-pouches and 
 callosities of the Inuus, Cuv. , have an elongated muzzle truncated at the 
 end, in which the nostrils are piei'ced, giving it a greater resemblance to 
 that of a dog than of any other monkey; their tail varies in length. They 
 are generally large, ferocious and dangerous animals, found mostly in 
 Africa. 
 
 C. papio, Desm. (The Guinea Baboon.) Yellow, verging more or less 
 on a brown; tufts of the cheeks fawn-coloured; face black; tail long. They 
 are found of various sizes, owing probably to the difference of age. When 
 full grown, frightful from their ferocity and brutality. From Guinea. The 
 
 MAiraKiii.'s, 
 Of all the Monkeys, have the longest muzzle (30°); their tail is very short; 
 they are brutal and ferocious; nose as in the preceding. 
 
 Sim. maimon and mormon, Lin. (The Mandrill.) Greyish brown, in- 
 
 ( 1 ) Cynocephalus, dog's head. 
 
QUADRUMANA. 57 
 
 clining- to olive above; cheeks blue and furrowed. The nose in the adult 
 male becomes red, particularly at the end, where it is scarlet, which has 
 been the cause of its being deemed, erroneously, a distinct species. It is 
 difficult to imagine a more hideous or extraordinary animal. He nearly at- 
 tains the size of a man, and is a terror to the negroes of Guinea. Many 
 details of his history have been mixed up with that of the Chimpans^, and 
 consequently with tliat of the Ourang'-Outang. 
 
 The Monkeys of America 
 
 Have four grinders more than the others — thirty-six in all; the tail long; 
 no cheek-pouches; seat hairy; no callosities; nostrils opening on the 
 sides of the nose, and not underneath. All the great Quadrumana of 
 America belong to this division. 
 
 The tails of some of them are prehensile— that is, their extremity can 
 twist round a body with sufficient force to seize it as with a hand. They 
 are more particularly designated by the name of Sapajous. 
 
 At their head may be placed the Alouattes (Micetes, Illig.), which are 
 distinguished by a pyramidal head, the upper jaw of which descends much 
 below the cranium, as the branches of the lower one ascend very high for 
 the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed by a vesicular inflation of the 
 hyoid bone, which communicates with the larynx, and gives to their voice 
 sistonishing power, and a most frightful sound. Hence their name of 
 Howling Monkeys. The prehensile portion of the tail is naked beneath. 
 
 There are several species, whose distinguishing characters are not yet 
 well ascertained, for the colour of the fur on which they are established 
 varies with the age and sex. 
 
 Simia seniculus, Buff. (Red Howling Monkey.) It is often sent to us 
 from the forests of Guiana, where it lives in troops; size that of a large fox; 
 colour, a reddish chesnut, rather deeper at the head and tail. 
 
 The Common Sapajous have the head flat, and the projection of the 
 muzzle very moderate — facial angle 60°. 
 
 In some of them, the anterior thumbs are either totally, or nearly so, hid- 
 den under the skin, and the prehensile part of the tail naked beneath. M. 
 Geoff, has formed them into a genus by the name of Ateees. 
 
 Lagothhix, Geoff. — Gastrimargus, Spix. 
 
 Head round, a thumb like the Alouattes; tail partly naked. Such are the 
 L. Humboldii, Geoff., the Capparo, and the Grison or the Silver-haired 
 Monkey; Monkeys from the interior of South America, said to be remark- 
 able gluttons. 
 
 The other Sapajous have a round head, distinct thumbs, and the tail hairy, 
 though prehensile. The species are more numerous than those of the 
 Alouatte, and are characterised with nearly as much difficulty. 
 
 Some of them have the hairs on the forehead of a uniform length, such 
 as the 
 
 Sim. appella, L. (The Sajou); and the aS"- capucina, L. (The Capuchin.) 
 H 
 
58 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Both of them of different browns; in the first, the circumference of the face 
 is blackish; in the second it is whitish; but the shade of colour in all the 
 rest of their bodies varies between a brownish black and a fawn-colour, 
 sometimes even a white. The shoulders and breast are however generally 
 lighter and the calotte and hands darker. 
 
 Others, again, have the hairs of the forehead so disposed as to form a 
 kind of aigrette, such as the 
 
 Sim. fatuellus, Gm. (The Horned Sajou.) This animal has a tuft of 
 black hairs on each side of the forehead. 
 
 The disposition of these Monkeys is mild and gentle, their motions^quick 
 and light, and they are easily tamed. Their name of Weeping Monkeys is 
 derived from their soft plaintive voice. 
 
 In the Saimiki the tail is depressed, and almost ceases to be prehensile; 
 the head is very much flattened; in the interorbitar partition of the skeleton 
 there is a membranous space. There is only one known; the 
 
 Simla sciurea, Buff. (The Siamiri.) Size of a Squirrel; of a yellowish 
 grey; fore-arms, legs, and the four extremities of a yellowish fawn-colour; 
 end of the nose black. 
 
 Those of the American monkeys, whose tails are not at all prehensile, are 
 called Sakis. Several of them have that appendage long and tufted, whence 
 they have been also termed Fox-tailed Monkeys: their teeth project for- 
 wards more than those of the others. They are the Pithecia of Desmarets 
 and lUiger. 
 
 Simla pitheclaflj. (TheYarke.) Blackish; circumference of the face 
 whitish. 
 
 Spix distinguishes those species whose tails, although tufted, are shorter 
 than the body, by the name of BBACHitriitrs. His £r. Ouaraki has a fawn- 
 coloured body; head, neck, arms and feet black. 
 
 In some, also, the Callithrix, Geoff, or Sagouins, Fr. Cuv. the tail is 
 slender, and the teeth do not project. The Saimiri were associated with 
 them for a long time, but the head of the Sagouins is higher, and their 
 canine teeth much shorter. Such is the 
 
 Call. perso7iata, Geoff. (The Masked Monkey.) A yellowish grey; head 
 and hands black. The 
 
 NocTHOHus, Fred. Cuv. 
 Only differs from the Sagouins in its great nocturnal eyes, and in the 
 ears, which are partly hidden under the hair. One species only is known, 
 Nocth. irivlrgata, Fred. Cuv. (The Douroucouli.) Ash-coloured above, 
 \^ yellowish beneath; a black vertical line on the middle of the forehead, and 
 one on each temple. It is a nocturnal animal of South America. 
 They are all from Guiana or Brazil. 
 
 OUISTITIS. 
 
 A small genus, similar to the Sakis, and for a long time confounded with 
 them in the great genus of monkeys. In fact, like the generality of the 
 
QUADRUMANA. 59 
 
 American monkeys, they have the head round; visage flat; nostrils lateral; 
 no cheek-pouches, and, like the Sakis in particular, the tail not prehensile. 
 They have only, however, twenty grinders, like the monkeys of the east- 
 ern continent; all their nails are compressed and pointed, those of the hind 
 thumbs excepted, while their anterior ones are so slightly separated from 
 the fingers, that it is with hesitation we assign to them the name of quad- 
 rumana. They are pretty little creatures, of agreeable forms, and easily 
 tamed. 
 
 M. GeofFroy distinguishes the Ouistltis, properly so called, which he 
 names Jaccuus and whose peculiar characters are pointed inferior incisors, 
 arranged on a curved line, equal to the canines. Their tail is annulated 
 and well covered with hairs; the ears generally ornamented with a tuft. 
 
 Sim. jacchus, Lin.; in Paraguay the Titi. (The Common Ouistiti.) Tail 
 tolerably well tufted, coloured in rings of brown and white; body greyish- 
 brown; two large tufts of white hairs before the ears. From nearly every 
 part of South America. 
 
 Lemur, Lin. 
 The Lemurs, according to Linnaeus, comprehend all the Quadrumana which 
 have in either jaw incisors differing in number from four, or at least diffe- 
 rently directed from those of the Monkeys. This negative character 
 could not fail to embrace very different beings, while it did not even 
 unite those which should be combined. Geoffroy has established several 
 divisions in this genus which are much better characterized. The four 
 thumbs of these animals are well developed and opposable, and the first 
 hind finger is armed with a pointed, raised nail; all the other nails are flat. 
 Their fur is woolly; and their teeth begin to exhibit sharp tubercles catch- 
 ing in each other as in the Insectivora. 
 
 Lemur. — Maris, properly so called. 
 Six incisors in the lower jaw compressed and slanting forwards, four in 
 the upper that are straight, the intermediate ones being separated from 
 each other; trenchant canines; six molares on each side above, six below; 
 ears small. They are very active animals, which, from their pointed heads, 
 have been called Fox-nosed Monkeys. Their food is fruit. Their species are 
 very numerous, and are only met with in the island of Madagascar, where 
 they appear to replace the Monkeys, none of which it is said are tobefound 
 there. Nearly all the difference that exists between them is in the colour. 
 
 IkDBIS. — LlCHANOTUS, lUig. 
 
 Teeth like the preceding, except that there are only four below. 
 
 One species only is known; it has no tail; is three feet high; black; face 
 grey; the Lemur Indri of Sonnerat, Voy. I, pi. 86. The inhabitants of 
 Madagascar tame and train it like a dog for the chase. 
 
60 MAMMALIA. 
 
 LoRis. — Stekops, Illig. 
 
 The Lazy Monkeys, as they are called, have teeth like the Makis, the 
 grinders excepted, the points of which are more acute; the short muzzle 
 of a mastiff; body slender; no tail; large eyes; tongue rough. 
 
 They feed on insects, occasionally on small birds and quadrupeds, their 
 gait is excessively slow, and mode of life nocturnal. Two species only are 
 known, both of them from the East Indies: one is the 
 
 Lem. tardigradus, L. (The Slow Loris, or Sloth of Bengal.) Fawn- 
 coloured grey, a brown streak along the back; two of the upper incisors 
 sometimes wanting. The second species is called the Slender Loris. 
 
 Galago, Geoff. — OTOi.iiirctJS, Illig. 
 
 The teeth and insectivorous regimen of the preceding; elongated tarsi 
 which produce a disproportion in the dimensions of their hind feet; a long 
 tufted tail; large membranous ears and great eyes, which announce noc- 
 turnal habits. 
 
 There are several species known, all from Africa. It appears also that 
 we should refer to them an animal of that country {Lemur potto, Gm.), 
 whose gait is said to be as slow as that of the Loris and Sloths. 
 
 Tarsitts. 
 Elongated tarsi, and all the other details of form belonging to the pre- 
 ceding division; but the space between the molars and incisors is occupied 
 by several shorter teeth; the middle superior incisors are lengthened and 
 resemble canini. The muzzle is very short, and the eyes still larger than 
 those of the Galago. They are nocturnal animals, and feed on insects. 
 From the Moluccas. Lemur spectrum. Pall. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 CARNARIA(l). 
 
 This order consists of a considerable and varied assemblage of 
 unguiculated quadrupeds, possessing like Man and the Quadru- 
 mana the three sorts of teeth, but which have no opposable thumb 
 to their fore-feet. Their food is animal, and the more exclusively 
 so, as their grinders are the more trenchant. Such as have them 
 wholly or partly tuberculous, take more or less vegetable aliment, 
 
 (1) Flesh eating animals. 
 
CARNARIA. 61 
 
 and those in which they are bristled with points live principally on 
 Insects. The articulation of their lower jaw, being transversely 
 directed and hinge-like, allows of no lateral motion; it can only 
 open and shut. 
 
 Although the convolutions of the brain are still tolerably well 
 marked, it has no third lobe, nor does it cover the cerebellum any 
 more than in the following families; the orbit is not separated from 
 the temporal fossa in the skeleton; the cranium is narrowed and the 
 zygomatic arches widened and raised, in order to give more strength 
 and volume to the muscles of their jaws. Their predominant sense 
 is that of smell, and their pituitary membrane is generally spread 
 over numerous bony laminae. The fore-arm has still the power of 
 revolving in nearly all of them, although with less facility than in 
 the Quadrumana, and they never have the thumb of the anterior 
 extremities opposed to the other toes. On account of the substan- 
 tial nature of the aliment, and to avoid the putrefaction it would 
 undergo by remaining too long in an elongated canal, their intes- 
 tines are less voluminous. 
 
 There is a great variety in their forms and in the details of their 
 organization, which produces analogous differences in their habits, 
 and to such an extent as makes it impossible to arrange their ge- 
 nera on one line, and compels us to form them into several families, 
 which are variously connected by multiplied relations. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CHEIROPTERA. 
 
 This family still retains some affinity with the Quadrumana. 
 Their distinguishing character consists in a fold of the skin, which, 
 commencing at the sides of the neck, extends between their four 
 feet and toes, supports them in the air, and even enables such of 
 them to fly as have their hands sufficiently developed for that pur- 
 pose. This disposition required strong clavicles and large scapula; 
 to give the necessary solidity to the shoulder, but it was incompati- 
 ble with the rotation of the fore-arm, which would have diminished 
 the force of the stroke requisite for flight. They have all four great 
 canini, but the number of their incisors varies. They have long 
 been divided into two genera, founded upon the extent of their or- 
 
62 MAMMALIA. 
 
 gans of flight. The first of these, however, requires several subdi- 
 
 Vespertilio, Lin. 
 The arms, fore-arms and fingers of the Bats are excessively lengthened, 
 forming, with tlie membrane that occupies their intervals, true wings, pos- 
 sessing even a greater extent of surface than those of Birds — they conse- 
 quently fly very high, and with great rapidity. The thickness of their 
 pectoral muscles is propc»tioned to the motions they have to execute, and 
 there is a ridge in the middle of the sternum like that of Birds, to which 
 they are attached. The thumb is short and armed with a claw, by which 
 they are enabled to creep and to suspend themselves. Their hind feet are 
 weak and are divided into five toes, almost always of equal length, armed 
 with trenchant and pointed nails. Their eyes are excessively small, but 
 their ears are frequently very large, and together with the wings form a 
 vast membranous surface, which is almost naked, and so extremely sensi- 
 ble that it is probable they guide themselves through all the sinuosities of 
 their labyrinths, even after their eyes have been plucked out, solely by the 
 diversity of the impressions of the air. They are nocturnal, and in our 
 climate pass the winter in a state of stupor. During the day they suspend 
 themselves in obscure places. They generally produce two young ones 
 at a birth, which cling to their mammae, and whose size is considerable in 
 proportion to that of the mother. This genus Is very numerous, and offers 
 many subdivisions. We must begin by separating from it the 
 
 Pteeopus, Bris. 
 
 Trenchant incisors in each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns; the food, 
 consequently, consists chiefly of fruit, of which it destroys considerable 
 quantities; it also successfully pursues birds and small quadrupeds. It is 
 the largest Bat known, and the flesh is eaten. It inhabits the East Indies. 
 
 They have never been found out of the south of Asia or the Indian Ar- 
 chipelago. 
 
 a. Without tails, and four incisors in each jaw. 
 P. edulis, Geoff. (The Black Roussette.) Blackish brown, deepest be- 
 neath, wings nearly four feet from tip to tip. From the Moluccas and the 
 straits of Sunda, where they are found in great numbers during the day 
 suspended to the trees. 
 
 b. With a small tail and four incisors in each Jaw. 
 
 M. Geoffroy was the first who described the species of this subdivision. 
 One of them grey and woolly, Fter. aegypticus, is found In the caves of 
 Egypt. 
 
 The Pteropi being taken away, we have the true Bats left, which are 
 all insectivorous, and have three grinders on each side in each jaw, bristled 
 
CARNARIA. 03 
 
 with conical points, they are preceded by a variable number of false 
 molars. Their index never has a nail, and, one subgenus excepted, the 
 membrane is always extended between the two legs. 
 
 They should be divided into two principal tribes. The first has three 
 ossified phalanges in the middle finger of the wing, but the remainder, in- 
 cluding the index itself, consists of but two. 
 
 The tribe of true bats is now divided into numerous subgenera such as 
 Jtfolossus, Nodilio, Vampirus, &c. &c., distinguished by the absence or 
 presence of a tail, tlie fact of its being free above the membrane or in- 
 volved in it, the presence of a membrane on the nose, number of incisors, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Galeopithecus, Pall. 
 The Graleopitheci differ generically from the Vespertilios, in the fingers, 
 all armed with trenchant nails, which are not longer than the toes, so that 
 the membrane which occupies their intervals, and extends to the sides of 
 the tail, can only act as a parachute. The canini are denticulated and 
 short like the molars. There are two upper denticulated incisors widely 
 separated from each other, below there are six, split into narrow strips, 
 like a comb, a structure altogether peculiar to this genus. The animals 
 belonging to it are found in the Indian Archipelago, on the trees, among 
 which they pursue Insects, and perhaps Birds. If we can judge by the 
 injury the teeth sustain from age, they use fruit also. 
 
 One species only is well ascertained, the Flying Lemur. Fur greyish 
 red above, reddish below; spotted and striped with various shades of grey 
 when young. From the Molucca Islands, straits of Sunda, &c. 
 
 All the other Carnaria have the mammse situated under the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 INSECTIVORA. 
 
 The animals of this family, like the Cheiroptera, have grinders 
 studded with conical points, and lead a nocturnal or subterraneous 
 life. Their principal food is Insects, and in cold climates many of 
 them pass the winter in a torpid state. Unlike the Bats, they have 
 no lateral membranes, although they always have clavicles. Their 
 feet are short and their motions feeble. In walking they all place 
 the whole sole of the foot on the ground. 
 
 They differ from each other by the relative position and propor- 
 tions of their incisors and canini. 
 
64 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Some have long incisors in front, followed by other incisors and 
 canini, all even shorter than the molars, a kind of dentition of 
 which tlie Tarsiers, among the Quadrumana, have already given us 
 an example, and which somewhat approximates these animals to the 
 Rodentia. Others have large separated canini, between which are 
 placed small incisors, the most usual disposition of these parts among 
 the Quadrumana and the Carnaria; and these two systems of dental 
 arrangement are found in genera, otherwise very similar in the te- 
 guments, shape of the limbs, and mode of life. 
 
 Erinaceus, Lin. 
 
 The body of the Hedgehog is covered with spines instead of hairs. The 
 skin of the back is furnished with such muscles, as, by inclining the head 
 and feet towards the abdomen, enable the animal to shut himself up in it, 
 as in a purse, presenting his spines on all sides to the enemy. The tail is 
 very short, and there are five toes to each foot. There ai'e six incisors in 
 each jaw, the middle ones being the longest, and on each side three false 
 molars, three bristled with points, and a small one studded with tu- 
 bercles(l). 
 
 E. europseus, L. ; Buff. (The Common Hedgehog.) Ears short; com- 
 mon in the woods and hedges; passes the winter in its burrow. To 
 Insects, which constitute its ordinary diet, it adds fruit, by which at a cer- 
 tain age its teeth become worn. The skin was formerly used to dress 
 hemp. 
 
 Centenes, Illig. 
 The body of the Tenrec is covered with spines like the Hedgehog. It 
 does not however possess the faculty of rolling itself so completely into a 
 ball: there is no tail; the muzzle is very pointed, and the teeth are very 
 different. There are four or six incisors, and two great canini in each 
 jaw. Behind the canini are one or two small teeth, and four triangular and 
 bristled molars. Three species are found in Madagascar, the first of which 
 has been naturalized in the Isle of France. It is a nocturnal animal, which 
 passes three months of the year in a state of lethargy, although inhabiting 
 the torrid zone. Brugiere even assures us that it is during the greatest 
 heats that they grow torpid. 
 
 Erinaceus ecaudatus, L. (The Tenrec.) Covered with stiff spines; only 
 four notched incisors below. It is the largest of the three, and exceeds 
 the Hedgehog in size. 
 
 (1) Pallas has noted as an interesting fact, that the Hedgehog eats hun- 
 dreds of Cantharides without inconvenience, while a single one produces 
 the most horrible agony in tlie Dog and the Cat. 
 
CARNARIA. 65 
 
 Cladobates, Fr. Cuv. 
 This is a new genus from the Indian Archipelago. The teeth have much 
 affinity with those of the Hedgehog; their middle upper incisors, however, 
 are proportionally shorter, and the four lower ones elongated; there is 
 also no tubercular one behind. The animal is covered with hair, has a 
 long shaggy tail, and, contrary to the habits of other Insectivora, climbs 
 trees with the agility of a Squirrel; the pointed muzzle, however, makes 
 the animal easily distinguishable even at a distance. 
 
 SoREX, Lin. 
 
 The Shrews are generally small, and covered with hair. Under this, and 
 upon each flank, there is a small band of stiff, thickly set setse, from be- 
 tween which oozes an odorous fluid, the product of a peculiar gland. The 
 two middle upper incisors are hooked and dentated at their base, the lower 
 ones slanting and elongated: five small teeth on each side follow the first, 
 and two only the second. There are moreover in each jaw three bristled 
 molars, and in the upper one the last is a small tuberculous tooth. This 
 animal lives in holes it excavates in the earth, which it seldom leaves till 
 evening, and lives on worms and insects. 
 
 Sor. araneus, L. (The Common Shrew.) Grey above; ash-coloured 
 beneath; tail square, and not so long as the body by one-third; teeth white; 
 ears naked and exposed; common in the fields, &c. There are several 
 other species, one of which (the Rat-tailed Shrew) the Egyptians were in 
 the habit of embalming. 
 
 Mygale, Cuv. 
 The Desmans diflTer from the Shrews in two very small teeth placed be- 
 tween the two great lower incisors, and in their two upper incisors which 
 are flattened and triangular. Behind these incisors are six or seven small 
 teeth and four bristled molars. Their snout is drawn out into a little flexi- 
 ble proboscis, which they keep constantly in motion. Their long tail, 
 scaly and flattened on the sides, with their feet of five fingers all united by 
 membranes, evidently proclaim them to be aquatic animals. Their eyes 
 are very small, and they have no external ears. 
 
 Sorex moschatus, L. (The Russian Muskrat.) Nearly as large as a 
 Shrew; above blackish, beneath whitish; tail not so long as the body by 
 one-fourth. Southern Russia. 
 
 Chrysochloeis, Lacep. 
 Animals of this genus, like those of the preceding one, have two incisors 
 above and four below; but their grinders are long, distinct and almost all 
 shaped like triangular prisms. Their muzzle is short, broad, and recurved, 
 and their fore-feet have only three nails, of which the external, that is very 
 large, much arcuated and pointed, serves them as a powerful instrument 
 I 
 
66 MAMMALIA. 
 
 for excavating and piercing the earth; the others regularly decrease in size. 
 The hind feet have five of an ordinary size. They are suhterraneous ani- 
 mals, whose mode of life is similar to that of Moles. To enable them to 
 dig tlie better, their fore-arm is supported by a third bone placed under 
 the cubitus. 
 
 C. asiaticus. (The Golden Mole.) A little smaller than the European 
 Mole; no apparent tail; is the only known quadruped that presents any 
 appearance of those splendid metallic tints which brighten and adorn so 
 many Bii-ds, Fishes and Insects. Its fur is a green, changing to a copper 
 or bronze; there is no conch to the ear, and the eye is not perceptible. 
 
 Talpa, Lin. 
 No one is ignorant of this curious animal, the Mole, whose form so per- 
 fectly qualifies it for a subterraneous mode of life. A veiy short arm 
 attached to a long scapula, supported by a powerful clavicle and furnished 
 with enormous muscles, sustains an extremely large hand, the palm of 
 which is always directed either outwards or backwards; the lower edge of 
 this hand is trenchant, the fingers are scarcely perceptible, but the nails in 
 which they terminate are long, flat, strong and sharp. Such is the instru- 
 ment employed by the Mole to tear the earth and throw it behind it. Its 
 sternum, like that of Birds and Bats, has a process which gives to the pec- 
 toral muscles the size that is required for their functions. To pierce and 
 raise up the earth, it makes use of its long pointed head, whose muzzle is 
 armed at its extremity with a peculiar little bone, and whose muscles are 
 extremely powerful. There is even an additional bone in the cervical 
 ligament. It has but little power behind, and moves as slowly above 
 ground as it advances rapidly under it. Its sense of hearing is very acute, 
 and the tympanum very large, although there is no external ear; its eyes 
 are so small and so hidden by the hair, that for a long time their existence 
 was positively denied. The jaws are weak, and the food consists of 
 Worms, Insects, and some soft roots. There are six incisors above and 
 eight below. The canini have two roots, which causes them to partake of 
 the nature of false molars; back of them are four false molars above and 
 three below, after which are three bristled molars. 
 
 T. europsea, L.; Buff. (T)ie Common Mole.) Pointed muzzle, hair 
 soft and black; individuals are found white, fawn-coloured and piebald — 
 a vexatious animal in cultivated grounds. 
 
 CONDYLURA, Illig. 
 In the animals belonging to this genus, the two kinds of dentition peculiar 
 to the Insectivora seem to be combined. In the upper jaw are two large 
 triangular incisors, two extremely small and slender ones, and on each side 
 a strong canine. In the lower one are four incisors slanting forwards, and 
 a pointed but small canine. The superior false molars are triangular and 
 separated, the inferior trenchant and denticulated. 
 
 Inthcu' feet and the whole of their exterior they resemble the Mole, but 
 
CARNARIA. 67 
 
 their tail is longer, and what more particularly serves to distinguish them 
 from the former is, that their nostrils are surrounded with little movable 
 cartilaginous points, which, when they separate, radiate like a kind of star. 
 One species particularly is found in North America — Sorex cristatus, L. 
 (The Radiated Mole) similar to the Mole of Europe, the nose excepted, 
 but having a tail more than double the length of that of the latter. 
 
 ScALOPS, Cuv. 
 Teeth very similar to those of the Desmans, except that the small or false 
 molars are less numerous, the muzzle is simply pointed, like that of the 
 Shrew; their hands are widened, armed with strong nails fitted to excavate 
 the earth, and exactly similar to those of Moles: in fact their mode of life 
 is tlie same; their eyes are equally as small, and their ears quite as much 
 hidden. The only species known is the 
 
 iS^. aquaticus. It appears to inhabit a great part of North America, along 
 rivers, &c. Its external resemblance to the common Mole of Europe(l) 
 is so great, that it is easy to mistake the one for the other. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 CARNIVORA. 
 
 Although the term carnivorous is applicable to all unguiculated 
 animals, not quadrumanate, that have three sorts of teeth, inasmuch 
 as they all use more or less animal aliment, there are, however, 
 many of them, the two preceding families especially, which are 
 compelled by weakness and the conical tubercles of their grinders 
 to live almost entirely on Insects. It is in the present family that 
 the sanguinary appetite for flesh is joined to the force necessary to 
 obtain it. There are always four stout, long, and separated canini, 
 between which are six incisors in each jaw, the root of the second 
 of the lower ones being placed a little more inwards than the others. 
 The molars are either wholly trenchant, or have some blunted tu- 
 berculous parts, but they are never bristled with conical points. 
 
 These animals are so much the more exclusively carnivorous, as 
 their teeth are the more completely trenchant, and the proportions 
 of their regimen may be calculated from the extent of the tubercu- 
 lous surface of their teeth, compared with that which is trenchant. 
 The Bears, which can subsist altogether on vegetables, have nearly 
 all their teeth tuberculated. 
 
 (1) It is the Common Mole of the United States. £m. Ed. 
 
68 MAMMALIA. 
 
 The anterior molars are the most trenchant; next comes a molar, 
 larger than the others, usually furnished with a larger or smaller 
 tuberculous heel; then follow one or two small teeth, that are per- 
 fectly flat. It is with these small teeth in the back part of the 
 mouth that the Dog chews the grass he sometimes swallows. We 
 will call, with M. Fr. Cuvier, this large upper molar, and its cor- 
 responding one below, carnivorous teeth; the anterior pointed ones, 
 false molars; and the posterior blunted ones, tuberculous teeth. 
 
 It is easy to conceive that those genera which have the fewest 
 false molars, and whose jaws are the shortest, are those best adapted 
 for biting. 
 
 It is upon these differences that the genera can be most surely 
 established. 
 
 It is necessary, however, that the consideration of the hind foot 
 should be added to them. 
 
 Several genera, like those of the two preceding families, in walk- 
 ing, or when they stand erect, place the whole sole of the foot on 
 the ground, a fact proved by the total want of hair on that part of it. 
 
 Others, and by far the greater number, walk on the ends of the 
 toes, by raising up the tarsus. They are much swifter, and to this 
 first difference are added many others of habits, and even of inter- 
 nal conformation. In both the clavicle is a mere bony rudiment 
 suspended in the muscles. The 
 
 PLANTIGRADA 
 
 Form this first tribe, in which the whole sole of the foot is placed 
 on the ground in walking, a circumstance which gives them a 
 greater facility in standing vertically upon their hinder feet. They 
 partake of the slowness and nocturnal life of the Insectivora; most 
 of those that inhabit cold countries pass the winter in a state of tor- 
 por. They all have five toes to each foot. 
 
 Uksus, Lin. 
 Sears have three large molars on each side In each jaw, altogether tuber- 
 culous, and of which the posterior upper, and anterior lower are the 
 longest. They are preceded by a tooth a little more trenchant, which is 
 one of the carnivorous teeth of this genus, and by a variable number of very 
 small false molars, which are sometimes shed at a very early period. This 
 almost frugivorous sort of dentition is the reason why, notwithstanding 
 their great strength, they seldom eat flesh unless from necessity. 
 
 They are large, stout-bodied animals, with thick limbs, and a very short 
 tall: the cartilage of the nose is elongated and movable. They excavate 
 
CARNARIA. 69 
 
 dens or construct huts, in which they pass the winter in a state of somno- 
 lency more or less profound, and without food. It is in these retreats that 
 the female bring's forth her young-. 
 
 The species are not easily distinguished by apparent characters. 
 
 U. americanus, Gm. (The North American Black Bear.) A very dis- 
 tinct species, with a flat forehead, smooth and black fur, and fawn-coloured 
 muzzle. We have always found the small teeth behind the canini more 
 numerous in this Bear than in the European species. Individuals have 
 been seen that were entirely fawn-coloured. Its usual food is wild fruits; 
 it devastates the fields, and, where fish is abundant, proceeds to the shores 
 for the purpose of catching it. It is only for want of other aliment that it 
 attacks quadrupeds. The flesh is held in great esteem. Various species 
 are known, such as the Polar Bear, Thibet Bear, Malay Bear, Thick-lipped 
 Bear, and our Grisly-Bear. 
 
 Procyon, Storr. 
 The Raccoons have three back tuberculous molars, the superior of which 
 are nearly square, and three pointed false molars in front, forming a con- 
 tinuous series to the canines, which are straight and compressed. The 
 tail is long-, but the remainder of the exterior is that of a Bear in miniature. 
 They rest the whole sole of the foot on the ground only when they stand 
 still; when they walk, they raise the heel. 
 
 P. lotor. (The Raccoon.) Greyish brown; muzzle white; a brown 
 streak across the eyes; tail marked with brown and white rings. This 
 animal is about the size of a Badger, is easily tamed, and remarked for a 
 singular habit of eating nothing it has not previously dipped in water. 
 From North America — lives on eggs. Birds, &c. 
 
 AiLURUs, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 The Panda appears to approximate to the Raccoon in its canini, and what 
 is known of its other teeth; with this exception, that it has only one false 
 molar. The head is short; tail long; walk plantigrade; five toes with re- 
 tractile claws. One species only is known, the 
 
 j1. refulgens, Fred. Cuv. Size of a large Cat; fur soft and thickly set; 
 above of the most brilliant cinnamon red; behind more fawn-coloui'ed; be- 
 neath of a deep black. The head is whitish, and the tail marked with 
 brown rings. From the north of India. 
 
 IcTiDES, Valeri. 
 The Benturong is somewhat related to the Raccoon by its teeth, but the 
 three upper back molars are much smaller and less tuberculous, the last 
 one in each jaw particularly, which is very small and nearly simple. It is 
 covered with long hair, and has a tuft at each ear. The tail is long, hairy, 
 and has a propensity to curl, as if prehensile. From India. 
 
 Id. albifrons, Fr. Cuv. Grey; tall and sides of the muzzle black; size 
 that of a large Cat. From Bootan. 
 
70 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Nasua, Storr. 
 The Coatis, to the teeth, tail, nocturnal habit, and slow dragging gait of 
 the Raccoon, add a singularly elongated and flexible snout. The feet are 
 semi-palmate, notwithstanding which they climb trees. Their long claws 
 are used for digging. They inhabit the warm climates of America, and 
 their diet is nearly the same as that of the Marten of Europe. 
 
 Viverra nasua, L. (The Red Coati.) Reddish fawn colour; muzzle 
 brown; tail with brown rings. 
 
 This is perhaps the only proper place for the singular genus of the Kiir- 
 KAJous or Potto, Cuv. which, to a plantigrade walk, adds a long prehen- 
 sile tail like that of the Sapajous, a short muzzle, a slender and extensible 
 tongue, two pointed grinders before, and three tuberculous ones behind. 
 
 Only one species is known, the Viverra caudivolvula, Gm. From the 
 warm parts of America and from the great Antilles, where it is called Potto; 
 size of a Polecat; hair woolly, and of a grey or yellowish brown; habits 
 nocturnal; of a mild disposition, and lives on fruit, milk, honey, blood, &c. 
 
 Meles, Storr. 
 The Badgers, which Linnjeus placed with the Raccoons in the genus 
 Ursus, have a very small tooth behind the canine, then two pointed molars 
 followed in the upper jaw by one that we begin to recognize as carnivorous 
 from the trenchant vestige it exhibits on its outer side; behind this is a 
 square tuberculous one, the largest of all. Below, the penultimate begins 
 to show a resemblance to the inferior carnivorous teeth, but as there are 
 two tubercles on its internal border as elevated as its trenchant edge, it acts 
 as a tuberculous one; the last below is very small. 
 
 The slow movements of the Badgers and their nocturnal habits are like 
 those of the preceding animals; their tail is short, the toes are much en- 
 veloped in the skin, and they are otherwise peculiarly distinguished by a 
 sac under the tail, from which oozes a fatty, fetid humour. The long claws 
 of their fore-feet enable them to dig with great effect. 
 
 M. europxa. (The European Badger.) Greyish above, black beneath, 
 a blackish band on each side of the head(l). 
 
 GuLo, Storr. 
 
 Linnsus also placed the Gluttons among the Bears, but they approximate 
 much nearer to the Weasels in their teeth as well as in their habits, the 
 only relation they have to the former consisting in their plantigrade mo- 
 tion. They have three false molars above and four below, immediately 
 antecedent to the carnivorous teeth, which are well characterized, and be- 
 hind them two small tuberculous ones, the upper being more broad than 
 long. Their superior carnivorous tooth has only one small tubercle on the 
 
 (1) The American Badger. Mel. hudsonius is a different species. — Am. 
 Ed. 
 
CARNARIA. 71 
 
 inner side, and in fact, the whole dental system is nearly the same as that 
 of the Weasels. The tail is of a middling size, with a plait or fold beneatli 
 in place of a sac, and the port of the animal is very similar to that of the 
 Badger. 
 
 The most celebrated species is the Glutton of the north, the Ursus guh, 
 Li. (The Common Glutton.) About the size of the Badger; usually of a 
 fine deep maronne colour, with a disk on the back of a darker brown; 
 sometimes, however, the shades are lighter. It inhabits the most glacial 
 regions of the North, is considered very sanguinary and ferocious, hunts 
 during the night, does not become torpid during the winter, and masters 
 the largest animals by leaping upon them from the top of a tree. Its vora- 
 city has been ridiculously exaggerated by some authors. The Wolverene 
 of North America (Ursus luscus, Lin.) does not appear to differ from it in 
 any constant character — its colours, however, are generally lighter. 
 
 Hot climates produce some species which can only be placed near the 
 Gluttons, as they differ from them merely in having one false molar less in 
 each jaw, and in a long tail. Such are the animals, termed by the inhabit- 
 ants of South America Ferrety which, having the teeth of our Ferrets and 
 Polecats, have, in fact, similar habits — they are distinguished from them 
 however, by their plantigrade motion. 
 
 Viverra vittata, Li. (The Grison. ) Black; top of the head and neck 
 g^ey; a white band, reaching from the forehead to the shoulders. 
 
 Rateius, F. C. 
 
 The Ratek have a false molar in each jaw less than the Grison, and their 
 upper tuberculous tooth is but slightly developed, so that in the teeth they 
 approach the Cat, while their whole exterior is that of the Grison or Bad- 
 ger. The legs are short; feet plantigrade, and five toes to each; nails very 
 strong, &c. &c. 
 
 One species only is known, the Viverra mellivora, Sparm. Size of the 
 European Badger; grey above; black beneath, with a white line that sepa- 
 rates the two colours; sometimes it is nearly all white above. It inhabits 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and digs up the earth with its long claws, in 
 search of the honey-combs of the wild bees. The 
 
 DIGITIGRADA 
 
 Form the second tribe of the Carnivora. The animals which 
 compose it walk on the ends of their toes. 
 
 In the first subdivision there is only one tuberculous tooth behind 
 the upper carnivorus; these animals, on account of the length of 
 their body, and the shortness of their legs, which permit them to 
 pass through the smallest openings, have been styled vermiform. 
 They are not torpid during the winter. Linnaius placed them all 
 in one genus, that of 
 
72 MAMMALIA. 
 
 MusTELA, Lin. , 
 Or the Weasels, which we will divide into four subgenera. 
 
 PuTORitrs, Cuv. 
 
 The Polecats are the most sanguinary of all; the lower carnivorous tooth 
 has no inner tubercle, and the superior tuberculous one is more broad than 
 long; there are only two false molars above and three below. These ani- 
 mals are externally recognised by their muzzle, which is shorter and thicker 
 than that of the Weasel. They all diffuse a most horrible stench. 
 
 Mustela putorius, L. Buff. (The Common Polecat.) Brown; flanks 
 yellowish; white spots on the head; the terror of poultry yards and warrens. 
 
 M. lutreola. Pall. (The Mink or Norek.) It frequents the shores of 
 rivers, &c., in the north and east of Europe from the Arctic Ocean to the 
 Black Sea, and lives on frogs and crabs. The feet are slightly palmated 
 at the base of the toes, but the teeth and round tail approximate it 
 nearer to the Polecat than the Otter. It is of a reddish brown; the circum- 
 ference of the lips and the under part of the jaw white; it exhales a musky 
 odour, and is much esteemed for its well known i'ur. It is the Mink of the 
 United States. 
 
 McsTEiA, Cuv. 
 
 The true Weasels differ from the Polecats in having an additional false 
 molar above and below, and in the existence of a small internal tubercle 
 on their inferior carnivorous tooth, two characters which somewhat diminish 
 the cruelty of their nature. 
 
 M. martes, L. (The Common Marten.) Brown, a yellow spot under 
 the throat. Inhabits the woods. Siberia produces the 
 
 M. zibellina, Pall. (The Sable.) Highly valued for its rich fur, 
 brown, spotted with white about the head, and distinguished from the 
 preceding ones by the extension of the hair to the under surface of the 
 toes. It inhabits the coldest mountains, and the hunting to obtain it. In 
 the midst of winter and tremendous snows, is a perilous and painful under- 
 taking. It is to the pursuit of this animal that we owe the discovery of the 
 eastern countries of Siberia. 
 
 North America also possesses several Martens indicated by naturalists 
 and travellers, under the indefinite names of Pekan, Vison, Mink, &c. 
 
 One of them, the White Vtson of the furriers. Mus. leutreocephala, 
 Harl., has as hairy feet and almost as soft afur as the Sable, but is of a light 
 fawn colour, and almost white about the head. 
 
 That which we call the Pekan; Must, canadensis, Gm., and which comes 
 from Canada and the United States; is of a brownish colour, mixed with 
 white on the head, neck, shoulders and top of the back; nose, crupper, tail 
 and limbs blackish. 
 
 Mephitis, Cuv. 
 The Skunk, like the Polecat, has two false molars above and three be- 
 
CARNARIA. 73 
 
 low, but the superior tuberculous one is very large, and as long as it is 
 broad, and the inferior carnivorus has two tubercles on its internal side, 
 circumstances which ally it to the Badger just as the Polecat approximates 
 to the Grlson and Glutton. Independently of this, the anterior nails of 
 the Skunk, like those of the Badger, are long and fitted for digging; they 
 are moreover semi-plantigrade, and the resemblance extends even to the 
 distribution of their colours. The whole family are remarkable for their 
 fetid exhalations, but the Skunk is pre-eminently distinguished by its 
 most horrible and suffocating stench. 
 
 Skunks are generally marked with white stripes on a black ground, but 
 the number of stripes appears to vary in the same species. The most 
 common species of North America is the 
 
 M. puiorius. (The American Skunk.) Black, with stripes of white, 
 larger or smaller, and more or less numerous; the tail is black, and the tip 
 white. The odour it produces resembles that of the Polecat, mingled with 
 a strong smell of garlic — nothing is more nauseous. 
 
 LuTKA, Storr. 
 
 The Otters have three false molars in each jaw, a strong heel to the su- 
 perior carnivorus, a tuberculus on the inner side of the inferior one, and 
 a large tuberculous tooth above that is nearly as long as it is broad. The 
 head is compressed, and the tongue demi-asperate. They are otherwise 
 distinguished from all the preceding subgenera by palmated feet, and a 
 horizontally flattened tail, two characters which i-ender them aquatic. 
 Their food is fish. 
 
 L. vulgaris. (The Common Otter.) Brown above, whitish round the 
 lips, on the cheeks and the whole inferior surface of the body. It is 
 sometimes found spotted and whitish. From the rivers of Europe. 
 
 Several otters differ but little from the above. That of Carolina, L. 
 lataxiiia, Fr. Cuv., becomes a little larger, is sometimes more deeply co- 
 loured, and has a brownish tint beneath; very frequently, however, there 
 is no difference even in the shades of colour. 
 
 Mustela lutra brasiliensis, Gm. (The American Otter.) Brown or fawn- 
 coloured; throat white or yellowish; a little larger than the European Ot- 
 ter; the body is also longer, and the hair shorter. It is distinguished by 
 the end of the nose, which is not naked as in most animals, but is covered 
 with hair like the rest of the chanfrin. From the rivers of both Americas. 
 
 Mustela lutris, L. (The Sea-Otter.) Size, double that of the European 
 species; body much elongated; tall one-third the length of the body; the 
 hind feet very short. There is sometimes white about the head. It has 
 only four incisors below, but the molars are like those of the other Otters. 
 Its blackish velvet looking fur is extremely valuable to obtain which the 
 English and Russians hunt the animal throughout the northern parts of 
 the Pacific ocean. 
 K 
 
74 MAMMALIA. 
 
 In the second subdivision of tlie Digitigiada there are two flat 
 tuberculous teeth, behind the superior carnivorous tooth, which is 
 itself furnished with a large heel. They are carnivorous, but do not 
 exhibit a courage proportioned to their powers, and frequently feed 
 on carrion. 
 
 Canis, Lin. 
 
 Dogs have three false molars above, four below, and two tuberculous teeth 
 behind each of the carnivori; the first of these upper tuberculous teeth is 
 very large. Their superior carnivorus has only a small inner tubercle, but 
 the posterior portion of the inferior is altogether tuberculous. The tongue 
 is soft; the fore-feet have five toes, and the hind ones four. 
 
 C. familiaris, L. (The Domestic Dog). Distinguished by his recurved 
 tail, otherwise varying infinitely, as to size, form, colour and quality of the 
 hair. He is the most complete, singular and useful conquest ever made 
 by man; the whole species has become his property; each individual is 
 devoted to his particular master, assumes his manners, knows and defends 
 his possessions, and remains his true and faithful friend till death — and all 
 this neither from constraint nor want, but solely from the purest gratitude 
 and the truest friendship. The swiftness, strength and scent of the Dog 
 have rendered him Man's powerful ally against all other animals, and were 
 even, perhaps, necessary to the establishment of society. Of all animals, 
 he is the only one which has followed Man through every region of the 
 globe. 
 
 Some naturalists think the Dog is a Wolf, and others that he is a domesti- 
 cated Jackal, and yet those dogs which have become wild again in desert 
 islands resemble neither the one nor the other. The wild dogs, and those that 
 belong to savages, such as the inhabitants of New Holland, have sti-aight 
 ears, which has occasioned a belief that the European races, which approach 
 the most to the oi'iginal type, are the Shepherd's Dog and Wolf Dog; but 
 the comparison of the crania indicates a closer affinity in the MastiflP and 
 Danish Dog, subsequently to which come the Hound, the Pointer, and the 
 Terrier, differing between themselves only in size and the proportions of 
 the limbs. The Greyhound is longer and more lank; its frontal sinuses are 
 smaller, and its scent weaker. The Shepherd's Dog and the Wolf Dog re- 
 sume the straight ears of the wild ones, but with a greater cerebral devel- 
 opment, which continues to increase together with the intelligence in the 
 Barhet and the Spaniel. The Bull Dog, on the other hand, is remarkable 
 for the shortness and strength of his jaws. The small pet-dogs, the Pugs, 
 Spaniels, Shocks, &c. are the most degenerate productions, and exhibit the 
 most striking marks of that power to which man subjects all nature. 
 
 The dog is born with his eyes closed; he opens them on the tenth or 
 twelfth day; his teeth commence changing in the fourth month, and his 
 full growth is attained at the explication of the second year. The dog is 
 old at fifteen years, and seldom lives beyond twenty. His vigilance, bark, 
 and susceptibility of education are well known to every one. 
 
C A UN ARIA. 75 
 
 C. lupus, L. (The AVolf.) A large species with a straight tail; legs 
 fawn-coloured, with a black stripe on the fore-legs when adult; the most 
 mischievous of all the Carnaria of Europe. It is found from Egypt to Lap- 
 land, and appears to have passed into America. Towards the north, in 
 winter, its fur becomes white. It attacks all our animals, yet does not ex- 
 hibit a courage proportioned to its strength. It often feeds on carrion. Its 
 habits and physical development are closely related to those of the Dog. 
 
 C. juhaius, Cuv.; ^goura-Gouazou, Azzar. (The Red Wolf) A fine 
 cinnamon-red: a short black mane along the spine. From the marshes of 
 South America. 
 
 C. aureus, L.. (The Chacal or Jackal.) Less than the preceding; the 
 muzzle more pointed; of a greyish brown; thighs and legs of a light fawn 
 colour; some red on the ear; the tail scarcely reaching further than the 
 heel. It is a voracious animal, which hunts like the Dog, and in its con- 
 formation and the facility with which it is tamed, resembles the latter more 
 closely than any otlier wild species. Jackals are found from the Indies 
 and the environs of the Cispian sea, as far as, and in Guinea; it is not cer- 
 tain, however, that they are all of one species. Those of Senegal for in- 
 stance, C anihus, Fr. Cuv., stand higher, appear to have a sharper muzzle, 
 and the tail a little longer. 
 
 Foxes may be distinguished from tlie Wolf and Dog by a longer and more 
 tufted tail, by a more pointed muzzle, by pupils which during the day 
 form a vertical fissure, and by the upper incisors being less sloping. They 
 diffuse a fetid odour, dig burrows, and attack none but the weaker animals. 
 This subgenus is more numerous than the preceding one. 
 
 C.vulpes,h. (The Common Fox.) More or less red; tip of the tail white; 
 found from Sweden to Egypt. Those of tlie north have merely a more 
 brilliant fur. 
 
 The prairies of North America produce a little Fox, C. velox, Harl. and 
 Say; which lives in burrows. 
 
 C. cinereo-argenteus, Schreb. (The Tri-coloured Fox of America. ) Ash- 
 coloured above; white beneath; a cinnamon-red band along the flanks. 
 From all the warm and temperate parts of the two Americas. 
 
 C, argentatus. (The Silver or Black Fox.) Black; tips of the hairs 
 white, except on the ears, shoulders and tail, where they are of a pure 
 black. The end of the tail is all white. From North America. Its fur is 
 most beautiful, and very costly. 
 
 The interior of Africa produces Foxes remarkable for the size of their 
 ears, and the strength of the hairs oftheir mustachios; they are the Mega- 
 I.OTIS of Illiger. 
 
 Finally, we may place after the Dogs, as a fourth subgenus, distinguished 
 by the number of toes, which is four to each foot, the 
 
 Hyaena venatica, Bursch. (The Wild Dog of the Cape.) It has the 
 dental system of the Dog and not that of the Hyena; a long and thin form; 
 the fur mottled, with white and fawn colour, grey and black; size of the wolf; 
 large ears with black tips, &c. It is gregarious, and frequently approaches 
 Cape Town, devastating its environs. 
 
76 MAMMALIA. 
 
 ViVEKRA. 
 
 The Civets have three false molars above and four below, the anterior of 
 which sometimes fall out; two tolerably large tuberculous teeth above, one 
 only below, and two tubercles projecting forwards on the inner side of the 
 inferior carnivorus, the rest of that tooth being more or less tuberculous. 
 The tongue is bristled with sharp and rough papillae. Their claws are 
 more or less raised as they walk, and near the buttock is a pouch more or 
 less deep, where an unctuous and frequently an odorous matter oozes from 
 peculiar glands. They are divided into four subgenera. 
 
 VivEKKA, Cuv. 
 
 In the true Civets there is a deep pouch divided Into two sacs, filled with 
 an abundant pommade of a strong musky odour, secreted by glands which 
 surround it. This substance is an article of commerce, and is used by the 
 perfumers. It was niore employed when musk and ambergrease were 
 unknown. The pupil of the eye remains round during the day, and their 
 claws are only semi-retractile. 
 
 V. civetta, L. (The Civet.) Ash-coloured, irregularly barred and spot- 
 ted with black; the tail less than tlie body, black towards the end, withfour 
 or five rings near its base; two black bands encircling the throat, and one 
 suri'ounding the face; a mane along the whole length of the spine and tail 
 that bristles up at the will of the animal. From the hottest parts of Africa. 
 
 Genetta, Cuv. 
 
 In the Genets the pouch is reduced to a slight depression formed by the 
 projection of the glands, and has scarcely any visible excretion, although 
 an odour is diff"used from it that is very perceptible. In the light the 
 pupil forms a vertical fissure, and the nails are completely retractile, as in 
 the Cat. 
 
 V. genetta, L. (The Common Genet.) Grey spotted with brown or 
 black, the muzzle biackish; white spots on the eyebrows, clieeks and each 
 side of the end of the nose; tail the length of the bod}^ annulated with 
 black and white, the black rings being from nine to eleven in number. 
 Found from the south of France to the Cape of Good Hope, frequents the 
 edges of brooks, near springs, 8ic. The skin forms an important article of 
 trade. 
 
 Pahadoxurus, Fr. Cuv. 
 
 Has the teeth and most of the characters of the Genets, with which it 
 was a long time confounded; it is however more stout-limbed; the feet are 
 semi-palmate, and the walk nearly plantigrade, but what particularly dis- 
 tinguishes it is the spiral inclination of the tail, which is not prehensile. 
 Only one species is known, the 
 
 P. typus, Fr. Cuv. (The Pougoune of India) A yellowish-brown, with 
 some spots of a deeper brown than the rest; the feet, muzzle and part of 
 the tail blackish; eye-brows white, and a white spot under the eye. 
 
CARNARIA. 77 
 
 Mangcsta, Cuv. — Herpestes, lUig-. 
 
 The pouch is voluminous and simple. The hairs are annulatecl with 
 light and obscure tints, which determine their general colour on the eye. 
 
 The Mangouste of Egypt, so celebrated among the ancients under the 
 name of Ichneumon, is grey, with a long tail terminated with a black tuft; 
 it is larger than our Cat, and as slender as a Marten. It chiefly hunts for 
 the eggs of the Crocodile, but also feeds on all sorts of small animals; brought 
 up in houses, it hunts Mice, Reptiles, &c. 15y the Europeans at Cairo it is 
 called Pharaoh's Hat; by the natives, Nems. The ancient tradition of its 
 jumping down the throat of the Crocodile to destroyit, is entirely fabulous. 
 There are other species. 
 
 Rtzjena, lUig. 
 
 The Surikates have a strong resemblance to the Mangoustes, even to the 
 tints and transverse streaks of the hair, but are distinguished from them and 
 from all the Carnivora of which we have hitherto spoken, by having only 
 four toes to each foot. They also are higher on their legs, and they have 
 not the small molar immediately behind the canine tooth. 
 
 One species only is known, a native of Africa — Viv. tetradactyla, Gm., a 
 little less than the Mangouste of India. 
 
 Crossarchus, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 The muzzle, teeth, pouch, and walk of the Surikates, the toes of the 
 Mangoustes. 
 
 One species only is known — Crossarchus obscurus, Fred. Cuv., from Sierra 
 Leone, of the size of the Surikate; greyish brown; cheeks a little paler, and 
 a hairy tail. 
 
 The last subdivision of the Digitigrada has no small teeth of any 
 kind behind the large molar of the lower jaw. The animals con- 
 tained in it are the most cruel and sanguinary of the class. They 
 form two genera. 
 
 Htjena, Storr. 
 The Hyenas have three false molars above and four below, all conical, blunt 
 and singularly large; their superior carnivorous tooth has a small tubercle 
 within and in front, but the inferior has none, presenting only two stout 
 trenchant points; with these powerful arms they are enabled to crush the 
 bones of the largest prey. The tongue is rough and each foot has four toes 
 like that of the Surikate. So powerful are the muscles of the neck and 
 jaw, that it is almost impossible to wrest any thing from between tlieir teeth 
 that they have once seized, and, among the Arabs, their name is the sym- 
 bol of obstinacy. It sometimes happens that an anchylosis of the cervical 
 vertebrae is the consequence of these violent efl'orts, and this has caused it 
 to be said that they have only one single bone in the neck. They are 
 
78 MAMMALIA. 
 
 nocturnal animals, inhabiting caves; are extremely voracious, and feed 
 chiefly on dead bodies, which they seek for even in the grave. A thousand 
 superstitious traditions are connected with them. Three species are known, 
 one of which is the 
 
 H. vulgaris, Buff. (The Striped Hyena.) Grey; blackish or brown 
 stripes crosswise; a mane along the whole of the nape of the neck, and black, 
 that stands erect when the animal is angry. It is found from India to Abys- 
 sinia and Senegal. The brown and spotted Hyenas are the two others. 
 
 Felis, Lin. 
 
 Of all the Carnaria the Cats are the most completely and powerfully armed. 
 Their short and round muzzle, short jaws, and particularly their retractile 
 nails, which, being raised perpendicularly, and hidden between the toes, 
 when at rest, by the action of elastic ligament, lose neither point nor edge, 
 render them most formidable animals, tlie larger species especially. They 
 have two false molars above, and two below: their superior carnivorous tooth 
 has three lobes, and a blunted heel on the inner side; the inferior, two 
 pointed and trenchant lobes, without any heel: they have but a very small 
 tuberculous tooth above, without any thing to correspond to it below. The 
 species of this genus are very numerous and various with regard to size 
 and colour, though they are all similar with respect to form. We can only 
 subdivide them by referring to the difference of size and the length of the 
 hair, characters of but little importance. 
 
 At the head of the genus we find 
 
 F. leo, L. (The Lion.) Distinguished by its uniform tawn)' colour, the 
 tuft of hair at the end of the tail, and the flowing mane which clothes the 
 head, neck, and shoulders of the male. Of all beasts of prey, this is the 
 strongest and most coui-ageous. Formerly scattered through the three parts 
 of the old world, it seems at present to be confined to Africa and some 
 of the neighbouring parts of Asia. The head of the Lion is more square 
 than that of the following species. 
 
 Tigers are large, short haired species, most commonly marked with vivid 
 spots. 
 
 F. tigris, Buff. (The Royal Tiger.) As large as the Lion, but the body 
 is longer, and the head rounder; of a lively fawn colour above: a pure white 
 below, irregularly crossed with black stripes; the most cruel of all quadru- 
 peds, and the scourge of the East Indies. Such are his strength and the 
 velocity of his movements, that during the march of armies he has been 
 seen to seize a soldier, while on horseback, and bear him to the depths of 
 the forest, without aff'ording a possibility of rescue. 
 
 F. onga, L. (The Jaguar.) Nearly the size of the Royal Tiger, and 
 almost as dangerous; a bright fawn colour above; the flank longitudinally 
 marked with four rows of ocellated spots, that is with rings more or less 
 complete, having a black point in the middle; white beneath, transversely 
 striped with black. Sometimes individual specimens are found black, whose 
 rings, of a deeper hue, are only perceptible in a particular light. 
 
CARNARIA. 79 
 
 F.pardus, L. ; the Pardalis of the ancients. (The Panther.) Fawn 
 coloured above; white beneath; with six or seven rows of black spots, re- 
 sembling roses, that is, formed by the assemblage of five or six simple 
 spots on each flank; the tail is the length of the body, minus that of the 
 head. 
 
 F. leopardus, L. (The Leopard.) From Africa; similar to the Panther, 
 but has ten rows of smaller spots. 
 
 F. discolor, L. ; Buff. (The Couguar or Puma.) Red, with small spots 
 of a slightly deeper red which are not easily perceived. From both Ame- 
 ricas, where it preys on Sheep, Deer, &c. 
 
 Among the inferior species, we should distinguish the Lynxes, which 
 are remarkable for the pencils of hair which ornament their ears. 
 
 Four or five different kinds of them are known in commerce. The most 
 beautiful, which are as large as the Wolf — F. cervaria, Temm., come from 
 Asia by the way of Russia, and have a slightly reddish-grey fur, finely spot- 
 ted with black. 
 
 Others from Canada and the north of Sweden — F. borealis, Temm., have 
 the fur very much tufted, extending even under the feet; of an ash-coloured 
 grey, and with scarcely any spots. 
 
 We find also in North America the 
 
 F. rufa, Giild. (The Bay Lynx.) A reddish fawn or greyish colour, 
 mottled with brown; brown waves on the thighs; tail annulated with black 
 or brown; rather smaller than the Lynx. 
 
 F. caracal, L.. (The Caracal. J Of an almost uniform vinous red. From 
 Persia, Turkey, &c. It is the true Lynx of the ancients. 
 
 The inferior species, which are deprived of the pencils on the ears, are 
 more or less similar to our common Cat; such is 
 
 F. pardalis, L. ; Buff. (The Ocelot.) Rather lower on its legs than 
 most of the others; grey, with large fawn-coloured spots bordered with 
 black, forming oblique bands on the flank. From Amei'ica. 
 
 F. catus, Li. (The Domestic Cat.) This animal is originally from the 
 forests of Europe. In its wild state, it is of a greyish brown, with darker 
 transverse undulations; below pale; the insides of the thighs and of all the 
 feet, yellowish; three bands on the tail, its inferior third blackish. In a 
 domestic state it varies, as is well known, in colours, in the length and 
 fineness of the hair, but infinitely less so than the Dog; it is also much less 
 submissive and affectionate. The 
 
 AMPHIBIA 
 Will form the third and last of the small tribes into which we di- 
 vide the Carnivora. Their feet are so short and so enveloped in 
 the skin, that the only service they can render them on land, is to 
 enable them to crawl; but as the intervals of the fingers are occu- 
 pied by membranes, they are excellent oars; and in fact, these ani- 
 mals pass the greater portion of their time in the water; never 
 
80 MAMMALIA. 
 
 landing, except for the purpose of basking in the sun, and suckling 
 their young. Their elongated body; their very movable spine, 
 which is provided with muscles that strongly flex it; their narrow 
 pelvis; their short hair, that adheres closely to the skin, all unite to 
 render them good swimmers; and all the details of their anatomy 
 confirm these first indicia. 
 
 We have as yet distinguished two genera only, Phoca and Tri- 
 chechus. 
 
 Phoca, Lin. 
 Seals have sis or four incisors above, four or two below, pointed caninl and 
 grinders to the number of twenty, twenty-two, or twenty-four, all trench- 
 ant or conical, and without any tuberculous part whatever; five toes to all 
 the feet, the anterior ones regularly decreasing in length from the thumb 
 to the little toe, while in the hinder feet the thumb and the little toe are the 
 longest, and the intermediate ones the shortest. The fore-feet are envel- 
 oped in the skin of the body as far as the tarsus, the hinder ones almost to 
 the heel. Between the latter is a short tail. The head of a Seal bears a 
 resemblance to that of a Dog, whose intelligence and soft expressive look 
 it also possesses. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes attached to its 
 keeper, or those who feed it. The tongue is smooth and sloped at the 
 end, the stomach simple, cjecum short, and the intestinal canal long, and 
 tolerably regular. These animals live on fish; always eat in the water, and 
 close their nostrils when they dive by a kind of valve. They remain a 
 long time under water; there is a large venous sinus in the liver, which must 
 assist them in diving by rendering respiration less necessary to the motion 
 of the blood. Their blood is very abundant and very black. 
 
 Phoca, properly so called, or without external ears. 
 
 The true Phocje have pointed incisors; all the toes enjoy a certain de- 
 gree of motion, and are teiininated by pointed nails planted on the edge 
 of the membrane, which unites them. 
 
 They are subdivided, from the number of their incisors. The Caloce- 
 PHAiA, Fr. Cuv. have six above and four below; such is the 
 
 Phoca vitulina, L. (The Common Seal.) From three to five feet in 
 length; of a yellowish grey, more or less shaded and spotted with brown, 
 according to its age; sometimes brownish, with small yellow spots. When 
 very old it becomes whitish. Common on the coast of Europe in great 
 herds. It is also found far to the north; we are even assured that it is this 
 species which inhabits the Caspian sea, and tlie great fresh water lakes of 
 Russia and Siberia, but this assertion does not appear to be founded on 
 an exact comparison. In fact, the European seas contain several Phocae, 
 which have long been confounded, some of which are perhaps mere varie- 
 ties of the others. 
 
CARNARIA. 81 
 
 Stenorhincus, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 Four Incisors above, and four below, the molars deeply notched into three 
 points. 
 
 One species only is known, and that is from the Austral seas — Ph. lep- 
 tonix, Blain. Size of the barbata; greyish above; yellowish beneath; nails 
 small. 
 
 Pexagus, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 Four incisors also, above and below, but their grinders are obtuse cones, 
 with a slightly marked heel before and behind. There is one of them in 
 the Mediterranean, y 
 
 Ph. monachus, Gm. (The Monk. ) From ten to twelve feet in lemgth, 
 of a blackish brown, with a white belly. It is particularly found among 
 the Grecian and Adriatic Islands, and is, most probably, the species best 
 known to the ancients. 
 
 Stemmatopcs, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 Four superior incisors, and two inferior; grinders compressed, slightly 
 ti'ilobate, supported by thick roots. Such is the 
 
 Ph. cristata, Gm. (The Hooded Seal.) Seven or eight feet long; a 
 piece of loose skin on the head, which can be inflated at the pleasure of 
 the animal, and is drawn over the eyes when it is menaced, at which times 
 the nostrils also are inflated like bladders. From the Arctic ocean. 
 
 Finally, the MACRonHiifus, Fr. Cuv., has the incisors of the preceding, 
 obtuse conical molars, and the muzzle resembling a short movable probos- 
 cis or snout. The largest seal known is of this subgenus; the 
 
 Ph. leonina, L. (The Elephant Seal. ) From twenty to twenty-five feet 
 in length; brown, the muzzle of the male terminated by a wrinkled snout, 
 which becomes inflated when the animal is angry. It is common in the 
 southern latitudes of the Pacific Ocean, at the Terra del-Fuego, New Zeal- 
 and, Chili, &c. It constitutes an important object of the fisheries, on ac- 
 count of the oil in which it abounds. The 
 
 Otabies, Peron, Seals with external ears. 
 Are worthy of being formed into a separate genus; because, indepen- 
 dently of the projecting external ears, the four superior middle incisors have 
 a double cutting edge, a circumstance hitherto unknown in any animal; the 
 external ones are simple and smaller, and the four inferior bifurcated. All 
 the molars are simply conical, and the toes of the forefeet almost immova- 
 ble; the membrane of the hind feet is lengthened out into a slip beyond 
 each toe; all the nails are flat and slender. 
 
 Ph. jubata, Gm. ; Sea-Lion of Steller, Pernetty, &c. From fifteen to 
 
 twenty feet, and more, in length; fawn coloured; the neck of the male 
 
 covered with hairs that are more frizzled and thickly set than those on the 
 
 rest of the body. It might be said to be found in all the Pacific Ocean, 
 
 L 
 
 i^' 
 
82 MAMMALIA. 
 
 were it not that those from the straits of Magellan seem to differ from such 
 as are taken at the Aleutian islands. 
 
 Tkichechus, Lin.(l) 
 The 3Iorse resembles the Seal in its limbs, and the general form of the body; 
 but differs widely from it in the teeth and head. There are no incisors nor 
 canini in the lower jaw, which is compressed anteriorly to pass between 
 two enormous canini or tusks, which issue from the upper one, and which 
 project downwards, being sometimes two feet long, and of a proportionable 
 thickness. The enormous size of the alveoli, requisite for holding such 
 tremendous canini, raises up the whole front of the upper jaw, giving it 
 the shape of a huge inflated jowl, the nostrils looking upwards, and not 
 terminating the muzzle. The molars are all short, obliquely truncated 
 cylinders; there are four of them on each side, above and below, but, at a 
 particular age, two of the upper ones fall out. Between the canini are 
 two incisors, similar to the molars, which most authors have not recognised 
 as such, although they are implanted in the intermaxillary bone. Between 
 these again, in the young animal, are two more small, pointed ones. 
 
 The stomach and intestines of the Morse are very similar to those of the 
 Seal. It appears that/wcus constitutes part of its food, along with animal 
 matters. One species only is as yet ascertained, the 
 
 Trich. rosmarus, L. (The Sea Cow. ) It inhabits the Arctic seas, sur- 
 passes the largest Ox in size, attains the length of twenty feet, and is cover- 
 ed with a short yellowish hair. It is sought for on account of its oil and 
 tusks; the ivory of which, although rough grained, is employed in the arts. 
 The skin makes excellent coach braces. 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 
 MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 So many are the singularities in the economy of the Marsupialia 
 or pouched animals^ as they are termed, which we formerly placed 
 at the end of the Carnaria as a fourth family of that great order, 
 that it appears to us they should form a separate and distinct one, 
 particularly as we observe in them a kind of representation of three 
 very different orders. 
 
 The first of all their peculiarities is the premature production of 
 
 (1) Trichechus, from rg}^ (hair), a name invented by Artedi for the Sea 
 Cow. 
 
MARSUPIALIA. 83 
 
 their young, whose state of development at birth is extremely small. 
 Incapable of motion, and hardly exhibiting the germs of limbs and 
 other external organs, these diminutive beings attach themselves to 
 the mammce of the mother, and remain fixed there until they have ac- 
 quired a degree of development similar to that in which other animals 
 are born. The skin of the abdomen is almost always so arranged 
 about the mammae as to form a pouch in which these imperfect little 
 animals are preserved as in a second uterus; and to which, long 
 after they can walk, they always fly for shelter at the approach of 
 danger. Two particular bones attached to the pubis, and inter- 
 posed between the muscles of the abdomen, support the pouch. 
 These bones are also found in the male, and even in those species 
 in which the fold that forms the pouch is scarcely visible. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the Marsupialia is, that notwithstanding a 
 general resemblance of the species to each other, so striking, that for 
 a long time they were considered as one genus, they differ so much 
 in the teeth, the organs of digestion and the feet, that if we rigor- 
 ously adhered to these characters, we should be compelled to sepa- 
 rate them into several orders. They carry us by insensible grada- 
 tions from the Carnaria to the Rodentia, and there are even some 
 animals which have the pelvis furnished with similar bones; but 
 which, from the want of incisors or of all kinds of teeth, have been 
 approximated to the Edentata, where, in fact, we shall leave them, 
 under the name of Monotremata. 
 
 The first subdivision of the Marsupialia is marked by long canini, 
 and small incisors in both jaws, back molars bristled with points, 
 and all the characters in general of the insectivorous Carnaria; the 
 animals that compose it are also perfectly saiilar to the latter in 
 their regimen. 
 
 DiDELPHis, Lin. 
 The Opossums, which of all the Marsupialia have been the longest known, 
 form a genus peculiar to America. They have ten incisors above, the 
 middle ones being rather the longest, and eght below; three anterior 
 compressed grinders and four posterior bristlec grinders, the superior ones 
 triangular, and the inferior oblong, which, wi-'h the four canini, make in all 
 fifty teeth, the greatest number hitherto obierved in Quadrupeds. Their 
 tongue is papillated, and their tail prehei«ile and partly naked. Their 
 hinder thumb is long and very opposable to the other four toes, from which 
 circumstance these animals are sometimes styled Pedimana,- they have no 
 nail. Their extremely wide mouth, and great naked ears give them a 
 
84 MAMMALIA. 
 
 very peculiar physiognomy. They are fetid and nocturnal animals, whose 
 gait is slow; they remain on trees, and there pursue Birds, Insects, &c., 
 though not despising fruit. 
 
 The females of certain species have a deep pouch in which are the 
 mammae, and in which they can enclose their young. 
 
 Did. virginiana, Penn. (The Opossum. ) Almost the size of a Cat; fur, 
 a mixture of black and white; ears, one side black, and the other white; 
 head nearly all white. Inhabits all America; steals at night into villages; 
 attacks fowls, eats their eggs, &c. The young ones at birth, sometimes 
 sixteen in number, weigh only a grain each. Although blind and nearly 
 shapeless, they find the mammae by instinct, and adhere to them until they 
 have attained the size of a Mouse, which happens about the fiftieth day, at 
 which epoch they open their eyes. They continue to return to the pouch 
 till they are as large as Rats. 
 
 Other species possess no pouch, having a mere vestige of it in a fold of 
 the skin on each side of the abdomen. They usually carry their young on 
 their backs, the tails of the latter being entwined around that of the 
 mother. 
 
 Did. nudicauda, Geoff. (The Bare-tailed Opossum.) Fawn-coloured; 
 tail very long, and naked even at its base; two whitish spots over each eye, 
 one beneath. 
 
 Finally, there is one known with palmated feet, which must be aquatic; 
 it is not ascertained whether it has a pouch or not — it is the 
 
 Chibokectes, Illig.(l) 
 
 Did. palmata, Geoff. Brown above, with three transverse grey bands, 
 interrupted in the middle, and white below; larger than a Norway Rat. 
 
 All the other Marsupialia inhabit eastern countries. New Holland parti- 
 cularly, a land, whose animal population seems chiefly to belong to this 
 family. 
 
 Thxiacinus, Temm.(2) 
 
 The Thylacini are tlie largest of this first division. They are distin- 
 guished from the Opossums by the hind feet having no thumb ; a hairy, 
 non-prehensile tail, and two incisors less in each jaw; their molai's are of 
 the same number. They consequently have forty-six teeth; but the ex- 
 ternal edge of the three large ones is projecting and trenchant, almost 
 like the carnivorous tooth of a Dog; their ears are hairy, and of a medium 
 size. One species only is known, the 
 
 Did. cynocepJiala, Harris. Size that of a Wolf, but stands lower; gfrey; 
 transverse black stripes on the crupper. It is very carnivorous, and pur- 
 fiues all small quadi'upeds. Ftom Van Dieman's Land. 
 
 (1) Chinoredes, i. e. swimming with hands. 
 (3) Thylacinus, from flu^anoc purse. 
 
MARSUPIALIA. 85 
 
 Phabcogaii:, Temm. 
 
 The same number of teeth as the Thykcini, but the middle incisors are 
 longer than the others, and the back molars more bristled, circumstances 
 which approximate them more closely to the Sarigues. They are also 
 allied to them by their small size; their tail however is not prehensile; 
 their hind thumb, though very short, is still very apparent. 
 
 Did. penicillata, Shaw. Ash coloured; tail furnished with long black 
 hairs; size that of the Norway Rat; lives on the trees in New Holland, and 
 pursues insects. 
 
 Dasyurus, Geofr.(l) 
 
 Two incisors and four grinders in each jaw less than the Opossums, so that 
 they have only forty-two teeth; their tail, every where covered with long 
 hairs, is not prehensile. The thumb of the hind foot is reduced to a tu- 
 bercle, or has even totally disappeared. They are from New Holland, 
 where they feed on Insects and dead bodies; they penetrate into houses, 
 where their voracity is very inconvenient. Their mouth is not so wide, 
 their muzzle not so pointed as those of the Opossums; their hairy ears 
 are also shorter. They do not climb trees. 
 
 Did. ursina, Harr. (The Ursine Opossum.) Long rough black hairs, 
 with some irregularly placed white spots; the tail half as long as the body, 
 almost naked underneath. Inhabits the north of Van Dieman's Land, and 
 is nearly the size of the Badger. 
 
 Pebameies, Geoff. (2) — Thtiacis, lUig. 
 
 The thumb of the hind foot short, like the first Dasyuri, and tlie two 
 following toes united by the membrane as far the nails; the thumb and the 
 little toe of their fore feet are simple tubercles, so that there seem to be 
 but three toes. They have ten incisors above, the external ones separate 
 and pointed, and only six below; but their molars are the same as in the 
 Opossums, so that they have forty-eight teeth. Their tail is hairy, and not 
 prehensile. The great claws of their fore feet announce their habit of 
 digging in the earth; and the tolerable length of their hind ones, a swift- 
 ness of gait. 
 
 P. nasuius, Geoff. The muzzle much elongated; ears pointed; fur a 
 greyish brown. At the first glance it resembles a Tenrec. 
 
 The species belonging to the second subdivision of the Marsu- 
 pialia have two broad and long incisors in the lower jaw with pointed 
 and trenchant edges sloping forwards, and six corresponding ones in 
 the upper jaw. Their superior canini are also long and pointed, 
 but all their inferior ones consist of teeth so small that they are fre- 
 
 (1) Dasyurus, hairy tail. (2) Pera, purse, Meles, badger. 
 
86 MAMMALIA. 
 
 quently hidden by the gum; they are sometimes altogether wanting 
 in the lower jaw of the last subgenus. 
 
 Their regimen is chiefly frugivorous. The thumb is very large 
 in all of them, and so widely separated from the toes that it seems 
 to slant backwards almost like that of the Birds. It has no nail, and 
 the two following toes are united by the skin as far as the last pha- 
 lanx. It is from this circumstance that these animals have received 
 the name of Phalangers. 
 
 Phalangista. 
 
 Phaiangista, Cuv. — Balantia, Illlg.{l) 
 
 The true Phalangers have not the skin of the flank extended; four back 
 molars in each jaw, with four points in two rows; in front a large one, co- 
 nical and compressed, and between it and the superior canine two small and 
 pointed ones, to which correspond the three very small lower ones, of 
 which we have just spoken. Their tail is always prehensile. 
 
 The tail in some of them is in a great measure scaly. They live on trees 
 in the Moluccas, where they feed on Insects and fruit. At the sight of a 
 Man they suspend themselves by their tail; and if he gaze at them steadily 
 for some time, they fall through lassitude. They diffuse a very unpleasant 
 odour, notwithstanding which their flesh is eaten. 
 
 There are several of them known, of various sizes and colours, all of 
 which are embraced under the Didelphis orientalis of Linnseus. 
 
 Ph. ursina, T. (The Ursine Phalanger.) Nearly the size of the Civet, 
 fur close, and of a blackish brown; the young ones a fawn-coloured brown. 
 From the woods of the island of Macassar. 
 
 In others, which have hitherto been found in New Holland only, the tail 
 is hairy to the tip. 
 
 Ph. vulpina. (The Fox-like Phalanger.) Size of a stout Cat; greyish- 
 brown, paler beneath; tail nearly all black. 
 
 PETAtmtrs, Shaw. — Phamngista, Illig. 
 
 The Plying Phalangers have the skin of the flanks more or less extended 
 between the legs, like the Flying Squirrels among the Rodentia, which 
 enables them to sustain themselves momentarily in the ail', and make greater 
 leaps. They also are only found in New Holland. 
 
 Some of the species have inferior canini, but they are very small. Their 
 superior canini and theii- three first molars, above and below, are very 
 pointed; each of their back molars has four points. 
 
 Ph. pygmsea. (The Flying Dwarf Phalanger.) Of the colour and 
 nearly the size of a Mouse; the hairs of the tail regularly arranged on its 
 two sides like the web of a quill. 
 
 (1) Balantia, from ^ctxavriov purse or pouch. 
 
MARSUPIALIA. 87 
 
 Other species have no inferior canini, while the superior ones are very 
 small. Their four back molars present four points, but tliey are slightly 
 curved into a crescent, which is very nearly tlie form of those of the 
 Ruminantia. In front, there are two above, and one below, less compli- 
 cated. By this structure they are rendered still more frugivorous than all 
 tlie preceding species. 
 
 Ph. petaurus. (The Great Flying Phalanger.) Resembles the Taguan 
 and the Galeopithecus in size; its fur is soft and close; its tail long and 
 flattened; brownish-black above, white beneath. They are of various 
 shades of brown; some are variegated, and others perfectly white. 
 
 Our third subdivision has the incisors and superior canini of the 
 second. The two toes of the hind feet are also similarly united; 
 but the posterior thumbs and inferior canini are wanting. It con- 
 tains but a single genus. 
 
 Hypsiprymnus, Illig.(l) 
 The Potoroos are the last animals of this family which retain any trait of the 
 general characters of the Carnaria. Their teeth are nearly the same as 
 those of the Phalangers, and they still have pointed canini above. What 
 particularly distinguishes these animals is their hind legs, which are much 
 larger in proportion than the fore ones, that have no thumbs, and the two 
 first toes united as far as the nail; so that, at a first glance, it seems as 
 though there were but three toes, the middle one having two nails. They 
 frequently walk upon two feet, at which times they employ their long and 
 strong tail to support themselves. They have then the form and habits of 
 the Kanguroos, from which they only differ in their superior canine tooth. 
 They are frugivorous. 
 
 Hyps, minor. (The Kanguroo Rat. ) Sizeof a small Rabbit; of a mouse- 
 grey. From New Holland, where it is called Potoroo. It is the only spe- 
 cies known. 
 
 The fourth subdivision only differs from the third in the absence 
 of all canini whatsoever, it is the 
 
 Macropus, Shaw. — Halmaturus, Illig.(2) 
 
 The Kanguroos have all the characters we have assigned to the preceding 
 genus, except that the superior canine is wanting, and that their middle 
 incisors do not project beyond the others. The inequality of their legs is 
 still greater, so that on all fours they can only walk slowly and with diffi- 
 culty; they make vigorous leaps however with their hind feet, the great 
 
 (1) t-^i'TTgufjivog; i. e. raised behind. 
 
 (2) Halmaturus, tail fit for leaping. 
 
88 MAMMALIA. 
 
 middle nail of which (almost in the shape of a hoof) also serves them fot 
 purposes of defence; for, by supporting themselves on one foot and their 
 enormous tail, they can inflict a severe blow with that which is at liberty. 
 They are very gentle herbivorous animals, their grinders presenting mere 
 transverse ridges. 
 
 M. major, Shaw. (The Gigantic Kanguroo.) Sometimes six feet in 
 height. It is the largest of the New Holland animals; was discovered by 
 Cook in 1779, and is now bred in Europe. Its flesh is said to resemble 
 venison. The young ones, which at birth are only an inch long, remain in 
 the maternal pouch even when they are old enough to graze, which they 
 effect by stretching out their necks from their domicile, while the mother 
 herself is feeding. These animals live in troops, conducted by the old 
 males. They make enormous leaps. It appears that we have hitherto con- 
 founded under this name several species of New Holland and its neighbour- 
 ing countries, whose fur, more or less grey, only varies by a trifling differ- 
 ence of shade. 
 
 The fifth subdivision has two longincisors in the lower jaw but no 
 caninij in the upper, two long incisors in front, a few small ones 
 on the sides, and two small canines. It comprehends but one genus. 
 
 Koala, Cuv. 
 The Koalae have a short, stout body; short legs, and no tail. The toes of 
 their forefeet, five in number, when about to seize any object, separate into 
 two groups; the thumb and index on one side, and the remaining three on 
 the other. The thumb is wanting on the hind foot; the two first toes of 
 which are united like those of the Phalangers and the Kanguroos. One 
 species only is known: 
 
 K. cinerea. (The Koala.) Ash coloured; passes one part of its life in 
 trees, and the other in burrows which it excavates at their foot. The 
 mother carries her young one for a long time on her back. 
 
 Finally, our sixth division of the Marsupialia, or the 
 
 Phascolomys, Geofr.(l) 
 Consists of Animals which are true Rodentia in the teeth and intestines, 
 their only relation to the Carnaria consisting in the articulation of their 
 lower jaw; and in a rigorously exact system, it would be necessary to class 
 them with the Rodentia. We should even have placed them there, had 
 we not been led to them by a regular uninterrupted series from the Oposs- 
 ums to the Phalangers, from the latter to the Kanguroos, and from the Kan- 
 guroos to the Phascolomys. 
 
 (1) Phascolomys, a pouched rat, from <f>«cr;cai^ov and^uc. 
 
MARSUPIALIA. 89 
 
 They are sluggish animals, with large flat heads, and bodies that look as 
 if they had been crushed. They are without a tail; have five nails on each 
 of the fore feet, and four, with a small tubercle, in place of a thumb, on each 
 of the hind ones, all very long and fit for digging. Their gait is excess- 
 ively slow. They have two long incisors in each jaw, almost similar to 
 those of the Rodentia; and each of their grinders has two transverse ridges. 
 
 They feed on grass. One species only is known, the 
 
 Phas. ursinus. (The Wombat.) Size of a badger; fur abundant, of a 
 more or less yellowish brown. It is found in King's Island to the south of 
 New Holland, where it lives in its burrow. Its flesh is excellent. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 RODENTIA. 
 
 We have just seen, in the Phalangers, canini so very small, that 
 we cannot consider them as such. The nutriment of these animals, 
 accordingly, is chiefly derived from the vegetable kingdom. Their 
 intestines are longj and the Kanguroos, which have no canini what- 
 ever, subsist upon vegetables only. The Phascolomys might stand 
 first in that series of animals of which we are about to speak, and 
 which have a system of mastication still less complete. 
 
 Two large incisors in each jaw, separated frona the molars by an 
 empty space, cannot seize a living prey nor tear flesh; they cannot 
 even cut the food, but they serve to file, and by continued labour 
 to reduce, it into separate molecules, in a word to gnaw it; hence 
 the term Rodentia or Gnawers, which is applied to animals of this 
 order. It is thus that they successfully attack the hardest substances, 
 frequently feeding on wood and the bark of trees. The more easily 
 to accomplish this object, the incisors have no thick enamel except 
 in front, so that their posterior edges wearing away faster than the 
 anterior, they are always naturally sloped. Their prismatic form 
 causes them to grow from the root as fast as they wear away at the 
 edge; and this tendency to increase in length is so powerful, that if 
 one of them be lost or broken, its antagonist in the other jaw having 
 nothing to oppose or comminute, becomes developed to a most 
 monstrous extent. The lower jaw is articulated by a longitudinal 
 condyle, in such a way as to allow of no horizontal motion, except 
 from back to front, and vice versa, as is requisite for the action of 
 M 
 
90 MAMMALIA. 
 
 gnawing. The molars also have flat crowns, whose enamelled 
 eminences are always transverse, so as to be in opposition to the 
 horizontal motion of the jaw, and to increase the power of tritu- 
 ration. 
 
 The genera in which these eminences are simple lines, and the 
 crown is very flat, are more exclusively frugivorous; those in which 
 the eminences of the teeth are divided into blunt tubercles are om- 
 nivorous; while the small number of such as have no points more 
 readily attack other animals, and approximate somewhat to the 
 Carnaria. 
 
 The form of the body in the Rodentia is generally such, that the 
 hinder parts of it exceed those of the front; so that they rather leap 
 than walk. In some of them this disproportion is even as excessive 
 as it is in the Kanguroos. 
 
 The inferiority of these animals is visible in most of the details of 
 their organization. Those genera however which possess stronger 
 clavicles have a certain degree of dexterity, and use their fore feet 
 to convey their food to the mouth. 
 
 Some of them even climb with facility: such is the 
 
 SciuRus, Lin. 
 Squirrels are distinguished by their strongly compressed inferior incisors, 
 and by their long tail furnished with hairs. They have four toes before, 
 and five behind. The thumb of the fore foot is sometimes marked by a tu- 
 bercle. They have in all four grinders, variously tuberculated, and a very 
 small additional one above in front, that very soon fulls. The head is large 
 and the eyes projecting and lively. They are light and active animals, 
 living on trees, and feeding on fruits. 
 
 ScitTBUS, CuVf 
 
 In the Squirrel, properly so called, the hjurs of the tail are aiTanged on 
 the sides, so as to resemble a feather. There are a great many species in 
 the two continents. 
 
 Sc vulgaris. Buff. (The Common Squirrel.) The back of a lively red; 
 belly white; ears terminated by a tuft of hair. Those of the north, in win- 
 ter, become of a beautiful bluish ash colour, producing the fur called min- 
 ever when taken only from the back, and vair (by the French) when it 
 consists of the whole skin. 
 
 The American species have no pencils to their ears. Such are 
 
 Sc. cinereus, L. (The Grey Squirrel of Carolina.) Larger than that of 
 Europe; ash coloured, with a white abdomen. 
 
 It is probable that we shall have to separate from the Squirrels certain 
 
RODENTIA. 91 
 
 species which have cheek-pouches like the Hamsters, and pass their lives 
 
 in subterraneous holes, the Tamia of llViger. For instance the 
 
 Sc. sfriafus, L. (The Ground Squirrel.) Which is found throughout 
 all the north of Asia and America, particularly in the pine forests. The 
 tail is more scantily supplied with hairs tlian tluit of the European Squirrel; 
 the ears smooth, and skin brown, with five black stripes and two white 
 ones. 
 
 We ought also, most probabh^, to distinguish the Guerlinguets, a species 
 with a long, and almost round tail. 
 
 They are found in both continents. 
 
 The following have been separated already. 
 
 Pteromts.(I) 
 
 Or the Flying Squirrels, to which the skin of the flank, extending be- 
 tween the fore and hind legs, imparts the faculty of supporting themselves 
 for a moment in the air, and of making very great leaps. There are long 
 bony appendages to their feet, which support a part of this lateral mem- 
 brane. 
 
 There is a species in North America. 
 
 Sc. voluccella, L. (The American Flying Squirrel.) Reddish-grey above; 
 white beneath; size less than that of the preceding; tail three-fourths as 
 long as the body. It lives in troops in the prairies of North America. 
 
 M. GeofFroy has very properly separated from this genus the 
 
 Cheiho»ts.(2) 
 
 Or the Aye-Ayes, whose inferior incisors, much more compressed, and 
 above all, more extended from front to back, resemble ploughshares. 
 Each foot has five toes, of which four of the anterior are excessively elon- 
 gated, the medius being moi'C slender than the others; in the hind feet the 
 thumb is opposable to the other toes; so that they are in this respect among 
 the Rodentia, what the Opossums are among the Carnaria. The structure 
 of their head is otherwise very different from that of the other Rodentia, 
 and is related to the Quadrumana in more points than one. 
 
 There is only one species of the Aye-Aye known. It was discovered at 
 Madagascar by Sonnerat. It is the Cheir. madagascariensis. (The Aye- 
 Aye.) Size of a Hare, of a brown colour, mixed with yellow; tail long and 
 thick, with stout black bristles; ears large and naked. It is a nocturnal 
 animal, to which motion seems painful; it burrows under ground, and uses 
 its slender toe to convey food to its mouth. 
 
 Linnaeus and Pallas united in one single group, under the name of 
 
 Mus, Lin. 
 All the Rodentia furnished with clavicles, which they could not distinguish 
 
 (1) Pteromys, Winged Rat. 
 
 (2) Cheiromys, a rat with hands. 
 
92 MAMMALIA. 
 
 by some very sensible external character, such as the tail of the Squirrel or 
 that of the Beaver, from which resulted the utter impossibility of assigning 
 to them any common character; the greater number had merely pointed 
 lower incisors, but even this was subject to exceptions. 
 
 GmeUn has already separated from them the Marmots, Dormice, and the 
 Jei'boas; but we carry tlieir subdivisions much further, from considerations 
 founded on the form of their grinders. 
 
 Arctomts, Gm.(l) 
 
 The Marmots, it is true, have the inferior incisors pointed like those of 
 the greater number of animals comprehended in the great genus Mus; but 
 their grinders, like those of the Squirrel, amount to five on each side above 
 and four below, all bristled with points; accordingly, some species are in- 
 clined to eat flesh and feed upon insects, as well as grass. There are four toes 
 and a tubercle in place of a thumb to the fore feet, and five toes to the 
 hind ones. In other respects these animals are nearly tlie direct reverse 
 of the Squirrels, being heavy, having short legs, a middle sized or short 
 hairy tall, and a large flat head, passing the winter in a state of torpor, 
 and shut up in deep holes, the entrance of which they close with a heap of 
 grass. They live in societies, and are easily tamed. Two species are 
 known in the eastern continent. One is 
 
 Ard. alpinus. (The Alpine Marmot.) Large as a Hare; tail short; fur 
 yellowish grey, with ash coloured tints about the head. It lives in high 
 mountains, immediately below the region of perpetual snow. 
 
 America also produces some species. 
 
 J.rd. monax. Buff". (The Maryland Marmot.) Grey; tail blackish, as 
 well as the top of the head. 
 
 Jird. empetra, Pall. Less than the preceding; grey; red beneath. 
 
 Spehmophiius, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 We apply this name to those Marmots that have cheek pouches. The 
 superior lightness of their structure has caused them to be called Ground 
 Squirrels. Eastern Europe produces one species: 
 
 A. citillus. (The Souslik or Zizel. ) A pretty little animal, of a greyish 
 brown, watered or mottled with white, the spots very small, which is 
 found from Bohemia to Siberia. It has a peculiar fondness for flesh, and 
 does not spare even its own species. 
 
 North America has several species of them, one of which is remarkable 
 by the thirteen fawn coloured stripes which extend along the back on a 
 tlackish ground. It is the Thirteen striped Souslik^ Arct. 13-lineatus, Harl.; 
 or Sciurus 13-lineatus, Mitchell; or Arct. Hoodii, Sabine. 
 
 There is one of the Rodentla which it appears we must approximate to 
 the Marmots, that is remarkable for living in large troops in immense bur- 
 
 (1) Jbrctomys, Bear-Rat. 
 
RODENTIA. 93 
 
 rows, which have even been styled villag-es. It is called the Prairie Bog or 
 Barking Squirrel, the latter appellation arising' from its voice, which resem- 
 bles the bark, of a small Dog'. It is the Ard. ludovicianus of Say, Jour, to 
 the Rocky Mountains, I, 451. 
 
 Mtoxus, Gm.(l) 
 
 The Dormice have pointed lower incisors, and four grinders, the crown 
 of each of which is divided by enamelled lines. 
 
 They are pretty little animals, with soft fur, a hairy and even tufted tail 
 and a lively eye, which live on trees like Squirrels, and feed on fruit. They 
 become torpid in winter like the Marmots, and pass through it in the most 
 profound lethargy. 
 
 JJf. glis, L. (The Fat Dormouse.) Size of a Rat; ashy grey-brown 
 above, whitish underneath; of a deeper brown around the eyes; tail very 
 hairy the whole of its length, and disposed somewhat like that of a Squir- 
 rel, and frequently a little forked at the extremity. It inhabits the south 
 of Europe, and nestles in the hollows of trees and fissures of rocks. It 
 sometimes attacks small birds. This is probably the Rat, fattened by the 
 ancients, among' whom it was considered a delicacy of the very highest 
 description. 
 
 We should place near the Dormice, the 
 
 EcHiMYS, Geoff. (2) 
 
 Four grinders also, but formed in a peculiar way; the upper ones con- 
 sisting of two blades, bent into the shape of a V, and the under ones of one 
 blade only that is bent, and of another that is simple. The fur of several 
 species is harsh and intermixed with flattened spines or prickles, like 
 sword blades. From America. One of them is, 
 
 Eck. cArjrsuros, Schreb. (The Golden-tailed Echirays.) More than twice 
 the size of the Brown Rat; it is a beautiful animal, of achesnutbrown colour; 
 white belly; an elongated crest of hairs, and a white longitudinal band on 
 the head; the tail is long and black; the posterior half yellow. From 
 Guiana. 
 
 Others, again, have merely the ordinary kind of hair, more or less rough . 
 The most remarkable is the 
 
 Ech. dadylicus, Geoff. (The Long-toed Echimys. ) "Which is still larger 
 than the Chrysuros, and has the two middle toes of the fore feet double the 
 length of the lateral ones. Its scaly tail is longer than the body; its fur is a 
 yellowish grey, and the hairs on its nose form a crest directed in front. 
 
 Htdhomts, Geoff. 
 The Hydromys have many external points of relation to the Echimys, but 
 they are distinguished from all other Rats by their hind feet, two-thirds of 
 
 (1) Myoxus, Rat with a pointed nose. 
 
 (2) Echimys, or Spiny Rat. Am. Ed. 
 
94 MAMMALIA. 
 
 which are palmated; their two molars have also a peculiar character in the 
 crown, which is divided into obliquely quadrangular lobes, whose summits 
 are hollowed out like the bowl of a spoon. They are aquatic. 
 
 Capromts, Desmar. 
 
 The Houtias have four molars every where with flat crowns, the enamel 
 of which is folded inwards so that it forms three angles on the external edge, 
 and one only on the internal edge of the upper teeth, and the inverse in the 
 lower ones. The tail is round and scantily pilose; they have, like the Rats, 
 five toes to the hind foot, and four with the rudiment of a thumb to the fore 
 feet; their form is that of a Rat; as large as a Rabbit or Hare. Two species 
 are known: one is the 
 
 Cap. prekensilis, Pceppig. Brown, with a whitish throat; tail red, as long 
 as the body, and partly naked at the end. Both species inhabit the island 
 of Cuba, and together with the Agoutis, at the time of the discovery, consti- 
 tuted the principal game of the Indians. 
 
 Mus, Cuv. 
 
 The true Hats have three molars every where, of which the anterior is 
 the largest; its crown is divided into blunt tubercles, which, by being worn, 
 give It the shape of a disk, sloped in various directions; the tail is long and 
 scaly. These animals are very injurious from their fecundity, and the 
 voracity with which they devour every thing that comes within their 
 reach. There are three species which have become quite common in our 
 houses, viz. 
 
 M. musculus, L. (The Common Mouse.) Universally known. 
 
 M. rattus, L. (The Black Rat.) Of which no mention is made by the 
 ancients, and which appears to have entered Europe in the middle century. 
 It Is more than double the size of the Mouse In each of Its dimensions. 
 The fur is blackish. Several individuals have been occasionally found con- 
 nected by the Interlacing of their tails; constituting what the Germans 
 style the King of Mats. 
 
 M. decumanus, Fall. (The Norway or Brown Rat.) Which did not pass 
 into Europe till the eighteenth century, and is now more common in large 
 cities than the Black Rat itself. It is larger than the latter by one-fourth, 
 and differs from it also by its reddish-brown hair.(l) 
 
 These two large species appear to have originated in the East, and have 
 been transported in ships, together with the Mouse, to all parts of the 
 globe. 
 
 Gerbillits, Desm. 
 The Gerbils haxe molars that differ very little from those of Rats, merely 
 
 (1) It appears to belong to Persia, where It lives In burrows. It was not 
 till 1727, that, after an earthquake, it arrived at Astracan, by swimming 
 across the "Volga. 
 
RODENTIA. 96 
 
 becoming sooner worn, so as to form transverse elevations. Their superior 
 incisors are furrowed with a groove; their hind feet are somewhat longer in 
 proportion than those of Rats in general, and their thumb and little toe 
 slightly separated. Their tail is long and hairy. The sandy and warm parts 
 of the eastern continent produce several species. 
 
 G- indicus. (The India Gerbil.) Size of the fat Dormouse; fawn-co- 
 loured above, whitish beneath; tail longer than the body, and blackish at 
 the end. The 
 
 Mekiokes, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 Which we separate from the other Gerbils, have the hind feet still lon- 
 ger; the tail nearly naked, and a very small tooth before the superior mo- 
 lars; characters which approximate them to the Jerboas. Their upper 
 incisors are grooved like those of the Gerbils, and their toes also are similar. 
 There is a small species in North America, the 
 
 Mus. canadensis. Verm. (The Jumping Mouse.) Sizeof a Mouse; fawn- 
 coloured grey; tail longer than the body. A very active animal, that shuts 
 itself up in its burrow, and passes the winter in a state of lethargy. 
 
 Cricetus, Cuv. 
 
 The Hamsters have nearly the same kind of teeth as Rats, but their tail 
 is short and hairy, and the two sides of tlieir mouth are hollowed into sacs 
 or cheek pouches, in which they transport the grain they collect to their 
 subterraneous abodes. 
 
 C. vulgaris. (The Common Hamster.) Larger than the Rat; of a red- 
 dish-grey above, black on the flanks and underneath, with three whitish 
 spots on eacli side. The feet, a spot under the throat, and another under 
 the breast white.; some individuals are all black. This animal, so agreeably 
 varied in colour, is one of the most noxious that exist, gathering large 
 quantities of grain with which it fills its burrow that is sometimes seven feet 
 deep. It is common in all the sandy regions, that extend from the north 
 of Germany to Siberia. 
 
 This last country produces several small species of Hamsters described by 
 Pallas. 
 
 Aevicola, Lacep. 
 The Arvicolse, like the Rats, have three grinders every where, but with- 
 out roots, each one being formed of triangular prisms, placed on two alter- 
 nate lines. They may be subdivided into several groups, viz. 
 
 Fiber, Cuv. 
 
 The Ondatras or Musk ^afo having semi-palmated hind feet, a long scaly 
 and compressed tail, of which one species only is well known: 
 
 P. vulgaris. (The Canadian Musk-Rat or Ondatra.) As large as a Rab- 
 bit, of a reddish-grey. In winter they construct, on the ice, a hut of earth. 
 
96 MAMMALIA. 
 
 in which several of them reside together, passing through a hole in the 
 bottom, for the roots of the acorus on which they feed. They neither dive 
 nor swim well. It is this habit of building which has induced some authors 
 to refer the Ondatra to the genus Castor. The second subdivision is that of 
 
 ArVICOIA, CUV. HTPUDiEUS, Illig. 
 
 Our common Field Hats, which have a hairy tall, about the length of the 
 body, and simple or not palmated feet. 
 
 A. arvalis. (The Campagnol. ) Size of a Mouse; of a reddish-ash colour; 
 tail not so long as the body. It inhabits holes which it excavates in the 
 earth, where it collects grain for the winter. The multiplication of this 
 animal is sometimes so excessive as to cause much injury. 
 
 Geoktchus, Illig. 
 
 Or the Lemmings, Cuv. have very short ears and tail, and the toes of the 
 fore feet peculiarly well formed for digging. 
 
 G. lemmus. (The Lemming.) A northern species, as large as a Rat, 
 "with black and yellow fur, very celebrated for its occasional migrations in 
 innumerable bodies. At these periods they are said to march in a straight 
 line, regardless of rivers or mountains; and while no obstacle can impede 
 their progress, they devastate the country through which they pass. Their 
 usual residence appears to be the shores of the Arctic ocean. 
 
 G. hudsonius; Mas. hudsonius, Gm., Schreb. (The Lemming of Hudson's 
 Bay.) A light pearly-ash colour; without tail or external ears; the two mid- 
 dle toes of the fore foot of the male seem to have double claws, which is 
 owing to the skin at the end of the toe being callous and projecting from 
 under the nail, a deposition of the part hitherto unknown, except in this 
 animal. It is the size of a Rat, and lives under ground, in Nortli America. 
 
 Otomts, Fred. Cuv. 
 
 The Otomys are nearly allied to the Field Rats, and have also three grin- 
 ders, but they are composed of slightly arcuated lamina arranged in file. 
 Their incisors are grooved with a longitudinal furrow, and the tail is hairy, 
 as well as the ears, which are large. 
 
 0. capensis, Fred. Cuv. (The Cape Otomys. ) Size of a Rat; fur marked 
 with black and fawn coloured rings; tail a third shorter than the body. 
 
 DiPTJS, Gm. 
 
 The Jerhoas\\2L\e nearly the same kind of teeth as the true Rats, except 
 that there is sometimes a very small one immediately before the upper mo- 
 lars. The tall is long and tufted at the end; the head large; the eyes large 
 and prominent; but their principal character consists in their posterior ex- 
 tremities, which, in comparison with the anterior, are of a most immode- 
 rate length, and above all, in the metatarsus of the three middle toes, which 
 is formed of one single bone, resembling what is called the tarsus in Birds. 
 
RODENTIA. 97 
 
 It is from this disproportion of the limbs that they were named by the an- 
 cients Biped Rats, and in fact they seldom move otherwise than by great 
 leaps on their hind feet. There are five toes to each of the fore feet, and 
 in certain species, besides the tliree great toes to the hind feet, there are 
 small lateral ones. They live in burrows, and become torpid during the 
 winter. 
 
 D. sagitta. The Jerboa has only three toes, and is the size of a Rat; a 
 light fawn colour above; white beneath; tuft of the tail black, the tip white. 
 Is found from Barbary to the north of the Caspian sea. 
 
 Helamys, F. Cuv. — Pedetes, Illig.(l) 
 The Jumping Hares, like the Jerboas, have a large head and great eyes, 
 a long tail, and the anterior part of the body extremely small, in compari- 
 son to the posterior, although the disproportion is much less than in the 
 true Gerboas. The peculiar characters of the Helamys are four grinders 
 every where, each one composed of two laminae; five toes to the fore-feet, 
 armed with long and pointed nails, and fonr to their great hind ones, all 
 separate, even to the bones of the metatarsus, and terminated by large nails, 
 almost resembling hoofs. This number of toes is tlie inverse of that most 
 common among tlie Rats. Their inferior incisors are truncated, and not 
 pointed like those of the true Jerboas, and of the greater part of the ani» 
 mals comprised under the genus of Rats. One species only is known, the 
 H. Caffer. It is the size of a Hare, of a light fawn colour, and has a long 
 tufted tail, with a black tip. Inhabits deep burrows at the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 Spalax, Gulden. 
 The Rat-Moles have also been very properly separated from the Rats, al- 
 tliough their grinders are three in number, and tuberculous, as in the true 
 Rats, and the Hamsters, and are merely a little less unequal. Their inci- 
 sors, however, are two large to be covered by the lips, and the extremities 
 of the lower ones are trenchant, rectilinear, and transverse, not pointed. 
 Their legs are very short; each foot has five sliort toes, and as many flat and 
 slender nails. Their tail is very short, or rather there is none; the same 
 observation applies to their extei-nal ear. They live under ground like the 
 Moles, raising up the earth like them, although provided with much infe- 
 rior means for dividing it; but tliey subsist on roots only. 
 
 S. typhus. (The Zanni, Slepez, or Blind Rat-Mole.) A singular animal, 
 which, from its large head, angular on the sides, its short legs, the total 
 absence of a tail and of any apparent eye, has a most shapeless appearance. 
 The eye is not visible externally, and we merely find beneath the skin a 
 little black point, which appears to be organised like one, but which can- 
 not serve for the purpose of vision, since the skin passes over it without 
 opening or even growing thinner, and being as much covered with hair as 
 
 (1) Petfefes, jumper; Helamys, Jumping-Rat. 
 
 N 
 
98 MAMMALIA. 
 
 any other part. It is rather larger than our Rat; its fur is smooth, and of an 
 ash-colour, bordering on a red. This is the animal, in the opinion of Oli- 
 vier, to which the ancients alluded when they spoke of the Mole as being 
 perfectly blind. 
 From the Rat-Moles themselves should have been separated the 
 
 Bathyergus, Illig. — Okycteres, Fr. Cuv. 
 Which, with the general form, feet, and truncated incisors of that genus, 
 have four grinders throughout. Their eye, though small, is visible, and 
 they have a short tail. 
 
 B. maritimus. (The Maritime Rat-Mole.) Nearly the size of a Rabbit; 
 the superior incisors furrowed with a groove, and the hair of a whitish grey. 
 
 Geomys, Rafin. — Pseudostoma, Say. 
 Which have four compressed prismatic molars throughout, the first double, 
 the remaining three simple; the upper incisors furrowed with a double 
 groove in front; five toes to each foot; the three middle anterior nails, that 
 of the medius particularly, veiy long, crooked, and trenchant. Tliey are 
 low animals, and have very deep cheek-pouches, which open externally, 
 enlarging the sides of the head and neck in a singular manner. One spe- 
 cies only is known, 
 
 G. hursarius. (The Canada Hamster.) Size of a Rat; fur of a reddish- 
 grey; tail naked, and but half the length of the body. Inhabits deep bur- 
 rows in the interior of North America. 
 
 DiPLosTOMA, Rafin. 
 
 The Diplostomse are almost precisely similar to the Geomys, but they have 
 no tail. 
 
 These animals are also from North America. The species before us is 
 reddish, and ten inches in length. 
 
 We now pass to larger Rodentia than these of which we have 
 hitherto spoken, but of which several still have well defined clavicles. 
 Of this number is the 
 
 Castor, Lin. 
 
 The Beavers are distinguished from all other Rodentia by their horizon- 
 tally flattened tail, which is nearly of an oval form, and covered with scales. 
 They have five toes to each foot: those of the hinder ones are connected by 
 membranes, and that next to the thumb has a double and oblique nail. 
 Their grinders, to the number of four throughout, and with flat crowns, 
 appear as if formed of a doubled bony fillet, or so as to show one sloping 
 edge at the internal extremities of the upper row, and three at the exter- 
 nal; in the lower ones it is exactly the reverse. 
 
 Beavers are large animals, whose hfe is completely aquatic; their feet and 
 tail aid them equally in swimming. As their chief food is bark, and other 
 
RODENTIA. 99 
 
 hard substances, their incisors are very powerful, and grow as rapidly from 
 the root, as they are worn away at the point. With these teeth they cut 
 trees of every description. 
 
 They have large glandular pouches which produce a highly odorous oily 
 substance, employed in medicine under the name of Castor- 
 
 C. Jiber, Buff. (The Beaver.) Larger than the Badger, and of all quad- 
 rupeds the most industrious in constructing a dwelling, to effect wliich these 
 animals act in concert. They are found in the most solitary parts of North 
 America. 
 
 Beavers choose water of such a depth as is not likely to be frozen to the 
 bottom, and, as far as possible, running streams, in order that the wood 
 which they cut above, may be can-ied downwards by the cuiTent to tlie spot 
 where it is to be used. They keep the water at an equal height, by dams 
 composed of branches of trees, mixed with clay and stones, the strength of 
 which is annually increased, and which finally, by the progress of vegetation, 
 becomes converted into a hedge. Each hut serves for two or tliree families, 
 and consists of two stories; the upper is dry for the residence of the animals, 
 and the lower under water for their stores of bark, &c. The latter alone is 
 open, and the entrance is under water, having no communication with the 
 land. The huts are a kind of rude wicker-work, being made of interwoven 
 branches and twigs of trees plastered with inud. There are always several 
 burrows along the bank, in which they seek for shelter when their huts are 
 attacked. They only reside in these habitations during the winter; in the 
 summer they separate, and live sohtary. The Beaver may be easily tamed, 
 and accustomed to feed on animal matters. It is of a uniform reddish brown 
 colour, and the fur, as is well known, is in great demand for hatters. It is 
 sometimes found flaxen coloured, at otliers black, or even white. 
 
 MropoTAMUs, Commer. 
 The Couias resemble the Beaver in size, in their four nearly similarly com- 
 posed molars, in their powerful yellow-tinted incisors, and in their five-toed 
 feet, the hinder ones of which are palmated; but their tail is round and 
 elongated. They are aquatic animals also. One only is known, the 
 
 M. coipus. (The Couia. ) Which lives in burrows along the banks of 
 rivers throughout a great part of South America. 
 
 Hysteix, Lin. 
 
 The Porcupines are known at the first glance by the stiff and sharp spines, 
 or quills (as they are called), with which they are armed, hke the Hedge- 
 hogs among the Carnaria. Their grinders are four throughout, with flat 
 crowns, variously modified by plates of enamel, between which are de- 
 pressed intervals. Their tongue is bristled with spiny scales, and their cla- 
 vicles are too small to rest upon the sternum and scapula, being merely 
 suspended by ligaments. They live in burrows, and have many of the 
 habits of the Rabbits. To their grunting voice, and thick truncated muz- 
 zle, are they indebted for being compared to the Pig, and for their corres- 
 ponding French appellation oi pore-epic. 
 
100 MAMMALIA. 
 
 PoBCTTPijN-E8, properly so called, 
 
 Have the head more or less convex or vaulted, by the development of 
 the bones of the nose. They have four toes before, and five behind, all 
 armed with stout nails. 
 
 H. cristqta. (The Common Porcupine.) Inhabits the south of Italy, 
 Spain, and Sicily; it is also found in Barbary. The spines are very long', 
 and annulated with black and white; a mane coTnposed of long hairs occu- 
 pies the head and neck. The tail is short, and furnished with hollow trun- 
 cated tubes, suspended to slender pedicles, which make a noise when 
 shaken by the animal. 
 
 ATHEnuKtJs, Cuv. 
 
 Where neither the head nor muzzle is inflated, and in which we observe 
 a long non-prehensile tail; the toes are like those of the true Porcupines. 
 
 Hyst. fasdculata, L. Buff. (The Pencil-tailed Porcupine. ) The upper 
 part of the spines on the back grooved, and the tail terminated by a bundle 
 of flattened horny slips, constricted from space to space. 
 
 Eretison, F. Cuv. 
 
 The Ursons have a flat cranium; the muzzle short, and not convex; the 
 tail of a middle size, and the spines short, and half hidden in the hair. One 
 species only is known, the 
 
 Hystrix dorsata, L. (The Urson.) From North America. 
 
 Stnetheres, F. Cuv. 
 The muzzle short and thick; the head vaulted in front, and the spines 
 short; the tail long, naked at the extremity, and prehensile, like that of an 
 Opossum or Sapajou. There are only four toes, all armed with claws; 
 they climb trees. 
 
 Lepus, Lin. 
 Hares have a very distinctive character in their superior incisors, which are 
 double, that is, each of them has a smaller one behind it. Their molai-s, 
 five every where, are individually formed of two vertical laminae soldered 
 together, and in the upper jaw there is a sixth, simple and very small. 
 They have five toes before and four behind. The inside of their mouth, 
 and the under part of the feet are lined with hairs like the rest of the body. 
 
 Lepus, Cuv. 
 
 Or the true Hares, have long ears; a short tail; the hind feet much longer 
 than the fore ones; imperfect clavicles, and the infra-orbitary spaces in the 
 skeleton reticulated. The species are so numerous and similar, that it is 
 difficult to characterise them. 
 
 L. Americanus, Gm. (The American Rabbit.) Nearly similar in size and 
 colour to the European species; feet reddish; no black on either ears or tail. 
 Nestles in the hollows of trees, up which it sometimes ascends as far as the 
 branches. Flesh soft and insipid. 
 
RODENTIA. 101 
 
 Lasomts, Cuv.(l) 
 
 Moderate ears; legs nearly alike; the hole below the eye simple; clavicles 
 nearly perfect, and no tail; they often utter a sharp cry. They have hitherto 
 been found in Siberia only, and it is to Pallas that we are indebted for their 
 discovery. 
 
 The fossil bones of an unknown species of Lagomys have been discovered 
 in the osseous breccia of Corsica. 
 
 After the two genera of Porcupines and Hares, come the Rodentia, 
 united by Linnaeus and Pallas under the name of Cavia; but to which it is 
 impossible to affix any other common and positive character than that of 
 their imperfect clavicles, although the species of which they are composed 
 are very analogous to each other, both in body and habits. They are all 
 from the western continent. 
 
 Hydeoch(erus, Erxleb.(2) 
 
 Four toes before and three behind, all armed with large nails, and united 
 by membranes; four grinders throughout, of which the posterior are the 
 longest, and composed of numerous, simple and parallel lamins; the an- 
 terior laminx, forked towards the external edge in the upper, and towards 
 the internal one in the lower teeth. Only one species is known, the Capy' 
 bara, which inhabits Guiana. 
 
 Cavia, Illig. 
 
 The Cohayes, or Guinea- Pigs, are miniature representations of the Cabials; 
 but their toes are separated, and each of their molars has only one simple 
 lamina, and one that is forked on the outside in the upper ones, and on the 
 inside in the lower. It is found in the woods of Brazil and Paraguay. 
 
 Chloromys, Fr. Cuv.(3) 
 The Agoutis have four toes before and three behind; four grinders through- 
 out, almost equal, with flat crowns iiTCgularly fun-owed, rounded borders 
 notched on the internal edge in the upper jaw, and on the external one in 
 the lower. In disposition, and in the nature of their flesh, they resemble 
 Hares and Rabbits, which they may be said to replace in the Antilles and 
 hot parts of America. 
 
 CCELOGENYS, Fr. Cuv.(4) 
 The Pacas, in addition to teeth very like those of the Agoutis, have a veiy 
 small toe on the internal edge of the fore foot, and one on each side, equally 
 small on their hinder one, making five toes everywhere. 
 
 There is one species or variety fawn coloured, and another brown, both of 
 which are spotted with wliite, the Cavia paca, L. 
 
 (1) Lagomys, i. e. Rat-Hares- (2) Hydroclimriis, water-pig. 
 (3) Chloromys, yellow rat. (4) Ccelogmys, hollow cheek. 
 
102 MAMMALIA. 
 
 Finally, there remains an animal perhaps nearly allied to the Cavias, and 
 possibly more so to the Lagomys or the Rats, which we are unable to dis- 
 pose of, on account of our ignorance of its teeth; I mean the Chinchilla, 
 thousands of whose skins are to be had, but of which we have never yet 
 been able to procure the entire body. It is about the size of a smaJl Rabbit; 
 is covered with long-, close and fine hair, the softest that is known among 
 conraion fui-s. This quadruped inhabits the mountains of South America. 
 
 ORDER VI. 
 
 EDENTATA. 
 
 The Edentata, or quadrupeds without front teeth, will form our 
 last order of unguiculated animals. Although united by a character 
 purely negative, they have, nevertheless, some positive mutual re- 
 lations, and particularly large nails, which embrace the extremities 
 of the toes, approaching more or less to the nature of hoofs: a slow- 
 ness, a want of agility, obviously arising from the peculiar organi- 
 zation of their limbs. There are, however, certain intervals in these 
 relations, which render it necessary to divide the order into three 
 tribes. The first of these is the 
 
 TAllDIGRADA. 
 They have a short face. Their name originates from their ex- 
 cessive slowness, the consequence of a construction truly heteroc- 
 lite, in which nature seems to have amused herself by producing 
 something imperfect and grotesque. The only genus now in exis- 
 tence is 
 
 Bkadypus, Lin. 
 
 The Slothshaye cylindrical molars, and sharp canini longer than those molars, 
 two mammx on the breast, and fingers united by the skin, and only marked 
 externally by enormous compressed and crooked naUs, which, when at rest, 
 are always bent towards the palm of the hand, or the sole of the foot. The 
 hind feet are obhquely articulated on the leg, and rest only upon tlieir outer 
 edge; the phalanges of the toes are artic\ilated by a close ginglymus, and 
 the first, at a certain age, becomes soldered to the bones of the metacarpus 
 or metatarsus, which also, in time, for want of use, expei-ience the same fate. 
 To this inconvenience in the organization of the extremities is added another, 
 not less great, in their proportions. The pelvis is so large, and their thighs 
 
EDENTATA. 103 
 
 so much inclined to the sides, that they cannot approximate their knees. 
 Their gait is the necessary effect of such a disproportioned structure. They 
 live in trees, and never remove from the one tliey are on until they have 
 stripped it of every leaf, so painfid to them is the requisite exertion to reach 
 another. It is even asserted tliat to avoid tlie trouble of a regular descent, 
 they let tliemselves fall from a branch. The female produces but a single 
 yoimg one at a bu-th, which she carries on her back. 
 
 Bradypus tridadylus, L. (TheAi. ) A species in which sluggishness, 
 and all the details of the organization wluch produce it, are carried to the 
 highest degree. The thumb and the httle toe, reduced to small i-udiments, 
 are hidden under the skin, and soldered to the metatarsus and metacarpus; 
 the clavicle, also reduced to a rudiment, is firmly united to the acromion. 
 The ai-ms are double the length of the legs; the hair on the head, back and 
 limbs is long, coarse and non-elastic, something hke dried hay, which gives 
 it a most hideous aspect. Its colour is grey, the back being frequently spot- 
 ted with white and brown. It is as large as a Cat, and is the only^mammifer- 
 ous animal known which has nine cervical vertebrx. 
 
 Fossil skeletons of two Edentata of great size have been discov- 
 ered in America, one of which, the Megatherium, has a head very 
 similar to that of the Sloths, but deficient as to canini, and approach- 
 ing in other parts of the skeleton, partly to the Sloths, and partly to 
 the Ant-eaters. It is twelve feet long, and six or seven high. The 
 other, the Megalonyx, is rather smaller, and the toes are the only 
 parts of it that are well known, but they strongly resemble those of 
 the preceding. 
 
 The second tribe comprehends the 
 
 EDENTATA ORDINARIA, 
 Or the Ordinary Edentata with a pointed muzzle. Some of them 
 still have cheek teeth. They form two genera. 
 
 Dasyptjs, Lin. 
 The Armadillos are very remarkable among the Mammalia, by the scaly 
 and hard shell formed of compartments resembling Httle paving stones, 
 which covers their head and body, and frequently their taU. This sub- 
 stance forms one shield over the forehead, a second very large and convex 
 over the shoulders, a third on the croup similar to the second, and between 
 the two latter several parallel and movable bands, which allow the body to 
 bend. The tad is sometimes furnished with successive rings, and at others, 
 hke the legs, merely with tubercles. These animals have large ears, and 
 sometimes four, and at others five great na'ds before, but always five behind. 
 They dig burrows, and live partly on vegetables, and partly on insects and 
 
104 MAMMALIA. 
 
 dead bodies. They all belong to the hot, or at least to the temperate parts 
 of America. 
 
 They may be divided into subgenera from considerations drawn from the 
 structure of their fore feet and the number of their teeth. Most of them 
 have only four toes to the anterior feet, the two middle ones of which are 
 the longest. These subgenera are 
 
 Cachicamtjs, Cuv. (to which belongs the 9-banded Armadillo); Apara, 
 Cuv. (3-banded Armadillo); Encottbiktus, Cuv. (6-banded Annadillo); Ca- 
 BAssous, Cuv. (The Tatouay); Pkiodois-, Fr. Cuv. (The Giant Armadillo); 
 and the Clamtphortjs, Harl., of which only one is known, the C iruncatus, 
 Harl.' 
 
 It appears that the fossil bones of a Tatou of gigantic size, being ten feet 
 long exclusive of the taU, have been found in America. See Cuv. Oss. Foss. 
 v. part 1, p. 191, note. 
 
 Orycteropus, Geoff.(l) 
 The animals of this genus were for a long time confoimded with the Ant- 
 Eaters on account of their using the same kind of food, having a similar head, 
 and a tongue somewhat extensible; but they are distinguished from them by 
 being furnished with gi-mders and flat nails, formed for digging and not 
 trenchant. The structure of their teeth differs from that of all other quad- 
 rupeds; they are sohd cylinders traversed hke reeds, in a longitudiaal di- 
 rection, with an infinitude of httle canals. There is only one species known. 
 Oryd. capensis. (The Cape Ground-Hog. ) It is an animal about the size 
 of the Badger or larger; stands low; has short hah-, and is of a brownish-grey. 
 The tail is not so long as the body, and is covered with equally short hairs. 
 It has four toes before, and five behind. Inhabits buiTOws, which it exca- 
 vates with great facUity. The flesh is eaten. 
 
 The other ordinary Edentata have no grinders, and consequently 
 no teeth of any description. They also form two genera. 
 
 Myrmecophaga, Lin. 
 The Jlnt-Eaters are hairy animals with a long muzzle terminated by a 
 small toothless mouth, from which is proti'uded a fiUform tongue suscepti- 
 ble of considerable elongation, and which they insinuate mto Ant-liills and 
 the nests of the Termites, whence these insects are withdrawn by being en- 
 tangled in the viscid saliva that covers it. The naUs of the fore feet, strong 
 and trenchant, and varying m number according to the species, sei"ve to tear 
 up the nests of the Termites, and aff'ord the means of defence. 
 
 They all inhabit the hot and temperate parts of the western continent, 
 and produce but a single young one at a bh-th, which they cany on their 
 back. 
 
 (1) Oryderopus, feet fitted for digging. 
 
EDENTATA. 105 
 
 Manis, Lin. 
 
 The Pangolins, or Scaly Ant-Eaters as they are called, are destitute of 
 teeth, have a very extensible tongue, and hve on Ants and Termites like 
 true Ant-Eaters; but their body, limbs and tail are clothed with large tren- 
 chant scales arranged like tiles, which tliey elevate in rolling themselves into 
 a ball, when they wish to defend themselves from an enemy. There are 
 five toes to each foot. Their stomach is slightly divided in the middle, and 
 there is no caecum. They are confined to tlie eastern continent. 
 
 The third tribe of tlie Edentata comprehends those animals, de- 
 signated by M. Geoffroy, under the name of 
 
 MONOTREMATA. 
 
 The singularities of their skeleton are very remarkable; a sort 
 of clavicle, which is common to both shoulders, being placed before 
 the ordinary clavicle, and analogous to the fourchette in birds. Fi- 
 nally, besides their five nails to each foot, the males have a spur on 
 the hinder ones, perforated by a canal which transmits the liquid 
 secreted by a gland situated on the inner surface of the thigh. It 
 is asserted that the wounds it inflicts are envenomed. These ani- 
 mals have no external conch to their ears, and their eyes are very 
 small. 
 
 The Monotremata are only found in New Holland, and have been 
 discovered since the settlement of the English. Two genera of them 
 are known. 
 
 Echidna, Cuv. 
 
 The elongated slender muzzle of the Spiny Ant-Eaters, terminated by a 
 small mouth, contains an extensible tongiie similar to that of the Ant- Eaters 
 and Pangolins, and, like them, they feed on Ants. They have no teeth, but 
 their palate is furnished with several rows of small recurved spines. Their 
 short feet have each five very long and stout nails fitted for digging; and the 
 upper surface of the body is covered with spines like that of the Hedgehog. 
 It appears, that, when in danger, they also possess the faculty of rolling 
 themselves into a ball. There are two species. 
 
 E. hystrix. (The Spiny Echidna.) Completely covered with large 
 spines. 
 
 E. getosa. (The Bristly Echidna.) Is covered with hair, among which 
 the spines are half hidden. Some naturalists consider it as a mere variety 
 from age. 
 
 Ornithorhynchus, Blumenb. — PlatypuS; Shaw. 
 The elongated, and at the same time singularly enlarged and flattened muz- 
 
 o 
 
106 MAMMALIA. 
 
 zle of the Ornithorhynchi presents the closest external resemblance to the 
 bill of a Duck, and the more so as its edges are similarly furnished with small 
 transverse laminse. There is a membrane to the fore feet, which not only 
 unites the toes, but extends far beyond the nails; in the hind feet the mem- 
 brane terminates at the root ofthenaUs; two characters, which, with the 
 flattened tail, make them aquatic animals. The Ornithorhynchi inhabit the 
 rivers and marshes of New Holland in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. 
 
 Two species only are known, one with smooth, thin, reddish fur, the 
 Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, Blumenb., and the other with blackish-brown, 
 flat and frizzled hair. Probably these are only varieties of age. 
 
 ORDER VII. 
 
 PACHYDERMATA.(l) 
 
 The Edentata terminate the series of unguiculated animals, and 
 we have just seen that there are some of them whose nails are so 
 large, and so envelope the extremities of the toes, as to approximate 
 them in a certain degree to the hoofed animals. They still, however, 
 possess the faculty of bending these toes round various objects, and 
 of seizing with more or less force. The total deficiency of this 
 faculty characterizes the hoofed animals. Their forms and habits 
 present much less variety than those of the Unguiculata, and they 
 can hardly be divided into more than two orders, those which rumi- 
 nate, and those which do not; but these latter, which we designate 
 coljectively by the term Pachydermata^ admit of subdivision into 
 families. 
 
 The first is that of the Pachydermata which have a proboscis and 
 tusks. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 PROBOSCIDIANA. 
 
 The Proboscidians have five toes to each foot, very complete 
 in the skeleton, but so encrusted by the callous skin which surrounds 
 
 (1) Thick-skinned animals. 
 
PACHYDERMATA. 107 
 
 the foot, that their only external appearance is in the nails attached 
 to the edge of this species of hoof. They have no canini or incisors 
 properly so called, but in their incisive bone are implanted two 
 tusks, which project from the mouth, and frequently attain to an 
 enormous size. The magnitude requisite for the alveoli of these 
 tusks renders the upper jaw so high, and so shortens the bones of 
 the nose, that the nostrils in the skeleton are placed near the top of 
 the face; but in the living animal they are continued out into a cylin- 
 drical trunk or proboscis, composed of several thousands of small 
 muscles, variously interlaced, extremely flexible, endowed with the 
 most exquisite sensibility, and terminated by an appendage resem- 
 bling a finger. This proboscis is to the Elephant what the hand is 
 to the Monkey. 
 
 But one living genus of the Proboscidiana is known, that of 
 
 Elephas, Lin. 
 
 Or the Elephant, which comprehends the largest of the terrestrial Mammalia. 
 Their food is strictly vegetable. 
 
 The Elephants of the present day, clothed with a rough skin nearly des- 
 titute of hair, are only found in the torrid zone of the eastern continent, 
 where hitherto only two species have been ascertained. 
 
 E. indicus, Cuv. (The Elephant of India.) An oblong head; the crown 
 of the grinders presenting transverse undulating fillets, which are sections 
 of the laminae which compose them worn by trituration. This species has 
 rather smaller ears than the next one, and has fournaUs to the hind foot. It 
 is found from the Indus to the Eastern ocean, and in the large islands in the 
 south of India. They have been used from the earliest ages as beasts of 
 draught and burden. The females have very short tusks, and in this respect 
 many of the males resemble them. 
 
 E. africanus, Cuv. (The African Elephant.) A round head; convex 
 forehead; large ears; the crowns of the grinders divided into lozenges. 
 Found from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. The tusks of the female 
 are as large as those of the male, and the weapon itself, generally speaking, 
 is larger than in the Indian species. The African Elephant is not now tamed, 
 though it appears that the Carthaginians employed it in the same way that 
 the inhabitants of India do theirs. 
 
 The second genus of the Proboscidiana is the 
 
 Mastodon, Cuv. 
 The Mammoth has been completely destroyed, nor is there a single individual 
 living. It had the feet, tusks, trunk, and many other details of conforma- 
 tion in common with the Elephant; but differed from it in the grinders. 
 M. giganteum. The Great Mastodon, in which the sections of the points 
 
108 MAMMALIA. 
 
 are lozenge-shaped, is the most celebrated species. It equalled the Ele- 
 phant in size, but with stLU heavier proportions. Its remains are found ina 
 wonderful state of preservation, and in great abundance throughout aU parts 
 of North America. They are infinitely more rare in the eastern continent. 
 The M. angustidens was a tliird less than the great Mastodon, and much 
 lower on its legs. Its remains are found throughout the greater part of 
 Europe and of South America. In certain places, the teeth, tinged with 
 iron, become of a beautiful blue when heated, forming what is called the 
 oriental turquoise. 
 
 FAMILY IL 
 
 PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA, 
 
 Or the ordinary Pachydermata, have four, three or two toes. 
 
 Those in which the toes make even numbers have feet somewhat 
 cleft, and approximate to the Ruminantia in various parts of the 
 skeleton, and even in the complication of the stomach. They are 
 usually divided into two genera. 
 
 Hippopotamus, Lin. 
 
 These animals have a very massive and naked body; very short legs; the 
 belly reaching to the ground; an enormous head terminated by a large inflat- 
 ed muzzle, which encloses the apparatus of their large front teeth; the tail 
 short; the ears and eyes small. They hve in rivers, upon roots and other 
 vegetable substances, and exhibit much ferocity and stupidity. One species 
 only is known. 
 
 H. amphibius. (The Hippopotamus. ) Now confined to the rivers of the 
 middle and south of Africa. 
 
 Sus, Lin. 
 Hogs, properly so called, have twenty-four or twenty-eight grinders, of 
 which the posterior are oblong with tuberculous crowns, and the anterior 
 more or less compressed, and six incisors in each jaw. 
 
 S. scropha, L. The Wild Hog, which is the parent stock of our Domestic 
 Hog and its varieties, has prismatic tusks that curve outwards and slightly 
 upwards; the body short and thick; straight ears; the hair bristled and black; 
 the young ones striped black and white. It does great injury to fields in 
 the vicinity of forests, by tearing up the ground in search of roots. Natural- 
 ists now separate from the Hogs the subgenera Phacockaerus, and Dicotyle or 
 the Peccaries. 
 
 Here may come a genus now unknown in the living creation, 
 which we have discovered, and named 
 
PACHYDERMATA. 109 
 
 Anoplotherium. 
 It presents the most singular affinities with the various tribes of thePachy- 
 dermata, and approximates in some respects to the order of the Ruminantia. 
 The bones of this genus have hitherto only been found in the gypsum 
 quarries near Paris. We have already ascertained five species. 
 
 The ordinary Pachydermata which have not cloven feet, compre- 
 hend, in the first place, three genera, very similar to each other in 
 their grinders, but their incisors vary. 
 
 Rhinoceros, Lin. 
 The species of this genus, in this paalicular, even vary among' themselves. 
 They are larg-e animals; each foot is divided into three toes, and the bones 
 of the nose, which are very thick and moulded into a sort of arch, support 
 a sohd horn which adheres tathe skin, and is composed of a fibrous and 
 horny substance, resembUng' ag'glutinated hairs. They are naturally stupid 
 and ferocious, frequent marshy places, and feed on herbs and branches of 
 trees. They are found in India, Java, Africa and Sumatra. 
 
 Rh. indicus, Cuv. (The Rhinoceros of India.) It has but one horn, and 
 the skin is remarkable for the deep folds into which it is thrown behind and 
 across the shoulders, and before and across the thighs. It inhabits the East 
 Indies, and chiefly beyond the Ganges. 
 
 Bh. afncanus, Cnv. (The Rhlnocei-os of Africa. ) Furnished with two 
 horns; has no fold of of the skin, nor any incisor teeth, its molars occupying 
 nearly the whole length of the jaw. 
 
 Various fossil species are found in Siberia, Tuscany and Germany. 
 
 Hyrax, Herm. 
 
 The Damans, as they are termed, have long been placed among the Roden- 
 tia, on account of their small size; if, however, we examine them closely, we 
 shall find, the horn excepted, that they are Rhinoceroses in miniature, at least 
 they have similar molars; but their upper jaw is fiamished with two strong 
 incisors curved downwards, and at an early age with two very small canini; 
 the lower one has four incisors, but no canini. 
 
 Paxjeotherium, Cuv. 
 
 Tins is also a lost genus, with the same giinders as the two preceding, six 
 incisors, and two canini in each jaw, like the Tapirs, and three visible toes 
 to each foot; they had also, like the Tapirs, a short fleshy proboscis. We 
 discovered the bones of this genus pele-mele with those of the Anoplothe- 
 rium in the gypsum quarries near Paris. They also exist in many other 
 parts of France. Eleven or twelve species are known already. 
 
 LOPHIODON, Cuv. 
 Is another lost genus, which appears to be closely allied to the preceding 
 
110 MAMMALIA. 
 
 one. Ten or twelve species have been extracted from our old fresh water 
 formations, the same in which the Palaeotherium is found. 
 To these genera should succeed the genus 
 
 Tapir, Lin. 
 The nose resembles a small fleshy proboscis; there are four toes to the four 
 feet, and three to the hind ones. For a long time but a single species was 
 known, 
 
 T. americanus, L. (The American Tapir.) Size of a small Ass; skin 
 brow^n and nearly naked; tail moderate; neck fleshy, forming a sort of crest 
 on the nape . Common in wet places, and along the rivers of the warm parts 
 of South America. The flesh is eaten. Within a few years a second spe- 
 cies has been discovered in the eastern continent. 
 
 Fossil Tapirs are also scattered throughout Europe; and among others is 
 a ^gantic species, which in size must have nearly equalled the Elephant; 
 it is the Tap. giganteus, Cuv. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 SOLIPEDES. 
 
 The Solipedes are quadrupeds which have only one apparent toe, 
 and a single hoof to each foot, although under the skin, on each 
 side of their metatarsus and metacarpus, there are spurs represent- 
 ing two lateral toes. One genus only is known, that of 
 
 Equus, Lin. 
 The Hwse has six incisors in each jaw. The male has also two small ad- 
 ditional canini in the upper jaw, and sometimes in both, which are almost 
 always wanting in the female. Between these canini and the first molar is 
 that unoccupied space which corresponds to the angle of the lips, where the 
 bit is placed, by which alone, Man has been enabled to subdue and tame this 
 powerful animal. 
 
 E. caballus, L. (The Horse.) This noble associate of Man, in the chase, 
 in war, and in the works of agriculture, the arts and commerce, is the most 
 important and carefully attended of all the animals he has subdued. It does 
 not seem to erist in a wild state at the present time; those places excepted, 
 where Horses formerly domesticated have been set at hberty, as in Tartary 
 and America, where they Uve in troops, each of which is led and defended 
 by an old male. 
 
 E.hemionus. (The Dzigguetai.) A species which,as to its proportions, 
 is intermediate between the horse and the Ass, and lives in troops in the 
 
PACHYDERMATA. Ill 
 
 sandy deserts of central Asia. It is of an isabella or cream colour, with a 
 black mane, and a dorsal line of the same colour; the tail is terminated by a 
 black tuft. It is probably the Wild Mule of the ancients. 
 
 E. asinus. (The Ass. ) Known by its long' ears, the tuft which termi- 
 nates the tail, and the black cross on the shoulders, which is the first indi- 
 cation of the stripes which distingxiish the following species. Originally 
 from the great deserts of central Asia, it is still to be found there in a wild 
 state, and in innumerable troops, ranging from north to soutli according 
 to the season; hence it thrives but poorly in the more northern cHmates. 
 The hoarseness of its voice, or bray, depends upon two small pecuhar cavi- 
 ties situated at the bottom of the larynx. 
 
 E. zebra. (The Zebra.) Nearly the same form as the Ass; the whole 
 animal regularly marked with black and white transverse stripes, originally 
 from the whole south of Africa. 
 
 E. guaccha. (The Couagga.) Resembles the Horse more than the Zebra, 
 but comes from the same country. The hair on the neck and shoulders is 
 brown, with whitish transverse stripes; the croup is of a reddish grey; tail 
 and legs whitish. The name is expressive of its voice, which resembles the 
 barking of a Dog. 
 
 E. montanus. (The Onagga. ) An African species, smaller than the Ass, 
 but having the beautiful form of the Couagga; its colour is a very light bay, 
 with black stripes, alternately wider and narrower, on the head, neck and 
 body. Those behind slant obliquely forwards; legs and t£ul white. 
 
 ORDER VIII. 
 
 RUMINANTIA. 
 
 The term Ruminantia indicates the singular faculty possessed by 
 these animals of masticating their food a second time, by bringing 
 it back to the mouth after a first deglutition. This faculty depends 
 upon the structure of their stomachs, of which they always have 
 four, the three first being so disposed that the food may enter into 
 either of them, the oesophagus terminating at the point of commu- 
 nication. 
 
 Camelus, Lin. 
 The Camels approximate to the preceding order rather more than the 
 others. They not only always have canini in both jaws, but they also have 
 two pointed teeth implanted in the incisive bone, six inferior incisors and 
 from eighteeji to twenty molars only; peculiarities, which, of all the Kumi- 
 
112 MAMMALIA. 
 
 nantia, they alone possess. Instead of the large hoof flattened on its Inter- 
 nal side which envelopes the whole inferior portion of each toe, and which 
 determines the figure of the common cloven-foot, they have but one small 
 one, which only adheres to the last phalanx, and is symmetrically formed 
 like the hoofs of the Pachydermata. 
 
 Cameitis, Cuv. 
 
 Camels, properly so called, have the two toes united below, nearly to the 
 point, by a common sole, and the back furnished with lumps of fat. They 
 are large animals of the eastern continent, of which two species are known, 
 both completely reduced to a domestic state. 
 
 C. hactrianus. (The Two-Humped Camel.) Originally from central 
 Asia, and which descends to the south much less than the 
 
 C. dromedarius. (The One-Humped Camel. ) Which has spread from 
 Arabia into all the north of Africa, a great part of Syria, Persia, &c. 
 
 AUCHENIA, lUig. 
 In the Lamas the two toes are separate; they are without humps. But 
 two distinct species are known, the Lama and the Paco, both from the wes- 
 tern continent, and much smaller than the two preceding ones. 
 
 MoscHus, Lin. 
 The Musks are much less anomalous than the Camels, differing from the 
 ordinary Ruminantia only in the absence of horns, in having a long canine 
 tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which in the male issues from the 
 mouth, and finally in having a slender peronseus, which is not found even 
 in the Camel. These animals are remarkably light and elegant. 
 
 M. moschiferus, L.; Buff. (The Musk.) This is the most celebrated 
 species, and the size of a goat, has scarcely any tail, and is completely 
 covered with hairs so coarse and brittle that they might be termed spines. 
 
 All the rest of the Ruminantia, the males at least, have two horns, 
 that is to say, two prominences of the frontal bones which are not 
 found in any other family of animals. 
 
 In some, these prominences are covered with an elastic sheath 
 composed as if with agglutinated hairs, which increases by layers 
 and during life; the name ofhorn is applied to the substance of this 
 sheath, and the sheath itself is called the corne creuse or horn mould. 
 The prominence it envelopes grows with it, and never falls. Such 
 are the horns of Oxen^ Sheep, Goats and Antelopes. 
 
 In others, the prominences are only covered with a hairy skin, 
 continuous with that of the head; nor do the prominences fall, those 
 of the Giraffe excepted. 
 
RUMINANTIA. 113 
 
 Finally, in the genus of the Stags, the prominences covered for a 
 time with a hairy skin, similar to that on the rest of the head, have at 
 their base a ring of bony tubercles, which, as they enlarge, compress 
 and obliterate the vessels of that skin. It becomes dry and is thrown 
 oif; the bony prominences, being laid bare, at the expiration of a 
 certain period separate from the cranium to which they were at- 
 tached; they fall and the animal remains defenceless. Others, 
 however, are re-produced generally larger than before, and destined 
 to undergo the same fate. These horns, purely osseous, and sub- 
 ject to periodical changes, are styled antlers. 
 
 Cervus, Lin. 
 
 The Stags, consequently, are the only Ruminantia which have heads armed 
 with antlersj the females, however, the Rein-Deer alone excepted, are al- 
 ways without them. The substance of these antlers, when completely 
 developed, is that of a dense bone, without pores or sinus. 
 
 C. alces, L. (The Moose.) As large as a Horse and sometimes larger; 
 stands very high; the muzzle cartilaginous and inflated; a sort of goitre, or 
 pendulous swelling, variously shaped, under the throat; hair always very 
 stiff* and of a more or less deep ash-colour. Their horns increase with age 
 so as to weigh fifty or sixty pounds, and to have fourteen branches to each 
 horn. The Moose lives in small troops, and inhabits the marshy forests of 
 the north of both continents. Its skin is valuable for various purposes. 
 
 C. tarandus, L., Buff". (The Rein-Deer.) Size of a Stag, but has shorter 
 and stouter legs; both sexes have antlers, divided into several branches, at 
 first slender and pointed, and terminating by age in broad denticulated 
 palms. There are various species of this genus, such as the Fallow-Deer, 
 Common Stag, Vir^nia Deer, Axis, Roebuck, &c. 
 
 Camelopardalis, Lin. 
 The Giraffe is characterized in both sexes by conical honis, always covered 
 with a hairy skin, and which are never shed. On the middle of the chan- 
 frin is a tubercle or third horn, broader and much shorter, but likewise ar- 
 ticulated by a suture. It is moreover one of the most remarkable animals 
 in existence, from the length of its neck and the disproportioned height of 
 its fore legs. Only one species is known, 
 
 C.girafa, F. Guv. (The Giraffe.) It is confined to the deserts of Af- 
 rica, and has short grey hair sprinkled with fawn coloured angular spots, 
 and a small fawn coloured and grey mane. It is the taUest of all animals, 
 for its head is frequently elevated eighteen feet from the ground. Its dis- 
 position is gentle, and it feeds on leaves. The 
 
 RUxMINANTIA WITH HOIXOW HORNS 
 Are more numerous than the others, and we have been compelled 
 P 
 
114 MAMMALIA. 
 
 to divide them into genera from characters of but little importance, 
 drawn from the form of their horns and the proportions of their 
 different parts. To these M. Geoffroy has advantageously added 
 those afforded by the substance of the frontal prominence or the 
 bony nucleus of the horn. 
 
 Antilope. 
 The substance of the bony nucleus of the horns of the Antelopes is solid, 
 and without pores or sinus, like the antlers of the Stag-. They resemble 
 the Stags moreover in the lightness of their figure and their svi^iftness. It 
 is a very numerous genus, which naturalists have divided, and principaUy 
 according to the form of the horns. 
 
 The most remarkable species are the Gazelk, Springbuck, Plunging An- 
 telope, Rock-Springer, Mgazel, Chamois, Gnou, &c. 
 
 The three remaining genera have the bony core of the horns 
 principally occupied with cells, which communicate with the frontal 
 sinuses. The direction of their horns furnishes the characters of 
 the divisions.. 
 
 Capra, Lin. 
 
 The horns of the Goats are directed upwards and backwards; the chin gene- 
 rally furnished with a long beard, and the chanfrin almost always concave. 
 
 C. asgragus, Gm. (The Wild Goat.) Appears to be the stock of all the 
 varieties of our Domestic Goat. It is distinguished by its horns, trenchant 
 in front, veiy large in the male; short, or altogether wanting in the female, 
 which is also sometimes the case in the two species of Ibex. It lives in herds 
 on the mountains of Persia (where it is known by the name of paseng), and 
 perhaps on those of other countries, even in the Alps. The oriental bezoar 
 is a concretion found in its intestines. 
 
 C. ibex, L. (The Ibex.) Large horns, square in front, marked with 
 transverse and prominent knots. It inhabits the most elevated summits of 
 the highest ranges of moimtains in the whole of the eastern continent. 
 
 Ovis, Lin. 
 
 The horns of Sheep are dii'ected backwards, and then incline spirally, more 
 or less forwards: the chanfrin is more or less convex, and there is no beard. 
 
 Ov. ammon, L. (The Argali of Siberia.) The male has very large horns, 
 with the base triangular, angles rounded, flattened in front, and striated 
 transversely; those of the female are compressed and falciform. To this 
 genus belong the Mouflims of America, Africa and Sardinia. This animal 
 inhabits the mountains of all Asia, and attains to the size of the Fallow Deer 
 
 It is from the Mouflon or the Argali that we are supposed to derive the 
 innumerable races of our woolly animals, which, next to the Dog, are most 
 subject to vary. 
 
RUMINANTIA. 115 
 
 Bos, Lin. 
 The horns of the Ox are directed laterally, inclining upwards or forwards, 
 in the form of a crescent; it is a large animal, with a broad muzzle; short 
 and thick body, and stout legs. 
 
 £• iaurus, L. (The Common Ox. ) Its specific characters are a flat fore- 
 head, longer than broad, and round horns, placed at the extremities of the 
 salient line or ridge which separates the forehead from the occiput. 
 
 B. urus, Gm. (The Aurochs.) Generally, but erroneously, considered 
 as the wild stock of our horned cattle. It is distinguished from them by 
 its convex forehead, which is wider than it is high, by the insertion of its 
 horns below the occipital crest, by the length of its legs, by an additional 
 pair of ribs, by a sort of curly wool, which covers the head and neck of the 
 bull, forming a short beard under the throat, and by its grunting voice. It 
 is a savage animal that has now taken refuge in the great marshy forests of 
 Lithuania, of the Krapacs and of Caucasus, but which formerly inhabited 
 all the temperate parts of Europe. It is the largest quadruped proper to 
 Europe. 
 
 B. bison, L. (The BufFaloe or Bison of America. ) The bony head very 
 similar to that of the Aurochs, and covered like it, the neck and shoulders 
 also, with frizzled wool, which becomes very long in winter; its legs and 
 tail are shorter. Inhabits all the temperate parts of North America. 
 
 B- bubalus, L. (The Buffalo.) Originally from India, and brought into 
 Egypt, Greece and Italy during the middle century; has a convex forehead 
 higher than wide, the horns directed sideways, and marked in front by a 
 longitudinal ridge. This animal is subdued with difficulty, but is extremely 
 powerful, and prefers the marshy grounds, and coarse plants on which the 
 Ox could not live. Its milk is good, and the hide very strong, but the flesh 
 is not esteemed. 
 
 There is a race of them in India, whose horns include a space of ten feet 
 from lip to tip : it is called ^mi in Hindostan. 
 
 B. grunniens. Pall. (The Yack.) A small species, with the tail com- 
 pletely covered with long hairs like that of the Horse, and a long mane on 
 the back. This animal, of which ^lian has spoken, is originally from the 
 mountains of Thibet. Its tail constitutes the standards still used by the 
 Turks to distinguish the superior officers. 
 
 B. moschatus, Gm. (The Musk Ox of America.) The horns approxi- 
 mated and similarly directed, but meeting on the forehead in a straight line; 
 those of the female are smaller and more widely separatedf the forehead is 
 convex, and the end of the muzzle furnished with hairs. 
 
116 MAMMALIA. 
 
 ORDER IX. 
 CETACEA. 
 
 The Cetacea are mammiferous animals without hind feet; their 
 trunk is continued by a thick tail, terminating in an horizontal, car- 
 tilaginous fin, and their head is united to the trunk by a neck, so 
 thick and short, that no diminution of its diameter can be perceived, 
 and composed of very slender cervical vertebrae, which are partly 
 anchylosed or soldered together. The first bones of the anterior 
 extremities are shortened, and the succeeding ones flattened and en- 
 veloped in a tendinous membrane, which reduces them to true fins. 
 Their external form is altogether that of Fishes, the tail fin excepted, 
 which in the latter is vertical. They always therefore remain in the 
 water; but as they respire by lungs, they are compelled to return 
 frequently to its surface to take in fresh supplies of air. Independ- 
 ently of this, their warm blood, their ears, with external, though 
 small, openings, their viviparous production, the mammae with which 
 they suckle their young, and all the details of their anatomy suffi- 
 ciently distinguish them from Fishes. 
 
 To the genera of the Cetacea hitherto admitted, we add others 
 formerly confounded with the Morses. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CETACEA HERBIVORA. 
 
 The teeth of Herbivorous Cetacea have flat crowns; this determines 
 their mode of life, and the latter induces them to leave the water fre- 
 quently, to seek for pasture on shore. They have two raammaB on 
 the breast, and hairy mustachios; two circumstances which, when 
 observed from a distance as they raise the anterior part of the body 
 vertically from the water, may give them some resemblance to hu- 
 man beings, and have probably occasioned those fabulous accounts 
 of Tritons, and Sirens which some travellers pretend to have seen. 
 
 Manatcs, Cuv. 
 The Lamantins, or rather the Manati, have an oblong body, terminated by 
 an elongated oval fin; the grinders, eight in number throughout, have a 
 
CETACEA. 117 
 
 square crown, marked with two transverse elevations. Vestiges of nails 
 are discoverable on the edg-es of their fins, which they employ with tolera- 
 ble dexterity in carrying their young-, and in creeping-; hence the comparison 
 of these organs witli hands, and the name of Manatus applied to the animal, 
 of which Lamantin is a coiTiiption. From their manner of living, they are 
 also called Sea Cows, Mermaids, &c. 
 
 They arc found near the mouths of rivers in the hottest pai-ts of the At- 
 lantic Ocean, and it appears that those of the American rivers are specifically 
 different from those of Africa. They grow to the lengtli of fifteen feet. 
 Their flesh is used as food. 
 
 IIalicore, Illig.(l) 
 
 Grinders composed of two cones laterally united; the teeth implanted in the 
 incisive bone arc permanent, and increase to such an extent as to become 
 true pointed tusks, but covered by tliick fleshy lips, bristled with musta- 
 chios. The body is elongated, and the tail terminated by a crescent-shaped 
 fin. One species only is known, the 
 
 JIal. dugong; StJ-en,- Sea Cow,^c. (The Dugong.) It inhabits tlxe Indian 
 Ocean, and is frequently confounded by travellers with the Manatus. 
 
 Stellekus, Cuv. 
 The Stelleri appear to have but a single compound grinder on each side, 
 with a flat crown, and bristled with plates of enamel. Their fins have not 
 even the little nails observed on those of the Manatus. According to Stel- 
 ler, the first, and hitherto the only one who has described them, their sto- 
 mach also is much more simple. 
 
 One species only is known, wliich is confined to the north part of tlic 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 CETACEA ORDINARIA. 
 
 The Ordinary Cetacea are distinguished from the preceding by 
 the singular apparatus from which they have received the name of 
 Blowers. As a large quantity of water passes into their huge mouths 
 along with their prey, some way was necessary by which they could 
 get rid of it; accordingly, it passes through the nostrils by means of 
 a peculiar disposition of the velum palati, and is accumulated in a 
 sac situated at the external orifice of the cavity of the nose, whence, 
 
 (1) Ilalicore, Maidoftlic Sea. 
 
118 MAMMALIA. 
 
 by the compression of powerful muscles, it is violently expelled 
 through a narrow opening on the top of the head. It is in this way 
 they produce those jets d'eau observed by navigators at so great a 
 distance. Their nostrils, continually bathed in salt water, could not 
 be lined with a membrane sufficiently delicate to enable them to de- 
 tect odours, and accordingly, they have none of those projecting 
 laminae found in the nasal cavities of other animalsj the olfactory 
 nerve is deficient in several, and if there be any which enjoy the 
 sense of smell, it must be in a very slight degree. Their larynx, of a 
 pyramidal form, penetrates into the posterior nares to receive air 
 and conduct it to the lungs, without compelling the animal to raise 
 its head and throat above the water for that purpose: there are no 
 salient laminae in the glottis, and the voice is reduced to a simple 
 lowing. They have no vestige of hairs, but their whole body is 
 covered with a smooth skin, under which is that thick layer of blub- 
 ber abounding in oil, the principal object for which are they pursued. 
 
 The stomach is divided into five and sometimes into seven distinct 
 sacs; instead of one single spleen, they have several, small and glo- 
 bular; those which are possessed of teeth, have them all conical and 
 alike; they do not chew their food, but swallow it rapidly. 
 
 Two small bones, suspended in the flesh, are the only vestiges of 
 posterior extremities. 
 
 Several have a vertical fin on the back, composed of a tendinous 
 substance, but unsupported by bone. Their eyes, flattened in front, 
 have a thick and solid sclerotica; the teguments of the tongue are 
 soft and smooth. 
 
 They may be again divided into two small tribes: those in which 
 the head bears the usual proportion to the body, and those in which 
 it is immoderately large. The first comprehends the Dolphins and 
 the Narwhals. 
 
 Delphintjs, Lin. 
 
 The Dolphins have teeth in both jaws, all simple, and almost always conical. 
 They are the most carnivorous, and, in proportion to their size, the most cruel 
 of their order. 
 
 D£LFHiyu8, Cuv. 
 The Dolphins, properly so called, have a convex forehead, and the muz- 
 zle forming a kind of rostrum, or snout, in front of the head, more slender 
 than the rest. 
 
CETACEA. 119 
 
 Phocjena, Cuv. 
 The Porpoisesi,!) have no rostrum, but a short and uniformly convex 
 muzzle. 
 
 MoNODON, Lin. 
 The Narwhals have no teeth properly speaking", but mere long, straight 
 and pointed tusks, implanted in the intermaxillary bone, and directed in 
 tlie hne of the axis of the body. The form of their body and that of their 
 head greatly resemble that of the Porpoises. One species only is well 
 known, the 
 
 M. monoceros, L. (Tlie Narwhal.) The tusk of this animal, which is 
 spirally furrowed and sometimes ten feet in length, was for a long time 
 called the horn of the Unicorn. It has, it is true, the germs of two tusks, 
 but it is very seldom that both become equally developed. That of the left 
 side usually attains its full growth, while the other always remains hidden 
 in its alveolus. 
 
 The other Cetacea have the head so large as to constitute one 
 third or one half of the length of the whole body; but neither the 
 cranium nor the brain participate in this disproportion, which is 
 altogether owing to an enormous development of the bones of the 
 face. 
 
 Physeter, Lin. 
 The Cachahts(2) are Cetacea with a very voluminous head, excessively en- 
 larged, particularly in front, in whose upper jaw there is neither whalebone 
 nor tooth, or if any, very small, and not projecting; the lower jaw, narrow, 
 elongated, and corresponding to a furrow in the upper one, is armed on 
 each side with a range of cylindrical or conical teeth, which, when the mouth 
 is closed, enter into cori'esponding cavities in the upper jaw. The supe- 
 rior portion of their enormous head consists almost entirely of large cavities, 
 separated and covered by cartilages, and filled with an oil which becomes 
 fixed as it cools, well known in commerce by the name of spermaceti, a 
 substance for which they are principally sought; the body not having much 
 fat, and consequently yielding but little oil. These cavities, liowever, are 
 very distinct from the true cranium, which is rather small, is placed under 
 their posterior portion, and contains the brain as usual. 
 
 The odorous substance, named ambergris, appears to be a concretion 
 
 (1) Poi-poises from jDorcusjoisas, hog-fish. 
 
 (2) PA?/sefer, as well as pAysa/us, signifies i/oioer. Cachalot is the name 
 used by the Biscayans; from cachau, which in the Cantabrian dialect means 
 tooth. 
 
120 MAMMALIA. 
 
 formed in the intestines of the Cachalot, particularly during certsun states 
 of disease. 
 The species of the Cachalots are far from being well ascertained. 
 
 Baljena, Lin. 
 
 The Whales are equal in size to the Cachalots, and in the proportional 
 magn-tude of the head, although the latter is not so much enlai*ged in front; 
 but they have no teeth. The two sides of their upper jaw, which is keel- 
 shaped, or furnished with thin, compact, transverse laminse, called whale- 
 bone, formed of a kind of fibrous horn, fringed at the edges, which serve to 
 retain the little animals on which these enormous Cetacea feed. Their 
 lower jaw, supported by two osseous branches arched externally and to- 
 wards the summit, and completely unarmed, lodges a very thick and fleshy 
 tongue, and when the mouth is closed, envelopes the internal part of the 
 upper jaw, and the whalebone with which it is invested. These organs do 
 not allow whales to feed on such large animals as their size might induce 
 us to imagine. They live on fish, but principally on worms, Mollusca, and 
 Zoophytes, selecting, it is said, the very smallest, which become entangled 
 in the filaments of the whalebone. 
 
 Bal. mysticetus, L. (The Common Whale.) It has long been consid- 
 ered the largest of all animals; but from the late observations of captain 
 Scoresby, it appears that it scarcely ever exceeds seventy feet, a length 
 frequently surpassed by the wrinkle-bellied whales. It has no dorsal fin. 
 To procure its fat or blubber, which is sometimes several feet in thickness, 
 and contains immense quantities of oil, whole fleets are annually equipped. 
 Formerly sufficiently bold to venture into our seas, it has gradually retired 
 to the extreme North, where the number is daily diminishing. Besides oil, 
 it produces black and flexible whalebone, eight or ten feet in length, each 
 individual having from eight to nine hundred strips on each side of the 
 palate. One hundred and twenty tuns of oil are obtained from a single 
 whale. Shell-fish attach themselves to its skin, and multiply there as on a 
 rock, and some of the Balanus family even penetrate into it. 
 
 OF THE OVIPAROUS VERTEBRATA. 
 
 Although the three classes of the Oviparous Vertebrata differ 
 greatly from each other in their quantum of respiration, and in all 
 that relates to it, viz. the power of motion and the energy of the 
 senses, they present several common characters when opposed to 
 the Mammalia, or Viviparous Vertebrata. 
 
OVIPARA. 121 
 
 Oviparous production consists, essentially, in this — the young ani 
 mal is not attached to the parietes of the oviduct, but remains sepa- 
 rated from it by its most external envelope. Its aliment is prepared 
 before hand, and enclosed in a sac attached to its intestinal canal; 
 this is what is called the vitellus, or yolkof eggr, of which the young 
 animal is a sort of appendage, at first imperceptible, which is n/wjr- 
 ished and augmented by absorbing the fluid of tliat yolk. Such of 
 the Ovipara as breathe with lungs have the egg furnished with a 
 highly vascular membrane, which appears to serve for the purposes 
 of respiration; it is connected with the bladder, and is analogous to 
 the allantoid of the Mammalia. It is neither found in Fishes nor in 
 the Batrachians, which latter, when young, respire, like Fishes, by 
 branchiae. 
 
 CLASS IL 
 
 AVES. 
 
 Birds are Oviparous Vertebrata, with double systems of circula- 
 tion and respiration, organized for flight. 
 
 Their lungs, undivided and attached to the ribs, are enveloped by 
 a membrane pierced with large holes, which allow the air to pass 
 into several cavities of the chest, lower part of the abdomen, arm- 
 pits, and even of the interior of the bones, so that not only is the 
 surface of the pulmonary vessels bathed in the ambient fluid, but 
 that also of an infinitude of vessels in other parts of the body. Thus, 
 in certain respects, Birds respire by the branches of the aorta, as 
 well as by those of the pulmonary artery, and the energy of their ir- 
 ritability is in proportion to their quantum of respiration.(l) The 
 whole body is so constructed as to profit by this energy. 
 
 Their anterior extremities, destined to sustain them in flight, could 
 neither serve them for standing, nor for prehension; they are bipeds 
 then, and pick up objects from tlie earth with tiieir mouth; their 
 
 (1) Two common Swallows consume as much pure air as a Guinea-Pig. 
 
 Q 
 
122 AVES. 
 
 body, consequently, is inclined before their legs, the thighs directed 
 forwards, and the toes elongated, to form a sufficient base for it. The 
 pelvis is very much extended in length, in order to furnish points of 
 attachment to those muscles which support the trunk upon the thighs. 
 There is even a suite of muscles reaching from the pelvis to the toes, 
 passing over the knee and heel, so that the simple weight of the 
 bird flexes the toes; it is thus that they are enabled to sleep in secu- 
 rity, while perched on one foot. 
 
 The neck and the beak are elongated to reach the ground, but 
 the former has the requisite flexibility for bending backwards when 
 at rest, — consequently, it has many vertebrae. The trunk, on the 
 contrary, which serves as a point d'appui to the wings, has but little 
 mobihty; the sternum, particularly, to which are attached the 
 muscles which lower the wings in flight, is of great extent, and has 
 its surface still more enlarged by a salient process in its middle. It 
 is originally composed of five pieces. The greater or less degree of 
 the ossification of the notches, and the extent of the interval they 
 leave between them and the principal bone, denote a relative strength 
 of wing and power of flight. The Diurnal Birds of Prey, the Swal- 
 lows and the Humming-birds, lose, as they grow old, all traces of 
 these unossified spaces. 
 
 The fourchette produced by the junction of the two clavicles, 
 and the two powerful stretches formed by the coracoid apophyses, 
 keep the shoulders apart, notwithstanding the eflfbrts requisite for 
 flight, that act in an opposite direction; the greater the power of 
 flight, the more open and strong is the fourchette. The wing, sup- 
 ported by the humerus, fore-arm and hand, the latter of which is 
 elongated and has one finger and vestiges of two others, is furnished 
 throughout its length with a range of elastic quills, which greatly 
 extends the surface that resists the air. Those which belong to the 
 hand are iermeA primaries ^ and there are always ten; those attached 
 to the fore-arm are called secondaries, but their number varies; 
 weaker feathers appended to the humerus are called scapulars; the 
 bone, which is analogous to the thumb, is also furnished with what 
 are termed spurious quills. Along the base of the quills is a range 
 of feathers named coverts. 
 
 The bony tail is very short, but has a range of large quills, which, 
 when spread out, assist in supporting the bird; they are generally 
 twelve in number, sometimes fourteen, and in the Gallinaceae 
 eighteen. 
 
AYES. - 133 
 
 The legs have a femur, a libia and a fibula, which are connected 
 with the femur by an articulation with a spring, which keeps up the 
 extension without any effort on the part of the muscles. The tarsus 
 and metatarsus are represented by one single bone, terminating be- 
 low in three pulleys. 
 
 Most commonly there are three toes before, and a thumb behind; 
 the latter being sometimes deficient. In the Martins it is directed 
 forwards. In the Climbers, on the contrary, the external toe and 
 the thumb are directed backwards. The number of articulations 
 increases in each toe, commencing with the thumb, which has two, 
 and ending with the external toe, which has five. 
 
 Birds are generally covered with feathers, the kind of tegument 
 best adapted for defending them from the rapid variations of tempe- 
 rature to which their movements expose them. The air cavities 
 which occupy the interior of their body, and even supersede the 
 marrow in the bones, increase their specific lightness. The sternal, 
 as well as the vertebral portion of the ribs is ossified, in order to 
 give more power to the dilatation of the chest. To each rib is an- 
 nexed a small bone, which soon becomes soldered to it, and is 
 directed obliquely towards the next one, thereby giving additional 
 solidity to the thorax. 
 
 The eye is so constructed, in Birds, as to distinguish, with equal 
 facility, objects at a distance, or in its immediate vicinity; a vascular 
 and plaited membrane, which stretches from the bottom of the globe 
 to the edge of the crystalline, probably assists in effecting this, by 
 displacing that lens. The anterior surface of the ball is also 
 strengthened by a circle of bony pieces, and besides the two ordi- 
 nary eye-lids, there is always a third one placed at the internal angle, 
 which, by a remarkable muscular apparatus, can be drawn over the 
 eye like a curtain. 
 
 The breadth of the osseous openings of the nostrils determines 
 the strength of the beak; and the cartilages, membranes, feathers 
 and other teguments which narrow down those apertures, influence 
 the power of smell, and the nature of the food. 
 
 There is but little muscular substance in the tongue, which is sup- 
 ported by a bone articulated with the hyoid; in most Birds this or- 
 gan is not very delicate. 
 
 The feathers, as well as the quills, which only differ in size, are 
 composed of a stem, hollow at base, and of lamina, which are them- 
 selves furnished with smaller ones; their tissue, lustre, strength, and 
 
124 AVES. 
 
 general form vary infinitely. The touch must be feeble in all such 
 parts as are covered with them, and as the beak is almost always 
 corneous, and has but little sensibility, and the toes are invested with 
 scales above, and a callous skin underneath, that sense can have 
 but little activity in this class of animals. 
 
 Birds moult twice a year. In certain species, the winter plumage 
 differs in its colours from that of summer; in the greater number, the 
 female differs from the male in an inferior vividness of tints, and 
 when this is the case, the young of both sexes resemble the former. 
 When the adult male and female are of the same colour, the young 
 ones have a livery peculiar to them. 
 
 The brain of Birds has the same general characters as that of other 
 Oviparous Vertebrata, but is distinguished by its very great propor- 
 tionate size, which often surpasses even that of this organ in the 
 Mammalia. 
 
 The rings of the trachea are entire; there is a glottis at its bifur- 
 cation most commonly furnished with pecuhar muscles, which is 
 called the inferior larynx; this is the spot where the voice of birds is 
 produced; the immense volume of air contained in the air sacs con- 
 tributes to its strength, and the trachea, by its various forms and 
 motions, to its modifications. The superior larynx, which is ex- 
 tremely simple, has but little to do with it. 
 
 The horny substance which invests the two mandibles, performs 
 the office of teeth, and is sometimes so jagged as to resemble them; 
 its form, as well as that of the mandibles which support it, varies 
 extremely, and according to the kind of food used by each species. 
 
 The digestion of Birds is in proportion to the activity of their life, 
 and the force of their respiration. The stomach is composed of 
 three parts: the crop, which is an enlargement of the oesophagus; a 
 membranous stomach, in the thickness of whose parietes are a mul- 
 titude of glands whose juices humect the aliment; and finally, the 
 gizzard, armed with two powerful muscles, united by two radiated 
 tendons, and lined internally with a kind of cartilaginous velvet. 
 The food is the more easily ground there, as Birds constantly swal- 
 low small stones, in order to increase its triturative power. 
 
 In the greater part of the species which feed exclusively on flesh 
 or fish, the muscles and villous coat of the gizzard are greatly atten- 
 uated; and it seems to make but a single sac with the membranous 
 stomach. 
 
 The dilatation of the crop is also sometimes wanting. 
 
 \ 
 
AVES. 125 
 
 The egg, detached from the ovary, where it consists merely of 
 yolk, imbibes that external fluid, called the white, in the upper part 
 of the oviduct, and becomes invested with its shell at the bottom of 
 the same canal. The chick contained within it is developed by in- 
 cubation, unless the heat of the climate suffices for that purpose, as 
 is the case with the egg of the Ostrich. The young Bird has a lit- 
 tle horny point at the extremity of the beak, with which it splits open 
 the shell, and which falls off a few days after it is hatched. 
 
 The industry and skill exhibited by Birds in their variously con- 
 structed nests, and their tenderness and care in protecting their eggs 
 and young, are known to every one; it is the principal part of their 
 instinct. Their rapid transitions through different regions of the air, 
 and the vivid and continual action of that element upon them, enable 
 them to anticipate atmospheric changes, to an extent of which we 
 can form no idea; and caused the ancients, in their superstition, to 
 attribute to them the power of prescience or divination. It is un- 
 questionably on this faculty, that depends the instinct which acts 
 upon the Birds of passage, prompting them to seek the south on the 
 approach of winter, and the north on the return of spring. They 
 have memory, and even imagination — for they dream. They are 
 easily tamed, may be taught to render various services, and retain the 
 air and words of songs. 
 
 Division of the Class of Birds into Orders. 
 
 Their distribution is founded, like that of the Mammalia, on the 
 organs of manducation or the beak, and on those of prehension, that 
 is on the beak, and particularly on the feet. 
 
 The first that arrest our attention are the palmatedfeet, or those 
 in which the toes are connected by membranes, which distinguish 
 all Swimming Birds. The position of these feet behind; the length 
 of the sternumj the neck, often longer than the legs to enable it to 
 reach below; the dense, polished plumage, impermeable to water, all 
 concur with the feet in making good navigators of the Palmipedes. 
 
 In other Birds, which most commonly are partially web-footed, at 
 least between the external toes, we observe elevated tarsi; legs divest- 
 ed of feathers at their lower extremities; a long thin shape, and in fine, 
 all the requisites for wading along the shores of rivers to seek their 
 food. Such, in fact, is the regimen of the greater number; and al- 
 though some of them inhabit dry grounds, they are called Shore- 
 Birds, or Waders. 
 
136 AVES. 
 
 Among the true land birds, the GalUnacese, like our domestic 
 Cock, have a heavy carriage, a moderate beak, the upper mandible 
 of whicli is arched; the nostrils partly covered by a soft and inflated 
 scale; the toes almost always indented on the edges, and short mem- 
 branes between the bases of the anterior ones. They fly heavily, 
 and but a short distance at a time. Their chief food is grain. 
 
 Birds of prey have a hooked beak, the point of which is sharp, 
 and curved downwards; the nostrils pierced in a membrane which in- 
 vests the whole base of that beak, and feet armed with vigorous talons. 
 They live on flesh, pursue other birds, and are consequently, for the 
 most part, vigorous in flight. The greater number have still a slight 
 web between the external toes. 
 
 The Passerinae comprise many more species than all the other 
 families; but their organization presents so many analogies that they 
 cannot be separated, although varying greatly in size and strength. 
 Their two external toes are united at the base, and sometimes for a 
 part of their length. ■• 
 
 Finally, the name of Scansorise^ or Climbing Birds, has been given 
 to those whose external toe, like the thumb, is directed backwards, 
 because the greater number profit by a conformation so favourable 
 to a vertical position, to climb trees. 
 
 Each of these orders is subdivided into families and genera, and 
 principally from the conformation of the beak. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 ACCIPITRES, Lin. 
 
 Birds of Prey are known by their hooked beak and talons, pow- 
 erful weapons, with which they pursue other Birds, and even the 
 weaker Quadrupeds and Reptiles. They are among Birds what 
 the Carnivora are among Quadrupeds. The muscles of their thighs 
 and legs indicate the strength of their claws; their tarsi are rarely 
 elongated; they have, all, four toes; the nail of the thumb and that of 
 the internal toe are the strongest. 
 
 They form two families, the diurnal and the nocturnal. 
 
ACCIl'ITRES. 127 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 DIURNiE. 
 
 The eyes of the diurnal Birds of prey are directed sideways; they 
 have a membrane called the cera, or cere, covering the base of the 
 beak, in which the nostrils are pierced; three toes before, one behind, 
 without feathers, the two external ones almost always united at base 
 by a short membrane^ the plumage dense, the quills strong, and great 
 power on the wing. Their sternum is broad and completely ossified 
 in order to give more extended attachments to the muscles of the 
 wings, and their fourchette semicircular and widely separated, the 
 better to resist the violent flexions of the humerus necessary to a 
 rapid flight. 
 
 Linnaeus comprehended them all under two genera, which are so 
 many natural divisions, the Vultures and the Falcons. 
 
 VuLTUK, Lin. 
 
 The Vultures have eyes flush with the head, and reticulated tarsi, that is, 
 covered with small scales; an elongated beak, curved only at the end, and a 
 greater or less portion of the head, or even of the neck divested of feathers. 
 The strength of their talons does not correspond with their size, and they 
 make more use of their beak than of their claws. Their wings are so long 
 that in walking they keep them in a state of semi-extension. They are a 
 cowardly genus, feeding oftener on carrion than on a hving prey,- when they 
 have fed, their crop forms a great protuberance above the fourchette, a fetid 
 humour flows from their nostrils, and they are almost reduced to a state of 
 stupid insensibility. 
 
 Vult. gryphus, L. (The Condor.) Blackish; a gi-eat part of the wing 
 ash coloured; collar silky and white; the male, in addition to his superior 
 caruncle, which is large and entire, has another under the beak, like the 
 cock. This species has been rendered famous by exaggerated reports of 
 its size; it is, however, but a little larger than the Laemmer-geyer , to which 
 it assimilates in habits. It is found in the most elevated mountains of the 
 Andes in South America, and flies higher than any other bird. 
 
 The genus Vultur is now divided into Vkiltur proper, Catharies {ouv Tur- 
 key Buzzard), Percnopterus (the Urubu or Carrion Crow of the south), and 
 Gypactos, to which last belongs the Lsemmer-geyer, the largest bird of prey 
 in the eastern continent. 
 
 Falco, Lin. 
 The Falcons form the second, and by far most numerous division of the 
 diurnal birds of prey. Their head and neck are covered with feathersj 
 
128 AVES. 
 
 their eye-brows project, which occasions the eye to appear sunk, and gives 
 to their physiognomy a character very different from that of the Vultures: 
 the greater number prey on living animals, but they differ in the coiirage 
 with which they pursue it. Their first plumage is often very differently 
 coloured from that of the adult, which is only assumed in their third or 
 fourth year, a circumstance which has occasioned a great multiplication of 
 species. The female is generally one-third larger than the male, which, 
 on this account, is styled a tarselov tercel. We should, first of all, subdivide 
 this genus into two great sections. 
 
 NOBLE BIRDS OF PREY. 
 
 Falcons, properly so called. 
 
 The true Falcons constitute the first, and, in proportion to their size, are 
 the most courageous, a quality which is derived from the power of their 
 arms and M'ings; their beak, curved from its base, has a sharp tooth on each 
 side of its point, and the second quill of their wings is the longest, the first 
 nearly equalling it, which renders the whole wing longer and more pointed- 
 From this, also, result peculiar habits: the length of the quills of their wings 
 diminishes their vertical power, and compels them, in a calm state of the 
 atmosphere, to fly obliquely forwards, so that when they wish to rise 
 directly upwards, they are obliged to fly against the wind. 
 
 F. communis, Gm. (The Common Falcon. ) As large as a Hen, and dis- 
 tinguished by a triangular, black moustache on the cheek, larger than that 
 of any other species of the genus; it varies as to colours accorc^g to its age. 
 
 It is this celebrated species which has given its name to that kmd of hunt- 
 ing in which birds of prey are used. It inhabits the whole north of the 
 earth, and builds in the most elevated and inaccessible cliffs. 
 
 HiEROFALCO, CuV. (1) 
 
 The Gerfalcons have wing quills similar to those of the other Noble birds, 
 which they perfectly resemble in disposition; but their beak has only an 
 emargination like thatof the Ignoble ones. Only one species is well known. 
 
 F. candicans. (The Gerfalcon.) One fourth larger than the Falcon, and 
 the most highly esteemed by falconers. It is chiefly obtained from the 
 north; its usual plumage is brown above, with an edging of paler points on 
 each feather, and transverse lines on the coverts and quills. 
 
 The second section of the great genus Falco is that of the 
 
 IGNOBLE BIRDS OF PREY. 
 
 So called, because they cannot be easily employed in falconry; a tribe 
 much more numerous than that of the Nobles, and which it is also necessary 
 
 (1) Hierax, Hiero-falco, Sacred Falcon, &c. names connected with the 
 superstitions of the Egyptians respecting certain birds of prey. Gerfalcon 
 is a corniption of Hierofalco- 
 
ACCIPITRES. 129 
 
 to subdivide considerably. The fourth quill of their wings is almost always 
 the longest, and the first is very short, which produces the same effect as 
 if their wing were obhquely truncated at the tip, whence, cxteris pari- 
 bus, result diminished powers of flight; their beak also is not so well armed, 
 there being no lateral tooth near its point, but a mere slight emargination 
 about the middle of its length. 
 
 AatJiLA, Briss. 
 
 The Eagles which constitute the first tribe, have a very strong beak, 
 straight at base and only curved towai'ds the point. Among tliem we find 
 the largest species of the genus, and the most powerful of all the birds of 
 prey. 
 
 The Eagles are now subdivided into Aquila proper (to which belongs our 
 Ring-tailed Eagle), the Haliaetus of Savigny or Fisher Eagles of Cuvier (the 
 Pj'gargus and our Bald Eagle), -Pflnc?j07{ (the Osprey), Circaetus, Harpyia 
 (where we find the " Great Harpy of America" that possesses such 
 strength of beak as to be able to cleave a man's skull), and Morphnus, differ- 
 ing In certain peculiai-ities of the tarsi, claws, and wings. 
 
 AsTtTH, Bechst. 
 
 The Goshawks, which form the second division of the Ignobles, like the 
 last three tribes of Eagles, have wings shorter than their tail; but their beak 
 is curved from its base, as in all those which are to follow. We pai-ticu- 
 larly designate as Goshawks those which have rather short and scutellated 
 tarsi. 
 
 The name of Spakkowhawk, (Nisus, Cuv.) is generally appropriated to 
 those whose tarsi are higher and scutellated; but the transitions from one 
 division to the other are almost insensible. 
 
 F. nisus, L. (The Common Span'owhawk.) Coloured like the Gos- 
 hawk, but its legs are longer, and it is a third less in size. It is employed 
 however by falconers. 
 
 Mnvus, Bechstein. 
 
 The Kites have short tarsi, and weak toes and nails, wliich, added to a 
 beak equally disproportioned to their size, render them the most cowardly 
 species of the whole genus; they are distinguished by their excessively long 
 wings, and their forked tail, wliich give them great powers of flight. 
 
 F.furcatus, L,. (The Fork-tailed Kite.) Wliite; wings and tail black; 
 the two external quills of the latter veiy long; larger than the preceding. 
 It attacks reptiles. 
 
 Pehnis, Cuv. 
 The Honey-Buzzards, with the weak beak of the Kites, have a very pecu- 
 liar character in the space between the eye and the beak, which. In all the 
 rest of the genus Falco, is naked, and simply furnished with a few hairs, 
 but in these is covered with a dense plumage, the feathers of which are cut 
 
 R 
 
130 AVES. 
 
 like scales; their tarsi are half feathered above and reticulated: their tsul is 
 equal, vvings long", and their beak curved from its base like all those which 
 follow- 
 
 BuTEO, Bechstein. 
 The Buzzards have long wings; the taU equal; the beak curved from its 
 base; the space between it and the eyes naked; the feet strong. 
 
 CiHCTTs, Bechstein. 
 The Harriers differ from the Buzzards in their elevated tarsi, and in a 
 kind of collar on each side of their neck, formed by the tips of the feathers 
 which cover their ears. Finally, the 
 
 Sehpentarius, Cuv. 
 The Snake-Eater or Secretary, is an African bird of prey, whose tarsi are 
 at least double the length of those of the preceding ones, which caused 
 some naturalists to place it among the Grallatorise, or Waders; but its legs, 
 completely invested with feathers, its hooked and cleft beak, projecting 
 eye-lids, and all its anatomical details place it in the present order. It inha- 
 bits the dry and open grounds in the vicinity of the Cape, where it hunts 
 reptiles on foot; its claws consequently become much worn. Its chief 
 strength lies in the leg. 
 
 FAMILY 11. 
 
 NOCTURNE. 
 
 Nocturnal birds of prey have a large head; great eyes, directed 
 forwards, surrounded by a circle of slender feathers, the anterior of 
 which cover the cera of the beak, and the posterior, the opening of 
 the ear. Their enormous pupil permits the entrance of so many 
 rays of light, that they are dazzled by that of day. Their cranium, 
 which is thick, but formed of a light substance, is excavated by large 
 sinuses, which communicate with the ear, and which probably as- 
 sist in strengthening the sense of hearing; but the organs of flight 
 are not very vigorous; their fourchette is weak; their feathers being 
 soft, and covered with a fine down, make no noise in flying. They 
 can direct their external toe either forwards or backwards. These 
 birds are chiefly on the wing during twilight, and when the moon 
 shines. When attacked in the day time, they do not fly off", but 
 stand more erect, assume odd postures, and make the most ludicrous 
 gestures. 
 
 Their prey is wholly animal, consisting of Mice, small Birds, and 
 
ACCIPITRES. 131 
 
 Insects. Small birds have a natural antipathy to them, and fre- 
 quently assemble from all quarters to attack them. They form but 
 one genus, 
 
 Stkix, Lin. 
 The Owk may be divided by their tufts, the size of their ears, the extent 
 of the circle of feathers which surrounds their eyes, and some other char- 
 acters. 
 
 Otus, Cuv. 
 
 The Homed Owls, or those which have two tufts of feathers on the fore- 
 head, (Tulg. horns) which they can erect at pleasui-e; the conch of their 
 ear extends in a semicircle from the beak to the top of the head, and is fur- 
 nished in front with a membranous operculum. Their feet are feathered 
 down to the nails. Such is 
 
 Str. otus, L. (The Common Owl.) Fawn coloured, with longitudinal 
 brown spots on the body and underneath ; wings and back vermiculated 
 with brown; horns half the length of the head; eight or nine bands on 
 the tail. 
 
 The genus Strix, as already stated, now forms several subgenera such as 
 Otus, Symium, Bubo, Scops, and Nodua. To the last belongs the 
 
 Str. nydea, L. (The Snowy Owl.) This bird almost equals tlie Grand 
 Duo in size. Its snow-white plumage is mai'ked with transverse brown 
 spots, which disappear with age. It inhabits the north of both continents, 
 builds upon high rocks, and pursues Hares, Grouse, &c. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 PASSERIN.^.(l) 
 
 This order is the most numerous of the whole class. 
 
 The birds which compose it have neither the violence of the Birds 
 of Prey, nor the fixed regimen of the Gallinaceae, nor of the Water- 
 birds ; Insects, fruit, and grain constitute their food, which consists 
 the more exclusively of grain, in proportion to the largeness of 
 their beak, and of Insects, as it is the more slender. Those which 
 have strong beaks pursue even small birds. Among them we find 
 the singing birds, and the most complicated inferior larynx. 
 
 (1) Passerme; from Passer a span'ow. 
 
132 AVES. 
 
 The proportional length of their wings, and their power of flight 
 are as various as their habits. 
 
 Our first division is founded upon the feet; we then have recourse 
 to the beak. 
 
 The first and most numerous comprehends those genera in which 
 the external toe is united to its felfow by one or two phalanges only. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 DENTIROSTRES. 
 
 In this family the beak is emarginate on the sides of the point. 
 It is in this family that we find the greatest number of insectivorous 
 birds, though almost all of them likewise feed on berries and other 
 soft fruits. In the Shrikes, or 
 
 Lanius, Lin. 
 
 The beak is conical or compressed, and more or less hooked at the point. 
 
 Shrikes live in families, and fly in'egulaxiy and precipitately, uttering^ 
 shrill cries; they build on trees, lay five or six eggs, and take gi-eat care of 
 their young. They have a habit of imitating, on the spot, a part of the songs 
 of such birds as live in then- vicinity. The upper pai't of the females and of 
 the young is marked with fine transverse Hnes. 
 
 Lan. coUurio, Gm. (The Butcher Bu-d.) Top of the head and rump ash 
 coloured; back and wings fawn coloured; whitish above; a black band over 
 the eye; wing-qmlls black edged with fawn colour, those of the tail black, 
 the lateral ones white at base. It destroys smaU Birds, young Frogs and 
 great numbers of Insects, which it sticks upon the thorns of bushes, in order 
 to devour them at leisure, or to find them again when wanted. 
 
 The subdivisions of this genus are Vanga, OcypteruSt Barita, 8tc., differ- 
 ing chiefly in the arrangement of the beak. 
 
 MusciCAPA, Lin. 
 
 The Fly-Catchers have a horizontally depressed beak, furnished with hairs 
 at its base, and the point more or less hooked and emarginated. Their 
 general habits are those of the Shi'ikes, and they live on small Birds or In- 
 sects, according to their size. The weakest of them gradually approach the 
 form of the Wagtails. 
 
 This genus is now divided into various subgenera, such as Tyrannus, 
 Muscipeta, Muscicapa, Gymnocephalus, &c. The species are very numerous. 
 
 Ampelis, Lin. 
 The Crown-Birds have tlie depressed beak of the Flycatchers, but it is 
 somewhat shorter m proportion, tolerably broad and shghtJy arcuated. 
 
PASSERINiE. 133 
 
 Those in which it is the most pointed and sti'ong', have still a decidedly 
 insectivorous regimen : they are called Piauhau from then- note — ^the Que- 
 BULA, Vieill. They inhabit America, where they pursue Insects, in flocks. 
 
 They are now distributed into several subgenera, such as Tarsina, Ceble- 
 pyris, Bomhycilla (the Chatterers), Procnias, &c. 
 
 Edolius, Cuv. 
 Belongs also to the great series of the Flycatchers; the beak is depressed 
 and emarginato at the end; its upper ridge is acute; but what distinguishes 
 it, is, that both mandibles are slightly arcuated throughout their length; the 
 nostrils are covered with feathers, and there are, besides, long hairs form- 
 ing mustachios. 
 
 The species are numerous in the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean. 
 They are generally of a black hue, have a forked taU, and live on Insects; 
 some of them, it is said, sing as sweetly as the Nightingale. 
 
 Tanagea, Lin. 
 
 The Tanagers have a conical beak, triangular at base, slightly arcuated at its 
 ridge, emarginate near the end; \vings and flight short. They resemble the 
 Finches in habits, and feed on grain as well as on berries and insects. The 
 greater number are remarkable for their bright colours. 
 
 TuEDUs, Lin. 
 
 The Thrushes have a compressed and arcuatedbeak, but its point is not hook- 
 ed, and its emarginations do not form such deep notches as in the Shrikes; 
 as we have already stated, however, there are gradual transitions from one 
 genus to the other. 
 
 Theu- regimen is more frugivorous, generally feeding on berries. Their 
 habits are solitary. 
 
 T. polyghttus, L. (The Mocking-Bird.) From North America; ash- 
 coloured above, paler beneath, with a white band on the wing. It is cele- 
 brated for the astonishing facility with which it imitates the notes of other 
 birds, and even all kinds of sounds. 
 
 Buffbn has very properly separated from the Thrushes, the 
 
 Myotheea, Illig. 
 The Ant-Catchers are known by their long legs and short tail. They live on In- 
 sects, and chiefly on Ants. They are found in both continents. 
 
 M. rex. (King of the Ant-Catchers.) The largest of all, and stands the 
 highest; its tail, on the other hand, is the shortest, and at the first glance it 
 might be taken for a Wader; it is about the size of a Quail, and its grey plu- 
 mage is agreeably chequered. It Is more solitary than the others. 
 
 We must also separate from the Tlu-ushes: 
 
 CiNCLUs, Becbst. 
 Or the Water- Thrushes, wliich Ixave a compressed, straight beak, with man- 
 
134 AVES. 
 
 dibles of an equal height, neai-ly linear, and becotmng sharp near the point; 
 the upper one hardly arcuated. 
 
 Africa, and the countiics bordering on the Indian Ocean, produce a genus 
 of birds neighbours of the Thrushes, which I call 
 
 Philedon. 
 
 Their beak is compressed, slightly arcuated throughout its length, and 
 emar^ate near the point; nostrils large, and covered by a cartilagmous scale; 
 their tongue terminated by a pencil of hairs. 
 
 EULABES, CuV. 
 
 The birds of this genus are closely allied to those of the preceding one. 
 Their beak is nearly that of a Thrush; their nostrils are round and smooth. 
 Their distinguishing mark consists in broad strips of naked skin on each 
 side of the occiput, and a bald spot on the cheek. 
 
 Gracula, Cuv. 
 Is another genus allied to the Thrushes. The species inhabit Africa and the 
 countries bordei'ing on the Indian Ocean. Their beak is compressed, very 
 little arcuated, and slightly emarginate; its commissure forms an angle hke 
 that of the Starling. They have the habits of Starlings, and like tlxem, pur- 
 sue insects in flocks. 
 
 Pyrrhocorax, Cuv. 
 The compressed, arcuated, and sloped beak of the Thrushes; but their nos- 
 trils are covered with feathers, as in the Crows, to which they were for a 
 long time united. There is one in Europe. 
 I can find no character sufficient to warrant removing from the Thrushes 
 
 Oriolus, Lin. 
 Or the Orioles, whose beak, similar to that of the Tlunishes, is merely a little 
 stronger; the feet a little shorter, and the wings a little longer in proportion. 
 
 Gymnops, Cuv. 
 
 The same strong beak as the Orioles; the nostrils round, without scales or 
 surrounding membrane; a great part of the head naked. 
 
 Some of them have prominences on the beak. In these the tongue is 
 pencUlated as in Philedon. 
 
 MjENURa, Shaw. 
 These Birds evidently belong to the order of the Passerinse, and approach 
 the Thrushes in their beak, which is triangulai* at base, elongated, slightly 
 compressed, and emarginate near tlie point. They ai-c distinguished by tlie 
 great taU of tlie male, which is very remax'kable for the three sorts of feath- 
 
PASSERINE. 135 
 
 ers which compose it, viz. the twelve common ones with very fine and widely 
 separated barbs; two more in the middle only one side of which is furnished 
 with tliickly set barbs, and two external ones curved into the figiu-e of an S, 
 or like tlie arms of a lyre, whose internal barbs, large and thickly set, form 
 a kind of broad riband, while those tliat are external are very short, becom- 
 ing longer only near the tip. Tlie female has only twelve ordinary quills. 
 
 The singular species, Maenura lyra, inhabits the rocky districts of New 
 Holland; its size is somewhat less than that of the Pheasant. 
 
 MoTACiLLA, Lin. 
 The Warblers form an excessively numerous family, known by the beak, 
 which is straight, slender, and similar to a bodkin. When slightly depress- 
 ed at base, it approaches that of the Flycatchers; when compressed, and its 
 point is curved a little, it leads to the straight beaked Shrikes. 
 
 CuRRucA, Eechst. 
 
 A straight beak, slender throughout, slightly compressed before; the up- 
 per mandible a little ciu-ved near the point. The most celebrated of this 
 subgenus is 
 
 Mot. luscinia, L. (The Nightingale.) A reddish brown above; whitish 
 grey beneath; the tail somewhat redder. Every one knows this songster of 
 the night, and the varied melody with which it fills the woods. It builds 
 on trees, and does not begin to sing until the young ones are hatched. The 
 male, then, as well as the female, is occupied in providing them with food. 
 
 The other subgenera are Saxicola (the Wheat-ear) ; Sylvia (our Blue-Bird); 
 Regulus; Troghdytea (Wrens); Motacilla (the Wag-tails); Jlnthus (Meadow- 
 Larks). 
 
 We will terminate this family of the Dentirostres with some birds 
 distinguished from all preceding ones by their two external toes, 
 which are united at base for about a third of their length, a circum- 
 stance whch approximates them to the family of the Syndactyli. 
 
 PiPRA, Lin. 
 
 The Manakins have a compressed beak, higher than it is broad, and emar- 
 ginated; large nasal fossje . Their feet and tail are short; the general propor- 
 tions of their form have long caused them to be considered as very similar 
 to the Titmouse. At their head, but in a separate group, should be placed 
 
 RupicoLA, Briss. 
 The Rock Manakins, or Cocks of the Rock, which are large birds, and have 
 a double vertical crest on the head, formed of feathers aiTanged like a fan. 
 The adult males of the two American species, Pipra rupicola, and Pip. 
 peruviana, are of a most splendid orange colour; the young of an obscure 
 brown. They live on fhiit, scratch the ground like the common Hen, and 
 
136 AVES. 
 
 construct their nests with pieces of dry wood, in the depths of rocky caverns. 
 The female lays two eggs. 
 
 EuEYLAiMus, Horsf. 
 
 Toes similar to those of the Manakins and the'Rock Manakins; but the beak, 
 as strong as that of the Tyrants, is enormously broad and depressed, the base 
 even surpassing the width of the forehead. The point is a little hooked, 
 and slightly emarginate on each side; the ridge is blunt. 
 
 These birds inhabit the archipelago of India. The ground of their plu- 
 mage is black, variegated with patches of bright colours, and they have 
 something of the air of the Bucco, a genus of a very different order. They 
 live near water, and feed on insects. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 FISSIROSTRES. 
 
 The Fissirostres form a family, numerically small, but very distinct 
 from all others in the beak, which is short, broad, horizontally flat- 
 tened, slightly hooked, unemarginate, and with an extended commiss- 
 ure, so that the opening of the mouth is very large, which enables 
 them to swallow with ease the Insects they capture while on the wing. 
 
 They are most nearly allied to the Fly-catchers, and to the Proc- 
 nise in particular, whose beak only differs from theirs in being emar- 
 ginate. 
 
 They are separated, like the Birds of Prey, into two divisions, the 
 Diurnal and the Nocturnal. The genus 
 
 HiRUNDO, Lin, 
 Or the Swallows, comprehends the diurnal species, all of which are remark- 
 able for their dense plumage, extreme length of wing, and velocity of flight. 
 Among them we distinguish 
 
 CxpsEi-trs, Uliger. 
 Of all Birds, these have the longest wings in proportion to their size, and 
 the greatest powers of flight. Their tail is forked; their extremely short 
 feet have tliisvery peculiar character: the thumb is directed forward almost 
 as much as tlie other toes, and the middle and external ones consist each of 
 three phalanges like the internal one. The shoi'tness of their feet, together 
 with the length of their wings, prevents them, when on the ground, from 
 rising, and consequently tlicy pass their lives, if I may so express it, in the 
 air, pursuing, in flocks and with loud cries, their Insect prey tlirough the 
 highest regions of the atmosphere. They nestle in holes of walls, or fissures 
 in rocks, and chmb along the smoothest surfaces with great rapidity. 
 
PASSERINE. 137 
 
 HiRUTfDO, CuV. 
 
 The Swallows proper have the toes and sternum disposed like those of the 
 Passerinse generally. In some of them the feet are invested with feathers 
 down to the nails; the thumb still exhibits a disposition to incline forward; 
 the tail is forked, and of a moderate size. 
 
 There are some in which the tail is nearly square. Others have naked toes. 
 
 Capkimulgus, Lin.(l) 
 The Goatsuckers have the same light, soft plumage, shaded with grey 
 and brown, that characterizes the noctiu-nal bu'ds. Their eyes are large; 
 the commissure of the beak extending still higher up than that of the Swal- 
 low, and furnished with stiff mustachios, is capable of engulphing the largest 
 insects, which are retained there by a glutinous saliva; the nostrils, formed 
 like small tubes, are at its base. Their wings are long; their feet short, 
 with feathered tarsi, and their toes united at base by a short membrane. 
 Goatsuckers live solitarily, and never venture abroad, except at twilight, and 
 in the night during fine weatlier. They hunt Phalense and other noctui-nal 
 insects, and lay a small number of eggs on the bare ground, without taking 
 any pains in tlie construction of a nest. The rushing of the air into their 
 immense mouth, while on tI^e wing, produces a very peculiar humming sound. 
 America produces several of these birds with a round or square tail, one 
 of which, C. vociferus (The Whip-Poor-Will), is celebrated on account of its 
 loud and peculiar cries in the spring of the year. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 CONIROSTRES. 
 
 The Conirostres comprehend genera with a strong beak, more or 
 less conical, and unemarginate; the stronger and thicker their beak, 
 the more exclusively is grain their food. The first genus to be 
 distinguished is, 
 
 Alatjda, Lin. 
 
 The Larks are known by the nail of their thumb, which is straight, strong, 
 and much longer than the others. They are granivorous bh-ds, and pul- 
 verators. They build on the ground, and generally keep there. 
 The beak of the greater number is straight, moderately stout and pointed. 
 
 (1) Caprimulgus, Goatsucker, Mgothelas, names which derive their origin 
 from the whimsical idea, entertained by the people, of their sucking Goats 
 and even Cows. 
 
 s 
 
138 AVES. 
 
 PARtfs, Lin. 
 The Titmouse has a slender, short, conical and straight beak, furnished with 
 little hairs at the base, and the nostrils concealed among the feathers. It 
 is a genus of very active little bu'ds, which are continually flitting and climb- 
 ing from branch to branch, suspending themselves therefrom in all sorts of 
 positions, rending apart the seeds on which they feed, devouring insects 
 wherever they see them, and not sparing even small birds when they hap- 
 pen to find them sick and are able to put an end to them. They lay up 
 stores of seeds, build in the holes of old trees, and lay more eggs than any 
 of the Passerinse. 
 
 Emberiza, Lin. 
 The Buntings have a very distinct character in their conical, short and 
 straight beak, the upper mandible of which is narrow, sinks into the lower, 
 and has a projecting, hard tubercle on the palate. They are granivorous, 
 and unsuspicious birds, which run into every snare that is laid for them. 
 
 E. hortulana, Li. (The Ortolan.) The back olive-brown; throat yellow- 
 ish; the inner side of the two external feathers of the tail white. Builds 
 in hedges; is very fat and common in autumn. 
 
 Fkia'gilla, Lin. 
 
 The Sparrows have a conical beak, more or less thick at base; but its com- 
 missure is not angular. They feed generaEy on grain, and are for the most 
 part voracious and noxious. We subdivide them into 
 
 Ploceus (The Weavers), Pyrgita (Sparrows), Fringilla (Finches), Cardu- 
 elis (Goldfinches), Linaria (Linnets) to which belongs the Canary Bird, 
 Vidua (Widows), Coccothraustes (Grossbeaks), Pitylus, and Pyrrhula or 
 (Bullfinches). 
 
 LoxiA, Briss. 
 The Crossbills have a compressed beak, and the two mandibles so strongly 
 curved, that then* points cross each other, sometimes on one side sometimes 
 on the other. This singular beak enables them to tear out the seeds from 
 under the scales of the pine-cones. The European species is very common 
 wherever there are evergreen trees; it is, 
 
 Loxia curvirostra, L. (The Crossbill. ) The plumage of the young male 
 is of a vivid red, with brown wings; that of the adult, and of the female, is 
 gi-eenish above, yellowish beneath. 
 
 We cannot remove from the Bullfinches and tlie Crossbills 
 
 CORYTHUS, CuV. 
 The point of whose completely arched beak curves over the lower mandible. 
 The most known species is 
 
 Loxia enudeator, L. The Pine Grosbeak inhabits the north of botli con- 
 tinents, and lives in the same way as the Crossbill. It is red, or reddish, 
 the feathers of the tail and wings black edged with white. 
 
PASSERINE. 139 
 
 CoLius, Gm.(l) 
 The Colies also approximate considerably to the preceding birds. Their 
 beak is short, tliick, conical, and somewhat compressed, its two mandibles 
 being- arcuated, but without extending beyond each other; the quills of 
 their tail are cuneiform, and very long; their thimib, as in Cypselus, is 
 capable of being du'ected forwards like the other toes; their fine and silky 
 feathers are generally cinereous. They inhabit Africa and India, climb 
 something in the manner of Parrots, live in flocks, build many of their nests 
 on the same bush, and sleep suspended to its branches in crowds, with the 
 head downwards. They feed on fruit. 
 Here also come the 
 
 BuPHAGA, Briss. 
 
 The Beef-Eaters form a small genus in which the beak is of a moderate 
 length, cylindi'ical at the beginning, and inflated (both, mandibles) near the 
 end, which terminates in a blunt point. They use it to compress the skin 
 of cattle in order to force out the lai'vac of the CEstrus lodged in it, on which 
 they feed. 
 
 One species only is known, and that is from Africa; brownish, with a mode- 
 rate sized cimeiform tail; as large as a Thrush. It is the JBuphaga africana. 
 
 Cassicus, Cuv. 
 A large and exactly conical beak, thick at base, and very sharp at the point; 
 small round nostrils, pierced on the sides;. the commissure of the mandibles 
 forms a broken line, or is angular like that of the Starlings. They are 
 American birds, whose manners are similar to those of the last mentioned 
 ones, living hke them in flocks, frequently constructing their nests close 
 together, and sometimes with much art. They feed on grain and Insects, 
 and do great injury to cultivated grounds. They are now divided into 
 Cassicus proper. Icterus, &c. • Among the latter we distinguish a species 
 with a somewhat shorter beak, the 
 
 Icterus pecoris. Tern. (The Cow Bunting.) A violet black; head and 
 neck a brown grey. Lives in flocks among cattle; but the most peculiar 
 trait in its habits is that, like the Cuckoo, it lays its eggs in other bird's nests. 
 
 Sturnus, Lin. 
 The Starlings have a beak that is depressed, especially near the point. 
 
 We can find no sufficient character to enable us to distinguish 
 from the Conirostres with certainty and precision, the different gen- 
 era of the family of the Crows, all of which have a similar internal 
 structure and external organs, only differing in a (generally) 
 
 (1) Koxoiti, the Greek name of a small species of Crow. 
 
140 AYES. 
 
 greater size, which sometimes enables them to hunt small birds: their 
 strong beak is most commonly compressed on the sides. 
 
 These genera are three in number, the Crows, Birds of Paradise, 
 and the Rollers. 
 
 CoKVus, Lin. 
 
 The Crows have a strong beak, more or less laterally flattened, nostrils 
 covered with stiff feathers, which incline forwards. They are very cunning, 
 their sense of smell is extremely acute, and they have, generally, a habit of 
 purloining articles totally useless to them, such as pieces of money, &c., 
 and even of hiding them. 
 
 We more particularly call Crows or Ravens, the large species whose 
 beaks are the strongest in proportion, and in which the ridge of the upper 
 mandible is the most arcuated. Their tail is either round or square. 
 
 C. coraXfL.. (The Raven.) Is the largest of the Passerinse which inhabit 
 Europe. Its size is equal to that of the Cock. Its plumage is entirely black, 
 the tail is rounded, and the back of the upper mandible arcuated near the 
 point. It is a more solitary bird than the other species, flies well and high, 
 scents carrion at the distance of a league, and feeds also on fruit and small 
 animals. It sometimes carries off" poultiy, builds on the tops of high trees 
 or rocky cliffs, is easily tamed, and may be taught to speak tolerably well. 
 It appears to be found in every part of the globe. 
 
 C. corone,L. (The Crow.) A fourth smaller than the Raven; the tail 
 more square, and the beak less arcuated above. 
 
 C. frugilegus, L. (The Rook.) Still smaller than the preceding, with a 
 straighter and more pointed beak. The circumference of the base of the 
 latter, except when very young, is divested of feathers, which is probably 
 occasioned by its habit of tlirusting it into the ground in search of food. 
 
 The Jackdaw is also a Corvus. 
 
 Pica, Cuv. 
 
 The upper mandible is more arcuated than the other, and the tail long 
 and cuneiform. 
 
 Corvus pica, L. (The Magpie of Europe.) A beautiful bird, of a silky 
 black colour, with purple, blue, and gold reflections; the beUy is white, and 
 there is a large spot of the same colour on the wing. Its eternal chattering 
 has rendered it notorious. 
 
 Garkulus, Cuv. 
 The two mandibles of the Jays are but little elongated, terminating in a 
 sudden, and^ nearly equal cui*ve; when the tail is cuneiform, it is not very 
 long, and the loose and slender feathers of the forehead stand more or less 
 erect when the bird is angry. 
 
PASSERINiE. 141 
 
 Cahtocatactes, Cuv. 
 
 The Nutcrackers have the two mandibles straight, equally pointed, and 
 without any curve. There is only one species known. 
 
 Corvus caryocatactes, L. (The Common Nutcracker. ) Brown ; the whole 
 body spotted with wliite. It builds in the hollows of trees, in dense moun- 
 tain forests, cUmbs trees and perforates tlieir bark hke the Woodpeckers, 
 feeds on all kinds of fruit, insects, and small birds. 
 
 CoRAciAs, Lin. 
 The Rollers have a strong beak, compressed near the point, which is a 
 little hooked. The nostrils are oblong, placed at the edge of the feathers, 
 but without being cov^ei-ed by them; the feet shoi-t and stout. They belong 
 to the eastern continent, and are like the Jays in their habits and in the loose 
 feathers on the forehead. Their colours are vivid, but rarely harmonious. 
 
 Pakadis^a, Lin. 
 The Birds of Paradise, like the Crows, have a strong, straight, compressed 
 beak, without any emarginations, and with covered nostrils; but the influ- 
 ence of the climate they inhabit, an influence extended to birds of several 
 other genera, gives a velvet tissue to tlie feathers which cover these nostrils, 
 and frequently a metallic lustre, at the same time that it singularly developes 
 those which cover several parts of the body. They are natives of New 
 Guinea and of the adjoining islands, are said to live on fruits, and to be par- 
 ticxdarly fond of aromatics. 
 
 The feathers on the flanks of some of them are silky, and singularly ex- 
 tended into bunches longer than the body, which give such a hold to the 
 wind that they are very often swept away by it. There are also two bearded 
 filaments adhering to the rump, which are as long as, and even longer than 
 the feathers on the flanks. 
 
 P. apoda, L. Size of a Thrush, maronne ; top of the head andneck yellow ; 
 circumference of the beak and tlii'oat of an emerald green. It is the male 
 of this species wliich is ornamented with those long bundles of yellowish 
 feathers employed by the ladies as plumes. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 TENUIROSTRES. 
 
 This family comprehends the remaining birds of the first division; 
 those in which the beak is slender, elongated, sometimes straight, 
 and sometimes more or less arcuated, and without any emargination. 
 They are to the Conirostres what the Motacillffi are to the other 
 Dentirostres. 
 
142 AVES. 
 
 SiTTA, Lin. 
 
 The Nuthatches have a straight, prismatic, pointed beak, compressed near 
 the point, which they employ Mke the Woodpeckers to perforate the bark 
 of trees, and in withdrawing the larvae contained In it; but their tongue is 
 not extensible, and although they climb in every direction, they have but 
 one toe behind, which, it is true, is a strong one. The tail is of no use in 
 supporting them, as is the case with the Woodpeckers and True Creeners. 
 
 Ceethia, Lin. 
 Or the Creepers, have an arcuated beak, but that is the only common char- 
 acter they possess. The True Creepers, so called from their habit of 
 climbing trees like Woodpeckers, in doing which they make use of their 
 tail as a prop or supporter, are known by the quills of the tail, which are 
 worn, and terminate in a stiff point, like those of the same birds. They are 
 divided into various subgenera. 
 
 Trochilus, Lin. 
 The Hummingbirds, so celebrated for the metallic lusti-e of their plumage, 
 and chiefly for those plates, brilliant as precious stones, which are formed 
 by scaly feathers of a pecuhar structure, on their throat or head, have a long 
 slender beak, enclosing a tongue, which they can protrude at will, Mke that 
 of the Woodpeckers (and by the same mechanism), which is split almost 
 to its base, forming two filaments, employed, as is asserted, in taking up the 
 nectar from flowers. They also, however, feed on small insects, for we 
 have found their stomach filled with them. Their very small feet, broad 
 tail, excessively long and narrow wings, short humerus and large sternum, 
 which is without emargination, all contribute to form a system adapted for 
 great power of flight; similar to that of the Swallows. The narrowness of 
 their wing is caused by the rapid abbreviation of its quills. By these means, 
 they balance themselves in air with nearly as much facility as certain Flies, 
 and it is thus that they hum about flowers and fly with more propoilionate 
 rapidity than any other bird- They five singly, defend theu: nests with 
 courage, and fight desperately with each other. 
 
 Upupa, Lin. 
 The Hoopoes have an ornament on the head formed of a double range of 
 long feathers, which they can erect at will. The subgenera are Promerops 
 and Epimachus. 
 
 The second and smallest division of the Passerinae connprehends 
 those in which the external toe, which is nearly as long as the mid- 
 dle one, is united to it as far as the penultimate articulation. We 
 make but a single group of them, the 
 
PASSERINE. 143 
 
 SYNDACTYLY, 
 Which has long been divided into several genera. 
 
 Merops, Lin. 
 The Bee-eaters have an elongated beak, triangular at base, slightly arcuated 
 and terminating in a sharp point. There is a double emargination on each 
 side of the hind part of the sternum. Theii- long, pointed wings, and short 
 feet render their flight similar to tliat of Swallows. They pursue insects in 
 gfreat flocks, especially bees, wasps, 8cc. and it is remarkable, that they are 
 never stung by them. 
 
 Pkionites, lllig. 
 The Motmots have their feet and carriage, but differ in the beak which is 
 stronger, the edges of both mandibles being serrated, and in their tongue, 
 which, like that of the Toucans, is barbed. They are beautiful birds, as 
 large as the Magpie; the plumage on the head loose as in the Jays, and a 
 long cuneiform tail; the stems of the two middle quills being stripped of 
 their webs for a short distance near the extremities, gives to the whole a 
 singular appearance. They fly badly, are solitary, build in holes, feed on 
 insects, and even on small birds. 
 
 Alcedo, Lin. 
 The Kingfishers have shorter feet than the Bee-eaters, and the beak much 
 longer, which is straight, angular, and pointed; the tongue and tail are very 
 short. They feed on small fish which tliey capture by precipitating them- 
 selves into the water from some branch where they have remained perched, 
 watching for their prey. They nestle like Bee-eaters in holes on the banks 
 of streams, and are found in both continents. 
 
 ToDus, Lin. 
 The Todies are small birds of America resembling the Kingfishers in their 
 general form as well as in their feet and elongated beak, but the latter is 
 horizontally flattened, and obtuse at the point. The tarsus also is higher, 
 and the tail not so short. They feed on flies and build on the ground. 
 
 BucEROs, Lin. 
 The Hombills are large birds of Africa and India, whose enormous dentated 
 beak is studded with excrescences which sometimes equal in size the beak 
 itself, and which are always of considerable extent above. This renders 
 them very remarkable, and allies them to the Toucans; while, at the same 
 time, theu' cari'iage and habits approximate them to tlae Crows, and their 
 feet to the Bee-eaters and the Kingfishers. The shape of these excrescen- 
 ces on the beak varies with age, and in tlie very young bii'd they are not 
 even visible; the interior is generally cellular. They live on all sorts of food, 
 eat soft fruits, hunt mice, small bu-ds, reptiles, and do not even despise 
 carrion. 
 
144 AVES. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 SCANSORIiE. 
 
 This order is composed of those birds whose external toe is di- 
 rected backwards Hke the thumb, by which conformation they are 
 the better enabled to support the weight of their bodies, and of which 
 certain genera take advantage in clinging to and climbing upon 
 trees. It is from this that they have received the common name of 
 Climbing Birds, which in strictness is not applicable to all of them, 
 as there are many true Climbers which by the disposition of their 
 toes cannot belong to this order, instances of which we have already 
 seen in the Creeper and Nuthatch, 
 
 The Scansoria3 usually nestle in the hollows of old trees; their 
 powers of flight are middling; their food, like that of the Passerinas, 
 consists of insects or fruit, in proportion as their beak is more or 
 less stout; some of them, the Woodpeckers for instance, have pecu- 
 liar means for obtaining it. 
 
 Galbula, Briss. 
 
 The Jacamars are closely allied to the Kingfishers by their elongated sharp- 
 pointed beak, the upper ridge of which is angular, and by then* short feet, 
 the anterior toes of which are almost wholly united; these toes, however, 
 are not precisely the same as those of the Kingfishers; their plumage more- 
 over is not so smooth, and always has a metallic lustre. They are solitary 
 birds, that live in wet forests, feed on insects, and buUd on low branches. 
 The American species have a longer and perfectly straight beak. 
 
 Picus, Lin. 
 The Woodpeckers are well characterized by their long, straight, angular 
 beak, the end of wliich is compressed into a wedge, and fitted for split- 
 ing the bark of trees; by their slender tongue, armed near the tip with spines 
 that curve backwards, which by the action of the elastic horns of tlie hyold 
 bone can be tlu'ust far out of the beak, and by their tail, composed of ten 
 quiUs with stiff and elastic stems, which acts as a prop in supporting them 
 while they are chmbing. They are Climbers par excellence: they wander 
 over trees in every direction, striking the bark with their beaks, and insin- 
 uating their long tongue into its cracks and crevices to obtain tlie larvx of 
 insects, on which they feed. Fearful and wary, they pass most of their time 
 in a solitary manner, but at a certain season they may frequently be heard 
 
SCANSORI^. 145 
 
 tapping- loudly and rapidly on a dry branch. They build once a year in 
 holes of trees, and each sex alternately broods upon the eggs until tlicy we 
 hatched. 
 
 YuNx, Lin. 
 
 The Wrynecks have the protractile tongue of the Woodpeckers, which is 
 also moved by tlie same kind of mechanism, but tlie spines are wanting; 
 their straight and pointed beak is nearly round, and without any angles? the 
 quills of their tail are hke tliose of Birds in general. Their mode of life is 
 that of the Woodpeckers, except that they climb but seldom. 
 
 CucuLus, Lin. 
 The Cuckoos have a middling, well cleft, compressed, and slightly arcuated 
 beak; the tail long. They live on Insects, and are Birds of passage. 
 They are celebrated for the singular habit of laying their eggs in the nests 
 of other insectivorous Birds, and, what is not less extraoi'dinary, these latter, 
 which are often a considerably smaller species, take as much care of the 
 young Cuckoo as of their own true offspi-ing", and that too, even when its 
 introduction has been preceded, which often happens, by the destruction 
 of their eggs. The rationale of this phenomenon is unknown. 
 
 Malcoha, Vaill. 
 A very stout beak, round at base, and arcuated near the point, with a large 
 naked space about the eyes. The nostrils of some are round, and placed 
 near the base of the beak, in others they are nan'ow and situated neai' its edge. 
 They are natives of Ceylon; and, as it is said, live chiefly on fruit, 
 
 ScYTHROPs, Lath. 
 
 The beak stiU longer and stouter than that of Malcoha, and grooved on each 
 side with two shallow longitudinal fuiTows; circumference of the eyes 
 naked; nostrils round. These birds approach the Toucans in their beak; 
 but their simple tongue, which is not ciliated, separates them. One species 
 only is known, which is as large as a Crow, whitish, with a grey mantle; 
 found in New Holland. 
 
 Bucco, Lin. 
 The Barbets have a thick conical beak, inflated on the sides of its base, and 
 furnished with five bundles of stiff hairs directed forwards; one behind the 
 nostril, one on each side of the base of the lower jaw, and the fifth under 
 its symphysis. The wings are short, and their proportions are heavy, as is 
 also their flight. They hve on Insects, and will attiick small Birds; tiiey also 
 eat fruit. They build in the hollows of trees. 
 
 Trogon, Lin. 
 The Couroucoui, along with the hairy fasciculi of the Barbets, have a short 
 T 
 
146 AVES. 
 
 beak, which is more broad than high, and curved from the base, its upper 
 ridge arcuated and blunt. Their small feet, feathered nearly down to the 
 toes, long broad tail, fine light and dense plimiage, give them quite a dif- 
 ferent air. Some part of their plumage usually has a metallic lustre, 
 the remainder being coloured more or less vividly. They build in hoUow 
 trees, live on insects, and remain in a sohtary and quiet mood on low 
 branches in the centre of marshy forests, never being seen on the wing ex- 
 cept during the morning and evening. They are found in both continents. 
 
 Crotophaga, Lin. 
 
 The Mni are known by their beak, which is thick, compressed, arcuated, 
 entire, elevated, and surmounted with a vertical and trenchant crest. 
 
 Two species are known, Crotophaga Tnajor and Croto ani, both from the 
 hot and low districts of America. Their tarsi are strong and elevated, the 
 tail long and rounded, and the pliunage black. 
 
 These Bu'ds feed on Insects and grain, and live in flocks, several couples 
 laying their eggs, and even brooding-over them in the same nest, which, 
 together with the branches that support it, is of a size proportioned to the 
 number of couples that have constructed it. They are easily tamed, and 
 may be taught to speak, but their flesh has a disagreeable odour. 
 
 Ramphastos, Lin. 
 
 The Toucans are easily distinguished from all other Birds by their enormous 
 beak, which is almost as thick and as long as their body, light and cellular in- 
 ternally, arcuated near the end, and irregularly indented along its edges; and 
 by their long, narrow, and cihated tongue. They are confined to the hot 
 climates of America, where they live in small flocks, feeding on fruit and 
 Insects; they also devour other Bu'ds' eggs, and their callow ofispring. The 
 structure of their beak compels them to swallow their food without mastica- 
 tion. When they haA'e seized it, they toss it into the air to swallow it with 
 more facility. 
 
 PsiTTACus, Lin. 
 
 The Parrots have a stout, hard, solid beak, rounded on all sides and en- 
 veloped at base by a membrane in which the nostrils are pieixed, and a thick 
 fleshy and rovuided tongue; two circumstances which give them the great- 
 est facility in imitating the hmnan voice. Their inferior larynx, which is 
 complicated and furnished on each side with its three muscles, also contri- 
 butes to this facility. They feed on aU sorts of fruit, climb among the 
 branches of trees by the aid of theu" beak and claws, and build in hoUow 
 trees. Their voice is naturally harsh and disagreeable, and they are almost 
 universally ornamented with the brightest colours, hardly any of them being 
 found beyond the torrid zone. They exist however in both continents, the 
 species of course differing in each. Every large island even has its pecu- 
 liar species, the short wings of these birds not allowing them to cross any 
 g^eat extent of water. The Parrots, consequently, are very numerous: they 
 
SCANSORI^. 147 
 
 are subdivided by the forms of their tails and some other characters. To 
 these subdivisions belong the Macaws, Paroquets, Cockatoos, &c. 
 
 There are two African birds, closely allied to each other, and 
 generally placed among the Scansorioe, which appear to me have 
 some analogy witli the Gallinacea^, and especially with the Hoccos. 
 
 They have the tail and wings of the Hoccos, and like them perch 
 on trees; the beak is short, and the upper mandible gibbous; there 
 is a short membrane between the fore-toes, but the external one, it 
 is true, is often directed backwards like that of the Ululaj. Their 
 nostrils, also, are simply pierced in the horn of the beak, the edges 
 of the mandibles are dentated, and the sternum (at least that of the 
 Touraco) has not those large emarginations, so common in the Gal- 
 linacese. There are two genera of these birds: the first is, 
 
 CoKYTHAIX, Illig. 
 Or the Touracos, in which the beak does not mount on the forehead, and 
 the head is furnished with an erectile tuft. The most common species, 
 
 Cuculus persa, L., is found in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope. It 
 is a beautiful green, witli part of the quills of the wings crimson. It builds 
 in hollow trees, and feeds on fruit. Tlie second is the 
 
 MusoPHAGA, Isert. 
 Or the Plaintain-eaters, so called because their principal food is the fruit of 
 the banana. They are characterised by the base of the beak forming a 
 disk, which partly covers the forehead. The species known is 
 
 J^f. violacea, Vieill. Circumference of the eyes naked and red; violet- 
 coloured plumage; occiput and primary quills of the wings, crimson; a white 
 line passes below the naked space round the eye. Inhabits Guinea and 
 Senegal. 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 
 GALLINACEtE.— GALLiNiE, Lin. 
 
 These birds are so called from their affinity with the Domestic 
 Cock, and like it, generally have the upper mandible arched, the 
 nostrils pierced in a broad membranous space at the base of the beak 
 and covered by a cartilaginous scale; a heavy carriage, short wings, 
 and the bony sternum diminished by two emarginations, so wide and 
 
148 AVES. 
 
 deep that they occupy nearly the whole sides, its crest being trunca- 
 ted obliquely forwards so that the sharp point of the fourchette is 
 only joined to it by a ligament, circumstances which, by greatly im- 
 pairing the strength of the pectoral muscles, render it difficult for 
 them to fly. Their tail generally consists of fourteen quills, and 
 sometimes of eighteen. With the exception of the Hocco they all 
 lay their eggs on the ground, on a few carelessly arranged blades of 
 straw or grass. 
 
 This order is chiefly composed of one very natural family, remark- 
 able for having furnished us with most of our domestic poultry, and 
 abundance of excellent game. 
 
 Alectoe, Merr.(l) 
 The Hoccos are large Gallinacese of America, which resemble Turkeys, with 
 a broad, rounded tail, formed of large and stiff quills. They live in the woods, 
 feed on buds and fruit, perch and build on trees, are very social, and easily 
 domesticated. 
 
 The remaining genera belonging to this division are Ourax (Stone Bird), 
 Penelope (The Guans or Yacous), Ortalida, and Opisthocomus. 
 
 Pavo, Lin. 
 
 The Peacocks are characterized by an aigrette or crest on the head, and by 
 the coverts of the tail of the male being larger than its quills, and capable 
 of being erected so as to foi-m a circle. The sliining, las and silky barbs of 
 these feathers, and tlie ocellated spots that decoi-ate their esti-emities, are 
 well known in the 
 
 P. crlstatusylj, (The Common Peacock.) Tliis superb bird, originally 
 from the north of India, was introduced into Europe by Alexander. Its 
 magnificent plumage is even surpassed in brilliancy by that of the wild ones. 
 
 Meleagkis, Lin. (2) 
 
 The Turkeys have their head and upper pait of the neck invested with a 
 plumeless and papillated skin; an appendage \mder the throat, and another 
 conical one on the forehead, wliich, in the male, when excited by passion, 
 becomes so inflated and long, as to hang over tlie pomt of tlie beak. From 
 the lower part of the neck of the adult male hangs a tuft or tassel of stiff 
 hairs; the coverts of the tail, shorter and stlffer than in the Peacock, can be 
 erected and displayed irf the same way. The tarsi of the male are armed 
 with weak spurs. But one species was known for a long time. 
 
 Meleagris gallo-pavo, L. (The Common Turkey.) Introduced into Eu- 
 
 (1) Alector is the Greek name of the Cock. 
 
 (2) Meieagris is the Greek name of the Guinea-Hen, erroneously ap- 
 plied by LimiKus to the Tm-key. 
 
GALLINACEiE. 149 
 
 rope fi-om America in tlie sixteenth century. The si:ie of this noble bird, 
 and tlxe goodness of its flesh, have rendered it extremely common. The 
 Wild Turkey of America is of a greenish brown, with a (^pper gloss. 
 A second species, however, 31. ocellata, Cuv. has lately been described, al- 
 most equal to the Peacock in the brUhancy of its coloui-s, and particularly 
 in the sapphire coloured spots sun-ounded with cu-cles of gold and i-uby, 
 which decorate the tail. It was captured in the bay of Honduras. 
 
 NcMiDA, Lin. 
 
 The Guinea-fowb, or Pintados, have a naked head, fleshy wattles at the 
 bottom of the cheeks, a short tail, and the cranium generally surmounted 
 with a callous crest. 
 
 iV". mekagris, L. (The Common Guinea-Hen), originally from Africa, 
 has a slate-coloui'ed plumage, every where sprinkled with small, white, 
 round spots. In a wild state they live in lai-ge flocks, and prefer the vici- 
 nity of marshes. There are two species. The great genus 
 
 Phasianus, Lin. 
 Or that of the Pheasants, is characterized by the cheeks being partly desti- 
 tute of feathers, and covered with a red skin, and by the tectiform tail, in 
 which the feathers are variously disposed. 
 
 This great genus Is now divided into various subgenera, such as Gallus 
 (our common Cock and Hen) of which several wild species are known. 
 Pheasants properly so called (Common Pheasant of Europe, Gold and SUver 
 Pheasants of China, &c. ), Tragcrpan, &c. 
 
 Tetrao, Lin. 
 
 This also is a great genus, characterized by a naked and most generally red 
 band, wliich occupies the place of the eye-brow. It is divided into subge- 
 nera as follows. 
 
 Tetrad, Lath. 
 
 The feet of Ch-ous are covered with feathers, and are without spurs. 
 Those to which this name is more particularly appHed have a round or 
 forked tail and naked toes. 
 
 In some the feathers on each side of the neck of the males are turned up 
 like a mantlet, or two scrolls: then* habits have an affinity with those of the 
 Tui'key. Such are 
 
 Tetr. umhellus and togatus, Gm. ; called Partridge in New England, and 
 Pheasant in Pennsylvania. Found in the mountain forests. 
 
 Tetr. cupido, Gm. (The Pinnated Grous.) Variegated with brown and 
 fawn colour; tail brown? tarsi feathered down to the toes; the feathers on 
 the bottom of the male's neck turn up into two pointed scrolls, beneath 
 which is a naked skin, which he inflates like a bladder; his voice sounds 
 like a trumpet. Found on extensive plains, and is such delicious food that 
 laws have been passed to preserve them. The name of 
 
\ 
 
 150 AVBS. 
 
 Laoofus, 
 
 Or Ptarmigan, is more particularly applied to those species which have 
 a round or square tail and whose toes are feathered as well as the legs. 
 
 Tdr. albus, Gm., called of Hudson's Bay. (The White Ptarmig'an.) 
 From the whole North; is larger, and its summer plumage more red; its belly 
 remains white. 
 
 Perbix, Briss. 
 Partridges have the tarsi naked like the toes. Among them the 
 
 FnANCoiiNtrs, Tem. 
 Is distinguished by a longer and stronger beak; a larger tail, and, generally 
 speaking, by stout spurs. 
 
 Common Partridges 
 Have a somewhat weaker beak; the spurs of the males are either short, 
 or mere simple tubercles; they are deficient in the female. 
 
 COTURKIX. 
 
 Quails are smaller than Partridges, with a slenderer beak and shorter tail; 
 no red eye-brow nor spurs. 
 
 The Partridges and Quaiis of America 
 Have a stouter, shorter, and more convex beak; the tail is somewhat 
 larger. They perch on bushes, and, when distui-bed, even on trees. Se- 
 veral of them migrate like the Quails of Europe. There are some othei* 
 subgenera. 
 
 TiNAMus, Lath. 
 Or the Tinamous is a genus of American birds very remarkable for a slen- 
 der and long neck, (although their tarsi are short) covered with feathers, the 
 tips of whose barbs are slender and shghtly curled, which gives a very pe- 
 culiar air to that part of their plumage. The beak is long, slender, and 
 blunt at the end; somewhat arched, with a little groove on each side; the 
 nostrils are pierced in the middle of each side, and penetrate obhquely 
 backwards. Their wings are short, and they have scarcely any tail. The 
 membrane between the base of the toes is very short. Their thumb, re- 
 duced to a spur, cannot reach the ground. The ch-cumference of the eye 
 is partly naked. They either perch on low branches of trees, or liide among 
 tall grass; they feed on fruits and insects, and their flesh is good. Their 
 size varies from that of the Pheasant down to that of the Quail, some of 
 them are even still smaller. 
 
 CoLUMBA, Lin. 
 The Pigeons may be considered as forming a slight transition from the 
 Gallinace^ to the Passerinae. Like the former, theu- beak is vaulted, the 
 
GALLINACEiE. 151 
 
 nostrils perforated in a broad membranous space, and covered with a carti- 
 laginous scale, which even forms a bulge at the base of the bill; the bony 
 sternum is deeply and doubly emarginated, although somewhat differently f 
 the crop extremely dilated, and the lower larynx furnished with but a single 
 proper muscle; but there is no other membrane between the base of their 
 toes than that which results from the continuity of tlie edges. Their tail is 
 composed of twelve quills. They fly well, Hve in a state of monogamy, 
 build on trees or in fissures among rocks, and lay but few eggs at a time, 
 generally two; it is true they lay frequentiy. The male assists his mate in 
 the business of brooding. They nourish their young by disgorging mace- 
 rated grain into their crop. They form but one genus, which naturalists 
 have attempted to di%nde into several subgenera, from the greater or less 
 strength of the bill and the proportions of the feet. 
 
 They are tiie Columbi-Gallines (the Crowned Pigeon of India, almost as 
 large as a Turkey); Columbaproper (Cushat, Stock Dove, Turtle Dove, Ring 
 Dove, &c.); and Vinago, of which latter there are but few species, and all 
 inhabiting the torrid zone of the eastern continent. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 
 GRALLATORI^.— Gralls, Lin. 
 
 The birds of this order derive their name from their habits, and 
 from the conformation which causes them. They are known by the 
 nudity of the lower part of their legs, and most generally by the 
 height of their tarsi; two circumstances which enable them to enter 
 the water to a certain depth without wetting their feathers; to wade 
 through it and seize Fish by means of their neck and bill, the length 
 of which is usually proportioned to that of the legs. Those which 
 are furnished with a strong bill feed on Fish and Reptiles, while such 
 as have a weak one consume Worms and Insects. A very few 
 feed partially on grain, and they alone live at a distance from rivers, 
 &c. The external toe is most commonly united at its base with 
 that of the middle one, by means of a short membrane; sometimes 
 there are two similar membranes, and at others they are entirely 
 wanting and the toes are completely separated; it sometimes also 
 happens, though rarely, that they are bordered all along, or palma- 
 ted to the very end; in fine, the thumb is deficient in several genera; 
 circumstances, all of which have an influence on their mode of life, 
 which is more or less aquatic. Almost all these birds, the Ostriches 
 
152 , AVES. 
 
 and Cassowaries excepted, have long wings, and fly well; during 
 which action they extend they legs backwards, differing in this from 
 all others, which fold them under the belly. 
 
 In this order we establish five principal families, and some insu- 
 lated genera. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 BREVIPENNES. 
 
 These birds, although similar in general to the other Grallatoriae, 
 differ from them greatly in one point — the shortness of the wings^ 
 which renders flight impossible. The beak and regimen give thera 
 numerous affinities with the Gallinacese. 
 
 It appears as if all the muscular power which is at the command 
 of nature, would be insufficient to move such immense wings as 
 would be required to support their massive bodies in the air. The 
 sternum is a simple buckler, and is deficient in that ridge which is 
 found in all other birds. The pectoral muscles are thin and delicate, 
 but the posterior extremities regain what the wings have lost — the 
 muscles of the thighs, and of the legs in particular, being enormously 
 thick and stout. 
 
 The thumb is always deficient. They form two genera. 
 
 Stkuthio, Lin. 
 
 The Ostriches have wings furnished with loose and flexible feathers, but still 
 sufficiently long to increase their speed in running. Every one knows the 
 elegance of these slender-stemmed plumes, the barbs of which, although 
 furnished with little hooks, always remain separate, contrary to wliat takes 
 place in most other birds. Their beak is horizontally depressed, of a mod- 
 erate length, and blunt at the end; their tongue short, and rounded Uke a 
 crescent; their eye large, and the lid fringed with lashes; then- legs and tarsi 
 very long. 
 
 But two species are known, each of which might form a separate genus. 
 
 Struthio camelus, L. (The Ostrich of the Eastern Continent.) But two 
 toes, the external of which is one half shorter than its fellow, and has no nail. 
 This bird, so highly celebrated from the earliest ages, abounds in the sandy 
 deserts of Arabia and Africa. It attains the height of six or . eight feet, 
 lives in great troops, lays eggs, each weighing nearly three pounds, which, 
 in very hot climates, it is contented with exposing in the sand to the wai-mth 
 of the sun, but over wlaich, out of the tropics, it broods with great care, 
 defending them courageously every where. The Ostrich feeds on grass, 
 
GBALLATORIiE. 153 
 
 grain, &c., and so obtuse is its sense of taste that it swallows pebbles, pieces 
 of iron, copper, &c. When pm-sued it dashes stones behind it with great 
 violence. No animal can ovei-take it in the race. 
 
 Strutk. rhea, L. (The American Ostrich. ) Is about one half smaller, with 
 more thinly furnished feathers, of a uniform grey coloiu'i and particularly 
 distinguished by its tlu-ee toes, all having nails. Its plumage is gi-eyish, 
 browner on the back: a black hne along the back of the neck in the male. 
 It is as common in the southern parts of South America, as the preceding 
 one is in Africa. When taken young, it is easily tamed. Several females, 
 it is said, lay in the same nest, or rather the same hole, yellowish eggs, 
 which are hatched by the male. It is only eaten when very young. 
 
 Casuarius, Briss. 
 The Cassowaries have wings still shorter than those of the Ostrich, and 
 totally useless, even in running. There are three toes to all the feet, each 
 furnished with a nail; the barbs of their feathers are so poorly provided 
 with barbuls, that at a distance they resemble pendent hairs. Two species 
 are known, each of wliich might also constitute a genus. 
 
 Casuarius vulgaris, h- (The Cassowary. )The beak laterally compressed; 
 head surmounted by a bony promhience, covered with a horny substance; 
 skin of the head and top of the neck naked, of an azure-blue and a fiery red 
 colour, witli pendent caruncles hke those of the Turkey; some stiff stems 
 in the wings, without barbs, which the bu'd uses as weapons in combat; 
 nail of the internal toe much the strongest. It is the largest of all birds, 
 next to the Ostrich, and differs considerably from it in its anatomy. It feeds 
 on fruit and eggs, but not grain. The female lays a small number of green 
 eggs, which hke the Ostrich she abandons to the solar heat. Found in 
 different islands of the Archipelago of India. 
 
 Cas. Novae- Hollandiae, Lath. (The Cassowary of New Holland.) A de- 
 pressed beak; no helmet on the head; a little naked skin about the ear; 
 plumage brown and more of it; more barbs to the feathers; no caruncles, 
 or spurs on the wing; nails of the toes about equal. Its flesh resembles 
 beef. Its speed is greater than that of the swiftest greyhound. The young 
 ones ai'e striped with brown and black. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PRESSIROSTRES. 
 
 This family comprises genera with long legs, without a thumb, 
 or in which the thumb is too short to reach the ground. The bill 
 is moderate, but strong enough to penetrate the earth in search of 
 worms; hence we find those species in which it is weakest frequent- 
 ing meadows and newly ploughed grounds to obtain that sort of food 
 
 U 
 
154 AVES. 
 
 with more facility. Sucii as have stronger beaks, also feed on 
 herbs, grain, &c. 
 
 Otis, Lin. 
 The Bustards, in addition to the massive carriage of the Gallinaceae, have a 
 long neck and legs, and moderate beak; its superior mandible being shghtly 
 arcuated and arched, which, as well as the very small membranes between 
 the base of the toes, again recall the idea of the Gallinaceae. But the naked- 
 ness of the lower part of their legs, their whole anatomy, and even the fla- 
 vour of their flesh, place them among the Grallatoriae; and as' they have no 
 thumb, the smaller species approximate closely to the Plovers. Their tarsi 
 are reticulated, and their wings short; they fly but seldom, hardly ever 
 using their wings, except to assist themselves in running. They feed in- 
 differently on grain and herbs, worms and insects. 
 
 0. tarda, L. (The Great Bustard.) Back of a bright fawn colour, 
 crossed with numerous black streaks, the remainder greyish. This spe- 
 cies builds on the ground among the grain. 
 
 Chakadeius, Lin. 
 
 The Plovers have no thumb; the beak is moderate, compressed, and enlarged 
 at the point. 
 
 They may be divided into two subgenera; viz. CEDidrEMUS, Tem. (The 
 Thick-knee), in which the end of the beak is inflated above as well as be- 
 neath, and the fossae of the nostrils only extend half its length : and Chaha- 
 BKius, Cuv. The beak of the True Plovers is only inflated above, and has 
 two-thirds of its length occupied by the nasal fossae, which render it weaker. 
 They live in large flocks, and frequent low grounds, where they strike the 
 earth with their feet, in order to set in motion the worms on which they 
 feed. One is 
 
 Char, pluvialis, L>. (The Golden Plover.) Blackish; the edges of its 
 feathers dotted with yellow; white belly. It is the most common of all, and 
 is found throughout the whole globe. 
 
 Vanellus, Bechst. — Tringa, Lin. 
 
 The Lapwings have the same kind of beak as the Plovers, and are only dis- 
 tinguished from them by the presence of a thumb ; but it is so small that it 
 cannot reach the ground. 
 
 Hjematopus, Lin.(l) 
 The Oyster-catchers have a somewhat longer beak than the Plovers or the 
 Lapwings; it is straight, pointed, compressed into a wedge, and sufficiently 
 strong to enable them to force open the bivalve shells of the animals on 
 which they feed. They also seek for worms in the earth. Their legs are 
 
 (1) Blood-coloured feet 
 
GRALLATORIiE. 155 
 
 of a moderate length, their tarsi reticulated, and their feet divided into 
 three toes. 
 It is impossible to avoid placing near the Plovers and Oyster-catchers, the 
 
 CuRsoRiTJs, Lac. 
 Whose beak, more slender, but equally conical, is arcuated, has no groove, 
 and is moderately cleft; the wings are shorter, and their legs, which are 
 longer, are terminated by three toes without membranes and without a 
 thumb. 
 
 As far as we can judge from their exterior, it is here that we can most 
 conveniently place the 
 
 MiCKODACTYLUS, Geoff. — DiCHOLOPHTJS, Illig.(l) 
 Whose beak is longer and more hooked, the commissure extending under 
 the eye, which gives them something of the physiognomy and disposition 
 of birds of prey, and approximates them somewhat to the Herons. Their 
 extremely long and scutellated legs are terminated by very short toes, 
 slightly palmated at base, and by a thumb which cannot reach the ground. 
 One species only is known, and that is from South America, the Micro, 
 cristatus, Geoff. It is larger than the Heron, and feeds on lizards and in- 
 sects, which it hunts for on high grounds and along the edges of forests. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 CULTRIROSTRES. 
 
 This family is recognized by the thick, long, and strong beak, 
 which is most generally trenchant and pointed, and is almost wholly 
 composed of the birds comprised in the genus Ardea of Linnasus. 
 In a great number of species, the trachea of the male forms various 
 curves. 
 
 We subdivide it into three tribes, the Cranes, the true Herons, 
 and the Storks. The first tribe forms but one great genus. 
 
 Getts, Lin. 
 
 The Cranes have a straight beak, but slightly cleft; the membranous fossa 
 of the nostrils, which are large and concave, occupy nearly one half of its 
 length. Their legs are scutellated, and the toes moderate; the external 
 ones but slightly palmate, and the thumb hardly reaching to the g^'ound. 
 
 (1) MicrodactyJus, short-finger. Dicholophus, crest in two rows. 
 
156 AVES. 
 
 A more or less considerable portion of the head and neck is destitute of fea- 
 thers in nearly all of them. 
 
 We first find Psophia, Lin. , or the Trumpeters, which have a shorter 
 beak tlian the other species; tlie head and neck are merely invested with 
 down, and the cii'cumference of the eye is naked. They live in the woods 
 and feed on grain and fruit. 
 
 The species best known is from South America, and is called the Truvn- 
 peter, from its faculty of producing a low, deep sound. It is a very grateful 
 bird, and as susceptible of attachment to man as a dog. It is even said to 
 be so docile as to take the command of the poultry-yard. It flies badly, but 
 runs fast, and builds on the ground at the foot of a tree. Its flesh is eaten. 
 
 Certain Cranes foreign to Europe, with a shorter beak than is found in 
 those that belong to it, should come next. Such is the Crowned Crane from 
 Africa. 
 
 The Common Cranes have a beak as long as the head, or longer: to which 
 belongs the common species celebrated for its migrations. 
 
 Between the Cranes and Herons we must place 
 
 Jlrd. helias, L. (The Sun-Bird.) It is about the size of a Partridge, and 
 its long slender neck, broad and open tail, and rather short legs give it a 
 very diff"erent appearance from that of any other Wader. Its plumage 
 shaded in bands and lines with brown, fawn-colour, red, grey and black, re- 
 calls to our minds the colouring of the most beautiful of the nocturnal Le- 
 pidoptera. It is found on the banks of the rivers in Guiana. 
 
 The second tribe is more carnivorous, and is known by its stron- 
 ger beak and larger toes: wc may place at its head, 
 
 Cancroma, Lin. 
 The Boat-bill, which would closely appjeach the Herons in the strength 
 of the beak and in the regimen resulting therefrom, but for the extraor- 
 dinary form of that organ, which we shall find, however, by close examina- 
 tion, to be nothing more than the beak of a Heron or Bittern, very much 
 flattened. In fact, it is veiy wide from right to left, and is formed like two 
 spoons, the concave sides of which are placed in contact. The mandibles 
 are strong and trenchant, the upper one having a sharp tooth on each side 
 of its point; the nostrils, situated near its base, are continued on in two par- 
 allel grooves to near the point. There are four toes to the feet, long, and 
 almost without membranes, and accordingly we find that these birds perch 
 upon trees on the banks of rivers, whence they precipitate themselves upon 
 the fish, which constitute their customary food. Their gait is slow, and in 
 their attitudes they resemble the Herons. The species known is, 
 
 Cancr. cochlearia, L.. (The Boat -bill. ) Size of a hen; whitish; grey or 
 brown back; red belly; a white forehead, followed by a black calotte, which, 
 in the adult male, is changed into a long tuft: inhabits the hot and marshy 
 parts of South America. 
 
 Then come 
 
GRALLATORIiE. 157 
 
 Ardea, Cuv. 
 Or the Herons, the cleft of whose beak extends to beneath the eyes, a small 
 nasal fossa continuing on in a gi-oove close to its point. They are also dis- 
 tinguished by the internal edg-e of the nail of the middle toe, which is 
 trenchant and denticulated. Then- legs are scutellated; tlae thumb and toes 
 tolerabl}' long, the external web considerable, and the eyes placed in a naked 
 skin which extends to the beak. They are melancholy birds, which build 
 and perch on the banks of rivers, where theydesti-oy gi-eat numbers offish. 
 
 The true Herons have a very slender neck, ornamented below with long 
 pendent feathers. 
 
 The name of Crabeatehs {Crabicrs) has been appUed to the smalleslij 
 Herons, witli shorter feet. 
 
 Tlie feathers on the neck of the Bitterns are loose and separated, which 
 increases its apparent size. They are usually spotted or striped. 
 
 The adult Night-Heron, with the port of the Bitterns, and a beak pro- 
 portionally thicker, has a few slender feathers on the occiput. 
 
 The third tribe, besides having a thicker and smoother beak than 
 is found in the second, has tolerably strong and almost equal mem- 
 branes between the base of the toes. 
 
 CicoNiA, Cuv. 
 The Storks have a thick beak, moderately cleft; no fossae or grooves; the 
 nostrils pierced towards the back and near the base; an extremely short 
 tongue. Their legs ai'e reticulated, and the anterior toes strongly palma- 
 ted at base, particiUarly the external ones. The light and broad mandibles 
 of their beak, by striking against each other, produce a clash which is al- 
 most the only sound that proceeds from these bu-ds. 
 
 To this genus belongs the celebrated White Stork, and the Black Stork. 
 
 We next distinguish the Bare Necked Storks, and then the Pouched Storks 
 so called from an appendage under the tlu'oat resembling a sausage. There 
 are two species one from Senegal, the other from India, 
 
 Myctekia, Lin. 
 The Jabirus, separated from Ardea by Linnoeus, are closely allied to the 
 Storks, and much more so than the latter are to the true Herons. Their 
 peculiar character consists in a beak slightly curved upwards near the ex- 
 tremity. * 
 
 Scopus, Briss.(l) 
 The Umhres are only distinguished from the Storks by a compressed beak, 
 
 (1) Scopus, from SKowsf, sentinel. 
 
158 AVES. 
 
 whose trenchant ridge Is inflated near the base, and whose nostrils are con- 
 tinued by a groove, which runs parallel with the ridge to its end, the latter 
 being slightly hooked. Only one species is known. Scop, umbretta, which 
 is the size of a Crow, and of an umber colour. The occiput of the male is 
 tufted. Found throughout Africa. 
 
 The genus Hiasts, Lacep., is only separable from the Storks by a char- 
 acter of but httle consequence, and that of Dromas, Payk., is very similar 
 to it, but the imder part of its compressed beak is perforated by oval nos- 
 ti'ils and its edges join closely. In Ilians they do not. 
 
 Tantalus, Lin. 
 
 The Wood-Pelicans have the feet, nostrils and beak of the Stork; but the 
 back of the beak is rounded, its point curved downwards, and shghtly 
 emarginated on each side: a part of their head and sometimes of the neck, 
 is destitute of feathers. 
 
 T. loculaior, L. (The Wood-Pelican of America. ) Is the size of a Stork, 
 but more slender; white; quills of the wings and tail black; beak and feet, 
 as well as the naked skin of the head and neck, blackish. It inhabits both 
 Americas, arriving in each country about the rainy season, and frequents 
 muddy waters, where it chiefly hunts for eels. 
 
 Platalea, Lin. 
 
 The Spoonbills approximate to the Storks in the whole of their structure; 
 but their bill, whence they derive their name, is long, flat, broad through- 
 out, becoming widened and flattened, particularly at the end, so as to form 
 a spatula-like disk; two shallow grooves, originating at its base, extend al- 
 most to the end, but without being parallel to its edges. The nostrils are 
 oval, and situated at a short distance from the origin of each gi'oove. The 
 expansion of their biU deprives it of all its strength, and renders it fit for 
 nothing but turning up mud, or capturing small fish or aquatic insects. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 LONGIROSTRES. 
 
 The family is composed of a multitude of Waders. Their gene- 
 ral character is a long, slender, and feeble bill, the use of which is 
 restricted to searching in the mud for worms and insects; the differ- 
 ent gradations in the form of this bill serve to divide them into 
 genera and subgenera. 
 
 According to his ovi^n principles, Linnaeus should have united 
 most of these birds in the great genus 
 
GRALLATORliE. 159 
 
 ScoLOPAx, Lin. 
 
 Which we divide as follows, according to the variation in the form of the 
 bill. The 
 
 Ibis, Cuv. 
 
 Separated by us from the Tantalus of Gmelin, because the bill, though 
 arcuated like that of Tantalus, is much more feeble, and has no emargina- 
 tion near its point; the nostrils also, perforated near the back of its base, are 
 severally prolonged in a groove wliich extends to the end. 
 
 Ibis religiosa, Cuv. (The Sacred Ibis) is the most celebrated species. 
 It was reared in the temples of ancient Egypt, with a degree of respect 
 bordering on adoration; and, when dead, it was embalmed. This, accord- 
 ing to some, arose from its devouring serpents, which otherwise might have 
 infested the country; others again are of opinion that it took its origin from 
 some relation between its plumage and one of the phases of the moon; 
 while a third class of authors attribute it to the fact that its appearance an- 
 nounced the overflow of the Nile. Found thi'oughout Africa. 
 
 lb. rubra. (The Red Ibis. ) A bh'd found in all the hot parts of America 
 remarkable for its bright red colour; the tips of the wing-quills are black. 
 
 NUMENIUS, Cuv. 
 
 The Curlews have the beak arcuated like that of the Ibis, but it is more 
 slender, and round throughout: the tip of the upper mandible extends be- 
 yond the end of the lower one, and projects a little downwards in front of 
 it. The toes are palmated at base. 
 
 ScoiopAX, Cuv. 
 
 The Snipes have a straight beak, the nasal furrows extending to near its 
 point which is a little inflated externally to reach beyond the lower mandi- 
 ble, and on the middle of which there is a simple groove ; this point is soft 
 and very sensible, and when dried, after death, assumes a punctured appear- 
 ance. Their feet are not palmated. A peculiar character of these birds 
 consists in their compressed head and large eyes placed very far back, which 
 gives them a singularly stupid air, an indication which is confirmed by their 
 habits. 
 
 Our common Woodcock (Scol. minor) belongs to this genus, as does also 
 the Red-breasted Snipe, 8ic. 
 
 Rhthch^a, Cuv. 
 Birds of India and Africa, whose nearly equal mandibles are slightly arcu- 
 ated at the end, and in which the nasal fossx extend to the tip of the upper 
 one, which has no third groove. Their feet are not palmated. 
 
 LiMosA, Bechst. 
 The Godtvits have a straight beak, longer than the Snipes, and sometimes 
 
160 AVES. 
 
 even slightly arcuated near the top. The nasal groove extends close to the 
 tip, which is blunt and somewhat depressed; no tliird groove or punctation 
 on its surface. The external toes are palmated at base. Their form is 
 more slender, and their legs are longer than those of Snipes; they frequent 
 salt marshes and the sea-shore. 
 
 Calidkis, Cuv. 
 The bill of the Sandpipers is depressed at the end, and the nasal fossjc 
 are very long as in the Godwits, but this bill is not usually longer than the 
 head; their slightlybordered toes have no membranes at base, and their thumb 
 can hardly reach the ground; their moderately long legs and short figure 
 give them a heavier carriage than that of the Godwits. They are also 
 much smaller. 
 
 Arenaria, Bechst. — Calidris, Vig. 
 The Sanderlings resemble the Sandpipers in every point but one, viz. they 
 have no thumb, as is the case with the Plovers. 
 
 Pewdna, Cuv. 
 The Pelidnas are merely small Sandpipers, with a bill somewhat longer 
 than the head. The edging of their feet is insensible. 
 
 Machetes, Cuv. 
 The Ruffs are true Sandpipers in their bill and caiTiage; the membrane 
 between their external toes, however, is nearly as extensive as in Totanus, 
 Limosa, &c. 
 
 One species only is known, the Tringa pugnax, L. It is somewhat 
 smaller than a Snipe, and celebrated for the furious combats that take place 
 among the males. At this period the head is partly covered with red pa- 
 pill se, the neck is surrounded with a thick collar of feathers, so variously 
 arranged and coloured, and projecting in such fantastic positions, that no 
 two individuals can be found alike; even before this epoch tliere is so much 
 diversity in their plumage, that many imaginary species have been described 
 by naturalists- 
 There are some small birds in America resembling the Sandpipers, whose 
 feet are semi-palmated anteriorly (the Hemipalama, Bonap.). 
 
 EcRiNoiiHTircHCS, Nilsou. 
 
 Distinguished from them by its depressed bill, widened at the end almost 
 like that of the Spoonbill, the only known species of which, 
 
 Eurinorhynchus griseus, NUs., is one of the rarest in existence; for only 
 a single individual has been found: it is grey above, white beneath, and 
 hai'dly as large as a PeUdna, 
 
 Phalaropus, Briss. 
 Small birds, whose bill, though flatter than that of the Sandpipers, is 
 
GBALLATORIiE. 161 
 
 similarly proportioned, and has the same grooves? the toes also are bordered 
 with wide membranes like those of Fulica. 
 
 Strepsilas. 
 The Thm-stones stand rather low; the bill is short, and the toes are with- 
 out membranes, like those of the true Sandpipers; but this bill is conical, 
 pointed, without any depression, compression, or inflation, and the nasal 
 fossae do not extend to more than half its length. The thumb barely 
 reaches the ground. Their bill, which is stronger and stiffer in proportion 
 than that of the preceding birds, enables them to overturn stones, beneath 
 which they find worms. 
 
 TOTANUS, Cuv. 
 
 The beak of these birds is slender, round, pointed and solid; the nasal 
 fossx do not extend beyond the half of its length, and the upper mandible 
 is slightly arcuated near the end. Their form is light and their legs long; 
 but a small part of their thumb rests on the ground; their external web is 
 well marked. Each of the species is found throughout almost the whole of 
 the globe. 
 
 Among the species foreign to Europe, we should particularly notice that 
 of North America, with the large beak and semipalmated feet, Scolopax 
 semipalmata, L. which has a short and thick beak, plumage brown-grey above, 
 whitish beneath; brownish spots on the neck and breast; toes well bordered 
 with equal and considerable membranes. 
 
 HiMANTopus,(l) Briss. 
 The bill round, slender and pointed, even more so than that of a Totanus, 
 and the nasal grooves occupy but half its length. The excessive length 
 and tenuity of the legs which are reticulated and destitute of a thumb, and 
 the weakness of their bones, which is so extreme as to render walking pain- 
 ful to them, are what principally distinguish the species of this subgenus, 
 and give rise to their name. Tliis is perhaps the only place for the 
 
 Recurvirostra, Lin., 
 Or the Avosets, although their feet, which are webbed to near the ends of 
 the toes, almost entitle them to a situation among the Palmipedes; but their 
 high tarsi and half naked legs, their long, slender, pointed, smooth, and 
 elastic bill, together with the mode of Ufe resulting from this conformation, 
 equally approximate them to the Snipes. What particularly characterises, 
 and even distinguishes them from all other birds, is the strong upward curve 
 of their beak. Their legs are reticulated, and their thumb much too short 
 to reach the ground. 
 
 (I) Himantopus, feet like a string, (alluding to their weakness) is the 
 name given to this bird in Pliny. 
 V 
 
163 AVES. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 MACRODACTYLI. 
 
 This family is furnished with very long toes, fitted for walking on 
 the grass of marshes, and even for swimming, in those numerous 
 species, especially, in which they are bordered with a membrane. 
 There are no membranes, however, between the bases of their toes, 
 not even between the external ones. The beak, more or less com- 
 pressed on the sides, is lengthened or shortened according to the 
 genus, never, however, becoming as slender or as weak as that of 
 the preceding family. The body of these birds is also singularly 
 compressed, a circumstance which is owing to the narrowness of the 
 sternum; their wings are moderate or short, and their flight feeble 
 They all have a long thumb. 
 
 They have been divided into two tribes according to the armature 
 or non-armature of their wings; but this character is hable to excep- 
 tions. 
 
 Jacanas, Briss. — Pakka, Lin. 
 The Jacanas are greatly distinguished from the other Grallatorise by having^ 
 foiir very long toes, separated down to their root, the nails of which, that 
 of the thumb in particular, are also extremely long and pointed, from which 
 peculiarity, they have received their vulgar name of Surgeons. The beak 
 is similar to that of the Lapwings in its moderate length, and in the slight 
 inflation of its end. Their wing is armed with a spur. They are noisy and 
 quarrelsome birds, which inhabit marshes of hot climates, where they walk 
 with great facility by means of their long toes. 
 
 Palamedea, Lin. 
 The Kamichi resemble the Jacanas, but on a very large scale, in the two 
 strong spurs of each of their wings, in their long toes and strong nails, that 
 of the thumb in particular, which is long and straight as in the Larks; but 
 their beak, whose aperture is small, is but slightly conipressed, and is not 
 inflated; the upper mandible, also, is somewhat arcuated. Their legs are 
 reticulated. A distinct genus, 
 
 Chauna, Illig., 
 Has been made of the Paira chavaria, L.; Cha'ta of Paraguay, which has no 
 horn on the vertex, and whose occiput is ornamented with a circle of erec- 
 tile feathers. The head and upper pai-t of the neck are only covered with 
 down, and it has a black collar. It chiefly feeds on aquatic plants; and the 
 
GRALLATORI^. 163 
 
 Indians of Carthagena always kept some of tliem among' their Geese and 
 Chickens, as it is sufficiently courag-eous, according to them, to repulse even 
 the Vulture. A singular circumstance attending this bird is, that air is 
 every where Interposed between the skin and muscles, even on the legs, in 
 such a quantity as causes it to crackle under the finger. 
 
 Of the tribe whose wings have no armature, Linriajus comprises 
 in his genus Fulica such as have their beak prolonged into a sort of 
 shield, which partly covers the forehead; and in his genus Rallus^ 
 those in which this peculiarity does not exist. 
 
 Rallus, Lin. 
 The Bails, which, in other respects, have a strong, mutual resemblance, pre- 
 sent bills of very different proportions. 
 
 Hal. crex, L. Fawn coloured brown, spotted with black above; greyish 
 beneath; flanks streaked with black; red wings. It lives and bu'dds in the 
 fields, running through the grass with great celerity. Its name, Crex, ex- 
 presses the sound of its note. It has been called the Quail-King, because 
 it arrives and departs with those birds, and leads a solitary life on the same 
 grounds, fi-om which arose the conjecture that it was their leader. It feeds 
 on grain, as well as on worms and insects. 
 
 Fulica, Lin. 
 The Coots may be divided as follows, from the form of the beak and the ap- 
 pliances of the feet. 
 
 GAtLiNuiA, Briss. and Lath. 
 Or the Water-Hens. The beak very similar to that of the Ground Rail, 
 from which these birds are distinguished by the shield on the forehead and 
 by very long toes fui-nished with a very narrow border. 
 
 PoKPHYRio, Briss. 
 
 The beak higher in proportion to its length; very long toes, without any 
 very sensible border; the frontal shield large, rounded in some, and square 
 above in others. These birds stand on one foot, using the other to convey 
 their food to the beak. Their colours are usually fine shades of blue, \-iolet, 
 and aqua-marina. Such is 
 
 Fulica porphyrio, L.; a beautiful African bird, now naturalized in several 
 islands and coasts of the Mediterranean. Its beauty would render it an or- 
 nament to our pleasure grounds. 
 
 FuiicA, Briss. 
 The True Coots, in addition to a short beak and a large fi-ontal shield, 
 have their toes much widened by a festooned border that renders them excel- 
 lent swimmers, in consequence of which their lives are passed in ponds and 
 
164 AVES. 
 
 marshes. Their polished plumage is not less adapted to this kind of life 
 than their conformation, and these birds establish an evident link between 
 the ordei' of the Grallatorise and that of the Palmipedes. There is but one 
 in Europe, 
 
 F. atra, Gm. (The Coot.) The shield of a deep slate colour; edge of 
 the wings whitish; in the nuptial season the shield becomes red: found 
 wherever there is a pond. 
 
 We will terminate this sketch of the Grallatoriae with three genera, 
 which it is difficult to associate with any other, and which may be 
 considered as forming separately so many small families. 
 
 Chionis, Foster. — Vaginalis, Lath. 
 Or the Sheath-Bills. Their legs are short, almost like those of the Gallina- 
 cese; their tarsi scutellated, their bill stout and conical, having a hard sub- 
 stance enveloping its base, which, it appears, the bird has the power of 
 i-aising and depressing. 
 
 Only one species is known, and that is from New Holland, Vag. Chionis, 
 Lath. It is the size of a Partridge, with entirely white plumage. It haunts 
 the sea-coast, where it feeds on the dead animals tlirown up by the waves. 
 
 Glareola. 
 
 The beak of the Pratincoles is short, conical, arcuated throughout, has a 
 large opening, and resembles that of the Gallinacese. Their excessively 
 long and pointed wings remind us of the Swallows, or of the Palmipedes of 
 the high seas; their legs are of a moderate length, their tarsi scutellated, and 
 their external toes somewhat palraated; their thumb touches the ground. 
 Aquatic worms and insects constitute their food. 
 Our last genus will be that of 
 
 Phcenioopterus, Lin. 
 Or the Flamingos, one of the most extraordinary and insulated of all birds. 
 The legs are excessively long; the three anterior toes are palmated to their 
 ends, and that of the hind one is extremely short; the neck, quite as long 
 and slender as the legs, and the smali head furnished with a beak whose 
 lower mandible is an oval longitudinally bent into a semi-cylindrical canal, 
 while the upper one, oblong and flat, is bent crosswise in its middle, so as 
 to join the other exactly. The membranous fossae of the nostrils occupy 
 nearly all the side of the part which is behind the ti-ansverse fold, and the 
 nostrils themselves are longitudinal slits in the base of the fossae. The edges 
 of the two mandibles are furnished with small, and very delicate transverse 
 laminje, which, with the fleshy thickness of the tongue, creates some affinity 
 between these birds and the Ducks. AVere it not for the lengtlii of theirtarsi, 
 and the nudity of their legs, we might even place them among the Palmipe- 
 des. They feed on shell fish, insects, and the spawn of fishes, \yluch they 
 
GRALLATORIiE. 165 
 
 capture by means of their long neck, turning the head on one side to give 
 more effect to the hook of the upper mandible. They construct their nest 
 of eartli in marshes, placing themselves astride of it to hatcli their eggs, a 
 position to which they are forced to resort by the length of their legs. The 
 species known, 
 
 Ph. ruber (The Red Flamingo), is from three to four feet in height; ash 
 coloured, with brown sti-eaks, during the first year; in the second there is a 
 rosy hue on the wings, and in the tliird it acquires a permanent purple-red 
 on the back, and rose-coloured wings. The quills of the wmg are black, - 
 the beak yellow, with a black tip, and the feet brown. 
 
 This species is found m all parts of the eastern continent below 40". 
 
 We have also an American species, tlie Fh. ruber of Temminck. 
 
 ORDER VI. 
 PALMIPEDES. 
 
 These birds are characterized by their feet, formed for natation, 
 that is to say, placed far back on the body, attached to short and 
 compressed tarsi, and with palmated toes. Their dense and polished 
 plumage saturated with oil, and the thickly set down which is next 
 to their skin, protect them from the water in which they live. They 
 are the only birds whose bill surpasses — which it sometimes does to 
 a considerable extent — the length of their feet, and tliis is so, to ena- 
 ble them to search for their food in the depths below, while they 
 swim on the surface. Their sternum is very long, affording a com- 
 plete guard to the greater part of their viscera, having, on each side, 
 but one emarginalion or oval foramen, filled up with membrane. 
 
 This order admits of a tolerably precise division into four families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 BRACHYPTER^. 
 
 A part of this family has some external affinities with that of the 
 Gallinulae. Their legs, placed further back than in any other birds, 
 renders walking painful to them, and obliges them, when on land, to 
 stand vertically. In addition to this, as most of them have but feeble 
 powers of flight, and as some of them are wholly deprived of that 
 
166 AVES. 
 
 faculty, we may consider them as exclusively attached to the surface 
 of the water: their plumage is extremely dense, and its surface fre- 
 quently polished, presenting a silvery lustre. They swim under wa- 
 ter, using their wings with almost as much effect as though they 
 were fins. 
 
 CoLYMBUs, Lin. 
 
 The only particular character of the Divers is a smooth, straig-ht, compressed 
 and pointed bUl, and linear nostrUs; but the differences in the feet have 
 caused them to be subdivided. 
 
 PoDicEPs, Lath. 
 
 The toes of the Grebes, instead of being palmated, arejwidened hke those 
 of the Coots, the anterior ones only being united at base by membranes. 
 The middle nail is flattened, and the tarsus strong-ly compressed. The 
 semi-metallic lustre of their plumage has caused it to be occasionally em- 
 ployed as fur. Their tibia, as well as that of the succeeding subgenera, 
 is prolonged above into a point which gives a more efficient insertion to 
 the extensors of the leg. 
 
 These birds hve on lakes, &c., and build among the rushes. In certain 
 circumstances, it appears that they caiTy their young ones under their wings. 
 Their size and plumage are so much changed by age, as to have caused an 
 improper multiphcation of species. M. Meyer reduces those of Europe 
 to four. 
 
 Col. cristatus, Gm. (The Crested Grebe) is the size of a duck; blackish- 
 brown above, silver-white beneath; a white band on the wing; it acquires 
 with age a double black tuft, and the adults have, in addition, a broad red 
 colerette on the upper part of the neck edged with black. 
 
 Mehgtts, Briss. — Eudttes, Illig.(l) 
 
 The true Divers have the feet of ordinary Palmipedes, along with all the 
 forms of the Grebes, that is, the anterior toes are united to their ends by 
 membranes, and are terminated by pointed nails. They are northern birds, 
 which rarely breed in France, where they arrive in winter, at which season 
 is occasionally seen on the coast 
 
 Col. glacialis, L.. (The Great Northern Diver.) The adult is two feet 
 six inches in length, its head and neck black, changing to a green with a 
 whitish collar; back, a blackish brown dotted with whitish; white beneath; 
 the lower mandible, which has a slight curve upwards, is marked by a 
 g^roove beneath. 
 
 Uria, Briss. 
 The Guillemots have a bill, which, though of the general form of the pre- 
 
 (1) JHergus (diver), the Latin name of some sea-bird difficult to determine. 
 Eudyfes, a Greek word composed by Illiger, has the same meaning. 
 
PALMIPEDES. 167 
 
 ceding, is covered with feathers down to the nostrils; there is also an emar- 
 gination at the point which is somewhat arcuated. Their chief character, 
 however, consists in the absence of the thumb. Their wings, much shorter 
 than those of the Divers, scarcely enable them to flutter. They feed on fish, 
 crabs, &c. and are found among rocky precipices when they breed. 
 
 Alca, Lin. 
 The Auks are known by the very much compressed, vertically raised bill 
 which has a trenchant back, and is usually gi-ooved transversely; and by the 
 feet which are completely palmated, and have no thumb like those of the 
 Guillemot. All these birds inhabit the northern seas. We may divide the 
 genus into two subgenera. 
 
 Fkatercuia, Briss. 
 
 Or the Puffins, whose bill, shorter than the head, is as high and higher at 
 base than it is long, which gives it a very extraordinary form; a folded skin 
 usually covers its base. The nostrils placed near the edge are mere shts. 
 Their small wing^ can just sustain them for a moment; they live upon the 
 ocean and breed on the rocks. 
 
 The most common species, Alca ardica, L., is the size of a Pigeon, and 
 has a black calotte and mantle; white beneath. It sometimes breeds among 
 the cliffs on the Enghsh coast, and is very common on those of France dur- 
 ing the winter. 
 
 AlCA, Cuv.(l) 
 The true Auks have a more elongated bill, resembling in form the blade 
 of a knife; it is covered with feathers as far as the nostrils. Their wings 
 are decidedly too small to support them, and therefore they never at- 
 tempt to fly. 
 
 Aptenodytes, Forst'. 
 
 The Penguins are even less capable of flying than the Auks. Their little 
 wings are covered with mere vestiges of feathers, which at the first glance 
 resemble scales; their feet, placed farther behind than those of any other 
 bird, only support them by bearing on the tarsus, which is widened like the 
 sole of the foot of a quadruped, and in which are found three bones soldered 
 together at their extremities. They have a small thumb directed inwards, 
 and their three anterior toes are united by an entire membrane. They are 
 only found in the Antarctic Seas, never going on shore except to breed. 
 They can only reach their nests by drawing themselves along on their 
 bellies. The difference in their bill authorizes their division into several 
 subgenera. 
 
 (1) Alca, Aik.Auk, the name of these birds in the Feroe Islands, and in 
 the north of Scotland. That of Penguin, first given to the Aptenodytes of 
 the south by the Dutch, indicates the oily nature of then: fat. 
 
168 AVES. 
 
 Apt. patagoniea, Gm. (The Great Penguin. ) Is the size of a Goose, 
 slate-coloured above, white beneath; a black mask surrounded with a lemon- 
 coloured cravatte. Found in large troops near the straits of Magellan, and 
 as £aur as New Guinea. The flesh, though black, is eatable. 
 
 CiTABHEtACTES, BrfsS. 
 
 The Crorfus{\) have the bill stout, but little compressed, pointed, 
 rounded on the back, and its point somewhat arcuated; the groove which 
 arises from the nostril terminates obliquely on the inferior third of its edge. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 LONGIPENNES. 
 
 This family includes those birds of the high seas, which from their 
 immense strength of wing are to be met with in every latitude. 
 They are known by the freedom or nullity of the thumb, by their 
 very long wings, and by their bill which is not notched but hooked 
 at the point in the first genera, and simply pointed in the others. 
 
 Peocellahia, Lin. 
 
 The Peirek have a bill hooked at the end, the extremity of which seems to 
 consist of a distinct piece articulated with the remainder. Their nostrils are 
 united and form a tube laid on the back of the upper mandible; there is a 
 nail planted in the heel, but no thiimb. Of aU the Palmipedes, these re- 
 main most constantly at a distance from land, and when a tempest super- 
 venes, they are forced to seek shelter on reefs and ships, from which 
 circumstance they derive their name of Storm Birds: that of Petrel — Little 
 Peter — has been given to them on account of their habit of walking on the 
 water, which they effect by the aid of their wings. They make their nests 
 in holes of rocks, and eject on those who attack them an oUy fluid with 
 which their stomach seems to be always filled. The greater number inhabit 
 the Antarctic Seas. 
 
 Proc. ^igantea, Gm. (The Giant Petrel) is only found in the South 
 Seas. It is the largest of all the species, surpassing the Goose in size. Its 
 plumage is blackish, though there are some varieties in which it is more or 
 less white. 
 
 Certain small species, with a somewhat shorter bill and rather longer legs 
 
 (1) Corfu, a corruption of goir fugel, the name of the Great Auk in the 
 Feroe Islands. Catarrhactes is the Greek name of a very different bird, 
 which could fly well, and precipitated itself from a height on its prey. It 
 was most probably a species of Gull. 
 
PALMIPEDES. 169 
 
 and black plumage, the THAiassiDRoaiA, Vigors, are particularly designated 
 by sailors under the name of " Mother Carey's Chickens." 
 
 The most common, Proc. peJagica, Briss. is scarcely larger than a Lark; 
 stands high; all brown except the rump which is white, and a white line on 
 the end of the great wing-coverts. Wlien it seeks shelter on a vessel, it 
 may be considered as the forerunner of a hurricane. 
 
 We separate, with Brisson, under the name of 
 
 Prrriyrs, 
 
 Or Puffins, those in which the end of the lower mandible is curved down- 
 wards along with that of the upper one, and in which the nostrils, although 
 tubular, do not open by one common orifice, but by two distinct holes. 
 Their bill also is proportionally longer. 
 
 Proc. puffinus, Gm. Cinereous above; whitish beneath; wings and tjul 
 blackish: the young is darker. Its size is that of a Crow. Yerj- common in 
 almost every sea. 
 
 DiOMEDEA, Lin.(l) 
 The JlUxxtross is the most massive of aU aquatic birds . The larg«, strong 
 and trenchant bill is marked with sutures, and is terminated by a stout hook, 
 which seems to be articulated with it. The nostrils resemble short rolls 
 laid on the sides of the beak; there is no thumb, not even the small nail that 
 is observed in the Petrels. They inhabit the South seas, and feed on Mol- 
 lusca, &c. 
 
 D. exulans, L., is the species best known to navigators, who, on account 
 of its size, white plumage, and black wings, and because it is particularly 
 common beyond the tropic of Capricorn, have called it The Cape Sheep. 
 
 The English also style it the Man of War Bird, &c. It is the great ene- 
 my of the Flying-fish. It constructs a high nest of earth, and lays a num- 
 ber of eggs, which are considered good food. 
 
 Lasus, Lin. 
 
 The CruUs have a compressed, elongated, pointedbill, the superior mandible 
 arcuated near the end, and the inferior forming a salient angle beneath. 
 The nostrils, placed near its middle, are long, narrow, and bored quite 
 through; their tail is fiill, their legs tolerably long, and their tlmmb short. 
 They are cowardly and voracious birds, which swarm along the sea coasts, 
 feeding on fish, the flesh of dead bodies, &c. They breed in the sand, or 
 in clefls of rock, laying but few eggs. When tliey fly into the country, 
 bad weather may be expected. 
 
 (1) Diomedea, the ancient name of certain birds of the Island of Diomedes, 
 near Tarentum, which were said to receive the Greeks favourably, and to 
 attack the barbarians. As to the woi-d Jlbatross, I find that the early Por- 
 tuguese navigators called the Boobies and other oceanic birds Aleatrot, or 
 £katrais. 
 
 w 
 
170 AYES. 
 
 Lar. cyanorhynchus, Meyer. (The Common Gull.) When old, of a 
 beautiful white, with a light ash coloured mantlej the primary quills of the 
 wing partly black, with white spots at their tips, the feet and bill lead co- 
 loured. Feeds on shell fish. 
 
 Sterna, Lin. 
 The Terns, ov Sea-Swallows, derive this latter appellation from their excess- 
 ively long and pointed wings and from their forked tail, which render their 
 flight and carriage analogous to those of Swallows. Their bill is pointed, 
 compressed, and straight, without curve or projection; the nostrils, placed 
 near its base, are oblong and pierced quite through; the membranes which 
 unite their toes ai-e deeply emarginate, consequently they swim but seldom. 
 They fly over the waves in every du-ection and with great rapidity, uttering 
 loud cries, and skilfully raising from the surface of the water the MoUusca 
 and smaU Fish on which they feed. They also penetrate to the lakes and 
 rivers of the interior. There are several species. 
 We may also distinguish from the other Terns, 
 
 The Noddies, 
 
 Whose tail is not forked, and is nearly as long as the wings. There is a 
 slight projection under their bill, the first indication of that in the Mauves. 
 But one species is known, 
 
 St. stolida, L. (The Noddy), which is a blackish brown, top of the head 
 whitish. Celebrated for the blundering manner in which it throws itself on 
 vessels. 
 
 Rhtnchops, Lin. 
 The Skimmers resemble the Terns in their small feet, long wings and forked 
 tail, but are distinguished from all birds by their extraordinary bill, the up- 
 per mandible of which is shorter than the other, both being flattened so as 
 to form simple blades, which meet without clasping. Their only mode of 
 feeding is by skimming their aliment from the surface of the water with the 
 lower mandible, which they effect while on the wing. One species, 
 
 RJiym. nigra, L. (The Black Skimmer), is white, with a black mantle 
 and calotte; a white band on the wing; outside of the external quills of the 
 tail white; biU and feet red; hardly as large as a Pigeon. From the vici- 
 nity of the Antilles. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 TOTIPALMATiE. 
 
 The birds of this fanrnly are remarkable for having the thumb 
 united with the toes by one single membrane, a mode of organization 
 
PALMIPEDES. 171 
 
 that renders their feet complete oars, notwithstanding which, they 
 perch upon trees, being almost the only Palmipedes who do so. 
 They all fly well and have short feet. Linnaeus separated them into 
 three genera, the first of which it was necessary to subdivide, 
 
 Pelecanus, Lin. 
 The Pelicans comprise all those in which the base of the bill is found to have 
 some part destitute of feathei-s. Their nostrUs are fissures, the apertures 
 of which are scarcely perceptible. The skin of their throat is more or less 
 extensible, and their tongue very small. Their thin gizzard, with their 
 other stomachs, forms a large sac. 
 
 The bill of the True Pelicans is very remarkable for its extreme length, 
 its straight, very broad and horizontally flattened form, for the hook which 
 terminates it, and for the lower mandible whose flexible branches sustain a 
 naked membrane, susceptible of being dilated into a large sac. 
 
 P. onocrotalus, L. (The Common Pelican.) As large as a Swan, en- 
 tirely white, slightly tinged with flesh colour; the hook of the bill of a 
 cherry-red; is more or less disseminated throughout the eastern continent, 
 breeds in marshes, and feeds exclusively on living Fish. It is said to trans- 
 port both food and water in its sac. 
 
 Phaiacrocohax, Briss. 
 
 The Cormorants[l) have an elongated and compressed beak, the end of 
 the upper mandible hooked, and that of the lower one truncated; the tongue 
 is very small, and the skin of the throat less dilatable; the nostrils resemble 
 a small unpierced line, and the nail of the middle toe is notched Hke a saw. 
 
 Pel. carbOfL,. (The Cormorant.) Black-brown, undulated with jet black 
 on the back, and mixed with white near the end of the bill and front of the 
 neck; circumference of the tliroat and the cheeks, white, in the male, which 
 also has a tuft on the occiput. Its size is that of the Goose. It breeds in 
 holes among the rocks or upon trees, and lays three or foui- eggs. 
 
 Tachtpetes, VieiU. 
 
 The Frigate Birds differ from the Cormorants in their forked tail and short 
 feet, the membranes of which are deeply emarginated; in an excessive length 
 of wing, and in a bill both of whose mandibles are curved at the point. So 
 powerful are their wings, that they fly to an hnmense distance from all land, 
 principally between the tropics, darting upon the Flying Fish and striking 
 the Boobies to make them disgorge their prey. 
 
 One species only is well known, the Pelecanus aquilus, L., whose plumage 
 
 (1) Cormorant from Cormoran, a corruption of Corbeau marin, on account 
 of its black colour. It is in fact the Aquatic Crow of Aristotle. Phalacro- 
 carax {Bald Crow) is the Greek name of this bird, indicated by Pliny, but 
 is not employed by Aristotle. 
 
172 AVES. 
 
 is black, the under part of the throat and neck more or less varied with white, 
 and the bill red. Its wings, when expanded, are said to measure from ten 
 to twelve feet. 
 
 SuLA, Briss. 
 
 The Boobies[l) have a straight, slightly compressed, pointed bill, the 
 point slightly arcuated; its edges are serrated, the teeth inclining backwards; 
 the nostrils are prolonged by a line which extends to near the point. They 
 are called Boobies on account of the excessive stupidity with which they 
 permit themselves to be attacked by men and birds, the Frigate Birds par- 
 ticularly, which, as already stated, force them to yield up the fish they have 
 captured. The most common is 
 
 Pelecanus bassanus, L. (The Common Booby.) White; the primary 
 quills of the wings and the feet black; the beak greenish; nearly as large 
 as the Goose. It is called the Bassan Booby from a small island in the gulf 
 of Edinbiu-gh, where it is very abundant although it lays but a single e^g. 
 
 Plotus, Lin. (2) 
 The Darters have the body and feet very similar to those of a Cormorant; a 
 iong neck and small head, with a straight, slender, pointed beak, whose 
 edges are denticulated; the eyes and nudity of the face, as in the Pelicans; 
 their habits also are similar, perching on ti'ees. 
 
 Several species or varieties are known from the hot climates of both con- 
 tinents. They are not larger than the Duck, but they have a longer neck. 
 
 Photon, Lin. 
 The Trojnc Birds are known by two very long and narrow feathers that flow 
 from their tail, which at a distance resemble so many straws. There is no 
 naked part about the head. Their bUl is straight, pointed, denticulated, and 
 tolerably strong; their feet short and their wings long: their powers of flight 
 are consequently great, and as they rarely quit the torrid zone, their pre- 
 sence announces to the mariner his vicinity to the tropics. On land, where 
 they seldom resort except to breed, they perch on trees. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 LAMELLIROSTRES. 
 
 In this family we find a thick bill, invested with a soft skin rather 
 than with true horn; its edges are furnished with laminae or little 
 teeth; the tongue is broad and fleshy, the edges notched. The wings 
 
 (1) Sula is the name of the common species at the Feroe Islands. 
 
 (2) Plotus, or plautus, signifies, in Latin, flat-foot. 
 
PALMIPEDES. 173 
 
 are of a moderate length. They pass more of their time on fresh 
 waters than at sea. The great genus 
 
 Anas, Lin. 
 Comprises those Palmipedes, the edges of whose large and broad bill are 
 furnished with a range of thin salient laminae, placed transversely, which 
 appear destined to allow the water to pass off when the bird has seized its 
 prey. They are divided into three subgenera, whose limits, however, are 
 not very precise. 
 
 Ctgnds, Meyer. 
 
 The bill of the Swans is of an equal breadth throughout, higher at base 
 than it is wide; the nostrils about the middle of its length; the neck is very 
 long. They are the largest birds of the genus, and feed chiefly on the seeds 
 and roots of aquatic plants. Their intestines and cxca in particular are con- 
 sequently very long. There is no inflation of the trachea. Two species 
 are found in Europe. 
 
 Jlnas olor, Gm. (The Red-billed or Domestic Swan.) Beak red, edged 
 with black, surmounted at base by a rounded protuberance; the plumage 
 snow-white. When young, the beak is lead-coloured and the plumage grey. 
 This is the species, when domesticated, that forms the ornament of our ponds 
 and grounds. Its elegance of form, graceful movements and snow-white 
 plumage have rendered it the emblem of innocence and beauty. It feeds 
 both on fish and vegetables, flies extremely high and with great swiftness, 
 using its wings, which are a powerful weapon, in striking its enemies when 
 attacked. It breeds among the reeds in ponds, and lays six or eight eggs 
 of a greenish-grey. 
 
 Jin. a/gnus, Gm. (The Black-billed Swan.) Bill black with a yellow 
 base; the body white tinged with a yellowish grey — when young, all grey. 
 
 An. plutcmia, Sh. (The Black Swan) has been lately discovered in New 
 Holland; it is the size of the common species, but its carriage is less grace- 
 fill and elegant; it is all black, the primary quills excepted, which are white, 
 and the bill with the naked skin on its base, which is red. 
 
 Anseh, Briss. 
 Geese have a moderate or short bill, narrower before than behind, and 
 liigher than wide at base; their legs, being longer than those of the Ducks, 
 and placed nearer the centre of the body, increase their facility in walking. 
 Several of them feed on seeds and plants. There is no inflation at the root 
 of the trachea, nor is there any curve in that organ in any of the species 
 known. 
 
 Geese, properly so called. 
 Have a biU as long as their head; the ends of the lamellae extend to its 
 edges, appearing like pointed teeth. 
 
174 AVES. 
 
 An. anser, L. (The Common Goose), which has acquired all sorts of colours 
 in our poultry-yards, orig-inates from a wild species that is grey, with a 
 brown mantle undulated with grey and an orang'e-coloui-ed beak, the Ans. 
 cinereus, Meyer. 
 
 An. hyperborea, Gm. (The Snow-Goose.) Wliite; feet and bill red; tips 
 of the wing-quills black. It sometimes wanders into the temperate parts of 
 Europe during- the prevalence of heavy gales in winter. The young bird 
 is more or less grey. 
 
 BERIfAClES 
 
 Are distinguished from the Common Geese by a shorter and slenderer 
 bill, the edges of which conceal the extremities of the lamins. 
 
 An. bernicla, Gm. (The LJrant.) The head, neck, and quills of the wings 
 are black, the mantle a brown-grey; a spot on each side of the upper part 
 of the neck, and the under part of tlie tail, white; the bill black and feet 
 brown. 
 
 An. segyptiaca, Gm. (The Egyptian Goose), remarkable for the lustre of 
 its colours and tlie small spur attached to its wings, also belongs to this sub- 
 genus; it is sometimes domesticated, but always retains a propensity to re- 
 turn to its wild state. It is tlie Chenalopex or Fox- Goose, held in veneration 
 among the ancient Eyptians on account of its attachment to its young. 
 
 Anas, Meyer. 
 
 Ducks, properly so called, have the bill broader at base than it is high, 
 and wider at the end than towards the head; the nostrils nearer to its back 
 and base. Their legs being shoi-ter than those of Geese, and placed fai-ther 
 back, renders walking more difficult to them than to the latter. 
 
 The species of the first division, or those whose thumb is bordered with 
 a membrane, have a larger head, a shorter neck, the feet placed farther 
 back, smaller wings, a stiffer tail, more compressed tarsi, longer toes, and 
 the membrane of the feet more entire. They walk with more difficulty, 
 feed more exclusively on fish and insects, and dive more frequently. 
 
 Ducks are now disti-ibuted into various subgenera: such as Oidemia (the 
 Scoter, Velvet Duck, Black Duck) ; Clangula {luong tailed Duck); Soma- 
 teria (Eider Duck) ; i^u//o-u/a (Red-head, Pochard Duck, Tufted Duck); 
 Rhynchaspis (The Shoveller); and Tadorna (The Shieldrake, Muscovy 
 Duck), originally from South America where it perches on trees, and the 
 An. boschas, L. (or Mallard), tlie stock of our common tame Duck, Teal, &c. 
 
 Mergus, Lin. 
 The genus of the Mergansers comprehends those species in which the bill, 
 thinner and more cylindi-ical than that of the Ducks, is armed along its 
 edges with small pointed teeth resembhng those of a saw and directed 
 backwards; the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. Their carriage and 
 even plumage are those of Ducks, properly so called; but their gizzard is 
 less muscular. Tlie inflation of the lower larynx in the males is enormous, 
 
PALMIPEDES. 175 
 
 and partly membranous. They live on lakes and ponds, where they are 
 very destructive to fish. 
 
 Merg. merganser, L.. (The Goosander), is the size of a Duck, and has 
 red feet and a bill of the same hue. The head of the old male is of a deep 
 green, the feathers on its summit forming- a sort of toupee; the mantle is 
 black, with a white spot over the wing-; underneath and the neck white 
 slightly tinged with rose-colour. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 REPTILIA. 
 
 The disposition of the heart in Reptiles is such, that at each con- 
 traction, a portion only of the blood it has received from the differ- 
 ent parts of the body is transmitted to the lungs, the remainder 
 returning to those parts without having passed through the pulmo- 
 nary organs, and without having respired. 
 
 The result of this is, that the action of oxygen upon the blood is 
 less than in the Mammalia, and that if the quantity of respiration in 
 the latter, in which all the blood is compelled to pass through the 
 lungs before it returns to the rest of the body, be expressed by a 
 unit, that of Reptiles will be expressed by a fraction of a unit, so 
 much the smaller, as the quantity of blood transmitted to the heart 
 at each contraction is less. 
 
 As it is from respiration that the blood derives its heat and the 
 fibre its susceptibility of nervous irritation, the blood of reptiles is 
 cold, and the muscular energy less than that of Quadrupeds, and 
 much less than that of Birds; thus we find their movements usually 
 confined to crawhng and swimming; for, though at certain times 
 several of them jump and run with considerable activity, their habits 
 are generally lazy, their digestion excessively slow, and their sensa- 
 tions obtuse. In cold or temperate climates almost all of them pass 
 the winter in a state of torpor. Their brain, which is proportionally 
 very small, is not so essentially requisite to the exercise of their ani- 
 mal and vital faculties, as to the members of the two first classes; 
 their sensations seem to be less referred to a common centre, for 
 
176 REPTILIA. 
 
 they continue to live and to exhibit voluntary motions, long after 
 losing their brain, and even after the loss of their head. A commu- 
 nication with the nervous system is also much less necessary to the 
 contraction of their fibres, and their muscles preserve their irrita- 
 bility after being severed from the body much longer than those of 
 the preceding classes; their heart continues to pulsate for hours 
 after it has been torn away, nor does its loss prevent the body from 
 moving for a long time. 
 
 Thesmallness of the pulmonary vessels permits Reptiles to suspend 
 the process of respiration without arresting the course of the blood; 
 thus they dive with more facility, and remain longer under water 
 than either the Mammalia or Birds. 
 
 No Reptile hatches its eggs. The young Batrachians, on quitting 
 the egg, have the form and branchiae of Fishes, and some of the 
 genera preserve these organs, even after the development of their 
 lungs. 
 
 The quantity of respiration in Reptiles is not fixed like that of 
 the Mammalia and Birds, but varies with the proportion of the 
 diameter of the pulmonary artery compared to that of the aorta. 
 Thus Tortoises and Lizards respire more than Frogs, &c.; and 
 hence a much greater difference of sensibility and energy than can 
 exist between one of the Mammalia and another, or between Birds. 
 
 The comparison, however, of their quantity of respiration and of 
 their organs of motion, has enabled M. Brogniart to divide them 
 into four orders, viz. 
 
 The Chelonia^ or Tortoises, whose heart has two auricles, and 
 whose body, supported by four feet, is enveloped by two plates or 
 bucklers formed by the ribs and sternum. 
 
 The Sauria, or Lizards^ whose heart has two auricles, and whose 
 body, supported by four or two feet, is covered with scales. 
 
 The Ophidia, or Serpents^ whose heart has two auricles, and 
 whose body always remains deprived of feet. 
 
 The Batrachia, whose heart has but one auricle, and whose body 
 is naked, most of which pass, with age, from the form of a Fish re- 
 spiring by branchiae, to that of a Quadruped breathing by lungs. 
 Some of them, however, always retain their branchiae, and a few 
 have never more than two feet. 
 
REPTILIA. 177 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 CHELONIA. 
 
 The Chelonia, better known by the name of Tortoises, have a 
 heart composed of two auricles, and of a ventricle divided in two 
 unequal cavities, which communicate with each other. 
 
 These animals are distinguished at the first glance by the double 
 shield in which the body is enveloped and which allows no part to 
 project except their head, neck, tail, and four feet. The shell (or 
 upper shield) is formed by the ribs, of which there are eight pair, 
 widened and reunited by denticulated sutures, and with plates ad- 
 hering to the annular portion of the dorsal vertebra, so that all these 
 parts are rendered fixed and immovable. The inferior shell is 
 formed of pieces, usually nine in number, analogous to a sternum. 
 A frame composed of bony pieces, which have been considered as 
 possessing some analogy with the sternal or cartilaginous portion of 
 the ribs, and which in one subgenus always remains in a cartilagi- 
 nous state, surrounds the shell, uniting and binding together all the 
 ribs which compose it. The vertebras of the neck and tail are con- 
 sequently the only ones which are movable. 
 
 The lungs have considerable extent, and are situated in the same 
 cavity with the other viscera. The thorax, in most of them, being 
 immovable, it is by the play of its mouth that the Tortoise respires, 
 which it effects by keeping the jaws closed, and alternately raising 
 and depressing the os hyoides. The former of these motions per- 
 mits air to enter through the nostrils, the tongue then closes the in- 
 ternal orifice of those apertures, when the latter forces the air into 
 the lungs. 
 
 Tortoises have no teeth; their jaws are invested with horn like 
 those of Birds; the Chelydes excepted, where they are covered with 
 skin only. 
 
 They possess great tenacity of life, and instances are on record 
 in which they have been seen to move for several weeks after losing 
 their head. They require but little nourishment, and can pass whole 
 months and even years without eating. 
 
 The Chelonia were all united in the genus 
 X 
 
ITS BEPTILIA. 
 
 Testudo, Lin. 
 i iiey have since been divided into five subgenera, chiefly from the forms 
 and teguments of their shell, and of their feet. 
 
 Testudo, Brog. 
 The Land Tortoises have the shell arched and supported by a solid, bony 
 frame, most of its lateral edges being soldered to the sternum; the legs, as 
 if truncated, with very short toes, which are closely joined as far as the 
 nails, all susceptible of ieing withdrawn between the bucklers; there are 
 five nails to tihie fore-feet, the hind ones have four, all stout and conical. 
 Several species live on vegetable food. 
 
 Emxs, Brongn. 
 
 The Fresh-water Tortoises have no other constant characters by which 
 they can be distinguished from the preceding ones, than the greater sepa- 
 ration of the toes, which are terminated by longer nails, and the intervals 
 occupied by membranes; even in this respect there are shades of difference. 
 They likewise have five naUs before and four behind. The form of their 
 feet renders their habits moi-e aquatic. Most of them feed on Insects, small 
 Fishes, &c. Their envelope is' generally more flattened than that of the 
 land Tortoises. 
 
 Among the fresh-water Tortoises we should remark The Box-Toktoises, 
 the sternum of which is divided by a movable articulation into two lids, 
 which, when the head and limbs are withdi-awn, completely encase the ani- 
 mal in its shell. 
 
 Chelonia, Brongn. 
 
 The envelope of the Sea Tortoises is too small to receive their head, and 
 particularly their feet, which are very long (tbe anterior ones most so), and 
 flattened into fins. The toes are all closely united in the same membrane, 
 the two first ones of each foot being, alone furnished with pointed nails, one 
 or other of which at a certain age is usually lost. The pieces of then- ster- 
 num do not form a continuous plate, bat are variously notched, leaving 
 considerable intervals which are filled with cai'tilage only. The ribs are 
 narrowed and separated from each other at their external extremities; the 
 circumference of the shell, however, is surrounded with a circle of pieces 
 corresponding to the ribs of the sternum. 
 
 Test, mydas, L. (The Green Tortoise) is distinguished by its greenish 
 plates, thirteen in number, which are not ai-ranged like tiles; those of the 
 middle range are almost regular hexagons. It is found from six to seven 
 feet long, and weighing from seven to eight hundred pounds. Its flesh is 
 highly esteemed, and furnishes a wholesome and palatable supply of food 
 to the mariner in every latitude of the tomd zone. It feeds in large troops 
 on the sea-weed at the bottom of the ocean, and approaches the mouths of 
 rivers to respire. The eggs it deposits in the sand to receive the vivifying 
 influence of the sun, are excellent food; its shell is of no value. 
 
CHELONIA. 179 
 
 Merrem has recently distinguished, by the name of Sphahgis, those Che- 
 lonix whose shell is destitute of plates, and merely covered with a sort of 
 leather. Such is 
 
 Test, coriacea, L. A very large species of the Mediterranean. Its shell 
 is oval and pointed behind, exhibiting three projecting longitudinal ridges. 
 
 Chelts, Dum. 
 
 The Chelydes resemble fresh water Tortoises in their feet and nails; and 
 their most dominant character consists in their mouth, which opens cross- 
 wise, being unarmed with the horny beak common to the other Chelonis, 
 and similar to that of certain Batrachians, the Fipa in particular. 
 
 list. Jimhria, Gm. The shell studded with pyramidal elevations, and the 
 body edged all round with a pinked fringe. It is found in Guiana. 
 
 Triontx, Geoff. 
 
 The Soft-shelled Tortoises have no scales, the shell and sternum being 
 simply enveloped by a soft skin; neither of those shells is completely sup- 
 ported by bones, as the ribs do not extend to the edge of the upper one, 
 and are united with each other only for a portion of their length, the parts 
 analogous to the sternal ribs being simple cartilage, and the sternal pieces 
 partially notched as in the sea-tortoises, not covering the whole lower sur- 
 face. The horn of their beak is invested externally with fleshy lips, and 
 their nose is prolonged into a little snout Their tail is very short. They 
 live in fresh water, and the flexible edges of their shell aid them in 
 swimming. 
 
 Test, ferox, Gm. (The Soft-shelled Tortoise of America) Inhabits the 
 rivers of Carolina, Georgia, the Floridas, and of Guiana. It remains in am- 
 bush imder roots of reecls, &.c. whence it seizes birds, reptiles, &c., devours 
 the young Alligators, and is devoured in turn by the old ones. Its flesh is 
 highly esteemed. 
 
 ■i 
 
 ■Ai 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 SAURIA.(l) 
 
 The Saurians have a heart like that of the Chelonia, composed of 
 two auricles and a ventricle, sometimes divided by imperfect par- 
 titions. 
 
 Their ribs are movable, partly connected with the sternum, and 
 rise and fall in respiration. 
 
 (1) From (rxufni! Lizard, animals analogous to Lizards. 
 
180 REPTILIA. 
 
 Their lung extends more or less towards the posterior extremity 
 of the body; it frequently penetrates very far into the lower part of 
 the abdomen, whose transverse muscles pass under the ribs, and 
 even towards the neck, to clasp it. Those in which this organ is 
 very large, possess the singular faculty of changing the colours of 
 their skin according to the excitement produced in them by their 
 wants or passions. 
 
 Their eggs are enveloped by a covering more or less hard, and 
 the young always retain the form in which they quit them. 
 
 Their mouth is always armed with teeth, and their toes, with very 
 few exceptions, are furnished with nails; their skin is covered with 
 scales, more or less compact, or at least with scaly granules. They 
 all have a tail more or less long, and generally very thick at base; 
 most of them have four legs, a few only having but two. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CROCODILIDA. 
 
 This family contains the single genus 
 
 CROcoDiirs, Br. 
 Crocodiles are large animals, with a tail flattened on the sides, five toes be- 
 fore and four behind, of which only the three internal ones on each foot are 
 armed with nails, all more or less united by membranes; a single range of 
 pointed teeth in each jaw; the tongue fleshy, flat, and adhering close to its 
 edges; a circumstance which induced the ancients to believe that they had 
 none; the back and tiil covered with very stout, large, square scales or 
 plates, relieved by a ridge along their middle; a deeply notched crest on 
 the tail, which is double at its base. The plates on the belly are smooth, 
 thin, and square. Their nostrils, which open on the end of the muzzle by 
 two small crescent-shaped fissures closed by valves, communicate with the 
 extremity of the hind part of the mouth, by a narrow canal which traverses 
 the palatine and sphenoidal bones. 
 
 The lower jaw being continued behind the cranium, the upper one ap- 
 pears to be movable, and has been so described by the ancients; it only 
 moves, however, with the entire head. 
 
 They have the power of closing the external ear by means of two fleshy 
 lips, and there are three lids to their eyes. 
 
 The vertebrae of the neck rest on each other through the medium of small 
 false ribs, which renders all lateral motion difiicult, and does not allow these 
 
SAURIA. 181 
 
 animals to deviate suddenly from their course; consequently it is easy to 
 escape from them by pursuing- a zig-zag direction, or by running round them. 
 
 Their eggs are as large and hai'd as those of a Goose; the females keep 
 careful watch over them, and tenderly protect their young for some months. 
 They inhabit fresli water, are extremely ferocious and carnivorous, cannot 
 swallow under water, but drown their prey, and place it in some submerged 
 crevice of a rock, where they allow it to putrefy before they eat it. 
 
 The species, which are more numerous than they were thought to be 
 previous to my observations, are referable to three distinct subgenera, viz. 
 Gavials, true Crocodii.es, and Alligators. To the latter belongs 
 
 Croc, lucius, Cuv. It inhabits the southern parts of North America, for- 
 ces itself into the mud in severe winters, and remains torpid. The female 
 deposits her egg^ in alternate layers with beds of earth. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 LACERTINIDA.(1) 
 
 This family is distinguished by the tongne, which is thin, extensi- 
 ble, and terminates in two threads, like that of the Coluber and 
 Viper; the body is elongated; the gait rapid; each foot has five toes 
 separate and unequal, the hind ones particularly so, all armed with 
 nails; the scales on the belly and round the tail are arranged in 
 transverse and parallel bands; the tympanum is level with the head, 
 or but slightly sunk and membranous. A production of the skin 
 with a longitudinal slit which is closed by a sphincter, protects the 
 eye, under whose anterior angle is the vestige of a third eye-lid; the 
 false ribs do not form a complete circle. 
 
 The species being very numerous and various, we subdivide them 
 into two great genera. 
 
 Monitor. 
 This genus contains species of the largest size; they have two teeth in both 
 jaws, but none in the palate; the greater number are recognized by their 
 laterally compressed tail, which renders them more aquatic. The vicinity 
 of water sometimes brings them in the neighbourhood of Crocodiles and 
 Alligators, and it is said that by whistling they give notice of the approach 
 of these dangerous animals. This report is most probably the origin of the 
 term Sauvegarde or Monitor applied to some of their species, but the fact is 
 very uncertain. 
 
 Lac. nihtica, L. Strong conical teeth, the posterior of which become 
 
 (1) Lacerta, a Lizard. 
 
182 REPTILIA. 
 
 rounded by age; brown, with pale and deeper coloured dots, forming vari 
 ous compartments, among which we observe transverse rows of large ocel- 
 lated spots that become rings on the tail. It attains a leng-th of five and six 
 feet. The Egyptians pretend it is a young Crocodile hatched in a dry 
 place. It was engraved upon the monuments of that country by its ancient 
 inhabitants, and possibly, because it devours the eggs of the Crocodile. 
 
 Lacekta, properly so called, 
 Or true lAzards, form the second genus of the Lacertians. The extremity 
 of their palate is armed with two rows of teeth, and they are otherwise 
 distinguished by a collar under the neck, formed of a transverse row of large 
 scales, separated from those on the belly by a space covered with small ones 
 only, like those under the throat; and by the circumstance that a part of the 
 cranium projects over their temples and orbits, so as to furnish the whole 
 top of the head with a bony buckler. 
 They are very numerous. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 IGUANIDA. 
 
 This third great family of Sauriana possesses the general form, 
 long tail, and free and unequal toes of the Lacertiansj their eye, 
 ear, &c. are also similar, but their tongue is fleshy, thick, non-ex- 
 tensible, and only emarginated at the tip. 
 
 They maybe divided into two sections; in the first, or that of the 
 Agamians, there are no palatine teeth. In this section we place 
 the following genera. 
 
 Stellio, Cuv. 
 In addition to the general characters of the family of the Iguanida, the tail 
 is encircled by rings composed of large and frequently spiny scales. It is 
 divided by naturalists into various subgenera. 
 
 Agama, Daud. 
 The Agamse bear a great resemblance to the common Stellios, particularly 
 in their inflated head; but the scales of their taU, which are imbricate and 
 not verticillate, distinguish them from that genus. Their maxillary teeth 
 are nearly similar, and there are none in the palate. This genus is also di- 
 vided into various subgenera. 
 
 IsTiURUS, Cuv. 
 The distinguishing character of this genus consists in an elevated and tren- 
 
SAURIA. 183 
 
 chant crest, which extends along a part of the tail, and which is supported 
 by high spinous apophyses of the vertebree; this crest is scaly like the rest 
 of the body; the scales on the belly and tail are small, and approach some- 
 what to a square form; the teeth are strong, compressed, and without den- 
 ticulations: there are none in the palate: there is a series of femoral pores. 
 The skin of the throat is smooth and lax, but without forming a dewlap. 
 
 Draco, L.(1) 
 The Dragons are distinguished at the first glance, from all other Saurians* 
 by their first six false ribs, which, instead of encircling the abdomen, extend 
 outwards in a straight line, and support a production of the skin, forming 
 a kind of wing that may be compared to that of a Bat, but which is not 
 connected with the four feet; it acts like a parachute in supporting them, 
 when they leap from one branch to another, but has not sufficient power 
 to enable them to rise like a Bird. They are small animals, completely in- 
 vested with little imbricated scales, of which those on the tail and limbs are 
 carinated. Their tongue is fleshy, but slightly extensible, and somewhat 
 emarginate. A long pointed dewlap hangs under their throat. 
 All the known species are from the East Indies. 
 
 It is perhaps to this tribe of Agamians that we should approxi- 
 mate a very extraordinary reptile which is only to be found among 
 the fossils of the old Jura limestone formation. 
 
 Ptehodactxlus, Cuv. 
 It had a short tail, an extremely long neck, and a very large head; the 
 jaws armed with equal and pointed teeth; but its chief character consisted 
 in the excessive elongation of the second toe of the fore-foot, which was 
 more than double the length of the trunk, and most probably served to 
 support some membrane which enabled the animal to fly, like that upheld 
 by the ribs of the Dragon. 
 
 The second section of the Iguanian family, that of the Iguanians 
 proper, is distinguished from the jfirst by having teeth in the palate. 
 
 Iguana, Cuv. 
 In Iguana, properly so called, the body and tail are covered with small im- 
 bricated scales; along the entire length of the back is a range of spines, or 
 
 (1) The term eT^axaiv, draco, generally designated a large Serpent; Dragons, 
 with a crest or beard, ai-e spoken of by ancient writers, a description which 
 can only apply to the Iguana; Lucian is the first who mentions Flying 
 Dragons, alluding, no doubt, to the pretended Flying Serpents treated of 
 by Herodotus. St Augustine, and other subsequent authors, ever after de- 
 scribed Dragons as having wings. 
 
184 REPTILIA. 
 
 rather of recurved, compressed, and pointed scales; beneath the throat a 
 pendent, compressed dewlap, the edge of which is supported by a cartila- 
 ginous process of the hyoid bone; a series of porous tubercles on their thighs 
 as in the true Lizards; the head covered with plates. Each jaw is surround- 
 ed with a row of compressed, triangular teeth, whose cutting edge is den- 
 ticulate; two small rows of the same on the posterior edge of the palate. 
 
 Ig. tuberculata, Laur. (The Common American Iguana.) Yellowish 
 green above, marbled with pure green; the tail annulated with brown, &c. ; 
 from four to five feet in length, and common in South America where its flesh 
 is esteemed dehcious, although unwholesome. It lives mostly on trees, 
 occasionally visits the water and feeds on fruit, grain, and leaves; the female 
 lays her eggs in the sand, they are the size of those of a Pigeon, agreeable 
 to the taste and almost without white. 
 
 The remaining genera are Ophyressa, Basiliscus, Polychrus, Echphimotus, 
 Opiums, and Anolius, the last of which is remarkable for the skin of the 
 toes, which is spread out into a disk, that enables them to cling to various 
 surfaces. 
 
 It is to this family of the Iguanae with palatine teeth, that belongs 
 an enormous fossil reptile known by the name of the Maestricht 
 Animal, and for which the new name of Mosasaurus has recently 
 been coined. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 GECKOTIDA. 
 
 This family is composed of nocturnal Lizards which are so similar 
 that they may be left in one genus. 
 
 Gecko, Daud.(l) — Askalarotes, Cuv. 
 The Geckos are Saurians which do not possess the elongated graceful form 
 of those of which we have hitherto spoken, but on the contrary are flattened, 
 the head particularly. Their feet are moderate, and the toes almost equal; 
 their gait is a heavy kind of crawling; very large eyes, whose pupil becomes 
 narrowed at the approach of light like that of a Cat, render them nocturnal 
 animals, which secrete themselves during the day in dark places. Their 
 very short eye-lids are completely withdrawn between the eye and the orbit, 
 which gives them a different aspect from other Saurians. Their tongue is 
 fleshy and non-extensible; their tympanum somewhat sunk; their jaws every 
 
 (1) Gecko, a name given to a species in India, in imitation of its cry, just 
 as another one is termed Tockaie at Siam, and a third Geitje at the Cape ; 
 !t.ricst\ctCcel>i!, the Greek name of the Geckotte, Lacep. 
 
SAURIA. 185 
 
 where furnished with a range of very small closely-jointed teeth; their palate 
 without teeth; thcii* skin is studded above with very small granular scales, 
 among which are often found larger tubercles, and beneath, covered with 
 scales somewhat smaller, which are flat and imbricated. 
 
 This genus is numerous and disseminated throughout the warm portions 
 of both continents. The melancholy and heavy air of the Gecko superadd- 
 ed to a certain resemblance it bears to the Salamander and the Toad, have 
 rendered it the object of hatred, and caused it to be considered as veno- 
 mous, but of this there is no real proof. 
 
 The toes of most of them are widened along the whole or part of their 
 length, and furnished beneath with regular plaits of skin, which enable them 
 to adliere so closely, that they are sometimes seen crawling along ceilings. 
 
 Tliey are now divided into the FlatidadyUy Hemidadyli, Thecadaciyli, 
 &c. &c., according to the different arrangement of the toes. 
 
 We arc compelled to establish 
 
 FAMILY V, 
 
 CHAMiELEONIDA, 
 
 For the single genus, 
 
 Chamjeleo,( 1 ) 
 Or tlie Chameleons, which is very distinct from all otlier Saurian genera; 
 and is not even easily intei'calated in their series. 
 
 Their skin is roughened by scaly granules, their body compressed, and tlie 
 back — if we may so express it — trenchant; tail round and prehensile; five 
 toes to each foot, but divided into two bundles, one containing two, the 
 other three, each bundle being united by the skin down to the nails; the 
 tongue fleshy, cylindrical, and susceptible of great extension; teeth trilobate; 
 eyes large, but nearly covered by the sldn, except a small hole opposite 
 to the pupil, and possessing the faculty of moving independently of each 
 other; no visible external ear, and the occiput pyramidically elevated. Their 
 first ribs are joined to the sternum; the following ones are extended each 
 to its fellow on the opposite side, so as to enclose tlie abdomen by an entire 
 circle. Their lungs are so enormous, that when inflated, their body seems 
 to be transparent, a circumstance which induced the ancients to believe that 
 they fed on air. They live on insects which they capture with the viscid ex- 
 
 (1) Xa./xAt\ta>y (Little Lion), the Grecian name of this animal. Aristotle, 
 who uses it, has also given an excellent description of i1. Hist. An. Lib. 
 II, cap. ix. 
 
186 REPTILIA. 
 
 tremity of their tongue, the only part of their body which seems to be endow- 
 ed with quickness of motion, as in every thing- else they are remarkable for 
 their excessive slowness. The great extent of their lungs is probably the 
 cause of their faculty of changing colour, wliich takes place, not as is 
 thought in conformity with the hue of the bodies on which they rest, but 
 according to their wants and passions. Their lungs, in fact, render them 
 more or less transparent, compel the blood in a greater or less degree to 
 return to the skin, and even colour that fluid more or less vividly in propor- 
 tion to the quantity of air tliey contain. They always remain on trees. 
 
 Lac. africana, Gm. (The Common Chameleon.) Thehood pointed and 
 rehevedby a ridge in front; the granules on the skin equal and close; the 
 superior crest indented as far as half the length of the back, the inferior to 
 the anus. The hood of the female does not project so much and the 
 denticulations of her crests are smaller. From Egypt, Barb ary, and even 
 the south of Spain, and India. 
 
 FAMILY VI. 
 
 SCINCOIDEA. 
 
 The Scincoideans are known by their short feet, non-extensible 
 tongue, and the equal scales which cover the body and tail, like tiles. 
 
 SciNCUs, Daud. 
 Four short feet; the body and tail almost one continued and uniform piece; 
 no enlargement of the occiput; without crest or dewlap, and covered with 
 uniform, shining scales, arranged like tiles, or those of a Carp. Some of 
 them are fusiform; others, more or less elongated, resemble Serpents, the 
 Unguis particularly, to which they are related by several internal affinities, 
 and which they connect with the family of the Iguanida, by an uninterrupted 
 suite of transitions. Their tongue is fleshy, but slightly extensible and 
 emarginate; the jaws every where fui-nished with small, closely set teeth. 
 In the eye, ear, &c., they bear a greater or less resemblance to the Iguanx 
 and Lizards; the feet are furnished with free and unguiculated toes. 
 
 Seps, Daud. 
 Seps only differs from Scincus in the more elongated body, which is exactly 
 similar to that of an Anguis, and in the still smaller feet, the two pairs of 
 which are further apart. Their lungs begin to exhibit some inequality. 
 
 BiPEs, Lacep. 
 A small genus, only differing from Seps in the entire absence of fore feet, 
 having the scapulae and clavicles concealed beneath the skin, the hind feet 
 alone being visible. There is but a step from it to Anguis. 
 
SAURIA. 187 
 
 Chalcides, Daud. 
 Elongated Lizards resembling' Serpents; but the scales, instead of being 
 arranged like tiles, are rectangular, forming transverse bands, which do not 
 encroach on each other like those on the tails of ordinary Lizards. 
 
 Chikotes, Cuv. 
 Similar to Chalcides in their verticillate scales, and still more so to the Am- 
 phisbaense in the obtuse form of their head; but distinguished from the former 
 by the absence of hind feet, and from the latter by the presence of the an- 
 terior feet. One species only is known, which is found in Mexico. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 OPHIDIA.(l) 
 
 Serpents are reptiles without feet, and consequently those which 
 best merit that appellation. Their extremely elongated body moves 
 by means of the folds it forms when in contact with the ground. 
 They are divided into three families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 ANGUINA.(2) 
 
 The Angues still have an osseous head, teeth, and tongue, similar 
 to those of a Seps; their eye is furnished with three lids, &.C., and, 
 in fact, if we may so express it, they are Seps without feet; they are 
 all comprised in the genus 
 
 Anguis, Lin. 
 Characterized externally by imbricated scales, with which they are com- 
 pletely enveloped- They have been separated into four subgenera; in the 
 three first we still find beneath the skin the bones of the shoulder and pelvis. 
 This genus is now subdivided into Paeudopus, Ophisavrua, Anguia proper, 
 and Aamtias. 
 
 (1) 0<^i(, a Serpent. (2) Anguis, the Latin generic term for Serpents. 
 
188 REPTILIA. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 SERPENTIA. 
 
 The true Serpents, which are by far the most numerous, comprise 
 the genera without a sternum, and in which there is no vestige of a 
 shoulder, but where the ribs still surround a great part of the circum- 
 ference of the trunk, and where the body of each vertebra is still 
 articulated by a convex surface to a cavity in the succeeding one. 
 The third eye-lid and the tympanum are deficient; but the malleus of 
 the ear exists under the skin, and its handle passes behind the 
 tympanum. There is still a vestige of a posterior limb, concealed 
 under the skin, in several of this family, and which in some of them 
 shows its extremity externally in the form of a small hook. 
 
 We subdivide them into two tribes. 
 
 That of the AMPHiSBiEN^E, as in the preceding reptiles, still has 
 the lower jaw supported by a tympanal bone directly articulated with 
 the cranium, the two branches of this jaw soldered together in front, 
 and those of the upper one fixed to the cranium and to the inter- 
 maxillary bone, circumstances which prevent that dilatation of the 
 mouth which obtains in the succeeding tribe, and which occasions 
 a uniformity of the head and body, a form which enables them to 
 move backwards or forwards with equal facility. The bony frame 
 of the orbit is incomplete behind, and the eye very small; the body 
 is covered with scales, the trachea long, and the heart very far back. 
 They are not venomous. 
 
 They form two genera, one of which is allied to Chalcides and 
 Chirotes, and the other to Anguis and Acontias. 
 
 Amphisbjena, L.(1) 
 The whole body surrounded with circular ranges of quadrangular scales, 
 like the Chalcides and the Chirotes among the Saurltns; a few conical teeth 
 in the jaws, but none in the palate. There is but one lung. 
 
 Two species have long been known, Amph. alba, Lacep., and Amph. full- 
 ginosa, Jj., both from South America. They feed on Insects, and are often 
 found in Ant-hills, which has occasioned a belief among the people that the 
 large Ants are their purveyors. They are oviparous. 
 
 (1) From ctfAtpti and QaIvuv, walkmg both ways. The ancienta attributed 
 two heads to it. 
 
OPHIDIA. 189 
 
 Typhloi's, Schn.(l) 
 The body covered with small imbricated scales like Anguis, with which 
 they were long classed^ the projecting muzzle furnished with plates; tongue 
 long and forked; the eye resembling a point hai'dly visible tlu-ough the skin; 
 one of the lungs four times larger than the other. They are small Serpents, 
 at the first glance resembling earth-worms; they are found in the hot por- 
 tions of both continents. 
 
 In the second tribe, that of the Serpentes, or Serpents properly 
 so called, the tympanal bone or pedicle of the lower jaw is naovable, 
 and is itself always suspended to another bone, analogous to the 
 . mastoid process, attached to the cranium by muscles and ligaments, 
 which allow it some motion. The branches of this jaw are not so 
 closely united with each other, and those of the upper one are merely 
 connected with the intermaxillary bone by ligaments, so that they 
 can separate to a greater or less extent, which enables these animals 
 so to dilate their mouths as to swallow bodies larger than themselves. 
 
 Their palatine arches participate in this facility of motion, and 
 are armed with sharp pointed teeth which curve backwards, the 
 most predominant and constant character of the tribe. Their tra- 
 chea is very long, their heart very far back, and most of them have 
 but one large lung with a vestige of another. 
 
 Serpents are divided into venomous and non-venomous; and the 
 former are subdivided into such as are venomous with several max- 
 illary teeth, and those which are venomous with insulated fangs. 
 
 In such as are not venomous, the branches of the upper jaw as 
 well as those of the lower one, and the palatine arches, are every 
 where furnished with fixed and solid teeth; there are then four equal 
 rows of these teeth in the upper part of the mouth, and two below. 
 
 ToRTRix, Oppel. 
 Distinguished from Anguina, even externally, inasmuch as the scales which 
 form the range along the belly and under part of tlie tail are a little lai-ger 
 than the others, and the tail itself is extremely short. They have but one 
 lung. 
 
 In those non-venomous Serpents, on the contrary, where the 
 mastoid bones are detached, and the jaws are susceptible of great 
 
 (1) 'Tij<pha>-^, Tu<p\h>i, bhnd, were the names of the Anguis (slow-worm) 
 among the Greeks. 
 
190 REPTILIA. 
 
 dilatation, the occiput is more or less enlarged, and the tongue 
 forked and very extensible. 
 
 They have long been divided into two principal genera, Boa and 
 Coluber, distinguished by the simple or double plates on the under 
 part of the tail. The genus 
 
 Boa, Lin.(l) 
 Formerly comprized all those Serpents, venomous or not, the under part 
 of whose body and tail is furnished with uninterrupted, transverse scaly 
 bands, and which have neither spur nor rattle at the end of the tail. As 
 they are rather numerous, even after deducting the venomous species, the 
 others have been again subdivided. 
 
 The Boa, properly so called, has a compressed body, thickest in the 
 middle, a prehensile tail, and small scales on the head, at least on its poste- 
 rior portion. It is in this genus that are found the largest Serpents on the 
 globe; certain species attain a length of thirty or forty feet, preying on 
 Dogs, Deer, and even Oxen, which they manage to swallow entire, after 
 having ci-ushed them in their folds and covered them with saliva. This 
 operation requires much time and an enormous dUatation of their jaws and 
 throat. Their smaU lung is but half the length of the other. 
 
 Boa constrictor, L. Known by a broad chain, which extends along the 
 back, formed alternately by large, blackish, irregularly hexagonal spots, 
 and by pale oval ones, the two ends of which are emarginate. 
 
 The celebrated Anaconda is a true Boa. 
 
 Coluber, Lin. 
 
 This genus comprised all those Serpents, venomous or not, whose sub-cau- 
 dal plates are divided in two, that is, which are arranged by pairs. 
 
 Independently of the subtraction of the venomous species, their number 
 is so enormously great, that naturalists have had recourse to all sorts of 
 characters to subdivide them. 
 
 In the subgenus PytJum we find the Col, javanicus, Sh., which has been 
 found thirty feet in length. Sunda Islands. 
 
 Serpents which are venomous par excellence, or those with iso- 
 lated fangs, have their organs of manducation constructed on a very 
 peculiar plan. 
 
 Their superior maxillary bones are very small, attached to a long 
 
 (1) Boa, the name of certain Italian Serpents of great size, most pro- 
 bably the four striped Coluber, or •' Serpent of Epidaurus" of the Latins. 
 Pliny says they were thus named, because they sucked the teats of Cows. 
 The Boa, 120 feet long, which it is pretended was killed in Africa by the 
 army of Regulus, was probably a Python. See Pliny, lib. VIII, cap. xiv. 
 
OPHIDIA. 191 
 
 pedicle, analogous to the external pterygoid apophysis of the sphenoid 
 bone, and are very movable; in them is fixed a sharp pointed per- 
 vious tooth, through which flows a Hquor secreted by a large gland, 
 situated under the eye. It is this liquor which, poured into the 
 wound made by the tooth, produces effects, more or-less violent, 
 according to the species of the reptile in which it is secreted. This 
 tooth, when the animal does not wish to use it, is concealed in a 
 fold of the gum, and behind it are several germs destined to replace 
 it, in the event of its being broken in a wound. These venomous 
 teeth have been termed by naturalists movable fangs, but in fact it is 
 the maxillary bone which moves; there are no other teeth in it, so 
 that in this kind of dangerous serpents only the two rows of palatine 
 teeth are to be seen in the upper part of the mouth. 
 
 All these venomous species, whose mode of production is well 
 known, bring forth living young ones, as their eggs are hatched 
 without being laid, from which circumstance is derived their com- 
 mon name of Vipers, a contraction of viviparous. 
 
 Venomous serpents with isolated fangs have external characters 
 very similar to those of the preceding ones, but in the greater num- 
 ber the jaws are very dilatable, and the tongue very extensible. The 
 posterior portion of their head being broad, generally gives them a 
 ferocious aspect, which is a partial indication of their disposition. 
 They form two great genera, Crotalus and Vipeka, the second of 
 which has been variously subdivided, and some smaller ones which 
 group around them. 
 
 Crotalus, Lin. 
 
 Rattlesnakes are pre-eminently conspicuous for the intensity of their venom. 
 As in Boa, there are transverse simple plates under the body and tail; but 
 their most distingxiishing character is the rattle which terminates the tail. It 
 is formed by several scaly cornets loosely fitted into each other, which move 
 and produce the peculiar noise from which they receive their name when- 
 ever they crawl or shake that part of the body. The number of these cor- 
 nets increases with age, an additional one being always found after each 
 moult. There is a little round indentation or pit behind each nostril. All 
 the species whose habitat is v/ell asceilained are from America. The dan- 
 ger resulting from the bite of these noxious reptiles is in proportion to the 
 warmth of the climate or of the season; their natural disposition, however, 
 is tranquil, and they are rather slow and heavy in their motions, never bi- 
 ting unless provoked, or to kill the prey on which they feed. 
 
 Their principal food consists of Birds, Squirrels, &c. It has long been 
 supposed that it possesses the faculty of rendering them powerless by its 
 
192 REPTILIA. 
 
 breath, or even of charming them, as it Is called, by which they are com- 
 pelled to leap into its mouth; this, however, is not so, and the reptile in 
 question seizes its prey while under the agitation and terror produced by 
 its appeai'ance. 
 
 In most of the species there are scales on the head similar to those on 
 the back. 
 
 The C. horridus or the Diamond Rattlemahe, the C. durissus or the 
 Banded Rattlesnake, and the C. miliaris or the Ground Rattlesnake, a smaller 
 species, but the most dangerous of the three, all inhabit the United States. 
 The most common is the durissus,- the miliaris, although furnished like the 
 others with an apparatus of three or four cornets at the end of the tail, can 
 make no noise with them. The plates on the head are arranged as in the 
 genus Coluber. 
 
 ViPERA, Daud. 
 The Vipers, most of which were confounded with the Colubers by Linnseus, 
 on account of their double sub-caudal plates, require to be separated from 
 them from the circumstance of their having poisonous fangs. There are 
 also some serpents which naturally belong to this division, whose sub-cau- 
 dal plates are either wholly or partially simple- They are all distinguished 
 from the Rattlesnakes by the absence of the pits behind the nostrils. 
 
 Vip. brachyura, Cuv. (The Minute Viper.) The intensity and activity 
 of its poison render it one of the most terrible of the genus. The genus of 
 the Vipers is now variously subdivided. To one of these subgenera, Naia, 
 belongs the celebrated 
 
 Col. haje, h. Greenish bordered with brownish. The jugglers of Egypt, 
 by pressing on the nape of the neck with their finger, throw it into a kind 
 of catalepsy which renders it stiff and immovable, or turns it into a rod, as 
 they term it. Its habit of raising itself up when approached, induced the 
 ancient Egyptians to believe that it was the guardian of the fields it inhab- 
 ited. They made it the emblem of the protecting divinity of the world, 
 and sculptured it on each side of a globe upon the gates of their temples. 
 It is indubitably the serpent described by the ancients under the name of 
 the ^sp of Egypt, Mp of Cleopatra, &c. 
 
 In addition to these two tribes of Serpents, properly so styled, a 
 third has lately been recognized, in which the organization and ar- 
 mature of the jaws are nearly the same as in the non-venomous ser- 
 pents, but where the first maxillary tooth, larger than the others, is 
 perforated for the transmission of the poison, as in the venomous 
 serpents with isolated fangs. 
 
 These Serpents form two genera, Bungarxjs and Hydrus, dis- 
 tinguisiied, like those of the two neighbouring families, by the cover- 
 ing of tlie abdomen and the under part of the tail. 
 
OPHIDIA. 193 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 NUDA. 
 
 Our third and last family of the Ophidians, that of the Naked Ser- 
 pentSy consists of but one very singular genus, which several natu- 
 ralists have thought fit to refer to the Batrachians, although we are 
 ignorant as to the fact of its undergoing any metamorphosis. It 
 is the 
 
 CECILIA, Lin.(l) 
 
 So called because its eyes, excessively small, are nearly hidden beneath the 
 skin, and sometimes are wanting. The skin is smooth, viscous and fur- 
 rowed by annular plsiits or wrinkles; it is apparently naked, but on dissec- 
 tion we find in its thickness, perfectly formed though delicate scales, 
 regularly arranged in several transverse rows between the folds of the skin. 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 BATRACHIA.(2) 
 
 The Batrachians have a heart composed of but one auricle- and 
 one ventricle. They all have two equal lungs, to which at first are 
 added branchiae, that have some afiinity with those of Fishes, and 
 which have cartilaginous arches on each side of the neck attached 
 to the hyoid bone. Most of them lose these branchisB, and the ap- 
 paratus which supports them, when they attain a state of maturity. 
 Three genera only, Siren, Proteus, and Menobranchus, retain them 
 for life. 
 
 As long as these branchia remain, the aorta is divided at its origin 
 into as many branches on each side as there are branchiae. The 
 branchial blood is brought back by veins which unite near the back 
 in one arterial trunk, as in Fishes. It is from this trunk, or imme- 
 diately from the veins which form it, that arise most of the arteries 
 
 (ly Casdlia, from T(ypx«4» is the Latin name of the Slow-worm (Orvet), 
 which in several parts of Europe is still called blind, although it has very 
 fine eyes. 
 
 (2) From ^*T/iat;^of (Frog), animals analogous to Frogs. 
 
 z 
 
194 REPTILIA. 
 
 which nourish the body, and even those which conduct the blood to 
 be oxygenated in the lungs. 
 
 In those species, however, which lose their branchiae, the attend- 
 ant arteries are obliterated, with the exception of two, which unite 
 in a dorsal artery, giving, each, a small branch to the lungs. It is 
 the circulation of a Fish metamorphosed into that of a Reptile. 
 Batrachians have neither scales nor shell; a naked skin invests their 
 body, and, one genus excepted, they have no nails. 
 
 The envelope of the ova is membranous. These eggs become 
 greatly enlarged in the water. The young do not only differ from 
 the adult in the presence of the branchiae; their feet are developed 
 by degrees, and in several species there are a beak and tail, which 
 they subsequently lose, and intestines of a different form. 
 
 Some species are viviparous. 
 
 Rana, Lin. 
 
 Frogs have four legs in their perfect state, but no taU. Their head is flat, 
 muzzle rounded, and the opening' of their jaws large; the tongue, in most of 
 them, is soft, and not attached to the bottom of the gullet, but to the edges 
 of the jaw, and folds inwards. There are but four toes to the anterior feet; 
 the hind ones frequently exhibit the rudiment of a sixth. 
 
 There are no ribs to their skeleton, and a prominent cartilaginous plate 
 supplies the place of a tympanum, and renders the ear visible externally. 
 The eye is furnished with two fleshy lids, and a third, which is transparent 
 and horizontal, concealed under the lower one. 
 
 The hind feet of the Tadpole are very gradually and visibly developed; 
 the fore feet are also developed, but under the skin, through which they 
 subsequently penetrate. The tad is gradually absorbed. The beak faUs 
 and discloses the true jaws, which at first were soft and concealed beneath 
 the skin; and the branchiae are annihilated, leaving to the lungs alone the 
 function of respiration in which they participated. The eyes which at first 
 could only be discerned through a transparent spot in the skin of the Tad- 
 pole, are now visible with their three lids. Tadpoles reproduce their limbs 
 almost Tike Salamanders. 
 
 The period at which each of these changes takes place varies with the 
 species. 
 
 In cold and temperate cUmates, the perfect animal passes the winter un- 
 der ground, or in the mud under water, without eating or breathing, though 
 if we prevent it from respiring during the summer for a few minutes by 
 keeping its mouth open, it dies. 
 
 HxLA, Laur. 
 Tree-Frogs only differ from Frogs in the extremities of their toes, each of 
 which is expanded into around, viscous peUet, that enables them to adhere 
 
BATRACHIA. 195 
 
 to the surface of bodies and to climb trees, where in fact they remain all 
 summer, living upon insects. They spawn, however, in water, and enter 
 tlie mud in water like other Frog's. There is a pouch under the tliroat of 
 the male, which dilates whenever he cries. 
 
 Rana arborea, L. (The Common Tree-Frog.) Green above, pale be- 
 neath; a black and yellow line along each side of the body. They are adult 
 in four years. The Tadpole completes its metamorphosis in the month of 
 August. 
 
 BuFo, Laur. 
 
 Toads have a thick, bulky body covered with warts or papills; a thick 
 lump behind the ears pierced with pores, from which issues a milky and 
 fetid humour; no teeth; the hind feet but shghtly elongated. They leap 
 badly, and generally avoid the water. They are hideous and disgusting 
 animals, whose bite, saliva, &c., are considered, though en-oneously, as poi- 
 sonous. 
 
 There are now several subgenera, such as Rhinellus, Otilophis, Pipa, &c. 
 
 Salamandka, Brongn. 
 
 Salamanders have an elongated body, four feet and a long tail, which gives 
 them the general foi-m of Lizards, with which Linnseus placed them: but 
 they have aU the characters of Batracliians. 
 
 In their adult state, respiration is performed as in Frogs and Tortoises. 
 Their tadpoles at first breathe by means of branchiae resembhng tufts, three 
 on each side of the neck, which are subsequently obhterated; they are sus- 
 pended to cartilaginous arches, vestiges of which remain in the hyoid bone 
 of the adult. A membranous operculum covers these openings, but the 
 tufts are never enclosed by a tunic, and always float externally. The fore 
 feet are developed before the hind ones; the toes appear successively in the 
 first and the last. 
 
 Salahansba, Laur. 
 The terrestrial Salamanders in a perfect state have a round tdl, and in- 
 habit the water only during their tadpole condition, which is but a short 
 period, or when the female is ready to bring forth. The eggs are hatched 
 in the oviduct. 
 
 TaiTON, Laur. 
 Aquatic Salamanders always retain the vertically compressed t^, and 
 pass nearly the whole of their existence in the water. The experiments of 
 Spallanzani on their astonishing power of reproduction, have rendered 
 them celebrated. If a hmb be amputated, another is reproduced in its stead 
 with all its bones, muscles, vessels, &c. and this takes place several times 
 in succession. Another not less singular faculty, discovered by Dufay, is 
 the power they possess of remaining enclosed in ice for a considerable time 
 without perishing. 
 
196 REPTILIA. 
 
 Skeletons of a salamander three feet in length have' been discovered 
 among the schist of CEningen. One of them is the pretended Fossil Man 
 of Scheucher. 
 
 Immediately after the Salamanders come several very similar ani- 
 mals, some of which are considered as having been always destitute 
 of branchiae, that is, they probably lose them at as early a period as 
 our terrestrial Salamanders; the others, on the contrary, retain them 
 for life, a circumstance, however, which does not prevent their hav- 
 ing lungs like the Batrachians, so that they may be considered as 
 the only vertebrate animals which are truly amphibious. 
 
 The former (those in which no branchias are visible) constitute 
 two genera. 
 
 Menopoma, Harlan. 
 
 Form of a Salamander; eyes apparent, the feet well developed, and an ori- 
 fice on each side of the neck . Besides the range of small maxillary teeth, 
 there is a parallel row of them on the front of the palate. Such is the rep- 
 tile termed 
 
 Sal. gigantea. Barton. (The Hellbender.) From fifteen to eighteen 
 inches long; a blackish blue; inhabits the lakes and the rivers of the inte- 
 rior of North America. 
 
 Amphiuma, Garden. 
 
 An orifice on each side of the neck, but the body excessively elongated; the 
 legs and feet, on the contrary, but very slightly developed; the palatine teeth 
 form two longitudinal ranges. 
 
 Among those which always retain their branchiae, the 
 
 AXOLOTUS 
 Is in every respect similar to the larva of an aquatic Salamander, having 
 four toes before, five behind, three long tufted branchiae, &c. The maxil- 
 lary teeth are like velvet, and those on the vomer in two bands. 
 
 Menobranchus, Harl. 
 But four toes to all the feet; a range of teeth in the intermaxillaries, and an- 
 other, parallel, but more extended, in the maxillaries. 
 
 The species most known, Menobranchus lateralis, Harl.; Triton lateralis. 
 Say, inhabits the great lakes of North America, attaining, as it is said, the 
 length of two and tliree feet. It was first obtained from Lake Champlain. 
 
 Proteus, Laurent. 
 But three toes before and only two behind. 
 
 Hitherto but a single species has been discovered, Proteus anguinua. 
 
BATRACHIA. 197 
 
 Laur. More than a foot long-, about the thickness of a finger, with a verti- 
 cally compressed tail and four small legs. 
 
 Finally, there are some which are possessed of fore feet only, the hind 
 ones being entirely deficient. They form the genus 
 
 SiEEN, Lin. 
 Sireiisare elongated animals, almost anguilliform, with three branchial tufts; 
 they have no hind feet, nor is there even a vestige of a pelvis. Theii* head 
 is depressed, the opening of their mouth small, their muzzle obtuse, eye 
 very small and ear concealed; the lower jaw is armed with teeth all round, 
 and there are none in the upper one, but there are several rows of them ad- 
 hering to two plates fixed under each side of the palate. 
 
 S. lacertina, L. Blackish, and attains the length of three feet; four toes 
 to each foot; tail compressed into an obtuse fin. It inhabits the marshes of 
 Carolina, the rice swamps particularly, where it lives in the mud, occasion- 
 ally going on shore or into the water. It feeds on lumbrici, insects, &c. 
 There are two much smaller species. 
 
 CLASS IV. 
 PISCES. 
 
 The class of Fishes is composed of oviparous Vertebrata with a 
 double circulation, but in which respiration is altogether effected 
 through the medium of water. For this purpose, on each side of 
 the neck, they have an apparatus called branchiae, or gills, which 
 consist of laminae suspended on arches that are attached to the hyoid 
 bone, each composed of numerous separate lamina and covered 
 with a tissue of innumerable blood-vessels. The water which the 
 fish swallows, escapes between these laminae through the branchial 
 openings, and by means of the air it contains, acts upon the blood 
 that is continually arriving in the branchiae from the heart, which only 
 represents the right auricle and ventricle of warm-blooded animals. 
 This blood, having received the benefit of respiration, is poured into 
 an arterial trunk situated under the spine, which, exercising the 
 functions of a left ventricle, distributes it to every part of the body, 
 whence it returns to the heart by the veins. 
 
 The entire structure of the Fish is as evidently adapted for natation, 
 
198 PISCES. 
 
 as that of the Bird for flight. Suspended in a liquid of nearly the 
 same specific gravity as its own body, there was no necessity for 
 large wings to support it. In a great number of species, immedi- 
 ately under the spine there is a bladder filled with air, which, by 
 compression or dilatation, varies the specific gravity of the fish and 
 assists it to rise or descend. Progression is effected by the motions 
 of the tail, which, by striking the water alternately right and left, 
 forces them forward; the branchiae, by impelhng the water back- 
 wards, may also contribute to this effect. The limbs being thus of 
 but little use, are greatly reduced; the parts analogous to the bones 
 of the arms and legs are extremely short, or even completely con- 
 cealed; rays, more or less numerous, which support membranous 
 fins, form a rude representation of the fingers and toes. The fins 
 which correspond to the anterior extremities are termed pectorals, 
 and those which answer to the posterior ones, ventrals. Other rays 
 attached to particular bones placed on or between the extremities 
 of the spinous apophyses support vertical fins on the back, under the 
 tail, and at its extremity, which, by being raised or lowered, increase 
 or diminish the surface which strikes against the water. The su- 
 perior fins are called dorsal, the inferior anal, and that at the end of 
 the tail caudal. The rays are of two kinds; some of them consist 
 of a single bony piece, usually hard and pointed, sometimes flexible 
 and elastic, divided longitudinally — these are called spinous rays; 
 others are composed of a great number of small articulations, and 
 generally divided into branches at their extremity — they are the 
 soft, articulated, or branched rays. 
 
 There is as much variety among Fishes, with respect to the number 
 of limbs, as among Reptiles. Most generally there are four; some 
 have but two, and in others they are totally wanting. The bone 
 which is analogous to the scapula, is sometimes held among the 
 muscles as in the higher animals, and at others is attached to the 
 spine, but most commonly it is suspended on the cranium. The 
 pelvis rarely adheres to the spine, and very frequently, instead of 
 being behind the abdomen, is before it, and connected with the hu- 
 meral apparatus. 
 
 Besides the usual parts of the brain which are arranged as in 
 Reptiles one after the other, Fishes have knots or ganglions at the 
 base of their olfactory nerves. 
 
 Their nostrils are simple cavities at the end of the muzzle almost 
 
PISCES. 199 
 
 always perforated by two holes, and regularly lined by a plated pi- 
 tuitary membrane. 
 
 The cornea of their eye is very flat, and there is but little aqueous 
 humour, but the crystalline is very hard and almost globular. 
 
 The sense of taste in Fishes can have but little energy, as a great 
 portion of the tongue is osseous, and frequently furnished with teeth 
 and other hard parts. 
 
 The body in most of them is covered with scales, and none pos- 
 sess organs of prehension ; the fleshy cirri of some may supply the 
 imperfection of the other organs of touch. 
 
 Teeth are found in their intermaxillary, maxillary, lower jaw, 
 vomer, bones of the palate, on the tongue, on the arches of the 
 branchiee, and even on bones behind these arches, attached like them 
 to the hyoides, called pharyngeal bones. 
 
 The varieties of these combinations, as well as those of the form 
 of the teeth placed at each point, are innumerable. 
 
 Besides the apparatus of the branchial arches, the hyoid bone is 
 furnished on each side with rays which support the branchial mem- 
 brane. A sort of lid composed of three bony pieces, the operculum, 
 the suboperculum, and the interoperculum, unites with this membrane 
 in closing the great opening of the gills; it is articulated with the 
 tympanal bone, and plays on one called the preoperculum. In many 
 of the Chondropterygii this apparatus is wanting. 
 
 Fishes form two distinct series, thd^t of FisnEs properly so styled^ 
 and that of the Chondropterygii, otherwise called Cartilaginous 
 Fishes. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 ACANTHOPTERYGII.(l) 
 
 The Acanthopterygii form the first and by far the most numerous 
 division of ordinary Fishes. They are recognized by the spines 
 which occupy the place of the first rays of their dorsal, or which 
 alone support the first fin of the back, where there are two; some- 
 
 (1) Spiny-fins, 
 
SOO PISCES. 
 
 times, instead of a first dorsal, there are only a few free spines. The 
 first rays of their anal are also spines, and there is generally one to 
 each ventral. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 PERCOIDES. 
 
 This family is so called because its type is the Common Perch. 
 It comprehends fishes with oblong bodies, covered with scales that 
 are generally hard or rough, and whose operculum or preopercu- 
 lum, and frequently both, have dentated or spinous edges, and whose 
 jaws, the fore-part of the vomer, and generally the palatine bones, 
 are furnished with teeth. 
 
 The species are extremely numerous, particularly in the seas of 
 hot climates; their flesh is generally wholesome and agreeable. 
 
 In the first subdivision we find seven rays in the branchiae, two 
 fins on the back, and all the teeth small and crowded. 
 
 Perca, Cuv. 
 The true Perches have the preoperculum dentated; the bony operculum 
 terminated by two or thi'ee sharp points and a smooth tongue. Sometimes 
 the sub-orbital and the humeral are slighty dentated. North America pro- 
 duces several species. 
 
 Labrax, Cuv. 
 
 Distinguished from the Perches by scaly opercula terminating in two spines, 
 and by a rough tongue. 
 
 The United States produce a large and beautiful species, Labr. Hneatus, 
 Cuv. (The Rock-fish), with longitudinal blackish stripes. 
 
 The remaining genera of this division are Lates, Centropomus, Grammis- 
 tes, Aapro, &c. &c. diffei-ing in various particulars relative to the operculum 
 and preoperculum, armature of the jaws, &c. 
 
 A second subdivision comprises Percoides with two dorsal fins, 
 and long and pointed teeth mingled with the small and crowded ones. 
 
 There are two genera, Ambassis, Lucio-Perca or Perch-Pike. 
 
 A second division comprises Percoides with seven branchial 
 rays and one dorsal. They are subdivided in nearly the same way 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 201 
 
 as the preceding ones, as by their teeth which are either hooked or 
 all small and crowded; notches and spines on the opercula, &c. 
 In the subdivision, furnished with hooked teeth, we find, 
 
 Serranus, Cuv. 
 Preoperculum dentate; the bony operculum terminating in one or several 
 points. This genus contains a vast number of species, and is divided into 
 several subgenera. 
 
 We now pass to Percoides with seven branchial rays, and a sin- 
 gle dorsal, the teeth small and crowded. 
 
 They are distributed under the genera Acerina, Rypticus, Ceniroprisiis 
 (to which belongs our Black Perch) and Grisies. 
 
 The genus Perca, as defined by Artedi and Linnaeus, terminates 
 here; but there remains a number of fishes which approach it, al- 
 though peculiar characters compel naturalists to arrange them in 
 separate genera, such as Cirrhites, Chironemus, Pomofw, (our Pond- 
 Perch) Centrarchusy &.c. &.c. 
 
 PoMOTis, Cuv, 
 Fishes, with a compressed and oval body, characterized by a membranous 
 prolongation at the angle of the operculum. They inhabit the rivers, &c. 
 of America, where they are called Pond-Perch. 
 
 We now pass to those Percoides which have more than seven 
 rays to the branchiag. Three genera are known, all of which pre- 
 sent the following peculiarity: their ventrals have a spine and seven 
 or more soft rays, while in other Acanthopterygii there are never 
 more than five soft rays. 
 
 HoLOCENTRTiM, Artedi, 
 The scales of these beautiful fishes are brilliant and dentated; operculum 
 dentated and spinous; preoperculum dentated with a stout spine at the an- 
 gle, which is directed backwards. They are found in the hot parts of both 
 oceans. 
 
 Mybipristis, Cuv. 
 
 The brilliancy, shape and scales of the Holocentra, but the preoperculum 
 has a dentated double border, and there is no spine at the angle. They in- 
 habit the hot parts of both oceans. 
 2 A 
 
202 PISCES. 
 
 Beryx, Cuv. 
 Differs from M3rripristls in having but a single short dorsal, with but a few 
 small spines, almost hidden in its anterior edge; ten soft rays in the ventrals. 
 
 All the Percoides of which we have hitherto spoken, have their 
 ventrals inserted under the pectorals; there are some genera, how- 
 ever, in which they are differently located. 
 
 In the JuGULAKEs, they are placed on the throat further forwards 
 than the pectorals. 
 
 Trachinus, Lin. 
 A compressed head, approximated eyes, and an oblique mouth; the first 
 dorsal very short, the second very long; pectorals large, and a stout spine 
 on the operculum. They generally remain concealed in the sand; wounds 
 inflicted by the spines of their first dorsal are much dreaded, but their flesh 
 is esteemed. Several species are found in the Atlantic, &c. 
 
 Track, draco, L. (The Dragon Weaver.) Grey and reddish, with 
 blackish spots; blue streaks and yellow tints; thirty rays to the second dor- 
 sal; flanks obliquely striated. 
 
 One of the most remarkable genera of the Jugulares is that of 
 
 Uranoscoptjs, Lin. 
 So called because the eyes are placed on the superior surface of the nearly 
 cubical head, and look upwards: the mouth is cleft vertically; the lower 
 part of the preoperculum is crenate, and there is a stout spine to each 
 shoulder; but six rays in the branchise. In the mouth and before the tongue 
 is a long and narrow slip, which can be protruded at the will of the fish, and 
 serves, it is said, to attract small ones, while it remains concealed in 
 the mud. They are commonly termed Star-gazers. 
 
 In a third division of the Percoides, the ventrals are inserted fur- 
 ther back than the pectorals: they are the Abdominales. The first 
 genus is 
 
 POLYNEMUS, L. 
 
 So named because several of the inferior pectoral rays are free, and form so 
 many filaments; the ventrals are not very far back, and the pelvis is still 
 suspended to the bones of the shoulder. They are allied to the Percoides 
 by the teeth, either small and crowded, or bent back like those of a wool- 
 card, which arm their jaws, vomer, and palate; but their snout is convex, 
 and the vertical fins scaly as in many of the Scienoides: the two dorsals are 
 separated, the preoperculum is dentated and the mouth deeply cleft: they 
 are found in all the seas of hot climates. 
 Pol. paradiseus, L. (The Mango Fish.) So called from its fine yellow 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 203 
 
 colour: has seven filaments on each side, the first of which are twice the 
 length of the body. It is the most delicious fish found in Bengal. 
 
 In the succeeding genera the ventrals are altogether behind, and 
 the pelvis no longer adheres to the bones of the shoulder. 
 
 The genera are Sphyraena, Paralepis, and Mullus, (or the Surmullet of 
 Europe.) 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 BUCCiE LORICATE. 
 
 The family of the Mailed- Cheeks^ contains a numerous suite of 
 fishes to which the singular appearance of their head, variously 
 mailed and protected, gives a peculiar aspect that has always caused 
 them to be arranged in special genera, although they have many 
 close affinities with the Perches. Their common character consists 
 in the sub-orbital being more or less extended over the cheek and 
 articulated behind with the preoperculum. The Uranoscopus is 
 the only one of the preceding family which has any thing like it, but 
 the sub-orbital of the latter, although very broad, is connected be- 
 hind with the temporal bones, and not with the preoperculum. 
 
 Linnaeus divided them into three genera, Tkigla, Cottus, and 
 Scorp^na; it has been found necessary, however, to subdivide them, 
 and to add some of his Gasterostei. 
 
 Trigla, Lin. 
 The above character strongly marked; an enormous sub-orbital completely 
 covering the cheek, and even articulated by an immovable suture with the 
 preoperculum, so as to allow of no separate motion; sides of tlie head nearly 
 vertical, giving it a form approaching that of a cube, or parallelopiped, the 
 bones hard and rough. There are two distinct dorsals, and three free rays 
 under the pectoral. Several species, when caught, utter sounds which 
 have procured for them in France their vulgar name of Grondins,' in Eng- 
 land they are called Gurnards, 
 The best of these divisions is the 
 
 Dactyloptertjs, Lacep. 
 
 So celebrated under the name of Flying Fishes,- the subpectoral rays are 
 much more numerous and longer; and intead of being free, as in the prece- 
 ding ones, they are united by a membrane so as to form a supernumerary 
 
204 PISCES. 
 
 fin, longer than the fish, which supports it in the air for some time. Thus 
 they are seen flying above the surface of the water, in order to escape from 
 Dolphins and other varacious fishes; they fall into it again, however, in a 
 few seconds. 
 
 D. volitans, the Mediterranean species, is a foot long? brown above; 
 reddish beneath; fins black, variously marked with blue. 
 
 J), orientalis, Cuv., is a neighbouring species from the Indian Ocean. 
 
 CoTTus, Lin. 
 
 Head broad, depressed, mailed, and variously armed with spines or tuber- 
 cles; two dorsals; teetli front of the vomer, but none on the palatines; six 
 rays in the branchiae, and only three or four in the ventrals. The inferior 
 pectoral rays, as in Trachinus, are not branched. 
 
 Those that inhabit fresh water have a neai-ly smooth head, and but one 
 spine to the preoperculum; their first dorsal is very low. The most com- 
 mon species is 
 
 C. gohio, L. (The River Bull-head. ) A small blackish fish, four or five 
 inches in length. 
 
 The salt water species are more spinous, and when irritated their head 
 becomes still more inflated. Such is 
 
 C. scorpius, L. (The Father-Lasher.) Three spines on the preoper- 
 culum. 
 
 Other groups have lately been observed, which are partly allied 
 to Cottus and partly to Scorpaena. One of them is the 
 
 Hemitripterus, Cuv. 
 The head depressed, and two dorsals as in Cottus; no regular scales on the 
 skin, but teeth in the palate. The head is bristly and spinous, and has seve- 
 ral cutaneous appendages. The first dorsal is deeply emarginate, a circiim- 
 stance which has led some authors to believe they had three. 
 
 But one species is known, (from North America,) Cottus tripterygtus, 
 which is taken along with the Cod. From one to two feet long, tinged with 
 yellow and red, varied with brown. 
 
 ScoRP^NA, Lin. 
 
 The head, like that of a Cottus, mailed and roughened, but compressed on 
 the sides; body covered with scales; several rays in the branchise, and but a 
 single dorsal. If we except the armature of the cheek, and the tubercles, 
 which frequently give them an odd appearance, they closely approximate 
 to certain Percoides, such as the Acerinae andtheCentropristes; but though 
 the inferior rays of their pectorals, as in Cottus, are articulated, they are 
 simple and not branched. 
 
 The remaining genera allied to or separated from Scorpxna are Pterois, 
 Blepsiast Apistus, Jgriopus, Pelor, Gasterosteua (Stickle-backs of Europe) 
 and the 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 205 
 
 MoNocENTRis, Bl. Schn. 
 A singular genus; the body is short, thick, and completely mailed with 
 enormous angular, rough, and carinatcd scales; four or five stout free spines 
 supply the place of the first dorsal; each ventral consists of an immense 
 spine, in the angle of which a few soft and almost imperceptible rays are 
 concealed; head bulky and mailed; front gibbous; mouth large; short crow- 
 ded teeth in the jaws and palatines, but none in the vomer; eight rays in the 
 branchiae. But one species is known; the 
 
 Mon.japonica, Bl. Schn. Six inches long, of a silvery white. From the 
 sea of Japan. 
 
 After this family we place the 
 
 Oreosoma, Cuv. 
 A small oval fish, whose whole body, above and beneath, is studded with 
 thick cones of a hea^y substance. There are four of them on the back, and 
 ten on the belly, arranged in two series, with smaller intermediate ones. 
 It was discovered in the Atlantic, by Peron. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 SCIENOIDES. 
 
 This family is closely related to the Percoides, and even presents 
 nearly similar combinations of external characters, particularly in the 
 indentations of the preoperculum, and in the spines of the opercu- 
 lum; but both vomer and palatines are without teeth; the bones of 
 the cranium and face are generally cavernous, and form a muzzle 
 more or less gibbous. The vertical fins are frequently somewhat 
 scaly. 
 
 Some of the Scienoides have two dorsals, and others have but 
 one; among the former we first find the genus, '' 
 
 SciiBNA. 
 
 Whose common characters consist of a gibbous head, supported by caver 
 nous bones, two dorsals, or one deeply emarginate, whose soft part is 
 much longer than the spinous; a short anal, a dentated preoperculum, an 
 operculum terminating in points, and seven branchial rays. If it were not for 
 the absence of the palatine teeth, these fishes would resemble the Perches. 
 Naturalists divide it into various subgenera. Some of the species, such 
 as the King-fish (an Dmbrina) inhabit the American seas. 
 
 The Scienoides, with a single dorsal, are subdivided according to 
 the number of their branchial rays. 
 
206 PISCES. 
 
 These divisions are Hasmulon, Pristoma, and Diagramma. 
 
 The Scienoides with a single dorsal and less than seven branchial 
 rays, are still more subdivided: in some of them the lateral line ex- 
 tends to the caudal; in others it is interrupted. 
 
 Those Scienoides which have less than seven branchial rays and 
 an interrupted lateral line, form several genera of small oval fishes, 
 prettily coloured, which may be distinguished by the armature of 
 their head. They are manifestly related to the genus Chaetodon, 
 and resemble, externally, several of our fishes with labyrinthian 
 branchiae. 
 
 The genera are Amphiprion, Premnas, Pomacentrus, &c. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 SPAROIDES. 
 
 The Sparoides, like the Scienoides, have a palate destitute of 
 teeth. Their general figure and several details of their organization 
 are the same; they are also covered with scales more or less large, 
 but they have none on the fins. Their muzzle is not gibbous, nor are 
 the bones of their head cavernous; there are neither indentations in 
 their preoperculum, nor spines on their operculum. They never 
 have more than six rays in the branchiae. They are divided accord- 
 ing to the form of their teeth. 
 
 In the first tribe, that of Sparxjs, Cuv. the sides of the jaws are 
 furnished with round molars like paving-stones; we subdivide it into 
 
 Sargus, Pagrus, Chrysophris, and Pagelus, differing in certain dental pecu- 
 liarities. The celebrated Sheephead of the Philadelphia market belongs to 
 the first named genus. 
 
 In the second tribe there is but one genus, 
 
 Dentex, Cuv. 
 Characterized by conical teeth even on the sides of the jaws, generally in 
 one range, some of the anterior of which are drawn out into large hooks. 
 They would be rather closely allied to the genus Haemulon, were it not that 
 the indentation of the preoperculum is wanting, and that they have one ray 
 less in their branchise. The cheek is scaly. Two species are found in the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 207 
 
 A third tribe is also composed of a single genus, 
 
 Cantharus, Cuv. 
 Teeth short and crowded, or bent and crowded all round the jaws: those 
 of the external row being the strongest; body elevated and thick; muzzle 
 short; jaws not protractile. Two species are found in the Atlantic and 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 In a fourth tribe the teeth are trenchant. It comprises two genera, 
 Boops and Oblada. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 MENIDES. 
 
 The Menides differ from the preceding families in the extreme ex- 
 tensibihty and retractility of their upper jaw, which is owing to the 
 length of the intermaxillary pedicles which withdraw between the 
 orbits. Their body is scaly, as in Sparus, in which genus they have 
 hitherto been placed. 
 
 There are four genera: viz. Mxna, Smans, Csesio and Gerres. 
 
 FAMILY VI. 
 
 SQUAMIPENNES. 
 
 So called, because the soft, and frequently the spinous parts of 
 their dorsal and anal fins are covered with scales, which encrust 
 them, as it were, and render it difficult to distinguish them from the 
 mass of the body. This is the most remarkable character of these 
 fishes, the body of which is generally much compressed, and the in- 
 testines long. They were comprised by Linnseus in the genus 
 
 CHiETODON. 
 So named from their teeth, which in length and tenuity resemble hairs, col- 
 lected in several close rows like a brush. Their mouth is small; their dorsal 
 and anal fins are so completely covered with scales similar to those on the 
 back, that it is extremely difficult to ascertain where they commence. These 
 fishes are very abundant in the seas of hot climates, and are adorned with 
 the most beautifiil colours, circumstances which have caused many to be 
 
208 PISCES. 
 
 figured, and rendered them common in our cabinets. They frequent rocky 
 shores, and are eaten. 
 
 This genus is now divided into various subgenera, the most remai-kable of 
 which is 
 
 Chelmon, Cuv. 
 Separated from Chsetodon on account of the extraordinary form of the snout, 
 which is long and slender, only open at the extremity, and formed by a most 
 excessive prolongation of the intermaxillary and lower jaw. Their teeth 
 are very fine and crowded, rather than like hairs. 
 
 One species, Chset. rostratus, L. , has the faculty of spurting drops of water 
 on the insects it perceives on the shore, and thus bringing them witliin 
 reach. It is a common pastime of the Chinese at Java. 
 
 The following genera, which we place next to Chpstodon on ac- 
 count of their scaly fins, differ greatly from it, however, in the teeth 
 with which their palatines and vomer are furnished. The genus 
 
 Bkama, BI. Schn. 
 Is connected with this family by the scales covering the vertical fins, which 
 have but a small number of spinous rays concealed in their anterior edges; 
 but they have slender, bent teeth in the jaws and palatines, an elevated 
 profile, very short snout, a forehead descending vertically, and a mouth, 
 when shut, that is almost vertical; the scales extend on to the maxillaries; 
 there are seven rays in the branchise; a dorsal and low anal, but commencing 
 in a salient point. 
 
 But one species is known, Sparus Rail, Bl., it inhabits the Mediterranean, 
 and sometimes strays into the ocean; an excellent fish, of a burnished steel 
 colour, which attains a large size, but is infested with various species of in- 
 testinal worms. 
 
 Pempheris, Cuv. 
 A long and scaly anal, the dorsal short and elevated; head obtuse; the eye 
 large; a small spine on the operculum; small crowded teeth on the jaws, 
 vomer and palatines. From the Indian Ocean. 
 
 ToxoTEs, Cuv. 
 
 The body short and compressed, the dorsal placed on the last half of the 
 body, with very stout spines, the soft part, as well as that of the anal which 
 corresponds to it, scaly; the snout depressed, short; lower jaw projecting 
 beyond the upper one; the smaU crowded teeth very short in both jaws, 
 the extremity of the vomer, palatines, pterygoids, and on the tongue; six 
 rays in the branchiae, inferior edge of the infra-orbital and preoperculunv, 
 ftnely serrate. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 209 
 
 The species known, Toxotes jaculator, Cuv., is celebrated for the same 
 faculty that distinguishes the Chxt. rostratus. By spurting drops of water 
 on Insects which frequent aquatic plants, they are beaten down and brought 
 within its reach. It can force tlie water to a height of three or four feet, 
 and rarely misses its aun. 
 
 FAMILY VII. 
 SCOMBEROIDES. 
 
 Our seventh family is composed of a multitude of fishes with small 
 scales, a smooth body, and whose tail and caudal fin in particular 
 are extremely powerful. 
 
 This family is of the greatest utility to man, by the size and fla- 
 vour of its species, and their inexhaustible reproduction, which brings 
 them periodically into the same latitudes, where they constitute the 
 object of the most extensive fisheries. 
 
 Scomber, Lin. 
 The first dorsal entire, while on the contrary, the last rays of the second, as 
 well as those of the anal which correspond to them, are detached, forming 
 what are termed false or spmrious fins, ov pinnx spuriae. The genus is sub- 
 divided as follows: 
 
 ScoMBEK, Cuv. 
 
 The Mackerels have a fusiform body covered with uniformly small and 
 smooth scales; two little cutaneous crests on the sides of the tail; an empty 
 space between the first and second dorsal. 
 
 Sc. scombrus, L. (The Common Mackerel.) Blue back, vai'ied with 
 black, undulating streaks; five false fins above and beneath. 
 
 Thtnnus, Cuv. 
 
 A soft corslet round the thorax, formed by scales larger and smoother than 
 those on the rest of the body; a cartilaginous carina between the two little 
 crests on the sides of the tail; the first dorsal extends close to the second. 
 
 Sc. thynnus, L. (The Tunny. ) This fish has been taken in the Mediter- 
 ranean, from a very ancient date, and by its abundance constitutes a great 
 source of wealth to Provence, Sardinia, Sicily, &c. It is said to attain the 
 length of fifteen and eighteen feet, and has nine spurious fins above, and 
 as many beneath; the pectorals are one-fifth of its whole length. There are 
 some other subgenera. 
 2 B 
 
210 PISCES. 
 
 XiPHiAS, Lin. 
 These fishes belong to the family of the Scomberoides, and approach the 
 Tunnies particularly, in their excessively small scales, in the carinx on the 
 sides of their tail, in the power of their caudal fin, and in their whole internal 
 organization. Their distinguishing character consists in the beak, (whence 
 theh* name of Sword-fish,) or ensiform point or tusk, which terminates their 
 upper jaw; a powerful weapon, with which they attack the largest sea ani- 
 mals. This beak is chiefly composed of the vomer and intermaxillaries, 
 being strengthened at its base by the sethmoid, frontals, and maxillaries. 
 Their branchise are not pectinated; each of them being formed of two large 
 parallel laminae, the surface of which is reticulated. They swim with aston- 
 ishing swiftness, and their flesh is excellent. 
 
 Xiphias gladius, L. (The Sword-Fish. ) The point horizontally flattened 
 and trenchant like the broad blade of a sword; sides of the tail strongly cari- 
 nated. It has but one dorsal, wliich rises from before and fi-om behind; the 
 middle of it becoming worn with age gives it the appearance of being double. 
 It is one of the largest and best fishes of the European seas, frequently at- 
 taining the length of fifteen feet. It is more common in the Mediterranean 
 than in the Atlantic Ocean. A parasitic crustaceous animal penetrates into 
 its flesh and sometimes renders it so furious that it dashes itself on shore. 
 
 Centeonotus, Lacep. 
 A genus of Scomberoides characterized by the spines, which, in the Acan- 
 thopterygii in general, form the anterior portion of the dorsal, or a first 
 separate dorsal, but in them are free and unconnected by a common mem- 
 brane; they all have ventrals. They are subdivided into four subgenera. In 
 
 Natjckates, Rafin. 
 
 The dorsal spines are free; body fusiform; a carina in the sides of the tail 
 as in the Tunny, and two free spines before the anal fin. 
 
 The common species is blue with broad vertical bands of a much deeper 
 blue. The vulgar name of Pilot-fish owes its origin to the fact, that it follows 
 vessels to seize upon what may fall from them; and as a similar habit is ob- 
 served in the Shark, it has been said that the former acts as a guide or pilot 
 to the latter; it is not above a foot long. 
 
 There are various other genera belonging to this family, such as Rhyn- 
 chobdella, Notacanthus, Seriola, Nomeus, Caranx, Vomer, Zeus (The Com- 
 mon Dory), &c. &c. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 211 
 
 FAMILY VIII. 
 
 T^NIOIDES.(l) 
 
 This family is closely connected with the Scomberoides, and its 
 first genus is even intimately allied with Gempilus and Thyrsites; the 
 fishes which compose it are elongated, flattened on the sides, and 
 have very small scales. 
 
 In the first tribe we find the muzzle elongated, the mouth cleft and 
 armed with strong, pointed and trenchant teeth, and the lower jaw 
 advancing beyond the upper one: it comprises but two genera, 
 
 Lepidopus, Gouan. 
 
 Whose special character consists in the reduction of the ventrals to small 
 scaly plates. The thin and elongated body is furnished with a dorsal above, 
 which extends throughout itsleng-th, with a low anal beneath, and terminates 
 in a well formed caudal; there are eight rays in the branchiae. 
 
 Teichiukus, Lin. 
 The same form of body, muzzle, and jaws, as in Lepidopus; similar pointed 
 and trenchant teetli, and a dorsal extending along the back, but the ventrals 
 and caudal are wanting, and the tail is drawn out into a long, slender, and 
 compressed filament. In lieu of the anal there is merely a suite of small 
 and hardly perceptible spines on the under edge of the tail; the branchiae 
 have but seven rays. They resemble beautiful sUver ribands. 
 
 A second tribe comprehends genera in which the mouth is small, 
 and but slightly cleft. 
 
 Gymnetrus, B1. 
 The body elongated and flat, as in all the preceding divisions, and totally 
 deprived of the anal fin; but there is along dorsal whose lengthened anterior 
 rays form a sort of panache, but they are easily broken; the ventrals, when 
 not worn or broken, are very long, and the caudal, composed of very few 
 rays, rises vertically from the extremity of the tail, which ends in a small 
 hook. 
 
 The Arctic ocean produces two species, called in Norway the King of 
 the Herrings; one of which is said by some to have one hundred and twenty 
 rays, and by others one hundred and sixty, and to attain the length of ten 
 feet; the other has more than four hundred rays, and is eighteen feet in 
 
 (1) Riband-like. 
 
212 PISCES. 
 
 length. The ventrals consist of a long filament dilated near the extremity. 
 They are also found in India. 
 
 Stylephorus, Shaw. 
 A vertical caudal, as in Gymnetrus, but shorter; the extremity of the tail, 
 instead of being curved into a small hook, is prolonged into a slender cord 
 longer than the body. But one specimen is known. 
 
 In a third tribe the snout is short, and the mouth cleft obliquely. 
 
 Cepola, Lin. 
 A long dorsal and anal, both reaching to the base of the caudal, which is 
 tolerably large; no rise in the cranium; snout short; lower jaw curved up- 
 wards; the teeth prominent, and the ventrals suflSciently developed. 
 
 LoPHOTES, Giorna. 
 A short head, surmounted with a high osseous crest; to whose summit a long 
 and stout spine is articulated, bordered behind with a membrane and a low 
 fin, whose rays are nearly all simple, extending from this spine to the point 
 of the tail, which has a distinct, but very small caudal. 
 
 FAMILY IX. 
 
 TPIEUTYES. 
 
 Our ninth family is as closely allied to the Scomberoides as the 
 preceding one, but in other points, such as the armature, which is 
 found in several genera on the sides of the tail, or in others, the 
 horizontal spine before the dorsal, &.c. It contains but very few 
 genera; they all have a compressed, oblong body, a small mouth, 
 but slightly or not at all protractile, each jaw of which is armed with 
 a single range of trenchant teeth; palate and tongue without teeth, 
 and a single dorsal. They are herbivorous, feeding on fucus and 
 other marine plants. 
 
 SiGANUS, Forsk. 
 These fishes have a remarkable character — unique, in icthyology — in their 
 ventrals, which are furnished with two spinous rays, one external, the other 
 internal; the three intermediate ones branching as usual. Tliey have five 
 branchial rays, and a horizontal spine before the dorsal. The styloid bones 
 of their shoulder curve as they lengthen, so as to unite at their extremities 
 with the first interspinal of the anal. Numerous species are found in the 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 213 
 
 Tlie remaining g-enera are Acanthurus, (Surgeons) Prionurus, Naaeus, 
 AxinuruSy and Priodon. 
 
 FAMILY X. 
 
 This family is distinguished by 
 
 LABYRINTHIFORM PHARYNGEALS. 
 
 By this we mean, that part of the superior pharyngeals of these fishes 
 are divided into small irregular lamellae, more or less numerous, 
 intercepting cells containing water, which thus flows upon and hu- 
 mects the branchiae, while the animal is removed from its proper 
 element. By this it is enabled to quit the rivulet or pool, which 
 constitutes its usual abode, and crawl to a considerable distance 
 from it, a singular faculty, not unknown to the ancients, and which 
 induces the people of India to believe that they fall from heaven. 
 The two most remarkable genera of this family are the following. 
 
 Anabas, Cuv. 
 
 It is in this genus that we find the greatest degree of complication in these 
 labyrinths; the third pharyngeals, however, have teeth arranged like paving 
 stones, and there are others behind the cranium. Theii-body is round and 
 covered with strong scales, their head broad, muzzle short and obtuse, and 
 mouth small; the lateral line is interrupted at its posterior third. 
 
 An. testudineus, Cuv., called the Pa7iein or Tree-Climber; highly celebrat- 
 ed, because it not only leaves the water, but, according to Daldorf, even 
 cUmbs up the shrubs on its banks; this latter assertion, however, is denied. 
 Found throughout all India, and the only species known. The 
 
 Ophicephaltjs, B1. 
 
 Resembles the preceding genus in most of its characters, and particularly 
 in the cellular conformation of the pharyngeals, which are adapted to retain 
 water. These fishes also creep to a considerable distance from their liquid 
 abodes, but what particularly distinguishes, and even separates, them from 
 all other Acanthopterygii, is the absence of spines in the fins, the first ray 
 of their ventrals at most excepted, and even that, though simple, is not 
 sharp and stiff. The jugglers of India exhibit this fish out of water, and 
 even the children amuse themselves by forcing it to crawl upon the ground. 
 In the markets of China the larger species are cut up alive for distribution. 
 They may be divided by the number of their dorsal rays. 
 
214 PISCES. 
 
 FAMILY XL 
 
 MUGILOIDES. 
 
 Our eleventh family of the Acanthopterygii is composed of the 
 genus 
 
 MuGiL, Lin. 
 These fishes present so many peculiarities in their organization, that they 
 may be considered as forming- a distinct family; their body is almost cylin- 
 drical, covered with large scales, and furnished with two separate dorsals, 
 the first of which has but four spinous rays; the ventrals are inserted a little 
 behind the pectorals. There are six rays in the branchiae; their head is 
 somewhat depressed, and covered with large scales or polygonal plates, 
 their muzzle very short. Their transverse mouth, in consequence of a pro- 
 minence in the middle of the lower jaw, which corresponds with a depress- 
 ion in the upper one, forms an angle, the teeth being excessively tenuous, 
 and frequently almost imperceptible. 
 
 They resort to the mouths of rivers in large troops, and are continually 
 leaping out of the water; the European seas produce several species hitherto 
 very imperfectly ascertained; their flesh is esteemed. 
 
 M. cephalus, Cuv. (The Common Mullet. ) Distinguished from all the 
 other species of Europe by its eyes, which are half covered by two adipose 
 veils, adhering to the anterior and poster-ior edge of the orbit. 
 
 There are two other genera, Tetragonurus and Atherina, (the Aphyes 
 of the ancients). 
 
 FAMILY XII. 
 
 GOBIOIDES. 
 
 The Gobioides are known by the length and tenuity of the dorsal 
 spines. 
 
 Blennius, Lin. 
 
 Bknnies have a strongly marked character in the ventral fins, which are 
 placed before the pectorals and consist of only two rays. The body is 
 elongated and compressed, and has but a single dorsal almost entirely com- 
 posed of simple but flexible rays. They live in small troops among the 
 rocks on the coast, leaping and playing, and are capable of living witliout 
 water for some time. A slimy mucus is smeared over their skin, to which 
 they owe their Greek name of Blennius. They are now distributed in va- 
 rious subgenera, such as Myxodes, Salarias, CUnus, &c. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 215 
 
 Anarrhichas, Lin.(l) 
 So very similar are these fishes to the Blenny, that I would willingly name 
 them Blennies without ventrab. 
 
 A. lupus, "L. (The Sea- Wolf) is the most common species; it inhabits 
 northern seas, and is frequently seen on the coast of Europe; six or seven 
 feet long; brown, with clouded bands of deep brown; the flesh resembling 
 that of an Eel. This fish is valuable to the Icelanders, who salt and dry the 
 flesh for food, employ the skin as shagreen, and the gall as soap. The 
 
 GoBius, Lin. 
 
 Commonly called Gobies or Sea-Gudgeons, are instantly recognized by the 
 union of their thoracic ventrals, either along the whole of their length, or 
 at least at their base, forming a single hollow disk more or less infundibuli- 
 form. The spines of the dorsal are flexible, the branchial apertures provi- 
 ded with five rays only, and generally but slightly open. They are small 
 or moderate sized fishes, which live among the rocks near the shore. They 
 prefer a clayey bottom, where they excavate canals in which they pass the 
 winter. In the spring they prepare a nest in some spot abounding with 
 fucus, which they afterwards cover with roots of the Zostera; here the male 
 remains shut up, and awaits the females, who successively arrive to deposit 
 their eggs; he exhibits much care and courage in defending and preserving 
 them. This genus also is variously subdivided. 
 
 Callionymus, Lin. 
 Fishes of this genus have two strongly marked characters, one in their bran- 
 chiae, which have but a single aperture, consisting of a hole on each side of 
 the nape, and another in their ventrals, which are placed under the throat, 
 are separate, and larger than the pectorals. Their head is oblong and de- 
 pressed, their eyes approximated and directed upwards, their intermaxilla- 
 ries protractile, and their preopercula elongated behind and terminating in 
 some spines. Their teeth are small and crowded, but there are none in the 
 palate. They are pretty fishes with a smooth skin, whose anterior dorsal,, 
 supported by a few setaceous rays, is sometimes very elevated. The second 
 dorsal is elongated as well as the anal. 
 
 It is with some hesitation that I close this family with a genus 
 which will one day probably form the type of a separate family; I 
 mean the 
 
 Chirus, Stell. 
 Fishes with a tolerably long body, furnished with ciliated scales; a small 
 
 (1) Anarrhichas, Climber, a name invented by Gesner because this fish is 
 said to climb upon rocks and shoals by the aid of its fins and tail. 
 
216 PISCES. 
 
 unarmed head; slightly cleft mouth, provided with small, unequal, conical 
 teeth; the spines of whose dorsal are almost always very delicate, the fin 
 itself extending- the whole length of the back. Their distinguishing char- 
 acter consists in several series of pores, similar to the lateral Hne, or, as it 
 were, in several lateral lines. They frequently have an appendage on the 
 eye-brow, as is the case with certain Blennies, but their ventrals consist of 
 five soft rays, as usual. The species known are from the sea of Kamschatka. 
 
 FAMILY XIII. 
 
 PECTORALES PEDICULATI. 
 
 This family consists of certain Acanthopterygii whose carpal 
 bones are elongated so as io form a sort of arm, which supports 
 their pectorals. It comprises two genera, which are closely ap- 
 proximatedj although authors have generally placed them at a dis- 
 tance from each other, and which are closely allied to the Gobioides. 
 
 LopHius, Lin.(l) 
 
 The general character of this genus, independently of the semi-cartilaginous 
 skeleton and the naked skin, consists in the pectorals being supported by 
 two arms, as it were, each of which is formed of two bones that have been 
 compared to the radius and ulna, but which in reality belong to the carpus, 
 and which In this genus are longer than in any other; in the ventrals being 
 placed very far before these pectorals; in opercula and branchiostegous rays 
 enveloped in the skin, and, finally, in the only opening of the giUs being a 
 hole situated behind the said pectorals. They are voracious fishes,, which 
 survive a long time out of water, on account of the smallness of their bran- 
 chial apertures. 
 
 L. piscatorius, L. ; Sea-Devil; Galanga, &c. (The Angler. ) A large fish, 
 of from four to five feet in length, inhabiting the seas of Europe, whose 
 hideous figure has rendered it celebrated. 
 
 FAMILY XIV. 
 
 LABROIDES. 
 
 This family is easily recognized; the body is oblong and scaly; a 
 single dorsal is supported in front by spines, each of which is gene- 
 
 (1) Lophius, a name made by Artedi, from \o<pia. (pinna), on account of 
 the crests of their head. The ancients called them ^tf.i^a.xo^, and Rana, or 
 Frog. 
 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 217 
 
 rally furnished with a membranous appendage; the jaws are covered 
 with fleshy lips; there are three pharyngeals, two upper ones attached 
 to the cranium, and a large lower one, all three armed with teeth, 
 now resembljng a pavement and then pointed or laminiform, but 
 generally stronger than usual. 
 
 Labrus, Lin. 
 A very numerous genus of fishes which strongly resemble each other in 
 their oblong form; their double fleshy lips, from which, they derive their 
 name, one adliering immediately to the jaws and the other to the suborbi- 
 tals; their crowded branchiae with five rays; their conical maxillary teeth, 
 the middle and anterior of which are the longest, and their cylindrical and 
 blunt pharyngeal teeth arranged like a pavement, the upper ones on two 
 large plates, the lower on a single one which corresponds to the two others. 
 Our Blackfish or Tautog is a true Labrus. This genus is divided into nine 
 subgenera, differing in the teeth, mouth, &c. &,c The most remarkable 
 is the 
 
 Ebibuxtjs, Cuv. 
 
 Remarkable for the excessive protractility of their mouth, which by a 
 see-saw motion of their maxillaries, and the sliding forwards of their inter- 
 maxillaries, instantly becomes a kind of tube. They employ this artifice to 
 capture the small fry which pass within reach of this singular instrument. 
 
 But a single species is known; Spams insidiator, Pal., of a reddish co- 
 lour. From the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Chromis, Cuv. 
 The lips, protractile intermaxillaries, pharyngeals, dorsal filaments, and 
 port of a Labrus; but the teeth of the pharynx and jaws resemble those of 
 a card, and there is a range of conical ones in front. The vertical fins are 
 filamentous, those of the belly being even frequently extended into long 
 threads; the lateral line is interrupted. 
 
 C. vulgaris. The common or black Coracinus of the ancients. A small 
 chesnut-brown fish, taken by thousands in the Mediterranean. 
 
 ScARUs, Lin. 
 A genus of fishes with remarkable jaws (that is, their intermaxillary and 
 premandibular bones), whichare convex, rounded, and furnished with teeth, 
 arranged like scales upon then- edge, and upon their anterior surface; these 
 teeth succeed each other from behind, forwards, so that those of the base 
 are the newest, and in time form a row on the edge. They have the ob- 
 long form of a Labrus, large scales, and an interrupted lateral line; they 
 have three pharyngeal plates, two above and one below, furnished with 
 teeth as in a Labrus; but these teeth are transverse blades, and not like 
 rounded paving stones. 
 2 C 
 
218 PISCES. 
 
 A species blue or red, according to the season, is found in the Archipe- 
 lago, which is the Scams creticus, Aldrov. and which late researches have 
 convinced me is the Scarus, so highly celebrated among the ancients; the 
 same that Elipertius Optatus, commander of a Roman fleet, during the reign 
 of Claudius, went to Greece in search of, for the purpose of distributing it 
 through the sea of Italy. It is an article of food in Greece at the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 Numerous species are found in the seas of hot climates. The form of their 
 jaws and the splendour of their colours have caused them to receive the 
 vulgar appellation of Parrot-fishes. 
 
 FAMILY XV. 
 
 FISTULARIDiE. 
 
 The fishes of this family are characterized by a long tube, in the 
 fore-part of the cranium, formed by the prolongation of the aeth- 
 moid, vomer, preopercula, interopercula, pterygoidals and tympa- 
 nals, and at the extremity of which is the mouth, composed as usual 
 of the intermaxillaries, maxillaries, and the palatine and mandibu- 
 lary bones. 
 
 Some of them, the Fistulariae, have a cylindrical body, in others, 
 the Centrisci, it is oval and compressed. 
 
 FisTULARiA, Lin. 
 
 The name of these fishes, in particular, is derived from the tube common to 
 the whole family. The jaws are at its extremity, slightly cleft in a nearly 
 horizontal direction. This head, thus elongated, constitutes the third or 
 fourth of the total length of the body, which is itself long and thin. There 
 are six or seven rays in the branchix, and some bony appendages extend 
 behind the head, upon the anterior part of the body, which they strengthen 
 more or less. The dorsal is opposite to the anal. 
 
 Centriscus, Lin. 
 
 In addition to the tubular snout of the family, the fishes of this genus have 
 an oval or oblong (not elongated) body, compressed on the side, and tren- 
 chant beneath; branchia composed of but two or three slender rays; a first 
 spinal dorsal and small ventrals behind the pectorals. The mouth is very 
 small, and cleft obliquely. 
 
 The second division of common fishes, or that of the Malacop- 
 terygii, contains three orders, characterized by the position of the 
 ventrals or by their absence. 
 
PISCES. 219 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES(l). 
 
 In this order the ventrals are suspended to the under part of the 
 abdomen and behind the pectorals, without being attached to the 
 bones of the shoulder. It is the most numerous of the three, and 
 comprehends most of the fresh-water fishes. We subdivide it into 
 five families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CIPRINID^. 
 
 The Ciprinidae are recognized by the slightly cleft mouth; the 
 weak jaws, generally edentated, and whose border is formed by the 
 intermaxillaries; by the deeply dentated pharyngeals which compose 
 the trifling armature of the jaws, and by the smaller number of the 
 branchial rays. Their body is scaly, and they have no adipose dor- 
 sal, such as we shall find in the Siluri and in the Salmons. Their sto- 
 mach has no cul-de-sac, neither are there any caecal appendages to 
 their pylorus. Of all the fishes they are the least carnivorous. 
 
 Cyprinus, Lin. 
 A very numerous and natural genus, easily distinguished by the small mouth, 
 edentated jaws, and the three flat rays of the branchiae. The tongue is 
 smooth; the palate provided with a thick, soft, and singularly irritable sub- 
 stance commonly termed a " carp's tongue." The pharynx presents a 
 powerful instrument of mastication, consisting of stout teeth attached to the 
 inferior pharyngeals, which are so arranged as to be able to squeeze ali- 
 mentary matters between them, and of a stony disk set in a wide cavity un- 
 der a process of the sphenoid. These fishes have but one dorsal, and their 
 body is covered with scales which most commonly are very large; they live 
 in fresh water, and are perhaps the least carnivorous of the whole class, 
 feeding chiefly on seeds, grass, and even ooze. 
 
 They are variously subdivided. To Cyprinus proper, or the true Carps, 
 belongs the well known 
 
 (1) Malacopterygii, soft-finned. 
 
320 PISCES. 
 
 Cyp. auratus, L. (The Golden Carp or Gold and Silver Fish.) Dorsal 
 and anal spines dentated as in the Common Carp. This fish is at first 
 blackish and by degrees assumes that splendid golden red which charac- 
 terizes it; some, however, are of a silver colour, and others again are marked 
 by various shades of the three colours. Individuals are found without a 
 dorsal, others have a very small one; the caudal of a third is very large and 
 is divided into three or four lobes; the eyes of a fourth are excessively dis- 
 tended; all these accidental changes, which are the result of domestication, 
 may be variously combined. 
 
 To the other subdivisions belong the Breams, Gudgeons, Tenches, 
 Suckers, &c. 
 
 CoBiTis, Lin. 
 
 The head small, body elongated, invested with small scales and covered 
 with mucus; ventrals very far back and above them a single small dorsal; 
 the mouth at the extremity of the snout, but slightly cleft, without teeth, 
 but encircled by lips fitted for sucking, and with cirri; but three rays in 
 the branchise, the apertures of which are small; the inferior pharyngeals 
 strongly dentated. 
 
 Anableps, B1. 
 The fishes of this genus, for a long time and very improperly united with 
 the Cobites, possess very peculiar characters; the cornea and iris of their 
 very prominent eyes, which are placed under a roof formed on each side by 
 the frontal, are divided into two portions by transverse bands, so that the 
 organ of sight has two pupils, and appears to be double, although it has but 
 one crystalline and one vitreous humour, and but one retina, a peculiarity 
 of which there is no other example among vertebrated animals. 
 
 But a single species is known; the dnabkps tetrophtalmus, Bl.; it inhabits 
 the rivers of Guiana. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 ESOCES. 
 
 We find no adipose fin in this family. The edge of the upper 
 jaw is formed by the intermaxillary, or when it is not completely so 
 formed, the maxillary is edentated and concealed in the thickness of 
 the lips. The fishes which compose it are extremely voracious. 
 With the exception of the Microstomas, all those that are known 
 have the dorsal opposite to the anal. Linnaeus united them in the 
 genus 
 
MALACOPTERYGU ABDOMINALES. 221 
 
 Esox, Lin. 
 The Pikes, properly so called, have small intermaxillarles furnished with little 
 pointed teeth in the middle of the upper jaw, of which they form the two- 
 thirds, those on the sides of the jaw being edentated. The vomer, pala- 
 tines, tongue, pharyngeals and rays of the branchia;, bristled with teeth 
 resembling those of a card; a series of long pointed teeth on the sides of the 
 lower jaw. 
 
 E. lucius, L. (The Common Pike.) Well known as one of the most 
 voracious and destructive of all fishes, but whose flesh is highly esteemed. 
 This species, which inhabits Europe, is found in the fresh waters of North 
 America, where two other species are also to be met with; the flanks of the 
 one, Esox reticularis, Lesueur, are marked with brownish lines, sometimes 
 resembling net-work; the other, Esox estor, is sprinkled with round black- 
 ish spots. 
 
 This genus is also subdivided into several subgenera. The most remar- 
 kable is the 
 
 BEioiirE, Cuv. 
 
 The whole edge of the upper jaw, which as well as the lower one is ex- 
 tended Into a long snout, formed by the intermaxillaries, — both furnished 
 with small teeth, no others in the mouth, and those of the pharynx en pave. 
 The body is elongated and covered with scales, which are not very appa- 
 rent, one longitudinal carinated range near the lower edge excepted. The 
 bones are very remarkable for theii" colour, which is a beautiful green. 
 
 B. vulgaris. (The Gar-Fish.) Two feet long; green above, white be- 
 neath; found on the coast of France, where its flesh is much esteemed, not- 
 withstanding the colour of the bones. Neighbouring species inhabit all 
 seas. The bite of one of them, which is said to attain a length of eight feet, 
 is considered dangerous. 
 
 ExocETUs, Lin. 
 These well known, or Flying-fishes, as they are called, are instantly distin- 
 guished among the Abdominales by the excessive size of their pectorals, 
 which are sufficiently large to support them in the air for a few moments. 
 Their head and body are scaly, and a longitudinal range of carinated scales 
 forms a salient line on the lower part of each flank, as in the Hemiramphi, 
 &c. The head is flattened above and on the sides; the dorsal placed above 
 the anal; the eyes large, the intermaxillaries without pedicles and constitu- 
 ting the whole edge of the upper jaw; their two jaws are furnished with 
 small pointed teeth, and their pharyngeals with teeth like a pavement. 
 
 They do not fly far: rising in the air to avoid their voracious enemies, they 
 soon fall into the sea, their wings merely acting as parachutes. Birds pur- 
 sue them through the air and Fishes through the water. They are found in 
 all the seas of hot and temperate climates. 
 
 E. exilens, Bl. Common in the Mediterranean, and easUy recognized by 
 
222 PISCES. 
 
 the length of its ventrals, placed posterior to the middle of the body; the 
 fins of the young are marked with black bands. 
 
 E. volitans, Bl. Common in the Atlantic Ocean, and has small ventrals 
 placed anterior to the middle of the body. 
 
 The American seas produce species with cirri, wluch are sometimes sim- 
 ple, sometimes double, and even ramous. 
 
 Next to the family of the Esoces we place a genus of fishes, which, 
 though varying but little from the former, has some anatomical dif- 
 ference. It will most probably give rise to a particular family. It 
 is the MormyruSf Lin. They are found in the Nile. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 SILURIDiE. 
 
 This family is distinguished from all others of the order by the 
 want of true scales, having merely a naked skin or large osseous 
 plates. The intermaxillaries, suspended under the ethmoid, form 
 the edge of the upper jaw, and the maxillaries are reduced to sim- 
 ple vestiges, or are extended into cirri. The first ray of the dorsal 
 and pectoral is, almost always, a strong articulated spine, and there 
 is frequently an adipose one behind, as in the Salmon. 
 
 SiLTJRus, Lin. 
 
 A numerous genus, easily recognized by its nudity, the mouth cleft in the 
 extremity of the snout, and in the greater number of the subgenera, by the 
 strong spine which forms the first ray of the pectoral. It is so articulated 
 with the bone of the shoulder that the fisk can either depress it, or raise it 
 perpendicularly, when it is immovable, constituting a dangerous weapon, 
 wounds from which are considered as poisoned, an idea arising from the fact 
 that tetanus frequently ensues. They are usually called Cat-Jish. 
 
 S. glanis, L. The largest fresh water fish found in Europe, and the only 
 one of this extensive genus that it possesses; it is smooth, black, greenish, 
 spotted with black above, with yellowish white beneath; head large; with 
 six cirri; it sometimes exceeds six feet in length, and weighs three hundred 
 pounds. It inhabits the rivers of Germany and Hungary, the lake of 
 Haarlem, &c., and conceals itself in the mud to watch for prey. The flesh, 
 which is fat, is employed in some places for the same purposes as lard. 
 There are various subgenera. 
 
 Malapterurus, Lacep. 
 Is distinguished from Silurus, properly so called, by the absence of the radi- 
 
MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 223 
 
 ated fin on the back, tliere being nothing but a small adipose one on the 
 tail, and by the total deficiency of a spine in the pectorals, whose rays are 
 entirely soft. The head as well as the body is covered with a smooth skin; 
 the teeth are small and crowded, and arranged in a broad crescent both 
 above and below; there are seven rays in the branchiae, and the jaws and 
 viscera resemble those of a Silurus. 
 
 J\f- electricus, the JRaasch or Thunder of the Arabs. The only species 
 known; it has six cirri, and the head is not so big as the body, which is en- 
 larged forwards. This celebrated fish, like the Torpedo and Gymnotus, has 
 the faculty of communicating an electric shock. The seat of this power 
 seems to be in a particular tissue, situated between the skin and the mus- 
 cles, and presenting the appearance of a fatty cellular tissue abundantly 
 furnished with nerves. From the Nile and the Senegal. 
 
 The remaining genera of this family are Aspedro and Loricaiia. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 SALMONIDES. 
 
 The Salmonides, according to Linnaeus, form but a single great 
 genus, clearly characterized by a scaly body, with a first dorsal, 
 whose rays are all soft, followed by a second one small and adipose, 
 that is formed of skin filled with fat, and unsupported by rays. It 
 comprises fishes with numerous caBca and a natatory bladder; nearly 
 all of them ascend rivers, and are highly esteemed. They are 
 naturally voracious. The structure and armature of the jaws are 
 singularly various. 
 
 Salmo, Lin. 
 The Salmon, properly so called, or rather, the Trout, has a great portion 
 of the edge of the upper jaw formed by the maxillaries; a range of point- 
 ed teeth in the maxillaries, intermaxiUaries, palatines and mandibulartes, 
 and a double one on the vomer, tongue, and pharyngeals; so that of all 
 fishes it is the most completely furnished with teeth. In the old male 
 the end of the lower jaw is bent up towards the palate, where a cavity re- 
 ceives it when the mouth is closed. The ventrals are opposite to the mid- 
 dle of the first dorsal, and the adipose to the anal. There are ten branclual 
 rays or thereabout. The body is usually spotted, and the flesh good. These 
 fishes ascend rivers to spawn, leaping over cataracts, &c., and are even 
 found in the brooks and small lakes of the highest mountains. 
 
 S.salar^lj. (The Salmon.) The largest species of the genus, with red 
 flesh and irregular brown spots, which soon disappear in fresh water; the 
 cartilaginous hook formed by the lower jaw is inconsiderable even in the 
 
224 PISCES. 
 
 old male. From all the Arctic seas, whence it enters the rivers in the spring. 
 The value of this fishery in all northern countries is well known. 
 
 Besides these Salmons and Trouts which are found in Europe, several 
 others have been described by American naturalists, but they have notbeen 
 sufficiently compared with the former. 
 
 In one of the various subdivisions of this great genus {Osmerus) we find 
 the Smelt. 
 
 Sternoptyx, Herman. 
 A genus of small fishes with a very elevated and compressed body, support- 
 ed by the ribs; their mouth is directed upwards; their humerals form a 
 trenchant crest in front, terminated below by a small spine, and the bones 
 of the pelvis form another, also terminated by a small spine in front of the 
 ventrals. There is a series of small fossulae along each side of the pelvic 
 crest which has been considered as a festooned dupUcature of the sternum, 
 whence the name of Sternoptyx. They are taken in the warm parts of the 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 CLUPEiE. 
 
 This family is easily recognized; there is no adipose fin; the up- 
 per javt' is formed, as in the Trouts, by intermaxillaries without pe- 
 dicles in the middle, and by the maxillaries on the sides; the body 
 is always covered with numerous scales, and in the greater number 
 we find a natatory bladder and many caeca. A part only of the 
 family ascend rivers. 
 
 Clupea, Lin. 
 The Herrings have two well marked characters in the narrow and short in- 
 termaxillaries, that constitute but a small portion of the upper jaw, the sides 
 of which are completed by the maxillaries, so that these sides are alone pro- 
 tractile; and in the inferior edge of the body, which is compressed, and 
 where the scales form notches resembling those of a saw. The maxillaries 
 besides, are divided into three parts. The branchiae are so much cleft, that 
 all the fishes of the genus are said to die instantly when taken from the 
 water. The sides of the branchial rays next to the mouth are pectiniform. 
 Of all fishes, these have the finest and most numerous bones. 
 
 C.harengus,L,. (The Common Herring.) This celebrated fish leaves 
 the Arctic seas every summer and descends in autumn on the western coast 
 of France in numberless legions, or rather in solid shoaJs of incalculable ex- 
 tent, spawning on the way, and arriving at the mouth of the British chan- 
 nel in the middle of winter, in a very extenuated condition. Whole fleets 
 
MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES. 225 
 
 are occupied in this fishery, the extent and importance of which are too 
 well known to need a comment. The best are those taken in the North; 
 such as are caught on the coast of Lower Normandy are lean, dry, and of 
 a disagreeable flavour. 
 
 To this division or Clupea proper, belong the Sprat, White-Bait, Pilchard* 
 and Sardine. 
 
 AtosA, Cuv. 
 
 Differs from Clupea, properly so styled, in an emargination of the middle 
 of the upper jaw; all the other characters are those of the Pilchard and 
 Sardine. 
 
 A. vulgaris. (The Shad.) A much larger and thicker fish than the 
 Herring, attaining a length of three feet, and distinguished by the absence 
 of sensible teeth and by an irregular black spot behind the gills. It ascends 
 the rivers in spring, and is then highly esteemed; when taken at sea it is 
 dry and of a disagreeable flavour. 
 
 Next to the true Clupeae come some genera, which approach 
 them in the trenchant and indented abdomen. They are Odontog- 
 nathus, Pristigaster, Notopterus^ Engraulis (the Anchovy), Me- 
 galopSf Elops^ Hpodon^ &c. &c. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI. 
 
 This order is characterized by ventrals inserted under the pecto- 
 rals; the pelvis is also directly suspended to the bones of the shoul- 
 der. It contains almost as many families as genera. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 GADITES. 
 
 This family is almost wholly composed of the great genus 
 
 Gadus, Lin. 
 
 Recognized by the ventrals, which are pointed and attached to the throat. 
 The body is moderately elongated, slightly compressed, and covered with 
 rather small and soft scales; the head is well proportioned, but without 
 2 D 
 
226 PISCES. 
 
 scalesj all the fins are soft; the jaws and front of the vomer armed with 
 pointed, unequal, moderate or small teeth, disposed in several rows, and 
 resembling- a card or rasp; the bran chise are large and have seven rays. 
 Most of the genus have two or three fins on the back, and a distinct cau- 
 dal. The stomach forms a strong and large sac. The natatory bladder is 
 large, strong, and frequently dentated on the sides. 
 
 The greater number of these fishes inhabit cold or temperate seas, and 
 constitute the object of important fisheries. Their white flesh, easily sep- 
 arated in layers, is generally esteemed as light, wholesome, and sapid. 
 They are subdivided into several subgenera. In Morrhua, we have 
 
 Gadus morrhua, L. (The Cod. ) From two to three feet long; back 
 spotted with yellowish and brown; it inhabits the whole Northern Ocean, 
 and multiplies so excessively in north latitudes, that whole fleets are annu- 
 ally dispatched to capture it. 
 
 Gadus scglefinus, L. (The Haddock.) The back brown, belly silvery, 
 and lateral line black; a blackish spot behind the pectoral; quite as numer- 
 ous in northern latitudes as the Cod, but not so much esteemed. 
 
 In the subgenera of Gadus we find the Whiting, Hake, Ling, &c. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PLANI. 
 
 Tlie second family of the Malacopterygii Subrachiati, commonly 
 called Flat-Jishes, comprises the great genus 
 
 Plettronectes, Lin.(l) 
 These fishes present a character, which, with respect to vertebrated ani- 
 mals, is perfectly unique: it is the total want of symmetry in the head, where 
 both eyes are en one side, which always remains uppermost when the ani- 
 mal is swimming, and which, is always deeply coloured, while that on which 
 the eyes are wanting is always whitish. The remainder of the body, 
 although, generally speaking, formed as usual, participates a little in this 
 irregularity. Thus the two sides of the mouth are not equal, and the two 
 pectorals are rarely so. Their body is strongly compressed and vertically 
 elevated; the dorsal extends along the whole back; the anal occupies the 
 under part of the body, and almost seems to be continued forwards by the 
 ventrals, which are frequently united with it. There are six rays in the 
 
 (1) Pleuronedes, a name formed by Artedi from Trxtupu. the flank, and vhk- 
 T«f a swimmer, because they swim on the side. The ancients gave them dif- 
 ferent names according to the species, such as Passer, Hhombua, Bu- 
 glossa, Stc. 
 
MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATI. 227 
 
 branchix. They are taken along' the coasts of almost all countries, and 
 furnish a wholesome and delicious article of food. 
 
 Individuals are sometimes captured whose eyes are placed on the side 
 opposite to that in wliich they are generally seen, they ai'e then said to be 
 conloum^s or reversed, others again have both sides of the body coloured 
 alike, when they are called doubles or doubled; it is most generally the 
 brown side which is thus reproduced, though it sometimes happens to the 
 white one. 
 
 The subdivisions of this genus include the Plaice, Flounder, Sole, Turbotf 
 Halibut, &c. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 DISCOBOLI. 
 
 These fishes, so called on account of the disk formed by their 
 ventrals, form two genera. 
 
 Lepadogaster, Gouan. 
 The small fishes which compose this genus are remarkable for the following 
 characters. Their ample pectorals having reached the inferior surface of 
 the trunk, assume stouter rays, curve slightly forwards, and unite with each 
 other on the throat by a transverse membrane directed forwards, which is 
 formed by the union of the ventrals. The body is smooth and without 
 scales, the head broad and depressed, the snout salient and protractile; the 
 branchiae, but slightly cleft, are furnished with four or five rays, and they 
 have but a single soft dorsal opposite to a similar anal. 
 
 Cyclopterus, Lin. 
 
 This genus is well marked by the ventrals, whose rays, suspended round 
 the pelvis, and united by a single membrane, form an oval and concave 
 disk, used by the fish as a sucker to attach itself to rocks. The mouth is 
 wide, and its jaws and pharyngeals furnished with small and pointed teeth; 
 opercula small; branchise closed below, and provided with six rays; pecto- 
 rals very large, and uniting almost beneath the throat, as if to embrace the 
 disk of the ventrals. 
 
 Cycldpterus lumpus, Li. (The Lumpsucker.) The first dorsal so envel- 
 oped in a thick and tubercular skin, that it has the appearance, externally, 
 of being a simple dorsal hump; there are three ranges of thick conical tu- 
 bercles on each side of it. It feeds on Medusse and other gelatinous ani- 
 mals, particularly in the North. Its flesh is soft and insipid; heavy and with 
 scarcely any means of defence, it becomes the prey of the Seal, Shark, &c. 
 The male is said to keep careful watch over the eggs. 
 
228 PISCES. 
 
 EcHENEis, Lin. 
 
 This genus, as well as that of Pleuronectes, might forma particular family 
 in the order of the Malacopterygii Subrachiati. The fishes of which it con- 
 sists are remarkable for a flattened disk placed upon their head, composed 
 of a certain number of transverse, cartilaginous lamina, directed obhquely 
 backwards, dentated or spiny on their posterior edge, and movable, so that 
 by creating a vacuum between them, or by hooking onto various bodies by 
 means of the spines, they are enabled to attach themselves firmly thereto, 
 a circumstance which gave rise to the fabulous saying, that the Remora 
 possessed the power of suddenly stopping a vessel in the middle of its 
 swiftest course. 
 
 The species are not numerous; the most common one that inhabits the 
 MediteiTanean, Echen. remoraf L. well known by the name of Memora, is 
 the shortest, and has but eighteen laminae in its disk. 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 
 MALACOPTERYGII APODES. 
 
 This order may be considered as forming but a single natural 
 family, that of the 
 
 ANGUILLIFORMES, 
 
 Fishes with an elongated form, a thick and soft skin which almost 
 renders its scales invisible, and but few bones. The great genus 
 
 MuEJENA, Lin. 
 Is recognized by the little opercula concentrically surrounded by the rays, 
 all of which are enveloped in the skin, which only opens at a considerable 
 distance back by a hole or species of tube, an arrangement which, by more 
 completely protecting the brancMse, allows these fishes to remain some 
 time out of water without perishing. Their body is long and slender; their 
 scales, as if encrusted in a fat and thick skin, are only distinctly visible after 
 desiccation; they have neither ventrals nor cxca. This genus has been 
 successively separated into five or six genera, which naturalists are com- 
 pelled to subdivide still more. 
 
 Anguilla. 
 Eeb are distinguished by the two-fold character of pectoral fins and of 
 branchise opening under them on each side. 
 
MALACOPTERYGII APODES. 229 
 
 CONGEK, CuV. 
 
 The dorsal commencing' close to the pectorals, or even on tliem; the up- 
 per jaw longest in all the known species. 
 
 JkTur. conger, L- (The Conger Eel.) Found in all the seas of Europe; 
 it attains the length of five or six feet and the thickness of a man's leg; dorsal 
 and anal edged with black; lateral line dotted with whitish. It is not in 
 much request for the table. 
 
 MuRHNA, Thunb. 
 
 The Murxnx, properly so called, have no vestige of pectorals; their bran- 
 chiae open on each side by a small hole; their opercula are so thin, and 
 their branch iostegal rays so slender and concealed under the skin, that able 
 naturalists have denied their existence. 
 
 M. Helena, L. Common in the Mediterranean; a fish much esteemed by 
 the ancients, who fed it in ponds expressly constructed for that purpose. 
 The history of Vaedius Pollio, who caused his transgressing slaves to be 
 flung alive into these ponds as food for the Mursens, is well known. It at- 
 tains a length of three feet and more, is mottled with brown and yellowish, 
 and is excessively voracious. 
 
 It is immediately after this great genus of the Muraenas that should 
 be placed a newly discovered fish, which is one of the most singular 
 of the whole class; I mean the 
 
 Saccopharynx, Mitch. 
 Whose trunk, susceptible of being so inflated as to resemble a thick tube, 
 terminates in a very long and slender tail, surrounded by an extremely low 
 dorsal and anal, which unite at its point. The mouth, armed with sharp 
 teeth, opens far behind the eyes, which are placed close to the very short 
 point of the snout. The branchial aperture consists in a hole under the 
 pectorals, which are very small. 
 
 This fish attains a large size, and appears to be voracious. It has only 
 been seen in the Atlantic Ocean, floating on the surface by the dilatation of 
 its throat. 
 
 Gymnotus, Lin.(l) 
 
 The giUs partly so closed by a membrane, as in Anguilla, but opening be- 
 fore the pectorals. 
 
 G. electricus, L. (The Electrical Gymnotus); which, from its almost uni- 
 form shape and obtuse head and tail, has also been called the Electrical Eel. 
 It is from five to six feet long, and communicates such violent shocks that 
 
 (1) Gymnotus, or, properly speaking, Gymnonotus (Bare-back), a name 
 given to these fishes by Artedi. 
 
230 PISCES. 
 
 men and horses are struck down by them. This power is dependent on 
 the will of the animal, which gives it what direction it pleases, and renders 
 it effective, even at a distance, kilUng- fishes therewith, so situated. It is, 
 however, dissipated by use, and to renew it, the Gymnotus requires rest 
 and nourishing food. The organ which is the seat of this singular faculty, 
 extends along the whole under side of the tail, occupying about half its 
 thickness; it is divided into four longitudinal fasciculi, two large ones above 
 and two smaller ones below, and against the base of the anal fin. The lit- 
 tle cells, or rather the little prismatic and transverse canals formed by the 
 two kinds of lamina that unite the bundles, are filled with a gelatinous mat- 
 ter, and the whole apparatus receives a proportionably large number of 
 nerves. 
 
 Gymnarchus, Cuv. 
 The body scaly and elongated, and the gills slightly open before the pecto- 
 rals as in Gymnotus; but a fin, with soft rays, occupies the whole length of 
 the back; and there is none behind the anus, nor under the tail, which ter- 
 minates in a point. The head is conical and naked, the mouth small, and 
 furnished with a single row of small trenchant teeth. 
 
 G. niloticus. The only species known; discovered in the Nile by M. 
 Riffault. 
 
 Leptocephalus, Penn. 
 The branchial aperture before the pectorals; body compressed like a riband; 
 head extremely small, with a short and somewhat pointed snout; pectorals 
 almost imperceptible, or totally wanting; the dorsal and anal hardly visible, 
 and uniting at the point of the tail. The intestines occupy but an ex- 
 tremely narrow line along the inferior edge. 
 
 L. morisii, Gm., inhabits the coast of France and England. Several other 
 species, however, are found in the seas of hot climates, all of them as thin 
 as paper and transparent as glass, so that even the skeleton is not visible. 
 The profound study of their organization is one of the most interesting to 
 which travellers can devote themselves. 
 
 Ophidium, Lin. 
 
 Dorsal and anal fins united with that of the tail, and terminating the body 
 in a point; the body so elongated and compressed that it has been compared 
 to a sword, and invested like that of an Eel with small scales planted in the 
 thickness of the skin. The Ophidii, however, differ from Eels In their well 
 cleft branchise, which are furnished with a very apparent operculum and a 
 membrane with short rays. Their dorsal rays are articulated, but not 
 branched. 
 
 Ammodytes, Lin. 
 An elongated body like that of the preceding fishes, provided with a fin. 
 
MALACOPTERYGII APODES. 231 
 
 having- articiilated but simple rays, occupying a great part of the back, with 
 a second behind the vent, and with a third which is forked at the end of 
 the tail; these three fins, however, are separated by free spaces. The snout 
 is acute; the upper jaw susceptible of extension, and the lower one, when 
 at rest, longer than the other. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 
 LOPHOBRANCHII(l). 
 
 All the fishes of which we have hitherto spoken, have not only a 
 bony or fibrous skeleton, and complete and free jaws, but their 
 branchiae are uniformly composed of laminse, or are pectiniform. 
 In this order, however, we likewise find the jaws free and complete; 
 but it is eminently distinguished by the gills, which, instead of 
 resembling, as usual, the teeth of a comb, are divided into small 
 round tufts, arranged in pairs along the branchial arches, a struc- 
 ture of which no other fishes present any example. They are 
 enclosed beneath a large operculum, tied down on all sides by a 
 membrane which leaves only a single small orifice for the exit of the 
 water, and exhibiting in its thickness only vestiges of rays. These 
 fishes are also recognized by the scutellated plates of mail which 
 cover their body, and usually render it angular. They are generally 
 small, and almost without flesh. 
 
 Syngnathus, Lin.(2) 
 The Syngnathi constitute a numerous genus characterized by a tubular 
 snout, formed, like that of the Fistularidse, by the prolongation of the 
 ethmoid, vomer, tympanals, preopercula, subopercula, &c., and terminated 
 by an ordinary mouth, but one that is cleft almost vertically on its extremity. 
 The respiratory aperture is near the nape; and the ventrals are wanting. 
 There is a peculiarity in the production of these fishes, whose ova shp into 
 a pouch formed by an inflation of the skin and are hatched there; this pouch, 
 in some, is situated under the abdomen, and in others under the base of the 
 tail; it spUts spontaneously for the passage of the fry. 
 
 (1) Tufted gills. 
 
 (2) From a-uv and yva^oc (united jaws), a name composed by Artedi, who 
 thought that the tube of the snout of these fishes was formed by the union 
 of their jaws. 
 
232 PISCES. 
 
 There are three subgenera, viz. Hippocampus (the Sea-horse), Soknotto- 
 mua, and Pegaaua. 
 
 ORDER VI. 
 PLECTOGNATHI(l). 
 
 We have now passed from the preceding five orders of bony or 
 fibrous fishes, with free and complete jaws, to the sixth, which may 
 be approximated to the Chondropterygii, with which it is allied by 
 the imperfection of the jaws, and the tardy induration of the skele- 
 ton; this skeleton, however, is fibrous, and its whole structure is that 
 of ordinary fishes. The most distinguishing character of the order 
 consists in the maxillary bono being soldered to the side of the in- 
 termaxillary, which alone constitutes the jaw, and in the mode in 
 which the palatine arch is connected with the cranium, which, being 
 by a suture, consequently renders it immovable. Besides this, the 
 opercula and rays are concealed under a thick skin, through which 
 only a small branchial fissure is visible. Of ribs, nothing is to be 
 found but very small vestiges. There are no true ventrals. 
 
 This order comprises two very natural families, characterized by 
 their mode of dentition. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 GYMN0D0NTES(2). 
 
 The Gymnodontes have jaws, which, instead of teeth, are fur- 
 nished with an ivory substance, internally divided into laminae, whose 
 ensemble resembles the beak of a Parrot, and which in fact consists 
 of true teeth united, that succeed each other as fast as they are de- 
 stroyed by trituration. The opercula are small, and there are five 
 rays on each side, all of which are but imperfectly seen. They live 
 on Crustacea and fucus, their fiesh is mucous, and that of several 
 species is considered poisonous, at least in certain seasons. 
 
 (1) Cheeks united by suture. (2) Naked teeth. 
 
PLECTOGNATHI. 233 
 
 Two of the genera, Tetraodon and Diodon, have the faculty of 
 swelling themselves up like a balloon, by filling their stomach (or 
 rather a sort of very thin and extensible crop, which occupies the 
 whole length of the abdomen, and adheres closely to the peritoneum, 
 a circumstance which has occasioned it to be considered at one 
 time as the peritoneum itself, and at another as a species of epi- 
 ploon) with air. When thus inflated, they roll over, and float on the 
 surface, with the abdomen upwards, unable to direct their course; 
 but they are extremely well defended while in this position by the 
 erection of the spines with which their skin is everywhere furnished. 
 
 DioDON, Lin. 
 
 So called because the jaws are undivided and formed of one piece above 
 and another below. Behind the trenchant edge of eacli of these pieces, ia 
 a round portion, transversely furi'owed, which constitutes a powerful instru- 
 ment of mastication. The skin is everywhere so armed with stout pointed 
 spines, that when inflated, they resemble the burr of a chestnut tree. A 
 number of species inliabit the seas of hot climates. 
 
 Tetraodon, Lin. 
 Jaws divided in the middle by a suture, so as present the appearance of 
 four teeth, two above and two below; spines small and low. Several spe- 
 cies are said to be poisonous. 
 
 Cephalits, Sh. 
 
 Jaws undivided as in Diodon; but the body, compressed and spineless, is 
 not susceptible of inflation, and the tail is so short and high that this fish 
 resembles one whose posterior portion has been truncated, producing a 
 singular appearance, that is amply suflicient to distinguish it. A thick layer 
 of a gelatinous substance is spread under the skin. 
 
 C. brevis, Sh. (The Short Sunfish.) Four feet and more in length, 
 and weighing upwards of three hundred pounds; the skin is very rough, and 
 of a fine silver colour. European seas. 
 
 Teiodon, Cuv. 
 We also make a separate genus of these fishes, whose upper jaw is divid- 
 ed as in Tetraodon, and the lower one single, as in Diodon. An enormous 
 dewlap almost as long as the body and twice as high, is supported before 
 by a very large bone which represents the pelvis and approximates them 
 to certain Bahstes. Their fins are those of a Diodon, their body is rough 
 as in Tetraodon, and the surface of their dewlap is covered with numerous, 
 small, rough crests, placed obhquely. 
 
 T. bursarius, Reinw. The only species known; it was discovered in the 
 Indian Ocean by M. Reinwai'd. 
 2 E 
 
234 PISCES. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 SCLERODERMI(l). 
 
 The second family of the Plectognathi is easily distinguished by 
 a conical or pyramidical snout, prolonged from the eyes and termi- 
 nated by a small mouth, armed with a few distinct teeth in each jaw. 
 The skin is usually rough or invested with hard scales; the nata- 
 tory bladder is oval, large, and strong. 
 
 Balistes, Lin. 
 
 The body compressed; eight teeth in a single row in each jaw, generally 
 trenchant; the skin scaly or granulated, but not exactly osseous; the first dor- 
 sal composed of one or more spines articulated with a particular bone which 
 is attached to the cranium, marked by a furrow into which they are received; 
 the second dorsal long, soft, and placed opposite to a nearly similar anal. 
 
 These fishes abound in the torrid zone, near rocks and on the surface of 
 the water, where they display their brilliant colours. Their flesh, which is 
 but lightly esteemed at all times, becomes, it is said, poisonous during the 
 period in which they feed on the coralline Polypi: fucus is all that I met 
 with in those I opened. 
 
 JB. capriscus, L,. (The Mediterranean File-Fish. ) Brownish-grey, spot- 
 ted with blue, or greenish. Its flesh is not esteemed. 
 
 OsTKACioN, Lin. 
 
 The head and body of these fishes, instead of scales, are covered with regu- 
 lar bony plates solvered in such a manner as to form a sort of inflexible 
 shield, which invests them, so that the only movable parts are the tail, fins, 
 mouth, and a sort of small lip with which the edge of their gills is furnished, 
 all passing through holes in this coat of mail. 
 
 CH0NDR0PTERYGII(2). 
 
 The second series of the class of fishes, or the Chondropterygii, 
 can neither be considered as superior nor inferior to that of the 
 Ordinary Fishes, for several of its genera approach the Reptiles in 
 the conformation of the ear while in others the organization is so 
 simple, and the skeleton so much reduced, that we might be ex- 
 cused for hesitating to place them among vertebrate animals. It is 
 
 (1) Rough-skinned. (2) Cartilaginous-finned. 
 
CHONDROPTERYGII. 235 
 
 therefore a suite somewhat parallel to the first, as the Marsupialia, 
 for instance, are parallel to the other unguiculated Mammalia. 
 
 The skeleton of the Chondropterygii is essentially cartilaginous: 
 that is, it contains no osseous fibres, the calcareous matter being 
 deposited in small grains, and not in filaments; hence the absence 
 of sutures in their cranium, which is always formed of a single piece, 
 but in which, by means of projections, depressions, and holes, re- 
 gions analogous to those in the cranium of other fishes may be dis- 
 tinguished. It sometimes happens that movable articulations, which 
 are found in other orders, are not met with in this one; part of the 
 vertebrae of certain Rays, for instance, being united in a single body. 
 Some of the articulations of the bones of the face also disappear, 
 and the most apparent character of this division consists in the ab- 
 sence of the maxillaries and intermaxillaries, or rather in their re- 
 duction to mere vestiges concealed under the skin, while their 
 functions are fulfilled by bones analogous to the palatines, and even 
 sometimes by the vomer. The gelatinous substance, vehich in other 
 fishes fills the intervals of the vertebrae, and only communicates with 
 them by a small hole, forms a long cord in several of the Chon- 
 dropterygii, which traverses the bodies of almost all the vertebrae, 
 without scarcely varying in diameter. 
 
 This series is divided into two orders— the Chondropterygii whose 
 branchiae are free, like those of ordinary fishes; and those in which 
 they are fixed, that is to say, attached to the skin by their external 
 edge in such a manner that the water can only escape from their 
 intervals through holes on the surface. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 STURIONES, OR CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS 
 LIBERIS, 
 
 Or Chondropterygii, with free hranchm^ which are still closely 
 allied to the ordinary fishes in their gills, which have but a single 
 wide opening, and are furnished with an operculum, but without 
 rays in the membrane. This order comprises but two genera. 
 
236 PISCES. 
 
 AciPENSEE, Lin.(l) 
 The general form of the Sturgeon is similar to that of the Shark, but the 
 body is more or less covered with bony plates in longitudinal rows; the ex- 
 terior portion of the head is also well mailed; the mouth, placed under the 
 snout, is small and edentated; the palatine, soldered to the maxillaries, con- 
 verts them into theupper jaw, and vestiges of the intermaxillaries are found 
 in the thickness of the lips. This mouth, placed on a pedicle that has three 
 articulations, is more protractile than that of a Shark. The eyes and nostrils 
 are on the side of the head, and cirri are inserted under the snout. The 
 labyrinth is perfectly formed in the cranial bone, but there is no vestige of 
 an external ear. A hole perforated behind the temple is a mere spiracle, 
 which leads to the branchise. 
 
 The Stui'geon ascends certsdn rivers in great numbers, and is the object of 
 important fisheries; the flesh of most species is agreeable, their ova are con- 
 verted into caviar, and their natatory bladder into isinglass. Western Eu- 
 rope produces 
 
 ^. ruthenus, L. (The Sterlet.) Seldom more than two feet in length; 
 plates of the lateral rows more numerous and carinated, those of the belly 
 flat. It is considered a dehcious fish, and its caviar is reserved for the 
 Russian court. There is reason to believe that it is the Elops and the Ad- 
 penser, so highly celebrated among the ancients. 
 
 j3. huso, L. (The great Sturgeon. ) Blunter plates and a shorter snout 
 and cirri than those of the Common Sturgeon; the skin also is smoother. 
 It is frequently found to exceed twelve and fifteen feet in length, and to 
 weigh more than twelve hundred pounds. One specimen was captured 
 whose weight amounted to near three thousand pounds. The flesh is not 
 much esteemed, and is sometimes unwholesome; but the finest isinglass is 
 made from its natatory bladder. It is also found in the Po. North America 
 has several species of this genus which are peculiar to it. 
 
 Spatularia, Sh. 
 These fishes are recognized at once by the enormous prolongation of their 
 snout, to whicli its broad borders give the fignre of a leaf. Their general 
 form and the position of their fins remindthe observer of a Sturgeon, but 
 their gills are still more open, and the operculum is prolonged into a mem- 
 branous point which extends to near the middle of the body. The mouth 
 is well cleft and furnished with numerous small teeth. 
 
 But a single species is known, the Paddle-fish of the Mississippi. 
 
 CiiiMJERA, Lin. 
 The Chimserx are closely allied to the Sharks in tlieir general form and in 
 the position of their fins, but all their branchise open externally by a single 
 
 (1) ^cipenser is the ancient name; Sturio, whence Sturgeon, is modem, 
 and is probably the German name Stoer latinized. 
 
CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS LIBERIS. 237 
 
 apparent hole on each side, although if we penetrate more deeply, we 
 find that they are attached by a large part of their edges, and that in fact 
 there are five particulai* holes terminating in the bottom of the common 
 aperture. A vestige of an operculum, however, is concealed under the 
 skin. The jaws are still more reduced than in the Shark, for the palatine 
 and tympanic bones are also mere vestiges suspended to the sides of the 
 snout, and the vomer is the only representative of the upper jaw. Hard 
 and indivisible plates supply the place of teeth, four on the upper jaw and. 
 two on the lower. The snout, supported like that of a Shark, projects 
 forwards and is pierced with pores aiTanged in tolerably regular lines; the 
 first dorsal, armed with a strong spine, is placed over the pectorals. They 
 produce very large coriaceous eggs with flattened and hairy borders. 
 
 C. monstrosa, L. (The Arctic Chimaera.) Two or three feet long, of a 
 silvery colour, and spotted with brown. From the Northern and Euro- 
 pean seas. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS, 
 
 Or the Chondropterygii with fixed branchias, instead of having 
 those organs free on the external edge, and opening all their inter- 
 vals into a large common orifice, as is the case in all the fishes of 
 which we have hitherto spoken, have them adhering by this external 
 edge in such a manner that they permit the water to escape through 
 as many holes pierced in the skin as there are intervals between 
 them, or, at least, that these holes may terminate in a common duct, 
 through which the water is ejected. Another circumstance pecu- 
 liar to these fishes is the presence of little cartilaginous bows, fre- 
 quently suspended in the muscles opposite to the external edges of 
 the branchia;, and which may be termed branchial ribs. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 SELACHII. 
 
 This family, hitherto comprized under two genera, Sqtjalus and 
 Raia, has many common characters. The palatines and post-man- 
 dibularies, alone armed with teeth, supply the place of jaws, the 
 usual bones of which are reduced to mere vestiges; one single bone 
 suspends these apparent jaws to the cranium, representing at once 
 
238 PISCES. 
 
 the tympanal, jugal and temporal bones, and the preoperculum. 
 The hyoid bone is attached to the single pedicle just mentioned, and 
 supports branchiostegal rays, as in ordinary fishes, although they 
 are not so very visible, externally; it is followed by the branchial 
 arches, as usual, but neither of the three pieces compose the oper- 
 culum. These fishes have both pectorals and ventrals: the latter 
 are situated behind the abdomen. Their membranous labyrinth is 
 enclosed by the cartilaginous substance of the cranium; the sac, 
 which constitutes part of it, contains mere amylaceous masses, and 
 not stones. 
 
 Sqtjalus, Lin. 
 Tlie Sharks form a first great genus distinguished by an elongated body, a 
 thick fleshy tail and moderate pectorals, so that the general figure ap- 
 proaches that of ordinary fishes; the branchial openings correspond with 
 the sides of the neck, and not with the under surface of the body, as we shall 
 see is the case with the Rays; the eyes also are on the sides of the head. 
 The snout is supported by three cartilaginous branches connected with the 
 anterior part of the cranium, and the rudiments of the maxillaries, inter- 
 maxillarles, and premandibularies are evident in the skeleton. 
 
 Several are viviparous. The others produce ova invested with a yellow 
 and transparent horn, the angles of which are prolonged into horny cords. 
 The little branchial ribs are apparent, and there are also small ones along 
 the sides of the spine, which is completely divided into vertebrx. The ge- 
 nus is very numerous and authorizes various subdivisions. 
 
 Cahchahias, Cuv. 
 
 A numerous and by far the most celebrated tribe; with trenchant, pointed 
 teeth, most commonly dentated on the margin. The first dorsal is far be- 
 Fore the ventrals, and the second about opposite to the anal. The spiracles 
 are wanting; the nostrils are placed under the middle of the depressed snout, 
 and the last branchial apertures extend over the pectorals. 
 
 Sq^ carcharias, L. (The White Shark.) This species attains the length 
 of twenty-five feet, and is recognized by its teeth, which in the upper jaw 
 nearly form isosceles triangles with rectilinear and dentated sides. The 
 lower ones consist-©f narrow points placed on wider bases, terrific weapons, 
 which are the dread of mariners. It would appear that it inhabits every 
 sea; but its name has frequently been applied to other species with tren- 
 chant teeth. 
 
 Selache, Cuv., 
 In addition to the form of the Squali, and the spiracles of the Galei, is 
 furnished with branchial openings that are nearly large enough to encircle 
 the neck, and with small conical and unemarginate teeth. 
 
CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 239 
 
 The common species, Sg, maximus, L. (The Basking Shark), has no- 
 thing of the ferocity of the Shark, although it surpasses it in size as well as 
 all other Squali. Individuals have been captured that were more than 
 thirty feet in length. It inhabits the Arctic Seas, but is sometimes driven 
 on the coast of France by the strength of the north-east winds. There are 
 several other subgenera. 
 
 A second genus may be formed of the 
 
 Zygcena, Cuv. 
 "Which to the characters of a Carcharias, adds a form of head of which there 
 is no other example in tlie animal kingdom. It is horizontally flattened and 
 truncated before, the sides extending transversely in branches, which give 
 it a resemblance to the head of a hammer; the eyes are placed at the ex- 
 tremity of the branches, and the nostrils on their anterior edge. 
 
 The most common species of the European seas, Sg, zygoena, is some- 
 times twelve feet long. 
 
 Squatina, Dumer. 
 Spiracles, but no anal, as in the third division of the Squali, but differing 
 from aU of them in the mouth, which is cleft in the end of the snout and 
 not beneath, and in the eyes, which are placed on its dorsal surface and not 
 on the sides. The head is roimd, the body broad and horizontally flattened, 
 the pectorals large and extending forwards, but separated from the body by 
 a fissure where the branchial orifices are pierced; the two dorsals are behind 
 the ventrals, and the caudal is attached both above and beneath. The 
 
 Sguat. angelus (The Angel-Fish) attains a considerable size in the Euro- 
 pean seas. Its skin is rough, and the edges of the pectorals are furnished 
 with small spines. 
 
 Peistis, Lath.(l) 
 The SawFish forms a fourth genus. To the elongated form of the Squali 
 it unites a body flattened before and branchiae opening below, as in the Rays; 
 but its peculiar chaaracter consists in a very long depressed snout resembling 
 the blade of a sword, armed on each side with stout, bony, trenchant and 
 pointed spines,planted like teeth. This beak, from which these fishes de- 
 rive their name, is a most powerful weapon, and with it they attack the 
 largest Whales. The true teeth of their jaws resemble small paving stones, 
 like those of a Mustelus. 
 
 The common species, Pristis antiguorum. Lath., attains a length of twelve 
 or fifteen feet. 
 
 (1) n/)»VT<f, saw; the Greek name of this fish. 
 
240 PISCES. 
 
 Raia, Lin.(l) 
 The Rays form a less numerous genus than the Squali. They are recognized 
 by the horizontally flattened body which resembles a disk, from its union 
 with the extremely broad and fleshy pectorals which are joined to each 
 other before or to the snout, and which extend behind the two sides of the 
 abdomen as far as the base of the ventrals. The eyes and spiracles are 
 seated on the dorsal surface, the mouth, nostrils, and orifices of the bran- 
 chiae on the opposite one. The dorsal fins are almost always on the tail. 
 The ova are brown, coriaceous, and square, the angles extended into points. 
 In the various subdivisions of this genus, we find the Sting-Ray, Spotted 
 Torpedo, Thornback, Skate, &c. The most remarkable subgenus is 
 
 ToaPEDO, Dum. 
 The tall short, but still tolerably fleshy; disk of the body nearly circular, 
 the anterior border being formed by two productions of the snout which in- 
 cline side-wise in order to reach the pectorals; the space between these 
 pectorals, head and branchiae is filled on each side with a singular apparatus 
 formed of httle membranous tubes placed close together like a honeycomb, 
 subdivided by horizontal diaphragms into small cells fiUed with a sort of 
 mucus, and traversed by numerous nerves proceeding from the eighth paii-. 
 It is in this apparatus that resides the electric or galvanic power which has 
 rendered the Torpedo so celebrated; violent shocks are experienced by 
 touching it, and it is most probable that the same power is employed to 
 bewilder its prey. The body is smooth, the teeth small and sharp. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 SUCTORII— CYCLOSTOMI, Dumer. 
 
 The Suctorii, as regards the skeleton, are the most imperfect of 
 fishes, and even of all vertebrate animals. They have neither pec- 
 torals nor ventrals; their elongated body is terminated before by a 
 circular or semicircular jleshy lip, and the cartilaginous ring which 
 supports it results from the soldering of the palatines to the mandi- 
 bularies. The bodies of all the vertebrae are traversed by a single 
 tendinous cord filled with a mucilaginous substance without strangu- 
 lations, which reduces them to the condition of cartilaginous rings, 
 scarcely distinct from each other. The annular portion, a little 
 more solid than the rest, is not however cartilaginous throughout 
 the whole of its circle. They have no ordinary ribs; but the small 
 
 (1) Raia in Latin, Bar/; and B^itos in Greek, are the ancient names of 
 these fishes. 
 
CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 241 
 
 branchial ones, which are hardly perceptible in the Squali and Rays, 
 are here greatly developed and united with each other, forming a 
 kind of cage, while there are no solid branchial arches. The bran- 
 chiae, instead of being pectinated as in all other fishes, resemble pur- 
 ses, resulting from the junction of one face of a branchia with the 
 opposing one of its neighbour. The labyrinth of the ear is en- 
 closed by the cranium, and the nostrils open externally by a single 
 orifice, in front of which is a blind cavity. 
 
 Petkomyzon, Li n . ( 1 ) 
 Tlie Lampreys have seven branchial openings on each side; the skin of the 
 tail above and beneath is turned up into a longitudinal crest which supplies 
 the place of a fin, but in which the rays resemble scarcely visible fibres. 
 
 The maxillary ring of the True Lamprey is armed with strong teeth, and 
 the interior disk of the lip, which is very circular, is furnished with tuber- 
 cles covered with an extremely hard shell, and similar to teeth. There are 
 two longitudinal rows of small teeth on the tongue, which moves backwards 
 and forwards like a piston; by this, that suction is produced which distin- 
 guishes this animal. Water reaches the branchiae from the mouth by a par- 
 ticular membranous canal, placed under the oesophagus and perforated with 
 holes, that may be compared to a trachea. These fishes habitually fix 
 themselves by suction to stones and other sohd bodies; they attack the 
 largest fishes in the same way, and are finally enabled to pierce and de- 
 vour them. 
 
 P. marinus, L. (The Sea Lamprey.) Two or three feet in length, 
 marbled with brown on a yellowish ground; two large approximated teeth 
 on the upper part of the maxillary ring. It ascends the mouths of rivers in 
 the spring, and is highly esteemed. 
 
 P . fluvialis, "L. (The River Lamprey.) From a foot to eighteen Inches 
 in length; silvery, blackish and oHve on the back; first dorsal very distinct 
 from the second; two large separated teeth on the upper part of the maxil- 
 lary ring. Inhabits rivers, &c. 
 
 Myxine, Lin. 
 But a single tooth on the upper part of the maxillary ring, which is alto- 
 gether membranous; lateral dentations of the tongue strong, and arranged 
 in two rows on each side, so that the jaws of these fishes seem to be lateral 
 like those of Insects or the Nereides, which induced Linnaeus to place them 
 in the class of Vermes; the rest of their organization, however, is analogous 
 
 (1) Lamproye, Lampreda, Lamprey, corruptions of Lampetra, which is 
 itself modern, and, according to some, derived from Lambendo, petras. 
 Petromyzon is the Greek translation of the same, by Artedi. 
 2 F 
 
242 PISCES. 
 
 to that of the Lampreys: the tong-ue also acts like a piston, and the spine 
 of the back is in the form of a cord. The mouth is circular and surrounded 
 witli eight cu'ri; in its upper margin is a spiracle which communicates with 
 its interior. The body is cylindrical, and furnished behind with a fin that 
 sun-ounds tlie tail. There are no vestiges of eyes. The eggs become 
 large. These singular animals pour out such an abundance of mucus through 
 the pores of their lateral line, that the water of the vases in which they are 
 kept seems to be converted into a jelly. They attack and pierce other 
 fishes like the Lampreys. 
 
 They are subdivided according to the external orifices of their branchije. 
 
243 
 
 SECOND GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 ANIMALIA M0LLUSCA.(1) 
 
 The Mollusca have neither an articulated skeleton nor a verte- 
 bral canal. Their nervous system is not united in a spinal marrow, 
 but merely in a certain number of medullary masses dispersed in 
 different points of the body, the chief of which, termed the brain, is 
 situated transversely on the oesophagus, and envelopes it with a 
 nervous collar. Their organs of motion and of the sensations have 
 not the same uniformity as to number and position, as in the Verte- 
 brata, and the irregularity is still more striking in the viscera, par- 
 ticularly as respects the position of the heart and respiratory organs, 
 and even as regards the structure of the latter; for some of them 
 respire elastic air, and others salt or fresh water. Their external 
 organs, however, and those of locomotion, are generally arranged 
 symmetrically on the two sides of an axis. 
 
 The circulation of the Mollusca is always double; that is, their 
 pulmonary circulation describes a separate and distinct circle. 
 
 The blood of the Mollusca is white or bluish, and it appears to 
 contain a smaller proportionate quantity of fibrine than that of the 
 Vertebrata. There are reasons for believing that their veins fulfil 
 the functions of absorbent vessels. 
 
 Their muscles are attached to various points of their skin, form- 
 ing tissues there which are more or less complex and dense. Their 
 
 (1) Soft animals. 
 
244 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 motions consist of various contractions which produce inflexions 
 and prolongations of their different parts, or a relaxation of the same, 
 by means of which they creep, swim, and seize upon various ob- 
 jects, just as the form of these parts may permit; but as the limbs 
 are not supported by articulated and sohd levers, they cannot ad- 
 vance rapidly, or per saltum. 
 
 The irritability of most of them is extremely great, and remains 
 for a long time after they are divided. Their skin is naked, very 
 sensible, and usually covered with a humour that oozes from its 
 pores. No particular organ of smell has ever been detected in them, 
 although they enjoy that sense; it may possibly reside in the entire 
 skin, for it greatly resembles a pituitary membrane. All the Aca- 
 lepha, Brachiopoda, Cirrhopoda, and part of the Gasteropoda and 
 Pteropoda, are deprived of eyes; the Cephalopoda on the contrary 
 have them at least as complicated as those of the warm-blooded 
 animals. They are the only ones in which the organ of hearing has 
 been discovered, and whose brain is enclosed within a particular 
 cartilaginous box. 
 
 Nearly all the Mollusca have a development of the skin which 
 covers their body, and which bears more or less resemblance to a 
 mantle; it is often however narrowed into a simple disk, formed into 
 a pipe, hollowed into a sac, or extended and divided in the form 
 of fins. 
 
 The Naked Mollusca are those in which the mantle is simply 
 membranous or fleshy; most frequently, however, one or several la- 
 minaB, of a substance more or less hard, is formed in its thickness, 
 deposited in layers, and increasing in extent as well as in thickness, 
 because the recent layers always overlap the old ones. 
 
 When this substance remains concealed in the thickness of the 
 mantle, it is still customary to style the animals Naked Mollusca. 
 Most generally, however, it becomes so much developed, that the 
 contracted animal finds shelter beneath it; it is then termed a shelly 
 and the animal is said to be testaceous; the epidermis which covers 
 it is thin, and sometimes desiccated. 
 
 The variety in the form, colour, substance and brilliancy of shells, 
 is infinite; most of them are calcareous; some are horny, but they 
 always consist of matters deposited in layers, or exuded from the 
 skin under the epidermis like the mucous covering, nails, hairs, horns, 
 scales, and even teeth. The tissue of shells differs according to the 
 
MOLLUSC A. 245 
 
 mode of this deposition, which is either in parallel laminse or in 
 crowded vertical filaments. 
 
 All the modes of mastication and deglutition are visible in the 
 Mollusca; here the stomaclis are simple, there multiple, and are 
 frequently provided with a peculiar armature. 
 
 The Mollusca in general appear to be animals that are but slightly 
 developed, possessed of but little industry, and which are only pre- 
 served by their fecundity and vital tenacity. 
 
 Division of the Mollusca into Six Classes. 
 
 The body of some resembles a sac open in front, containing the 
 branchiae, whence issues a well developed head crowned with long 
 and strong fleshy productions, by means of which they crawl, and 
 seize various objects. These we term the Cephalopoda. 
 
 That of others is closed; the appendages of the head are either 
 wanting or are extremely reduced; the principal organs of locomo- 
 tion are two wings or membranous fins, situated on the sides of the 
 neck, and which frequently support the branchial tissue. They 
 constitute the Pteropoda. 
 
 Others again crawl by means of a fleshy disk on their belly, some- 
 times, though rarely, compressed into a fin, and have almost always 
 a distinct head before. We call these the Gasteropoda. 
 
 A fourth class is composed of those where the mouth remains 
 hidden in the bottom of the mantle, which also encloses the branchiae 
 and viscera, and is open either throughout its length, at both ends, 
 or at one extremity only. Such are our Acephala. 
 
 A fifth comprises those, which, also inclosed in a mantle and with- 
 out an apparent head, have fleshy or membranous arms, furnished 
 with cilia of the same nature. We term these Brachiopoda. 
 
 Finally, there are some,' which, although similar to the other Mol- 
 lusca in the mantle, branchiae, &.C., differ from them in numerous 
 horny and articulated limbs, and in a nervous system more nearly 
 allied to that of the Articulata. They will constitute our last class, 
 or that of the Cirrhopoda. 
 
246 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 Their mantle unites under the body, forming a muscular sac 
 which envelopes all the viscera. In several, its sides are extended 
 into fleshy fins. The head projects from the opening of the sac; it 
 is rounded, furnished with two large eyes, and crowned with longer 
 or shorter conical and fleshy arms or feet, capable of being flexed 
 in every direction, and extremely vigorous, the surface of which is 
 armed with suckers or cup.?, which enable them to adhere with great 
 tenacity to every body they embrace. These feet are their instru- 
 ments of prehension, natation, and walking. They swim with the 
 head backwards, and crawl in all directions with the head beneath 
 and the body above. 
 
 The Cephalopoda have two branchiae within the sac, one on each 
 side, resembling a highly complicated fern leaf; the great vena cava, 
 having arrived between them, divides into two branches, which pour 
 their contents into two fleshy ventricles, each of which is placed at 
 the base of the branchis on its own side, and propels the blood into it. 
 
 Respiration is effected by the water which flows into the sac and 
 issues through a funnel placed at its opening. 
 
 Between the base of the feet we find the mouth armed with two 
 stout horny jaws resembling the beak of a parrot. 
 
 These animals are remarkable for a peculiar and intensely black 
 excretion, with which they darken the surrounding water when they 
 wish to conceal themselves. It is produced by a gland, and held in 
 reserve by a sac, variously situated, according to the species. 
 
 Their brain, which is contained in a cartilaginous cavity of the 
 head, gives off" a cord on each side which produces a large ganglion 
 in each orbit, whence are derived innumerable optic filaments; the 
 eye consists of several membranes, and is covered by the skin which 
 becomes diaphanous in that particular spot, sometimes forming 
 folds which supply the want of eyelids. The ear is merely a slight 
 cavity, on each side near the brain, without semicircular canals or 
 
CEPHALOPODA. 247 
 
 an external Meatus, where a membranous sac is suspended which 
 contains a little stone. 
 
 The skin of these animals, of the Octopi particularly, changes 
 colour in places, by spots, with a rapidity which greatly surpasses 
 that of the Chameleon. 
 
 These animals are voracious and cruel; possessed both of agility 
 and numerous modes of seizing their prey, they destroy immense 
 quantities of Fioh and Crustacea. Their flesh is eaten; their ink is 
 employed in painting, and the Indian, or China ink is supposed to 
 be made from it. 
 
 The Cephalopoda comprise but a single order, which is divided 
 into genera, according to the nature of the shell. 
 
 Those which have no external shell, according to Linnaeus, form- 
 ed but the single genus. 
 
 Sefia, Lin. 
 Or the Cuttle-fish, which is now divided into a variety of subg'enera^ the most 
 interesting of which are the two following'. 
 
 ABooNArTA, Lin. 
 
 These Mollusca are always found in a very thin shell, symmetrically fluted 
 and spirally convoluted, the last whorl so large that it bears some resem- 
 blance to a galley of which the spine is the poop. The animal makes a 
 consequent use of it, and in calm weather whole fleets of them may be ob- 
 served navigating tlie surface of the ocean, employing six of their tentacula 
 as oars, and elevating the two membranous ones by way of a sail. If the 
 sea becomes rough, or they perceive any danger, the Argonaut withdraws 
 all its ai'ms, concentrates itself in its shell, and descends to tlie bottom. 
 
 Several species ai-e known, closely resembling each other botlv in the ani- 
 mal and the shell, which were united by Linnaeus under tlie name of ^go- 
 nauta argo, or the Paper Nautilus. 
 
 Sei'ia, Lam. 
 The Seplae, or Cuttle-fish properly so called, have two long arms and a 
 fleshy fin extending along the whole length of each side of the sac. The 
 shell is oval, tliick, convex, and composetl of numerous and parallel calca- 
 reous laminae, united by thousands of httlc hollow columns, running perpen- 
 dicularly from one to tlxe other. This structure rendering it friable, causes 
 it to be employed for polishing various kinds of work; it is also given to 
 birds in aviaries, for the purpose of whetting their beaks. 
 
 Nautilus, Lin. 
 In this genus Liimseus united all spiral, symmetrical and chambered shells. 
 
248 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 that is to say such as are divided by septa into several cavities,' their inbst^ 
 bitants he supposed to be Cephalopoda. 
 
 This genus is now divided into Spirula and Nautilus proper. 
 
 The Belemnites 
 
 Probably belong to this family, but it is impossible to ascertain the fact, as 
 they are only found among fossils; every thing, however, proves them to 
 have been internal shells, thin and double, that is, composed of two cones 
 united at base, the inner one much shorter than the other, and divided into 
 chambers by parallel septa, which are concave on the side next to the base. 
 A siphon extends from the summit of the external cone to that of the in- 
 ternal one, and continues thence, sometimes along the margin of the septa 
 and sometimes through their centre. The interval between the two tes- 
 taceous cones is filled with a solid substance here composed of radiating 
 fibres, and there of self-involving conical layers, the base of each being on 
 the margin of one of the septa of the inner cone. 
 
 Of all fossils Belemnites are the most abundant, particularly in chalk and 
 compact limestone. 
 
 The Ammonites, 
 Or the Cornua-Ammoni, also fossil, are distinguished from the Nautifi by 
 theu' septa, which, instead of being plane or simply concave, are angular 
 and sometimes undulated, but most frequently slashed on the edge like the 
 leaf of an acanthus. The smallness of their last cell seems to indicate that, 
 like the Spirula, they were internal shells. They are very abundant in the 
 strata of secondary mountains, where they are found varying from the size 
 of a lentil to that of a coach wheel. Their subdivisions are based upon the 
 variation of their volutes and siphons. 
 
 The Nummulites, Lam. 
 Commonly called Nummulites, lenticular stones, &c. are only found among 
 fossils, and present, externally, a lenticular figure without any apparent 
 opening, and a spiral cavity internally, divided by septa into numerous small 
 chambers, but without a siphon. They constitute the most universally dif- 
 fused of all fossils, forming entire chains of calcareous hills and immense 
 bodies of building stone. 
 
PTEROPODA. 249 
 
 CLASS II. 
 PTEROPODA. 
 
 The Pteropoda, like the Cephalopoda, swim in the ocean, but 
 being deprived of feet, can neither fix themselves to other bodies, 
 nor crawl. Their organs of locomotion consist of fins placed like 
 wings on the two sides of the mouth. But few and small species 
 are known. 
 
 Clio, Lin. 
 Body oblong, membranous, without a mantle; head formed of two round- 
 ed lobes, whence originate small tentacula; two small fleshy lips, and a little 
 tongue on the front of the mouth; the fins covered with a vascular net-work 
 which acts as branchix. Some authors consider them as possessing eyes. 
 
 Clio borealis, L. This species, which is the most celebrated, is found in 
 astonishing numbers in the arctic seas, furnishing, by its abundance, food for 
 the Whales, although each individual is hardly an inch long. 
 
 Cymbulia, Peron. 
 A cartilaginous or gelatinous envelope resembling a galley, or rather a sabot 
 or wooden shoe, bristling with small points disposed in longitudinal rows. 
 The animal has two large wings composed of a vascular tissue, which are 
 its branchiae and fins; between them, on the open side, is a third and smaller 
 lobe with three points. 
 
 Pneumodermon, Cuv. 
 
 The Pneumoderma begin to be a little further removed from the Clios. 
 Their body is oval, without a mantle and without a shell; the branchlse are 
 attached to the surface and composed of little laminae arranged in two or 
 three lines so disposed as to form an H on the part opposite to the head. 
 
 LiMACiNA, Cuv. 
 
 The body terminates in a spirally convoluted tail, and is lodged in a very 
 thin shell formed by one whorl and a half, umbilicated on one side, and 
 flattened on the other. The animal uses its shell as a boat, and its wings as 
 oars, whenever it wishes to navigate the surface of the deep. 
 
 Clio helicina. Almost as common on the ai'ctic seas as the Clio borealis, 
 and is considered as forming the chief source of food for the Whale. 
 2 G 
 
250 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 There are three other genera in this class, Hyalea, Cleodora, and Pyrgo, 
 A very small fossil shell. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 GASTEROPODA. 
 
 The Gasteropoda constitute a very numerous class of the Mol- 
 lusca, an idea of which is afforded by the Slug. 
 
 They generally crawl upon a fleshy disk, situated under the ab- 
 domen, which sometimes however assumes the shape of a sulcus, or 
 that of a vertical lamina. The back is furnished with a mantle 
 which is more or less extended, takes various forms, and in the 
 greater number of genera, produces a shell. Their head, placed 
 anteriorly, is more or less visible, as it is the more or less involved 
 under the mantle; its tentacula are very small, situated above the 
 mouth and do not surround it, varying in number from two to six; 
 sometimes they are wanting; their function is that of touch, or at 
 most that of smell. The eyes are very small, here adhering to the 
 head, and thereto the base, side, or point of the tentaculum; some- 
 times they are wanting. The position, structure, and nature of their 
 respiratory organs vary, and afford the means of dividing them into 
 several familiesj they never, however, have more than a single aortic 
 heart, that is to say, one placed between the pulmonary vein and 
 the aorta. 
 
 Several are entirely naked; others have merely a concealed shell, 
 but most of them are furnished with one that is large enough to re- 
 ceive and shelter them. 
 
 The shell is formed in the thickness of the mantle. Some of 
 them are symmetrical and consist of a single piece; others are non- 
 symmetrical, which, in those species where they are very concave, 
 and where they continue to grow for a long time, become obliquely 
 spiral. 
 
 If we figure to ourselves an oblique cone, in which other cones, 
 always wider in one direction than in the others, are successively 
 
GASTEROPODA. 251 
 
 placed, it will be easily seen that the convolution of the whole takes 
 place on the side which enlarges the least. 
 
 This part, on which the cone is rolled, is termed the columella; 
 it is sometimes solid, and sometimes hollow. When hollow, its 
 aperture is called the umbilicus. 
 
 The wliorls of the shell may either remain in one plane, or incline 
 towards the base of the columella. 
 
 In this last case the preceding whorls rise above each other, form- 
 ing the spire., which is so much the more acute, as the whorls 
 descend more rapidly, and the less they increase in width. These 
 shells with a salient spine are said to be turbinated. 
 
 When, on the contrary, the whorls remain nearly in the same 
 place, and do not envelope each other, the spine is Jlat, or even con- 
 cave. These shells are said to be discoidal. 
 
 When the top of each whorl envelopes the preceding ones, the 
 spire is hidden. 
 
 The part through which the animal appears to come out is named 
 the aperture. 
 
 When the whorls remain nearly in the same plane, while the ani- 
 mal crawls, its shell is vertical, the columella crosswise on the 
 hind part of its back, and its head passes under the edge of the 
 opening opposite to the columella. 
 
 When the spire is salient, it inclines from the right side in almost 
 every species; in a very few only does it project from the left when 
 they are in motion; these are said to be reversed. 
 
 It is observed that the head is always on the side opposite to that 
 to which the spire is directed. Thus it is usually on the left, and 
 in the reversed on the right. 
 
 The organs of respiration, which are always situated in the last 
 whorl of the shell, receive the ambient element from under its edge, 
 sometimes because the mantle is entirely detached from the body 
 along this edge, and sometimes because it is perforated there. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the margin of the mantle is prolonged 
 in a canal, in order to allow the animal to seek the ambient element 
 without protruding its head and foot from its shell. 
 
 Most of the aquatic Gasteropoda, with a spiral shell, have an 
 operculum, a part sometimes horny, sometimes calcareous, attached 
 to the posterior part of the foot, which closes the shell when its oc- 
 cupant is withdrawn into it and folded up. 
 
252 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Tlieir organs of digestion vary as much as those of respiration. 
 
 This class is so numerous that we have been compelled to divide 
 it into a certain number of orders, which we have founded upon -the 
 position and form of the branchiae. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 PULMONEA. 
 
 The Pulraonea are distinguished from the other Mollusca by re- 
 spiring elastic air through a hole opening under the margin of the 
 mantle, and which they dilate and contract at will; they have no 
 branchiae, but a mere net-work of pulmonary vessels which creep 
 over the parietes of the respiratory cavity and chiefly on its ceiling. 
 
 Some of them are terrestrial; others are aquatic, but are compelled 
 to visit the surface from time to time for the purpose of opening the 
 orifice of their pectoral cavity, or to respire. 
 
 The Terrestrial Pulmonea have generally four tentacula; in 
 two or three only, of a very small size, the lower pair are not to be 
 seen. 
 
 Those wluch possess no apparent shell, form in the Linnaan system the 
 genus 
 
 LiMAX, Lin. 
 Which is now divided into Limax, Jirion, Ldma, Vaginulus, Testacella, and 
 Parmacella. These animals are known by the common name of Slugs. 
 
 In the terrestrial Pulmonea with complete and apparent shells, 
 the edges of the aperture in the adult are usually tumid. 
 
 Helix, Lin. 
 
 To this genus Linnteus referred all those species in which the aperture of 
 the shell, somewhat encroached upon by the projection of the penultimate 
 whorl, assumes a crescent-like figure. 
 
 Helix pomatia, L. , common in the gardens and vineyards of France, with 
 a reddish shell marked with paler bands, an animal which in some places is 
 considered a delicious article of food. The genus is now variously subdi- 
 vided. The animals are what we term Snails. 
 
GASTEROPODA PULMONEA. 253 
 
 ' The Aquatic Pulmonea have but two tentacula; they are con- 
 tinually compelled to rise to the surface for the purpose of breath- 
 ing, so that they cannot inhabit very deep water; they are usually 
 found in fresh water or salt ponds, or at least in the vicinity of the 
 sea coast and of the mouths of rivers. Some of them have no shell, 
 such as those of the genus Onchidium. 
 
 The aquatic Pulmonea, with complete shells, were also placed 
 by Linnasus in his genera Helix, Bulla and Voluta, from which 
 it has been found necessary to separate them. 
 
 In the first were comprised the two following genera, where we 
 find the internal edge of the aperture crescent-shaped, as in Helix. 
 
 Planoebis, Brug. 
 The Planorbes are distinguished from the Helices by the slight increase of 
 the whorls of their shell, the convolutions of which are nearly in one plane, 
 and because the aperture is wider than it is high. It contains an animal 
 with long, thin filiform tentacula, at the inner base of which are the eyes, 
 and from the margin of whose mantle exudes a quantity of a red fluid, which 
 is not, however, its blood. In stagnant waters. The 
 
 LiMNiEus, Lam. 
 Has, like a Bulimus, an oblong spire and the aperture higher than it is 
 wide; but the margin, like that of a Succinea, is not reflected, and there is 
 a longitudinal fold in the columella, which runs obliquely into the cavity. 
 The shell is tliin ; the animal has two compressed, broad, triangular tentacula, 
 near the base of whose inner edge are the eyes. 
 
 They inhabit stagnant waters in great numbers; they also abound with 
 the Planorbes in certain layers of marl or calcareous strata, which they evi- 
 dently prove were deposited in fresh water. 
 
 Physa, Drap. 
 
 The Physx have a shell very similar to that of a Lymnxus, but without the 
 fold in the columella and reflected edge, and very thin. When the 
 animal swims or crawls, it covers its shell with the two notched lobes of its 
 mantle, and has two long, slender and pointed tentacula, on the greatly en- 
 larged internal base of which are the eyes. They inhabit springs, &c. 
 
 Auricula, Lam. 
 Differing from all the preceding aquatic Pulmonea in the columella, which 
 is maiked with wide and oblique flutes. Their shell is oval or oblong, the 
 aperture elevated as in Bulimus, and the margin tumid. 
 
 CoNovuLus, Lam. 
 Projecting folds in the columella, as in the Aui-iculae, but the margin of the 
 
254 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 aperture is not tumid, and the internal lip is finely striated; the general form 
 of the shell is that of a cone, of which the spu-e forms the base. They in- 
 habit the rivers of the Antilles. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 NUDIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The Nudibranchiata have no shell whatever; neither are they fur- 
 nished with a pulmonary cavity, their branchiae being exposed on 
 some part of the back. They are all marine animals, frequently 
 swimming in a reversed position with the foot on the surface, con- 
 cave like a batteau, and employing the margin of their mantle and 
 their tentacula as oars. In the 
 
 DoEis, Cuv. 
 The branchiae are arranged in a circle round an opening in the posterior 
 part of the back, under the form of little arbusculae, the whole resembling 
 a sort of flower. The mouth Is a small proboscis, situated under the ante- 
 rior margin of the mantle, and furnished with two little conical tentacula. 
 The species are numerous, and some of them large. They are found in 
 every sea, where their ova, resembling gelatinous bands, are diffused over 
 stones, sea-weeds, &c. 
 
 PiocAMocEEos, Leuck. 
 The anterior margin of their mantie is ornamented with numerous branched 
 tentacula. 
 
 POLYCEBA, Cuv. 
 The branchijc, as in Doris, on the hind part of the body, but more simple, 
 and followed by two membranous laminae, which cover them in moments of 
 danger; anterior to the claviform tentacula, similai* to those in Doris, are 
 four, and sometimes six others, simply pointed. 
 
 Tkitonia, Cuv. 
 The body and superior tentacula, as in Doris; but the orifices through which 
 the peculiar liquid is excreted, are on the right: the branchiae, which re- 
 semble little trees, are arranged along the sides of the back, and the mouth, 
 provided with broad membranous lips, is armed inside with two homy and 
 trenchant lateral jaws, which may be compared to a pair of sheep-shears. 
 
GASTEROPODA NUDIBRANCHIATA. 255 
 
 Thethys, Lin. 
 
 Two rows of branchiae resembling- branching tufts along the bact, and a very 
 large membranous and fringed veil on the head, which shortens as it curves 
 under the mouth: this latter is a membranous proboscis without jaws; on the 
 base of tlie veil are two compressed tentacula, from whose margin projects 
 a small conical point. 
 
 T. fimbria, L. Grey, spotted with white; a beautiful species from the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 ScYLLiEA, Lin. 
 
 Body compressed; the foot narrow and marked with a furrow which enables 
 it to clasp the stems of the fuci; no veil; the mouth resembling a little pro- 
 boscis; orifices as in Thethj'^s; tlie compressed tentacula terminated by a 
 cavity, from which issues a little uneven point, and two pairs of membranous 
 crests on the back, the internal surface of which is furnished with pencils 
 of filaments, which are the branchise. The middle of the stomach is invested 
 with a fleshy ring, internally armed with horny and trenchant laminae like 
 knives. 
 
 S.pelagka, L. Common on all the floating fucus of almost every sea. 
 
 Glaucus, Forster. 
 
 Body elongated; four very small conical tentacula, and on each side three 
 branchiae, each of which are formed of long slips arranged like the sticks 
 of a fan, which also aid them in swimming. They are beautifid little ani- 
 mals that inhabit the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, prettily coloured with 
 blue and nacre; they swim on their back with great swiftness. 
 The remaining genera of this order are Laniogerus, Eolidia, CavoUna, &c. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 INFEROBRANCHLA.TA. 
 
 The Inferobranchiata have nearly the same form and organiza- 
 tion observed in Doris and Tritonia, but their branchiae, instead of 
 being placed on the back, resemble two long series of laminas, situ- 
 ated on the two sides of the body, under the projecting margin of 
 the mantle. 
 
 Phtllidia, Cuv. 
 The mantle naked, usually coriaceous, and without any shell; the mouth, a 
 small proboscis, eachside of which is furnished with a tentaculum; two others 
 
256 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 project from above two small cavities in the mantle. Several species inha- 
 bit the Indian Ocean. 
 
 DiPHYLLIDIA, CuV. 
 
 The branchiae similar to those of the Pliyllidije, but the posterior part of the 
 mantle more pointed; on each side of the semicircular head a pointed tenta- 
 culum and a slight tubercle. 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 
 TECTIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The branchias along the right side or on the back, composed of 
 laminas more or less divided, but not symmetrical; they are more 
 or less covered by the mantle, in which a small shell is generally 
 contained. They approach the Pectinibranchiata in the form of 
 the organs of respiration, and like them inhabit the Ocean. 
 
 Pleurobranchus, Cuv. 
 The body equally overlapped by the mantle and by the foot, as if it were 
 between two shields. In some species a httle, oval, calcareous lamina is 
 contained in the mantle, and a horny one in that of others; the mantle is 
 emarginated above the head. The branchiae are attached along the right 
 side in the furrow, between the mantle and the foot, forming a series of 
 pyramids divided into triangular laminulae. The mouth, a small proboscis, 
 is surmounted by an emarginated lip and by two tubular and cleft tentacula. 
 Various species inhabit both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, some 
 of which are large and marked with the most beautiful colours. 
 
 Pletjrobranch^a, Meckel. 
 The branchix situated as in Pleurobranchus; but the foot projects but little, 
 and on the fore part of the former are four short, distant tentacula, forming 
 a square that reminds the observer of the anterior disk of the Acerae. There 
 is no vestige of a shell. 
 
 Pleurob. Meckelii. The only species known; from the Mediterranean. 
 
 Aplysia, Lin. 
 The margin of the foot turned up into flexible crests, surrounding the back, 
 and even susceptible of being reflected over it; the head supported by a 
 neck more or less long; two superior tentacula excavated like the ears of a 
 quadruped, with two flattened ones on the edge of the lower Up; the eyes 
 
GASTEROPODA TECTIBRANCHIATA. 257 
 
 above the former. The branchiae are on the back, and consist of highly 
 complicated lamellse attached to a broad membranous pedicle, covered by 
 a small membranous mantle, in tlie thickness of which is a flat and horny 
 shell. A hmpid humour, secreted by a particular gland, and which in cer- 
 tain species is said to be extremely acx'id, is exuded through an orifice be- 
 low on the right, and from the edges of the mantle oozes an abundant liquid 
 of a deep purple colour, with which, when in danger, the animal tinges 
 the water for a considerable extent. The ova are deposited in a kind of 
 long, interlaced glairy net work, of extreme tenuity. In the seas of Europe 
 we have the 
 
 Apl. fasciata, black, margined with lateral red crests, one of the large 
 species; and jlpl. punctata, Cuv., lilac, sprinkled with greenish points. 
 
 DoLABELLA, Lam. 
 The Dolabellae only differ from Aplysise in the position of the branchiae and 
 their surrounding envelope; they are at the posterior extremity of the body, 
 which resembles a ti-uncated cone. They are found m the Mediterranean 
 and in the Indian Ocean. 
 
 NOTABCHTJS, Cuv. 
 The lateral crests united and covering the back, a longitudinal emarginatlon 
 excepted, that leads to the branchiae, v/hich have no mantle to cover them, 
 but are otherwise like those of the Aplysise; the rest of their organization is 
 always the same. 
 
 Akeba, Muller. 
 The branchiae covered as in the preceding genera, but their tentacula are so 
 shortened, widened and separated, that they seem to be totally wanting, or 
 rather to form a large, fleshy, and nearly rectangular shield, under which 
 are the eyes. The shell, of such as have any, is more or less convoluted, 
 but with httle obUquity, and is without a projecting spire, emarginatlon, or 
 canal; the columella, projecting convexly, gives a crescent-like figure to the 
 aperture, the part opposite to the spire being always the broadest and most 
 rounded. 
 
 M. de Lamarck names those in which the shell is concealed in the thick- 
 ness of the mantle, Buli.ea. It has but very few whorls, and the animal is 
 much too large to be drawn into it. 
 
 Bullxa aperta, Lam. The animal is whitish, and about an inch long; the 
 fleshy shield, formed by the vestiges of its tentacula, the lateral swellings 
 of its foot, and the mantle occupied by the shell, seem to divide its upper 
 surface into four lobes. Its thin, white, semi-diaphanous shell, is nearly all 
 aperture, and its gizzard is ai'med with three very thick rhomboidal pieces 
 of bone. It is found in almost every sea, where it lives on oozy bottoms. 
 The 
 
 2 H 
 
258 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Gastropteron, Meek. 
 
 Appears to be an Akera, the margin of whose foot is extended into broad 
 wings, used in natation, which it effects on its back. It has no shell, nor 
 has the stomach any armature; a slight fold of skin is the only vestige of a 
 branchial operculum that is perceptible. 
 
 Gastroplax, Blainv. — Umbrella, Lam. 
 The animal is large and circular, the foot projects considerably beyond the 
 mantle, and its upper surface is studded with tubercles. The viscera are in 
 a round, superior, and central part. The mantle is only visible by its 
 slightly projecting and trenchant edges, along the whole of the frOnt and of 
 the right side. The lamellated pyramidal branchix, like those of Pleuro- 
 branchus, are under this slight margin. Under this same margin and for- 
 wards, are two tentacula, longitudinally cleft, as in Pleurobranchus, at whose 
 internal base are the eyes; between them is a kind of proboscis. There is 
 a large concave space in the anterior margin of the foot, the edges of which 
 are susceptible of being drawn up like the mouth of a purse, and at the 
 bottom of which is a tubercle pierced by an orifice, which perhaps is 
 the mouth, and surmounted by a fringed membrane. The inferior surface 
 of the foot is smooth, and serves the animal to crawl on, as in the other 
 Gasteropoda. 
 
 The shell is stony, flat, irregularly rounded, thickest in the middle, with 
 trenchant edges, and marked with slightly concentric striae. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 
 HETEROPODA, Lam. 
 
 The Heteropoda are distinguished by their foot, which, instead of 
 forming a horizontal disk, is compressed into a vertical muscular 
 lamina, which they use as a fin, and on the edge of which, in seve- 
 ral species, is a dilatation forming a hollow cone, that represents the 
 disk of the other orders. Their branchiee, composed ofplumiform 
 lobes, are situated on the hind part of the back, directed forwards, 
 and immediately in their rear are the heart and a small liver, with 
 part of the viscera. Their body, a gelatinous and transparent sub- 
 stance lined with a muscular layer, is elongated and usually termi- 
 nated by a compressed tail. There is a muscular mass belonging 
 to the mouth, and a tongue furnished with little hooks. They 
 usually swim on their back with the foot upwards. They have the 
 
GASTEROPODA HETEROPODA. 259 
 
 faculty of distending their body by filling it with water, in a way 
 not well understood. Forskahl comprised them all in his genus 
 
 Pterotrachea, 
 
 Which is now divided into Carinaria, Atlanta, Flrola, Timorienna, Mono- 
 phora, PhylUroe. The Argonauta vitrea of authors must be the shell of a 
 Carinaria, but the animal is not yet known. 
 
 ORDER VI. 
 PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 This order forms, beyond all comparison, the most numerous divi- 
 sion, inasmuch as it comprises the whole of the spiral univalves, and 
 several that are simply conical. Their branchm composed of nu- 
 merous lamellae or strips laid parallel with each other, like the teeth 
 of a comb, are attached on one, two, or three lines, according to 
 the genus, to the ceiling of the pulmonary cavity, which occupies 
 the last whorl of the shell, and which has a large opening between 
 the edge of the mantle and the body. 
 
 In two genera only, Cyclostoma and Helicina, do we find, instead 
 of branchiae, a vascular net-work, covering the ceiling of a cavity, 
 that is otherwise similar; they are the only ones that respire the na- 
 tural air; all the others respire water. 
 
 All the Pectinibranchiata have two tentacula and two eyes, some- 
 times placed on particular pedicles, and a mouth resembling a more 
 or less elongated proboscis. 
 
 Their tongue is armed with little hooks, and by slow and repeated 
 rubbing acts upon the hardest bodies. 
 
 The greatest difference in these animals consists in the presence 
 or absence of the little canal formed by a prolongation of the edge 
 of the pulmonary cavity of the left side, and which passes through a 
 similar canal or emargination in the shell, to enable the animal to 
 breathe without leaving its shelter. There is also this distinction 
 between the genera — some of them have no operculum; the species 
 differ from each other by the filaments, fringes, and other ornaments 
 of the head, foot, or mantle. 
 
 These Mollusca are arranged in several families according to the 
 
260 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 form of their shell, which appears to bear a constant relation to 
 that of the animal. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 TROCHOIDA. 
 
 This family is known by the shell, the aperture of which is entire, 
 without an emargination or canal for a siphon of the mantle, as the 
 animal has none, and is furnished with an operculum or some organ 
 in place of it. 
 
 Teochus, Lin. 
 The external margin of the angular aperture approaching more or less to 
 a perfect quadrangular figure, and in an oblique plane, with respect to the 
 axis of the shell, because the part of the margin next to the spine projects 
 more than the rest. Most of these animals have three filaments on each 
 edge of the mantle, orat least some appendages to the sides of the feet. The 
 
 SoiAEiuar, Lam. 
 Is distinguished from all other Trochi by a very broad conical spire, at 
 the base of which is an extremely wide umbilicus, in which may be seen 
 the internal edges of aU the whorls, marked by a crenated cord. 
 
 EvoMPHAius, Sowerby. 
 Fossil shells resembling a Solarium, but wanting the dentations on the 
 internal whorls of the umbilicus. The genus 
 
 TuEBo, Lin. 
 Comprehends all the species with a completely and regularly turbinated 
 shell, and a perfectly round aperture. Close observation has caused them 
 to be greatly subdivided. 
 
 These subdivisions are Delphinula, Pleurotoma, Turritella, Scalaria and 
 Cyclostoma. The last is terrestrial and found under moss and stones in 
 woods. The Valvata, another subgenus, is found in stagnant water. 
 
 It is here that we must place the completely aquatic shells, or 
 those respiring by branchias, which belong to the old genus Helix; 
 i. e., those in which the penultimate whorl forms, as in the Helices, 
 Lymnaiae, &c., a depression which gives the aperture more or less 
 of the figure of a crescent. 
 
 The three first genera are still closely allied to Turbo. 
 
GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 261 
 
 Paludina, Lam. 
 This genus has lately been separated from the Cyclostomae, because there 
 is no ridg-e round the aperture of the shell; because there is a small angle 
 to that aperture as well as to the operculum; and finally, because the ani- 
 mal, being provided with branchiae, inhabits the water, like all other genera 
 of this family. It has a very short snout and two pointed tentacula; eyes at 
 the external base of the latter, but on no particular pedicle, and a small 
 membranous wing on each side of the fore part of the body. The anterior 
 edge of the foot is double, and the wing of the right side forms a little ca- 
 nal which introduces water into the respiratory cavity, the incipient indica- 
 tion of the siphon in the following family. 
 
 The Ocean produces some shells which only differ from the Paludinse in 
 being thick. They form the 
 
 LiTTOEiNA, Feruss. 
 Of which the common species, Le Vigneau — Turbo littoreus, L., abounds 
 on the coast of France, where it is eaten . The shell is round, brown, and 
 longitudinally streaked with blackish. The 
 
 Phasianella, Lam. 
 
 An oblong or pointed shell, similar to that of several Bulimi and Lymnacae; 
 the aperture also higher than it is wide, and furnished with a strong oper- 
 culum; base of the columella sensibly flattened, but no umbilicus. 
 
 They inhabit the Indian Ocean, and are much sought for by collectors on 
 account of the beauty of their colours. The animal is provided with two 
 long tentacula, with eyes placed on twotubercles at their external base, and 
 with double lips that are emarginated and fringed, as well as the wings, 
 each of which has three filaments. 
 
 Ampxjllaria, Lam. 
 A round, ventricose shell, with a short spire, as in most of the Helices; the 
 aperture higher than it is wide, and provided with an operculum; the colu- 
 mella umbilicated. 
 
 They inhabit the fresh or brackish waters of hot countries. The animal 
 has long tentacula, and eyes placed on pedicles at their base. 
 
 HELiciurA, Lam. 
 Judging by the shell, the Helicinae are Ampullariae in which the margin 
 of the aperture is reflected. 
 
 Melania, Lam. 
 A thicker shell; the aperture, higher than it is wide, enlarges opposite to 
 the spire; the columella without plicae or umbilicus; length of the spire very 
 various. 
 The Melaniac inhabit rivers, but are not found in France ; the animal has 
 
262 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 long tentacula, the eyes being on their external side, and at about the third 
 of their length. 
 
 ToENATELLA., Lam. 
 The shell is elliptical, the spire but slightly salient, the aperture lengthened 
 into a crescent and widened below, and the base of the columella marked 
 by one or two large plica or oblique callosities. 
 
 Pyramidella, Lam. 
 The spire is turreted, the aperture crescent-Hke and wide, and the base of 
 the columella obliquely contorted and marked with sharp spiral plicse. 
 
 Janthina, Lam. 
 The form of the animal separates the Janthinae from all the preceding 
 genera. Their shell, however, is similar to that of the terrestrial Limaces, 
 the columellar margin being also indented, but slightly angular at the ex- 
 ternal edge, and the columella somewhat extended beyond the half oval, 
 which, without this prolongation, would be formed by that edge. 
 
 The animal has no operculum, but the under sui-face of its foot is furnish- 
 ed with a vesicular organ resembling a bubble of foam, but composed of a 
 solid substance, which prevents it from crawling, but allows it to float on 
 the surface of the water. The head, a cylindrical proboscis, terminated by 
 a vertically cleft mouth, and armed with little hooks, has a bifui-cated tenta- 
 culum on each side. 
 
 The common species. Helix janthina, L., has a pretty violet shell, and is 
 very abundant in the Mediterranean. When the animal is touched, it dif- 
 fuses a thick fluid of a deep violet colour that dyes the surrounding water. 
 
 Nerita, Lin. 
 
 The columella of the Neritse being in a straight line, renders the aperture 
 semicircular or semi-elliptical. This aperture is generally large in com- 
 parison with the shell, but is always furnished with an operculum which 
 completely closes it. The spire is almost effaced, and the shell semi-glo- 
 bular. The genus now forms several subdivisions. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 CAPULOIDA. 
 
 Recent researches have convinced us that it is to the Trochoida 
 that we must approximate this family, which contains five genera, 
 four of which are taken from the Patellae. They all have a widely 
 opened, scarcely turbinated shell, with neither operculum, emargi- 
 
GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 263 
 
 nation nor syphon; the animal resembles the other Pectinibranchi- 
 ata. There is but one branchial comb transversely arranged on the 
 roof of the cavity, and its filaments are frequently very long. 
 
 PiLEOpsis, Lam. 
 
 A conical shell with a recurved and spiral summit, which has long' caused 
 it to be placed among the Patellx; the bi"anchise are in one range under 
 the anterior margin of the branchial cavity; the proboscis is long, and there 
 is a closely plaited membranous veil under the neck; the eyes are at the ex- 
 ternal base of the conical tentacula. The 
 
 Hii'PONYX, Defr. 
 
 Would appear from the shell to be a fossil Pileopsis, very remarkable, how- 
 ever, for a bed, formed of calcareous matter, on which it rests, and which 
 probably exuded fi'om the foot of the animal. 
 
 Crepidula, Lam. 
 The shell oval, with an obtuse horizontal point, directed obliquely backwards 
 and laterally, the aperture forming the base of the shell, which is half closed 
 beneath and behind by a horizontal plate. The abdominal sac which con- 
 tains the viscera is on this plate, the foot beneath, and the head and branchiae 
 forwards. The latter consists of a range of long filaments attached under 
 the anterior margin of the branchial cavity. The eyes are at the external 
 base of two conical tentacula. The genus 
 
 PiLEOLcs, Sowerby, 
 Appears to consist of Crepidulae in which the transverse plate occupies half 
 the aperture; their shell, however, is more like that of a Patella. They are 
 only found fossil. 
 
 Navicella, Lam. 
 The shell resembles a Crepidula, except that the summitis symmetrical and 
 laid on the posterior margin, and that the horizontal plate is less salient. 
 The animal is also provided with an additional, irregularly shaped, testaceous 
 plate, horizontally connected with the superior surface of the muscular disk 
 of its foot, and covered by the abdominal sac, which it partially supports. 
 It is probably analogous to an operculum, but does not exercise its functions, 
 being in a measure situated internally. The animal has long tentacula, at 
 whose external base are pedicles which support the eyes. They inhabit 
 the rivers of hot countries. In the 
 
 Calyptr^a, Lani. 
 
 We observe a conical shell, in the hollow of which is a little lamina that 
 projects inwards, resembling the commencement of a columella, and that 
 
264 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 interposes itself between a fold of the abdominal sac. The branchiae are 
 composed of a range of numerous filaments, long and slender, like hairs. 
 
 SiPiiONARiA, Sowerby. 
 The shell of the Siphonarise, which have been recently separated from the 
 Patellae, at the first glance seems very similar to a flattened Patella, with 
 radiating sulci; but its margin projects ratlier more on the right side, and it 
 is excavated beneath by a slight furrow, which terminates at this promi- 
 nence of the margin, to which there is a corresponding lateral hole in the 
 mantle, for the introduction of water into the branchial cavity, placed on 
 the back, that is closed on every other point. The respiratory organ con- 
 sists of a few small lamellse, arranged in one transverse line on the roof of 
 that cavity; the tentacula seem to be wanting, the head being merely fur- 
 lushed with a narrow veil. 
 
 SiGARETus, Adans. 
 The shell is flattened, its aperture ample and round, and the spire very 
 moderate, its whorls rapidly enlarging and seen within, but concealed dur- 
 ing the life of the animal in the thickness of a fungous shield, which projects 
 considerably beyond it, as well as tlie foot, and which is the true mantle. 
 Before this mantle are an emargination and a semi-canal, which serves to 
 conduct water into the branchial cavity, and which form the passage to the 
 following family, but of which there are no impressions on the shell. The 
 tentacula are conical, with the eyes at their external base. 
 
 Cryptostoma, Blainv. 
 The shell, resembling that of a Sigaretus, with the head and abdomen, 
 which it covers, supported by a foot four times its size, cut square behind, 
 and forming before a fleshy, oblong bundle that constitutes nearly one half 
 of its mass. The animal has a flat head, two tentacula and a broad bran- 
 chial comb on the roof of its dorsal cavity. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 BUCCINOIDA. 
 
 This family has a spiral shell, in the aperture of which, near the • 
 extremity of the columella, is an emargination or a canal for trans- 
 mitting the siphon or tube, whicli is itself but an elongated fold of 
 the mantle. The greater or less lengtli of the canal, when there is 
 one, the size of the aperture, and the form of the columella, furnish 
 the grounds of its division into genera, which may be variously 
 grouped. 
 
GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 265 
 
 CoNus, Lin. 
 So called from the conical shape of tlie shell ; the sph*e, either perfectly flat, 
 or but slightly salient, forms the base of the cone, the apex being at the 
 opposite extremity; the aperture is narrow, rectilinear, or nearly so, extend- 
 ing from one end to the otlier without enlargement or fold, either on its 
 edgeoron the columella. The thinness of the animal is proportioned to 
 the narrowness of the aperture through which it issues; its tentacula and 
 proboscis are highly protractile; the eyes are placed on the outer side of the 
 former, and near the point; the operculum, situated obliquely on the hind 
 part of the foot, is too narrow and short to close the whole of the aperture. 
 The shells of this genus, being usually ornamented with the most beauti- 
 ful colours, are very common in cabinets. The seas of Europe produce 
 very few. 
 
 CypejEA, Lin. 
 The spire projecting but little, and the aperture narrow and extending from 
 one extremity to the other; but the shell, which is protuberant in the mid- 
 dle, and almost equally narrowed at both ends, forms an oval, and tlie, 
 aperture in the adult animal is transversely wrinkled on each side. The 
 mantle is sufficiently ample to fold over and envelope the shell, which at a 
 certain age it covers with a layer of another colour. The animal has 
 moderate tentacula, with the eyes at their extei'nal base, and a thin foot 
 without an operculum. 
 
 The coloui-s of these shells, also, are exti-emely beautiful; they are ex- 
 tremely common in cabinets, though with very few exceptions they aU in- 
 habit the seas of tropical countries. 
 
 OvuLA, Brug. 
 The shell is oval, and the aperture narrow and long, as in Cypraea, but with- 
 out plicae on the side next to the columella; the spire is concealed, and the 
 two ends of the aperture equally emarginated, or equally prolonged in a 
 canal. The animal has a broad foot, an extended mantle which partly folds 
 over the shell, a moderate and obtuse snout, and two long tentacula, on 
 which, at about the third of their length, ai-e the eyes, 
 
 Teeebellum, Lam. 
 An oblong shell, with a narrow aperture, without plicae or wrinkles, and in- 
 creasing regularly in width to the end opposite the spire, which is more or 
 less salient, according to the species. The animal is not known. The 
 
 VoLUTA, Lin. 
 Varies as to the form of the shell and that of the aperture, but is recognized 
 by the emargination without a canal which terminates it, and by the salient 
 and oblique phcae of the columella. From this genus Brugieres first separa- 
 ted the 
 
 2 I 
 
266 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 Omva, Brug., 
 
 So named from the oblong and elliptical shape of the shell, the aperture 
 of which is narrow, long and emarginated opposite to the spire, which is 
 short; the plicae of the columella are numerous, and resemble stria:; the 
 whorls are sulciform. These shells are quite as beautiful as tlie Cyprxae. 
 
 The animal has a large foot, the anterior part of which (before the head) 
 is separated by an incision on each side; its tentacula are slender, and the 
 eyes are on their side ^about the middle of their length. The proboscis 
 and siphon are tolerably long; but it has no operculum. 
 
 The remainder of the genus Voluta was afterwards divided into five, by 
 M. de Lamarck. They are VoiVAaiA, Voluta, Mabcikelxa, Mitba and 
 Cavcei-laiiia. 
 
 BucciNUM, Lin. 
 
 This genus comprises all the shells furnished with an emargination or a 
 short canal inflected to the left, and in which the columella is destitute of 
 plicze. 
 
 Brugieres has divided them into the four genei-a of Buccinum, Purpura, 
 Cassis, and Terebra, part of which have been again subdivided by Messrs 
 de Lamarck and Montfort. The 
 
 BucciNDM, Brug. 
 Includes the emarginated shells without any canal, whose general form, 
 as well as that of the aperture, is oval. The animals, all such as are known, 
 are deprived of the veil on the head, butarefurnished with a proboscis, two 
 separated tentacula, on the external side of which are the eyes, and a horny 
 operculum. Their siphon extends out of the shell. 
 
 Nassa, Lam. 
 The side of the columella is covered by a more or less broad and thick 
 plate, and the emargination is deep, but without a canal. The animal re- 
 sembles that of a true Buccinum, and there are gradual transitions among 
 the shells, from one subgenus to the other. 
 
 Ebuhka, Lam. 
 A smooth shell without a plicated margin, and a widely and deeply um- 
 bilicated columella. The general foi-m of their shell^is closely aUiedto that 
 of thfe Olivse. Their animal is unknown. 
 
 Ancillabia, Lam. 
 The same smooth shell, and at the lower part of the columella a marked 
 lip; there is no umbilicus, neither is the spire sulcated. The animal of 
 several species resembles that of the Olivac, the foot being still more de- 
 veloped. 
 
GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 267 
 
 Dotinsr, Lam. 
 Those in which projecting ribs, that follow the direction of the whorls, 
 render the margin undulated; the inferior whorl is ample and ventricose. 
 
 Haupa, Lam. 
 The Harpx are easily recognized by the projecting, transverse ribs on 
 the whorls; the last of which forms a lip on the margin. The shell is beau- 
 tiful, and the animal has a very large foot, pointed behind, and widened in 
 its anterior portion, which is distinguished by two deep emarginations. The 
 eyes are on the sides of the tentacula, and near then- base. It has neither 
 veil nor operculum. The 
 
 PcEPURA, Brug. 
 
 Is known by its flattened columella, which is trenchant near the end op- 
 posite to the spire, and which, with the external margin, forms a canal there, 
 sunk in the shell, but not salient. The animal resembles that of a true 
 Buccinum. 
 
 The remaining subgenera are Concholepas, Cassis, Cassidaria and Terehra. 
 
 Cerithium, Brug. 
 A shell with a turriculated spire; the aperture is oval, and the canal short, 
 but well marked, and reflected to the left or backwards. The animal has 
 a veil on its head, and is furnished with two sepai-ated tentacula, on the 
 side of which are the eyes, and with a round, horny operculum. Many are 
 found fossil. 
 
 MuKEx, Lin. 
 This genus comprises all those shells in which there is a salient and straight 
 canal. The animal of each subgenus is furnished with a proboscis, long 
 approximated tentacula, on the external side of which are the eyes, and with 
 a horny operculum; the veil on the head is wanting, and, the length of the 
 siphon excepted, it otherwise resembles that of the Buccina. Brugiere 
 divides them into genera, which have been since subdivided by Messrs La- 
 marck and Montfort. The 
 
 MuHEX, Brug. 
 Includes all those which have a salient and straight canal, with varices 
 across the whorls. 
 
 Ranella, Lam. 
 Characterized by opposing varices, so that the shell is bordered with them 
 on both sides. Their canal is short, and their surface studded with mere 
 tubercles; margins of the aperture pUcated, The 
 
268 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 FuBtrs, Bnig. 
 Comprises all shells with a salient and straight canal, which are destitute 
 of varices. 
 
 TuRBiNEiiA, Lam., 
 Also consists of shells with a straight canal, but without varices, distin- 
 guishable by the large transverse plicae on their columella, which extend 
 the whole lengtli of the aperture, and which closely approximate them to 
 the conical Volut2e; they only differ from the latter in the elongation of 
 their aperture into a sort of canal. The genus 
 
 Steombus, Lin. 
 Includes those shells with a canal that is either straight or inflected towards 
 the right, of which the external margin of the aperture dilates with age, but 
 still preserves a sinus near the canal, under which passes the head of the 
 animal when it extends itself. 
 
 In most of them the sinus is at some distance from the canal. They are 
 subdivided by M. de Lamarck into two subgenera, Sthombtjs and Pte- 
 
 BOCEBA. 
 
 ORDER VII. 
 
 TUBULIBR ANCH I AT A. 
 
 The Tubulibranchiata should be detached from the Pectinibran- 
 chiata, with which they are very closely allied, because the shell, 
 which resembles a more or less irregularly shaped tube, only spiral 
 at the commencement, attaches itself to various bodies. 
 
 Vermetus, Adans. 
 A tubular shell whose whorls, at an early age, still form a kind of spire, but 
 then continue on in a tube more or less irregularly contorted, or bent like 
 the tubes of a Serpula. This shell usually attaches itself by interlacing with 
 others of the same species, or is partly enveloped by Lithophytes: the ani- 
 mal, having no power of locomotion, is deprived of a foot, properly so called; 
 but the part %hich in oi-dinary Gasteropoda forms the tail, is here turned 
 under it, and extends to beyond the head, where its extremity becomes in- 
 flated and furnished with a thin operculum; when the animal withdraws 
 into its shell, it is this mass which closes the enti-ance; it is sometimes seen 
 with various appendages, and in certain species the operculirai is spiny. 
 
GASTEROPODA TUBULIBRANCHIATA. 269 
 
 Magilus, Montf. 
 
 The Magili have a longitudinally carinated tube, which is at first regularly 
 spiral, and then extends itself in a line more or less straight; although the 
 animal is unknown, it is higlily probable that it should be placed near the 
 Vermeti. The 
 
 SlLIQUARIA, Brug. 
 Resembles Vermelus in the head, the position of the operculum, and in the 
 tubular and irregular shell; but there is a fissure on the whole length of this 
 shell which follows its contour, and which con'esponds to a similar cleft in 
 that part of the mantle which covers the branchial cavity. Along the whole 
 side of this cleft is a branchial comb, composed of numerous, loose and tab- 
 ular-like lamellae. 
 
 ORDER VIII. 
 
 SCUTIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The Scutibranchiata comprise a certain number of Gasteropoda, 
 similar to the Pectinibranchiata, in the form and position of the 
 branchiae, as well as in the general form of the body. Their shells 
 are very open, without an operculum, and most of them without the 
 slightest turbination, so that they cover these animals, and particu- 
 larly their branchise, in the manner of a shield. The 
 
 Halyotis, Lin. 
 
 Is the only genus of this order in which the shell is turbinated; it is distin- 
 guished from that kind of shell by the excessive amplitude of the aperture, 
 and the flatness and smallness of the spire, which is seen from within. 
 This form has caused it to be compared to the ear of a quadruped. In the 
 true Halyotes, the shell is perforated along the side of the columella by a 
 series of holes; when the last hole is not terminated, it gives to that part the 
 look of an emargination. The animal is one of the most highly ornamented 
 of all the Gasteropoda. A double membrane, cut into leaves and furnished 
 with a double range of filaments, extends, at least in the most common spe- 
 cies, round the foot and on to the mouth; outside its long tentacula, are two 
 cylindrical pedicles which support the eyes. The mantle is deeply cleft on 
 the right side, and the water, which passes through the shell, penetrates 
 through it into the branchial cavity; along its edges we obseiTe three or 
 four filaments which the animal can protrude through these holes. The 
 mouth is a short proboscis. 
 
270 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 In the following genera, which are separated from the Patellae, 
 the shell is perfectly symmetrical, as is also the position of the heart 
 and branchiae. In the 
 
 FissuEELLA, Lam., 
 We perceive a broad fleshy disk under the abdomen, as in the Patellse, a 
 conical shell placed on the middle of the back, but not always completely 
 covering' it, and perforated at its summit by a small orifice, which affords a 
 passage to the water required for respiration; this orifice penetrates into the 
 cavity of the branchiae, situated on the fore part of the back; a cavity other- 
 wise widely opened above the head. A branchial comb is symmetrically 
 arranged on each side; the eyes are on the external base of the conical ten- 
 tacula, and the sides of the foot are furnished with a range of filaments. 
 There are two other genera, Emarginula and ParmopJiorus. 
 
 ORDER IX. 
 
 CYCLOBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The branchiae of the Cyclobranchiata resemble small lamelice, or 
 little pyramids forming a cordon more or less complete under the 
 borders of the mantle, very nearly as in the Inferobranchiata. 
 Their heart varies as to situation. But two genera of this order are 
 known, in both of which the shell never approaches in the least to 
 the turbinated form. 
 
 Patella, Lin. 
 
 The entire body covered with a shell, formed of a single piece, in the form 
 of a broad-based cone; a cordon of little branchial lamellse under tlie margin 
 of the mantle; the head is furnished with a thick and short snout, and two 
 pointed tentacula, on the external base of which are the eyes; the mouth is 
 fleshy, and contains a spiny tongue, which inclines backwards, and is re- 
 flected deeply in the interior of the body. 
 
 Chiton, Lin. 
 A range of testaceous and symmetrical scales along the back of the mantle, 
 but not occupying its whole breadth; edges of the mantle coriaceous, and 
 furnished either with a naked skin or little scales, which give it the appeai-- 
 ance of shagreen, or with spines, hairs, or setaceous fasciculi. Under these 
 edges, on each side, is a range of lamellar, pyramidal branchiae; and before, 
 a membranous veil on the mouth supplies the want of tentacula. 
 
GASTEROPODA CYCLOBRANCHIATA. 271 
 
 A few small species ai-e found on tlie coast of France? very large ones 
 abound in the seas of hot climates. 
 
 CLASS IV. 
 
 ACEPHALA. 
 
 The Acephala have no apparent head; but a mere mouth con- 
 cealed in the bottom, or between the folds of their mantle. The 
 latter is almost always doubled in two, and encloses the body as a 
 book is clasped by its cover; but it frequently happens, that, in con- 
 sequence of the two lobes uniting before, it forms a tube; sometimes 
 it is closed at one end, and then it represents a sac. This mantle is 
 generally provided with a calcareous bivalve, and sometimes multi- 
 valve, shell, and in two genera only is it reduced to a cartilaginous, or 
 even membranous nature. The brain is over the mouth, where we 
 also find one or two other ganglia. The branchiae usually consist 
 of large lamellas covered with vascular meshes, under or between 
 which passes the water; they are more simple, however, in the 
 genera without a shell. From these branchiae the blood proceeds 
 to a heart, generally unique, which distributes it throughout the sys- 
 tem, returning to the pulmonary artery without the aid of another 
 ventricle. 
 
 The mouth is always edentated, and can only receive the mole- 
 cules brought to it by the water. 
 
 All the Acephala are aquatic. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 
 
 Testaceous Acephala, or Acephala with four branchial leaflets, 
 are beyond all comparison the most numerous. All the bivalves, 
 and some genera of the multivalves belong to this order. Their 
 
272 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 body, which contains the liver and viscera, is placed between the 
 two lamince of the mantle; forwards, and still between these latninte 
 are the four branchial leaflets, transversely and regularly striated by 
 the vessels : the mouth is at one extremity, and the heart towards 
 the back; the foot, when it exists, is inserted between the four bran- 
 chiae. On the sides of the mouth are four triangular leaflets, which 
 are the extremities of the two lips, and serve as tentacula. The 
 foot is a mere fleshy mass, the motions of which are eflTected by a 
 mechanism analogous to that which acts on the tongue of the Mam- 
 malia. Its muscles are attached to the bottom of the valves of the 
 shell. Other muscles, which sometimes form one mass and some- 
 times two, cross transversely from one valve to the other to keep 
 them closed, but wlien the animal relaxes these muscles, an elastic 
 ligament placed behind the hinge opens the valves by its contraction. 
 
 A considerable number of bivalves are provided with what is 
 termed a byssus, or a bundle of threads more or less slender, which 
 issues from the base of the foot, and by which the animal adheres 
 to various bodies. It uses its foot to direct the threads and to 
 agglutinate their extremities; it even reproduces them when cut, 
 but the nature of the production is not thoroughly ascertained. 
 Reaumur considered these threads as a secretion, spun and drawn 
 from the sulcus of the foot; Poli thinks they are mere prolongations 
 of tendinous fibres. 
 
 The shell consists essentially of two pieces, called valves, to which 
 in certain genera are added others, connected by a hinge that is 
 sometimes simple and sometimes composed of a greater or smaller 
 number of teeth and plates, which are received into corresponding 
 cavities. 
 
 There is usually a projecting part near the hinge called the summit. 
 
 Most of these shells fit closely when the animal approximates 
 them, but there are several which exhibit gaping portions either be- 
 fore or at the extremities. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 OSTRACEA. 
 
 The mantle is open, without tubes or any particular aperture. 
 The foot is either wanting in these Mollusca or is small; they are 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 273 
 
 mostly fixed by the shell or byssus to rocks and other submerged 
 bodies. Those which are free, seldom move except by acting on 
 the water by suddenly closing their valves. 
 
 In the first subdivision there is nothing but a muscular mass 
 reaching from one valve to the other, as seen by the single impress- 
 ion left upon the shell. 
 
 It is thought proper to class with them certain fossil shells, the 
 valves of which do not even appear to have been held together by a 
 ligament, but which covered each other like a vase and its cover, 
 and were connected by muscles only. They form the genus 
 
 AcAEDA, Brug. — OsTEACiTA, La Peyr., 
 Of which M. de Lamarck makes a family that he names Rudista. The 
 shells are thick, and of a solid or porous tissue. They are now divided into 
 the Radiolites, iSphaerulites, Cakeola, Hippurites, Batolithes. 
 
 As to the well known living testaceous Acephala, Linnaeus had 
 united in the genus 
 
 OSTREA, 
 
 All those which have but a small lig-ament at the hinge, inserted into a little 
 depression on each side, and without teeth or projecting plates. 
 
 OsTREA, Brug. 
 
 The true Oysters have the ligament as just described, and irregular, in- 
 equivalve, and lamellated shells. They adhere to rocks, piles, and even to 
 each other, by their most convex valve. 
 
 The animal, — Peloris, Poli, — is one of the most simple of all the bivalves, 
 possessing nothing remarkable but a double fringe round the mantle, the 
 lobes of which are only united above the h€;lfd, near the hingej but there, ia 
 no vestige of a foot. 
 
 Pecten, Brug. 
 The Pectens, very properly separated from the Oysters by Brugieres, al- 
 though they have the same kind of hinge, are easily distinguished by their 
 inequivalve semi-circular shell, almost always regularly marked with ribs 
 which radiate from the summit of each valve to the edge, and furnished 
 with two angular productions called ears, which widen the sides of the hinge. 
 
 Lima, Brug. 
 The lAmae differ from the Pectens in the superior length of their shell in 
 a direction perpendicular to the hinge, the ears of which are shorter, and 
 the sides less unequal, thus forming an oblique oval. The ribs of most of 
 2 K 
 
274 MOLLUSCA, 
 
 them are relieved with scales. The Limse swim with rapidity by means of 
 their valves. 
 
 Certain fossils may be placed here which have the hinge, ligament, 
 and central muscle of the Ostreas, Pectines, and Limse, but are dis- 
 tinguished by some of the details of the shell. They are Hinnitay 
 Plagiostoma, Pachytes, Dianchora^ and Podopsis. 
 
 Although multivalve, we should approximate the 
 
 Anomia, Brug. 
 To the Ostreae. The Jnomise have two thin, unequal, irregular valves, the 
 flattest of which is deeply notched on the side of the ligament, which is 
 similar to that of the Ostrere. The g-reater part of the central muscle tra- 
 verses this opening to be inserted into a third plate, that is sometimes stony 
 and sometimes horny, by which the animal adheres to foreign bodies, and 
 the remainder of it (the muscle) serves to join one valve to the other. The 
 animal, — Echion, Poll, has a small vestige of a foot, similar to that of a 
 Pecten, which slips between the emarginatlon and the plate that closes it, 
 and perhaps serves to direct water to the mouth, which is close to it. 
 
 These shells are found attached to various bodies hke the Ostreae. They 
 are found in every sea. 
 
 PiiACUNA, Brug. 
 
 A small genus allied to the Anomlse, in which the valves are thin, unequal, 
 and frequently irregular, as in the latter, but both entire. 
 
 SpoNDYiiUS, Lin. 
 A rough and foliaceous shell like the Ostrea, and frequently spiny; but 
 the hinge is more complex? besides the cavity for the ligament, analogous 
 to that of the Ostreae, there are two teeth to each valve that enter into 
 fossx in the opposite one; the two middle teeth belong to the most convex 
 valve, which is usually the left one, and which has a projecting heel, flat- 
 tened, as if sawed thi-ough behind the hinge. 
 
 The Spondyli are eaten hke Oysters. Their shells are frequently tinged 
 with the most brilliant colours. They adhere to all sorts of bodies. 
 
 Malleus, Lam. 
 A simple pit for the ligament as in the Ostrese, where the Mallei were left 
 by Linnaeus, on account of their having the same irregular and inequlvalve' 
 shell, but distinguished by a notch on the side of this ligament for the pass- 
 age of a byssus. 
 
 The most known species, Ostrea malleus, L. , which ranks among the num- 
 ber of high-priced and rare shells, has the two ends of the hinge extended 
 and forming something hke the head of a hammer, of which the valves. 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 275 
 
 elongated in a transverse direction, represent the handle. It Inhabits the 
 Archipelago of India. 
 
 Vulsella, Lam. 
 
 A little salient plate inside of the hinge of each side, from one of which to 
 the other extends tlie ligament, otherwise similar to that of the Ostrese. 
 By the side of this plate is a notch for the byssus, as in the Mallei. The 
 shell is elongated in a direction perpendicular to tlie hinge. 
 The most known species inhabit the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Perna, Brug. 
 Several parallel cavities across the hinge, opposed to each other in the two 
 valves, and lodging as many elastic ligaments; the irregular and foliaceous 
 shell marked on the anterior side and under the liinge by a notch traversed 
 by the byssus. The Pernae were also left by Linnsus among the Osti-ex. 
 This genus is now subdivided. 
 
 In the second subdivision of the Ostracea, as vi^ell as in almost all 
 the bivalves which follow, besides the single transverse muscular 
 mass of the preceding genera, there is a fasciculus which is placed 
 before the mouth, and extends from one valve to the other. It is 
 apparently in tiiis subdivision that we must place the 
 
 Etheria, Lam. 
 Large inequivalve shells, as irregular as those of the Ostrese, and more so-; 
 no teeth to the hinge; the ligament partly external and partly internal. 
 They differ from the Ostreae in having two muscular impressions. The ani- 
 mal is not seen to produce a byssus. 
 
 They have lately been discovered in the Upper Nile. 
 
 AvicuLA, Brug. 
 An equivalve shell with a rectilinear hinge, frequently extended into wings 
 by its extremities, furnished with a narrow and elongated ligament, and 
 sometimes with small notches near the mouth of the animal; in the anterior 
 side, a little beneath the angle of the side of the mouth, is a notch for the 
 byssus. The anterior transverse muscle is excessively small. 
 
 Mytilus margaritiferus, L., has nearly a semicircular shell, greenish with- 
 out, and ornamented with the most beautiful nacre within. The latter is 
 employed in the arts, and it is from the extravasation of this substance that 
 are produced the oriental or fine pearls, taken by the divers at Ceylon, in 
 the Persian Gulf, &c. 
 
 Pinna, Lin. 
 
 The Pinnae have two equal valves, forming a segment of a cu-cle, or ref5em- 
 
276 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 bling a half opened fan, which are closely united by a ligament along one 
 of their sides. The animal, the CaiMyEiiA, Poli, is elongated, like its shell; 
 the lips, branchiae, and other parts are in the same proportion. 
 
 The byssus of several species of Pinna is as fine and brilliant as silk, and 
 is employed in fabricating the most precious stuffs. Such is the 
 
 P. nobilis, L., which is moreover recognized by the valves being rough- 
 ened with recurved and semitabular plates. It remains half buried in the 
 Band, and anchored by its byssus. In the 
 
 Arca, Lin. 
 The valves are equal and transverse, that is to say, the hinge occupies the 
 longest side. It is furnished with a large number of small teeth, which in- 
 terlock with each other, and, as in the subsequent genera, with two fasci- 
 culi of transverse and nearly equal muscles, inserted into the extremities of 
 the valves, which serve to close them. 
 
 Teigonia, Brug. 
 Remarkable for the hinge, which is furnished with two plates en chevron, 
 crenulated on both faces, each of which penetrates into two cavities, or 
 rather between four plates of the opposite side, similarly crenulated on their 
 internal surface. 
 
 The living Trigoni?e resemble the Cardise in the form of their shell, and 
 the ribs which furrow it: its interior is composed of nacre. 
 
 The fossil Trigonis are different. Their shell is flattened on one side, 
 oblique, longest in a direction perpendicular to the hinge, and traversed in 
 a contrary direction by sei'ies of tubercles. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 MYTILACEA. 
 
 In the second family of the testaceous Acephala, the mantle is 
 open before. 
 
 All these bivalves have a foot, used. in crawling, or at least serv- 
 ing to draw out, direct, and place the byssus. Tliey are commonly 
 known under the generic'name o[ Muscles. 
 
 Mytilijs, Lin. 
 The true Mytili or Sea-Muscles have a closed shell, with equal, convex and 
 triangular valves. One of the sides of the acute angle forms the hinge, and 
 is furnished with a long, narrow ligament. The head of the animal is in the 
 acute angle; the other side of the shell, which is tlie longest, is the anterior 
 one, and allows the passage of the byssus; it terminates in a rounded angle. 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 277 
 
 and the third side ascends towards tlie hinge, to which it is joined by an 
 obtuse angle. The animal — Callitkiche, Poli, has the edges of its mantle 
 provided with branched tentacula near the rounded angle, as it is there that 
 the water enters requu-ed for respiration. Before, and near the acute an- 
 gle is a small transverse muscle, and a large one behind, near the obtuse 
 angle. Its foot resembles a tongue. 
 
 Myt. edulis, L. This common Muscle is frequently seen suspended in 
 extended clusters, along the whole coast of France, to rocks, piles, &c. &c. 
 It forms a considerable item of food, but is dangerous if eaten to excess. 
 
 Some of them are found fossil. In the 
 
 Anodontea, Brug. 
 
 The anterior angle rounded like the posterior; the hinge of the thin and 
 moderately convex shell has no appearance of a tooth whatever, being 
 merely furnished with a ligament which extends along the whole of its 
 length. The animal, — Limn^a, Poli, has no byssus; its foot, which is very 
 large, compressed and quadrangular, enables it to crawl upon the sand or 
 ooze. The posterior extremity of its mantle is provided with numerous 
 small tentacula. The Anodontes inhabit fresh water. 
 
 Several species are found in France, one of which — Mytilus cygneus, is 
 common in ponds. Sec, with oozy bottoms. Its light and thin shells are 
 used for milk-skimmers, but its flesh is not eaten on account of its insipidity. 
 
 Unio, Brug. 
 These MoUusca resemble the Anodontese both in their animal and shell, with 
 the exception of their hinge, which is more complex. There is a short ca- 
 vity in the anterior part of the right valve, which receives a short plate or 
 tooth from the left one, and behind it is a long plate wliich is inserted be- 
 tween two others on the opposite side. They also inhabit fresh water, pre- 
 ferring running streams. 
 
 Numerous species, remarkable for size or form, inhabit the rivers and 
 lakes of the United States. Messrs Say and Barnes, who have described 
 them, have established some new subgenera among them. 
 
 There are certain Marine Mollusca which have a similar animal, and about 
 the same kind of liinge, that should be placed near the Unios; the summits 
 of the shell, however, are more convex, and it is marked by projecting ribs 
 extending from the summits to the edge. They form the 
 
 Caedita^ Brug. 
 "Which are more or less oblong or codlform, the inferior margin, in some, 
 gaping. 
 
 CypRiCARDiA, Lam. 
 
 Cardltac, in which the tooth under the summit is divided into two or three. 
 Their form is oblong, and their sides unequal. 
 
278 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 M. de Blainville also separates the 
 
 CoEAliLiopHAGA, Blainv. 
 
 Where the shell is thin, and the lateral plate considerably effaced, which 
 may cause their approximation to Venus. 
 
 One of them is known which excavates coralline masses to form its habi- 
 tation. The 
 
 Venericardia, Latn. 
 Only differs from the Carditx in the circumstance that the posterior plate 
 of their hinge is shorter and more transverse, which caused their approxi- 
 mation to Venus; their form is almost round. Judging- from the impressions 
 of its muscles on tliem, their animal must resemble that of the Carditse and 
 Unios. 
 
 Both of them approach the Cardia in their general form and the direction 
 of their ribs. I suspect that this is also the place for the 
 
 Crassatella, Lam. 
 
 "Which has sometimes been approximated to Mactra, and at others to 
 Venus; the hinge has two slightly marked lateral teeth, and two very strong 
 middle ones, behind which, extending to both sides, is a triangular J^cavity 
 for an internal ligament. The valves become very thick by age, and the 
 impression made by the margin of the mantle, leads to the belief that there 
 are no protractile tubes. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 CHAMACEA. 
 
 The mantle closed and perforated by three holes, through one of 
 which passes the foot; the second furnishes an entrance and exit to 
 the water requisite for respiration: the two latter are not prolonged 
 into tubes as in the subsequent family. It only comprises the genus 
 
 Chama, Lin., 
 
 Where the hinge is very analogous to that of a Unio, that is to say, the left 
 valve near the summit is provided with a tooth, and further back with a sa- 
 lient plate, which are received into corresponding fossse of the right valve. 
 This genus has necessarily been divided. In the 
 
 Tkidacna, Brug., 
 
 The shell is greatly elongated transversely, andequivalve; the superior angle 
 which answers to the head and summit, very obtuse. 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 279 
 
 The animal is very singular, inasmuch as it is not, like most of the others, 
 placed in the shell, but is directed, or, as it were, pressed out before. The 
 anterior side of the mantle is widely opened for the passage of the byssus; 
 a little below the anterior angle is another opening which transmits water 
 to the branchix. 
 
 There is but a single transverse muscle, corresponding to the middle of 
 the margin of the valves. In Tridacna, Lam., or the Tridacnae properly 
 so called, the front of the shell as well as of the mantle has a wide opening 
 with notched edges for the transmission of the byssus, which latter is evi- 
 dently tendinous, andcontinues uninterruptedly with the muscular fibres. 
 
 Such is the celebrated and enormous shell of India, the Chama gigas, L. ; 
 which is decorated with broad ribs relieved by projecting semi-circular 
 scales. Specimens have been taken that weighed upwards of three hundred 
 pounds. The tendinous byssus which attaches them to the rocks, is so thick 
 and stout that the axe is required to sever it. The flesh, though tough, is 
 edible. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 CARDIACEA. 
 
 The mantle is open before, and there are, besides, two separate 
 apertures, which are prolonged in tubes, sometimes distinct, and at 
 others united in one single mass. There is always a transverse mus- 
 cle at each extremity, and a foot generally used for crawling. It 
 may be considered as a general rule, that those which are furnished 
 with long tubes, live in ooze or in sand. This mode of organization 
 may be recognized in the shell by the more or less depressed con- 
 tour described by the insertion of the edges of the mantle previous to' 
 its uniting with the impression of the posterior transverse muscle. 
 
 Cardium, Lin. 
 The Cardia, like many other bivalves, have an equivalve, convex shell, 
 with salient summits curved towards the hinge, which, when viewing it side- 
 wise, gives it the figure of a hearty hence its name of Cardium, Heart, &c. 
 The animal, — Cerastes, Poli, — has generally an ample aperture in the 
 mantle, a very large foot forming an elbowin the middle and with its point 
 directed forwards, and two short or but moderately long tubes. 
 
 DoNAX, Lin. 
 
 The JDonaces have nearly the same kind of hinge as the Cardia, but their 
 shell is of a very different form, being a triangle, of which the obtuse angle 
 is at the summit of the valves, and the base at their edge, and of which the 
 
280 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 shortest side is that of the ligament, or the posterior side, a rare circum- 
 stance in this degree, among bivalves. They are generally small, and pret- 
 tily striated from the summits to the edges; their animal — Peron^a, Poll, 
 is furnished witli long tubes which are received into a sinus of the mantle. 
 The 
 
 Cyclas, Brug. 
 Separated from Venus by Brugieres, hke the Cardia and Donaces, has two 
 teeth in the middle of the hinge, and before and behind, two salient and 
 sometimes crenulated plates; but the shell, as in several species of Venus, is 
 more or less rounded, equilateral, and ti'ansversely striated. The animal 
 has moderate tubes. The external tint is usually grey or greenish. The 
 Cyclades inhabit fresh water. 
 
 CoRBis, Cuv. 
 Marine testaceous Acephala, transversely oblong, which have also stout 
 middle teeth, and well marked lateral plates; their external surface is fur- 
 nished with transverse ribs so regularly crossed by rays, that it may be com- 
 pared to wicker-work. In the 
 
 Tellina, Lin. 
 
 There are in the middle, one tooth on the left and two teeth on the right, 
 frequently forked, and at some distance before and behind, on the right 
 valve, a plate, which does not penetrate into a cavity of the opposite one. 
 There is a slight plica near the posterior extremity of the two valves, which 
 renders them unequal in that part, where they are somewhat open. 
 
 The animal of tlie TeUinse — Vbuoniea, Poli, — like that of the Donaces, 
 has two long tubes, which withdraw into the shell, and are concealed in a 
 duplicature of the mantle. 
 
 Their shells are generally transversely striated, and decorated with beau- 
 tiful colours. 
 
 LuciNA, Brug. 
 
 Separated lateral teeth, as in the Cardia, Cyclades, &c., that penetrate be- 
 tween the plates of the other valve; in the middle are two teeth, frequently, 
 but slightly apparent. The shell is orbicular, and without any impression 
 of the retractor muscle of the tube; that of the anterior constrictor, however, 
 is very long. 
 
 The Uving species are much less numerous tlian those that are fossil; the 
 latter are very common in the envu-ons of Paris. 
 
 Vknus, Lin. 
 This genus comprises many Testacea whose general character consists in 
 the teeth and plates of the hinge being approximated under the summit, in 
 a single group. They are usually more flattened and elongated, in a direc- 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 281 
 
 tion parallel to the hinge, than the Cardia. Therib«, when there are any, 
 are almost always parallel to the edges, being directly the reverse of their 
 arrangement in the Cardia. 
 
 The animal is always furnished with two more or less protractile tubes, 
 sometimes united, and with a compressed foot, which enable it to crawl. 
 This genus is now divided into Petricola, Crassina, Cytherea, Capsa, Cor- 
 bula, Madra, &c. The common Clam is a true Venus. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 INCLUSA. 
 
 The mantle open at the anterior extremity, or near the middle 
 only, for the passage of the foot, and extended from the other end 
 into a double tube, which projects from the shell, whose extremities 
 are always gaping. Nearly all of them live buried in sand, stones, 
 ooze or wood. Those of the genus 
 
 Mya, Lin., 
 Have but two valves to their oblong shell, the hinge of which varies. The 
 double tube forms a fleshy cylinder, and the foot is compressed. The 
 different forms of the hinge have furnished Messrs Daudin, Lamarck, &c. 
 with various subdivisions, Luiraria, Myaproper, Anatina, Solemya, &c. 
 
 Here also we find a group of some small and singular genera, 
 such as 
 
 Btssomia, Cuv. 
 Where the oblong shell, which has no marked tooth, has the opening for 
 the foot at about the middle of its edge and opposite the summits. The 
 Byssomix penetrate into stone, oorals, &c. 
 A species which is provided with a byssus, abounds in the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 HiATELLA, Daud. 
 The shell gaping, to allow the passage of the foot, near the middle of its 
 edges; but the tooth of the hinge is better marked than in the preceding 
 genus. Ranges of salient spines are frequently observed on the hind part 
 of the shell. They are found in sand, among Zoophytes, &c. 
 
 SoLEN, Lin. 
 
 The shell only bivalve, oblong or elongated, but the hinge always furnished 
 
 with salient and well marked teeth, and the ligament external. In the 
 
 Solens properly so called, the shell is cylindrically elongated, and has two or 
 
 2 L 
 
282 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 three teeth in each valve near the anterior extremity, where the foot issues. 
 The latter is conical, and enables the animal to bury itself in the sand, 
 which it excavates with considerable rapidity on the approach of danger. 
 
 Pholas, Lin. 
 
 The Pholades have two broad valves, convex towards the mouth, narrow 
 and elongated on the opposite side, and leaving a large oblique opening at 
 each extremity; their hinge, hke that of a true Mya, is furnished with a 
 plate projecting from one valve into the other, and with an internal hgament 
 running from that plate into a corresponding cavity. Their mantle is re- 
 flected externally upon the hinge, where it sometimes contains two or three 
 supernumerary calcareous bodies. The foot issues through the aperture 
 on the side next to the mouth, where it is widest, and from the opposite one 
 project the two tubes, which are united and susceptible of inflation in every 
 direction. 
 
 The Pholades inhabit canals which they excavate, some in ooze and others 
 in stone, like the Lithodomi, Petricolse, &c. They are much sought for on 
 account of their agreeable flavour. 
 
 Teredo, Lin. 
 The mantle extended in a tube much longer than the two small, rhomboi- 
 dal valves, and terminated by two short tubes, the base of which is furnish- 
 ed on each side with a stony and movable kind of operculum or palette. 
 These Acephala, while quite young, penetrate and establish their habita- 
 tions in submerged pieces of wood, such as piles, ships' bottoms, &c., 
 perforating and destroying them in every direction. It is thought, that 
 in order to penetrate as fast as it increases in size, the Teredo excavates the 
 wood by means of its valves? but the tubes remain near the opening by 
 which its entrance was eff"ected, and through which, by the aid of its pa- 
 lette, it receives water and aUment. The gallery it inhabits is lined with a 
 calcareous ci-ust which exudes from its body, and which forms a second 
 kind of tubular shell for it. It is a noxious and destructive animal in the 
 sea ports of Europe. 
 
 Teredo navalis, L. This species, which is the most common, and is said 
 to have been introduced into Europe from the torrid zone, has more than 
 once threatened Holland with ruin by the destruction of its dikes. It is 
 upwards of six inches in length and has simple palettes. 
 
 FisTULANA, Brug. 
 
 Separated from Teredo; the external tube is entirely closed at its larger 
 end, and is more or less hke a bottle or club. The Fistulanae are some- 
 times found buried in submerged fragments of wood or in fruits, and the 
 animal, hke that of a Teredo, has two small valves, and as many palettes. 
 Recent specimens are only obtained from' the Indian Ocean, but they are 
 found fossil in Europe. We should approximate to them the 
 
ACEPHALA TESTACEA. 283 
 
 Gastroch^na, Spengler. 
 Where the shells are deprived of teeth, and their edg'es being wide apart 
 anteriorly, leave a large oblique opening, opposite to which there is a small 
 hole in the mantle for the passage of the foot. The double tube, which can 
 be retraced completely within the shell, is susceptible of being greatly elon- 
 gated. It appears that they are certainly furnished with a calcareous tube. 
 They inhabit the interior of Madrepores, which they perforate. 
 
 Two genera of Acephala furnished with tubes, have been de- 
 tected among fossils, but the first of them, the 
 
 Teredina, Lam., 
 Has a little cuilleron on the inside of each of its valves, and a small, free 
 shield-shaped piece on the hinge. In the second, 
 
 Clavagella, Lam., 
 One of the valves is clasped by the tube, leaving the other, however, free. 
 A single living species is found in the Madrepores of the Sicilian seas, which 
 has been described by M. Audouin. 
 
 Some naturalists think we should also place in this family the 
 
 AsPERGiLLUM, Lam. 
 The shell of which is formed of an elongated conical tube, closed at its 
 widest extremity by a disk perforated with numerous small tubular holes; 
 the httle tubes of the outer range being longest, form a kind of corolla 
 round it. The reason for approximating them to the Acephala witli tubes 
 is found in the fact that there is a double projection on one part of the cone 
 which really resembles the two valves of the Acephala. The affinity be- 
 tween these little tubes and those which envelope the tentacula of certain 
 Terebella, formerly caused this animal to be referred to the Annulata. 
 
 The species most known, Asper. javanum, is seven or eight inches in 
 length. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 ACEPHALA NUDA. 
 
 The naked Acephala are not numerous, and are sufficiently re- 
 moved from the ordinary Acephala, to form a distinct class, were 
 such a division considered requisite. Their branchiae assume va- 
 rious forms, but are never divided into four leaflets; the shell is 
 
284 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 replaced by a cartilaginous substance which is sometimes so thin 
 that it is as flexible as a membrane. We divide them into two 
 families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 SEGREGATA. 
 
 This family comprises those genera in which the individuals that 
 compose them are insulated and without any mutual organic con- 
 nection, although frequently living in society. In the 
 
 BiPHORA, Brug. — Thalia, Brown, — Salpa and Dagysa, Gmelin. 
 The mantle and its cartilaginous envelope are oval or cylindrical, and open 
 at the two extremities. Muscular bands embrace the mantle and contract the 
 body. The animal moves by taking in water at the posterior aperture, and 
 forcing it out through that near the mouth, so that it is always propelled 
 backwards, a circumstance which has led some naturalists into error by 
 causing them to mistake the posterior opening for the true mouth. It usu- 
 ally swims on its back. The branchiae form a single tube or riband, fm-nish- 
 ed with regular vessels, placed obliquely in the middle of the tubular cavity 
 of the mantle, in such a manner that it is constantly bathed by the water as 
 it traverses that cavity. The mantle and its envelope when exposed to the 
 sun exhibit the colours of the rainbow, and are so diaphanous, that the whole 
 structure of the animal can be seen tlirough them: in many they are furnish- 
 ed with perforated tubercles. The animal has been seen to come out from 
 its envelope without appearing to suffer pain. 
 
 These animals are very abundant in the Mediterranean and the wanner 
 portions of the ocean, and are frequently phosphorescent. 
 
 AsciDiA, Lin. — Theytoho^the Ancients. 
 The mantle and its cartilaginous envelope, which is frequently very thick, 
 resemble sacs everywhere closed, except at two orifices, which correspond 
 to the two tubes of several bivalves. The branchije form a large sac, at the 
 bottom of which are the mouth and the visceral mass. The envelope is 
 much larger than the mouth, which is fibrous and vascular, and on which, 
 between the two tubes, is one of the ganglions. These animals attach 
 themselves to rocks and other bodies, and are deprived of all power of lo- 
 comotion; the chief sign of vitality which they exhibit, consists in the absorp- 
 tion and evacuation of water through one of their orifices; when alarmed 
 they eject it to a considerable distance. They abound in every sea, and 
 some of them are eaten. 
 Some species are remarkable for the long pedicle which supports them. 
 
ACEPHALA NUDA. 285 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 AGGREGATA. 
 
 The second family consists of animals more or less analogous to 
 the Ascidias, but united in a common mass, so that they seem to 
 communicate organically with each other, and in this respect to 
 connect the Molluscawith the Zoophytes; but independently of their 
 peculiar organization, these animals, according to the observations 
 of Messrs Audouin and Milne Edwards, at first live and swim sepa- 
 rately, only becoming united at a certain subsequent period, a fact 
 which is in direct opposition to this opinion. 
 
 BoTKTLLtrs, Gaert. 
 An oval form, fixed on various bodies, and united by tens or twelves, like 
 the rays of a star. The branchial orifices are at the external extremities of 
 these rays, and the opening terminates in a common cavity, which is in the 
 centre of the star. If an orifice be irritated, but a single animal contracts; 
 if the centre be touched they all contract. These very small animals at- 
 tach themselves to certain Ascidiae, Fuci, &c. 
 
 In some particular species, three or four stars appeared to be piled one 
 on the other. 
 
 Pyrosoma, Peron. 
 
 The Pyrosoma unite in great numbers, forming a large hollow cylinder, 
 open at one end and closed at the other, which swims in the ocean by the 
 alternate contraction and dilatation of the individual animals which compose 
 it. The latter terminate in a point on tlie exterior, so that the whole ex- 
 ternal surface of the tube is bristled with them; the branchial orifices are 
 pierced near these points. A Pyrosoma may thus be compared to a great 
 number of stars of BotrylU strung together, the whole of which is movable. 
 
 The Mediterranean and the Ocean produce large species, the animals of 
 which are arranged with but little regularity. They exhibit a phosphores- 
 cent appearance during the night. 
 
 A smaller species is also known where the animals are arranged in very 
 regular rings. 
 
 The species of the remainder that are known are all fixed, and till 
 now have been confounded with the Alcyonia. The visceral bundle 
 of each individual is more or less extended into the common cartila- 
 ginous or gelatinous mass, more or less narrowed or dilated in cer- 
 
286 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 tain points; but each orifice always forms a little six-rayed star on 
 the surface. We unite them all under the name of 
 
 POLYCLINUM. 
 Some of them are extended over bodies like fleshy crests. Others project 
 in a conical or globular mass; or expand into a disk comparable to that of 
 a flower or of an Actinia; or are elongated into cylindrical branches sup- 
 ported by slender pedicles, &c. ; or form parallel cylinders. 
 
 CLASS V. 
 BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 The Mollusca Brachiopoda, like the Acephala, have a bilobed 
 mantle which is always open. Instead of feet they are provided 
 with two fleshy arms, furnished with numerous filaments, which they 
 can protrude from, and draw into the shell. The mouth is between 
 the base of the arms. 
 
 All the Brachiopoda are invested with bivalve shells, fixed and 
 immovable. But three genera are known. 
 
 LiNGULA, Brug. 
 Two equal, flat, oblong valves, the summits of which are at the extremity 
 of one of the narrow sides, gaping at the other end, and attached between 
 the two summits to a fleshy pedicle, which suspends them to the rocks; the 
 arms become spirally convoluted previously to entering the shell. It ap- 
 pears that the branchiae consist of small leaflets, disposed around the inter- 
 nal face of each lobe of the mantle. 
 
 But a single species, Lingula anatina, Cuv., is known. It inhabits the 
 Indian Ocean, and has thin, horny and greenish valves. 
 
 Terebratula, Brug. 
 Two unequal valves united by a hinge; the summit of one, more salient than 
 the other, is perforated to permit the passage of a fleshy pedicle which at- 
 taches the shell to rocks, madrepores, other shells, &c. Internally, a small 
 bony piece of frame-work is observed, that is sometimes very complex, 
 composed of two branches which articulate with the unperforated valve and 
 that support two arms edged all round with a long, close fringe, between 
 which, on the side next to the large valve, is a third, simply membranous 
 
BRACHIOPODA. 287 
 
 and much longer appendage, usually spirally convoluted, and edged, like 
 the arms, with a fine and'close fringe. The mouth is a small vertical fiss- 
 ure between these tliree large appendages. The principal part of the 
 body, situated near the hinge, contains the numerous muscles which reach 
 from one valve to tlie other, and between them are the viscera, which oc- 
 cupy but little space. 
 
 Numberless Terebratulae are found fossil or petrified, in certain secondary 
 strata of ancient formations. The living species are less numerous. 
 
 The shell of some is transversely broader or longer, in a direction per- 
 pendicular to the hinge, with an entire or emarginated contour, with two 
 or several lobes; some of them are even triangular; the surface is smooth, 
 sulcated in radii, or veined; they are thick or thin, and even diaphanous. 
 In several of them, in lieu of the hole in the summit of the thin valve, there 
 is a notch, and this notch is sometimes partly formed by two accessory pie- 
 ces, &c. It is probable that when better known their animals will present 
 generic differences. Already in the 
 
 Spibifeh, Sowerby, 
 Two large cones have been recognized, formed of a spiral thread, which 
 appear to have supported the animal. In 
 
 Thecidea, Def. 
 The pedicle seems to have been incorporated with the small valve. 
 
 Okbicula, Cuv. 
 he Orbiculsc have two unequal valves, one of which, that is round and coni- 
 cal when viewed by itself, resembles the shell of a PateUa; the other is flat 
 and fixed to a rock. The arms of the animal, — Criopus, Poli, — are ciliated 
 and spiraUy recurved hke that of the Lingulae. 
 
 Crania, Brug. 
 
 Should be approximated to the Orbiculee. The arms of the animal are 
 also ciliated, but the shells have deep and round internal muscular impress- 
 ions, that have caused it to be compared to the figure of a skull. 
 
 One of them inhabits European seas; Anomia craniolaris, L. Several are 
 fossil; such as the Cran, antiqua, and the others of which M. Hceninghaus 
 has given an excellent Monograph. 
 
288 MOLLUSCA. 
 
 CLASS VI. 
 CIRRHOPODA. 
 
 [Lepas and Triton, Lin,"] 
 The Cirrhopoda, in several points of view, are intermediate be- 
 tween this division and that of the Articulata. Enveloped by a 
 mantle, and testaceous pieces which frequently resemble those seen 
 in several of the Acephala, their mouths are furnished with lateral 
 jaws, and the abdomen with filaments named cirri, arranged in pairs, 
 composed of a multitude of little ciliated articulations, and corres- 
 ponding to a sort of feet or fins similar to those observed under the 
 tail of several of the Crustacea. Their heart is situated in the dor- 
 sal region, and the branchiae on the sides; the nervous system forms 
 a series of ganglions on the abdomen. These cirri, however, may 
 be considered as analogous to the articulated appendages of certain 
 species of Teredo, while the ganglions in some respects are mere 
 repetitions of the posterior ganglion of the bivalves. The position 
 of these animals in the shell is such, that the mouth is at the bottom 
 and the cirri near the orifice. These animals are always fixed. 
 LinnaBus comprised them all in one genus, Lepas, which Bru- 
 gieres divided into two, that have in their turn been subdivided. 
 
 Anatifa, Brug. 
 
 A compressed mantle, open on one side and suspended to a fleshy tube, va- 
 rying greatly as to the number of testaceous pieces with wliichit is furnish- 
 ed; twelve pair of cirri, sis on each side, those nearest to the mouth being 
 the thickest and shortest. The branchix are elongated pyramidal appen- 
 dages that adhere to the external base of the whole of the cirri, or of part 
 of them. 
 
 The two principal valves, of the most numerous species (Pentaiasmis, 
 Leach), resemble those of a Mytilus. The Anatifae adhere to rocks, piles, 
 keels of vessels, 8ic. 
 
 Balanus, Brug. 
 The principal part of the shell of the Balani consists of a testaceous tube 
 
CIRRHOPODA. 289 
 
 attached to various bodies, the aperture of which is more or less closed by 
 two or four valves. This tube is formed of various pieces, which appear 
 to be detached, and separated in proportion as the growth of the animal 
 requires it. The branchiae, mouth, articulated tentacula, and the tube, 
 differ but little from those of the Anatifae. In Balancs properly so called, 
 the tubular portion is a truncated cone formed of six projecting pieces, 
 separated by as many depressed ones, three of which are narrower than 
 the others. Their base is usually formed of a calcareous lamina, and fixed to 
 various bodies. The four valves of their operculum close the orifice exactly. 
 
 The rocks, shells, &c., on the coast of Europe, are, in a manner, covered 
 with a species of Balanus, the Lepas balanus, L. 
 
 Naturalists have separated the Acaatx, most of which are found in sponge, 
 the Coniae, Blainv., the Asemx, Ranzani, the Pyrgomae, Savigny, the Qdho- 
 siae, Ranzani, the Creusias, Leach, and the Diadema, Ranz. 
 
 2 M 
 
290 
 
 THIRD GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 
 
 This third general form is as well characterised as that of the 
 Vertebrata; the skeleton is not internal as in the latter, neither is it 
 annihilated as in the Mollusca, the articulated rings which encir- 
 cle the body, and frequently the limbs, supply the place of it, and 
 as they are usually hard, they furnish to the powers of motion all 
 requisite points of support, so that here, as among the Vertebrata, 
 we find the walk, the run, the leap, natation and flight. Those fa- 
 milies only are restricted to reptation which are either deprived of 
 feet, or in which the articulations are membranous and soft. This 
 external position of the hard parts, and the internal one of the mus- 
 cles, reduce each articulation to the form of a sheath, and allow it 
 but two kinds of motion. When connected with the neighbouring 
 parts by a firm joint, as happens in the limbs, it is fixed there by two 
 points, and can only move by gynglymus, that is, in one single 
 plane, a disposition which requires a greater number of joints to 
 produce a same variety of motion. A greater loss of muscular 
 power is also the result, and consequently more general weakness 
 in each animal, in proportion to its size. 
 
 But the parts which compose the body are not always articulated 
 in this way; most generally they are only united by flexible mem- 
 branes, or they fit into each other, and then their motions are more 
 various, but have not the same force. 
 
ARTICULATA. 291 
 
 The system of organs in which the Articulata resemble each other 
 the most, is that of the nerves. 
 
 Their brain, which is placed on the oesophagus, and furnishes 
 nerves to the parts adhering to the head, is very small. Two cords 
 which embrace the oesophagus are extended along the abdomen, 
 and united at certain distances by double knots or ganglia, whence 
 arise the nerves of the body and limbs. Each of these ganglia 
 seems to fulfil the functions of a brain to the surrounding parts, and 
 to preserve their sensibiHty for a certain length of time, when the 
 animal has been divided. If to this we add, that the jaws of these 
 animals, when they have any, are always lateral and move from 
 without inwardly, and not from above downwards, and that no dis- 
 tinct organ of smell has hitherto been discovered in them, we shall 
 have expressed all that can be said of them in general. The exis- 
 tence however of the organs of hearing, the existence, number and 
 form of those of sight, the kind of respiration, the existence of the 
 organs of circulation, and even the colour of the blood present great 
 differences, which must be noticed in the various subdivisions. 
 
 Distribution of the Articulata into four Classes. 
 
 The Articulata, whose mutual relations are as varied as numer- 
 ous, present however four principal forms, either internal or ex- 
 ternal. 
 
 The Annulata, Lam., or Red-blooded Worms, Cuv., consti- 
 tute the first. Their blood, which is generally red, like that of the 
 Vertebrata, circulates in a double and closed system of arteries and 
 veins, sometimes furnished with one or several visible hearts or 
 fleshy ventricles. Respiration is performed in organs which are 
 sometimes developed externally, and at others remain on the surface 
 of the skin or dip into its interior. Their body, more or less elon- 
 gated, is always divided into numerous rings, the first of which, 
 called the head, scarcely differs from the rest, except in the presence 
 of the mouth and the principal organs of the senses. The branchise 
 of several are uniformly distributed along their body or on its mid- 
 dle; in others, which are generally those that inhabit tubes, they are 
 all placed anteriorly. They never have articulated feet, but most 
 of them, in lieu thereof, are furnished with setae or fasciculi of stiff 
 and movable hairs. The organs of their mouth sometimes consist 
 
292 ARTICULATA. 
 
 of jaws, more or less strong, and at others of a simple tube, those of 
 the external senses in fleshy and sometimes articulated tentacula, 
 and in certain blackish points, considered as eyes, but which do not 
 exist in all the species. 
 
 The Crustacea constitute the second form or class of articula- 
 ted animals. They are provided with articulated and more or less 
 complex limbs, attached to the sides of the body. Their blood is 
 white: it circulates by means of a fleshy ventricle placed in the back, 
 which receives it from the branchiae, situated on the sides of the 
 body, or under its posterior portion, and to which it returns by a 
 ventral and sometimes double canal. In the last or lower species, 
 the heart or dorsal ventricle is itself extended into a tube. They 
 all have antennsB or articulated filaments inserted in the fore-part of 
 the head, usually four in number, several transverse jaws and two 
 compound eyes. A distinct ear is only to be found in some species. 
 
 The Aeachnides form the third class of the Articulata. Their 
 head and thorax, as in many of the Crustacea, are united in one 
 single piece, furnished, on each side, with articulated limbs; but 
 their principal viscera are inclosed in an abdomen connected to the 
 posterior portion of that thorax. Their mouth is armed with jaws, 
 and their head furnished with ocelli, that vary as to number, but 
 the antennae are always wanting. Their circulation is effected by 
 a dorsal vessel, which gives off" arterial branches, and receives venous 
 ones from them; but their mode of respiration varies, some of them 
 still having true pulmonary organs which open on the sides of the 
 abdomen, while others receive air by tracheae, like Insects. In both 
 of them, however, we observe lateral openings or true stigmata. 
 
 The Insecta constitute the fourth class of the Articulata, and 
 the most numerous of all the animal kingdom. With the exception 
 of some genera, the Myriapoda, in which the body is divided into 
 numerous and nearly equal parts, it is always divided into three por- 
 tions: the head, furnished with the antennae, eyes and mouth; the 
 thorax^ to which are appended the feet and wings, when they exist; 
 and the abdomen, which is suspended behind the thorax and contains 
 the principal viscera. Those which have wings only receive them at 
 a certain age, and frequently pass through two more or less different 
 forms before they assume that of the winged insect. In all their 
 states they respire by trachese; that is, by elastic vessels which re- 
 ceive air through stigmata pierced on their sides, and distribute it 
 
ARTICULATA. 293 
 
 by infinite ramifications to every part of the body. A vestige only 
 of a heart is perceptible, consisting of a dorsal vessel which experi- 
 ences an alternate contraction and dilatation, but to which no branch 
 has ever been discovered, so that we are forced to believe that nu- 
 trition is efl^ected in this class of animals by imbibition. It is, pro- 
 bably, this sort of nutrition which necessitated the kind of respiration 
 proper to Insects; for as the nutritive fluid is not contained in vess- 
 els, and could not be directed towards pulmonary organs in search 
 of air, it was requisite that this air should be difTused throughout 
 the body to reach the fluid. This is also the reason why Insects 
 have no secretory glands, but are provided with mere spongy vess- 
 els, which, by the extent of their surface, appear to absorb the pe- 
 culiar juices they are to produce, from the mass of the nutritive fluid. 
 
 Insects vary infinitely as to the form of the organs of the mouth, 
 and those of digestion, as well as in their industry and mode of life. 
 
 The Crustacea and Arachnides were long united with the Tnsecta 
 under one common name, and resemble them in many points of 
 their external form, in the disposition of their organsof motion, and 
 of the sensations, and even in those of manducation. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 ANNULATA. 
 
 The Annulata are the only invertebrate animals that have red 
 blood. It circulates in a double system of complicated vessels. 
 
 Their nervous system consists in a double knotted cord, like that 
 of Insects. 
 
 Their body is soft, more or less elongated, and divided frequently 
 into a considerable number of segments, or at least of transverse 
 plicae. 
 
 They nearly all inhabit the water — theLumbrici or Earth-worms 
 excepted; several penetrate into holes at the bottom, or construct 
 tubes there with the ooze or other matters, or even exude a calca- 
 reous substance, which envelopes them with a sort of tubular shell. 
 
294 ANNULATA. 
 
 Division of the Annulata into three Orders. 
 
 This class, which contains but few species, presents a sufficient 
 basis of division in its organs of respiration. 
 
 The branchias of some resemble tufts or arbusculee, attached to 
 the head or anterior part of the body: they, nearly all, inhabit tubes. 
 We will call them the Tubicola. 
 
 Those of others resemble trees, tufts, laminae or tubercles in 
 which vessels ramify, and are placed on the middle of the body: 
 most of them inhabit mud or swim in the ocean, the smaller por- 
 tion being furnished with tubes. We name them the Dorsibran- 
 
 CHIATA. 
 
 Others again have no apparent branchiae, and respire, either by 
 the surface of the skin, or as some authors opine, by the internal 
 cavities. Most of them live free in mud or water; some of them 
 only, in humid earth. They are the Abranchiata. 
 
 The genera of the first two orders are all furnished with stiff setae, 
 of a metallic colour, that issue from their sides, sometimes simply, 
 and at others in fasciculi, which serve in lieu of feet; but there are 
 some genera in the third order which are deprived of that support. 
 
 The head of the Annulata of the two first orders is generally fur- 
 nished with tentacula or filaments, to which, notwithstanding their 
 fleshy nature, some modern naturalists give the name of antennae; 
 and several genera of the second and third are marked with black 
 and shining points, usually considered as eyes. The organization 
 of their mouth varies greatly. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 TUBICOLA. 
 
 Some of the Tubicola form a calcareous, homogeneous tube, pro- 
 bably the result of transudation, like the shell of the Mollusca, with 
 which however they have no muscular adhesion; others construct 
 one by agglutinating grains of sand, fragments of shells and particles 
 of mud, by means of a membrane, also unquestionably transuded; 
 
TUBICOLA. 295 
 
 the tube of others again is entirely membranous or horny. To the 
 first belongs the genus 
 
 Serpvla, Lin. 
 
 The calcareous tubes of the Serpulse twine round and cover stones, shells, 
 and all submarine bodies. The section of these tubes is sometimes round, 
 and sometimes angiilar, according to the species. 
 
 The body of the animal is composed of numerous segments; its anterior 
 portion is spread into a disk, armed on each side with several bundles of 
 coarse hairs, and on each side of its mouth is a tuft of branchije, shaped like 
 a fan, and usually tinged with bright colours. At the base of each tuft is a 
 fleshy filament, one of which, either on the right or left, indifferently, is 
 always elongated, and dilated at its extremity into a variously formed disk 
 which serves as an operculum, and seals up the orifice of the tube when the 
 animal has withdrawn into it. 
 
 Serp. contortuplicata. The most common species; its tubes are round, 
 three lines in diameter, and twisted. The operculum is infundibuliform, 
 and the branchise ai*e frequently of a beautiful red colour, or variegated 
 with yellow, violet, &c. Vases or other objects thrown into the sea are soon 
 covered by its tubes. 
 
 Sabella, Cuv. 
 The same kind of body, and similar flabelliform branchiae, as the Serpulse; 
 but the two fleshy filaments adhering to these branchiae both terminate in 
 a point, and without forming an operculum; sometimes they are even want- 
 ing. The tube of the Sabellae is most commonly composed of granules of 
 clay or mud, and is rarely calcareous. 
 
 The species known are large, and their fan-like branchiae remarkable for 
 their delicacy and brilliancy. 
 
 Sah. protula, Cuv. A large and splendid species inhabiting the Mediter- 
 ranean. Its tube is calcareous like that of the Serpulae, its branchiae orange 
 coloured, &c. 
 
 Terebella, Cuv. 
 The Terebelke, like most of the Sabellae, inhabit an artificial tube, but it is 
 composed of grains of sand and fragments of shells; their body, moreover, has 
 fewer rings, and their head is otherwise decorated. Numerous filiform and 
 extremely extensible tentacula surround their mouth; their branchise, placed 
 on the neck, are not infundibuliform, but resemble arbusculae. 
 
 Amphitrite, Cuv. 
 The Amphitrites are easily recognized by the golden coloured setae, arranged 
 like a crown, or the teeth of a comb, in one or two rows, on the anterior 
 part of their head, where they probably serve as a means of defence, or 
 perhaps enable the animal to crawl, or to collect the materials of its tube. 
 
296 ANNULATA. 
 
 Numerous tentacula encircle the mouth, and on each side of the fore part 
 of the back are pectiniformbranchije. 
 
 Some of them construct light tubes of a regularly conical figure, which 
 they carry about with them. Their gUded setse form two combs, whose 
 teeth incline downwards. Their capacious and frequently flexed intestine 
 is usually filled with sand. 
 
 Syphostoma, Otto. 
 
 On the superior part of each articulation, is inserted a fasciculus of fine setae, 
 and on the inferior a simple seta, and on the anterior extremity two fasci- 
 culi of strong golden coloured setae. Under these setaceous appendages 
 is the mouth, preceded by a sucker surrounded by numerous soft filaments, 
 which may very possibly be branchiae, and accompanied by two fleshy ten- 
 tacula. The knotted meduUary cord is seen through the skin. They live 
 buried in mud. Hitherto, the genus 
 
 Dentalitjm, Lin. 
 Has always been placed in this vicinity. The shell is an elongated, arcua- 
 ted cone open at both ends, and has been compared to the tusk of an ele- 
 phant in miniature. The recent observations of M. Savigny and those of 
 M. Deshayes especially, have, however, rendered this classification ex- 
 tremely doubtful. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 DORSIBRANCHIATA. 
 
 The organs of the Dorsibranchiata, and the branchiae in particu- 
 lar, are equally distributed along the whole of the body, or at least 
 of its middle portion. 
 
 At the head of the order we will place those genera in which the 
 organs are most completely developed. 
 
 Arekicola, Lam. 
 Branchiae, resembling small trees, on the rings of the middle part of the 
 body only; the mouth, a fleshy and more or less dilatable proboscis, and 
 neitlier teeth, tentacula, nor eyes visible. The posterior extremity not only 
 wants the branchiae, but the setaceous fasciculi with which the rest of the 
 body is furnished; the cirri totally deficient. 
 
 Aren. piscatorum. Lam. Very common in the sand on the sea shore, 
 where it is disinterred by the fishermen, who use it as bait. It is about a 
 
DORSIBRANCHIATA. 297 
 
 foot long-, of a reddish colour, and diffuses an abundant yellowish liquid 
 when touched. It has thirteen paii-s of brancliiae. 
 
 Amphinome, Brug. 
 A pair of more or less complex, tufted or plumose branchise on each ring- of 
 the body, and to each of the feet two fasciculi of separate setx, and two 
 cirri; no jaws to tJie proboscis. The Amphinomes are divided by M. Sa- 
 vigny into Chlgeia, Pleione, Etjpuhosine and Hippokoe. 
 
 Eunice, Cuv. 
 The branchise are also plumose, but the proboscis is well armed with three 
 pairs of differently formed horny jaws; each foot is furnished with two cirri 
 and a bundle of setse, there are five tentacula above the mouth and two on 
 the nape. In some species only do we find two small eyes. 
 
 Eun. gigantea, Cuv. The largest of the known Annulata, being upwards 
 of four feet in length. From the sea of the Antilles. 
 
 After these genera with complex branchiae, we may place those 
 where they are reduced to simple laminae or slight tubercles, or in 
 which they are even replaced by cirri. 
 
 Some of them are still allied to the Eunices, by the strong arma- 
 ture of their proboscis, and their azygous antennae. Such is the 
 
 Ltsidice, Sav. 
 Where, with jaws similar to those of the Eunices, and even more nume- 
 rous and frequently azygous, the only branchiae consist of three tentacula 
 and the cirri. 
 
 Agiatiha, Sav. 
 The jaws of the Aglaurse are also numerous and azygous, consisting of 
 seven, nine, &c.; but theh* tentacula are either wanting or completely con- 
 cealed; the branchiae are also reduced to cirri. 
 
 Nereis, Cuv. 
 
 The true Nereides have an even number of tentacula, attached to the sides of 
 the base of the head, and a little further forwards two others that are biarti- 
 culate, between which are two simple ones. Then* brancliise consist of small 
 laminx between which is spread a net-work of vessels; each foot is also 
 furnished with two tubercles, two fasciculi of setse, one cirrus above, and an- 
 other beneath. 
 
 In the vicinity of these Nereides are grouped several genera in 
 which the body is also slender, and the branchiai are reduced to 
 
 2 N 
 
298 ANNUL AT A. 
 
 simple laminae, or even simple filaments or tubercles. The jaws or 
 tentacula are wanting in some of them. 
 
 Phtiiodoce, Sav. 
 The Phylhcbces, like the true Nereides, have an even number of tenta- 
 cula on the sides of the head, and four or five small additional ones before. 
 They are furnished with eyes; their large proboscis, v/hich is studded with 
 a circle of very short fleshy tubercles, presents no jaws, and, what particu- 
 larly distinguishes them, their branchiae resemble broad leaves, arranged in 
 a single row on each side of the body, and overlapping each other; finely 
 ramified vessels are distributed over them. 
 
 Alciopa, Aud. and M. Edw. 
 The mouth and tentacula nearly similar to those of the Phyllodoces; but 
 thefeet, independently of the tubercle which supports the setae and the 
 two fohaceous cirri or branchis, are furnished with two branchial tubercles 
 which occupy their superior and inferior edges. 
 
 Spio, Fab. and Gm. 
 The body slender; two very long tentacula which have the appearance of 
 antennae; eyes in the head and on each side of every segment of the body; 
 branchiae in the form of a simple filament. They are small worms from the 
 Arctic Ocean that inhabit membranous tubes. 
 
 Smis, Sav. 
 An odd number of tentacula articulated like the beads of a rosary, as well 
 as the superior cirri of the feet, which are simple and have but a single bun- 
 dle of setae. It appears that there is some variety relative to the existence 
 of the jaws. 
 
 Gltcera, Sav. 
 The Glycerse are recognized by their head, which is a fleshy and conical 
 point, resembhng a small horn, and divided at the summit into four 
 scarcely visible tentacula. The proboscis of some still presents jaws; in 
 others, they are said to be imperceptible. 
 
 Nefhthts, Cuv. 
 The proboscis of the Phyllodoces, but no tentacula; two bundles of widely 
 separated setae on each foot, between which is a cirrus. 
 
 LuMBKiNERA, Blainv. 
 The tentacula wanting; but a single small forked tubercle, from which issues 
 a little bundle of setae, on each articulation of the elongated body. If there 
 be any external organ of respiration, it can only consist of an upper lobe of 
 this tubercle. 
 
DORSIBRANCHIATA. 299 
 
 Ahicia, Sav. 
 The teeth and tentacula wanting; two ranges of lamellated cirri on the 
 back of the elongated body; anterior feet furnished with notched crests not 
 found on the others. 
 
 Hesione, Lam. 
 
 A short thick body composed of but few and feebly marked rings; a very 
 lo'ig cirrus, that probably exercises the functions of branchiae, on the top 
 of each foot, which has another beneath with a bundle of setae; a large pro- 
 boscis with neither tentacula nor jaws. 
 
 Several species are found in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Ophelina, Sav. 
 
 The body thick and short, with feebly marked rings and scarcely visible 
 setae; long cirri in lieu of branchiae on two thirds of its length; palate of the 
 mouth with a dentated crest; the lips surrounded with tentacula, of which 
 the two superior are the largest. 
 
 CiRRHATULus, Lam. 
 
 The branchiae consisting of a very long filament; two small bundles of setae, 
 to each of the articulations of the body, which are numerous and compact; 
 a series of long filaments round the nape. The slightly marked head has 
 neither tentacula nor jaws. 
 
 Palmyra, Sav. 
 The Palmyrx are recognized by their superior fasciculi, the setae of which 
 are large, flattened, flabeUiform, and glisten like highly polished gold; their 
 inferior fasciculi are small; their cirri and branchiae feebly marked. They 
 have an elongated body, two extended tentacula, and three very small ones. 
 Palm, aurifera, Sav. The only species known; it is from c>ne to two 
 inches in length, and is found at the Isle of France. 
 
 Aphrodita, Lin. 
 This genus is easily known by the two longitudinal ranges of broad mem- 
 branous scales that cover the back, to which, through a very groundless 
 assimilation, the name of elytra has been given, and under which, their bran- 
 chiae, in the form of fleshy crests, are concealed. 
 
 Their body is usually flattened, and shorter and broader than in the other 
 Annulata. Their extremely thick and muscular cESophagus is susceptible 
 of being protruded like a proboscis. M. Savigny distinguishes 
 
 Haiithea, Sav. 
 Where there are three tentacula, a small crest between two of them, and 
 where the jaws are wanting. 
 A species is found on the coast of France, which, with respect to its co- 
 
300 ANNULATA. 
 
 louring, is one of the most splendid of all animals — the Aphrodita aculeata, 
 L.. It is oval, from six to eight inches in length, and from two to three in 
 breadth. The scales on its back are covered and concealed by a sort of stuff 
 resembling tow, which arises from the sides. From the latter also spring 
 groups of stout spines, which partly transfix the tow, and fasciculi of flexu- 
 ous setae of a splendid golden colour, whose changeable tints rival those of 
 the rainbow. They are not inferior in beauty to the plumage of the Hum- 
 mingbii'd, or to the lustre of the richest gems. Further down is a tubercle 
 from which arise three groups of spines, of as many different diameters, and 
 finally, a fleshy cone. There are forty of these tubercles on each side, and 
 between the two first are two small fleshy tentacida. There are fifteen 
 pairs of wide, and sometimes inflated scales on the back, and fifteen small 
 branchial crests on each side. 
 
 PoLTNOE, Sav. 
 Where there is none of this tow on the back; they have five tentacula, 
 and their proboscis is furnished with strong and horny jaws. 
 
 This is the only situation we can assign to a new and very singu- 
 lar genus which I call 
 
 ChjEtopteeus, Cuv. 
 
 The mouth has neither jaws nor proboscis, and is furnished above with a 
 lip to which are attached two tentacula. Next comes a disk with nine pairs 
 of feet, followed by a pair of long silky fasciculi resembling wings. The 
 lamellated branchiae are rather beneath the body than above it, and extend 
 along its middle. 
 
 Chastopterus pergamentaceus, Cuv. This species, which is found at the 
 Antilles, is from eight to ten inches in length, and inhabits a tube resemb- 
 ling parchment. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 ABRANCHIATA. 
 
 The Abranchiata have no apparent external organ of respiration 
 whatever, and appear to respire, some, like the Lumbrici, by the 
 entire surface of the skin, and others, like the Hirudines, by internal 
 cavities. They have a closed circulating system, usually filled with 
 red blood, and, like all the Annulata, a knotted nervous cord. 
 Some are also provided with setae which enable them to crawl, and 
 
ABRANCHIATA. 301 
 
 others are deprived of them. This has caused their division into 
 two families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 ABRANCHIATA SETIGERA. 
 
 This first family comprises the Lumbrici and Naides of Linnaeus. 
 
 LuMBEicus, Lin. 
 The Earth-worms, as they are commonly called, characterized by a long-, 
 cylindrical body, divided by rug-je into a great number of rings, and by an 
 edentated mouth, necessarily required to be subdivided. 
 
 LUMBKICUS, CuV. 
 
 Eyes, tentacula, branchiae and cirri, all wanting. The nervous cord is no- 
 thing more than a crowded suite of numerous little ganglia. 
 
 Every one knows the Common Earth-worm — Lumbricus terrestris, L.— 
 with a reddish body, that attains nearly a foot in length, and which is com- 
 posed of upwards of one hundred and twenty rings. Under the sixteenth 
 ring are two pores, the use of which is unknown. 
 
 This animal traverses the soil in every direction, and swallows a quantity 
 of earth. It also eats roots, ligneous fibres, animal fi-agments, &c. 
 
 Nais, Lin. 
 The Naides have an elongated body, the rings of which are less distinct than 
 in the Lumbrici. They inhabit holes made by them in the ooze, from which 
 one half of their body projects and is constantly in motion. Black points 
 are obser^'ed on the head of some of them, which may be taken for eyes. 
 They are small worms, whose power of reproduction is as astonishing as 
 that of the Hydrse. Several species are found in the rivers, &c. of France. 
 
 Climena, Sav. 
 The Clymenae also appear to belong to this family. Their thick body has 
 but few rings, which are mostly furnished with stout set»; a httle higher, 
 and near the back, is a bundle of finer ones. There are neither tentacula 
 nor appendages to the head. Their posterior extremity is truncated and 
 radiated. They inhabit tubes. 
 
302 ANNUL AT A. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 ABRANCHIATA ASETIGERA. 
 
 The second family consists of two great genera, both of which 
 are aquatic. 
 
 HiEiTDo, Lin. 
 
 Leeches have an oblong-, sometimes depressed, transversely plicated body; 
 the mouth is encircled by a lip, and the posterior extremity furnished with 
 a flattened disk, both of which are well adapted for adhering to bodies by 
 a sort of suction, and are the principal org-ans of locomotion possessed by 
 these animals; for after extending- itself, the Leech fixes its anterior extre- 
 mity and approximates the other, which in its turn adheres, to allow the for- 
 mer to be carried forward. In several we observe on the under part of the 
 -body two series of pores, the orifices of as many small internal pouches, 
 considered by some naturalists as organs of respiration, although they are 
 usually filled with, a mucous fluid. The intestinal canal is straight, inflated 
 from space to space for two-thirds of its length, where there are two cjeca. 
 The blood swallowed is preserved there, red and unchanged, for several 
 weeks. 
 
 Several of them form their eggs into a cocoon, and envelope them with 
 a fibrous excretion. 
 
 They have been subdivided from characters principally drawn from the 
 organs of their mouth. In the 
 
 Sanguisuga, Sav. 
 
 Or the Leech properly so called, the superior lip of the anterior cup or 
 sucker is divided into several segments; the aperture is transverse and con- 
 tains three jaws, each edge of which is armed with two rows of very fine 
 teeth, which enables it to penetrate] through the skin without causing 
 a dangerous wound. It is marked with ten small points, considered as eyes. 
 
 We all know the medicinal or Common Leech — Hirudo medicinalis, L., 
 that useful instrument for the local abstraction of blood. It is usually 
 blackish, with yellowish streaks above, and yellowish with black spots be- 
 neath. It is found in all stagnant waters. The remaining divisions are 
 Hxmopsis (The Horse Leech), Bdella, Nephelis, &c. &c. 
 
 GoRDius, Lin. 
 
 The body resembling a thread, the only mark of the articulations being 
 slight, transverse plicae; it has neither feet, branchiae, nor tentacula. Inter- 
 nally, however, a nervous system is perceptible in a knotted cord. Perhaps 
 it will be necessary in the end to place them among the cavitary Intestina, 
 like the Nemertes. 
 
ABRANCHIATA. 303 
 
 They live in fresh water, in the mud, and in inundated grounds which 
 they perforate in every direction. 
 
 The different species are not yet well distinguished; the most common, 
 Gordius aquaticus, L., is several inches in length, almost as fine as a hair, 
 and brown, with blackish extremities. 
 
 CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, AND INSECTA: 
 
 OR ARTICULATED ANIMALS WITH ARTICULATED FEET. 
 
 These last three classes of the Articulata, which were united by 
 Linnaeus under the general name o( Jnsecta, are distinguished by at 
 least six articulated feet. Each articulation is tubular, and contains 
 the muscles of the succeeding one, which always moves by gyngly- 
 mus, that is, in but one direction. 
 
 The first articulation, which attaches the foot to the body, and 
 which is composed of two pieces, is called the coxa, or hip; the 
 following one which is, usually, nearly in a horizontal position, the 
 femur, or thigh; and the third, generally vertical, the tibia or leg. 
 To these ensues a suite of small ones which touch the ground, form- 
 ing the true foot, or what is denominated the tarsus. 
 
 The hardness of the calcareous or horny envelope of the greater 
 number of these animals, is owing to that of the excretion which is 
 interposed between the dermis and epidermis, or what is termed in 
 man the mucous tissue. This excretion also contains the bril- 
 liant and varied colours with which they are so often decorated. 
 
 They are always furnished with eyes, which are of two kinds: 
 simple eyes or ocelli, which resemble a very minute lens, generally 
 three in number, and arranged in a triangle on the summit of the 
 head; and compound eyes, where the surface is divided into an in- 
 finitude of different lenses cdAled facets, to each of which there is a 
 corresponding filament of the optic nerve. These two kinds may 
 be either united or separated according to the genus. 
 
 Other organs which for the first time are here presented to us, 
 and which are found in two of these classes (the Crustacea and the 
 Insecta), the antennse, are articulated filaments, varying greatly in 
 
304 CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, INSECTA. 
 
 form, and frequently according to the sex, attached to the head, ap- 
 pearing to be pecuharly devoted to a delicate sense of touch, and 
 perhaps to some other kind of sensation of which we have no idea, 
 but which may refer to the state of the atmosphere. 
 
 These animals enjoy the sense of smell and that of hearing. Some 
 authors place the seat of the first in the antennae, others, in the ori- 
 fices of the tracheae, and Marcel de Serres, &c. in the palpi; neither 
 of these opinions, however, is corroborated by positive and conclu- 
 sive facts. As to the second, it is only in the Crustacea Decapoda 
 and some few of the Orthoptera, that we can find a visible ear. 
 
 The mouth of these animals presents a great analogy, which ex- 
 tends to those which can only feed by the suction of liquid aliment. 
 
 Those called Tritores or Grinders (broyeurs), on account of their 
 having jaws fitted for triturating their food, always present them in 
 lateral pairs, placed one before the other; the anterior pair are es- 
 pecially called mandibles; the pieces which cover them before and 
 behind are named lahia^ and the front one, in particular, lahrum. 
 The palpi are articulated filaments attached to the jaws or to the 
 lower lip, and appear to be employed by the animal in recognizing 
 its food. The form of these various organs determines the nature 
 of the regimen with as much precision as the teeth of quadrupeds. 
 The ligula, or tongue, commonly adheres to the lower lip. Some- 
 times, in the Bees and other Hymenopterous Insects, it is consider- 
 ably elongated, as are also the jaws, forming a sort of false probos- 
 cis (^promuscis) at the base of which is the pharynx, and frequently- 
 covered by a sort of sub-labrum, styled by M. Savigny the epipha- 
 rynx. At other times, in the Hemiptera and Diptera, the mandi- 
 bles and maxillae are replaced by scaly pieces in the form of setae, 
 which are received in an elongated tubular sheath, that is either 
 cylindrical and articulated, or formed with more less of an elbow, 
 and terminated by a kind of lips. In this case they constitute a true 
 proboscis. In others that also live by suction, the Lepidoptera, the 
 maxillas alone are greatly elongated and united, producing a tubular 
 setiform body, resembling a long, slender, and spiral tongue; the 
 remaining parts of the mouth are considerably reduced. Sometimes 
 again, as in many of the Crustacea, the anterior feet approach the 
 maxillae, assume their form, and exercise part of their functions — the 
 latter are then said to be multiplied. It may even happen that the 
 true maxillae become so much reduced, that the maxillary feet sup- 
 
CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, INSECTA. 305 
 
 ply their place in toto. Whatever be the modifications of these 
 parts, however, they can always be recognized and referred to a 
 general type. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 The Crustacea are articulated animals, with articulated feet, re- 
 spiring by means of branchiae, protected in some by the borders of 
 a shell, and external in others, but which are not inclosed in special 
 cavities of the body, and which receive air from openings in the 
 surface of the skin. Their circulation is double, and analogous to 
 that of the Mollusca. The blood is transmitted from the heart, 
 which is placed on the back, to the different parts of the body, 
 whence it is sent to the branchiae, and thence back again to the 
 heart. These branchiee, sometimes situated at the base of the feet^ 
 or even on them, and at others on the inferior appendages of the 
 abdomen, either form pyramids composed of laminae in piles, or bris- 
 tled with seta3, or tufted filaments of simple ones, and even appear 
 in some cases to consist wholly of hairs. 
 
 The Crustacea are apterous or deprived of wings, furnished with 
 compound eyes, though rarely with ocelli, and usually with four an- 
 tennas. They have mostly— the Pascilopoda excepted — three pairs 
 of jaws, the two superior ones, designated by the name of mandibles^ 
 included; as many foot-jaws, the last four of which, however, in a 
 great many instances, become true feet; and ten feet properly so 
 called, all terminated by a single small nail. The mouth, as in In- 
 sects, presents a labrum and a ligula, but no lower lip properly so 
 called, or comparable to that of the latter; the third pair of foot-jaws, 
 or the first, closes the mouth externally, and replaces that part. 
 
 Their envelope is usually solid, and more or less calcareous. 
 
 They change their skin several times, and generally preserve their 
 
 primitive form and natural activity. They are mostly carnivorous 
 
 and aquatic, and live several years. They do not attain their adult 
 
 2 O 
 
306 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 state until after casting their skin a certain number of times. With 
 the exception of a few in which these changes somewhat influence 
 their primitive form and modify or augment their locomotive or- 
 gans, they are at birth, size apart, such as they are always to re- 
 main. 
 
 Division of the Crustacea into Orders. 
 
 The situation and form of the branchiae, the mode in which the 
 head is articulated with the trunk, the mobility or fixedness of the 
 eyes, the organs of manducation, and the teguments, constitute the 
 basis of our divisions, and give rise to the following orders. 
 
 We divide this class into two sections, the Malacostbaca, and 
 the Entomosteaca. 
 
 The first are usuajly furnished with very solid teguments, of a 
 calcareous nature, and with ten or fourteen feet, generally unguicu- 
 lated. The mouth, situated in the ordinary place, is composed of 
 a labrum, tongue, two mandibles (frequently furnished with palpi), 
 and two pairs of maxillas covered by the foot-jaws. In a great 
 number each eye is placed on an articulated and movable pedicle, 
 and the branchiee are concealed under the lateral margins of the 
 upper or lower shell; in the others they are usually placed under 
 the post-abdomen. This section consists of five orders: the Deca- 
 foda, Stomapoda, Lasmodipoda, Amphipoda, and the Isopoda. 
 The four first embrace the genus Cancer of Linnaeus, and the last 
 his Oniscus. 
 
 The second, the Entomostraca, or " Insects with shells" of Muller, 
 is formed of the genus Monocuxus, Lin. Here the teguments are 
 horny and very thin, while a shell, resembling a buckler, composed 
 of from one to two pieces, covers or incloses the body of the greater 
 number. The eyes are almost always sessile, and frequently there 
 is but one. The feet, the number of which varies, are mostly fitted 
 for natation, and without a terminal nail. Some of them, having 
 an anterior mouth, composed of a labrum, two mandibles — rarely 
 furnished with palpi, a tongue, and one, or at most two pairs of jaws, 
 of which the external ones are naked or are not covered by the foot- 
 jaws, approximate to the preceding Crustacea. In the other Ento- 
 mostraca, which seem to approach the Arachnides in several 
 particulars, the organs of manducation are sometimes simply formed 
 by the coxae of the feet, projecting and arranged like lobes bristling 
 
CRUSTACEA. 307 
 
 with small spines round a large central pharynx. At others they 
 either compose a little siphon or beak, used for suction, as in seve- 
 ral Arachnides and Insects, or they are wholly (or nearly so) 
 invisible externally, either because the siphon is internal, or because 
 the suction is produced in the manner of a cup. 
 
 The Entomostraca are thus dentated or edentated. The first 
 will form our order of the BRANCHioroDA, and the second that of 
 
 the P^CILOPODA. 
 
 FIRST GENERAL DIVISION. 
 
 MALACOSTRACA. 
 
 The Malacostraca naturally divide themselves into those whose 
 eyes are placed on a movable pedicle, and those in which they are 
 sessile and fixed. 
 
 a. Eyes placed on a movable and articulated pedicle. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 DECAPODA(i). 
 
 The head, in the Decapoda, is closely joined to the thorax, and 
 covered with it by a shell, entirely continuous, but that most fre- 
 quently exhibits deep lines dividing it into various regions which in- 
 dicate the places occupied by the principal internal organs. The 
 mode of their circulation presents characters which distinguish thena 
 from the other Crustacea. 
 
 These animals grow but slowly, and live a long time. It is 
 among them that we find the largest and most useful species, but 
 their flesh is not easily digested. The body of some Palinuri attains 
 the length of a metre. Their claws are efficacious weapons, and 
 
 (1) Ten-Footed. 
 
308 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 have such power in large individuals, that they have been seen to 
 seize a Goat, and drag it from the shore: They usually inhabit wa- 
 ter, but do not instantly perish when deprived of it; some species 
 even pass a part of their lives on land. Even they are compelled to 
 fix their domicil, either in burrows, or in cool, damp places. The 
 Decapoda are voracious and carnivorous. Certain species even pe- 
 netrate into cemeteries, and devour the dead. Their limbs are 
 regenerated with surprising promptitude, but it is requsite that the 
 fracture be at the junction of the articulations, and when accident 
 determines it otherwise, they know how to apply a remedy. When 
 they wish to change their skin, they seek a retired and solitary spot, 
 in order to be sheltered from their enemies, and to remain at rest. 
 When the change is effected, their body is soft, and has a more ex- 
 quisite flavour. A chemical analysis of the old shell proves it to 
 be formed of the carbonate and phosphate of lime, united in differ- 
 ent proportions with gelatine. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 BRACHYURA(l). 
 
 Tail shorter than the trunk, without appendages or fins at the ex- 
 tremity, and doubled under in a state of rest, when it is received in 
 a fossula on the chest. Triangular in the males, and only furnish- 
 ed at base with four or two appendages, in the form of horns, the 
 superior of which are the largest, it becomes widened, and convex 
 in the females, presenting beneath four pairs of double hairy fila- 
 ments, destined to support the ova, and analogous to the sub-caudal 
 natatory feet of the Macroura, and others. 
 
 This family may constitute but one genus, that of 
 
 Cancer, Lin. 
 Or the Crabs. Naturalists, however, have now divided them into the Swim- 
 mers, Arcuated, Quadrilateral, Orbicular, Triangular, &c. differing in shape, 
 the number and form cf the spines or teeth, the relative proportion of the 
 eyes and their pedicles, &c. Each of these sections are again divided into 
 numerous genera. 
 
 Among the most noted of these we find the Land Crabs of intertropical 
 
 (1) Short-tailed. 
 
DECAPODA. 309 
 
 countries. Their habits are a constant source of interest to travellers, 
 but by abstracting from their accounts all improbable and doubtful facts, 
 their history will be as follows. The greater portion of their hfe is passed 
 on land, where they secrete themselves in holes, from which they never 
 issue but at night. Some inhabit cemeteries. Once in the year they col- 
 lect in immense bands and pursue a direct course to the sea, heedless of all 
 obstacles; after depositing tlieir ova, they return much enfeebled. It is 
 said that they seal up the mouth of their burrow during the time they are 
 casting their shell. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 MACROURA(l). 
 
 In the Decapoda Macroura, the end of the tail is provided with 
 appendages which most frequently form a fin on each side; the tail 
 itself is at least as long as the body, extended, exposed and simply 
 curved towards its posterior extremity. Its under surface usually 
 presents in both sexes five pairs of false feet, each terminated by 
 two laminas, or as many filaments. This tail is always composed 
 of seven distinct segments. The branchias are formed of vesicular, 
 bearded and hairy pyramids, arranged in several of them, either in 
 two rows, or in separate fasciculi. The antennas are generally 
 elongated and salient. The ocular pedicles are usually short. 
 The external foot-jaws are mostly narrow and elongated, resembling 
 palpi, and do not wholly cover the other parts of the mouth. The 
 shell is narrower and more elongated than that of the Brachyura, 
 and usually terminates by a point in the middle of the front. 
 
 With De Geer and Gronovius, we will arrange them in a single genus, 
 that of 
 
 AsTACUS, 
 Which we divide in the following manner. Some, by the proportions, 
 figure, and uses of their feet, of which the first, or at least the second pair, 
 are in the form of claws, and by the subcaudal situations of their ova, evi- 
 dently approach the preceding Crustacea, and approximate still more 
 closely to those commonly known by the names of Crawfish, Lobster, and 
 Shrimp. 
 
 The feet of the others are very slender, and are furnished with an exte- 
 
 (1) Long-tailed. 
 
310 CRUSTACEA. . 
 
 rior and elongated appendage or branch, whicli seems to double their num- 
 ber. They are exclusively adapted for natation, and none of them termi- 
 nates in a forceps. The ova are situated between them, and not under tlie 
 tail. 
 
 This genus is now divided into four sections each consisting of nume- 
 rous subgenera. In one of these [Pagurus) we find the Hermit {Cancer 
 Bernhardus, L.) which inhabits univalve shells, stopping the aperture with 
 its right claw, which is the largest. It is common in European seas. In an- 
 other (^sfac«s. Fab.) we find the Astacus marinus or Common Lobster. 
 The fresh water species are known by the name of Craw-Jish. Among these 
 also we find the Shrimp {Crangon) and the Prawns {Palxmon). 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 STOMAPODA. 
 
 The branchiae of the Stomapoda are exposed and attached to the 
 five pairs of sub-abdonninal appendages, exhibited to us by that part 
 of the body, called tail, in theDecapoda, and which here, as inmost 
 of the Macroura, are fitted for natation, or are fin-feet. Their shell 
 is divided into two portions, the anterior of which supports the eyes 
 and intermediate antennas, or composes the head, without giving ori- 
 gin to the foot-jaws. These organs, as well as the four anterior feet, 
 are frequently approximated to the mouth on two lines that converge 
 inferiorly, and hence the denomination of Stomapoda affixed to this 
 order. 
 
 The teguments of the Stomapoda are thin, and in several nearly 
 membranous or diaphanous. The shell is sometimes formed of two 
 shields, of which the anterior corresponds to the head and the pos- 
 terior to the thorax, and sometimes of a single piece, which how- 
 ever is free behind, usually exposing the thoracic segments, bearing 
 the three last pairs of feet and having an articulation before that 
 serves as a base to the eyes and intermediate antennae; these latter 
 organs are always extended and terminated by two or three threads. 
 The eyes are always approximated. The formation of the mouth is 
 essentially the same as in the Decapoda; but the palpi of the man- 
 dibles, instead of being laid on them, are always vertical. The 
 foot-jaws are deprived of the flagelliform appendage presented to us 
 by the same parts in the Decapoda. They have the form of claws 
 
STOMAPODA. 311 
 
 or of small feet, and, at least in several — the Squillse, — their exter- 
 nal base as well as that of the two anterior feet properly so called, 
 exhibits a vesicular body. 
 
 The Stomapoda are all marine Crustacea. Their favourite habi- 
 tat is in the intertropical latitudes, and they are not found beyond 
 the temperate zones. Of their habits we are totally ignora-nt; that 
 those which are furnished with claws use them in seizing their prey, 
 in the manner of those Orthoptera called Mantes^ we cannot doubt. 
 Hence their vulgar appellation of Sea-Mantis: they are the Cran- 
 gones and Crangines of the Greeks. According to Uisso they pre- 
 fer sandy bottoms in deep water. Other Stomapoda, those of our 
 second family, being less favoured with natatory appendages, and 
 having a much flatter and more superficially extended body, are ge- 
 nerally found on the surface of the water, where they move very 
 slowly. We will divide the Stomapoda into two families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 UNIPELTATA. 
 
 In this family the shell consists of a single shield^ of an elongated 
 quadrilateral form, usually widened and free behind, covering the 
 head, the antennae and eyes excepted, which are placed on a com- 
 mon anterior articulation, and at least the first segments of the body. 
 Its anterior extremity terminates in a point, or is preceded by a small 
 plate with a similar end. All the foot-jaws, the second of which 
 are very large, and the four anterior feet are closely approximated 
 to the mouth on two inferiorly converging lines, and have the form 
 of claws with a single finger or mobile and flexed hook. With the 
 exception of the second feet all these organs are furnished at their 
 external origin with a little pediculated vesicle. The other six feet, 
 at the base of whose third segment is a lateral appendage, are linear, 
 terminated by a brush, and simply natatory. The lateral antennas 
 have a scale at their base, and the stem of the intermediaries is com- 
 posed of three filaments. The body is narrow and elongated; the 
 ocular pedicles are always short. 
 
 This family is composed of but one genus, that of 
 
 Squilla, Fab,, 
 Which is now divided into the True Squillse, Gomdadylus, Coronis, &c. 
 
312 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 BIPELTATA. 
 
 In this family we find the shell divided into two shields, the ante- 
 rior of which, very large and more or less oval, forms the head, and 
 the posterior, corresponding to the thorax, transverse and angular 
 in its circumference, supports the foot-jaws and feet. These latter, 
 with the exception at most of the two posterior and two last foot-jaws, 
 are slender and filiform, usually very long and accompanied by a 
 lateral ciliated appendage. The other four foot-jaws are very small 
 and conical. The base of the lateral antennsE! exhibits no scale; 
 the intermediaries are terminated by two threads. The ocular pe- 
 dicles are long. The body is much flattened, membranous, and 
 diaphanous; the abdomen small and its posterior fin without spines. 
 It comprises but a single genus, the 
 
 PiiYLLosoMA, Leach, 
 Of which all the species inhabit the Atlantic Ocean and Oriental seas. 
 
 MALACOSTRACA. 
 
 h. Eyes sessile and immovable. 
 
 The Branchiopoda are the only Crustacea of which we shall 
 henceforward have occasion to speak, that exhibit eyes placed on 
 pedicles. But independently of the fact that these pedicles are 
 neither articulated nor lodged in special cavities, the Branchiopoda 
 have no shell and are otherwise removed from the preceding Crus- 
 tacea by various characters. All the Malacostraca of this division 
 are also deprived of a shell; their body, from the head downwards, 
 is composed of a suite of articulations of which each of the first 
 seven is furnished with a pair of feet, the following and last ones, 
 seven at most, forming a sort of tail terminated by fins or styliform 
 appendages. The head presents four antennae, the two intermediate 
 superior, two eyes, and a mouth composed of two mandibles, a 
 tongue, two paii's of jaws, and a sort of lip formed by two foot-jaws 
 that correspond to the two superior ones of the Decapoda; here, as 
 in the Stomapoda, the flagrum no longer exists. The four last 
 
STOMAPODA. 313 
 
 foot-jaws are transformed into feet, sometimes simple and at others 
 constituting a claw, but almost always with a single toe or hook. 
 
 All these Crustacea are small, and mostly inhabit the sea-coast 
 or fresh water. Some are terrestrial, and others are known which 
 are parasitical. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 AMPHIPODA. 
 
 The Amphipoda are the only Malacosfraca with sessile and im- 
 movable eyes, whose mandibles, hke those of the preceding Crus- 
 tacea, are furnished with a palpus, and the only ones whose sub- 
 caudal appendages, always very apparent, by their narrow and 
 elongated form, their articulations, bifurcations, and other incisures, 
 as well as by the hairs or cilia with which they are provided, resem- 
 ble false or natatory feet. In the Malacostraca of the following 
 orders, these appendages have the form of laminse or scales; here 
 these hairs and cilia appear to constitute the branchiae. Many of 
 them, like the Stomapoda and the Losmodipoda, have vesicular bursie 
 either between their feet or at their external base, the use of which 
 is unknown. 
 
 The first pair of feet, or that which corresponds to the second 
 foot-jaws, is always annexed to a particular segment, the first after 
 the head. The antennae, which, with a single exception — thePhro- 
 nimae, — are four in number, project, gradually taper into a point, 
 and consist, as in the preceding Crustacea, of a peduncle and a 
 single stem, or one furnished at most with a little lateral branch, and 
 usually composed of several joints. The body is generally com- 
 pressed and curved beneath posteriorly. The terminal appendages 
 of the tail are most frequently styliform and articulated. Most of 
 them swim and leap with facility and always laterally. Some in- 
 habit springs and rivulets; most of them however live in salt water. 
 Their colour is uniform, verging on reddish or greenish. 
 
 They may all be comprised in a single genus, that of 
 2 P 
 
314 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 Gammakus, Fab., 
 Which is now divided into various subgenera, such as Phronima, Hyptria, 
 &c. Among the most interesting of these is the 
 
 CoKOPHitrjyi, Lat. 
 The C. longicornis, called Fernys, on the coast of Rochelle, lives in holes, 
 which it forms in the mud, that is covered with hurdles, called bouchots by 
 the inhabitants. The animal does not make its appearance till the begin- 
 ning of May. It wages everlasting war against the Nereides, Amphinomse, 
 Arenicolse, and other marine Annulata, which inhabit the same locality. A 
 curious spectacle is presented by these Crustacea when the tide is coming 
 in; myriads of them may then be seen moving in every direction, beating 
 the mud with their great arms, and diluting it in order to discover their prey: 
 is it one of the above mentioned Annulata they have discovered, which 
 is ten or twenty times larger than themselves? they unite to attack and de- 
 vour it. The carnage never ceases until the mud has been thoroughly 
 turned up and its inequalities levelled. They do not even spare MoUusca, 
 Fishes, or dead bodies on the shore. They mount upon the hurdles which 
 contain Muscles, and fishermen assert that they wUl cut the threads that 
 keep them there, in order to precipitate them into the mud, where they may 
 devour them at their leisure. 
 
 ORDER IV, 
 
 L^MODIPODA.(l) 
 
 The Laemodipoda are the only Malacostraca with sessile eyes, in 
 which the posterior extremity of the body exhibits no distinct bran- 
 chiae, and which are almost deprived of a tail, the two last feet be- 
 ing inserted in that extremity, or the segment which connects them 
 with it being merely followed by one or two very small joints. They 
 are also the only ones in which the two anterior feet, that corres- 
 pond to the second foot-jaws, form part of the head. 
 
 They all have four setaceous antennse supported by a triarticu- 
 lated peduncle, mandibles without palpi, a vesicular body at the 
 base of at least the four pairs of feet, beginning at the second or 
 third pair, those of the head included. The body, usually filiform 
 or linear, is composed of eight or nine segments, including the head 
 and some small appendages in the form of tubercles at its posterior 
 
 (1) Throat-footed. 
 
LvEMODIPODA. 315 
 
 and inferior extremity. The feet are terminated by a stout hook. 
 The four anterior, the second of which are the largest, are always 
 terminated by a monodactyle forceps or a claw. In several, the 
 four following ones are shortened, less articulated, without the ter- 
 minal hook, or are rudiraental, and nowise adapted for the ordinary 
 uses of similar parts. 
 
 The females carry their ova under the second and third segments 
 of the body, in a pouch formed of approximated scales. They are 
 all marine Crustacea. 
 
 We may unite them in a single genus which, by the law of priority, 
 should be called 
 
 Cyamus, Lat. 
 Now divided into Leptomera, Naupredia, Caprella, and Cyamus proper. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 
 ISOPODA.(l) 
 
 The Isopoda approach the Lsemodipoda by the absence of the 
 palpi of the mandibles, but are removed from them in several other 
 respects. The two anterior feet are not attached to the head, and 
 belong, as well as the following ones, to a particular segment. 
 They are always fourteen in number, unguiculated, and without any 
 vesicular appendage at their base. The under part of the tail is 
 furnished with very apparent appendages resembling leaflets or vesi- 
 cular bursae, the two first or external of which, either partially or 
 wholly, usually cover the others. The body is generally flattened, 
 or is wider than it is thick. The mouth consists of the same pieces 
 as in the preceding Crustacea; but here, those which correspond 
 to the two superior foot-jaws of the Decapoda, exhibit an appear- 
 ance of a lower lip terminated by two palpi, still more than in the 
 latter. The two mediate antennae are almost obliterated in the last 
 Crustacea of this order, which are all terrestrial, and also differ from 
 the others in their respiratory apparatus. Most of them are aqua- 
 
 (1) Equal-footed. 
 
316 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 tic. Those which are terrestrial, Hke all other Crustacea which 
 live out of water, still require a certain degree of atmospheric hu- 
 midity to enable them to breathe, and to preserve their branchiae in 
 a proper state for the exercise of that function. 
 
 This order according to the system of Linnasus embraces the 
 genus 
 
 Oniscus, Lin., 
 Which is now divided into six sections. Those of the first are parasitical. 
 The subgenera are numerous. Some are aquatic and others terrestrial. 
 Among the latter we have the 
 
 Oxiscus, Lin. 
 The true Onisci have eight joints in their lateral antennse, but their base is 
 covered, and the two external appendages of the extremity of the tail are 
 much larger than the others. These animals are vulgarly called Clous-d- 
 porte, and by syncope Cloporte, PvrcekU, de Saint- Antoine, Wood lice, &c. 
 They inhabit retired and obscure places, cellars, fissui-es in walls, old build- 
 ings, under stones, &c., &c. They feed on decaying vegetable and animal 
 matters, and seldom issue from their retreat, except in rainy weather. 
 They move but slowly, unless they are alarmed. The ova are inclosed in a 
 pectoral pouch. The young, at birth, have one thoracic segment less than 
 the adult, and consequently have but twelve feet. 
 
 SECOND GENERAL DIVISION. 
 
 ENTOMOSTRACA. 
 
 Under this denomination, which is taken from the Greek, and sig- 
 nifies Insects with shells, Othon Frederick Muller comprises the 
 genus Monoculus of Linnasus, to which we must add some of his 
 Lerneae, 
 
 Tliese animals, mostly microscopic, are all aquatic, and mostly in- 
 habit fresh water. Their feet, the number of whicli varies, and that 
 sometimes extends to beyond a hundred, are usually fitted for nata- 
 tion only, being sometimes ramified or divided, and sometimes fur- 
 nished with pinnulas or formed of lamellae. Their brain is formed 
 of one or two globules. The heart has always the figure of a long 
 vessel.. The branchiae, composed of hairs or setae, singly or united. 
 
ENTOMOSTRACA. 317 
 
 in the form of barbs, combs or tufts, constitute a part of those feet 
 or of a certain number of them, and sometimes of the upper mandi- 
 bles. Hence the origin of our term Branchiopoda, affixed to these 
 animals, of which at first we formed but a single order. Nearly all 
 of them are provided with a shell composed of one or two pieces, 
 very thin, and most generally almost membranous and nearly dia- 
 phanous, or at least with a large anterior thoracic segment, fre- 
 quently confounded with the head, which appears to replace the 
 shell. The teguments are usually rather horny than calcareous, 
 thereby approximating thiese animals to thelnsectaand Arachnides. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 BRANCHIOPODA(l). 
 
 A mouth composed of alabrum, two mandibles, aligula, and one 
 or two pairs of jaws, and branchias, the first of which, when there 
 are several, are always anterior, characterize this order or the sixth 
 of the class. 
 
 These Crustacea are always errant and are generally protected 
 by a shell resembling that of a bivalve, and furnished with four or 
 two antennae. Their feet, with a few exceptions, are wholly nata- 
 tory. Their number varies, being but six in some, while in others 
 it amounts to twenty, forty-two, or more than a hundred. Many of 
 them have but one eye. 
 
 Most of these animals, as we have already stated, being nearly 
 microscopical, it is evident that the application of one of the char- 
 acters we have employed — that of the presence or absence of the 
 palpi of the mandibles — with respect to them, presents almost insu- 
 perable difliculties. The form and number of the feet, that of the 
 eyes, the shell, the antennae, furnish us with more visible marks, 
 and such as are within the observation of every one. 
 
 This order in the systems of De Geer, Fabricius and Linnseus, a 
 single species excepted — M. polyphemuSf — contained but the single 
 genus 
 
 (1) Gill-footed 
 
318 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 MoNOcuLus, Lin. 
 Which is now divided into two g^eat sections and various subgenera. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 P^CILOPODA(l). 
 
 The Paecilopoda are distinguished from the Branchiopoda by the 
 diversity in the form of their feet, among the anterior of which an 
 indeterminate number are ambulatory, or fitted for prehension; 
 while the others, lamelliform or pinnate, are branchial and natatory. 
 It is principally, however, by the absence of the usual mandibles and 
 jaws that they are removed from all other Crustacea. Sometimes 
 these parts are replaced by the spinous haunches of the first six pairs 
 of feet; and sometimes the organs of manducation consist either of 
 an external siphon in the form of an inarticulated rostrum, or of 
 some other apparatus fitted for suction, but concealed or slightly 
 apparent. 
 
 Their body is almost always, either wholly, or for the greater por- 
 tion, invested with a shell in the form of a shield, consisting of a 
 single plate in most of them, and of two in others, which always 
 presents two eyes when those organs are distinct. Two of their 
 antennas — Chelicerse^ Lat. — form a forceps in several, and fulfil its 
 functions. Most of them have twelve feet, and nearly all the re- 
 mainder have either ten or twesty-two. Their usual habitat is on 
 aquatic animals, and most commonly on Fishes. 
 
 We divide this order into two families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 XYPHOSURA. 
 
 This family is distinguished from the second by several characters: 
 there is no siphon; the haunches of the first six pair of feet are 
 covered with small spines and perform the office of jaws; there are 
 
 (1) Various-footed. 
 
P^CILOPODA. 319 
 
 twenty-two feet; the first ten, with the exception of the two anterior 
 ones in the males, are terminated by a dydactyle forceps, and in- 
 serted, as well as the two that follow, under a large semi-lunar 
 shield. They are wandering animals, and form the genus 
 
 LiMULUs, Fab. 
 The species are known in commerce by the name of the Molucca Crab. 
 
 These animals are sometimes found two feet in length, they inhabit the 
 seas of hot climates, and most generally frequent their shores. They appear 
 to me to be proper to the East Indies and the coast of America. The spe- 
 cies found in France — L. cy clops — is commonly called the Casserole, (I) 
 from its having some resemblance to the form of that utensil, and because 
 when the feet are removed its shell is used to hold water. Savages employ 
 the stylet of the tail to point their arrows, which, thus armed, are much 
 dreaded. Their eggs are eaten in China. "When these animals walk, their 
 feet are not seen. Fossil specimens are found in certain strata of a mode- 
 rate antiquity. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 SIPHONOSTOMA. 
 
 The Siphonostomae have no kind of jaws whatever. A sucker or 
 siphon, sometimes external and in the form of an acute inarticulated 
 rostrum, and at others concealed or but slightly visible, fulfils the 
 functions of a mouth. There are never more than fourteen feet. 
 The shell is very thin and composed of a single piece. They are 
 all parasitical. 
 
 This family is now divided into two tribes, the Calagides, com- 
 prising Argula and Caligus (or the Fish-Louse), and the Lernei- 
 FOKMES, which consists of two genera also. They are DicJielestium 
 and 
 
 NiCOTHOE. 
 These animals terminate the Crustacea, and are distinguished from all othei's 
 of that class by their heteroclitical form. To the naked eye they seem 
 nothing more than two lobes united in the form of a horse-shoe, which en- 
 closes two others. By the aid of glasses, however, we discover that 
 
 (1) The King-crab of our fishermen, or the Horse-shoe. Very commoui 
 on the coast of New Jersey. 
 
320 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 the two large lobes are formed by the g-reat expansion of tlie sides of the 
 thorax, which resembles wings, are almost oval, and thrown behind; that 
 the two others are clusters of eggs, &c. 
 
 NicotJioe asfaci, Aud. and Edw. The only species known; it is about 
 half a line long and three lines broad, the thoracic enlargement included. It 
 is rose-coloured, paler on the oviferous sacs; the expansions yellowish. It 
 adlieres closely to the branchise of the Lobster, and penetrates deeply be- 
 tween the filaments of those organs. 
 
 TRILOBITES. 
 
 According to Brongniart and various other naturalists, it is in the 
 vicinity of the Limuli and other Entomostraca with numerous feet, 
 that we should place these singular fossil animals, originally con- 
 founded under the common name of Entomolithus paradoxus^ and 
 now designated by that of Trilobites. By this hypothesis we have 
 to admit as a positive or at least highly probable, fact, the existence 
 of locomotive organs, although, notwithstanding the most careful 
 investigation, no vestige of them has been discovered. Presuming, 
 on the contrary, that these animals were deprived of them, 1 thought 
 that their natural position was in the neighbourhood of the Chitones, 
 or rather that they constituted the original stock of the Articulata, 
 being connected on the one hand with these latter Mollusca, and 
 on the other, with those first mentioned, and even with the Glomeres, 
 to which some Trilobites, such as the Calymenes, appear to ap- 
 proximate, as well as to the Chitones, inasmuch as by contracting 
 they could also become spherical. Be this as it may, these animals 
 appear to have been annihilated by some ancient revolution of our 
 planet. 
 
 The Trilobites, one heteromorphous genus excepted, that of Ag- 
 nostus, have, like the Limuli, a large anterior segment in the form 
 of an almost semicircular or lunated shield, followed by from about 
 twelve to twenty-two segments, all transversal except the last, and 
 divided by two longitudinal sulci into three ranges of parts or lobes, 
 whence their name of Trilobites. Some naturahsts call them 
 Entomostracites . 
 
 They are divided by Mr Brongniart into the following genera; 
 Agnostus, Calymene, Asaphus^ Ogygia and Paradoxides. 
 
ARACHNIDES. 321 
 
 CLASS II. 
 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 The Arachnides, which compose the second class of articulated 
 animals provided with movable feet, are, as well as the Crustacea, 
 deprived of wings, are not subject (o changes of form, or do not ex- 
 perience any metamorphosis, simply casting their skin; but they 
 differ from them as well as from Insects in several particulars. Like 
 the latter, the surface of their body presents apertures or transverse 
 fissures called stigmata^ for the introduction of air, but they are few 
 in number — eight at most, and usually but two — and confined to 
 the inferior portion of the abdomen. Respiration is also effected 
 either by means of air-branchiae, fulfilling the functions of lungs that 
 are contained in sacs, of which these stigmata are the apertures, or by 
 radiated tracheae. The visual organs merely consist of ocelli, or 
 simple eyes, which, when numerous, are variously grouped. The 
 head, usually confounded with the thorax, in place of the antennae, 
 has two articulated pieces in the form of small didactyle or mono- 
 dactyle chelae, improperly compared to the mandibles of Insects, 
 and so denominated, moving in a contrary direction to the former, or 
 from above downwards, still however co-operating' in the business 
 of manducation, and replaced in the Arachnides, where the mouth 
 has the form of a siphon or sucker, by two pointed blades which act 
 as lancets. A kind of lip, or rather ligula, produced by a pectoral 
 prolongation; two jaws formed by the radical joint of the first seg- 
 ment of two small legs or palpi, or by an appendage or lobe of that 
 same joint; a part concealed under the mandibles, composed of a 
 projection in the form of a rostrum, produced by the union of a 
 very small clypeus terminated by an extremely small trianL'ular la- 
 brum, and of an inferior longitudinal carina, u^aally very liairy, are 
 the parts which, with the pieces termed mandibles, constitute with 
 some modifications the mouth of most of the Arachnides. The legs, 
 like those of Insects, are commonly terminated by two hooks, and 
 even sometimes by one more, and are all annexed to the thorax, or 
 2 Q 
 
322 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 rather cephalo-thorax, which, except in a small number, is only 
 formed of a single segment, and is frequently intimately united to 
 the abdomen. This latter part of the body is soft, or but slightly 
 defended, in most of them. 
 
 Most of the Arachnides feed on Insects which they either seize 
 alive, or to which they adiiere, abstracting their fluids by suction. 
 Others are parasitical, and live on vertebrated animals. Some of 
 them however are only found in flour, on cheese, and even on vari- 
 ous vegetables. Those which live on other animals frequently 
 multiply there to a great extent. Two of the legs, in some species, 
 are only developed by a change of the tegument. 
 
 Division of the Arachnides into Orders. 
 
 Some have pulmonary sacs, a heart with very distinct vessels, 
 and six or eight simple eyes. They compose our first order, or 
 that of the Pulmoxaeoi;. 
 
 The others respire by tracheas, and have no organs of circulation, 
 or if they have, the circulation is not complete. The tracheae are 
 divided near their origin into various branches, and do not, as in 
 Insects, form two trunks which run parallel to each other through- 
 out the whole length of the body and receive air from various points 
 by means of numerous stigmata. Here, but two, at most, are dis- 
 tinctly visible, and they are situated near the base of the abdomen. 
 The number of ocelli is at most but four. They constitute our se- 
 cond and last order, or that of the Tkacheaki^. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 PULMONARIiE. 
 
 We here find a well marked circulating system and pulmonary sacs, 
 always placed under the abdomen, announced externally by trans- 
 verse openings or fissures (stigmata), of which there are sometimes 
 eight, four on each side, and at others four, or even two. The 
 number of ocelli is from six to eight, while in the following order it 
 never exceeds four, and is most generally but two; sometimes they 
 
PULMONARIiE. 323 
 
 are hardly perceptible, or even annihilated. The organ of respira- 
 tion is formed of little laminje. The heart is a large vessel which 
 extends along the back, and gives off branches on each side and 
 anteriorly. There are always eight legs. The head is always con- 
 founded with the thorax, and presents at its anterior superior ex- 
 tremity two mandibles — so called by authors, the chelicerse of La- 
 treille, terminated by two fingers, one of which is movable, or by 
 a single one resembling a hook or claw that is always movable. 
 The mouth is composed of a labrum, of two palpi, sometimes re- 
 sembling arms or claws, of the two or four jaws, formed, when there 
 are but two, by the radical joint of these palpi, and moreover, where 
 there are four, by the same joint of the first pair of feet, and of a 
 ligula consisting of one or two pieces. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 ARANEIDES. 
 
 This family is composed of the genus Aranea, Lin., or the Spi- 
 ders. They have palpi resembling little feet, without a forceps at 
 the end, terminated at most by a little hook. Their frontal cheli- 
 ceras (the mandibles of authors) are terminated by a movable hook, 
 flexed inferiorly, underneath which, and near its extremity, which is 
 always pointed, is a little opening, that allows a passage to a veno- 
 mous fluid contained in a gland of the preceding joint. There are 
 never more than two jaws. The thorax usually marked with a de- 
 pression in the form of a V, indicating the space occupied by the 
 head, consists of a single segment, posteriorly to which, by means 
 of a short pedicle, is suspended a movable and usually soft abdomen; 
 it is always furnished with from four to six closely approximated 
 cylindrical or conical, articulated mamillae with fleshy extremities, 
 which are perforated with numberless small orifices for the passage of 
 silky filaments of extreme tenuity proceeding from internal reservoirs. 
 Their legs, identical as to form, but of different sizes, are composed 
 of seven joints, of which the two first form the hip, the third the 
 thigh, the fourth and fifth the tibia, and the two others the tarsus: 
 the last is terminated by two hooks usually pectinated, and in seve- 
 ral by one more, which is smaller and notdentated. The intestinal 
 canal is straight, consisting of a first stomach, composed of several 
 
324 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 sacs, and then of a second stomach or dilatation surrounded with 
 silk. 
 
 The nervous system is composed of a double cord occupying the 
 median line of the body, and of ganglions which distribute nerves to 
 the various organs. 
 
 With respect to the simple eyes, or ocelli, Mr Dafour remarks 
 that they shine in darkness like those of Cats, and that the Araneides 
 most probably enjoy the faculty both of nocturnal and diurnal 
 vision. 
 
 The abdomen becomes so putrid and decomposed after death, 
 that its colours and even its form are soon destroyed. M. Dufour, 
 by means of a rapid desiccation, the mode of vyhich he points out, 
 has succeeded in remedying this evil to a great degree. 
 
 The silk, according to Reaumur, is first elaborated in two little 
 reservoirs, shaped like tears of glass, placed obliquely, one on each 
 side, at the base of six other reservoirs, resembling intestines, situated 
 close to each other, flexed six or seven times, proceeding from a 
 little beneath the origin of the abdomen, and terminating in the pa- 
 pillce by a very slender thread. It is in these last mentioned vessels 
 that the silk acquires a greater degree of firmness and other proper- 
 ties peculiar to it; they communicate with the preceding ones by 
 branches, forming a number of geniculate turns, and then various 
 pieces of net-work. The newly spun filaments, when first drawn 
 from the mamillas, are adhesive, and a certain degree of desiccation 
 or evaporation is required to fit them for their destined purposes. 
 When the temperature is propitious, however, a single instant is 
 sufllicient, as the animal employs them the moment they escape from 
 the apparatus. Those white and silky flocculi that may be observed 
 floating about in spring and autumn in foggy weather, are certainly 
 produced — as we satisfactorily ascertained by tracing them to their 
 point of origin — by various young Araneides; they are mostly the 
 larger threads which are intended to afford points of attachment to 
 the radii of the web, or those that compose the chain, and which, 
 becoming more ponderous by the access of moisture, sink, approach 
 one another, and finally form little pellets: we frequently observe 
 them collected near the web commenced by the Spider, and in 
 which it resides. 
 
 It is also very probable that many of the young animals, not hav- 
 ing as yet a sufficient supply of silk, limit their structure to throwing 
 
PULMONARliE. 325 
 
 out simple threads. It is, I think, to the young Lycosas that we 
 must attribute those which intersect the furrows of ploughed grounds, 
 whose numbers are rendered so apparent by the reflection of light 
 after sunrise. By chemical analysis, these threads exhibit the same 
 characters as the web of the spider: — they are not then formed in 
 the atmosphere, as, for want of proper observation, ex visu, that ce- 
 lebrated naturalist, M. Lamarck, has conjectured. Gloves and 
 stockings have been made with this silk; but it was found impossible 
 to apply the process on a large scale, and as it is subject to many 
 difficulties, is rather a matter of curiosity than utility. This sub- 
 stance, however, is of much greater importance to the little animal 
 in question. With it, the sedentary species, or those which do not 
 roam abroad in search of their prey, weave webs of a more or less 
 compact tissue, whose form and position vary according to the pe- 
 culiar habits of each of them, and that are so many snares or traps, 
 where the insects on which they feed become entangled, or are 
 taken. No sooner is one of them arrested there by the hooks of 
 its tarsi, than the Spider, some times placed in the centre of his net, 
 or at the bottom of his web, or at others lying in ambush in a pecu- 
 liar domicil situated near and in one of the angles, rushes towards 
 his victim and endeavours to pierce him with his murderous dart, 
 distilling into the wound a prompt and mortal poison; should the 
 former resist too vigorously, or should it be dangerous to the latter 
 to approach if, he retreats, waiting until it has either exhausted its 
 powers by struggling, or become more entangled in the net; but 
 should there be no cause of fear, he hastens to bind it by involving 
 the body in his silken threads, with which it is sometimes completely 
 enveloped. 
 
 Lister says that Spiders dart their threads in the same way that 
 the Porcupine darts his quills, with this difference, however, that in 
 the latter, according to the popular belief, the spines are detached 
 from the body, whereas in the former, these threads, though pro- 
 pelled to a considerable distance, always remain connected with it. 
 The possibility of this has been denied. Be it as it may, we have 
 seen threads issuing from the mamillae of several Thoraisi form 
 straight lines, and when the animals moved circularly, producing 
 movable radii. A second use to which this silk is applied by all 
 female Araneides, is in the construction of the sacs destined to con- 
 tain their eggs. The texture and form of these sacs are variously 
 
326 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 modified, according to the habits of the race. They are usually 
 spheroidal; some of them resemble a cap or tymbal, others are 
 placed on a pedicle, and some are claviform. They are sometimes 
 partially enveloped with foreign bodies, such as earth, leaves, &c.; 
 a finer material, or sort of tow or down, frequently surrounds the 
 eggs in their interior, where they are free or agglutinated and more 
 or less numerous. 
 
 I have ascertained that a single wound from a moderate sized 
 Spider will kill our common Fly in a kw minutes. It is also cer- 
 tain that the bite of those large ones of South America, which are 
 there called Crab-Spiders, and are placed by us in the genus My- 
 gale, kills the smaller vertebrated animals, such as Humming-Birds, 
 Pigeons, &c., and produces a violent fever in Man; the sting of 
 some species in the south of France has even occasionally proved 
 fatal. We may therefore, without believing all the fabulous stories 
 of Baglivi and others respecting the bite of the Tarantula, mistrust 
 Spiders, and particularly the larger ones. 
 
 Various insects of the genus Sphex, Lin,, (Wasps) seize upon 
 them, pierce them w^ith their sting, and transport them into holes 
 where they have deposited their eggs, as a source of food for their 
 young. Most of them perish in winter, but there are some which 
 live several years — such are the Mygales, the Lycosae, and probably 
 several others. 
 
 M. Leon Dufour, who has published many excellent memoirs on 
 the anatomy of Insects, who has especially studied those of Valencia, 
 among which he has detected several new species, and to whose 
 labours the science of Botany is not less indebted, has paid particu- 
 lar attention to the respiratory organs of spiders, and it is from him 
 that we have taken our divisions, which consist of those that have 
 four pulmonary sacs — with as many external stigmata, two on each 
 side, and closely approximated — and of such as have but two. The 
 first, according to our method, form but the single genus 
 
 Mygale. 
 
 Their eyes always situated at the anterior extremity of the thorax, and usu- 
 ally closely approximated; feet and chelicerae robust. Most of them have 
 but four fusi(l), of which the two lateral or external, situated somewhat 
 
 (1) Filieresy i. e. the papills or fusi through which the thread passes. 
 
PULMONARIiE. 327 
 
 above the others, are longest, and consist of three segments, exclusive of the 
 prominence that forms their peduncle. They weave silken tubes in which 
 they reside, and which they conceal either in holes excavated by them for 
 that purpose, or under stones, bark of trees, or between leaves. 
 
 This genus now forms several divisions, characterized by the number of 
 fusi, the relative difference in the length of the legs and the situations of 
 the palpi. In the 
 
 Mtgale, Walck., 
 
 Or the trtie My gales, the hairs which decorate the under part of their tarsi 
 form a thick and broad brush, projecting beyond the hooks, and usually 
 concealing them. 
 
 This division is composed of the largest species of the family, some of 
 which, when at rest, cover a circular space of from six to seven inches in 
 diameter. They sometimes seize upon Humming-Birds. They establish their 
 domicil in the clefts of trees, under the bark, in the fissures of rocks, or on 
 the surface of leaves of various plants. The cell of the Mygale avicularia 
 has the form of a tube, narrowed into a point at its posterior extremity. It 
 consists of a white web, of a close, very fine texture, semi-diaphanous, and 
 resembling muslin. 
 
 South America and the Antilles produce other species, called by the 
 French colonists Araignees-crahes, or Crab-spiders. Their bite is reputed 
 to be dangerous. A very large species — M. fasciata — is also found in the 
 East Indies. A species, nearly as large as the avicularia, inhabits the Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 In the following Mygales, the superior extremity of the first joint of the 
 chelicerse presents a series of spines, articulated and movable at base, and 
 forming a sort of rake. The tarsi are less pilose underneath than in the 
 preceding division, and their hooks are always exposed. 
 
 These species, in the dry and mountain districts of the south of Europe 
 and of some other countries, excavate subterraneous galleries, which are 
 frequently two feet in depth, and so extremely tortuous, that, according to 
 Dufour, it is frequently impossible to trace them. At the mouth, they con- 
 struct a movable operculum with earth and silk, fixed by a hinge, which, 
 from its form, nicely adjusted to the aperture, its inclination, its weight, 
 and the superior position of the hinge, spontaneously shuts, and completely 
 closes the entrance of their habitation, forming a kind of trap-door, which 
 is scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding earth. Its inner surface 
 is lined with a layer of silk, to which the animal clings, in order to keep its 
 door shut and prevent intruders from opening it. If it be slightly raised, 
 it is a sure indication that the owner is within. Unearthed, by laying open 
 the gallery front of the entrance, it becomes stupified, and allows itself to 
 be captured without resistance. A silken tube, or the nest properly so 
 called, lines the inside of the gallery. There are several species. 
 
 The remaining subgenera are Atypus, Eriodon, Sec, differing in the in- 
 sertion of the palpi, the ligula, number of eyes, &c. 
 
328 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 We now pass to Araneides with but one pair of pulmonary sacs, and as 
 many stigroata. They all have palpi formed of five joints, inserted into 
 the external side of the jaws near their base, and most frequently in a sinus; 
 a ligula extending between them either nearly square, triangular or semi- 
 circular and six fusi at the extremity. 
 
 With the exception of a few species, which enter into the genus Mygale, 
 they compose that of 
 
 Aranea, Lin. 
 A first division will comprehend the ARANEiE Sedentahi^, or sedentary 
 spiders. They make webs, or throw out threads to ensnare their prey, 
 and always remain in these traps, or their vicinity, as well as near their eggs. 
 Their eyes are approximated antei'iorly and are sometimes eight in number, 
 of which four or two are in the middle and two or three on each side, and 
 sometimes six. 
 
 Some, which, from the circumstance of their always moving forwards, we 
 term the Rectigradjb, weave webs and are stationary; their legs are eleva- 
 ted when at rest; sometimes the two first and two last are the longest, and 
 at others those of the two anterior pairs, or the fourth and the third. The 
 general arrangement of the eyes does not form the segment of a circle or a 
 crescent- 
 
 They may be divided into three sections: the first, or that of the Tubite- 
 \x, has cyhndrical fusi approximated into a fasciculus directed backwards; 
 the legs are robust, the two first or the two last, and vice versa, longest in 
 some, and the whole eight nearly equal in others. 
 
 Clotho, Walck. 
 
 A singular subgenus. The chelicerae are very small, can separate but 
 little, and are not indented; very small hooks; the shortness of the body and 
 length of the legs produce a resemblance to the Ci-ab-Spiders or Thomisi. 
 The relative length of these organs differs but little; the fourth pair, and then 
 the preceding one are merely somewhat longer than the first; the tarsi, only, 
 are fui-nished with spines. The eyes are further from the anterior margin 
 of the thorax than in the following subgenus, and are approximated and 
 arranged as in the genus Mygale of Walckenaer; three on each side form a 
 reversed triangle; the two others form a transverse line in the space com- 
 prised between the two triangles. The jaws and the ligula are proportion- 
 ably smaller than those of the same subgenus; a short projection or slight di- 
 latation on the external side of the jaws, gives insertion to the palpi; the jaws 
 terminate in a point; the ligula is triangular and not nearly oval as in Drassus. 
 The two superior or most lateral fusi are long, but what, according to Du- 
 four, particularly characterises the Clothos, is, that there are two pectini- 
 form valves which open and shut at the will of the animal, in place of the 
 two intermediate fusi. 
 
 But u single species is known, the Clotho Durandit, Lat. M. Dufour 
 
PULMONARl^. 329 
 
 found it in the mountains of Narbonne, in the Pyrennees and among^ the 
 rocks of Catalonia. To this latter naturalist we are indebted not only for 
 our knowledge of the external characters of this spider, but for many curi- 
 ous observations relative to its habits. "She constructs," says he, " a shell 
 resembling a calotte an inch in diameter, on the under surface of large 
 stones or in the fissures of rocks. Its contour presents seven or eight 
 emarginations, the angles of which are alone attached to tl>e stone by silken 
 fasciculi, the margin being free. This singular tent is admirably woven. 
 The exterior resembles the very finest taffeta, formed, according to the age 
 of the animal, of a greater or less number of layers. Thus, when the young 
 Uroctea first commences her establishment, she merely forms two webs 
 between which she seeks for shelter. Subsequently, and I believe at each 
 change of tegument, she adds a certain number of layers. Finally, she lines 
 an apartment with a softer and more downy material which is to enclose the 
 sac of eggs and young ones. Although the exterior shell is more or less soiled 
 by foreign bodies which serve to conceal it, the chamber of tlie industrious 
 architect is always extremely neat and clean. There are four, five, or six 
 egg-pouches or sacculi in each domicil; they are lenticular, more than four 
 lines in diameter, and formed of a snow-white taffeta lined with the softest 
 down. The ova are not produced till tlie latter end of December or the 
 beginning of January; the young are to be protected from the rigour of 
 winter and the incursions of enemies — all is prepared; the receptacle of 
 this precious deposit is separated from the web that adheres to the stone by 
 soft down, and from the external calotte by the various layers I have men- 
 tioned. Some of the emarginations in the edge of the pavilion are com- 
 pletely closed by the continuity of the web, the edges of the remainder are 
 merely laid on each other, so that by raising them up, the animal can issue 
 from its tent or enter it, at pleasure. When the Uroctea leaves herhabi- 
 tation for the chase, she has nothing to fear, she only possesses the secret 
 of the impenetrable emargination, and has the key to those which alone 
 afford an entrance. When her offspring are able to provide for themselves, 
 they leave their native dwelling, to establish elsewhere their individual 
 habitations, while the mother returns to it and dies — it is thus her cradle and 
 her tomb." 
 
 There are several other genera of this section, such as Drassus, Segesirta, 
 Clubiona, &c., in the last of which, as well as in the following ones, we find 
 eight eyes. They form two families, the Terrestrial and Aquatic. Some 
 (Clubiona) construct silken tubes under stones; and others ( Aranea proper), 
 a web with a tube, in our houses, along hedges, &c. 
 
 In the second section of the sedentary and rectigrade spiders,that of the 
 IirEauiTELa;, the external papillae are nearly conical, project but httle, are 
 convergent, and form a rosette; the legs are very slender. The jaws in- 
 cline over the lip, and become naiTower at their superior extremity, or at 
 least do not sensibly widen . 
 
 Most of them have the first pair of legs longest, and then the foui-th. The 
 2 R 
 
330 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 abdomen is more voluminous, softer, and more coloured than in the pre- 
 ceding tribes. Their webs form an irregular net composed of threads 
 which cross each other in every direction and on several planes. They 
 lie in wait for their prey, display much anxiety for the preservation of their 
 eggs, and never abandon them till they are hatched. They are short-lived. 
 
 There are several genera such as Scytodes, Theridion, Episinus, &c-, dif- 
 fering in the number of eyes, and the mode of their arrangement; the shape 
 of the thorax, &c. 
 
 In the tliird section of the sedentary rectigrade spiders, the Okbitel^, 
 the external fusi are almost conical, slightly salient, convergent, and form 
 a rosette, the legs are slender, as in the preceding section, but the jaws 
 are straight and evidently wider at their extremity. 
 
 The first pair of legs, and then the second, are always the longest. 
 There are eight eyes thus an-anged: four in the middle forming a quadri- 
 lateral, and two on each side. 
 
 The Orbitelse approach the Inequitelae in the size, softness, and diversity 
 of colour of the abdomen, and in their short term of existence; but their 
 web is a regular piece of net-work, composed of concentric circles inter- 
 cepted by straight radii diverging from the centre, where they almost always 
 remain, and in an inverted position, at the circumference. Some conceal 
 themselves in a cell or cavity which they have constructed near the margin 
 of the web, which is sometimes horizontal, and at others perpendicular. 
 Their eggs are agglutinated, very numerous, and inclosed in a voluminous 
 eocoon. 
 
 The threads which support the web, and which can be extended one- 
 fifth of their length, are used for the divisions of the micrometer. 
 
 LiNTPHIA, Lat. 
 
 The. Linyphiae are well characterized by the disposition of their eyes: 
 four in the middle form a trapezium, the posterior side of which is widest, 
 and is occupied by two eyes much larger and more distant; the remaining 
 four are grouped in pairs, one on each side, and in an oblique line. The 
 jaws are only widened at their superior extremity. 
 
 They construct on bushes a loose, thin, horizontal web, attaching to its 
 upper surface, at different points, or irregularly, separate threads. The 
 animal remains at its inferior portion, and in a reversed position. 
 
 UtoBORtrs, Lat. 
 
 The four posterior eyes placed at equal intervals on a straight line, and 
 the two lateral ones of the first line nearer to the anterior edge of the tho- 
 rax than the two comprised between them, so that this line is arcuated pos- 
 teriorly. The tarsi of the three last pairs of legs terminate by one small 
 nail. The first joint of the two posterior ones has a range of small setae. 
 
 The body of these animals, as well as in the following subgenus, is elon- 
 gated and nearly cylindrical. Placed in the centre of their web, they ad- 
 
PULMONARI-(E. 331 
 
 vance their four anterior legs in a straight line, and extend the two last in 
 an opposite direction; those of the third pair project laterally. 
 
 These Arachnides consti-uct webs similar to those of other Oi'bitelx, but 
 they are looser and more horizontal. They will completely envelope the 
 body of a small coleopterous insect in less than three minutes. 
 
 Tethagxatha, Lat. 
 The eyes placed four by four on two nearly parallel lines, and separated 
 by almost equal intervals; jaws long, narrow, and only widened at their su- 
 perior extremity. The chelicerae are also very long, in the males especially. 
 The web is vertical. 
 
 Epeiha, Walck. 
 
 The two eyes on each side approximated by pairs, and almost contiguous; 
 the remaining four forming a quadrilateral in the middle. The jaws dilate 
 from their base, and form a rounded palette. 
 
 The cucurbitina is the only species known whose web is horizontal; that 
 of the others is vertical, or sometimes oblique. 
 
 Some place themselves in its centre in a reversed position, or with their 
 head downwards; others construct a domicil close by it, either vaulted on 
 all sides, or forming a silky tube composed of leaves drawn together by 
 threads, or open above, and resembhng a cup or the nest of a bird. The 
 web of some exotic species is formed of such stout materials that it will ar- 
 rest small Birds, and even impede the progress of a Man. 
 
 Their cocoon is usually globular; that of some species, however, is a trun- 
 cated oval, or very short cone. 
 
 The natives of New Holland and those of some of the South Sea Islands, 
 for want of other food, eat a species of Epeira, closely allied to the Aranea 
 esuriens. Fab. They are numerous. 
 
 We now come to Spiders that are sedentary, like the preceding, but 
 which have the faculty of moving sideways, forwards and backwards, in a 
 word, in all directions. They constitute our section of the LATEniGSADjE. 
 The four anterior legs are always longer than the others; sometimes the 
 second pair surpasses the first, and at others, they are nearly equal; the ani- 
 mal extends them to the whole of their length on the plane of position. 
 
 The chelicerae are usuall}' small, and their hook is folded transversely, as 
 in the four preceding tribes. Their eyes, always eight in number, are fre- 
 quently very unequal, and form a segment of a circle or crescent; the two 
 posterior lateral ones are placed farther back than the others, or are nearef 
 to the lateral margin of the thorax. The jaws, in most of them, are inclined 
 on the lip. The body is usually flattened, resembling a Crab; the abdomen 
 is large, rounded, and triangular. 
 
 These Arachnides remain motionless on plants, with tlieir feet extended. 
 They make no web, simply throwing out a few solitary threads to arrest 
 their prey. Their cocoon is orbicular and flattened. They conceal it be- 
 tween leaves, and watch it until tlie young ones are hatched. 
 
332 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 The Laterigi-adx form several genera, such as Micrommata, Senelops, &C. 
 
 Other Araiieae whose eyes, always eight in number, extend more along 
 the lengthof the thorax than across its breadth, or at least almost as much 
 in one direction as the other, and which form either a truncated curvilinear 
 triangle or oval, or a quadrilateral, constitute a second general division, or 
 the VAGABTJiirDa!;, which I have thus named to distinguish them from those 
 of the first, or the Sedentarias. 
 
 Two or four of their eyes are frequently much larger than the others; 
 the thorax is large and the legs robust; those of the fourth pair and then 
 the two first, or those of the second pair, are usually the longest. 
 
 They make no web, but watch for their prey and seize it, either by hunt- 
 ing it down, or by suddenly leaping upon it. 
 
 This division forms two sections, each consisting of several genera. In 
 the first, or that of the CiTiGKADa;, we find the genus 
 
 Ltcosa, Lat. 
 
 The eyes of the Lycosaeform a quadrilateral, but one as long as or longer 
 than it is wide; the two posterior eyes are not placed on an elevation. The 
 first pair of legs is evidently longer than the second, but shorter than the 
 fourth, which, in this respect, surpasses all the others. The internal extre- 
 mity of the jaws is obliquely truncated. The ligula is square but longer 
 than it is broad. 
 
 Almost all the Lycosae keep on the ground, where they run with g^eat 
 swiftness. They inhabit holes accidentally presented to them, or which they 
 excavate, lining their parietes with silk, and enlarging them in proportion 
 to their growth. Some establish their domicil in chinks and cavities in 
 walls, where tTiey form a silken tube covered externally with particles of 
 earth or sand. In these retreats they change their tegument, and as it ap- 
 pears, after^ closing the opening, pass the winter. There also the females 
 lay their eggs. When they go abroad they cany their cocoon with them, 
 attached to the abdomen by threads. On issuing from the egg the 
 young ones cling to the body of the mother, and remain there until they 
 are able to provide for themselves. 
 
 The Lycosse are extremely voracious, and courageously defend their 
 dwelling. 
 
 A species of this genus, the Tarentula, so called from Tarentum, a city of 
 Italy, in the environs of which it is common, is highly celebrated. The 
 poisonous nature of its bite is thought to produce the most serious conse- 
 quences, being frequently followed by death or Tarentism, results which 
 can only be avoided by the aid of music and dancing. Well informed 
 persons, however, think it more necessary in these cases to combat the ter- 
 rors of the imagination than to apply an antidote to the poison; medicine at 
 all events presents other means of cure. 
 
 In the second section of the Vagabundae, that of the Saltigradx, the 
 eyes form a large quadrilateral, the anterior side of which, or the line 
 formed by the fii-st ones, extends across the whole width of the thorax; this 
 
PULMONAEI^. 333 
 
 part of the body is almost square or semi-ovoid, plane or but slightly con- 
 vex above, as wide anteriorly as in the rest of its extent, and descending 
 suddenly on the sides. The legs are fitted for running and leaping. The 
 thighs of tlie two fore legs are remarkable for their size. 
 
 The Araignee a chevrons blancs of Geoffroy, a species of Salticus very com- 
 mon in summer on walls or windows exposed to the sun, moves by jerks, 
 stops short after a few steps and raises itself on its fore legs. If it discover 
 a fly, or particularly amusquito, it approaches softly, and then darts upon 
 the victim with a single bound. It leaps fearlessly and perpendicularly on 
 a wall, being always attached to it by a thread, which lengthens as it ad- 
 vances. This same filament also supports it in the air, enables it to ascend 
 to its point of departure, and allows it to be wafted by the wind from one 
 place to another. Such, generally, are the habits of the species that be- 
 long to this division. 
 
 Several construct nests of silk resembling oval sacs open at both ends, be- 
 tween leaves, under stones, &c. Thither they retire to change their tegu- 
 ment and to seek shelter in bad weather. If danger menaces them there, 
 they leave it at once and escape with speed. 
 
 The females construct a sort of tent, which becomes the cradle of their 
 posterity, and in which the young ones, for a time, Uve in common with the 
 mother. There are several subgenera. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PEDIPALPL 
 
 In the second family of the Pulmonariae, we find very large palpi, 
 resembling projecting arms, terminated by a forceps or a claw; di- 
 dactyle chelicerae, one finger of which is movable, and an abdomen 
 composed of very distinct segments, without fusi at the extremity. 
 The whole body is invested with a firm tegument; the thorax con- 
 sists of a single piece, and exhibits three or two simple eyes, ap- 
 proximated or grouped, near the anterior angles; and near the mid- 
 dle of its anterior extremity, or posteriorly, but in the median line, 
 two others equally simple and approximated. There are four or 
 eight pulmonary sacs. Those which form the genus 
 
 Tarantula, Fab., 
 
 Have their abdomen attached to their thorax by a pedicle, or portion of 
 their transverse diameter; it has no pectinated laminae at its base, nor sting 
 at its extremity. Their stigmata, four in number, are situated near the ori- 
 gin of the venter, and are covered with a plate. Their chelicerse (mandi- 
 bles) are simply terminated by a movable hook. Tlieir ligula is elongated. 
 
334 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 very narrow, and concealed. They have but two jaws, which are formed 
 by the first joint of their palpi. 
 
 They all have eight eyes, of which three, on each side and near the an- 
 terior angles, form a triangle; and two near the middle at the anterior mar- 
 gin are placed on a common tubercle or httle elevation, one on each side. 
 The palpi are spinous. The tarsi of the two anterior legs differ from the 
 others, being formed of numerous setaceous or filiform joints, and without 
 a terminal nail. 
 
 They are confined to the hottest portions of Asia and America. Their 
 habits are unknown to us. They now constitute two subgenera, PHKiKtrs, 
 Oliv, and Theltphonus, Lat. 
 
 The others have their abdomen intimately united to the thorax 
 throughout its entire width, presenting, at its inferior base, two 
 movable pectiniform laminge, and terminated by a knotted tail 
 armed with a terminal sting. Their stigmata, eight in number, are 
 exposed, and arranged four by four along the abdomen; their che- 
 liceras are terminated by two fingers, of which the exterior is mov- 
 able. They form the genus 
 
 Scorpio, Lin., Fab. 
 Scorpions have an elongated body, suddenly terminated by a long slender 
 tail formed of six joints, the last of which terminates in an arcuated and ex- 
 cessively acute point or sting, which aflPords issue to a venomous fluid con- 
 tained in an internal reservoir, forming a long square, and usually marked in 
 the middle by a longitudinal sulcus, presenting on each side, and near its an- 
 terior extremity, three or two simple eyes, forming a curved line, and near 
 the middle of the back two others, also simple, which are approximated. 
 The palpi are very large, with a forceps at the extremity resembhng a 
 hand; their first joint forms a concave and rounded jaw. 
 
 These Arachnides inhabit the hot countries of both hemispheres, live on 
 the ground, conceal themselves under stones and other bodies, most com- 
 monly in ruins, dark and cool places, and even in houses. They run with 
 considerable swiftness, curving their tail over their back. They can turn 
 it in every direction, and use it for the purposes of attack and defence. 
 With their forceps they seize Onisci and various insects, Carabici, Orthop- 
 terse, &c., on which they feed, pierce them with their sting by directing it 
 forwards, and then pass their prey through their chelicerae and jaws. They 
 are particularly fond of the eggs of Spiders and of Insects. 
 • The wound occasioned by the sting of the europaeus is not usually dan- 
 gerous. That of the Scorpion of Souvignargues, of Maupertius, of the spe- 
 cies which I have named Roussatre (occilanus), and which is larger than the 
 preceding one, according to the experiments of Dr Maccary courageously 
 tried upon himself, produces serious and alarming symptoms; the older the 
 animal the more active seems to be the poison. The remedy employed is 
 
PULMONARI^. 335 
 
 the volatile alkali, used externally and internally. There are several 
 species. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 TRACHEARI^. 
 
 The Arachriides which compose this order differ from those of 
 the preceding one in their organs of respiration, which consist of 
 radiated or ramified trache8e(l), that only receive air through two 
 stigmata; in the absence of an organ of circulation; and in the num- 
 ber of their eyes, which is but from two to four. The want of suffi- 
 ciently general anatomical observations, has prevented the limits of 
 this order from being rigorously determined. Some of these 
 Arachnides, the Pycnogonides for instance, exhibit no stigmata; 
 their mode of respiration is unknown. 
 
 The Tracheariae are very naturally divided into those which are 
 furnished with chelicerae, terminated by two fingers, one of which is 
 movable, or by one that is equally so; and into those where these 
 organs are replaced by simple laminas, or lancets, which with the 
 ligula constitute a sucker. Most of these animals, however, being 
 very small, great difficulties necessarily accompany these investiga- 
 tions, and it is readily perceived that such characters should only be 
 resorted to when it is impossible to avoid it. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 PSEUDO-SCORPIONES. 
 
 In this family we find the thorax articulated, its first segment much 
 the largest, and resembling a corselet; the abdomen is very distinct 
 and annulated, and the palpi very large and in the form of legs or 
 claws. There are eight legs with two equal hooks at the extremity 
 of the tarsi, the two anterior ones, at most, excepted, and two appa- 
 
 (1) The trachex are vessels which receive the aerial fluid and distribute 
 it to every part of the interior of the body, and thus remedy the want of 
 circulation. 
 
336 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 rent cheliceras terminated by two fingers and two toes, formed by 
 the first joint of the palpi. They are all terrestrial, and have an 
 oval or oblong body. This family comprehends but two genera. 
 
 Galeodes, OJiv. — Solpuga, Licht., Fab. 
 Two very large chelicerse, with strongly dentated vertical fingers, one su- 
 perior, fixed, and frequently furnished at its base with a slender, elongated, 
 pointed appendage, and the other movable; large projecting palpi in the 
 form of feet or antennje, terminated by a short, vesicular joint, resembling 
 a button without a terminal hook; the two anterior feet of an almost similar 
 figure, equally unarmed, but smaller. 
 
 Their body is oblong, generally soft, and bristled with long hairs. The 
 last joint of the palpi, according to M. Dufour, contains a particular organ 
 formed like a disk, of a nacre-white, and which never protrudes unless the 
 animal is imtated. The two anterior feet maybe considered as second 
 palpi. The abdomen is oval, and composed of nine annuli. 
 
 It is supposed that the ancients designated these animals by the names of 
 Phalangium, Solifuga, Tetragnatha, &.c. M. Poe discovered a species in 
 the environs of Havana, but the others are peculiar to the hot and sandy 
 countries of the eastern continent. They run with great celerity, erect 
 their head when surprised, and show signs of resistance; they are considered 
 venomous. 
 
 Chemfer, GeofiT. — Obisium,l\\\g. 
 
 The palpi elongated in the form of an arm, with a hand terminated by a 
 didactyle forceps; all the legs equal, terminated by two hooks; the eyes 
 placed on the sides of the thorax. 
 
 These animals resemble small Scorpions destitute of a tail. Their body 
 is flattened, and the thorax nearly square, with one or two eyes on each side. 
 
 They run swiftly, and frequently retrograde or mpve sideways like Crabs. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PYCNOGONIDES. 
 
 The trunk, in this family, is composed of four segments, occupy- 
 ing nearly the whole length of the body and terminated at each 
 extremity by a tubular joint, the anterior of which is the largest, 
 sometimes simple, and sometimes accompanied by chelicerae and 
 palpi, or only one kind of these organs, that constitutes the mouth. 
 There are eight legs in both sexes, formed for running, but the fe- 
 male is furnished with two additional false ones, placed near the 
 two anterior, and solely destined to carry her eggs. 
 
TRACHEARIiE. ^7 
 
 The Pycnogonides are marine animals, analogous either to the 
 Cyami and the Caprellae, or to the Arachnides of the genus Phalan- 
 gium, where Linnseus placed them. Their body is commonly linear, 
 with very long legs, composed of eight or nine joints, terminated 
 by two unequal hooks which appear to form but one, and the small- 
 est of which is cleft. The first segment of the body, which replaces 
 the head and mouth, forms a projecting tube, cylindrical or in the 
 form of a truncated cone, with a triangular aperture at its extre- 
 mity. The cheliceraB and palpi are placed at its base. The former 
 are cylindrical or linear, simply prehensile, and composed of two 
 joints, the last of which is a forceps, the inferior finger or the one that 
 is fixed being sometimes shorter than the other. The palpi are fili- 
 form, and consist of five or nine joints, with a terminal hook. 
 Each of the following segments, the last excepted, bears a pair of 
 legs; but the first, or the one articulated with the mouth has a tuber- 
 cle on the back, on which are placed two eyes on each side, and 
 beneath, in the females only, two additional small folded legs, bear- 
 ing the eggs which are collected around them in one or two pellets. 
 The last segment is small, cylindrical and perforated by a little ori- 
 fice at the extremity. No vestige of stigmata can be perceived. 
 
 They are found among marine plants, sometimes under stones 
 near the beach, and occasionally also on the Cetacea. 
 
 Pycnogonum, Brun., Mull., Fab. 
 The chelicerse and palpi wanting; length of the feet hardly greater than 
 that of the body, which is proportionably thicker and shorter than in the 
 following genera. They live on the Cetacea. 
 
 Phoxichilus, Lat. 
 
 The palpi wanting, as in the PhoxichiU; but the legs are very long, and 
 there are two chelicerae. 
 
 Nymphon, Fab. 
 The Nymphones resemble the PhoxichiU in the narrow and oblong form of 
 their body, the length of their legs; and in the presence of chelicerx; bat 
 they have, besides, two palpi. 
 
 2 S 
 
338 ARACHNIDES, 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 HOLETRA. 
 
 The trunk and abdomen are here united in one mass, under 3 
 common epidermis, or at most, the thorax is divided by a strangu- 
 lation, and the abdomen, in some, merely exhibits an appearance 
 of annuh, formed by the plicae of the abdomen. 
 
 The anterior extremity of their body frequently projects in the 
 form of a snout or rostrum; most of them have eight legs, and the 
 remainder six. 
 
 This family consists of two tribes. In the first or the Phalatj- 
 GiTA, Lat., we observe very apparent chelicerse which either project 
 in front of the trunk, or are inferior, and always terminating in a 
 didactyle forceps, preceded by one or two joints. 
 
 They have two filiform palpi, composed of five joints, the last of 
 which is terminated by a small nail; two distinct eyes; two jaws 
 formed by the prolongation of the radical joint of the palpi, and 
 frequently four more, which are also a mere dilatation of the hip of 
 the two first pairs of legs. The body is oval or rounded, and co- 
 vered, the trunk at least, with a firmer skin; there is also an appear- 
 ance of annulior plicae on the abdomen. The legs, of which there 
 are always eight, are long, and distinctly divided, like those of In- 
 sects. At the origin of the two posterior legs, at least in several 
 — Phalangium — are two stigmata, one on each side, but hidden by 
 their hips. 
 
 Most of them live on the ground, at the foot of trees, and on 
 plants, and are very active; others conceal themselves under stones 
 and in moss. 
 
 Phalangium, Lin., Fab. 
 The chelicerjc projecting-, much shorter than the body; eyes placed on a 
 common tubercle. Their legs are very long and slender, and when de- 
 tached from the body show signs of irritability for a few moments. 
 There are some other genera, viz. Siro, Macrocheles and Trogulus. 
 
 In the second tribe of the Holetra, that of the Acarides, we 
 sometimes find chelicerag, but they are simply formed of a single 
 forceps, either didactyle or monodactyle, and are hidden in a sternal 
 lip; sometimes there is a sucker formed of united lancets; or finally 
 
TRACHEARI^. 339 
 
 the mouth consists of a simple cavity without any apparent appen- 
 dages. This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 AcAEUs, Lin. 
 Most of these animals are very small or nearly microscopical. They are 
 observed everywhere. Some of them are errant, and of these some are 
 found under stones, leaves, bark of trees, in the earth, in water, di-ied meat, 
 old cheese, and putrescent animal matters. Others are parasitical, living 
 on the skin or in the flesh of various animals, which they often, by their 
 excessive multiplication, reduce to a state of great debility. The origin 
 of certain diseases, such as the itch, is attributed to particular species. The 
 experiments of Dr Galet prove that if the Acari of the human psora be 
 placed on the body of a perfectly healthy person, they will inoculate him 
 with the virus of that disorder. Various species of Acari are also found 
 on Insects, and some of the Coleoptera that feed on cadaverous substances 
 are fi-equently covered with them. They have even been observed in the 
 brain and eye of Man. 
 
 The Acari, or Mites, as they are vulgarly termed, are oviparous, and ex- 
 cessively prolific. Several of them at first have but six legs, the remaining 
 two being developed shortly after. Their tarsi terminate in various ways, 
 according to their habits. 
 
 Some — Acahides, Lat. — or the Acari proper, have eight legs, solely des- 
 tined for walking, and chelicerae. 
 
 Teombidittm, Fab, 
 
 The chelicerae monodactyle, or terminated by a movable hook; salient 
 palpi, pointed at the end, with a movable appendage or species of finger 
 under their extremity, two eyes, each placed on a little immovable pedicle. 
 The body is divided into two parts, the first of which, or the anterior, is very 
 smal], and bears the two first pair of legs, together with the eyes and mouth. 
 
 Tromh. holosericeum,. Fab. Very common in gardens in the spring; blood- 
 red; abdomen nearly square, posteriorly narrowed, with an emargination; 
 the back loaded with papills, hairy at base, and globular at the extremity. 
 
 There are various other subgenera, such as Eutter^us, Gamascs, Chet- 
 lETus, Oribata, Uropoda, 8cc. 
 
 Here we find our Common Ticks. The most remarkable is that of the 
 subgenus 
 
 Ixodes, Lat. Fab. 
 
 The palpi forming a sheath to the sucker, and with it constituting a pro- 
 jecting and short rostrum, truncated and slightly dilated at the extremity. 
 
 The Ixodes are found in thick woods abounding in brushes, briars, &c.; 
 they hook themselves to low plants by the hind legs, keeping the others 
 extended, and fasten on Dogs, Oxen, Horses and other Quadrupeds, and 
 even on the Tortoise, burying their suckers so completely in their flesh, 
 
340 ARACHNIDES. 
 
 that they can only be detached by force, and by tearing' out the portion that 
 adheres to it. They lay a prodigious quantity of eggs, and sometimes in- 
 crease to such an enormous extent on the Ox and Horse, that they perish 
 from the exhaustion. Their tarsi are terminated by two hooks inserted in 
 a palette, or united at base on a common pedicle. 
 
 The ancients designated these Arachnides by the term Ridnus. They 
 are our Ticks. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 INSECTA. 
 
 Insects, which form the third class of articulated animals provided 
 with articulated legs, have, besides, a dorsal vessel analogous to the 
 vestige of a heart, but totally destitute of any branch for the circu- 
 lation. They respire by means of two principal tracheae, extending, 
 parallel to each other, throughout the whole length of the body, hav- 
 ing centres, at intervals, from which proceed numerous branches, 
 corresponding to external openings or stigmata, which admit air. 
 They all have two antennae and a distinct head. The nervous sys- 
 tem of most Insects — the Hexapoda— is generally composed of a 
 brain formed of two opposing ganglions, united at base, giving off 
 eight pairs of nerves and two single ones, and of twelve ganglions, 
 all inferior. By counting the eight pairs of the brain, and the ten 
 spinal bridles, which may also be considered as so many pairs of 
 nerves, we shall have in all forty-five pairs, exclusive of two solitary 
 nerves, or from twelve to fourteen more than are found in the hu- 
 man subject. In our general remarks on points common to the 
 three classes of articulated animals provided with articulated feet, 
 we mentioned the various opinions of physiologists with respect to 
 the seat of the sense of hearing and of smell. We will merely add, 
 in regard to the former, that certain little nervous frontal ganglions 
 seem to confirm the opinion of those who, like Scarpa, place it in 
 the origin of the antennoe. I have detected two small orifices near 
 the eyes of certain Lepidoptera, which, perhaps, are auditory canals. 
 If, in several Insects, particularly those furnished with filiform, or 
 
INSECTA, 341 
 
 long, setaceous antennae, they (the antennae) are organs of touch, 
 it seems to us difficult to account for the extraordinary development 
 they acquire in certain families, and more particularly in the males, 
 if we refuse to admit that they are then the seat of smell. The palpi 
 also, in some cases, as when they are greatly dilated at the extremity, 
 may possibly be the principal organs of smell, part of which sense 
 may also perhaps belong to the ligula. 
 
 The digestive system consists of a preparatory or buccal appara- 
 tus, intestinal canal, biliary vessels, hlsocaUed hepatic vessels^ those 
 styled salivary f but which are less general, free and floating vessels, 
 the epiploon or corps graisseux, and probably of the dorsal vessel. 
 This system is singularly modified, according to the difference of the 
 aliment, or forms a great number of particular types, of which we 
 shall speak when treating of families. We will merely say a word 
 with respect to the buccal apparatus and the principal divisions of 
 the intestinal canal, beginning with the latter. In those where it is 
 the most complicated, as in the carnivorous Coleoptera, we observe 
 a pharynx, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, stomach or chylific ventricle, 
 and intestines. 
 
 Some few, and always apterous Insects, such as the Myriapoda, 
 approximate to several of the Crustacea, either in the number of the 
 annuli of their body and in their legs, or in some points of analogy 
 in the conformation of the parts of the mouth; but all the others 
 never have more than six legs, and their body, the number of whose 
 segments never extends beyond twelve, is always divided into three 
 principal parts, the head, trunk and abdomen. Among the latter 
 Insects, some are found without wings, that always preserve their 
 natal form, and merely increase in size and change their skin. In 
 this respect they bear some analogy to the animals of the preceding 
 classes. Nearly all the remaining Hexapoda have wings; but these 
 organs, and even frequently the feet, do not make their appearance 
 at first, but are only developed after a series of changes, more or 
 less remarkable, styled metamorphoses, of which we shall soon 
 have to speak. 
 
 The head bears the antenna, eyes, and mouth. The composition 
 and form of the antennae are much more various than in the Crus- 
 tacea, and are frequently more developed or longer in the males than 
 in the females. 
 
 The eyes are either compound or simple; the first, according to 
 
342 INSECTA. 
 
 the baron Cuvier, Marcel do Serres and others, are fornried: 1, of 
 a cornea, divided into numerous little facets, which is so much the 
 more convex, as the insect is more carnivorous; its internal surface 
 is covered with an opaque, and variously coloured, but slightly fluid 
 substance, usually, however, of a black or deep violet hue; 2, of a 
 choroideSj fixed by its contour and edges to the cornea, covered 
 with a black varnish, exhibiting numerous air vessels, arising from 
 tolerably large trunks of tracheae in the head, whose branches form 
 a circular trachea round the eye: it is frequently wanting, how- 
 ever, as well as the choroides, in various nocturnal insects; 3, of 
 nerves arising from a large trunk, proceeding directly from the 
 brain, which then opens, forming a reversed cone, the bas^ of which 
 is next to the eye, and each of whose rays or threads traversing the 
 choroides and lining matter of the cornea, terminates in one of its 
 facets; there is no crystalline nor vitreous humour. 
 
 Several, besides these compound eyes, have simple ones, or ocelli, 
 the cornea of which is smooth. They are usually three in number, 
 and are disposed in a triangle on the top of the head. In most of 
 the Aptera and in the larvae of those that are winged, they replace 
 the former, and are frequently united in a group; those of the 
 Arachnides seem to indicate that they are fitted for the purpose of 
 vision. 
 
 The mouth of the hexapodous insects is generally composed of 
 six principal parts, four of which are lateral, are disposed in pairs, 
 and move transversely; the other two, opposed to each other in a 
 contrary direction, occupy the space comprised between the former: 
 one is placed above the superior pair, and the other beneath the 
 inferior. In the triturating insects (broyeurs), or those which feed 
 on solid matters, the four lateral parts perform the office of jaws, 
 the other two being considered as lips; but, as we have already ob- 
 served, the two superior jaws have been distinguished by the pecu- 
 liar appellation of mandibles, the others alone bearing that of maxilla; 
 X)r jaws; the latter are also furnished with one or two articulated 
 filaments called falpi^ a character never exhibited, in this class, by 
 the mandibles. Their extremity is often terminated by two divisions 
 or lobes, the exterior of which, in the Orthoptera, is called the 
 galea. We have already said that the upper lip was called the 
 labrum. Tlie other, or the labium properly so styled, is formed of 
 
INSECTA. 343 
 
 two parts; the one, inferior and solid, is the mentum or chin; the 
 other, which is usually provided with two palpi, is the ligula. 
 
 In the Suctoria, or those that live by the suction of fluid aliment, 
 these various organs of manducation present themselves under two 
 kinds of general modifications. In the first, the mandibles and the 
 jaws are replaced by little laminas in the form of setas or lancets, 
 forming, by their union, a sort of sucker, which is received into a 
 sheath, supplying the place of a labium, and is either cylindrical or 
 conical, and articulated in the form of a rostrum, or flesliy or mem- 
 branous, inarticulated, and terminated by two lips constituting a 
 proboscis. The labrum is triangular and arched, and covers the 
 base of the sucker. 
 
 In the second modification, the labrum and mandibles are nearly 
 obliterated, or are extremely small: the labium is no longer free, 
 and is only distinguishable by the presence of two palpi, to which 
 it gives insertion: the jaws have acquired a most extraordinary 
 length, and are transformed into tubular filaments, which, being 
 united at their edges, compose a sort of spiral proboscis called the 
 tongue, but which, to avoid all equivocation, it would be better to 
 call spirignatha; its interior exhibits three canals, the intermediate 
 of which is the duct of the alimentary juices. At the base of each 
 of these filaments is a palpus, usually very small, and but slightly 
 apparent. 
 
 The Myriapoda are the only insects in which the mouth presents 
 another mode of organization — -it will be explained in treating of 
 that order. 
 
 The trunk of insects, or that intermediate portion of their body 
 which bears the legs, is generally designated by the term thorax, or 
 corselet by the French, It is composed of three segments, not well 
 distinguished at first, the relative proportions of which vary consi- 
 derably. Sometimes, as in the Coleoptera, the anterior, much the 
 largest, separated from the following one by an articulation, mova- 
 ble, and alone exposed, appears at the first glance to constitute the 
 entire trunk, and is called the thorax or corselet; sometimes, as in 
 the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, &c., it is much shorter than the 
 ensuing one, has the appearance of a collar, and, with the two 
 others, forms a common body, attached to the abdomen by a pedi- 
 cle, or adhering closely to it across its whole posterior width, and 
 is also called thorax. These distinctions were insufficient, and M. 
 
344 INSECTA. 
 
 Kirby having already employed the denomination of metathorax, 
 to designate the after-thorax, that ofprothorax and mesothorax^ihe 
 ternary division once established, naturally presented itself to the 
 mind, and the celebrated professor Nitzsch was the firsf to employ 
 it. Some naturalists have since designated the prothorax or ante- 
 rior segment, that which bears the two first feet, by the term collar, 
 collare. Wishing to retain the denomination of corselet^ but to 
 restrain its application within proper limits, we will employ that 
 term in all those cases where this segment is much larger than the 
 others, and where these latter are joined to the abdomen, and seem 
 to constitute an integral part of it — a disposition proper to the 
 Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and several of the Hemiptera. When 
 the prothorax is short, and forms with the succeeding segments a 
 common and exposed mass, the trunk composed of the three will 
 retain the name of thorax. We will also continue to style pectus 
 the inferior surface of the trunk, dividing it according to the seg- 
 ments, into three arese, the ante-pectus, medio-pectus, and post-pec- 
 ius. The median line will also constitute the sternum, which we 
 divide into three parts: the ante-sternum, medio-sternum, and post- 
 sternum. 
 
 The teguments of the thoracic segments, as well as of those of 
 the abdomen, are usually divided into two annuli or semi-annuli, the 
 one dorsal or superior, the other inferior, laterally united by a soft 
 and flexible membrane, which, however, is but a portion of the same 
 tegument that in many Insects, the Coleoptera particularly, is less 
 firm. At the point of junction between these annuli we observe a 
 little space of a more solid texture, or of the consistence of the an- 
 nvilus itself, which bears a stigmata, so that the sides of the abdomen 
 present a longitudinal series of small pieces, or each segment seems 
 to be quadripartite. Other equally corneous pieces occupy the in- 
 ferior sides of the mesothorax and metathorax and immediately un- 
 der the origin of the elytra and wings, which are supported by 
 another longitudinal piece. The relations of these parts, the size 
 and form of the first joint of the coxae, the manner in which they 
 are articulated with the semi-annulus to which they belong, the ex- 
 tent and direction of that semi-annulus varying, furnish the thorax, 
 thus considered, with a combination of characters, which in a sys- 
 tematic point of view are of great importance. 
 
 As Insects inhabit all kinds of dwellings, they are provided with 
 
INSECTA. 345 
 
 all sorts of locomotive organs, tvings and/eef, which, in several, act 
 as^n*. 
 
 The wings are membranous, dry, elastic organs, usually diapha- 
 nous, and attached to the sides of the back of the thorax: the first, 
 when there are four, or when they are unique, on those of its second 
 segment, and the second on those of the following or of the meta- 
 thorax. They are composed of two membranes laid one on the 
 other, and are traversed in various directions by more or less nu- 
 merous nervures, which are so many traclieal tubes, now forming a 
 net-work, and then simple veins. The Libellulas, Apes, Vespa?, 
 Papiliones, «fcc., have four wings; but those of the latter are co- 
 vered with small scales, which at the first glance resemble dust, and 
 give them the magnificent colours in which they are dressed. They 
 are easily removed with the finger, and that portion of the wing be- 
 comes transparent. By the aid of glasses we discover that these 
 scales are of various figures, and implanted in the wing by means of 
 a pedicle, arranged gradually and in series, like tiles on a roof. 
 Before the superior wings of these Insects are two species of epau- 
 lettes — pterygoda — which extend posteriorly along a portion of the 
 back on which they are laid. The wings of some Insects remain 
 straight, or are doubled transversely. Those of others are folded 
 or plaited longitudinally like a fan. Sometimes they are horizontal, 
 and sometimes inclined in the manner of a roof; in several they cross 
 on the back, and in others they are distant. Directly under them, 
 in the Diptera, are two small movable threads with a claviform ter- 
 mination, which, according to the general opinion, seem to replace 
 the two wings that are wanting. They are called halteres. Other 
 two-winged and more extraordinary Insects have also two halteres, 
 but situated at the anterior extremity of the thorax, which to distin- 
 guish from the others we will call prohalteres. Above these ap- 
 pendages is a little membranous scale formed of two pieces united 
 by one of their edges and resembling a bivalve shell — it is the alula 
 or cueilleron. The same appendage is also observed under the ely- 
 tra (at their base) of some aquatic Coleoptera. 
 
 Many Insects, such as the Melolonthae, Cantharides, &c., in lieu 
 of the two superior or anterior wings, are furnished with two species 
 of scales, more or less solid and opaque, which open and close, and 
 beneath which., when at rest, the wings are transversely folded. 
 These scales or wing cases are called elytra. The Insects provided 
 
 2 T 
 
346 INSECTA. 
 
 with them are named Coleoptera, and in such they are never absent, 
 though this is sometimes the case with respect to the wings. In 
 other Insects the extremity of the scale is completely membranous, 
 or like the wing: they are styled Hemipfera. 
 
 The scutel or scutellum is usually a small triangular piece, situa- 
 ted on the back of the mesothorax, and between the insertions of 
 the elytra or of the wings. Sometimes it is very large, and then it 
 covers the greater part of the superior portion of the abdomen. In 
 various Hymenoptera, behind the scutellum and on the metathorax, 
 we find a little space called the post-scutellum. 
 
 The ambulatory organs of locomotion consist of a coxa formed of 
 two pieces, a. femur, an uniarticulated tibia, and of a tarsus, which 
 is divided into several phalanges. The number of its articulations 
 varies from three to five, a difference which greatly depends upon 
 the proportional changes experienced by the first and penultimate 
 joints. Although their supputation may sometimes prove embar- 
 rassing, and this numerical series may not always be in exact accord- 
 ance with the natural order, it furnishes a good character for the 
 distinction of genera. The last joint is usually terminated by two 
 hooks. The form of the tarsi is subject to some modifications, ac- 
 cording to the habits of the animal. Those of aquatic species are 
 usually strongly ciliated and flattened, and resemble oars. 
 
 The abdomen, which forms the third and last part of the body, is 
 confounded in the Myriapoda, with the thorax: but in all other In- 
 sects, or those which have but six feet, it is distinct. It contains 
 the viscera, &c., presenting nine or ten segments or annuli, some 
 of which, however, are frequently concealed or considerably reduced. 
 The last annuli of the abdomen, in several females, form a retrac- 
 tile or always projecting ovipositor more or less complicated, which 
 acts like an auger. A sting is substituted for it in many of the fe- 
 male Hymenoptera. The female lays her eggs, and deposits them 
 in the way best adapted for their preservation, and in such a manner 
 that the moment the larvee make their appearance, suitable aliment 
 is always within their reach. Frequently she collects provisions for 
 them. This maternal solicitude often excites our surprise, and more 
 particularly unveils the instinct of Insects. In the numerous socie- 
 ties of several of these animals, such as the Ant, Termes, Wasp, 
 Bee, &c., those individuals which form the greater portion of the 
 community, and by whose labour and vigilance the whole commu- 
 
INSECT A. 347 
 
 nity are maintained, have been considered as being of neither sex. 
 They have also been designated by the terms of labourers and mules. 
 It is now known, however, that they are females not fully developed. 
 
 The ova are sometimes hatched in the abdomen of the mother; 
 she is then viviparous. The number of generations in a year de- 
 pends on the duration of each of them. Most commonly there is 
 but one or two. 
 
 A female Papilio, or Butterfly, lays her eggs, from which are 
 hatched, not Butterflies, but animals with an elongated body, divided 
 into rings, and a head furnished with jaws and several small eyes, 
 having very short feet, six of which are anterior, scaly, and pointed, 
 the rest varying in number and membranous, being attached to the 
 posterior annuli. These animals, called Caterpillars, live in this 
 state for a certain period, and repeatedly change their skin. An 
 epoch, however., arrives, when from this skin of a caterpillar issues 
 a totally different being, of an oblong form and without distinct 
 limbs, which soon ceases to move, and remains a long time appa- 
 rently desiccated and dead under the name of a chrysalis. By 
 close examination we may discover on the external surface of this 
 chrysalis, lineaments which represent all the parts of the Butterfly, 
 but under proportions differing from those they are one day to pos- 
 sess. After a longer or shorter period, the skin of the chrysalis 
 splits, and the Butterfly, humid and soft, with flabby short wings, 
 issues from it — a kw moments, however, and it is dry, the wings 
 enlarge and become firm, and the perfect animal is ready for flight. 
 It has six long legs, antennas, a spiral proboscis, and compound 
 eyes — in a word, it has no resemblance whatever to the caterpillar, 
 from whicli it has originated, for it is ascertained that these various 
 changes are nothing more than the successive development of parts 
 contained one within the other. 
 
 This is what is styled the metamorphosis of Insects. In their first 
 condition they are called larvas, in their second pupce, nymphs or 
 chrysalides, and in the third perfect insects. 
 
 All Insects do not pass through these three states. Those which 
 are apterous issue from the ovum with the form they are always to 
 preserve: they are said to be without a metamorphosis. Of those 
 that have wings, many experience no other change than that of re- 
 ceiving them; these are said to undergo a semi-metamorphosis. 
 Their larva resembles the perfect insect, with the single exception 
 
348 INSECTA. 
 
 of llie wings, which are totally wanting. The nymph only differs 
 from the larva in possessing stumps or rudiments of wings, which 
 are developed at its final change of tegument, and vender the animal 
 perfect. Such are the Cimices, Grylii, &.c. Finally, the remain- 
 ing Insects provided with wings that are said to undergo a complete 
 metamorphosis, are at first larvce, resembling caterpillars or Worms, 
 and then become motionless nymphs, but presenting in that state all 
 the parts of the perfect insect contracted, and as if WTappod in a 
 bandage. 
 
 In the nymph of the Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, &c., 
 these parts, though closely approximated and in contact with the 
 body, are free; but they are not so in that of the Lepidoptera and of 
 many Diptera, An elastic or solid skin is moulded over the body 
 and its external parts, forming a kind of case for it. 
 
 That of the chrysalides of the Lepidoptera merely consisting of a 
 simple pellicle applied to the external organs, following their con- 
 tour in every direction, and forming, for each of them, so many 
 moulds, like the envelope of a mummy, allows us to recognize and 
 distinguisii tliem; but those of Flies and Syrphi, formed of the dried 
 skin of the larva, resemble an egg-like shell. It is a species of cap- 
 sule or case in which the animal is shut up. 
 
 Many larvaj, before they pass into their pupa state, prepare a co- 
 coon in which they enclose themselves, either with silk which they 
 draw from the interior of their bodies by means of the spinning ap- 
 paratus of their lip, or other materials which they collect. The 
 perfect Insect issues from the nymph through a fissure or slit which 
 opens on the back of the thorax. In the pupas of Flies one of tiie 
 extremities is detached, like a cap, to allow the egress of the 
 animal. 
 
 Tl)e larvfc and pupae of those Insects which experience a semi- 
 metamorphosis only differ from the same in a perfect state, in the 
 absence of wings. The other external organs are precisely alike. 
 But in such as undergo a complete metamorphosis, the form of the 
 body of the larva has no constant relation with that it is to possess 
 in its perfect state. It is usually more elongated; the head is fre- 
 quently very different, as well in its consistence as in its figure, hav- 
 ing mere rudiments of antennae or perhaps none at all; there are 
 never any compound eyes. 
 
 There is also a great disparity in the organs of manducation, as 
 
INSECTA. 349 
 
 may be easily seen by comparing the mouth of a caterpillar with 
 that of the Butterfly, or the mouth of the larva of a Fly with that of 
 the perfect Insect. 
 
 Several of these larv^ are destitute of feet; others, such as the 
 Caterpillars, have many, all, the six first excepted, membranous, 
 and without terminal hooks. Some Insects, such as the Ephemerae, 
 exhibit a singular anomaly in their metamorphosis — the animal ar- 
 rived at its perfect state undergoes another change of tegument. 
 
 The Insects which constitute our three first orders preserve for 
 life their natal form. The Myriapoda, however, exhibit a kind of 
 metamorphosis. At first they have but six legs, or, according to 
 Savi, are altogether destitute of them; the others, as well as the 
 segments on which they depend, are developed by age. 
 
 But few vegetable substances are protected from the voracity of 
 Insects; and as those which are necessary or useful to Man are not 
 spared by them more than others, they become very injurious, par- 
 ticularly during seasons which favour their multiplication. Their 
 destruction greatly depends upon our vigilance and knowledge of 
 their habits. Some of tliem are omnivorous — such are the Termites, 
 Ants, &c., whose ravages are but too well known. Several of those 
 which are carnivorous, and all the species which feed on dead ani- 
 mal matters, &c., are a benefit conferred on us by the Author of 
 Nature, and somewhat compensate for the inconvenience and injury 
 we experience from the others. Some are employed in medicine, 
 the arts, and our domestic economy. 
 
 They have numerous enemies: Fishes destroy many of the aquatic 
 species; Birds, Bats, Lizards, &.C., deliver us from a part of those 
 which inhabit the air or earth. Most of them endeavour to escape 
 by flight or running from the dangers that surround them, but some 
 have recourse to stratagem or arms. 
 
 Having undergone their ultimate transformation, and being pos- 
 sessed of all their faculties, they continue their species: — this aim 
 once accomplished, they soon cease to exist. Thus, each of the 
 three finer seasons of the year produces species peculiar to it. The 
 females and males of those which live in societies, however, enjoy 
 a longer term of life. Individuals hatched in autumn shelter them- 
 selves from the rigours of winter, and reappear in spring. 
 
 The species, like those of plants, are circumscribed within geo- 
 graphical limits. Those of the western continent for instance, a 
 
350 INSECTA. 
 
 very few, and all from the North, excepted, are strictly peculiar to 
 itj such also is the case with several genera. The eastern conti- 
 nent, in turn, possesses others which are unknown in the western- 
 The Insects of the south of Europe and north of Africa, and of the 
 western and southern countries of Asia, have a strong mutual re- 
 semblance. The same may be said of those which inhabit the 
 Moluccas, and more eastern islands, those of the Southern Ocean 
 included. Several northern species are found in the mountains of 
 southern countries. Those of Africa differ greatly from the oppo- 
 site portions of America. The Insects of Southern Asia, from the 
 Indies on the Sind eastward, to the confines of China, are very 
 much alike. The intertropical regions, covered with immense and 
 well watered forests, are the richest in Insects of any on the globe; 
 Brazil and Guiana are particularly so. 
 
 All general systems or methods relative to Insects are reduced 
 essentially to three. Swammerdam based his on their metamor- 
 phoses; that of Linnaeus was founded on the presence or absence of 
 wings, their number, consistence, superposition, the nature of their 
 surface, and on the deficiency or presence of a sting. Fabricius 
 had recourse to the parts of the mouth alone. In all these arrange- 
 ments the Crustacea and Arachnides are placed among the Insects, 
 and in that of Linnaeus, the one generally adopted, they are even the 
 last. 
 
 I divide this class into twelve orders: the three first of which are 
 composed of apterous Insects, undergoing no essential change of 
 form or habits, merely subject to simple changes of tegument, or 
 to a kind of a metamorphosis, which increases the number of legs, 
 and that of the annuli of the body. The organ of sight in these 
 animals is usually a mere (more or less considerable) assemblage 
 of ocelli resembling granules. 
 
 Certain English naturalists have formed new orders, based upon 
 the wings; I see no necessity, however, for admitting them, that of 
 the Strepsiptera excepted, the name of which appears to me to be 
 erroneous(l), and which I will call Rhipiptera(2). 
 
 In the first order or the Myriapoda, there are more than six feet 
 — twenty-four and upwards — arranged along the whole length of 
 the body, on a suite of annuli, each of which bears one or two pairs, 
 
 ( 1 ) Twisted wings. The pai-ts taken for elytra are not so. See this order. 
 
 (2) Wings folded like a fan. 
 
INSECTA. 351 
 
 and of which the first, and in several even the second, seem to form 
 a part of the mouth. They are apterous( 1). 
 
 In the second or the Thysanottra, there are six legs, and the 
 abdomen is furnished on its sides with movable parts, in the form 
 of false feet, or terminated by appendages fitted for leaping. 
 
 In the third or the Parasita, we find six legs, no wings, and no 
 other organs of sight than ocelli; the mouth, in a great measure, is 
 internal, and consists of a snout containing a retractile sucker, or in 
 a slit between two lips, with two hooked mandibles. 
 
 In the fourth or the Suctoria, there are six legs, but no wings; 
 the mouth is composed of a sucker inclosed in a cylindrical sheath, 
 formed of two articulated portions. 
 
 In the fifth or the Coleoptera, there are six legs, and four wings, 
 the two superior of which have the form of cases, and mandibles and 
 maxillae for mastication: the ioferior wings are simply folded cross- 
 wise, and the cases, always horizontal, are crustaceous. They ex- 
 perience a complete metamorphosis. 
 
 In the sixth or the Orthoptera, there are six legs; four wings, 
 the two superior in the form of cases, and mandibles and jaws for 
 mastication, covered at the extremity by a galea; the inferior wings 
 are folded in two directions, or simply in their length, and the inner 
 margins of the cases, usually coriaceous, are crossed. They only 
 experience a semi-metamorphosis. 
 
 In the seventh or the Hemiptera, there are six legs and four 
 wings, the two superior in the form of crustaceous cases, with mem- 
 branous extremities, or similar to the inferior, but larger and firmer; 
 the mandibles and jaws are replaced by setae forming a sucker, en- 
 closed in a sheath composed of one articulated, cylindrical or 
 conical piece, in the form of a rostrum. 
 
 In the eighth or the Neuroptera, there are six legs, four mem- 
 branous and naked wings, and mandibles and jaws for mastication; 
 the wings are finely reticulated, and the inferior are usually as large 
 as the superior, or more extended in one of their diameters. 
 
 In the ninth or the Hyhenoptera, there are six feet, and four 
 membranous and naked wings, and mandibles and jaws for mastica- 
 tion; the inferior wings are smaller than the others, and the abdo- 
 men of the female is almost always terminated by a terebra or sting. 
 
 (1) Destitute of wings and scutellum. 
 
352 INSECTA. 
 
 In the tenth or the Lepidoptera, there are six legs, four mem- 
 branous wings, covered with small coloured scales resembling dust; 
 a horny production in the form of an epaulette, and directed back- 
 wards, is inserted before each upper wing, and the jaws are replaced 
 by two united tubular filaments, forming a kind of spirally convo- 
 luted tongue. 
 
 In the eleventh or the Riiipiptera, there are six legs, two. 
 membranous wings folded like a fan, and two crustaceous movable 
 bodies, resembling little elytra, situated at the anterior extremity of 
 the thorax; the organs of manducation are simple, setaceous jaws, 
 with two palpi. 
 
 In the twelfth or the Diptera, there are six legs, two membra- 
 nous extended wings, accompanied, in most of them, by two movable 
 bodies or halteres, placed behind them; the organs of manducation 
 are a sucker composed of a variable number of setas inclosed in an 
 inarticulated sheath, most frequently in the form of a proboscis ter- 
 minated by two lips. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 MYRIAPODA. 
 
 The Myriapoda commonly called Centipedes^are the only animals 
 of this class which have more than six feet in their perfect state^and 
 whose abdomen is not distinct from, the trunk. Their body, desti- 
 tute of wings, is composed of a (usually) numerous suite of annuli, 
 most commonly equal, each of which, a few of the first excepted, 
 bears two pairs of feet mostly terminated by a single hook; these 
 annuli are either entire or divided into two demi-segments, each 
 bearing a pair of those organs, and one of them only exhibiting two 
 stigmata. 
 
 The Myriapoda in general resemble little Serpents or Nereides, 
 their feet being closely approximated to each other throughout the 
 whole extent of the body. The form of these organs even extends 
 to the parts of the mouth. The mandibles are bi-articulated and 
 immediately followed by a quadrifid piece in the form of a lip with 
 articulated divisions, resembling little feet, which, from its position, 
 
MYRIAPODA. 353 
 
 corresponds to the ligula of the Crustacea; next come two pairs of 
 little feel, the second of which, in several, resemble large hooks, 
 that appear to replace the four jaws of the last mentioned animals, 
 or the two jaws as well as the lower lip of Insects: they are a sort 
 of buccal feet. The antennas, two in number, are short, somewhat 
 thicker towards the extremity, or nearly filiform and composed of 
 seven joints in some; in others they are numerous and setaceous. 
 Their visual organs are usually composed of a union of ocelli, and 
 if in others they present a cornea with facets, the lenses are still 
 larger, rounded, and more distinct, in proportion, than those of the 
 eyes of Insects. The stigmata are frequently very small, and their 
 number, owing to that of the annuli, is usually greater than in the 
 latter, where it never exceeds eighteen or twenty. The number of 
 these annuli and that of the feet increase with age, a character 
 which also distinguishes the Myriapoda from Insects, the latter ab 
 ovo always having the number of segments peculiar to them, and all 
 their legs with hooks, or true legs, being developed at once, either 
 at the same epoch or when they pass into their pupa state. The 
 Myriapoda live and increase in size longer than other Insects. 
 
 From this ensemble of facts, we may conclude, that these animals 
 approach the Crustacea and Arachnides on the one hand, and the 
 Insects on the other; but that as respects the presence, form and di- 
 rection of the branchiaB, they belong to the latter. 
 
 We divide them into two families, perfectly distinct both in their 
 organization and habits, and forming two genera according to the 
 system of Linnasus. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CHILOGNATHA. 
 
 The body generally crustaceous and frequently cylindrical; the 
 antennae somewhat thicker near the end or nearly equal, and com- 
 posed of seven joints; the two thick mandibles without palpi, very 
 distinctly divided into two portions by a median articulation with im- 
 bricated teeth, implanted in a cavity of its superior extremity; a 
 species of lip — ligula — situated immediately above, that covers them, 
 is crustaceous, plane, and divided on its exterior surface by longitu- 
 2 U 
 
354 INSECTA. 
 
 dinal sutures and emarginations into four principal arese, tubercu- 
 lated on their superior margin, the two intermediate of which, 
 narrower and shorter, are placed at the superior extremity of another 
 area, serving as a common base: the feet very short, and always ter- 
 minated by a single hook. 
 
 The Chilognatha move very slowly, or slide along, as it were, and 
 roll themselves spirally or into a ball. The first segment of the 
 body, and in some the following one, is the largest, and has the form 
 of a corselet or little shield. It is only at the fourth, in some, and 
 at the fifth or sixth in others, that the diiplication of the feet com- 
 mences; the first two or four feet are even entirely free to their ori- 
 gin, where they merely adhere to their respective segments by a 
 median or sternal line. The last two or three rings are without 
 feet. A series of pores is observed on each side of the body, which 
 were considered as stigmata, but, according toSavi,they are simply 
 designed to afford a passage to an acid fluid of an extremely disa- 
 greeable odour, which appears to serve as a means of defence; the 
 respiratory apertures, for whose discovery we are indebted to him, 
 are situated on the sternal part of each segment, and communicate 
 internally with a double series of pneumatic sacs strung together 
 like a rosary, extending along the body, from which proceed tracheal 
 branches that ramify over the other organs. According to an ob- 
 servation of Straus, the sacs or vesicular trachese are not, as usual, 
 connected with each other by a principal trachea. 
 
 These Insects feed on dead and decomposed animal and vegetable 
 matters; they deposit in the ground a large number of eggs. Ac- 
 cording to the system of Linnaeus they form but one genus, that of 
 
 luLus, Lin. 
 Some have a crustaceous body without terminal appendages, and antennx 
 enlarged near the end. 
 
 Glomeris, Lat. 
 Resembling Onisci; oval, and rolling into a ball; the body convex above, 
 and concave underneath, with a range of little scales analogous to the 
 lateral divisions of the Trilobites along each of its inferior sides. These ani- 
 mals are terrestrial, and live under stones in hilly places. 
 
 luLus, Lin. 
 The body of the true luli is cylindrical and very long, and has no ridge 
 or trenchant edge on the sides of the annuli; they roll themselves up spirally. 
 
MYRIAPODA. 355 
 
 The larger species live on land, particularly in the woods and sandy- 
 places, and diffuse a very disagreeable odour. The smallest ones feed on 
 fruit, or the roots and leaves of esculent vegetables. Others are found 
 under the bark of ti-ees, in moss, &c. There are two otlier genera, viz. 
 Polydeamus and Pollyxenits. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 CHILOPODA. 
 
 The antennsB of the Chilopoda are more slender towards the ex- 
 tremity, and consist of fourteen joints and upwards. Their mouth 
 is composed of two mandibles furnished with a little palpiform ap- 
 pendage, which seem to have been soldered in the middle, and ter- 
 minate like the bowl of a spoon with dentated edges; of a quadrifid 
 lip, of two palpi or little feet, and of a second lip formed by a second 
 pair of feet, dilated and united at base, and terminated by a stout 
 movable hook, whose inferior extremity is perforated by a hole which 
 affords an issue to a venomous fluid. 
 
 The body is depressed and membranous. Each of its rings is 
 covered with a coriaceous or cartilaginous plate, and most gene- 
 rally bears but a single pair of feet; the last is usually thrown back- 
 wards, and elongated into a kind of tail. The organs of respiration 
 are wholly, or partly, composed of tubular trachese. 
 
 These animals run very fast, are carnivorous, avoid the light, and 
 conceal themselves under stones, logs, in the ground, «Sic. They 
 are much dreaded by the inhabitants of hot climates, where they are 
 very large, and where their venom is possibly more active. The 
 Scolopendra morsitans is styled in the Antilles the malfaisante. 
 Some of them exhibit phosphorescent properties. 
 
 The Chilopoda, which, in the system of Leach, form the order 
 Syngnatha, from these last characters, the nature of the respiratory 
 organs and the feet, may be thus divided: 
 
 Some have but fifteen pairs of feet, and their body viewed from above 
 presents fewer segments than when seen from beneath. 
 
 SctJTiGEHA, Lam. 
 The body covered with eight scutelliform plates. The under partofthe 
 
356 INSECTA. 
 
 body is divided into fifteen semi-annuli, each bearing a pair of feet, termi- 
 nated by a very long, slender, multi-articulated tarsus; the last pairs are more 
 elongated; the eyes large and compound. 
 
 Their antennae are slender and tolerably long; the two palpi salient and 
 furnished with small spines. Tlie body is shorter than in the other genera 
 of the same family, and the joints of their feet are proportionably longer. 
 They are extremely agile animals, and frequently part with some of their 
 feet when seized. 
 
 LiTHOEiTJS, Leach. 
 
 The stigmata lateral; body divided above and beneath into a similar 
 number of segments, each bearing a pair of feet; the superior plates alter- 
 nately longer and shorter, and overlapping each other close to the extremity. 
 
 The others have at least twenty-one pairs effect, and the segments both 
 above and underneath are equal in size and number. 
 
 ScoiopENDiiA, Lin. 
 
 Those which form the two feet that immediately follow the two hooks 
 forming the exterior lip, present but twenty-one pah's, and whose antennae 
 have seventeen joints, constituting the genera Scolopendra and Crytops of 
 Leach. There are eight distinct eyes, four on each side in the first, and 
 that in which tlie largest species are found; in the second, they are null or 
 but very slightly visible. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 THYSANOURA, 
 
 This order consists of apterous Insects, supported by six feet, 
 that experience no metamorphosis, and have, in addition, particular 
 organs of motion either on the sides or the extremity of the abdomen. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 LEPISMEN^, Lat. 
 
 Setiform antennas divided from their origin into very numerous 
 and small joints; mouth furnished with very distinct and salient 
 palpi; each side of the under part of the abdomen provided with a 
 
THYSANOURA. 357 
 
 range of movable appendages, in the form of false feet; abdomen 
 terminated by articulated setae, three of which are the most remark- 
 able; body always covered with small shining scales. 
 It comprises but one genus, the 
 
 Lepisma, Lin. 
 The body of these animals is elongated and covered with small scales, 
 frequently silvery and brilliant, from which cii'cumstance the most common 
 species has been compared to a little Fish. The antennae are setaceous and 
 usually very long. The feet are short and frequently have very large and 
 strongly compressed cox<e resembling scales. 
 
 Several species conceal themselves in the cracks and in the frame work of 
 windows, under damp boards, in wardi-obes, &c. Others retire under stones. 
 
 These Insects run with great velocity; some of them by means of their 
 caudal appendages ai'e enabled to leap. They are divided into two sub- 
 genera, Maciiius, Lat. and Lepisma, Lin. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PODURELL-^, Lat. 
 
 Antennae quadriarticulated; no distinct or salient palpi: abdomen 
 terminated by a forked tail folded under the venter when at rest, and 
 used for leaping. The Podurelte form but one genus in the Lin- 
 nasan system. 
 
 PoDURA, Lin. 
 
 These Insects are very small, soft and elongated, with an oval head and two 
 eyes, each composed of eight granules. Their legs have but four distinct 
 joints. The tail is soft, flexible, and formed of an inferior piece, movable 
 at base; to the extremity of which are articulated two appendages suscepti- 
 ble of being approximated, separated, or crossed — they are the teeth of the 
 fork. They have the faculty of elevating their tail, and then forcing it 
 suddenly against the plane of position; as if they let go a spring, thus rais- 
 ing themselves into the air, and even leaping like the Pulices, but to a less 
 height. They usually fall on their back, with their tail extended poste- 
 riorly. The middle of the venter exhibits a raised oval portion divided by 
 a slit. 
 
 Some keep on trees and plants, under old pieces of bark, or stones; others 
 on the surface of stagnant waters, and sometimes on that of snow during a 
 thaw. Several unite in numerous societies on the ground, and at a distance 
 
358 INSECTA. 
 
 resemble little heaps of gunpowder. We divide them into Poduha and 
 Smtnthurus, Lat. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 
 PARASITA. 
 
 The Parasita, so called from their parasitical habits, have but six 
 legs, and are apterous, like the Thysanoura; but their abdomen is 
 destitute of articulated and movable appendages. Their organs of 
 vision consist of but four or two ocelli; a great portion of their 
 mouth is internal, exhibiting externally, either a snout or projecting 
 mammilla containing a retractile sucker, or two membranous and 
 approximated lips with two hooked mandibles. According to Lin- 
 nasus, they form but one genus, that of 
 
 Pediculus, Lin. 
 Their body is flattened, nearly diaphanous, and divided into twelve or ele- 
 ven distinct segments, three of which belong" to the trunk, each bearing one 
 pair of legs. The first of these segments frequently forms a sort of thorax. 
 The stigmata are very distinct. The antennae are short, equal, composed 
 of five joints, and frequently inserted in a notch. There are one or two 
 small ocelli on each side of the head. The legs are short, and terminated 
 by a very stout nail, or two opposing hooks, which enable these animals 
 to cling with great facility to the hairs of Quadrupeds, or to the feathers of 
 Birds, whose blood they suck, and on whose bodies they pass their lives. 
 They attach their ova to these cutaneous appendages. These Insects al- 
 ways live on the same Quadrupeds and on the same Birds, or at least on 
 animals of these classes, which have analogous chai-acters and habits. 
 Two species frequently live on the same Bird. Their gait in general 
 is very slow. 
 
 This genus now forms several subgenera. They include the various 
 species of Lice found on Man, Birds, &c. 
 
INSECTA. 359 
 
 ORDER IV. 
 
 SUCTORIA. 
 
 The Suctoria, which constitute the last order of the Aptera, have 
 a mouth composed of three pieces, enclosed between two articu- 
 lated laminae, which, when united, form a cylindrical or conical 
 proboscis or rostrum, the base of which is covered by two scales. 
 These characters exclusively distinguish this order from all others, 
 and even from that of the Hemiptera, to which, in these respects, it 
 approximates the most closely, and in which these Insects were 
 placed by Fabricius. The Suctoria, besides, undergo true meta- 
 morphoses, analogous to those of several Diptera, such as the 
 Tipulas. 
 
 This order consists of a single genus, that of 
 
 PuLEX, Lin. 
 
 The body of the Flea is oval, compressed, invested by a firm skin, and 
 divided into twelve segments, three of which compose the trunk, that is 
 short, and the others the abdomen. The head is small, strongly compressed, 
 rounded above, and truncated and ciliated before; it is furnished on each 
 side with a small rounded eye, behind which is a fossula, in which we dis- 
 cover a little movable body furnished with small spines. The legs are 
 strong, the last ones particularly, fitted for leaping, and spinous; the coxa 
 and femur are large; the tarsi is composed of five joints, the last terminating 
 in two elongated hooks; the two anterior legs are inserted almost under 
 the head, the rostrum being placed midway between them. 
 
 The female lays a dozen of white and slightly viscid eggs; the larvx 
 have no feet, are much elongated, resemble little worms, and are extremely 
 lively, rolling themselves into a circle or spirally, and crawl with a serpen- 
 tine motion; they are first white and then reddish. Their body is com- 
 posed of a scaly head, without eyes, bearing two very small antennae, and 
 of thirteen segments, with little tufts of hairs, the last one terminated by 
 two kinds of hooks. Some small movable pieces are observed in the mouth, 
 by which these larvje push themselves forwards. After remaining twelve 
 days under this form, they enclose themselves in a little silky cocoon in 
 which they become pupse, and from which, in about the same time, they 
 issue in their perfect state. 
 
 There are various species that live on Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. 
 
360 INSECTA. 
 
 ORDER V. 
 
 COLEOPTERA. 
 
 Coleopterous Insects have four wings, the two superior of which 
 resemble horizontal scales, joining in a straight line along the inner 
 margin; the inferior wings are merely folded transversely and co- 
 vered with others, which form cases or covers for them, usually de- 
 nominated the elytra. 
 
 Of all Insects, these are the most numerous and the best known. 
 The singular form and brilliant colouring of many species, the vo- 
 lume of their bodies, the greater solidity of their teguments, which 
 facilitates their preservation, the numerous advantages, which the 
 study derives from the various forms of their external organs, &c., 
 have secured to them the particular attention of naturalists. 
 
 Their head presents antennse of various forms, and almost always 
 composed of eleven joints; two compound eyes, but none simple; 
 and a mouth consisting of a labrum, two mandibles^ usually of a 
 scaly substance, two jaws, each furnished with one or two palpi, and 
 of a labium formed of two pieces, the mentum and the ligula, and 
 accompanied by two palpi, commonly inserted into the latter. 
 Those of the jaws, or when they have two, the exterior ones, never 
 consist of more than four joints; those of the lip usually have three. 
 
 The anterior segment of the trunk, or that which is before the 
 wings, usually called the thorax, bears the first pair of legs, and is 
 much larger than the two other segments. The latter are intimately 
 united with the base of the abdomen, and their inferior portion or 
 pectus gives insertion to the second and third pairs of legs. The 
 second, on which the scutellum is placed, is narrowed before, and 
 forms a short pedicle which fits into the interior of the first, and 
 serves as a pivot, on v;hich it moves. 
 
 The elytra and wings arise from the lateral and superior edges 
 of the metathorax. The elytra are crustaceous, and when at rest, 
 join along their internal margin, and always horizontally. They 
 almost always conceal the wings, which are wide and transversely 
 folded. Several species are apterous, but the elytra still exist. 
 The abdomen is sessile or united to the trunk in its greatest width. 
 It is composed externally of six or seven annuli, membranous above, 
 
COLEOPTERA. 361 
 
 or less solid than underneath. The number of joints in the tarsi 
 varies from three to five. 
 
 The Coleoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis. The larva 
 resembles a worm, having a scaly head, a mouth analogous to that 
 of the perfect insect in the number of its parts, and usually six feet. 
 Some few species are destitute of them, or have merely simple 
 mammilla?. 
 
 The pupa is inactive and takes no nourishment. The habitations, 
 mode of life, and other habits of these Insects, in both states, vary 
 greatly. 
 
 I divide this order into four sections, according to the number of 
 joints in the tarsi. 
 
 The first comprises the Pentamera, or those in which all the 
 tarsi consist of ^ve joints, and is composed of six families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CARNIVORA. 
 
 Two palpi to each maxilla, or six in all; antennse almost always 
 filiform or setaceous, and simple. 
 
 The maxillae are terminated by a scaly hook or claw, and the in- 
 terior side is furnished with cilia or little spines. The ligula is fixed 
 in an emargination of the menturn. The two anterior legs are in- 
 serted on the sides of a compressed sternum, and placed on a large 
 patella; the two posterior have a stout trochanter at their origin; 
 their first joint is large, appears to be confounded with the post- 
 pectus, and forms a curvilinear triangle, with the exterior side ex- 
 cavated. 
 
 These Insects pursue and devour others. Several have no wings 
 under their elytra. The anterior tarsi in most of the males are 
 dilated or widened. 
 
 The larvae also are very carnivorous. Their body is usually cy- 
 lindrical, elongated, and composed of twelve rings; the head, which 
 is not included in this supputation, is large, squamous, armed with 
 two stout mandibles, recurved at the poii\t, and presents two short 
 and conical antennse, two maxillsB divided into two branches, one 
 of which is formed by a palpus, a ligula bearing two palpi, shorter 
 2 V 
 
363 INSECTA. 
 
 than the others, and six ocelli on each side. The first annulus is 
 covered by a squamous plate; the others are soft, or have but little 
 firmness. Each of the three first bears a pair of legs, the extremity 
 of which curves forwards. 
 
 These larvae differ according to the genus. In those of the Ci-- 
 cindelae and of the Aristus bucephalus, the top of the head is very 
 concave in the middle, whilst its inferior portion is convex. They 
 have two ocelli, on each side, much larger, and similar to those of 
 the Lycosae. The superior plate of the first segment is large, and 
 forms a semicircular shield. There are two hooked mammillas on 
 the back of the eighth annulus; the last has no remarkable ap- 
 pendage. 
 
 In the other larv^ of this family which are known to us, those of 
 Omophron excepted, the head is weaker and more equal. The 
 ocelli are very small and similar. The squamous piece of the first 
 ring is square, and does not project from the body. There are no 
 mammillae on the eighth; and the last is terminated by two conical 
 appendages, exclusive of a membranous tube formed by the prolon- 
 gation of the end of the body. These appendages, in the larvae of 
 Calosoma and Carabus, are horny and dentated. In those of Har- 
 palus and Licinus, they are fleshy, articulated and longer. The body 
 of the larva of a Harpalus is somewhat shorter, and the head a little 
 larger. The mandibles of both approach the form of those of the 
 perfect Insect. 
 
 Some are aquatic, others terrestrial. 
 
 The latter have legs exclusively adapted for running, the four 
 posterior of which are inserted at equal distances; mandibles com- 
 pletely exposed; the terminal piece of the maxillae straight inferiorly, 
 and only curved at its extremity; and most frequently an oblong 
 body with projecting eyes. All their tracheae are tubular or 
 elastic. 
 
 They are divided into two tribes. The first or the Cicindelet^, 
 Lat., comprises the genus 
 
 CiciNDELA, Lin., 
 In which the extremity of the maxillae is provided with a httle nail articu- 
 lated with it by its base. 
 
 The head is large, with great eyes, and very projecting and dentated 
 mandibles; the very short ligula is concealed behind the mentum. The la- 
 
COLEOPTERA. 363 
 
 b'lal palpi are distinctly corpposed of four joints, and generally pilose, as 
 well as those of the maxillae. 
 
 This great Linnaean genus now fonns various subgenera, such as Mantico- 
 ra, Megacephala, &c. The true Cicindela or 
 
 CiCINDELA, Lat. 
 
 Are usually of a darker or lighter green, mixed with various brilliant 
 metallic tints; the elytra are marked with white spots. They prefer dry, 
 warm situations, run with considerable swiftness, take wing the moment 
 they are approached, but alight at a short distance. If pursued they have 
 recourse to the same means of escape. 
 
 The larvae of two species indigenous to France, the only ones that have 
 been observed, excavate in the earth a deep cylindrical hole, an operation 
 which they effect with their mandibles and feet. To empty it, they place 
 the detached particles on their head, turn about, climb up the ascent little 
 by little, resting at intervals and clinging to the walls of their domicil by 
 means of their two dorsal mammillae; when they arrive at the mouth of the 
 aperture they throw down their burden. While in ambuscade, the plate 
 of their head exactly closes the entrance of their cell, and is on a level with 
 the ground. They seize their prey with their mandibles, and even dart 
 upon it, and by a see-saw motion of their head precipitate it to the bottom 
 of the hole. Thither also they quickly retreat on the least intimation of 
 danger. If they are too confined, or the soil is not of a proper nature, they 
 construct a new habitation elsewhere. Such is their voracity that they 
 devour other larvae of the same species, which have taken up their abode 
 in their vicinity. When about to change their tegument or to become pupae, 
 they close the opening of their cell. 
 
 The American species of Cicindela are numerous and beautiful. 
 
 The second tribe, or the Carabici, Lat., comprehends the genus 
 
 Carabus, Lin. 
 Where the maxillae simply terminate in a point or hook, without an articu- 
 lated extremity. 
 
 Their head is usually narrower than the thorax, or, at most, of the 
 same width; their mandibles, those of a few excepted, have no dentations 
 or but very few; the ligula usually projects, and the labial palpi exhibit but 
 three free joints. Many of them are destitute of wings, only havingelytra. 
 They frequently diffuse a fetid odour, and eject an acrid and caustic liquid. 
 Geoffroy believed that the ancients designated Carabici under the name of 
 Buprestes, Insects which they considered as highly poisonous, particularly 
 to Oxen. 
 
 The Carabici conceal themselves in the ground, under stones, chips, 
 bark of old trees, &c., and are mostly very active. Their larvae have the 
 
364 INSECTA. 
 
 same habits. This tribe is very numerous, and forms a most difficult 
 study. 
 
 The Carabici are now variously subdivided. Each section consisting of 
 numerous genera. We find, 
 
 1. The Truncatippennes, so called because the posterior extremity of 
 their elytra is almost always ti'uncated. The head and thorax are narrower 
 than the abdomen. The ligula is most commonly oval or square, and is 
 rarely accompanied on the sides by salient divisions. 
 
 This section consists of Jlnthia, Graphipterus, Jtptinus, Brachinus, Casno- 
 nia, he. &c. 
 
 2. The BiPARTiTi, which in relation to their habits might aLso be styled 
 Fossores, is composed of Carabici with elytra either entire or slightly sinu- 
 atedat their posterior extremity; having frequently granose and geniculate 
 antennae; a broad head, large thorax, usually shaped like a cup or almost 
 semi-orbicular, and separated from the abdomen by an interval which causes 
 the latter to appear pediculated; the legs generally but slightly elongated, 
 their tarsi usually short, and similar in the two sexes, or nearly so, without 
 any brush beneath, and simply furnished with ordinary hairs or cilia. The 
 two anterior tibiae are dentated, and in several palmated or digitated; the 
 mandibles frequently strong and dentated. There is a tooth in the emar- 
 gination of the mentum. They all keep on the ground, conceal themselves 
 either in holes which they excavate, or under stones, and frequently only 
 leave their retreat at night. They are usually of a uniform black. The 
 larvae of the Ditomus bucephalus, the only one that has been observed, has 
 the form and mode of life of the larvae of the Cicindelae. They are more 
 particularly proper to hot countries. 
 
 The genera are Enceladus, Siagona, Pasimachus, Scarites, &c. &c. 
 
 3. The Quadhimani includes those, otherwise similar to the last in the 
 pointed termination of the posterior extremity of their elytra, in the males 
 of which the four anterior tarsi are dilated; the three or four first joints are 
 in the form of a reversed heart or triangular, and nearly all terminated 
 by acute angles; they are usually furnished underneath (the Ophoni ex- 
 cepted) with two ranges of papillx or scales, with an intermediate linear 
 space. 
 
 The body is always winged, and generally oval and arcuated or convex 
 above; the thorax is wider than it is long, or at most nearly isometrical, 
 square or trapezoidal. The head is never suddenly contracted posteriorly, 
 and the antennse are equal throughout, or slightly and insensibly thickened 
 near the extremity. The mandibles are never very strong. The exterior 
 palpi are terminated by an oval or fusiform joint, longer than the preceding 
 one. 1 he tooth of the emargination of the mentum is always entire, and in 
 some is wanting. The legs are robust, the tibise spiny, and the hooks of 
 the tarsi simple. The intermediate tarsi, even in the females, are short. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 365 
 
 and, with the exception of the dilatation, nearly formed like the anterior. 
 These Carabici prefer sandy and hot localities. 
 Here we have, ^cinopus, Daptus, Ilarpalus, &c. 
 
 4. The SiMPiiciMAif I approaches the preceding' in the manner in which 
 the elytra are terminated; but the two anterior tarsi alone are dilated in the 
 males, without however forming a square or orbicular palette; sometimes 
 the three first joints are much wider, and in this case the succeeding one 
 is always smaller than its antecedent; sometimes the latter and the two pre- 
 ceding ones are larger, almost equal, and in the form of a reversed heart or 
 triangular: tlie first joints of the four following tarsi arc more slender and 
 elongated, almost cylindrical, or in the form of an elongated and reversed 
 cone. 
 
 The genera are Zabrus, Pogonus, Feronia, &c. 
 
 5. The Pateliimani, distinguished from the Simplicimani, by the man- 
 ner in which the two anterior tarsi of the males are dilated, the first joints 
 — usually the three first, then the fourth, and sometimes only the two first 
 — all of which are sometimes square, and at others only in part, the re- 
 mainder being cordiform, or resembling a reversed triangle, but always 
 rounded at their extremity, and not terminated as in the preceding sections 
 by acute angles, form an orbicular palette or long square, the inferior sur- 
 face of which is usually furnished with brushes or crowded papillx, without 
 any intermediate vacancy. 
 
 The legs are generally slender and elongated, and the thorax is fre- 
 quently narrower than the abdomen, throughout its whole length. Most 
 of them frequent the shores of rivers, or other aquatic localities. 
 
 The genera are, Dolichus, Agonus, Chlasnius, Dicaelus, &c. &c. 
 
 6. The Gkasdipalpi, whose anterior tibiae have no emargination on the 
 internal side, or which present one that begins close to their extremity, or 
 that does not extend on their anterior face, and forming a mere oblique and 
 linear canal. The ligula is often extremely short, terminated in a point in 
 the middle of its summit, and accompanied by pointed paraglossae. The 
 mandibles are robust. The last joint of the exterior palpi is usually larger, 
 compressed into the form of a reversed triangle, or securiform in some, and 
 almost into that of a spoon in others. The eyes are prominent. The 
 elytra are entire or simply sinuous at their posterior extremity. The abdo- 
 men, compared with the other parts of the body, is voluminous. They are 
 generally large Insects, are ornamented with-briUiant metallic colours, run 
 very fast, and are extremely carnivorous. 
 
 In this section we have Pamborus, Cychrus, Scaphinotus, Procerusy Cola- 
 soma and 
 
 Carabus, Lin. Fab. 
 Or Carabus properly so called. The labrum is simply emarginate or 
 bilobate; tooth of the emargination of the mentum entire. 
 
366 INSECTA. 
 
 Count Dejean describes one hundred and twenty-four species, which he 
 has arranged in sixteen divisions. The first thirteen comprise those whose 
 elytra are convex or arched, and the three last, those in which they J are 
 plane. 
 
 The greater number of these species inhabit Europe, Caucasus, Siberia, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, and the north of Africa to the thirtieth degree of north 
 latitude. Some few are also found at the two extremities of America, and 
 it is probable that others may be found in the intermediate mountains(l). 
 
 The Pentamerous Aquatic Carnivora form a third tribe, that of 
 the Hydrocanthaei, Lat. The feet of these Insects are fitted for 
 natation; the four last are compressed, ciliated or laminiform, and 
 the two last at a distance from the others; the mandibles are almost 
 entirely covered; the body is always oval, the eyes but slightly promi- 
 nent, and the thorax much wider than long. The terminal hook of 
 the maxillsB is arcuated from its base; those at the extremity of the 
 tarsi are often unequal. 
 
 They compose the genera Dytiscus and Gyrinus of Geoffroy. 
 They pass their first and last stage of existence in the fresh and pla- 
 cid waters of lakes, marshes, ponds, &c. They are good swim- 
 mers, and rise occasionally to the surface of their liquid abodes in 
 order to respire; this they easily effect by keeping their legs motion- 
 less, and permitting themselves to float. Their body being reversed, 
 they elevate its posterior extremity a little above the water, raise 
 the extremity of their elytra, or depress the end of the abdomen, in 
 order that air may enter the stigmata, which are covered by them, 
 whence it finds its way to the tracheae. They are excessively vora- 
 cious, and feed on small animals inhabiting the same element, which 
 they never leave excepting during the night, or at its approach. 
 When taken from the water they diffuse a nauseating odour. They 
 are frequently attracted into houses by the light of candles, &c. 
 
 Their larvae have a long and narrow body composed of twelve 
 rings, the first of which is the largest; a stout head, provided with 
 two powerful mandibles, curved into an arc, and perforated near the 
 
 (1) Of the species that inhabit North America, we have as yet only dis- 
 covered the C. Seauvoisi, carinatus, Lherminier?, Uneatopundatus {serratus. 
 Say), syhosus and vinctus. The mountains of New Hampshu-e, and Maine 
 particularly, probably contain several otbers, and it is to be hoped that 
 some friend of the science, within reach of those localities, wiU soon enable 
 MS to enlarge our catalogue of this interesting genus, as well as that of 
 otliers found in the same localities. — Am. Ed. 
 
COLEOPTERA, 367 
 
 pointj small antennse, palpi, and six simple, approximated eyes on 
 each side. They have six tolerably long legs, frequently fringed 
 with hairs, and terminated by two small nails. They are active, 
 carnivorous, and respire either at the extremity or by a kind of fins 
 resembling branchiae. When about to enter into their pupa state 
 they leave the water. 
 
 This tribe consists of two principal genera. 
 
 Dytiscus, Geoff. 
 The Dytisci have filiform antennae : longer than the head, two eyes, the an- 
 terior legs shorter than the following ones, and the last most commonly 
 terminated by a compressed tarsus ending in a point. By means of their 
 legs fringed with long hairs, the two last particularly, they are enabled to 
 swim with great velocity. They dart upon other Insects, aquatic Worms, &,c. 
 In most of the males the three first joints of the four anterior tarsi are 
 widened and spongy underneath; those of the first pair particularly are very 
 remarkable in the larger species, these three joints forming there a large 
 palette, the inferior surface of which Is covered by little bodies, some in 
 the form of papillse, and others, larger, in that of cups or suckers, &c. The 
 body of the larva is composed of from eleven to twelve annuli, and covered 
 with a squamous plate; this larva is long, ventricose in the middle, and 
 slender at each end, particularly behind, where the last annuli form an 
 elongated cone furnished on the sides with a fringe of floating hairs, with 
 which the animal acts on the water, and propels its body forwards; the lat- 
 ter is usually terminated by two conical, bearded and movable filaments. 
 
 These larvae suspend themselves on the svirface of the water by means of 
 two lateral appendages at the extremity of their body, which they keep 
 above it. When they wish to change their position, they communicate a 
 sudden vermicular motion to their body, and strike the water with their 
 tail. They feed more particularly on the larvae of the Libellulse, and those 
 of the Culices and Aselli. When the period of their metamorphosis has 
 arrived, they issue from the water, and having gained the shore, penetrate 
 into the earth, which must, however, be constantly moistened, or very hu- 
 mid. They then excavate an oval cavity, and shut themselves up in it. 
 
 According to RcEsel, the eggs of the D. marginalis are hatched from ten 
 to twelve days after they are laid. In foui' or five days after this epoch, 
 the larva is already five lines in length, and undergoes its first change of 
 tegument. The second ensues at the expiration of a similar period, and 
 the animal is then double its former size. Its final length is two inches. 
 They have been observed, in summer, to enter into their pupa at the end of 
 fifteen days, and to become perfect insects in fifteen or twenty more. 
 
 This great genus is now divided into several, Dytiscus proper, Colymbetes, 
 Hygrobia, 8cc. 
 
 The second genus of the Hydrocanthari, or the 
 
368 INSECTA. 
 
 Gyeinus, Lin. 
 
 Comprises those In which the antennae are clavate and shorter than the 
 head; the two first legs are long- and project like arms; the remaining four 
 are compressed, wide, and pinnate. There are four eyes. 
 
 The body is oval and usually very glossy. The second joint of the an- 
 tennae, which are inserted in a cavity before the eyes, is prolonged exteri- 
 orly in the form of an auricle, and the following joints are very short, 
 crowded, and united in one almost fusiform and slightly curved mass. The 
 head is sunk in the thorax almost to the eyes, which are large, and divided 
 by a border, in such a way that two are above and two underneath. The 
 labrum is rounded and strongly ciliated before. The palpi are very small, 
 and the interior of those attached to the maxillEe are wanting, or are not 
 developed in several, and particularly the larger species. The thorax is 
 short and transversal. The elytra are obtruse and truncated at their pos- 
 terior extremity, leaving the extremity exposed, which ends in a point. 
 The two anterior legs are long, slender, folded in two, and when contracted, 
 almost at a right angle with the body;! they are terminated by a very short, 
 strongly compressed tarsus, the inferior surface of which, in the males, is 
 furnished with a fine compact brush. The four others are broad and ex- 
 tremely thin, the joints of their tarsi forming little leaflets arranged like a 
 flounce. 
 
 The Gyrini are usually small, or of a moderate size. They are to be 
 found from the very beginning of spring untU the end of autumn, on the 
 surface of stagnant waters, and even on that of the Ocean, where, frequently 
 collected in troops, they appear like brilliant points, swimming and wheel- 
 ing with great agility in all sorts of curves, and in every direction, whence 
 the name of Puce aquatique and Tourniquet given to them by authors. 
 Sometimes they remain motionless, but the instant any one approaches, 
 they escape, by swimming, and dive with g^eat celerity. Their four last 
 legs serve them as oars, and the two before for seizing their prey. Placed 
 on water, the superior surface of their body is always dry, and when they 
 dive, a httle bubble of air, resembling a silvery globule, remains fixed to 
 its posterior extremity. When seized, a lacteous fluid oozes from their 
 body which spreads over it, and which, perhaps, produces that disagi'eeable 
 and penetrating odour they then diffuse, and which remains attached to the 
 fingers for a long time. Sometimes they remain at the bottom of the water 
 chnging to plants: there, also, it is probable they secrete themselves to pass 
 the winter. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 BRACHELYTRA. 
 
 In the second family of the Pentamerous Coleoptera we find but 
 one palpus to the maxillae, or four in all; the antennas, sometimes of 
 
COLEOPTERA. 369 
 
 equal thickness, and at others slightly enlarged at the end, are usually 
 composed of lenticular or graniform joints; the elytra are much 
 shorter than the body, which is narrow and elongated, and the coxae 
 of the two anterior legs are very large; near the extremity of the 
 abdomen are two vesicles which the animal protrudes at will. 
 These Coleoptera compose the genus 
 
 Staphylinus, Lin. 
 
 The Staphylini have been considered as forming' the passage from the Co- 
 leoptera to the Forficulae, the first genus of the following order. They 
 commonly have a large, flattened head, stout mandibles, short antennae, a 
 thorax as wide as the abdomen, and the el}'tra truncated at the extremity, 
 but still covering the wings, which preserve their usual extent. The semi- 
 annuli of the top of the abdomen are as scaly as those of the venter. The 
 vesicles of the extremity consist in two conical and pilose points, which are 
 protruded and retracted at the will of the animal; a subtile vapour escapes 
 from them, which, in some species, has a strong odour of sulphuric ether. 
 
 These Insects, when touched, or while they run, elevate the extremity 
 of their abdomen and flex it in every direction. They also use it to push 
 their wings imder the elytra. The tarsi of their two anterior legs are fre- 
 quently broad and dilated, and their coxae, as well as those of the interme- 
 diate legs, are very large. They are usually found in eartli, and other mat- 
 ters; some live in mushrooms, rotten wood, or under stones; others are only 
 met with in aquatic localities. Some very small ones keep on flowers. 
 They are all voracious, run with great swiftness, and take wing very 
 promptly. 
 
 The larva bears a close resemblance to the perfect Insect: it has the 
 figure of an elongated cone, the base of which is occupied by the very large 
 head; the last ring is prolonged into a tube, and is accompanied by two 
 conical and hairy appendages. It feeds on the same matters as the perfect 
 Insect. 
 
 This genus is very extensive and is now divided into six sections, viz. 
 The FissiLABHA, where we find the true Staphylini, the Longipaipi, the 
 Deuticrura, the Dephebsa, and the Microcephala. Each of these sec- 
 tions consists of various genera. The species are excessively numerous. 
 
 2 W 
 
370 INSECTA. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 SERRICORNES(l). 
 
 In the third family of pentamerous Coleoptera, as in the preced- 
 ing and following families of the same order, we find but four palpi. 
 The elytra cover the abdomen, which, with some other characters, 
 distinguish the Insects which compose it from the Brachelytra just 
 mentioned. The antennae, with some exceptions, are equal through- 
 out, or smaller at the extremity, dentated, either like a saw or a 
 comb, or even like a fan, and in this respect are most developed in 
 the males. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is frequently bilobate 
 or bifid. These characters are rarely found in the following family, 
 that of the Clavicornes, to which we arrive by such insensible gra- 
 dations, that to define its limits rigorously, becomes a very difficult 
 matter. 
 
 Some, in which the body is always firm and solid, and most com- 
 monly oval or elliptical, with partly contractile legs, have the head 
 plunged vertically into the thorax up to the eyes; and the praester- 
 num, or median portion of the thorax, elongated, dilated or reaching 
 to beneath the mouth, usually distinguished on each by a groove in 
 which the antennae — always short — are lodged, and prolonged pos- 
 teriorly into a point, which is received into a depression of the ante- 
 rior extremity of the mesosternum. These anterior legs are at a 
 distance from the anterior extremity of the thorax. They form a 
 first section, or that of the Sternoxi. 
 
 Others, whose head is enclosed posteriorly by the thorax, or at 
 least covered by it at base, but in which the praesternum is not di- 
 lated, and does not project anteriorly in the manner of a chin-cloth, 
 and is not usually terminated posteriorly in a point received into a 
 cavity in the mesosternum, and in which the body is most commonly 
 either entirely or partially soft and flexible, constitute a second sec- 
 tion, that of the Malacodekmi. 
 
 A third and last, that of the Xylotrogi, will comprise those 
 Serricornes, in which the posterior extremity of the praesternum is 
 not similarly prolonged, but whose head is completely exposed and 
 separated from the thorax by a strangulation or species of neck. 
 
 (1) Saw-horned. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 371 
 
 We will divide the Sternoxi into two tribes. In the first, or that 
 of the BupEESTiDES, the posterior projection of the praesternum is 
 flattened, and not terminated in a laterally compressed point, that is 
 simply received into a depression or emargination of the mesoster- 
 num. The mandibles frequently terminate in an entire point, with- 
 out any fissure or emargination. The posterior angles of the thorax 
 are either but very slightly or not at all prolonged. The last joint 
 of the palpi is most commonly nearly cylindrical, hardly thicker than 
 the preceding; the others are globular or ovoid. Most of the tarsial 
 segments are generally wide or dilated, and furnished beneath with 
 pellets. These Insects never leap, a character which eminently 
 distinguishes them from those of the following tribe: they compose 
 the genus 
 
 BuPRESTis, Lin. 
 
 The generic appellation of Richard, g-lven to these Coleoptera by GeofF- 
 roy, intimates the richness of their livery. Several of the European spe- 
 cies, and many that are foreign to that countiy, besides their size, are 
 remarkable for a brilliant polished gold colour on an emerald ground; in 
 others, an azure blue glistens over the gold, or there is a union of several 
 other metallic colours. Their body, in general, is oval, somewhat wider 
 and obtuse, or truncated before, and narrowed behind from the base of the 
 abdomen, which occupies the greater part of its length. The eyes are oval, 
 and the thorax Is short and wide. The scutel small or null. The extremity 
 of the elytra is more or less dentated in many. The legs are short. 
 
 They walk very slowly, but fly well in hot and dry weather. When about 
 to be seized, they let themselves fall to the ground. At the posterior extre- 
 mity of the abdomen of the females is a coriaceous, lamlnltbrm, conical ap- 
 pendage composed of three parts, the last annuli of the abdomen; it is pro- 
 bably an instrument with which they deposit their ova in dry wood, the 
 habitat of their larvae. Several small species are met with on leaves and 
 flowers; most of the others, however, are found in forests and wood-yards: 
 they sometimes appear in houses, where they have been transported, in 
 wood. In the state of a larva or chrysalis. 
 
 B. gigas, L. Two inches long; thorax cupreous, mixed with brilliant 
 green, and two large smooth spots of burnished steel; elytra trldentate at 
 the extremity, cupreous in the middle, bronze-green on the margin, with 
 impressed puncta, and elevated lines and rugae. Cayenne. 
 
 This beautiful and extensive genus is now divided Into four genera, viz. 
 Buprestis proper, Trachys, Aphanisticus and Melasis. Numerous species are 
 found in this country. 
 
 The second tribe or that of the Elaterides, which only differs 
 
372 INSECTA. 
 
 essentially from the first in the posterior stylet of the praesternum, 
 which terminates in a laterally compressed point, frequently some- 
 what arcuated and unidentate, that sinks at the will of the animal 
 into a cavity of the pectus,- situated immediately above the origin of 
 the second pair of legs; and in the circumstance, that these Insects 
 when placed on their back have the faculty of regaining their origi- 
 nal position by bounding upwards. Most of them have mandibles 
 emarginated or cleft at the end, palpi terminated by a triangular or 
 securiform joint, much larger than those which precede it, and the 
 joints of ihe tarsi entire. This tribe only comprises the genus 
 
 Elatee, Lin. 
 The body is usually narrower and more elongated than that of the Bupres- 
 tides, and the posterior angles of the thorax ai'e prolonged into a sharp 
 point, in the form of a spine. 
 
 The common French name of these Insects is Scarab^es a ressort, and their 
 Latin one, Notopeda, Elater. When placed on their back, finding it imposs- 
 ible to regain their natural position on account of the shortness of their 
 legs, they bound perpendicularly upwards until they fall on their feet. To 
 execute this motion, they press the latter close to the body, lower their 
 head and thorax, which has a free downward motion, then approximating 
 this last to the postpectus, they forcibly press the point of the praesternum 
 against the margin of the hole situated before the mesosternum, into which 
 it sinks suddenly, as if by a spring. The thorax and its lateral points, the 
 head and elytra, being violently propelled against the plane of position, 
 particularly if it be solid and smooth, concur by their elasticity in causing 
 the body to bound upwards. The sides of the praesternum are distinguished 
 by a groove, where the antennae, which are pectinated or bearded in seve- 
 ral males, are partly lodged. The females have a species of elongated 
 ovipositor with two lateral pieces pointed at the end, between which is the 
 true oviduct. 
 
 The Elaterides are found on flowers, plants, and even on the ground; 
 they lower their head in walking, and if any one approaches, let themselves 
 fall, pressing their legs against their body. 
 
 The various subgenera of this tribe may be referred to two principal 
 divisions. Those where the antennae can be entirely received into the in- 
 ferior cavities of the thorax constitute the first. 
 
 The second division includes all those whose antennae are exterior or 
 exposed. 
 
 Elater, properly so called. 
 The antennae of the males are simply serrated. 
 
 E- nodilucus, L. llather more than an inch long; dusky-brown, with a 
 cinereous down; a convex, yellow, round, shining spot on each side of the 
 
COLEOPTERA. 373 
 
 thorax near its posterior angles; elytra marked with lines of small punctures. 
 From South America. 
 
 During- the nig-ht, the thoracic spots diffuse a very strong light, suffici- 
 ently bright to enable one to read the smallest character, particularly if 
 several of the Insects be placed in the same vase. By it also the women 
 of the country pursue their work; and ladies even use it as an ornament, 
 placing it in their hair during the evening paseo. The Indians fix them to 
 their feet to light them in their nocturnal journeys. 
 
 North America is exti-emely rich in this genus. The Insect is usually 
 called a Snap-bug. 
 
 Our second section, or that of the Malacodermi, is divided into 
 five tribes. In the first, or the Cebeionites, so named fronn the 
 genus Cebrio of Olivier, on which all the others depend, the man- 
 dibles terminate in a simple or entire point, the palpi are of equal 
 thickness or more slender at the extremity, the body is rounded and 
 convex in some, oval or oblong, but arcuated above, and inclined 
 anteriorly in others. It is usually soft and flexible; the thorax is 
 transversal, widest at base, and its lateral angles acute, or in seve- 
 ral even prolonged into spines. The antennae are generally longer 
 than the head and thorax. The legs are not contractile. 
 
 Their habits are unknown. Many of them are found on plants in 
 aquatic localities. They may all be united in one genus, that of 
 
 Cebrio, Oliv. Fab. 
 Some, which establish a connexion between this and the preceeding tribe, 
 which are even of as firm and solid a consistence as the Stemoxi, whose legs 
 are never fitted for leaping, and whose body is generally an oblong oval, 
 witli the antennae of the males either pectinated, flabellated, or serrated, 
 the palpi filiform or somewhat elongated at the extremity, and the pos- 
 terior angles of the thorax prolonged into an acute point, present man- 
 dibles projecting beyond the lab rum, narrow, and highly arcuated or in the 
 form of hooks. The labrum is usually very short, and emarginated or 
 bilobate. 
 
 There, as in the Elaterides, the prsesternum terminates posteriorly in a 
 point, received into a cavity in the mesosternum. 
 
 The antennae, wliich in the males of some species are long, are composed 
 of eleven pectinated or serrated joints. The last joint of the palpi isalmost 
 cylindrical or forms a reversed cone . 
 
 This genus is now cut up into several, such as Physodadylus, Anelastes, 
 Sandalus, Rhipicera, &c. 
 
 The second tribe of the Malacodermi, or that of the Lampyrides, 
 is distinguished from the first by the enlarged termination of the 
 
374 INSECTA. 
 
 palpi, or at least those of the maxillas, by their always soft, straight, 
 depressed, or but slightly convex body, and by the thorax, some- 
 times semicircular, and at others nearly square or trapezoidal, that 
 projects over the head, which it either entirely or partially covers. 
 The mandibles are usually small, and terminate in a slender, arcu- 
 ated, very acute point, that is generally entire. The penultimate 
 joint of the tarsi is always bilobate, and the crotchets of the last have 
 neither dentations nor appendages. 
 
 The females of some are apterous, or have but very short elytra. 
 When seized, these Insects press their feet and antennae against 
 their body, and remain as motionless as if they were dead. Seve- 
 ral, thus situated, curve their abdomen underneath. They comprise 
 the genus 
 
 Lampyris, Lin. 
 
 Antennae closely approximated, at base, the head either exposed and pro- 
 longed anteriorly in the manner of a snout, or for the greater part, or en- 
 tirely, concealed under the thorax; eyes of the males large and globular; 
 mouth small. Such are the characters of a first division of this tribe, which 
 we will subdivide into those in which neither sex is phosphorescent, and 
 those in which the females at least are possessed of that faculty. Both sexes 
 of the former are provided with wings, have their head exposed, and fre- 
 quently narrower and extended anteriorly, or in the form of a snout, and 
 the thorax widened posteriorly with pointed lateral angles. The two or 
 three ultimate annuli of their abdomen are destitute of that pale yellowish 
 or whitish tint, that is always found on this part of the body in the true 
 Lampyrides, and which announces their phosphorescence The elytra, in 
 several, widen behind, and are sometimes strongly dilated and rounded 
 posteriorly, in the females particularly. They are densely punctured, and 
 frequently reticulated. 
 
 The genera are Lycus, Didyoptera and Omalisus. 
 
 The other Irampyrides of our first division are distinguished from the 
 preceding ones, not only by the want of a snout, by their head, which, in 
 the males almost entirely occupied by the eyes, is entirely or for the greater 
 part concealed under a semicircular or square thorax, but also by a very 
 remarkable character, either common to both sexes, or peculiar to the fe- 
 males, that of being phosphorescent, whence the names of Glow-worms, Fire- 
 Jlies, &c., given to these Insects. 
 
 Their body is extremely soft, the abdomen particularly, which has the 
 appearance of being plaited. The luminous matter occupies the inferior 
 part of the last two or three annuli, which differ in colour from the rest, 
 and are usually yellowish or whitish. The light they diffuse is more or less 
 vivid, and greenish or whitish, like that of the different kinds of phospho- 
 rus. It seems that they can vary its action at pleasure, a fact particularly 
 
COLEOPTEBA. 375 
 
 observable when they are seized or held in the hand. They live a long 
 time in vacuum and in different gases, the nitrous acid, muriatic and sul- 
 phurous gases excepted, in which they soon expire. Placed in hydrogen 
 gas, they, sometimes at least, detonate. They continue to live after the 
 excision of the luminous portion of their abdomen, and the part thus sepa- 
 rated preserves its luminous property for some time, whether it be submitted 
 to the action of various gases, be placed in vacuum, or left exposed to the 
 air. The phosphorescence depends on the softness of tlie matter, rather 
 than on the life of the animal. ^^ hen apparently extinct it may reproduced 
 by softening the matter with water. The Lampyrides emit a brilliant light 
 when immersed in warm water, but in cold water it becomes extinguished: 
 this fluid seems to be the only dissolving agent of the phosphoric matter. 
 They are nocturnal Insects. 
 
 In our second division of the Lampyrides, the antennae are very remote 
 at base; the head is neither prolonged nor narrowed anteriorly in the form 
 of a snout, and the eyes are of an ordinary size in both sexes. 
 
 This division consists of tlie genera Drilus, Telephorus, Silis, &c. 
 
 In the third tribe of the Malacodermi, or the Melybides, we find 
 the palpi most commonly short and filiform; mandibles emarginated 
 at the point; the body usually narrow and elongated; the head only 
 covered at base by a flat or but slightly convex thorax, generally 
 square, or elongated and quadrilateral; joints of the tarsi entire, and 
 the hooks of the last one unidentated or bordered with a mem- 
 brane. The antennae are usually serrated, and, in the males of 
 some species, even pectinated. 
 
 Most of them are very active, and are found on flowers and 
 leaves. 
 
 This tribe, which is a mere division of the genera Cantharis and 
 Dermestes of Linnaeus, will form the genus 
 
 Melyris, Fab., 
 Now consisting of the subgenera Malachius, Dasytes, &c. 8cc. 
 
 The fourth tribe of the Malacodermi, that of the Clerii, is dis- 
 tinguished by the ensemble of the following characters. Two of 
 their palpi at least project and are clavate. The mandibles are den- 
 tated. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobate, and the first 
 is very short or but slightly visible in several. The antennae are 
 sometimes nearly filiform and serrated, and at others insensibly en- 
 larged near the extremity. The body is usually cylindrical, the 
 
376 INSECTA. 
 
 head and thorax narrower than the abdomen, and the eyes emargi- 
 nated. 
 
 Most of these Insects are found on flowers, the remainder on the 
 trunks of old trees or in dry wood. Such of the larvae as are known 
 are carnivorous. 
 
 This tribe will comprise the genus 
 
 CiiERus, Geoff. 
 Now divided into Cylidrus, TH.llus, Friocera, &c. &c. 
 
 Clertjs proper. 
 
 The maxillary palpi of the Cleri, properly so called, are terminated by a 
 compressed joint in the form of a reversed triangle; the last of those that 
 belong to the labium, wliich are larger than the others, is securiform. The 
 antennal club is hardly longer than wide, and is composed of crowded 
 joints; the thu'd is longer than the second. The maxillae terminate in a 
 projecting and fringed lobe. The thorax is depressed anteriorly. 
 
 These Insects are found on flowers; their larvse devour those of certain 
 Bees. 
 
 C. apiarius. Blue; elylra red; traversed by three bands of deep blue, 
 the last of which occupies the extremity. The larva devours that of our 
 domestic Bee, and does much injury to hives. 
 
 C. alvearius. Almost like the preceding, but with a bluish-black spot on 
 the scutel. It inhabits the nests of the Mason Bees — Osbiia — of Reaumur, 
 and feeds on their larvae. 
 
 The type of the fifth tribe of the Malacodermi, or the Ptiniores, 
 consists of the genus Ptinus of Linnaeus, and of some other genera 
 depending on, or which most closely approach it. The body of these 
 Insects is of a tolerably firm consistence, sometimes almost ovoid or 
 oval, and at others nearly cylindrical, but generally short and round- 
 ed at the two extremities. The head is nearly globular or orbi- 
 cular, and almost entirely received into a strongly arched or vaulted 
 thorax, resembling a hood. The antennae of some are filiform, or 
 diminished towards the end, and are either simple, flabelliform, pec- 
 tinated, or serrated; those of others terminate suddenly by three 
 larger and much longer joints. The mandibles are short, thick, and 
 dentated under the point. The palpi are very short and terminated 
 by a larger and almost ovoid joint, or like a reversed triangle. The 
 tibia are not dentated, and the spurs at the extremities are very small. 
 There is but little variety in their colours, which are always dark. 
 They are very small. When touched they counterfeit death, lower 
 
COLEOPTERA. 377 
 
 their heads, incline their antennae, and contract their feet; in this 
 apparent state of lethargy they remain for some time. Their mo- 
 tions are generally slow, and those that are winged rarely take to 
 flight to escape. Their larva; are very noxious to us, and bear a 
 great resemblance to those of the Scarabacides. Their body, fre- 
 quently curved into an arc, is soft and whitish j the head and feet are 
 brown and squamous. 'I'heir mandibles are strong. With frag- 
 ments of various substances, which they detach by gnawing, they 
 Construct a shell in wiiich they become nymphs. Other species es- 
 tablish their domicil in the country, in old wood, and under stones; 
 their habits are the same. 
 
 Such are the characters of the genua 
 
 Ptinus, Lin. 
 In some, the head and thorax, or the anterior half of the body is narrower 
 than the abdomen; the antennae are always terminated in the same manner, 
 simple or but slightly serrated, and at least almost as long- as the body. 
 
 The antennae of the true Ptini are inserted between the eyes, which are 
 protuberant or convex. Their body is oblong. 
 
 They are generally found in houses, and chiefly in granaries and inhabit- 
 ed places. Their larvae destroy our herbaria and desiccated specimens of 
 animals. The antennae of the males are longer than those of the females, 
 and in several species, these latter are apterous. 
 
 P. fur, L. One line and a half in length; light brown; antennae as long 
 as the body; a pointed projection on each side of the thorax, and between 
 them two others, rounded and covered with a yellowish down; two trans- 
 verse, greyish bands on the elytra, formed by hairs. 
 
 According to De Geer, it feeds on Flies and other dead Insects that fall 
 in its way. The larvae are very injurious to herbaria and other collections 
 of natural history. 
 
 The remaining subgenera are Gihbium, Ptilinus, &c. We may more 
 particularly notice the 
 
 Anobium, Fab. 
 
 The antennx are terminated by three larger or longer joints, but the two 
 penultimates are in the form of a reversed and elongated cone, and that of 
 the end is oval or nearly cylindrical; they consist of eleven joints. 
 
 Several species of this genus inhabit the interior of our houses, where, in 
 their larva state, they are very noxious, attacking the timbers, furniture, 
 books, &.C. and piercing little round holes in them similar to those made 
 by a very small gimblet. The larvae of other species of Anobium attack 
 flour, wafers, cabinets of Birds, Insects, &c. 
 
 lioth sexes frequently summon each other by reiterated and rapid strokes 
 2 X 
 
378 INSECTA. 
 
 of their mandibles against the wood they inhabit, and mutually answer the 
 signal. Such is the cause of that noise, resembling the accelerated tick of a 
 watch, which is so often heard, and which is superstitiously called the death- 
 watch. 
 
 A. tesselatum. Fab. Three lines in length; a dead dusky brown, with 
 yellowish spots formed by hau's; thorax smooth? elytra not striated. 
 
 A. periinax. Blackish ; thorax with a yellowish spot at each posterior 
 angle, and near the middle of its base a compressed eminence divided an- 
 teriorly by a depression; elytra with punctured striae. According to De 
 Geer, it will permit itself to be roasted to death by a slow fire, rather than 
 exhibit the least sign of life when it is seized. 
 ■ There are other species. 
 
 The third and last section of the Serricornes, forming also a last 
 tribe^ that of the Xylotrogi, is distinguished from the two preced- 
 ing ones, as we have already stated, by the entire freedom of the 
 head; and consists of the genus 
 
 ■'" '^ ■'''^LyMEXYiiON, Fab. 
 
 .i I'.y.rti'- : -/ 
 Now consisting of Mractoeerus, Hylecoetus, Lymexylon, Cupes and Rhysodes. 
 
 FAMILY lY, 
 
 CLAVICORNES(l). 
 
 In the fourth family of the penlamerous Coleoptera, as in the thirds 
 we find four palpi, and elytra covering the superior surface of the 
 abdomen, or its greater portion; but it differs in the antennas, which 
 are almost always tliicker at the extremity, that even frequently 
 forms a perfoliaceous or solid club; they are longer than the maxil- 
 lary palpi, and their base is exposed, or barely covered. The legs 
 are not natatory, and the joints of the tarsi, at least those of the 
 posterior ones, are usually entire. 
 
 In their larva state, at least, they feed on animal matters. 
 
 We will divide this family into two sections: the common charac- 
 ters of the first of w"hich are, antennse always composed of eleven' 
 joints, longer than the head, not forming from the third a fusiform 
 or nearly cylindrical club, and their second joint not dilated in the 
 
 (1) Club -horned. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 379 
 
 form of an auricle; last joint of the tarsi, as well as its hooks, of a 
 moderate length, or small. 
 
 These Clavicornes are terrestrial, while those of our second sec- 
 tion are aquatic or shore Insects, thus leading to the Palpicornes, 
 most of which inhabit water, and whose antennae never consist of 
 more than nine joints. 
 
 The first section will comprise several small tribes. The first, 
 that of the Palpatores, in a natural series, should be placed near 
 the Pselaphii and Brachelytra. Their antennae, which are, at least, 
 as long as the head and thorax, slightly enlarge towards the extre- 
 mity, or are nearly filiform; their two first joints are longer than the 
 following ones. The head is distinguished from the thorax by an 
 ovoid strangulation. 
 
 The maxillary palpi project, are long and inflated at the extremity. 
 The abdomen is large, oval or ovoid, and embraced laterally by the 
 elytra. The legs are elongated, thighs clavate, and tarsial joints 
 entire. 
 
 These Insects remain on the ground, under stones and other bo- 
 dies. Some — the Scydmaeni — frequent wet places. We will unite 
 them in a single genus, that of 
 
 Mastigus. 
 
 Joints of the antenns nearly in tibie form of a reversed cone, the first very- 
 long and the last ones hardly thicker than the others; the two last joints of 
 the maxillary palpi forming an oval club; thorax almost ovoid; abdomen 
 oval. 
 
 In all the following Clavicornes the head is generally sunk in the 
 thorax, and the maxillary palpi are never at the same time so much 
 projected and clavate; the ensemble of their physiognomy also ex- 
 hibits other differences. 
 
 The genus Hister forms our second tribe, which we will name the 
 HiSTERoiDEs. Here the four posterior legs are more remote from 
 each other at base than the two anterior, a character alone that 
 distinguishes this tribe from all others of the same family. The legs 
 are contractile, and the outer side of the tibiae is dentated or spinous. 
 The antennae are always geniculate, and terminated by a solid club 
 composed of crowded joints. The body is extremely firm, and usually 
 forms a square or parallelopiped; the praesternum is frequently di- 
 lated anteriorly, and the elytra are as often truncated. The man- 
 
380 INSECTA. 
 
 dibles project, are strong, and frequently unequal as to size. The 
 palpi are almost filiform, or slightly enlarged near the end, and ter^ 
 minated by an oval or ovoid joint. 
 
 These animals feed on cadaverous matters and decomposing ve^ 
 getable substances, such as old mushrooms, &c.: some establish 
 their domicil under the bark of trees. Their gait is slow, and their 
 colour a brilliant black or bronze. Such of their larvae as have 
 been observed^ — those of the cadaverinus — feed on the same sub- 
 stances as the perfect Insect. Their body is glabrous, soft, and of 
 a yellovi^ish vi^hite, the head and first segment excepted, the dermis 
 of which is brown or reddish; it is provided with six short legs, and 
 is terminated posteriorly by two articulated appendages, and an anal 
 and tubular prolongation; the squamous plate of the first segment 
 is longitudinally canaliculated. 
 
 This tribe, as we have already stated, will consist exclusively of 
 the g.enu3 
 
 HisTEK, Lin. 
 
 Now consisting ofHister proper, Hololepta, Abrams, &e. 
 
 The legs of the other Clavicornes are inserted at an equal distance 
 from each other. Those in which these organs are not contractile, 
 and the tarsi at most can only be flexed on the tibias, whose mandi-- 
 bles are most commonly salient and flattened or not thick, and whose 
 praesternum is never dilated anteriorly, will constitute five other 
 tribes. 
 
 In the third tribe of this family, that of the Silphales, we find 
 five distinct joints in all the tarsi, and the mandibles terminating in 
 an entire point without emargination or fissure. Tlie antennae ter- 
 minate in a club that is most commonly perfoliaceous and consisting 
 of from four to five joints. The internal side of the maxillse, in 
 most of them, is furnished with a horny tooth. The anterior tarsj 
 are frequently dilated, at least in the males. The exterior margin 
 of the elytra of the greater number is marked by a groove with ^ 
 well raised border. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 SiLPHA, Lin, 
 Now variously divided. The most interesting' of these genera aj's 
 
COLEOPTERA. 381 
 
 Necrophorus, Fab. 
 
 Their instinctive habit of burying' the bodies of Moles, Mice, and other 
 small Quadrupeds, have procured for them the names oi enterreurs and jsorfe- 
 moris. When they find a dead animal of the above description, they work 
 under it and excavate a hole of sufficient dimensions to contain the body, 
 which they gradually drag into it; in this body they deposit their ova, and 
 thus the larvae find their food in the very nidus in which they are hatched. 
 They are long, and of a greyish white colour; the anterior segments are 
 ■covered superiorly with a small fulvous-brown, squamous plate, and the 
 posterior with little elevated points. They are furnished with six feet and 
 strong' mandibles. When about to pass into the state of a chrysalis, they 
 penetrate deeply into the earth, where they construct a cell, which they 
 line with a viscid substance. 
 
 North America possesses one, the N. grandis, which surpasses all others 
 in size and beaut}'. 
 
 SiLPHA, Lin. Fab. 
 The body of a true Silpha is almost scutiform and depressed, or but 
 slightly elevated; thorax semicircular, tnincated or very obtuse before; ex- 
 terior marg-in of the elytra strongly recurved and canaUculated; palpi fili- 
 form, their last joint almost cylindrical, and in several, terminating in a 
 point. Most of them live in carrion, and thus diminish the quantity of its 
 noxious effluvia. Some chmb on plants, and particularly on the stems of 
 wheat, where they find little Helices on which they feed. Others remain 
 on high trees and devour caterpillars. The larvae are all equally active, 
 live in the same manner, and frequently in large societies. They bear a 
 great resemblance to the perfect Insect. Their body is flattened, and con- 
 sists of twelve segments, with acute posterior angles; the posterior ex- 
 tremity is narrower and terminated by two conical appendag-es. 
 
 Argtrtes, Froeh. — Mycetophagus, Fab. 
 The body tolerably thick, convex, and arcuated superiorly, not scutiform; 
 thorax somewhat wider than long, and a little narrower before; exterior 
 margin of the elytra inclined and not canaUculated, last joint of the maxil- 
 lary palpi thicker and ovoid. 
 
 Certain Clavicornes, which seem to approach Argyrtes in their 
 habits and other characters, but whose mandibles are cleft or biden- 
 tated at the extremity, will compose our fourth tribe, that of the 
 ScAPHiDiTES. Their tarsi consist of five very distinct and entire 
 joints. The body is oval, narrowed at both ends, arcuated or con- 
 vex above, and thick in the middle; the head low, and received pos- 
 teriorly into a trapezoidal thorax, widest behind, the margin of which 
 ^s but slightly or not at all recurved. The antennse are usually at 
 
382 INSECTA. 
 
 least as long as the head and thorax, and terminated in a quadriar- 
 ticulated and elongated club. The last joint of the palpi is conical. 
 The legs are elongated and slender. With the exception of some 
 species — the Cholevae — the tarsi are nearly similar in both sexes. 
 This tribe consists of the genus 
 
 SCAPHIDIUM. 
 In the ti-ue Scapludla, the five last joints of the antennae are almost globular, 
 and compose the club. The maxillary palpi project but little, and gradu- 
 ally taper to a point, the penultimate joint not being thicker than the last 
 at their junction. The body is navicelliform; the margin of the thorax 
 slightly recurved, and the elytra truncated. They inhabit mushrooms. 
 But few species are known; one from Cayenne and the I'est from the north 
 of Europe. 
 The subgenera are Choleva and Mylcechus. 
 
 The fifth tribe, or that of the Nitidulaei^te, approximates to the 
 fourth in the scutiform and bordered body, but the mandibles are 
 bifid or emarginated at the extremity; the tarsi seem to consist of 
 but four joints, the first and last, in some, being only visible beneath, 
 where they merely form a slight projection, and the penultimate in 
 the remainder being very small, in the form of a knot, enclosed be- 
 tween the lobes of the preceding ones. The antennal club is always 
 perfoliaceous, consists of three or four joints, and is usually short or 
 but little elongated. 
 
 The palpi are short and filiform, or somewhat thickest at the ex- 
 tremity. The elytra in several are short or truncated. Tl;e legs 
 are but slightly elongated, and their tibias frequently widened at the 
 end; the tarsi are furnished with, hairs or pellets. The habitation 
 of these Insects varies with the species; they are found on flowers, 
 in mushrooms, putrified meat, and under the bark of trees. They 
 form the genus 
 
 NiTIDULA. 
 
 In some, the antennal club consists of but two joints, and the anterior part 
 of the head projects in the manner of a semicircular flattened clypeus, 
 covering the mandibles and other parts of the mouth. 
 
 CotoBicrs, Lat. 
 In this and the following subgenus, the tarsi, from the point where they 
 are movable, seem to consist of but four joints, of which the three first, 
 much shorter than the last, are entire, and simply furnished underneath 
 
COLEOPTERA. 383 
 
 with a greater or smaller number of hairs; the first, as in several of the 
 Cleri of Fabi-icius, is only visible underneath, where it forms a little projec- 
 tion; it is also pilose. 
 
 The remaining subgenera are Thymalus, Ips, Cercus and Byturua. 
 
 Those that compose our sixth tribe, that of the Engidites, ana- 
 logous to the Nitidulariae in the emargination of the extremity of 
 their mandibles, are distinguished from them by their not projecting, 
 or but very little and simply on the sides, beyond the labrurn. 
 Their body is oval or elliptical, and the anterior extremity of the 
 head slightly extended into an obtuse or truncated point. The tarsi 
 consist of five distinct joints, entire, and at most, slightly pilose un- 
 derneath; the penultimate is somewhat shorter than the preceding 
 one. The antennas terminate in a perfoliaceous triarticulated clubj 
 the elytra completely cover the abdomen, and the palpi are some- 
 what thicker at the extremity. Some very small species inhabit the 
 interior of houses, and are frequently found on windows. 
 
 We will unite them all in a single genus, that of 
 
 Dacne. 
 
 Their antenncc terminate abruptly in a very large orbicular or ovoid and 
 compressed club, composed of crowded joints, of which the middle one at 
 least is much wider than it is long; the third is longer than the second and 
 fourth. 
 
 We now come to certain tribes in which the praesternum is fre- 
 quently dilated anteriorly in the manner of a chin-cloth, and which 
 differ from the preceding ones in their feet, which are either wholly 
 or partially contractile; the tarsi may be free, but the tibiae at least 
 can be flexed on the thigh. The mandibles are short, and generally 
 thick and dentated. The body is ovoid, thick, and covered with- 
 deciduous scales or hairs of various colours. The antennae are 
 straight and usually shorter than the head and thorax. The head- 
 is plunged into the thorax as far as the eyes. The thorax is but 
 slightly or not at all bordered, trapezoidal, and wider posteriorly;- 
 the middle of its posterior margin is frequently somewhat prolonged 
 or lobale. The larvas are pilose, and mostly feed on the exuviae or 
 carcasses of animals. Several are very injurious to entomological 
 collections. 
 
 Those then in which the legs are not completely retractile, the 
 
384 INSECTA. 
 
 tarsi being always free, and the tibiae elongated and narrow, form 
 our seventh tribe, that of the Dermestini, and the great genus 
 
 Deemestes. 
 
 In Dermestes, properly so called, the antennse are similar, or differ but very 
 slightly in both sexes; the length of the last joint is never much greater' 
 than that of the preceding ones. 
 
 Certain species do great injury among furs, and devastate our collections 
 of natural history. De Geer calls them dissectors, and in fact the Dermestes 
 lardarius cuts to pieces the Insects of the cabinet into which it has pene- 
 trated. The others devour the dead bodies of all kinds of animals. 
 
 D. lardarius, L. Black; base of the elytra cinereous and dotted with 
 black. The larva is elongated, insensibly tapered from head to tail, of a 
 chesnut-brown above, white beneath, furnished with long hairs and two 
 squamous horns on the last annulus. 
 
 There are various other Dermestini an-anged in different genera, such as 
 Mtagenus, Megatoma, Jlnthrenus, &Cr 
 
 Tlie eighth tribe, that of the Byrrhii, differs from the preceding 
 in the perfect contractility of the legs; the tibiae are susceptible of 
 being flexed on the thighs, and the tai-si on the tibiae, so that when 
 thus folded and pressed against the body, the animal seems to be 
 inanimate and entirely destitute of feet. The tibise are usually 
 broad and compressed. The body is short and convex. 
 
 This tribe is chiefly composed of the genus 
 
 Byrrhus, Lin. 
 The mentura of the ti-ue Byrrhii is of an ordinary size and interlocked (at 
 least partially) by the prsesternum, whose anterior extremity is dilated. 
 
 In some, the antennae enlarge insensibly, or terminate in an elongated 
 club formed of fi'om five to six joints. 
 
 B. pilula, L. From three to four lines in length; black beneath,- blacfc- 
 ish-bronze or soot-colour and silky above, with little black spots mingled 
 with lighter ones arranged in lines. 
 
 All the Byrrhii remain on the ground in sandy localities. 
 
 It is impossible to describe the Clavicornesof our second section, 
 although a very natural one, but by the reunion of several characters. 
 
 The body of these Insects is generally ovoid, and their head 
 plunged to the eyes in a trapezoidal thorax, with a recurved lateral 
 margin, and terminating posteriorly in acute angles; the praester- 
 num is dilated anteriorly and the legs are imperfectly contractile. 
 Tliey are found in the water, under stones in tlie vicinity of shores,- 
 
COLEOPTERA. 385 
 
 and frequently in the mud: some of them — Dryops — are allied to 
 the Gyrini by the structure and shortness of their antennae. 
 
 I will divide this section into two tribes. The Insects which com- 
 pose the first or the Acanthopoda are remarkable for their flatten- 
 ed and tolerably wide tibiae, armed anteriorly with spines; for their 
 short quadriarticulated tarsi, the hooks of which are of the usual 
 size; and for their depressed body. The praesternum is dilated. 
 The antennas are a little longer than the head, arcuated, and form- 
 ed of eleven joints, the last six constituting an almost cylindrical 
 and slightly serrated club; the second is short and not dilated. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the single genus 
 
 Heterocerus, Bosc. Fab. 
 These Insects are found in the sand or mud, along the borders of rivulets, 
 marshes, &c., issuing from their holes when disturbed by the trampling of 
 feet. The form of their tibise enables them to turn up the earth, and con- 
 ceal themselves in it; their tarsi can be flexed upon the tibise. There also 
 reside their larvje, which were first discovered by M. Miger. 
 
 The second tribe, or that of the Macrodacttla, comprises Cla- 
 vicornes with simple, narrow tibiae and long tarsi, all — one genus 
 excepted (Georissus), well distinguished from every other of the 
 tribe, by its antennas of nine joints, of which the three last form an 
 almost solid club — composed of five distinct joints, the last of which 
 is large, with two stout terminal hooks. The body is thick or con- 
 vex. The thorax is less rounded, and most commonly terminates 
 on both sides in acute angles. 
 
 The principal type of this tribe is the genus 
 
 Dryops, Oliv., 
 In Dryops proper, the antennae, shorter than the head, are received into a 
 cavity situated under the eyes, and are almost covered by the second joint, 
 which is large, dUated, in the form of an almost triangular palette, and 
 projects in the manner of an auricle, whence the name of Dermeste a oreilleSf 
 given to the most common species by GeofFroy. The palpi are not salient. 
 There are three subgenera: viz. Elmis, Macronychus, Georissus, 
 
 2 Y 
 
386 INSECTA. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 PALPICORNES.(l) 
 
 In our fifth family of pentamerous Coleoptera, as in the fourth, 
 we observe antennae terminating in a club, usually perfoliaceous, but 
 consisting of nine points at most in all, and inserted under the late- 
 ral and projecting edges of the head; they are never much longer 
 than the latter and the maxillary palpi, and frequently even shorter 
 than the last mentioned organs. The mentum is large and scuti- 
 forra. 
 
 The body is usually ovoid or hemispherical, convex or arched. 
 The legs in several are adapted for natation, and then consist of but 
 four very distinct joints, or of five, the first of which is much shorter 
 than the second; all the joints are entire. 
 
 Those in which the legs are natatory, the first joint of the tarsi 
 is much shorter than the following ones, and the maxilte are en- 
 tirely corneous, will form our first tribe, that of the Hydrophilh, 
 which embraces the genus 
 
 Hydrophiius, Geofi". 
 
 Linnaeus merely made these Insects a division (the first) of his genus Dytis- 
 cus, but their anatomy is essentially different. In the true Hydrophiius the 
 sternal spine is strongly prolonged behind. The last joint of the two an- 
 terior tarsi of the males is dilated in the form of a triangular palette. The 
 scutellum is large. 
 
 The larvx resemble a sort of soft, conical, and elongated worm, furnish- 
 ed with six feet, and a large squamous head, more convex underneath than 
 above, armed with strong and hooked mandibles. They respire by the 
 posterior extremity of the body, are very voracious, and do great injury to 
 fish ponds by devouring the spawn. 
 
 H. piceus. Fab. An inch and a half long; oval; of a blackish-brown, 
 polished, or as if covered with a varnish; antennal club partly reddish; some 
 slightly marked strix on the elytra, the posterior exti'emity of which is 
 rounded laterally, and prolonged into a small tooth at the internal angle. 
 
 It swims and flies well, but walks badly. When held loosely in the hand, 
 its sternal spine sometimes inflicts a wound. 
 
 The extremity of the female is provided with two fusi, by means of 
 which she constructs an ovoid cocoon, sui-mounted with a point, resembling 
 
 (1) Palpi-horned. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 387 
 
 an arcuated brown horn. Its external tissue is a gummy paste, which, 
 though fluid at first, subsequently hardens, and becomes impervious to 
 water. The ova it contains are an-anged symmetrically, and kept in situ 
 by a sort of white down. These cocoons float on the water. 
 
 The larva is depressed, blackish and rugose, and has the faculty of throw- 
 ing back its brown, smooth, round head. This enables it to capture the 
 little MoUusca which navigate the surface of the water, its back serving as 
 a point d'appui or anvil on which it mashes the shell in order to devour the 
 animal it contains. The body of these larvse becomes flabby as soon as they 
 are caught. They swim with great facility, and are provided with two 
 fleshy appendages which serve to maintain them on the surface of the water, 
 head downwards, when they come tliere to respii'e. According to M. Miger, 
 the larvse of other Hydrophilii are deprived of these appendages, and neither 
 swim nor suspend themselves like those of which we have been speaking. 
 The females of these species swim with difiiculty, and cany their ova under 
 the abdomen enclosed in a silken web. 
 
 There are many other genera of Hydrophilians, such as Hydrochus, Odhe- 
 bius, Sperckeus, &c.,diflering in form, the arrangement of the antennae, &c. 
 
 Our second tribe, or the SpHiERiDioTA, consists of terrestrial 
 Palpicornes, with tarsi composed of five very distinct joints, the first 
 of which is at least as long as the second. The maxillary palpi are 
 somewhat sliorter than the antennas, with the third joint longer, in- 
 flated, and in the form of a reversed cone. The maxillary lobes are 
 membranous. 
 
 The body is nearly hemispherical, the posterior extremity of the 
 prsBsternum is prolonged into a point, and the tibias are spinous; 
 those that are anterior are palmated or digitated in the large spe- 
 cies. The antennee always consist of nine joints, or of eight, if the 
 last be considered as an appendage of the penultimate. 
 
 These Insects are small, and inhabit cow-dung and other matters; 
 certain species are found near the shores of rivers, &.c. They 
 compose the genus 
 
 Sph^ridium, Fab. 
 From which, however, we must separate several species, a division already 
 effected by Olivier. Dr Leach only considers as such those in which the 
 anterior tarsi of the males are dilated. Such is 
 
 S. 4-maculafum. It is of a shining black and smooth; the scutellum is 
 elongated, and the legs are very spinous; a blood-red spot at the base of 
 each elytron, and their extremity reddish In some individuals these spots 
 diminish or disappear. 
 
388 INSECTA. 
 
 FAMILY VI. 
 
 LAMELLICORNES.(l) 
 
 In our sixth and last family of pentamerous Coleoptera, we find 
 the antennas inserted into a deep fossula under the lateral margin 
 of the head; they are always short, usually consist of nine or ten 
 joints, and are always terminated in a club usually composed of the 
 three last, which are lamellar, sometimes flabelliform or disposed 
 like the leaves of a book, opening and closing in a similar way, 
 sometimes concentrically contorted and fitting in each other, the 
 first or inferior then being semi-infundibuliform and receiving the 
 others, and sometimes arranged perpendicular to the axis and form- 
 ing a sort of comb. 
 
 The body is generally ovoid or oval, and thick. The exterior 
 side of the two anterior tibiae is dentated, and the joints of the tarsi, 
 with the exception of those of some males, are entire and without 
 brush or pellet beneath. 
 
 The anterior extremity of the head most commonly projects or is 
 dilated in the manner of an epistoma. The mentum is usually large, 
 covers the ligula or is incorporated with it, and bears the palpi. 
 The mandibles of several are membranous, a character observed in 
 no other coleopterous Insects. The males frequently difier from 
 the females, either by prominences on the thorax or head in the 
 form of horns or tubercles, or by the largeness of their mandibles. 
 
 This family is very numerous, and with respect to the size of the 
 body, the variety of forms exhibited in the head and thorax, sexually 
 considered, is one of the most beautiful of the order, and frequently 
 also as regards the species, which in their perfect state live upon 
 vegetable substances, by the splendour of the metallic colours with 
 which they are ornamented. Most of the other species, however, 
 feeding on decomposed vegetable aliment, such as dung, tan, &c., 
 are usually of one uniform black or brown hue. Some of the Co- 
 prophagi, however, do not yield even in this respect to the former. 
 They are all furnished with wings, and their gait is heavy. 
 
 The body of the larvae is long, almost semicylindrical, soft, fre- 
 quently rugose, whitish, and divided into twelve annuli, with six 
 
 (1) Horns foliated. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 389 
 
 squamous feet; the head is squamous and armed with stout mandi- 
 bles. Each side of the body is furnished with nine stigmata; its 
 posterior extremity is thicker, rounded, and almost always doubled 
 under it, so that the back being arcuated or convex, the animal can- 
 not extend itself in a straight line, crawls badly on a level surface, 
 and falls backwards or on its side every instant. An idea of their 
 form may be obtained from that of the larva, so well known to gar- 
 deners by the name of ver blanc^ which is that of the Melolontha 
 vulgar is(l). 
 
 Some of them require three or four years to become pupae; they 
 construct in their place of residence an ovoid shell, or one resem- 
 bling an elongated ball, composed of earth or the debris of substan- 
 ces they have gnawed, the particles of which are cemented by a 
 glutinous matter produced from their body. Their aliment consists 
 of the dung of various animals, mould, tan, and roots of vegetables, 
 (frequently such as are necessary to Man,) of which they sometimes 
 destroy immense quantities, to the great loss of the cultivator of 
 the soil. 
 
 We will divide this family into two tribes. In the first or that of 
 the ScAKABJEiDES, wc find the antennae terminating in a foliaceous 
 and generally plicatile club, and composed in others of joints that 
 fit into each ether, either in the form of a reversed cone or nearly 
 globular. The mandibles are identical or almost similar in both 
 sexes, but the head and thorax of the males exhibit peculiar projec- 
 tions or eminences; sometimes also their antennae are more devel- 
 oped. This tribe corresponds with the genus 
 
 ScARAB^us, Lin. 
 This genus is now divided into several small sections established on charac- 
 ters drawn from the organs of manducation, antennje, and habits. 
 
 The CopROPUAGi or the Scarab seides of our first section, usually have 
 their antennae composed of nine joints, and of eight in the others, the three 
 last forming the club. 
 
 Among the most interesting of the various genera which composed this 
 section is the 
 
 Ateuchus, Web. Fab., 
 Two species of Ateuchus were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, 
 and formed a part of their system of hieroglyphics. They are sculptured in 
 
 (1) Our common ^rubs, which are so abundant in dung-hills, gardens, 
 &c., are larva of various species of Lamellicornes. 
 
390 INSECTA. 
 
 various positions, and sometimes of g-igantic dimensions, on all their monu- 
 ments. They were also figured separately and on the most precious 
 materials, such as gold? they used them as seals and as amulets, which were 
 suspended to the neck and buried with the mummies. The Insect itself 
 has been found in some of their coffins. The 
 
 A. sacer; which is found not only in all Egypt, but in the south of France, 
 in Spain, Italy, and the south of Europe generally, has hitherto been 
 considered the object of this superstitious distinction; but another species 
 discovered in Sennar by M. Caillaud of Nantes, appears from its more bril- 
 liant colours, and the country in which it is found, the original residence of 
 the Egyptians, to have first attracted their attention. 
 
 The remaining genera are Sisyphus, CoproMus, Oniticellus, Copris proper, 
 Aphodius, &c. &c. 
 
 The Ahenicoli, with the Aphodii and Psammodii, are the only ones whose 
 elytra entirely cover the posterior extremity of the abdomen, so that the ab- 
 domen is completely concealed; but they are distinguished from the latter 
 by several characters. The labrum is coriaceous, and most frequently juts 
 out beyond the epistoma. The mandibles are corneous, and usually salient 
 and arcuated. Tlie terminal lobe of the maxillae is straight, and has no inward 
 curve. The third and last joint of the labial palpi is always very distinct, 
 and at least almost as long as the preceding one. With some few exceptions 
 their antennae are composed of ten or eleven joints. 
 
 These Insects make deep holes in the ground, fly particularly during the 
 evening, after sun-set, and counterfeit death when seized. 
 
 The Xxiopiiiti comprise the Geotrupes of Fabricius, and some of his 
 Cetonise. Here the scutellum is always distinct, and the elytra do not 
 cover the posterior extremity of the abdomen. The tarsial crotchets of seve- 
 ral are unequal. The antennae always consist of ten joints, the three last 
 forming a foliaceous club, of which the intermediate leaflet is never com- 
 pletely concealed or encased by the two others. The labrum is not saUent, 
 and its anterior extremity at most is exposed. The mandibles are entirely 
 corneous, and jut out beyond the sides of the head. The maxUlae are cor- 
 neous or of a sohd consistence, straight and commonly dentated. The 
 ligula is covered by an ovoid or triangular mentum narrowed and truncated 
 at its extremity, the angles of which are frequently dilated. All the legs 
 are inserted at an equal distance from each other. Here we find 
 
 ScARAEJEus proper, — Geotrupes, Fab. 
 
 The body is thick and convex, and the outer side of the mandibles sinuous 
 or dentated. The equatorial countries of both hemispheres produce very 
 remarkable species of this subgenus. 
 
 S. Hercules, L. Five inches long; black; elytra greenish-grey mottled 
 with black: a recurved and dentated horn on the head of the male, and a 
 second one, long, projecting and pilose beneath, with a tooth on each side 
 of the thorax. South America. Some travellers call it the Mouche comue. 
 
 This section also includes Philcurus, Rutela, Orydes, &c. &c. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 391 
 
 The PiiTiLOPHAGi consist of Scarabjeides whose mandibles are covered 
 above by the epistoma, and concealed beneath by the maxillse; their outer 
 side is alone exposed, without however overlapping; their outer side pre- 
 sents none of the sinuses or dentations observed there in Rutela and other 
 analogous subgenera. The anterior edge of the labrum is exposed; it is some- 
 times in the form of a reversed and wide triangle, and most frequently trans- 
 versely laminiform, and emarginated in the middle. The number of the 
 antennal joints is not constant, and varies from eight to ten :-the same remark 
 applies to those of the club, and in several, with respect to this, the two sexes 
 differ greatly. The ligula is entirely covered by the mentum, or incorpor- 
 ated witli its anterior face, and the elytra are completely joined along the 
 whole of the suture, characters which distinguish these Insects from those 
 of the fifth section. 
 
 In the AiTTHOBii the antenn2e are composed of nine or ten joints, the 
 three last of which alone form the club in both sexes. The lobe terminat- 
 ing the maxillse is frequently almost membranous, silky, penicilliform, cori- 
 aceous, and dentated along the inner edge in others. The labrum and 
 mandibles are more or less soUd in proportion as they are more or less ex- 
 posed. The Anthobii Hve on flowers or leaves. 
 
 Some of these Insects inhabit the north of Africa and other countries 
 situated on the Mediterranean; most of the others are found in the higher 
 portions of western Asia. 
 
 The genera that compose this section are Glaphyrus, JLmphicoma, Jin- 
 ihipna, &c. 
 
 The sixth and last section of the Scarabaeides, that of the Meuto- 
 PHiti, is composed of Insects in which the body is depressed, most com- 
 monly oval, brilliant, and without horns, and the thorax is trapeziform, or 
 nearly orbicular; an axillary part, in the greater number, occupies the space 
 comprised between the posterior angles and the exterior of the base of the 
 elytra. The sternum is frequently extended into a point or projecting 
 horn. The hooks of the tarsi are equal and simple. The antennae consist 
 of ten joints, the three last of which form a club, always foliaceous. The 
 labrum and mandibles are concealed, laminiform, flattened, and membran- 
 ous, or nearly so. The maxUlae terminate in a silky, penicilUform lobe 
 without horny teeth. The mentum is commonly ovoid, truncated superiorly, 
 or almost square, and the middle of the superior margin more or less con- 
 cave or emarginate. The ligula is not salient. 
 
 The larvae hve in rotten wood. The perfect Insect is found on flowers, 
 and frequently on trunks of trees, that give out a fluid which they suck. 
 
 This section is susceptible of being separated into three principal divi- 
 sions, the first of which corresponds to the genus Trichius, Fab.; the second 
 to that of Goliath, Lam.; and the third to Cetonia, Fab., but reduced and 
 simplified. 
 
 In the first — Trichides — the mentum is either isometrical, or longer than 
 wide, and leaves the maxillae exposed. It comprises the 
 
392 INSECTA. 
 
 TmcHius, Fab. 
 
 T. nobilis. About an inch long; golden-gi-een above; cupreous with 
 yellowish-grey hairs beneath. On umbelliferous plants. 
 
 The female of the T". Aemip^erus and those of some other species of North 
 America are remarkable for the horny ovipositor at the posterior ex- 
 tremity of their abdomen, by which they effect a lodgement for tlieir ova. 
 
 These species are generally found on the ground, where they move very 
 slowly. There are two other genera, Platygenia and Cremasiocheilus. 
 
 The second division, GoUathides, is distinguished from the preceding by 
 the mentum, which is much longer, wider, and covers the maxilla;. 
 
 Goliath, Lam. Kirb. — Cetonia, Fab. Oliv. 
 
 A subgenus which, according to M. de Lamarck, is composed of large 
 and beautiful species, some of which inhabit Africa and the East Indies, and 
 the others, tropical America. Messrs Lepeletier and Serville have separa- 
 ted the latter from it under the generic apptUation of IifCA. The epimera 
 is not prominent. The inner sides of the thighs of the two anterior legs are 
 furnished at base with a tooth and an emargination. The middle of the 
 superior mai-gin of the mentum is strongly emarginated; this part in the 
 true Goliaths presents four lobes or teeth, two superior and the two others 
 lateral. The labial palpi are inserted on its edges in the emarginations of 
 these latter lobes. All the known species are large. 
 
 In the third division of the Melitophili, a section corresponding to the 
 family of the Cetoniidse, Mac Leay, the sternum is prolonged more or less 
 into an obtuse point between the second pair of legs; the epimera or axil- 
 lary piece is always apparent above, and occupies all the space that sepa- 
 rates the posterior angles of the thorax from the base of the elytra; the tho- 
 rax usually becomes widened posteriorly, and has the form of a triangle 
 truncated anteriorly or at the point. The mentum is never transversal, and 
 its superior edge is more or less emarginated in the middle. The terminal 
 lobe of the maxillje is silky or penicilliform. The body is almost ovoid, and 
 depressed. 
 
 This division comprises the genus 
 
 Cetonia, Fab., 
 
 Or what we commonly term Goldbeaters. Those of Europe are pro- 
 vided with a scutellum of an ordinary size. Such are the 
 
 C. aurata. Nine hues in length; brilliant golden-green above; cupreous- 
 red beneath; white spots on the elytra. Common on flowers, and frequently 
 on those of the Rose and Elder. 
 
 In the second tribe of the Lamellicornes or the Ltjcanides, so 
 called from the genus Lucanus of Linnaeus, the antennal club is 
 composed of leaflets or teeth arranged perpendicularly to its axis in 
 the manner of a comb. These organs always consist of ten joints, 
 
COLEOPTERA. 393 
 
 the first of which is usually much the longest. The mandibles are 
 always corneous, most commonly salient and larger, and even very 
 different in the males. The maxillae, in most of them, are termi- 
 nated by a narrow, elongated and silky lobe; those of others are 
 entirely corneous and dentated. The ligula in the greater number 
 is formed of two small silky pencils projecting more or less beyond 
 an almost semi-circular or square mentum. The anterior legs are 
 most frequently elongated, and their tibiae dentated along the whole 
 of the outer side. The tarsi terr)iinate by two equal and simple 
 hooks with a little appendage terminated by two setae between them. 
 The elytra cover the whole of the abdomen above. 
 
 We will divide it into two sections, corresponding to the genera 
 Lucanus and Passalus of Olivier. 
 
 In the first we find the antennae strongly geniculate, glabrous or 
 but slightly pilose; the labrum very small or confounded with the 
 epistoma; maxillae terminated by a membranous or coriaceous, very 
 silky, pencilliform lobe without teeth, or at most with but one; and 
 a ligula either entirely concealed or incorporated with the mentum, 
 or divided into two narrow, elongated, silky lobes extending more 
 or less beyond the mentum. The scutellum is situated between the 
 elytra. 
 
 The first section will form the genus 
 
 Lire ANUS. 
 
 The larva of the L. cervus, which inhabits the interior of the Oak for seve- 
 ral years previous to its final metamorphosis, is considered as the Cossus of 
 the Romans, or that verminiform animal which they regarded as a delicious 
 article of food. 
 
 L. cervus, L. (The Stag-Beetle). The male two inches in length, and 
 larger than the female; black, with brown elytra; head wider than the body; 
 mandibles very large, arcuated, with three very stout teeth; two of which 
 are at the end and diverge, the other is in the inner side, all furnished with 
 small ones. The female, called Boe, has a narrower head and much smaller 
 mandibles. It flies at night in the heat of summer. Its size and mandibles 
 vary. It is to one of these varieties that we must refer the Lucane chevre of 
 Olivier, or the L. capreolus of Fabricius. The Lucanus, so called by Lin- 
 nxus, is a species from North America, and very distinct from the preceding. 
 
 The subgenera are Sinodendron, JEsalus, Lamprima, &c. 
 
 The Lucanides of our second section have their antennae simply 
 arcuated, or but slightly geniculate and pilose; the labrum always 
 2 Z 
 
394 INSECTA. 
 
 exposed, crustaceous, and transversal; the mandibles strong and 
 much dentated, but without any very remarkable sexual difference; 
 the maxillae entirely corneous, with at least two strong teeth; the 
 ligula equally corneous or very hard, situated in a superior emargi- 
 nation of the mentum, and terminated by three points; the abdomen 
 pediculated, presenting the scutellum above, and separated from 
 the thorax by a strangulation of considerable interval. They form 
 the genus 
 
 Passaltjs, Fab. 
 Restricted by M. Mac Leay to those species in which the club of the anten- 
 nae consists of but three joints, where the labrum forms a transversal square, 
 and the maxillse have three strong terminal teeth, and two on the inner 
 side in place of the anterior lobe. 
 
 These Insects are foreign to Europe, and as it would appear, to Africa, 
 being chiefly found in the eastern parts of Asia, and particularly in America. 
 Madame Merian says, that the larva of the species figured by her lives on 
 the roots of the sweet potato. The perfect Insect is not uncommon in the 
 sugar-houses. 
 
 In the second general section of the Coleoptera, or the Hetero- 
 MEEA, we find five joints in the four first tarsi, and one less in the 
 two last. They all feed on vegetable matters. 
 
 In some, where the elytra are generally solid and hard, and the 
 hooks of the tarsi are almost always simple, the head is ovoid or 
 oval, susceptible of being received posteriorly into the thorax, or 
 sometimes narrowed behind, but not abruptly, and without a neck 
 at its base. Many of these Heteromera avoid the light. This divi- 
 sion will comprise the three following families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 MELASOMA. 
 
 This family consists of unmixed black or cinereous coloured In- 
 sects, (from which is derived the name of the division,) mostly 
 apterous, and frequently v^ith soldered elytra. Their antennse, 
 entirely or partly granose, almost of equal thickness throughout or 
 slightly inflated at the extremity, and the third joint wholly elongated, 
 are inserted under the projecting edges of the head. The mandi- 
 bles are bifid or emarginated at the extremity; the inner side of their 
 
COLEOPTERA. 395 
 
 maxillae is furnished with a corneous tooth or hook, all the joints of 
 the tarsi are entire, and the eyes oblong and but very slightly pro- 
 minent, a circumstance which, according to M. Marcel de Serres, 
 indicates their nocturnal habits. Almost all these Insects live on 
 the ground, either in sand, or under stones, and frequently in cel- 
 lars, stables, and other dark places about our habitations. 
 
 Our first division of this family, wliich in the Linnasan system 
 forms the genus Tenebrio, is founded on, the presence or absence 
 of wings. 
 
 Of those which are deprived of these organs, and in which the 
 elytra are generally soldered, some have the palpi almost filiform, 
 or terminated by a moderately dilated joint, and do not form a dis- 
 tinctly securiform or triangular club. They will compose a first 
 tribe, that of the Pimeliari^, so named from the genus 
 
 PiMELIA, Fab. 
 These Heteromera are proper to the countries situated round the basin of 
 the Mediterranean, to western and southern Asia, and to Africa. They 
 are not found in India, or at least none have as yet been discovered there. 
 The Pimeliarise consist of numerous g-enera, the chief of which are, Ero- 
 diuSf Zophosis, Tentyria, Akis, Tagenia, &c. 
 
 The second tribe of the Melasoma, that of the Blapsides, re- 
 ceives its denomination from the genus Blaps of Fabricius. 
 
 The maxillary palpi terminate by a manifestly securiform or tri- 
 angular joint. This tribe is formed of a single genus, that of 
 
 Blaps. 
 In Blaps properly so called, the thorax is almost square and plane, or but 
 slightly convex. The abdomen is oval, truncated transversely at base, and 
 more or less elongated. The elytra of most of them are naiTov/ed and pro- 
 longed into a point, those of the males especially. The third joint of the 
 antennx is cylindrical and much longer than the following ones; the latter, 
 or at least the three antepenultimate ones, are granose; the last is ovoid and 
 short. 
 
 B. laevigata. Fab- This species might constitute a particular subgenus. 
 Its body is much shorter than that of the others, and extremely convex or 
 gibbous. The antennx are granose from the fourth joint. The anterior 
 tibiae terminate in a stout point or spine formed by a spur. 
 
 It is stated by Fabricius that the Turkish women inhabiting Egypt, where 
 the Insect is very common, eat the Blaps sulcata, cooked with butter, in 
 order to become fat. The same author also says that it is used as a remedy 
 for the head-ach, and the sting of a Scorpion. 
 
396 IXSECTA. 
 
 The remaining Blapsides are ^stributed under various genera, such as 
 Gonopus, Asida, Pedinus, Blaptinus, &c. 
 
 We now come to Melasoma, provided with wings. Their body 
 is usually oval or oblong, depressed or but slightly elevated; their 
 thorax square or trapezoidal, and its posterior extremity as wide as 
 the abdomen. The palpi are larger at the extremity; the last joint 
 of the maxillary palpi has the figure of a reversed triangle, or is se- 
 curiform; the mentum is but slightly extended in width, and leaves 
 the base of the maxillas exposed. 
 
 These Insects compose the third and last tribe of the Melasoma, 
 that of the Tenebkionites, formed of the single genus 
 
 Tenebeio, 
 As originally ari'anged by Fabricius, and to which we will annex his Opa- 
 trum and Orthocera; they will serve for types of as many particular divisions. 
 
 1. Those in which the body is oval; the thorax nearly trapezoidal, arcu- 
 ated laterally, or forming a semioval, truncated anteriorly, wider than the ab- 
 domen, at least at its posterior margin, but slightly or not at all bordered; 
 in which the maxillary palpi terminate by a securiform joint or one of an 
 analogous figure, and where the antennae insensibly enlarge. 
 
 Here we have Crypticus and Opatrum. 
 
 2. Those in which the body is narrow and elongated, almost of the same 
 width posteriorly or wider; where the thorax is nearly square, and at least 
 almost as long as it is broad, and where the antenna form a thick club, or 
 are abruptly dilated at the extremity. 
 
 To this division belong Corticus, Orthocerus, Toxicum, &c. 
 
 3. Those in which the body is equally narrow and elongated, and the 
 thorax almost square, but where the antennx are of the ordinary thickness, 
 and are not abruptly terminated by a club. 
 
 The two anterior thighs are stout, and the tibiae narrow and curved, or 
 arcuated. 
 
 The genera are Calcavy Upis, Tenebrio proper, and Heterotarsus. The 
 Tenebrionites are very common under bark of trees, on old walls and the 
 uninhabited parts of houses. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 397 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 TAXICORNES. 
 
 In this second family of the heteromerous Coleoptera, we find 
 no small corneous tooth on the inner side of the maxillse. All 
 these insects are winged, their body is most commonly square, their 
 thorax trapezoidal or semicircular, and concealing or receiving the 
 head. The antennae, usually inserted under a marginal projection 
 of the sides of the head, are short, more or less perfoliate or granose, 
 enlarge insensibly, or terminate in a club. The legs are only adapt- 
 ed for walking, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire, and termi- 
 nated by single hooks; the anterior tibias are frequently broad and 
 triangular. Several males have the head furnished with horns. 
 Most of them inhabit the fungi on trees, or under the bark; some 
 live on the ground, under stones. 
 
 In some, the head is completely exposed, and never entirely re- 
 ceived into a deep notch in the anterior of the thorax. This last is 
 sometimes trapezoidal or square, and at others almost cylindrical; 
 its sides, as well as those of the elytra, do not extend remarkably 
 beyond the body. 
 
 This division will form the tribe of the Diaperiales, the type of 
 which is the genus 
 
 DiAPEEIS. 
 
 In Diaperis properly so called, the maxillary palpi terminate in an almost 
 cylindrical joint, hardly thicker than the penultimate; and the anterior 
 tibise, hardly or not at all wider than the following' ones, are narrow, almost 
 linear, and slightly dilated at the extremity. 
 
 The remaining genera of this tribe are Phaleria, Hypophlasus, Tetrato- 
 ma, EUdona, &c. 
 
 Our second tribe of the Taxicornes, the Cossyphenes, consists 
 of Insects analogous in form to the PcZiz* of Fabricius, and to seve- 
 ral Nitidulae and Cassidse: it is ovoid or sub-hemispherical, and 
 overlapped in its contour by the dilated or flattened sides of the tho- 
 rax and elytra; the head is sometimes entirely concealed under that 
 thorax, and at others received into an anterior emargination of the 
 same part. The last joint of the maxillary palpi is larger than the 
 preceding ones, and securiform. 
 
398 INSECTA. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 CossYPHus, Oliv. Fab. 
 Some of them have a flat body, of a solid consistence, in the form of a shield, 
 and antennae terminated by a club composed of four or five joints; they are 
 peculiar to the eastern continent and* to New Holland. Such are those 
 which form the 
 
 CossTPHus, Oliv. Fab. 
 
 Or Cossyphus properly so called, where the almost semicircular thorax 
 presents no anterior emargination, and entirely conceals the head; where 
 the antennae are short, and terminate abruptly in an oval mass of four joints, 
 most of which are transversal; the second of the whole number and the 
 following- ones are almost identical. 
 
 These Insects inhabit the East Indies, southern part of Europe, and north 
 of Africa. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 STENELYTRA.(1) 
 
 The third family ofheteromerous Coleoptera only differs from the 
 second in the antennae, which are neither granose nor perfoliate, and 
 whose extremity, in the greater number, is not thickened. The 
 body is most frequently oblong, and arcuated above, and the legs 
 are elongated as in many other Insects. With the exception of their 
 antennae and size, the males resemble the females. These Hetero- 
 mera are usually much more agile than the preceding ones; several 
 conceal themselves under the bark of old trees, while most of the 
 others are found on leaves and flowers. 
 
 In some, the antennae are approximated to the eyes, and the head 
 is not prolonged in the manner of a proboscis, but terminated at 
 most by a very short snout. They will form our four first tribes. 
 
 Those of the first or the Helopii, have their antennas covered at 
 base by the margin of the head; they are generally filiform or slightly 
 thickened towards the extremity, generally composed of almost cy- 
 lindrical joints attenuated at base, of which the penultimate ones 
 are frequently a little shorter, and in the form of a reversed cone, 
 and the last is usually almost ovoid; the third is always elongated. 
 
 (1) Compressed wing cases. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 399 
 
 The extremity of the mandibles is bifid; the last joint of the maxil- 
 lary palpi is larger and securiform, or in the figure of a reversed 
 triangle; the eyes are oblong, and reniform or emarginated. None 
 of the legs are fitted for leaping; the penultimate joint of the tarsi, 
 or at least of the last ones, is almost always entire or not deeply 
 emarginate; their terminal hooks are simple, or without fissure or 
 dentation; the body is most commonly arcuated above, and always 
 solid and firm. 
 
 Such of the larv£B as are known to us are smooth, filiform and 
 glossy, with very short legs, like that of a Tenebrio. They are 
 found in old wood, and the perfect Insect lives under the bark of 
 trees. 
 
 This tribe mostly corresponds to the genus 
 
 Helops, Fab. 
 In Helops properly so styled, most of the joints of the anteniiK are almost 
 obconical or cylindrical, and attenuated at base. The thorax is transversal, 
 or hardly as long as it is wide, either square, trapezoidal, or cordiform, 
 abruptly narrowed posteriorly, terminated by pointed angles, and always 
 exactly applied to the base of the elytra. 
 
 The remaining genera of this tribe aie Epitragus, Cnodalon, Campsia, &c. 
 
 The second tribe, that of the Cistelides, is very closely allied 
 indeed to the first, but the insertion of the antennae is not covered, 
 the mandibles terminate in an entire or unemarginate point, and the 
 hooks of the tarsi are pectinated inferiorly. Several of these In- 
 sects live on flowers. This tribe forms the genus 
 
 CisTELA, Fab. 
 In Cistela properly so called, the head projects in the manner of a snout, 
 and the labrum is hardly wider than it is long; most of the joints of the 
 antenna are either obconical, triangular, or even serrated; the last is always 
 oblong. The body is ovoid or bordering on an oval. 
 The other genera are Lystronichus, Mycetophagus, and MUcula. 
 
 The third tribe, that of the Sereopalpides, is remarkable, as in- 
 timated by its name, for the maxillary palpi, which are frequently 
 serrated, very large, and inclined. The antenna3 are inserted in an 
 emargination of the eyes, exposed, as in the preceding tribe, and 
 most usually short and filiform. The mandibles are emarginated 
 or bifid at the extremity, and the hooks of the tarsi are simple. 
 
400 INSECTA. 
 
 The body is almost cylindrical in some, and oval in others; the head 
 is inclined, and the thorax trapezoidal. The anterior extremity of 
 the head does not project, and the posterior thighs not inflated, 
 characters which distinguish these Insects from various Heteromera 
 of the ensuing tribe. The penultimate joint of the tarsi, or at least 
 of the four anterior ones, is most commonly bilobate, and in those 
 where it is entire, the posterior legs at least are fitted for leaping; 
 in this case they are long and compressed, the tarsi small, almost 
 setaceous, and their first joint elongated; the anterior ones are fre- 
 quently short and dilated. 
 
 The type of this tribe is the genus 
 
 DiRC^A, Fab. 
 
 In Dircsea properly so called, the maxillary palpi are not serrated, and their 
 last joint projects more on the inner side than the preceding ones. The 
 thorax is insensibly lowered on the side. The scutellum is very small. 
 Here we have Orchesia, Halhmenus, Melandrya, Hypulus, &c. 
 
 The fourth tribe, that of the CEdemeeites, is connected with the 
 third by several characters, such as having the antennse inserted 
 near the eyes, and their origin exposed, the mandibles bifid at the 
 end, the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobate, and the maxillary 
 palpi terminated by a larger and securiform joint; but if we except 
 the Nothi, approximated by the form and breadth of the thorax, and 
 by some other characters to certain Heteromera of the preceding 
 tribe, and yet distinguished from them by their strongly inflated 
 posterior thighs, and their bicleft tarsial hooks, the CEdemerites pre- 
 sent a union of characters which will not allow us to confound them 
 with the other Heteromera. The body is elongated, narrow, almost 
 linear, and the head and thorax are somewhat narrower than the 
 abdomen. The antennae are longer than the two latter, serrated in 
 some — Calopus — filiform or setaceous, and composed of long and 
 almost cylindrical joints in the others; the anterior extremity of the 
 head is more or less prolonged into a little snout, and somewhat 
 narrowed behind; the eyes are proportionally more elevated than 
 in the preceding Heteromera. The thorax is at least as long as it 
 is broad, almost square, or nearly cylindrical, and slightly narrowed 
 behind; the elytra are linear or subulate posteriorly, and frequently 
 flexible. These Insects are found on flowers or trees. Their me- 
 tamorphoses are unknown. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 401 
 
 These Heteromera will be comprised in a single genus, the 
 
 CEdemera, Oliv. 
 
 Where the posterior thighs are strongly inflated in one of the sexes, where 
 the antennae are usually long and smaller at the extremity, and the elytra 
 suddenly narrowed near the end. 
 There are several subgenera. 
 
 Tlie fifth and last tribe of the Stenelytra, that of the Rhynchos- 
 TOMA, is composed of Insects, some of which, such as the first, are 
 evidently related by the ensemble of their characters to the Ql^de- 
 merae, while the others, in a natural series, appear to belong to the 
 family of the Rhynchophora. The head is considerably prolonged 
 anteriorly in the form of an elongated snout or flattened proboscis, 
 bearing the antennae at its base and before the eyes, which are al- 
 ways entire or unemarginate. These Insects form a single genus, 
 that of 
 
 MVCTERUS. 
 
 In Mycterus properly so called, the body is ovoid, sohd, covered by a silky 
 down, and the thorax trapeziform. The abdomen is square, long, rounded 
 posteriorly; the antennx are composed of joints, mostly obconical, the com- 
 plete number of which seems to be twelve, the eleventh or last being ab- 
 ruptly narrowed and acuminated, and the maxillary palpi are terminated 
 by a larger joint in tlie form of a reversed triangle. 
 The subgenera are Stenostoma and Rhinosimu^. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 TRACHELIDES. 
 
 In our second general division and fourth family of heterome- 
 rous Coleoptera, the head is triangular or cordiform, and borne on 
 a sort of neck or pedicle, abruptly formed, beyond which, being as 
 wide at this point as the thorax, or wider, it cannot enter the cavity 
 of the latter. The body is most commonly soft, the elytra are flexi- 
 ble, without striae, sometimes very short, and a little inclined in 
 others. The maxillae are never unguiculated. The joints of the 
 tarsi are frequently entire, and the hooks of the last bifid. 
 
 Most of the perfect Insects live on different plants, devour their 
 leaves, or suck the nectar of their flowers. Many, when seized, 
 
 3 A 
 
402 INSECT A. 
 
 curve their head and fold up their feet as if they were dead; the 
 others are very active. 
 
 We will divide this family into six tribes, forming as many genera. 
 
 In the first, or that of the Lagriaei^, the body is elongated and 
 narrower before; the thorax either almost cylindrical or square, or 
 ovoid and truncated; the antennae, inserted near an emargination of 
 the eyes, are simple, filiform, or insensibly enlarged towards the end, 
 most frequently and at least partially granose, the last joint being 
 longer than the preceding ones in the males; the palpi are thicker 
 at the extremity. 
 
 The species indigenous to France are found in woods, on various 
 plants; their body is soft, their elytra are flexible, and like the Me- 
 loes, the Cantharides, when taken, counterfeit death. 
 
 This tribe is formed of the genus 
 
 Lagria, Fab. 
 Those species, in which the antennae gradually enlarge, and are either 
 wholly or partly almost granose, with the last joint ovoid or oval; in which 
 the head projects but little before, and is prolonged and insensibly rounded 
 behind; and where the thorax is almost cylindrical or square, compose the 
 ^enus Lagkia properly so called. 
 
 The second tribe, that of the Pyeochroides, approaches the first 
 in the tarsi and the anterior elongation and narrowing of the body, 
 but it is flattened, and the thorax is almost orbicular or trapezoidal. 
 The antennae, at least in the males, are pectinated or plumousj the 
 maxillary palpi are slightly serrated, and terminated by an elongated 
 and almost securiform joint; the labial palpi are filiform; the abdo- 
 men is elongated, entirely covered by the elytra, and rounded at the 
 extremity. 
 
 These Heteromera, which are found in the spring in woods, and 
 whose lai-vae live under the bark of trees, form the genus 
 
 Pyrochroa, Geoff. 
 In Pyrochroa properly so called, the antenna: are simply pectinated and 
 shorter, the eyes are remote from each other, and the thorax is almost orbi- 
 cular and transversal. 
 
 In the third tribe, that of the MoRDELLONiE, so far as respects the 
 form of the joints of the tarsi and of their hooks, and of that of the 
 antennae and palpi, we find no common and constant character. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 403 
 
 These Insects, however, are easily distinguished from other Hete- 
 romera of the same family, by the general conformation of their 
 body, which is elevated and arcuated; the head is low, the thorax 
 trapezoidal or semicircular, and the elytra are very short or nar- 
 rowed, and terminate in a point, like the abdomen. They form the 
 genus 
 
 MoRDELLA, Lin. 
 In Mordella properly so called, the antennae are of equal thickness through- 
 out, and somewhat sen-ated in the males; all the joints of the tarsi are entire, 
 and the hooks of the last present one or two indentations beneath. The 
 eyes are not emarginate. 
 
 The subgenera are Ripiphorus, Myodites, Pelocotoma, and Anaspis. 
 
 In the fourth tribe, that of the Anthicides, we find the antennae 
 simple or slightly serrate, filiform, or a little thicker towards the 
 extremity, most of the joints being nearly obconical and almost 
 similar, with the exception of the last, which is somewhat larger 
 and oval. The thorax is sometimes obovoid, narrowed and trun- 
 cated posteriorly, sometimes divided into two knots, and at others 
 semicircular. Some of these Insects are found on various plants, 
 but the greater number live on the ground. They run with great 
 quickness. Their larvae are perhaps parasitical. 
 
 They will compose the genus 
 
 NoToxus, Geoff. 
 In Notoxus properly so called, the antennse enlarge insensibly and are al- 
 most entirely composed of obconical joints, and the thorax is obovoid, nar- 
 rowed and truncated posteriorly, or divided into two globular points. 
 
 The two last tribes of this family and of the section of the Hete- 
 romera present certain common characters, such as mandibles ter- 
 minating in a simple point, &c. In a perfect state they are all 
 herbivorous, but several, in their first state, or that of larvas, are 
 parasitical. 
 
 The Horiales, composing the fifth tribe, differ from those which 
 constitute the sixth, or the Cantharidise, in their hooks, which are 
 indented and accompanied (each) by a serrated appendage. These 
 Insects have filiform antennai, as long, at mosi, as the thorax, a 
 small labrum, strong and salient mandibles, filiform palpi, square 
 thorax, and very robust posterior legs, at least in one of the sexes^ 
 
404 INSECTA. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 HoEiA, Fab. 
 These Insects inhabit the intra-tropical countries of South America and of 
 the East Indies. 
 
 The sixth and last tribe, that of the Cantiiakidi^, is distinguished 
 from the preceding one by the hooks of the tarsi, which are deeply 
 cleft, and seem to be double. The head is usually large, wider, 
 and rounded posteriorly. The thorax is commonly narrowed be- 
 hind, and approaches the form of a truncated heart; in others it is 
 almost orbicular. The elytra are frequently somewhat inclined la- 
 terally, or tectiform, flattened, and rounded. These Insects simu- 
 late death when they are seized, and several, thus situated, produce 
 a caustic yellowish liquid of a penetrating odour, from the articula- 
 tions of their feet; the organs which secrete it have not yet been 
 detected. 
 
 Various species — Meloes, Mylabres, Cantharides — are employed 
 externally as epispastics. This tribe is formed of the genus 
 
 Meloe, Lin. 
 Which has been divided into several others. 
 
 In Meloe properly so called, the antennse are composed of short and 
 rounded joints, the intermediate of which are the largest, and sometimes 
 so disposed, that these organs present in this point, in several males, an 
 emargination or crescent. The wings are wanting, and the elytra, oval 
 or triangular, with a portion of the inner margin crossing each other, only 
 partially cover the abdomen, particularly in the females, where it is ex- 
 tremely voluminous. 
 
 They crawl along the ground, or upon low plants on the leaves of which 
 they feed. A yellowish or reddish oleaginous liquid exudes from the articu- 
 lations oftheu'legs. 
 
 In some districts of Spain, these Insects are used in place of Cantharides, 
 or are mixed with them. They are also employed by the Farriers. They 
 were formerly regarded as a specific in hydrophobia. I suspect that our 
 Meloes are the Buprestes of the ancients, Insects to which they attributed 
 very noxious qualities, and which, according to them, killed tlie Oxen that 
 accidentally swallowed them while grazing. 
 
 Among the divisions of this genus the most noted is the 
 
 Canthahis, Geoff. Ohv. — Meloe, Lin. — Lytta, Fab. 
 All the joints of the tarsi entire, and the thorax almost ovoid, slightly 
 elongated, narrowed anteriorly and truncated posteriorly, by which this 
 
COLEOPTERA. 403 
 
 subgenus is distinguished from the preceding one. The head is a Uttle 
 wider than the thorax. The antenna of the males are sometimes irregular 
 and even semipectinated. 
 
 C. vesicaturius. (The Spanish Fly.) From six to ten lines in length, of 
 a glossy golden-green, with simple, regular, black antenna. This Insect is 
 weU known from its medical uses. 
 
 It appears in France, near the time of the summer solstice, and is more 
 particularly found about the Ash and Lilac, on the leaves of which it feeds; 
 it diffuses a highly peneti'ating odour. The larva lives in the ground and 
 gnaws the roots of plants. In the United States of America, the species 
 called by Fabricius the viiaita, (our Potato-JJy), and which abounds on the 
 potato plants, is applied to the same uses as the one of which we are 
 speaking. 
 
 The third general section of the Coleoptera, that of the Tetra- 
 MEKA, consists exclusively of those in which all the tarsi are quad- 
 riarticulated. 
 
 All these Insects live on vegetable matters. The feet of their 
 larvae are usually very short, and they are even wanting or are re- 
 placed by mammillse in a great number. The perfect Insect is 
 found on the flowers or leaves of plants. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 RHYNCHOPHORA(l). 
 
 This family is distinguished by the entire prolongation of the head, 
 which forms a sort of snout or proboscis. 
 
 The abdomen is bulky in most of them, the antennas geniculate, 
 and frequently clavate. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is almost 
 always bilobate. The posterior thighs are dentated in several. 
 
 The larvas have an oblong body, and resemble a small, very soft, 
 white worm; their head is squamous, and they are destitute of feet, 
 or in lieu of them there are merely small mammillae. They gnaw 
 various parts of plants. Several live exclusively in the interior of 
 their fruit or seeds, and frequently do us much injury. Their chry- 
 salides are enclosed in a shell. Many of the Rhynchophora, when 
 very abundant within certain limits, are even very noxious in their 
 perfect state. They tap the buds or leaves of various cultivated 
 
 (1) Long-snouted. 
 
406 INSECT A. 
 
 vegetables, useful or necessary to man, and feed on their paren- 
 chyma. 
 
 Beuchus, Lin. 
 
 In Bruchus proper, the antennse are filiform and frequently serrated or 
 pectinated; the eyes are emarginated. The posterior legs are usually very 
 large. 
 
 The females deposit an egg in the yet diminutive and tender germ of 
 various leguminous cerealia, of the Coffee-tree, Palms, &c., where the 
 larva lives and is metamorphosed. To obtain an issue the perfect Insect 
 detaches a portion of the epidermis in the form of a cap, thus producing 
 those holes but too often found in peas, beans, dates, &c. The perfect 
 Insect is taken on flowers. 
 
 The labrum is apparent, the anterior elongation of their head short, broad, 
 depressed, and in the form of a snout; the palpi are very visible and fili- 
 form, or larger at the extremity, 
 
 B. pisi, L. Length two lines; black; base of the antennae and part of 
 the legs fulvous; elytra dotted with grey. A very noxious little Insect, 
 that in certain seasons has occasioned much damage in North America. 
 
 Those, in which the three or four last joints are united into a club, form 
 the genus 
 
 Attelabus, Lin. 
 
 They attack the leaves or most tender parts of plants. Most of the females 
 roll up these leaves into a tube or cornet, in which they deposit their eggs, 
 thus preparing a domicil for their young ones, which also furnishes them 
 with food. 
 
 Those, in which the antennae are filiform, or where the last joint alone 
 forms the club; where the proboscis, frequently longer in the males than in 
 the females, and often differently terminated, always projects forwards; in 
 which all the other parts of the body are usually much elongated, and the 
 penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobate, form the genus 
 
 Brentus. 
 
 These Insects are peculiar to hot climates. Their body is linear, and the 
 antennae, filiform or slightly enlarged towards the extremity, are composed 
 of eleven joints. 
 
 Sometimes the antennae are distinctly geniculate, the first joint being 
 much longer than the following ones. They form the genus Curculio of 
 Linnaeus. 
 
 We will divide them into the Brevirostres and the Longirostres, according 
 as the antennae are inserted near the extremity of the proboscis, and even 
 with the origin of the mandibles, or further back, either near its middle or 
 close to its base. 
 
 The Brevirostres of this naturalist, according to the system of Fabricius, 
 are divided into two genera. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 407 
 
 Brachv'cektjs. 
 Where all the joints of the tarsi are entu*e and without brush or pellet be- 
 neath. Their short and but slightly geniculate antennx present externally 
 but nine joints, the last of which forms the club. They are destitute of 
 wings, and their body is very scabrous or uneven. These Insects are 
 peculiar to the south of Europe and to Africa, live on the ground and ap- 
 pear very early in the spring. The women of Ethiopia use one species as 
 a sort of amulet^ they pass a string through its body and hang it round their 
 neck. 
 
 CuECULIO. 
 
 Where almost the whole under part of the tarsi is furnished with short and 
 stiff hairs, forming pellets, and their penultimate joint is deeply bilobate. 
 Their antennx are composed of eleven joints, or even of twelve if we count 
 the false one, which sometimes terminates them, the last of which form the 
 club. 
 
 As this genus, although much more restricted than in the Linnean sys- 
 tem, still comprises numerous species discovered since the time of that 
 naturalist, various savans, Germar and Schoenherr in particular, have divided 
 it into many others. 
 
 C. imperialis, Fab. (The Diamond-Beetle). A brilliant golden-green 
 with two black and longitudinal bauds on the thorax; ranges of golden- 
 green impressed points on the elytra, with black intervals. 
 
 The Longirostres, or those whose antennae are inserted beyond the origin 
 of the mandibles, and frequently near the middle of the proboscis, which 
 is usually long, comprise, with some exceptions, the genera lAxus, Rhyn- 
 chxnus, and Calandra of Fabricius. 
 
 In the two first the antennae present ten joints at least, but most commonly 
 eleven or twelve, of which the three last at least form the club. 
 
 Lixus, Fab. 
 The Lixi almost resemble the Cleoni in their organs of manducation, as 
 well as in the elongated fusiform club of their antennae, the narrow and 
 elongated figure of their body, and the armature of their tibiae. 
 
 Rhyncu^nus, Fab. 
 The lihynchaeni present no such ensemble of characters. 
 
 Sometimes the legs are contiguous at base, and there is no sternal fossula 
 for the reception of the proboscis. 
 
 Some never leap, and their antennae are composed of eleven or twelve 
 joints. The subgenera are numerous. 
 
 The remaining Longirostres have generally nine joints at most in the 
 antennae, and the last, or two last at most, form a club with a coriaceous 
 epidermis and spongy extremity. They feed, at least while in the state of 
 larvae, on seeds or ligneous substances. 
 
408 IN SECT A. 
 
 They may be united In the single genus 
 
 Calandra. 
 
 In Calandra properly so called, the antennae are strongly geniculate, but 
 inserted near the base of the proboscis; their eighth joint forms an ovoid or 
 triangular club. 
 
 C. granaria. But too well known; its body is elongated and brown; 
 thorax as long as the elytra and punctured. Its larva, known by the name 
 of weevil {genre), is the destroyer of our granaries. 
 
 C. oryzse. Similar to the preceding, but with two fulvous spots on each 
 elytron. It attacks rice. 
 
 C. palmarum. Length an inch and a half; club of the antennae truncated; 
 entirely black, with silky hairs at the extremity of the proboscis. It lives 
 on the pith of the Palms of South America. The inhabitants of that coun- 
 try consider its larva, called the ver-palmiste, as a great delicacy. 
 
 There are several subgenera. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 XYLOPHAGI(l). 
 
 In our second family of tetramerous Coleoptera, we find the head 
 terminating as usual, without any remarkable projection, in the form 
 of a proboscis or snout. The antennae are thicker near the extre- 
 mity, or perfoliate at base, always short, and consist of less than 
 eleven joints in a great number. The joints of the tarsi are usually 
 entire, the penultimate being sometimes widened and cordiform in 
 others; in this case the antennae always terminate in a club, either 
 solid and ovoid, or trifoliate, and the palpi are small and conical. 
 
 These Insects mostly live in wood which is perforated and chan- 
 nelled in various directions by their larvae. When they happen to 
 abound in forests, those of Pines and Firs particularly, they destroy 
 in a ^GW years immense numbers of trees, which are rendered use- 
 less for any purpose of art. Others do great injury to the Olive, 
 and some again feed on Mushrooms. 
 
 We will divide this family into three sections. 
 
 1. Those in which the antennae are composed of ten joints at 
 most, sometimes terminating in a stout club, most commonly solid, 
 
 (1) Wood-eaters. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 409 
 
 and sometimes consisting of three elongated leaflets; and at others 
 forming a cylindrical and perfoliate club from their base, and in 
 which the palpi are conical. The anterior legs of the greater num- 
 ber are dentated and armed with a stout hook, and the tarsi, of 
 which the penultimate joint is frequently cordiform or bilobate, are 
 susceptible of being flexed on them. 
 
 Some have very small palpi, the body convex and rounded above, or al- 
 most ovoid, the head globular and plunged into the thorax, and the antennx 
 soUd or trilamellate, and preceded by five johits at least. 
 
 These Xylophagi form the genus 
 
 ScoLYTTJs, Geoff. 
 
 In Scolytus properly so called, the antennae are straight, beardless, and in- 
 serted close to the inner margin of the eyes, which are narrow, elongated, 
 and vertical. 
 
 The others have large and very apparent palpi of unequal lengths. 
 Their body is depressed and narrowed before; their antennae sometimes 
 consist of two joints, the last of which is very large, flattened, and almost 
 triangular or nearly ovoid, and sometimes of ten, and are entirely perfoliate. 
 
 The labium is large; the elytra are truncated, and tarsi short, with all the 
 joints entire. These insects are all foreign to Europe, and compose the 
 genus 
 
 Paussus, Lin. 
 
 Where the antennx consist of but two joints, with the last large and com- 
 pressed. 
 
 2. A second section will comprise those Xylophagi, whose an- 
 tennae consist of but ten joints, and in which the palpi, at least those 
 of the maxillae, do not gradually taper to a point, but are of equal 
 thickness throughout, or dilated at the extremity. The joints of 
 their tarsi are always entire. 
 
 We will divide them into principal genera, according to the mode 
 in which the antennae terminate. The three last joints form a per- 
 foliate club in the flrst, or 
 
 BOSTRICHUS. 
 
 In Bostrichus proper, the body is more or less cylindrical, the head round- 
 ed, almost globular, and capable of being received into the thorax as far 
 as the eyes; the thorax is more or less convex before, and forms a sort of 
 hood; the two first joints of the tarsi, as well as the last, are elongated. 
 3 B 
 
410 INSECTA. 
 
 S. capucinus. Five lines in length, with a red abdomen and elytra of the 
 same colour. Very common in old wood in timber yards. 
 The second genus of this division, or 
 
 MONOTOMA, 
 
 Is distinguished from the first by the solid and globuliform club — ^the tenth 
 joint — of the antennae. 
 
 The body is elongated, depressed, and frequently forms a paraUelopiped; 
 the anterior part of the head is narrowed, and projects somewhat in the 
 manner of a triangular and obtuse snout. The palpi are very small, and, 
 as well as the mandibles, not salient. 
 
 3. The Xylophagi of the third division have eleven very distinct 
 joints in the antennae; their palpi are filiform, or thicker at the ex- 
 tremity in some, and smaller in others; all the joints of the tarsi are 
 entire. 
 
 Those in which the olub of the antennse consists of but two joints form 
 the genus 
 
 Lyctus. 
 
 In Lyctus proper, the margin of the head covers the whole or greater part 
 of the first joint of the antennse. The mandibles are not sahent. 
 
 In the other Xylophagi with antennse composed of eleven joints, the 
 three or four last form the club, or the last is alone larger than the preced- 
 ing ones. They are subdivided thus: 
 
 Sometimes the mandibles are covered or project but little, as in 
 
 MycETopHAGUs, Fab. 
 In Mycetophagus proper, the club of the antennae commences at the sixth 
 or seventh joint; the last is almost ovoid. 
 
 There are several subgenera, such as Triphyllus, Dasycerus, Silva- 
 nus, &c. 
 
 Sometimes the mandibles are entirely exposed, saUent and robust. The 
 body is generally elongated, narrow and depressed. These Insects form 
 the genus 
 
 Trogosita, Oliv. 
 In Trogosita proper, the mandibles are shorter than the head and crossed; 
 the ligula, almost square, is not prolonged between the palpi, and the 
 maxillx have but a single lobe. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 411 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 PLATYSOMA(l). 
 
 Our third family of the Tetramera approaches the second, so far 
 as relates to the internal anatomy, the tarsi, and habits; but the an- 
 tennae are of equal thickness throughout, or more slender towards 
 the extremity. The mandibles are always salient, the ligula is bifid 
 or emarginated; the palpi are short, the body is depressed and elon- 
 gated, and the thorax almost square. These Insects are found 
 under the bark of trees, and may be reduced to a single genus, the 
 
 Cucujus, Fab. 
 Where the antennx, much shorter than the body in several, are composed 
 of obconical or turbinifonn and almost granose joints, the first of which 
 is shorter than the head. 
 
 There are two subgenera, Dendrophagua and Uleoiota. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 L0NGIC0RNES(2). 
 
 Here, the under part of the three first joints of the tarsi is fur- 
 nished with a brush; the second and third are codiform; the fourth 
 is deeply bilobate, and there is a little nodule resembling a joint at 
 the base of the last. The ligula, placed on a short and transversal 
 mentum, is usually membranous, cordiform, emarginated or bifid, 
 corneous and forming the segment of a very short and transversal 
 circle in others. The antennae are filiform or setaceous, most com- 
 monly as long at least as the bodyj they are sometimes simple in 
 both sexes, and sometimes serrated, pectinated, or flabelliform in 
 the males. The eyes of a great many are reniform and surround 
 them at base. The thorax is trapezoidal or narrowed before, in 
 those where the eyes are rounded and entire, or but slightly emar- 
 ginated; even in this case the legs are long and slender, and the tarsi 
 elongated. 
 
 As almost all their larvae live in the interior of trees, or under 
 their bark, they are destitute of feet, or have but very small ones. 
 
 (1) Flat-bodied. (2) Long-homed. 
 
412 INSECTA. 
 
 Their body is soft, wliitish, thickest anteriorly, and the head squa- 
 mous and provided with stout mandibles, but without any other 
 projecting part. They do much injury to trees, the large ones par- 
 ticularly, perforating them very deeply, or boring holes in them in 
 every direction. Some of them attack the roots of plants. The 
 abdomen of the females is terminated by a tubular and horny ovi- 
 positor. These Insects produce a small sharp sound by the rubbing 
 of the pedicle of the base of their abdomen against the interior of 
 the parieties ofthe thorax. 
 
 We will in the first place divide the Longicornes into tv^o sections. 
 
 In those of the first, the eyes are either strongly emarginated or 
 lunate, or elongated and narrow; the head is plunged into the tho- 
 rax, as far as those organs, without being distinguished from it by 
 an abrupt contraction of its diameter, forming a kind of neck; in 
 several it is vertical. 
 
 These Longicornes are subdivided into Iveo principal sections or 
 small tribes. 
 
 1. The Prionii, characterized as follows: the labrum null or very 
 small and indistinct; the mandibles stout, or even very large, parti- 
 cularly in most ofthe males; the internal lobe ofthe maxillae null or 
 very small; the antennae inserted near the base ofthe mandibles or 
 the emargination of the eyes, but not surrounded by the latter at 
 base; the thorax most frequently trapezoidal or square, crenated or 
 dentated laterally. 
 
 The first genus, or 
 
 Parandra, Lat, 
 
 Where, as in the following, the antennje are simple, almost granose, com- 
 pressed, of equal thickness throughout, and as long as the thorax at most, 
 is distinguished from that genus, as well as from all others of the same 
 family, by its corneous ligula, which is in the form of the segment of a very 
 short, transversal circle without emargination or lobes. The body is a 
 parallelepiped, and depressed, and the thorax square, rounded at the pos- 
 terior angles, and without spines or teeth. These Insects are pecuhar to 
 America. 
 
 Spondylis, Fab. 
 
 The Spondyles, which approximate to the Parandrs in their antennae and 
 the exiguity of their maxillary lobes, are removed from them by their hgfula,- 
 the latter, as in all the following Longicornes, is membranous and cordiform 
 
COLEOPTERA. 413 
 
 The Spondyles are also distinguished from the following genera by their 
 almost globular thorax, the margin of which is neither recurved nor furnish- 
 ed with teeth or spines. 
 
 Their larva live in the interior of European Pines and Firs. 
 
 In the third and last genus of this tribe, or 
 
 Prionus, Geoff. Fab. Oliv. 
 The antenna are longer than the head and thorax, serrated or pectinated in 
 some; simple, attenuated near the extremity, and with elongated joints in 
 others. The body is generally depressed, and the thorax square or trape- 
 zoidal, and either dentated or spinous, or angular laterally. 
 
 These Insects only fly towards evening or at night, and always remain 
 on trees. Certain species foreign to Europe are remarkable for their great 
 size, and that of their mandibles. The larva of the P. cervicornis, which 
 lives in the wood of the Gossampinus, is eaten 
 
 2. The Cerambycini have a very apparent labrum extending 
 across the whole width of the anterior extremity of the head; their 
 two maxillary lobes are very distinct and salient; their mandibles of 
 an ordinary size, and similar or but little different in both sexes; 
 their eyes always emarginated and surrounding, at least partially, 
 the base of the antennae, which are usually as long as the body or 
 longer; the thighs, or the four anterior ones at least, are commonly 
 in the form of an ovoid or oval club, narrowed into a pedicle at base. 
 
 The various genera of modern entomologists may all be united in 
 the genus. 
 
 Cerambyx. 
 C. heros. Fab. Length one inch and a half; black; extremity of the elytra 
 brown and prolonged into a small tooth at the suture; thorax extremely 
 rugose and with a pointed or splniform tubercle on each side; antennx 
 simple. Common in all the warm and temperate parts of Europe. The 
 larva bores deep holes in the Oak, and Is perhaps the Cossus of the ancients. 
 
 We will terminate this tribe with Insects, which, in relation to 
 their palpi, form of their head, thorax and elytra, as well as in their 
 proportions, present remarkable exceptions or anomalies. 
 
 We will commence with those in which the form of the thorax is 
 very analogous to that of the preceding ones. 
 
 Obrium, Meg. 
 Is characterized as follows: the head rounded, and not prolonged anteriorly 
 
414 INSECTA. 
 
 in the manner of a snout; palpi filiform, the last joint terminating ina point; 
 antennae long' and setaceous; thorax long, narrow, almost cylindrical, or 
 forming a truncated oval. 
 
 Rhinotragus, Dalm. 
 Differs from the preceding one in the head, which is narrowed and pro- 
 longed anteriorly in the manner of a snout; in the palpi of which the last 
 joint is rather thicker than the preceding ones, and truncated at the end; 
 in the antennae, shorter than the body, slightly dilated and somewhat ser- 
 rated at the extremity; and in the almost orbicular thorax. 
 
 Necydalis, Lin. 
 The only one of this tribe in which the elytra are either very short, and 
 squamiform, or prolonged, as usual, to the extremity of the abdomen, but 
 abruptly contracted a little beyond their origin, then much narrowed, and 
 terminating in a point, or subulate. Their abdomen is long, narrow, con- 
 tracted, and as if pediculated at base. The wings are folded at their ex. 
 tremity. 
 
 Certain insects generally proper to the African islands, New Hol- 
 land, New Ireland and New Zealand, ambiguous in several respects, 
 and which, in a natural order, should perhaps be placed between 
 the Lamiariae and the Lepturetae, will terminate the division of the 
 Cerambycini. 
 
 Their palpi are almost filiform, the last joint almost cylindrical 
 and somewhat attenuated towards the base; their thorax is usually 
 smooth or but slightly uneven, without acute tubercles, and becomes 
 widened posteriorly, or presents the form of a trapezium or trun- 
 cated cone, as in the last tribe of this family; the abdomen in 
 the greater number is almost in the form of a reversed triangle, and 
 the elytra are truncated at the extremity. 
 
 These Insects form four genera. Distichocera, Tmesisfemus, 
 Tragocerus, and Leptocera. 
 
 The Longicornes of our third tribe, that of the LAMiAKiiE, are 
 distinguished by their vertical head, and by their palpi, which are 
 filiform or hardly larger at the extremity, and terminated by a joint 
 more or less ovoid and tapering to a point. The outer lobe of the 
 maxillas is slightly narrowed at the end, and curved on the inner 
 division. The antennae are most frequently setaceous and simple, 
 and the thorax, exclusive of the lateral tubercles or spines, is nearly 
 of an equal width throughout. Some species are apterous, a char- 
 acter exhibited by no other division of this family. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 415 
 
 ACROCINUS, Illig. 
 Distinguished from all the Longicornes, by the thorax, each side of which 
 is terminated by a movable tubercle, terminating* in a point, or by a spine. 
 The body is flattened, and the thorax transversal; the antennse are long and 
 slender, and the anterior legs longer than the others; the elytra are trun- 
 cated at the end and terminated by two teeth, the exterior of which is the 
 strongest. 
 
 A. longimanus; known by the vulgar name of the Cayenne Harlequin. 
 The thighs and tibiae of the two anterior legs are very long and slender. 
 The movable tubercles of the thorax are terminated by a strong spine, and 
 the elytra are beautifully variegated with grey, red, and black. 
 
 All the remaining Lamiaria compose but the single genus 
 
 Lamia, 
 Which we will separate into two sections: those In which the sides of the 
 thorax are sometimes tuberculous or rugose and sometimes spinous, and 
 those in which it is smooth and cylindrical. 
 
 They are arranged under various subgenera, such as Acanthocinus, Tetra- 
 opes, Monochamus, Saperda, &c. 
 
 la the fourth and last tribe, that of the Lepturet^, we find Lon- 
 gicornes in which the eyes are rounded, entire, or scarcely emargi- 
 nated, and where, in this case, the antennae are inserted before, or 
 at most at the anterior extremity of this slight emargination. The 
 head is always inclined posteriorly behind the eyes in several, or 
 abruptly narrowed at its junction with the thorax, in the manner of 
 a neck; the thorax is conical or trapezoidal and narrowed before. 
 The elytra become gradually narrower. 
 
 This tribe forms the genus 
 
 Leptura, Lin., 
 With the exception of certain species which belong to the preceding tribes 
 and to the Donacise. In Leptura proper the head is abruptly narrowed 
 immediately behind the eyes. The antennae, inserted near the anterior 
 extremity of their internal emargination, are remote at base. The two emi- 
 nences from which they rise are almost confounded in one plane. The 
 thorax is almost always smooth or without lateral tubercles. 
 
416 INSECTA. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 EUPODA. 
 
 Our fifth family of the tetramerous Coleoptera is composed of 
 Insects, the first of which so closely approach the last Longicornes 
 that they were confounded both by Linnaeus and GeoflTroy, and the 
 last are so closely allied to the Chrysomelae, the type of the follow- 
 ing family, that the first of those naturalists places them in that ge- 
 nus. The organs of manducation present the same affinities. Thus 
 in the first, the ligula is membranous, bifid or bilobate, as in the 
 Longicornes; their maxillae also greatly resemble those of these 
 latter; but in the last this ligula is almost square or rounded, and 
 analogous to that of the Cyclica. 
 
 The maxillary lobes, however, are membranous, or but slightly 
 coriaceous, whitish or yellowish; the external one is widened near 
 the extremity, &c. The posterior thighs are strongly inflated in a 
 great many, and hence the denomination of the family. 
 
 All these Insects have wings, and are found on the stems or leaves 
 of various plants, but, so far as regards a great number of species 
 that inhabit France, on those of the Liliacere particularly. The 
 larvae of some — the Donacise — attack the internal part of the roots 
 of aquatic plants, on which we find the perfect Insect. Those of 
 several others live exposed, but they cover themselves with matters 
 with which they form a sort of case or scabbard, like that of the 
 Cassidae. 
 
 We will divide this family into two tribes: 
 
 The first, that of the Sageides, is composed, as its name indi- 
 cates, of the genus 
 
 Sagra. 
 
 The mandibles terminate in a sharp point. The ligula is profoundly emar- 
 ginate or bilobate. The Sagrse properly so called, originally designated 
 by the name oi Alurnx, are exclusively confined to certain parts of southern 
 Africa, Ceylon and China. Their palpi are terminated by an ovoid joint, 
 the divisions of the ligula are short, the thorax is cylindrical, the antennae 
 are almost filiform, longer than the head and thorax, with their inferior 
 joints shorter than the others, and the four anterior tibiae tolerably thick, 
 but slightly elongated, angular and straight. These Insects have a uniform 
 
COLEOPTERA. 417 
 
 but very brilliant colour, green, golden, or a fulgid-red, with a slight mix- 
 ture of violet. 
 There are three subgenera, Megalopus, Orsodacna and Psammcecus. 
 
 The second tribe, or that of the Ckiocerides, is distinguished 
 from the preceding by the mandibles, the extremity of which is 
 truncated or presents two or three teeth, and by the ligula, which is 
 entire or but shghtly emarginated. 
 
 It is composed of the genus 
 
 Ceioceris, Geoff. 
 Which is now divided into Donacia, Hxmonia, Petauristes, Crioeeria pro- 
 per, &c. 
 
 FAMILY VI. 
 
 CYCLICA. 
 
 In our sixth family of the Tetramera, where the three first joints 
 of the tarsi are still spongy, or furnished with pellets beneath, with 
 the penultimate divided into two lobes, and where the antennae are 
 filiform or somewhat thicker towards the end, we observe a body 
 usually rounded, and in those few where it is oblong, with the base 
 of the thorax of the width of the elytra and maxillae, whose exterior 
 division, by its narrow, almost cylindrical form and darker colour, 
 has the appearance of a palpus; the interior division is broader and 
 destitute of the little squamous nail. The ligula is almost squareor 
 oval, entire or widely emarginated. 
 
 These Insects are generally small, and are frequently ornamented 
 with brilliant and metallic colours; their body is smooth or destitute 
 of hairs. They are mostly slow and timid, letting themselves fall 
 to the ground the moment we attempt to seize them, or folding their 
 antennae and feet close to their body. Several species are good 
 jumpers. The females are extremely prolific. 
 
 If we take into consideration the different habits of their larvaa, 
 we will find that the Cyclica are divided into four principal sections: 
 
 In the first, or the Cassidarl;e, the antennae are inserted in the 
 
 superior part of the head, and are approximated, straight, short, 
 
 filiform and almost cylindrical, or gradually enlarged towards the 
 
 extremity. The mouth, altogether underneath, and with short and 
 
 3 C 
 
418 INSECTA. 
 
 almost filiform palpi, is sometimes arched and sometimes partly re- 
 ceived into the cavity of the prassternum. The eyes are ovoid or 
 round. The legs are contractile and short, and the tarsi flattened; 
 the lobes of the penultimate joint completely enclose the last. 
 
 The body being flat above, these Insects, owing to the disposition 
 of their tarsi, are enabled to glue themselves to the surface of leaves 
 and to remain there without motion; besides this, the body is most 
 commonly orbicular or oval, and overlapped all round by the thorax 
 and elytra. The head is concealed under the thorax, or received 
 into its anterior emargination. Their colours are various, and are 
 prettily distributed in the form of spots, points, and streaks. Such 
 of their larvae as are known to us cover themselves with dirt. 
 
 The Cassidariae are composed of two genera. In the first, or 
 
 HisPA, Lin. 
 
 The body is oblong-, the head is entirely exposed and free, and the thorax 
 forms a trapezium. The mandibles have but two or three teeth; the exte- 
 rior maxillary lobe is shorter than the inner one; the antenna are filiform 
 and pectinated anteriorly. The Hispie properly so called, have short man- 
 dibles terminated by two or three small and almost equal teeth. America 
 produces a great number of species. In some the superior surface of the 
 body, and even a portion of the antennje, are densely spinous. 
 
 Cassida, Lin. Fab. 
 The Cassid» are distinguished from the Hispse by the following characters. 
 The body is orbicular or almost ovoid, and in some few nearly square. 
 The thorax, more or less semicircular, or forming the segment of a circle, 
 entirely conceals and covers the head, or encloses it in an anterior emargi- 
 nation. The elytra, frequently elevated in the region of the scutellum, 
 project beyond the body. The mandibles present four teeth at least, and 
 the exterior maxillary lobe is at least as long as the inner one. 
 
 In the second tribe, or the Chrysomelin^e, the antennae are re- 
 mote, and inserted before the eyes, or near their internal extremity. 
 These Insects never leap. Those species in which we find the 
 above mentioned characters, form, as in the earlier entomological 
 works of Fabricius, two genera. The first, or 
 
 Cryptocephalus, 
 Is composed of Chrysomelinx, in which the head is plunged vertically 
 into an arched or hood-like thorax, in such a manner that the body, most 
 commonly in the form of a short cylinder, or almost ovoid and narrowed 
 
COLEOPTEHA. 419 
 
 anteriorly, when viewed from above, appears as if truncated at that ex- 
 tremity and destitute of a head. The antennae of some are more or less 
 serrated or pectinated; those of others are long and filiform. The last 
 joint of the palpi is always ovoid. 
 
 Chrysomela, 
 
 The body is usually ovoid or nearlj' oval, and the head salient, projecting', 
 or simply inclined; where the antennae are simple, about half the length of 
 the body, and most frequently granose and insensibly enlarged towards 
 the extremity. 
 
 C.populi, L. Length from five to six lines; oval, oblong, and blue; ely- 
 tra fulvous or red, and the inner angle of their extremity marked with a 
 black dot. On the Willow and Poplar; its larva lives on the same trees, 
 and frequently in society. 
 
 In the third and last tribe of the Cyclica, thatof the GALKRUCiTiE, 
 we find antennae always at least as long as the half of the body, of 
 equal thickness throughout, or insensibly thicker towards their ex- 
 tremity, inserted between the eyes, at but little distance from the 
 mouth, and usually approximated at base, and near a small longitu- 
 dinal carina. The maxillary pajlpi, thickest about the middle, ter- 
 minate in two joints, in the form of a cone, but opposed or united 
 at base, the last short, and either truncated or obtuse or pointed. 
 The body is sometimes ovoid or oval, and sometimes almost he- 
 mispherical. In several, and particularly the smaller species, the 
 posterior thighs are very stout, which enables them to leap. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 Galeeuca, 
 Which is divided into two principal sections; those which are destitute of 
 the power of leaping or the Isopoda, and the Jumpers or the Anisopoda. 
 
 G. calmariensis. Three lines in length; yellowish or greenish above; three 
 black spots on the thorax; another with a stripe of the same colour on each 
 elytron. — This species, together with its larva, is found on the Elm; in cer- 
 tain seasons, when unusually abundant, it strips these trees of their foliage, 
 and does as much mischief as certain caterpillars. 
 
 The jumping Galerucitse, or those whose posterior thighs are inflated 
 and which are distributed by Fabricius among the genera Chrysomela, Gale- 
 ruca and Crioceris, are united in one, that ofAltica or Haltica, in the systems 
 of Geoffroy, Olivier and llliger. These Insects are very small, but are orna- 
 mented with various or brilliant colours; they jump with great quickness 
 and to a very great height, and frequently destroy the leaves of those plants 
 on which they feed. Their larvx devour the parenchyma, and there un- 
 dergo their metamorphosis. Certain species, those particularly which are 
 
420 INSECTA. 
 
 commonly termed garden fleas, are very injurious in both states to our 
 kitchen gardens. Of all countries, South America furnishes the greatest 
 number. 
 
 Altica, Lat. 
 
 In the true Alticac the head is salient, and the posterior tibiae are truncat- 
 ed at their extremity and without any particular prolongation or forked 
 spine; the tarsus originates from this extremity, and its length is not equal 
 to half that of the tibia. 
 
 A. oleracea. About two lines in length; oval, elongated; green or bluish; 
 a transverse impression on the thorax; elytra finely punctured. On vege- 
 tables. It is the largest of the European species. 
 
 FAMILY VII. 
 CLAVIPALPI. 
 
 The Insects of our seventh and last family of the Tetramera are 
 distinguished from all those of the same section, having, like them, 
 the under part of the three first joints of the tarsi furnished with 
 brushes and the penultimate bifid, by their antennae, which are ter- 
 minated in a very distinct and perforated club, as well as by their 
 maxillae, armed on the inner side by a nail or corneous tooth. In 
 some ievf^ the joints of the tarsi are entire, but they are removed 
 from the other Tetramera with analogous tarsi by their body, which 
 is almost globular and contracts into a ball. 
 
 Their body is most commonly of a rounded form, and frequently 
 even very convex and hemispherical; the antennae are shorter than 
 the body, the mandibles emarginated or dentated at the extremity, 
 and the palpi terminated by a large joint; the last joint of the max- 
 illary palpi is very large, transversal, compressed, and almost lunate. 
 The form of their organs of manducation shows them to be gnawers, 
 and in fact the species indigenous to Europe are found in the Boleti 
 which grow on the trunks of trees, under their bark, &c. 
 
 Some have the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobate, and do not 
 contract themselves into a ball. 
 
 They may be reunited in the single genus 
 
 Erotylus, Fab. 
 
 In the Erotyli properly so called, the intermediate joints of the antennae are 
 almost cylindrical, and the club , formed by the last ones, is oblong; the in- 
 terior and corneous division of their maxillae is terminated by two teeth. 
 
COLEOPTERA. 421 
 
 They are peculiar to South America. 
 
 In the fourth section of the Coleoptera, that of the Trimera, 
 there are but three joints to all the tarsi. The Trimera form three 
 families. Those of the two first are closely related to the last of 
 thQ Tetramera. Their antennae, always composed of eleven joints, 
 terminate in a club formed by the three last, which is compressed 
 and in the form of a reversed cone or triangle. The first joint of 
 the tarsi is always very distinct; the penultimate is usually bilobate, 
 and the last, which presents a knot at base, is always terminated by 
 two hooks. The elytra entirely cover the abdomen and are not 
 truncated. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 FUNGICOL^. 
 
 In our first family of this section we observe antennae longer than 
 the head and thorax united, an oval body, and a trapezoidal thorax. 
 The maxillary palpi are filiform or a little thicker at the end, but 
 are terminated by a very large and securiform joint. The penulti- 
 mate joint of the tarsi is always deeply bilobate. 
 
 This family may be reduced to one great genus. 
 
 Etjmorphus, 
 In the Eumorphi proper, the club of the antenns is abrupt, compact, 
 strongly compressed, and in the form of a reversed triangle. The maxil- 
 lary palpi are filiform, and the two last joints of the labials united form a 
 triangular club. 
 
 They are all peculiar to America and the East Indies. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 APHIDIPHAGL 
 
 This family consists mostly of Insects which have an almost hem- 
 ispherical body, and a very short, transversal, and almost lunate 
 thorax. Their antennae terminate in a compressed and obconical 
 club, composed by the three last joints, and are shorter than the 
 thorax. The last joint of the maxillary palpi is very large and se- 
 
422 INSECTA. 
 
 curiform, and Ibe penultimate joint of the tarsi is profoundly 
 bilobate. ' 
 
 In the other Trimera of the same family, the joints of the tarsi 
 are simple, and the penultimate at least is slightly bifid, which, with 
 some other characters, distinguishes these Insects from the Fun- 
 gicolse. 
 
 COCCINELLA. 
 
 In Coccinella proper, the body is almost hemispherical, the thorax very 
 short, almost lunate, the margin not recurved or but very slightly, and the 
 penultimate joint of the tarsi profoundly bilobate. 
 
 Various species of this genus are extremely common on the trees and 
 plants of our gardens, and frequently in our houses; they are known by the 
 names of Cow-bug, Lady-bug, &c. They feed on Aphides, their larva, 
 which in form and their metamorphoses greatly resemble those of the Chry- 
 somelje, employing the same aliment. 
 
 There, the body is much flattened, in the form of a shield, and the head 
 is concealed under an almost semicu-cular thorax. The antennae present 
 distinctly but nine joints, and terminate in an elongated club. The joints 
 of the tarsi are entire. The praesternum forms a sort of chin-cloth ante- 
 riorly. Such are the characters of the genus 
 
 CLYrEASTEE, Audersch. 
 They are found under the bark of trees, and under stones. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 PSELAPHII. 
 
 These Insects, which constitute our third and last family of the 
 Trimera, in their short and truncated elytra that only cover part of 
 the abdomen, bear a certain resemblance to the Bachelytra, and 
 particularly to the Aleocharas. This last part of their body, how- 
 ever, is much shorter, wide, very obtuse and rounded posteriorly. 
 The antennae, terminated by a club or thicker towards the extre- 
 mity, sometimes consist of but six joints. The maxillary palpi are 
 usually very large, and all the joints of the tarsi are entire; the first, 
 much shorter than the following ones, is scarcely visible at the first 
 glance, and the last is most commonly terminated by a simple hook. 
 
 Thej are found on the ground under the debris of vegetable mat- 
 ters: some inhabit certain ant-hills. 
 
 Those which have eleven joints in the antennas form the genua 
 
COLEOPTERA. 423 
 
 PsELAPHTJs, Herbst. 
 In the last of the Pselaphii we observe this peculiarity — their antennx con- 
 sist of but six joints, or even one. They form the genus 
 
 Claviger, 
 
 Where the antennae consist of six distinct joints. Tliese Insects have no 
 apparent eyes. The maxillary palpi are very short, without distinct articu- 
 lations, and with two terminal hooks. The two first joints of the tarsi are 
 very short; the third and last is very long-, with a single hook at the 
 extremity. 
 
 These Pselaphii are found under stones in bari'en localities, and even in 
 the hills of certain small, yellow Ants. 
 
 ORDER VI. 
 
 ORTHOPTERA (1) 
 
 In the Insects of this order, we find the body generally less indu- 
 rated than in the Coleoptera, and soft, semi-membranous elytra fur- 
 nished with nervures, which, in the greater number, do not join at 
 the suture in a straight line. Their wings are folded longitudinally, 
 most frequently in the manner of a fan, and divided by membranous 
 nervures running in the same direction. The maxillas are always 
 terminated by a dentated and horny piece covered with a galea, an 
 appendage corresponding to the exterior division of the maxillas of 
 the Coleoptera. They have also a sort of tongue or epiglottis. 
 
 The Orthoptera undergo a semi-metamorphosis, of which all the 
 mutations are reduced to the growth and development of the elytra 
 and wings, that are always visible in a rudimental state in the nymph. 
 As both this nymph and the larva are otherwise exactly similar to 
 the perfect Insect, they walk and feed in the same way. 
 
 The mouth of the Orthoptera consists of a labrum, two mandi- 
 bles, as many maxillae, and four palpi; those of the jaws always have 
 five joints; whilst the labials, as in the Coleoptera, present but three. 
 The mandibles are always very strong and corneous, and the ligula 
 is constantly divided into two or four thongs. The form of the an- 
 tennae varies less than in the Coleoptera, but they are usually cora- 
 
 (1) Straight-winged. 
 
424 INSECTA. 
 
 posed of a greater number of joints. Several, besides their reticu- 
 lated eyes, have two or three ocelli. The inferior surface of the 
 first joints of the tarsi is frequently fleshy or membranous. Many 
 females are furnished with a true perforator formed of two blades, 
 frequently enclosed in a common envelope, by means of which they 
 deposit their eggs. The posterior extremity of the body, in most of 
 them, is provided with appendages. 
 
 All the known Orthoptera, without exception, are terrestrial, 
 even in their two first states of existence. Some are carnivorous 
 or omniverous, but the greater number feed on living plants. 
 
 We will divide the Orthoptera into two great families. 
 
 In those which compose the first, all the legs are similar, and only 
 adapted for running, — they are the Cursoria or runners. In those 
 which constitute the second, the posterior pair of thighs are much 
 larger than the others, thereby enabling them to leap. Beside this, 
 the males produce a sharp or stridulous noise — they are the Salta- 
 toria or jumpers. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CURSORIA. 
 
 In this family the posterior legs, as well as the others, are solely 
 adapted for running. Almost all these Insects have their elytra and 
 wings laid horizontally on the body; the females are destitute of a 
 corneous ovipositor. They form three genera: in the first or the 
 
 FoKFicuLA, Lin. 
 
 There are three joints in the tarsi; the wings are plaited like a fan, and 
 folded transversely under very short and crustaceous elytra with a straight 
 suture; the body is linear, with two large, squamous, mobile pieces, which 
 form a forceps at its posterior extremity. 
 
 These Insects are very common in cool and damp places, frequently 
 collect in troops under stones and the bark of trees, are very injurious to 
 our cultivated fruits, devour even their dead congeners, and defend them- 
 selves with their pincers, which frequently vary in form, according to the 
 sex. It has been thought that they insinuate themselves into the ear, and 
 to this they owe their name of Ear-wigs. 
 
 Blatta, Lin. 
 Coeftroae/tcs have five joints to all the tarsi. The wings are only plaited 
 
ORTHOPTERA. 425 
 
 longitudinaUy, the head is concealed under the plate of the thorax, and the 
 body oval, orbicular and flattened. 
 
 The Blattac are very active nocturnal Insects, some of which live in the 
 interior of our houses, particularly the kitchen, in bake-houses and flour 
 mills; the others inhabit the country. They are extremely voracious, and 
 consume all sorts of provisions. 
 
 Mantis, Lin. 
 
 Here also we find five joints in all the tarsi, and wings simply plaited lon- 
 gitudinally; but the head is exposed and the body narrow and elongated. 
 
 They also differ from the Blattse in their short palpi terminating in a 
 point, and in their quadrifid ligula. 
 
 These Insects, which are only found in southern and temperate climates, 
 remain on plants or trees, frequently resemble their leaves and branches in 
 the form and colour of the body, and are diurnal. Some of them are ra- 
 pacious and others herbivorous. Their eggs are usually enclosed in a 
 capsule formed of some gummy substance which hardens by exposure to 
 the air, and divided internally into several cells; it is sometimes in the form 
 of an oval shell, and at others in that of a seed, with ridges and angles, and 
 even bristled with little spines. The female glues it on a plant or other 
 body raised above the earth. 
 
 M. religiosa, L. So called from the position to which it raises its anterior 
 legs or arms, which resembles that of supplication. The Turks entertain a 
 religious respect for this animal, and another species is held in still greater 
 veneration by the Hottentots. 
 
 In the others, the anterior legs resemble the following ones. The eyes 
 are simple, very indistinct, or null; and the first segment of the trunk is 
 shorter, or at most as long as the following one. 
 
 These Insects have singular forms resembling twigs of trees or leaves. 
 They appear to feed exclusively on vegetables, and like several Grylli are 
 coloured hke the plants on which they live. There is frequently a great 
 diff'erence between the sexes. 
 
 They form the subgenus 
 
 Spectbum, Stoll, 
 Which has been again divided into others. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 SALTATORIA. 
 
 The posterior legs of the Insects which compose our second fa- 
 mily of the Orthoptera, are remarkable for the largeness of their 
 thighs, and for their spinous tibias, which are adapted for saltation. 
 
 3 D 
 
426 INSECTA. 
 
 The males summon their mates by a stridulous noise, vulgarly 
 termed singing. This is sometimes produced by rapidly rubbing 
 against its antagonist an interior and more membranous portion of 
 each elytron which resembles a piece of talc. It is sometimes ex- 
 cited by a similar motion of their posterior thighs upon the elytra 
 and wings, acting like the bow of a violin. 
 
 The greater number of the females deposit their eggs in the earth. 
 
 This family is composed of the genus 
 
 Gryllus, Lin. 
 
 This great genus which formerly comprised the various Insects commonly 
 teiTOed here Grasshoppers, Crickets, Katy-dids, Sec, is now^ divided into 
 various genera and subgenera. Among the most noted of these we have 
 
 Grtllo-Taipa, Lat. 
 
 Where the tibiae and tarsi of the two anterior legs are wide, flat and 
 dentated, resembling hands, or are adapted for digging. The other tarsi are 
 of the ordinary form, and terminated by two hooks; the antenna: are more 
 slender at the end, elongated and multiarticulated. 
 
 G. vulgaris. (The Mole-Cricket). Length one inch and a half; brown 
 above, reddish-yellow beneath; anterior tibije with four teeth; wings double 
 the length of the eyltra. This species is but too well known by the mis- 
 chief it effects in gardens and cultivated grounds. It lives in the earth, 
 where its two anterior legs, which act like a saw and shovel, or like those 
 of a Mole, open a passage for it. It cuts and separates the roots of plants, 
 but not so much for the purpose of eating them as to clear its road, for it 
 feeds, as it appears, on Worms and Insects. The cry of the male, which is 
 only heard at night, is soft and agreeable. 
 
 In June and July, the female digs a rounded, smooth, subterranean cavity, 
 about six inches in depth, in which she deposits from two to four hundred 
 eggs; this nest, with the gallery that leads to it, resembles a bottle with a 
 curved neck. The young remain together for some time. 
 
 AcRTDiuM proper. 
 
 They fly by starts, and to a considerable height. The wings are fre- 
 quently very prettily coloured, particularly with red and blue, as observed 
 in several species that inhabit France. The thorax, in some of those tliat 
 are foreign to Europe, frequently exhibits crests and large warts, in a word, 
 a singular variety of forms. 
 
 Certain species, called by travellers Migratory Locusts[l), sometimes 
 
 (1) The pupil must not allow himself to be deceived bynames. This 
 Insect is what we commonly call a Grasshopper. The Locust, so called in 
 this country, is a totally different Insect, and belong to another order. See 
 Hemiptera, genus Cicada or Teitigonia. Am. Ed. 
 
ORTHOPTERA. ' 427 
 
 unite in incaculable numbers and emigrate, resembling in their passag-e 
 through the air, a tliick and heavy cloud; wherever they alight all signs of 
 vegetation quickly disappear, and a desert is speedily created. Their 
 death frequently forms another scoui-ge, as the air becomes poisoned by 
 the frightful mass of their decomposing bodies. 
 
 M. Miot, in his excellent translation of Herodotus, has given it as his 
 opinion, that the heaps of bodies of winged Serpents which that historian 
 states he saw in Egypt, were nothing more than masses of this species of 
 Acrydium. In this I perfectly agree with him. 
 
 These Insects are eaten in various parts of Africa, where the inhabitants 
 collect them for their own use and for commerce. They take away their 
 elytra and wings and preserve them in brine. 
 
 A considerable part of Europe is frequently devastated by the 
 
 jx. migratorius. Length two inches and a half; usually green, with ob- 
 scure spots; elytra light brown spotted with black; a low crest on the thorax. 
 The eggs are enveloped in a frothy and glutinous flesh-coloured matter, 
 forming a cocoon, which the Insect is said to glue to some plant. Common 
 in Poland. 
 
 The south of Europe, Barbary, Egypt, &c., ai'e frequently devastated in 
 like manner by other species, some of which are rather larger. 
 
 ORDER VII. 
 
 HEMlPTERA.(l) 
 
 The Hemiptera, according to our system, terminate the numerous 
 division of Insects which are provided with elytra, and of all those, 
 are the only ones which have neither mandibles nor maxillas pro- 
 perly so called. A tubular, articulated, cylindrical, or conical ap- 
 pendage curved inferiorlj, or directed along the pectus, having the 
 appearance of a kind of rostrum, presents along its superior surface, 
 when raised, a groove or canal from which may be protruded three 
 rigid, scaly, extremely fine, and pointed setas, covered at base by a 
 ligula. These sets, when united, form a sucker resembling a sting, 
 sheathed in the tubular apparatus we have just described, where it 
 is kept in situ by the superior ligula placed at its base. The infe- 
 rior seta consists of two filaments which are united into one at a 
 
 (I) Half-winged, the Ryngota, Fab. 
 
428 INSECTA. 
 
 little distance from their origin, so that in reality the sucker is com- 
 posed of four pieces. 
 
 The mouth of Hemipterous Insects is only adapted for extracting 
 fluids by suction; the attenuated stylets of which the sucker is form- 
 ed, pierce the vessels of plants and animals, and the nutritious fluid, 
 being successively compressed, is forced into the internal canal, and 
 thus arrives at the oesophagus. The sheath of this apparatus is at 
 these times frequently bent into an angle, or becomes geniculate. 
 These Insects, like other Suctoria, are furnished with salivary 
 vessels. 
 
 In most of the Insects which compose this order, the elytra are 
 coriaceous or crustaceous, the posterior extremity being membran- 
 ous and forming a sort of an appendage to them; they almost always 
 decussate; those of the other Hemiptera are simply thicker and 
 larger than the wings, semi-membranous, like the elytra of the Or- 
 thoptera, and sometimes opaque and coloured, sometimes transparent 
 and veined. There are a few longitudinal plicee in the wings. 
 
 Several have ocelli, of which, however, there are frequently but 
 two. 
 
 The Hemiptera exhibit the same forms and habits in their three 
 states. The only change they experience consists in the develop- 
 ment and growth of the volume of the body. 
 
 I divide this order into two sections. 
 
 In the first, that of the Heteroptera, Lat., the rostrum arises 
 from the front; the elytra are membranous at the extremity, and the 
 first segment of the trunk, much larger than the others, alone forms 
 the thorax. The elytra and wings are always horizontal or slightly 
 inclined. This section is composed of two famihes, 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 GEOCORIS^. 
 
 In this family the antennas are exposed, longer than the head, and 
 inserted between the eyes, near their internal margin. There are 
 three joints in the tarsi, the first of which is sometimes very short. 
 
 It forms the genus 
 
 CiMEX, Lin. 
 This genus (an example of which may be found in our common Squash- 
 
HEMIPTERA. 429 
 
 bug) is now divided into forty or more subgenera. We all know but too 
 well that of CiMEX proper. 
 
 In Cimex proper the body is very flat, but the antennoe terminate ab- 
 ruptly in the form of a seta. 
 
 C. ledularius, L. It is pretended that this Insect, vulgai-ly termed the 
 Bed-hug, did not exist in England previous to the fire of London in 1666, 
 and that it was transported thither in timber from America. With respect 
 to the continent of Europe, however, we find that it is mentioned by 
 Dioscorides. It has also been asserted that this species sometimes acquires 
 wings. It likewises harasses young Pigeons, Swallows, &c.; but that which 
 lives on these latter birds appears to me to be a different species. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 HYDROCORIS^. 
 
 In our second family of the Hemiptera, the antennae are inserted 
 and concealed under the eyes; they are shorter than the head, or 
 hardly as long. 
 
 All these Insects are aquatic, carnivorous, and seize others with 
 their anterior legs, which flex on themselves and act as pincers. 
 They sting severely. 
 
 Their tarsi present but one or two joints. Their eyes are in ge- 
 neral remarkably large. 
 
 Nepa, Lin. 
 Or the Aquatic Scorpions. This genus is now variously divided. In 
 
 Nepa proper, the anterior tarsi have but one joint, and the four posterior 
 ones two, and where the antennse appear forked. The rostrum is curved 
 beneath; the coxae of the two anterior legs are short, and their thighs much 
 wider than their other parts. 
 
 Their body is narrow and elongated and almost elliptical. Their abdomen 
 is terminated by two setae which enable them to respire in the oozy and 
 aquatic localities at the bottom of which they live. Their eggs resemble the 
 seed of a plant of an oval figure, crowned with a tuft of hairs. 
 
 The other subgenera of theiVepirfes are Galgulus, Naucoris, Belostoma, &c. 
 
 The others — Notonectides — have their two anterior legs simply curved 
 underneath, with thighs of an ordinary size, and the tarsi pointed and 
 densely ciliated, or similar to those of the posterior ones. Their body is 
 almost cylindrical or ovoid, and tolerably thick or less depressed than in the 
 preceding Insects. Their posterior legs are densely ciliated, resemble oars, 
 and are terminated by two very small and I'ather indistinct hooks. They 
 
430 INSECTA. 
 
 swim or row with great swiftness, and frequently while on their back. 
 They compose the genus 
 
 NoTONECTA, Lin. 
 Which has been divided into Corixa and Notonecta proper. 
 
 The second section of the Hemiptera, that of the Homoptera, 
 Lat., is distinguished from the preceding one by the following char- 
 acters: the rostrum arises from the lowest portion of the head, near 
 the pectus, or even from the interval between the two anterior legs: 
 the elytra — almost always tectiform — are of the same consistence 
 throughout and semimembranous, sometimes almost similar to the 
 wings. The three segments of the trunk are united en masse, and 
 the first is frequently shorter than the second. 
 
 All the Insects of this section feed exclusively on vegetable juices. 
 The females are provided with a scaly ovipositor, usually composed 
 of three dentated blades, and lodged in a groove with two valves. 
 They use it as a saw to produce openings in plants in which they 
 deposit their eggs. The last Insects of this section experience a 
 sort of complete metamorphosis. 
 
 I will divide it into three families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 CICADARI^. 
 
 This family comprises those which have triarticulated tarsi, and 
 usually very small, conical, or fusiform antennae, composed of from 
 three to six joints, the extremely attenuated seta which terminates 
 them included. The females are provided with a serrated ovi- 
 positor. 
 
 Some — Singers — have antennas composed of six joints, and three 
 ocelli. 
 
 Cicada, Oliv. — Tettigonia^ Fab. 
 These Insects, (our Locusts), of which the elytra are almost always trans- 
 parent and veined, differ from the following' ones, not only in the composi- 
 tion of their antennx and the number of the ocelli, but in the absence of 
 the faculty of leaping, and in the music of the males; which, in heat of 
 summer, the epoch of their appearance, produce that loud and monotonous 
 
HEMIPTERA. 431 
 
 sound which has induced authors to designate them by the name of Canta- 
 trices or Singers. 
 
 The organs by which it is effected are situated on each side of the base 
 of the abdomen; they are internal, and each one is covered by a cartilaginous 
 plate, which closes like a shutter. The cavity wliich encloses this appa- 
 ratus is divided into two cells by a squamous and triangular septum. When 
 viewed from the side of the abdomen, each cell presents anteriorly a white 
 and plaited membrane, and lower down, in the bottom, a tight, thin, trans- 
 parent membrane, which Reaumur terms " le mirior." If tliis part of the 
 body be opened above, another plaited membrane is seen on each side, 
 which is moved by an extremely powerful muscle composed of numerous, 
 straight, and parallel fibres, and arising from the squamous septum. This 
 membrane is the tymbal. The muscles, by rapidly contracting and relax- 
 ing, act on the tymbals, alternately tightening and restoring them to their 
 original state. Such is the orl^-in of these sounds, which can even be pro- 
 duced after the death of the Insect, by jerking the muscle. 
 
 The Cicadae live on trees or shrubs, of which they suck the juices. The 
 female, by means of an ovipositor enclosed in a bilaminated, semitubular 
 sheath, and composed of tliree naiTow, elongated, squamous pieces, two of 
 which terminate in the form of a file, pierces the dead twigs to the medulla, 
 in which she deposits her eggs. As the number of the latter is considera- 
 ble, she makes several holes, indicated externally by as many elevations. 
 The young larvx however leave their asylum to penetrate into the earth, 
 where they grow and experience their metamorphosis. Their anterior 
 legs are short, have very stout thighs armed with teeth, and are adapted for 
 digging. The Greeks ate the pupse, which they called Teitigometra, and 
 even the perfect Insect. 
 
 The C. orni, by wounding the ti-ee from which its specific name is de- 
 rived, produces that peculiar honey-like and purgative juice called manna. 
 
 C. orni, L. About an inch long; yellowish; pale beneath, the same 
 colour mixed with black above; margin of the abdominal segments, russet; 
 two rows of blacldsh points on the elytra, those nearest their inner margin 
 the smallest. South of France, Italy, &c. 
 
 The other Cicadariae — Mutes — have but three distinct joints in 
 the antennas, and two small ocelli. Their legs are usually adapted 
 for leaping. Neither of the sexes is provided with organs of sound. 
 
 The elytra are frequently coriaceous and opaque. Several fe- 
 males envelope their eggs with a white substance resembling cotton. 
 
 Some of them — Fulgorellx — have the antennae inserted immediately un- 
 der their eyes, and the front frequently prolonged In the form of a snout, 
 the figui'e of which varies according to the species. By this we distinguish 
 the genus 
 
432 INSECTA. 
 
 FuLGORA, Lin. Oliv. 
 
 Now variously subdivided. 
 
 In the last of the Cicadarise, the antennse are inserted between the eyes; 
 they compose the genus 
 
 CiCADELLA. 
 
 Which is divided into Membrads, Tragopa, Darnis, 8cc. &c. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 APHIDII. 
 
 The second family of the homopterous Hemiptera, or the fourth 
 of the order, is distinguished from the preceding one by the tarsi, 
 which are composed of but two joints, and by the fiHform or setace- 
 ous antennae, which are longer than the head, and have from six to 
 eleven joints. 
 
 Those individuals which are winged always have two elytra and 
 two wings. 
 
 These Insects are very small; their body is usually soft, and their 
 elytra are nearly similar to the wings, or only differ from them in 
 being larger and somewhat thicker. They are astonishingly pro- 
 lific. 
 
 Here the antennae are composed of from ten to eleven joints, the last of 
 which is terminated by two setse. 
 
 They possess the faculty of leaping-, and form the genus 
 
 PsYLLA, Geoff. — Chermes, Lin. 
 These Hemiptera, also called pseudo-aphides, or faux-pucerons, live on the 
 trees and plants from which they derive their nourishment; both sexes are 
 furnished with wings. Their larvae usually have a very flat body, broad 
 head, and the abdomen rounded posteriorly. Their legs are terminated by 
 a little membranous vesicle accompanied beneath with two hooks. Four 
 wide and flat pieces, wliich are the sheaths of the elytra and wings, 
 distinguish the nymph. Several in this state, as well as in the first, are 
 covered with a white substance resembling cotton, arranged in flakes. 
 
 The remaining Aphidii have but six or eight joints in the antennae; 
 the last is not terminated by two setae. 
 
 Sometimes the elytra and wings are linear, fringed with hairs, and 
 extended horizontally on the body, which is almost cyHndrical; the 
 
HEMIPTERA. 433 
 
 rostrum is very small or but little distinct. The tarsi are terminated 
 by a vesicular joint without hooks. The antennae consist of eight 
 graniform joints. Such are the Insects which form the genus 
 
 Thrips, Lin. 
 They are extremely agile, and seem to leap rather than fly. When we irri- 
 tate them beyond a certain point, they turn up the posterior extremity of 
 their body in the manner of the StaphyUni. They live on flowers, plants, 
 and under the bark of trees. The largest species scarcely exceed one line 
 in length. 
 
 Sometimes the elytra and wings, oval or triangular, and without 
 a fringe of hairs along the margin, are inclined or tectiform. The 
 rostrum is very distinct. The tarsi are terminated by two hooks, 
 and the antennae have but six or seven joints. Such is the genus 
 
 Aphis, Lin. 
 In Aphis properly so called, the antennse are longer than the thorax, and con-, 
 sist of seven joints, the third of which is elongated ^ the eyes are entire, 
 and there are two horns or mammillse at the posterior extremity of the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 Almost all Aphides live in society on trees and plants, of which they 
 suck the juices with their trimk. The two horns observed at the posterior 
 extremity of the abdomen in a great number of species are hollow tubes 
 from which little globules of a transparent, honey-Uke fluid frequently ex- 
 ude, on which the Ant eagerly feeds. 
 
 The wounds inflicted on the leaves or tender twigs of plants, by Aptudes,. 
 cause those parts of the vegetable to assume a variety of forms, as may be 
 observed on the shoots of the Lime tree, the leaves of Gooseberry bushes, 
 Apple trees, and particularly those of the Elm, Poplar and Pistachio, in which 
 they produce vesicles or excrescences enclosing colonies of Aphides, and 
 frequently an abundant saccharine fluid. Most of these Insects are covered 
 with a farinaceous substance, or cotton-like filaments, sometimes arranged 
 in bundles. The larvae of the Hemerobii, those of several Diptera, and of 
 Coccinellse, destroy immense numbers of Aphides, 
 
 A. quercus, L. Brown? remarkable for its rostrum, which is at least 
 thrice as long as the body. 
 
 -A- fagif L. Completely covered with white down resembling cotton. 
 
 3 E. 
 
434 IN9ECTA. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 GALLINSECTA. 
 
 In this last family there are but five joints in the tarsi, with a 
 single hook at the extremity. The male is destitute of a rostrum, 
 and has but two wings, which are laid horizontally on the body, 
 one over the other; the abdomen is terminated by two setae. The 
 female is apterous and provided with a rostrum. The antennae are 
 filiform or setaceous, and most commonly composed of eleven 
 joints. 
 
 They constitute the genus 
 
 Coccus, Lin. 
 The bark of various trees is frequently covered with a multitude of little 
 oval or rounded bodies, in the form of fixed shields or scales, in which, at 
 the first glance, no external organs indicative of an Insect are perceptible. 
 These bodies are nevertheless animals of this class and belong to the 
 genus Coccus. Some are females, and the remainder young males, the 
 form of both being nearly similar. An epoch, however, soon arrives in 
 which all these individuals experience singular changes. They then be- 
 come fixed; the male larvae for a determinate period, requisite for their 
 ultimate metamorphosis, and the females for ever. If we observe the latter 
 in the spring, we shall find that their body gradually increases to a great 
 volume, and finally resembles a gall-nut, being sometimes spherical, and at 
 others reniform or scaphoid. The skin of some is smooth and level, that 
 of the remainder presents incisures or vestiges of segments. They slip 
 their eggs between the skin of their abdomen, and a white down which 
 covers the spot they occupy. Their body then becomes desiccated and 
 forms a solid crust or shell which covers their ova. Other females protect 
 theirs by enveloping them with a white substance resembling cotton. 
 Those which are spherical form a sort of box for them with their body. 
 The young Cocci have an oval body, much flattened and furnished with 
 the same organs as that of the mother. They spread themselves over the 
 leaves, and towards the end of autumn approach the branches* on which 
 they place themselves to pass the winter. 
 
 The Gallinsects appear to injure trees by a superabundant sudoresis 
 through the punctures they make in them, and of course those who culti- 
 vate the Peach, Orange, Fig and Olive are particularly on their guard against 
 them. Certain species fix themselves to the roots of plants. Some are 
 valuable for the rich red colour they furnish to the art of dyeing. Further 
 researches on these Insects might eventuate in the discovery of others which 
 would prove of similar utility. 
 
HEMIPTERA. 435 
 
 C cacti, L. (The Cochineal Insect.) Female of a deep brown, covered 
 with white dust, flat beneath, convex above, and bordered; the annuh are 
 tolerably distinct at first. The male is of a deep red, with white wing«. 
 
 This Insect is cultivated at Mexico, on a species of Opuntia, and is cele- 
 brated for the crimson dye it furnishes, which, by being' combined with 
 the solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid, produces a scarlet. It is also from 
 this Insect that we obtain carmine. It is one of the richest productions of 
 Mexico. 
 
 ORDER VIII. 
 NEUROPTERA(l). 
 
 The Neuroptera are distinguished from the three preceding or- 
 ders by their two upper wings, which are membranous, generally 
 naked, diaphanous, and similar to the under ones, in texture and 
 properties. They are distinguished from the eleventh and twelfth 
 by the number of these organs, as well as by their mouth, fitted for 
 mastication or furnished with mandibles and true maxillas, or in other 
 words organized as usual, a character which also removes this order 
 from the tenth or that of the Lepidoptera, where, besides, the four 
 wings are farinaceous. The surface of these wings in the Neurop- 
 tera is finely reticulated, and the under ones are most commonly as 
 large as those above them, but sometimes wider, and sometimes nar- 
 rower and longer. Their maxillae and the inferior portion of their 
 labrum or the mentum are never tubular. The abdomen is destitute 
 of a sting and rarely furnished with an ovipositor. 
 
 Their antennas are usually setaceous, and composed of numerous 
 joints. They have two or three ocelli. The trunk is formed of 
 three segments, intimately united in a single body, distinct from the 
 abdomen, and bearing the six legs; the first of these segments is 
 usually very short, and in the form of a collar. The number of 
 joints in the tarsi varies. The body is usually elongated, and with 
 rather soft or but slightly squamous teguments; the abdomen is al- 
 ways sessile. Many of these Insects are carnivorous in their first 
 state and in their last. 
 
 (1) Nerve-winged. 
 
436 INSECTA. 
 
 Some merely experience a semimetamorphosis, the rest a com- 
 plete one; but the larvae always have six hooked feet, which they 
 usually employ in seeking their food. 
 
 I will divide this order into three families, which will successively 
 present to us the following natural affinities: 
 
 1. Carnivorous Insects, subject to a semimetamorphosis, with 
 aquatic larvae. 
 
 2. Carnivorous Insects, subject to a complete metamorphosis, 
 with aquatic or terrestrial larvae. 
 
 3. Carnivorous or omnivorous terrestrial Insects, subject to a 
 semimetamorphosis. 
 
 4. Herbivorous Insects, subject to a complete metamorphosis, 
 with aquatic larvae, which construct portable dwellings. 
 
 We will end with those species in which the wings are the least 
 Teticulated, and which resemble Phalasna or Tineites. 
 
 FAMILY I, 
 
 SUBULICORNES, Lat(l). 
 
 The antennas are subulate, and hardly longer than the head; they 
 are composed of seven joints at most, the last of which is setaceous. 
 The mandibles and the maxillae are completely covered by the lab- 
 rum and labium, or by the anterior and projecting extremity of the 
 head. 
 
 The wings are always reticulated and distant, sometimes laid ho- 
 rizontally and sometimes placed perpendicularly; the inferior are as 
 large as the superior, or sometimes very small and even wanting. 
 The ordinary eyes are very large and prominent in all of them; and 
 they all have two or three ocelli situated between the former. The 
 two first periods of their life are passed in the bosom of the waters, 
 where they prey on living animals. 
 
 The larvae and pupae which approximate in form to the perfect 
 Insect, respire by means of peculiar organs situated on the sides or 
 extremity of the abdomen. They issue from the water to undergo 
 their ultimate metamorphosis. 
 
 (1) Awl-shaped horns. 
 
NEUROPTEUA. 437 
 
 In some the mandibles and maxillx are corneous, very strong, and cover- 
 ed by the two lips; the tarsi are triarticulated; the wings are equal, and the 
 posterior extremity of the abdomen is simply terminated by hooks or lami- 
 niform or foliaceous appendages. They form the genus 
 
 LiBELLuiiA, Lin. Geoff. 
 Or Dragon Mies. The light and graceful figure of these Insects, the beau- 
 tiful and variegated colours with which they are adorned, their large wings 
 resembling lustrous gauze, and the velocity with which they pursue the 
 Flies, &c., that constitute their food, attract our attention and enable us to 
 recognize them with facility. Their head is large, rounded, or in the form 
 of a broad triangle. They have two great lateral eyes and three ocelli situ- 
 ated on the vertex; two antennx, &c. The female deposits her eggs in the 
 water. 
 
 The larvae and the chrysalides inhabit the water until the period of their 
 ultimate metamorphosis, and, with the exception of wings, are tolerably 
 similar to the perfect Insect. Their head, however, on which the simple 
 eyes are not perceptible, is remarkable for the singular form of the piece 
 which replaces the lower lip. It is a kind of mask that covers the mandi- 
 bles, maxillae, and almost the whole under part of the head. 
 
 Havingattained the period of their ultimate metamorphosis, the nymphs 
 issue from the water, climb along the stems of plants, fix there, and divest 
 themselves of their skin. 
 
 LIBEI.LT7LA, Fab. 
 
 Or Libellula proper, where the wings are extended horizontally when 
 at rest. The head is almost globular, with very large, contiguous or closely 
 approximated eyes, and a vesicular elevation on the vertex, with an ocellus 
 on each side; the other or anterior ocellus is much larger. 
 
 ^sHNA, Fab. 
 
 The .Eshnae resemble the Libellulae proper in their mode of bearing their 
 wings, and in the form of their head, but their two posterior ocelli are 
 placed on a simple ti-ansverse elevation in the form of a carina. The in- 
 termediate lobe of the labium is also larger, and the two others are distant 
 and armed with a very stout tooth and spiniform appendage. The abdo- 
 men is always narrow and elongated. 
 
 The abdomen is terminated by five appendages, but one of them is trun- 
 cated at the end. 
 
 M. grandis. One of the largest species of this family, being nearly two 
 inches and a half (French) in length; fulvous-brown; two yellow lines on 
 each side of the thorax; abdomen spotted with green or yellowish; wings 
 iridescent. It darts with amazing rapidity over meadows, and along the 
 shores of rivers, &c., pursuing Flies in the manner of the Swallow. 
 
438 INSECTA. 
 
 Agbioit, Fab. 
 
 Where the wings are elevated perpendicularly when at rest, the head is 
 transversal, and the eyes are distant. 
 
 The other Subulicornes have an entirely membranous or very soft mouth, 
 composed of parts that are rather indistinct. Their tarsi consist of five 
 joints; their inferior wings are much smaller than the superior, or even 
 wanting, and their abdomen is terminated by two or three setae. 
 
 They form the genus 
 
 Ephemera, Lin. 
 
 So called from their short term of life, in their perfect state. Their body 
 is extremely soft, long, tapering, and terminated posteriorly by two or three 
 long and articulated setae. The antennse are very small and composed of 
 three joints, the last of which is very long, and in the form of a conical 
 thread. The wings of those Insects are always placed perpendicularly, or 
 slightly inchned posteriorly, like those of an Agrion. 
 
 The Ephemera usually appear at sun-set, in fine weather, in summer and 
 autumn, along the banks of rivers, lakes, &c., and sometimes in such in- 
 numerable hosts that after their death the surface of the ground is thickly 
 covered with their bodies; in certain districts cart-loads of them are collected 
 for manure. The descent of a particular species — the albipennis — re- 
 markable for the shortness of its wings, recals to our minds a heavy fall of 
 snow. 
 
 These Insects (our May-Flies) collect in flocks in the air, flitting about 
 and balancing themselves in the manner of the Tipulse, with the terminal 
 filaments of their tail divergent. 
 
 The continuation of their species is the only function these animals have 
 to fulfil, for they take no nourishment, and frequently die on the day of 
 their metamorphosis, or even within a few houi's after that event. Those 
 which fall into the water become food for Fishes, and are styled manna by 
 fishermen. 
 
 If however we trace them back to that period in which they existed as 
 larvae, we find their career to be much longer, extending from two to thi-ee 
 years. In this state, as well as that of seminymphs, they live in water, fre- 
 quently concealed, at least during the day, in the mud or under stones, 
 sometimes in horizontal holes divided interiorly into two united canals, each 
 with its proper opening. These habitations are always excavated in clay, 
 bathed by water, which occupies its cavities; it is even supposed that the 
 larvae feed on this earth. 
 
 The seminymph only differs from the larva in the presence of the cases 
 which enclose the wings. Wlien the moment of their development has ar- 
 rived, it leaves the water, and having changed its skin, appears under a new 
 form — but, by a very singular exception, it has still to experience a second 
 change of tegument. 
 
 The ultimate exuvium of these Insects is frequently found on trees and 
 
NEUROPTERA. 439 
 
 walls; they sometimes even leave them on the clothes of persons who may- 
 be walking in their vicinity. 
 
 FAMILY 11. 
 
 PLANIPENNES.(l) 
 
 This family comprises those Neuroptera in which the antenna, 
 always multiarticulated, are much longer than the head, without 
 being subulate or styliform. Their mandibles are very distinct; 
 their inferior wings almost equal to the superior ones, and extended 
 or simply folded underneath at their anterior margin. 
 
 Their wings are almost always much reticulated and naked; their 
 maxillary palpi are usually filiform or somewhat thicker at the ex- 
 tremity, shorter than the head, and composed of from four to five 
 joints. 
 
 I will divide this family into five sections, which, by reason of 
 the habits of the Insects that compose them, form as many small 
 sub-families. 
 
 1. The Panorpat^ of Latreille, which have five joints to all the 
 tarsi, and the anterior extremity of their head prolonged and nar- 
 rowed in the form of a rostrum or proboscis. 
 
 They constitute the genus 
 
 Panorpa, Lin. Fab. 
 Where the antenna are setaceous and inserted between the eyes; the cly- 
 peus is prolonged into a conical, corneous lamina, arched above to cover 
 the mouth; and the mandibles, maxillx and labium are almost linear. They 
 have from four to six short, filiform palpi. 
 
 Their body is elongated, the head vertical, the first segment of the trunk 
 usually very small, in the form of a collar, and the abdomen conical or al- 
 most cylindrical. 
 
 There is much difference between the two sexes in several species. 
 Their metamorphoses have not yet been observed. 
 
 P. communis, L. From seven to eight lines in length; black; rostrum 
 and extremity of the abdomen russet; wings spotted with black. — On 
 hedges and in woods. 
 
 2. The Myrmeleonides, which also have five joints in the tarsi, 
 
 (1) Flat- winged. 
 
440 INSECTA. 
 
 but their head is not prolonged anteriorly in the form of a rostrum 
 or snout; their antennae gradually enlarge or have a globuliform 
 termination. 
 
 Their head is transverse, vertical, and merely presents the ordi- 
 nary eyes, which are i-ound and prominent; there are six palpi, those 
 of the labium usually longer than the others, and inflated at the ex- 
 tremity. The palate of the mouth is elevated in the form of an 
 epiglottis; the first segment of the thorax is small; the wings are 
 equal, elongated, and tectiform; the abdomen is most frequently 
 long and cylindrical, with two salient appendages at its extremity 
 in the males. The legs are short. 
 
 They are found in the warm localities of the southern countries, 
 clinging to plants, where they remain quiescent during the day. 
 Most of them fly well. The nymph is inactive. 
 
 These insects form the genus 
 
 Myrmeleon, Lin. 
 In Mynneleon proper, the antennse enlarge insensibly, are almost fusiform, 
 are hooked at the extremity, and much shorter than the boby; the abdomen 
 is long and linear. 
 
 M. formicarium, L. About an inch long; blackish spotted with yellow- 
 ish; wings diaphanous, with black nervures picked in with white; some 
 obscure spots, and one whitish, near the extremity of the anterior margin. 
 
 The number of Ants destroyed by the larva of this species, which is the 
 most common one in Europe, has obtained for it the name of Formica-leoy 
 Idon-ant, or Fourmilion. Its abdomen is extremely voluminous in compa- 
 rison to the rest of the body. Its head is very small, flattened, and armed 
 with two long mandibles in the form of horns, dentated on the inner side 
 and pointed at the extremity, which act at once as pincei's and suckers. 
 Its body is greyish or of the colour of the sand in which it lives. Although 
 provided with six feet, it moves very slowly and almost always backwarks. 
 Thus, not being able to seize its prey by the celerity of its motions, it has 
 recourse to stratagem; and lays a ti'ap for it in a funnel-shaped cavity which 
 it excavates in the finest sand, at the foot of a tree, old walls, or acclivities 
 exposed to the south. It arrives at the intended scene of its operations by 
 forming a ditch, and traces the area of the funnel, the size of which is in 
 proportion to its growth. Then, always moving backwards, and describing 
 as it goes, spiral convolutions, the diameter of which progressively dimin- 
 ishes, it loads its head with sand by means of one of its anterior feet, and 
 jerks it to a distance. In this manner, and sometimes in the space of half 
 an hour, it will remove a reversed cone of sand the base of which is equal 
 in diameter to that of the area, and the height to about three-fourths of the 
 same. Hidden and quiescent at the bottom of its retreat, with nothing visi- 
 
NEUROPTERA. 441 
 
 ble but its mandibles, it awaits with patience till an Insect is precipitated 
 into it; if it endeavour to escape, or be at too great a distance for it to seize, 
 it showers upon it sucli a torrent of sand by means of its head and mandi- 
 bles, as propels it stunned and defenceless to the bottom of the hole> 
 Having exhausted its juices by suction, it jerks away the carcass. 
 
 When about to pass into the state of a chrysalis, it encloses itself in a 
 perfectly round cocoon, formed of a silky substance of the colour of satin» 
 which it covers externally with grains of sand. 
 
 There is a genus separated from it by Fabricius called Jiscalaphus. 
 
 3. The Hemekobini of Latreille, which are similar to the Myr- 
 meleonides in the general form of their body and wings; but their 
 antennae are filiform, and they have but four palpi. 
 
 They form the genus 
 
 Hemerobitjs, Lin. Fab. 
 The body of the true Hemerobii is soft, and the globular eyes are frequently 
 ornamented with metallic colours; the wings are large, and their exterior 
 border is widened. They fly slowly and heavily; several diffuse a strong 
 odour, with which the finger that has touched them remains for a long 
 time impregnated. 
 
 The female deposits ten or twelve eggs on leaves; they are oval, white, 
 and secured by a very long and capillary pedicle. Some authors have 
 mistaken them for a species of mushroom. The larvx bear a considerable 
 resemblance to those of the preceding division; they are, however, more 
 elongated and errant. Reaumur calls them Lions des Fucerons, because 
 they feed on Aphides. They seize them with their horn-like mandibles, 
 and soon exhaust them by suction. Some form a thick case for themselves 
 of their remains, which gives them a very singular appearance. The 
 nymph is enclosed in a silken cocoon of an extremely close tissue, the 
 volume of which is very small when compared with that of the Insect, The 
 fusi of the larvae are situated at the posterior extremity of the abdomen, like 
 those of the larvae of the Myrmeleonides. 
 
 H. perla, L. Green-yellow; eyes golden; wings transparent with entirely 
 green nervures. 
 
 In others the first segment of the thorax is large, and the wings 
 are laid horizontally on the body; the palpi are filiform, and the last 
 joint is conical or almost cylindrical, and frequently shorter than the 
 preceding one. The larvae are aquatic. They form the genus 
 
 Semblis, Fab, 
 
 Which is composed of three subgenera, viz. Corydalis, Chauliodes, and 
 Sialis. 
 
 3 F 
 
442 INSECTA. 
 
 4. A fourth division, that of the TERMiTiNiG, will comprise Neu- 
 roptera subject to a semi-metamorphosis. They are all terrestrial, 
 active, carnivorous, or gnawers, in all their states. With the ex- 
 ception of the Mantispae, very distinct from all the Insects of this 
 order, by the form of their anterior legs, which resemble those of a 
 Mantis, the tarsi consist of four joints at most, which removes them 
 from the preceding genera of the same family. The mandibles are 
 always corneous and strong. The inferior wings are nearly as large 
 as the superior ones, and without folds, or smaller. 
 
 Mantispa, Illig. 
 Where there are five joints to all the tarsi, and the two first legs are 
 formed like those of a Mantis or adapted for prehension. The antennx of 
 these Insects are very short and granose, and their eyes large. The pro- 
 thorax is very long, and thickened anteriorly, and the wings are tectiform. 
 
 Rhaphidia, Lin. Fab. 
 Where the tarsi are composed of four joints and the wings are tectiform. 
 The head is elongated and narrowed posteriorly, the thorax long, narrow, 
 and almost cylindrical. The abdomen of the female terminates by a long 
 external oviduct, formed of two laminae. 
 
 Teemes, Hemerobius, Lin. 
 
 Where all the tarsi are likewise composed of four joints; but the wings are 
 very long, and laid horizontally on the body; the head is rounded, and tlie 
 thorax almost square or semicircular. 
 
 The body of these Insects is depressed, and their antennse are short and 
 formed like a chaplet. The mouth is almost similar to that of the Orthoptera, 
 and the labium is quadrifid. They have tliree ocelli, one of which, on the 
 forehead, is indistinct; the two others are situated, one on each side, near the 
 inner margin of the ordinary eyes. Their wings are commonly somewhat 
 diaphanous, coloured, furnished with extremely fine and crowded nervures, 
 and not very distinctly reticulated. Their abdomen has two small, conical, 
 biarticulated points at the extremity; the legs are short. 
 
 The Termites, peculiar to the countries situated between the tropics, or 
 to those which are adjacent, are known by the name of White Ants, Poux 
 de hois. Carta, &c. The appalhng destruction caused by these Insects, 
 particularly in the state of larvae, in those parts of the world, is but too 
 well known. These larvae, the working Termites or labourers, bear a close 
 resemblance to the perfect Insect; but their body is softer and apterous, 
 and their head, which appears proportionally larger, is usually destitute of 
 eyes, or has but very small ones. They live in society, and form communi- 
 ties, so numerous as to defy all calculation, which live under cover in the 
 i^ round, trees, and all sort of ligneous articles, such as tables, chairs, furni- 
 
NEUROPTERA. 443 
 
 ture of all kinds, and the planks, timbers. &c- &c. which form parts of houses. 
 There they excavate galleries, vrhich form so many roads, all leading to the 
 centre of their domicil, and these bodies thus mined, and retaining nothing 
 but a superficial bark or covering, coon crumble into dust. If compelled 
 by any insurmountable obstacle to leave their dwellings, they construct 
 tubes or ways which still keep them from sight- The nests or domicils of 
 several species are exterior, but have no visible opening. Sometimes they 
 are raised above the surface of the ground, in the form of pyramids or tur- 
 rets, occasionally surmounted with a capital or very solid roof, which, by 
 their height and number, resemble a little village. Sometimes they form 
 a large globular mass on the branches of trees. Another sort of individuals, 
 the neuters, also called soldiers, defend the domicil. They are distinguished 
 by their stouter and more elongated head, the mandibles of which are 
 also longer, narrower and considerably crossed. They are much less nu- 
 merous than the others, and remain near the surface of the habitation, are 
 the first that present themselves in case of an attack, and pinch with €»n- 
 siderable strength. It is also said that they force the bibourera to voriL 
 The seminymphs have rudiments of wings, and in other respects resemble 
 the larvx. 
 
 HaN-ing become perfect Insects, the Termites leave their original retreat, 
 and fly off at evening or during the night in incalculable numbers. At 
 sunrise, they lose their wings, which are dried up, fall to the ground, and 
 are mostly devoured by Birds, Lizards, and the rest of their enemies. 
 
 In the remaining Termetlnx the tarsi are biarticulated, and the labial 
 palpi indistinct and very short. The antennx consist of about ten joints, 
 the first segment of the trunk is very small, and the inferior wing« are 
 smaller than the others. They form the genus 
 
 Psocrs, Lat. Fab. 
 And are very smsdl Insects with a short and extremely soft body that is 
 frequently inflated, or as if hump-backed. Their head is large, their an- 
 tennx setaceous, and tlie maxill.iry palpi salient. Their wings are tecti- 
 form and but slightly reticulated or simply veined. They are extrejnely 
 active, and live under the bark of trees, in wood, &c. The following spe- 
 cies is commonly found in books and collections of Insects and plants. 
 
 F . puhaiorius. Usu-ally apterous; yellowish white: eyes and some small 
 spots on tlie abdomen, russet. It was thought to produce that faint noise 
 resembling the tick of a wsitch frequently heard in our houses, and of which 
 we have spoken while on the genus Anobium — thence the origin of its spe- 
 cific name. 
 
 5. The Perlides, in which the tarsi arc triarticulaled, and the 
 mandibles almost always partly membranous and small. The infe- 
 rior wings are wider than the others, and doubled at their inner 
 margin. 
 
444 INSECTA. 
 
 They comprise the genus 
 
 Perla, Geoff. 
 
 Their body is elongated, narrow and flattened; the head is tolerably large, 
 the antenna are setaceous, and the maxillary palpi very salient. The first 
 segment of their trunk is nearly square, and the wings are crossed and laid 
 horizontally on the body; the abdomen terminates as usual by two articu- 
 lated setje. 
 
 Their larvae are aquatic and inhabit sheaths or cases, which they construct 
 in the manner of those formed by the Insects of the ensuing family, and in 
 which they pass into the state of nymphs. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 PLICIPENNES(l). 
 
 In this family the mandibles are wanting, and the inferior wings 
 are usually wider than the others, and plaited longitudinally. It is 
 formed of the genus 
 
 Phryganea, Lin. Fab. 
 These Neuroptera at a first glance, have the appearance of little Phals- 
 nae, and hence the name of Mouches papillonacees or papilionaceous flies, 
 bestowed upon them by Reaumur. The body is most frequently bristled 
 with hairs, and, with the wings, forms an elongated triangle, hke several of 
 the Noctuse and Pyrales. The first segment of the thorax is small. The 
 wings are simply veined, usually coloured, or almost opaque, sUky or pilose 
 in several, and always strongly teetiform. The legs are elongated, are 
 furnished with small spines and have five joints in all the tarsi. 
 
 These Insects chiefly fly at night or during the evening, diffuse a disa- 
 greeable odour, frequently penetrate into houses, where they are attracted 
 by the light, and are extremely quick and agile in all their motions. The 
 smaller species flit about in flocks over ponds and rivers. 
 
 Their larvje, always, like the Tinese, inhabit tubes that are usually cylin- 
 drical, covered with various substances which they find in the water, such 
 as blades of grass, bits of reeds, leaves, roots, seeds, grains of sand, and 
 even little shells, and frequently arranged symmetrically. They connect 
 these various bodies with silken threads, the source of wliich is contained 
 in internal reservoirs similar to tliose of Caterpillars, and that are also pro- 
 duced by fusi situated in the lip. The interior of the habitation forms a 
 tube which is open at both ends for the intromission of water. The larva 
 
 (1) Folded-wings. 
 
NEUROPTERA. 445 
 
 always transports its domicil along with it, protrudes the anterior extremity 
 of its body while progressing, never quits its dwelling, and when found to 
 do so, retiu-ns to it voluntarily when left within its reach. 
 
 When about to become nymphs, they fix their tubes to different bodies, 
 but always in water, and close the two orifices with a grating, the form 
 of which, as well as that of the tube itself, varies according to the species. 
 In fixing their portable dwelling, they so manage it that the aperture, 
 which is at the point d'appui, is never obstructed. 
 
 The nymph is furnished anteriorly with two hooks, which cross each 
 otiier and somewhat resemble a rosti-um or snout. Witli it, when the pe- 
 riod of its last metamorphosis has amved, it perforates one of the grated 
 septa in order to procure egress. 
 
 Hitherto immovable, it now walks or swims with agility, by means of its 
 four anterior feet, which are free, and furnished with thick fringes of haii-s. 
 The nymphs of the large species leave the water altogether, and climb on 
 various bodies, where their final change is effected. The small ones 
 simply rise to the surface, where they are transformed to winged Insects, in 
 the manner of the Culices and various Tipularix; their exuvium serves them 
 for a boat. 
 
 There are several subgenera. 
 
 ORDER IX. 
 
 HYMENOPTERA(l). 
 
 In this family we still find four membranous and naked wings, and 
 a mouth composed of mandibles, maxillae and two lips; but these 
 wings, of which the superior are always largest, have fewer ner- 
 vures than those of the Neuroptera, and are not veined; the abdo- 
 men of the females is terminated by an ovipositor or sting. 
 
 Besides their compound eyes they are all provided with three 
 ocelli. Their antennae vary, not only according to the genus, but 
 even in the sexes of the same species; generally, however, they are 
 filiform or setaceous. The maxillae and labium are usually narrow, 
 elongated, and fixed in a deep cavity of the head by long muscles, 
 form a semitube inferiorly, are frequently folded up at their extre- 
 mity, and better adapted for the transmission of nutritious fluids than 
 for mastication; in several they form a proboscis. The ligula is 
 
 (1) Membrane-winged. 
 
446 INSECTA. 
 
 membranous, either widened at its extremity, or long and filiform, 
 having the pharynx at its anterior base, and being frequently covered 
 by a sort of sub-labrum or epipharynx. They have four palpi, two 
 maxillary and two labial. The thorax consists of three united seg- 
 ments, of which the anterior is very short and the two last are con- 
 founded in one. The wings are laid horizontally on the body. The 
 abdomen is most commonly suspended by a little thread or pedicle 
 to the posterior extremity of the thorax. The tarsi consist of five 
 entire joints, none of them being divided. The ovipositor and sting 
 are generally composed of three long and slender pieces, two of 
 which serve as a sheath to the third in those which are provided 
 with an ovipositor, and one alone, the superior, has a groove under- 
 neath for lodging the two others. In those where this ovipositor is 
 transformed into a sting, this offensive weapon and the oviduct are 
 serrated at the extremity. 
 
 The Hymenoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis. Most 
 of their larvae resemble worms and are destitute of feet; such, for 
 instance, are those of our second and following families. Those of 
 the first have six hooked feet, and frequently from twelve to sixteen 
 others that are simply membranous. These latter have been named 
 pseudo-caterpillars. Both kinds have a squamous head provided 
 with mandibles, maxillae, and a lip; at the extremity of the latter is 
 a fusus for the transmission of the silky material that is to be em- 
 ployed in constructing the cocoon of the nymph. 
 
 Some feed on vegetable substances, while others, always destitute 
 of feet, devour the carcases of Insects, together with their larvae, 
 nymphs, and even eggs. 
 
 To remedy their want of locomotive powers, the mother furnishes 
 them with provisions, sometimes by transporting aliment into the 
 nests she has prepared for them, which are frequently constructed 
 with so much art as to excite our wonder and surprise, and some- 
 times by depositing her eggs in the body of the larvae and nymphs 
 of Insects, on which her progeny are to feed. 
 
 Other larvae of Hymenoptera, also destitute of feet, require more 
 elaborated and frequently renewed supplies of aliment, both vegeta- 
 ble and animal. These are reared in common by neuters forming 
 communities, of which they have the sole care; their labours and 
 mode of life will always continue to excite our admiration and as- 
 tonishment. 
 
HTMENOPTERA. 447 
 
 Almost all Hymenopterous Insects, in their perfect state, live on 
 flowers, and are usually most abundant in southern climates. Their 
 period of life, from their birth to their ultimate metamorphosis, is 
 limited to a year. 
 
 I will divide this order into two sections. 
 
 The first, or that of the Terecrantia, is characterized by the 
 presence of an ovipositor in the females. 
 
 I divide this section into two great families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 SECURIFERA(l). 
 
 Our first family is distinguished from the following ones by a sess- 
 ile abdomen, or the base of which is joined to the thorax throughout 
 its whole thickness, that seems to be a continuation of it, and to have 
 no separate motion. 
 
 The females are provided with an ovipositor that is most com- 
 monly serrated, and which not only enables them to deposit their 
 eggs, but likewise to prepare a place for their reception. The 
 larvcs always have six squamous feet, and frequently others that are 
 membranous. 
 
 This family is composed of two tribes. 
 
 In the first, that of the Tenthredinet^, vulgarly termed Saw- 
 Jlies, we observe elongated and compressed mandibles; a trifid or 
 sort of digitated ligula; an ovipositor formed of two serrated, point- 
 ed blades, united and lodged in a groove under the anus. The 
 maxillary palpi are all composed of six joints, and the labials of 
 four; the latter are always the shortest. The wings are always di- 
 vided into numerous cells. This tribe forms the genus 
 
 Tenthredo, Lin. 
 
 The cylindrical abdomen of these Insects which is rounded posteriorly, 
 composed of nine annuli, and so closely joined to the thorax that the two 
 seem to be continuous; the ragg-ed appearance of their wings; the two little 
 rounded, granular, and usually coloured bodies situated behind the scutel- 
 lum, together with their heavy port, cause them to be easily recognized. 
 The abdomen of the female presents at its inferior extremity a double. 
 
 (1) Hatchet bearers. 
 
448 INSECTA. 
 
 movable, squamous ovipositor that is serrated, pointed, and lodged between 
 two concave laminx, forming- its sheath or case. 
 
 It is by tlie alternate action of the teeth of this ovipositor, that the In- 
 sect makes a number of little holes in the branches, and various other parts 
 of trees and plants, in each of which it first deposits an egg, and then a 
 foaming liquid, the use of which, it is presumed, is to prevent the aperture 
 from closing. The wounds made in this way become more and more con- 
 vex by the increasing size of the egg. Sometimes these excrescences 
 assume the form of a gall-nut, either ligneous or soft and pulpy, or resemble 
 a little fruit, according to the nature of the parts of the plant that are affect- 
 ed by them. These tumours then form the domicil of the larva: which in- 
 habit them either solitarily or in society. There they undergo their meta- 
 morphosis, and issue from them through a circular opening made in their 
 parietes by the teeth of the Insect. Generally speaking, however, these 
 larvae live exposed on the leaves of the trees and plants on which they feed. 
 
 T. scrophularise, L. Five lines in length; black; antennae fulvous and 
 somewhat thickest at the extremity; annuli of the abdomen, the second and 
 third excepted, margined posteriorly with yellow; tibix and tarsi fulvous. 
 It resembles a Wasp. 
 
 The larva has twenty-two feet; white, with black head and points. It 
 feeds on the leaves of the Scrophularise. 
 
 There are various subgenera belonging to this tribe, such as Cimbex, 
 Hyhtoma, &c. 
 
 The second tribe, that of the Ukocerata, Lat., is distinguished 
 from the preceding one by the following characters: the mandibles 
 are short and thick; the ligula is entire; the ovipositor of the females 
 is sometimes very salient and composed of three threads, and some- 
 times capillary and spirally convoluted in the interior of the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 This tribe is composed of the genus 
 
 SiREX, Lin. 
 The antennae are filiform or setaceous, vibratile, and formed by from ten 
 to twenty-five joints. The head is rounded and almost globular; thelabrum 
 very small; the maxillary palpi are filiform with from two to five joints, and 
 the labials with three, the last of which is the thickest. The body is almost 
 cylindrical. The anterior or posterior tarsi, and in several the colour of 
 the abdomen, differ according to the sex. The female deposits her eggs 
 in old trees, most commonly in Pines. Her ovipositor is lodged at base 
 between two valves, forming a groove. 
 
 In Sirex proper, the antennae are inserted near the front and consist of 
 from thirteen to twenty-five joints. The extremity of the last segment of 
 the abdomen is prolonged into a sort of tail or horn, and the ovipositor is 
 salient and formed of three filaments. 
 
HVMENOPTERA. 449 
 
 These Insects, which are tolerably large, more particularly inhabit the 
 Pine forests of cold and mountainous countries, produce in flying a hum- 
 ming like that of a Bombus, &c., and in certain seasons have appeared in 
 auch numbers as to strike the people with terror. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 PUPIVORA(l). 
 
 In the second family of the Hymenoptera we find the abdomen 
 attached to the thorax by a simple portion of its transversal diame- 
 ter, and even most frequently by a very small thread or pedicle, in 
 such a manner that its insertion is very distinct, and that it moves 
 on that part of the body. The females are provided with an ovi- 
 positor. 
 
 The larvae are destitute of feet and mostly parasitical and carni- 
 vorous. 
 
 I divide this family into six tribes. 
 
 In the first, that of the Evaniajles, Lat., the wings are Veined) 
 and the superior ones, at least, are lobatej the antennae filiform or 
 setaceous, and composed of thirteen or fourteen joints; the mandi- 
 bles dentated on the inner side; the maxillary palpi composed of six 
 joints, and the labials of four. The abdomen is implanted on the 
 thorax, in several under the scutellum, and has an ovipositor usually 
 salient and formed of three filaments. 
 
 This tribe appears to form but the single genus 
 
 FCENXJS. 
 
 Sometimes the ovipositor is concealed, or but very slightly salient, and 
 resembles a little sting. The ligula is trifid, a character which approximates 
 these Insects to the preceding Hymenoptera. 
 
 In the second tribe, that of the Ichneumonides, the wings are 
 also veined, the superior ones always presenting complete or closed 
 cells in their disk. The abdomen originates between the two pos- 
 terior legs. The antennae are generally filiform or setaceous, rarely 
 clavate, vibratile, and multiarticulated, being composed of sixteen 
 joints at least. In most of them the mandibles have no tooth on the 
 
 (1) PupK-eaters. 
 3G 
 
450 INSECTA. 
 
 inner side, and terminate in a bifid point. The maxillary palpi, 
 always apparent or salient, consist most commonly of but five joints. 
 The ovipositor is formed of three threads. 
 This tribe embraces almost the whole genus 
 
 Ichneumon, Lin.(l) 
 These Insects destroy the posterity of the Lepidoptera, so noxious to the 
 agriculturalist under the form of caterpillars, just as the quadruped so call- 
 ed is said to destroy that of the CrocodUe by breaking its eggs, and even 
 by introducing itself into the body of the animal in order to devour its en- 
 trails. 
 
 Some authors have called them Mouches iripiks, on account of the three 
 setjE v/hich compose their ovipositor, and Mouches vihrantes, because their 
 antennae are continually vibrating. These organs are frequently curled 
 (contournees), and have a white or yellowish annular spot in the middle. 
 The body is most frequently narrow and elongated or hnear, with the ovi- 
 positor sometimes exterior and resembling a tail, and sometimes very short 
 and concealed in the interior of the abdomen, which then terminates in a 
 point, whilst in those where the ovipositor is salient, it is thicker, and as if 
 clavate and truncated posteriorly. Of the three pieces which compose this 
 instrument the Intermediate is the only one that penetrates into tlxe bodies in 
 which these Insects deposit their eggs; its extremity is flattened, and some- 
 times resembles the nib of a pen. 
 
 The females, anxious to lay, are continually flying or walking about, in 
 order to discover the larvae, nymphs, and eggs of Insects, and even Spiders, 
 Aphides, &c. , destined to receive their ova, and when hatched, to sustain 
 their offspring. In this search they exhibit a wonderful degree of instinct, 
 which reveals to them the most secret retreats of its objects. Those which 
 are provided with a long ovipositor deposit the germs of their race in the 
 fissures or holes of trees, or under their bark. In this operation the ovi- 
 positor proper is introduced almost perpendicularly, and is completely dis- 
 engaged from its semi-scabbards, which remain parallel to each other, and 
 supported in the air, in the line of the body. Those females in which the 
 ovipositor is very short, and but sHglitly or not at all apparent, deposit their 
 ova in the body of larvae, caterpillars, and nymphs, which are exposed or 
 very accessible. 
 
 The larvae of the Ichneumonides, like all the others of the succeeding 
 families, are destitute of feet. Those which, in the manner of intestinal 
 worms, inhabit the bodies of larvae or caterpillars, where they sometimes 
 form communities, only attack the adipose substance — corps graisseux — or 
 such of the internal parts as are not necessary to their existence. When 
 about to become nymphs, however, they perforate their skin in order to 
 
 (1) Tills genus comprises upwards of twelve hundred specie*, and its study 
 is extremely difficult. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 451 
 
 open a passage, or put them to death, and there tranquilly undergo their 
 ultimate metamorphosis. Such also are the hahits of those which feed on 
 nymphs or chrysalides. Nearly all of them spin a silken cocoon, in which 
 they become nymphs. These cocoons are sometimes agglomerated, either 
 naked, or enveloped in a sort of tow or cotton, in an oval mass, frequently 
 found attached to the stems of plants. The symmetrical arrangement of 
 the cocoons of one species forms an alveolar body, resembling the honey- 
 comb of our domestic Bee. The silk of these cocoons is sometimes of a 
 uniform yellow or white, and sometimes mixed with black or filaments of 
 two colours. Those of some species are suspended to a leaf or twig, by 
 means of a long thread. 
 There are various subgenera belonging to this tribe. 
 
 In the second tribe, the Galucol^e, we find but a single nervure 
 in the inferior wings. The antennse are of equal thickness through- 
 out, or gradually enlarge, but without forming a club, and consist 
 of from thirteen to fifteen joints. The palpi are very long. The 
 ovipositor is convoluted spirally in the interior of the abdomen, and 
 has its posterior extremity lodged in a groove of the venter. 
 
 The Gallicolae form the genus 
 
 Cynips, Lin. 
 
 These Insects seem to be hump-backed, having a small head and & thick 
 and elevated thorax. Their abdomen is compressed, carinated or trenchan 
 inferiorly, and truncated obliquely, or obtuse, at the extremity. That of 
 the females contains an ovipositor which seems to consist of a single, long, 
 and extremely slender or capillary thread convoluted spirally near the base 
 or towards the origin of the venter, and of which the terminal portion is 
 lodged under the extremity between two elongated valvulac; each of which 
 forms a semi-scabbard or sheath for it. The extremity of this ovipositor is 
 grooved, and has lateral teeth resembling the barbs on the head of an arrow; 
 with these the Insect widens the aperture it has effected in different 
 parts of plants for the purpose of receiving its eggs. The juices of those 
 plants are diffused in the wounded spots and form excrescences or tumours 
 called g-a//5. The one most commonly known, or the gall-nut, Aleppo gall, 
 is employed with a solution of the sulphate of iron to produce a black dye. 
 The form and solidity of these protuberances vary according to the 
 nature of the parts of the plants that have been wounded, such as the 
 leaves, petioles, buds, bark, roots, &c. Most of them are spherical; some 
 resemble fruits. Others are fibrous or hairy, like that called the bedeguar, 
 mousse chevelue, &c., which is observed on the wild Rose-trees. Some of 
 them resemble artichokes, others mushrooms, &c. &c. The eggs enclosed 
 in these excrescences increase in size and consistence, and finally produce 
 larvae destitute of feet, but frequently provided with mammills in place of 
 
452 INSECTA. 
 
 tbem. Sometimes they live there solitarily, and sometimes in society, 
 feeding on their internal parietes without interfering with their develop- 
 ment, and remaining five or six months in this condition. There also some 
 undergo their metamorphosis, to effect which, others issue forth and de- 
 scend into the earth where they remain till their final change is completed. 
 The round holes obsei"ved on the exterior of the gall intimate the exit of 
 the Insect. Several Insects of the following family are also sometimes 
 found in it, but this has been by destroying the natural inhabitants, of whose 
 domicil they have taken possession, in the manner of the Ichneumons. 
 
 Certmn species are apterous. One species deposits its ova in the pollen 
 of the earliest of the wild Fig-trees. The modern Greeks, in pursuance of 
 a method transmitted to them from antiquity, pierce several of these figs, 
 and place them on their late bearing trees of the same genus; the Cynips 
 soon leave their old dwelling and come out loaded with the fecundating 
 dust, insinuate themselves into the eye of the fruit borne by the latter, fe- 
 cundate its seeds, and accelerate the period of its maturity. This operation 
 is termed caprification. 
 
 C. gallx tindorias. Very pale fulvous; covered with a silky and whitish 
 down, with a blackish-brown and glossy spot on the abdomen. In the 
 round, hard and tuberculous gall found on a species of Oak in the Levant, 
 which is employed in commerce. By breaking this gall we may frequently 
 obtain the perfect Insect. 
 
 The fourth tribe, that of the Chalcidije, Spin., only differs es- 
 sentially from the preceding one in the antennae, which are 
 geniculate, those of the Euchares alone excepted, and which, from 
 the elbow, form an elongated or fusiform club, of which the first 
 joint is frequently lodged in a groove. The palpi are very short. 
 The number of joints of the antennas never exceeds twelve. 
 
 We may refer the various genera established in this tribe to the 
 genus 
 
 Chalcis, Fab. 
 These Insects are very small, and are decorated with extremely brilliant 
 metallic colours. Most of them enjoy the faculty of leaping. The ovi- 
 positor, like that of the Ichneumons, is salient and frequently composed of 
 three threads; the larvae are also parasitical. Some of them, on account of 
 their extreme minuteness, live in the interior of the almost imperceptible 
 ova of Insects. Others inhabit galls and the chrysalides of the Lepidoptera. 
 I suspect that they do not spin a cocoon. 
 There are various subgenera. 
 
 In the fifth tribe, that of the Oxiuri, Lat., we observe species 
 similar to (he preceding in the absence of nervurcs in the inferior 
 
HYMENOPTEUA. 453 
 
 wings, and in which the abdomen of the females is terminated by a 
 tubular and conical ovipositor, sometimes internal, exertileand pro- 
 truding like a sting, and sometimes external and forming a sort of 
 tail or terminal point. The antennas are composed of from ten to 
 fifteen joints, and are either filiform or somewhat lar<rest near the 
 end, or clavate in the females. The maxillary palpi of several are 
 long and pendent. 
 
 We reduce the various genera of which it is composed to one, the 
 
 Bethylus, Lat. Fab. 
 
 The habits of these Insects are probably those of the Chalcidlse; but as 
 most of them are found on the sand or low pbnts, 1 suspect that their larvae 
 live in the ground. 
 
 In the sixth tribe, or the Chrysides, Lat., the inferior wings, as 
 in the three preceding tribes, are not veined; but their ovipositor is 
 formed by the last rings of the abdomen in the manner of the tubes 
 of a spy-glass, and terminates in a little sting. The abdomen, 
 which in the females appears to consist of but three or four rings, is 
 concave or flat beneath, and can be flexed on the pectus, in which 
 state the Insect is globular. 
 
 This tribe comprises the genus 
 
 Chkysis, Lin. 
 The lustre and richness of the colours which decorate these Insects may 
 challenge a comparison with those of the Humming-birds, and have entitled 
 them to the common appellation of Golden Wasps, or Guipes dories. They 
 are seen walking about in a continued state of agitation, and with hasty 
 motions, on walls and fences exposed to the burning ardour of the sun. 
 They are also found on flowers. Their body is elongated and covered with 
 a firm tegument. Their antennas are filiform, geniculate, vibratile, and 
 composed of thirteen joints in both sexes. The mandibles are naiTow, ar- 
 cuated, and pointed. The ligula is most frequently emarginated. The 
 thorax is semi-cylindrical, and presents several sutures or impressed and 
 transverse lines. The abdomen of the greater number forms a semi-oval 
 truncated at base, and at the first glance seems suspended to the thorax by 
 its whole width; the last ring is frequently marked by large punctures and 
 terminates by dentations. 
 
 The Chrysides deposit their ova in the nests of the solitary Mason Bees, 
 or in those of other Hymenoptera. Their larvae devour those of the latter. 
 
 This genus now forms several subgenera, such as Pamopes, Stilbum, 
 Elampus, 8ic. 
 
454 INSKCTA. 
 
 The second section of the Hymenopterp., that of the Aculeata, 
 differs from the first in the absence of the ovipositor. A concealed 
 and retractile sting composed of three pieces usually supplies the 
 place of it 'in the females, and in the neuters of species which form 
 communities. Sometimes, as in certain Ants, the sting is wanting, 
 and the Insect defends itself by the ejaculation of an acid liquid con- 
 tained in special glandular reservoirs. 
 
 The Hymenoptera of this section always have their antennae sim- 
 ple, and composed of a constant number of joints, namely, of thirteen 
 in the males, and twelve in the females. The palpi are generally 
 filiform, those of the maxillse, frequently the longest, having six 
 joints, and those of the labium four. The mandibles are smaller, 
 and frequently less dentated in the males than in the opposite sex. 
 The abdomen, united to the thorax by a thread or pedicle, is com- 
 posed of seven rings in the males, and of six in the females. The 
 four wings are always veined. 
 
 The larvae are always destitute of feet, and feed on aliments pre- 
 sented to them by the females or neuters, consisting either of the 
 bodies of Insects, the juices of fruits, or a mixture of pollen, stamina 
 and honey. 
 
 This section is divived into four families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 HETEROGYNA.(I) 
 
 The first family of our second section is composed of two or 
 three kinds of individuals, the most common of which, the neuters 
 and females, are apterous, and but rarely furnished with very distinct 
 ocelli. 
 
 Their antennae are always geniculate, and the ligula is small, 
 rounded and concave, or cochleariform. 
 
 Some form communities in which we find three kinds of indivi- 
 duals, of which the males and females are winged, and the neuters 
 apterous. In the two last the antennas gradually enlarge, and the 
 length of their first joint is at least equal to that of the third of the 
 whole organ; the second is almost as long as the third, and has the 
 
 (1) Those in which the females differ from the males or are heterogynoiw. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 455 
 
 form of a reversed cone. The labrum of the neuters is large, cor- 
 neous, and falls perpendicularly under the mandibles. 
 These Hymenoptera compose the genus 
 
 Formica, Lin. 
 Or that of the Ants, so highly celebrated for their foresight, and so well 
 known, some by their depredations in our houses, where they attack our 
 sugar and preserved viands, communicating to them at the same time a 
 musky and disagreeable odour, and others by the injury they do to our 
 trees, by gnawing their interior in order to form domicils for their colonies. 
 
 The abdominal pedicle of these Insects is in the form of a scale or knot, 
 either double or single, a character by which they are easily recognized. 
 Their antennae are geniculate, and usually somewhat largest near the extre- 
 mity; the head is triangular, with oval or rounded and entire eyes, and the 
 clypeus large; the mandibles are very strong in the greater number, but 
 vary greatly as to form in the neuters; the maxillae and labium are small; 
 the palpi are filiform, and those of the maxillae the longest; the thorax is 
 compressed laterally, and the almost ovoidal abdomen furnished, in the fe- 
 males and neuters, sometimes with a sting, and sometimes with glands that 
 secrete a particular acid called ybrmic. 
 
 They form communities which are frequently extremely numerous. 
 Each species consists of three kinds of individuals: males and females which 
 are furnished with long wings, less veined than those of the other Hymen- 
 optera of this section, and very deciduous; and neuters, destitute of wings, 
 which are merely females with imperfect ovaries. The males and females 
 are merely found within the domicU in transitu. They leave it the moment 
 their wings are developed. The females wander to a distance from 
 their birth-place, and having detached their wings by means of their feet, 
 found a new colony. Some of those however which are in the vicinity of 
 the ant-hills are arrested by the neuters, who force them to return to their 
 domicil, tear off their wings, prevent them from leaving it, and force them 
 to deposit their eggs there — it is thought, however, that they are violently 
 expelled the moment that operation is effected. 
 
 The neuters, which are distinct, not only by the want of wings and ocelli, 
 but also by the size of their head, the strength of their mandibles, their 
 more compressed and frequently knotted thorax, and their proportionally 
 longer legs, have the sole charge of all the economy of the habitation, and 
 the rearing of the young. The nature and form of their nests or ant-hills 
 vary according to the particular instinct of the species. They usually es- 
 tablish it in the ground; in its construction some only employ particles of 
 earth, and almost entirely conceal it; others seize on fragments of various 
 bodies and with them raise conical or dome-like hillocks over the spot in 
 which they are domiciliated. Some establish their dwelling in the trunks 
 of old trees, the interior of which they perforate in every direction in the 
 manner of a labyrinth, in which the detached particles are also employed. 
 
456 INSECTA. 
 
 Various and apparently irregular galleries lead to the particular residence 
 of their young. 
 
 The neuters roam abroad in search of provisions, appear to inter-commu- 
 nicate the success of their labours by the senses of touch and smell, and to 
 aid and assist each other. Fruit, Insects, or their larvae, dead bodies of 
 small quadrupeds and birds, &c., constitute their food. They feed the 
 larvs with their mouths, transport them in fine weather to the external su- 
 perficies of the hill, in order that they may receive additional warmth, and 
 take them down again on the approach of night or bad weather, defend 
 them from their enemies, and look to their preservation with the greatest 
 fidelity, particularly when the hill is disturbed. They pay equal attention 
 to the nymphs, some of which are enclosed in a cocoon, and the others 
 naked; they tear open the envelope of the former when the moment of their 
 ultimate metamorphosis has arrived. The name of eggs is vulgarly applied 
 to the larvae and nymphs. 
 
 Most Ant-hills are wholly composed of individuals of the same species. 
 Nature, however, has deviated fx-om this plan with respect to the F. roussa- 
 tre or Amazon-ant, and that which I have called the sanguinea. Their 
 neuters, by open violence, procure auxiliaries of their own caste, but of 
 different species, which I have designated by the names of noir-cendr^e and 
 mineuse. When the heat of the day begins to lessen, and exactly at the 
 same hour, at least for several days, the Amazons or Legionaries quit their 
 nest, advance in a sohd column, more or less numerous or according to the 
 extent of the population, and march upon the Ant-hill they wish to attack. 
 They soon penetrate into it notwithstanding the opposition of the inhabit- 
 ants, seize the larv^ and nymphs of the neuters peculiar to the invaded 
 community, and transport them in the same warlike order to their own 
 domicil, where they are attended to in common with the posterity of their 
 conquerors, by other neuters of their own species in a perfect state that 
 have either been metamorphosed there, or tornfrom then* original dwelling. 
 Such is the composition of the mixed Ant-hills. 
 
 It is well known that the Ant is extravagantly fond of a saccharine liquid 
 that exudes from the bodies of the Aphides and Gallinsects. Four or five 
 species convey both these Aphides and their eggs, particularly in bad weather, 
 to the bottom of their nests, and even fight for the right of possession. 
 Some construct little galleries of earth, leading from the Ant-hill, which 
 extend throughout the entire length of trees to the very branches that are 
 loaded with these Insects. 
 
 Both males and females perish towards the close of autumn, or on the 
 first approach of winter. The labourers pass the winter in their hill in a 
 torpid state. 
 
 This gi-eat genus is now divided into various subgenera. 
 
 The remaining Heterogyna are solitary Insects. Each species 
 is composed of but two kinds of individuals, winged males and ap- 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 457 
 
 terous females; the latter are always armed with a powerful sting. 
 The antennae are filiform or setaceou?, and vibratile; their first and 
 third joints are elongated, and the length of the first is never equal 
 to the third of the total length of the whole organ. 
 They form tlie genus 
 
 MuTiLLA, Lin. 
 These Insects are found in hot and sandy localities. The female runs 
 with great quickness, and is always seen on the ground. The males fre- 
 quently alight on flowers, but their mode of life is unknown. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 FOSSORES.(l) 
 
 The second family of this section comprises those Hymenoptera 
 armed with a sting, in which all the individuals of both sexes are 
 furnished with wings, and live solitarily; in which the legs are ex- 
 clusively adapted for walking, and in several for digging. The 
 ligula is always more or less widened at its extremity, and never 
 filiform or setaceous. The wings are always extended. 
 
 They compose the genus 
 
 Sphex, Lin. 
 Most females of this genus place beside their eggs, in the nests they have 
 constructed, most commonly in the earth or in wood, various Insects or 
 their larvae, and sometimes Ai-achnides, previously pierced with their sting, 
 to serve as food for their young. The larva are always destitute of feet, 
 resemble little worms, and undergo a metamorphosis in the cocoon they 
 have spun previous to becoming nymphs. The perfect Insect is usually 
 very active and lives on flowers. The maxillae and hp are elongated and in 
 the form of a proboscis in many. 
 
 The numerous subgenera derived from the great genus Sphex, are now 
 distributed into seven principal sections, viz. the Scolietae, Sapigytes, Sphe^ 
 gides, Btmbecides, Larrates, Nyasonea and Crabroniies. 
 
 (1) Diggers. 
 
 3 H 
 
458 INSECTA. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 DIPLOPTERA. 
 
 The third family of the Aculeata is the only one of that section, 
 in which with but few exceptions we find the superior vnngs folded 
 longitudinally. The antennae are usually geniculate and clavate, or 
 thickest at the end. The eyes are emarginated. The prothorax is 
 prolonged behind, on each side, to the origin of the wings. The 
 body is glabrous or nearly so, and black, more or less maculated 
 with yellow or fulvous. 
 
 Many of these Insects form temporary communities composed of 
 three sorts of individuals, males, females, and neuters. Such of the 
 females as survive the severity of the winter commence the nest and 
 take care of the larvee. They are subsequently assisted by the neu- 
 ters. We will divide the Diploptera into two tribes. The type of 
 the first, that of the Masarides, Lat., is the genus 
 
 Masaris, Fab. 
 The antennje at the first glance seem to be composed of but eight joints, 
 the eighth, with the following ones, forming an almost indistinctly articu- 
 lated club, rounded or very obtuse at the end. The ligula is terminated by 
 two threads which can be withdrawn into a tube formed by its base. There 
 are but two complete cubital cells in the superior wings. The middle of 
 the anterior margin of the clypeus is emarginated and receives the labrum 
 in the notch. 
 
 The second tribe of the Diploptera, that of the Vesparue, is com- 
 posed of the genus 
 
 Vespa, Lin. 
 Where the antennae always present thirteen distinct joints in the males and 
 terminate in an elongated, pointed, and sometimes — in the males — hooked 
 extremity: they are always geniculate, at least in the females and neuters. 
 The ligula is sometimes divided into four plumose filaments, and sometimes 
 bilobate with four glandular points at the end, one on each lateral lobe, and 
 the remaining two on the intermediate one, which is larger, widened, and 
 emarginated or bifid at its extremity. The mandibles are strong and den- 
 tated. The clypeus is large. The females and neuters are armed with an 
 extremely powerful and venomous sting. Several of them form communi- 
 ties composed of the three sorts of individuals. 
 
 The larvae are vermiform, destitute of feet, and enclosed separately in a 
 
HYMEXOPTERA. 459 
 
 cell where they sometimes live on the bodies of Insects placed thereby the 
 mother at the time she deposited the egg, and sometimes on the nectar of 
 flowers, juices of fruits and animal matters, elaborated in the stomach of 
 the mother, or that of the neuters, who feed them daily. 
 • Wasps properly so called, unite in numerous societies composed of males, 
 females and neuters. The two last detach particles of old wood or bark 
 with their mandibles, moisten and reduce them into a pultaceous mass re- 
 sembling that of paper or pasteboard, and construct combs or nests with it 
 that are usually horizontal, and suspended above by one or more pedicles; 
 on the inferior side is a range of vertical cells in the form of hexagonal and 
 truncated pyramids. These cells are approximated exclusively to the use 
 of the larvae and nymphs, a cell to each. The immber of combs that com- 
 pose this nest varies. It is sometimes exposed, and at others surrounded 
 by an envelope, pierced with a common and almost always central opening, 
 which sometimes corresponds to a series of holes which communicate with 
 the interior; the combs adhere to the parietes of the envelope, whether 
 they be in the open air or concealed in the earth or hollows of trees. The 
 figure of these structures varies according to the species. 
 
 The females commence the business alone, and lay eggs that produce 
 neuters or laboui-ers, which assist in enlarging the nest and taking care of 
 the succeeding young ones. The community is solely composed of these 
 two kinds of individuals until the beginning of autumn, at which period the 
 young males and females make their appearance. All the larvse and nymphs 
 which cannot complete their ultimate metamorphosis before the month of 
 November are put to death and dragged from their cells by the labourers, 
 which perish along with the males on the approach of winter. Some of 
 the females survive, and in the spring become the founders of anew colony. 
 Wasps feed on Insects, viands of various sorts, or fruit, and nourish their 
 larvse with the juices of these substances. The latter, which on account 
 of the inferior situation of the mouths of their cells are placed with their 
 head downwards, shut themselves up and spin a cocoon when about to be- 
 come nymphs. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 ANTHOPHILA, Lat.(l) 
 
 The fourth and last family of the Aculeata, in the faculty of col- 
 lecting the pollen of flowers, usually possessed by the two posterior 
 legs, presents a peculiar character which distinguishes it from all 
 other families of Insects. The first joint of the tarsi of those legs 
 
 ( 1 ) Lovers of flowers. 
 
460 INSECTA. 
 
 is very large, strongly compressed, and forms a square paletle or a 
 reversed triangle. 
 
 The maxillae and lips are most commonly very long, and compose 
 a sort of proboscis. The ligula is most frequently shaped like the 
 head of a lance, or resembles a very long thread, the extremity of 
 which is downy or hairy. The larvae feed exclusively on honey and 
 the pollen of flowers. The perfect Insect feeds on the honey of the 
 latter only. 
 
 These Hymenoptera embrace the genus 
 
 Apis, Lin. 
 Or that of the Bees, which I will divide into two sections. 
 
 In those of the first or the Andrenetje, Lat., the intermediate division 
 of the ligula is cordiform or lanceolate, shorter than its sheath, and bent 
 underneath in some, and almost straight in others. 
 
 These Insects live sohtarily, and consist of but two kinds of individuals, 
 males and females. Most of the females collect the pollen of flowers with 
 the hairs of their posterior legs, and with the aid of a little honey form it 
 into a paste (bee-bread), with which they feed their larvae. They excavate 
 deep holes, and frequently in hard ground, along the borders of roads, or 
 in the fields, in which they place this paste along with an egg; they then 
 close the aperture with earth. 
 
 rhey form various genera, such as Hylseus, Colletes, &c. 
 
 The second section of the Anthophila, that of the Apiari^, Lat-, com- 
 prises those species in which the mediate division of the ligula is at least as 
 long as the mentum or its tubular shield, and is fiUform or setaceous. The 
 maxillae and labium are much elongated and form a sort of proboscis which, 
 when at rest, is geniculate and bent under. 
 
 The Apiarise either live solitarily or form communities. 
 
 The former never consist of more than the ordinary number of Individuals, 
 and each female provides singly for her young. The posterior legs of their 
 females are neither furnished with a brush on the inner side of the first 
 joint of the tarsi, nor with a particular depression on the exterior side of 
 their tibiae; this side, as well as the same of the first joint of the tarsi, is most 
 commonly and densely' covered with hairs. 
 
 One of the most common genera of this section, vulgarly called Humble- 
 Bees, is the 
 
 Xtlocopa, Lat. Fab. 
 The Xylocopac resemble large IJombi. Their body is usually black, 
 sometimes partially coveied vvitli a j'ellow down; the wings are frequently 
 violet, cupreous or green, and brilliant. The male, in several species, 
 differs considerably from the female. Their eyes are large and approxi- 
 mated superiorly. Tlieir anterior legs are dilated and ciliated. 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 461 
 
 X violacea, L. About one inch in len^h; black, with violet-black wings, 
 a russet ring round tlie antennae of the male. The female bores a long 
 vertical hole in the body she has selected, usually old dry wood exposed 
 to the sun, and pai-allel to its surface. It is divided into several cells by 
 horizontal septa formed with agglutinated raspings of wood. She then, 
 commencing with the lowest, deposits an egg and some paste in each of 
 them. She sometimes bores three canals in the same piece of wood. 
 
 There are several other genera of solitary Apiai-iae. 
 
 The last of the Apiarise form communities composed of maZes and /twia/es, 
 and a considerable number of neuters or labourers. In tlie internal face of 
 the posterior tibiae of these latter individuals is a smooth depression, in 
 which they place the pellet of pollen collected with the silken down or 
 brush attached to the inner side of the first joint of the tarsi of the same 
 \q^. The maxillary palpi are veiy small and formed of a single joint. The 
 antennae are geniculate. 
 
 Sometimes the posterior tibiae are terminated by two spines, as in 
 
 BoMDus, Lat. Fab. 
 
 Where the labrum is transversal, the pseudo-proboscis is much shorter 
 than the body, and the second joint of the labial palpi terminates in a point, 
 bearing the two others on its outer side. 
 
 These Insects(l) are well known to children, who frequently put them 
 to death in order to obtain the honey contained within their body. They 
 inhabit subterranean nests in communities of fifty or sixty, and sometimes 
 of two or three hundred individuals. The society is dissolved on the ap- 
 proach of winter. It is composed of males, distinguished by their small 
 size, reduced head, narrow mandibles, bearded, and terminated by two 
 teeth, and frequently by a difference of colours; of females, which are 
 larger than the others, furnished with mandibles formed like a spoon, as is 
 also the case with those of the neuters or labourers,- the latter, as to size, are 
 intermediate between the males and females. 
 
 Such of the ordinary females as have escaped the severity of the winter 
 take advantage of the first fine weather to construct their nests. One spe- 
 cies — Apis lapidaria — establishes itself on the surface of the earth under 
 stones, but all the others form their habitation in it, frequently descending 
 to a depth of one or two feet, in the way we are about to describe. Dry 
 plains, fields, and hills are the locaUties they select. These subterranean 
 cavities, which are of considerable extent and wider than high, have the 
 figure of a dome. The ceiling is constructed with earth and with moss, 
 carded by these Insects, which they transport there, fibre by fibre, entering 
 the cavity backwards. A coating of coarse wax is laid over its walls. Some- 
 times a simple opening, designedly left at the bottom of the nest, serves 
 
 (I) They are commonly confounded with the Xylocopae, and are also 
 called Humbk-Bees. 
 
462 INSECTA. 
 
 for an entrance, and then again a winding passage covered with moss, and 
 a foot or two long, leads to the domicil. The bottom of the cavity is lined 
 with a layer of leaves, for the accommodation of the brood. The females 
 first place brown, irregular, mamilliform masses of wax there, called joa/^e 
 by Reaumiu', and which, on account of their shape and colour, he compares 
 to truffles. Their internal cavities are destined to enclose the eggs and 
 larvx. There the latter live in society until the moment has arrived when 
 they are to become nymphs; they then separate and spin ovoid and silken 
 cocoons, laid vertically against each other. In this state the Insect is always 
 reversed, or, like the female nymphs of the common Bee, with the head 
 downwards; we always find these cocoons perforated inferiorly, when the 
 perfect Insects have left them. Reaumur says that the larvse feed on the 
 wax which forms then* dwelling; according to Huber, it merely protects 
 them from cold and wet, their aliment consisting of a tolerably large quan- 
 tity of pollen moistened with honey, with which the labourers carefully 
 supply them; when it is consumed they perforate the cover of their cells, 
 fm'nish them with more, and shut them up again. They even enlarge them 
 when the increased growth of the larva: causes them to be too much confined. 
 We also find in these nests three or four small bodies composed of brown 
 wax, or the same matter as the patee, and shaped like tumblers or almost 
 cylindrical pots, always open, and more or less filled with good honey. 
 These reservoirs of the honey are not always placed in the same situation. 
 
 The larvse are hatched in four or five days after the eggs have been laid, 
 and complete their metamorphosis in tlie months of June and July. The 
 labourers remove the wax that clogs their cocoon to facilitate their issue, 
 and assist the female in her work. The number of cells which serve as 
 habitations to the larvee and nymphs increases, and they form irregular 
 combs placed in stories, on the edges of which we particularly observe the 
 brown patee of Reaumur. According to Huber, the labourers are ex- 
 tremely fond of the ova of the female, and sometimes, in her absence, even 
 break open the cells in which they are deposited, in order to suck the 
 milky fluid they contain! a most extraordinary fact, which seems to belie 
 the known attachment of the labourers for the germs of that race of which 
 they are the protectors and guardians. The wax produced by them, ac- 
 cording to this same naturalist, has the same origin as that of our domestic 
 Bee, or is merely elaborated honey that also transudes through the intervals 
 of some of the abdominal annuli. 
 
 Sometimes the social Apiarix have no spines at the extremity of their 
 posterior libise, as in 
 
 Apis, Lat. 
 
 Or that of the Bee properly so called, where the first joint of the poste- 
 rior tarsi of the labourers forms a long square, and is furnished on the inner 
 side with a silken down divided into ti-ansverse or striated bands. 
 
 Apis mellifica^ lu, (The Honey-Bee). Blackish; scutellum and abdomen 
 
IIYMENOPTERA. 463 
 
 of the same colour; a transverse greyish band, formed of down, at the base 
 of the third and following abdominal annull. 
 
 The true Bees are much smaller and more oblong than the Bombi. Their 
 body is merely furnished with down in particular places, and its colours 
 vary but little. Their communities consist of labourers or neuters, usually 
 from fifteen to twenty thousand in number, and sometimes extending to 
 thirty thousand; of from six to eight hundred males, and in some hives of a 
 thousand and more, called Drones, and commonly of a single female, con- 
 sidered by the ancients as tlie king or head of the community, and styled a 
 queen by us. 
 
 The labourers, smaller than the others, have their antennae composed of 
 twelve joints, and the abdomen of six annuli; the first joint of the posterior 
 tarsi, or the square piece, is dilated in the form of a pointed palette, at the 
 exterior angle of their base, and densely covered on its inner side with short 
 fine, silky down; they are armed with a sting. The female presents the 
 same characters, but the abdomen of the labourers is shorter. Their man- 
 dibles are spoon-shaped, and not dentated. In the outer side of their pos- 
 terior tibise is that smooth depression edged with hairs, called the corbeille 
 or basket. 
 
 The males and females are the largest; their mandibles are hairy and 
 emarginated under the point; the proboscis is shorter, particularly in the 
 males. These latter differ from the former and from the labourers in their 
 antennx, which consist of thirteen joints; in their more rounded head and 
 larger eyes, elongated and united above; In their smaller and more hairy 
 mandibles, in the absence of a sting, in the four short anterior legs, of 
 which the two first are arcuated, and finally in the square piece which has 
 neither palette nor silken brush. 
 
 The interior of the abdominal cavity of the females and labourers presents 
 two stomachs, the intestines, and poison sac. A tolerably large aperture 
 situated at the superior base of the proboscis, under the labrum, and closed 
 by a little triangular piece called langue by Reaumer, the epipharynx of 
 Savigny, transmits the aliment and leads to a slender cEsophagus that tra- 
 yerses the interior of the thorax, and thence passes to the anterior stomach, 
 or rather crop, which contains the honey. The following stomach, accord- 
 ing to Reaumur, contains the pollen or wax-like matter, and has its surface 
 marked by annular and transverse rugae; in the manner of hoops. This 
 abdominal cavity of the females contains two large ovaries composed of 
 numerous sacculi, each of which encloses from sixteen to seventeen eggs. 
 According to the observations of Huber, Jun., the inferior semi-annuli 
 of the abdomen of the labourers, the first and last excepted, have each, on 
 their internal surface, two pouches in which the wax Is secreted and mould- 
 ed into laminae, that afterwards ooze out through the intervals between the 
 rings. 
 
 These observations on the internal anatomy of the Bee, with the excep- 
 tion of some few modifications, will apply to the Bombi properly so called. 
 Wax, according to the experiments of the same naturalists, is nothing more 
 
464 INSECTA. 
 
 than elaborated honey, and the pollen mixed with a little of that substance 
 only serves as food for these Insects and their larv3e. 
 
 We have seen that the labourers or working bees resemble the females 
 in several particulars. Certain curious experiments have proved that they 
 are of one sex, and that they are merely females that have not been fully 
 developed in consequence of the nature of the food given to them while in 
 the state of larva. 
 
 The substance of which their combs are composed, being ill adapted to 
 resist the effects of the weather, and as they do not construct a nest or ge- 
 neral envelope, these Insects can only establish their colonies in cavities 
 where their work finds a natural shelter. The labourers, which are alone 
 charged with the work, form those laminse composed of two opposing rows 
 of hexagonal alveoli with a pyramidal base formed of three rhombs. These 
 alveoli have received the name oi cells, and each lamina that of comb. They 
 are always perpendicular, parallel, fixed at top or by one of the edges, and 
 separated by spaces which allow the Bees to pass between them. The 
 cells are thus placed horizontally. Distinguished geometricians have de- 
 monstrated that their form is the most economical with respect to the ex- 
 penditure of wax, and the most advantageous as to the extent of the space 
 contained in each cell. Bees, however, know how to modify this form ac- 
 cording to circumstances. They cut away and fit their faces piece by piece. 
 These ceUs, with the exception of that proper to the larva and nymph of 
 the female, are almost equal; some contain the brood, and the remainder 
 the honey and pollen of flowers. Some of the cells containing honey are 
 open, and the remainder, or those held in reserve, are sealed up with a flat 
 or slightly convex lid. The royal cells, which vary in number from two to 
 forty, are much larger, almost cylindrical, somewhat narrower at the end, and 
 have little cavities on their external surface. They usually hang from the 
 margin of the combs, in the manner of stalactites, so that the larvae con- 
 tained in them are in a reversed position. Some of them weigh as much 
 as one hundred and fifty of the ordinary cells. The cells of the males are 
 of an intermediate size, between those of the preceding and those of the 
 labourers, and placed here and there. Bees always continue their combs 
 from above downwards. They stop the httle chinks and apertures of their 
 domicil with a species of mastich, which they collect from different ti-ees, 
 called propolis. 
 
 Bees take care to furnish their larvae with patee in quantities proportioned 
 to their age, and on which they cling with their bodies curved into an arc. 
 Six or seven days after they are hatched, they prepare to undergo their 
 metamorphosis. Shut up in their cells by the labourers who close the ori- 
 fice with a convex lid, they line the parieties of their domicil with a tissue of 
 silk, spin a cocoon, become nymphs, and, at the expiration of about twelve 
 days, issue forth in their perfect state. The labourers immediately clean out 
 the vacant cells, in order that they may be prepared for the reception of 
 another t^^. This is not the case however with the royal cells; they are 
 
HYMENOPTERA. 465 
 
 destroyed and new onc3 constructed if necessary. The eggs containing 
 males are produced two months later, and those producing females soon 
 after the latter. 
 
 Dreadful combats sometimes take place among Bees. At a particular 
 epoch the laboui-ers put the drones to death, extending the carnage even 
 to the larvx and nymphs of that sex. 
 
 Bees have enemies botli external and internal, and are subject to various 
 diseases. . 
 
 The true Bees are only found in the eastern continent; and those of 
 southern and eastern Europe, and of Egypt, differ from those that inhabit 
 France, which have been transported to America and other places, where 
 they are now naturalized. 
 
 ORDER X. 
 LEPID0PTERA.(1) 
 
 The tenth order of Insects terminates the series of those which 
 are furnished with four wings, and presents characters exclusively 
 peculiar to it. 
 
 Both sides of the wings are covered with small, coloured scales, 
 resembling farinaceous dust, that are removed by merely coming in 
 contact with the finger. A proboscis, to which the name oilingtm 
 or tongue has been affixed, rolled spirally between two palpi, cov- 
 ered with scales or hairs, forms the most important part of the mouth, 
 and is the instrument with which these Insects extract the nectar 
 from flowers, their only aliment. In our general observations upon 
 the class of Insects, we have seen, that this proboscis or trunk is 
 composed of two tubular^ threads, representing the maxillae, each 
 bearing, near its external base, a very small (superior) palpus in the 
 form of a tubercle. The apparent (inferior) palpi, those which 
 form a sort of sheath to the proboscis, replace the labial palpi of the 
 triturating Insects; they are cylindrical or conical, usually turned 
 up, composed of three joints, and inserted in a fixed labium, which 
 forms the paries of the portion of the buccal cavity, inferior to the 
 proboscis. Two little and scarcely distinct, corneous, and more or 
 less ciliated pieces, situated, one on each side, on the anterior and 
 
 (1) Scaly-winged. 
 3 I 
 
 / 
 
466 INSECTA. 
 
 saperior margin of the front of the head, near the eyes, seem to be 
 vestiges of mandibles. Finally, we observe, and in equally exiguous 
 proportions, the labrum or upper lip. 
 
 The antennae vary and arc always multiarliculated. Two ocelli 
 are observable in several species, but concealed between the scales. 
 The three segments of which the trunk of the hexapoda is composed, 
 are united in one single body; the first is very short, and the two 
 others are confounded together. The scutellum is triangular, but 
 the apex is directed towards the head. The wings are simply 
 veined, and vary in size, figure and position; in several, the inferior 
 ones are plaited longitudinally near their inner margin. At the 
 base of each of the superior wings is a kind of epaulette, prolonged 
 posteriorly, that corresponds to the piece called tegula in the Hy- 
 menoptera. As it is more developed here, I will call it pterygoda. 
 The abdomen, composed of from six to seven annuli, is attached to 
 the thorax by a very small portion of its diameter, and presents nei- 
 ther sting nor ovipositor analogous to that of the Hymenoptera. In 
 several females, however, as in Cossus, the last rings become nar- 
 rowed, and extended to form an oviduct resembling a pointed and 
 retractile tail. The tarsi always have five joints. There are never 
 more than two kinds of individuals, males and females. 
 
 The females usually deposit their ova, frequently very numerous, 
 on the vegetable surfaces which are to nourish their larvae, and soon 
 after perish. 
 
 The larvae of Lepidopterous Insects are well known by the name 
 of caterpillars. They have six squamous or hooked feet, which 
 correspond to the legs of the perfect Insect, and from four to ten 
 additional membranous ones, the two last of which are situated at 
 the posterior extremity of the body; those which have but ten or 
 twelve in all, have been called, from their mode of progression, geo- 
 metrse. Several of these geomelrse, when at rest, remain fixed to 
 llie branches of plants by the liind feet alone, where, in the form, 
 colour and direction of their body they resemble a twig; they can 
 support themselves in this position for a long time, without exhibit- 
 ing the slightest symptom of life. So fatiguing an attitude must re- 
 quire prodigious muscular force, and in fact Lyonct counted four 
 thousand and forty-one muscles in the caterpillar of the Cossus lig- 
 niperda. 
 
 The body of these larvjs is generally elongated, almost cylindri- 
 
LEPIDOPTEWA. 467 
 
 cal, soft, variously coloured, sometimes naked, arid sometimes co- 
 vered with hairs, tubercles and spines. It is composed of twclvo 
 segments or annuli, exclusive of the head, with nine stigmata on 
 each side. Their head is invested with a corneous or squamousi 
 dermis, and presents on each side six shining granules, which ap- 
 pear to be ocelli; it is also furnished with two very short and conical 
 antennae, and a mouth composed of strong mandibles, two maxillae, 
 a labium and four small palpi. The silk they employ is elaborated 
 in two long and tortuous internal vessels, of which the attenuated 
 superior extremities terminate in tlie lif>. A tubular and conical 
 mammilla is the spindle through which the threads are spun. 
 
 Most caterpillars feed on the leaves of plants; some gnaw their 
 flowers, roots, buds and seeds; others attack the ligneous or hardest 
 part of trees, softening it by means of a fluid which they disgorge. 
 Certain species attack our woollens and furs, thereby doing ys much 
 injury: even our leather, bacon, wax and lard are not spared by 
 them. Several confine themselves exclusively to a single article of 
 diet; others are less delicate, and devour all sorts of matters.(l) 
 
 Some of them form societies, and frequently live under a silken 
 tent, spun by them in common, which even shelters them during the 
 winter. Several construct sheaths for themselves, either fixed or 
 portable. Others make their abode in the parenchyma of leaves, 
 where they form galleries. The greater number are diurnal. The 
 others never issue forth but at night. The severity of winter, so 
 fatal to almost all Insects, does not affect certain PhalaenaB, which 
 only appear in that season. 
 
 Caterpillars usually change their skin four times, previously to 
 passing into the state of a nymph or chrysalis. Most of them 
 spin a cocoon in which they enclose themselves. A frequently red- 
 dish liquor which lepidopterous Insects eject at the moment 
 of their metamorphosis, softens or weakens the extremity of the co-* 
 coon, and facilitates their exit; one of these extremities also is ge- 
 nerally thinner than the other, or presents a favourable issue by the 
 peculiar disposition of the fibres. Other caterpillars are contented 
 with connecting leaves, particles of earth, or of the substances on 
 which they have lived, and thus forming a rude cocoon. The chry- 
 
 (1) One of the most evident proofs of the divine providence is the peK 
 fect coincidence of the appearance of the caterpillar with that oi'ihe plant 
 
 on which it is to feed. 
 
468 INSECTA. 
 
 salides of the diurnal Lepidoptera, ornamented with golden spots, 
 whence the term chrysalis, are naked and fixed by the posterior 
 entremity of the body. The nymphs of the Lepidoptera present a 
 special character, of which we have spoken in our general observa- 
 tions on the class of Insects. They are swathed or resemble mum- 
 mies. Those of several Insects of this order, particularly of the 
 Diurnae, undergo their metamorphosis in a few days; they even fre- 
 quently produce two generations in the course of the year. The 
 caterpillars or chrysalides of others, however, remain during the 
 winter in one of these states, and only appear as perfect Insects in 
 the spring or summer of the following year. Generally speaking, 
 the eggs laid in the fall are not hatched till the ensuing spring. The 
 Lepidoptera issue from their envelope in the usual manner, or 
 through a slit which is effected on the back of the thorax. 
 
 The larvaB of the Ichneumonides and Chalcidites deliver us from 
 a great portion of these destructive animals. 
 
 We will divide this order into three families, which correspond to 
 the three genera of which it is composed in the system of Linneeus. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 DIURNA. 
 
 This family is the only one in which the exterior margin of the 
 inferior wings does not present a rigid, squamous seta or kind of 
 bridle for retaining the two superior ones. These latter, and even 
 most frequently the former, are raised perpendicularly when the In- 
 sect is at rest. The antennae are sometimes terminated by a globu-' 
 liform inflation or little club, and are sometimes almost of equal thick- 
 ness throughout or even more slender, and form a hooked point at 
 the extremity. This family comprises the genus 
 
 Papilio, Lin. 
 
 The larvae always have sixteen feet. The chrysalides are almost sJways 
 naked, are attached by the tail, and most commonly angular. The perfect 
 Insect, always provided with a proboscis or trunk, flies during the day only, 
 and the colours which ornament the under part of the wings do not yield 
 in beauty to those which decorate their superior surface. 
 
 These Insects ai-e now divided into two sections. Those of the first have 
 
LEPIDOPTEHA. 469 
 
 but a single pair of spurs or spines to their tibis, which are found on their 
 posterior extremity. Their four wings are raised perpendiculai'ly when at 
 rest. Their antenn2e are sometimes inflated at the extremity, globuUform, 
 or in a little club truncated and rounded at the summit, and sometimes 
 almost filiform. 
 
 This section includes a great variety of subgenera, and includes the 
 Knights, so called by Linnaeus. Tliose with red spots on the breast are his 
 Th-oes or Trojans, and those in which it is wanting, his Achivi, or Greeks. 
 The genus PapiUo of Linnaeus is now cut up into 28 subgenera, for the 
 details of which see the great edition of this work. 
 
 The second section of the Diurnal Lepidoptera is composed of species 
 in which the posterior tibiae have two pairs of spines, one at their ex- 
 tremity, and the other above? such also is the case in the two following 
 families. The inferior wings are usually horizontal when at rest, and the 
 extremity of their antennx very often forms a strongly hooked point. 
 
 Their caterpillars, of which however but few are yet known, bend leaves 
 together, and spin an extremely thin cocoon of silk (in the cavity), in which 
 they become chrysaUdes; the latter are smooth or without angular eleva- 
 tions. They compose two subgenera: 
 
 Hespeeia, Fab. 
 Or the P. plebei urbicoks of Linnxus, in which the termination of the an- 
 tennae is distinctly globuliform or clavate, and the inferior palpi are short, 
 broad, and densely covered with scales anteriorly; and the 
 
 Ukania, Fab; 
 Where the antennae, at first filiform, become attenuated or setaceous at 
 the extremity, and where the inferior palpi are elongated and slender, with 
 the second joint strongly compressed, and the last much smaller, almost 
 cyluidrical and naked. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 CREPUSCULARIA. 
 
 In this family, near the origin of the external margin of their in- 
 ferior wings, we observe a rigid squamous seta, in the form of a 
 spine or bristle, which passes into a hook on the under surface of 
 the superior wings, maintaining them, when at rest, in a horizontal 
 or inclined position. This character is also visible in the ensuing 
 family, but the Crepuscularia arc distinguished from the latter by 
 their antennae, which form an elongated club, either prismatic or 
 fusiform. 
 
470 1N8E0TA. 
 
 The caterpillars have always sixteen feet. The chrysalides are 
 destitute of the points or angles observed in most of those of the di- 
 urnal Lepidoptera, and are usually enclosed in a cocoon or con- 
 cealed, either in the earth, or under some body. These Lepidoptera 
 frequently appear only in the morning or evening. They compose 
 the genus 
 
 Sphinx, Lin. 
 
 So named from the attitude of several of the caterpillars, which resembles 
 that of the fabled monster so called. 
 
 I will divide this subgenus into four sections. The first, or that of the 
 HEsrEni-SpHiNGEs, consists of Lepidoptera, wliich evidently connect the 
 Hespei'iae with Sphinx proper. The antennse are always simple, thickened 
 in the middle or at the extremity which forms a hook, narrowed into a point 
 at the end, and without a tuft of scales. They all have a veiy distinct pro- 
 boscis; the inferior palpi are composed of three very apparent joints. In 
 some, the second is elongated and strongly compressed, the third slender, 
 almost cylindrical and nearly naked; these palpi resemble those of the 
 Uranise; in others, they are shorter but wider, almost cylindrical, and well 
 furnished with scales. The antennae of the latter are only inflated at the 
 extremity. 
 
 This section ia composed o{ ^garista, Coronis and Castnia. 
 
 Those of our second section, or the Sphingides, always have the antennae 
 terminated by ahttle flake of scales; the inferior palpi broad, or compressed 
 transversely, densely covered with scales, and the third joint usually in- 
 distinct. 
 
 Most of the caterpillars have an elongated, smooth body, thickest at the 
 posterior extremity, which is furnished with a horn, and its sides striped 
 obliquely or longitudinally. They live on leaves, and are metamorphosed 
 in the earth without spinning a cocoon. 
 
 SrniNX proper. 
 
 Where the antennae, commencing from the middle, form a prismatic club, 
 simply c'diated, or transversely striated on one side in the manner of a rasp . 
 They have a very distinct proboscis and fly with great velocity, hovering 
 over flowers with a humming noise. In the chrysalides of some species 
 the sheath of the proboscis projects in the manner of a snout. 
 
 S. Mropos, L. Superior wings variegated with deep and yellowish- 
 brown, and light-yellowish;" inferior wings yellow, with two brown bands; 
 a yellowish spot with two black dots on the thorax; abdomen yellowish, 
 with black annuli, and without a tenninal brush. This is the largest 
 species in France. The spot on the thoi*ax resembhng a death's head, 
 and the sharp sound it produces (attributed by Reaumur to its rubbing 
 
LEPIDOPTBBA. 471 
 
 the palpi against its proboscis) have frequently produced considerable 
 alarm among the people in certain years when it was unusually abundant. 
 
 The caterpillar is yellow, with blue stripes on the side, and the tail re- 
 curved and zig-zag. It feeds on the Potato-vine, Jasmin, &c., and be- 
 comes a chrysalis near the end of August. The pei'fect Insect appears in 
 September. 
 
 Our third division, that of the Sesiades, comprises those in which the an- 
 tennae are always simple, fusiform and elongated, and frequently termina- 
 ted, as in the preceding subgenera, by a little bundle of setse or scales; in 
 which the inferior palpi, slender and naiTow, have three very distinct joints, 
 the last tapering to a point; and where the extremity of the posterior tibiae 
 is armed with very stout spines. The abdomen in most of them is termi- 
 nated by a sort of brush. 
 
 The caterpillars feed on the internal part of the stems or roots of plants, 
 like those of the Hepiali and Cossi, are naked, without a posterior horn, 
 and construct their cocoons in these stems with the debris of the substance 
 on which they have fed. 
 
 Sesta. 
 
 Where the antennae are terminated by a little tuft of scales. The wings 
 are horizontal and marked with transparent spots. The scales of the pos- 
 terior extremity of the abdomen form a brush. S everal of these Insects bear 
 a close resemblance to Wasps or other Hymenoptera, to Diptera, &c. 
 
 The fourth and last section of the Sphinges, that of the ZTGiEnriDEs, 
 is composed of Lepidoptera, in which the antennae, always terminated in a 
 point destitute of a tuft, are sometimes simple in both sexes, fusiform or 
 resembling a ram's horn, &c. The wings are almost tectiform, and exhibit 
 transparent spots in many. There is no terminal brush to the abdomen. 
 The spurs of the posterior extremity are generally small. 
 
 The caterpillars live exposed on various leguminous plants. They are 
 cyUndrical, usually pilose, without a posterior horn, similar to those of dif- 
 ferent species of Bombyx, and form a fusiform or ovoid cocoon of silk, 
 which they attach to the stems of plants. 
 
 ZxGiENA. 
 
 The Zygaenae are not found in the western continent. Their antennae 
 are simple in both sexes, and terminate abruptly in a fuslfonn club, or one 
 resembling a ram's horn; their inferior palpi extend beyond the clypeus, 
 and are pointed at the extremity. 
 
472 INSECT A. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 NOCTURNA. 
 
 In the third family of the Lepidoptera, with some few exceptions, 
 we also find the wings bridled, when at rest, by a bristle or bundle 
 of setae arising from the exterior margin of the lower ones, and pass- 
 ing into a ring or groove in the under part of the upper ones. 
 The wings are horizontal or inclined and sometimes rolled round 
 the body. The antennas gradually diminish in thickness from base 
 to point, or are setaceous. 
 
 "This family, according to the system of Linnaeus, forms but the 
 single genus 
 
 ^ Phal^na, Lin. 
 
 Or that of the Moths. These Lepidoptera seldom fly but at night or after 
 sunset. Several have no proboscis. Some of the females are destitute of 
 wings, or have but very small ones. The caterpillars most commonly spin 
 a cocoon; the number of their feet varies from ten to sixteen. The chry- 
 salides are always rounded, or without angular elevations or points. 
 
 The classification of tliis family is very embarrassing, and with respect to 
 it our systems are as yet merely imperfect essays or rude sketches. It is now 
 divided into ten sections, each consisting of numerous genera, differing in 
 various details of form and habits, both in the larva or caterpillar state, and 
 that of the perfect Insect. They are all nocturnal. These sections are 
 
 1. The HepiaiiItes. The caterpillars are rare, and remain concealed in 
 the heart of the plants on which they feed; their cocoon is mostly formed 
 of particles of the matter that nourishes them. The margin of the abdo- 
 minal annuli of the chiysalis is dentated or spinous. The antennae of the 
 perfect Insect are always short, and most frequently present but one sort 
 of small, short, rounded and crowded teeth. Those of the four others are 
 always terminated by a simple thread; but they are furnished inferiorly in 
 the males witli a double hne of setae. The proboscis is always very short, 
 and but slightly apparent. The wings are tectifoi-m and usually elongated. 
 The last abdominal annuli of the females form an elongated oviduct or sort 
 of tail. The caterpillars of these Insects are very injurious to several kinds 
 of trees and other useful vegetable productions. 
 
 Here we have Hepialus, Cossua, Stygia, Zeuzera, &c. 
 
 2. The BoM[BTciT£s are distinguished from those of the preceding one 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 473 
 
 and the third, by the following characters : the proboscis always very short, 
 and merely rudimental; wings eitlier extended and horizontal or tectiform, 
 but the lower ones extending laterally beyond the others; antennae of the 
 males entirely pectinated. 
 
 The caterpillars Uve in the open air, and feed on the tender parts of plants. 
 Most of them form a cocoon of pure silk. The margin of the abdominal 
 annuli is not dentated in the chrysalis. 
 
 BoMBTX proper. 
 
 B-moriyL.. Whitish, with two or three obscure and transverse streaks; a 
 lunated spot on the superior wings. 
 
 The caterpillar is well known by the name of Silk-worm. It feeds on the 
 leaves of the Mulbeny, and spins an oval cOcoon of a close tissue with very 
 fine silk, usually of a yellow colour, and sometimes white. A variety is 
 now preferred, which always yields the latter. 
 
 The Bombyx which produces it is originally from the northern provinces 
 of Cliina. According to Latreille, the city of Turfan, in Little Bucharia, 
 was for a long time the rendezvous of the western caravans, and the chief 
 entrepot of the Chinese silks. It was the metropolis of the Seres of Upper 
 Asia, or of the Serica of Ptolemy. Driven from their country by the Huns, 
 the Seres established themselves in Great Bucharia and in India. It was 
 from one of their colonies, Ser-hend (Ser-indi), that Greek missionaries, in 
 the reign of Justinian, carried the eggs of the silk-worm to Constantinople. 
 At the period of the first crusades, tlae cultivation of silk was introduced 
 into the kingdom of Naples from the Morea, and several centuries after- 
 wards, under the administration of Sully particularly, into France. It is 
 well known that silk was formerly sold for its weight in gold, and that it 
 is now a source of great wealth to France. 
 
 3. The PsEUDo-BoMBicES, are composed of Lepidoptera, in which, as 
 well as in the following ones, the inferior wings are furnished with a bridle 
 which fixes them to the superior, when at rest. They are then entirely 
 covered by the latter, both being tectiform or horizontal, but with the inner 
 margin overlapped. The proboscis, towards the latter end of the tribe, 
 begins to lengthen, and, in the last subgenera, even scarcely differs from 
 that of other Lepidoptera, except in being somewhat shorter. The anten- 
 nae are entirely pectinated or serrated, at least in the males. All their 
 caterpillars live on the exterior parts of plants. 
 
 There are eight subgenera, Sericaria, Notodonta, Orgyia, &c. 
 
 4. The Aposuha are removed, as we have observed in the general 
 divisions of this family, by a unique character, viz. tlie absence of the anal 
 feet of the animal in its larva state. The posterior extremity of the body 
 terminates in a point, which in several is forked, or even presents two long, 
 articulated, and movable appendages, forming a sort of tail. Witli respect 
 
 3 K 
 
474 INSECTA. 
 
 to their proboscis, palpi, and antennx, these Insects are but slightly re- 
 moved from the preceding- ones, 
 
 5. The NocTuajLiTEs, Lat., are similar to the preceding Insects in the 
 figure and relative size of the wings, and in their position when at rest, but 
 present the two following distinguishing characters: a horny, and most 
 commonly long, spirally rolled proboscis; inferior palpi abruptly terminated 
 by a very small or much more slender joint than the preceding one; the 
 latter much wider, and strongly compressed. 
 
 The body of the Noctuselites is more covered with scales than with a 
 woolly down. Their antennae are usually simple. The back of the thorax 
 is frequently tufted, and the abdomen forms an elongated cone; they fly 
 with great rapidity. Some of them appear during the day. 
 
 Their caterpillars usually have sixteen feet; the others have two or four 
 less, but the two posterior, or anals, are never absent, and in those which 
 present but twelve, the anterior pair of the membranous ones are as large 
 as the next. Most of these caterpillars enclose themselves in a cocoon to 
 complete their metamorphosis. 
 
 Here we have Erebus and Nodua. 
 
 6. The Phai;enje Tortrices, L., are closely allied to the two preceding 
 sections. The superior wings, of which the exterior margin is arcuated at 
 base and then narrowed, their short and wide figure forming a truncated 
 oval, give a very peculiar appearance to these Insects. They have a dis- 
 tinct proboscis, and their inferior palpi are usually almost similar to those 
 of the Noctuse, but somewhat salient. 
 
 They are small and prettily coloured; their wings are tectiform, but flat- 
 tened almost horizontally, and always laid on the body. In this case the 
 upper ones are slightly crossed along the inner mai'gin. 
 
 Their caterpillars have sixteen feet, and their body is closely shorn or 
 but slightly pilose. They twist and roll up leaves of trees, connecting 
 various points of their surface at different times by layers of silken threads 
 running in one direction, and thus form a tube in which they reside, and 
 feed in tranquillity on their parenchyma. Others form a nest by connecting 
 several leaves or flowers with silk. Some of them inhabit fruits. 
 
 The posterior extremity of the body is narrow in several. Their cocoon 
 has the figure of a bateau, and is sometimes of pure silk, and at others 
 mixed with foreign matters . 
 
 The Tortrices compose the subgenus PxRAtis, Fab. 
 
 7. The Geometry comprise Lepidoptera in which the body is usually 
 slender, the proboscis either nearly wanting, or generally but slightly 
 elongated, and almost membranous. The inferior palpi are small, and al- 
 most cylindrical. The wings are ample, extended, or tectiform and flat- 
 tened. The antenns of several males are pectinated. Th e thorax is always 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 475 
 
 smooth- The caterpillars usually have but ten feet; the others present 
 two more, and those at the extremity always exist. Their peculiar mode 
 of progression has caused them to be styled Geometras, or Measurers. 
 When about to advance, they first cling- with their anterior or squamous 
 feet, then elevate their body so as to form a ring, in order to approximate 
 the posterior extremity of tlie body to the anterior, or that which is fixed; 
 they cling- with the last feet, disengage the first, and move the body for- 
 wards, when they recommence the same operation. Their attitude when at 
 rest is singular. Fixed to a branch of some plant by the last feet only, their 
 body remains extended in a straight line in the air, and absolutely motion- 
 less. So closely does the skin resemble the branch in its coloui' and ine- 
 qualities, that it is easy to confound them. In this way and at an angle of 
 forty- five degrees, or more, with the hmb to which they are attached, these 
 animals remain for hours and even days. 
 
 The chrysalides are almost naked, or their cocoon is extremely thin, and 
 poorly furnished with silk. 
 
 This section, exclusive of the caterpillars, contains but one subgenus, or 
 Phaljena proper. 
 
 8. The Deltoides, Lat, consist of species very analogous to true Pha- 
 Ixnae, but whose caterpillars have fourteen legs, and roll up leaves. In the 
 perfect Insect the Inferior palpi are elongated and recurved. Its wings 
 and body, on the sides of which the former are extended horizontally, 
 form a sort of delta, marked by a re-entering angle In the posterior side, or 
 appearing to be forked. The antennae are usually pectinated or ciliated. 
 
 The Deltoides form the subgenus Hebminia, Lat. 
 
 9. The TiNEiTEs comprise the smallest species of this order. Their 
 caterpillars are always closely shorn, furnished with sixteen feet at least, 
 and rectigrade, living concealed in dwelhngs fabricated by themselves, either 
 fixed or movable. Here the wings form a sort of elongated and almost 
 flattened triangle, terminated by a re-entering angle; such are the Pyra- 
 lides of Linnaeus; they have four distinct and usually exposed palpi. There, 
 the superior wings are long and narrow, sometimes moulded on the body, 
 and forming a sort of rounded roof to It, sometimes almost perpendicularly 
 decumbent and laid on the sides, and frequently raised or ascending pos- 
 teriorly like the tail of a cock. In both cases the inferior wings are always 
 wide and plaited. These species also frequently have the four palpi ex- 
 posed. 
 
 All the caterpillars, whose habitations (sheaths) are fixed or immovable, 
 are the Pseudo-Tinem of Reaumur; those which construct portable ones, 
 which they transport with them, are true Tinese. 
 
 The substances on which they feed, or on which they reside, furnish the 
 materials of the structure. 
 
 Of those sheaths which are composed of vegetable matters, many are 
 very singular. Some, like those of the Adelse, are covered exteriorly with 
 
476 INSECTA. 
 
 portions of leaves laid one over the other, and forming a sort of flounce; 
 others are in the form of a bat, and sometimes dentated along one of their 
 sides. The material of some of them is diaphanous, and as if cellular or 
 divided by scales. 
 
 The caterpillars of the true Tines, commonly called Moths, clothe them- 
 selves with particles of woollen stuffs, which they cut with their jaws and 
 on which they feed, hairs of furs, and those of the skins of animals in zoolo- 
 gical collections, united by silk. They know how to lengthen their sheath, 
 or to increase its diameter by slitting it and adding a new piece- In these 
 tubes they undergo their metamorphosis, after closing the orifices with silk. 
 
 The Pseudo-Tinese content themselves with mining the interior of the 
 vegetable and animal substances on which they feed, and forming simple 
 galleries, or if they construct sheaths either with those matters or silk, they 
 are always fixed, and are mere places of retreat. 
 
 These caterpillars, which perforate in various directions the parenchyma 
 of the leaves on which they feed, have been called Miners. They produce 
 those desiccated spaces in the form of spots and undulating lines, frequently 
 observed on leaves. Buds, fruits, and seeds of plants, fi'equently those of 
 wheat, and even the resinous galls of certain Coniferse, serve for aliment 
 and habitations to others. These Insects are frequently ornamented with 
 the most brilliant colours. In several species the superior wings are deco- 
 rated with golden or silver spots, sometimes even in relief. 
 
 Aglossa, Lat. 
 
 Where the four palpi are exposed, and the wings form a flattened triangle; 
 there is no emargination in the extremity of the upper one . 
 
 d. pinguinalis. Superior wings agate-grey, with blackish stripes and 
 spots. Found in houses on the walls. 
 
 Its caterpillar is naked, blackish-brown, glossy, and feeds on fatty or bu, 
 tyraceous substances. Reaumur called it the Fausseteigne-des cuirs, be- 
 cause it also feeds on leather and the covers of books. It constructs a tube 
 which it places against the body on which it feeds, and covers it with gra- 
 nules. 
 
 Galleria, Fab. 
 
 Where the scales of the clypeus form a projection that covers the palpi; 
 and the superior wings, proportionally narrower than in Aglossa, and emargin- 
 ated in the posterior edge, are, as well as the inferior ones, strongly inclined 
 and turned up posteriorly like the tail of a cock, as in many species of the 
 following subgenera. 
 
 O. cereana, Fab. About five lines in lengthy cinereous; head and thorax 
 paler, and little brown spots along the internal margin of the superior wings. 
 
 Reaumur designates its caterpillar by the name of fausse-teigne de la cire. 
 It ravages hives by penetrating into the combs, constructing, as it pro. 
 gresses, a silken tube covered with granules, which are formed of the wax 
 
LEPIDOPTERA. 4t7 
 
 on which it feeds. The cocoons of their chrysalides are sometimes found 
 collected in piles. 
 
 Tinea. 
 
 Where the proboscis is very short and formed of two little membranous 
 and separated threads. The head is crested. 
 
 p. tapezana. Fab. Upper wings black; their posterior extremity, as well 
 as the head, white. 
 
 The caterpillar attacks cloth and other woollen stuffs, on which it lies 
 concealed in a semi-tubular sheath fonned of their particles, which it 
 lengthens as it advances. 
 
 T. pellionella, Fab. Upper wings silver grey, with one or two black dots 
 on each. The caterpillar inhabits a felted tube on furs; it cuts the hairs at 
 base and rapidly destroys them. The 
 
 T. Jlavifrontella, I'ab., ravages cabinets of natural history in the same way. 
 
 T. granella. Fab. Its upper wings are marbled with grey, brown and 
 black, and turned up posteriorly. The caterpillar — fausse-teigne des bles — 
 connects several grains of wheat with silk, and forms a tube from which it 
 occasionally issues to feed upon those seeds. It is very noxious. 
 
 10. The FissiPBNWffi are closely related to the preceding Insects, so far 
 as relates to the narrow and elongated form of the body and upper wings, 
 but are removed from them, as well as from all others of this order, by the 
 four wings, or at least two, being spUt longitudinally in the manner of 
 branches or fingers with fringed edges, and resembling feathers. The 
 wings resemble those of Bii'ds. They constitute the subgenus 
 
 Ptebophohtts. 
 The caterpillars have sixteen feet, and live on leaves or flowers without 
 constructing a tube. 
 
 ORDER XI. 
 RHIPIPTERA. 
 
 This order was established by M. Kirby under the name of Sire- 
 siptera (twisted wings), on certain Insects remarkable for their 
 anomalous form and irregular habits. 
 
 From the two sides of the anterior extremity of the trunk, near 
 the neck and the exterior base of the two first legs, are inserted two 
 small, crustaceous, movable bodies, in the form of little elytra, di- 
 rected backwards, that are narrow, elongated, clavate, curved at 
 
478 INSECTA. 
 
 the extremity, and terminate at the origin of the wings. As elytra, 
 properly so called, always cover the whole or the base of the latter 
 organs and arise from the second segment of the trunk, these bodies 
 are not true wing-cases, but parts analogous to those (pterygoda) 
 we have already observed at the base of the wings in the Lepidop- 
 tera. The wings of the Rhipiptera are large, membranous, divided 
 by longitudinal and radiating nervures, and fold longitudinally in the 
 manner of a fan. The mouth consists of four pieces, two of which, 
 the shortest, appear to be so many biarticulated palpi; the others 
 inserted near the internal base of the preceding ones, resemble little 
 linear laminae, which are pointed and crossed at their extremity like 
 the mandibles of various Insects; they bear a greater similitude to 
 the lancets of the sucker of the Diptera than to true mandibles. 
 The head is also furnished with two large hemispherical, slightly 
 pediculated, and granular eyes; two almost filiform and short an- 
 tennas, approximated at base on a common elevation, consisting of 
 three joints, the two first of which are very short, and the third very 
 long, and divided down to its origin into two long, compressed, lan- 
 ceolate branches, laid one against the other. The ocelli are want- 
 ing. The form and divisions of the trunk are very similar to those 
 of several Cicadariae, Psyllae, and Chrysides. The abdomen is 
 almost cylindrical, consists of eight or nine segments, and is termi- 
 nated by pieces also analogous to those observed at the extremity 
 of the above mentioned Hemiptera. 
 
 These Insects, in their larvae state, live between the abdominal 
 scales of several species of Andrenae and Wasps of the subgenus 
 Polistes. They frisk about with a simultaneous motion of the wings 
 and halteres. Although they appear to be removed in several res- 
 pects from the Hymenoptera, I still think it is to some of those In- 
 sects, such as the Eulophi, that they are most nearly allied. 
 
 M. Peck has observed one of the larvae — Xenos PecTcii — which 
 is found on Wasps. It forms an oblong oval, is destitute of feet, and 
 is annulated or plaited; the anterior extremity is dilated in the form 
 of a head, and the mouth consists of three tubercles. These larvje 
 become nymphs in the same place, and, as it appeared to me, when 
 examining the nymphs of the Xenos Rossi, another Insect of the 
 same order, within their own skin, and without changing their form. 
 
 Nature has perhaps furnished the Rhipiptera with the two false 
 elytra of which we have spoken, to enable them to disengage them- 
 
RHIPIPTERA. 479 
 
 selves from between the abdominal scales of the Insects on which 
 they have lived. They are a sort of CEstri to Insects, and we shall 
 soon find a species of Conops that undergoes its metamorphosis in 
 the abdomen of the Bombi. The Rhipiptera form two genera. 
 
 Stylops, Kirb. 
 The first one observed and Instituted by M. Kirby. The superior branch 
 of the last segment of the antennae is composed of three little joints. The 
 abdomen is retractile and fleshy. 
 
 But a single species is known; it lives on the Andrenjc. 
 
 Xenos, Ross. 
 Here the two branches of the antennx are inarticulated. The abdo- 
 men, with the exception of the anus, which is fleshy and retractile, is cor- 
 neous. 
 
 Two species of this genus are known, one of which lives on the Wasp 
 called gallica, and the other on an analogous "Wasp of North America, the 
 Foliates fucaiUj Fab. 
 
 ORDER XII. 
 DIPTERA(l). 
 
 The distinguishing characters of dipterous Insects consist in six 
 feet; two membranous, extended wings, with, almost always, two 
 movable bodies above them called halteres ; a sucker composed of 
 squamous, setaceous pieces, varying in number from two to six, and 
 either enclosed in the superior groove of a probosciform sheath ter- 
 minated by two lips, or covered by one or two inarticulated laminae 
 which form a sheath for it. 
 
 Their body, like that of other hexapoda, is composed of three 
 principal parts. The number of ocelli, when any are present, is 
 always three. The antennas are usually inserted on the front and 
 approximated at base; those of the Diptera of our first family resem- 
 ble those of the nocturnal Lepidoptera in form and composition, and 
 frequently in their appendages, but in the following and greater 
 number of families they consist of but two or three joints, the last 
 
 (1) Two winged. 
 
480 INSECTA. 
 
 of which is fusiform or shaped like a lenticular or prismatic palette, 
 furnished either with a Httle styliform appendage, or a thick hair or 
 seta, sometimes simple and sometimes hairy. Their mouth is only 
 adapted for extracting and transmitting fluids. When these nutri- 
 tive substances are contained in particular vessels with permeable 
 parietes, the appendages of the sucker act as lancets, pierce the 
 envelope, and open a passage to the fluid, which, by their pressure, 
 is forced to ascend the internal canal to the pharynx, situated at the 
 base of the sucker. Tiie sheath of the latter, or the external part 
 of the proboscis, merely serves to maintain the lancets in situ, and 
 when they are to be employed it is bent back. The base of the 
 proboscis frequently bears two filiform or clavate palpi, composed, 
 in some, of five joints, but in the greater number of one or two. 
 The wings are simply veined, and most frequently horizontal. 
 
 The use of the halteres is not yet well known^ the Insect moves 
 them very rapidly. In many species, those of the last families par- 
 ticularly, and above the halteres, are two membranous appendages 
 resembling the valves of a shell, and connected by one of their sides, 
 called [ailerons or cuillerons) alulae. One of these pieces is united 
 to the wing and participates in all its motions, but then the two parts 
 are nearly in the same plane. The size of these alulae is in an in- 
 verse ratio to that of the halteres. The prothorax is always very 
 short, and frequently we can merely discover its lateral portions. 
 
 The abdomen is frequently attached to the thorax by a portion 
 only of its transversal diameter. It is composed of from five to nine 
 apparent annuli, and usually terminates in a point in the females; in 
 those where the number of annuli is less, the last ones frequently 
 form a sort of ovipositor presenting a succession of little tubes slid- 
 ing into each other like the joints of a spy-glass. Their usually 
 long and slender legs are terminated by a tarsus of five joints, the 
 last of which has two hooks, and very often two or three vesicular 
 or membranous pellets. 
 
 Many of these Insects are noxious both by sucking our blood 
 and that of our domestic animals, by depositing their eggs on 
 their body in order that their larvae may feed on them, and by infect- 
 ing our preserved meats and cerealia. Others in return are highly 
 useful to us by devouring noxious Insects, and consuming dead bo- 
 dies and animal substances left on the surface of the earth, that poi- 
 son the air we breathe, and by accelerating the dissipation of 
 stagnant and putrid water. 
 
DIPTERA. 481 
 
 The term of life assigned to the perfect Aptera is'very short. 
 They all undergo a perfect metamorphosis, modified in two princi- 
 pal ways. Tiie larvce of several change tlieir skin to become 
 nymphs. Some even spin a cocoon, but others never change tiieir 
 tegument, which becomes sufficiently solid to form a case for the 
 nymph, resembling a seed or an egg. The body of the larva is first 
 detached from it, leaving on its internal parietes the external organs 
 peculiar to it, such as the hooks of the mouth, &,c. It soon as- 
 sumes the form of a soft or gelatinous mass, on which none of the 
 parts that characterize the perfect Insect can be seen. After the 
 lapse of a few days, those organs become defined and the Insect is 
 a true nymph. It extricates itself from confinement by separating 
 the anterior extremity of its case which comes off like a cap. 
 
 The larvas of the Diptera are destitute of feet, though appendages 
 that resemble them are observable in some. This order of Insects 
 is the only one in which we find larvae with a soft and variable head. 
 This character is almost exclusively peculiar to the larvas of those 
 which are metamorphosed under their skin. Their mouth is usually 
 furnished with two hooks that enable them to stir up alimentary 
 substances. The principal orifices of respiration, in most of the 
 larvae of the same order, are situated at the posterior extremity of 
 their body. Several of them, besides, present two stigmata on the 
 first ring, that which immediately follows the head or replaces it. 
 
 We will divide the Diptera into two principal sections. In those 
 which compose the first, the head is always distinct from the thorax, 
 the sucker is enclosed in a sheath, and the hooks of the tarsi are 
 simple or dentated. The metamorphosis of the larvae into nymphs 
 is always afl^ected after they have left the mother. In the first sub- 
 division we find Diptera whose antennas are multi-articulated. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 NEMOCERA. 
 
 In this family the antennae usually consist of from fourteen to six- 
 teen joints, and from six, or nine, to twelve, in the others. They are 
 either filiform or setaceous, frequently hairy, particularly in the 
 males, and much longer than the head. The body is elongated, 
 the head small and rounded, the eyes large, the proboscis sahent, 
 3 L 
 
482 INSECTA. 
 
 and either short and terminated by two large lips, or prolonged into a 
 siphon-like rostrum, with two exterior palpi inserted at its base, 
 usually jSliform or setaceous and composed of four or five joints. 
 The thorax is thick and elevated; the wings are oblong; the halteres 
 are entirely exposed and apparently unaccompanied with alulae. 
 The abdomen is elongated, and most commonly formed of nine an- 
 nuli; it terminates in a point in the female, but is thicker at the end 
 and furnished with hooks in the males. The legs are very long and 
 slender, and are frequently used by these Insects to balance them- 
 selves. Several, particularly the smaller ones, collect in the air in 
 numerous swarms, and, as they flit about, form a sort of dance. 
 They are found at almost every season of the year. Some of the 
 females commit their ova to the water; others deposit them in the 
 earth or on plants. 
 
 The larvae, always elongated and resembling worms, have a squa- 
 mous head, always of the same shape, the mouth of which is fur- 
 nished with parts analogous to maxillas and lips. They always 
 change their skin to become nymphs. The latter, sometimes naked, 
 and sometimes enclosed in cocoons constructed by the larvae, ap- 
 proximate in their figure to the perfect Insect, present their external 
 organs, and complete their metamorphosis in the usual manner. 
 They have frequently, near the head or on the thorax, two organs 
 of respiration resembling tubes. This family is composed of the 
 genera Culex and Tipula of Linnaeus. 
 
 Some, in which the antennae are always filiform, as long as the 
 thorax, densely pilose, and composed of fourteen joints, have along, 
 projecting, filiform proboscis, containing a piercing sucker consist- 
 ing, of five setae. They constitute the genus 
 
 Culex, Lin. 
 Or the Mosquetoes, where the body and legs are elongated and hairy; the 
 antennse densely pilose, the hairs forming tufts in the males; the eyes large 
 and closely approximated or convergent at their posterior extremity; the 
 palpi projecting, filiform, hairy, as long as the proboscis, and composed of 
 five joints in the males, shorter and apparently with fewer articulations in 
 tlie females. The proboscis is composed of a membranous, cylindrical 
 tube, terminated by two lips forming a little button or inflation, and of a 
 sucker consisting of five squamous threads which produces the effect of a 
 sting. The wings are laid horizontally, one over the other, on the body, 
 with little scales. 
 
 The torment we experience from these Insects, particularly in the vicinity 
 
DIPTERA. 483 
 
 of low grounds and water, where they are most abundant, is well known. 
 These Insects also feed on the nectar of flowers. 
 
 The female deposits her eggs on the surface of the watei', and places them 
 side by side in a perpendicular direction; the entire mass resembles a little 
 bateau floating on that element. Each female lays about three hundred 
 eg-gs in the course of the year. These Insects frequently survive the most 
 intense cold. Their larvse swarm in the green and stagnant waters of ponds 
 and ditches, particularly in spring, the period at which those females lay 
 their eggs who have passed through the winter. They suspend themselves 
 on the surface of the water in order to respire, with their head downwards. 
 These larvas are very lively, swim with considerable velocity, and dive from 
 time to time, but soon return to the surface. After some changes of tegu- 
 ment, they then become nymphs, which still continue to move by means 
 of their tail and its two terminal fins. These nymphs also remain on the 
 surface of the water, but in a different position from that of the larvx, their 
 respiratory organs being placed on the thorax; they consist of two' tubular 
 horns. It is in the water also that the perfect Insect is developed. Its 
 exuvix form a sort of float or resting place, which keeps it from submer- 
 sion. All these metamorphoses occur in the space of three or four weeks, 
 and several generations are produced in the course of the year. 
 
 In the other Nemocera, the proboscis is either very short and 
 terminated by two large lips, or in the form of a siphon or rostrum, 
 but directed perpendicularly or curved on the pectus. The palpi 
 are bent underneath, or turned up, but in that case, from one to 
 two joints only. 
 
 Linnaeus comprises them in his genus 
 
 TiPULA. 
 
 "Which is now variously divided and subdivided. It includes the various 
 species of the Crane-fly. 
 
 All the following Diptera, a small number excepted, have their 
 antennas composed of three joints, the first of which is so short, that 
 it may be excluded from thesupputation; the last isannulated trans- 
 versely, but without distinct divisions. It is frequently accompanied 
 with a seta, usually lateral, and sitUated on the summit in others 
 presenting two joints at base, sometimes simple and sometimes silky 
 The palpi never have more than two joints. 
 
 Some, a few excepted, whose larvae divest themselves of their 
 skin previous to becoming pupae, always have a sucker composed 
 of six or four pieces; the proboscis, or at least its extremity, that is 
 to say, its lips, is always salient. The palpi, when they exist, are 
 
481 INSECTA. 
 
 exterior, and inserted near the margin of the oral cavity, close to 
 which arises the sucker. 
 
 The larvae, even of those in which the skin forms a cocoon for 
 the pupa (Stratiomis)^ retain their primitive form. 
 
 This subdivision will comprise three families. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 TANYSTOMA.(l) 
 
 The Diptera of this family are distinguished from those of the two 
 following ones by the last joint of the antennas, which, exclusive of 
 the seta .which may terminate it, presents no transverse division; the 
 sucker is composed of four pieces. 
 
 Their larvae resemble long and almost cylindrical worms, with a 
 constant and squamous head, always provided with hooks or retrac- 
 tile appendages, by which they are enabled to gnaw or suck the 
 alimentary matters on which they feed. They change their skin to 
 undergo their second metamorphosis. The nymphs are naked, and 
 exhibit several of the external parts of the perfect Insect, which is- 
 sues from its exuvias, through a slit in the back. 
 
 In our first division we find species whose proboscis, always en- 
 tirely (or nearly) salient, with the exterior envelope or the sheath 
 of the sucker solid or almost corneous, projects more or less in the 
 form of a tube or siphon, sometimes cylindrical or conical, and 
 sometimes filiform, and terminates without any remarkable enlarge- 
 ment, the lips being small or confounded with the sheath. The 
 palpi are small. 
 
 Some, that are rapacious, have an oblong body, the thorax nar- 
 rowed before, and the wings incumbent; their proboscis is most 
 commonly short or but slightly elongated, and forms a sort of ros- 
 trum. The antennae are always approximated, and the palpi ap- 
 parent. 
 
 AsiLTTs, Lin. 
 Where the proboscis is directed forwards. They fly with a humming 
 noise, are carnivorous, voracious, and according to their size and power, 
 seize on Flies, Tipulse, Bombi or Coleopterae, which they then exhaust by 
 
 (1) Long'-mouthed. 
 
DIPTERA. 485 
 
 suction. Their larvae have a small squamous head, anned with two mova- 
 ble hooks, live in the earth, and there become nymphs, whose thorax is 
 furnished with dentated hooks, and the abdomen with small spines. 
 
 Empis, Lin. 
 Closely allied to Asilus in the form of the body and the position of the 
 wing's, but with the proboscis perpendicular or directed backwards. The 
 head is rounded and almost globular; the eyes very large. 
 
 These Insects are small and live on prey and tlie nectar of flowers. The 
 last joint of their antennze is always terminated by a biarticulated or short 
 stilet, or by a seta. 
 
 The remaining Tanystoma of our first division usually have a short, wide 
 body, the head apphed directly to the thorax, the wings distant and the 
 abdomen triangular. In a word, their general appearance is that of our 
 domestic Fly. Their proboscis is frequently long. 
 
 CvRTUs, Lat. 
 
 Intermediate between Empis and Bombylius. The wingS are Inclined on 
 each side of the body; and the alulse very large and covering the halteres; 
 the head is small and globular, the thorax very high or gibbous, the abdo- 
 men vesicular and rounded, or almost cubical; the antennae are closely ap- 
 proximated, and the proboscis is directed backwards or wanting'. 
 
 Bombylius, Lin. — Bombyliers, Lat. 
 Where the wings are extended horizontally on each side of the body, and 
 the halteres are exposed. The thorax is higher than the head, or gibbous 
 as in Cyrtus; the antennae are closely approximated, and the abdomen is 
 triangular or conical; the proboscis is directed forwards. The proboscis is 
 generally very long and most slender at the extremity. Their legsare long" 
 and attenuated. They fly with great velocity, hover over flowers without 
 alighting on them, introduce their trunk into their calyx to obtain their 
 nectar, and produce a sharp humming sound. 
 
 Anthrax, Scop. Fab. 
 Similar to Bombylius; but where the body is depressed, or but slightly ele- 
 vated and not gibbous, with the head as high and as broad as itself The 
 antennae are always short, and distinct from each other, and always termin- 
 ated by a subulate or punch-like joint. The proboscis, except in a small 
 number, is generally short, extending but little beyond the head, frequently 
 even withdrawn into its oral cavity, and terminated by a little inflation 
 formed by the lips. The palpi are usually concealed, small, fiUform, and 
 each, at least in several, adhering to one of the threads of the sucker. The 
 abdomen is less triangular than that of the Bombylii, and partly square. 
 These Insects are generally hairy. Their habits are very analogous to 
 
486 INSECTA. 
 
 those last mentioned. They frequently alight on the ground, on walls ex- 
 posed to the sun, and on leaves. 
 
 Our second general division of the Tanystoma is characterized by 
 a membranous proboscis, usually with a short stem, projecting but 
 slightly and terminated by two very distinct and raised or ascending 
 lips. 
 
 The form of the head in the larva) of the last Diptera of this divi- 
 sion is variable. 
 
 In some — Lcptides—ihe wings are distant and exhibit several 
 complete cells. The antennas arc not terminated en palette. The 
 palpi are filiform or conical. 
 
 Sometimes these palpi are withdrawn into the oral cavity. The 
 antennas have a fusiform termination or one resembling an elongated 
 cone, with a little articulated stilet at the end. 
 
 Thereva, Lat. 
 T.pleheia. Black, with cinereous hairs; abdominal annuU margined with 
 white. On plants. 
 
 Sometimes the palpi are exterior. The last joint of the antennae 
 is either almost globular or reniform,or nearly ovoid or conical, and 
 terminated by a long seta. 
 
 The tarsi are furnished with three pellets. They form the genus 
 
 Leptis. 
 Which is divided into several subgenera. We may notice the 
 
 L. vermilco. llesembling a Tipula; yellow; four black streaks on the 
 thorax; the abdomen elongated, with five ranges of black spots; wings im- 
 maculate. 
 
 The larva is almost cylindrical; its anterior portion is much the smallest, 
 and there are four mandibles on the opposite extremity. It resembles a 
 stick-like geometra (caterpillar), and is equally rigid when withdrawn from 
 its domicil. It bends its body in every direction, advances and moves about 
 in the sand, and excavates there an infundibuliform cavity, at the bottom of 
 which it secretes itself either entirely or partially. If an Insect be preci- 
 pitated into the trap it rises .suddenlj', clasps it with its body, pierces it with 
 the stings or hooks of its head, and sucks it. It flings away the carcass as 
 well as the sand, by bending its body, and then suddenly relaxing it, like a 
 bow. 
 
 The pupa is covered with a layer of sand. 
 
 The other Tanyetoma of our second division have their wings in- 
 
DIPTERA. 487 
 
 cumbent on the body. The antennae terminate in a palette, almost 
 always accompanied by a seta. The palpi of the greater number 
 are flattened or laminiform, and laid on the proboscis. 
 
 These characters, a body compressed on the sides, a triangular 
 head, slightly projecting in the manner of a snout, the abdomen 
 curved underneath, and long slender legs furnished with little spines, 
 particularly distinguish the genus 
 
 DoLicuopus, Lat. Fab. 
 Which now forms a small tribe. These Insects are frequently green or 
 cupreous. The legs are long- and very slender. They are found on walls, 
 trunks of trees, &c. Some of them ruii along the suiface of the water 
 with great celerity. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 TABANIDES. 
 
 Our third family of the Diptera is characterized by a salient pro- 
 boscis, usually terminated by two lips with projecting palpi, by the 
 last joint of the antennae being annulated, and by a sucker composed 
 of six pieces: it comprises the genus 
 
 Tabanus, Lin. 
 Or the Horse-flies. These Diptera are very similar to large Flies, and well 
 known by the torment they occasion to cattle, by piercing their skin in 
 order to suck their blood. Their body is usually but slightly pilose. 
 Their head is as wide as the thorax, almost hemispherical, and with the 
 exception of a small space, particularly in the males, occupied by two eyes, 
 generally of a golden-green, with purple spots or streaks. Their antennae 
 are about the length of the head, and are composed of three joints, the 
 last of which is the longest, terminates in a point, has neither seta nor stilet 
 at the end, is frequently lunate above its base, and with from three to seven 
 transverse and superficial divisions. The proboscis of the greater number 
 is almost membranous, perpendicular, of the length of the head or some 
 what shorter, almost cylindrical, and terminated by two elongated lips. 
 The two palpi, usually incumbent on it, are thick, pilose, conical, 
 compressed and biarticulated. The sucker inclosed in the proboscis is 
 composed of six small pieces, in the form of lancets, which, by their num- 
 ber and relative situation, correspond to the parts of the mouth in the Co- 
 leoptera. The wings are extended horizontally on each side of the body. 
 The alulae almost completely cover the halteres. The abdomen is triangu- 
 lar and depressed. The tarsi are furnished with three pellets. 
 
488 INSECTA. 
 
 These Insects begin to appear towards the close of spring, are very com- 
 mon in. the woods and pastures, and produce a humming noise when on the 
 wing. They even pursue Man in order to suck liis blood. Beasts of bur- 
 den, having no means of repulsing them, are most exposed to their attacks, 
 and are sometimes seen covered with blood from the wounds they inflict. 
 The Insect mentioned by Bruce, under the name of Tsaltsalya, which is 
 dreaded even by the Lion, may possibly belong to this genus. 
 
 T. bovinus, L. An inch long; body brown above, grey beneath; eyes 
 green; tibix yellow; transverse lines and triangular spots of pale yellow on 
 the abdomen; wings transparent, with russet-brown nervui-es. 
 
 The larva lives in the ground. It is elongated, cylindrical, and attenua- 
 ted towards the head, which is armed with two hooks. The nymph is 
 naked, and ascends to the surface of the soil when about to divest itself of 
 its skin, in order to assume the form of a Tabanus, and protrudes the half 
 of its body above it. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 NOTACANTHA.(l) 
 
 The fourth family of the Diptera, as well as the preceding one, 
 presents antennae of which the third and last joint is divided trans- 
 versely in the manner of a ring, or which are even composed of five 
 very distinct joints; but the sucker is formed of only four pieces, 
 and the proboscis, the stem of which is usually very short, is almost 
 entirely retracted within the oral cavity. The membranous nature 
 of that organ and its turned up lips, its similarly raised and clavate 
 palpi, the relative disposition of the wings which are usually crossed, 
 the form of the abdomen which is rather oval or orbicular than tri- 
 angular, and finally the scutellum which is frequently armed with 
 teeth or spines, also distinguish the Notacantha from the Tabanides. 
 
 But few of their larvae have been observed. Such as have been 
 discovered are described and figured by Swammerdam, Reaumer 
 and Roesel, are aquatic, and approximate to those of the Athericera 
 in their soft head, varying in form, and in their habit of becoming 
 pupae under their own skin; but they retain their primitive form and 
 proportions, thus differing from those of the latter. 
 
 Other larvae of the Notacantha — Xylophagus — live in the carious 
 and diseased parts of trees. 
 
 1) Spiny-backed. 
 
DIPTERA. 489 
 
 We divide the Notacantha into three principal sections. 
 
 Those of the first — BIydasii, Lat. — never have teeth or spines 
 in the scutellura. Their body is oblong, and the abdomen forms an 
 elongated and conical triangle. The wings are distant. Their an- 
 tennae, from which we draw their most distinguishing character, are 
 sometimes composed of five distinct joints, the two last of which form 
 a club in some, and the extremity of a cyhndrical stem with a subu- 
 late termination in others, and sometimes of three joints, the last of 
 which is largest, almost cylindrical, tapers to a point and is divided 
 into three annulij thus these organs are always divided into five. 
 
 In some the antenna3 are much longer than the head, consist of 
 five joints, are terminated in an elongated club formed by the two 
 last, with an umbilicus at the end from which issues a very short 
 seta. The posterior thighs are stout, and dentated or spinous on 
 the inner side. The tarsi have but two pellets. The posterior cells 
 of the wings are complete or closed before the margin, or narrow 
 or elongated, oblique or transverse. 
 
 These Insects compose the genus 
 
 Mydas, 
 
 Which is divided into two subgenera. CErHALOCEBA, Lat., where the 
 proboscis is in the form of a long and projecting siphon, and Mxdas, Fab. 
 or Mydas proper, where that organ, as is usual in this family, terminates by 
 two large lips. 
 
 In the others, the antennae are scarcely longer than the head, cy- 
 lindrical, and tapering to a point at their extremity. The tarsi are 
 furnished with three pellets. The posterior cells of the wings are 
 longitudinal and closed by their posterior margin. 
 
 Chiromyza, Wied. 
 Where the antennx are composed of five well separated joints, the two 
 l»st of which are the smallest. 
 
 Pachystomus, Lat. 
 Where the antennae are composed of three joints, the last of which is divided 
 into as many rings. 
 
 In the second section, that of the Decatoma^ Lat., we find anten- 
 nae always composed of three joints, the last of which, the longest, 
 without stilet or seta, and divided into eight rings, is clavate in 
 
 3 M 
 
490 INSECTA, 
 
 some, and almost cylindrical or in the form of an elongated cone in 
 the others. The wings are usually incumbent on the body. The 
 tarsi are furnished with three pellets. 
 
 These Insects may be united in one generic section. 
 
 Xylophagtjs. 
 In Xylophagus proper, the body is narrow and elongated, and the antennse 
 are evidently somewhat longer than the head, and terminated by an almost 
 cylindrical joint. The head is short, transversal, and without any particular 
 elevation anteriorly. 
 
 In the third section — Stratiomydes, Lat., — we also find antennae 
 consisting of three joints, the last of which, exclusive of thestilet or 
 seta, presents at most five or six rings. This stilet, or that seta, 
 exists in almost all of them, and in those where they are wanting, 
 the third joint is elongated and fusiform, and always divided into five 
 or six rings. The wings are always incumbent one on the other. 
 In several of those species where the antennae terminate in a some- 
 what oval and globular club, and always furnished with a stilet or a 
 seta, the •scutellum is not spinous. 
 
 This section comprises the genus 
 
 Stratiomts, Geoff. 
 In Stratiomys, properly so called, the antennse are much longer than the 
 head, the first and last joint being greatly elongated; the latter is fusiform, 
 or resembles a narrow and elongated club, narrowed at both ends, consist- 
 ing of at least five distinct rings, witliout an abrupt stilet at the extremity. 
 The two rings that compose it are not distinguished from the others by any 
 sudden contraction. 
 
 The body of the larvse is long, flattened, invested by a coriaceous or firm 
 skin and divided into annuli, of which the three last form a tail terminated 
 by numerous plumose hairs which radiate from the extremity. They in- 
 habit water. 
 
 Our second general division of the Diptera, which are provided 
 with a sucker enclosed in a sheath, and whose antennas consist of 
 but three or two joints, comprises those whose proboscis, usually 
 bilabiate, long, geniculate, and bearing the palpi a little above the 
 elbow, is most commonly entirely contained in the oral cavity, and 
 when always salient, has a sucker composed of only two pieces. 
 The last joint of the antennas, always accompanied by a stilet or seta, 
 
DIPTERA. 491 
 
 never exhibits annular divisions. The palpi, when at rest, are con- 
 cealed. 
 
 FAMILY V. 
 
 ATHERICERA. 
 
 Here the proboscis is usually terminated by two large lips. The 
 sucker is never composed of more than four pieces, and frequently 
 presents but two. 
 
 The larvffi have a very soft, extremely contractile, annulated body, 
 narrowest and most pointed anteriorly. The head varies as to 
 figure, and its external organs consist of one or two hooks, accom- 
 panied in some genera by mammillae, and probably in all by a sort 
 of tongue destined to receive the nutritious juices on which they 
 feed. They usually have four stigmata, two situated on the first 
 ring, one on each side, and the two others on as many circular, 
 squamous plates, at the posterior extremity of the body. It has 
 been observed that these latter, at least in several, were formed of 
 three smaller and closely approximated stigmata. The larva has 
 the faculty of enveloping these parts with the marginal skin, which 
 forms a sort of purse. They never change their skin. That which 
 invests them when first hatched becomes indurated, and thus forms 
 a sort of cocoon for the pupa. It becomes shortened, assumes an 
 ovoidal or globular figure, and the anterior portion, which in the 
 larva was the narrowest, increases in diameter, oris sometimes even 
 thicker than the opposite extretnity. Traces of the annuli, and 
 frequently vestiges of the stigmata are observed on it, although the 
 latter no longer serve for respiration. The body is gradually de- 
 tached from the skin or cocoon, assumes the figure of an elongated 
 and extremely soft ball, on which none of its parts are perceptible, 
 and soon passes into the state of a pupa. The Insect issues from 
 its shell, by removing with its head the anterior extremity, which flies 
 offlike a cap, that part of the cocoon being so disposed as to facili- 
 tate this result. 
 
 But few of the Athericera are carnivorouB in their perfect state. 
 
 They are generally found on trees, leaves and flowers. 
 
 Their proboscis is always long, membranous, geniculate near the 
 base, terminated by two large lips, and encloses the sucker in a su- 
 
492 INSECTA. 
 
 perior groove- The upper piece of this sucker, which is inserted 
 near the elbow, is brocid, arched and emarginated at its extremity; 
 the three others are linear and pointed, or setaceous; to each of the 
 two lateral ones, representing the maxillas, is annexed a little mem- 
 branous, narrow palpus, slightly widened and rounded at the end; 
 the inferior seta is analogous to the ligula. The head is hemis- 
 pherical, and mostly occupied by the eyes, that of the males parti- 
 cularly. Its anterior extremity is frequently prolonged in the man- 
 ner of a snout or rostrum, receiving the proboscis underneath when 
 it is doubled. Several species resemble Bombi and other Wasps. 
 This tribe will comprise but the single genus 
 
 Syephus. 
 
 In Syrphus, properly so called, the abdomen is gradually narrowed from 
 base to point. 
 
 The larvae feed exclusively on Aphides of all kinds, frequently holding 
 them in the ah", and soon exhausting them by suction. Their body forms 
 a sort of elongated cone, and is veiy uneven, or even spinous. When 
 about to become pupse, they fix themselves to leaves, &c. with a kind of 
 glue. The body is shortened, and its anterior portion, which was pre- 
 viously the most slender, then becomes the thickest. 
 
 The sucker of all the remaining Athericera consist of but two 
 setse, the superior representing the labrum, and the inferior the 
 ligula. 
 
 They form three other small tribes which will correspond to the 
 genera CEstrus and Conoj)s of Linnseus, and to the Musca, Fab. as 
 originally composed. 
 
 We will begin with (he tribe of the CEstrides consisting of the 
 genus 
 
 CEsTHus, Lin. 
 Which is very distinct, as in place of the mouth we find but three tubercles, 
 or slight rudiments of the proboscis and palpi. 
 
 These Insects resemble large and densely pilose Flies, and their hairs are 
 frequently coloured in bands hke those of the Bombi. Their antennae are 
 very short; each is inserted in a fossula over the front, and terminated by 
 a rounded palette with a simple seta on the back near its origin. Their 
 wings arc usually remote; the alulse are large and conceal the halteres. 
 The tarsi are terminated by two hooks and two pellets. 
 
 These Insects are rarely found in their perfect state, the time of their 
 appearance and the localities they inhabit being very limited. As they 
 
DIPTERA. 493 
 
 deposit their eggs on the body of various herbivorous quadrupeds, it is in 
 woods and pastures that we must look for them. Each species of CEstnis 
 is usually a parasite of one same species of some mammiferous animal, and 
 selects for the location of its eggs the only part of its body that is suitable 
 for its larvae, whether they are to remain tliere, or pass from thence to the 
 spot suited for their development. The Ox, Horse, Ass, Rein-deer, Stag, 
 Antelope, Camel, Sheep and Hare ai-e tlie only quadrupeds yet known, 
 •which are subject to be inhabited by the larvae of the CEstri. They seem 
 to have an extraordinary di-ead of the Insect when it is buzzing about them 
 for the purpose of depositing its egg^. 
 
 The domicil of the larvae is of three kinds; we may distingush them by 
 the names of cutaneous, cervical, and gastric, as some live in the lumps or 
 tumours formed on the skin, others in some part of the interior of the head, 
 and the rest in the stomach of the animal destined to support them. 
 
 CE. bovis, De Geer. From six to seven lines in length, and densely pi- 
 lose; thorax yellow, with a black band; abdomen wliite at base, with a ful- 
 vous extremity; wings somewhat obscure. 
 
 The female deposits her eggs under the hide of healthy Oxen and Cows, 
 of not more than two or three years of age. The consequence of this ope- 
 ration are tumours or lumps, on the internal pus of wliich the larvae feed. 
 Horses also are subject to them. 
 
 The Rein-Deer, Antelope, Hare, &c., also nourish various larvae of CEstri, 
 but of a different species. 
 
 CE. ovis, L. Five lines in length, and but slightly pilose; head greyish; 
 thorax cinereous, with elevated black points; abdomen yellowish, finely 
 spotted with brown or black; legs pale-brown; wings transparent. The 
 larva inhabits the frontal sinus of the Sheep. That of the species called 
 trompe. Fab., is found in the same parts in the Rein-Deer. 
 
 CE. equi, Lat.; Clarck. But slightly pUose, and of a fulvous brown; ab- 
 domen paler; two points and a band on the wings, black. The female de- 
 posits her ova on the legs and shoulders of Horses; the larvae inhabit their 
 stomach. 
 
 The third tribe of the Athericera, that of the CoNopsARiiE, is the 
 only one of that family in which the proboscis is either always sali- 
 ent and siphoniform, cylindrical or conical, or setaceous. The re- 
 ticulation of the wings is the same as in our first division of the 
 Muscides. 
 
 Most of these Insects are found on plants. They form the genus 
 
 CoNOPs, Lin. 
 
 In Conops, properly so called, the two last joints of the antennsc formed a 
 club, with a terminal stilet. 
 
 C. rufipes; Fab. Black; abdominal annuli edged with white; base of the 
 abdomen and legs fulvous; edge of the wings black. 
 
494 INSECTA. 
 
 It undergoes its metamorphosis in the abdomen of a living Bombus, and 
 issues from between its rings. 
 
 Our fourth and last tribe, that of the Muscides, is distinguished 
 from the three preceding ones by a very apparent, always membra- 
 nous and bilabiate proboscis, usually bearing two palpi (the Phorae 
 alone excepted), susceptible of being entirely retracted within the 
 oral cavity; and by a sucker composed of two pieces. The antennae 
 always terminate en palette with a lateral seta. 
 
 This tribe will comprise the genus 
 
 MuscA, Lin. 
 
 Or that of the Flies. Antennse inserted near the front, palpi placed on the 
 proboscis, and retiring with it into the oral cavity, and transverse nervures 
 in tlie wings, characterize a first section of the Muscides, which will in- 
 chide eight principal groups or sub-tribes. 
 
 Tbese groups are composed of various subgenera — we will merely parti- 
 cularize that of 
 
 Musca, properly so called, or the true Fly, where the abdomen is trian- 
 gular, and the eyes are contiguous postei'iorly, or closely approximated in 
 the males. 
 
 Here come most of those Flies whose larv2e feed on carrion, meat, &c. ; 
 others of the same subgenus inhabit dung. They all resemble soft, whitish 
 worms without feet, thickest and truncated at the posterior extremity, and 
 becoming gradually smaller towards the opposite one, which terminates in 
 a point furnished with two hooks, with which they divide their aliment, and 
 accelerate its decomposition. The metamorphosis of these Insects is effect- 
 ed in a few days. The posterior extremit}' of the abdomen of the females 
 is narrowed and prolonged in the manner of a tube or ovipositor, by which 
 she can insert her eggs. 
 
 M vomitoria, L. A large species; front fulvous; thorax black; abdomen 
 glossy-blue with black streaks. 
 
 This Insect enjoys the sense of smell to a high degree, announces its 
 presence in our dwellings by a loud humming, and deposits its ova on meat. 
 Deceived by the cadaverous odour arising from the Arum dracuncvdus, L. 
 when in flower, it also leaves its eggs there. When the larva is about to 
 become a pupa, it abandons the putrescent matters in which it has lived, 
 which might then prove injurious to it, and penetates, if possible, into the 
 earth, or is metamorphosed in some dry and retired spot. 
 
 M. csesar, L. Body, a glossy golden-green; legs black. The female de- 
 posits her eggs on carrion. 
 
 M. domestica, h. The thorax of the Common Fly is of a cinerous-grey 
 with four black streaks; abdomen blackish-brown spotted with black, and 
 yellowish-brown above. 
 
DIPTERA. 495 
 
 In the Diptera of which we have hitherto spoken, we have found 
 a sucker received into the superior canal of a tubular sheath, more 
 or less membranous, geniculate at base, most frequently terminated 
 by two lips, and accompanied by palpi. The antennae, except one 
 subgenus or Phora, have always appeared to be inserted near the 
 front. The larvae of these Diptera, although susceptible of being 
 hatched in the venter of the mother, live abroad and feed on various 
 substances, vegetable or animal. These Insects have formed our 
 first general section, which is divided into five families. Those of 
 the second differ in all these respects. 
 
 This second section will form our last family of the Diptera. 
 
 FAMILY VI. 
 
 PUPIPARA.(l) 
 
 These insects, at least the Hippoboscae, were distinguished by 
 Reaumur, under the analogous appellation o^ Nymphipara. 
 
 Their head, viewed from above, is divided into two distinct areae 
 or parts. One posterior, and more particularly composing the head, 
 gives origin to the eyes and receives the other part in an anterior 
 emargination. The latter is also divided into two portions, the 
 posterior large and coriaceous, bearing the antennae on its sides, 
 and the other constituting the apparatus of manducation. The in- 
 ferior and oral cavity of the head is occupied by a membrane; from 
 its extremity issues a sucker arising from a little bulb or projecting 
 pedicle, composed of two closely approximated threads or se(£e, and 
 covered by two coriaceous, narrow, elongated, and pilose laminae 
 which form its sheath. 
 
 The body is short, tolerably broad, flattened and defended by a 
 solid skin almost of the consistence of leather. The head is more 
 intimately united to the thorax than in the preceding families. The 
 antennae, always situated at the lateral and anterior extremities of 
 the head, sometimes form a tubercle bearing three setae, and some- 
 times little hairy laminae. The eyes vary as tosize; in some species 
 they are very small. 
 
 (1) Bom in the pupa state. 
 
496 INSECTA. 
 
 The thorax presents four stigmata, two anterior and two poste- 
 rior. 
 
 The wings are always distant and accon)panied by halteres. 
 Their edge is more or less fringed with cilia. The skin of the ab- 
 domen is formed of a continuous membrane, so that this part of the 
 body is susceptible of being distended and of acquiring a conside- 
 rable volume, as necessarily happens in those female Hippoboscae, 
 where the larvas are hatched and continue to reside until the period of 
 their transformation into pupae. At this epoch the larvae are pro- 
 duced in the form of a soft, white egg^ almost as bulky as the ma- 
 ternal abdomen; the skin hardens and becomes a firm shell, at first 
 brown, then black, round, and frequently emarginated at one end, 
 and presenting a glossy plate or operculum which is finally detached 
 in the manner of a cap to allow the egress of the perfect Insect. 
 
 These Insects, which have been called by some authors Mouches- 
 Araignees^ live exclusively on Quadrupeds or Birds, run very fast, 
 and frequently sideways. 
 
 Some — Coriaces^ Lat. — have a very distinct head articulated 
 with the anterior extremity of the thorax. They form the genus 
 
 HiPPOBoscA, Lin. Fab. 
 The Hippobosca proper is furnished with wings; and has very distinct eyes 
 occupying all the sides of the head; antennse in the form of tubercles, 
 with three setsc on the back. 
 
 H. equina, L. Brown mixed with yellowish. Found on Horses and 
 Oxen, usually under their tail. 
 
 There are other subgenera. 
 
 The head of the other Pupipara — Phtkiromyies, Lat. — is very 
 small or almost wanting. It forms a minute, vertical body near the 
 anterior and dorsal extremity of the thorax. 
 
 They constitute the genus 
 
 NycTEKiBiA, Lat. 
 These Insects have neither wings nor halteres, and resemble Spiders still 
 more than the preceding ones. They live on Bats. Linnxus arranged one 
 species, and the only one he knew, with the Pediculi. 
 
497 
 
 FOURTH GREAT DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 ANIMALIA RADIATA. 
 
 The Radiated Animals, or Zoophytes, as they are termed, 
 include a number of beings whose organization, always evidently 
 more simple than that of the three preceding divisions, also presents 
 a greater variety of degrees than is observed in either of them, and 
 seems to agree in but one point, viz. their parts are arranged round 
 an axis and on one or several radii, or on one or several lines ex- 
 tending from one pole to the other. Even the Entozoa or Intestinal 
 Worms have at least two tendinous lines, or two nervous threads 
 proceeding from a collar round the mouth, and several of them have 
 four suckers situated round a probosciform elevation. In a word, 
 notwithstanding some irregularities, and some very few exceptions — 
 those of the Planaria and most of the Infusoria — traces of the radi- 
 ating form are always to be found, which are strongly marked in the 
 greater number, and particularly in Asterias, Echinus, the Acale- 
 pha, and the innumerable host of the Polypi. 
 
 The nervous system is never very evident, and when traces of it 
 have been apparently visible, it was also arranged in radii; most 
 frequently, however, there is no appearance of it whatever. 
 
 There is never any true circulating system. The Holothuria are 
 provided with a double vascular apparatus, one portion of it being 
 attached to the intestines and corresponding to the organs of respi- 
 ration, and the other merely serving to inflate the organs which 
 3 N 
 
498 ANIMALIA RADIATA. 
 
 supply the want of feet. In the great number of Zoophytes it is 
 easily proved that there are no vessels whatever. 
 
 In some genera, such as Holothuria, Ursinus, and in several of 
 the Entozoa, we observe a mouth and a distinct intestinal canal. 
 Others have an intestinal sac, but with a single opening. In the 
 greater number there is merely a cavity excavated in the substance 
 of the body which sometimes opens by several suckers; and finally 
 there are some in which there is no mouth visible, and which can 
 only be nourished by porous absorption. 
 
 The sexes of several of the Entozoa or Intestinal Worms can be 
 distinguished. The greater number of the other Radiata are ovi- 
 parous; some are reproduced by buds or division. 
 
 The compound animals, of which we have already seen some ex- 
 amples in the last of the Mollusca, are greatly multiplied in certain 
 orders of the Radiata, and their aggregation produces trunks and 
 expansions forming all sorts of figures. It is to this circumstance, 
 together with the simple nature of the organization in most of the 
 species, and the radiating disposition of their organs, which reminds 
 us of the petals of flowers, that they owe their name of Zoophytes 
 or Animal-plants, by which we merely mean to express this appa- 
 rent affinity, for as Zoophytes enjoy the sense of touch and the power 
 of voluntary motion, mostly feed on matters which they have swal- 
 lowed or sucked, and digest them in an internal cavity, they are cer- 
 tainly animals in every point of view. 
 
 In Asterias and Ursinus, called Echinodermes by Brugiere on 
 account of their spines, we find a distinct intestine floating in a large 
 cavity, and accompanied by other organs, for respiration, &c., and 
 a partial circulation. 
 
 The Entozoa or Intestinal Worms, which form the second class, 
 have no very evident vessels in which a distinct circulation is car- 
 ried on, nor separate organs of respiration. Their body is usually 
 elongated or depressed, and their organs arranged longitudinally. 
 
 The third class comprises the Acalepha or Sea Nettles. They 
 have neither true circulating vessels nor organs of respiration. 
 Their form is usually circular and radiating, and their mouth is al- 
 most always their only aperture. They only differ from Polypi in 
 the greater development of the tissue of their organs. The Aca- 
 lepha Hydrostatica, which we place at the end of this class, when 
 
ANIMALIA RADIATA. 499 
 
 better known, will perhaps form a separate one; as yet however we 
 only conjecture the functions of their singular organs. 
 
 The Polypi, which compose the fourth class, are those little ge- 
 latinous animnls whose mouth surrounded with tenlacula leads to a 
 stomach sometimes simple and sometimes followed by intestines in 
 the form of vessels. To this class belong those innumerable com- 
 pound animals with a fixed and solid stem which were considered as 
 marine plants. 
 
 The Thethyire and Sponges are usually placed at the end of this 
 class, although Polypi have not yet been discovered in them. 
 
 The Infusoria, or the fifth and last class of the Zoophytes, are 
 those minute beings whose existence we have only discovered by 
 means of the microscope, and which swarm in stagnant waters. 
 Most of them have merely a gelatinous body destitute of viscera, al- 
 though we commence the series with more compound species pos- 
 sessed of visible organs of locomotion and a stomach: these also 
 may hereafter constitute a separate class. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 ECHINODERMATA.(l) 
 
 The Echinodermata are the most complicated animals of this di- 
 vision. Invested with a well organized skin, frequently supported by 
 a sort of skeleton, and armed with points, or movable and articulated 
 spines, they have an internal cavity in which distinct and floating 
 viscera may be perceived. A sort of vascular system, which it is 
 true does not extend throughout the body, keeps up a communica- 
 tion with various parts of the Intestine, and with the organs of res- 
 piration, which are generally very distinct. Threads are also seen 
 in several, which may act as nerves, but which are never arranged 
 with the regularity and fixed order of those in the animals of the 
 two preceding divisions of the Invertebrata. 
 
 (I) Hedge-hog (i. e. spiny) skinned. 
 
500 ECHINODERMATA. 
 
 We divide the Echinodermata into two orders: those furnished 
 with feet or at least with vesicular organs, so called on account of 
 their fulfilling similar functions; and those in which they are wanting. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 PEDICELLATA. 
 
 The Pedicellata are distinguished by organs of motion exclusively 
 peculiar to them. Their skin is pierced with a number of little 
 holes, arranged in very regular series, through which pass cylindri- 
 cal and membranous tentacula, each one terminated by a little disk 
 which acts like a cupping-glass. That portion of these tentacula 
 which remains within the body is vesicular; a humour is effused 
 through their entire cavity, and is either propelled at the will of the 
 animal into the exterior and cylindrical portion, which it distends, 
 or returns to the interior vesicle, when the former sinks and becomes 
 relaxed. It is by thus elongating and shortening their hundreds of 
 little feet or tentacula, and by fixing them by their cup-like extremi- 
 ties, that these animals effect their progressive motion. Vessels 
 proceeding from these feet extend to trunks which correspond to 
 their ranges, and which terminate near the mouth. They form a 
 system distinct from that of the intestinal vessels observed in some 
 species. 
 
 Linnaeus divided them into three very natural, but numerous ge- 
 nera, and composed of such various species, that they may be consi- 
 dered as forming three families. The 
 
 AsTEKiAS, Lin. 
 Or Stttr/ish, have been so called because their body is divided into rays 
 (generally five), in the centre of which, and underneath, is the mouth. 
 
 The framework of their body is composed of small osseous pieces, vari- 
 ously combined, the arrang-ement of which merits examination. Their 
 power of reproduction is very great, as they not only reproduce the rays 
 which have been separately removed, but a single one with the central ray 
 remaining will reproduce all the others; for this reason their figure is fre- 
 quently irregular. 
 
 Echinus, Lin. 
 The Eehini, or Sea-Vrehins, as they are termed, have the body uvvestcd by 
 
PEDICELLATA. 501 
 
 a shell or calcareous crust, composed of angular pieces which join each 
 other exactly, and perforated by innumerable holes, for the transmission of 
 the membranous feet, disposed in several very regular ranges. The sur- 
 face of this crust is armed with spines, articulated on little tubercles, that 
 move at the will of the animal, whose motions, conjointly with the feet 
 situated between them, they effect. Other membranous tubes, much finer 
 and frequently divided at the extremity, probably serve to convey water 
 into the interior of their shell, and then to remove it. The mouth is pro- 
 vided with five teeth, set in an extremely complex, calcareous framework, 
 resembhng a pentagonal lantern, furnished with various muscles, and sus- 
 pended in a large aperture of the shell. These teeth, which resemble long 
 ribands, become indented inferiorly as fast as they are worn away at the 
 point. The intestine is very long, and attached, spirally, to the interior 
 parietes of the shell by a mesentery. A double vascular system extends 
 along this canal, and partly on the mesentery; there are also particular ves- 
 sels for the feet. Five ovaries empty themselves by separate orifices; 
 they form the edible portion of these animals. 
 
 The Echini chiefly feed on small shell-fish, which they seize with their 
 feet. Their motions are very slow. Shells of Echini are very abundant in 
 the ancient strata, principally those of chalk, where they are usually filled 
 with silex- 
 
 The Echini are divided into regular and irregular, and form several sub- 
 genera. 
 
 E- esculentus, L. The common Echinus is of the form and size of Sn 
 apple, completely covered with short, radiating, and usually violet spines. 
 Its ovaries, which are reddish, and of an agreeable flavour, are edible in 
 the spring. 
 
 HOLOTHURIA, Lin. 
 
 The Holothurise have an oblong coriaceous body open at each end. At 
 the anterior extremity is the mouth, surrounded with complicated tentacula 
 susceptible of being entirely retracted. At the opposite end is the aper- 
 ture in which the organ of respiration terminates. It is in the form of an ex- 
 tremely ramified hollow tree, which is filled with water, or emptied, at the 
 will of the animal. The mouth is edentate, or merely furnished with a cir- 
 cle of bony pieces; it receives saliva from certain sac-like appendages. 
 
 The Holothurise are divided according to the arrangement of their feet. 
 
 H. tremula, Gm. Blackish, and when completely extended more than a 
 foot long; its back is bristled with soft and conical points, and its mouth 
 provided with twenty ramous tentacula. This species is very common in 
 European seas, the Mediterranean particularly. 
 
502 ECHINODERMATA, 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 APODA.(l) 
 
 Our second order of the Echinodermata, or the Apoda, comprises 
 but a small number of animals closely related to the Holothuriae, 
 but which want the vesicular feet of the preceding order. Their 
 body is invested with a coriaceous unarmed skin. Several points of 
 their internal structure are not well understood. In 
 
 MoLPADiA, Cuv. 
 As in Holothuria, we find a coriaceous body fonning' a thick cylinder, open 
 at both ends, and a tolerably similar internal organization; but independ- 
 ently of the want of feet, the mouth is destitute of tentacula, and is provided 
 with an apparatus of bony parts, but less complicated than that of the 
 Echini. 
 
 MlNVAS, Cuv. 
 
 Where the body is also destitute of feet and open at both extremities; but 
 its form is that of a spheroid depressed at the poles, and furrowed like 
 a melon. 1 can find no armature about the mouth. 
 
 M. cyanea, Cuv. A beautiful species of a deep blue colour that inhabits 
 the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 LiTHODERMIS, CuV. 
 
 Where the body is oval and compressed posteriorly; its surface has the 
 appearance of being covered with a layer of stony granules, which form 
 an extremely indurated crust. The mouth is surrounded with tentacula, 
 and the intestines seem to be analogous to those of the Holothuriae. 
 
 L. cuneus, Cuv. Blackish, and two inches in length. From the seas of 
 India, and the only species known. In the 
 
 SiPUNcuLUs, Gm. 
 The body is cylindrical and elongated, the skin thick and wrinkled in both 
 directions. The mouth is provided with a sort of a proboscis susceptible of 
 retraction and protrusion by the action of large internal muscles. 
 
 These animals are found in the sands of the sea, like the Arenicolx and 
 Thalassemac, and like them are used as bait by the fishermen. 
 
 S. edulis, Cuv. This species is eaten by the Chinese inhabitants of Java, 
 who procure it from the sands by means of slender bamboos prepared for 
 the purpose. Other and rather small species — Sip. Isevis, Sip. verrucosus, 
 •Cuv. — :perfora4;e submarine rocks and live in their cavities. 
 
 CI) Footless. 
 
APODA. 503 
 
 BoNELLLji, Rolando. 
 Here the body is oval and furnished with a proboscis formed of a double 
 lamina susceptible of g^eat elongation and forked at the extremity. The 
 intestine is very long' and frequently flexed, and we observe two ramified 
 organs which may serve for resphation. The ova are contained in an ob- 
 long sac opening near the base of the proboscis. The Bonellix live at a 
 considerable depth in sand, extending their proboscis to the water and even 
 to the air above its surface when the tide is low. 
 
 B. viridis, Rol. It inhabits the Mediterranean. 
 
 There are some other genera. 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 ENTOZOA, Rud. 
 
 The Entozoa or Intestinal Worms are remarkable, because the 
 greater number inhabit the interior of other animals, and there only 
 can live. There is scarcely a single animal that is not the domicil 
 of several kinds, and those which are observed in one species are 
 rarely found in many others. They not only inhabit the alimentary 
 canal and the ducts that empty into it, such as the hepatic vessels, 
 but even the cellular tissue, and the parenchyma of the most com- 
 pletely invested viscera, such as the liver and brain. 
 
 In the Intestinal Worms we find neither tracheae, nor any other 
 organ of respiration, and they must receive the influence of oxygen 
 through the medium of the animal they inhabit. They present no 
 trace of a true circulation, and we merely perceive vestiges of nerves 
 so extremely obscure, that many naturalists have doubted their ex- 
 istence. 
 
 When those characters are found united in an animal with a form 
 similar to that of this class, we place it here, although it may not in- 
 habit the interior of another species. 
 
 We will divide the Entozoa in two orders, which are perhaps 
 sufficiently different in organization to form two classes, if we had 
 the observations requisite to determine their limits. These orders 
 are the Entoxoa Nematoidea, Rud., "which have an intestinal canal 
 
^h 
 
 504 ENTOZOA. 
 
 floating in a distinct abdominal cavity, a'raoutb, &c., and the Ento- 
 zoa Parenchymata, where the parenchyma of the body contains 
 obscurely terminated viscera, most commonly resembling vascular 
 ramifications, and sometimes not visible. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 NEMATOIDEA, Rud. 
 
 This order comprises those whose external skin, more or less 
 furnished with muscular fibres, and usually striated transversely, 
 contains an abdominal cavity in which is a distinct intestinal canal, 
 extending from the mouth to the extremity, and where the sexes are 
 usually distinct. The intestine is connected with the neighbouring 
 parts and the general envelope of the body by numerous threads, 
 considered by some writers as vessels for the conveyance of the 
 nutritious fluid, and by others as tracheas, but without any proof of 
 the fact. It is impossible to detect any true circulation in these 
 animals, but in several there appear to be one or two nervous cords 
 arising from a ring which surrounds the mouth, and extending the 
 whole length of the body along the internal surface of the envelope. 
 
 FiLARiA, Lin- 
 Where the body is elongated, slender, filiform, and perforated at the ante- 
 rior extremity by a round oral aperture. The FUarise in their external ap- 
 pearance are very similar to the Gordii. They are chiefly found in those 
 cavities of animals which do not open externally, such as the cellular mem- 
 brane, and even in the thickness of the membranes and the parenchyma of 
 the viscera ; there we sometimes find them in bundles and countless num- 
 bers, enveloped in species of capsules. They are found in Insects and their 
 larvae, and even in the visceral cavity of several Mollusca. The most cele- 
 brated species of this genus 
 
 F. medinensis, Gm., (the Guinea Worm), is very common in hot cli- 
 mates, insinuates itself under the skin of man, generally that of the leg, 
 where, if credence be given to the reports of certain authors, it acquires a 
 length of ten feet and more. It is about as thick as the barrel of a Pigeon's 
 qiull. Its pointed and hooked tail constitutes its distinguishing character. 
 
 TeICHOCEPH ALUS . 
 
 Where the body is roimd, thickest posteriorly, and as slender as a thread 
 
NEMATOIDEA. 505 
 
 anteriorly. Tliis slender partis terminated by a round mouth* The most 
 common species is the 
 
 T. dispar, Rud. From one to two Inches in length, of which the thickest 
 portion forms but the third. This part, in the male, is convoluted spLi-ally. 
 
 It is one of the most common Worms in the great intestines of Man, where, 
 in certain diseases, it becomes prodigiously multiplied. 
 
 CUCULLANTTS. 
 Here the body is round, and most slender posteriorly. The head is obtuse 
 and Invested with a sort of hood that is frequently striated; the mouth is 
 round. 
 
 They have hitherto been found in Fish only. The most common species 
 is that which Inhabits the Perch and also Infests the Pike, &c. I* is vivipar- 
 ous, about an inch long, as thick as a thread, and of a red colour, owing to 
 the blood with which its intestine is usually fiUed. 
 
 Ophiostoma. 
 The same kind of body as the preceding, but distinguished by a trans- 
 versely cleft mouth, and consequently furnished with two lips. 
 
 AscAKis, Lin.(l) 
 The Ascarides have a round body, attenuated at each extremity, and a 
 mouth furnished with three fleshy papillae, between which an extremely 
 short tube occasionally projects. This genus is very numerous in species 
 which are found in all kinds of animals. 
 
 Two white threads, one of which extends along the back, and the other 
 along the abdomen, are considered by Messrs Otto and Cloquet as the ner- 
 vous system of these animals; two other and thicker threads, one on the 
 right and the other on the left, are considered by some as muscular, and by 
 others as vascular, or even as tracheae. 
 
 In some, the head is destitute of lateral membranes. The most common 
 species, the 
 
 A. lumbricoides, L., Is found without any essential difference in Man, the 
 Horse, Ass, Zebra, Hemiona, Ox and Hog. It has been seen more than fif- 
 teen inches In length. Its natural colour is white. 
 
 Other species are furnished with a little membrane on each side of the 
 head* Such is 
 
 wS. vermicularis, L. Very common in children. It is not more than five 
 linea in length, and is thickest anteriorly. 
 
 (1) diTK^ptt, the name of the small species that is found in Man, is derived 
 from tta-ieafi^ai, to leap, to move. 
 
 3 O 
 
506 ENTOZOA. 
 
 Strongylus, Mull. 
 
 Here the body is round. In some of these Strongyli the mouth is ciliate or 
 dentated. Such is that which infests the Horse, or the 
 
 S. equinus, Gm. It is also found in the Ass and Mule. 
 
 The mouth of others is merely surrounded by tubercles or papillse. Such 
 particularly is the 
 
 S. gigas, Rud., the most voluminous of all known intestinal Worms; it 
 is upwards of two or three feet in length, and as thick as the little finger. 
 The most singular circumstances attending this Strongylus is that it is most 
 usually developed in one of the kidneys of various animals, such as the 
 Wolf, Dog, Mink, and even Man, where it lies doubled up, distending that 
 organ, destroying its parenchyma, and probably occasioning the most ex- 
 cruciating agony to the animal in which it resides. It sometimes inhabits 
 other viscera- Its usual colour is a beautiful red; the mouth is surrounded 
 with six papillse; the intestine is straight and transversely rugose, the ovary 
 simple, three or four times the length of the body, communicating exteriorly 
 by a hole a little distance posterior to the mouth, and, as it appears, open 
 at the other extremity. An extremely attenuated white thread that extends 
 along the abdomen is considered by M. Otto as the nervous system. 
 
 Lern^a, Lin. 
 
 The internal and external organization of the body is nearly the same as in 
 the Nematoidea, but it is prolonged anteriorly by a corneous neck, at the 
 extremity of which is a mouth variously armed and surrounded, or followed 
 by productions of different forms. This mouth and its appendages are in- 
 sinuated into the skin of the gills of fishes, and fix the animal there. The 
 Lernese are also distinguished by two cords, sometimes moderate, and at 
 others very long, or even much doubled, that are pendent from the sides of 
 the tail, and which may possibly be ovaries. 
 
 L. branchialis, L. The most known species; it attacks the Codfish and 
 other Gadi, and is from one to two inches in length. Its mouth is surround- 
 ed by three ramous horns, which, as well as the neck, are of a deep brown. 
 Its more inflated body is bent into an S, and the two cords are contorted 
 in a thousand different ways. Its horns become rooted, as it were, in the 
 gills of fishes. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 PARENCHYMATA. 
 
 The second order of the Entozoa comprises those species in 
 which the body is filled with a cellular substance, or even with a 
 
PARENCHYMATA. 507 
 
 continuous parenchyma, the only ahmentary organ it contains being 
 ramified canals, which distribute nourishment to its different points, 
 and which, in most of them, originate from suckers visible exter- 
 nally. The ovaries are also enveloped in this parenchyma or that 
 cellulosity. There is no abdominal cavity, nor intestine properly 
 so called; and if we except some equivocal vestiges in the first fami- 
 lies, there is nothing to be found which bears a resemblance to 
 nerves. 
 
 We may divide this order into four families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 ACANTHOCEPHALA.(l) 
 
 The Parenchymata of this family attach themselves to the intes- 
 tines by a prominence armed with recurved spines, which also ap- 
 pears to act as a proboscis. They form the single genus 
 
 ECHINORHYNCHUS, Gm. 
 
 Where the body is round, sometimes elongated, and sometimes in the form 
 of a sac, provided anteriorly with a prominence in the form of a probos- 
 cis armed with little hooks bent posteriorly, and susceptible of being re- 
 tracted or protruded by the action of particular muscles. These worms 
 cling to the intestines by means of their proboscis, and frequently penetrate 
 through them, so that individuals are sometimes found in the thickness of 
 their tunics, and even in the abdomen, adhering to their external parietes. 
 E. gigas, Gm. The largest species known; it inhabits the intestines of 
 the Hog and Wild Boar, where the females attain a length of fifteen inches. 
 
 FAMILY II. 
 
 TREMADOTEA, Rud. 
 
 Our second family comprises those which are furnished under- 
 neath the body, or at its extremity, with organs resembling cupping- 
 glasses, by which they adhere to the viscera. They may all be 
 united in one genus, or the 
 
 (1) Thorn-headed. 
 
508 ENTOZOA. 
 
 • FAacioLA, Lin. 
 Which may be subdivided according to the number and position of their 
 organs of adhesion. 
 
 DiSTOMA. 
 
 Here there is a sucker at the anterior extremity of the mouth, and a cup, 
 
 a little posterior to it, on the venter. The species are very numerous, and 
 some are found even in the plaited membrane of the eyes of certain Birds. 
 Others, however, appear to inhabit fresh and salt water. The most cele- 
 brated is 
 
 D. hepatica. It is very common in the hepatic vessels of Sheep, but is 
 also found in those of various other llumlnantia, and of the Hog, Horse, and 
 even of Man. Its form is that of a small oval leaf, pointed posteriorly, 
 with a narrowed portion anteriorly, at the end of which is the first sucker, 
 which communicates with a sort of esophagus, from which arise canals that 
 ramify throughout the body, conveying the bile on which this animal feeds. 
 
 The species that infest Sheep become greatly multiplied when they graze 
 in low and wet grounds, rendering them dropsical, and finally kilUng them. 
 
 There are several other generaw 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 
 T^NIOIDEA, 
 
 In our third family of parenchymatous Intestinal Worms, we place 
 all those species in which the head is provided with two or four 
 suckers placed around its middle, which is itself sometimes marked 
 with a pore, and sometimes furnished with a little proboscis, naked 
 or armed with spines. Sometimes there are four little trunks thus 
 armed. 
 
 The most numerous genus is 
 
 TjENia, Lin. 
 The body of the Tape-worm is often excessively elongated, fiat, composed 
 of joints more or less distinctly marked, and narrowed anteriorly, where we 
 generally find a square head hollowed by four small suckers. 
 
 Observers have thought that they could perceive canals which arose 
 from these suckers, and crept along the margin of the joints of the body. 
 Each of the latter has one or two pores differently situated, according to the 
 species, which appear to be the orifices of ovaries that ore placed in the 
 thickness of the joints, where they are sometimes simple, and at others 
 ramous. The Taniae are among the most cruel enemies of the animals in 
 which they are developed, and which ai-e apparently exhausted by them. 
 
PAIJENCHYMATA. 509 
 
 T. lata, Rud. (The Common Tape-worm. ) The joints are broad, short, 
 and furnished with a double pore in the middle of each side. It is very 
 frequently twenty feet in length, and it has been found upwards of a hun- 
 dred. The large ones are nearly an inch wide, but the head and anterior 
 portion of tlie body are always very slender. This species is exti-emely 
 injurious and tenacious. The most violent remedies frequently fail to expel 
 it In Man. 
 
 T. solium, L. Ver solitaire of the French. Its joints, the anterior ones 
 excepted, are longer than they are wide, and have the pore 'placed alter- 
 nately on one of their edges. It is usually from four to ten feet in length, 
 but much larger ones are sometimes met with. The vulgar idea that but 
 one of these animals is found at a time in the same individual is very far 
 from being true. Its detached joints are styled cucurbitini. It is one of 
 the most dangerous of the intestinal worms and the most difficult to expel. 
 
 From these ordinary Tjenias, on account of the form of their head, 
 are distinguished various others, forming the Tricuspidaria, &c. 
 
 Naturalists have also distinguished from the ordinary Tasnae those 
 which, with a similar head, that is one with four suckers, have the 
 body terminated posteriorly by a bladder. Their joints are not as 
 distinctly marked as in the preceding ones. The genus 
 
 Cysticeecus, Rud. 
 
 Vulgarly termed Hydatids, is composed of those in' which the bladder sup- 
 ports but a single body and one head. They are particularly developed in 
 the membranes and cellulosity of animals. 
 
 C. cellulosse. This species is the most celebrated of the whole number, 
 and lives between the fibres of the muscles of the Hog, producing the dis- 
 ease called measles. It is small, and multiplies prodigiously in this disgust- 
 ing disease, penetrating into the heart, eyes, &c. Similar animals have, it 
 appears, been observed in certain Monkeys, and even in Man. 
 
 FAMILY IV. 
 
 CESTOIDEA. 
 
 The fourth family comprises those which are destitute of external 
 suckers. 
 
 But one genus is known. 
 
 LiGULA, Bloch. 
 of all the Entozoa, these appear to be the most simply organized. Their 
 body resembles a long riband; it is flat, obtuse before, marked with a ion- 
 
510 ENTOZOA. 
 
 gitudinal stria, and finely striated transversely. No external organ what- 
 ever is perceptible, and internally we find nothing but the ova, variously 
 distributed in the length of the parenchyma. 
 
 They inhabit the abdomen of certain Birds, and particularly of various 
 fresh-water Fishes, enveloping and constricting their intestines to such a 
 degree as to destroy them. At certain periods they even perforate the 
 parietes of their abdomen to leave it. One of them, the 
 
 L. abdominalis, Gm., inhabits the Bream. In some parts of Italy these 
 worms are considered agreeable food. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 ACALEPHA.(l) 
 
 Our third class comprises Zoophyta which swim in the waters of 
 the ocean, and in whose organization we can still perceive vessels, 
 which, it is true, are generally mere productions of the intestines 
 excavated in the parenchyma of the body. 
 
 ORDER I. 
 
 SIMPLICIA. 
 
 The simple Acalepha float and swim in the ocean by the alternate 
 contractions and dilatations of their body, although their substance 
 is gelatinous and without any apparent fibres. The species of ves- 
 sels observed in some of them are hollowed out of their gelatinous 
 substance; they frequently and evidently originate from the stomach, 
 and do not occasion a true circulation. 
 
 Medusa, Lin. 
 The Medusae are furnished superiorly with a disk more or less convex, re- 
 sembling the head of a mushroom, and called the umbella. Its contractions 
 
 (1) Nettles, from aic«x*f». 
 
SIMPLICIA. 511 
 
 and dilatations assist the locomotion of the animal. The edges of this um- 
 bella, as well as the mouth, or the suckers more or less prolonged into 
 pedicles which supply the want of it, in tlie middle of the inferior surface, 
 are furnished witli tentacula of various forms and very different sizes. 
 These various degrees of complication have given rise to numerous divisions. 
 
 The two following genera, which were formerly joined with the 
 Medusae, might also constitute a small family in this order, on ac- 
 count of the internal cartilage which supports the gelatinous sub- 
 stance of the body. 
 
 PoKPiTA, Lam. 
 
 Where this cartilage is circular and its surface marked with concentric 
 strise crossed by radiating striae. The superior surface is merely invested 
 with a thin membrane that projects beyond it; the infei'ior is covered with 
 a great number of tentacula, the exterior of which are the longest, and fur- 
 nished with little ciha, each terminated by a globule. They sometimes 
 contain air; those in the middle are the shortest, simplest and most fleshy. 
 In the centre of all these tentacula is the mouth, in the form of a little sa- 
 lient proboscis. It leads to a simple stomach surrounded by a sort of glan- 
 dular substance. One species is known, of a beautiful blue colour, that 
 inhabits the Mediterranean and seas of hot climates. 
 
 Velella, Lam. 
 
 Where, as in Porpita, there is a mouth in the inferior surface in the form 
 of a proboscis, surrounded with innumerable tentacula, the exterior of which 
 is the longest, but the latter are not ciliated, and a still more important 
 character is, that tlie cai'tilage, which is oval, has on its superior surface a 
 vertical and tolerably elevated crest. This cartilage is diaphanous, and is 
 merely marked with concentric striee. A species of this genus also is known, 
 of the same colour as the Porpita and inhabiting the same seas. It is eaten 
 fried. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 HYDROSTATICA. 
 
 The Hydrostatic Acalepha are known by one or more bladders 
 usually filled with air, by means of which they suspend themselves 
 in their liquid element. Excessively numerous and variously shaped 
 appendages, some of which probably serve as suckers, and the others 
 
513 AGALEPHA. 
 
 perhaps as ovaries, and some longer than the rest as tentacula, 
 are attached to these vesicles and compose the whole apparent or- 
 ganization of these animals. They have no apparent mouth, or one 
 which can be decidedly considered as such. 
 
 Physalta, Lam. 
 
 The Physalije resemble an extremely large oblong bladder elevated supe- 
 riorly into an oblique and wrinkled crest, and furnished beneath, near one 
 of its extremities, with numerous, cylindrical, fleshy productions, variously 
 terminated, that communicate with the bladder. Those in the middle give 
 origin to more or less numerous groups of little filaments; the lateral ones 
 are merely divided into two threads, one of which is frequently very long. 
 There appears to be an extremely small orifice in one of the extremities of 
 the bladder, but internally no other intestine is found, but another bladder 
 with thinner parietes. There is no nervous, circulating, nor glandular 
 system. The animal swims on the surface of the sea when it is calm, em- 
 ploying its crest as a sail. When living, it is also furnished with extremely 
 long filaments, more slender than the others, which are sprinkled, as it 
 were, with pearls or drops. Its touch Is said to sting and burn like that of 
 the Sea-nettle. They are found in all the seas of hot climates. 
 
 Phtssophora, Forsk. 
 These Acalepha are evidently allied to the Physalise, but their bladder is 
 proportionally much smaller, has no crest, and is frequently accompanied 
 by lateral bladders; their various and numerous tentacula are suspended 
 vertically under the bladder, like a garland or cluster. 
 
 It is directly after these hydrostatic Acalepha that we may place 
 the 
 
 DiPHYES, Cuv. 
 
 A very singular genus, where two different individuals are always found to- 
 gether, one encased in a cavity of the other, but susceptible of being sepa- 
 rated without destroying the life of either. They are gelatinous, diaphan- 
 ous, and move nearly in the manner of a Medusa. The receiver produces 
 from the bottom of its cavity a chaplet which traverses a semi-canal in the 
 received, and appears to be composed of tentacula, and suckers, like those of 
 the preceding genera. 
 
 This genus has been divided by Messrs Quoy and Gaymard according to 
 the relative form and proportions of the two individuals. 
 
POLYPI. 513 
 
 CLASS IV. 
 POLYPI. ^ 
 
 Our fourth class of the Radiata, or Zoophytes has been thus 
 named because the tentacula which surround their mouth give them 
 a slight resemblance to an Octopus called Polypus by the ancients. 
 The number and form of these tentacula vary. The body is always 
 cylindrical or conical, frequently without any other viscus than its 
 cavity, and frequently also with a visible stomach, to which adhere 
 intestines or rather vessels excavated in the substance of the body 
 like those of the Medusae; in this latter case we usually find ovaries 
 also. Most of these animals are capable of forming compound be- 
 ings, by shooting out new individuals, like buds. They are also, 
 however, continued bv eggs. 
 
 ORDER L 
 
 CARNOSI. 
 
 The first order comprises fleshy animals that usually fix them- 
 selves by their base, several of which, however, have the power of 
 crawling on that base, or even of detaching it altogether, and swim- 
 ming or suffering themselves to be carried away by the current. 
 Most commonly, however, they merely expand the oral aperture. It 
 is surrounded with a greater or less number of tentacula, and opens 
 into a stomach en cul-de-sac. Between this internal sac and the 
 external skin we find a tolerably complex, but still obscure organi- 
 zation, chiefly consisting of fibrous and vertical leaflets, to which the 
 ovaries, that resemble tangled threads, are attached. The intervals 
 of these leaflets communicate with the interior of the tentacula, and 
 it appears that water penetrates into and issues from them by small 
 orifices in (he circumference of the mouth; the Actiniae, at least, 
 sometimes ejaculate it in this manner. 
 3 P 
 
514 POLYPI. 
 
 Actinia, Lin. 
 The fleshy body of these Polypi is frequently ornamented with bright 
 colours, and exhibits numerous tentacula placed round the mouth in seve- 
 ral ranges, like the petals of a double flower, and hence their common 
 name of Sea-Anemones. They are extremely sensible to the influence of 
 light, and expand or close in proportion to the fineness of the day. 
 When they retract their tentacula, the opening through which those organs 
 pass contracts and closes over them like the mouth of a purse. 
 
 Their power of reproduction is scarcely inferior to that of the Hydra; 
 parts that have been amputated shoot out again, and the animal may be 
 multiplied by division. These Zoophytes, when hungry, dilate their mouth 
 to a great extent. They devour all sorts of animals, especially Crus- 
 tacea, Shell-fish, and small Fishes, which they capture with their tentacula, 
 and soon digest. 
 
 A. equina, L. The skin soft and finely striated, usually of a fine purple 
 colour frequently spotted with green; it is smaller than the senilis, with 
 longer and more numerous tentacula. This species covers all the rocks on 
 the French coast of the British channel, ornamenting them as if with the 
 most splendid flowers. 
 
 LUCEENARIA, Mull. 
 The Lucernariae should apparently be approximated to the Actinije, but 
 their substance is softer; they fix themselves to fuci and other marine 
 bodies by a slender pedicle, and their superior portion dilates like a parasol, 
 in the centre of which is the mouth. Numerous tentacula united in bundles 
 are arranged round its edges. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 
 GELATINOSI. 
 
 The gelatinous Polypi, unlike the preceding ones, are not invested 
 with a firm envelope, neither is there a ligneous, fleshy, nor corne- 
 ous axis in the interior of their mass. Their body is gelatinous and 
 more of less conical j its cavity supplies the want of a stomach. 
 
 Hydra, Lin. 
 Of all the animals of this class, these are reduced to the greatest degree of 
 simplicity. A little gelatinous horn, whose edges are provided with fila- 
 ments that act as tentacvla, constitutes their whole apparent organization. 
 The microscope discovei's nothing in their substance but a diaphanous 
 parenchyma filled with more opaque granules. Notwithstanding this, they 
 
GELATINOSI. 515 
 
 swim, crawl, and even walk by alternately fixing their two extremities in 
 the manner of Leeches or of the caterpillars called Geometrse. They agi- 
 tate their tentacula and use them for seizing their prey, which can be seen 
 being digested in the cavity of their body. They are sensible to the action 
 of lig'ht, and seek it, but their most wonderful property is that of being con- 
 stantly reproduced bj' the indefinite excision of their parts, so that we can 
 multiply them at will by means of division. Their natural increase is by 
 shoots which push out from various points of the body of the adult, and at 
 first resemble branches. 
 
 There are several other genera belonging to this order, such as Corine, 
 Vorticellay &c. 
 
 ORDER III. 
 CORALLIFERI. 
 
 The Coralliferi constitute that numerous suite of species which 
 were long considered as marine plants, and of which the individuals 
 are in fact united in great numbers to constitute compound animals, 
 mostly fixed like plants, either forming a stem or simple expansions, 
 by means of a solid internal substance. The individual animals, 
 more or less analogous to the Actinije or Hydras, are all connected 
 by a common body, and are nourished in common, so that what is 
 eaten by one goes to the nutrition of the general body, and of all 
 the other Polypi. Their volition is even in common, at least it is 
 certainly so in the free species, such as the Pennatulae, which are 
 seen swimming by the contractions of their stems, and the combined 
 motions of their Polypi. 
 
 The name of Coral has been given to the common parts of these 
 compound animals; it is always formed by deposition, and in layers 
 like the ivory of teeth, but is sometimes on the surface, and some- 
 times in the interior of the compound animal. This difference of 
 position has given rise to the following families. 
 
 FAMILY I. 
 
 TUBULARII. 
 
 Those of the first inhabit tubes of which the common gelatinous 
 body traverses the axis, like the medulla of a tree, and that are 
 
516 POLYPI. 
 
 open, either on the summit or sides, to allow the passage of the 
 Polypi. 
 
 Their more simple Polypi appear to be chiefly analogous to the 
 Hydra3 and Cristatellae. 
 
 TuBiPOEA, Lin. 
 
 Simple tubes of a stony substance, each containing a Polypus. These 
 tubes are parallel, and united from space to space by transverse laminse, 
 which has caused them to be compared to the pipes of an organ. The 
 most common species, 
 
 T. musica, L. 5 is of a beautiful redj its polypi are green, and formed like 
 Hydrae. Very abundant in the archipelago of India. 
 
 TUBULARIA, Lin. 
 simple or branched tubes of a homy substance, from the extremities of 
 which issue the Polypi. 
 
 Sertularia, Lin. 
 The Sertulariae have a corneous stem, sometimes simple, sometimes ramous, 
 on the sides of which are cells, extremely various in form, that are occu- 
 pied by the Polypi, all connected with a gelatinous stem that traverses the 
 axis, like the medulla of a tree- They increase by ova or buds, which are 
 developed in cells larger than the rest, and of a different form. The vari- 
 ous directions of their cells have caused them to be subdivided. 
 
 FAMILY 11. 
 
 CELLULARIL 
 
 Where each Polypus is adherent in a corneous or calcareous cell 
 with thin parietes, and only communicates with the others by an ex- 
 tremely tenuous external tunic, or by the minute pores w^hich tra- 
 verse the parietes of the cells. These Polypi bear a general re- 
 semblance to the Hydrae. 
 
 Cellularia, Lin. 
 Where these cells are so arranged as to form branching stems in the man- 
 ner of the Sertularix, but without a tube of communication in the axis. Their 
 substance also is more calcareous. 
 
 Flustea, Lin. 
 We here find a great number of cells united like honey-combs, sometimes 
 
CORALLIFERI. 517 
 
 covering various bodies, and sometimes forming stems or leaves, of which, 
 in certain species, one side only is furnislied with cells, and in others, both: 
 tlieir substance is more or less corneous. 
 
 Cellepora, Fab. 
 
 Masses of small calcareous vesicles or cells, crowded one against the other, 
 and each perforated by a little hole. 
 
 TuBULiPORA, Lam. 
 Masses of little tubes, of which the aperture is as wide as the bottom, or 
 wider. 
 
 Bodies exist in the ocean that resemble the Corals of which we 
 have been speaking, both in substance and their general form, but 
 in which Polypi have not yet been discovered. Their nature is 
 consequently doubtful, and great naturalists, such as Pallas and 
 others, have considered them as plants; others, however, consider 
 them as having very small cells, and as being inhabited by coralli- 
 ferous Polypi. In this case they belong to the present order. 
 Those, in which the interior is filled with corneous threads, still 
 present some analogy to the Ceratophyta. In the 
 
 COKALLINA, Lin. 
 We observe articulated stems placed on species of roots, and divided into 
 branches, also articulated, on the surface of wluch no pores can be seen, 
 and in which no Polypi have hitherto been discovered. 
 
 C. officinalis^ L. The bottom of the sea on certain coasts is completely 
 covered with this coral, the joints of which are ob oval and the ramusculi 
 arranged like pinnate leaves, bearing other branches similarly disposed. 
 It is white, reddish, or greenish. It was formerly employed in pharmacy 
 on account of its calcareous nature. 
 
 Of all these productions without apparent Polypi, which are conjectur- 
 ally referred to the Coralliferi, few are more singular than the Acetabula, or 
 
 Acetabulum, Lam. 
 Where we find a slender and hollow stem supporting a round tliin plate, 
 like a parasol, with radiating stria:, crenulated at the edge and having a lit- 
 tle smooth disk sun-ounded with pores in the centre. No Polypi can be 
 discovered in them. The rays of the disk are hollow and contain greenish 
 granules, a circumstance which led Cavolini to consider them as plants. 
 One of them — Tubularia acetabulum, Gm., is found in the Mediterranean. 
 
518 POLYPI. 
 
 FAMILY III. 
 CORTICATL 
 
 This family comprises genera in which all the Polypi are con- 
 nected by a common, thick, fleshy or gelatinous substance, in the 
 cavities of which they are received, and which envelopes an axis 
 varying in form and substance. The Polypi of those that have been 
 observed are somewhat more complex than the preceding ones and 
 approximate more closely to the Actinae, Internally we observe a 
 stomach from which eight intestines originate, two that are pro- 
 longed into the common mass, and two that are shorter,,and seem 
 to supply the place of ovaries. 
 
 They are subdivided into four tribes. In the first, or the Ceea- 
 TOPHYTA, the internal axis has the appearance of wood or horn, 
 and is fixed. Two genera of them are known, and both extremely 
 numerous. 
 
 Antipathes, Lin. 
 
 Commonly termed Black Coral, where the ramous and ligneous-like sub- 
 stance of the axis is enveloped v/ith a bark so soft, that it becomes destroy- 
 ed after death, when it resembles branches of dry wood, &c. 
 
 GOEGONIA, L. 
 Where, on the contrary, this horny or ligneous substance of the axis is 
 enveloped by a bark, the thickness of which is so penetrated by calcareous 
 granules, that it dries on the axis, retaining its colours, wliich arc frequently 
 extremely vivid and beautiful; it is soluble in acids. 
 
 In the second tribe, that of the Litiiophyta, the internal axis 
 is of a strong substance and fixed. In 
 
 Isis, Lin. 
 This axis is ramous, and has no cells or cavities on its surface . The ani- 
 mal bai-k which envelopes it is mixed with calcareous granules, as in the 
 Gorgoniae. 
 
 Madrepoea, Lin. 
 The stony portion of Madrepores is either ramous, or forms rounded mosses, 
 or leaves, but is always furnished with lamellje vvrhich unite concentrically in 
 points where they represent stars, or which terminate in lines more or less 
 serpentine. While alive, this stony portion is covered with a living bark. 
 
CORALLIFERI. 519 
 
 soft, gelatinous, and completely covered with rosettes of tentacula which 
 are the Polypi or rather the Actiniae, for they usually have several circles 
 of tentacula, and the lamella of the stars correspond in some respects to the 
 membranous laminae of the body of the Actiniae. The bark and Polypi 
 contract on the slightest touch. 
 
 MiLLEPORA, Lin. 
 Here the stony portion is extremely various in form, and the surface 
 merely marked with little holes or pores, or even without any apparent ori- 
 fices. 
 
 In the third tribe, or the Natantes, the axis is stony but not 
 fixed. 
 
 Pennatula, Lin. 
 
 A common body, free from all adhesion, of a regular and constant form, 
 and susceptible of locomotion by the contractions of its fleshy portion and 
 the combined action of its Polypi. This body is fleshy, and contracts or 
 dilates in its various parts by means of the fibrous layers that enter into its 
 composition;' its axis encloses a simple stony stem; the Polypi have gene- 
 rally eight dentated arms. Most of the species diffuse a vivid phospho- 
 rescent light. 
 
 The Pennatulae, properly so called, have given their name to the whole 
 genus, which name has been derived from their own resemblance to a 
 quill. The portion destitute of Polypi is cylindrical, and terminates in an 
 obtuse point. The other part is furnished on each side with wings or 
 laminae, more or less long and broad, supported by spines or rigid setae 
 which arise from their interior and roughen one of their edges, without, 
 however, being articulated with the stony stem of the axis; it is from be- 
 tween their laminae that the Polypi protrude.] 
 
 Small, porous and stony bodies, which nuturalists have thought 
 may be approximated to the Millepora, are found among fossils and 
 in the ocean. If they were enveloped by a rind of bark containing 
 Polypi, they would be movable CoraUiferi, and should rather be 
 placed near the Pennatulae. Such are the 
 
 OvuiiTEs, Lam., which have the form of eggs, hollow, and frequently 
 perforated at both ends: the Ltjnulites, which are orbicular, convex, stri- 
 ated, and porous on one side, and concave on the other: and the Okbulites, 
 that are orbicular, flat, or concave, porous on both sides or on the edges. 
 If the DACTrLOPOHA be free, as in the opinion of Lamarck, it will also be- 
 long to this subdivision; it is a hollow ovoid, open at both ends, and witli 
 two envelopes, both perforated by meshes like the Retepora. 
 
520 POLYPI. 
 
 In the fourth tribe the animal rind or bark encloses a mere fleshy 
 substance without an axis either osseous or horny. In 
 
 Alcyonitjm, Lin. 
 
 As in the Pennatuls, we observe Polypi with eight denticulated arms, and 
 intestines prolonged into the common mass of the ovaries: but this mass is 
 not supported by an osseous axis; it is always fixed to the body; and where 
 it is drawn out into trunks and branches, nothing is found internally, but a 
 gelatinous substance traversed by numerous canals surroimded with fibrous 
 membranes. The bark is harder and excavated by cells, into which the 
 Polypi withdraw more or less entirely. 
 
 After the Alcyonia are also placed the 
 
 Spongia, Lin. 
 Or Sponges; marine, fibrous bodies, whose only sensible portion appears to 
 be a sort of tenuous gelatine which dries oil", scarcely leaving a trace of it, 
 and in which neither Polypi nor other moving parts have yet been disco- 
 vered. Living Sponges are said to exhibit a sort of tremulousness or con- 
 traction wh en they are touched; It is also affirmed that the pores, with their 
 superficies, are perforated, and present a sort of palpitation; the existence 
 of these motions, however, is contested by M. Grant. 
 
 Sponges assume innumerable shapes, each according to its species, and 
 resemble shrubs, horns, vases, tubes, globes, fans, &c. 
 
 Every one knows the S. officinalis, or common Sponge, which is found 
 in large brown masses, formed of extremely fine, flexible, and elastic fibres, 
 perforated with numerous pores and little irregular canals, all of which in- 
 tercommunicate. 
 
 CLASS V. 
 
 INFUSORIA. 
 
 Naturalists usually close the catalogue of the animal kingdom 
 with beings so extremely minute as to be invisible to the naked eye, 
 and which have only been discovered since the invention of the mi- 
 croscope has unveiled to us, as it were, a new world. Most of 
 them present a gelatinous body of the greatest simplicity, and for 
 these, this is undoubtedly the situation; but authors have placed 
 
INFUSORIA. 521 
 
 among the Infusoria, animals apparently much more complicated, 
 and which only resemble them in their minuteness, and the dwelling 
 in which they are usually found. 
 
 They will constitute our first order, though we must still insist 
 upon the doubts relative to their organization, which are not yet dis- 
 sipated. 
 
 . ORDER I. 
 
 ROTIFERA.(l) 
 
 The Rotifera are distinguished by a greater degree of complica- 
 tion. Their body is oval and gelatinous; we can distinguish in it a 
 mouth, a stomach, and an intestine. It most commonly terminates 
 posteriorly in a tail that is variously constructed, and anteriorly it 
 bears a singular organ, variously lobate, with denticulated edges, and 
 of which the denticulations vibrate successively in such a manner as 
 to give the organ itself the appearance of one or more dentated and 
 revolving wheels. One or two prominences on the neck have even 
 appeared to some observers to be furnished with eyes. This re- 
 volving organ does not serve to direct their aliment to the mouth; it 
 may be supposed to have some connexion with the function of res- 
 piration. In 
 
 FuRcuLAKiA, Lam. 
 
 The body is unarmed; the tail is composed of articulations which enter one 
 into the other, and is terminated by two threads. 
 
 It is on one of these — the Furcularia or Motif ere des toits — that Spallanzani 
 performed his famous experiments. Covered with dust in the spouts on 
 the roofs of houses it becomes desiccated, and after remaining in that state 
 for several weeks, reacquires life and motion on being humected with a lit- 
 tle water. 
 
 There are two other genera, viz. Tubicolaria and Brachionus. 
 
 (1) Wheel-bearers. 
 3 Q 
 
522 INFUSORIA. 
 
 ORDER II. 
 HOMOGENEA. 
 
 The body of the Honiogenea presents neither viscera nor other 
 complication, and is frequently destitute of even the appearance of 
 a mouth. 
 
 The first tribe comprises those which, with a gelatinous body 
 more or less contractile in its different parts, still present external 
 organs consisting of cilia more or less strong. 
 
 When they have the form of a horn, (cornet), from which the cilia issue 
 as in the Polypi called Vbrticellse, we have the Ureolaria: when the 
 body is flat, and these cilia are at one extremity, Trickoda: when they 
 surround the whole body, Leucophra: when some of them are stout, 
 and represent species of horns, Kerona: and when these pretended 
 horns are elongated into threads, Himantopes. 
 
 The second tribe consists of those which exhibit no external or- 
 gan whatever, if we except a tail. In 
 
 Cercaria, Mull. 
 The oval body is in fact terminated by a thread. 
 
 Vibrio, Mull. 
 Where the body is round and slender like a bit of thread. 
 
 It is to this genus that belong the 
 
 V. glutlnis et aceii, or the pretended Eels that are seen in vinegar and 
 paste. Those that inhabit the former are frequently perceptible to the naked 
 eye. It is asserted that they change their skin, consist of two sexes, pro- 
 duce living young ones in summer, and eggs in autumn. Freezing will not 
 kill them. The others make their appearance in diluted paste. 
 
 In Enchelis, Mull, the body is softer, oblong, and less determined than that 
 of a Vibrio. In CycUdium it is flat and oval. In Paramecium it is flat and 
 oblong. In Kolpoda it is flat and sinuous. In Gonium it is flat and angular, 
 and in Bursaria hollow like a sac. The most singular genus of the whole 
 is the 
 
 Proteus, Lin. 
 
 No determinate form can be assigned to them; their figure changes every 
 instant, and is sometimes rounded, sometimes divided and subdivided into 
 thongs, in the most odd and singular manner. 
 
HOMOGENEA. 523 
 
 MONAS, Mull. 
 
 The Monades, viewed under the microscope, resemble points moving with 
 great rapidity, although destitute of any apparent organ of motion. 
 
 VoLVOX. 
 A globular body revolving on its r.xis and frequently containing smaller 
 globules, which are doubtless the continuation of the race. 
 
 THE END. 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 Introdcction, 
 
 9 
 
 Seals, 
 
 80 
 
 Distribution ot the Ammal 
 
 
 The Morse, 
 
 82 
 
 Kingdom, 
 
 33 
 
 Opossums, 
 
 83 
 
 VERTEBRA TA, OR VERTE- 
 
 
 Phalangers, 
 
 86 
 
 BRATED ANIMALS, 
 
 Z7 
 
 Potoroos, 
 
 87 
 
 Majimaiia, 
 
 41 
 
 Kanguroos, 
 
 87 
 
 Man, 
 
 45 
 
 Squirrels, 
 
 91 
 
 Monkeys, 
 
 54 
 
 The Aye-Aye, 
 
 91 
 
 Bats, 
 
 62 
 
 Marmots, 
 
 92 
 
 Hedge-hogs, 
 
 64 
 
 Rats, 
 
 94 
 
 Shrews, 
 
 65 
 
 Jerboas, 
 
 96 
 
 Desmans, 
 
 65 
 
 Jumping-Hares, 
 
 97 
 
 Moles, 
 
 67 
 
 Rat Moles, 
 
 97 
 
 Bears, 
 
 68 
 
 The Beaver, 
 
 98 
 
 Raccoons, 
 
 69 
 
 The Couia, 
 
 99 
 
 Coatis, 
 
 70 
 
 Porcupines, 
 
 99 
 
 Badgers, 
 
 70 
 
 Hares, 
 
 100 
 
 Gluttons, 
 
 70 
 
 Guinea Pig, 
 
 101 
 
 Weasels, 
 
 72 
 
 Sloths, 
 
 103 
 
 Polecats, 
 
 72 
 
 Megatherium, 
 
 103 
 
 Otters, 
 
 73 
 
 Armadillos, 
 
 103 
 
 The Dog, 
 
 74 
 
 Ant-Eaters, 
 
 104 
 
 The Wolf, 
 
 75 
 
 Echidnae, 
 
 105 
 
 The Jackal, 
 
 75 
 
 Omithorhynci, 
 
 106 
 
 Foxes, 
 
 75 
 
 The Elephant, 
 
 107 
 
 Civets, 
 
 76 
 
 The Mammoth, 
 
 107 
 
 Genets, 
 
 76 
 
 Hippopotamus, 
 
 108 
 
 The Mangouste, 
 
 77 
 
 The Hog, 
 
 108 
 
 Hyaenas, 
 
 77 
 
 Jlnoplotherium, 
 
 109 
 
 Cats, 
 
 78 
 
 Rhinoceros, 
 
 109 
 
 The Lion, 
 
 78 
 
 Damans, 
 
 109 
 
 Tiger, 
 
 78 
 
 PalaEotheriuin, 
 
 109 
 
 Panther, 
 
 79 
 
 The Tapir, 
 
 110 
 
 Lynx, 
 
 79 
 
 Horses, 
 
 110 
 
526 
 
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 Camels, 
 
 111 
 
 Birds of Paradise, 
 
 141 
 
 The Musk, 
 
 112 
 
 Nutliatches, 
 
 142 
 
 The Stags, 
 
 113 
 
 Creepers, 
 
 142 
 
 The Giraffe, 
 
 113 
 
 Hummingbirds 
 
 142 
 
 Antelopes, 
 
 114 
 
 Hoopoes, 
 
 142 
 
 Goats, 
 
 114 
 
 Bee-eaters, 
 
 143 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 114 
 
 Mot-mots, 
 
 143 
 
 The Ox, 
 
 115 
 
 Kingfishers, 
 
 143 
 
 Manati, 
 
 116 
 
 Todies, 
 
 143 
 
 Dugong, 
 
 117 
 
 Hornbills, 
 
 143 
 
 Dolphins, 
 
 119 
 
 Jacamars, 
 
 144 
 
 Porpoises, 
 
 119 
 
 Woodpeckers, 
 
 144 
 
 The Narwhal, 
 
 119 
 
 Wrynecks, 
 
 145 
 
 Cachalots, 
 
 119 
 
 Cuckoos, 
 
 145 
 
 The Whale, 
 
 120 
 
 Barbets, 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 Toucans, 
 
 146 
 
 OVIPAllOUS VERTEBRATA 
 
 , 120 
 
 Parrots, 
 
 146 
 
 BiBSS, 
 
 121 
 
 Touracos, 
 
 147 
 
 Vultures, 
 
 127 
 
 Plaintain- eaters, 
 
 147 
 
 Falcons, 
 
 127 
 
 Hoccos, 
 
 148 
 
 Eagles, 
 
 129 
 
 Peacocks, 
 
 148 
 
 Hawks, 
 
 129 
 
 Turkeys, 
 
 148 
 
 Buzzards, 
 
 129 
 
 Guinea-fowls, 
 
 149 
 
 Owls, 
 
 131 
 
 Pheasants, 
 
 149 
 
 Shrikes, 
 
 132 
 
 Grouse, 
 
 149 
 
 Fly-catchers, 
 
 132 
 
 Partridges, 
 
 150 
 
 Crown-Birds, 
 
 132 
 
 Quails, 
 
 150 
 
 Tanagers, 
 
 133 
 
 Tinamous, 
 
 150 
 
 Thrushes, 
 
 133 
 
 Pigeons, 
 
 150 
 
 Ant-catchers, 
 
 133 
 
 Ostriches, 
 
 •* 152 
 
 Orioles, 
 
 134 
 
 Cassowaries, 
 
 153 
 
 Warblers, 
 
 135 
 
 Bustards, 
 
 154 
 
 Manakins, 
 
 135 
 
 Plovers, 
 
 154 
 
 Swallows, 
 
 136 
 
 Lapwings, 
 
 154 
 
 Larks, 
 
 137 
 
 Oyster-catchers, 
 
 155 
 
 Titmouse, 
 
 138 
 
 Cranes, 
 
 155 
 
 Buntings, 
 
 138 
 
 The Sun Bird, 
 
 156 
 
 Sparrows, 
 
 138 
 
 The Boat-bill, 
 
 157 
 
 Crossbills, 
 
 138 
 
 Herons, 
 
 157 
 
 Colies, 
 
 139 
 
 Storks, 
 
 157 
 
 Beef-eaters, 
 
 139 
 
 Jabirus, 
 
 157 
 
 Starlings, 
 
 139 
 
 Umbres, 
 
 157 
 
 Crows, 
 
 140 
 
 Wood-Pelicans, 
 
 158 
 
 Magpie, 
 
 140 
 
 Spoonbills, 
 
 158 
 
 Jays, 
 
 140 
 
 The Ibis, 
 
 159 
 
 Nutcrackers, 
 
 141 
 
 Curlews, 
 
 159 
 
 Rollers, 
 
 141 
 
 Snipes, 
 
 159 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 527 
 
 Godwits, 
 
 159 
 
 Serpents, 
 
 187 
 
 Sandpipers, 
 
 160 
 
 Batrachians, (Frogs, 
 
 Sala- 
 
 Ruffs, 
 
 160 
 
 manders, &cj 
 
 193 
 
 Turnstones, 
 
 161 
 
 Fishes, 
 
 197 
 
 Avosets, 
 
 161 
 
 Perches, 
 
 200 
 
 Jacanas, 
 
 162 
 
 Gurnards, 
 
 203 
 
 Kamichi, 
 
 162 
 
 Flying-fishes, 
 
 203 
 
 Rails, 
 
 163 
 
 Stickle-backs, 
 
 204 
 
 Coots, 
 
 163 
 
 Scienoides, 
 
 205 
 
 Sheath bills. 
 
 164 
 
 Sparoides, 
 
 206 
 
 Pratincoles, 
 
 164 
 
 Mackerels, 
 
 209 
 
 Flamingoes, 
 
 165 
 
 Tunnies, 
 
 209 
 
 Divers, 
 
 166 
 
 Swordfish, 
 
 210 
 
 Guillemots, 
 
 167 
 
 Pilot-fish, 
 
 210 
 
 Auks, 
 
 167 
 
 Tsenioides, 
 
 211 
 
 Puffins, 
 
 167 
 
 Theutyes, 
 
 212 
 
 Penguins, 
 
 167 
 
 MiUlets, 
 
 214 
 
 Gorfus, 
 
 168 
 
 Blennies, 
 
 214 
 
 Petrels, 
 
 168 
 
 Gobies, 
 
 215 
 
 The Albatross, 
 
 169 
 
 The Angler, 
 
 216 
 
 GuUs, 
 
 169 
 
 Tautog, 
 
 217 
 
 Terns, 
 
 170 
 
 Fistularidx, 
 
 218 
 
 Noddies, 
 
 170 
 
 Carps, 
 
 219 
 
 Skimmers, 
 
 170 
 
 Pikes, 
 
 220 
 
 Pelicans, 
 
 171 
 
 Flying-fishes, 
 
 221 
 
 Cormorants, 
 
 171 
 
 Catfish, 
 
 222 
 
 Frigate-Birds, 
 
 171 
 
 The Salmon, 
 
 223 
 
 Boobies, 
 
 172 
 
 Herrings, 
 
 224 
 
 Darters, 
 
 172 
 
 The Shad, 
 
 225 
 
 Tropic Birds, 
 
 172 
 
 The Cod, 
 
 226 
 
 Swans, 
 
 173 
 
 Flat-fishes, 
 
 226 
 
 Geese, 
 
 173 
 
 Discoboli, 
 
 227 
 
 Ducks, 
 
 174 
 
 Eels, 
 
 228 
 
 Mergansers, 
 
 175 
 
 Sea-Horse, 
 
 232 
 
 Reptiles, 
 
 175 
 
 Gymnodontes, 
 
 232 
 
 Tortoises, 
 
 177 
 
 Paddle-fish, 
 
 236 
 
 Crocodiles, 
 
 180 
 
 Chimera, 
 
 237 
 
 lizards, 
 
 181 
 
 Sharks, 
 
 238 
 
 Aganeae, 
 
 182 
 
 Angelfish, 
 
 239 
 
 Dragons, 
 
 183 
 
 Saw-fish, 
 
 239 
 
 Iguana, 
 
 184 
 
 Rays, 
 
 240 
 
 Mosasaurus, 
 
 184 
 
 The Torpedo, 
 
 240 
 
 Geckos, 
 
 184 
 
 Lampreys, 
 
 241 
 
 Chamelaeons, 
 
 185 
 
 Myxine, 
 
 241 
 
 Scincoideans, 
 
 186 
 
 
 
528 
 
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 MOLLUSCA, 
 
 243 
 
 Pileolus, 
 
 263 
 
 Cephalopoda, 
 
 246 
 
 Navicella, 
 
 263 
 
 Cuttle-fish, 
 
 247- 
 
 Calyptraea, 
 
 263 
 
 Nautilus, 
 
 247 
 
 Siphonaria, 
 
 264 
 
 Bekmnites, 
 
 248 
 
 Sigaretus, 
 
 264 
 
 Ammonites, 
 
 248 
 
 Cryptostoma, 
 
 264 
 
 NummuUtes, 
 
 248 
 
 Conus, 
 
 265 
 
 Ptehopoda, 
 
 249 
 
 Cypraea, 
 
 265 
 
 Clio, 
 
 249 
 
 Ovula, 
 
 265 
 
 Cymbula, 
 
 249 
 
 Terebellum, 
 
 265 
 
 Limacina, 
 
 249 
 
 Voluta, 
 
 265 
 
 Gastehopoba, 
 
 250 
 
 Oliva, 
 
 266 
 
 Slugs, 
 
 252 
 
 Buccinum, 
 
 266 
 
 Snails, 
 
 252 
 
 Ceritliiuin, 
 
 267 
 
 Planorbis, 
 
 253 
 
 Murex, 
 
 267 
 
 Lymnaeus, 
 
 253 
 
 Strombus, 
 
 268 
 
 Physa, 
 
 253 
 
 Vermetus, 
 
 268 
 
 Auricula, 
 
 253 
 
 Magilus, 
 
 269 
 
 Conovulus, 
 
 253 
 
 Siliquarla, 
 
 269 
 
 Doris, 
 
 254 
 
 Halyotis, 
 
 269 
 
 Tritonia, 
 
 255 
 
 Fissurella, 
 
 270 
 
 Thethys, 
 
 255 
 
 Patella, 
 
 270 
 
 Scyllsea, 
 
 255 
 
 Chiton, 
 
 270 
 
 Glaucus, 
 
 255 
 
 ACEPHAIA, 
 
 271 
 
 Phyllidia, 
 
 255 
 
 Acarda, 
 
 272 
 
 Pleurobranchus, 
 
 256 
 
 Ostrea, 
 
 273 
 
 Aplysia, 
 
 256 
 
 Pecten, 
 
 273 
 
 Dolabella, 
 
 257 
 
 Lima, 
 
 273 
 
 Notarchus, 
 
 257 
 
 Anomia, 
 
 274 
 
 Akera, 
 
 257 
 
 Placuna, 
 
 274 
 
 Gastropteron, 
 
 258 
 
 Spondylus, 
 
 274 
 
 Umbrella, 
 
 258 
 
 Malleus, 
 
 274 
 
 Trochus, 
 
 260 
 
 Vulsella, 
 
 275 
 
 Turbo, 
 
 260 
 
 Perna, 
 
 275 
 
 Paludina, 
 
 261 
 
 Etheria, 
 
 275 
 
 Littorina, 
 
 261 
 
 Avicula, 
 
 275 
 
 Phasianella, 
 
 261 
 
 Pinna, 
 
 275 
 
 AmpuUaria, 
 
 261 
 
 Area, 
 
 276 
 
 Melania, 
 
 261 
 
 Trigonia, 
 
 276 
 
 Tornatella, 
 
 262 
 
 Mytilus, (Muscles) 
 
 276 
 
 Pyramidella, 
 
 262 
 
 Anodontea, 
 
 277 
 
 Janthina, 
 
 262 
 
 Unio, 
 
 277 
 
 Nerita, 
 
 262 
 
 Cardita, 
 
 277 
 
 Pileopsis, 
 
 263 
 
 Cypricardia, 
 
 277 
 
 Hipponyx, 
 
 263 
 
 Coralliophaga, 
 
 278 
 
 Crepidula, 
 
 263 
 
 Venericardia, 
 
 278 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 529 
 
 Crassatella, 
 Chama, 
 Tridacna, 
 Cardium, 
 Donax, 
 Cyclas, 
 Corbis, 
 Tellina, 
 Lucina, 
 Venus, 
 ' Mya, 
 Byssomia, 
 Hiatella, 
 Solen, 
 Pholas, 
 Teredo, 
 Fistulana, 
 Teredina, 
 Clavag-ella, 
 Aspergillum, 
 Biphora, 
 Ascidia, 
 Botryllus, 
 Pyrosoma, 
 Polyclinum, 
 Bbacbiofoda, 
 Lingula, 
 Terebratula, 
 Orbicula, 
 
 CiRRHOPOSA, 
 
 Anatifa, 
 Balanus, 
 
 ARTICULATA, 
 
 Annuxata, 
 Serpula, 
 Sabella, 
 Terebella, 
 Amphitrite, 
 Syphostoma, 
 Dentalium, 
 Arenicola, 
 Amphinome, 
 Eunice, 
 Nereis, 
 Alciopa, 
 3 R 
 
 278 
 
 Spio, 
 
 298 
 
 278 
 
 Lutnbrinera, 
 
 298 
 
 278 
 
 Ophelina, 
 
 299- 
 
 279 
 
 Cirrhatulus, 
 
 299 
 
 279 
 
 Palmyra, 
 
 299 
 
 280 
 
 Aphrodita, 
 
 299 
 
 280 
 
 Chsetopterus, 
 
 300 
 
 280 
 
 Lumbricus, (Earth Worms] 
 
 1 301 
 
 280 
 
 Nais, 
 
 301 
 
 280 
 
 Climena, 
 
 301 
 
 281 
 
 Hirudo, (Leeches) 
 
 302 
 
 281 
 
 Gordius, 
 
 303 
 
 281 
 
 CRtrSTACEA, 
 
 305 
 
 281 
 
 Crabs, 
 
 308 
 
 282 
 
 Lobsters, 
 
 310 
 
 282 
 
 Shrimps, 
 
 310 
 
 282 
 
 Prawns, 
 
 310 
 
 283 
 
 SqulUa, 
 
 311 
 
 283 
 
 Phyllosoma, 
 
 312 
 
 283 
 
 Gammai'us, 
 
 314 
 
 284 
 
 Cyamus, 
 
 315 
 
 284 
 
 Oniscus, 
 
 316 
 
 285 
 
 Monoculus, 
 
 318 
 
 285 
 
 Limulus, (King-crab) 
 
 319 
 
 286 
 
 Argula, 
 
 319 
 
 286 
 
 Cahgus, 
 
 319 
 
 286 
 
 Nicothoe, 
 
 320 
 
 286 
 
 Trilobites, 
 
 320 
 
 287 
 
 Arachnides, 
 
 321 
 
 288 
 
 Spiders, 
 
 323 
 
 288 
 
 Tarantula, 
 
 333 
 
 288 
 
 Scorpio, 
 
 334 
 
 
 Galeodes, 
 
 336 
 
 290 
 
 Chelifer, 
 
 336 
 
 293 
 
 Pycnogonides, 
 
 336 
 
 295 
 
 Phalangium, 
 
 338 
 
 295 
 
 Acarus, (Mites) 
 
 339 
 
 295 
 
 Ticks, 
 
 340 
 
 295 
 
 IxsECTA, OR Insects, 
 
 340 
 
 296 
 
 Myriapoda, 
 
 352 
 
 296 
 
 lulus, 
 
 555 
 
 296 
 
 Scolopendra, 
 
 356 
 
 29- 
 
 Lepisma, 
 
 357 
 
 297 
 
 Podura, 
 
 357 
 
 297 
 
 Lice, 
 
 358 
 
 298 
 
 Fleas, 
 
 359 
 
530 
 
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 Coleoptera, 
 
 360 
 
 Bruchus, 
 
 406 
 
 Cicindela, 
 
 363 
 
 Attelabus, 
 
 406 
 
 Carabus, 
 
 363 
 
 Brentus, 
 
 406 
 
 Dytiscus, 
 
 367 
 
 Brachycerus, 
 
 407 
 
 Gyrinus, 
 
 368 
 
 Ciirculio, 
 
 407 
 
 Staphyllnus, 
 
 369 
 
 Lixus, 
 
 407 
 
 Buprestis, 
 
 571 
 
 Rhynchaenus, 
 
 407 
 
 Elater, 
 
 372 
 
 Calandra, 
 
 408 
 
 Cebrio, 
 
 373 
 
 Scolytus, 
 
 409 
 
 Fire-flies, 
 
 374 
 
 Paussus, 
 
 409 
 
 Melyris, 
 
 375 
 
 Bostrichus, 
 
 409 
 
 Clems, 
 
 376 
 
 Monotoma, 
 
 410 
 
 Ptinus, 
 
 377 
 
 Lyctus, 
 
 410 
 
 Lymexylon, 
 
 378 
 
 Mycetophagus, 
 
 410 
 
 Mastigus, 
 
 379 
 
 Trog-osita, 
 
 410 
 
 Hister, 
 
 380 
 
 Cucujus, 
 
 410 
 
 Silpha, 
 
 380 
 
 Prionii, 
 
 412 
 
 Nitidula, 
 
 382 
 
 Cerambycini, 
 
 413 
 
 Dacne, 
 
 383 
 
 Lamiarise, 
 
 414 
 
 Dermestes, 
 
 384 
 
 Lepturetse, 
 
 415 
 
 Byrrhus, 
 
 385 
 
 Sagra, 
 
 416 
 
 Heterocerus, 
 
 385 
 
 Crioceris, 
 
 417 
 
 Dryops, 
 
 385 
 
 Hispa, 
 
 418 
 
 Hydrophilus, 
 
 386 
 
 Cassida, 
 
 418 
 
 Sphaeridium, 
 
 387 
 
 Cyptocephalus, 
 
 419 
 
 Scarabxides, 
 
 389 
 
 Chiysomela, 
 
 419 
 
 Goldbeaters, 
 
 392 
 
 Galeruca, 
 
 419 
 
 Stag--Beetle, 
 
 393 
 
 Altica, 
 
 420 
 
 Passalus, 
 
 394 
 
 Erotylus, 
 
 420 
 
 Pimelia, 
 
 395 
 
 Eumorphus, 
 
 421 
 
 Blaps, 
 
 395 
 
 Lady-bug, 
 
 422 
 
 Tenebrio, 
 
 396 
 
 Clypeaster, 
 
 422 
 
 Diaperis, 
 
 397 
 
 Pselaphus, 
 
 423 
 
 Cossyphus, 
 
 398 
 
 Claviger, 
 
 423 
 
 Helops, 
 
 399 
 
 Orthoptera, 
 
 423 
 
 Cistela, 
 
 399 
 
 Ear-wigs, 
 
 424 
 
 Dircsea, 
 
 400 
 
 Cock-roaches, 
 
 424 
 
 CEdemera, 
 
 401 
 
 Mantis, 
 
 425 
 
 Mycterus, 
 
 401 
 
 Grasshoppers, &c. 
 
 426 
 
 Lagria, 
 
 402 
 
 Crickets, 
 
 426 
 
 Pyrochroa, 
 
 403 
 
 Hemiptera, 
 
 427 
 
 Mordella, 
 
 403 
 
 Cimex, 
 
 428 
 
 Notoxus, 
 
 403 
 
 - Bed-bug, Sec. 
 
 428 
 
 Horia, 
 
 ■ 404 
 
 Aquatic Scorpions, 
 
 429 
 
 Meloe, 
 
 404 
 
 Nepa, 
 
 429 
 
 Spanish Fly, &.c. 
 
 405 
 
 Notonecta, 
 
 430 
 
SYSTEMATIC INDEX, 
 
 531 
 
 Cicada, 
 
 430 
 
 Pseudo-Bombyces, 
 
 473 
 
 Locusts, 
 
 430 
 
 Aposura, 
 
 473 
 
 Fulgora, 
 
 432 
 
 Noctuslites, 
 
 474 
 
 Cicadella, 
 
 432 
 
 Geometrjc, 
 
 474 
 
 Psylla, 
 
 433 
 
 Deltoides, 
 
 475 
 
 Thrips, 
 
 433 
 
 Tineites, 
 
 475 
 
 Aphis, 
 
 433 
 
 Fissipennes 
 
 477 
 
 Galllnsects, 
 
 434 
 
 Rhipiptera, 
 
 477 
 
 Cochineal, 
 
 435 
 
 Styiops, 
 
 479 
 
 Neuroptera, 
 
 . 435 
 
 Xenos, 
 
 479 
 
 Dragon Flies, 
 
 437 
 
 Diptera, 
 
 479 
 
 Ephemera, 
 
 438 
 
 Musquetoes, 
 
 482 
 
 Panorpa, 
 
 439 
 
 Crane-flies, 
 
 483 
 
 Lion-Ant, 
 
 440 
 
 Asilus, 
 
 484 
 
 Hemerobius, 
 
 441 
 
 Empis, 
 
 485 
 
 Semblis, 
 
 441 
 
 Cyrtus, 
 
 485 
 
 Mantispa, 
 
 442 
 
 Bombylius, 
 
 485 
 
 Rhaphidia, 
 
 442 
 
 Anthrax, 
 
 485 
 
 Termes, 
 
 442 
 
 Thereva, 
 
 486 
 
 Psocus, 
 
 443 
 
 Leptis, 
 
 486 
 
 Peria, 
 
 444 
 
 Dolichopus, 
 
 487 
 
 Phryg-anea, 
 
 444 
 
 Horse-flies, 
 
 487 
 
 Hymenoptera, 
 
 445 
 
 Mydas, 
 
 489 
 
 Saw-flies, 
 
 447 
 
 Xylophagus, 
 
 490 
 
 Sirex, 
 
 448 
 
 Stratiomys, 
 
 490 
 
 Fcenus, 
 
 449 
 
 Syrphus, 
 
 492 
 
 Ichneumon, 
 
 450 
 
 CEstrus, 
 
 492 
 
 Cynlps, 
 
 451 
 
 Conops, 
 
 . 493 
 
 Chalcis, 
 
 452 
 
 Flies, 
 
 494 
 
 Bethylus, 
 
 453 
 
 Hippobosca, 
 
 496 
 
 Chrysis, 
 
 453 
 
 Nycteribia, 
 
 496 
 
 Ants, 
 
 455 
 
 
 
 Mutilla, 
 
 457 
 
 RADIATA, 
 
 497 
 
 Sphex, 
 
 457 
 
 ECUINODEIIMATA, 
 
 498 
 
 Masaris, 
 
 458 
 
 Starfish, 
 
 499 
 
 Wasps, 
 
 459 
 
 Sea- Urchins, 
 
 499 
 
 Bees, 
 
 460 
 
 Holothuria, 
 
 500 
 
 Lepidoptera, 
 
 465 
 
 Molpadia, 
 
 502 
 
 Papilio, 
 
 468 
 
 Minyas, 
 
 502 
 
 Hesperia, 
 
 469 
 
 Sipunculus, 
 
 502 
 
 Urania, 
 
 469 
 
 Bonellia, 
 
 503 
 
 Spliinx, 
 
 470 
 
 Ektozoa, 
 
 503 
 
 Sesia, 
 
 471 
 
 Filaria, 
 
 504 
 
 Zygzena, 
 
 471 
 
 Trichocephalus, 
 
 504 
 
 Moths, 
 
 472 
 
 Cucullanus, 
 
 SOS 
 
 Hepialitcs, 
 
 472 
 
 Ophiostoma, 
 
 SOS 
 
532 
 
 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 
 
 Ascaris, 
 
 505 
 
 Flustra, 
 
 516 
 
 Strongyliis, 
 
 506 
 
 Cellepora, 
 
 517 
 
 Lernea, 
 
 506 
 
 Tubulipora, 
 
 517 
 
 Echinorhynchus, 
 
 5or 
 
 Coralllna, 
 
 517 
 
 Fasciola, 
 
 508 
 
 Acetabulum, 
 
 518 
 
 Tape woi-m, 
 
 508 
 
 Black coral. 
 
 518 
 
 Hydatids, 
 
 509 
 
 Gorgonia, 
 
 518 
 
 Lig-ula, 
 
 509 
 
 Isis, 
 
 518 
 
 Sea-Nettles, 
 
 510 
 
 Madrepores, 
 
 518 
 
 Medusa, 
 
 510 
 
 Millepora, 
 
 519 
 
 Porpita, 
 
 511 
 
 Pennatula, 
 
 519 
 
 Velella, 
 
 511 
 
 Alcyonium, 
 
 520 
 
 Pliysalia, 
 
 512 
 
 Sponges, 
 
 520 
 
 Diphyes, 
 
 512 
 
 Infusoria, 
 
 523 
 
 POITPI, 
 
 513 
 
 Furcularia, 
 
 521 
 
 Actinia, 
 
 514 
 
 Tubicolaria, 
 
 521 
 
 Lucernaria, 
 
 514 
 
 Brachionus, 
 
 521 
 
 Hydra, 
 
 514 
 
 Cercaria, 
 
 522 
 
 Vorticella, 
 
 515 
 
 Vibrio, 
 
 522 
 
 Tubipora, 
 
 516 
 
 Proteus, 
 
 522 
 
 Tubularia, 
 
 516 
 
 Monas, 
 
 523 
 
 Sertularia, 
 
 516 
 
 Volvox, 
 
 523 
 
 Cellularia, 
 
 516 
 
 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 
 
 590C981832 cOOl 
 
 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, ARRANGED IN CONFORMI 
 
 i 
 
 3 0112 009999332 
 
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