"LT E> RA HY OF THE UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS 537 W27b v.M-18 GEOLOGY E§5 NOTICE: Return or renew all Library Materials! The Minimum Fee for each Lost Book is $50.00. The person charging this material is responsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for discipli- nary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 L161— 0-1096 WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HENRY LANDES, State Geologist BULT.ETTN No. 14 A Preliminary Report on the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project By HENRY LANDES, A. W. MANGHJM, H. K. BENSON, E. J. SAUNDERS AND JOSEPH JACOBS Olympia, Wash. : E. L. Boardman Public Printer Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/preliminaryrepor1418wash BOARD OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Governor M. E. Hay, Chairman . State Treasurer J. G. Lewis, Secretary . President T. F. Kane. President E. A. Bryan. Henry Landes, State Geologist. Solon Shedd, Assistant State Geologist. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Governor M. E. Hay, Chairman, and Members of the Board of Geological Survey: Gentlemen : I have the honor to submit herewith a report entitled “A Preliminary Report on the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project,” by Henry Landes, A. W. Mangum, H. K. Benson, E. J. Saunders, and Joseph Jacobs, with the recommendation that it be printed as Bulletin No. II of the survey reports. Very respectfully, Henry Landes, State Geologist. University Station, Seattle, July 1, 1912. CONTENTS, Page Introduction, by Henry Landes 7 Soils of Quincy Valley, by A. W. Mangum 11 Chemical Analyses of the Soils of Quincy Valley, by H. K. Benson. . 16 Climate of Quincy Valley, by E. J. Saunders 20 Irrigation Problems of the Quincy Valley Project, by Joseph Jacobs. 26 ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate. I. A map showing the position of the lands to be irrigated under the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project In Pocket II. Reservoir site and approximate location of the canal line of the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project In Pocket Facing page III. Index map, giving the location of Quincy Valley 8 IV. Diagram showing average monthly rainfall in central Wash- ington 24 V. Wenatchee Lake 32 VI. Views of the Valley in the vicinity of Quincy 40 VII. The upper view is that of Ephrata and vicinity, with the Tolliver orchard in the foreground. The lower view is that of a residence, orchard, and vineyard on Moses Lake. 48 INTRODUCTION. By Henry Landes, State Geologist. The Quincy Valley Irrigation Project, as at present outlined, involves a tract 36 miles by 30 miles in area, located in central Washington. The western boundary of the proposed irrigable area is Columbia River; the northern and southern limits are the highlands represented by Badger and Saddle Mountains, respectively ; while the eastern boundary is placed arbitrarily in this report at the line between ranges 28 and 29. The amount of surface involved in this area of 1,080 square miles is 691,200 acres. The studies that have been made of the soil conditions and the topography have made it clear that of the above acreage at least 450,000 acres are readily irrigable, while the Wenatchee water supply is known to be ample to serve an area of at least 435,000 acres. The conversion of this large area, by far the most of it of a truly desert character, into an oasis of rare pro- ductiveness, capable of readily supporting a happy popula- tion of 100,000 people, is a matter of more than state-wide prominence, and is by far the greatest project ever proposed for the development of the state’s material resources. PRELIMINARY SURVEYS. The Board of Geological Survey, at its meeting in Olympia on April 16, 1909 , recognizing the great importance to the state of the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project, directed the State Geol- ogist to arrange for co-operative work with the U. S. Geological Survey whereby topographic surveys might be carried on in the region in question and the country accurately mapped. Ac- cordingly five quadrangles were mapped, viz., Quincy, Winches- ter, Moses Lake, Beverly and Red Rock. These have been com- bined on Plate 1 of this report, and it will be noted that the five quadrangles cover practically all parts of the project except four townships in the southeast corner. In a similar fashion, by co-operation with the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agri- 8 Bulletin No. !£, Washington Geological Survey culture, soil surveys were made of the whole area. The different types of soils were studied and mapped, and determinations made of the percentage of alkali. A complete report will soon be issued by the Federal Bureau of Soils, containing ample descrip- tive matter, chemical analyses, colored maps, and all information necessary in regard to the nature of the soils embraced in the proj ect. In addition to the above lines of work the Wenatchee and Malaga quadrangles, lying along the line of the proposed canal from Wenatchee River to Quincy, are now being surveyed and these maps will soon be ready for use. The proposed reservoir site about Wenatchee Lake has been very carefully surveyed in detail and a topographic map prepared with 5-foot contours. A gaging station has been maintained on the lower Wenatchee River for some years and careful measurements made of the run- off of that stream. Every effort has been made by the Board of Geological Survey, with the resources at its command, and in co-operation with the Federal Bureaus, to secure necessary in- formation bearing upon the project. FUTURE SURVEYS. Before the cost, as well as the complete feasibility, of such a great engineering enterprise can be determined beyond a ques- tion, it is necessary that a number of additional surveys and in- vestigations be made. There are many questions regarding the size, location and character of the dam at the foot of Wenatchee Lake that can be settled only by careful detailed surveys. The whole route of the canal from the intake to the distributing point must be carefully studied and mapped. In particular the cross- ing of Columbia River will necessitate months of investigation to satisfy all the inquiries which will arise concerning such a great engineering feat. The whole scheme of distributing the water, the location of the main laterals and tributaries, will necessitate spending months of time in field surveys. In addition to all these and many other things, the entire 1,080 square miles must be examined in great detail, down to very small subdivisions to de- Washington Geological Survey Bulletin No. 14 Plate III Index map, giving the location of Quincy Valley 9 Quincy Valley Irrigation Project termine the exact amount as well as location of the irrigable lands. STATE AID. It seems clear to the writer that the state should undertake the investigations and surveys just mentioned, in addition to those already made as a result of state aid. There are several reasons why the enterprise commends itself to state support. In the first place, as shown on Plate 1, there are over 31,000 acres of state land embraced in the project. Of this it is safe to say that at least 20,000 acres are irrigable. If the general story of irrigation in Washington holds true here, in its first year under water this land would be worth not less than $300 per acre ; while its value after a few years, especially if fruit or alfalfa were grown, would enhance to $750 or $1,000 per acre. The story of the state lands under irrigation would be repeated for all the other lands of the project. The land which now sells gen- erally for $15 or $20 per acre would easily become 30- or 40-fold more valuable under a successful scheme of irrigation. The profit to the state, not only in the increase of taxable prop- erty, but in the strong impulse given to every industry, and in the material advancement of its citizens, would be almost in- calculable. It is the estimate of Mr. Jacobs, in his report, that the lands of Quincy Valley can be irrigated for $100 per acre. Except for a few small irrigable tracts, it is altogether unlikely that in this state any scheme of irrigation will ever be placed in opera- tion where the cost per acre will be less than $100. .Further- more, about all of the smaller irrigable areas have been reclaimed, so that in the future the irrigation schemes will neces- sarily embrace larger tracts than ever before, involving far greater capital. It becomes more and more apparent that in carrying out the larger irrigation enterprises either state or federal aid must be sought after. This seems especially neces- sary in the Quincy Valley Irrigation Project because it is not a case where the work can be done in sections and the land put under water as desired, but where the whole irrigation scheme must be completed before any of the land can receive benefit. 10 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey While the cost per acre to irrigate the land is moderate and a charge which the land would easily and readily assume, yet the large acreage involved makes the total engineering cost so high that the whole sum of money involved seems stupendous. In any plan of bonding, however, where the repayment of the cost is extended over a period of 20 or 30 years, the annual charge per acre is small and even insignificant when contrasted with the earning power of the land. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. For this bulletin articles have been contributed by Mr. A. W. Mangum, Prof. H. K. Benson, Prof. E. J. Saunders and Mr. Joseph Jacobs. Mr. Mangum has had charge of the soil sur- veys and in this report submits a brief abstract of his full ac- count, which will be ready for distribution about December 1, 1912. Prof. Benson has selected samples of the typical soils of the valley and in his article gives their analyses, as well as a brief discussion of soil characteristics. A more complete chemi- cal report accompanies the soil report above mentioned. Appli- cations for the fuller report, with descriptive matter, colored maps, analyses, etc., should be made to the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., or to the State Geologist, University Station, Seattle, Washington. Prof. Saunders has submitted a report upon the general weather and climatic conditions of Quincy Valley. This is a topic of great importance in considering the nature of the crops that may be grown. Mr. Jacobs, who has given this irrigation project much attention, and who is well informed about every phase of it, has prepared an important article upon the engineer- ing problems involved. He has gone into the subject as thoroughly as possible with the data at his command. It will be recognized by everyone that any engineering report at this time is wholly preliminary, and that many months of detailed work will be necessary before the final plans and estimates can be sub- mitted. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 11 SOILS OF QUINCY VALLEY. By A. W. Mangum.* The soils of the Quincy area may be separated broadly into six groups : (1) The compact fine sandy and silt loams that cover the underlying basalt to a depth of from 10 to more than 30 feet; (2) the sandy and fine sandy loams underlain at an average depth of from 2 to 6 feet by a thin layer of limestone which in turn rests upon the basalt; (3) the stony and gravelly soils underlain by compact deposits of gravel and rounded bowlders ; (4) the areas of drifting sands; (5) the rough stony lands; and (6) the recent alluvial soils. The soils of the first group occupy a large area in the north- western part of Quincy Valley. The finer textured types, con- sisting of a silt loam, a silty fine sandy loam, and a fine sandy loam, occupy a large area southwest of Quincy and also the greater proportion of the country surrounding that town. A large area of the silty fine sandy loam belonging to this group occurs south of Frenchman Hills, embracing the northern part of T. 16 N., ranges 25 and 26 E., and the southern part of T. 17 N., ranges 25 and 26 E. There is a large area of sandy loam occupying the country around Morrison postoffice, which is also included in this group. In this particular locality the soils are underlain by a compact deposit of sands and fine gravel. The soils of this group have a deep compact subsoil and when thoroughly cultivated are among the most productive types in the area. South and southeast of Quincy, they become more sandy, and the surface becomes more hummocky, as the loose sandy soil has been drifted into series of small mounds and ridges with shallow basins intervening. The level topography of this group as a whole makes these types well adapted to ir- rigation. Where dry farming is practiced, wheat and rye are the principal crops grown. The average yield of wheat is ♦Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 12 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey about 8 or 10 bushels per acre, but yields of 20 to 25 bushels per acre have been secured during favorable seasons. When ir- rigated, these soils produce very profitable yields of melons, po- tatoes, small grains, and fruits. Oats and alfalfa have also been successfully grown on a limited acreage of irrigated land. The soils of the second group occupy a large area north of Frenchman Hills, in the vicinity of Burke. Another large area occurs between Frenchman Hills and lower Crab Creek Valley, occupying a large proportion of the level to gently rolling up- lands between Low Gap and Beverly. They consist of compact fine sandy loams and fine sands, underlain at a depth of from 12 inches to 6 feet by a thin layer of limestone. In some lo- calities the shallow surface soils have been almost entirely re- moved by the action of wunds, and the underlying limestone occurs so near the surface that the weathered material is fre- quently turned up with the plow. The topography of the soils of this group varies from almost level to very gently roll- ing, and the greater proportion of the area occupied by them lies well for irrigation. During a favorable season they produce very good yields of small grains, but the crops grown on the more shallow areas, where the underlying limestone occurs within 3 feet of the sur- face, are usually damaged by drought, as the shallow soil is unable to conserve a sufficient amount of moisture. The small areas under irrigation have demonstrated that under favorable moisture conditions, the soils of the second group are very productive. The soils of the third group occupy a large area south and southwest of Ephrata, embracing the greater part of the coun- try around Moses Lake. They consist of sandy loams and fine sandy loams which contain a variable amount of gravel and small bowlders. It is usually necessary to remove a large quantity of stones from the surface before the land can be pro- fitably cultivated, and in some localities small areas occur which are of such a stony character as to make cultivation imprac- ticable. Areas occur, however, throughout the region occupied Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 13 by these types where the surface soils, to a depth of 12 to 15 inches, are comparatively free from either gravel or small bowlders. The soils are underlain to a considerable depth by a compact deposit of gravel and small, rounded bowlders, which insures good natural drainage. Some of the best orchards in the area are located on these soils and when irrigated and thoroughly cultivated the trees do exceedingly well. The ir- rigated areas produce very profitable yields of all crops grown in Quincy Valley. The soils of the fourth group consist of loose incoherent sands and fine sands which have been drifted into mounds and ridges by the action of winds. These soils occur south of Moses Lake and north of Frenchman Hills, extending westward to a point within a few miles of Burke postoffice. The loose structure of the soils causes the surface material to be constantly shifted by the wind, and the open porous character of the subsoil causes the natural drainage to be excessive. A large proportion of this land could be irrigated and utilized for agricultural pur- poses, although there would probably be a considerable loss of water by seepage, and the hummocky topography would make it very difficult to get the land into suitable shape for irrigation. There is a large area of sand dunes included in this group, which are of little or no agricultural value. These dunes occur prin- cipally south and southwest of Moses Lake. The topography of this region consists of high, rounded dunes with shallow “pot holes” or basins intervening, or long, narrow ridges with troughlike valleys between them. These topographic features make it impracticable to attempt the irrgation and agricultural development of this region, as the dunes and ridges have a height of from 20 to more than 60 feet and the loose sandy soils are being shifted continually. The fifth group comprises the extensive areas, locally known as “scab lands,” and the precipitous, rocky bluffs which border the valleys of Crab Creek and the Columbia River. The larger areas of “scab land” border the valley of Crab Creek. They consist of small areas of sandy soil, varying from a few square 14 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey rods to several acres in extent, occurring at intervals over more extensive areas whose surface consists mainly of bare rock out- crop. Only a shallow covering of soil rests upon the bed rock and large quantities of rock fragments are frequently scattered over the surface or mixed with the sandy soil. A large propor- tion of these “scab lands,” however, consists of areas of bare outcrops of basaltic rock. The rough stony lands found along the northern slope of Saddle Mountain and the bluffs bordering the valley of Colum- bia River are too steep and rocky to be of any agricultural Value. Small areas occur throughout the “scab lands” where the sandy soil has a sufficient depth to enable it to be used for agricultural purposes, but these areas are of such limited extent and are surrounded by such extensive areas of non-agri- cultural lands that it isjmpractical to attempt to irrigate them. The sixth group embraces the recent alluvial soils lying along the courses of Columbia River and Crab Creek. Many of these soils have been modified to some extent by materials deposited on the surface by the wind. Along Columbia River the alluvial soils occupy a comparatively level strip of land between the steep bluffs of the adjacent uplands and the channel of the stream. The soils consist of fine sands, sandy loams, and gravelly sandy loams. The subsoils are uniformly composed of compact masses of rounded, waterworn gravel, which insures good natural drainage. The areas occupied by these soils have only a slight elevation above the level of the stream at high water, but with the exception of a small area bordering the river, none of the land is subject to overflow. A few small areas occur where gravel and small, rounded cobbles are present in suffi- cient quantities to interfere with cultivation, but these areas are of small extent and the greater proportion of this land is well adapted to agriculture. The topography varies from level to gently undulating and a very large percentage of these al- luvial soils could be irrigated and developed agriculturally with- out difficulty. The soils occupying the narrow valley bordering the channel of Crab Creek consist principally of sandy loams, Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 15 gravelly sandy loams, and clay loams. They are, as a whole, poorly drained and frequently contain alkali in harmful amounts. The failure to secure profitable yields in Quincy Valley is often due as much to the drifting of the dry sandy surface soils as to the lack of a sufficient amount of soil moisture to mature the crops. This is true of almost every type of soil suitable for agricultural purposes. On many of the more sandy types the soil is blown away from the roots of the plants while the crops on adjacent fields are covered by shallow sand drifts. Where irrigation is practiced extensively, trees, to serve as windbrakes, should be set along the fence lines or ditches. Most of the soils are at present entirely free from any harm- ful accumulation of alkali. Small areas occur, however, in Crab Creek Valley, in the bottoms of Willow Creek and several other large coulees, and in the deep depressions or pot holes surrounded by areas of rough stony lands where the soils con- tain as much as two-tenths of one per cent, to more than three per cent, of alkali. The majority of these alkali areas are of very small extent and occupy low depressions or poorly drained basins which receive the drainage water from the surrounding lands. The soils over the remainder of the valley are at present free from alkali, but if any extensive acreage were put under irriga- tion a more thorough drainage system would be necessary in many localities to prevent the accumulation of harmful salts. If the seepage water were allowed to collect and evaporate in the shallow depressions which occur at intervals over almost every type of soil, there is danger that these poorly drained areas would eventually contain enough alkali to injure crops. 16 Bulletin No. H, W ashmgt on Geological Survey CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE SOILS OF QUINCY VALLEY. By H. K. Benson.* Much stress in the past has been placed upon the chemical composition of soils. More recently the efforts of soil chemists have been directed toward showing that soil fertility is more largely a matter of control or soil management. This assump- tion is based upon the belief that the chemical elements become available for plant growth only under certain conditions which it is necessary to obtain and maintain during the growing period. These conditions may be broadly stated as a proper physical condition of the soil at to fineness and crumbling or tilth; suf- ficient moisture or water holding power ; a suitable temperature ; and the absence of certain plant poisons or toxic substances secured by crop rotation. Nevertheless there has been a rather close relationship be- tween the chemical compostion of soils and the specific crops which have been found especially prolific. For example, the soils of the Palouse region are high in phosphoric acid and are also well adapted for grains, while in the fruit belt of central Washington the soils are usually high in the content of potash. The manner in which chemical elements enter into the mech- anism of plant growth is not fully understood. It has come to be generally recognized that the mineral elements in the soil which are of the most interest to the agriculturist are calcium, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. For technical reasons these are generally spoken of as lime (calcium oxide), potash (potassium oxide), phosphoric acid (phosphorus pentoxide) and nitrogen. These constituents are the ones which it is thought to add to the soil in commercial fertilizers. The action of lime is probably quite complex in most cases, neutralizing any acids which might be present, inducing a much better flocculation, or crumbling of the soil, improving its tilth,. ♦Professor of Industrial Chemistry, University of Washington. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project IT aeration etc., which functions are most important for the growth of desirable kinds of bacteria in the soil, especially those kinds which gather nitrogen from the air and grow in association with leguminous crops as alfalfa, vetch or clover. It is possible also that lime may have a specific effect on some plants and it is held by many fruit growers that an ample amount of lime will cause the production of a sweeter fruit. Potash is believed to be of especial importance in the production of starch in growing plants, and phosphoric acid to be important mainly in the forma- tion of seeds or grain, although undoubtedly having other func- tions in the growing plants. Nitrogen is believed to be taken from the soil, mainly in the form of nitrates, and is elaborated or made over in the plant into various substances, especially the proteids, substances which are best known in the muscular tis- sues of animals. No substance in the soil produces a more rapid or decided response in the crop than does nitrogen. A ready supply of nitrates is of the utmost importance to green crops, especially during the periods of most rapid growth, and it is desirable to have nitrogenous organic substances in the soil to furnish nitrates by the process of decay, especially for crops other than leguminosae. The six groups of soils noted below may have certain typical compositions assigned to them. It is of course, evident that no two samples of any one soil will give the same analytical results on account of the variations which exist in the history of a soil. All that can here be done is to represent within reasonable limits the approximate composition of the respective groups as deter- mined by the analyses of a number of carefully selected and typi- cal samples. The interpretation of a soil analysis is also a matter of some difficulty. Agricultural chemists vary in their manner of classifying a given soil as good or poor. Hilgard in his text book (page 377) states the average com- position of virgin soils taken from arid regions as follows : lime 1.43%; phosphoric acid 0.16%; potash 0.67%; and loss on ignition 3.15%. Professor Maercker of the Halle Experimental Station, Germany, has formulated a classification which often —2 18 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey serves as a guide in judging the capabilities of a soil (under a proper system of management) from the analysis of the virgin or uncultivated soil. Grade of Soil Potash Phosphoric acid Lime in sandy soil Total nitrogen Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Poor Soil Below 0.05 Below 0.05 Below 0.05 Below 0.05 Normal Soil 0.15—0.2 5 0.10-0.15 0.15—0.20 0.10—0.15 Rich Soil Above .40 Above .25 Above .30 Above .25 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE QUINCY SOILS. Group I. Fine sandy and silt loams. Lime 1.00 — 1.15% Phosphoric acid 0.08 — 0.13% Potash 0.30 — 0.45% Loss on ignition 4.00 — 6.00% Group II. Sandy and fine sandy loams. Lime 1.20 — 1.30% Phosphoric acid 0.04 — 0.12% Potash 0.30—0.90% Loss on ignition 2.80 — 4.40% Group III. Stony and gravelly soils. Lime 1.02 — 1.20% Phosphoric acid 0.10 — 0.15% Potash 0.37 — 0.46% Loss on ignition 4.30 — 4.90% Group IV. Drifting sands. Lime 0.50 — 1.00% Phosphoric acid 0.03 — 0.07% Potash 0.30—0.35% Loss on ignition 1.10 — 2.60% Group V. Stony soils from “Scab” land. (No analyses.) Group VI. Recent alluvial soils. Lime 0.91—0.96% Phosphoric acid 0.10 — 0.13% Potash 0.48 — 0.80% Loss on ignition 1.70 — 4.00% Inasmuch as all of the soils were either light colored or gave a low loss on ignition (except those containing calcium car- bonate), it was apparent that generally speaking the soils are deficient in nitrogen and very few determinations of this element Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 19 were made. One of the first steps in improving the agricultural value of the virgin soils of this region will therefore consist in supplying organic and nitrogenous matter to the soil by the usual method of green fertilization. The following table gives the analytical data and geographic location of a portion of the samples analyzed: LOCATION Lime Phosphoric acid Potash Loss on Ignition Section 19, Tp. 20 N., R. 23 E 0.70% 0.14% 0.31% 4.80% Section 16, Tp. 16 N., R. 23 E 0.91 0.13 0.48 1.70 Section 25, Tp. 16 N. , R. 28 E 1.04 0.09 0.43 3.70 Section 33, Tp. 16 N., R. 26 E 1.63 0.19 0.87 6.20 Section 20, Tp. 19 N., R. 24 E 0.91 0.11 1.00 3.90 Section 35, Tp. 17 N., R. 24 E 1.27 0.05 0.25 2.80 Section 23, Tp. 19 N., R. 27 E 1.02 0.04 0.42 4.80 Section 27, Tp. 20 N., R. 26 E 0.96 0.08 0.42 4.90 Section 26, Tp. 18 N., R. 23 E 1.29 0.137 0.316 4.40 Section 8, Tp. 20 N., R. 24 E 1.06 0.12 0.50 6.10 Section 26, Tp. 20 N., R. 24 E 0.95 0.07 0.35 3.00 Section 31, Tp. 19 N., R. 24 E 1.13 0.07 0.31 1.10 Section 34, Tp. 29 N., R. 23 E 0.83 0.11 0.41 4.70 Section 1, Tp. 16 N., R. 26 E 0.95 0.119 0.273 3.80 Section 6, Tp. 18 N., R. 26 E 1.04 0.10 0.33 2.40 Section 20, Tp. 16 N. , R. 26 E 1.15 0.04 0.23 2.00 Section 16, Tp. 17 N., R. 25 E 0.47 0.03 0.31 2.60 Section 27, Tp. 19 N., R. 24 E.. 0.93 0.10 0.40 4.00 20 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey CLIMATE OF QUINCY VALLEY. By E. J. Saunders.* CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. The Quincy Valley, situated east of the Cascade Mountains in the Columbia River Basin, although in the same latitude, and not far removed from Puget Sound Basin, has a climate as dif- ferent from that west of the mountains as if it were in an en- tirely different part of the continent. The influences of the to- pography and of the prevailing winds are remarkably well shown here. This area is practically shut off from the moderating effects of the ocean winds b} r the high Cascades to the west, and it also lacks the protection of these mountains from the con- tinental extremes of climate, especially the cold waves of winter that spread from the east over this section of the country. But being near the ocean the westerly winds prevent, or break up, the cold waves so that this section is not subject to the pro- longed winter conditions or heaVy snows to which the states of the middle west in the same latitude are exposed. The interception of the moist ocean winds by the Cascade Mountains gives this valley a very low annual precipitation, and the region of which it is a part is called the arid belt of the state. The air in its forced ascent loses most of its moisture on the western slope and near the summit of the Cascades, and in descending the eastern slope it is dynamically warmed so that it blows over the Quincy Valley as a dry wind, able to take up moisture rather than to cause precipitation. PRECIPITATION. The average annual precipitation for the Valley is less than eight inches. Of the Weather Bureau Stations which supplied data for this report, Wenatchee has the greatest average rain- fall, 14.33 inches, and Kennewick the least, 6.34 inches. (See table.) This very low precipitation, as compared with that on the western slope of the Cascades, as already stated, is ac- * Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Washington. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 21 counted for by the fact that the air is cooled to such an extent by forced ascent in passing over the Cascade Mountains that the greater part of its moisture is deposited on the western slopes. In descending the eastern slopes the air is dynamically warmed by increase of pressure at lower levels, and its capacity for moisture rapidly increases, thus favoring clear skies and scant precipitation. As a result of this decided change in rela- tive humidity the annual rainfall gradually decreases as the air seeks lower levels toward the Columbia River, and Quincy Valley may be considered as located in the rain shadow of the Cascade Mountains. The monthly distribution of rainfall as shown on Plate IV is of greater importance than the average annual precipitation. In Quincy Valley a wet season from November to March, inclu- sive, and a dry season from April to October, inclusive, prevails and shows the effect of proximity to the western coast. But the contrast between the two seasons is much less marked than on the coast, and the summer months usually show a secondary maximum rainfall period in May and June, but not with as heavy precipitation as the winter months. This increased pre- cipitation in May and June is very favorable to dry farming, and is a great aid to all lines of agricultural development of the country. The winter maximum is accounted for by the larger number and greater activity of the cyclonic or storm areas during that season, the movement of the warm moist air from the ocean over a cooler continent, and the fact that although deprived of most of its moisture in its passage over the Cascade Mountains, the air is cooled to a still lower temperature in moving towards the interior and thus yields additional precipitation. The secondary summer maximum is explained by the occurrence of summer con- vectional or thunder storms, causing heavy showers and occa- sional cloudbursts in this section. These showers bring the sum- mer average up much higher in comparison to the winter aver- age than it is on the coast, and as we go farther inland we find the summer precipitation greater than the winter precipitation. In this particular case then we have evidence of the two con- 22 Bulletin No. lJp, Washington Geological Survey trols, the oceanic with a winter maximum, and the continental with a summer maximum, the former being more pronounced be- cause of the proximity of the Valley to the Pacific Coast. The average snowfall throughout the Valley is from 10 to 24 inches, but is higher for some of the stations used in the table, e. g., Wenatchee having 63.4 and Ellensburg 29.2 inches. The greatest snowfall recorded at Wenatchee is 114.5 inches, while at Kennewick the highest is 19.5 inches. Occasionally a winter will pass with scarcely any snow at the southern and lower sta- tions. The snow remains on the ground for a comparatively short time and thus is not a very important factor in the general climatic conditions of the Valley. A rather important factor in the climate of Quincy Valley, especially in the ripening and coloring of fruits and grain, is the great number of clear days. The average year will con- sist of about 190 clear days, 79 partly cloudy days, 96 cloudy days, and only 36 days on which more than .01 inches of pre- cipitation may be expected. Thus there will be at least 270 days per year with abundant sunshine, and of the remainder a number recorded as cloudy will be only partly so. TEMPERATURE. The mean annual temperature of the Valley is about 50 de- grees and there is a very slight difference for the various sta- tions. But this tells us little about the yearly temperature con- ditions. It is from the study of the annual, monthly and daily ranges that we get some idea of the true temperature conditions. The average temperature for the coldest month varies from 25.3° at Ellensburg to 31.2° at Kennewick, giving a winter average for the district of about 27°. The average for the warmest month varies from 77.3° at Wahluke to 72.1° at Odessa, giving a summer average of about 75° for the district. This would give an average yearly range of 48° for the region or more than twice as great a range as in western Washington, where the difference from season to season is about 20°. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded at the various stations often show an absolute annual range of 110° or from Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 23 100° to -10°, and temperatures have been registered as high as 106° at Ephrata, 107° at Wahluke, and 115° at Kennewick, and as low as -21° at Kennewick and -29° at Ellensburg. These extremes occur only during very hot spells of summer and cold waves of winter and are of short duration. On account of the low relative humidity of the air the temperature extremes are not felt to the same extent as if the air were moist, and during the warmest weather the nights are cool and pleasant, and in the coldest spells of winter the days are bright and clear. The cold waves of winter are due to the extension of high pressure areas, with their low temperatures, from the northeast over this region, and are usually accompanied by a slow drift of air from that direction. The warm waves of summer are also due to the pressure of a well developed high barometer area to the east, causing the highly heated air from the interior to move westward over this region. These warm spells are frequently broken by strong winds from the west causing a rapid fall in temperature. The daily range of temperature is high, especially in the summer months, with an average daily range of about 35° and a somewhat lower range in the winter months of about 15°. The explanation of the high annual, monthly and daily ranges of temperature is, first, the slight moderating influence that the ocean winds exert here on account of being intercepted by the Cascade Mountains ; second, the fact that this district lacks the protection of high mountains from the extremes characteristic of the interior ; third, the air, deprived of most of its moisture in passing over the Cascades, is usually clear and allows of much greater radiation of heat during the night and during the winter, thus increasing the daily and annual range of temperature. KILLING FROSTS. The dates on which first and last killing frosts occur, being governed by the passage of well developed high pressure areas, will vary considerably from year to year. The dates in the table give approximately the times between which frosts may be expected at any station. In general the higher uplands are sub- 24 Bulletin No. 1J+, Washington Geological Survey ject to frosts earlier and later than the lower areas, but fre- quently the low flat valleys will have heavy frosts when the ad- jacent slopes and uplands are free from frost because of the drainage of the cold heavy air down the slopes and its collection in the lower valleys. In some sections of the district frost may be expected as early as September 15, while in other parts it is not liable to occur before October 20. On the other hand frosts have oc- curred as early as August 28 at Ephrata, September 10 at Odessa, and October 7 at Trinidad. The latest frosts in the spring may be expected at Trinidad about April 5, at Odessa about May 17, and at Hatton about May 25 ; but killing frosts have occurred at Trinidad as late as April 17, at Odessa as late as June 8, and at Hatton as late as June 15. TABLE A. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN CENTRAL WASHINGTON. Eleva- tion Total precip- ita- tion in inches Snow- fall Days with more than .01 inches precipi- tation Cloudy days Partly cloudy days Clear days Latest frost Earliest frost Days with- out frost Feet Inches Ephrata 1,265 7.71 12.0 30 94 37 197 Apr. 23 Sept. 28 158 Ellens burg ... 1,570 9.79 29.2 61 92: 68 205 May 23 Sept. 21 121 Hatton 1,100 9.14 13.5 67 120 83 162 May 25 Sept. 8 106 Oripssa, 1,540 104 101 146 May 17 Sept. 25 116 Trinidad — 900 6.56 23.8 32 67 79 219 Apr. 5 Oct. 20 198 Wahluke 410 6.85 31.5 34 94 80 185 Apr. 21 Oct. 4 166 Wenatchee . . . 1,169 14.33 63.4 82 103 90 172 Apr. 30 Oct. 21 174 (near) Kennewick . . . 367 6.34 10.8 48 78 90 193 Apr. 28 Oct. 15 170 Sunnyside . . . 740 6.65 8.2 50 106 73 186 May 7 Oct. 8 154 WINDS. The prevailing direction of the winds varies considerably at different stations, due to topographic irregularities, but in general the winds arc either w r est, northwest, or southwest, and only occasionally from an easterly direction, when they bring with them the cold spells of winter or the warm waves of summer. During the fall and spring months, occasional strong and dis- agreeably cool dry winds blow from the mountains over the Washington Geological Survey Diagram showing average monthly rainfall in central Washington Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 25 plains toward the east, the direction at different stations depend- ing somewhat on the local topography. The air seems to glide rapidly down the eastern slope of the mountains after several warm days, and the winds will continue to blow for several days at a time, often attaining a velocity of thirty or forty miles an hour. When the winds first begin, usually along about noon, or late in the afternoon, the temperature will fall 10° to 30° in a short time and the first part of the blow often creates a dust storm. The winds are quite a relief after a few days of real hot weather, which in summer they frequently follow. During the winter months there is very little strong wind, but occasionally, following the passage of a cyclonic area to the east, the air, moving into it from the southwest, comes down the eastern slope of the Cascades and is warmed dynamically by in- creased pressure, due to its forced descent. Having lost most of its moisture as it passed over the mountains, it blows over the valleys east of the mountains as a warm, dry wind called the “Chinook,” often causing the sudden breaking up of a cold stormy spell of weather and rapidly melting or vaporizing any snow or ice that may be present. SUMMARY. The climate of this section of the Columbia River Basin seems to be the result of a combination of oceanic, continental, and mountain influences. The winter maximum of rainfall, the fact that the summer warm waves and the winter cold waves are not as severe, nor of as long duration as those farther east, are evidences of the oceanic influence. The high temperatures of summer, the low temperatures of winter, and the summer maxi- mum of rainfall in May and June, which is of immense import- ance to the wheat growing sections of the country, are all in- terior characteristics. The clear, dry, exhilarating air and the strong mountain winds, are the results of the situation of the section on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains. These conditions all combine to give the Quincy Valley one of the best agricultural climates on the continent, although the low rainfall makes irrigation necessary for the most advan- tageous crops and for fruit growing. 26 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey IRRIGATION PROBLEMS OF THE QUINCY VALLEY PROJECT. SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY, STORAGE, DELIVERY AND DISTRI- BUTION, DUTY OF WATER, LENGTH OF IRRIGATION SEASON, COST DATA, ETC. By Joseph Jacobs.* In complying with the request of the State Geologist that I prepare a chapter on the engineering aspects of the Quincy Valley Project, I would point out that in a pamphlet of this character, intended as it is for general distribution and largely for lay readers, a purely technical discussion of engineering problems would be manifestly out of place, and I do not feel at liberty to consider these matters as exhaustively as was done in my initial report on the project to the Quincy Valley Water Users’ Association. Furthermore, a comprehensive engineering consideration of any irrigation project embraces far more than mere detail of construction and design, dealing as it necessarily must with soils, crop and climatic conditions, with water-supply, water- rights and transportation, and in fact with all those elements which affect the commercial as well as the physical feasibility of the project. No attempt therefore will be made to record here, in detail, all the engineering data that have been secured in pursuit of the studies of this project, and such presentation as is here made will be confined to a general description of what the scheme contemplates, a discussion of its more important en- gineering features and a recital of the character of the inves- tigations that have thus far been made. The writer has been concerned with the study of this project since the fall of 1909 when he was requested by the Quincy Val- ley Water Users’ Association to make an investigation and to render a report upon the most feasible and economical source of Consulting Engineer, 406 Central Building, Seattle. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 27 water supply for irrigation of the so-called Quincy Flats. Except as limited by the funds available for the work, no restric- tions were imposed as to the scope of the investigation and he was therefore permitted to and did in fact examine every pos- sible source of water supply that might be brought into service for these lands. These possible sources were as follows : 1. Pend d’Oreille River and Pend d’Oreille Lake. 2. Spokane River and Coeur d’Alene Lake, 3. Columbia River. 4. Moses Lake and Crab Creek. 5. Ground water and artesian supply. 6. Wenatchee River and Wenatchee Lake. Of the water supply sources above listed it is my purpose to discuss in detail only the one finally adopted, namely We- natchee River and Wenatchee Lake, but before proceeding w r ith that I would state briefly the causes which lead to the abandon- ment of the other supplies. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were abandoned by reason of prohibitive cost, though incidentally No. 2 was also rendered untenable by rea- son of the complicated water-right situation involved. No. 4 was abandoned by reason of its entire inadequacy to serve a project of the magnitude contemplated, though for a project of lesser magnitude, or under certain conditions to serve a small portion of the proposed project, it was well worthy of consideration. No. 5 was abandoned on account of the uncertainty of the supply, on account of its inadequacy to serve the area contem- plated for irrigation, and finally because the capitalized value of the annual maintenance cost for pumping was, except for low lifts, in excess of the estimated ultimate cost involved in the gravity scheme adopted. Serious consideration was given to this scheme of pumping from ground waters, by reason of the ease and cheapness of its initial installation and the fact that development could proceed as rapidly or slowly as general business conditions seemed to warrant. 28 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey In my initial report this matter was discussed at length and in detail, and I believe showed conclusively that, for the irriga- tion of an area as large as that contemplated in this project, it would be foolhardy to depend upon an artesian supply, the existence of which has not been proven and which in all prob- ability does not exist, or upon pumpage from a ground water supply whose quantity and extent is at best conjectural. Despite my positive views, however, as to the final insufficiency of this source of water supply, I recognize the practical aspects of the present installation of wells, where the pumpage lift is not excessive, in that such development serves to establish the agricultural excellence of the district and to enhance land values, and because these installations may be replaced with the gravity supply when the same becomes available. This now brings us to a discussion of the project proper as dependent upon the Wenatchee source of water supply. CHARACTER OP INVESTIGATION. The investigations thus far made are as listed below and have been wholly of a reconnaissance nature, unless otherwise stated. 1. An examination of the irrigable area as to topography and soil characteristics. 2. An examination into the character of land ownership. 3. An examination of water-rights on Wenatchee Lake and Wenatchee River. 4. An examination of route of main canal. 5. An examination of Wenatchee River for possible dam sites. 6. An actual survey of the Lake Wenatchee reservoir site. 7. An examination and compilation of all available data, published and unpublished, of the hydrography of the streams involved and of the topography of the lands involved in the project. LOCATION. The lands to be irrigated are situated in Grant county, in the north central part of the state (see map), and are embraced in the territory roughly bounded as follows: On the north Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 29 by the Great Northern Railway, on the east by Moses Lake, on the south by Crab Creek and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway, and on the west by the Columbia River. The tract described contains about 550,000 acres of which it is estimated that about 80 per cent, is irrigable and it is also estimated that there is sufficient water for about that amount of land. TOPOGRGAPHY. The lands vary in general altitude from about 700 feet above mean sea level along their southerly extremity to about 1,800 feet above mean sea level along their northerly extremity, with, however, a narrow zone of higher land in between. Extending easterly and westerly across the valley, along a line about nine miles from the southerly boundary and about eighteen miles from the northerly boundary, there is a low, sandy ridge known as Frenchman Hills, which at certain points along its crest rises to elevations of from 1,700 feet to 1,900 feet above mean sea level, the lowest point in the ridge being only 1,500 feet above mean sea level. Along the easterly edge of the tract the lands slope gradually to the level of Moses Lake, at an eleva- tion of 1,038 feet, while along its westerly edge the general plateau elevation is maintained to the rim of the Columbia River bluffs where it drops abruptly to the river grade at an approxi- mate elevation of 600 feet above mean sea level. The main body of irrigable lands, namely that lying northerly from French- man Hills, constitutes a slightly rolling plateau practically free of marked surface irregularities, while to the southward the lands slope rapidly but with fair regularity from the Frenchman Hills to the low basaltic bluffs immediately facing Crab Creek bottoms. Not all of these lands are irrigable, certain areas being classed as non-irrigable, by reason of their being too steep, as along the Columbia River bluffs, or too high for gravity irri- gation as are the higher portions of the Frenchman Hills, and certain small areas also would be classed as “scab land,” i. e., having such surface exposure of rock as to render their reclama^ tion impracticable. 30 Bulletin No. lip, Washington Geological Survey SOIL. This has been made the subject of a special chapter which will be found in another part of this bulletin and I will therefore state here but a few words in relation thereto. As to quality the soil may be classified as a basaltic loam, a type of soil char- acteristic of a great portion of central Washington and univer- sally recognized as of high value. It appears to be somewhat heavier, but in kind related to the soil of the Yakima Valley, and perhaps even more nearly identical with that of the Sunny- side District, which alone would prove its fertility. As indi- cated by a great many wells already put down for domestic and irrigation purposes the soil depth varies generally from 25 feet to 100 feet or more. CLIMATE. This too has been made the subject of a special chapter and I shall therefore say only a brief word in relation thereto. Like all central Washington this region has insufficient rainfall to insure profitable agriculture without irrigation. The warm moisture laden winds of the Pacific are nearly sapped of their water vapor in passing over the Cascade Mountains, so that there is a wholly deficient precipitation for successful agricul- ture when the Columbia River Valley proper is reached. The irrigable area under consideration has long summers with very warm days and cool nights, and winters that are not excessively cold. The nearest Weather Bureau stations are at Ephrata, at an elevation of 1,265 feet, and Trinidad, at an elevation of 900 feet, near the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, of the project, these stations having been estab- lished in 1903. On account of Trinidad being somewhat under the general upland level and on the slope dropping down to the Columbia River, the record at Ephrata is more nearly represen- tative of the climatic character of the entire Quincy Valley and in deducing the table which follows a little further on, a slightly greater weight was given to the record of that station. As best indicative of the character of climate enjoyed by Quincy Valley it is of interest to compare its more important Quincy Valley irrigation Project 31 climatic features with those of the Wenatchee, Sunny side and Yakima districts, which are in neighboring territory and all of which have already won fame for their exceptional adapta- bility to fruit culture and for the resulting high values of land attained. In the following table all data were deduced from published records of the United States Weather Bureau and are intended to include only those factors which have direct bearing upon ag- riculture and irrigation. TABLE B. MEAN WEATHER CONDITIONS— VARIOUS STATIONS, (a) ITEM Quincy Valley (b) North Yakima Sunnyside We- natchee (near) Elevation above sea level 1,200' 4 to 8 1,000' 12 to 13 764' 1,169' 11 to 12 Length of record (years) (c) 9 to 12 Mean annual precipitation 6.77" 8.43" 6.65" 14.33" Precipitation— July, August and September Mean annual temperature 1.05" 52.4° 1.05" 49.8° 0.81" 50.8° 1.61" 47.9° Maximum annual temperature 106.° 103.° 102.° 97.° Minimum annual temperature —2.° —6.° —2.° 2.° Last killing frost in spring Apr. 22 Oct. 12 May 20 Sept. 19 122 May 7 Oct. 7 May 1 Oct. 22 First killing frost in autumn Length of frost free period (days) 173 153 174 (a) The above records are to 1910, inclusive, the compilation for 1911 not yet having been issued by the Weather Bureau. (b) This column is made up from the records for Trinidad and Ephrata, a slightly greater weight being given to the latter station. (c) Observations for the various phenomena were not begun simultaneously at any station, hence the two figures for length of record. From the above tabulation it is apparent that Quincy Valley has certain climatic advantages over the Yakima, Sunnyside and Wenatchee districts, its salient features being that its weather is somewhat warmer and that, excepting Wenatchee, its frost free period is appreciably longer, which factor is import- ant in its relation to fruit culture for it approximately measures the growing season for crops. It is true that two of these districts show a slightly greater annual precipitation than does Quincy Valley, but it will be noted that the summer precipita- tion in the Quincy Valley is surpassed only by that of Wenat- chee. The record as a whole shows up exceptionally well for the Quincy Valley country. Bulletin No. H, W asking ton Geological Survey 32 CROPS. At the present time, on account of the deficient rainfall and because no water is available for irrigation, practically the only crops attempted to be grown are hay and grain, and thus far these have scarcely maintained the rancher. Exceptions to the above are occasional small tracts where irrigation by pump- ing or from springs has been successfully applied to fruit rais- ing, as for instance the Keigly 25-acre tract at Quincy, the Tolliver 20-acre tract at Ephrata and notably the Techacek orchard tract on the shores of Moses Lake. From the results obtained on these tracts and from the climatic conditions as dis- closed in the records hereinbefore quoted, there can be no doubt that this valley will successfully grow all the fruits grown in the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys. That all forage crops such as timothy, alfalfa, wheat, oats, rye, etc., will flourish here when water is available has been abundantly proven. It goes without saying that a certain area will always be devoted to these forage crops, but on account of the great adaptability of the valley to fruit and vegetable culture and because of the high values of land attainable under such culture, it is believed that when ir- rigation water is provided at least the major portion of the lands will be devoted to this class of farming. As an evidence of the value of the soil in producing fruits and vegetables, it may be stated that Quincy Valley has already won several first prizes for this class of culture, not only at the successive annual competitions of the Spokane Interstate Fair, which embraces the states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, but also at the Alaska- Yukon -Pacific Exposition of 1909, which was interna- tional in its scope. TRANSPORTATION. The transportation facilities of Quincy Valley are good. As will be noted on the index map the Great Northern Railway traverses the entire north boundary of the tract, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway the south boundary, the Connell Northern branch of the Northern Pacific Railway lies just east of its eastern boundary and the Columbia River forms Wenatchee Lake Washington Geological Survey Bulletin No. 14 Plate LIBRARY OF THE RSITY OF ILLINOIS Quincy Valley Irrigation Project SS its western boundary. In addition to the above the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway has about ready for opera tion a branch from its main line to Moses Lake and the Northern Pacific cut-off from Ritzville to Ellensburg has partially been constructed and this line traverses the very heart of Quincy Val- ley. Furthermore the open and level character of the country lends itself to cheap highway construction so that on full development of the project the remotest ranch would need be scarcely more than a two or three hour drive from a railroad. LAND OWNERSHIP. Practically the entire project is included within the land grant limits of the Northern Pacific Railway, a land grant by which the railway received from the government title to every odd-section of land. It appears that, excepting a few sections bordering on Moses Lake, the railway company has disposed of these lands to individuals, title however remaining in the name of the company until all payments on the purchase contract have been satisfied. Counting such lands, however, as in private ownership, the character of land ownership of the entire irriga- ble area is approximately as follows : Government land 6% Private land 85% State land 7% Railroad land 2% Total 100% DUTY OP WATER. Experience with existing irrigation practice in central Wash- ington, as indicated both by crop experiments and by the amount of water guaranteed in the water-right contracts of var- ious irrigation companies, shows the water requirements for different crops to be about as stated below, the amounts given being the vertical depth of water delivered to the land during the irrigation season: Alfalfa and forage crops in general. .32" to 36" Vegetables 30" Fruits 24" —3 34 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey With more careful cultivation of the soil and with a general improvement in irrigation methods the tendency is and will con- tinue to be to decrease the amount of water applied to the land, so the above figures may be assumed to be at least a conserva- tive maximum of what would be required for this project. It may be assumed that all the lands will not be devoted to fruit culture and I have therefore assumed as a basis for all my pre- liminary estimates an average duty of 30" of water delivered to the land. In the distribution system, the laterals being unlined, I have assumed a loss of 16 2-3%, thus making the requirement at the head of the distribution system, i e., at the lower end of the main canal, 36". The seepage and evaporation losses from the main canal will depend upon its total length and upon the relative lengths of lined and unlined portions, none of which can definitely be determined until final surveys are made. The major portion of the main canal, however, we know will need to be lined and I have therefore assumed its seepage losses at 15%, thus making the resultant diversion duty of water 42" at the intake of the main canal. IRRIGATION SEASON. The irrigation season should extend from April 1st to October 31st, and the distribution throughout the season would be about as follows : During April 7% of total supply. During May 15% of total supply. During June 17% of total supply. During July 19% of total supply. During Aug 20% of total supply. During Sept 15% of total supply. During Oct 7% of total supply. Total 100% The maximum draft, i. e., the requirement for the month of August, will of course determine the necessary capacity of the main canal. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 85 WATER RIGHTS. Before proceeding with a description of the water supply, which as already stated would be from Wenatchee Lake and Wenatchee River, brief reference should be made to existing water rights. The only water rights which at the present time have any bearing on the project are those for existing irrigation systems in Wenatchee Valley and for the few power plants at and above the town of Wenatchee. The Great Northern Railway Company’s Tumwater Power Plant, located about three miles above Leavenworth on We- natchee River, claims a water right of 525 second-feet and has an installation practically sufficient to utilize that amount of water. As the main canal diversion for the Quincy Valley Pro- ject must be well above the intake for this power plant, the storage operations of the scheme must be such as not to affect the normal discharge of the river when the same falls below 525 second-feet at the power penstock intake. There are other power plants on Wenatchee River, but as the Tumwater plant above described is highest up on the river and requires the largest flow of water for its operation, any provision made for it would more than provide for the smaller plants below. The present area under irrigation in Wenatchee Valley does not exceed 20,000 acres and with possible future development of existing canals either by gravity extensions or by pumping, the gross irrigable area will probably not exceed 25,000 acres. This acreage would require less water than that demanded by the Tumwater Power Plant and as the latter is above practically all present diversions for irrigation its requirements would re- main the criterion as affecting storage operations of the Quincy Valley Project. WATER SUPPLY. Wenatchee River, including its tributary, Chiwawa Creek, has a drainage area of 560 square miles above the proposed reser- voir dam site hereinafter described. It drains the eastern slope of the Cascade Range, reaching an altitude of 8,100 feet at the 36 Bulletin No. lJp, Washington Geological Survey head of White River, the mean altitude for the entire basin be- ing about 5,000 feet. Its drainage area is all mountainous and fairly well forested with fir, pine and cedar and it is in fact in- cluded within the Wenatchee National Forest. There is prac- tically perpetual snow on the highest peaks along the western rim of the basin and over the entire water shed a heavy annual precipitation prevails. The water supply records available at the time my initial re- port on this project was prepared was for a single station (Cashmere) and covered only a period from July, 1904, to De- cember, 1906, inclusive, the data subsequent to that date having been withheld by the United States Geological Survey pending additional observations to establish the accuracy of the original records. At the present time, however, we have available actual published records of the United States Geological Survey up to and including the year 1909 and the unpublished provisional data for the years 1910 and 1911. Realizing the importance of having a gaging station near the proposed reservoir dam site, the Quincy Valley Water Users* Association established, in December, 1910, such a station at a convenient point about three miles below the said dam site, which station has been and is now regularly observed and records of the same maintained by the United States Geological Survey, in co-operation with the State Geological Survey. The data for these two stations, namely the one at Cashmere and the one recently established and designated as being near Leavenworth are submitted herewith in complete tabular form and if comparison is made with previously published records it will be noted that the government has revised its original figures, the records now indicating a greatly increased discharge of Wenatchee River. This increase in Wenatchee River run-off permits an accordant increase in the area that may be reclaimed by irrigation. DISCHARGE OF WENATCHEE RIVER AT CASHMERE, DRAINAGE AREA, 1,250 SQUARE MILES. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 37 For Year or Prior 428,000 14,900 650 3,380 2,450,000 2,000,000 19,000 890 3,620 2,620,000 2,470,000 2,430,000 20,500 725 4,320 3,120,000 19,300 620 2,870 2,074,800 December 1,590 1,030 1,300 79,900 1,280 780 965 59,300 1,480 (c) 1,380 1,420 141,000 2,350 1,190 1,730 106,000 17,100 1,640 4,080 248,000 2,940 1,320 1,750 108,000 1,800 940 1,340 82,400 November 1,940 690 1,100 65,500 1,940 1,190 1,400 88,300 19,200 (b) 1,940 4,070 113,000 2,500 1,120 1,300 77,400 20,800 1,040 5,240 312,000 13,200 1,800 4,100 244,000 6,560 620 1,900 113,000 October 1,280 730 855 52,600 8,760 1,190 2,950 81,000 12,400 830 2,420 49,000 1,110 1,110 1,110 68,200 8§8§ ^ WOO 4,840 750 2,870 76,000 775 620 682 41,900 | September 1,480 830 1,080 64,300 1,820 890 1,090 64,900 1,700 830 1,000 59,500 1,700 890 1,220 72,600 1,380' 730 930 55,300 1,020 725 873 51,900 1,940 800 1,110 66,000 | August 3,180 1,280 2,080 128,000 2,350 1,030 1,560 95,900 1,480 890 1,160 71,300 2,660 1,110 1,650 95,900 3,800 2,060 127,000 1,940 1,030 1,510 92,800 2,490 940 1,680 103,000 2,020 940 1,290 79,300 ] July § oB §) © rH I> lO tf,'* M W 7,200 2,500 4,450 274,000 6,320 1,590 3,260 200,000 6,600 2,500 4,320 266,000 13,200 3,800 9,590 590,000 9,440 2,660 5,510 339,000 6,680 2,580 4,710 290,000 5,740 2,020 3,800 234,000 ! June 14,900 6,900 10,500 625,000 8,760 3,800 5,390 321,000 19,000 5.500 9.500 565,000 6,320 11,500 684,000 21,400 7,800 13,600 809,000 12,200 5,080 7,700 458,000 19,300 5,150 10,700 637,000 May 11,600 4,740 6,550 403,000 11,600 4,740 7,860 483,000 18.500 6,320 12.500 769,000 9,780 5,760 8,050 495,000 11,600 4,380 7,420 456,000 20,000 7,920 13,100 806,000 11,700 4,130 6,160 379,000 ! April 11,400 2,210 4,710 280,000 9,960 3,000' 5,860 349,000 7,500 1,820 4,670 278,000 llll 00 i-H cl 5,500 (d) 4,380 4,970 49,300 20,500 2,580 7,270 433,000 6,710 2,020 3,620 215,000 March 6,040 1,820 4,370 269,000 3,180 1,190 1,450 89,200 2,660 1,280 2,040 125,000 3,580 1.380 2.380 146,000 10,500 1,600 4,550 280,000 3,290 780 1,600 98,400 February 1,700 650 990 55,000 1,940 1,190 1,520 84,400 4,260 960 2,420 134,000 1,480 890 1,210 69,600 1,600 1,070 1,390 77,200 1,110 780 934 51,900 January 1,100 730 900 55,300 1,700 780 1,040 64,000 1,380 890 1,040 64,000 1,700 960 1,390 85,500 2,660 1,210 1,590 97,800 1,620 940 1,250 76,900 Month Year 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 (c) TABLE C. DISCHARGE OF WENATCHEE RIVER AT CASHMERE, DRAINAGE AREA, 1,250 SQUARE MILES.-Coneluded. 38 Bulletin No. 11^, Washington Geological Survey m 5 w a < a m o os LO < PE? a o c £ t-H Q a Eh a o £ £ H > <1 H a a H £ a H > 2 H H a O Eh < z H £ o H O a < a o m Q > s fit CP CP •- C3 Jh os o ra a E3 3 1 ^ C8 3 w co id OS o . -h 'O S ° O C3 S ® +>“ ^ © -o 8 S 1 cs £ « 3 J a ■EjE" £ rH O > X) g £ -g . £d : . "H ^ bo & s C « 3 .2 cc -a L- r £ Jz; , being about three miles below the upper dam site of proposed Wenatchee Lake Reservoir. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 39 From the above table it will be noted that for the year 1911 the discharge at the upper gaging station, with a drainage area of 590 square miles, is about 64% of that for the Cashmere gaging station with a drainage area of 1,250 square miles. As- suming that this same ratio would hold for mean years and that the discharge at the reservoir dam site, including the discharge of Chiwawa Creek which it is proposed to divert into the reser- voir, would be slightly less than that at the upper gaging sta- tion, I have deduced the following as the actual or the estimated mean annual run-offs at those critical points which must be con- sidered in determining the area that can be irrigated on the basis of the water supply, and the amount of storage required therefor : At Cashmere, 1,250 square miles (record) 2,600,000 acre-feet At Great Northern Power Dam, 700 square miles ( estimated ) 1,920,000 acre feet At Diversion Site hereinafter described, 280 square miles (estimated) 1,880,000 acre-feet At Reservoir Dam Site, including Chiwawa Creek, 560 square miles (estimated) 1,640,000 acre-feet After making allowance for evaporation losses from the pro- posed reservoir hereinafter described (22,500 acre-feet) and for a continuous flow of 525 second-feet, to satisfy the requirements of the Great Northern Railway Power Plant, which latter would also satisfy all present power and irrigation rights in Wenatchee Valley, I estimate that there will be available for irrigation in mean years about 1,520,000 acre-feet of water, or an amount sufficient to irrigate 435,000 acres, assuming, as hereinbefore set forth, a diversion duty of 42" and a delivery duty of 30". It may be noted here that if a delivery duty to the land of 27" instead of 30" be assumed there would be sufficient water to irrigate 475,000 acres. In this connection I would state that the area actually to be irrigated can be determined only by a careful examination of the entire body of land, classifying it section by section as irrigable or non-irrigable, and such a sur- vey has not as yet been made. Bulletin No. H, W ashington Geological Survey STORAGE. It will be noted in the tabulation of run-off previously quoted, that even at Cashmere which is far below the point where our di- version must be made, the normal discharge of Wenatchee River is not sufficient for a project of the size contemplated and it is therefore essential to secure the maximum storage possible. I estimate that the normal storage requirement, i. e., in years of mean run-off, will be about 637,000 acre-feet, but to provide for years of minimum run-off, taken as 60% of mean run-off, the approximate maximum storage requirement is 1,142,000 acre^ feet for an irrigated area of 435,000 acres. WENATCHEE RESERVOIR. Wenatchee Lake, at an altitude of 1,870 feet and with an area at mean stage of about 2,400 acres, affords a very favorable reservoir site. It is sufficiently high to command the lands to be irrigated and is located on the best part of the Wenatchee River drainage (See Plate II). At its outlet its width narrows to form the regular channel of the river and this point affords a fair site for a low dam, but a low dam would not provide the storage required and a high dam at this point, on account of its great length, would be impracticable. A far more favorable site for a high dam is found in sections 26 and 35, Tp. 27 N., R. 17 E., which site has the important ad- vantages of increasing the size of the reservoir and of including the Nason Creek drainage of 121 square miles. Other possible dam sites exist further down the canyon, sur- veys of which have not yet been made, but before any final deci- sion is reached as to the best location for a dam the entire canyon must be carefully examined and all possible sites accurately sur- veyed. A favorable site below the mouth of Chiwawa Creek for instance would involve but little increase in height of dam and would at the same time avoid the artificial diversion of that stream into the reservoir as will be necessary if the upper site is adopted. Views of the Valley in the vicinity of Quincy Washington Geolog LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 41 For the present and until definite surveys and studies of this lower dam site are available, all estimates are made on the basis of the adoption of the upper dam site. It is proposed to build here an earthern dam to an elevation of 2,000 feet above mean sea level, being a maximum height of 146 feet above the stream bed. The top length of this dam will be 4,446 feet and with upstream and downstream slopes of 3 to 1 and 2 to 1 respectively, and with a top width of 20 feet, it will have an earth volume of 4,600,000 cubic yards. It is proposed to protect both faces of the dam with riprap 18" thick and it is also planned to carry two lines of concrete cut-off walls extend- ing the entire length of the dam, these walls to go down and into the bed rock and project about 5 feet into the main body of the dam. It is proposed also to construct a concrete lined spillway of 25,000 second-feet capacity around the southerly end of the dam. SURVEY OF RESERVOIR. Pending an actual survey of the reservoir site and recognizing its strategic relation to any general scheme of irrigation in cen- tral Washington, the government withdrew from public entry all lands within the Wenatchee reservoir site, the President of the United States having issued such order through the Secre- tary of the Interior under date of January 17, 1911. This order withdrew from entry 18,553 acres, embracing lands both within and without the reservoir site, reserving the same for use in connection with irrigation only. During the summer of 1911, the Quincy Valley Water Users’ Association made, under my direction, a complete survey of the Wenatchee Lake reservoir and dam site and I am permitted by that organization to give in Table D complete data as to the areas and the capacities of this reservoir for varying heights of storage. 42 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey TABLE D. WENATCHEE LAKE RESERVOIR. (Prom Surveys Completed September, 1911.) CONTOUR ELEVATION. Area . Acres . Capacity between contours. Acre-feet. Capacity to any contour. Acre-feet. 1,855 feet 0 115 0 1,860 feet 46 36,320 115 1,880 feet 3,686 94,510 36,435 1,900 feet 5,865 134,750 130,945 1,920 feet 7,610 176,290 265,695 1,940 feet 10,019 213,430 441,985 1,960 feet 11,324 239,420 655,415 1,980 feet 12,618 63,335 894,835 1,985 feet 12,715 958,170 REMARKS.— Elevation of river bed at dam site, 1,854 feet. Proposed top of dam ele- vation, 2,000 feet. Proposed spillway elevation, 1,985 feet. Proposed spillway capacity, 25,000 second-feet. Maximum water surface elevation in flood, 1,995 feet. As will be noted from Table D the survey indicates a storage capacity of about 960,000 acre-feet to the proposed flow-line of the reservoir at an elevation of 1,985 feet, this being the eleva- tion assumed for the crest of the spillway with height of dam at an elevation of 2,000 feet. Although this storage capacity is somewhat less than the apparent maximum storage requirement, under extreme conditions, as hereinbefore set forth, yet it is be- lieved that it will prove sufficient, or at least that greater stor- age need not be provided at this time and for the following rea- sons, to-wit : (a) It will take at least 15 years after water is delivered to settle up the entire irrigable area, by which time improved ir- rigation methods may materially improve the water duty, and furthermore the general rise of the ground water plane may tend to sub-irrigate some of the low lying lands. (b) The increased length of discharge record may make a better showing for low and mean years than is indicated by the record now available and furthermore the lowest year now of record is 25% in excess of the minimum assumed in estimating possible maximum storage requirements. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 43 (c) Maximum storage will not be required until the entire area is under irrigation, at which time the character of the crops grown and the exact irrigation requirements will be definitely known, when additional storage if needed can be more intel- ligently and economically provided. CHIWAWA CREEK. This creek has an excellent water shed of 164 square miles, extending westward to the summit of the Cascades, and it is one of the important feeders of Wenatchee River. Unfortunately it empties into the river below the dam site as now proposed, but to secure the great amount of storage required for this project, it must in some manner be included in the storage system. This can easily be accomplished by means of a feed canal not exceed- ing two miles in length extending from Chiwawa Creek to Fish Lake (see Plate II), thus making it in fact a part of the main reservoir. This canal could be unlined and would need to have a capacity of about 2,000 second-feet. There will also be re- quired a low diverting dam on Chiwawa Creek, but the total cost of delivering this supply into the reservoir would be relatively small and should undoubtedly be done unless subsequent surveys prove that a storage reservior on Chiwawa Creek itself would be more economical, which however in my opinion is very doubtful. OTHER SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY. Should the Wenatchee water supply prove insufficient for the area it is finally desired to irrigate, or in the event that it is desired to expand the project at some future date, other pos- sible sources of water supply might be found in Entiat, Icicle and Peshastin creeks. They are at least worthy of considera- tion in this connection and continuous discharge records on these streams would be extremely valuable. Some study has already been given to the Entiat possibility and the indications are that on account of the complicated water rights on this stream and the high cost of its diversion into the Wenatchee drainage basin its use would probably prove imprac- ticable, but no such study has yet been given to the other two streams named. 44 Bulletin No. H, W ashing ton Geological Survey POINT OF DIVERSION. To irrigate an area of 435,000 acres there will be required a maximum canal capacity of nearly 5,000 second-feet. For a main canal length of 65 miles, and the gradients required for the varying types of conduit which will need to be employed, it is estimated that a total head of about 260 feet will be con- sumed. With a main canal elevation of 1,340 feet at Quincy this means that the canal must be diverted from the river at an elevation of 1,600 feet and it is found that this will be approxi- mately where Fall Creek empties into Wenatchee River, about 12 miles below the proposed reservoir dam site. At this point a low overflow weir and head-works would need to be constructed to serve the purpose of diverting Wenatchee River into the main canal. It is proposed to release the water from Wenatchee Lake reservoir, as required, by means of an outlet tunnel which would drain the reservoir to contour elevation of 1,855 feet. This water would be turned directly into the natural channel of Wenatchee River, or it would be possible to utilize it for power purposes by carrying it in a power canal on low gradients to a point just above the proposed diversion dam site where a power house could be located. It is not known that such power development would prove economical or desirable and it is simply mentioned here as a possibility. MAIN CANAL. As has already been stated the capacity of the main canal will need to be about 5,000 second-feet at the intake and about 4,250 second-feet at its lower end for the acreage contemplated, and for the gradients now estimated it would have a length of 65 miles. It will be appreciated, of course, in dealing with canals of this magnitude that only the most careful surveys and most considerate study can determine the economic gradients and economic routes and, at least at the upper end of the canal, alternative routes are possible. If the canal were diverted from Wenatchee River at the mouth of Fall Creek, instead of following Tumwater Canyon on the steep mountain side above the Great Northern Railway track, it Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 45 could leave the Wenatchee by means of a three-mile tunnel, there- by bringing it into Freund Creek Canyon. From this canyon it would follow Chumstick Valley to the north side of Wenatchee Valley which it would parallel for a distance of 31 miles, or to Columbia River. The water would be conveyed under Columbia River by means of a pressure tunnel, and the canal would con- tinue in a southeasterly direction along a line approximately paralleling the Columbia River and distant from one to three miles therefrom, a length of 21 miles to Moses Coulee ; thence easterly from Moses Coulee and away from the Columbia River a distance of 12 miles to the end of the main canal, this point being about one mile north of the town of Quincy. The route of the main canal throughout the major portion of its length is over hilly and mountainous country, involving much rock work and heavy construction in general. On account of the rough topography and the several canyons and rivers to be crossed, all types of conduits will need to be employed, namely lined and unlined open canal, side hill flumes, inverted siphons, grade tunnels, and one pressure tunnel under Columbia River. Probably not to exceed 5 or 6 miles of unlined canal can be economically employed in its entire length and this at the ex- treme lower end of the canal. I thus purposely call attention to the magnitude of this main canal construction, not as a discouraging prospect, for I have abundant faith in the feasibility of the project, but because I desire not to minimize the actual difficulties which I know will be encountered and which must be solved. Among the more important siphons required other than the Columbia River crossing, which is separately considered, may be mentioned the crossings of Chumstick Creek, Derby Canyon and Olalla Canyon westerly from Columbia River, and Rock Island Creek, Moses Coulee and Willow Springs Canyon easterly from Columbia River. COLUMBIA RIVER CROSSING. This proves to be one of the formidable features involved in utilizing the Wenatchee River water supply, for the bed of 46 Bulletin No. H, Washington Geological Survey Columbia River, at an elevation of about 600 feet above sea, is nearly 900 feet below the proposed hydraulic gradient of the canal line. It will therefore require the construction of a bridge to support an inverted siphon with a maximum head of about 800 feet, or a pressure tunnel under the river bed with a maxi- mum head of about 1,000 feet. The proposed crossing is at a point about three miles north of Wenatchee, and its estimated length, including inclined approaches to the river crossing proper, is about 10,000 feet. It being necessary to conserve as much head as possible and because of the heavy friction losses involved in conducting the water in a series of small pipes, it is believed most economic to restrict the conduit to one, or at most two pipes. For a single pipe 22 feet is found to be the economic diameter, and for two pipes 16 feet each, and of these alterna- tives the single pipe is the less expensive and was therefore adopted in arriving at the preliminary estimates of the cost of the project. To utilize a bridge for the support of a siphon at this cross- ing, it would be necessary to provide a clearance above high water sufficient to accommodate all present and prospective steamboat traffic. This would mean the construction of high piers at great cost, and the superstructure, with an imposed load at least five times that put upon our heaviest modern single track railroad bridge, would be unduly expensive, all of which would be in addition to the cost of the siphon proper. A pressure tunnel below the river bed would not only be safer construction, but present estimates indicate that it would also be far more economic construction. I have assumed a depth of 100 feet below the river bed for this pressure tunnel, but its proper position can be determined only by careful surveys and extensive borings, which of course have not yet been made. The type of construction contemplated is an outer shell of concrete not less than 18" thick and properly reinforced to re- sist internal and external pressure, and an inner shell of steel 1" thick to insure water tightness and also to resist internal pres- sure. The thickness of concrete used and the amount of rein- Quincy Valley Irrigation Project 47/ forcement required will of course depend upon the character of rock formation encountered. Such a pressure tunnel would not be an unusual type of con- struction, as is indicated by the Hudson River pressure tunnel forming a part of the New York Aqueduct which is now under construction. This tunnel will have an internal diameter of 14 feet and will be under a maximum head of 1,500 feet. WASTEWAYS. To properly regulate the canal and to afford protection, should rapid unwatering of the canal be required, probably not less than three wasteways will need to be provided; one just be- low the head works, one at Columbia River crossing, and one near the end of the main canal. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. This will consist of one main lateral extending south from Quincy and one extending as a continuation of the main canal from Quincy to a point north of and opposite Ephrata, with a final waste channel therefrom draining into Moses Lake. The land south of Frenchman Hills would be reached by extending one of the main laterals, in a tunnel through the low divide in the Frenchman Hills, or by an open canal around either end of the Hills as future surveys may prove to be most economical. In addition to the main laterals there will be required a sub-lateral system together with patrol houses and a telephone system for the proper operation of the canal. Since the body of irrigable lands are generally located very favorably for irrigation, it is not believed the distribution system will prove unusually expensive. The cost should not exceed from $5 to $10 per acre, depending upon the area of farm unit to which the sub-laterals are constructed. COST OF PROJECT. In the absence of actual surveys for the major part of the work involved in. this project one approaches the matter of final cost with some reluctance. Yet it is recognized that such pre- Bulletin No. Ilf,, Washington Geological Survey lary estimates are necessary as a basis for future studies to point out the advisability of making more detailed in- vestigations. Based therefore upon the reconnaissance work that has al- ready been done and upon the important data thus far as- sembled, I would say that I have arrived at a preliminary es- timate of approximately $100 per acre for a project of 435,000 acres, which estimate I regard as conservatively high. The gross figures entering into this estimate are as follows : Chiwawa Diversion $85,000 Storage (960,000 acre-feet) 2,370,000 Main diversion dam and headworks 150,000 Main canal, exclusive of Columbiar River crossing (63 miles) 24,948,000 Wasteways 200,000 Columbia River Crossing 5,500,000 Distribution System 3,263,000 Rights of Way other than reservoir 50,000 $36,416,000 Engineering and contingencies, 20% 7,283,000 Total .J, $43,699,000 FUTURE WORK. There is yet much work to be done before a final estimate of the cost of this project can be determined. Among other things there will be required an actual survey of the canal line, a land classification of the irrigable area, a detailed study of the dis- tribution system, surveys and borings of the Columbia River crossing and additional dam surveys in Wenatchee Canyon. LAND VALUES. Granting that the project is physically feasible, as I fully believe it is, there yet remains the important consideration as to whether the final values attainable by the lands to be irrigated will justify the expense of bringing the water to them. The probable range of land values that will obtain on this project are best illustrated by the actual land values at the present time in the Yakima and Wenatchee districts. The sale of developed orchards in these districts at $2,000 per acre is so* 4 Plate VII V I i 1 * si 7 ; i 1 * 4 t «... 03 CL ' - 1 The upper view is that of Ephrata and vicinity, with the Tolliver orchard in the foreground. The lower view is that of a residence, orchard, and vineyard on Moses Lake. Quincy Valley Irrigation Project frequent as to no longer excite comment and I would hesitat \ to place the average price at which such orchards could be pur chased at less than $1,000 per acre. By a developed orchard b meant one having healthy trees of approved varieties, eight years old or more, and having of course an ample water right. For good lands under a canal with ample water right, but as yet un- planted to orchard, it is difficult to find a desirable tract for less than $300 per acre. The above should be a fair criterion of what the Quincy Val- ley lands will bring. With an assured water supply and con- sidering the exceptionally favorable features of the project, namely, its climate, the fertility of its soil and its excellent trans- portation facilities, I believe it conservative to assume that these lands unimproved but with a water right will be worth $300 per acre, and this value would of course more than justify the esti- mated cost of irrigation. CONCLUSION. Before closing I would call attention to the great need of opening up new agricultural areas on this western coast to meet the land demand that is certain to ensue upon the completion of the Panama Canal. The consummation of that enterprise, it is conceded by every thoughtful writer on the subject, is bound to bring the Pacific Coast an unprecedented immigration from European countries and efforts should be made to prepare for that situation. There are a number of large irrigation projects awaiting development, not only in Washington, but in other states as well, projects which will ultimately cost from $15,000,000 to $50,000,000 each and if this western country is to achieve its full development it must find some means of undertaking these larger schemes when engineering investigations prove them to be feasible and practical. If they prove too large or for other reasons fail to attract private enterprise, then it is my confident belief that at some early day a definite effort must and will be made to secure such legislation as will make possible their con- struction through the guarantee of state or federal aid, or per- haps by means of both these agencies. —4 t PUBLICATIONS OP THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Volume 1. — Annual Report for 1901. Part 1, Creation of the State Geological Survey, and An Outline of the Geology of Washington, by Henry Landes; part 2, The Metalliferous Resources of Washington, ex- cept Iron, by Henry Landes, William S. Thyng, D. A. Lyon and Milnor Roberts; part 3, The Non-Metalliferous Resources of Washington, Ex- cept Coal, by Henry Landes; part 4, The Iron Ores of Washington, by S. Shedd, and the Coal Deposits of Washington, by Henry Landes; part 5, The Water Resources of Washington, by H. G. Byers, C. A. Ruddy and R. E. Heine; part 6, Bibliography of the Literature Referring to the Geology of Washington, by Ralph Arnold. Out of print. Volume 2. — Annual Report for 1902. Part 1, The Building and Or- namental Stones of Washington, by S. Shedd; part 2, The Coal De- posits of Washington, by Henry Landes and C. A. Ruddy. Postage 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 1. — Geology and Ore Deposits of Republic Mining District, by Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound in cloth; price, 35 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 2. — The Road Materials of Washington, by Henry Landes. Bound in cloth; price, 60 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 3. — The Coal Fields of King County, by Geo. W. Evans. Bound in cloth; price, 75 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 4. — The Cement Materials of Washington, by S. Shedd and A. A. Hammer. In preparation. Bulletin 5. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Myers Creek and Oro- ville-Nighthawk Districts, by Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 6. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Blewett Mining Dis- trict, by Charles E. Weaver. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 7. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Index Mining District, by Charles E. Weaver. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 8. — Glaciation of the Puget Sound Region, by J. Harlen Bretz. In preparation. Bulletin 9. — The Coal Felds of Kittitas County, by E. J. Saunders. In preparation. Bulletin 10. — The Coal Fields of Pierce County. In preparation. Bulletin 11. — The Mineral Resources of Washington, with statistics for 1911, by Henry Landes. In preparation. Bulletin 12. — Bibliography of Washington Geology and Geography, by Gretchen O’Donnell. In preparation. Bulletin 13. — A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Formations of Western Washington, by Charles E. Weaver. In preparation. Bulletin 14. — The Quincy Valley Irrigation Project, by Henry Landes, A. W. Mangum, H. K. Benson, E. J. Saunders, and Joseph Jacobs. Bound in paper; price 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 15. — A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington, by Chas. E. Weaver. Bound in paper; price, 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, IN CO- OPERATION WITH THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. (For copies of these publications address the Director, U. S. Geologi- cal Survey, Washington, D. C.) Topographic Maps of the Following Quadrangles: Mount Vernon, Quincy, Winchester, Moses Lake, Beverly and Red Rock. Price, 5 cents each. Water Supply Paper No. 253: Part I., Southern Washington. Water Supply Paper No. : Part II. In preparation. Water Supply Paper No. : Part III. In preparation. Water Supply Paper No. 272: ington for 1909. Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Results of Stream Gaging in Wash- PUBLICATION S OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF SOILS, IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. (For copies of these publications address one of the members of congress from Washington.) Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Eastern Part of the Puget Sound Basin. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Western and Southern Parts of the Puget Sound Basin. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of Southwestern Washington. In prepa- ration. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Quincy Area. In preparation. CON bulletin no. School/ - J j p 1 13 - I rile ' - - " XX r- t „ - » - » S Contour interval 100 feet THE QUINCY VALLEY IRRIGATION PROJECT 153 Lands owned by the Stole A MAP SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE LANDS TO BE IRRIGATED SCALE \ / ChiWu , » Wish WR NATCH El LAKE / PROPOSi RESERVOIR SITE AND APPROXIMATE LOCATION OF THE CANAL LINE QUINCY VALLEY IRRIGATION PROJECT Scale WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HENRY LANDES, State Geologist BULLETIN No. 15 A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Paleontology OF W estern W asking-ton By CHARLES E. WEAVER OLYMPIA, WASH. : E. L. BOARDMAN PUBLIC PRINTER 1912. BOARD OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, Governor M. E. Hay, Chairman. State Treasurer J. G. Lewis, Secretary. President T. F. Kane. President E. A. Bryan. Henry Landes, State Geologist. Solon Shedd, Assistant State Geologist. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Governor M. E. Hay , Chairman, and Members of the Board of Geological Survey: Gentlemen— I have the honor to submit herewith a report entitled “A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington,” by Charles E. Weaver, with the’ recommendation that it be printed as Bulletin No. 15 of the Survey reports. , Very respectfully, Henry Landes, State Geologist. University Station, Seattle, August 1, 1912. CONTENTS. Page Introduction 9 Stratigraphy 10 General Statement 10 Pre-Tertiary Bed Rock Complex 10 Tertiary Formations 11 Eocene 12 General Statement 12 Cowlitz Formation 14 Tejon Formation 14 Oligocene 15 General Statement 15 Post Eocene 17 General Statement 17 Lower Miocene 17 Blakeley Formation 17 Wahkiakum Formation 19 Chehalis Formation 19 Upper Miocene 19 Montesano Formation 19 Geologic History 22 Description of Species 28 Eocene 28 Pelecypoda 28 Pectunculus eocenica n. sp 28 Pectunculus eocenica n. sp. var. landesi n. var 28 Pectunculus tejonensis n. sp 29 Ostrea olequahensis n. sp 29 Ostrea fettkei n. sp 30 Pecten cowlitzensis n. sp 30 Crassatellites cowlitzensis n. sp 31 Crassatellites washingtoniana n. sp 32 Corbicula eufaulaensis n. sp 32 Corbicula cowlitzensis n. sp 33 Cardium olequahensis n. sp 34 Meretrix landesi n. sp 34 Meretrix olequahensis n. sp 35 Tapes washingtoniana n. sp 35 6 Table of Contents Description of Species — Continued. Eocene — Gasteropoda Potamides fettkei Potamides lewisiana n. sp Rimella canalifera Gabb, var. elongata n. var Cassidaria washingtoniana n. sp Morio tuberculatus Gabb, var. tri-tuberculatus n. var Tritoneum sopenahensis n. sp Ranella washingtoniana n. sp Ranella cowlitzensis n. sp Nassa eocenica n. sp Nassa packardi n. sp Chrysodomus clallamensis n. sp Hemifusus sopenahensis n. sp Hemifusus cowlitzensis n. sp Hemifusus lewisiana n. sp Hemifusus washingtoniana n. sp Hemifusus tejonensis n. sp Brachysphingus clarki n. sp Murex sopenahensis n. sp Murex cowlitzensis n. sp Fusus washingtoniana n. sp Fusus dickersoni n. sp Fusus lewisensis n. sp Fasciolaria washingtoniana n. sp Mitra washingtoniana n. sp Ancillaria bretzi n. sp Surcula cowlitzensis n. sp Conus cowlitzensis n. sp Brachiopoda Rhynconella washingtoniana n. sp Miocene Pelecypoda Leda chehalisensis n. sp Yoldia sammamishensis n. sp Pecten porterensis n. sp Pecten alockamenensis n. sp Mytilus sammamishensis n. sp Mytilus stillaguamishensis n. sp Mytilus snohomishensis n. sp Venericardia chehalisensis n. sp Chione chehalisensis n. sp Chione montesanoensis n. sp Chione cathcartensis n. sp Marcia oregonensis Conrad Tellina merriami n. sp Table of Contents Description of Species — Continued. Miocene — Pelecypoda — Page Tellina kincaidii n. sp 64 Macoma montesanoensis n. sp 65 Macoma snohomishensis n. sp 66 Macoma wynootcheensis n. sp 66 Semele montesanoensis n. sp 67 Semele sylviaensis n. sp 67 Pseudocardium gabbi Remond var. altus n. var 68 Pseudocardium gabbi Remond var. elongatus n. var 68 Pseudocardium gabbi Remond var. robustun n. var 69 Pseudocardium gabbi Remond var. unduliferum n. var. ... 69 Pseudocardium landesi n. sp 69 Cryptomya washingtoniana n. sp 70 Gasteropoda 70 Turris wynootcheensis n. sp 70 Chlorostoma arnoldi n. sp 71 Caliostoma delazinensis n. sp 72 Turritella blakeleyensis n. sp 72 Turritella porterensis n. sp 73 Gyrineum sylviaensis n. sp 73 Ficus clallamensis n. sp 74 Nassa andersoi^i n. sp 75 Cuma biplicata var. quadranodosum n. var 75 Fusus montesanoensis n. sp 76 Pleurotoma chehalisensis n. sp 77 Pleurotoma washingtoniana 78 Drillia chehalisensis n. sp 78 Scaphapoda 79 Dentalium porterensis n. sp 79 Brachiopoda 79 Terebratula oakvilleensis n. sp 79 Crustacea 80 A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE TERTIARY PALEONTOLOGY OF WESTERN WASHINGTON. INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this paper is to record as briefly as possible the purely scientific facts concerning the Tertiary Palaeon- tology of Western Washington. A short account is given of the character and distribution of the several divisions of the Tertiary and their faunas. A northwestern Tertiary province is recognized and an attempt is made to interpret its history from the close of the Cretaceous to the present time. A total Tertiary invertebrate marine fauna of two hundred and forty- six species has been discovered. Eighty-four of these are new and are described and figured for the first time. This report is preliminary to a more detailed one, which will appear later accompanied by maps and a discussion of the economic geology in relation to the occurrence of oil. The field work upon which this report is based has been carried on by the writer at intervals during the past five years. During the summer of 1911 four months were spent in the field studying and mapping the areal geology of southwestern Wash- ington and a strip along the coast from Gray’s Harbor north- ward to Cape Flattery and thence along the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to Port Angeles. Previous to that year a study had been made of all the bed rock outcrops occurring in the Puget Sound Basin and the Quimper Peninsula. During the summer of 1911 the writer was assisted in this work by Messrs. Charles R. Fettke, Donald Ross, T. A. Bonser and Olaf Stromme. The specific determinations of the fossils w r ere made by the writer in the Palaeontology laboratory of the University of California. The types of the new species described in this report are in the Palaeontological collections of the Uni- 10 Bulletin No. 15, Washington Geological Survey versity of Washington. The writer wishes to express his ac- knowledgements to all who have aided in this work and espe- cially to Professor John C. Merriam and Mr. Bruce Clark of the Palaeontology Department of the University of California, who kindly placed at his disposal their collections and library facilities. STRATIGRAPHY. GENERAL STATEMENT. The Tertiary formations of western Washington are com- posed of non-metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks which rest unconformably upon an older complex series of ig- neous and metamorphic rocks. The Tertiary sedimentary for- mations comprise materials deposited in lake basins, brackish water estuaries and marine basins. Those of lacustrine origin are confined almost entirely to eastern Washington and the eastern portion of the Cascade Mountains. The deposits in the western foothills of the Cascades are for the larger part of estuarine origin, while those in southwestern Washington and the Puget Sound Basin are mostly marine. The total maximum thickness of the Tertiary formations in western Washington is over thirty-four thousand feet. This thickness, however, is not represented in any one continuous section. The strata are for the most part involved in a complex series of folds. In southwestern Washington the entire structure can be referred to two exceedingly complex westerly pitching geosynclines. PRE-TERTIARY BED ROCK COMPLEX. In every locality where the contact between the Tertiary and older formations may be observed there is a marked uncon- formity. These older rocks compose the entire central core of the Olympic Peninsula, the San Juan Islands and the bulk of the northern portion of the Cascade Mountains. In the southern portion of the Cascades the older rocks pass beneath a thick covering of Tertiary lavas. They do not occur in southwestern Washington, but seem to pass down below sea level from the Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington 11 southern foothills of the Olympic Mountains until they again reappear in the northern foothills of the Klamath Mountains of southern Oregon. Isolated occurrences, however, may occur in the northern coast ranges of Oregon. The older rocks rep- resent a series of sandstones, shales, limestones, conglomerates, interbedded volcanic tuffs and lavas which have been extensively metamorphosed, largely as the result of numerous intrusions of acidic and basic magmas. The intrusions of igneous magmas seem to have occurred at or near the close of the Jurassic. The metamorphic rocks belong largely to the Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic, and bear a very striking resemblance to the Franciscan formation of California and southern Oregon. On the northern shore of Vancouver Island and on the north- ern fringe of the San Juan Islands the Upper Cretaceous occurs resting unconformably upon the older metamorphic complex. These rocks are not metamorphosed. The Lower Cretaceous is absent. No deposits of Cretaceous age are definitely known to exist in any other part of western Washington, although they may lie deeply buried beneath the later Tertiary formations. TERTIARY FORMATIONS. The following subdivisions have been made of the Tertiary formations in western Washington: Pleistocene — Pliocene — wanting. r Upper. . 1 Miocene Lower.. 1 l Chehalis formation. . . . j Wahkiakum formation. ( Blakeley formation. Oligocene. . . . formation. Eocene f | Upper. . .... \ j Tejon formation. . . . j ( Cowlitz formation.. ) Puget Brackish water group [ Lower — wanting. 12 Bulletin No. 15 , Washington Geological Survey EOCENE. GENERAL STATEMENT. The Eocene of western Washington consists of two divisions, an older which is provisionally termed the Cowlitz formation, j and a later one which is distinctly Tejon. Both belong to the Upper Eocene. The rocks composing these formations are sandstones, shales, conglomerates and subordinate amounts of j shaly limestone, together with numerous intercalated layers of tuff and basaltic lava. The sediments are partly of marine and partly of brackish water origin. The former prevail in the western part of the area examined and the latter to the east, on the western slopes of the Cascades. Eocene strata form the surface outcrops over an area of about 4,000 square miles. This area would be much larger if the thick veneer of glacial drift in the Puget Sound Basin were to be stripped off. The formations outcropping in the Cowlitz Valley from the Columbia River northward into Thurston County are Eocene. They are partly marine and partly brackish water deposits. I In western Lewis, Cowlitz, Wahkiakum, eastern Pacific, Che- halis and western Thurston counties, the marine sediments pre- * vail. To the east they thin out and are replaced by brackish water and occasionally fresh water materials. West of the ; Cowlitz River marine sediments prevail. In Pierce and King counties they attain a thickness of over eight thousand feet. They have been described as the Puget Group* which is the coal bearing horizon of western Washington. The Puget formation is composed exclusively of brackish water sediments together with interbedded lava flows. It extends eastward into the Cas- cade Mountains and passes unconformably beneath later Mio- cene and Pliocene lava flows. The first Eocene deposits to re- appear on the eastern margin of these later Tertiary lavas are a part of the Roslyn formation which is coal bearing and be- longs to the upper portion of the Eocene. These deposits are regarded as lacustrine in origin. The maximum thickness of the Eocene is at least ten thousand feet. In the type sections *Tacoma Folio No. 54, U. S. Geological Survey. Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington 13 where detailed stratigraphic sections have been made, the base of the series has not been reached. In Pierce County the Puget group has been divided into a three-fold division on the basis of its lithologic character. There it has a thickness of at least nine thousand feet. In King County stratigraphic measure- ments give a thickness of nearly eight thousand feet of sedi- ments which may also be divided into three divisions. In the western part of King County, south of Seattle, these brackish water sediments become partially marine and yield a distinctly Tejon fauna. South, in Lewis County, distinctly Tejon marine faunas occur interbedded with the brackish water beds. In southern Lewds County, east of Little Falls, there exist shales and shaly limestones containing a fauna seemingly older than the typical Tejon, but more closely related to it than to the Martinez or Lower Eocene of California. A very large num- ber of the species are new and the fauna may represent a transi- tion from the Martinez to the Tejon — a fauna which as yet is unknown in California. In order to distinguish this from the typical Tejon, the term Cowlitz formation is suggested. The basaltic lavas and tuffs occurring within the Eocene of western Washington have a thickness ranging from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet. They do not constitute a single flow but rather a series of flows poured out on the sea floor at intervals during the deposition of the sediments. They vary in thickness from point to point. Much of this material is tuf- faceous and agglomeratic and for the most part has been forced up from below through numerous fissures and small vents rather than through large central volcanic cones. During the Tejon, volcanic activity prevailed over all of western Washington with the exception of the central and north- western portion of the Olympic Peninsula. The same may be said concerning the Coast Ranges of northwestern Oregon. With one or two local exceptions, no volcanic materials are found associated with any of the Oligocene or Miocene strata in western Washington. In the Cascades and eastern Washing- ton they constitute the larger part of the later Tertiary. 14 Bulletin No. 15, Washington Geological Survey COWLITZ FORMATION. The Cowlitz formation contains the following fauna : PELECYPODA. Barbatia morsei Gabb Cardium breweri Gabb Cardium cooperi Gabb Corbula sp. Crassatella washingtoniana n. sp. Crassatella cowlitzensis n. sp. Meretrix olequahensis n. sp. Ostrea fettkei n. sp. Pecten cowlitzensis n. sp. Plauconomia inornata Gabb Venericardia alticosta Gabb Venericardia planicosta Lamarck GASTEROPODA. Ancillaria bretzii n. sp. Cassidaria washingtoniana n. sp. Conus cowlitzensis n. sp. Cylichna costata Gabb Fusus lewisensis n. sp. Fusus dickersoni n. sp. Fusus washingtoniana n. sp. Galerus excentricus Gabb Hemifusus sopenahensis n. sp. Hemifusus cowlitzensis n. sp. Hemifusus lewisensis n. sp. Hemifusus tejonensis n. sp. Hemifusus washingtoniana n. sp. Fasciolaria washingtoniana n. sp. Lunatia lewisii Gould Murex sopenahensis n. sp. Murex cowlitzensis n. sp. Mitra washingtoniana n. sp. Morio tuberculatus Gabb. var. trituberculatus n. var. Nassa eocenica n. sp. Nassa packardi n. sp. Naticinia obliqua Gabb. Ranella washingtoniana n. sp. Ranella cowlitzensis n. sp. Ramilla canalifera Gabb var. elongata n. var. Sircula cowlitzensis n. sp. Tritonium sopenahensis n. sp. Turritella uvasana Conrad. BRACHYOPODA. Rhynconella washingtoniana n. sp. shark’s teeth. There is a total of forty-five species occurring in this forma- tion. Out of the total fauna thirty are new species. The base of this formation is unknown. Its known thickness is at least five hundred feet. Future studies may show this to be really a part of the Tejon formation. TEJON FORMATION. The Tejon formation contains the following fauna: PELECYPODA. Barbatia morsei Gabb. Ostrea idriaensis Gabb. Cardium breweri Gabb. Ostrea olequahensis n. sp. Cardium olequahensis n. sp. Pecten peckhami Gabb. Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington 15 Crassatellites grandis Gabb. Corbicula cowlitzensis n. sp. Corbicula eufaulaensis n. sp. Leda gabbi Conrad. Meretrix landesi n. sp. Meretrix horni Gabb. Meretrix ovalis Gabb. Meretrix uvasana Conrad. Modiola ornata Gabb. Nerverita subglobosa Gabb. Planconomia inornata Gabb. Pectunculus eocenica n. sp. Pectunculus eocenica n. sp. var. landesi n. var. Pectunculus tejonensis n. sp. Pectunculus sagittata Gabb. Solen parallelus Gabb. Tapes washingtoniana n. sp. Tellina horni Gabb. Venericardia planicosta Lamarck. GASTEROPODA. Amauropsis alveata Conrad. Brachysphingus clarkii n. sp. Cylichna costata Gabb. Ficus mammilatus Gabb. Fusus remondi Gabb. Fusus sp. Potamides lewisensis n. sp. Potamides fettkei n. sp. Potamides carbonicola Cooper. Turritella uvasana Conrad. SCAPHAPODA. Dentalium cooperi Gabb. This fauna is characteristic wherever the marine Upper Eocene is found. It is typically Tejon and it seems best to retain that formational name within this state. The strata involved in the Puget formation are the brackish water equiva- lents of the marine Tejon. The Tejon is widely distributed and composes practically all of the Eocene outcrops in western Washington. Indirect evidence suggests its correlation with the Roslyn formation of eastern Washington. The data bear- ing upon this subject will be presented in a future paper. OLIGOCENE. GENERAL STATEMENT. In southern Thurston County strata occur containing a fauna having a very close relationship to the Tejon below. No distinct unconformity can be recognized. So far as ob- served the strata are entirely of marine origin. The known area is so small that it has not been represented upon the accompany- ing map. The best exposures outcrop on Lincoln Creek near the boundary line between Lewis and Thurston counties. The total thickness is less than one thousand feet. Upwards it grades into the Porter shales which are correlated with the lower portion of the Blakeley formation in the type section in Kitsap County. Many of the species occurring at Lincoln 16 Bulletin No. 15 , Washington Geological Survey Creek are identical with those at Porter, but the fauna as a whole contains a larger percentage of distinctly Tejon species. These strata may be designated as the Lincoln formation. So far as the writer has been able to ascertain they are marine deposits which as yet have not been definitely recognized at any other locality on the coast. They seem to correspond to the time interval represented by unconformities elsewhere. Litho- logically they are largely composed of shales or sandy shales with a very little sandstone and no volcanic material. Volcanic activity in western Washington seems to have entirely ceased at the close of the Eocene. In the type section of the Blakeley formation at Restoration Point, there is a series of shales and sandy shales which are non- fossiliferous and lie below the fossiliferous beds at Port Blake- ley and which seem to rest upon an old basaltic mass of probable Eocene age which may possibly correspond to the fossiliferous beds in the Lincoln formation. These outcrop on the south side of Sinclair Inlet opposite Seattle. In the thick series of sedi- ments exposed in the Cape Flattery section there are about 5,000 feet of non-fossiliferous shales and sandy shales. These underlie the thick massive conglomerates forming the backbone of the Cape and are above the old Mesozoic metamorphic mass which constitutes Portage Head. These beds also may repre- sent those at Lincoln Creek but at present there is no definite evidence to make such a correlation. The following list of species constitutes the fauna character- istic of the Lincoln formation : PELECYPODA. Pecten porterensis n. sp. Solen conradi Dali. Solen parallelus Gabb. Anomia cf subcostata Conrad. Leda gabbi Conrad. Marcia oregonensis Conrad. Meretrix uvasana Conrad. GASTEROPODA. Pleurotoma fresnoensis Arnold. Pleurotoma lincolnensis n. sp. CEPHAEOPODA. Aturia angustata Conrad. BRACHIOPODA. Terebratula oakvillensis n. sp. Washington Geological Survey Pl. A Bulletin No. 15 a 3 >-3 July August September October November December Republic 2,628 17.42 1.72 1.33 1.36 1.40 2.20 1.78 1.21 0.59 1.04 1.07 1.93 1.79 Spokane 1,943 17.89 2.36 1.89 1.40 1.19 1.51 1.50 0.66 0.54 0.93 1.35 2.17 2.39 Colville 1,635 17.66 2.23 1.73 1.36 0.96 1.91 1.51 1.19 0.76 0.79 1.18 2.18 1.86 Wilbur 2,203 14.33 1.86 1.64 0.88 0.86 1.50 1.07 0.58 0.50 0.69 1.25 1.76 2.14 FROST DATA. STATIONS Length of Record Years. Average date first killing frost in autumn. Average date last killing frost in spring. Earliest date killing frost in autumn. Latest date killing frost in spring. Colville 9 8 28 9 September 7 September 3 October 14 September 6 June 5 June 15 March 26 June 23 August 21 August 26 September 7 August 17 July 26 July 29 June 8 July 30 Ponnhlip Spokane Wilbur The highest temperature ever recorded at Republic was 102° ; at Colville, 103° ; and at Spokane, 104°. The lowest tempera- ture recorded was at Republic, — 32° ; at Colville, — 29° ; and at Spokane, — 30°. Since the elevation of Covada approaches that of Colville, the yearly temperature and rainfall will compare closely with observations at the latter place, the nearest point at which rec- ords have been kept. VEGETATION. Almost the entire district about Covada is covered with tim- ber consisting chiefly of the following varieties : Yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa) Tamarack ( Larix Occident alis) Red fir ( Pseudotsuga mucronata) Sticky laurel ( Ceanothis velutinus) Huckleberry ( Vaccinium macrophyllum) Thimbleberry ( Rubus parviflorus) Along the benches leading down directly to Columbia River the timber is very scattered and in many places absent. Over the greater part of the region, in common with the Okanogan High- lands, the forests are open, with very little underbrush except along the slopes of the canyons. It is possible to drive a team —2 18 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey almost anywhere among the trees. The only timber which has been cut is that used in the construction of local buildings. RELATION OF THE PRESENT TOPOGRAPHY TO THE GENERAL GEOLOGY. The explanation of the present topography of this district must be sought in a study of the geological conditions which occur throughout the Okanogan Highlands and of which the Covada region is a part. Geologic investigations of this broad area have been made, both in British Columbia and Washington, and as a result a fairly definite conception has been formed of the geological processes involved in developing the present topography. The Okanogan Highlands are regarded as a sep- arate physiographic province from either the Cascades or the basaltic plateau of southeastern Washington. Their physio- graphic history is thought to be entirely separate. Evidence near Republic and in other parts of Okanogan and Ferry coun- ties suggests that the entire area north of Columbia River during Eocene time was reduced to a peneplain. This is thought to have been coincident with a similar peneplanation in the inte- rior plateau of British Columbia. During the Miocene, elevation of the peneplaned surface seems to have occurred. Accompanying and following this, stream cutting developed broad and deep valleys which acted as basins for the accumulation of vast quantities of later Tertiary lavas, tuffs, stream gravels and lake deposits. Diastrophic movements undoubtedly were taking place during this time of which we have no definite record. During the Pleistocene the entire region seems to have been covered with a part of the Cordilleran glacial ice sheet. After the retreat of the ice, the drainage readjusted itself and the streams continued their downward cutting, ultimately developing the topography as it exists today. Within the region involved in this report there are practically no data which can thrown any light on the early Tertiary phys- iography. Observations made from some of the higher ridges suggest a uniformity of elevations along the distant mountain Couada Mining District 19 divides. Near the Columbia, on either side, definite terraces may be seen which have been carved from old 'stream or glacial de- posits. There is a suggestion that the difference in elevation on the east and west sides of Stray Dog Canyon is due to an origi- nal terrace carved into bed rock. The small valleys and can- yons seem to be of comparatively recent development and the result of drainage adjustment as Columbia River was gradu- ally deepening its valley. The characteristic rounding of many of the hill tops and slopes is probably due to the action of the ice sheet. CHAPTER II. GENERAL GEOLOGY. INTRODUCTION. The general geology of the Covada district has many char- acteristics in common with those at Republic and Metaline. The interpretation of certain data gathered here must be in part sought for from facts already learned in neighboring regions where studies have been made. Insomuch as no areal geologic mapping has been carried on in the broad intervening areas it is impossible to make exact correlations. Many of the forma- tions well represented at Republic are totally absent at Covada and many best developed at Covada are very poorly represented at Republic. The same holds true for Metaline. The oldest and most extensively developed formations at Co- vada are some more or less metamorphosed sediments, consisting of quartzites, schists, slates, and crystalline limestones, with metamorphosed interbedded lavas. No fossiliferous evidence has been obtained to determine their age. Similar rocks have been described at Republic* and Metalinej-, and although no fossils were collected they were regarded as probably Carboniferous. The strata at Covada are provisionally assigned to the Car- boniferous also. After their deposition they underwent defor- mation and were invaded by a great batholith of granodiorite which resulted in their metamorphism. Later both the meta- morphics and granodiorites were cut by aplite dikes which were probably differentiated products from the granodiorite itself. Both the quartzites and granodiorites are also cut by dikes of andesite and pyroxenite porphyry. There is no evidence as to ♦Geology and Ore Deposits of the Republic Mining District, Bulletin No. 1, part I, Washington Geological Survey, 1910, Olympia, Wash. fLead and Zinc Deposits in the Metaline District, Northeastern Washington, Bulletin No. 47, p. 192, U. S. Geological Survey, 1911, Washington, D. C. Covada Mining District 21 the exact time of the intrusion of the latter. It is known that surface flows of lava similar in composition occur to the south in the plateau of eastern Washington, as well as to the west and north in the San Poil Valley and at Republic. These are known to be of Miocene age and the basic intrusives at Covada are assigned to that period. Unconsolidated gravels and sands, resting unconformably upon the older rocks, occur along the slopes of Columbia River and glacial erratics are scattered over the mountain tops. COVADA FORMATION. AREAL DISTRIBUTION. Nearly one-half of the areal geology in the Covada district is composed of slates, schists, quartzites, and dolomitic limestones. Throughout the Okanogan Highlands and northward into Brit- ish Columbia formations of a very similar character are exten- sively found. No areal mapping has as yet been undertaken in the south half of Ferry County and consequently the exact limits of the Covada formation are unknown. On the eastern side of the Columbia River, along the road to Addy, outcrops of quartzite occur in various places. Although the latter re- gion has not been areally mapped it seems in large part to be composed of metamorphic material. Along both the east and west slopes of the river these old rocks are covered over with Pleistocene gravels and alluvium. Within the Covada district proper the Covada formation occupies a very prominent place, covering about twenty square miles. It forms one irregular shaped mass, roughly concentric around a central core of Meteor granodiorite. In the north central part of the district some small areas are separated from the main body by Pleistocene alluvium and gravel. The small- est of these lies in the northern part of Sections 13 and 14, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, just north of Steinger Creek. The second area is situated just south of Steinger Creek in Sections 14, 15, 22, 23, in Township 32 North, Range 36 East. The third and largest area enters the northeast corner of the district just west of Columbia River as a belt nearly two 22 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey miles wide. In passing southward it narrows to a width of about one mile southeast of Covada postoffice. South of Covada the formation occupies the entire area be- tween Columbia River and Nez Perce Creek. About three miles west of Covada it turns northward, and in Section 29, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, it narrows down to less than one thousand feet. It widens again, passes northwesterly, crosses Steinger Creek just west of Meteor townsite and passes out through the northwestern corner of the district. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. The rocks entering into the Covada formation consist of slaty schists, siliceous slates, quartzites, argillaceous quartzites, and dolomitic limestones. This entire series originally was composed of sandstones, shales, grits, tuffs and limestones which have since been more or less metamorphosed. The quartzites range from very fine to very coarse grain in character. Where they have been most intensely metamorphosed they are hard and dense with a glassy luster. Where metamorphism has been less pronounced the small component grains are found to be angular and very little water-worn. In some places the quartzites are dark gray, in other places a sugary white. Near the contact with the granodiorite batholith the quartzites have been intense- ly fractured and crushed and the seams have been filled with quartz and very acidic portions of the granodiorite magma. In some places the quartzite is completely filled with a network of small quartz stringers less than one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The slates vary considerably in character. In many places they are simply slightly hardened shales, while in other places they pass into sericitic schists. Commonly the slates show that they were originally composed of alternating layers of sandy shale and argillaceous sandstones, often in narrow bands only a fraction of an inch in thickness. This character- istic is well developed on Reister Mountain, south of Covada. In the hills just west of the Columbia River, and especially just north of Rattlesnake Mountain, dolomitic limestones are very Covada Mining District 23 common. They are of a grayish blue color and are interbedded with the quartzites and slates. Near the contact with the in- trusive granodiorites they take on a crystalline appearance. The prevailing strike of the strata is due north and south, and the dip nearly vertical. In the vicinity of the granodiorite con- tact the rocks have been badly displaced and contorted. No evidence of fossil remains, either plant or animal, have been found. A fossil fish about two feet in length is said to have been collected from the dolomitic limestone near Rattlesnake Mountain, but it was not seen by the writer. The Covada formation as a whole seems closely related in its general characteristics to that described in the Metaline dis- trict, in the Republic district, and with the Cache Creek beds of British Columbia.* It resembles the Peshastin formation of the central Cascades of Washington. f Provisionally its age may best be assigned to the Carboniferous or possibly early Mesozoic. METEOR GRANODIORITE. AREAL DISTRIBUTION. The central portion of the Covada district is areally charac- terized by a large mass of granodiorite. In addition a narrow belt extends north and south along the western margin of the map, separated from the central mass by a belt of Covada quartzite. Altogether the total area of granodiorite repre- sented upon the map is about eleven square miles. Outside of the Covada district it outcrops extensively, although its exact boundaries have never been mapped. The high hills north of Covada and south of Steinger Creek are composed of this rock and Stray Dog Canyon has been carved in it. Just east of Covada postoffice a small, irregular shaped tongue extends southward to within one mile of Columbia River, where it is overlaid with the older metamorphic rocks. Immediately east of Meteor it extends to Steinger Creek and, although not ex- *Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. Canada, New Series, Vol. 7, 1894, pp. 37B- 49B. fMount Stuart Folio, No. 106, p. 3, 1906. U. S. Geological Survey. Bulletm No. 16, Washington Geological Survey 24 amined bj the writer, from there it is said to extend northwest- erly far beyond the limits of the map. In several places within the areas studied as the Covada formation, small outcrops of granodiorite may be seen penetrating the quartzite. These are small, with ill-defined boundaries and have not been repre- sented upon the map. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. There is much variation in the appearance of the granodiorite in different parts of the district. In many cases the rock is of a distinctly plutonic character and from that passes into a por- phyritic condition. The plutonic type prevails. Rather fre- quently the granodiorite phase passes to the granitic phase. Orthoclase and quartz gradually become more abundant. Bio- tite predominates as the ferromagnesian constituent in all types, although hornblende is often very abundant. Generally the rock assumes a grayish color, but sometimes possesses a bluish tint. Occasionally it is a pinkish white when it assumes the characteristics of an aplite. Several distinct phases occur in this district and a separate description of each will be given. Specimen No. 34. This phase is found in various parts of the granodiorite area, but is best developed in the Syndicate tunnel in Stray Dog Can- yon, where this specimen was secured. It is a medium grained rock composed chiefly of plagioclase, biotite, orthoclase, quartz and hornblende. Plagioclase constitutes over sixty per cent of the rock. Much of it has a reddish gray tinge. The biotite occurs in very small flakes evenly scattered through the mass. Under the microscope a few very small accessory crystals of titanite and apatite were observed. Plagioclase occurs in well developed crystals ranging from 0.3 mm. to 0.2 mm. in size. They are nearly all twinned on the albite law, but occasionally in com- bination with Carlsbad and pericline laws. A few of the crystals show zonary banding, although this is not especially common. Examinations of a large number of crystals show them to have Washington Geological. Survey Bulletin No. 16 General view of topographic features in the vicinity of the lower tunnel at Advance Mine. LIBRARY OF I HE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Covada Mining District 25 a composition of Ab. 60 An. 40, which falls in the Andesine class. A few of the crystals are basic oligoclase. Biotite is abundant and of light brown color, showing in- tense pleochroism. It occurs in irregular leaves, although sometimes with fairly definite boundaries. Orthoclase is not abundant. It occurs in small crystals generally exhibiting Carlsbad twinning, and often shows rough crystallographic outlines. Quartz constitutes only five or six per cent of the rock. It appears in irregular grains along with the orthoclase, and was one of the last minerals to crystallize. Occasionally a few large crystals may be seen in the hand specimens. The accessory constituents are apatite, titanite and magnetite, which are present only in small amounts. Specimen No. 33. This type approaches the granite family more closely. Quartz is abundant and orthoclase occurs in slightly greater amounts than plagioclase. The rock as seen in hand specimens is of a light gray color and of medium grain. Crystals of quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and biotite may be distinctly seen. This type of rock in the field grades over into that de- scribed under Specimen No. 34. Specimen No. 33 was collected from the Black Thorn claim in Stray Dog Can}mn. Under the microscope orthoclase is seen to be a very prominent constitu- ent. It occurs in large crystals commonly showing Carlsbad twinning and sometimes perthitic structure. As a rule it is fairly free from alteration, although sometimes fine white mica- ceous aggregates may be observed along the cleavage lines. The soda lime feldspars occur in subordinate amounts and are very acidic. They fall into the Oligoclase series and have an average composition of Ab. 75 An. 25 . They commonly show albite striation and occasionally zonary structure. Decomposition is more pronounced than in the orthoclase, giving rise to mica and chlorite. Quartz is much commoner than in the type repre- sented by Specimen No. 34. It occurs in small irregular grains as well as in large allotriomorphic crystals. It is sometimes full of fluid inclusions, but more often is clear and fresh. In a 26 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey few cases it is intergrown with orthoclase. Biotite is the most abundant dark mineral. It has a yellowish to greenish brown color with very strong pleochroism. Mlany of the crystals are decomposed to green chlorite and brown iron oxide. A very few slender prisms of apatite are seen and occasionally one of zircon. This type grades into the true granodiorite. APLITE. In a number of localities dikes of aplite may be seen out- cropping on the surface in both the granodiorite and old meta- morphic formations. As a rule they are much decomposed and crumble easily. The most prominent exposure occurs south- west of Rattlesnake Mountain, in sections 25 and 36, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East. It is nearly one mile in length and trends north and south. The ore deposits on the Long- street and Fidalgo claims are associated with this dike. Other smaller outcrops occur north of Covada postoffice on the St. Patrick and Royal Ann claims. Specimen No. 28. This specimen is representative of aplite within this district. It is a medium to coarse grained rock composed almost exclu- sively of quartz and orthoclase. The latter is always more or less altered, giving the rock as a whole a yellowish to greenish appearance. Quartz and orthoclase are present in about equal amounts and occur in fairly good sized crystals which are some- times intergrown. Under the microscope the orthoclase occurs in hypidiomorphic crystals partly intergrown with quartz. Only a few show Carlsbad twinning. Perthitic structure is common. Nearly every crystal of orthoclase is clouded with patches of alteration products consisting chiefly of fine muscovite, some chlorite, and all more or less stained with iron oxide. Because of the decomposed condition they stand in marked contrast to the quartz. The quartz occurs in large irregularly rounded crystals, the largest of which are about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Nearly all of the crystals are filled with inclusions which are commonly arranged in bands and their exact deter- Covada Mining District 27 mination could not be made. One or two very small primary crystals of muscovite were seen in hand specimens, but they are very uncommon. GRANODIORITE PORPHYRY. Small dikes of granodiorite outcrop in the quartzite in several localities. They represent little apophyses of the magma which have extended up into the metamorphic formation. A specimen representative of this dike was collected in the northeast quar- ter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, on the Rosaria claim. The dike here is about 800 feet long and trends north and south. Specimen No. 63. This specimen, which is typical of the entire exposure, is medium grained and composed of plagioclase feldspar, quartz, orthoclase, biotite and augite. With these are imbedded larger crystals of plagioclase. The rock as a whole is badly decom- posed. Some specimens have a very close resemblance to a quartzite. The plagioclase is of the andesine variety. It nearly always shows albite striations and in some cases is com- pletely altered to calcite and muscovite. The quartz is present in small amounts in irregular grains and crystals. It is fresh and unaltered but nearly always free of inclusions. Augite is abundant and partly altered to iron oxide. Biotite occurs as a primary mineral composing about three per cent of the rock. ANDESITE DIKES. Dikes of igneous rock of andesitic composition occur, cutting through the granodiorite and Covada metamorphic formations in several places in the district. Two small dikes outcrop in Sec- tion 35 and in Section 22 , Township 32 North, Range 36 East. Others occur in the northwest quarter of sections 3 and 10, Township 31 North, Range 36 East. On the surface the dike rock is much weathered, but it generally stands out promi- nently from the surrounding rocks. In the workings of the Advance Mine a dike of similar rock has cut the vein and to a certain extent taken its course along the vein. Here it is com- 28 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey pletely decomposed. One of the freshest specimens and one most characteristic of this rock was taken from the south end of Reister Mountain, about two miles southwest of Covada postoffice. The dike is about twenty feet wide and strikes north and south. It is here confined within the quartzites and slates of the Covada formation. Specimen No. 59. Thi s is a dark gray rock, fine grained, with crystals of horn- blende and biotite set in a finer grained groundmass. The feld- spars are badly decomposed and iron stained. Under the micro- scope the rock is found to be composed of hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, augite and very small amounts of orthoclase and hypersthene. Among the phenocrysts are hornblende, augite and biotite, but no plagioclase crystals. The groundmass is composed of small microlites of plagioclase with a slight tendency to flow arrangement. Scattered among these microlites are small grains of augite. The augite crystals are colorless as a rule. Hornblende occurs in long prisms and exhibits strong pleochro- ism. Biotite occurs in large ragged flakes with strong absorp- tion. The plagioclase microlites yielded maximum symmetrical extinction angles of 38°, giving it a composition of basic labradorite. PYROXENITE. Only one dike of this material occurs within the district. This dike is about 4,000 feet in length and over 100 feet in width and trends roughly N. 40° E. It is situated about three miles west of Covada postoffice in Section 33, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. The rock of this dike is best repre- sented by Specimen No. 38, which is here described. Specimen No. 38. This is a hard, dense, dark gray rock composed entirely of pyroxene. On the surface it is much weathered and iron stained. When unweathered and studied under the microscope it is found to be a compact mass of enstatite crystals with a very small Covada Mining District 29 amount of augite. No plagioclase was observed. In some speci- mens the enstatite is partly altered to serpentine. QUATERNARY. The most important geological work accomplished during the Quaternary period consisted of glaciation, stream cutting, and stream deposition. Scattered over the surface of most parts of this district are glacial erratics, more or less rounded and grooved, composed of rocks entirely foreign to this region. Ample evidence is afforded by well defined glacial grooves and striations that the great ice-sheet from the north passed over this portion of Washington. Along the valley of Columbia River are deposits of stratified and non-stratified unconsoli- dated sediments, partly the work of ice and partly the work of running water. These deposits rest unconformably upon the older Covada formations. Several terraces have been devel- oped and into these later Quaternary gullies and small canyons have been cut. By far the larger part of the original deposits have been removed by erosion so that only remnants now remain clinging to the bed-rock valley slopes. STRUCTURE. The more important structural features in this district have been largely determined by the intrusions of granodiorite masses, accompanied by uplifts. The entire region is underlaid with portions of the granodiorite batholith. Around the margins of the district the metamorphic formations rest upon the grano- diorite concentrically. The prevailing strike of the metamor- phic formation is north and south and not concentric with the central mass of the batholith. The strata appear to have been tilted into a nearly vertical position, and the granodiorite injected parallel to the bedding planes. Very little folding could be observed, although more detailed investigations may show close folding and repetition of the strata. No very exten- sive faults have as yet been discovered, although minor disloca- tions are common. In the Meteor mine a fault has dislocated 30 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey the vein, but its extent can not as yet be determined. No pre- vailing direction of faulting has been observed. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY. From such evidence as can be obtained from the study of the quartzites, schists, slates and limestones of the Covada forma- tion, this particular region was probably a part of a broad marine basin during late Paleozoic and Mesozoic times. Ap- parently there were variations from time to time in the depths of water, allowing the coarse grained sandstones and conglom- erates to accumulate near shore, and the finer sediments such as shales to form in deeper waters. The limestones give evidence of considerable depth. At intervals during the accumulation of this series, volcanic activity seems to have been more or less prevalent. Thin narrow deposits of metamorphosed volcanic tuffs and lava flows are interbedded with the sediments. The total thickness of this series approximates ten thousand feet as a minimum and is possibly much greater. Whether sedimenta- tion continued throughout the Triassic and Jurassic is at pres- ent uncertain because of lack of fossil evidence. At some time, probably near the close of the Jurassic, this entire region was invaded from below by a great mass of plutonic magmas of intermediate chemical composition. These magmas were in the nature of a batholith and in the process of intrusion underwent extensive differentiation, giving rise to all variations, ranging from a granodiorite to a granite. These molten magmas in places seem to have engulfed huge blocks of quartzite from the roof of the batholith. Many apophyses from the magma pene- trated up into the Covada formation in the form of dikes. Near the contact the metamorphic rocks are intensely sheared and the small fractures are filled with the more siliceous por- tions of the granodiorite. In many places the quartzite pos- sesses a chert-like appearance, cut by thousands of small inter- secting veinlets of silica and granite. This condition becomes less pronounced at some distance from the contact. After the upper portion of the batholith had consolidated, extensive fracturing seems to have occurred as a direct result of Covada Minmg District 31 shrinkage from consolidation. The more siliceous portion of the still molten magma along with the salts of the minerals occurring here seems to have been differentiated and drawn off into the fracture zones as magmatic emanations. As these gradually approached the surface they conformed to the phys- ical and chemical laws of solution and upon a decrease of tem- perature and pressure, formed precipitates. These are now thought to be the veins found outcropping in this district. After intrusive activity had become quiescent the region underwent vigorous erosion. It had probably been uplifted above sea-level into a high mountain mass either just before, contemporaneous with, or soon after the granodiorite intrusion ; we have no evi- dence here to determine the exact date of uplift. Concerning the geologic history during the Cretaceous, Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene periods we have no definite information. Some distance away to the northwest, at Republic, the three latter periods were characterized by outpourings of volcanic lavas alternating with accumulations of sediments in fresh water lakes. To the south, in the great Columbia plateau, volcanic activity was the dominant feature of the Tertiary. Within the Covada district proper no surface deposits of Tertiary age are present. They may have formerly existed, but if so every ves- tige of them has been entirely removed by erosion. There are several small narrow dikes of andesite and pyroxenite lavas cutting both the granodiorite and the Covada metamorphic for- mations. They are probably of Teritiary age and may have been feeders to some pre-existing lava flows which once covered parts of this district. Evidence obtained from other districts to the north suggest that the Covada region, along with that of the Okanogan High- lands, during the Eocene was reduced to a peneplain and this is considered a part of the great interior Eocene plateau extending northward into British Columbia. After the close of the Plio- cene the first definite information which we have of the geolog- ical history is largely that of erosion and glacial action. Co- lumbia River has been continuously cutting down its channel 32 Bulletm No. 16, Washington Geological Survey to its present position through this broad peneplained area. The several benches occurring at various elevations above the present bed of the river indicate former positions of the stream. The entire region about Covada has been glaciated. Glacial deposits may be found along the slopes of the river canyons, and erratics occur even on the tops of the highest mountains. Well defined glacial grooving and scouring are strongly devel- oped in the rock ledges along the mountain slopes. Such marks invariably have a north-south direction, indicating that a por- tion of the great Cordilleran ice-sheet once moved over and completely covered this district. After the retreat of the ice the drainage lines immediately began to readjust themselves to the changed topography. The present topographic features are the product of these various physiographic developments. iew of mine workings at the Orion Mine. Li oh An/ O' Hit univlhsi i ) of Illinois CHAPTER III. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. HISTORY OP MINING. Mining activity within the Covada district is of compara- tively recent date. The district is located within the south half of the Colville Indian Reservation, which was thrown open for mineral entry by act of Congress, July 4th, 1898. Ore de- posits were known to exist here a number of years before the reservation was opened for mining development. The Indians are reported to have displayed numerous specimens of high grade float for twelve or fifteen years before the opening. The Covada region was officially included within the Enter- prise mining district, situated in the most southeastern section of the Reservation. It is described as follows :* “Beginning at the mouth of Wilmot Creek, thence up the Columbia River to the north line of the south half of the Col- ville Reservation ; thence following the north line of the said south half, west to the summit of the range or divide between the San Poil and Columbia rivers ; thence in a southerly direc- tion to the headwaters of Wilmot Creek; thence following Wil- mot Creek to the mouth or place of beginning.” The most extensive work has been done in what are commonly called the Covada, Meteor and Columbia camps. The Columbia camp includes most of the properties east of the road from Covada to Gifford. The first location made in the Covada camp was the Apex group, now known as the Big Chief, by Edgar Balling in 1898. The first location made in the Meteor camp was the Vernie, by H. Garrett and W. A. Pea, in 1899. The Meteor, which is the ♦Typewritten document submitted by Mr. H. G. Parmeter of Covada. —3 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey best developed property in the Meteor Camp, was located in the same or the following year by Edgar Balling. The claims which now comprise the Meteor townsite and for which patent was issued in 1904 or 1905, were located in 1900 by Archie Wilson. The postoffice at Meteor was established in 1901, and that at Covada on October 10, 1905. TREATMENT AND SHIPMENT OF ORES. The greater part of the ores in this district requires metal- lurgical treatment, and they cannot be considered as free mill- ing. The following data concerning shipments and treatment have been furnished by Ml*. H. G. Parmeter of Covada: In 1902 a car load of ore was shipped from what was then known as the Stray Dog property, now known as the Hercules Group, at a cost of $24.00 per ton and which gave net returns of $80.00 per ton. In 1904 five tons were shipped which netted $80.00 per ton, and in 1907 a car load which returned $72.00 per ton. In 1907 a mixed car was shipped from the Meteor mine to the Tacoma smelter at a cost of $24.00 per ton, for freight and treatment. This netted $96.00 per ton for first class and $52.00 per ton for second class ore. In 1905 1,935 pounds were shipped from the Silver Crown which gave net returns of $168.00 for the shipment. From the Silver Leaf 2,800 pounds were shipped to Trail, B. C., at a cost of $25.00 per ton, which netted $77.00 per ton to the owners. Two ship- ments of five tons each in 1912 were sent to the Granby smelter at a cost of $27.00 per ton and yielded net returns of $92.00 per ton. In 1909 thirty-eight sacks of ore were shipped from the Longstreet property to Northport, which netted $77.00 for the lot. In the same year a car load was also shipped from this property which was very satisfactory, but the exact figures are not obtainable. Numerous other shipments have been made but opportunities for gathering full details regarding them have not been available. Covada Mining District 35 The average cost per ton for freight and treatment is ap- proximately as follows: Wagon freight to railroad $10.00 to $12.00 Railroad freight, about 6.00 Treatment 6.00 Total $24.00 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORE BODIES. The larger part of the ore bodies within the Covada district lie in a belt about five miles long from east to west and four miles wide from north to south. This belt begins about one mile west of Columbia River and south of Rattlesnake Moun- tain, and extends westerly through the south half of Township 32 North, Range 36 East, to the slopes leading down to Nez Perce Valley. It includes Advance Mountain, Meteor Moun- tain and Rattlesnake Mountain. It is terminated on the north by the valley of Steinger Creek and on the south by the south lines of sections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, Township 31 North, Range 36 East. There are ore bodies outside this area, but they are more scattered and less persistent. The vein occurring on the Guin property on the north of Steinger Creek may be regarded as an exception to this general statement. CHARACTER OF THE ORE BODIES. The majority of the ore bodies occur in well defined fissure veins, chiefly within the granodiorite mass or in the Covada metamorphic formation not far from the contact. In a num- ber of instances, however, the veins consist of impregnated country rock along zones of fracturing. The vein materials consist of quartz and occasionally calcite, carrying silver and lead with smaller amounts of gold, copper and antimony. The commercial values are chiefly in silver. In the upper or oxidized zone the veins generally consist of rusty, iron-stained, decom- posed quartz and altered country rock occasionally containing small grains or crystals of galena. No very deep workings exist, but in those localities where the veins have been opened 36 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey some distance below the surface they seem to be more sharply defined. In a number of places small crystals of sylvanite and ruby silver are scattered through the quartz. STRIKE AND PITCH. There is no definite regularity to the strike of the veins in this district. Many of them seem to trend nearly north and south, especially in the region just west of Columbia River. On the eastern side of Stray Dog Canyon, in the region com- monly referred to as Advance Mountain, many of the veins strike a little north of west, although that direction is not pre- dominant. On the western side of Stray Dog Canyon the gen- eral trend seems to be northeast to southwest, but with many variations from this direction. Nearly all the veins have a dip not very far from the verti- cal. Flat or slightly inclined veins are very rare. There seems to be no prevailing direction of dip. Examinations made under- ground often show a reversed pitch to that occurring on the surface. Comparatively little underground working has been done and at the present time it is impossible to formulate any general rule as to the prevailing pitch throughout the mineral- ized district. In the description of each individual mining property observations taken on strike and dip of the veins will be inserted. SHAPE. The veins in this camp are commonly of the fissure type and vary considerably. The shape and size which they have assumed has depended largely upon the original condition of the fractures before mineralization. This has been modified to some extent by alteration and mineralization of the crushed zones adjacent to the plane of fracture. Insufficient development work has been done up to the present time to determine the lateral extent of the veins through the country rock. The entire area of granodiorite as represented upon the map and that part of the Covada metamorphic formation in close proximity to Covada Mining District 37 the contact have been extensively fractured and mineralized, many of the veins intersecting. As a rule the veins are not wide and probably the majority of them are merely a few inches in thickness. There are some veins, however, over three feet in width, but such occurrences are uncommon. When observed along the strike there is found to be much variation in thickness from point to point. When examined from the sur- face downward into the deepest workings there is also much variation. Insufficient data are at hand to determine whether the majority of the veins widen or thin out in their downward extent. The walls are commonly well defined, although in sev- eral cases small, narrow stringers of quartz extend out into both the hanging and foot walls. In several places fairly well defined quartz veins pass into a network of stringers. Most of the ore bodies tend to assume roughly a long drawn out lentic- ular shape. Many narrow veins outcropping on the surface have pinched out entirely a few feet in depth and may be regarded as small local mineralized fracture zones. The Covada metamorphic rocks at one time extended over the Meteor granodiorite and the veins now outcropping in the latter at one time undoubtedly extended up into the quartzite. Faulting in places has dislocated the veins, but sufficient under- ground development work has not yet been undertaken to de- termine its relative importance. In Stray Dog Canyon calcite constitutes the gangue mineral in one or two properties. It undoubtedly represents a secondary filling in dislocated and fractured zones at some time subsequent to primary mineral- ization. INFLUENCES OF COUNTRY ROCK ON THE ORES. Most of the ore bodies are found in the granodiorite and in the Covada formation not far from the granodiorite contact. In a number of places west of Columbia River and south of Rattle- snake Mountain aplite dikes cut across the Covada formation, and associated with these are mineralized zones. In the quartz- ites and slates the ore bodies trend nearly parallel to the strike and dip of the formation. In the granodiorite they are more 38 Bulletm No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey nearly at right angles to the former, although no definite regu- larity may be said to exist. In and near the aplite dikes anti- mony occurs in unusually large amounts, and in places it is impregnated through the aplite, or at least through certain zones within it, as may be seen on the Rosario and Longstreet claims. MINERALOGY. The ores in this district are chiefly composed of galena, carrying some silver, together with pyrite, sphalerite, chalco- pyrite and very small amounts of sylvanite and ruby silver. The gangue mineral is nearly always quartz. In the surface outcrops it is commonly much oxidized, giving it a reddish brown, decomposed, honeycombed appearance. In the lower workings of the mines, the quartz is generally fresh and often shows ribbon structure. The ores are generally impregnated through the quartz gangue in the form of small, irregular shaped grains or bunches. In a number of places calcite forms the gangue material, but has been introduced subsequent to the quartz and as a rule does not carry values. Quartz. Quartz is the most abundant mineral in the veins of this district and ordinarily occurs in a milky white form with more or less of a banded structure. Grains of galena are abundantly distributed through the quartz. In the oxidized zone near the surface it commonly assumes a rusty, reddish brown color and contains secondary material introduced by infil- tration from the surrounding wall rock. Calcite. Calcite in places occurs as a gangue mineral, but it is not at all abundant. It is often banded and assumes a yellowish or reddish tinge due to impurities introduced from without. Although no deep development work has been done upon the calcite veins yet they seem to be found chiefly near the surface. This mineral has undoubtedly been introduced at a later time than the silica solutions. Covada Mining District Limonite. This mineral appears in the oxidized zone of the quartz veins as a reddish-yellow, rusty-colored stain on the quartz or filling small cavities formerly occupied by pyrite. It owes its origin to the alteration of the iron sulphides. Pyrite. Pyrite is fairly common in the veins throughout the en- tire district. It occurs in both crystalline and massive form. Sometimes it is intergrown with the galena and chalcopyrite or sphalerite. It is often somewhat disseminated through the country rock adjacent to the veins. Near the surface it is nearly always more or less oxidized. Chalcopyrite. Occasionally small and irregular shaped grains of chalco- pyrite are found scattered through the quartz veins. It is not common and as an ore mineral in this district is of no economic importance. Galena. Next to quartz, galena is the most abundant mineral in the veins of this district. It is scattered in large or small grains throughout the quartz gangue. It generally occurs in crystalline form or aggregates of crystals. Massive bunches are very often over one foot in diameter. Assays show that it generally carries more or less silver. It is not commonly altered, but in a few places it is found to be coated with oxide or car- bonate of lead. Stibnite. Next to galena, stibnite is of the most importance among the metallic minerals. Small amounts of it are found associated with nearly all of the veins in the district. In the hills just south and west of Rattlesnake Mountain it is abundantly asso- ciated with aplite dikes. The mineralized zones in the aplite range from one to six feet in width. Often these zones are more than half composed of stibnite and bluish quartz. 40 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey Sphalerite. Sphalerite is common, and in a number of places abundant, but not present in sufficient quantities to be of economic importance. It occurs scattered through the quartz gangue in small masses and crystals generally mixed with galena or pyrite. Molybdenite. This mineral occasionally is found in those veins outcropping in the granodiorite. It is not at all common and usually ap- pears in very small flakes. Silver. Native silver sometimes occurs in wire-like forms, in small cavities in the quartz veins and generally is intimately asso- ciated with galena. Sylvanite. In a number of places in the Covada camp sylvanite occurs in small flakes about the size of a pin head, scattered through the quartz. It has a silver white color and occasionally appears in crystalline form. Pyrargyrite. This silver mineral is very similar to sylvanite in its dis- tribution through the quartz veins. The small crystals of it are, however, in many cases much larger than those of sylvanite. Gold. Gold is not of prime importance in the Covada district. In a few instances specks of native gold may be seen in the quartz. Average assays taken from the different veins in this district yield varying values in gold. It seems to occur in a finely divided state in some of the quartz veins. GENESIS OF THE ORES. The veins of the Covada district are entirely confined to the Meteor granodiorite and the Covada metamorphic formations. Included with the granodiorite are the aplite dikes occurring just west of Columbia River and Rattlesnake Mountain. The more Washington Geological Survey Bulletin No. 16 PL. iy General view of talus slope, consisting of granodiorite blocks, on west side of Stray Dog Canyon ; Black Thorn Mine in foreground. LIBKAMY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Covada Minmg District 41 basic dikes cutting through the granodiorite and metamorphic formations are much later than the mineralization and have no relation whatever to the genesis of the ores. In several places they cut through the quartz veins. The origin of the ores must be sought for in the granodiorite or quartzite. The Covada formation, consisting of quartzites, slates and limestones, is the oldest within this district and was laid down upon the sea-floor probably during the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic time. After the accumulation of these materials the region was elevated per- haps above sea-level, and either accompanying this elevation or at some time subsequent to it there was an invasion from below by portions of a great batholith. The magma within this bath- olith seems to have ranged from acidic to an intermediate chem- ical composition. Differentiation of this magma gave rise to subsidiary varieties ranging from the chemical composition of granite to that of the granodiorite. Within this district the latter seems to predominate. Accompanying the intrusions there is thought to have been a fracturing of the rocks forming the roof of the magma. Later, upon the consolidation of the upper portion of the granodiorite batholith, there must have been attendant changes in volume. Such changes in volume would produce shrinkage not only in the upper portion of the consolidated magma itself, but also in the overlying capping of metamorphic rocks. This shrinkage would be accompanied by fracturing and Assuring. It is believed that the fracture zones, extending well down into the upper portion of the already consolidated magma, were the avenues through which magmatic waters found their way from the underlying batholith towards the surface. It is supposed that by the process of magmatic differentiation the more siliceous portions of the magma were drawn toward the surface into the fracture zones and that accompanying them were salts of gold, silver, lead, zinc, iron and antimony. The solutions containing these salts are assumed to have penetrated far up into the fracture zones and into the minor side fractures, and under reduced temperatures the mineral content to have been precipitated. In some cases 42 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey they seem to have acted upon the wall rocks and to have altered them to a certain extent, resulting in partial replacement and mineralization some little distance away from the true veins. Dikes of aplite are found cutting the granodiorite and quartz- ite not far from the main contact. They appear to have been intruded at the time of, or just after, the principal invasion of the batholith. They are mineralized and it is believed that the metallic minerals associated with them have been differentiated from the granodiorite magma along with the differentiation of the aplite solutions. The exact period of mineralization can not be definitely de- termined. It occurred later than the origin of the Covada meta- morphic formation and either contemporaneous with or subse- quent to the intrusion of the granodiorite batholith. It occurred prior to the intrusion of the andesitic dikes. Intrusions of granodiorite are known to have occurred extensively through the Cascades of Oregon and Washington, in California and British Columbia, at or near the close of the Jurassic period. It is quite possible that the intrusions in the Covada district were contemporaneous with those in the Cascades. If so, Assuring and mineralization occurred in the Jurassic. The andesite dikes which cut both the granodiorite and the Covada formation are probably of Eocene or Miocene age. Lavas very similar in character are extensively developed to the north and south of here, at Republic and on the basaltic plateau south of Columbia River. These are definitely known to belong to the Eocene and Miocene periods. After the veins had been formed, this district in common with other parts of the Okanogan Highlands underwent extensive erosion, and in places the covering of quartzites and slates has been entirely removed, exposing the consolidated granodiorite itself as well as the mineralized fracture zones. At Republic the ore bodies are thought to have been derived from solutions emanating from latite porphyries of Miocene age. In the Metaline district the ores are thought to have been de- rived from the granodiorite magmas, although they are not Covada Mining District 43 exposed at the surface. The basic intrusions of Tertiary age in the Covada district can not possibly have been responsible for the introduction of the ore-bearing solutions and from such evidences as we now have the granodiorites are regarded as their source. PLACER DEPOSITS. Placer deposits in the Covada district are not of much impor- tance. They are confined chiefly to the horizontally bedded sands and gravels along the slopes leading down to the Colum- bia River. These gravels and sands are found along the upper benches of the river as well as along the present flood plain. No very extensive development has ever been undertaken, but a number of claims have been located in sections 29 and 32, Town- ship 32 North, Range 37 East. Water for sluicing has been obtained in small amounts from springs issuing from the eastern slopes of the hills, and then carried by flumes to the placer dig- gings. No data are available as to the values per cubic yard. The deposits are composed of materials ranging from the size of a pea to three or four feet in diameter. Interbedded with the gravels are sands and clays. They may be in part of gla- cial origin, but are largely derived by the work of streams. CHAPTER IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MINING PROPERTIES. INTRODUCTION. In the examination of the mining properties in this district, particular attention was given to those claims which were in conflict with Indian allotments. Several which were not in con- test were visited and studied, but because of insufficient time some important claims were not seen. A careful examination of each claim in contest was made, and all discovery shafts, pits and open cuts noted. Samples were taken from each ore body in such a way as to represent an average for the entire vein. On some of the properties considerable development work has been done, while on others nothing has been accomplished be- yond the yearly assessment work. Some of the claims have been abandoned and then relocated. At the present time there are approximately two hundred claims in the district; sixteen of these are patented. In describing each of these claims the more salient features will be presented, as follows : The geographical location ; history of development ; the underground workings and production ; and the economic geology. The latter will include a description of the country rock, the form, distribution and character of the ledges, and their relation to the country rock. THE ADVANCE MINING COMPANY. The property of this company consists of nine claims located a little over one-half mile northwest of Covada postoflice, in Section 35, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. These claims are the Rising Sun, Cora, Nellie, White Quartz, Saturday, Cabin, Tamarack, Sunbeam, and Silver Spray. The larger part of the development work on this group has been done on the Cora and Nellie claims, which lie on what is locally known as Advance Covada Mining District 45 Mountain. The outcroppings of the vein are fairly numerous and openings have been made upon it at many places. This vein varies in width from three to six feet and trends North 75° West, dipping into the hill at an angle of 70° to the north- east. It is reached in depth by two crosscut tunnels, one hun- Fig. 2. Map showing mining claims and underground workings of the Advance Mine. dred and seventy feet apart in elevation and connected by an upraise. The lower crosscut tunnel starts on the Cabin claim and has been driven in the direction North 15° East for a dis- tance of 811 feet, where it intersects the vein at a depth of 307 feet. From this point a drift extends to the right upon the 46 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey vein. The vein is here trending North 75° West and dipping 55° to the Northeast. The country rock is granodiorite. About 75 feet from the west end of the drift the vein is locally de- formed by an intersecting dike, and displaced by a slight fault. At this point the strike changes to North 55° West and the dip to 50° Northeast. Near this point a winze has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 60 feet. The average width of the vein seen in the winze is five feet. Above this an upraise has been driven for a distance of 170 feet to the upper crosscut tunnel. The upper crosscut tunnel starts within the Cora claim near the south side line, and at a distance of 305 feet intersects the same vein 137 feet below the surface. It has been continued for 50 feet beyond the vein intersection and is entirely in quartz- ite. Drifts have been run from this level both to the right and left. To the left about 100 feet from the crosscut a winze has been sunk on the vein for 30 feet. Near here the vein is cut by a dike which follows its course in a sinuous fashion. It is quite altered and of the same character as the dike in the lower tunnel. The right-hand drift extends over 150 feet and connects with the lower drift by the upraise before mentioned. In addition to the underground workings several pits and cuts have been made upon the surface outcrops. Openings have been made upon the veins of the other claims, but the work for this group has been largely centered upon the Nellie and the Cora. These claims lie very near the contact between the Covada metamorphic formation and the Meteor granodiorite. The lower crosscut tunnel is largely in the quartzite and slate. Seven hundred feet from the mouth is the granodiorite-quartzite con- tact. One hundred feet further is the vein trending nearly par- allel to the contact and occurring in the granodiorite. In the upper tunnel the vein is entirely in the quartzite. The vein is of the fissure type and varies in width from six inches to six feet. Over a considerable distance it maintains the latter width. The gangue is quartz containing silver, gold, lead and zinc. A gen- eral assay of samples taken from the upper tunnel in the right- Covad a Mining District 47 hand drift gave the following returns : Gold, 0.04 oz. per ton ; silver, 1.00 oz. per ton. MAYFLOWER. This claim is located in the northwest corner of Section 1, Township 31 North, Range 36 East. The northwest end ex- tends into Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It is situated only a few hundred feet southwest of Covada post- office and lies partly in the valley and partly on the hill slope. It is now owned by C. C. Rohlfs of Covada. The country rock is granodiorite, but the quartzite contact is close to the south- east end line. The development work on this claim is confined to assessment work. Outcropping in a few places is a vein of quartz which trends North 35° West and dips 45° Northeast. Several openings have been made upon this vein. At the foot of the hill just south of the store, a shaft has been sunk to a depth of 20 feet on the vein, which is here 18 inches wide. Fur- ther up the hill a second opening has been made on the same vein in granodiorite. Still further up the hill are two others, 20 feet apart and about six feet deep. The vein here is 18 inches in width and contains some galena. An assay of an aver- age sample from this vein showed a trace of gold and 1.60 oz. silver to the ton. LAKEVIEW FRACTION. This claim is triangular in shape and lies immediately to the northeast of the Mayflower. It was located in 1904 and is now owned by C. C. Rohlfs of Covada. It lies in the granodiorite area, on a vein of quartz which trends North 40° West and dips 55° Northeast. The discovery shaft lies 600 feet from the north end line and is an open cut about eight feet deep. The vein is \2 inches in width with eight inches of granodiorite in its center. Several other smaller openings have been made upon the vein. The surface of the claim is rough and rocky. An average sample from this claim gave a trace of gold and 0.60 oz. of silver per ton. 48 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey PLYMOUTH ROCK. This claim lies directly east of the Lakeview Fraction, and about 1,500 feet east of Covada postoffice. The country rock in the northern part of the claim is granodiorite and in the southern part quartzite. The discovery hole is 900 feet south of the north center end-line. The quartz ledge at this point is 34 inches wide and is well defined. It is composed of iron-stained, honeycombed quartz. The discovery tunnel, which is near the discovery hole, is 30 feet in length and has been driven in South 65° East as a crosscut to the vein. Within it the vein is well defined and trends North 50° West and dips 25° to the North- east. About 12 feet east from discovery hole there is a shaft 32 feet deep. The vein here is well defined and is said to assay high in silver. One hundred and twenty-five feet from the center end-line there is an outcrop of rusty honeycombed quartz in a little pit. A sample from this claim assayed as follows : Lead, 6% ; silver, 15 oz. per ton ; gold, 0.01 oz. per ton. PILGRIM. This claim is the southeastern extension of the Plymouth Rock and joins it on its north end-line. It was located in September, 1904. The eastern and southern part of the claim lies in the quartzite and the western in granodiorite. The vein is an ex- tension of the Playmouth Rock. It has about the same strike and dip, i. e., 50° to the northeast. It lies very close to the contact of the granodiorite and quartzite. The development consists of the discovery pit and several small open cuts. An average sample from the claim gave the following returns in the assay : Gold, trace ; silver, 0.60 oz. per ton. BLUE BIRD. This claim, located June 1, 1909, lies parallel to and west of the Pilgrim. On the north it joins the Mayflower. The country rock is granodiorite in the north part of the claim and quartzite in the southern part. The discovery hole is located 100 feet south of the north end-line. Another shaft 12 feet deep is situ- ated a little further down the hill. It shows the slaty quartzite Map of mining claims. Covada Mining District. Covada Mining District 49 country rock, and the vein of greatly decomposed reddish quartz occurring in small stringers. Fifty feet east of this shaft there is a small tunnel running into the hill South 70° East. The vein material seems to be only silicified country rock which is largely quartzite and impure limestone. The formation strikes North 70° East and dips 25° Southeast. The assay of a sample from the discovery hole gives a trace of gold and 1.00 oz. of silver per ton. QUANDARY. This claim lies about 1,500 feet southeast of Covada post- office. The discovery tunnel is an open cut 20 feet long, eight feet deep and three feet wide. The country rock is hard, banded quartzite. The tunnel runs due north and contains a thin layer of quartz. KING SOLOMON. The King Solomon claim is situated in the northwest quarter of Section 1, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, and about 1,000 feet south of Covada postoffice. The development work consists of several shafts, tunnels and open cuts. The discovery tunnel is situated at the north center end of the claim. The country rock there is granodiorite. There is a vein in it com- posed of quartz, with slight impregnations of galena. It has a strike of North 10° West and a dip of 30° Northeast. Very close to the discovery tunnel there is a shaft which was sunk to cut the discovery vein. It passes through granodiorite to a depth of 27 feet. About 100 feet from the side-line and 75 feet from the end-line a tunnel has been run in on a side vein for a distance of 25 feet in a direction North 70° East. By the side of this a shaft has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 15 feet. This is near the contact between the granodiorite and quartzite. At a point 150 feet from the end-line and 50 feet from the side- line a shaft has been sunk to a depth of 10 feet in quartzite. A small vein of quartz about four inches wide outcrops and strikes North 35° West, dipping 70° Northeast, but it is not the dis- covery vein. The granodiorite contact lies 10 feet to the east. Twenty feet to the north a small cut has been made on the same vein. Thirty feet farther north the same vein is at the contact. 50 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey Here a shaft has been sunk 10 feet deep. The vein is four inches wide with a strike of North 20° West and a dip of 70° to the Northeast. Near the center of the claim a crosscut has been run into the hill in a direction North 70° East for 50 feet to tap the vein. Another vein of very much decomposed, honey- combed, rusty colored quartz outcrops 500 feet from the north end-line and 60 feet from the east side-line. It is about one foot in width, strikes North 10° West and dips 70° Northeast. A small opening has been made upon it. The country rock here is quartzite. The assay of an average sample from the discov- ery vein shows a trace of gold and 7.80 oz. silver to the ton. GREASY RUN. This claim was located in 1907 and is now owned by A. B. Nickens of Covada. It is situated at Covada postoffice. The country rock is granodiorite overlain with alluvium in places. The extreme north end of the claim extends into the area of metamorphic rocks. The discovery, located 30 feet from the south center end, is a shaft sunk on the vein to a depth of 30 feet. This is a quartz vein containing galena and is about one foot wide, striking North 20° West, dipping 70° to the North- east. About 15 feet west of the shaft there is an open cut about 15 feet long and 10 feet high which is extended as a crosscut to tap the vein in the shaft. On the south end-line, 50 feet from the east side-line, another shaft has been sunk in the granite to a depth of 30 feet. There is a small vein of quartz about four inches wide which is probably the same as before mentioned on the King Solomon. Near it there is a small outcrop of the same vein eight inches wide containing galena and pyrite. A sample from this claim gave the following assay: Gold, trace; silver, 2. 20 oz. per ton. SILVER PLUME. This claim is situated in the northeast corner of Section 2 , Township 31 North, Range 36 East, a few hundred feet west of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1907 and is now owned by G. W. Sizemore of Covada. At the discovery there is a two- foot quartz ledge striking North 65° East. The quartz is iron Covada Mining District 51 stained and honeycombed, with crystals and small masses of galena scattered through it. Near it a crosscut tunnel has been driven due south for a distance of 165 feet to the intersection of the vein. At this point the vein strikes North 65° East and dips 55° Northwest. The vein varies considerably from the average width of two feet. The country rock is quartzite. The mouth of the tunnel is situated 200 feet north of the discovery shaft. At a point 500 feet northeast of the southwest end-line is a tunnel extending into the granite in a direction South 55° West for a distance of 60 feet on a vein of quartz about one foot or more in width. It is dipping 55° to the southeast. The vein material consists of white quartz more or less honeycombed and iron-stained, containing a considerable amount of galena. WHITE TAIL. This claim, located in April, 1911, is in the southwest quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about one- half mile northeast of Covada postoffice. The discovery is located 100 feet north of the south end-line. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 10 feet on the vein, which is about 14 inches wide and consists of iron-stained quartz with some galena. The country rock here is granodiorite. The vein strikes North 30° West and dips 70° Northeast. A small side- vein lies a little to the east of this. A shaft about eight feet deep has been sunk upon it in granite. This vein seems to trend about North 80° East. Seventy-five feet west there is another opening upon the side- vein. The White Tail vein outcrops again at the north center end-line as a vein composed of quartz disseminated in a belt of granodiorite about 15 feet in width. Open trenches have been cut across it and show considerable galena impregnated through the mass. The country rock is entirely granodiorite. An assay of a sample taken from the shaft 150 feet west of the discovery shaft gives 0.01 oz. of gold, and 1.20 oz. of silver to the ton. BLACK TAIL. The Black Tail claim lies in the south central part of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, a little over one-half 52 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey mile northeast of Covada postoffice. It was located in April, 1911. The country rock is entirely granodiorite. The discov- ery is situated 50 feet from the south center end-line. A shaft has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 12 feet. The vein is about four feet thick in places, but here and there seems to be only a silicified zone in the granodiorite. It strikes North 30° West and dips 70° Northeast. Several small cuts and pits have been made along the vein in the near vicinity. About 300 feet from the end-line and near the west side-line there is a narrow stringer of quartz about four inches wide containing some galena. An average sample from the discovery shaft on this claim yields through the assay a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. BUTTERFLY. The Butterfly claim is situated about one-half mile east of Covada postoffice and joins the Black Tail on the north. The discovery shaft of this claim is located about 200 feet north of the south end-line. The shaft is 13 feet deep and in granite. The vein, consisting of iron-stained quartz, varies in width from four inches to one foot and is nearly vertical. About 100 feet east of the discovery shaft a tunnel is being driven as a crosscut to the vein. At present it extends 200 feet and is entirely in quartzite. One hundred and twenty feet from the mouth a small, narrow vein of quartz was encountered. The main discovery vein has not yet been reached. About 25 feet southeast from the discovery shaft an open cut 12 feet long and six feet deep has been made in granodiorite, but no quartz vein was seen. The main contact between the granodiorite and quartzite is near the discovery shaft. Fifty feet south of the discovery an open cut 25 feet long and four feet deep has been made, exposing the main vein. The assay of an average sample from the discovery vein shows 0.01 oz. of gold and 0.30 oz. of silver per ton. SUNSHINE. This claim lies just east of and parallel to the Butterfly and a little less than one-half mile east of Covada postoffice. It was located in April, 1912. The discovery shaft lies 250 feet north Covada Mining District 53 of the south center end-line and two shafts about 10 feet apart have been sunk in granodiorite to a depth of 10 feet each. The vein is quartz, about four feet wide, having a strike of North 15° East and a dip of 70° to the East. In places it seems to be merely a zone of silicified granodiorite. An open cut 10 feet long, four feet wide and six feet deep has been made 50 feet north from the south center end of the claim, exposing vein matter about two feet wide. The country rock is entirely grano- diorite. The assay of an average sample from the discovery shows no gold and only a trace of silver. I. X. L. This claim lies in Section 1, Township 31 North, Range 36 East, about one-half mile southeast of Covada postoffice. It is now owned by James Hartwell of Covada. The discovery shaft on this claim is 100 feet south of the north center end-line. The country rock is quartzite. The vein consists of quartz and at this point is three feet wide, striking North 20° West with a nearly vertical dip. Seven hundred and fifty feet from the dis- covery shaft and 150 feet from the west side-line a crosscut tunnel has been driven 63 feet in a direction North 80° West to tap the vein. The assay from an average sample from the dis- covery shows 0.36 oz. of gold and 0.24 oz. of silver per ton. SUNSET. The Sunset claim was located in March, 1912, by T. B. Miller. It lies parallel to and on the east side of the I. X. L., a little over one-half mile east of Covada. The discovery shaft is situated 25 feet from the north center end-line and has been sunk to a depth of 14 feet in quartzite. The vein consists of small stringers of quartz. Small apophyses of granodiorite ex- tend up into the quartzite near the contact, which is not far from the discovery shaft. This is the only development work upon the claim. The assay for an average sample from the discovery of this claim showed a trace of gold and 0.30 oz. of silver per ton. 54 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey OLD NELL. This claim is situated in the northwest quarter of the south- east quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about three-fourths of a mile northeast of Covada postoffice. The discovery lies 350 feet from the south central end-line. A shaft has been sunk seven feet in granodiorite exposing a vein of quartz. About 800 feet from the north end-line on the main vein a second open cut has been made about eight feet long and four feet deep. Stringers of quartz were encountered in quartz- ite. When this cut was first made it is said to have carried much native antimony. A tunnel has been started at a point 150 feet east of the center and 350 feet from the north center end running into the hill South 65° East for a distance of 25 feet. The country rock is silicified quartzite. This lies near the gran- odiorite contact and is referred to by the miners as a porphyry dike. A sample taken from the open cut in the center of the claim yielded, upon assaying, trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver per ton. POLARIS. This claim was located in July, 1903, by Henry Garrett and H. P. Stevenson. It is situated in the east central part of Sec- tion 36, Township 32 North, Range 37 East, about three-quar- ters of a mile east of Covada postoffice. The discovery shaft is located 584 feet south of the north end-line and has been sunk to a depth of 20 feet. A tunnel has been driven north and south towards the shaft. A large amount of trenching has been done just north of the shaft. About 75 feet west of the discovery is a shaft seven feet deep, sunk on a quartz vein eight inches in width, trending east and west and dipping vertically. The country rock is granodiorite. At a point North 20° East from the shaft a tunnel starts into the hill North 85° East and con- tinues for 100 feet as a crosscut through granodiorite to tap the vein. Several other openings have been made on the vein by open cuts and pits. An average sample from this claim upon assaying showed a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. Covada Mining District 55 BIG JOKER. The Big Joker lies parallel to and just east of the Polaris, near the east line of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It was located in 1909 and is now owned by Mr. Messen- ger of Covada. The discovery is located 300 feet north of the south end-line in quartzite. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 12 feet, showing a vein of iron-stained quartz about two feet wide, striking North 10° East and dipping 50° to the South- east. Eighty feet in a direction South 40° East from the dis- covery there is a shaft eight feet deep, ten feet long and five feet wide in quartzite. The vein, which is a side lead, is three feet wide, trends North 80° West and dips 70° Southwest. There are 12 inches of good quartz containing galena and pyrite. The country rock is much silicified nearby, probably due to the proximity of the quartzite granodiorite contact. On the west side of the claim several pits have been sunk on a quartz vein with vertical dip. It averages 26 inches in width. Several shallow shafts have been sunk on a small, narrow vein in quartz- ite 300 feet from the south end-line. An open cut 25 feet long and 10 feet deep has been made in the granodiorite 300 feet from the north end-line in the west side. It cuts a pyrite-bearing quartz vein dipping 20° west. Forty feet east a shaft 10 feet long and four feet wide has been sunk to a depth of 10 feet in quartzite on a vein similar to the one just mentioned. This lies on the contact between the granodiorite and quartzite. Several openings have been made upon this contact vein. KENTUCKY BELL. The Kentucky Bell is now owned by J. C. Seaman of Covada. It is situated in the southeast quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, nearly one mile east of Covada postoffice. The dis- covery lies 150 feet north of the south center end-line and is now caved in. Three hundred feet from the end-line is a 30- foot shaft sunk as a slope 70° East on the discovery vein, which is 18 inches wide and consists of iron-stained quartz. The coun- try rock is quartzite. At the bottom of the shaft there is a short crosscut to the east. About 50 feet north of the slope on 56 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey the same vein there is an open cut showing the vein to have a width of 18 inches. The granite-quartzite contact lies a little to the west of the discovery. On the west side-line of the claim, 600 feet south of the northwest corner-stake, a crosscut tunnel starts into the hill North 80° East in quartzite. The granodi- orite contact lies just west of the mouth. This tunnel intersects the vein at 400 feet and is extended 93 feet farther. The vein where tapped is six feet wide, consisting of quartz and gouge material. Drifts to the right and left extend about 25 feet in the direction North 20 ° East. Three hundred and twenty- five feet from the mouth a vein was encountered. On it a drift to the left runs North 18° West for 25 feet and to the right due south 15 feet. Several pits have been sunk on the vein at the surface. THREE PINES. This claim lies immediately south of the Old Nell. It is situa- ted about three-quarters of a mile east of Covada postoffice in the southeast quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. The discovery shaft is 10 feet deep and sunk in gran- odiorite. The vein is composed of quartz with galena. It has a thickness of 16 inches, strikes north and south and dips 45° west. This shaft is located 100 feet south of the north center end-line. The assessment work for this claim has been done on the Kentucky Bell. SILVER DOLLAR. The Silver Dollar lies immediately south of the Kentucky Bell. It is situated in the northeast quarter of Section 1, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East. The discovery shaft is 108 feet south of the north center end and has been sunk eight feet in granodiorite, showing a quartz vein trending north and south. The assessment work for this claim has been done on the Ken- tucky Bell. SUMMIT. The Summit claim lies in the southeast quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, east of and parallel to the Silver Dollar and Kentucky Bell. The discovery shaft is situated 270 feet north of the south center end-line. It is now caved in, 57 Covada Mining District but shows a ledge of white quartz, iron-stained in places. Seven- ty-five feet north of the discovery is a shaft 15 feet deep in quartzite showing a vein of quartz carrying pyrite, antimony and galena. The bedding of the quartzite here is North 10° West with a vertical dip. On the east side-line 400 feet south of the northeast corner is a shaft 25 feet deep. The vein is six inches wide, strikes North 85° East and dips 70° Northwest. On the side-line 200 feet north from the southwest corner is a shaft 20 feet deep in quartzite. The Summit claim is 300 feet wide at the south end and 600 feet at the north. SILVER CROWN NO. 3. The Silver Crown No. 3 is a small triangular shaped claim lying in the northeast quarter of Section 1, Township 36 North, Range 36 East, nearly one mile east of Covada postoffice. It lies just east of and parallel to the Silver Dollar. It was located in 1909 and is now owned by Mi*. Howe of Covada. The dis- covery shaft is situated 175 feet south of the north end-line and has been sunk to a depth of 12 feet in quartzite. The vein has an average width of six inches, strikes North 10° West and dips 70° Northeast. The gangue is quartz showing consider- able galena. A sample from the discovery shaft shows upon assaying 0.02 oz. of gold and 0.60 oz. of silver to the ton. SILVER CROWN NO. 2. This claim lies just east of and parallel to Silver Crown No. 3, about one mile east of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1909 and is now owned by Mr. Howe of Covada. Considerable devel- opment work has been done. The discovery shaft is located 575 feet from the north center-line and has been sunk to a depth of 10 feet. Forty-five feet in the direction South 75° East from the shaft is the mouth of a tunnel which extends into the hill 85 feet in a direction North 75° West. Thirty feet from the shaft in a direction North 80° West is the surface opening of an upraise from the fifty-foot level. A short distance from the discovery shaft is the entrance to the main shaft reaching the 50-foot level. At the intersection of shaft and vein on the 58 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey 50-foot level a drift extends to the left for 40 feet in the direc- tion South 70° West. Here the vein dips 60° Northwest. At the face of the drift a vein four feet wide, trending North 15° West and dipping 45° Northeast was encountered. A drift has been run on this to the south for 10 feet and to the north for 20 feet and a raise has been made from it to the surface. A sample taken here assayed 0.04 oz. of gold and 16.10 oz. silver per ton. From the shaft on the 50-foot level a drift has been run to the right along the vein for 25 feet. The country rock is quartzite with a strike of North 15° West and a dip of 60° Northeast. The shaft extends 50 feet farther and at the 100- foot level some drifting has been done. At a point 150 feet from the north end-line of the claim and 100 feet east of the center- line an open cut 10 feet long by seven deep and four wide has been made in the quartzite. SILVER CROWN NO. 1. This claim lies just east of Silver Crown No. 2 on the steep slope leading down to the Columbia River in the northwest quar- ter of Section 6, Township 31 North, Range 37 East. It was located in 1909 and is now owned by Mr. Howe of Covada. The discovery shaft is situated 50 feet from the south end-line. It is 12 feet deep and has been sunk on a three-foot seam of quartz and gouge material. On the hillside 150 feet from the north- east corner and 50 feet from the side-line a tunnel has been run North 55° West for 125 feet as a crosscut through quartzite and limestone. A short distance from the mouth is a vein of quartz 12 inches wide. At the face a vein was encoun- tered about 14 inches wide with a strike of North 15° West and a dip of 75° Southwest. Seventy -five feet south of the tunnel two open cuts have been made in the quartzite and lime- stone. About half way between the end lines and 100 feet from the east side-line a cut 15 feet long, ten feet deep and four feet wide has been made. The rock is quartzite with seams of quartz about four inches wide. Two similar cuts occur about 100 feet to the southeast. Here the vein strikes North 43° West, with Covada Mining District 59 nearly vertical dip. It consists of 16 inches of solid quartz with some pyrite and antimony. IDORA. The Idora lies in the east central part of Section 1, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, and south of the Silver Dollar. It is now owned by James Hartwell. The discovery shaft, 300 feet from the south center end-line, has been sunk to a depth of nine feet in quartzite. The quartz vein is about four inches thick, strikes North 30° West and dips 45° Northeast. Scattered through it are grains of galena. It outcrops at intervals upon the surface. Two hundred feet from the west side-line and 300 feet from the north end-line a crosscut has been driven into the hill 60 feet in the direction North 80° East. At the face is a zone of silicified quartzite with stringers of quartz contain- ing galena. The main vein has probably not been reached. OHIO. The Ohio claim lies just south of the center of Section 26 , Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about one and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It is now owned by Mr. M. HL O’Connel of Covada. The discovery shaft is 200 feet from the southwest end-line and is in granodiorite, which is the country rock throughout the entire claim. A tunnel has been run for a distance of 150 feet in a direction South 70° West along a vein four inches wide and composed of solid quartz with pyrite and a little galena. This is said to be a side vein parallel to the main one of the claim. DRUMMOND. The Drummond lies parallel to and just south of the Ohio, a little less than one and one-half miles north of Covada postoffice. It is at present owned by Mr. M. H. O’Connel of Covada. The discovery shaft, 750 feet from the north end-line, has been sunk 10 feet and a vein of white quartz two feet wide is exposed, showing pyrite, galena and sphalerite. The country rock is granodiorite. About 50 feet south a tunnel has been run into 60 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey the mountain 95 feet as a crosscut in the direction North 30° West. At the face a drift runs 30 feet to the east and 11 feet to the west on a vein of crushed quartz. Pyrite and galena are quite abundantly scattered through the quartz. Several open cuts have been made at various places on the claim. A sample taken from the face of the drift in the tunnel yielded upon assay- ing 0.02 oz. of gold and 1.20 oz. of silver to the ton. CHANCE. This claim lies on the hillside just west of Covada Lake. The discovery shaft, situated 250 feet from the northeast end-line, has been sunk to a depth of 22 feet in granodiorite. The vein, composed of quartz, is eight inches thick, strikes North 40° East and dips 70° Southeast. This is the only opening on the claim except a small shaft eight feet deep, 100 feet to the south- west. An average sample from the discovery shaft showed upon assaying 0.02 oz. of gold and 1.60 oz. of silver to the ton. ROYAL ANN NO. 1. This claim is located in the southwest quarter of Section 26, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, a little over a mile north- west of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1904 and is now owned by C. C. Rohlfs of Covada. At a point 800 feet from the east end-line a crosscut tunnel extends southward 75 feet into the hill toward the vein. The country rock is granodiorite. At the face of the crosscut there are two parallel veins running approximately in an east-west direction and consisting of quartz rich in galena and pyrite. The veins together average about one foot in thickness, with a dip to the south and southwest. An assay of an average sample taken here showed 0.04 oz. of gold and 12.50 oz. of silver to the ton. Another tunnel, extending South 40° West, has been driven 110 feet. Fifty feet from the mouth a drift has been run along a vein to the left. To the right another extends 72 feet in the direction South 85° West. At the face of the crosscut a drift extends to the right and left for 25 feet in the direction South 40° East. The discovery shaft is on open cut 25 feet long, 15 feet deep and four feet wide. Covada Mining District 61 The vein is eight inches wide with small stringers along the side. The gangue is quartz containing considerable amounts of galena, sphalerite, cerusite and pyrite. About 40 feet east of the discovery there is an open trench 30 feet long and six feet deep. The country rock is entirely granodiorite. ROYAL ANN NO. 2. This claim lies just south of Royal Ann No. 1. It was located in 1904 and is now owned by C. C. Rohlfs of Covada. The dis- covery shaft, located 50 feet from the east end-line, has been sunk 12 feet in granodiorite with gneissoid structure. The assessment work for this claim has been done on the Royal Ann No. 1. ROYAL ANN NO. 3. This claim lies about one mile to the northwest of Covada postoffice and a little to the southwest of Royal Ann No. 2. It also is owned by C. C. Rohlfs of Covada. The discovery shaft, 735 feet east from the west end-line, has been sunk 10 feet in granodiorite. The vein, which is six inches wide, consists of well mineralized quartz. An average sample from here yields upon assaying 0.02 oz. of gold and 3.20 oz. of silver to the ton. One hundred and fifty feet east of the discovery a shaft has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 40 feet. The country rock is grano- diorite. The vein ranges from 10 to 16 inches in width, strikes North 70° East and dips 75° Northwest. A cabin is built over this shaft. One hundred and fifty feet from the west end-line and 150 feet from the south side-line there is a shaft 30 feet deep in granodiorite. The quartz vein is of the same character as before and contains considerable galena. RELIANCE. This claim lies just north of the Greasy Run, about 1,000 feet north of Covada. The 10-foot discovery shaft is situated 300 feet from the north end-line. The country rock is schistose quartzite near the granodiorite contact. The vein consists of quartz eight inches wide with a strike of North 80° West and a vertical dip. An average sample from the discovery shaft yields upon assaying a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. 62 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey SILVER PLUME. This claim lies just west of the Greasy Run and about 1,000 feet northwest of Covada postoffice. It is now owned by Mr. J. M. Anderson of Covada. The discovery shaft is located 100 feet north of the south end-line. The country rock is schistose quartzite. The vein strikes north and south and dips 50° to the west. SILVER SPAR. This claim joins the south end of the Legal Tender claim of the Big Chief Group, and is about 1,500 feet north of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1907 and is now owned by Mr. A. M. Anderson of Covada. The discovery shaft, located 350 feet from the south end-line, has been sunk 12 feet in quartzite. The vein of quartz is 12 inches wide, strikes north and south, and has a vertical dip. LEGAL TENDER. This claim lies just west of Covada Lake on the slope of the ridge and about one-half mile north of Covada postoffice. It was located in March, 1910, and is now owned by A. M. Ander- son of Covada. The discovery shaft is 250 feet from the north end-line and is eight feet deep. The vein consists of a mixture of quartz and mineralized country rock, about three feet wide and containing galena, pyrite and sphalerite. The vein strikes North 20° East and dips 60° Northwest. This claim lies against the east side-line of the Carbonate Chief claim, one of the Big Chief Group, which is patented. LONE PINE. This claim lies about one-half mile northwest of Covada post- office. It was located in July, 1912, and is owned by Mr. Ed- ward Sizemore of Covada. The discovery is 600 feet from the north center end-line. It is an open cut 10 feet long and eight feet deep, in quartzite. Outcrops of quartz show upon the sur- face. BIG BUG The Big Bug claim lies about one-half mile west of Covada in Section 35, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It was located in 1907 and is now owned by Mjr. H. G. Parmeter of Covada. Covada Mining District 63 The discovery shaft is 400 feet northwest from the southeast end-line and is 20 feet deep in quartzite. The vein in the bottom of the shaft is six inches wide, strikes North 65° East and dips 45° Southeast. At a point 1,100 feet from the south center end- line a crosscut tunnel extends into the hill North 60° West, a distance of 50 feet. At the face a four-inch vein of pure quartz trending North 70° East and dipping vertically was encoun- tered. An assay of an average sample taken showed a trace of gold and 0.40 oz. of silver per ton. Nearby there is an open cut 10 feet long and six feet deep. The country rock is quartz- ite and the vein, which is six inches wide, is the same as in the tunnel. Fifty feet from the discovery shaft in a North 60° West line there is a cut eight feet long and six feet deep show- ing the quartz vein to be eight inches wide. COLORADO NO. 1. This claim is about one mile north of Covada postoffice and joins the north end of the Silver Spray claim of the Advance Group. It was located in 1905 and is owned by Mr. M. H. McConnel of Covada. The discovery shaft is situated 300 feet north of the south center end-line on a steep hillside. The assess- ment work for this claim has been done on the Colorado No. 2. COLORADO NO. 2. The Colorado No. 2 lies parallel to and northwest of the Colo- rado No. 1. It is owned by Mr. M. H. McConnel of Covada. The discovery is an open cut 12 feet long and eight feet deep and located 100 feet from the south center end. Twenty-five feet to the northeast there is a slope eight feet deep on the vein, which is four feet wide with two feet of ore. Antimony and ga- lena are common. Twenty-five feet farther is another shaft 12 feet deep on the same vein. The country rock here is quartzite. Several open cuts have been made on the vein for the entire length of the claim. At a point 25 feet from the west side-line and 100 feet from the southwest corner a tunnel has been driven South 55° East into the hill as a crosscut to tap the discovery vein. Two hundred and five feet from the mouth a small vein 64 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey two feet thick was encountered, which has been drifted upon for 50 feet. The discovery vein has not as yet been reached. The contact between the granodiorite and quartzite occurs here. An average sample taken from the tunnel 25 feet south of the dis- covery tunnel yields in the assay a trace of gold and 0.60 oz. of silver per ton. BLACK HAWK. This claim lies parallel to and on the north side of the Royal Ann No. 1, about one and one-quarter miles north of Covada postoffice. It was located in April, 1905, and is now owned by Mr. Kelley of Covada. At a point near the north side-line, 600 feet from the southeast corner of the claim, a tunnel has been driven South 35° West into the hill a distance of 60 feet on a vein of quartz eight inches wide with a vertical dip. The coun- try rock is granite. On the southwest corner of the claim is an open cut 12 feet deep and 25 feet long. The vein exposed in it is a side lead about one foot wide and carrying a consider- able amount of galena and antimony. Two hundred feet from the southwest end-line a tunnel has been driven on the discovery vein North 70° West, a distance of 80 feet. The vein is one foot wide and consists of white massive quartz containing ga- lena, pyrite and sphalerite. An average sample from this vein assayed 0.03 oz. of gold and 3.30 oz. of silver per ton. A par- allel tunnel 70 feet in length lies about 10 feet away. JOKER. This short claim, located in 1909, joins the west end of the Black Hawk. The discovery shaft is situated about 170 feet from the southwest end-line and has been sunk 10 feet in grano- diorite on a quartz vein eight inches wide. The vein strikes North 70° West and has a vertical dip. An average sample from this vein yielded in the assay neither gold nor silver. At the east center end-line of the claim a cut 30 feet long has been made in the granodiorite, exposing the discovery vein one foot thick with a strike of North 70° West and a vertical dip. Covada Mining District 65 DISCOVERY. This claim is situated near the Black Hawk, about one and one-quarter miles northwest of Covada postoffice. The discov- ery is an open cut in granodiorite on a quartz vein which may be a continuation of the side vein of the Black Hawk. The cut is 10 feet deep and 15 feet long. The vein is about seven inches wide, strikes North 80° West and dips 70° Northwest. It is situated 200 feet from the southwest end-line. LITTLE JAY. This claim is situated in the southwest quarter of Section 26, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about one mile northwest of Covada postoffice. The discovery shaft is in granodiorite 10 feet deep on a vein striking North 83° West and dipping vertically. The vein is eight inches wide. Two hundred feet from the west end-line is an open cut 10 feet long and eight feet deep in granodiorite exposing a quartz vein eight inches wide with a vertical dip and striking North 80° East. An aver- age sample taken from the discovery shaft yielded in the assay a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. CHEROKEE STRIP. This claim is situated in the southwest quarter of Section 31, Township 32 North, Range 37 East, about one and one-half miles east of Covada. It was located in 1906 and is owned by Mr. L. G. Curry of Covada. The discovery shaft is located 150 feet from the north center end-line and is 12 feet deep. The vein strikes north and south and dips 80° to the east. The for- mation here consists of banded quartzite. The assay of an aver- age sample taken here shows a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver per ton. This claim is not in contest and no further exam- ination was made on it. NORTHERN LIGHT. The Northern Light is situated in the northeast quarter of Section 31, Township 32 North, Range 37 East, one and three- fourths miles east from Covada. The discovery shaft, 10 feet —5 66 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey long and eight feet deep, is 500 feet from the south end-line, in a greatly crushed and sheared slate. The vein material is brown weathered quartz and clay gouge. Just under the discovery shaft is a tunnel driven into the hill North 45° West for 38 feet. Near the mouth the tunnel goes through gravel and sand horizontally bedded and of fluvial or glacial origin. It is prob- ably a remnant of an old river bench. Slate is encountered 15 feet in from the mouth of the tunnel. The vein is greatly crushed and is in part crushed country rock. An average sample taken here showed in the assay a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. SHOO FLY. The Shoo Fly is situated in the northeast quarter of Section 36, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about one mile north- east of Covada postoflice, and is now owned by G. W. Size- more of Covada. The six-foot discovery shaft is in the center of the claim, in granodiorite. The vein extends North 40° East, dips 45° Northwest, and is 18 inches thick. Galena is fairly abundant. The contact between the granodiorite and quartzite is close by. 700 feet from the south end there is an open cut 25 feet long and 10 feet deep in quartzite, but near the grano- diorite contact. A crosscut starting on the Polaris claim ex- tends 165 feet into the Shoo Fly. Three hundred and fifty feet from the northeast corner of the claim and 70 feet from the side- line an open cut 30 feet long and four feet deep exposes a quartz vein trending North 40° East. Another tunnel starts on the Rosario and extends North 70° West 300 feet across the Rob- ert E. Lee into the Shoo Fly. It cuts through 80 feet of grano- diorite aplite, which is considerably mineralized. This claim is not in contest. ROBERT E. LEE. This claim lies in the northeast quarter of Section 36, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, about one mile northeast of Covada. The claim is owned by G. W. Sizemore of Covada. The ores in this claim are in a dike of granodiorite aplite. A tunnel runs into the hill North 80° East, a distance of 76 feet Covada Mining District 67 through the aplite, in which are scattered irregular bunches and grains of stibnite. The assay of one sample taken here showed a trace of gold, 0.02 oz. of silver per ton and 57.35 per cent antimony. Another sample showed no gold, a trace of silver and no sulphides. A winze has been sunk in the tunnel and a vein eight feet wide was cut. In this there is eight inches of pure stibnite. The mouth of this tunnel is on the west side-line of the Robert E. Lee. The claim is not in contest. LONGSTREET. The Longstreet lies just north of the Robert E. Lee in the southeast quarter of Section 25, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It was located in 1903 and is owned by the Longstreet Mining and Milling Company. This claim is not in contest and only a part of the workings were visited. Several buildings, including an assay shop, have been erected. Extending the length of this claim is a dike of aplite containing considerable amounts of stibnite scattered through it. A large number of tunnels and open cuts have been made to expose it. KING FRACTION. The claim joins the Oom Paul and Etta, and the Keystone Fraction. It was located in 1907 and now belongs to the Syn- dicate Group. The 30-foot discovery shaft is in granodiorite. The vein is one foot thick and probably a continuation of the Etta. It is quartz, runs east and west, and contains small grains of galena and pyrite. Several open cuts have been made else- where on the claim. OOM PAUL. The Oom Paul is situated in the southeast quarter of Sec- tion 27, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about one and one- half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1900 and is owned by S. L. Magee of Spokane. Three hun- dred feet from the east end-line of the claim there is a dike of andesite trending nearly east and west. Near the east end-line there is a vein of quartz about four inches wide which is prob- ably a continuation of the Black Hawk. Three hundred feet from the west end-line and on the center line a tunnel has been 68 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey run eastward 60 feet, cutting a vein which strikes North 80° East and dips 80° West. The vein is about six inches wide in a much decomposed granodiorite. Considerable galena is present with some pyrite. An open cut nearby, 15 feet long and eight feet deep, exposes the vein striking North 80° West and dip- ping 80° Northeast, and having a width of eight inches. Some galena is present. The discovery shaft is 50 feet deep and has been sunk on the vein. ST. PATRICK. The claim is parallel to and on the north side of the Oom Paul, one and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1907 and is now owned by Mr. Kelly of Covada. The discovery shaft, which is 16 feet deep, is situated on the hillside above the mouth of the tunnel and 150 feet from the side- line. The vein is a mixture of quartz and talc three feet thick. The tunnel just referred to starts near the south side-line and 400 feet from the west line as a crosscut and extends into the hill North 55° West, a distance of 70 feet, but the vein in the discovery shaft has not been reached. One hundred and fifty feet west of the discovery, a shaft has been sunk on the vein in quartzite. The vein here is four inches wide, strikes North 80° East and dips vertically. It consists of quartz with galena and pyrite. An average sample, upon assaying, showed 0.03 oz. of gold and 2.00 oz. of silver per ton. ETTA. The Etta is a trangular shaped claim lying parallel to and just south of the Oom Paul, about one and one-quarter miles north of Covada postoffice. The discovery shaft is 60 feet deep. Thirty-five feet down a drift has been driven due west 15 feet on a vein trending east and west and dipping 70° north. On the 60-foot level at the bottom of the shaft another drift has been driven due north 20 feet along a vein. The country rock is granodiorite. About 50 feet west of the discovery shaft an- other shaft has been sunk six feet on a vein 14 inches wide con- taining galena and pyrite. An assay of an average sample taken here showed a trace of gold and 0.30 oz. of silver to the ton. Covada Mining District 69 Near the west end and south of the claim a crosscut tunnel has been driven to tap the discovery vein. It extends into the hill North 40° West a distance of 35 feet in granodiorite and cuts a small side vein of quartz containing galena. SEVERAL FRACTION. The claim lies in the southeast quarter of Section 27, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, about one and one-quarter miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It is owned by G. A. Mathews of Covada. The discovery shaft is 20 feet deep and in grano- diorite. The vein is four inches wide, strikes North 80° East and dips nearly vertically. The vein is quartz carrying galena and pyrite. Fifty feet away there are two shallow shafts, each six feet deep. Several open cuts have been made. SILVER SPAR. This claim is situated in the northeast corner of Section 27, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, nearly two miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It was located in January, 1907, and is a part of the Imperial Group. It is owned by G. E. Terpening of Covada. The discovery lies 400 feet north from the south end-line and is in granodiorite. Two hundred feet in the direc- tion South 25° West from the discovery is a shaft 20 feet deep on a ledge in granodiorite. There are several open cuts in addi- tion. The vein, about 18 inches wide, consists of calcite with some quartz. GOOD ORE. The claim lies in the southeast quarter of Section 22, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, about two and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It is now owned by G. E. Ter- pening of Covada. The discovery shaft is 10 feet deep in gran- odiorite. The vein strikes South 60° West, dips 60° South- east and comprises a zone two feet wide of crushed and much altered quartz and country rock. A crosscut tunnel has been driven 140 feet toward the vein in the direction South 55° East. One hundred feet from the mouth a vein of quartz six inches wide was encountered. Several open cuts and short 70 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey tunnels have been made, and wherever the vein was cut the same strike, North 60° East, prevailed. SEVERAL. This claim lies due west of the Oom Paul in the south central part of Section 27, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It is owned by G. E. Terpening of Covada. The discovery shaft, which is 12 feet deep, and in granodiorite, shows a vein one foot wide with well defined walls striking North 55° East and dip- ping 60 ° Southwest. A sample taken here yielded in the assay a trace of gold and 1.00 oz. of silver per ton. A tunnel has been driven as a drift on what is supposed to be the discovery vein a distance of over 360 feet. The country rock is entirely granodiorite. BLACK THORN. The claim is situated about one and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice in the southern part of Section 27, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, in Stray Dog Canyon. It is owned by the Black Thorn Mining Company. The discovery opening is a 15-foot tunnel running due north into the side of the canyon. The vein is six inches wide and dips 75° East. The assay of a sample taken here showed 0.04 oz. of gold and 1.40 oz. of silver to the ton. A tunnel has also been driven into the side of the hill toward the vein a distance of 285 feet. The first 200 feet passed through loose boulders of the talus slope. At the face, the vein is eight inches wide. The country rock is entirely granodiorite. KEYSTONE. This is one of the Keystone Group consisting of eight claims. It lies in the eastern part of Section 34 about one mile north- west from Covada postoffice, in Stray Dog Canyon. It is owned by G. A. Mathews of Covada. A tunnel has been driven as a drift on the Keystone claim 600 feet in the direction South 45° West. The country rock is quartzite. The vein is well defined, pitches 45° to the Northwest and varies in width from six inches to two feet. The vein is much crushed and contains galena, sphalerite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. Covada Mining District 71 SYNDICATE. This claim lies in the northeast quarter of Section 34, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, about one and one-third miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It is owned by J. W. Bartlett of Covada. The country rock is granodiorite. A tunnel has been driven, as a crosscut, 850 feet into the hill in the direction North 58° East. Six hundred feet from the mouth a small vein of very little importance was encountered. DAN PATCH. This claim is situated in the southwestern quarter of Section 13, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about three and one- half miles north of Covada postoffice. It was located in May, 1910, and is now owned by L. G. Curry of Covada. The coun- try rock is entirely quartzite and slate. Near the west end a tunnel has been driven into the hill North 25 ° East a distance of 54 feet along the vein. The vein pitches 30° to 45° to the northwest and has a total width of three feet, 16 inches of which is quartz. A sample taken from the face of this tunnel showed upon assaying 0.04 oz. of gold and 10.15 oz. of silver per ton. A sample taken from the gray talc here showed a trace of gold and 0.40 oz. of silver per ton. One hundred feet up the hill from the discovery tunnel there are several open cuts exposing a vein trending North 65° East and containing galena and sphalerite. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 30 feet on a vein trending North 10° West and dipping 70° to the South- west. It ranges from two to eight inches in thickness and is composed of quartz with some pyrite. REN RICE. This claim joins the east end-line of the Dan Patch and is about three and one-half miles north of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1910 and is owned by Mr. L. G. Curry of Covada. The 12-foot discovery shaft is in quartzite and shows a six-inch quartz vein somewhat crushed trending North 68° East. The assay of a sample taken here yielded a trace of gold and 0.30 oz. of silver per ton. 72 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey GREAT SCOTT. The Great Scott lies just south of the Dan Patch, about three and one-half miles north of Covada postoffice. It was located in December, 1911, and is now owned by Mr. Messenger of Co- vada. The discovery shaft is eight feet deep. Nearby is an- other shaft nine feet deep with a quartz vein striking North 15° East and dipping 75° to the southeast. Several open cuts have been made. The country rock is entirely composed of quartzite and slate. A sample taken at the discovery shaft showed in the assay a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. silver per ton. VICTOR. This claim lies east of the Ren Rice, about four miles north- east of Covada postoffice. It was located in February, 1912. There is one shaft 40 feet deep and timbered. The vein at this point, consisting of yellowish stained quartz, strikes North 15° West and dips 70° to the Southwest. Nearby are several open cuts. The discovery shaft, situated 100 feet from the north end of the claim, is 8 feet deep and shows a vein striking North 15° West and dipping 75° Southwest. The country rock is quartzite. A short distance away is a tunnel 10 feet long. An average sample taken here showed upon assaying 0.01 oz. of gold and 0.50 oz. of silver per ton. SAINT PAUL. The Saint Paul joins the Victor and lies about four miles northeast of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1912. The 10-foot discovery shaft is situated 300 feet from the south end of the claim. Twenty feet away an open cut has been made. The country rock is quartzite. The vein, which is the same as that on the Victor claim, strikes North 20° West and dips 75° Southwest. It consists of one foot of solid quartz and four inches of crushed wall rock. An average sample taken here showed in the assay a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver per ton. JAY BIRD. This claim lies on the north side of Rattlesnake Mountain, three miles from Covada postoffice. It was located in August, Covada Mining District 73 1904, and is owned by Ira B. Gifford of Inchelium. It joins the Rattlesnake claim on the north end in Section 25. A tunnel has been driven along the vein South 36° East, a distance of 20 feet. The vein, composed of quartz, is four inches thick, strikes north and south, and dips 70° West. This claim is one of a group and the assessment work has been largely done on an- other claim. SAINT PAUL. Saint Paul claim lies on the north side of Rattlesnake Moun- tain, about two miles northeast of Covada postoffice, on Theo- dore Berjue’s farm. It was located in May, 1911. The dis- covery shaft is 100 feet south from the north end- line. It has been sunk 10 feet in quartzite on a well-defined eight-inch quartz vein, which strikes North 55° East and dips 75° Southeast. Galena and pyrite are scattered through it. About one foot of the wall rock is well mineralized. LAUREL. The Laurel is situated on the north side of Rattlesnake Mountain. The discovery is a small open cut in limestone and quartzite. No very well defined vein was seen, although an ir- regular seam of quartz extends in various directions through it. The formation strikes North 10° West and dips 60° Northeast. RATTLER. This claim is situated on the north side of Rattlesnake Moun- tain. The discovery tunnel starts 200 feet from the north center end-line and extends South 25° West for 95 feet. At the face there is a vein of much crushed quartz, almost three feet wide. The country rock is quartzite. The assay of an average sample taken here shows a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver per ton. The south end of the claim extends up the mountain side. ALGONKIAN. This claim lies on a flat, well-timbered area, one-half mile northwest of Rattlesnake Mountain and about two and one-half miles northeast of Covada postoffice. It was located in 1911 and is now owned by Mr. A. M. Anderson of Covada. The 74 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey discovery shaft lies 100 feet west of the east end-line. It is eight feet deep and nearby is an open cut or trench. The country rock is quartzite. The vein, which is about six inches thick, strikes east and west and dips vertically. The assay of an average sample taken from the discovery claim shows 0.06 oz. of gold and 8.20 oz. of silver per ton. STRAY DOG MINE. This group of five claims lies in the west half of Section 27, Township 82 North, Range 36 East, two miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It is owned by the Stray Dog Mining Com- pany. A long crosscut has been driven into the hill on the west side of Stray Dog Canyon. Some distance in from the mouth a vein of quartz was encountered and a drift was made upon it. This vein strikes North 20° East, dips 75° Northwest, has a width of six inches, and contains a considerable amount of ga- lena and pyrite. A few hundred feet farther in another vein was encountered and a drift made along it. The vein varies from two to five feet in width and contains galena, pyrite, sphalerite and a little sylvanite. The vein strikes North 30° East and dips 80° to the Northwest. An upper crosscut tunnel has been driven and the two are connected by an upraise. The country rock is granodiorite. This group is not in contest and the investigation was only superficial. IMPERIAL. This claim was located in 1903 and is owned by Messrs. Messenger and Terpening of Covada. It lies a little over two miles northwest of Covada postoffice. A tunnel has been opened west of the west end-line and extends South 75° East as a cross- cut for 204 feet. Forty feet from the face there is a vein three inches wide, trending north and south and dipping vertically. The vein towards which the tunnel is being run is estimated to be 30 feet from the face. The rock is granodiorite. This claim is not in contest. CAPTAIN. The Captain claim was formerly known as the Gold Cup. It lies just west of Stray Dog Canyon in the northwest quarter Covada Minim g District 75 of Section 27, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It was located as the Captain in January, 1912. A tunnel has been driven as a crosscut North 45° West a distance of 40 feet through granodiorite. At the face a vein of calcite occurs, much twisted and broken. Twenty feet above a slope has been sunk on a vein striking east and west and dipping 45° to the South. It is six feet wide and a jumbled mass of calcite and country rock. This claim in not in contest. WHITE ROSE. This claim is situated in the northeast quarter of Section 3, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, nearly three miles north- west of Covada. The discovery shaft is near the center of the claim, in quartzite, but close to the contact with the granodio- rite. Eight feet away from the discovery there is a shaft 60 feet deep and a 20-foot drift extends east from it. The vein strikes North 20° East and dips vertically. DIXIE QUEEN. This claim lies just southwest of the New York claim, in Sec- tion 33, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. The discovery shaft is located 700 feet from the north end in quartzite. It exposes a quartz vein two feet wide, striking North 20° East and dipping nearly vertically. A short distance west is an- other small shaft 10 feet deep. RESERVE. This claim is situated in the southeast quarter of Section 32, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about three miles due west of Covada postoffice. It was located in March, 1905, and is now owned by Mr. L. G. Curry of Covada. The discovery shaft, which is 100 feet from the north end, is 48 feet deep and at the bottom a drift has been run a distance of 75 feet. The country rock is quartzite. The vein consists of seven feet of crushed country rock and three feet of white quartz, containing galena and pyrite. It strikes North 45° East and dips to the north- west. About half way between the end lines on the west side is a ledge of solid white quartz dipping 45° West. An average 76 Bulletin No. 16 , W ashington Geological Survey sample from the discovery shaft shows, in the assay, 0.04 oz. of gold and 7.80 oz. of silver to the ton. RUBY. This claim lies just east of the Reserve and is a part of this group. It is owned by Mr. L. G. Curry of Covada. The 12- foot discovery shaft is in slaty quartzite. The assessment work for the claim has been done on the Reserve claim. SANTA CLAUS. The Santa Claus claim lies just west of the Reserve and is a part of the same group. The discovery shaft is a slope 40 feet in length and sunk on a quartz vein striking North 20° East and dipping 50° to the Northwest. The vein is about three feet thick. NEGLECTED. The Neglected claim is a part of the Reserve Group and joins the northeast end-line of the Santa Claus. The discovery shaft is 20 feet deep and is in quartzite. The vein strikes North 20° East with a vertical dip. It is about eight inches wide and con- tains some pyrite and galena. The assay of an average sample taken here shows no gold and only a trace of silver. MONTANA. This claim lies in the central part of Section 28, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It is now owned by Messrs. Fish and Pea. The country rock is granodiorite. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 90 feet and from the foot a drift has been run to the east. Twenty-five feet farther east a second shaft has been sunk to a depth of 20 feet. ADMIRAL. The Admiral claim is situated in the northeast quarter of Section 28, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It is owned by Mr. Joseph Hartwell of Covada. At the discovery a slope has been sunk 30 feet on a vein eight inches thick. Another shaft some distance to the east is 20 feet deep. The country rock is granodiorite. Covada Mining District 77 SNOWSTORM. This claim was formerly known as the White Swan. It is situated in the east central part of Section 28, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about two and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. It was located in April, 1912, and is now owned by Messrs. Sizemore and Mathews of Covada. The dis- covery shaft is 500 feet from the east center end and has been sunk 10 feet in the granodiorite. The vein is very narrow, strikes North 80° East and dips 65° to the Southeast. Fifty feet west of the discovery is a shaft 15 feet deep. Here the vein strikes North 80° East and dips 45° Southeast. The assay of a sample taken here shows a trace of gold and 0.30 oz. of silver to the ton. Some distance from here a crosscut tun- nel has been driven 600 feet to the vein and a drift of 100 feet made along the vein. From here both a winze and upraise have been made, the latter to the surface. The vein strikes North 30° East, and dips 70° to the Northwest. The country rock is granodiorite. TRUAX. The Truax claim lies in the southwest quarter of Section 22, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about two and one-half miles from Covada postoffice. It is owned by Mr. M. H. O’Con- nell of Covada. The discovery shaft lies in the center of the claim. There are two veins here lying close together which have been exposed in a series of open cuts. The country rock is granodiorite, into which a crosscut tunnel has been driven South 25° East a distance of 143 feet to tap the vein. DEAD SHOT. This claim belongs to the Golden Treasure Company and is situated about two miles northwest of Covada. There are two veins on the claim. On one of these a tunnel has been driven a distance of 20 feet along what is supposed to be an extension of the Black Thorn vein. The other vein trends North 15° East through the granodiorite and has a width of one foot. 78 Bulletin No. 16, Washington Geological Survey JULIET. This claim was formerly known as the Little Tom, but was relocated by George Eves as the Juliet. It lies about two miles northwest of Covada postoffice. The discovery shaft is about eight feet deep and exposes two intersecting veins of quartz carrying considerable antimony. The assay of a sample taken here shows 0.02 oz. of gold and 3.40 oz. of silver to the ton. Four other openings have been made. NEW YORK. The claim lies in the north central part of Section 23, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East, about two and one-half miles northwest of Covada postoffice. The country rock is granodio- rite. One shaft has been sunk to a depth of 40 feet on a vein of quartz one foot wide and carrying galena, pyrite and a few specks of ruby silver. A building has been erected over the mouth of the shaft, and an engine for hoisting installed. Five hundred feet away a second shaft has been sunk, but is now filled with water. It is said to be 60 feet deep. The claim is not in contest. RED CHIEF. This claim is situated in the west central portion of Section 34, Township 32 North, Range 36 East, about two miles north- west of Covada postoffice. The discovery shaft, which lies in the middle of the claim, has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 25 feet. The vein strikes North 50° East, dips 60° Southeast and is four feet wide; 16 inches of this is solid white quartz and the remainder crushed wall rock mineralized with pyrite and ga- lena. The country rock is granodiorite, although the quartzite contact is not far away. There are two smaller shafts on the claim and one tunnel which has been driven as a crosscut South 50° West, a distance of 25 feet. VERNIE. The Vernie claim lies in the center of Section 34, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. It was located in 1899 by H. Gar- rett and W. A. Pea. The country rock is quartzite, but it lies near the granodiorite contact. One tunnel has been driven Covada Mining District 79 South 65° West a distance of 50 feet on a vein dipping 60° Southeast, and having a width of four feet. In places the quartz is impregnated with pyrite, galena and sphalerite. Seventy- five feet west of the tunnel is located the discovery shaft, 10 feet deep. Three hundred feet from the tunnel is another shaft about 40 feet deep. GRAND VIEW. This claim lies in Section 3, Township 31 North, Range 36 East, about two miles due west of Covada postoffice. It be- longs to the Silver Queen Group, and is owned by Mr. J. C. Seaman of Covada. The country rock is quartzite and slate. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 80 feet and at the 30-foot level a drift has been driven south 10 feet. The vein strikes North 40° East, dips 70° Southeast and has a width of about four feet. The gangue is quartz with some galena and a little sylvanite. The claim is not in contest. LAURA S. This claim was located March 1, 1913, and is now owned by Mr. H. A. Pea and E. J. Sparling. It lies about two miles west of Covada postoffice. The claim was formerly known as the Ada. The discovery shaft is 800 feet from the east end-line and has been sunk to a depth of 40 feet in quartzite. It was filled with water at the time of examination, but the ore lying on the dump at the mouth of the shaft was quartz containing galena, pyrite and many small particles of sylvanite. DEWEY. This claim was located in January, 1911, and is owned by Mr. J. Seaman of Covada. It is situated about one and one- half miles southwest of Covada postoffice. The country rock is quartzite and slate cut in places by a dike of andesite. The discovery tunnel is 800 feet from the north end-line of the claim and extends into the hill South 60° West a distance of 25 feet. The vein is about eight inches wide and lies nearly flat, but is probably not in place. A tunnel just above Mr. Seaman’s house in the same draw extends into the hill North 80 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey 60° West a distance of 100 feet, but is in gravel and sand the entire distance. An average sample from the discovery tunnel upon assaying shows no gold and a trace of silver per ton. SYRACUSE. The Syracuse claim lies on Reister Mountain about two miles southwest of Covada postoffice. The country rock is quartzite and slate. A 30-foot discovery shaft has been sunk on the vein, which is six feet wide and consists of crushed country rock containing quartz. It strikes North 30° East and dips 60° Northeast. The assay of an average sample taken here shows a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. Near the end of Reister Mountain a dike of andesite outcrops, striking north and south and having a width of 20 feet. PERRY. The Perry claim is situated about one mile northeast of Covada postoffice in the northeast quarter of Section 36, Town- ship 32 North, Range 36 East. It is now owned by Mr. Joseph Hartwell of Covada. The claim extends north and south. A slope has been sunk to a depth of 42 feet on an east-west vein, supposed to be a continuation of the Toga. It extends down to the north at an angle of 45°. The vein is four feet wide and consists of white quartz, well mineralized. The assay of an average sample taken here shows neither gold nor silver. Twenty-five feet to the north is an open cut on the north-south vein upon which the claim is located. It is rich in antimony and resembles that on the Longstreet vein. The quartzite contact lies nearby. One hundred feet north there is a 10-foot tunnel. Three hundred feet farther north on the hill slope is another open cut in quartzite. It seems to be a zone of mineralized country rock adjacent to the contact. Twenty- five feet north of this cut is a 10-foot tunnel run as a crosscut to this mineralized zone. Several other open cuts have been made at intervals. SILVER LEAF. There are several claims in this group. They are not in contest and only a hasty examination was made. The Silver Covada Mining District 81 Leaf lies on the south side of Rattlesnake Mountain in Section 30, Township 32 North, Range 37 East, about two miles north- east of Covada. It is owned by the Silver Leaf Mining Com- pany of Covada. A tunnel has been driven in a distance of 242 feet through quartzite to the face. Some distance to the west a large opening has been made in the side of the mountain. The country rock is quartzite and highly silicified. One zone is mineralized with quartz, galena and sphalerite. It is said to assay high in silver. The vein as well as formation strikes north and south with vertical dip. At the bottom of the glory hole a shaft has been sunk 30 feet on the vein. Near the base of the shaft the vein is locally cut by a fault. Sphalerite is abundant. The tunnel on this claim is 350 feet north of the south center end-line. BUFFALO. The Buffalo claim lies on the slope of Columbia River east of the Ivanhoe Group. It is owned by Mr. Thompson of Covada. Two ledges are found in the slaty schist and cal- careous quartzite of the claim. The discovery is close to the river on a vein striking North 80° West and dipping 45° to the Northeast, and having a width of two feet. The assay of an average sample taken here shows a trace of gold and 0.20 oz. of silver to the ton. ROSARIO. The Rosario lies in the northwest corner of Section 31, Town- ship 32 North, Range 37 East, a little over one mile northeast of Covada postoffice. It is owned by Mir. George Terpening of Covada. At the discovery a crosscut tunnel has been driven North 70° West a distance of 320 feet. Farther north on the claim another tunnel has been driven in North 60° West a dis- tance of 50 feet on a zone of crushed and mineralized country rock. GUIN MINE. This property consists of ten claims located in Section 11, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. They are the Guin, Sun- nyside, Homestead, Wizard, Big Pet, Missing Link, Hall MAP Of MINING CLAIMS OF ITia. 3. Map showing mining claims snd underground workings of the Ouln Mine. Covada Mining District 83 Creek, Galena, Iron Cap and B. C. Fraction. Considerable development work has been done on this property and chiefly on the Wizard and Guin claims. A crosscut tunnel starts near the west center end-line of the Wizard claim and extends a distance of 800 feet into the Guin claim. Four hundred feet from the mouth a vein was encountered striking North 10° East and dipping 20° to the Southeast. Drifts have been made to the left and right. On the right-hand drift a slope has been sunk on the vein a distance of 180 feet on a 45° slope. The vein in the bottom is about 10 feet wide and consists of white quartz. The country rock is quartzite. Assays of two average samples taken here showed in one case 0.08 oz. of gold and 34.50 oz. of silver; and in the other 0.07 oz. of gold and 25.50 oz. of silver to the ton. On the Guin claim a shaft has been sunk on the vein to a depth of 150 feet. There are 250 feet of workings on the 130-foot level, 250 feet on the 150-foot level and 100 feet on the 100-foot level. The vein is six feet wide on the 100-foot level. On the Missing Link a quartz vein outcrops in quartzite and upon it a 10-foot shaft has been sunk. On the Galena claim a shaft has been sunk to a depth of 17 feet on a quartz vein three feet wide. It is well mineralized with galena and pyrite. There are also two tunnels 100 and 150 feet in length driven as crosscuts to the vein. Open cuts and short tunnels have been opened on the other claims, but the greater part of the assessment work for the group has been performed on the Wiz- ard and Guin claims. At the time of the examination two shifts of men were working on the vein in the slope. BIG CHIEF GROUP. The Big Chief Group consists of six claims situated west and northwest of Covada Lake in Section 35, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. They are the Ripsaw, Jennie C., Little Pet, Apex, Carbonate Chief and Legal Tender. The group was formerly known as the Apex. It was located in 1898 by Edgar Balling and is now owned by the Big Chief Mining Company, of which J. C. Harcleroad of Spokane is president. This group 84 Bulletin No. 16 , Washington Geological Survey is not in contest and because of insufficient time no extensive in- vestigation of the properties was undertaken. Several long crosscut tunnels have been driven in the quartzite to the vein. In addition, shafts have been sunk from which at different levels drifts have been driven on the veins. A considerable amount of development work has since been done on this property. METEOR GROUP. The Meteor Group of claims are situated about three miles due west of Covada postoffice in Section 33, Township 32 North, Range 36 East. There are four claims altogether, viz., the Peoria, Ohio Fraction, Meteor and Comet. These were located in 1900 by Edgar Balling and are now owned by the Meteor Mining Company, of which W. A. Halteman of Spokane is manager. A large amount of development work has been done but as the group is not in contest no extensive examination was made. One long tunnel has been driven on the Meteor claim on a quartz vein over three feet wide. This has been drifted upon and stoping has been carried upwards for some distance toward the surface. The country rock is quartzite. On the surface several openings have been made and a deep shaft sunk with considerable drifting at different levels. Other properties in this district upon which a considerable amount of work has been done, but which were not visited, are the Cold Springs Group, the Orion Group, the Southern Cross and the Steinger Groups. None of these are in contest and two of them are patented. INDEX Page Acknowledgments 7 Admiral Mine 76 Advance Mining Co 44 Algonkian Mine 73 Andesite dikes 27 Aplite 26 Bancroft, Howland, Report by 12 Big Bug Mine 62 Big Chief Group 83 Big Joker Mine 55 Black Hawk Mine 64 Black Tail Mine 51 Black Thorn Mine 70 Blue Bird Mine 48 Buffalo Mine 81 Butterfly Mine 52 Calcite 38 Captain Mine 74 Chalcopyrite 39 Chance Mine 60 Character of the ore bodies 35 Cherokee Strip Mine 65 Climate 16 Colorado No. 1 Mine 63 Colorado No. 2 Mine 63 Covada formation 21 Dan Patch Mine 71 Dead Shot Mine 77 Dewey Mine 79 Distribution of the ore bodies 35 Dixie Queen Mine 75 Drainage l 14 Drummond Mine 59 Economic geology 33 Etta Mine 68 Galena 39 Genesis of the ores 40 Geological History 30 Glaciation 16 Gold 40 Good Ore Mine 69 Grand View Mine 79 Granodiorite porphyry 27 Greasy Run Mine 50 Great Scott Mine 72 Guin Mine 81 History of mining 33 Hodges, L. K., Report by 10 Tdora Mine 59 Imperial Mine 74 1. X. L. Mine 53 86 Index Page Joker Mine 64 Juliet Mine 78 Kentucky Bell Mine 55 Keystone Mine 70 King Fraction Mine 67 King Solomon Mine 49 Lakeview Fraction Mine 47 Landes, Henry, Report by 11 Laura S. Mine 79 Laurel Mine 73 Legal Tender Mine 62 Limonite 39 Literature 10 Little Jay Mine 65 Lone Pine Mine 62 Longstreet Mine 67 Lyon, D. A., Report by 11 Mathews, G. A., Report by 11 Mayflower Mine 47 Metaline District 12 Meteor granodiorite 23 Meteor Group 84 Mineralogy 38 Mining World, Report in 11 Molybdenite 40 Montana Mine 76 Neglected Mine 76 New York Mine 78 Northern Light Mine 65 Ohio Mine 59 Okanogan Highlands 14 Old Nell Mine 54 Oom Paul Mine 67 Perry Mine . 80 Physiography 14 Pilgrim Mine 48 Plymouth Rock Mine 48 Polaris Mine 54 Pyrargyrite 40 Pyrite 39 Pyroxenite 28 Quandary Mine 49 Quartz 38 Quaternary 29 Rattler Mine 73 Red Chief Mine 78 Reliance Mine 61 Ren Rice Mine 71 Republic District 12 Reserve Mine 75 Robert E. Lee Mine 66 Rosario Mine 81 Royal Ann No. 1 Mine 60 Royal Ann No. 2 Mine 61 Royal Ann No. 3 Mine 61 Ruby Mine 76 Saint Patrick Mine 68 Saint Paul Mine 72 Index 87 f Page Saint Paul Mine 73 Several Mine 70 Several Fraction Mine 69 Shape of veins 36 Shipment of the ores 34 Shoo Fly Mine 66 Silver Crown No. 1 Mine 57 Silver Crown No. 2 Mine 57 Silver Crown No. 3 Mine 57 Silver Dollar Mine 56 Silver Leaf Mine 80 Silver Plume Mine 50 Silver Plume Mine 62 Silver Spar Mine 62 Silver Spar Mine 69 Snowstorm Mine 77 Silver 40 Sphalerite 40 Stibnite 39 Stray Dog Mine 74 Strike and pitch of veins 36 Structure 29 Summit Mine 56 Sunset Mine 53 Sunshine Mine 52 Sylvanite 40 Syndicate Mine 71 Syracuse Mine 80 Three Pines Mine 56 Thyng, Wm. S., Report by 11 Truax Mine 77 Topography 14 Treatment of the ores 34 Umpleby, J. B., Report by 12 Vegetation 17 Vernie Mine 78 Victor Mine 72 White Rose Mine 75 White Tail Mine 51 PUBLICATIONS OP THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Volume 1. — Annual Report for 1901. Part 1, Creation of the State Geological Survey, and An Outline of the Geology of Washington, by Henry Landes; part 2, The Metalliferous Resources of Washington, Ex- cept Iron, by Henry Landes, William S. Thyng, D. A. Lyon and Milnor Roberts; part 3, The Non-Metalliferous Resources of Washington, Ex- cept Coal, by Henry Landes; part 4, The Iron Ores of Washington, by S. Shedd, and the Coal Deposits of Washington, by Henry Landes; part 5, The Water Resources of Washington, by H. G. Byers, C. A. Ruddy and R. E. Heine; part 6, Bibliography of the Literature Referring to the Geology of Washington, by Ralph Arnold. Out of print. Volume 2. — Annual Report for 1902. Part 1, The Building and Or- namental Stones of Washington, by S. Shedd; part 2, The Coal De- posits of Washington, by Henry Landes and C. A. Ruddy. Postage 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 1. — Geology and Ore Deposits of Republic Mining District, by Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound in cloth; price, 35 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 2. — The Road Materials of Washington, by Henry Landes. Bound in cloth; price, 60 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 3. — The Coal Fields of King County, by Geo. W. Evans. Bound in cloth; price, 75 cents. Address State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 4. — The Cement Materials of Washington, by S. Shedd and A. A. Hammer. In preparation. Bulletin 5. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Myers Creek and Oro- ville-Nighthawk Districts, by Joseph B. Umpleby. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 6. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Blewett Mining Dis- trict, by Charles E. Weaver. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 7. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Index Mining District, by Charles E. Weaver. Bound in cloth; price, 50 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 8. — Glaciation of the Puget Sound Region, by J. Harlen Bretz. Bound in cloth; price, 60 cents. Paper cover; price, 35 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 9. — The Coal Fields of Kittitas County, by E. J. Saunders. In preparation. Bulletin 10. — The Coal Fields of Pierce County, by Joseph Daniels. In preparation. Bulletin 11. — The Mineral Resources of Washington, with statistics for 1912, by Henry Landes. In preparation. Bulletin 12. — Bibliography of Washington Geology and Geography, by Gretchen O’Donnell. Paper cover; price, 25 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 13. — A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Formation of Western Washington, by Charles E. Weaver. In preparation. Bulletin 14. — The Quincy Valley Irrigation Project, by Henry Landes, A. W. Mangum, H. K. Benson, E. J. Saunders, and Joseph Jacobs. Paper cover; price, 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 15. — A Preliminary Report on the Tertiary Paleontology of Western Washington, by Chas. E. Weaver. Paper cover; price, 20 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia, Washington. Bulletin 16. — Geology and Ore Deposits of the Covada Mining Dis- trict, by Charles E. Weaver. Paper cover; price, 25 cents. Address, State Librarian, Olympia Washington. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, IN CO- OPERATION WITH THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. (For copies of these publications address the Director, U. S. Geologi- cal Survey, Washington, D. C.) Topographic Maps of the Following Quadrangles: Mount Vernon, Quincy, Winchester, Moses Lake, Beverly, Red Rock and Cedar Lake. Price, 10 cents each. Water Supply Paper No. 253: Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Part I, Southern Washington. Water Supply Paper No. 313: Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Part II. Cowlitz, Nisqually, Puyallup, White, Green, and Cedar Drain- age Basins. Water Supply Paper No. . . . : Water Powers of the Cascade Range, Part III. In preparation. Water Supply Paper No. 272: Surface Water Supply of the United States, 1909. Part XII, North Pacific Coast. Water Supply Paper No. 292: Surface Water Supply of the United States, 1910, Part XII, North Pacific Coast. Water Supply Paper No. 312, 1911. In preparation. Water Supply Paper No. 332, 1912. In preparation. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF SOILS, IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. (For copies of these publications address one of the members of congress from Washington.) Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Eastern Part of the Puget Sound Basin. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Western and Southern Parts of the Puget Sound Basin. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of Southwestern Washington. Reconnoissance Soil Survey of the Quincy Area. WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HENRY LANDES, State Geologist NHVERSiTr gf hums utiuinr BULLETIN ISTo. 17 Mr a 4 1919 A Geographic Dictionary of Washington By HENRY LANDES OLYMPIA FRANK M. LAMBORX PUBLIC PRINTER 1917 55y wzit BOARD OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Governor Ernest Lister, Chairman. Lieutenant Governor Louis F. Hart. State Treasurer W. W. Sherman, Secretary. President Henry Suzzaelo. President Ernest O. Holland. Henry Landes, State Geologist. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Governor Ernest Lister , Chairman , and Members of the Board of Geological Survey: Gentlemen : I have the honor to submit herewith a report entitled “A Geographic Dictionary of Washington,” with the recommendation that it be printed as Bulletin No. 17 of the Survey reports. Very respectfully, Henry Landes, State Geologist. University Station, Seattle, December 1, 1917. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER I. General Information 7 Location and Area 7 Topography 8 Olympic Mountains 8 Willapa Hills 9 Puget Sound Basin 10 Cascade Mountains 11 Okanogan Highlands 13 Columbia Plateau 13 Blue Mountains 15 Selkirk Mountains 15 Climate 16 Temperature 16 Rainfall 19 United States Weather Bureau Stations 38 Drainage 38 Stream Gaging Stations 42 Gradient of Columbia River 44 Summary of Discharge Records of Certain Rivers of Washington 45 Forests 46 National Forests of Washington 48 Settlement, by Victor Farrar 51 CHAPTER II. Gazetteer 60 List of reference maps 307 CHAPTER III. Table of Altitudes 310 CHAPTER IV. Latitude and Longitude of Various Places in Washington 343 ILLUSTRATIONS. Facing Plates. Page I. A relief map of Washington, indicating the major topo- graphic provinces 8 II. The locations of the principal Weather Bureau Stations of the state 16 III. Belts of rainfall, giving the annual precipitation in inches. . 21 IV. The amount of precipitation, by months, at certain Weather Bureau Stations 22 V. The locations of gaging stations maintained on the streams of the state 40 VI. An isogonic chart, indicating the eastern deflection of the needle in various parts of the state at the present time (1917) 51 VII. Number and percentage of foreign born population, with countries arranged in order 53 VIII. Number and percentage of native horn population, outside of Washington, with states arranged in order 55 IX. The areas in square miles of the counties of the state, in order of size 57 X. The population of the counties of the state, in order, with the population per square mile 59 CHAPTER I. GENERAL INFORMATION. LOCATION AND AREA. The State of Washington is in the northwest corner of the United States, the Dominion of Canada forming its northern boundary and the Pacific Ocean washing its western shore. It is one of the five states which lie adjacent to the 49th parallel and one of the three which front on our greatest ocean. The 47th parallel, near which Olympia, the capital, is located, also passes through, or near, Duluth, Quebec, Bern in Switzerland, and Odessa on the Black Sea. The 123d meridian, passing a little to the westward of Olympia, is midway between Eastport, on the eastern margin of Maine, and the islands near the western end of the Aleutian chain. The entire area of Washington amounts to 69,127 square miles. Of this total 66,836 square miles represent the land area alone and 2,291 square miles are embraced in the inland water bodies. Among the states of the Union Washington ranks nineteenth in size, and is situated in this respect between Georgia, which is smaller, and Missouri, which is slightly larger. In comparison with some of the eastern states, Washington is larger in area than all of the New England states combined, with Delaware added. When the sizes of the western states are considered it is found that Washington is the smallest state west of Iowa. It may be noted that Texas contains approxi- mately 3.8 times, California 2.3 times, and Montana 2 times the area of Washington. In outline the state is roughly rectangular, with irregu- larities on its western and southwestern borders, where it has the Pacific and the Columbia for its boundaries. The frontage of the state on Columbia River amounts to 320 miles, while the irregular coast line of the Pacific Ocean amounts to more than 2,000 miles. The most western point in Washington is Cape Alava, a few miles south of Cape Flattery, while the most eastern point is on the Snake River, at the southeastern corner of the state. From 8 Bulletin Xo. 17, Washington Geological Survey south to north the state extends from the most southern bend of the Columbia, near Washougal, to the 49th parallel. From east to west the extreme distance across the state is approximately 370 miles, and from north to south 238 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The State of Washington contains within it segments of several of the major topographic divisions that are to be found near the western margin of the American Continent. These topographic divisions or forms have a north and south course and it is possible for several of them to be included in any profile drawn across the state from east to west. A traveler following Columbia River, from the International boundary to the sea, may observe at least five of these topographic provinces, all of which are but small portions of larger areas which extend far to the northward and to the southward of the state. Beginning at the sea coast and going inland the larger to- pographic divisions, and the general provinces to which they belong, are as follows : the Olympic Mountains and the Willapa Hills, which are a part of a comparatively low but extended range of mountains forming a rampart or barrier along the Pa- cific border from Lower California to the islands of British Columbia and Alaska; the Puget Sound Basin, a segment of a long and narrow trough which is more or less continuous from southern California to the Gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte Sound ; the Cascades, a subdivision of a prominent range of mountains that are practically continuous from Mexico to Alas- ka ; the Okanogan Highlands, Columbia Plateau and Blue Moun- tains, that are more or less local subdivisions of a great interior basin that extends almost the entire length of the continent ; and the Selkirk Mountains, one of the outliers or minor divisions of the great system of Rocky Mountains which forms the backbone of the continent. (See Plate I.) OLYMPIC MOUNTAINS. The Olympics include that portion of Washington north of the valley of Chehalis River and west of Hood Canal. They are composed of many sharp and irregular ridges separated by deep ULLETIN NO. 17 Plate I ■ SHIN ' 01 tj Geological Su A relief map of Washington, indicating the major topographical provinces. Scale, about 44 miles to the inch. 4 Geographic Dictionary of Washington 9 valleys, some of which are canyon-like in character. Surmount- ing the ridges are occasional peaks, composed of harder rocks, which have not been eroded ^s rapidly as other portions of the surface. The highest of these is Mount Olympus, with an ele- vation of 8,150 feet. Olympus stands but little above several neighboring peaks and is therefore not a conspicuous mountain. In clear weather it may be readily observed from the ocean on the west, but not often can it be seen from any other quarter ex- cept from points of view near at hand. The Olympics are composed almost wholly of quartzites and slates, with some basic eruptive rocks along the northern, east- ern and southern margins. No granites or related rocks have been found in place, and no ore bodies of commercial importance are known. While vulcanism has played a small part in the history of the Olympics there are no volcanic cones found any- where within these mountains. In their topographic origin the Olympics represent a broad undulating plateau which from a former maximum elevation of more than 8,000 feet has been carved or dissected into the present plexus of peaks, ridges, passes, and valleys of various types. The fact that the rivers have worked headwards into the Olympics, from practically all directions, has given to the major valleys and the prominent divides or ridges a radial arrangement which is well marked. The Olympics are bordered on the north by a narrow pied- mont plateau, adjoining the Strait of Juan de Fuca; on the west b}" a series of foothills and ridges which gradually decline in elevation from the high mountain mass to the ocean shore ; on the south by an extensive belt of north and south ridges which lead to the Chehalis valley, while on the east the Olympics rise by a bold rampart from the level of Hood Canal, with scarcely a trace of an intermediate or piedmont plateau. WILLAPA HILLS. The Willapa Hills represent a gap or break in the long profile of the coastal chain. They have a maximum elevation of 3,000 feet and are therefore distinctly lower than the Olym- pics on the north and have a lower elevation than the mountains 10 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey of the Oregon coast line, south of the Columbia. The Willapa Hills are sometimes described as a part of the Olympics but the two areas differ widely in both their geologic history and topo- graphic origin. The bed rock of the Willapa Hills is composed almost wholly of tertiary sandstones and shales, but little meta- morphosed, with a considerable quantity of basic igneous rocks. The strata have been folded and the tilted beds now stand at varying angles. Erosion has produced sharp ridges and deep valleys, the topographic features representing the effects of stream action when applied to rocks of varying degrees of hardness. A radial arrangement of the rivers and valleys is in some evidence in the Willapa Hills, although the drainage is chiefly to the west and the south. The hills are almost everywhere soil covered and in no instance do they rise above timber line. The best developed river system is that of the Willapa and its tribu- taries. Between the headwaters of the Willapa and Chehalis rivers there are several low divides, two of which are crossed by railways. On their southern margin the Willapa Hills rise from the Columbia rather abruptly but on the north they grad- ually merge into low foothills bordering Chehalis valley. On the east they rise by slow degrees from the general level of Puget Sound Basin and on the west they decline until they merge into a belt of low sand dunes along the sea. PUGET SOUND BASIN. A prominent trough or basin crosses the state from north to south, located at the western foot of the Cascade Mountains. The term Puget Sound is rightly applied only to certain chan- nels and inlets of the sea near the central part of this great trough, but for want of a better designation the name Puget Sound Basin as here used involves all of the great valley which reaches from the Columbia to the Canadian boundary. In general, along the median axis of the great trough, the rolling plains rise but little above the sea. Occasionally low rounded hills are found upon the plain, but they are more or less isolated and rarely exceed 1,500 feet in height. In the northern A Geographic Dictionary of W ashingt on 11 and central sections of the basin the surface is everywhere drift covered and the differences in elevation are but slight. In the southern part of the great trough the area was not glaciated and the irregularities of the surface are more conspicuous. In its origin the Puget Sound Basin represents a structural downwarp or trough between the prominent mountain masses which bound it on both the east and west. Subsequent to this deformation a submergence occurred which brought about an in- cursion of the sea and a consequent flooding of the major val- leys of the northern and central parts of the basin. Immediately south of the Canadian line, and between the mountains of Van- couver Island and the Cascades, the depression was profound enough to submerge more than one-half of the former land sur- face. The deeper valleys of the earlier surface now make up the various ramifications of Washington Sound and the southern portion of the Gulf of Georgia. The more elevated portions of the former basin surface now compose the piedmont plains ad- jacent to the sea and the San Juan and neighboring islands. In the central segment of the basin, or in the Puget Sound region proper, the submergence was not so great and a smaller area comparatively passed beneath the sea. This section is characterized by many channels, canals and inlets, with inter- vening plain-like surfaces having elevations which rarely exceed 500 feet. On the west the transition is quickly made across a narrow plateau from the basin plains to the Olympic Mountains. On the east the change is more gradual, the plains merging into low hills and in turn into the outliers of the Cascades. While submergence affected the southern end of the great trough or basin, it was not enough to bring in the sea, and the topography is that of a gently undulating surface, less than 500 feet above tide, which gradually merges into the Cascades on the east and by slight gradations is transformed into the Willapa Hills on the west. CASCADE MOUNTAINS. The Cascades represent a segment out of the second great mountain barrier which parallels the Pacific for many hundreds Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey 12 of miles. In Washington the Cascades trend slightly northeast and southwest across the state. They have a width of about 60 miles at the Oregon line which gradually increases to 120 miles at the Canadian boundary. On their eastern margin they change by easy gradations into the Okanogan Highlands at the north and they merge into the Columbia Plateau at the south. The axial or summit line of the Cascade Mountains is very irregular in its course, made so by the gradual and local shifting of the main divide due to the vigorous erosive action of the mountain streams. Where prominent streams head on opposite sides of the principal divide well developed gaps or passes have been formed. These passes vary from a minimum of 3,010 feet in the case of Snoqualmie to those which represent but slight indentations in the crest line of the mountains. The lower passes are now utilized for railways, highways and trails. Except for the passes the summit line of the Cascades has an altitude aver- aging about 6,000 feet above sea level, although a few of the peaks along the divide are 8,000 feet or more in height. In general the Cascades represent an uplifted block of the earth’s surface that has come to the stage of maturity in its erosion history. The mountains are characterized by a great ruggedness and a bold relief which are everywhere prominent. The many large rivers and their numerous tributaries have de- veloped drainage patterns which have chiseled the mountain mass into a plexus of deep valleys with bordering ridges that are conspicuous for their length, steepness, general height and radial arrangement. Many of the secondary ridges and peaks that lie among the headwater streams are as bold and as high as those that compose the primary or main Cascade divide. The only notable exceptions to this development of the topography that characterizes the Cascades are to be found in the volcanic cones that occur at various places in the mountains. Such topo- graphic features are structural forms that have been built up by the outpourings of lava, cinders, ashes and other materials that have issued from craters. Of the volcanic cones that are found in the Cascades only five are high enough to be covered A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 13 with perpetual snow and are therefore well known. In the order of elevations these cones or isolated mountains are as follows : Mt. Rainier, 11,408 feet; Mt. Adams, 12,307 feet; Mt. Baker, 10,750 feet; Glacier Peak, 10,436 feet; and Mt. St. Helens, 9,671 feet. OKANOGAN HIGHLANDS. The Okanogan Highlands form a rectangular area lying be- tween the Columbia Plateau on the south and the International boundary on the north. There is no sharp line of demarcation between the Okanogan Highlands and the Cascades on the west, or the Selkirk mountains on the east. Somewhat arbitrarily the valley of the Mcthow might be regarded as the western limit of the Okanogan Highlands, Colville valley the eastern border, and Columbia and Spokane rivers the southern margin. The Okanogan Highlands lack the ruggedness and wildness of the mountains on the east and the west. They are made up mainly of well defined north and south ridges or divides and wide and conspicuous inter-mountain valleys. The divides have gentle slopes and moderate elevations and are not serious ob- stacles to highway or railway building. The rivers are bordered by broad and rolling uplands which rise by slow degrees to the inter-stream summits. There are occasional isolated mountains or outliers which in elevation stand somewhat above the sur- rounding country. The most conspicuous of these is Mount Bonaparte, elevation 7,280 feet, located about 18 miles south- east of Oroville. COLUMBIA PLATEAU. This area involves all of southeastern Washington except the small extension of the Blue Mountains which crosses into the state from Oregon. The Columbia Plateau extends south- ward from the Okanogan Highlands and is continuous far into Oregon. On the west it continues to rise until it merges with the Cascades, while on the east in a similar fashion it joins the larger outliers of the Rocky Mountains. In the south central part of the Columbia Plateau the sur- face is very gently sloping and in elevation does not exceed 14 Bulletin No. 17, W ashing ton Geological Survey 1,000 feet. Bordering this lowland on all sides, except on the south, the surface of the plateau ascends gradually until eleva- tions of from 2,000 feet to 2,500 feet are not uncommon. As the plateau rises higher and higher above sea level the topog- raphy becomes more varied and the irregularities of the surface more conspicuous. This is chiefly due to the fact that in the higher portions of the plateau the streams may cut their valleys deeper and well developed canyons may result. In the more ele- vated parts of the plateau the larger streams, such as the Columbia, Snake, and Spokane rivers have all excavated can- yons with walls which sometimes exceed 1,500 feet in height. In other localities, especially in the northern part of the plateau, there are many coulees or canyons, such as Grand Coulee, once occupied by rivers but now abandoned as stream courses. Another source of irregularity in the surface of the plateau, especially in the western part, is found in the several low moun- tain ridges which extend far out from the Cascades and topo- graphically, at least, are parts of those mountains. These spurs of the Cascades have a general east and west course and in some instances extend for many miles beyond the Columbia. From north to south the most prominent ridges are as follows: Badger Mountain, which crosses Douglas County to Grand Coulee; Frenchman Hills and Saddle Mountain, which extend across southern Grant County ; Rattlesnake Hills, which de- scribe a sweeping course across eastern Yakima and northern Benton counties ; and the Horse Heaven Hills, along the eastern border line between Yakima and Klickitat counties. Over much of the Columbia Plateau the winds blow freely and wind-made or eolian hills are common, especially in the south central and southeastern sections. In the lowlands, where the rainfall is scant, the fine soil and sand accumulate in dunes. These as a rule are not covered with vegetation and are readily shifted in position or modified in form by the larger wind storms. Farther east, on the uplands, in times gone by when the vegeta- tion was less abundant, the soil was freely carried by the winds and as a result the surface of the plateau is dotted with irregu- A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 15 larly grouped eolian hills varying from a few feet to over 200 feet in height. BLUE MOUNTAINS. The Blue Mountains in this state are but the northeastern extension of the main range which is located in Oregon. In Washington they gradually merge into the Columbia Plateau and all told do not occupy more than 6,000 square miles. The Blue Mountains comprise an elevated mass of basalt that has been deeply eroded by the streams which flow out radially and which have developed an irregular series of deep valleys with sharp divides. The ridges are frequently serrate in outline and in profile present alternations of individual peaks with saddles and passes. The highest points in the Blue Mountains reach an elevation of about 6,000 feet. SELKIRK MOUNTAINS. In the northeastern corner of the state, north of Spokane valley and east of Colville valley, there is a mountainous area which is a part of the Rocky Mountain System. The mountains of this area lie on the western front of the Rockies and continue northward into British Columbia and southeastward into Idaho. In British Columbia, where they are conspicuous in height and general extent, they are known as the Selkirk Mountains. This term is here applied to those mountains in northeastern Wash- ington that represent but a small segment of the much larger mass that lies beyond the borders of the state. In Washington the Selkirks are represented chiefly by the two prominent mountain ridges that lie on opposite sides of Clark Fork and by the more or less isolated group of mountains north and east of Spokane. Within the Selkirks, Clark Fork has carved a valley both wide and deep, which causes the neigh- boring ridges to stand out in bold relief. The main divides or ridges have been deeply eroded by the tributaries of Clark Fork, so that they are wild and rugged and often difficult of access. The highest peaks along the summits of the ridges are some- times 6,000 feet in height, or at an elevation of about 4,500 feet 16 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey above the floor of Colville valley and about 4,000 feet above the level of the valley of Clark Fork. CLIMATE. The climate of Washington is the resultant of the influences exerted by the latitude, nearness to the sea, prevailing wind di- rection, and variation in altitude, or topography. Upon these things depend the rainfall, temperature, days of sunshine and days of cloudiness, length of growing season, and other condi- tions which go to make up the climate of the state. As a rule equability in climate is more commonly attained in the lowlands than in the highlands and in areas nearer the sea than in locali- ties more remote. TEMPERATURE. The differences in temperature for the different localities about the state depend primarily upon the nearness of the sea, the elevation above tide water, the direction of the usual winds, and the latitude. In a general way a station near the sea has a slighter seasonal variation and a smaller diurnal range of tem- perature than is true of a station somewhat remote from the coast. In the same way the stations on the lowlands display much greater equability of temperature than is true of those on the plateaus or within the high mountains. In Table I the lowest temperature, by months, is given for the Weather Bureau Stations of the state. Among other things it is easily seen that the stations somewhat removed from the sea all have a much lower January minimum than is true of lo- calities near the ocean. The sharpest contrasts are between Bremerton, on Puget Sound, with a minimum of 14°, and Cusick, in the valley of Clark Fork, with a minimum of — 36°. The minimum temperatures for August show a much less variance. The extremes are to be found between North Head, at the mouth of the Columbia, with a temperature of 47°, and Cle Elum, with a minimum of 23°. The maximum, or highest temperature, by months, as re- corded at each station is indicated in Table II. This table The locations of the principal Weather Bureau stations ot the state .For a list of the stations, arranged in alpha- 18 Bulletin No . 17, Washington Geological Survey shows that there is a greater discrepancy between the maxima for August than is true for January. It also discloses the fact that the summer maxima are almost invariably greater over the interior than is true nearer the ocean. The mean minimum and the mean maximum temperatures, by months, are given in tables III and IV. These tables bring out the fact that as far as the average minimum temperatures are concerned there is a wider divergence among stations in the winter season than in the summer months, while the opposite condition prevails when the maximum temperatures are consid- ered. Included in Table V is the mean temperature, by months, and the mean annual temperature of each station. The station with the highest mean annual temperature is Zindel (55.9°), lo^ cated in the low plains of Snake River, in the southeastern corner of the state. The lowest mean annual temperature given is at Republic (43.2°), which has an elevation of 2,628 feet and is located within 30 miles of the International boundary. In a general way it may be said that the stations with the highest mean annual temperatures are located in the lowlands of eastern Washington, the stations with the lowest mean annual temper- atures in the highlands east of the Cascades, and the stations with intermediate mean annual temperatures lie between the Cas- cades and the sea. It is evident that a statement of the mean annual tempera- ! ture alone does not convey the facts in regard to the seasonal : changes. Two stations with the same mean annual temperature may vary considerably in their extremes during the year. For instance, Spokane and Tatoosh Island (Cape Flattery) both have a mean annual temperature of a little above 48°. The mean July temperature of the first station is 69.2° and of the j second, 55.7°; the mean January temperature of the first sta* tion is 27° s and of the second, 41° ; the highest recorded temper- \ a ture of the first station is 104°, and of the second, 84°; the lowest recorded temperature of the first station is 30°, and of the second, 7°. A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 19 RAINFALL. The amount of rainfall, and its general as well as seasonal distribution over the state, depend primarily upon the nearness of a great ocean, the prevailing westerly winds which blow from off that water body, and the wide diversity in topography be- tween sea level and mountain top. This variance in conditions ogives rise to such extremes in annual rainfall as that noted in Table VI, where Clearwater has nearly 128 inches and Kenne- wick about 6% inches. It also gives rise to great seasonal variations, as noted in the same table, where the station at Monte Cristo is shown to have a December rainfall in excess of 21 inches and an August rainfall of less than 1 inch. On Plate III, by an arrangement of belts or zones, the ap- proximate rainfall for the state is shown. The region of lowest rainfall, that under 10 inches annually, is in the south central part of the Columbia Plateau, or over the low plains which lie on opposite sides of Columbia River. This is not only a region of low rainfall, but one where there is a minimum of cloudiness and a maximum of clear skies and sunny days. The humidity of the atmosphere is very low because the moisture has been very largely extracted from the air in its passage over the Cascades. The next belt, that from 10 inches to 20 inches, involves the Okanogan Highlands and the more elevated portions of the Columbia Plateau. The increased precipitation is directly due to the higher altitudes and to the fact that there is a note- worthy increase in the amount of snowfall over that of the low plains. There are several areas of considerable size where the an- nual rainfall is between 20 inches and 40 inches. One of these belts is that along the eastern border of the state, including the Selkirk Range, the highest portions of the Columbia Plateau, and the Blue Mountains. A second belt extends across the state from north to south, on the eastern slopes of the Cascades, in- volving those elevations midway between the mountain summits Washington Geological Survey Bulletin No. 17 Plate III A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 21 Ld the lowlands below. A third belt embraces the low plains adjacent to the sea, in the northwest part of the state. The low rainfall here is directly due to the fact that this area lies on the lee side of the Olympics and the high mountains on Van- couver Island. One belt of rainfall from 10 inches to 60 inches includes all of the Puget Sound Basin, except the area of lowlands last men- tioned, as well as the lower slopes of the Cascades on their western front, and in addition some of the eastern foothills of both the Olympic Mountains and the Willapa Hills. Another belt is a long and narrow one, extending the length of the Cascades, and lying immediately east of the summit line of the mountains. There are two belts of rainfall where the annual amount is between 60 inches and 80 inches. One of these belts is a rather narrow one which lies at the foot of the northeastern and eastern Olympics and which fringes the Willapa Hills on their eastern, southern and western sides. The second is a broader belt which involves the summit of the Cascades and their western slopes down to an elevation of about 2,500 feet. Those portions of the state with an annual rainfall greater than 80 inches embrace three areas. Two of these are located on the western side of the Cascades, within the belt of 60-80 inches last described. The third area includes all of the higher Olympics and Willapa Hills. The summit of the Olympics, and much of the western slope of those mountains, have a rainfall m excess of 100 inches per annum. In this locality, immediately adjacent to the sea, and on the windward side of a high mountain mass, the maximum rainfall of the state occurs. On Plate IV, by a series of diagrams, the monthly rainfall in inches is indicated for certain Weather Bureau Stations. It is at once seen that at all of the stations west of the summit of the Cascades there is a heavy winter rainfall, an intermediate spring and autumn rainfall, and a low summer rainfall. The diagrams for eastern Washington, in contrast with those west of the Cascades, bring out the sharp difference in the total rain- 22 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey fall and in addition point to a difference in the monthly distri- bution. In eastern Washington the greatest rainfall comes during the winter months and the least amount during July, August and September. At most stations a second period of in- creased rainfall is shown, during May and June, when thunder showers are more prevalent than at any other season of the year. TABLE I. LOWEST TEMPERATURE, BY MONTHS. 24 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey A > o — 1777-1 if —7 7 1 1 77 i assassasssassapisRSSsasssssasssassasa S < 8feS§583 3 388gSi38883 8 888£83&g$g8iSg39S$3 July June May Apr. Mch. s^^s w a 13 17 12 -f 18 10 15 9 —13 5 11 —15 —26 —15 —14 6 —36 —12 —14 —1 22 —20 3 —4 —10 —1 16 9 —2 —15 8 —33 —11 Jan. 8 7 —1 0 —1 14 11 5 3 —26 —4 13 —24 —25 —29 —25 7 —36 —20 —28 —9 8 —13 —17 —26 —21 —22 3 —8 —16 —13 —2 —16 —15 Numb’r years record ^ao 5 * S ^«co SQ OrH^ 5 gg 5 ; 5 ^MQO S c,o 5 ^gjooo s co^« s ^coo 5 o Eleva- tion | 8 | 8 feaS|§gSg|i||||||||S||||||gSg|| f-H of 1 -fofrHof ofl-fr-I^H i-T I— T *H OJ rH |4 iH rH COUNTY Grays Harbor — Skagit Skagit Whatcom Whatcom Kitsap Jefferson King Lewis Spokane Whatcom Jefferson Kittitas Whitman Stevens Okanogan Island Pend Oreille Columbia Kittitas Grant Clallam Yakima Klickitat Adams Benton Benton Lewis Clarke Kittitas Chelan King Adams Okanogan STATION Aberdeen Anacortes Baker Bellingham Blaine Bremerton Brinnon Cedar Lake Centralia Cheney Clearbrook Clearwater Cle Elum Colfax Colville Conconully Coupeville Cusick Dayton Ellens burg Ephrata Forks Fort Simcoe Goldendale Hatton Kennewick Kiona Kosmos La Center Lake Kachess Lakeside Lester Lind Loomis A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 25 S'fSSSSSS 1 • Ci 05 i£> C* CO ■ I O)HHOHrr^t'N^NW00iftOlftL'5t-c4OMe5jO^iNS5M05jSCOiO M |r-,^r 1 ^|rH^^ rH rl. rH CjJ rH 1 '77' I ISiais^l^lsilllS^siSISsllsilllllIp TABLE II. HIGHEST TEMPERATURE, BY MONTHS. 26 Bulletin No. 17 , Washington Geological Survey i Q 8S6S38883S5>5588S5§SS888§gfcigp!ggg8SSg8 > o £g8£8£83££fe8&f2£S88£8£888££g£8888g8 1 8£8££8££88££888sS£53g8fe8£853888852s38s3888 Sept. 888888£o8^8853S888853^8S;8888|8S;S88888 Aug. 88fe^S8888g8S;S^g^8888feS88&SSg8g88S8 H H H H H HHrlrt HHHHHHHHHHHrl July 88888888||^S|g|88||S88g8S2g888||g| i l-S 8538888855S8888S;888888S88g8888feS88S8 rH r-lrH rH H rHHHHH rH May S8S88So88$;8888S888£8888S8§§888$o88g8 Apr. 8S853£8Ss3388So8888£8888£8888888558$5888 . ■s 88^888Uf:^gj2p!SI?5g^^glS^^g288888888SJ:^8 4 |2g8^88S8^8S8888^88^8888^8?:888^8888 Jan. gS££S£££@S$£:8@3&8£$88&@S£.£ 8 & 3£833882 ISISlSS|S|S|ipjSSgg|g|||S|||||||S THODir-»«OI>W<«0»'^-NO<» Oct. T-K»©a0r-l«<»l»t-a0t- Sept. O0©5t-®O0®(N©r-l»©«ie<5'#I>Ml-l'*»l-(l>l-l©O01»© < H5DrtNO95HH^Ci^Q!)iOlftMCSO000500H®H(»»)«l>t't'«O«THC) July ©00©eo00i>Ho0t-©'tf©l>'*T-HSO®(»,-i«CN©<©©<35''*©i»©e5<©if5©«> $^gg^S\88^S^S^^SSSSS8S5SeS8S5S«S55l85 June r^lf>'#0*r-l05«>(NTt(N'#r-l05ini>C^rH©CO May l>e*5Q0&5U5CiCSiTH©aD»5 00(Siai»©CC!O«)ij!5®^H»5«Q0(^© Apr. ©t-J>'S^t-t-'*rH©©©lOi-l®©©00(W©©r-llOr-llft©MiH(J5©00<>3©-# 4 a COt-t>t~J>li5&as©a0«i©®r-l©a0'* Feb. ©©M©^f^o6©®'*©lO^(«e-iACO©^rH(MaO(Nr-iaO©©«^M Jan. rHeo00©©'*t~©©(N(>5©rHi«O0(NC<5C5-^'ti©l'-©©'ti'^©o0i-i©(Sl(NO0 ssfessssaaadssassssssssgssaaasssaaa Numb’r years record rH©t~©©lO<3>C0©OijHp5©©lftincoa3gJ«©-»t'0O©©Q0r : jQ0t ; j©r^00©© Eleva- tion S®8*M*8SSSSil§!§§i!8SSI§88g!8aSM cJ rH T-Tc^rHljJ oJr-TrHi-H r-T t-T r-H fcq iH iH iH 1-4 COUNTY Grays Harbor — Skagit Skagit Whatcom Whatcom Kitsap Jefferson Spokane Lewis King Whatcom Jefferson Kittitas Whitman Stevens Okanogan Island Pend Oreille Columbia Kittitas Grant Clallam Yakima Klickitat Adams Benton Benton Lewis Clarke Kittitas Chelan King Adams Okanogan STATION Aberdeen Anacortes Baker Bellingham Blaine Bremerton Brinnon Cheney Centralia Cedar Lake Clearbrook Clearwater Cle Elum Colfax Colville Conconully Coupeville Cusick Dayton Ellensburg Ephrata Forks Fort Simeoe Goldendale Hatton Kennewick Kiona Kosmos LaCenter Lake Kachess Lakeside Lester Lind Loomis A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 29 t-ia^ci©Tii5)ifiiffjo;oa)'»^©M't4;ooOtisiOHSM5Si!3-(iONiB®«)ft S 88 J 8 ^fe 8888 S^safiS 5 Ss 8 S 8 SS 5 ^^fegiS 8 SSSg 8 sS H60!>fi®^®lNC«t'®OOOHr-N«l«^OOOlSHesO'<|(inHlftlOt-©® d d d d d d d d d $ d d is d is § d d d d dddd d d d d d si d d d d <5iO(NrHX>r-ie.rH'+OoO«OC5t~t-C5^<3:iCQOaO«£>MiO'+'0®«M©(MO®00 dddd^dddddddd^dsdddddddddddddd^'ddd 0005®’^®=^'^^®'-H©Tf5©i?5-^'SoOoO'^t£>oOO>OM- dddddsddddsddddddsdsdddddddsdddddd dddsddddddddddddddddsdsddddddddddd rHiOMi?q»ftOOO'frar-l<3jC«»a«CM«l>»eo©l>t-0 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d dddddddd d d d C;HML' 5 ia^HN©OiftNiOM^^oOoOC«< 5 MiSijqNif 5 ©t' 0 '+ 53 aOiaw ddddddd 8 dddddddd^dd^d 8 dddddddddd 8 d HOiHHM^WOHQOlftlft^HO'fQOoOHHQtl^ONTliHHOOOOtHO-OO dddddddddddddds^dddidddddddddddddd t-r-l!£>tOOi-frH«5 0«C')M(>5(MOV«i-H100MMOOrH5£) $ d a s d ss d dddddddddddddd d s dddddddd d d d « ■# 5-1 LI « l!3 M N a 0) O ■* ® 00 LO l- l"t S T- n M l' 05 LO -h O H W lo I- a d d d d 5 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d s d d d d s d d d d 5*5833888 S 3 Sa 83 S 3 §a§ 358 SS 3 a 58 S 85 gi; 3 SI 5 «*S TABLE IV. MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE, BY MONTHS. 30 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey > o £ OOOsM®HCD©0«IO«)l>Ht'6aTt(«)CHHt'?3HOO^OlSONNMiMcoa) Oct. '*^H«3000>0«HH'i«'fH>aOHOilOO)*ia^QOM0fr.1i-ll>«Ol>(Nc3C)0 88fi8S88?Eig88Cgf2g8e!2£igi8^Sg2gi^gsfePEigs Aug. ©00©''ieO®«M>(»lA©Nt--a0t-00 00 00l>iO©COirt©©©00 Fif222^^5282^&S2S^^S8S85gS£5S88Sg88f2»SS8BSSg2i=i=3Br:Bgte July HM'©^QOooi6CiiOHM®ooffliainN©HaoiSrtN^iO«M«{qoin«i gSfiS!22f2gg8BI2Ei53888g88'5ggEi85888g5gg2g885i8 June ooH^t-ooooHrticsMcoOjaoiTfoosscj^t'iNioifiOOMOsociaaociosN May tot-Oa5(»'#t-a01i5r-ia>'*e000 S@fe8g8gSfeFi8d88g88888ff8?2ei2?:ff 888^8828 Apr. &88SS8S88 :88te8888888S888S888S8!g8888 Mch. C5rHl>«C>000©©©iC<100*0'©©©- 8.8388 8 88888888^^8^ 888 8838S8SiS^8888 4 * •^©©©©Nr-lOiOOr-lMCOt-^CXUXJOWcOCOinrHl-ie^lNOl©!--©©©©*-* 88888888^8 388dfeS38888^388888i;8Ss38S5 1 Jan. 38888888888838Sg888888S5S588fe8888&S58 Ill Eleva- tion § 8 1 8 * 9 S §s I s g i § i I 8 ||| 11 §11111 1 iS|gg r— 1 CM H (N H (M (NHHH HHH )Ort®«(10O©C0OO®®O®®«®®IN^OM5lTfTti«lfl ssigigsssssssssssssssssssssdssdsgsds iHOO>05C5l®00(N^05eci05lCi®0(^^r-i-l<©Oli-lc£)COlO«5'*iO©ia'>!t' gS8SE2SS^S8feegFie®®S8gCg$te^8?!^£isec8 ^H05OI>OOt"li®«®®00»li5HH^00Cv5OHCiflHMI>MONf)«rt 8gsS88S5l8S88S8iS8g2^S{:Eig85eSSfc&8fcSa8828 rHJ>^'(Mt>03(Mlft 60rt®iHOt^'#«X»5t^t'OJl>COOOr-l«£>t-««ief5lftOOD5lftt-OOe© 8SgSS885aSSSfe&S88Sfe8Sf2@a^S8SSfe8S8e (Nl-iNtCl>’tlf3t'»®(10Ni>©O«5iaOlfl®NtCrt00^»Win®C)H'#rt® ©S®5rH10l>U501>eO»OI>ljai>n>OOinO>t-l-lOOrHJ>l©l»iHCCI<3iClHt-l<00'£>CO'^0'*ii®i-liHi®05©'f©'Hfe®N Oct. 6JOt)0©H©HCOOCNIN05lSM55S^®®(MQO(N^HN-<)(NC^HCD<5lt-i!5 s5SS5Ss^ss5S55Sse^S5BSSSssses^'ssdsji Sept. lft(W©iaMfr3(N«Oa0e0^rH'*i»©TH©T-in©o01>0O©lOrH©CO©©J>C<5'f©0000'^i-llC©00lAi»^3J>i>© 888888>'SS8888S888888?8li88SS8'88g8|2gi July rHMrH©t-©lAt-©QOiS>©iftT-ioO^©I>lCiOO©*'i«©-#'#COCOi-l©lA©lClC(:C|©0OCl0©r-(i-l(M> 03 a ©r-il>ooeo©os©» l He«eou5&ar-irti>ooiftMkOiH(^eoefl®®»0'# 883 8 ^888 88 8 8838888 88888888 8 S8 88888 Apr. ©'i<©l>5^M©'^i^'^©kftlOi-l(^©©©C'l©©r-lrHO0©rHC<5Q0i-l'>»< .3#8gSS833:S89gfcSl58383®85383!$;$;8$ISsS!5!!5!8 Feb. 00 0C©C+©l"'^00>OJ^-00©0ClC^00-f©©©'iSeoWe<3©aOt~©COCSOO©'^^©©rHj^«)t-J©MOO©© Eleva- tion g8|SB3g§SBSg!|||S|g|S|S|S|||ag2g|| rH C-l HOlrtOI NHHH HHH NrtHHH COUNTY Grays Harbor — Skagit Skagit Whatcom * W T hatcom Kitsap Jefferson King Lewis Spokane Whatcom Jefferson Kittitas Whitman Stevens Okanogan Island Pend Oreille Columbia Kittitas Grant Clallam Yakima Klickitat Adams Benton Benton Lewis Clarke Kittitas Chelan King Adams Okanogan STATION Aberdeen Anacortes Baker Bellingham Blaine Bremerton Brinnon Cedar Lake Centralia Cheney Clearbrook Clearwater Cle Elum Colfax Colville C'onconully Coupeville Cusick Dayton Ellensburg Ephrata Forks Fort Simcoe Goldendale Hatton Kennewick Kiona Kosmos LaCenter Lake Kachess Lakeside Lester Lind Loomis A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 33 © 05 rH IQ VO VO OO^HHI> 00 ^NNc^i 0 C' 100 OC 0 HOiftC>C'l(MlX)O^f>lc 0 ' 388: m co co ! i co CO CO co ■ iMOOftCOHNftMftOOOffl CO ^ CO CO ^ CM • co co §5 co cm co 8 I IflTfHOlOO^^OOHOt'-OOOH® H 00 t- H Cl « 1(5 N W « 00 50 05 ' rHCOMiMCOMiMiMiMMiMicOCococoMiMi ilZ5VOMiU5Mil<5TO©t'-cOcOi t- 00 CO VO cO Os r- dsass^^.s ® 5 £>t'iooO->»ieoociHiNrtOiCi«o 0025 >Oi>Hcct> £ $ $i S3 S8 $ 955SagSaS8SSSSSS8a5S M< 05 © t> TO Oj co" oo ©a co tr00rHlf5eOl£5O5i-H00Mi©MilftrHCOTOMili5lf5C5COMiO50Ot'-c0O5O5©K5rHVO©TO sssssfisgssfessssssfii&sffigsisgfegssssssfe CO TO M< © oO * I O CO CO 00 CO CO CO 1-0 CO 00 t~ 00 05 10 Cl IQ CO H Cl 55 I — l 00 C 5 CO l <5 lO CO TO CO * to co co CO cO co cO co ■ — — ■ TO©CO®50' , 5M<©COlf5TOOOCOMi©TO05MiTOcOrHCOMIcOlMirarH©lO©l’05V.^OOTO © iM TO I.~ TO ©' CO rH TO >d d £~ TO Mi id CO cd CO vo CO 05 rH CO id Mi TO M< id 05 M< CO id CO TOTOl>TOTOTOTOl>TOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOlMTOTOt~TOTOlMTOTOTOTOTOl~ TOO0o0©40TOrHTOrH©l'- MM 051010 MHO 05 oj i> ca @ d qj d 1(5 L <5 115 in io in in TO rHM< 00 TOTOTOCOO 0 TO©O 5 O 0 MirH CO id oo C5TO C305COC5rHC©aOCOCOC5TOCC)a0 05eOTOrHMiTOCOcOTOlMt^05MiTO©TOrHTOt~Mi© © © cd i> i> oo © id eo od co cd M< To d © d oo oo od r-j od co" cd od th cd © oo to to © to" TOMlTOMiMiMlMiTOMlMlMlMlMlMiMlMlTOMlMlMlMlTOMlMlTOMlTOlOTOMlMIMlTOm rMTO40C5t>TOl>i>©c0MiMi CO TO 05 Ml IM CO Ml CO rH © Ml 00 GO TO 00 Ml M< CO CO M< 05 CO Ml CO Ml C l VO VO VO 05 00 rH Ml 00 M1©M1M1COMrHTOTOTOTOMl 5 rH od t-- - - - J> TO CO © 1 CO CO CO MMlTOM od-S HKt, ' O O O cj u 9 ■g-as sSg-s’ss&^is - ’a^gfl &'o5^s§S , S§5'2«1 «a«sic o©dod«^S-dStf«S:3.S'5fi 3 op 05 d d o fi D ® ^ u ^ >■ 5 ’h TABLE VI. MEAN PRECIPATION, BY MONTHS, AND MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION. 34 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey ki se^^ssssaass&sssa&gssggssssBs^ssassa rtMOO'ini5l>^^(»cdod©pdededcdcdodcdpH©c^©dedpH©pH©©©p-IodpHpH ®SS^ 8 aS 8 Sg 8 S 38 ^ 8 ^S 8 SI: 88 S 3 SS 838 B 8 S 8 g (ON^dcortlOOMHinOHHHHHHIjiddHOHddd^^Md^dd aefeS 8 e 8 S 58 SS 8 SS 8 SSaS 8 ^giSg^ 8 SSgS 58998 ^ H M N M H « 19 N O « H H O H H H pi O 6 ») O 6 © C o’ si N (ji o fi o' d a 88 sa& 3888 as 58 g 26 sasse 8 feasassasssfea H'dwiHHOodrio^frJdooooHOOocooodcrlrlcddod 888 efe@ 88 $ 8 SS 2 asag 83 SagSS 88 SSiS 85 S 8 ? 2 !Sg HddddddsJddHrIddHp!dHdddr!dddddddddddri cd pH ©I H«r!Nia«dsJlft’dHH pH pH ©I pH OOMO © © © ©’ cd cd p-I © pH © pH ^feS 8 sS 8 a 8 S 8 SS 8 Sas§ 8 fe 88 gS 8 S 8 SSSa 88 afe |8 nd pH CO ©j ©d pH CO © cd p-I ©cj©03©O^COrHrHplIlftrHo6o3rH"©I--Io3 esesssqs^agsasegsagssseass^fffeg^gagffis r H©OlftrHe4^iHC^eOi4r-!rHOr4c^'^M‘ft«Or-Io«jj>00r4 8fe58ssg$s2aaags88a8^s8sg8^se^feg8$fess h a © «’ h si o' h in' h h © d h h M in m « d o in in o' o' rt r-i o n c o’ ^ 't h dodrtHodddodddo'do'HHHHoddisodddeHddHijid SeS8Se858Seag83S889S^S8SqS«SSB^8g8!8gS8S © rH ©' r-I rH © © © © ©‘ © © © ©’ ©’ 6 rt H H H 6 O O H O O 6 6 6 © O O O O rl S58S85ff8S3SS88&SS5aS5^!8e8esffi888Sa®S ©’ © ©’ 03 r-I IH rH rH H H H ri H * i-I rH 03* 03 03 CO rH ©’ rH CO ©’ © 03 rH rH 03* ©’ rH 03 CO rH ©' CO r-I CO rH 03 03 rH rH 03* r-I rH rH © 03 03 00 CO rH Hjl rH ©’ 03 -H rH © CO 03 rH -# © rH 1* 1ft 03 r-I 00 ©' rH rH T-H CO* r-I rH 03 rH r-I © © rH 03* 03* CO CO © rH © 03 1ft ©' © 'll 03 r-I CO ©’ © 1ft -Hi rH 03 © © ©rHO3rHO3O3C0i-HO3rH©rHO3 CO CO rH O0 rH © CO t— © © 00 CO rH 1ft r-I © 1-- i— rH 5^sgs58gs8sas-8gsfcesaas88ssas^fee8sssss CO 1ft rH t-» rH 03 ^OO^CO-t'rfClHHHCOH^H 1ft © rH © -HI 00 rH © © -r rH 1ft —I rH GO © rH 8aS8SSSS8!8l88^aaS8f2gSI|88SgSSS588S!Sg5 rH JO 1-1 © 03 CO* 00 03* rH © 03 03 r-I i-I 03 r)i rH rjl t> 03 03 ’ ©' © 03 rl r-I 03 1ft rH 3> rH r-I © ^ rH sssas 8 *s a »® M. “ § sm a s 88 s §i.i * a MS 03 1 I-T rH 03 " 03 " rH OS* rH rH 03*' rH TABLE VII. FROST DATA AND LENGTH OF GROWING SEASON. 36 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey „ , bfl -a os d j. fci H3 w to 2 2^ “ -2 be « 2*g.g;§ ^ o 2 35 4J tj-U O! C £ a g a> # 2 c3 9 *hS c ftsj CO O CM co : CM 7-H ; S5 c3 as a W M r-i CM . CM rH ; *. 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Sog ^ . « 4a . w - _ .2 d 2 O . ^o^^’S^osS-e'etf „_ w O 03 « ® o o o o o AWKi^l-^^S&OOkPHPLHf 2,425 A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 37 5 J ^ ti 2 S$J>£££i;Ss.Q.SSSS,gS ^'“oooooo«Soo? ) ««o 5 4; qj ,0,0 O 43 O o 0 ,-tf " cc£ °S 8 S 888 £& 88 £££S$ 8 S « i © 00 , It- aj a) ®0’ .-p-s-S m ^«s-gsasssjjsasss r P o -! oiaia)5j' u ' u,u o®5)' u,1J ?„ o -S 5,-2 -2-2-Sooo.£s.2.2oo 3oS3®®iB®OUOag5)0 OOtZ 2 CC 02 O< CO V t-S 020 • . iPL|0(5SO^OOi-! S el 11 0 pG O 1 4— > r-4 O O O « Q ^ ^2 XT) ri O 03^ooaod^.S-2c^“gS « © a a o a> ’o "3 cl 38 Bulletin No. 17 , Washington Geological Survey UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU STATIONS. (For the location of these stations see Plate II.) 1 . Aberdeen 24. Goldendale 47. Reardan 2 . Anacortes 25. Hatton 48. Republic 3. Baker 26. Kennewick 49. Rosalia 4. Bellingham 27. Kiona 50. Seattle 5. Blaine 28. Kosmos 51. Sedro Woolley 6. Bremerton 29. La Center 52. Snohomish 7. Brinnon 30. Lake Kachess 53. Snoqualmie Falls 8. Cedar Lake 31. Lakeside 54. South Bend 9. Centralia 32. Lester 55. Spokane 10. Cheney 33. Lind 56. Sunnyside 11. Clearbrook 34. Loomis 57. Tacoma 12. Clearwater 35. Lyle 58. Tatoosh Island 13. Cle Elum 36. Monte Cristo 59. Trinidad 14. Colfax 37. Mottinger 60. Union City 15. Colville 38. North Head 61. Vancouver 16. Conconully 39. Northport 62. Walla Walla 17. Coupeville 40. Olga 63. Washougal 18. Cusick 41. Olympia 64. Wenatchee 19. Dayton 42. Pomeroy 65. Wilbur 20. Ellensburg 43. Port Angeles 66. Wind River 21. Ephrata 44. Port Crescent 67. Yale 22. Forks 45. Port Townsend 68. Zindel 23. Fort Simcoe 46. Pullman DRAINAGE. In those portions of Washington where the annual precipi- tation is in excess of 40 inches the stream channels are well de- , veloped and the drainage patterns are well established. As a rule all the streams flow continuously throughout the year and ample water may be secured for domestic and other uses. Where the yearly rainfall is between 20 and 40 inches the waterways are more infrequent and the larger streams have relatively fewer , tributaries. Not only are stream channels less frequent, but the smaller ones usually do not contain running water at those seasons of the year when the rainfall is least. In the semi-arid and arid regions, where the annual rainfall is less than 20 inches, there are relatively but few drainage channels and only \ the larger streams carry an abundance of water except during the season of maximum precipitation. In the more arid localities ; the smaller streams are active only at times of heavy rainfall or in the spring when the snow is being rapidly converted into running water. A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 39 The principal stream of Washington is Columbia River. It drains all of the state east of the summit of the Cascades, as well as a belt of country west of those mountains and lying ad- jacent to its lower course. The length of the Columbia in Washington is 760 miles and its drop from the International boundary to tide water is 1,350 feet. The drainage area of Columbia River above The Dalles amounts to 237,000 square miles, of which over 40,000 square miles are in Washington. The principal eastern tributaries of Columbia River are the Snake, Clark Fork and Spokane rivers. All these streams head in the Rocky Mountains where the rainfall and the snowfall are ample to give them an abundant run-off for the year. They all flow from regions of heavier to regions of lighter precipita- tion, but despite this fact they are all streams of abundant dis- charge and are important for power, irrigation and other uses. The principal northern tributaries of the Columbia, which flow across the Okanogan Highlands, are Kettle and Okanogan rivers. Both rise in the mountains of British Columbia and both flow from a region of larger precipitation into an area with a lesser rainfall. The chief western tributaries of Columbia River, which drain the eastern slopes of the Cascades, are the Methow, Chelan, Wenatchee and Yakima rivers. These streams head in the lakes and snowfields of the higher mountains, and carry abun- dant water for power and for the irrigation that is necessary along their lower courses. In the low r er sections of the Columbia, where it flows west- ward to enter the sea, the major tributaries joining it from the north are the Klickitat, White Salmon, Wind, Lewis, and Cow- litz rivers. All of these streams head near the summit and upon the higher slopes of the Cascades and are important rivers. The second hydrographic area of Washington in size is the basin where the drainage all enters Puget Sound. This in- volves principally the western slopes of the Cascades, east of Puget Sound, where the precipitation is notably heavy and where the heaviest run-off of the state may be found. From 40 Bulletin No. 17, Washingto7i Geological Survey north to south the principal streams are the Nooksak, Skagit, Stilaguamish, Snohomish, Cedar, Green, White, Puyallup, and I Nisqually rivers. These are important streams in serving the cities and towns of the lowlands with water for domestic pur- I poses and with hydro-electric power. In addition to these streams there are other tributaries of Puget Sound which drain the eastern slopes of the Olympics. In this group the larger rivers, all of which enter Hood Canal, are the Skokomish, Duck- I abush, and Dosewallips. The northern, western and southern slopes of the Olympics, as well as the major portion of the Willapa Hills, drain directly into the Pacific Ocean. In these sections of the state the streams are very numerous because of the excessive rainfall. As a rule they are not large in volume, mainly because they are not very long and no one alone drains a very great scope of country. The principal streams entering the ocean from the Olympics are the Elwha, Quillayute, Hoh, Queets, and Quinault rivers. The major stream entering Grays Harbor is Chehalis River, which receives important tributaries from both the Olympics on the north and the Willapa Hills on the south. The chief streams draining the western portion of the Willapa Hills are North, Nasel and Willapa rivers, all of which are tributary to Willapa Bay. 42 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey STREAM GAGING STATIONS, MAINTAINED BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN COOPERATION WITH THE WASHINGTON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS. (For location of stations see Plate V.) 1. Ahtanum Creek, North Fork of, near Tampico. 2. Ahtanum Creek, South Fork of, near Tampico. 3. American River near Nile. 4. Baker River near Concrete. 5. Baker River below Anderson Creek, near Concrete. 6. Baker River at Concrete. 7. Bumping - Lake near Nile. 8. Bumping River near Nile. 9. Cedar River at Cedar Falls. 10. Cedar River near Landsburg. 11. Chelan River at Chelan. 12. Chiwawa Creek near Leavenworth. 13. Clark Fork at Metaline Falls. 14. Clear Fork near Lewis. 15. Cle Elum Lake near Roslyn. 16. Cle Elum River near Roslyn. 17. Coal Creek near Lewis. 18. Columbia River at Priest Rapids. 19. Columbia River at Trail, B. C. 20. Cowlitz River at Lewis. 21. Cowlitz River at Mossy Rock. 22. Entiat River at Entiat. 23. Hall Creek near Inchelium. 24. Icicle Creek near Leavenworth. 25. Johnson Creek near Lewis. 26. Kachess Lake near Easton. 27. Kachess River near Easton. 28. Keechelus Lake near Martin. 29. Kettle River at Boyds. 30. Klickitat River near Glenwood. 31. Lake Chelan at Chelan. 32. Lake Creek at outlet of Packwood Lake, near Lewis. 33. Lake Creek at mouth, near Lewis. 34. Lewis River near Amboy. 35. Manastash Creek near Ellensburg. 36. Methow River at Pateros. 37. Mill Creek near Walla Walla. 38. Miller Creek near Berlin. 39. Moses Lake at Neppel. 40. Naches River at Anderson’s ranch, near Nile. 41. Naches River at Oak Flat, near Nile. 42. Nespelem River at Nespelem. 43. New Reservation canal near Parker. 44. Ohanapecosh River near Lewis. 45. Okanogan River at Okanogan. 46. Old Reservation canal near Parker. 47. Palouse River at Hooper. 48. Palouse River near Potlatch, Idaho. 49. Palouse River near Winona. A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 43 50 . 51 . 52 . 53 . 54 . 55 . 56 . 57 . 58 . 59 . 60 . 61 . 62 . 63 . 64 . 65 . 66 . 67 . 69 . 70 . 71 . 72 . Bend. 73 . 75 . 76 . 77 . 78 . 80 . 81 . 82 . 83 . 84 . 85 . 86 . 87 . 88 . 89 . 90 . 91 . 92 . 93 . 94 . 95 . 96 . 97 . 98 . 99 . 100 . 101 . 102 . 103 . 104 . 105 . 106 . 107 . Puyallup River near Alderton. Puyallup River near Electron. Puyallup River at Puyallup. Quinault River at Quinault. Reservation drain at Alfalfa. Rock Creek near Ewan. Salmon Creek near Conconully. Sanpoil River at Keller. Satus Creek below Dry Creek, near Toppenish. Sauk River at Darrington. Simcoe Creek near Fort Simcoe. Similkameen River at Nighthawk. Similkameen River near Oroville. Skagit River at Reflector Bar, near Marblemount. Skagit River near Marblemount. Skagit River near Sedro Woolley. Skokomish River, North Fork of, near Hoodsport. Skykomish River, North Fork of, at Index. Snake River at Burbank. Snake River at Riparia. Snoqualmie River, Middle Fork of, near North Bend. Snoqualmie River, North Fork of, at cable bridge, near North Snoqualmie River, North Fork of, near North Bend. Snoqualmie River, South Fork of, near Garcia. Snoqualmie River, South Fork of, near North Bend. Spokane River below Little Falls, near Long Lake. Spokane River at Spokane. Stehekin River at Stehekin. Stetattle Creek near Marblemount. Stilaguamish River, South Fork of, at Granite Falls. Stilaguamish River, South Fork of, near Silverton. Stranger Creek at Inchelium. Stranger Creek at Meteor. Sullivan Creek near Metaline Falls. Sullivan Lake near Metaline Falls. Sultan River near Sultan. Sunnyside canal near Wapato. Teanaway River near Cle Elum. Tieton River at McAllister Meadows, near Naches. Tieton River at headworks of Tieton canal, near Naches. Tieton canal near Naches. Tieton River, North Fork of, below Clear Creek, near Naches.' Tokul Creek near Snoqualmie. Toppenish Creek near Fort Simcoe. Tucannon River near Pomeroy. Tucannon River near Starbuck. Wenatchee River near Leavenworth. Wenatchee River at Dryden. Wenatchee Valley canal at Dryden. Whatcom Creek near Bellingham. Whatcom Lake near Bellingham. White River at Buckley. White River flume at Buckley. White Salmon River at splash dam, near Trout Lake. White Salmon River at Husum. Yakima River at Cle Elum. Yakima River at Easton. 44 Bulletin No. 17, Washington Geological Survey 108. 109. 110 . 111 . 112 . 113. Yakima River at Kiona. Yakima River near Martin. Yakima River near Prosser. Yakima River at Umtanum. Yakima River at Union Gap, near Yakima. Yakima River near Wapato. GRADIENT OF COLUMBIA RIVER. FROM MOUTH OF TO MOUTH OF Distance in miles Differ- ence in elevation in feet Average drop per mile, in feet Clark. Fork Colville River 45 60 60 CjQ Colville River Spokane River 151 3.35 Spokane River Nespelem River 151 2.51 Nespelem River Methow River 98 1.63 Methow River Wenatchee River Ofcf 56 57 77 131 (a) 60 223 3. <7 Wenatchee River Crab Creek 134 2.39 Crab Creek Yakima River 118 2.07 Yakima River Deschutes River 145 1.88 Deschutes River To head of tide, near Cas- cades, Skamania county. 199 (a) 131 1.51 2.01 Clark Fork To head of tide Ow 1,350* 2.23 (a) Approximately. A Geographic Dictionary of Washington 45 RUN OFF Yearly average in acre- feet 1,820,000 808,000 491.000 1,620,000 910.000 17.500.000 153,000,000 3.426.000 378.000 335.000 1.170.000 388.000 2.110.000 919.000 2.170.000 1.700.000 3.070.000 1.300.000 748.000 1.040.000 388.000 2.160.000 360.000 371.000 2,110,000 1.365.000 1.540.000 10, 800', 000 745.000 1.590.000 41.517.000 475.000 660,400 337.000 941.000 5.360.000 900.000 295.000 408.000 1.446.000 1.570.000 1.142.000 742.000 1.750.000 Depth in 1 inches on drainage area 126.69 75.82 61.70 31.85 50.04 14.79 12.12 54.84 61.56 43.36 117.36 17.40 9.96 80.76 9.96 28.05 86.65 13.08 35.62' 60.60 62.71 5.04 3.06 74.32 144.90 87.24 8.35 69.18 97.63 84.96 7.08 87.28 70.20 75.30 64.80 24.62 45.84 121.78 31.44 57.24 50.20 50.52' 46L32 20.28 w o 0 Mean peJ square mile 9.33 5.58 4.58 2.34 3.81 1.09 .89 4.08 4.54 3.19 8.64 1.28 .74 5.95 .74 2.06. 6.38 .97 2.62 5.06 4.59 .38 .22 5.47 10.70 6.41 .62 5.09 7.18 6.24 .52 6.42 6.19 5.54 5.84 1.83 .34 8.96 2.11 4.46 2.69 3.70 3.43 1.48 Mean 2,520 1.240 678 2.240 1,301 26,100 211,000 4,780 522 463 1,290 536 2,910 1,270 2,960 2,350 4.240 1,800 1,030 1,488 533 2,980 497 498 2,910 1,880 2,130 14,900 1,030 2,190 57,300 655 1,140 466 1,590 7,470 1.240 406 508 2,114 2,170 1,570 1,080 2,420 Average yearly min- imum 4O00®2O5rHCO HlnMMWrt'Hp (N r-i C<5 •"»< ->* lO 00 US CO CO rH 1 5 K 5 3 0 00 e Minimum day WhH^C 5O9INH00N«)00 CO N CO O 00 Cl ci O U 1 Q Tfi O yp o lO lo Cl (M Cl H Q LQ CO COClrlWClM^OOH rH CO CM O0 iH CO tH ^ CO CO J> CD^OOO^^CO^C^OO^OC005j^COOOlOCC>C^CJCO<0’^CC)DCOrHCO'H^CX)'^C^rHCOCOlO'Hl^lftrHl>.lO(MlCOOHiOOl>Ol>COlOiacoOOCO^>^O^C5 rH CO rH rH o is Denmark 1 1 Finland 10 Irelahd s Russia © Japan 7 Austria Ferry Lincoln Kittitas Lewis Stevens Grant Chelan Survey Rank ip Si Bulletin No. 17 Plate IX ZC 30 35 3-4 33 33 31 30 30 3 © 37 30 3 S 3-4 33 31 30 1 © 17 IS 13 IO Area in oq. Milos I 3 © 30 © 307 371 (S 3-4 S 94 700 859 SOS ©30 1153 1306 I 3 SS 1-473 107 I ioes 170 I 1730 1747 I 7 SO 177-4 17 ©"7 I 03 S I© I 3 1037 3004 30 S 3 3 I OB 31 I I 3330 3303 333 © 3300 33 ©4 3730 3000 'Ydkima 3 SOS© Okonoqan 1 S 33 1 The areas in square miles of the counties of the state, in order of size. A Geographic Dictionary of Washington until 1883. Since then the Great Northern and Chicago, Mil- waukee and St. Paul railways have also built termini here. In export commerce Puget Sound, in 1917, led both San Francisco and Portland. Agriculture in Western Washington has not been extensive because the available prairie and bottom lands are limited. In recent years there has arisen a movement to de- velop the logged-off areas, but little has been accomplished be- cause of the high cost of clearing and the speculative values which have been attached to these lands. Eastern Washington has become essentially an agricultural region, although in early years it was regarded as a great desert. This belief has proved erroneous, for, while there is a great dif- ference between the fertile prairies of, say Iowa, where a diver- sified crop yield may be obtained, and the stretches of Eastern Washington, nevertheless there is comparatively little land therein which some day will not be made to yield its staple product. It was early observed that the Indians bred and main- tained large herds of horses and cattle which fed upon the bunch- grass, and hundreds of settlers engaged with great success in cattle raising, ofttimes driving their herds, before the advent of the railway, far to the eastward to market. Then it was found that the apparently arid bunch-grass country would yield large returns if planted in wheat, and today the Big Bend, Palousc and Walla Walla sections are famed for this staple. On the other hand there is much land which would not be available for agriculture were it not for irrigation. In 1841 Charles Wilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition wrote of successful beginnings in the Walla Walla valley by Marcus Whitman, the missionary, and Nathaniel J. Wyeth, the fur-trader, commented upon its necessity. The successful pros- ecution of this form of agriculture usually calls for co-opera- tion, either through private capitalistic enterprise, or govern- ment aid, as it is beyond the financial ability of the individ- ual farmer. Both agencies have arisen and great areas have been reclaimed, especially in Yakima, Kittitas, Chelan, Okan- ogan, Walla Walla and other counties. Washington Geological Survey Bulletin No. 17 Plate X County Rank in Population Population . .. per sq. mile Population Skamania 36 1.7 2087 Wahkiakum 37 1 2.3 32 85 San Juan 36 20.2 3603 Garfield 35 6.1 41 99 Island 34 44 4704 Ferry 33 2. 1 4800 Franklin 32 4.3 5 1 53 Mason 31 5.5 5ISG Asotin 30 9.6 583 1 Clallam 20 ' 33 G755 Columbia 28 8.2 70 42 Benton 27 4.7 793 7 Jefferson 26 4.8 ©337 Srant 25 3.2 8608 Douglas 24 5.2 9227 Klickitat 23 56 10 160 Adams 22 57 10920 Pacific 2 l 1 40 1 2532 Cowlitz 20 l.l 1 256 1 Oka no^an IS 2.5 1 2887 Chelan 18 5.2 1 S 1 04 Lincoln 17 7.6 1 7539 Thurston 16 2.5 1 7S8 1 Kitsap IS 4.6 1 7647 Kittitas 1 4 7.9 1 856 I Stevens Clarke Ska$it Walla Walla Lewis Whitman Grays Harbor "Tbkima Whatcom Snohomish Pierce Spokane 13 12 i i 10 9 8 7 6 S 4 6.5 4.1 l.