THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY Q/^ The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. University of Illinois Library / f* FIEST BOOK IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. BY ACKEKBOS, A.M., IATE SCHOOL,” N. Y. ; AUTHOR OF “ AN ENGLISH CLESSONS in composition,” “advanced course !TION AND RHETORIC,” “A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,” ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,” “PRIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,” ETC. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 443 & 445 BROADWAY. ' 1866. By the same Authors AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 12mo, pp. 288. FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : In which the Principles of the Art are developed in connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo, pp. 182. ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: A Series of Practical Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities of the English Language, Punctuation, Taste, the Pleasures of the Imagination, Figures, Style and ita Essential Properties, Criticism and the various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition : Illustrated with copious Exercises. 12mo, pp. 450. PRIMARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES : Made easy and interesting for Begin- ners. Child’s Quarto, splendidly illustrated, pp. 192. ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: Embracing a full Account of the Aborigines, Biographical Notices of Distinguished Men, numerous Maps, Plans of Battle-fields, and Pictorial Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 473. A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY : Embracing the most recent Discoveries in Physics. A-dapted to use with or without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practical Exercises and 335 Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 450. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1SC4, by G. P. QUACKENBOS, In the Clerh’s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. 3 . tr> ^ 26 " PEEFACE. O 4* o CT) £T - 1 I This m First Book in Grammar ” has been prepared to meet the wants of young beginners in that branch, as well as those who need a brief summary of the subject. To awaken their interest, to teach them to think, to enable them to understand as they learn, to lead them from step to step in the most natural way, and to give a direct practical application to every abstract principle, have been the leading objects of the author. He has endeavored to condense in a small space and an attractive form all that is of prime import- ance ; and, while it is desirable that every pupil should follow this course with a more comprehensive one, it is believed that those who master what is here presented will obtain a very fair view of the language. The teacher’s convenience has been consulted throughout. The Lessons are short and easy, and illustrated with Exercises that will impress them on thamind. The system here embodied is the same (in a simplified form) as that which has been so generally commended in the author’s larger Grammar. The Exercises, however, whether in etymology, parsing, analysis, or false syntax, are different ; so that those who advance from this to the larger work will not be obliged to go over the same field a second time, but will find that the two books form a consistent and well graded whole. It is hoped that those who have made the author’s “First Lessons in Composition ” and “ Advanced Course of Composition and Rhetoric ” their text-books on the syn- thesis of our language, may find his Grammars equally useful in connection with its analysis. Hew York, March 19, 1864. CONTENTS PAGE Sentences, .... . 5 Words, Letters, Spelling, . 6 Vowels and Consonants, . 7 Diphthongs, Triphthongs, 9 The Use of Words, . . . 10 The Parts of Speech, . . 11 The Noun, .... . 11 Classes of Nouns, 12 Person, . 13 Number, . . 14 Formation of the Plural, . . 15 Irregular Plural, . . . 17 Plural of Foreign Nouns, . . 18 Plural of Compound Nouns, . 19 Gender, . 20 Formation of Feminines, . 22 Subject and Object, . 24 Case, 25 Declension of Nouns, . . 26 Formation of the Possessive, v 27 The Pronoun, . 27 Classes of Pronouns, . 28 Personal Pronouns, . 28 Declension of the Personals, . 29 Compound Personal Pronouns, . 80 Rules for Substantives, . 80 Apposition, .... . 33 Relative Pronouns, . 35 Simple Relatives, how applied, . 86 Construction of Relatives, 37 Compound Relatives, . . 38 Interrogative Pronouns, . 40 Adjective Pronouns, . . 41 Declension of Adj. Pronouns, . 42 The Article, .... . 44 Adjectives and their Classes, . 46 Degrees of Comparison, . 48 Comparison of Adjectives, 49 Irregular Comparison, . . 51 PAGE The Yerb, 52 Classes of Verbs, .... 53 Voice. Mood, .... 54 Tenses of the Indicative, . . 55 The Potential Mood, . . 56 The Subjunctive Mood, . . 5T Person and Number of Verbs, 58 The Infinitive Mood, . . .59 Participles, .... 60 Conjugation of the Verb, . . 61 Indicative Mood of be, . . 61 Potential Mood of be, . . .63 The Infinitive, how used, . 64 Subjunctive Mood, &c., of be, . 65 Construction of Participles, . 6T Conjugation of the Active Voice, 68 Remarks on Active Voice, . . 70 Conjugation of the Passive Voice, 71 The Progressive Form, . . 74 Verbs distinguished as Regular and Irregular, . . .76 Table of Simple Irregular Verbs, 78 The Defective Verbs, . . 82 The Adverb, 84 Conjunctive Adverbs, . . 86 Comparison of Adverbs, . . 87 The Preposition, ... 89 The Conjunction, . . . .92 The Interjection, ... 94 The Rules of Syntax, . . .95 Ellipsis, 97 Sentences Classified, . . .98 Subject and Predicate, . . 99 Principal Parts of Sentences, . 102 Clauses, 104 Forms of Analysis, . . . 105 Correction of False Syntax, • 109 Rules for Capitals, . . . 118 Punctuation, .... 119 FIRST BOOK IN GRAMMAR LESSON I. Weeds grow rapidly . Repeat the above words. What do they form ? A Sentence. Why do we use this sentence? To express a thought. Of what is the sentence made up ? Of three words, each the sign of an idea. What do these words tell us ? Weeds tells us what is spoken about. Grow tells us what the weeds do. Rapidly tells us how the weeds grow. What do we use, then, to express our thoughts ? Sentences. Of what are sentences made up ? Of Words, which are the signs of ideas. EXERCISE. Complete these sentences by supplying words to tell what is spolcen about : killed Goliath. cross the ocean. fly swiftly. will stain the fingers. smell sweet. build houses. keep us warm. bark. Complete these sentences by telling what horses do : Horses oats. Horses carts. Horses — — water. Horses grass. Horse s flies. Horses in the fields. Horses their masters. Horses races. 6 WORDS, LETTERS, SPELLING* LESSON II. What is a Word ? A Word is the sign of an idea. The word ice is a sign that stands for frozen water . Of what is a word, when written, made up f Of Letters. The word ice is made np of three letters. What does every letter stand for ? A sound of the voice used in speaking. How many letters are there in English ? Twenty-six : a, b, c, d, e,.f, g, A, i, j, A, l, tn, n, °>P, the relative pronouns distinguished? As Simple and Compound. Name the simple relatives. The simple relatives are who , which , that , as , and what . Decline the simple relatives. The plural of the simple relatives is like the singu- lar. They are declined thus: — S. & P. S.& P. S.&P. S.&P. S.&P. Nom . Poss. Who, whose, Which, whose, That, As, What, Obj. whom. which. that. as. what. EXERCISE. Select the relatives , and the antecedent of each . Parse the nouns and the personal pronouns: — It was Pope who wrote, “ The proper study of mankind is man.” — Such as are inatten ive to their business will not prosper. — I who speak, and you that listen, are alike mortal. — The dispensa- tions which seem the hardest to bear, are often those that 36 THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. do [to] us tlie most good. — The second king of the Plantage- net line was Richard I., whose surname was the Lion- hearted, and whom his exploits in Palestine have made illustrious. LESSON XXIX. Decline the simple personal pronouns. Decline the compound personals. Decline the simple relatives. To what is the relative who applied ? Who is applied to persons, and animals and things .personified : as, Men who dream ; Pleasure, who smiles but to betray. To what is the relative which applied ? Which is applied to animals and things : as, Dogs which bark ; The sun, which shines for all. To what is the relative that applied ? That is applied to persons, animals, and things : •as, Men that dream ; Dogs that bark ; The sun that shines for all. To what is the relative as applied ? As is applied to persons, animals, and things. It is used after such , same, as many , so many , as much , so much : thus, Such men as dream ; As many as came. To what is the relative what applied ? What is applied to things, and is equivalent to antecedent and relative ; as, “ Take what \thatwhich\ you wish.” Is that always a relative pronoun ? No, it is sometimes a conjunction ; as, “He said that it would rain.” When that is a relative, icho , whom , or which , THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. 37 used in its place, will make sense ; “ All that [who] wear broadcloth are not gentlemen.” In the expressions as many as, as muck as , which as is the relative ? The second ; the first as is an adverb. EXERCISE. Mention the antecedents , and correct the relatives. [Thus: Woman is the antecedent; it denotes a person, and therefore the relative which , referring to it, should be changed to who — The woman who was at the well was a Samaritan.] The woman which was at the well was a Samaritan. — There are many books who outlive their authors. — The cat, who at first seemed startled, soon took courage. — My only comforter was Hope, which bade me dry my tears. — Avoid such boys who use bad language. — There are few poets which manage to make a living by their poetry. LESSON XXX. Does a relative show its person and number by its form ? No ; its form does not change when its person and number change. How, then, can we tell the person and number of a relative ? By looking at its antecedent, with which it agrees in person and number. Thus : — I who (1st person, singular), Thou who (2d person, singular). He who (3d person, singular). We who (1st person, plural). You who (2d person, plural). They who (3d person, plural). Recite Rule VIII., for the agreement of the relative. Rule VIII. — A relative agrees with its antecedent in person and number. 4 38 PAESING OF SIMPLE EELATIVES. Does the relative agree with its antecedent in case ? No ; in case it is independent of its antecedent. Show this by an example. “ The temple was built by Solomon, who was the son of David,” The antecedent Solomon , being the object of the preposition is in the objective case ; but the relative who , being the subject of the verb was , is in the nominative. In parsing a relative, how many rules must be given ? Two : Rule VIII., for its agreement, and whatever other rule is required, for its case. What has the force of the compound relatives, and is parsed like them, as shown in the next lesson. EXERCISE, Parse the relative 'pronouns in the last two Exercises . [Thus : — It was Pope who wrote, “ The proper study of mankind is man. 1 ’ Who is a simple relative pronoun, and has Pope for its antecedent, with w hich it agrees in the third person, singular number — Rule , A relative agrees with its antecedent in person and number; in the nominative case, the subject of the verb wrote — Rule , A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case.] LESSON XXXI. How many kinds of relatives are there? Name the simple relatives. Name the compound relative pronouns. Whoever , whosoever , applied only to persons. Whichever , whichsoever , applied to persons, ani- mals, and things. Whatever , whatsoever , applied only to things. THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 39 Decline the compound relatives. None of the compound relatives change, except whoever and whosoever . They are alike in both num- bers, and are declined thus : — To what is a compound relative generally equivalent ? Like what , a compound relative is generally equiva- lent to an antecedent and a simple relative ; as, “ Whoever [that is, any one who] is low-spirited should learn to skate.” “ Take whichever [ either that] you choose.” How many cases do what and the compound relatives represent ? Two cases ; one as antecedent, and the other as relative. When these cases are different, two rules must be given in parsing. Parsing forms. — Be content with ichat you have . — Bring whoever is there . What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and relative ; in the third person, singular number ; as antecedent, in the objective case, the object of the preposition with ; as relative, in the objective case, the object of the verb have : — Rule , A sub- ' stantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to ante- cedent and relative, in the third person,' singular number ; as ante- cedent, in the objective case, the object of the verb bring — Rule , A substantive that is the object of a verb, &c. ; as relative, in the nominative case, the subject of the verb is — Rule , A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. Sing, and Plural. Sing, and Plural. Whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. Nom. Whoever, Ross, whosever, Obj. whomever. 40 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, EXERCISE. Parse the nounsand pronouns :— Accept with gratitude whatever ( two rules) is sent from Heaven. — Whomsoever (one rule) we find true, we trust. — Whoever {one rule) slanders my friend, slanders me. — Take not what {two rules) belongs not to you. — Let her have whichever {two rules) suits her. — Whoever {one rule) loses, is apt to complain. LESSON XXXII. Name the different classes of pronouns. What is a personal pronoun ? What is a relative pronoun ? What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? An Interrogative Pronoun is one used for asking a question, in answering a question indefinitely, and in similar indefinite expressions. Questions . — Who did it ? Which was it ? What is truth ? Indefinite Answers — I know not who did it, what truth is. Indefinite Expressions . — Find out who did it, which it was. Name the interrogative pronouns. The interrogatives are who , which , and what . How are the interrogatives declined ? Like the corresponding relatives ; see page 35. When are who and which relatives, and when interrogatives ? When who and zohich relate to an antecedent, they are relatives ; when not, interrogatives. When is what a relative pronoun, and when an interrogative ? The pronoun what is a relative, when equivalent to that xohich ; when not, it is an interrogative. When a question i3 answered by a single word, how can you find the case of that word ? By supplying the words understood. Thus : — INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 41 “Who succeeded Jefferson? Madison.” That is, Madison suc- ceeded Jefferson ; Madison is in the nominative case, the subject of succeeded understood. “ Whom did Madison succeed? Jefferson.” That is, Madison succeeded Jefferson; Jefferson is in the objective case, the object of succeeded understood. Parsing form. — Whom saw you ? — I would like, to know whose books these are . Whom is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singu- lar number, objective case, the object of the verb saw : — Rule, A substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the ob- jective case. Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular number, possessive case, and modifies the noun books : — Rule , A substantive that modifies a noun, &c. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns and 'pronouns: — What is a pronoun? — Whose son was David? Jesse's. — Do you know whom Elizabeth succeeded ? Yes ; Queen Mary. — Which do you like best, arithmetic (in apposition with which ) or grammar? — Who invented the telescope? Jansen or Galileo, I do not know which. LESSON XXXIII. What is a personal pronoun? A relative pronoun? An In- terrogative pronoun ? What are all pronouns not included in the above classes called ? Adjective Pronouns. How are Adjective Pronouns divided? Into three classes : — 1. Demonstratives, which point out with precision the objects to which they refer: — This, that, former, latter , both , same. 42 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 2. Distributives, which represent objects as taken separately : — Each, every , either , neither. 3. Indefinites, which refer to objects generally, without specifying any in particular: — One , none , other, another , some, a//, any, swcA. Are these words ever used with nouns, and not in stead of them ? Yes; as, this book, every person. In that case they are adjectives. How are the adjective pronouns declined ? Most of the adjective pronouns do not change. This , that , one , and other , are declined as follows. Another is declined in the singular like other , but has no plural. s. P. S. P. & P. S. P. jsr. This, these, That, those, One, ones, Other, others, p. — — — one’s, ones’, other’s, others’, 0. this ; these. that ; those. one ; ones. other ; others. Parsing form. — They loved each other. Each is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular num- ber, nominative case, in apposition with they : — Rule , One sub- stantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. Other is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular num- ber, objective case, the object of the verb loved: — Rule, The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns and pronouns : — Teach me to feel an- other’s woe. — Demosthenes and Cicero were both great orators; the former was a Greek, the latter a Roman. — Some are timid, others rash; those lose all by their hesita- tion, these by their haste. — Let us do good to one (in appo- sition with us) another (object of to). — Such as are virtuous, are happy. A REVIEW. 43 LESSON XXXIV. A REVIEW. What is a noun ? What is a common noun ? What is a proper noun ? Name the four properties of nouns. How many persons are there? How many numbers? How many genders? How many cases ? What does the first person denote ? The second ? The third ? In what person are most nouns ? What does the singular number denote ? The plural ? How do most nouns form their plural ? How do nouns in s form their plural ? Nouns in y ? Mention some nouns that have no plural. Mention some that have no singular. What does the masculine gender denote ? The feminine ? What nouns have no gender ? In what three ways are feminine nouns distinguished from their corresponding masculines ? What does the nominative case denote ? The possessive ? The objective ? Which two of these cases have the same form ? Name some of the most common prepositions. EXERCISE. Give the pronoun called for: — 1. Simple personal, in the first person, singular, objective (me). 2. Simple personal, second, plural, possessive. 8. Compound personal, third, singular, feminine, objective. 4. A simple relative, in the objective. 5. A compound relative, in the possessive. 6. Compound personal, first, plural, objective. 7. Simple per- sonal, third, plural, masculine, nominative. 8. Compound personal, third, singular, masculine, nominative. LESSON XXXV. A REVIEW. What is a pronoun ? Why are pronouns used ? What proper- ties do pronouns possess ? Name the four classes of pronouns. What is a personal pronoun ? What is a relative pronoun ? What 44 A REVIEW. is an interrogative pronoun ? What classes are included under the head of adjective pronouns ? How are the compound personals formed ? What case is want- ing in the compound personals ? Which of the simple relatives are not found in the possessive case ? What pronouns have the same form as the simple relatives ? Name the compound relatives. Which of the adjective pronouns are declined ? Name those that are not declined. When do these words become adjectives? What does the word substantive include ? Repeat the eight Rules. Which of these relates to nouns in apposition? EXERCISE. Supply pronouns of the class indicated: — (. Interrogative ) told you that Mary had hurt ( compound personal )? — The Hottentots anoint ( compound personal) with rancid oil. — When you have read the book, put ( simple personal) on the shelf, or else give it to ( simple personal) brother. — Some of these apples are larger than {adjective pronoun) ; {adjective pronoun) of them are ripe. — {Interrogative) of you would lay down ( simple personal) life for {simple personal) neigh- bor? LESSON XXXVI. Name the parts of speech. Which is the first ? The second ? The third ? What are the Articles ? The Articles are the words the and an or a, used before other words to limit their meaning ; as, the rose, an English rose, a white rose. How are the two articles distinguished ? The is called the Definite Article. It is used with nouns in both numbers, and generally denotes a par- ticular object or objects ; as, the rose, the roses. An, or a, is called the Indefinite Article. It is THE ARTICLE. 45 used with nouns in the singular only, and denotes one object but no particular one ; as, a rose. When must an be used as the indefinite article ? An must be used before words commencing with a vowel sound ; as, an ant, an umbrella, an honor. When must a be used as the indefinite article ? A must be used before words commencing with a consonant sound ; as, a bird, a wonder, a year, a unit* a humor. Must an or a be used before words commencing with w and y ? W and y beginning words are consonants. A must therefore be used before words commencing with these letters or their sounds. Why do we say an heir, but a humor ? H is silent in both these words. Heir , commen- cing with a vowel sound, takes an; humor , commen- cing with a consonant sound, takes a. Recite Rule IX., relating to the article. Rule IX. — An Article relates to the word whose meaning it limits. Parsing form.— A friend of the people. A is the indefinite article, and relates to friend: — Rule , An article relates to the word whose meaning it limits. The is the definite article, and relates to -people : — Rule y An article, &c. EXERCISE. Supply the proper indefinite article. Then parse the nouns , pronouns , and articles: aunt and uncle are not quite so near as father and mother. I saw hen, ewe, and wonderfully fat colt, in meadow, by the river. We drove about for — — hour in one-horse wagon, looking for house with — — 46 THE ADJECTIVE. honeysuckle by the door ; but not human habitation did we find. Here is humble and at the same time honest man. LESSON XXXVII. What is the fourth part of speech ? The Adjective. When I say those Jive ripe apples , by what is the word apples modified ? By the words those, five, and ripe . Those tells us which apples are meant ; five tells how many apples ; ripe tells what kind of apples. Words like these, joined to a noun or pronoun, are called Adjectives. What is an Adjective ? An Adj ective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy thou. Is the subject to which an adjective relates ever understood ? It is ; as when we speak of the good, the living , meaning good men , living persons . Into how many classes are adjectives divided ? Adjectives are divided into four classes ; Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, and Common. Whnt is a Proper Adjective? A Proper Adjective is one having the form of, or derived from, a proper noun; as, Boston crackers, Irish melodies. Proper adjectives commence with capitals. What is a Numeral Adjective? A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a definite number ; as, three days, the third watch, a threefold gain. THE ADJECTIVE. 47 What are the Pronominal Adjectives ? The Pronominal Adjectives are words having the form of certain pronouns, but used with nouns, and not in stead of them ; as, this man, all things, every day, what a scene. Name the pronominal adjectives. The pronominal adjectives are which , what , which- ever , whichsoever, whatever , whatsoever , this, that , tfAese, those, former, latter, both, same, each, every , either, neither, none, other, another, some, all, any , swcA. • What is the fourth class of adjectives ? Common Adjectives, which embrace all not con- tained in the above classes. What may a common adjective express ? A common adjective may express, 1. Quality ; as, handsome , idle , red-hot , ever-to-be-remembered. 2. Quantity ; as, much labor, money enough, a whole month. 3. Material ; as, a gold crown, a golden crown, wooden pegs. 4. Time ; as, daily , weekly , annual , subsequent , everlasting . 5. Situation ; as, the above rule, the off horse, the under side. 6. An indefinite number ; as, several , sundry , many. EXERCISE. Select the adjectives ; tell their class , they re- late to. [Thus : — Wc is a common adjective, and relates to Owe no man ; French politeness ; gold and silver medals ; the former country ; five white mice ; these dili- gent scholars ; the Memphis boat ; every thirteenth soldier ; the Monumental City; a nut-brown maid; several large Scotch herrings ; those never-to-be-forgotten words of the Massachusetts patriot ; a fourfold increase ; three hundred dollars (take three hundred together). 48 DEGREES OP COMPARISON. LESSON XXXVIII. What is a final letter ? Name the vowels. Name the consonants. “ John is tall, James is taller, but George is the tallest.” What are we told in this sentence ? That the quality of tallness belongs to John, James, and George, in different degrees. In what words are these different degrees implied ? In the adjectives tall, taller , tallest . Hence, by varying the form of an adjective, we may make it express a quality in different degrees. What is said of an adjective thus varied in form? It is said to be compared . How many degrees of comparison are there ? Three ; the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. What is the Positive Degree ? The Positive is the degree expressed by an adjec- tive in its simplest form ; as, “ He is wise and happy” What is the Comparative Degree ? The Comparative is a higher degree than some other or others with which it is compared ; as, “ He is wiser and happier than I.” What is the Superlative Degree ? The Superlative is the highest degree of all that are compared ; as, u He is the wisest and happiest of us all.” How are the Comparative and the Superlative Degree formed ? The Comparative Degree is formed by adding er, and the Superlative by adding est, to the Positive ; as, tall, taller, tailed ; tender, tenderer, tendered. What changes must sometimes be made in the positive, before adding er and est ? COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 49 1. Final e must be rejected; as, rude, rud-er, rud-est. 2. Final y, preceded by a consonant, must be changed to i ; as, holy, holder, holtest. 3. A final consonant, preceded by a single vowel, must be doubled ; as, wet, wetter, wettest. EXERCISE. Write the three degrees of warm ; sweet (no doubling, because two vowels precede t) ; merry ; cold ; pale ; short ; hot; pretty; slow; fine; cool; fit; plain; silly; vile; flat; funny ; great ; handsome ; dirty ; clear ; noble ; witty ; wide ; long ; fat ; quick ; rare. LESSON XXXIX. May all adjectives be compared ? No. Many adjectives of one syllable are com- pared, and some of two syllables ; but none of more than two. W e say prettier , prettiest ; but not peace- fuler, gloriousest . What whole classes of adjectives are not compared ? As a general rule, proper, numeral, and pronominal adjectives are not compared. What common adjectives are not compared ? Those whose meaning does not admit of different degrees ; as, chief daily , no . What other way is there of expressing different degrees, besides comparing the adjective ? Using the adverbs more , most , less , least , &c. Thus, we may say more pleasant in stead of pleasanter, most pleasant for pleasantest . 50 PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. When only is an adjective said to be compared ? When it takes er and est . Kecite Rule X., relating to the adjective. Rule X. — An adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. How may the substantive to which an adjective relates be found ? By asking a question with who or what. Thus: — “The elephant is the largest of beasts.” Question . The largest what of beasts ? Answer. The largest beast of beasts. Largest relates to beast understood. How must we parse an adjective ? To parse an adjective, state its class ; if it can be compared, compare it and mention its degree ; tell what it relates to, and repeat Rule X. Parsing form. — June roses are the sweetest of flowers. June is a proper adjective, and relates to roses: — Rule, An adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. Sweetest is a common adjective ; sweet, sweeter, sweetest ; in the superlative degree, and relates to flowers understood : — Rule, An adjective relates, &c. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns, 'pronouns, articles, and adjectives : — The diamond is the brightest and most valuable of precious stones. — These smugglers introduce great quantities of Brussels lace and French brandy. — The purer air is, the healthier. — Few respect a tyrant, and still fewer love him. — Kind deeds and gentle words are finer ornaments than golden trinkets (subject of are understood) or jewels of great price. — Moses was the meekest of men. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 51 LESSON XL. What is an adjective? Name and define the three degrees. What is the regular mode of forming the comparative degree ? The superlative ? Compare the irregular adjectives. Some adjectives are compared irregularly : — Pos. Comp. Sup. Bad, evil, ill, worse, worst. Good, better, best. Little, less, lesser, least. Pos. Comp. Many, more, Much, more, Near, nearer, Sup. most. most. nearest, next. Late and old take Wo forms : — j later, latest. I j older, oldest. ate> ( latter, last. j ’ ( elder, eldest. Compare some adjectives that make a superlative in most . The following make a superlative in most : — Pos. Far, Fore, Hind, Low, Front, North, Comp . Sup. farther, farthest, farmost, farthermost. former, foremost, first. hinder, hindmost, hindermost. lower, lowest, lowermost. Inner, inmost, innermost. Outer, outmost, outermost. Upper, upmost, uppermost. — frontmost. — northmost, &c. In what degree are superior, inferior , anterior , posterior , prior , ulterior , junior, and senior ? In the comparative degree. They have neither positive nor superlative. How are a few compound adjectives compared ? By varying the first of the simple words that com- pose them ; as, Good-natured, better-natured, best-natured. Bright-eyed, brighter-eyed, brightest-eyed. 52 THE VERB. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns , pronouns, articles, and adjectives. [Thus : — Superior is a common adjective, in the comparative de- gree ; positive and superlative wanting ; it belongs to view : — Rule, An adjective, &c.] There is a superior view from the topmost point of the cliff, — Let us have less talk and more work. — There are few better-tempered or warmer- hearted men than my eldest brother. — In my innermost heart, I could not help thinking my senior partner an ill- natured man. — The oldest friends are the best. • LESSON ZLI. What is the first part of speech ? The second ? The third ? The fourth ? The fifth ? How many ways of affirming a thing are there ? Four. When we affirm, we may assert , exclaim , ash, or command . Thus : — Assertions. Carlo barks. Carlo is cross. Exclamations. How Carlo barks ! How Carlo sleeps ! Questions. Can Carlo bark ? Has Carlo been hurt ? Commands. Carlo, do not bark. Carlo, eat your meat. What are word3 that affirm called ? Words that affirm are called Verbs ; as, barks , can bark, &c., in the above examples. What is a Verb? A Verb is a word or words used to affirm an action or a state. Of how many words may a verb consist ? Of as many as four ; as, “ He might have been hurtP What is the subject of a verb ? (See Lesson XIX.) How may the subject of a verb be found ? Is the subject ever understood ? CLASSES OF VERBS. 53 It is, particularly in sentences that express a com- mand ; as, “ Carlo, do not [you] bark.” You under- stood is the subject. With regard to their meaning, how are verbs distinguished ? As Transitive and Intransitive. What is a Transitive Verb? A Transitive Verb is one that affirms an action exerted on some person or thing ; as, “ Sarah broke the bottle.” “ The bottle is broken .” Here the breaking is exerted on the bottle. What is an Intransitive V erb ? An Intransitive Verb is one that affirms a state, or an action not exerted on any person or thing ; as, “ Sarah is happy.” “ Sarah wept? May the same word be a transitive verb in one sentence, and intransitive in another ? It may. “ He turned his face ; ” turned is transi- tive, because it has an object, face . “ He turned / ” turned is intransitive, because it has no object. EXERCISE. Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or in- transitive ; mention the subject of each, and , when the verb is transitive , its object : — The Saxons sailed to Britain, effected a landing, seized on the best parts of the island, and drove the inhabitants to the mountain fastnesses. — Go [thou] and sin no more. — Sink or swim, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration [that is, whether I sink or swimJ.^-Whatever we see, hear, taste, touch, or smell, is called matter. — Visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the afflicted. — Know thyself. — Bears can can be taught to dance. — God has promised to bless children that honor their parents. 54 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. LESSON XLII. How may the subject of a transitive verb be represented ? The subject of a transitive verb may be represented in two ways : — 1. As acting. “ Bees make honey.” 2. As acting upon. “ Honey is made by bees.” How are these forms of transitive verbs distinguished ? When its subject is represented as acting, the verb is said to be in the Active Voice. When its subject is represented as acted upon, the verb is said to be in the Passive Voice. In what voice is make in the above example ? Is made ? What verbs have no voice? Intransitive verbs, for their subjects can never be represented as acted upon. Their form corresponds with that of a transitive verb in the active voice. Besides voice, what properties have verbs ? Four ; Mood, Tense, Person, and Number. What is Mood ? Mood is that property of the verb which distin- guishes the manner in which it affirms. How many moods are there ? There are five moods ; the Indicative, the Poten- tial, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. EXERCISE. In the last Exercise , select the verbs that have voice , and tell what voice they are in . Supply intransitive verbs ; point out the subject of each: Pigeons rapidly. Rain from the clouds. Pekin the capital of China. The Hottentots in Africa. Bananas in tropical regions. Most boys to play. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 55 Supply transitive verbs ; point out the subject and the ob- ject of each: Fashion many followers. Sheep wool. Dogs their masters. Fulton steamboats. Travellers some strange stories. the laws ; virtue. LESSON X L III. What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? What verbs have voice ? What other properties have verbs ? Name the moods. What is Tense ? Tense is that property of the verb which distin- guishes the time of what it affirms. How many tenses has the Indicative Mood ? The Indicative Mood has six tenses ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the Second Future. Tell what each tense denotes, and give examples. The Indicative Present affirms that an action is taking place, or a state existing, at the present time ; as, I depart , I am. The Indicative Imperfect affirms that an action took place, or a state existed, at some past time ; as, I departed , I teas. The Indicative Perfect affirms a past action or state as completed at the present time ; as, I have departed, I have been. The Indicative Pluperfect affirms a past action or state as completed at or before some other past time ; as, I had departed , I had been. The Indicative First Future affirms that an action 56 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. is about to take place, or a state to exist ; as, I shall depart , I shall be. The Indicative Second Future affirms a future action or state as about to be completed at or before some other future time ; as, I shall have departed , I shall have been . Carry the verb love through these tenses of the indicative. Pres. I love. Pin. I had loved. Imp. I loved. 1 Pa. I shall love. Per/. I have loved. 2 Fu. I shall have loved. Of what tense is have the sign ? Had ? Shall ? Shall have ? What are these words called ? Auxiliaries. EXERCISE. Carry the verb walk through the tenses of the indicative mood ; the verb touch. Select the verbs ; tell their mood and tense: — I shall run. I have slept. I turned and gazed. I had answered. By Tuesday I shall have finished the book. Every night I dream. You shall go, he shall remain. They had started. LESSON XLIV. What is mood ? How many moods are there ? How many tenses in the indicative mood ? Name them. How many tenses in the Potential Mood ? Four ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. What tenses are wanting in the Potential Mood? The two futures. Future time is sometimes de- noted by the Present and the Imperfect Potential; THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 57 as, u You may go to-morrow.” “ He said he would go to-morrow.” What do verbs in the potential mood generally imply ? Permission, possibility, ability, necessity, deter- mination, or obligation. Carry the verb love through the tenses of the potential. j Pres. I may, can, must, or need love. Imp . I might, could, would, or should love. JPerf. I may, can, must, or need have loved. Hu. I might, could, would, or should have loved. Name the auxiliaries of the potential present. Of the potential perfect. What is the difference between them ? Mention the auxiliaries o*f the potential imperfect. Of the potential pluperfect. What is the difference between them ? Of what tense is vnay the sign ? May have ? Could ? Could have ? Must ? Should ? Need ? Might have ? Can have ? Should have ? Must have ? Must ? Might ? EXERCISE. Carry the verb walk through the tenses of the potential mood ; the verb touch. Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or in - transitive ; tell their mood and tense: — You must be silent. — They may have returned. — He need not say a word. — Caesar should have paused. — We can not explain all things. — They need not have failed. — You should remember that the best men may do wrong. LESSON XLV. What is the Subjunctive Mood used to express ? 1. A condition ; as, “ If thou wish it, I will remain.” 2. A supposition ; as, “ Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him.” 3. A wish • as, “ Oh that he were there ! ” 58 SUBJUNCTIVE, IMPERATIVE. How many tenses has the Subjunctive Mood ? Two ; the Present and the Imperfect. Give the two subjunctive tenses of the verb love. Sub. Pres. If I love. Sub. Imp. If I loved. What generally precedes a verb in the subjunctive ? If, that , though , lest, unless, or some other con- junction. But these conjunctions may be followed by the indicative or the potential. What does the Imperative Mood express ? A command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or per- mission ; as, “ Do not talk.” “ Stay till Monday.” How many tenses has the Imperative Mood ? But one, the Present; as, “ Love thou.” What is generally the subject of a verb in the imperative ? Thou or you understood. “ Do not [thou] talk.” “ Stay [ you] till Monday.” EXERCISE. Give the subjunctive and the imperative mood of the verb walk ; of the verb touch. Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Select the verbs; tell their mood, tense, and subject: — If thou be guilty, I will disown thee. — Oh that there were no such thing as war [w] ! — If you loved me, I would not complain. — Look before you leap.— Have a care lest thou fall. — Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee. LESSON XLVI. What properties have verbs besides mood and tense ? Person and Number. On what do the person and number of a verb depend ? On the person and number of its subject. THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 59 I pray pray is 1st, sing., because its subject I is 1st, sing. Thou prayest ;—prayest is 2d, sing., because thou is 2d, sing. He prays ; — prays is 3d, sing., because he is 3d, sing. We pray ; — pray is 1st, plural, because we is 1st, plural. You pray ; — pray is 2d, plural, because you is 2d, plural. They pray ; — pray is 3d, plural, because they is 3d, plural. What is a verb that has person and number called ? A Finite Verb. In what mood is a verb that has no person and number ? In the Infinitive Mood. What does the Infinitive Mood express ? An action or state not limited to a subject. How many tenses has the Infinitive Mood ? Two : the Present, which expresses an uncompleted action or state ; and the Perfect, which expresses one that is completed. Give these two tenses of the verb love. Inf. Pres. To love. Inf. Perf. To have loved. Observe that to is the sign of the infinitive. Which of the five moods may be used in asking questions ? The indicative and potential only ; as, “ Shall false- hood triumph ? Can truth perish ? ” EXERCISE. Tell the person and number of each verb in the Iasi Exercise. Select the verbs ; tell their mood and tense: — The diligent love to learn. — Try to do better than you ever have done. — Senator Wilkes was to have addressed the meeting. — It is not right to remember injuries and to forget favors. — To have succeeded in this would have rewarded me sufficiently. u ’Tis not the whole of life to live, Nor all of death to die.” 60 PARTICIPLES. LESSON XLVII. He thanked his host , and took his leave . Thanking his host, he took his leave . What difference do you observe in these sentences ? They convey the same idea, but the first affirms the thanking, while the second assumes it. What is the word thanking, which assumes the action, called ? A Participle. Participles belong to verbs. What is a Participle ? A Participle is a form of the verb that generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, by assuming some action or state in connection with it. How many participles are there ? Three, — the Present, the Perfect, and the Com- pound Perfect ; as, Pres . Loving. Perf. Loved. Comp . Perf. Having loved. With what must a participle not be confounded ? With an adjective having the same form. Both modify substantives ; but the participle, in addition, implies an action or state, and may govern an object like a finite verb. Thus : — Adjectives. — A travelling clerk ; an amusing story ; respected friend ; withered flowers. Participles. — A clerk travelling in Georgia ; amusing us with a story ; respected by all ; flowers withered by the heat. Is a participle ever used without a substantive ? Yes, and it is then said to be used independently ; as, “ Generally speaking , murder will out.” Of what is a participle used independently often the object ? Of a preposition ; as, “ the art of reading well ”♦ CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 61 EXERCISE Give the two infinitive tenses and the three participles of the verb walk ; of the verb touch. Select the verbs ; tell what mood and tense each is in, or what participle it is; mention the substantive that each par- ticiple relates to: — By writing often, we learn to write well. — Elizabeth having died, James I. succeeded to the throne. — Though surrounded by his guards, the tyrant, tormented by a guilty conscience, never knows what it is to be at ease. — ■ After learning much, we find out how little we know. — The necessity of practising self-control is obvious. What is meant by conjugating a verb ? Carrying it through its moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. How do we distinguish the persons in conjugating ? By prefixing the pronouns I, thou , he, in the singu- lar ; we, you , they , in the plural. Do these words form part of the verb ? No ; they must be parsed separately. Go through the indicative mood of the intransitive verb be. LESSON X L V III INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . Singular. Plural. 1. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. 6 62 CONJUGATION OF THE 1 . 2 . 3. 1 . 2 . 3. 1 . 2 . 3. 1 . 2 . 3. Imperfect Tense . Singular. I was, Thou wast or wert, He was ; Plural. 1. We were, 2. You were, 3. They were. Perfect Tense . I have been, 1. Thou hast been, 2. He has been ; 3. We have been, You have been, They have been. Pluperfect I had been, Thou hadst been, He had been ; First Future I shall or will be, Thou shalt or wilt be, He shall or will be ; Tense . 1. We had been, 2. You had been, 3. They had been. Tense . 1. We shall or will be, 2. You shall or will be, 3. They shall or will be. Second Future Tense . 1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been. EXERCISE. Turn each verb in italics into a participle , and by omit- ting the conjunction or subject complete the sentence . [Thus : — The enemy ravaged the country and departed. — Changed. The enemy, having ravaged the country, departed.] Cleopatra lost her kingdom and her lover, and killed herself. — Columbus knew how to swim, and escaped with his life. — Before you proceed too far, be sure you are right. — If we try to injure others, we injure ourselves. — When the rain ceased, we departed. — Gen. Taylor died , and Mil- lard Fillmore became president. INTRANSITIVE VERB BE. 63 LESSON XLIX. Recite Rule XI., for the agreement of a finite verb. Rule XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in per- son and number. Parsing form. — Time changes all things , and we too must change . Changes is a transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject time : — Rule , A verb agrees with its subject in per- son and number. Must change is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, present tense, first person, plural number, and agrees with its sub- ject we : — Rule , A verb agrees, &e. Give the potential mood of the verb be. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. 1. I may, can, must, or need be, 2. Thou mayst,* canst, must, or needst * be, 3. He may, can, must, or need be; Plural. 1. We may, can, must, or need be, 2. You may, can, must, or need be, 3. They may, can, must, or need be. Imperfect 1. I might, could, would, or should be, 2. Thou mightst,* couldst,* wouldst,* or shouldst * be, 3. He might, could, would, or should be ; Tense . 1. We might, could, would, or should be, 2. You might, could, would, or should be, 3. They might, could, would, or should be. * With or without e • mayst or mayest , needst or needest , &c. 64 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1. I may, can, must, or need have been, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must, or needst have been, 3. He may, can, must, or need have been ; Pluperfect 1. I might, could, would, or should have been, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been, 3. He might, could, would, or should have been ; Plural. 1. We may, can, must, or need have been, 2. You may, can, must, or need have been, 3. They may, can, must, or need have been. Tense . 1. We might, could, would, or should have been, 2. You might, could, would, or should have been, 3. They might, could, would, or should have been. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns , pronouns , articles , adjectives, and verbs : -All men are mortal. — Hannibal was a Carthaginian. — Will you be there? — He need not be afraid, for he has been faithful in performing his duty. — May you be happy ! — They might have been sure that she would be there. — I must have been asleep. LESSON L. Has a verb in the infinitive any subject, person, or number ? How may a verb in the infinitive be used? A verb in the infinitive may be used, 1. As .the subject of a finite verb ; as, “ To err is human.” The infinitive to err is the subject of the finite verb is. 2. To limit the meaning of some other word ; as, u I wish to go, for it is my duty to do so.” To go CONSTRUCTION OF TIIE INFINITIVE. 65 limits the meaning of the verb wish / to do limits the meaning of the noun duty . 3. An infinitive may be used independently; as, “ To speak plainly, I suspect you.” In parsing, what rule must be given for the infinitive ? Rule XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands independently in the sentence. Parsing form. — To tell the truths I take you to he a rogue . To tell is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood, present tense, used independently : — Rule , A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands independently in the sentence. To be is an intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense, and limits the meaning of the verb take : — Rule , A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, &c. Give the subjunctive mood, the imperative, infini- tive, and participles, of the verb be. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense , Singular . 1. If I be, Plural. 1. If we be, 2. If you be, 3. If they be. 2. If thou be, 3. If he be ; Imperfect Tense . 1. If I were, 2. If thou were, 3. If he were \ 1. If we were, 2. If you were, 3. If they were. 66 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Singular. 1. Be I, 2. Be thou or do thou be, 3. Be he ; Tense . Plural. 1. Be we 2. Be you or do you be, 3. Be they. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To be. Perfect Tense. To have been. PARTICIPLES. Present. Being. Perfect. Been. Compound Perfect. Having been. EXERCISE. Parse all the words : — If I were you, I would be a better girl. — Try [agrees with its subject you understood] to do your duty. — Blessed be the peace-makers, — Love all men, hate none. — To steal is base. — To tell the truth, if you were to fail, I should be glad. — Take care lest thou go astray. — What care I whether thou stay or go ? LESSON LI. When two or more verbs in the same mood and tense are con- nected, must the auxiliary be used with each ? No ; the auxiliary is generally used with the first only. Give an example. “ Cities may rise, flourish, and decay.” The first verb alone has the auxiliary expressed. Flourish and decay have it understood, and are in the same mood and tense as may rise , — the potential present. CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 67 Is the auxiliary ever expressed alone, and the principal verb understood ? It is ; as, “ May I go ? You may.” Parse may as au auxiliary used for may go, in the potential mood, &c. In parsing a participle, what rule must be given? Rule XIII. — Participles are used independently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or limit. Parsing form. — Smiling, she said, “ There is always a satisfaction in having helped the poor.” Smiling is the present participle of the intransitive verb smile , and relates to the pronoun she : — Rule , Participles are used inde- pendently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or limit. Having helped is the compound perfect participle active of the transitive verb help , used independently as the object of the prepo- sition in : — Rule , Participles are used independently, &c. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns , pronouns , adjectives , and verbs : — Having rapidly marched through his province and reached the Rubicon, Caesar paused. — By doing good to others, we do good to ourselves. — Climbing to the top of Mount Vesuvius is something of an achievement. — Printing, weaving, knit- ting, grinding, sawing, steam is our most faithful servant. — Can I help disobeying rules ? Certainly you can. LESSON LIX. CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. The verb rule, which will serve as a model of alE verbs, is conjugated as follows in the active voice: — G8 ACTIVE VOICE OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . Singular. Plural. 1. I rule or do rule, 1. We rule or do rule, 2. Thou rulest or dost rule, 2. You rule or do rule, 3. He rules or does rule ; 3. They rule or do rule. Imperfect Tense . 1. I ruled or did rule, 1. We ruled or did rule, 2. Thou ruledst or didst rule, 2. You ruled or did rule, 3. He ruled or did rule ; 3. They ruled or did rule. Perfect Tense . 1. I have ruled, 1. We have ruled, 2. Thou hast ruled, 2. You have ruled, 3. He has ruled; 3. They have ruled. Pluperfect Tense . 1. I had ruled, 1. We had ruled, 2. Thou hadst ruled, 2. You had ruled, 3. He had ruled ; 3. They had ruled. First Future Tense . 1. I shall or will rule, 1. We shall or will rule, 2. Thou shalt or wilt rule, 2. You shall or will rule, 3. He shall or will rule ; 3. They shall or will rule. Second Future Tense . 1. I shall or will have ruled, 1. We shall or will have ruled, :2. Thou shalt or wilt have ruled, 2. You shall or will have ruled, ;3. He shall or will have ruled; 3. They shall or will have ruled. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense . 1. I may, can, must or need 1. We may, can, must, or need rule, rule, 2. Thoumayst, canst,* &c., rule, 2. You may, can, &c., rule, 3. He may, can, &c., rule; 3. They may, can, &c., rule. * In reciting, always give all the auxiliaries — Thou mayst , canst , must , > or needst rule. TRANSITIVE VERB RULE. 69 Singular. 1. I might, could, would, or should rule, 2. Thou mightst, &c., rule, 3. He might, &c., rule ; 1. I may, can, must, or need have ruled, 2. Thou mayst, &c., have ruled, 3. He may, &c., have ruled ; Plural . We might, could, would, or should rule, 2. You might, &c., rule, 3. They might, &c., rule. 1. We may, can, must, or need have ruled, 2. You may, &c., have ruled, 3. They may. &c., have ruled. Imperfect Tense . 1 . Perfect Tense . Pluperfect Tense . 1. I might, &c., have ruled, 1. We might, &c., have ruled, 2. Thou mightst, &c., have ruled, 2. You might, &c., have ruled, 3. He might, &c., have ruled ; 3. They might, &c., have ruled. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense . 1. If I rule or do rule, 1. If we rule or do rule, 2. If thou rule or do rule, 2. If you rule or do rule, 3. If he rule or do rule ; 3. If they rule or do rule. Imperfect Tense . 1. If I ruled or did rule, 1. If we ruled or did rule, 2. If thou ruled or did rule, 2. If you ruled or did rule, 3. If he ruled or did rule ; 3. If they ruled or did rule. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . 1. Rule I, 1. Rule we, 2. Rule thou or do thou rule, 2. Rule you or do you rule, 3. Rule he ; 3. Rule they. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To rule. Perfect Tense . To have ruled. PARTICIPLES. Present Ruling. Perfect. Ruled. Comp. Perfect. Having ruled. 70 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. EXERCISE. Give the following parts of the verb walk : — Indie, perf. 3d sing. Subj. pres. 2d sing. Inf. perf. Impera. 2d sing. Pot. imperf. 3d pin. Indie. 2d fu. 1st plu. Subj. imperf. 1st sing. Pres. part. Pot.- pres. 2d sing. Indie, imperf. 2d plu. Indie. 1st fu. 1st plu. Pot. pluperf. 3d plu. Comp. perf. part. LESSON L III. When do we use the forms of the present and imperfect in- dicative containing do and did ? When a negation is expressed or emphasis is re- quired; as, “ You do not love me. I do love you.” What other form is sometimes used in the third singular of the present indicative active ? A solemn form ending in th , — he ruleth. What person and number of the verb do we commonly use in addressing a single person ? The second person plural, — you rule , not thou rulest. But in prayer and poetry we say thou rulest . What other form do we sometimes find in the imperfect in- dicative ? In the second singular of the imperfect indicative, st is sometimes omitted; as, thou ruled for thou ruledst . Recite Rule XIV., relating to a substantive modifying a par- ticiple. Rule XIV. — A substantive which, in stead of being modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. Give an example. “ I saw John writing.” Here the noun John is THE PASSIVE VOICE. 71 modified by the participle writing , and is in the ob- jective case, the object of the verb saw. “I was surprised at John’s writing so well.” Here John's is made to modify the participle writing , and is put in the possessive case. Parse John's in the last example as follows : — John’s is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies the participle writing : — Rule , A substantive which, in stead of modifying a participle, &c. Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs : — Charles- First would not have lost his life, if he had been more prudent. — God saveth whom He will. — To do good and to distribute forget not. — We often shut our eyes, that we may not see our faults. — Much depends on your studying diligently. — Have you read of Hannibal’s crossing the Alps? LESSON LIV. CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. How are the tenses of the passive voice formed ? By combining the perfect participle with the cor- responding tenses of the auxiliary be. The transitive verb rule is conjugated as follows in the passive voice : — EXERCISE INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . Singular. 1. I am ruled, 2. Thou art ruled, 8, He is ruled ; Plural. 1. We are ruled, 2. You are ruled, 3. They are ruled. 72 PASSIVE VOICE OF THE Imperfect Tense . Singular . Plural. 1. I was ruled, 2. Thou wast or wert ruled, 3. He was ruled ; 1. We were ruled, 2. You were ruled, 3. They were ruled. Perfect 1. I have been ruled, 2. Thou hast been ruled, 3. He has been ruled ; Tense . 1. We have been ruled, 2. You have been ruled, 3. They have been ruled. Pluperfect Tense. 1. I had been ruled, 1. We had been ruled, 2. Thou hadst been ruled, 2. You had been ruled, 3. He had been ruled ; 3. They had been ruled. First Future Tense. 1. I shall or will be ruled, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 3. He shall or will be ruled ; 1. I shall or will have been ruled, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been ruled, 3. He shall or will have been ruled ; 1. We shall or will be ruled, 2. You shall or will be ruled, 3. They shall or will be ruled. have been have been have been Second Future Tense. 1. We shall or will ruled, 2. You shall or will ruled, 3. They shall or will ruled. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. I may, can, must, or need be ruled, 2. Thou mayst, &c., be ruled, 3. He may, &c., be ruled ; 1. We may, can, must, or need be ruled, 2. You may, &c., be ruled, 3. They may, &c., be ruled. TRANSITIVE VERB RULE . 73 Imperfect Tense . Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should be ruled, should be ruled, 2. Thou mightst, &c., be ruled, 2. You might, &c., be ruled, 3. He might, &c., be ruled; 3. They might, &c., be ruled. Perfect Tense . 1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need have been ruled, have been ruled, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must or 2. You may, can, must, or need needst have been ruled, have been ruled, 3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need have been ruled ; have been ruled. Pluperfect Tense . 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should have been Kuled, should have been ruled, 2. Thou mightst, &c., have been 2. You might, &c., have been ruled, ruled, 3. He might, &c., have been 3. They might, &c., have been ruled ; ruled. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense . 1. If I be ruled, 1. If we be ruled, 2. If thou be ruled, 2. If you be ruled, 3. If he be ruled ; 3. If they be ruled, Imperfect Tense . 1. If I were ruled, 1. If we were ruled, 2. If thou were ruled, 2. If you were ruled, 3. If he were ruled ; 3. If they were ruled. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . 1. Be I ruled, 1. Be we ruled, 2. Be thou or do thou be ruled, 2. Be you or do you be ruled, 3. Be he ruled ; 3. Be they ruled. 7 74 THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense . To be ruled. Perfect Tense. To have been ruled. PARTICIPLES. Present. Being ruled. Perfect. Ruled. Comp. Perfect. Having been ruled. EXERCISE. Give the following parts of the passive voice of the verb help: — Perf. part. Indie, pluperf. 2d sing. Inf. pres. Pot. perf. 1st plu. Subj. imperf. 2d sing. Indie, pres. 3d plu. Subj. pres. 3d sing. Pot. pres. 1st sing. Indie. 2d fu. 2d plu. Impera. 2d plu. Comp. perf. part. LESSON L V. What distinct form do some verbs have ? A form implying continuance, called the Progres- sive Form. IIow is the Progressive Form made ? By combining the participle in ing with the various parts of the auxiliary he ; as, I am ruling , I was ruling , &c. What verbs have no Progressive Form? Verbs whose simple form denotes continuance ; as, love, remember. Recite the Progressive Form of the verb rule, giving all the persons in both numbers. PROGRESSIVE FORM. Indicative Mood. Present. — I am ruling, thou art ruling, he is ruling, &c. Imperfect. — I was ruling, thou wast or wert ruling, &c. Perfect. — I have been ruling, thou hast been ruling, &c. THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 15 Pluperfect. — I had been ruling, thou hadst been ruling, &c. First Future. — I shall or will be ruling, thou shalt or wilt, &c. Second Future. — I shall or will have been ruling, &c. Potential Mood . Present. — I may, can, must, or need be ruling. Imperfect. — I might, could, would, or should be ruling. Perfect. — I may, can, must, or need have been ruling. Pluperfect. — I might, could, would, or should have been ruling. Subjunctive Mood. Present. — If I be ruling, if thou be ruling, &c. Imperfect. — If I were ruling, if thou were ruling, &c. Imperative Mood. Present. — B e thou ruling or do thou be ruling, &c. Infinitive Mood. Present. — To be ruling. Perfect. — To have been ruling. Participles. Present. — Ruling. Comp. Perfect. — Having been ruling. EXERCISE. Change each verb to the corresponding part of the passive voice and the progressive form. [Thus : — We have received. Passive , We have been received. Progressive Form , We have been receiving.] He had hurried. — They will eat. — She may deceive. — To have injured. — I consider. — Thou carriest. — They may have visited. — You have pursued.— They might have read. — Having explored. LESSON LVI. What do we mean by the Root of a verb ? The present infinitive without the sign to ; as, rule . 76 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. What are the three Chief Parts of the verb ? The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect participle ; rule , ruled , ruled. How are the imperfect indicative and the perfect participle generally formed ? By adding ed to the root ; as, walk, walked, walked. What are verbs called, that form these parts thus ? Regular Verbs. Walk is regular. What are verbs called, that have two forms in either of these parts, or do not make them by adding ed to the root ? Irregular Verbs; as, arise , arose, arisen. Is miss , missed , missed, regular or irregular? Blow , blew, blown i Come, came , come ? Help, helped, helped ? What changes must sometimes be made in the root of a regular verb, before adding ed ? 1. Final e is rejected; as, rule , rul-ed. 2. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i ; as, cry, crted. 3. The final consonant of a monosyllable, or of any verb accented on the last syllable, is doubled : as, pin, pinned ; omit, omitted. Observe that final y preceded by a vowel is not changed to i ; as, play, played. A verb not accented on the last syllable does not double its final consonant ; as, hinder, hindered. In parsing, when do we mention the three chief parts ? In parsing, we state whether the verb is regular or irregular ; and, if it is irregular, we mention its three chief parts. Parsing form. — He arose and received us. Arose is an irregular intransitive verb ; from arise, arose, arisen ; in the indicative mood, (go on as before). SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS. 77 Received is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indica- tive mood, imperfect tense, &c. EXERCISE. Spell the three chief parts of the following verbs : — Love ; whet; grieve; plant; separate; tarry; stray; cloy; man; moan ; remit ; compel ; profit ; tender ; offer ; annul ; com- mit ; abhor; detest; carry; bray; weigh; hoe; refer; dot; doat; grab. LESSON L V II. TABLE OF SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS. The chief parts of the principal simple irregular verbs are presented in the following Table. Simple verbs will serve as models for those formed from them ; hence the latter are not given separately. Thus overtake goes like take: overtake , overtook , overtaken . Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a regular one in ed . This is denoted in the Table by the letter R. Recite both forms in the order given in the table -—Build, built or builded , built or builded. A form in italics, or a regular form represented by an italic B, is not now in good use, though once authorized. When there are two forms, the prefer- able one is placed first. Each page of verbs with the Exercise at the bottom may constitute a lesson. Remember that the imperfect indicative must not be used for the perfect participle, nor the perfect participle for the imperfect indicative. After the errors in the Exer- cise are corrected, the nouns, pronouns, articles, ad- jectives, and verbs (see form onp. 76 ), may be parsed. 78 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS, Boot. Imptrf. Berf Bart. Boot Imperf Berf. Bart , Abide, abode, abode. Build, built, R. y built, R. Arise, arose, arisen. Burn, R., burnt, R., burnt. Awake, awoke, R., awoke, R. Burst, burst, burst. Be, was, been. Buy, bought, bought. Bear | bore, ) borne. Cast, cast, cast. (carry), | bare, j Catch, caught, R. j , caught, R. Bear I bore, ) born. Chide, j chid, chidden, (bring forth), bare , $ | chode, chid. Beat, j beaten, Choose, chose, chosen. 1 >eat, began, ( beat. Cleave (adhere), ( R., clove, clave , j- cleaved. Begin, begun , - begun. Cleave j cleft, cleft, Behold,. beheld, beheld. (split), ( clove, cloven, R, Bend, bent, R., bent, R. Cling, clung, clung. Beseech, besought, besought Clothe, R., clad, R., clad. Bet, bet, R., bet, R. Come, came, come. Bid, bade, bid, , bidden, bid. Cost, cost, cost. Bind, bound, bound. Creep, crept, crept. Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Crow, crew, R., crowed. Bleed, bled, bled. ^Dut, cut, cut. Blend, R., blent, R., blent. Bare j ► durst, dared. Blow, blew, blown. (venture), j Break, 1 \ broke, 1 - broken. Deal, dealt, j R., dealt, R . J Dig, 1 | brake , j dug, A., dug, R. Breed, bred, bred. Dive, R., dove, dived. Bring, brought, brought. Do, did, done. EXERCISE. Correct the errors in the verbs:— -We have born many hardships. — When were you borne ? — The exercises had began . — The rain having began, he betted it would last all day. — Has your father forbade you to swim? — The wind has blowed so hard that it has broke some branches off your elm. — She bursted out laughing. — They might have came yesterday, if they had chose. — She outdone us all. SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS, 79 Boot. Imperf. Per/. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Draw, drew, drawn. Grow, grew, grown. Dream, R., dreamt, R., dreamt. Hang, hung, R., hung, R. j drunk, Have, had, had. Drink, drank, | drank. Hear, heard, heard. Drive, drove, driven. Hew, hewed, hewn, R. Dwell, dwelt, R., dwelt, R. Hide, hid, j hidden, Eat, ate, eat, eaten, eat. [ hid. Fall, fell, fallen. Hit, • hit, hit. Feed, fed, fed. Hold, held, held. Feel, felt, felt. Hurt, Fight, fought, fought. Keep, kept, kept. Find, found, found. Kneel, knelt, R., knelt, R. Flee, fled, fled. Knit, knit, R., knit, R. Fling, flung, flung. Know, knew, known. Fiy, flew, flown. Lay, laid, laid. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Lead, led, led. Forget, forgot, j forgotten, j forgot. Lean, Leave, R., leant, left, R., leant, left. Forgive, forgave, forgiven. Lend, lent, lent. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Let, let, let. Freeze, froze, frozen. Lie (recline), lay, lain. Get, got, gat , got, gotten. Light, R., lit, R., lit. Gird, girt, R., girt, R. Lose, lost, lost. Give, gave, given. Make, made, made. Go, went, gone. Mean, meant, R. , meant, R. Grind, ground, ground. Meet, met, met. EXERCISE. Correct : — He done it. — She has overcame every obstacle. — They should have drawed lots. — You drunk too much, I fear. — That horse has been overdrove. — They have ate up their oats. — Have they fell out? — How those dogs have fit ! — I have forborn complaining. — Has he forgave you? — You should not have forsook your friends. — They need not have went so soon. — Your garden is overgrowed with weeds. 80 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS. Boot. Itnperf Per/ Part. Boot. Imperf. Per/ Part. Mow, mowed. mown, R. Shoe, shod, shod. Pay, paid, paid. Shoot, shot, shot. Plead, R., pled, R., pled. Show, showed, shown, R. Put, put, put. Shrink, j shrunk, shrunk, Quit, quit, R., quit, R. ) shrank , shrunken . Read, read, read. Shut, shut, shut. Rend, rent, rent. Sing, sung, sang, sung. Rid, rid, rid. Sink, sunk, sank, sunk. Ride, rode, ridden, rode. Sit, sat, sat, sitten. Ring, rung, rang, rung. Slay, slew, slain. Rise, rose, risen. Sleep, slept, slept. Roast, roasted, R., roast. Slide, 1 slidden, Run, ran, run, run. slid, J slid. Saw, sawed, R., sawn. Sling, ( slung, ) slung. Say, said, said. l slang , ) See, saw, seen. i slunk, ) Seek, sought, sought. Slink, J slank, f slunk. Sell, sold, sold. Slit, slit, R., slit, R. Send, sent, sent. Smite, j smitten, Set, set, set. smote, | smit. Shake, shook, B., shaken. Sow, sowed, R., sown. Shape, shaped, R., shapen. Speak, j spoke, ) spoken. Shave, shaved, R., shaven. j spake , f Shear, sheared, shorn, R. Speed, sped, R., sped, R. Shed, shed, shed. Spend, spent, spent. Shine, shone, R., shone, R. Spill, R., spilt, R., spilt. EXERCISE. Correct : — Has she forgave yon? — He must have froze his feet. — He has outgrowed the disease. — Have you heard how Robert hurted himself? — I knowed you had laid down. — You must have rid fast. — I seen him yesterday. — She has ran herself out of breath. — They sat a trap by the river. — Have you shook the carpet? — Your coat has shrank. — Having sang, he took his leave. — I have not spoke a word. SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS. 81 Root. Imperf Per/. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf Part Spin, Spit, spun, span , j spit, spun. spit, Swim, j swum, j j swam, \ swum. ( spat , spitten. Swing, j swung, J swung. Split, split, R., split, R . | swang , ) Spread, spread, spread. Take, took, taken. Spring, j sprung, ) Teach, taught, taught. ( sprang, f sprung. Tear, tore, torn. Stand, stood, stood. Tell, told, told. Stay, R., staid, R., staid. Think, thought, thought. Steal, stole, stolen. Thrive, throve, R., thriven, R. Stick, stuck, stuck. Throw, threw, thrown. Sting, stung, stung. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Stink, j stunk, ) stunk. ( trodden, ( stank , ) Tread, trod, ( trod. Stride,, j strode, stridden, Wake, R., woke, R., woke. | strid, strid. Wear, wore, worn. Strike, struck, j struck, Weave, wove, R ., woven, R. ( stricken. Wed, R., wed, R., wed. String, strung, strung. Weep, wept, wept. Strive, strove, striven, R. Wet, wet, R., wet, R. Strow, strowed, strown, R. Win, won, won. Swear, j swore, ) sworn. Wind j - wound, wound. | sware , ) (twine), 1 Sweat, sweat, R., sweat, R. Work, R., wrought, R., wrought. Sweep, swept, swept. Wring, wrung, wrung. Swell, swelled, R., swollen. Write, wrote, written. EXERCISE. Correct : — Having came in late, they set by the door. — Cities have sprang up, as if by magic. — He must have stole it. — Where have they swam to ? — Who teached you ? — You have tore your book. — He thro wed me down. — Your shoes have wore well. — They winned the match.— Have you writ your exercise? — Had you wrote to your mother? — They rended their garments. — I foreseen he would fail. 4 * 82 DEFECTIVE VERBS. LESSON L VIII. What is a Defective Verb? A Defective Verb is one that wants some of its parts. The principal defective verbs are ought , be- ware, methinks , and meseems. In what tenses does ought appear ? Ought appears only in the present and imperfect indicative and subjunctive. It is conjugated thus : — Pres, and Imperf. Ind. 1. I ought, We ought, 2. Thou oughtest, You ought, 3. He ought ; They ought. Pres, and Imperf. Subj. 1. If I ought, If we ought, 2. If thou ought, If you ought, 3. If he ought ; If they ought. In what tenses does beware appear ? Beware, compounded of be and ware, is used only in those tenses which in the verb be retain be : — Ind. First Fu. — I shall or will be ware ; thou shalt or wilt, &c. Potential Pres. — I may, can, must, or need beware. Potential Imperf. — I might, could, would, or should beware. Subjunctive Pres. — If I beware ; if thou foware, &c. Imperative Pres., 2d person. — ifcware thou ; beware you. Infinitive Pres. — To beware. In what part are methinks and meseems ? Methinks and meseems, meaning it seems to me, are in the indicative, present, third, singular. In what other part are they also used ? In the third singular of the imperfect indicative, — methought and meseemed . What are methinks and meseems called ? Unipersonal Verbs, because they are used in but one person. They never admit of a subject, and hence in parsing no rule can be given for their agree- ment. A REVIEW. 83 Parsing forms. — -Methinks you ought to beware of such false friends. Methinks is a unipersonal intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, 3d person, singular number ; has no subject. Ought is a defective intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present tense, second person, plural number, and agrees with its subject you : — Rule , A verb agrees with its subject, &c. To beware is a defective intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present tense, and limits the meaning of the verb ought : — Rule , A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, &c. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs: — We ought to beware of faults into which we have once been betrayed. — Ought you not to forgive your enemies ? — Methinks I hear Demosthenes thundering in the market- place. — If thou beware of flatterers, thou wilt do well. — Methought I had passed the gates of death. — Meseems a demon watcheth thee. LESSON LIX. A REVIEW. What is a verb ? What is the greatest number of words that may form a verb ? What are may, must, and other little words that aid in forming the tenses, called ? What is the difference be- tween a transitive and an intransitive verb ? Which of these has voice ? When is a verb called finite ? What is mood ? What is tense ? Which mood has the most tenses ? Which, the next most ? Which moods are used in asking questions ? What have you found with respect to the subject of a verb in the imperative ? On what do the person and number of a verb depend ? What is a participle ? How many participles are there ? In what case must a substantive be put, that modifies a participle ? k 84 A REVIEW. When are the forms containing do and did used ? What is the solemn form for the third singular of the present indicative active ? How are the tenses of the passive voice formed ? How are the tenses of the progressive form made ? What does the progressive form imply ? What is the difference between a regular and an irregular verb ? What is a defective verb ? EXERCISE. Give the three chief parts of the following irregular verbs, remembering that they go like the simple verbs from which they are formed: — Unstring; mistake; overcome; forbid ; overthrow ; forego ; overhear ; undersell ; misgive ; rebuild ; underlet ; remake ; overpay ; uprise ; foresee ; un- weave ; outwork ; rewrite ; understand ; acquit ( regular ) ; demean ( reg .) ; unclothe ( reg .) ; implead ( reg .). LESSON LX. What is the sixth part of speech ? The Adverb. When I say, “ He soon became very angry,” by what is the verb became modified ? By soon , which tells when he became angry. By what is the adjective angry modified? By very , which tells how angry he became. What are soon , very , and other words so used, called ? Adverbs. What else may an adverb modify ? Another adverb ; as, “ He spoke very angrily.” What is an Adverb ? An Adverb is a word expressing manner, time, place, degree, &c., and generally used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. ADVERBS. 85 Give examples of adverbs, arranged according to their meaning. The following are examples of adverbs : — 1. Adverbs of manner . — How ? Thus , so, well , ill y somehow , otherwise , slowly , and most words ending in /p. 2. Time. — When ? Then , wow;, already , formerly , to-day, yester- day , to-morrow , soon, early, daily , seldom, often , ever, always. 3. Place. — TP7iere / Here , there , wherever , whither , hither, thither, whence , hence, thence, away, off , far , wp, down. 4. Degree. — Much, little, very, exceedingly, greatly, quite, enough, equally, scarcely, nearly, almost. 5. Affirmation. — Fes, ay, certainly, truly, indeed, doubtless , undoubtedly, amen. 6. Negation. — W o, wop, wo£, nowise, nohow, never . 7. Possibility. — Perhaps, perchance , maybe, haply. 8. Number. — i^rs£ (which is preferable to firstly), secondly, thirdly, &c. ; owee, tfwzce, thrice . Which class of adverbs is the largest ? Adverbs of manner. Many of these are formed from adjectives by adding ; as, ruddy from rwcfe. EXERCISE. Insert cudverbs of manner : Do your work . Jane walks . When the sun shines , the birds sing . How the wind roars in March ! Speak to all men ; do not talk . How Maria sings ! Insert adverbs of time, place, or degree : Smart boys get up . Henry’s dog has run ; shall he look for it? We can travel more rapidly than we could. They were tired. We can find enough to do. LESSON LXI. Does the same word ever appear in one sentence as an adverb, and in another as some other part of speech ? It does, as in the following examples 80 ADVERBS. He will start to-morrow (adv.). To-morrow (noun) may never come. — Only (adv.) believe. An only (adjective) son. — Crack (adv.) went the mast. The mast will crack (verb). — ’Twas passing (adv.) strange. Passing (participle) the door. — But (adv.) five were there. But (conjunction) what did you say? From what must adverbs be carefully distinguished ? Adverbs must be carefully distinguished from ad- jectives. They sometimes have the same form. In this case, if the word modifies a substantive, it is an adjective ; but, if it modifies a verb, adjective, or ad- verb, it is an adverb. Thus : — Adjectives. — An upward flight ; cleanly habits ; the above rules ; the first fruits; Sarah is well ; the very man ; a daily paper. Adverbs. — To fly upward; to live cleanly; look above; he spoke first ; Sarah reads well ; very g ayly; he goes daily. When there are distinct forms for adverb and adjective, what caution must be observed ? Hot to interchange them. The adjective must be used with a substantive, and the adverb with a verb or adjective. Thus : — A soon answer ; the now governor . Wrong, because the adverbs soon and noiv are joined to nouns. Correct by substituting adjec- tives : — a speedy answer ; the present governor. Lead is melted easier than iron. This tea is uncommon good. Wrong, because the adjective easier is joined to the verb is melted , and the adjective uncommon to the adjective good . Correct by substituting adverbs : — Lead is melted more easily than iron. This tea is uncommonly good. What is a Conjunctive Adverb ? A Conjunctive Adverb is one that connects parts of a sentence ; as, “ Remain there till I come.” Mention some of the most common conjunctive adverbs. Why, how , when, where, after, before, till . COMPARISON- OF ADVERBS. 87 EXERCISE. Parse the nouns , adjectives , verbs; select the adverbs: — IIow pure is the air at early dawn ! — Start early, or your work will get ahead of you. — Have you no mercy? Ho, none for idlers. — Sleep on now, and take your rest. — How is the time to repent. — The miser never has enough. — You have not studied enough. Correct , and give the reasons : — I hope for a soon return. — Think of your hereafter life. — Your often lateness puts you back. — Hever behave rude. — How graceful she walks ! — John speaks more correct than most persons. — The then mayor was present. LESSON L X II. What part of speech have we learned to compare ? How many degrees of comparison are there ? What is the positive degree ? The comparative ? The superlative ? What besides adjectives are compared? A few adverbs of one and two syllables are com- pared, like adjectives, by adding er for the compara- tive, and est for the superlative. Thus : — Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. Late, later, latest. 1 Early, earlier, earliest. East, faster, fastest. 1 Often, oftener, oftenestp Mention some adverbs that are compared irregularly. The following are compared irregularly : — Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. Badly, ill, worse, worst, Much, more, most. Well, better, best. Far, farther, farthest. Little, less, least. Forth, further, furthest. How are more and most often used ? More and most are often used before adjectives 88 PARSING OF ADVERBS. and adverbs, to give them the force of the compara- tive and superlative degree ; as, more graceful, most gracefully. How can we find what an adverb modifies ? By asking a question with what. “ Is that sum hard ? Yes ; veryP Very what f Answer, very hard. Very modifies the adjective hard understood. We see, then, that the word modified by an adverb may be understood. Is an adverb ever used without modifying any particular word ? Yes, and it is then said to be used independently. Give examples of adverbs used independently. Yes and no in answers ; amen at the end of pray- ers ; forth in the expression and so forth ; firsts secondly , thirdly , &c., introducing particulars. Recite Rule XV., for the adverb. Rule XY. — An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands inde- pendently in the sentence. How must we parse an adverb ? To parse an adverb, compare it and state its degree, if it can be compared ; tell what it relates to or state that it is used independently ; if a conjunctive adverb, tell what it connects and what it relates to ; finally, give Rule XY. Parsing form. — Yes , I shall go farther , till I find the spot. Yes is an adverb, used independently : — Rule, An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands inde- pendently in the sentence. Farther is an adverb ; far , farther , farthest ; in the comparative degree, and relates to the verb shall go :—Rule , An adverb, &c. THE PREPOSITION. 89 Till is a conjunctive adverb; it connects I shall go farther and I find the spot , and relates to the verb shall go : — Rule , An adverb, &c. EXERCISE. Parse the nouns , pronouns , articles , adjectives , adverbs : — Judge not too hastily. — Compose carefully, if you would compose correctly. — He who rises late certainly loses the best part of the day. — The more we study, the better we like to study. — He then asked me when and where this took place. — We have far greater facilities for education now than formerly ; but perhaps we value them less. LESSON L XIII. Name the parts of speech. Which is the seventh ? The Preposition. When I say “Washington marched to Princeton,” what word shows the relation between the marching and Princeton ? To ; not from Princeton, nor round Princeton, nor past Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in italics express different relations, and are called Prepo- sitions. What may a preposition have for its object ? 1. A noun ; as, about the room . 2. A pronoun ; as, about us. 3. An infinitive ; as, about to commence. 4. A participle ; as, about commencing. What is a Preposition ? A Preposition is a word used to show the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or participle bears to some other term in the sentence. What is an Adjunct ? An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a prepo- 90 LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. sition, its object, and tbe words that modify the latter; as, “ Croesus was noted for his houndless wealth .” Mention some of the principal prepositions. The prepositions in common use are, a, at, despite, on, touching, aboard, before, down, over, toward, about, behind, during, past, towards, above, below, ere, pending, under, across, beneath, except, regarding, underneath, after, beside, excepting, respecting, until, against, besides, for, round, unto, along, between, from, save, up, amid, betwixt, in, since, upon, amidst, beyond, into, through, versus, among, but, notwithstanding, throughout, with, amongst, by. of, till, within, around, concerning, off, to, without. EXERCISE. Supply prepositions: Alfred, the son Ethel wolf, succeeded the crown of England the year 871. his reign, England was invaded the Danes. He had many battles them, and at last, having been defeated several times, succeeded routing them great slaughter. From this time his death he labored the improvement of his subjects, and he was, a doubt, one the best kings that ever reigned England. LESSON LXIV. Are the words in the above list always prepositions ? No; they ire prepositions only when they express some relation, and have an object. PAUSING OF PREPOSITIONS. 91 When used without an object, what are many of these words ? Adverbs. “Look above this earth;” above is a preposition, having earth for its object. “ Look above;” here there is no object, and above is an adverb. How is a compound relation expressed ? By two prepositions, which are taken together in parsing and called a Complex Preposition ; as, from within the house. How does a preposition generally stand ? Before its object. The word pre-position means a placing before. Hoes the preposition ever stand after its object ? Yes, the relatives that and as always precede the preposition that governs them ; as, “ The world that we live in is a world of trial.” How can we find the former term of the relation ? By asking a question with, what before the prepo- sition. Thus : — “ In a multitude of counsellors there is wisdom.” What in a multitude ? Answer, is in a multitude ; the preposition in shows the relation between the noun multitude and the verb is. Is the former term of the relation ever understood ? It is, as in the following sentence : “ [Looking] On the whole, I prefer Spring.” Recite Rule XVI., relating to prepositions. Rule XVI. — A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other word or words in the sentence. Parsing form. — Over against Troy is the island I spoke of 92 THE CONJUNCTION. Over against is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between the noun Troy, which is its object, and the verb is : — Rule , A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, &c. Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between the relative pronoun that understood, which is its object, and the verb spoke Rule , A preposition shows the relation, &c. EXERCISE. Parse each icord : — The boa is the largest of serpents. Suspending itself by the tail from some tree beside a river, it lies in wait for its prey, darting with great rapidity on whatever living creature first comes within its reach. Wind- ing its folds around its victim, it crushes him to death by the immense power of its muscles, despite his most violent efforts to escape. LESSON LEV. Name the parts of speech. Which is the eighth ? The Conjunction. “ But, if you go, he and I will remain.” What words are used as connectives in this sentence ? But is used to connect the sentence with what goes before. If connects parts of the sentence, — you go and lie and I will remain . And connects the words he and I What are words thus used as connectives called ? Conjunctions. What is a Conjunction? A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. Mention some of the principal conjunctions. The principal conjunctions are as follows : — LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 93 although, either, neither, save, then, and, even, nevertheless, seeing, though, as, except, nor, since, unless, because, for, notwithstanding, so, yet, both, or, than, whereas, but, lest, provided, that, whether. Are the words in the above list always conjunctions? No ; several of them are also used as other parts of speech. They are conjunctions only when they connect. Observe the following examples : — Both (conj.) Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors, and both (adj. pro.) met with an untimely end. — They say that (conj.) that (pro. adj.) house that (rel. pro.) we just passed is haunted. — Help such as (rel. pro.) need help. — Some savage nations, as (con- junctive adv.) I have heard, worship the sun as (conj.) a god. What is a Complex Conjunction ? A Complex Conjunction is one that consists of two or more connectives, which must be taken together in parsing. Inasmuch as, as well as, as if, as though , for all, are complex conjunctions. Recite Rule XVII., relating to conjunctions. Rule XVII. — A conjunction connects words, sen- tences, or parts of a sentence. Parsing form. — Yet Jefferson, as well as Madi- son, was a Virginian. Yet is a conjunction, and connects the sentence with what goes before : — Rule , A conjunction connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. As well as is a complex conjunction, and connects the two nouns Jefferson and Madison : — Rule , A conjunction connects, &c. EXERCISE. Parse each word : — We are told that Brutus doomed his own sons to death ; yet he loved them as only a father or a 94 THE INTERJECTION. mother can love. — To injure another because he has injured us, is both foolish and wicked. — Astronomers can not tell whether the other planets are inhabited or not ; but it is commonly believed that they are. — Neither fame nor wealth can insure happiness to its possessor. LESSON LXVI. Name the parts of speech. Which is the ninth and last ? The Interjection. What is an Interjection ? An Interjectfbn is a word used independently of grammatical relations, to express some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. Mention the principal interjections. The following are the principal interjections, ar- ranged according to the emotions they express : — 1. Exultation . Ah ! aha ! hey ! heyday ! hurrah ! huzza ! 2. Sorrow. Ah ! oh ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay ! 3. Wonder. Ha ! indeed ! strange ! what ! hoity-toity ! zounds ! 4. Approval. Bravo ! well-done ! 5. Contempt , aversion. Faugh ! fie ! fudge ! pugh ! pshaw ! tut ! 6. Weariness. Heigh-ho ! 7. Merriment. Ha, ha, ha ! (an imitation of the sound of laughter). 8. Desire to drive away. Aroynt ! avaunt ! begone ! off ! shoo ! 9. Desire to address or salute. 0, hail ! all-hail ! welcome ! 10. Desire for one's welfare on leaving. Adieu ! farewell ! good-by ! 11. Desire for attention. Ho! what ho ! hallo! ahoy! lo ! hark! 12. Desire for silence. Hist! whist! hush! mum! 13. Desire to stop or interrupt another. Avast! hold! soft! 14. Desire for information. Eh ? hey ? By what point are interjections generally followed ? By the exclamation-point (!). (?, which must PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS. 95 always be a capital, takes no point after it. Eh and hey , implying a question, are followed by the interroga- tion-point. Do interjections bear grammatical relations to other words ? They do not. They neither govern nor are gov- erned, neither agree with other words nor relate to them. Hence no rule is needed in parsing them. A substantive following an interjection is generally in the nomi- native independent ; as, “ Alas ! unhappy we /” If a substantive in the possessive or objective case follows, it is not governed by the interjection, but by some word understood ; as, “ Oh my [that is, Oh my hard lot\ ! ” “ Oh dear me \_x>ity dear me ] ! ” Parsing form. — Fie ! are you still abed? Fie is an interjection, implying contempt. EXERCISE. Parse each word : — Farewell, vain hopes ! — Hist ! I hear a noise. — Bravo ! such an effort deserved success. — What ! art thou really here? Well-done! — Off! begone! a slan- derer is beneath contempt. — O grave, where is thy sting ? — Ah ! that deceit should steal such gentle shapes ! — Alas ! the heavy day ! — Hallo ! who goes there ? LESSON LXVIL The seventeen Rules of Syntax that have been given under the different parts of speech, are now presented together for convenience of reference. Rule I. — A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case. Rule II. — A substantive used independently is in the nominative case. 96 BULES OF SYNTAX. Bule III. — A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case. Bule IY. — A substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case. Bule V. — A modifying substantive, denoting time, direc- tion, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the objective case without a preposition. Bule YI. — One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. Bule YII. — A verb that has no object tabes the same case after as before it, when both words refer to the same person or thing. Bule YIII. — A relative agrees with its antecedent in person and number. Bule IX. — An article relates to the word whose mean- ing it limits. Bule X. — An adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. Bule XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Bule XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands inde- pendently in the sentence. Bule XIII. — Participles are used independently, or re- late to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or limit. Bule XIY. — A substantive which, in stead of being modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put in the possessive case. Bule XY. — An adverb relates to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the sentence. ELLIPSIS. 97 Rule XVI. — A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other word or words in the sentence. Rule XVII. — A conjunction connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence. EXERCISE. Parse each word : — “ Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ; Wait the great teacher, Death ; and God adore. What future bliss, He gives not thee to know, But gives that hope to be thy blessing now. Hope springs eternal in the human breast ; Man never is, but always to be, blessed : The soul, uneasy and confined from home, Rests and expatiates on a life to come.” LESSON L XVIII. What is Ellipsis ? Ellipsis is the omission of words essential to the construction, though not to the sense. What is said of words omitted by ellipsis ? They are said to be understood . They must be supplied in parsing, to explain the government, agree- ment, or relation of the words expressed. EXERCISE. Parse each word . In the Tcey sentences , the words under - stood are supplied within brackets : — As [it] regards harbors, Denmark is well provided. — As far as concerns the dodo, it has become extinct within two centuries. — Goldsmith was more lavish of his money, when he had it, than was prudent. — Buy no more furniture than [what] is needed. 9 98 ELLIPTICAL PARSING. The poor [persons] are often happier than tlie rich. — Tt is base to be [a] dishonest [person], — Whose [property] is this apple? Arthur’s. — Call at the doctor’s [office]. — Stop at Johnson’s and buy [for] me some flour. — Give [to] me your hand. — You should offer the lady your seat. — When did he depart this life ? He saveth [him] whom He will [save]. — Whom He loveth, He chasteneth. — It is labor enables us to enjoy rest. — [Go] On, my gallant boys ! — Away to your places. — Some men prize honor more than [they prize] gold. — Air is 827 times (obj. case, according to Rule Y.) lighter than water [is ], — I am going ; [I wish you] good evening. — Good-by ! success to you! — Milton’s poetry is more sublime than Virgil’s. LESSON L X I X . What is a Sentence ? A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense. As regards their meaning, how are sentences divided ? Into four classes ; Declarative, Interrogative, Im- perative, and Exclamatory. What is a Declarative Sentence ? A Declarative Sentence is one that declares some- thing ; as, “ The wind blows.” What is an Interrogative Sentence ? An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a ques- tion ; as, “ Does the wind blow ? ” What is an Imperative Sentence ? An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission, and contains a verb in the imperative mood ; as, “ Let the wind blow.” CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 99 What is an Exclamatory Sentence ? An Exclamatory Sentence is one that exclaims something ; as, “ How the wind blows ! 55 With what do imperative sentences often commence ? With the verb let . With what do exclamatory sentences often commence ? With the pronominal adjective what or the adverb how ; as, “ What a fearful spectacle ! ” u How bright the stars are ! ” EXERCISE. Form fire declarative , five interrogative , five imperative, and five exclamatory sentences , containing the following ex- pressions in order : — 1. Fine fruit. 2. Facilities for travel- ling. 3. A good memory. 4. Very rapidly. 5. Brick houses. — 6. Have you studied? 7. Who are disobliging. 8. Love of money. 9. Dark clouds. 10. Travelling so far. — 11. Let us. 12. In peace. 13. A habit of grumbling. 14. Wet grass. 15. Stale bread. — 16. How beautiful. 17. What a privilege. 18. To obey one’s parents. 19. Pleasant dreams. 20. A waste of time. LESSON L XX. What is the Grammatical Subject of a sentence ? The Grammatical Subject is the leading word, de- noting that about which something is said. By what is the grammatical subject sometimes modified ? By words that limit or explain its meaning, or in- troduce some additional fact. Of what does the Logical Subject of a sentence consist ? The Logical Subject consists of the grammatical subject and its modifiers. 100 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. What is the Predicate of a sentence ? The Predicate of a sentence is what remains after the logical subject is removed. Give examples of these definitions. “ Seven metals were known to the ancients.” Metals is the grammatical subject. Seven modifies it, and therefore seven metals is the logical sub- ject. Were known to the ancients is the predicate. How can some sentences be divided ? Into two or more parts of equal rank, having each a subject and predicate of its own. Such parts are called Members. What is the difference between Compound and Simple Sen- tences ? Sentences that can be divided into two or more members, are called Compound Sentences. Those that cannot be so divided, are called Simple Sentences. “ All are of the dust.” This sentence expresses one thought, and can not be divided into two or more members. It is therefore simple. If we join to it another member, with or without a con- junction, we make the sentence compound. Thus : — “ All are of the dust, and all turn to dust again.” A verb is sometimes understood in the predicate of one or more of the members of a compound sentence ; as, “ Honesty is the best policy, and temperance [is] the best physic.” How do we distinguish compound sentences, when their mem- bers are all of the same class ? When the members are all declarative, we call the sentence Compound Declarative ; when all interroga- tive, Compound Interrogative ; when all imperative, Compound Imperative ; when all exclamatory, Com- pound Exclamatory. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 101 What do we call a sentence whose members are of different classes ? A Compound Sentence with Dissimilar Members. “ Cast thy bread upon the waters ; for thou shalt find it after many days.” This is a compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first member is imperative ; the second is declarative. Forms. — How slow yon tiny vessel ploughs the main ! A simple exclamatory sentence. The grammatical subject is vessel. The logical subject is yon tiny vessel. The predicate is how slow ploughs the main . Be just and fear not . A compound imperative sentence. The first member is be just ; its grammatical and logical subject is thou understood ; its predicate is be just. The second member is and fear not, connected with the first member by the conjunction and ; its grammatical and logical subject is thou understood ; its predicate is fear not. Boast not thyself of to-morrow ; for thou lenowest not what a day may bring forth. A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first mem- ber, boast not thyself of to-morrow, is imperative. Its grammatical and logical subject is thou understood ; its predicate is boast not thyself of to-morrow. The second member, for thou Jcnowest, &c., is declarative, and is connected with the first member by the con- junction for. Its grammatical and logical subject is thou \ its predicate is lenowest not what a day may bring forth. EXERCISE. Treat the following sentences according to the above forms : — Great oaks from little acorns grow. — A soft answer turneth away wrath ; but grievous words stir up anger. — Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee. — How precious are the passing moments, and yet how few appreciate their value ! — Obey thy parents, and comply with all their wishes. — Uneasy rests the head that wears a crown. 102 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. LESSON L X X I . What sentences alone are compound ? Such as can be divided into two or more members, each having its own subject and predicate. Does the introduction of a compound subject or a compound predicate necessarily make the sentence compound ? It does not. A sentence may contain a compound subject or a compound predicate, and yet be simple. A simple sentence may contain a compound subject, — that is, two or more grammatical subjects connected by a conjunction or not ; as, “ Time and tide wait for no man.” A simple sentence may contain a compound predicate, — that is, one that has two or more parts of equal rank ; as, “ Time destroys cities and overthrows empires A simple sentence may contain both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, “ Adam and Eve | disobeyed God an. forfeited Paradise How many principal parts has every sentence ? Every simple sentence and every member of a compound sentence has at least two principal parts, — the grammatical subject and the leading verb. “The summer sun burns fiercely.” The gram- matical subject sun and the leading verb burns are the two principal parts. When does a third principal part appear ? 1. If the leading verb has an object, this object constitutes a third principal part. “The summer sun burns up the grass.” Here there are three principal parts, — sun, burns , and the object grass. 2. If the leading verb has no object, but is fol- lowed by a substantive in the nominative case, this substantive, called the Predicate Nominative, forms the third principal part. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 103 cc The sun is the great source of heat.” Here are three principal parts, — sun , is, and the predicate nominative source . 3. If the leading verb has no object, but is fol- lowed by an adjective belonging to the grammatical subject, this adjective, called the Predicate Adjective, forms the third principal part. “ The summer sun is hot.” Here are three princi- pal parts, — sun , is, and the predicate adjective hot . Forms. — London and Paris are the largest cities of Eur ope. A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subjects London and Paris , the leading verb are , and the predicate nominative cities. Alexander and Caesar had an untimely end • and Napoleon* s fate was not much better . A compound declarative sentence. The first member is Alex- ander and Gcesar had an untimely end. The second member is and Napoleon's fate was not much better. The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subjects Alexander and Caesar, the leading verb had , and its object end. The principal parts of the second member are the grammati- cal subject fate , the leading verb was , and the predicate adjective better. EXERCISE. Treat the following sentences according to the above forms: — Worth makes the man. — Homer, Virgil, and Mil- ton, are the three great epic poets. — From how many evils do temperance and self-restraint save us! — To die for one’s country is glorious. — Do not patience and perseverance always triumph? — Love produces love, and hate engenders hate.— Be cautious; avoid every appearance of evil. 104 CLAUSES. LESSON L X X II. By what may the principal parts of a sentence be modified ? By single words, adjuncts, and clauses. What is an Adjunct ? (See page 89.) What is a Clause ? A Clause is a subdivision of a sentence containing a verb, but not expressing a complete thought. Name the seven principal kinds of clauses. Substantive, Relative, Participial, Adverbial, Causal, Comparative, and Hypothetical Clauses. What is a Substantive Clause ? A Substantive Clause is one that performs the part of a noun ; as, “ The fact that we must all die should be constantly kept in mind.” What is a Kelative Clause ? A Eelative Clause is one that contains a relative pronoun expressed or understood ; as, “ Moses is the meekest man [that] we read of in Scripture” What is a Participial Clause ? A Participial Clause is one that contains a parti- ciple ; as, “ Figures, when well chosen, embellish dis- course.” What is an Adverbial Clause ? An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the part of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or manner ; as, “ When Columbus discovered America, it was inhabited by Indians.” What is a Causal Clause ? A Causal Clause is one that expresses the purpose or end for which anything is or is done ; “ Boys go to school, to study and improve their minds” ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 105 What is a Comparative Clause ? A Comparative Clause is one that contains as or than followed by the latter of two terms compared ; as, “ Virtue is as rare as it is admirable .” What is a Hypothetical Clause ? A Hypothetical Clause is one that expresses a sup- position or something conceived as possible ; as, “ If I were you , I would try.” What is a Vocative Expression ? A Vocative Expression is a substantive used inde- pendently, with its modifiers, thrown into a sentence like an interjection, without modifying any particular word ; as, “ Spirit of peace, still hover over us ! ” Forms. — '‘Tis not the fairest form that holds the purest soul. A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject it, the leading verb is, and the predicate nomi- native form. The leading verb is is modified by the adverb not. The predicate nominative form is modified by the article the , the adjective fairest, and the relative clause that holds the purest soul. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject that, the leading verb holds, and its object soul, which is modified by the article the and the adjective purest. Where can you go, 0 doubter, to find comfort ? A simple interrogative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject you and the leading verb can go. The leading verb can go is modified by the adverb where and the causal clause to find comfort , consisting of the infinitive to find and its object comfort. 0 doubter is a vocative expression. We know that the eloquence of Demosthenes was more impassioned than that of Cicero . A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject we and the leading verb know . 100 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. The leading verb know is modified by the substantive clause that the eloquence , &c., connected with it by the conjunction that. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject eloquence , the leading verb was, and the predicate adjective impassioned. The grammatical subject eloquence is modified by the article the and the adjunct of Demosthenes. The predicate adjective impassioned is modified by the adverb more ; and more is itself modified by the comparative clause than that of Cicero, connected with it by the conjunction than. The principal parts of this comparative clause are the grammatical sub- ject that (modified by the adjunct of Cicero), and the leading verb was understood. EXERCISE. Treat the following sentences according to the dboxe forms : — Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? — Csesar, whose bravery has never been questioned, refused a challenge from Mark Antony. — When you have done wrong, my children, be not afraid to admit it. — To do good to the living is better than to eulogize the dead. — Thousands at once flocked to California, to try their fortunes in that favored land. — How few who merit the world’s applause, receive it ! LESSON LX X III. What is meant by the Base of a sentence ? The Base of a sentence is the part that expresses the leading idea. 44 Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? ” Who shall decide is the base. What is meant by a Quotation, or Quoted Sentence ? A word or passage taken, or represented as taken, from some writer or speaker. What is meant by Analyzing a sentence ? Resolving it into its simple parts. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107 In analyzing a sentence, what must be done ? In analyzing a sentence, state its class ; select its principal parts; tell by what words, adjuncts, or clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers are themselves modified, resolving adjuncts into the words that compose them, and clauses into their prin- cipal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is com- pound, treat each member in turn as just described. Fokms of analysis. — Intense cold produces a de- sire for sleep , which, if indulged in, results in death . A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the gram- matical subject cold , the leading verb produces , and the object desire.. The grammatical subject cold is modified by the adjective intense. The object desire is modified by the article a and the adjunct for sleep , consisting of the preposition for and its object sleep. The object sleep is modified by the relative clause ivhich , if indulged in,, results in death. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject which and the leading verb results. The subject which is modified by the hypothetical clause if indulged in, consisting of the conjunc- tion if and the participle indulged (modified by the adverb in).. The leading verb results is modified by the adjunct in death, con- sisting of the preposition in and its object death. If travellers tell the truth, woman is always hu- mane ; even in savage lands she is gentle and hind to those who need her aid. A compound declarative sentence. The first member is if travellers tell the truth, woman is always humane. The second member is even in savage lands she is gentle and kind to those who need her aid. The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject woman, the leading verb is (modified by the adverb always),, and the predicate adjective humane . 108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. The base of the first member is modified by the hypothetical clause if travellers tell the truth. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject travellers , the leading verb tell , and the object truth , modified by the article the. The principal parts of the second member are the grammatical subject she , the leading verb is ) and the predicate adjectives gentle and kind. The predicate adjectives are modified by the adjunct to those, consisting of the preposition to and its object those , which is itself modified by the relative clause who need her aid. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject who, the leading verb need, and the object aid, which is modified by the possessive her. The base of the second member is modified by the adjunct in savage lands, consisting of the preposition in and its object lands, which is modified by the adjective savage ; and this adjunct is itself modified by the adverb even. JBion used to say , “ Know thyself? A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject Bion and the leading verb used. The leading verb used is modified by the infinitive to say, which is itself modified by the quoted sentence know thyself The quoted sentence know thyself is simple imperative. Its principal parts are the grammatical subject thou understood, the leading verb know, and the object thyself. EXERCISE. Analyze, according to the above forms, the sentences in the Exercise under Lesson LXX., also the following : — Let justice he done, though the sky fall. — The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion. — Were it not for the numerous enemies that are constantly destroy- ing them, serpents would prove a serious annoyance to man. — “ O Autumn,” writes Bryant, “ why so soon depart the hues that make thy forests glorious ? ” [Here Bryant is the grammatical subject, and writes the leading verb.] CORRECTION OF FALSE SYNTAX. 109 LESSON LXXIV. FALSE SYNTAX. Specimens of the most common grammatical errors are now presented for correction. Give the reasons for each alteration, according to the models. After correcting the sentences, analyze and parse them. Divide into lessons of convenient length. 1. Do not put a substantive that is the subject of a verb or is used independently, in the objective case. Model. — Can you run faster than me ? Corrected : Can you run faster than I? Me must be changed to /, the nominative case, because it is the subject of can run understood. Correct : — Him and me are to start to-morrow. — Who dropped that book ? Not me, but her. — Whom do you think has arrived ? — Them that are industrious generally succeed. — Few have been so fortunate as us? — Jane is taller than him or me. — Them that have ears to hear, let them hear. — We have no fears, thee being our guide. — Who would have thought of its being him ? 2. Put a modifying substantive that implies pos- session, origin, or fitness, in the possessive case. See that the apostrophe is properly used (as shown on page 27). Model. — Charles’ reign; mens’ lives. Corrected: Charles’s reign ; men’s lives. Correct : — St. Josephs Church ; womens’ shoes ; Musaeus’ poems; four months residence; misses dresses; Rufus’ father; All Saints Church ; three hours journey; the marchioness jewels; Tacitus’ works; the childrens’ books. — Who’s hat is that? It is neither his’n, her’n, nor yourn. 3. When there are several modifying substantives, they are all in the possessive case. If they modify different nouns, give each the sign of the possessive. 10 110 CORRECTION OF But, if they modify the same noun, give it to the last only. Model. — I have bought Andrews’ and Stoddard’s Latin Gram- mar, and Worcester and Webster’s Dictionary. Corrected : I have bought Andrews and Stoddard’s Latin Grammar, and Worcester's and Webster’s Dictionary. The possessive sign must be omitted after Andrews\ because but one grammar is referred to; it must be annexed to Worcester , because two dictionaries are referred to. Correct : — Henry and George’s farm are on opposite sides of the river. — What was the name of Adam’s and Eve’s youngest son ? — What is the distance between White and Lee’s store ? 4. Put the object of a verb or preposition in the objective case. Model. — Who can I trust? Corrected: Whom can I trust? Who must be changed to whom ) the objective case, because it is the object of the verb can trust. Correct : — He who the world admires most is not always the most worthy of admiration. — He sat behind you and I. — Who did Mr. Ray leave his property to ? — Tell whoever you send to be careful. — Who did you say that you saw ? — Between you and I, I suspect your friend. — How many Pharaoh’s have you read of? 5. Do not introduce a preposition to govern the object of a transitive verb. Model. — Consider of my offer. Corrected: Consider my offer. Consider being a transitive verb, the preposition must be omitted. Correct : — I do not wish for any more. — Do you recollect of walking down Broadway last week ? — Different men pursue after different objects. — She will not allow of any interference. — His ser- vants we are, to whom we obey. — There are many good men at whom the world ridicule. — Do not doubt of my desire to do you good. 6. In using the passive of such verbs as offer, allow , &c., be sure to make the right substantive the subject. Model. — Thrice was Caesar offered the crown. Corrected: Thrice was the crown offered Caesar. Crown , being the thing offered, should be made the subject. FALSE SYNTAX. Ill Correct : — He was tendered a free passage. — We are sometimes told strange stories. — The clerk is allowed a handsome salary. — Arnold was promised £10,000 and the rank of brigadier-general. — They have been granted leave of absence. 7. See that a pronoun in apposition with a noun is put in the same case as that noun. See that a substantive following a verb without an object is put in the same case as the substantive before the verb. Model. — We went to see Florence Nightingale, she who did so much good in the Crimea. Corrected: We went to see Florence Nightingale, her who did so much good in the Crimea. She must be changed to her , to be in the objective case, because it is in ap- position with the objective Florence Nightingale . Correct : — There are few bolder travellers than Livingstone, him who explored the interior of Africa. — If I were her, I would act with more dignity. — Have you read the life of Grace Darling, she who saved so many ship-wrecked persons ? — We feared it was him. — Did you suppose it to be she ? — None of us could guess whom he would turn out to be. — It was my brother you saw, not me. 8. See that a pronoun agrees in number and gender with the substantive for which it stands. Model. — As you have broken the tongs, you must get it mended. Corrected : As you have broken the tongs, you must get them mended. It must be changed to them , the plural number, because tongs, the substantive for which it stands, is plural. Correct : — Many a young man forgets the lessons that their mother taught them. — Every one should be considered innocent till they are proved guilty. — That heifer seems to have lost his way. — Nobody knows what may befall them to-morrow. — On that occasion each singer did their best. — I have mislaid my spectacles ; help me find it. — What do you do with your ashes ? I sell it. 9. See that a verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Model. — The distance of the fixed stars are incredible. Cor - 112 CORRECTION OF reded: The distance of the fixed stars is incredible. Are must be changed to is, to agree with its subject distance , in the third, singular. Correct : — What are the news ? — Ashes mixed with salt makes a strong cement for iron pipes. — Was you not present at the acci- dent ? — Well, says I to myself, she dare not touch on that subject. — Captain H., with his whole company, have arrived. — Too much study on abstract subjects fatigue the mind. — Three days’ journey on such roads are enough to tire any one. — Every teacher have their own notions on grammar. — He may say what he choose. — Each of our public officers have their favorites. — What is oats selling for ? — Codrus is one of the noblest kings that is mentioned in history. — The phenomena of the atmosphere is well worthy of attention. — Many a merchant have failed to succeed from a want of punctuality. 10. Substantives connected by and expressed or understood are said to be taken together . A pronoun or verb agreeing with two or more singular substantives taken together, must be put in the plural. Model. — Milton’s and Byron’s poetry is entirely different in its style. Corrected : Milton’s and Byron’s poetry are entirely different in their style. Is must be changed to are, and its to their, to agree in the plural with poetry understood (after Milton's) and poetry ex- pressed, two singular substantives taken together. Correct : — Of what use is learning and eloquence, if it is never turned to practical account ? — Indifference, contempt, persecution, has too often been the fate of genius. — What advantage is rank and wealth to such a character ? — To deny one’s self and to re- lieve others is enjoined on every Christian. — Virgil’s “and Homer’s epic has ever commanded for itself the admiration of the world. — Hope and the consciousness of integrity has ceased to comfort me. 11. If the substantives connected by and represent the same person or thing, put the verb and pronoun agreeing with them in the singular ; as, “ The physi- cian and surgeon on the corner has closed his office.” FALSE SYNTAX. 113 Correct : — Where is your friend and cousin ? I have not seen them to-day. — Hope, and hope alone, are my support. — Religion, and nothing but religion, are able to console us. 12. Substantives are taken separately , 1. When preceded by each , every , or no, whether connected by and or not. 2. When connected by and not, if not , as well as, but , or, or nor . A pronoun or verb agreeing with two or more singular substantives taken separately, must be put in the singular. Model. — J ames, as well as his brother, have injured themselves by pursuing this course. Corrected : James, as well as his brother, has injured himself by pursuing this course. Have injured must be changed to has injured , and themselves to himself \ to agree in the singular with James and brother taken separately. Correct : — Neither lead nor iron are so heavy as gold. — Not only France, but England, have committed themselves to this policy. — Caesar, as well as Pompey, met their death at the assassin’s hands. — Either the mate or the captain have lost their reckoning. — It was Saul, and not Jonathan, that killed themselves. — Each day and each hour have their duties. — Every man, every child, are able to do some good to their fellow creatures. — No word, no sigh, were heard. — Simplicity, or rather folly, are stamped on his face. 13. If one of the substantives connected by or or nor is plural, the verb or pronoun must be plural ; as, “ Neither England nor the French are satisfied.” Correct : — Neither glory nor riches can make its possessor happy. — Either my eyes or this type is very bad. — Neither knife nor scissors is in its place. — Either the horse or the cattle has been in the garden. 14. Use that as a relative, not who or which, 1. When both persons and things are referred to; as, “Look at the artists and masterpieces that ancient Greece produced.” 114 CORRECTION OF 2. When who is the antecedent ; as, u Who that hates his brother can love God ? ” 3. After a superlative ; as, “ Hannibal was the deadliest enemy that Rome ever had.” 4. After same , all, and the adjectives very and no / as, “ He is the same that he always was.” Correct : — All the wagons and drivers which were on the road, were captured. — Tell was one of the purest patriots whom we read of in history. — All which glitters, is not gold. — Who who has a feeling heart, can listen to this story unmoved ? — The least which we have a right to expect, is your sympathy. — No prince who breathes, is happier than I. 15. Place the relative with its clause immediately after its antecedent ; as, “ Those who break the law deserve punishment ” — not , “ Those deserve punish- ment who break the law.” Correct: — The birds are not always the sweetest singers, that have the gayest plumage. — Those can not govern others, who can not govern themselves. — Many are careless in selecting their friends, who use great caution in selecting their horses. — Speeches are not much liked by the people, that are full of learned allusions. 16. Use this and that w r ith singular nouns only, these and those only with plurals. Never say this here or these ’ ere , that there or those 'ere. Correct : — These sort of people are dangerous acquaintances. — Whose is this here scissors ? — Those kind of shoes are good enough. — That ’ere fence must come down. — Empty out that suds. — What are these news I hear ? 17. Comparatives and superlatives must not be further compared ; nor should the adverbs more and most be used with them. Correct : — The fartherest route ; a more superior position ; in a worser condition ; the most straitest sect of our religion ; a more clearer style ; much more better off. FALSE SYNTAX. 115 18. Do not compare adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea of comparison, or use with them more, most, less, least, so, or any adverb of degree. Correct : — The chiefest beauty ; a delusion so universal ; the least perfect of the photographs ; a more preferable office ; the truest assertions ; so infinite a number ; a more complete course ; the freest institutions ; the supremest folly. 19. In comparing two objects, use the comparative degree; in comparing more than two at once, the superlative. Model. — W hich is the smartest of the two brothers? Cor - reded : Which is the smarter of the two brothers ? Smartest must be changed to smarter , the comparative degree, because only two objects are compared. Correct : — Which is the greatest, a fathom or a cubit ? — Flax, wool, and cotton, are all important staples, — particularly the latter. — George is the youngest of my two brothers. — Which looks to you the largest, the sun or the full moon ? 20. After the comparative degree, use other with the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the former, and only then . After the superlative, use neither other nor any with the latter term. Thus : — “ The Amazon is longer than any other river,” because the Amazon is a river. But, “ The Amazon is longer than any river in Europe ; ” not any other river , because the Amazon is not a river of Europe. So, after the superlative : “ The Amazon is the longest of all rivers ; ” not of all other rivers , or of any river . Correct : — Mercury is nearer to the sun than any of the planets. — Samson was the strongest of any man we have ever heard of. — London is the largest of any city in Europe. — Portions of the Bible are older than any writings extant. — The whale is the largest of any other fish. — Railroads develop a country more rapidly than any internal improvements. 116 CORRECTION OF 21. Do not use can , which implies ability, for may •, implying permission. Do not use am for have as the auxiliary of the perfect indicative, or was for had in the pluperfect. Avoid corrupt forms of the verb : such as, had have, for had, in the pluperfect; hadn't ought, for ought not ; had as lief, had rather, for would as lief would rather ; I'm a mind, for I have a mind ; arn't or aint, for are not ; moughtn't, for might not , &c. Correct : — I will let you go ; you can start next week. — Can I sit down ? — Those happy days are gone. — The Irish are sprung from the old Celtic stock. — The phantom was vanished. — They are already arrived. — I’m a mind to go ; but after all I had as lief re- main. — You hadn’t ought to eat unripe fruit. — Had Bliicher have been a little later, Napoleon might have gained the battle of Water- loo. — Arn’t you mistaken ? 22. The preposition for must not be used immedi- ately before the infinitive. “ He is trying hard for to enter college.” Correct by omitting for. Correct : — Cicero sent his son to Athens, for to finish his educa- tion. — Many have risked their lives, for to make discoveries. — Strive for to cultivate a contented disposition ; for to possess this is better than to roll in wealth. 23. The sign to must not be separated from the rest of the infinitive by an adverb. “To faithfully represent this scene is impossible.” Say faithfully to represent this scene, or to represent this scene faithfully . Correct : — How pleasant it is to quietly sit by some river’s bank ! — Try to always deserve the esteem of your teachers. — To hastily read is generally to quite as hastily forget. 24. Omit to, the sign of the infinitive, after the verbs hear, make, and hid (meaning order), in the active voice ; let , in both voices ; dare (meaning ven- FALSE SYNTAX. 117 ture ), when not in the infinitive, participles, or com- pound tenses ; and see and feel, when transitive, in the active voice. “Hear it [to] thunder.” “Bid them sit down.” Correct: — Washington soon made the enemy to evacuate Bos- ton. — He bids all to come and to drink freely of the water of life. — We are bid relieve the unfortunate. — Bernadotte durst not to risk a battle. — Just see those boys to run. — Those boys were seen run down the hill. — Do you feel the lancet to prick you ? 25. Do not use the preposition of between the participle of a transitive verb and its object. Say by erecting statues , not by erecting of statues. When the , an or a , this, or that, is introduced before a participle, the latter becomes a noun and is followed by of; as, this erecting of statues. Correct : — Disciplining of raw recruits and making of good sol- diers out of them are no easy tasks. — The committing an error is no excuse for defending of it. — What sense is there in this follow- ing every absurd fashion ? — Adam was not punished for the eating an apple, but for disobeying of his Maker. — There are other forms of charity besides the mere giving money. 26. See that a substantive modifying a participle is in the possessive case ; as, “ Who first conceived the idea of the moon's [not moon] being inhabited ? ” Correct : — Who ever heard of a fat man plotting treason ? — Many savage nations have a tradition of the world having been overflowed by a deluge. — The idea of England joining such a league is preposterous. — There is certainly more danger of a child studying too little than too much. 27. In expressing a negation, do not use two nega- tives in the same clause or member ; as, “ I did not do nothing .” Change or omit one of the negatives : “I did not do anything ,” or “I did nothing.” 118 FALSE SYNTAX. Correct : — We never saw nothing like this. — Don’t say nothing to no one. — French is not so melodious nor majestic a language as Spanish. — Can you not obtain permission in no way ? — Don’t never put off till to-morrow what can be done to-day. 28 . Certain words must be followed by certain prepositions. Thus : — Accuse of; adapted to; arrive at or in; bestow on; confide, trust in; different from; dislike to; followed by; rid of; accom- panied, attended by a living object, with an inani- mate object. Correct : — Socrates was accused with corrupting the youth. — Be careful to whom you bestow your favors. — We know on whom we have trusted. — A dog’s-ear is quite different to a dog’s ear. — Try to rid yourselves from flatterers. — To what place did St. Paul next arrive ? — The king was attended with a large retinue. — Intemperance is attended by fearful consequences. — It is a fine edition, accom- panied by illustrations. — Crime is generally followed with remorse. — Canute was attended with his courtiers. LESSON LXXV. RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. Begin with a capital, I. Every sentence and every line of poetry. II. Proper nouns, proper adjectives, and titles of office and honor ; as, Eve, Italian, General Scott. III. Common nouns personified in a lively manner ; as, “ Then War waves his banner.” IV. Appellations of the Deity, and the personal pronouns Thou and He standing for His name. V. The first word of a quoted sentence, not intro- duced by that or any other conjunction \ as, Thomson says, “ Success makes villains honest.” PUNCTUATION. 119 VI. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the titles of books and headings of chapters. VII. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, articles, or paragraphs. VIII. The pronoun I and the interjection 0 . IX. Words denoting great events or eras, noted written instruments, and extraordinary physical phe- nomena ; as, the Creation, the Aurora Borealis. X. Letters standing for words ; as, JP. (?. LESSON L X X VI. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing written language by points, in order that the meaning may be readily understood. The Punctuation-points are as follows : — Period, . Semicolon, ; Interrogation-point, ? Comma, , Exclamation-point, ! Dash, — Colon, : Parentheses, ( ) Brackets, [ ] A period must be placed after every declarative and im- perative sentence, and every abbreviated word ; as, “ X. Y. stands for Xew York.” An interrogation-point must be placed after every inter- rogative sentence, member, and clause ; also, after the inter- jections eh and hey ; as, “ Has air weight ? ” An exclamation-point must be placed after every ex- clamatory sentence, member, clause, and expression ; also, after every interjection but 0 , eA, hey ; as, “ Alas ! how sad ! ” The colon, semicolon, and comma, are used between 120 PUNCTUATION. parts of sentences, and denote different degrees of separa- tion, — the colon the greatest, the comma the least. A colon is placed before an enumeration of particulars introduced by first , secondly , &c. ; also, before a quotation referred to by the words thus , these , following , as follows. A semicolon is generally placed between the members of compound sentences unless very short, before an enumera- tion of particulars when the names of the objects merely are given, and before as introducing an example. A comma sets off adjuncts and clauses not essential to the meaning of the sentence, when introduced between parts that are closely connected. It is also used to set off a noun in apposition modified by an adjunct or adjective. A comma is also placed between very short members of compound sentences ; also, after a logical subject ending with a verb, or consisting of parts which are separated by the comma ; also, before or introducing an equivalent. A comma is also placed after each word in a series of more than two that are the same part of speech ; or after each pair, if the words are taken in pairs. The dash is used to denote a break in the construction, a transition in the sentiment, a sudden interruption, hesita- tion, or an abrupt repetition. Parentheses are used to enclose words that explain or modify the main proposition, when introduced between parts that are closely connected. Brackets are used chiefly in quoted passages, to enclose corrections, observations, or words improperly omitted. The Apostrophe ( ’ ) denotes the possessive case of nouns, or the omission of a letter or letters ; as, men's , o'er. The- Hyphen ( - ) connects the parts of a compound word, or joins the syllables of a word divided at the end of a line. Quotation-points ( “ ” ) enclose words quoted, or repre- sented as employed in dialogue. «, K • 4 ~ * 'm fc., •* ® f r, * rs $ W