L I E) R.A FLY OF THE U N I VER.S ITY or ILLINOIS 031 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/aldensmanifoldcy10alde ALDEN'S Manifold Cyclopedia OF KNOWLEDGE AND LANGUAGE. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS VOL. 10. COSMOGRAPHY— DEBRY. NEW YORK : JOHN B. ALDEN, PUBLISHER. 1888. Copyright, 1888, BY THE ALDEN PUBLISHING COMPANY*. •ARGYLE PRESS, f>RINTING AND BOOKB^NtMNG, 24 A 26 WOOSTER 8T., N. Y. 051 /. /o SCHEME OF SOUND SYMBOLS FOE THE PE(mUNCIATION OF WOIJDS. iSbte.— (-) is the mark dividing words respelt phonetically Into syl- lables; ('). the accent indicating on which syllable or syllables the accent or stress of the voice is to be placed. m5Ss em^'Kepresenting the Sounds as SouJd^w^ok an^Mark., RCp'Sfing. "'^ for'Cnunclatln^'''' a... mate, fate, fail, aye mdt,fdt,fdl, d. d. . .mat, fat mat, fat. d. . .far, calm, father .far, kdm,fd'ther, d, ,. care, fair car, far. . .fall, laud, law fawl, lawd, law. €, . .mete, meat, feet, free met, met, fit, f re. 6. . .met, bed met, bed. e. . .her, stir, heard, cur .her, ster, herd, ker, I . . .pine, ply, height pin, pli, hit. i. . .pin, nymph, ability pm, nimf, d-bU'i-tl, 0. . .note, toll, soul not, tdl, sol. 6. . .not, plot .not, plot. * 6. . .move, smooth mov, smoth. 0. . .Groethe (similar to e in her). . .go'teh. ow. .noun, bough, cow nx)wn, how, how, oy . .boy, boil boy, boy I. u. . .pure, dew, few pur, du,fu. u. . .bud, come, tough biid, hum, tuf. t^. . .full, push, good ful, push, gud. u. . .French plume, Scotch guid. .plum, gild. c^.. .chair, match chdr,mdch. cA... German buch, Heidelberg, Scotch loch (guttural) boch, hi' del-berch, loch, g game, go, gun . . , gdm, go, gun. j judge, gem, gin .juj, jem, jm. k. . . king, cat, cot, cut king, kdt, kot, kut. s — sit, scene, cell, city, cypress, .sit, sen, sel, sit'%, si' pres. 5A.,.shun, ambition shun, dm-bish'un. ^A... thing, breath thing, breth. ^...though, breathe tho, breth. z zeal, maze, muse zel, mdz, muz. azure, vision dzh'er, mzh'un. ABBEEVIATIONS FSED IN THIS WOEK. ft., or adj. . . .adjective. A. B Bachelor of Arts. abbr abbreviation, abbre- viated. abl ablative. Abp Archbishop. abt about. Acad Academy. acc accusative. act active. A. D in the year of our Lord. ad. or adv. .adverb. aft after. Adjt Adjutant. Adm Admiral. Ag Silver (Argentum). agri agriculture. Al Aluminium. Ala Alabama. alg algebra. A. M before noon. A. M Master of Arts. Am Amos. Amer America, American. anat anatomy, anatomi- cal. anc ancient, anciently. An. M in the year of "^the vi^orld. anon anonymous. antiq antiquity, antiqui- ties. aor aorist, aoristic. Apr April. Ar Arabic. arch architecture. archaeol... archaeology. arith arithmetic. Ark Arkansas. art article. artil artillery. AS. or A. Sax . Anglo-Saxon. As Arsenic. Assoc Association, asst assistant. astrol astrology. astron astronomy. attor attorney. at. wt atomic vreight. Au Gold (Aurum). A. U. C in the year from the building of Rome. Aug August. aug augmentative. Aust Austrian. A. V authorized version (of Bible), 1611. avoird avoirdupois. B Boron. B Britannic. b. . born. Ba Barium. Bart Baronet. Bav Bavarian dialect. bl., bbl barrel, barrels. B. C before Christ. B. C. L Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D Bachelor of Divinity. bef before. Belg Belgic. Bi Bismuth. biog biography ,biograph» ical. biol biology. B. L Bachelor of Laws. Bohem. Bohemian. bot botany, botanical. Bp. Bishop. Br Bromine. Braz Brazilian. Brig Brigadier. Brit British, Britannica. bro brother. Bulg Bulgarian. bush bushel, bushels. C Carbon. c century. c city. Ca ...Calcium. Cal California. Camb Cambridge. Can Canada. Cant Canterbury. cap capital. Capt Captain, Card Cardinal. carp carpentry. Catal Catalonian. Cath Catholic. caus causative. cav.. cavalry. Cd Cadmium. Ce Cerium. Celt Celtic. Chal Chaldee. chem. chemistry, chemical chh church. Chin Chinese. Chron Chronicles. chron chronology. CI Chlorine. Class Classical ( = Greek and Latin). Co Cobalt. Co Company. CO county. cog cognate, cognate with, ABBREVIATIONS. Col Colonel. Col Colossians. Coll College. colloq colloquial. Colo Colorado. Com Commodore. com commerce. comp., compare. compar comparative. conch conchology. cong congress. Congl. Congregational. conj conjunction. Conn Connecticut. contr contraction, con- tracted. Cop Coptic. Cor Corinthians. corr corresponding. Corn Cornish. Cr Chromium. crystal crystallography. Cs Caesium. ct cent. Cu Copper (Cuprum). cwt a hundred weight. Cyc Cyclopaedia. Cym Cymric. D Didymium. D. or Dut.... Dutch, d died. d. (1. s. d.)... penny, pence. Dak Dakota. Dan Daniel. Dan Danish. dat .dative. dau daughter. D. C District of Columbia D. C. L Doctor of Civil (or Common) Law. D. D Doctor of Divinity. Dec December. dec declension. def definite, definition. deg degree, degrees. Del Delaware. Del Delegate, Delegates Dem Democratic. Dep Deputy, Deputies. dep deponent. dept department. deri V derivation , deriva- tive. Deut Deuteronomy. dial dialect, dialectic. diam diameter. Die Dictionary. dim diminutive. dist district. distrib distributive. div division. doz dozen. Dr Doctor. dr ...dram, drams. dram drama, dramatic. d wt pennyweight. dyn dynamics. E Erbium. e east, eastern. E., Eng English. Eccl Ecclesiastes. eccles ecclesiastical. ed edited, edition, edi- tor. e. g for example, Egypt Egyptian. elect — electricity. Emp Emperor. Encyc Encyclopaedia. engin engineering. engr engraving. entom entomology. env. ext. . . . c envoy extraordi- nary. ep epistle. Eph Ephesians. Epis Episcopal. eq equal, equals. equiv equivalent. Est Esther. estab established. etc and others like. Eth Ethiopic. ethn ethnography, eth- nology. et seq and the following, etym etymology. Eur European. Ex Exodus. exclam exclamation. Ezek Ezekiel. Ezr Ezra. F Fluorine. f father. Fahr Fahrenheit. Fe Iron (Ferrum). Feb February. fern feminine. fig figure, figuratively. Finn Finnish. Fl Flemish. Fla Florida. for foreign. fort fortification. Fr French. fr from. f req frequentative, Fris Frisian. ft foot, feet. fut future. G Glucinium. Ga Gallium. Gael Gaelic. Gal Galatians. gal gallon. gal V galvanism,galvanic Gen General. Gen Genesis. gen. or genit genitive. Geo. Georgia. geog geography. geol geology. geom geometry. Ger German. Goth Gothic. Gov Governor. govt government. Gr Grand. Gr Greek. gr grain, grains. gram grammar. H Hydrogen. h hour, hours. Hab Habakkuk. Hag Haggai. H. B. M His (or Her) Britan- nic Majesty, ABBREVIATIONS. Heb Hebrew, Hebrews. her heraldry. Hg Mercury, Hydrar- gyrum. hhd hogshead, hogs- heads. Hind Hindostanee, Hin- du, or Hindi. hist history, historical. Hon Honorable. hort horticulture. Hos Hosea. Hung Hungarian. hydros hydrostatics. I Iodine. I., Is Island, Islands. i., or in tran. intransitive. Icel Icelandic. ich ichthyology. Ida Idaho. i.e that is. HI Illinois. illus illustration. Imp. . Imperial. imper imperative. nnperf imperfect. impers impersonal. In Indium. in inch, inches. incept inceptive. Ind Indiana. ind indicative. indef indefinite. Indo-Eur Indo-European. inf infantry. inf infinitive. int interest. intens intensive. interj interjection. introd introduction. lo Iowa. Ir Iridium. Ir .Irish. Iran Iranian. irr irregular. Is Isaiah. It.. Italian. Jan January. Jas James. Jer Jeremiah. Jn John. Josh Joshua. Jr Junior. Judg Judges. Jul July. K Potassium (Kalium) K Kings (in Bible). k king. Kan Kansas. Kt Knight. Ky Kentucky. Jj Latin. Ii Lithium. 1. (1. s. d.) . . . . pound, pounds (sterling). La Lanthanium. La Louisiana. Lam Lamentations. lang language. lat latitude. lb., lib pound, pounds (vreight). Lett Lettish. Lev Leviticus. L. G. . Low German. Lieut Lieutenan t. Linn Linnaeus, LinnaeiU lit literal, literally. Lith Lithuanian. L. L Late Latin, Low Latin. LL.D Doctor of Laws, Ion longitude. M Monsieur. m mile, miles. M. A Master of Arts. Mace Maccabees. mach machinery. Mag Magazine. Maj Major. Mai Malachi. manuf manufactures. Mar March. masc masculine. Mass Massachusetts. math mathematics, math- ematical. Matt Matthew. M. D Doctor of Medicine. Md Maryland. Me Maine. mech ..mechanics, me- chanical. med medicine, medical. Med. L Mediaeval Latin. mem member. mensur mensuration. Messrs. or MM Gentlemen, Sirs. metal metallurgy. metaph metaphysics, meta- physical. meteor meteorology. Meth Methodist. Mex Mexican. Mg Magnesium. M. H. G Middle High Ger- man. Mic Micah. Mich Michigan. mid middle (voice). milit military. min minute, minutesi. mineral mineralogy. Minn Minnesota. Min. Plen. ..Minister Plenipotenf tiary. Miss Mississippi. Mile. Mademoiselle. Mme Madam. Mn Manganese. Mo Missouri. Mo Molybdenum. mod modern. Mont Montana. Mr Master (Mister). Mrs Mistress (Missis). MS. , MSS Manuscript, Manu- scripts. Mt Mount, mountain. mus music. Mus. Doc Doctor of Music. myth mythology, mytho- logical. N .Nitrogen. N Norse, Norwegian, n north, northern, northward. ABBREVIATIONS. n noun. Na Sodium (Natrium). Nah Nahum. nat natural. naut nautical. navig navig^ation. Nb Niobium. N. Car North Carolina. Neb Nebraska. neg negative. Neh Nehemiah. neut neuter. Nev. .: Nevada. N. Ham New Hampshire. N. H. G New High Ger- man. Ni Nickel. N. Jer New Jersey. N. Mex New Mexico. N. T., or N. Test New Testament. N. Y New York. nom nominative. Norm Norman. North. E . . . Northern English. "Nov November. Num Numbers. numis numismatics. O Ohio. O Oxygen. Chad Obadiah. obj objective. obs., or t ...obsolete. obsoles obsolescent. O. Bulg Old Bulgarian. Oct October. OE Old English. OF. or O. Fr.Old French. O. H. G Old High German. Ont Ontario. O. Prus Old Prussian. Or Oregon. ord ordnance. orig original. ocnith ornithology. Os Osmium. O. Sax Old Saxon. O. T., or O. Test. . . .Old Testament. Oxf Oxford. ojB ounce, ounces. P Phosphorus. p., pp page, pages. p., or part. . .participle. paleon paleontology. pari parliament. pass passive. pathol pathology. Pb Lead (Plumbum). Pd Palladium. pejor pejorative. Penn Pennsylvania. Per Persic or Persian, perf perfect. pers person. persp perspective. Peruv Peruvian. Pet Peter. Pg Portuguese. phar pharmacy. Ph.D Doctor of Philoso- phy. Phil Philippians. Fhilexn. . .Philemon. philol philology, philo- logical. philos philosophy, philo- sophical. Phen Phoenician, photog photography. phren phrenology. phys physical,physiology physiol physiology, physi- ological. PI Plate. pi plural. PI. D Piatt Deutsch. plupf pluperfect. P. M after noon. pneum pneumatics. P. O Post Office. poet poetical. Pol Polish. pol. econ — political economy, pop. population. poss possessive. PP pages. pp past participle. p. pr present participle, Pr Provencal. prep preposition. Presb Presbyterian. Pres President, pres present. pret preterite. prim primitive. priv privative. prob probably. Prof Professor, pro pronoun. pron pronunciation, pro* nounced. pros. prosody. Prov Proverbs. prov province, or provin- cial. Ps Psalm, Psalms. psychol psychology, pt pint. Pt Platinum. pub published, publish- er. pwt pennyweight, Q Quebec . qt quart. qtr quarter (28 lbs.)» qu query. K Rhodium. r., or riv river. Rb Rubidiuna q.v which see. Rom. Cath.. Roman Catholic. rec. sec recording secretary Ref Reformed. refl reflex. reg regular. rel. pro relative pronoun. rep representation. Rev Revelation. Rev Reverend. Rev. V Revised Version. rhet rhetoric, rhetoricaL R. I Rhode Island. Rom Roman, Romans. r.r railroad. Rt Right. Ru Ruthenium. Rua. « . .^.^ . .Eussiau. ABBREVIATIONS. r.w railway. B Sulphur. B second, seconds. B shilling, shillings. S. or s south, southern, southward. Sam Samuel. Bax Saxon. Bb Antimony (Stibi- um). Sc.. Scotch. Bcand Scandinavian. B. Car South Carolina. Bcr sciniple, scruples. Scrip Scripture, Scriptu- ral. Bculp sculpture. Be Selenium. sec secretary. sec section. Sem Semitic. Sep September. Berv Servian. Si Silicon. sing singular. sis sister. Skr Sanskrit. Slav Slavonic, Slavic. Sn Tin (Stannum). Soc Society. Song Sol .... Song of Solomon. Sp Spanish. Bp. gr specific gravity. Bq square. Br Senior. Sr Strontium. Bt Saint. Bt street. Btat statute. B. T. D Doctor of Sacred Theology. Bubj subjunctive. suf suffix. Buperl superlative. Supp Supplement. Supt Superintendent. surg surgery, surgical. Surv surveying. Sw Swedish. sym .symbol. syn synonym. Syr Syriac. t town. tr transitive. Ta. . Tantalum. Tart Tartar. Te Tellurium. technol technology. teleg telegraphy. Tenn Tennessee. terr territory. term termination. Teut Teutonic. Tex Texas. Th Thorium. theol theology, theolog- ical. Thess Thessalonians. Ti Titanium. Tim Timothy. Tit Titus. Tl. .. Thallium. toxicol toxicology. trigon trigonometry. Turk Turkish. typog typography, typo- graphical. U Uranium. Unit .Unitarian. Univ Universalist. Un iv University. U. Presb. ...United Presbyters an. U. S United States. Ut Utah. V Vanadium. V verb. Va Virginia. var variety (of species). Vt Vermont. V. 1 verb intransitive. vill village. viz namely. V. n verb neuter. voc vocative. vol volume. vols volunteers. V. tr verb transitive. W Tungsten (Wolf- ram). W Welsh. w west, western, , westward. Wash Washington. Wis Wisconsin. wt weight, W. Va West Virginia. Wyo Wyoming. Y Yttrium. yd yard. yr year. Zech Zechariah. Zeph Zephaniah. Zn Zinc. zool zoology, zoological. Zr Zirco nium. Manifold Cyclopedia. COSMOGRAPHY, n. koz-mog'rd-fl [Gr. kosmos, the world; grapfio, I describe, I write of: F. cosmograpMe]: a description of the world or universe; the science which treats of the several parts of the universe, their laws and re- lations, and therefore comprehends geography, geology, and astronomy. Cosmog'kapher, n. -ra-fer, one who describes the world or universe. Cos'mogkaph ical, a. -mo-graf i-kdl, COS MOGRAPH ICALLY, ad. -U. COSMOLABE, n. koz'mo-ldb [Gr. kosmos, the world; lambano, I take]: instrument for taking the angles between the heavenly bodies and their height. It was nearly the same as the astrolabe. COSMOLATRY, koz moV a-tri [kosraos, the world; latreiay divine worship] : the w^orship of the world. In some cases it might rest on a foundation of pantheistic belief. COSMOLOGY, n. k6z-mvl'6-ji [Gr. kosmos, the world; logos, a discourse: F. cosmologie]: science (or rather specu- lation) as to the system oi the universe and the nature of the world and material things; used sometimes in same sense as Cosmogony (q.v.). Cosmol'ogist, n. one who writes of. Cos'molog'ical, a. -mb-loj'i-kdl. Cos'molog'ically, ad. COSMOMETRY, n. koz-mom' et-ri [Gr. kosmos, the world; metron, a measure] : the science which measures the world. COSMOPLASTIC, a. koz'md-plds'm [Gr. kosmos, the world; ^te^^ to, plastic] : world-forming; pertaining to the formation of the world. COSMOPOLITAN, n. koz'md-pbl'i-tdn, or Cosmop'o- LiTE, n. -mbp'6-Ut [Gr. kosmos, the world; polltPs, a citizen: F. cosmopolite]: one w^ho is at home everywhere; a citizen of the world. Cos mopol'itanism, n. -md-p6l' l-tdn-izm, cit- izenship cf the world. COSMORAMA, n. koz'md-rd'md [Gr. kosm/>s, the world; {h)ordma, a view] : an optical exhibition in which objects are represented vividly, and greatly enlarged in size; a diorama. Cos moram'ic, a. -rdm'ik, pertaining to. COSMOS, n. koz'mos [Gr. kosmos, order, harmony, the world or universe] : the world or universe, comprehending our globe and all things therein, and the whole celestial COSMOSPHERE— COSSACKS. bodies; the universe — so named from the perfection of its arrangement, and its system of laws: see Cosmogony. Cos- mic, a. which see. Microcosm, n. man as an epitome of the universe in the different parts and qualities of his nature: see Microcosm. COSMOSPHERE, n. hoz'mo-sjer: an instrument for repre- senting, though of necessity very imperfectly, the relative position of the earth with regard to tlie stellar ' firmament.' COSMOTHETIC, a. koz-ino-thet lk [Gr. kosmos, the world; thetes, one who places]: believing in the existence of matter, but at the same time denying that the external world has any existence except in our own mental conception. COSNE, A;o7i.* town of France, dept. of Ni^vre, on the right bank of the Loire, here crossed by a suspension- bridge. It has iron manufactures. Pop. 6,000. COSSACKS, n. plu. kos'sdks [Russ. kozake, said to be a Tartar word meaning ' vagabond ': Tartar, kasak, a cava- lier]: in Russia, military tribes guarding the s. and e. fron- tiers of the Russian empire — very skilful as horsemen: a race whose origin is scarcely less disputed than that of their name. The latter has been variously derived from words meaning, in radically distinct languages, *an armed man, a sabre, a rover, a goat, a promontory, a coat, a cas- sock, and a district in Circassia.' The C. are by some held to be Tatars, by more to be of nearly pure Russian stock. The most probable view is that they are of very mixed origin. Slavonic settlers seem to have mingled with Tatar and Circassian tribes in the regions s. of Poland and Mus- covy, in the Ukraine and on the lower Don; and to have given to the new race, first heard of as Cossacks in the 10th c, a predominantly Russian character. On the con- quest of Red Russia by Poland, numerous Russian refu- gees fled to the Cossack country; and more on the Tatar conquest of Muscovy. The numbers of the C. were also recruited from time to time by adventurers or fugitives from Poland, Hungary, Walachia, and elsewhere; but in phy- sique, as in language and religion, the C, have always been mainly Russian. They distinguished themselves in war against Turks and Tatars, and were known as a powerful military confederacy in the 15th c. The kings of Poland and the czars of Muscovy employed them largely to defend their frontiers, especially against nomadic neighbors; but the connection between the C. and their lords paramount was always very elastic, and was frequently repudiated to suit the convenience of either party. The C. are still the outposts of Russian authority towards Siberia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus, Living near, or as ' free Cossacks ' among, hostile peoples, the C. developed their peculiar military organization — either forming a cordon of military settlements along the confines of occupied territory, or as isolated camps in the nomad country be^^oud. Agricul- ture they eschewed; self-reliance and readiness at all times for defense or assault w^ere their chief characteristics; though such of them as inhabited the banks of the Don and Dnieper, and their islands, became and stUl are skilful 2. COSSET— COSTA. boatmen and fishers. Their political constitution was com- pletely democratical; all offices were elective for one year only; and every Cossack might be chosen to any post, in- cluding the supreme one of Attaman or Hetman. This organization they have in great measure retained, though the office of Hetman was abolished hy the Emperor Ni- cholas, except as a title hereditary in the imperial family. There have been two main branches of the C. — the Malo- Russian and the Don C. To the first belonged the Zapor- ogian C, those dwelling near the Pmvgi or falls of the Dnieper. From them again are descended the Tscherno- merian C, those of the Kuban Valley and of Azov. From the Don C. spring those of the Volga or of Astrakhan, of the Terek Valley, of Orenburg, of the Ural, and of Siberia. They furnish a large and valuable contingent of light cavalry to the Russian army, and are very patient of fa- tigue, hunger, thirst, and cold. The Don C. give name to a province with an area of nearly 60,000 sq. m.; population over a million, of whom 20,000 are Kalmucks. Though the C. have generally been represented in the west of Europe as little better than fierce savages, they have left a very favorable impression on those who have dwelt among them. Jonas Hanway found them in 1743 'a civilised, and a very gallant as well as sober people;' and many more recent travellers agree in asserting that the C. are in intel- ligence, cleanliness, refinement, and enterprise greatly the superiors of the average Russians. See Springer, Die Kosacken (1877), Wallace Mackenzie's Russia (1877), and an article in the Geograjilitcal Magazine for 1878. COSSET, n. h'ls'sH [It. casiccio, a lamb bred by hand — from casa, a cottage]: a lamb brought up by hand; a pet Iamb: V. to fondle. Cos seting, imp. Cos'setted, pp. 'Se-ted. COSSIMBAZAR, kos-sim-ha-zdr' (Cossim's market): town on the Bhagirathi, which is the first or most westerly offset of the Ganges. It is the river port of Moorshedabad. It was formerly famous for its silk manufactures. Pop. about 4,000. COS'SUS: see Goat Moth. COST, n. kdst [OF. coste7\ and covster, to stand one in, to cost — from L. constdre, to stand together, to consist, to cost: It. costare, to cost: comp. Gael, cosd or cosg, to spend]: the price or value of a thing; expense; charge; expense of any kind; paiu; suffering: V. to be had at a price; to be bought for; to require to be given, laid out, bestowed, or employed; to cause to bear or suffer. Cost'ing, imp. Cost, pt. and pp. Costs, n. plu. law charges. Cost ly, a. -Uy of a high price; expensive; sumptuous. Cost liness, n. expensive- ness. Cost less, a. without cost. Cost-free, a. free of cost or charges. — Syn. of 'cost, n.': value; worth; loss; detriment. COSTA, n. kbs'ta [OF. coste, a side— from L. costa, a rib, a side]: a rib; the mid-rib. Cost^, n. plu. kos'te, in hot,, the prominent bundles of vessels in the leaves; inzool., the rows of plates which succeed the inferior or basal portion I COSTA— COSTARDMOKGER. of the cup among Crinoidea; vertical ridges on the outer surface of tbecae among corals. Costal, a. kos'tdl [It. cos- tale; F. costal, costal]: pertaining to the sides or ribs of the body. Cost ATE, a. Ms tat, or Cos tated, a. ribbed; in hot., applied to leaves which have a single rib. COSTA, kos'td, Isaac da: poet and religious writer. 1798, Jan. 14—1860, Apr. 28; b. Amsterdam. His parents were Portuguese Jews, who had settled in Holland. In his twentieth year, C. acquired the degree of doctor at law; and shortly afterward embraced Christianity and was bap- tized. This subjected him to considerable persecution, which, however, subsided as his genius gradually gained recognition. The most interesting of his writings to the Engtish-speaking public are probably his translation of Byron's Cain, hi^ Israel and the Gentiles, and Harmony of the Gospels, the last two of which have been translated into English. As a public lecturer, C. specially excelled. His Battle of Nieuwpoort, the last of his poems, is one of his masterpieces. COSTA, Sir Michael: 1810, Feb.— 1884, Apr. 29; b. Naples: popular musician and composer. As he early showed talent for music, he was sent to the Conservatoire in his native city for education, where he greatly distinguished himself. In 1829, his fame, though he was then but 19, having reached England, he was invited to take part in the Birmingham Musical Festival ; and being well received, he resolved to settle in England. In 1832, he was appointed conductor of the music at the King's Theatre, London, an office which, in 1847, he resigned for a similar one in the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden. His great work, the oratorio Eli, produced at the Birmingham Festival 1855, raised him to eminence as a composer. Naaman, tirst sung in Birmingham, 1864, was a great success. From 1857 on- ward, he conducted at the Handel Festival. He was knighted by the Queen, 1869; and in the same year received an order from the king of WUrtemberg, in token of his majesty's admiration of Eli. C. was the author of several ballets, and of some operas, the most successful of which was Don Carlos. As a composer, he holds a respectable place in the second rank. COSTARDMOKGER, n. kos'terd-mung'ger — now spelt Cos'termon'ger, n. kos'ter- [OE., costard, Si largle nipple, and monger] : one who sells fruit, fish, or vegetables in the streets of a town in a barrow or small cart. Cos tard, n. in OE., the head; a largle apple. COSTA RICA. COSTA BICA, kos'td rekct: most south-easterly state of Central America; occupying the entire breadth from sea to sea between Nicaragua and New Granada; n. lat. from 8° to 10^ 40', w. long, from 83' to 85°; 19,976 sq. miles. The surface of C. R. is occupied chiefly by mountains, plateaux and valleys. Both the e. and the w. coasts have a general n.w. and s.e. direction, but they differ considerably in character. Along the Caribbean Sea the coast is bordered by a narrow plain, is indented by creeks and small bays, and its chief harbor is Port Matina. The w. coast is much more broken. At its s. extremity is the Gulf of Dulce; fur- ther n. is Port Montas and beyond that is the bay formed by the Rio Estrella. The Gulf of Nicoya some distance n. has a wide entrance, but becomes narrower inland, is 70 m. long, affords good shelter for shipping, and contains several isl- ands. The Punta de Arenas on the e. side of the gulf has an excellent harbor and is the port of San Jose, the capital. Another good harbor on this coast is the Punta Culebra, formed by the rocky headland, Punta Catalina. The mount- ains belong to the Cordilleras range, and contain many vol- canic peaks of considerable height. While the general ele- vation of the range is 5,000-6,000 ft., Turrialba rises 12,500 ft, Blanco, 11,740, Cartago, 11,400, Chiriqui, 11,265, and Los Yotos 9,840. Toward the Caribbean Sea the descent is for the most part abrupt, but terminating 20-30 m. from the sea; toward the Pacific the descent is more gradual, while the highland advances much nearer to the sea and de- scends to it in a series of terraces. The n.e. extremity of the country subsides gradually into the plain of Nicaragua. The most important river of C. R. is the San Juan, w hich issues from the s.e. extremity of Lake Nicaragua, and from that point to its outlet in the Caribbean Sea forms the boundary between the republics of C. R. and Nicaragua. Among the numerous rivers which enter the Caribbean Sea are the Ma- tina, the Purissima, and the Tortuga; the chief of those falling into the Pacific are the Estrella, the Arena, and the Baranca. The climate of C. R. is on the whole more regu- lar and healthy than in other parts of Central America. There is a dry season Nov. to Apr. , and a wet season through the remainder of the year. The thermometer seldon" rises above 85° or falls below 65°. The soil is of varied qiiality, but in many parts very fertile. Large quantities of timber, especially Brazil-wood, mahogany, and cedar are exported. Tn the w. and n.w. portions, wheat, maize, sugar, and coffee are abundantly grown; fruits and vegetables are prolific; sheep thrive on the tableland, swine in the low districts, and cattle along the San Juan. In minerals, rock crystal and placer gold are found in the Cuesta Blanca; onyx in Pacaca; amethysts in the Colorado salines and the Barbudal Mountain, where there is also handsome jasper; opals in Candelaria; labradorite in the mountains n. of Raicero; Kaolin in San Ramon; lime for cement in Candelaria; phos- phate of lime in San Antonio; and iron ore on the coast at Sardinal. C. R. is divided into six provinces, San Jose, Car- ago, Heredia, Alajuela, Punta de Arenas — with capitals of the same name, and Guanacaste, cap. Liberia. The chief 6 COSTA KICA. cities are San Jose, on the elevated tableland, 9° 46' n. lat., 84'' w. long.; a modern city, 4,500ft. above the sea; Cartago, at the base of the volcano of that name, 16 m e. by s. of San Jose; formerly the capital; almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake 1841; and Alajuela, about midway be- tween San Jose and Punta de Arenas. The govt, of the republic, prescribed by the constitution of 1859 and the amendments of 1871 and 82, is vested executively in a pres. elected for a term of four years, and legislatively in a con- gress composed of a senate and chamber of representa- tives, comprising two senators from each province and one representative for every 10,000 inhabitants. The con- gress is chosen in electoral assemblies, whose members are elected by the votes of all persons of age who are able to support themselves. The judicial authority is represented by a court of justice at the capital, composed of a court of common pleas, a court of appeals, and a supreme court; besides which each parish has a judge known assijuizdepar- tido. The financial condition of the country is steadily im- proving. The reports of the minister of finance for 1884 showed: amount outstanding of 6 per cent, loan of 1870, $4,706,000, overdue interest $2,823,600; amount outstanding of 7 per cent, loan of 1872, $7,301,000, overdue interest $5,365,875; total funded debt $20,196,475. In 1886, Feb., the reported total consolidated foreign debt £2,000,000; do- mestic debt $873,826. During the fiscal year ending 1886, Mar. 3, the national income was $3,200,065. In 1887, June, the foreign debt was reported at the same figure as 1886, and the domestic at $527,819. The income of the fiscal year was $2,888,752, nearly $200,000 in excess of the esti- mate, and the expenditures $2,772,315. The govt, relieved itself of an annual loss of $48,000 on the central and Atlan- tic sections of its railroad by renting them to a London syndicate which agreed to finish and operate them. During the fiscal year 1886-7 the imports amounted to $4,562,- 727, an increase of more than $1,000,000 over the previous year. The exports 1885 were $3,296,508; 1886 $3,225,807. The trade with the United States (1886) showed imports valued at $898,045, and exports $548,215; (1887) imports $1,409,516, exports $703,930. During the summer of 1887 arrangements were effected for running eight steamships per month from Port Lam on to the United States to convey plantains; and the time previously allowed a corporation to complete arrangements to establish a line of steamships between Port Lamon and New Orleans or New York was extended to 1888, Jan. A renewed interest in the progress of education is now being taken both by the people and the govt. In 1886, Jan. there were 115 primary public schools for boys, and 101 for girls. The children of school age numberered 32,306, of whom 17,026 were boys and 15,280 girls; the school attendance was 13,413, boys 7,355, girls 6,058. There were also 86 private primary schools, with 1,861 students; The school tax in the six provinces amounted to $24,489. In 1887, Jan. the number of primary public schools had increased to 138, with 278 teachers, and an at- tendance of 14,478 children. In that year the govt, an- 9 COSTEANING— COSTER. nounced its willingness to defray the whole expense of the technical education in the United States of eight boys and two girls as an experiment, and with the hope of thus secur- ing superior native talent for teachers. There is a univ. at San Jose, with profs, of Latin, Spanish, English, French, mathematics, civil engineering, and architecture. Cartago, Heredia, and Alajuela are similarly provided. Each chief town has a central or high school, and the primary schools are judiciously distributed among the villages, towns, and cities. The state religion of C. R. is Rom. Cath., but there is a complete tolerance of other forms. C. R. was discovered b}^ Christopher Columbus, 1502, while on his fourth voyage to the new world. He anchored in the harbor of San Juan, made several landings, and because of the numerous specimens of gold found on the coast named the place La C. R. y Castilla de Oro. It was included in Guatemala and held as a province of Spain till 1821, Nov., when it became a part of the Mexican empire of Iturbide. In 1823, it united with Guatemala, San Salva- dor, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the territory of Mosquitia in forming the Central American confederacy, and main- tained this relation till 1840, when it withdrew and pro- claimed itself an independent republic. It adopted a con- stitution 1847, was recognized by Spain and negotiated a treaty with her 1850, declared war against the American filibuster, William Walker, pursued him into Nicaragua and helped to force his surrender to the U. S. naval authorities 1856, and joined Guatemala, Honduras, and San Salvador in a treaty for the creation of a Central American union 1872. Pop. (1872) 167,000; (1874) 185,000; (1885) 193,144; (1886, Dec. 31) 196,280. COSTEANING, n. kos-ten'mg : in mining, the act or operation of sinking shallow pits at intervals, and driving headings at right angles to the general course of the veins, for the purpose of discovering ore. COSTELLO, kos-tel'o, Louisa Stuart: 1815-70: Eng- lish authoress. Her first production, at least of any note, was Specimens of the Early Poetry of France (1835), but it was as a tourist she gained the greatest popularity. The works in which she describes her travelling- trips are-yl Summer Among the Socages and the Vines (1840); A Pilgriin- age to Auvergne, etc. (1842); Beam and the Pyrenees (ISM); The Falls, Lakes, and Mountains of North Wales (1845); and A Tour to and From Venice by the Vaudois and the Tyrol (1846). Miss C. also wrote several novels, the principal of which are The Queen-mother (1841), and Jacques Coeur, the French Argonaut (1847). In 1853, she published a work professedly historical, eniit]ed Monoirs of Mary, the Young Duchess of Burgundy; and in 1855, another of the same kind, Anne of Brittany. COSTER, kos'ter, Laukens Janszoon, according to the Dutch, the inventor of printing: abt. 1370-1439; b. Haar- lem. The time of the invention ascribed to him must have been 1420-26. C, at first for his own amusement and the iftstructiou of his grandchildren, cut letters out of the bark COSTER. of the beech-tree, which he inverted, and employed to print short sentences. Afterward, he discovered a more glutinous kind of ink, which did not spread in using, and succeeded in printing with it entire pages with cuts and characters. He also replaced his wooden types by types cast out of metal, at first using lead for this purpose, after- ward pewter which he found harder and more suitable. C, for a time, worked in secret, because, he being a sacris- tan, his art, if known, would have brought him into un- pleasant collision with the manuscript-writing clergy, whose productions he tried to imitate, even to the abbre- viations; thus his name did not appear on the productions of his press. As custom increased, C. had to take appren- tices; and one of them, a German, Johann, making use of the confusion occasioned by C.'s death, is said to have pur- loined the greater part of his master's types and matrices, and to have tied to Mainz, where he brought the hidden art to light. The Johann was probably Johann Gansfleisch, a member of the Gutenberg family. Such, at least, is the history of the invention of printing as given by the Dutch, and which they support by the testimony of Hadrianus Junius, historian of the states of Holland, who, in his ac- count of the discovery, states that, at the time he wrote, C.'s descendants were in possession of drinking-cups made out of the remains of the types which C. had used. More- over, a celebrated printer of Cologne, Ulrich Zell, deceased about 1500, is said to have declared ' that Gutenberg his master, had derived his art from Holland, after the model of a Donatus printed there.' Kow, a Donatus of C.'s time still exists; it was produced 1740 by Johannes Enschede, also a celebrated printer of Haarlem; and no sooner had his discovery been made known in Meerman's Origines Ty- pograpliicce, than fragments of the same work appeared in such quantities, that no one could any more aver that this early monument of imperfect typography, mostly printed from indisputably Dutch types, had been struck off from Gutenberg's press. Gutenberg's works, even now, are models of impression; those ascribed to C., at first printed on one side only, are the first proofs of a beginner. Then, all the characters of the oldest Dutch printed books re- semble the Dutch handwriting of the first half of the 15th c , a proof of the independent nature of the attempts to- ward imitating manuscripts for sale. Other evidences are given by the Dutch that C. was the true inventor of print- ing; the most eminent advocates of his claims being Meer- man, Koning, Scheltema, Van Westreenen van Tiellandt, De Yries, Schinkel, Noordziek, Ebert, Leon de Laborde, Paul Lacroix, and Bernard. Yet the most thorough-going assault on the claims of C. and of Haarlem, as being foun- ded on local legends, was made 1870 by a Nethei-lander, A. von der Linde. In the town -house of Haarlem, the typographical remnants of the productions ascribed to C. are preserved. See Printing: and for the German ac- count of the invention, Gutenberg. As for C, his mem- ory still is held iu due honor by the town of his bi^th: tJtiQ COSTIVE— COSTS. site of his house is still pointed out with pride; and monu- ments to'his memory have been erected. COSTIVE, a. kbs'tiD [L. constipdre, to crowd closely to- gether — from con, stipdre, to cram : contracted from F. con- stipe, constipated, or It. costipativo, having a tendency to constipate]: bound or confined in the bowels. Cos'tiyely, ad. -li. Cos TiYENESS, n. nes, obstruction in the bowels, with hardness and dryness of the faecal matter: see Consti- pation. COSTLY, COSTLINESS: see under Cost. COSTMARY, kost'md-ri, [Gr. kostos; L. costus, an aro- matic plant, and Mary, the Virgin], {BaUamita vulgaris)-. aromatic perennial plant of the nat. ord. Compodtce, sub- ord. Corymbiferoi, native of the south of Europe, long cul- tivated in Britain for the agreeable fragrance of the leaves. It is often called Ale-cost. The root-leaves are ovate, of a grayish color, on long footstalks; the stem is 2 — 3 ft. high; the stem-leaves have no footstalk; the small heads of tlowers are in loose corymbs, deep yellow. The leaves were formerly put into ale and negus, and are still used by the French in salads. COSTREL, n. kos trel [mid. L. cosirellus, a wine-bottle]: in OE., a wine-bottle which could be suspended by its ears from the waist-belt; a laborer's drinking-bottle in harvest- time, made of wood. COSTRO'MA: see Kostroma. COSTS, in Law: expenses incurred in legal proceedings. As a general rule, the C. of the successful party are paid by the loser, but the rule is subject to important excep- tions, among which are the following: A party suing or defending in forma pauperis does not pay C. , though he is entitled to receive them if successful. Under a certain small amount, the decision as to costs in certain cases rests with the judge. A plaintitf who might have brought his action in a lower court, is not alwaj^s entitled to C. if he sues in the higher courts. A party who is successful in the main, and therefore entitled to the 'general costs,' may be unsuccessful upon some minor point, and therefore bound to pay the C. which belong properly to it. A party who has tendered the amount recovered, and who pays the sum into court, and pleads the tender, is not bound to pay costs. The payment of money into court in the course of an action relieves the party paying from C. of subsequent proceedings, if no greater amount be ultimately recovered. In Britain, the crown is now entitled to C, and bound to pay C. in the same way as a private suitor. In the United States, when the U. S. govt, is a party, it neither pays nor receives costs, except under a special statute. In equity, the giving of costs is entirely at the discretion of the court which, however, is exercised generally according to fixed principles. In criminal cases, the prosecutor's costs may be allowed by the judge. The statutes that give costs must always be construed strictly according to the letter. C. are taxed (i. e., the items allowed or disallowed) by the ofticer of the court appointed for the purpose. Whea COSTUME. so ascertained, they are, if in favor of the plaintiff, included in the amount for which judgment is given, if it be in his favor, and recovered as part of it. If they are in favor of the defendant, they are recovered as a judgment in his favor. C, in Scotland, are called expenses (q.v.): see also Audi- tor OF THE Court of Sessions. COSTUME, n. kos-tum' or kos'tum [It. and F. costume] : style of dress; the mode of dress peculiar to any people or age. Costumer n. kbs-tum'er, or Costum'ier, n. -i-er, one who makes and deals in fancy dresses.— Syn. of ' costume ': dress; attire; apparel; array; clothes; clothing; habit; gar- ment; vesture; vestment; raiment. COSTUME' : dress; another form of the word custom,and, in its wider sense, the external appearance which the life of a people presents at a particuler epoch of its history. In its narrower and more usual sense, C. signifies the custom, ary modes of clothing and adorning the person, in any particular age or country. In this sense, it includes the prevailing fashion in jewelry, weapons, and other personal equipments. In both senses, C. plays an important part in art. The poet, especially the narrative or epic poet, is compelled to resort to it as a means of carrying his reade? back into the age which he describes. Homer has it con stantly in view in narrating the exploits of his heroes? Among modern romance writers. Sir Walter Scott has in troduced the fashion of perhaps excessive attention tomero. external costume. But it is in art as presented to the eye, that C. becomes indispensable, and the loose and general treatment of it permitted to the novelist or the poet, is for- bidden to the painter, the sculptor, and the player. How sorely the sculptor has been tried by the wigs and breeches of former generations, and by the trousers, straps, hats, and other monstrosities of our own, no one needs be told. Two means, not of solving but of escaping from the dithculty, have been largely resorted to: one consists in departing from the modern dresf^ Stltogether, and reverting to the ancient toga; the other, in wrapping up the figure, as far as possible, in a cloak. The first of these devices is neither more nor less tbau a deliberate violation of what artists regard as the laws of C, by which they conceive them- selves bound to represent every object with its appropriate accessories; the second, besides being very often open in a lesser degree to the same objection, has the further disad- vantage of accomplishing its object very imperfectly. The v/isest course for the artist is boldly to face the dithculty. That he may do so successfully, many of the works of Ranch, Tieck, Thorwaldsen, Schadow, and others abun- dantly testify. In the earlier stages of art, an excessive at- tention to C. may generally be remarked, which though useless, and sometimes hurtful to artistic effect, has proved of great value for historical purposes. The tendency of the earlier schools of art to exhibit C. with an almost painful accuracy and minuteness, is exhibited in the works 10 COSTUS. of the older masters, both of the Italian and German schools. Even durmg the period of the highest bloom of Italian art, the medieval custom of representing historical, sacred, and ideal characters in the C peculiar to the time and country of the artist, was in a great measure adhered to. From Paul Veronese, Tintoretto, and others, we may learn the aspect which a marriage-feast in the palace of a Venetian or Florentine grandee presented, but can form little concep- tion of the C. of that simpler festivity in Cana of Galilee, or of that supper still less sensuous in Jerusalem, which they profess to represent. In the hands of the greater masters, these scenes assumed an ideal character; and in the works of Michael Angelo, Leonardo, and Raphael, C, though still exhibiting something of a native trace, rises into the highest regions of poetical conception. The ef- lort to avoid anachronisms by a previous historical and antiquarian study of the subject, belongs, indeed, almost entirely to the modern European schools of art, and many painters of late have devoted themselves to it to such an extent as almost to forget that it is a means, and not an end, except, indeed, to a mere painter of clothes. But it is in theatrical representations that attention to C, particularly in its narrower sense, becomes most imperative. When the stage, in Western Europe, commenced in the religious mysteries of the middle ages, the dress adopted was that which belonged to the time and the country. To this dress some fantastical object was generally added to indicate the character intended to be personated. The case remained thus during the time of Shakespeare in England, of Lope de Vega and Calderon in Spain, and even of Cor- neille, Kacine, and Moliere in France. Whether a Greek, a Roman, an Assyrian, or a Turk was represented, the ordi- nary court-dress of the time was adhered to, and the turban, the helmet, or the laurel-crown was placed on the top of the peruke or the powdered hair. In like manner, shepherdesses and peasant-girls had their hair dressed in turrets like feudal keeps, and long white kid gloves which covered their hands and arms to the elbow. Toward the middle of the 18th c, a reform was introduced by the famous actress Clairon, who acted Electra without hairpowder; but Talma was the first who introduced a C. really true to history. Garrick followed in the footsteps of the great Frenchman, though both he and Siddons, during their earlier period, personated Shakespeare's characters in 18th c. C. Schlegel's Hermann, and Goethe's Gotz xon BerlicMngen were the first plays given in Germany with historical costume. See Planche's Gyclopoedia of G. (2 vols. 1876-79), and Fairholt's C, in England (3d ed., 2 vols., 1885). COSTUS, or CosTUS Arabicus, kos'tus ar-ab'i-kus: aro- matic, much esteemed by the ancients, probably the dried root of Aucklandia Gostus, plant of the nat. ord. Gompositoe, sub-ord. GynarocepJialce; native of the moist open slopes surrounding the valley of Cashmere. The roots are there burned as incense. They have a strong aromatic pungent odor, and are used in protecting bales of shawls from moths, \\ OOSWAY— cOtE-D^OR. The name C. is also given to a genus of endogens, ord„ Zingiber acem. The roots of 0. specioms are used in India and elsewhere as a preserve. COS WAY, kos'wa, Richard: 1740-1821; b. Tiverton, Devonshire, England: noted painter in his day. Between his 14th and 24th year, he carried oif five premiums from the Soc. of Arts. As a miniature-painter, he was particu- larly famous, and gained all the patronage of the nobility of his time. His works, in fact, were the fashion, and all attempts at rivalry were useless. Many of them were dis- tinguished by great delicacy, correctness, and beauty, and his drawings were not unworthy of a place beside some of the old masters. The immense sums of money which he made enabled him to live in the most sumptuous style, and to give musical-parties (his wife on such occasions being the principal performer), so far surpassing all other efforts of the kind that they formed a feature of the time, and were attended by the rank, fashion, and intellect of that day. COSY, a. Wzi: see Cozy. COT, n. k(jt [Fin. koti, a dwelling-place; kota^ a mean house: Dut. kot, a hut]: a small house or cottage; a hut. COT, n. kot [Ger. zote, a cot, a lock of wool clung to- gether; kotze, a rough shaggy covering: prov. Eng. cot, a matted fleece of wool: mid. L. coitus, a rug, a rough cover- ing] : originally a mat of shaggy materials, then an inartificial sleeping- place, where a rug or mat may be laid down for that purpose; a small bed: a swinging bed-frame or cradle; a sleeping place in a ship, usually of canvass, stretched out on a wooden frame and holding a mattrass — the whole being slung from the rafters of the cabin. COTE, V. kot [F. cote, a rib, a shore or coast — from L. costa, a rib] : in OE., to coast or keep alongside; to pass or go by; to leave behind; to overpass. Cot'ing, imp. Coted, pp. kot'ed. COTE, n. kot [AS. cote; "W. ctctt, a cavity, a hovel: Gael. coit, a fishing-boat — lit., a shelter, as of an inverted coracle or fishing-boat] : a pen or shelter for animals, as sheep-cote, dove-cote; a cottage. COTE-D'OR, kot-dor': dept. in the e. of France, formed of part of the old province of Burgundy; lat. 46° 55' — 48^ 10' n., long. 4° 2'— 5° 30' e.; 3,350 sq. m. The surface is in general rather elevated, and is traversed by a chain of hills forming the connecting-link between the Cevennes and the Vosges, A portion of that range, called the Cote- d'Or golden slope receives its name (which it gives to the dept.) on account of the excellence of the wines pro- duced on its declivities: see Bukgundy Wines. A great part of the dept. is covered with forests. The valleys and plains are fertile, and there is good pasture-land; but agri- culture is in a backward state. C. is watered by the Seine, which rises in the n.w., and by several of its affluents; by the Saone, and by the Arroux, a tributary of the Loire. n COTEMPORANEOUS— COTES-DU-NORD. tl By means of canals, C. has water communication with the i German Ocean, Mediterranean, English Channel, and Bay ^ of Biscay. The climate is temperate; iron, coal, marble, j • gypsum, and lithographic stones are found, the first in large ' quantities. C. is divided into four arrondissements; viz., * Beaune, Chatillon-sur Seine, Dijon, and Semur, with Dijon for a capital.— Pop. (1881), 380,548. COTEMPORANEOUS, COTEMPORARY, etc.: see under Contemporaneous. CO-TENANT, n. kd-ten'dnt [con and tenant]: a tenant in common. COTERIE, n. kd'ter-e [F. coterie, a club, a society — from ^ mid. L. cotdriuSy a neighbor — from mid. L. cota, a cot] : a friendly party; a circle of familiar friends, particularly of . ladies; a select party. Note. — Littre connects coterie v^iih OF. coterie, servile tenure — from mid. L. coterid, a tenure of land by cottars who clubbed together: OF. cottier, a cot- V tar — from mid. L. cota, a cot. COTERMINOUS; see Conterminous. ^ COTES, kdts, Roger: 1682, July 10— abt. 1705; b. Bur- bage, near Leicester, England. He was the author of the admirable preface explaining the Newtonian philosophy, and answering objections to gravitation, prefixed to the second edition (1713) of Newton's Principia. Various i mathematical papers of his own, tending greatly to the development of logarithms, were published after his death. Short as his life was, his influence on mathematics is clearly i traceable. He was held in the highest esteem by the schol- ars and scientific men of his time; and Sir Isaac Newton is asserted to have said of him that, had he lived, ' we should have known something.' COTES-DU-NORD, kdt-du-nor' (northern coasts): dept. in the n.w. of France, forming a part of Bretagne, and bounded n. by the English Channel, in which are several small islands belonging to C; lat. 48^ 3 — 48° 57' n., long. 1° 53—3° 35' w.; 2,650 sq. m.; pop. (1881), 619,632. The Armoric Hills, called also the Montagues Noires, and the Menez Mountains, cross the dept. from e. to w. , having a breadth of about 16 m. , and consist chiefly of granite and clay-slate. These formations give a rude and broken aspect to the coasts. The chief rivers, short but navigable, are the Ranee, Gouet, Trieux, Guer, and Arguenon. The s. dis- trict has the advantage of a considerable length of the canal ' between Nantes and Brest. Though a great portion of the^ south and the higher plains is occupied by heath and woods,' there are, here and there, fertile spots; and in the north the influence of the neighboring sea is favorable to vegetation. The cultivation of flax and hemp, with pasturage and iron- I mining, supply employment in the mountainous districts; while in the sheltered valleys and on the coast-levels all European kinds of grain, with pears and apples and other fruits, are produced; and maize is cultivated, but does not always ripen. The coasts are well supplied with various 13 COTGARE— COTONEASTER. kinds of fish. The dept. is divided into the five arrondisse- ments of St. Brieuc, Dinan, Loudeac, Lannion, and Guin- gamp. The chief town is St. Brieuc. COTGARE, n. kot'gdr [Eng. refuse wool; prov. Eng. garCy accouterments]: refuse wool. COTHEN, or Kothen, Icoien: an ancient town in the duchy of Anhalt, on a tributary of the Saale. Sugar from beetroot is largely manufactured here; spirits are distilled; and there is a trade in wool and corn. Brown coal is found in the neighborhood. Pop. (1880) 16,155. COTHURN, n. kd-th em' J or Cothurnus, n. kd-ther'nus [L. cothurnus; Gr. kothornos, a high hunting-boot among ^ the Greeks]: among the anc, the buskin or boot worn by actors in tragedy, while the soccus or sock was a shoe worn by the comic actor; tragedy: see Buskin. Cothur'nal, a. tragic; solemn. COTICE, CoTTiSE, kot%s,OY Cost, kost, in Heraldry: one of the diminutives of the Bend (q.v.). COTICULAR, a. kd-tik'u-ler [L. coticula, dim. of cos, a whetstone]: pertaining to a whetstone; like a whetstone or suitable for it. CO-TIDAL LINES, ko-tl'dal: lines on a chart or map, showing the places of high tide at the same moment. COTILLIOK or Cotillon, n. ko-tWyun [F. cotillon, a little petticoat— from cotte, a petticoat] : a lively dance of French origin, engaged in by eight persons — so named be- cause petticoats were seen as the women danced. The quadrille which superseded it is only a new variety of the cotillion. COTINGA, ko-tm'ga (Ampelis): genus of birds of the family Ampelidm, or Chatterers (q.v.), having a rather feeble and deeply-cleft bill, and feeding both on insects and on fruits. They are natives of S. America, inhabit moist places, and are remarkable for the splendor of plumage of the males during the breeding-season. Azure and purple are then their prevalent colors. During the rest of the year, they are clothed in a tame gray or brow^n. COTLANDER, n. kbt'land-er: a cottager who keeps a horse for plowing his small piece of land. COTONEASTER, ko-tdn-e-as'ter: genus of plants of the nat. ord. Eosacece, sub-ord. Pomacew, having polygamous fiow^ers; a top-shaped calyx, with five short teeth; five small, erect petals; erect, short stamens; and a top-shaped fruit, the nuts of which adhere to the inside of the calyx, but do not cohere in the centre. The species are numer- ous, shrubs or small trees; some of them evergreen; with simple undivided leaves, more or less w^oolly beneath; small flowers in lateral cymes; and small fruit not agree- able to the palate, but the bright color of which, and its remaining on the tree in winter, make them very orna- mental. G. imlgaris is a deciduous species, a native of hills in Europe and Siberia. C. tomeniosa is found also in the 14 COTOPAXI— COTRONE. Alps. Most of the species are natives of mountainous parts of Asia; they are suthciently hardy for the climate of Britain, and have become there common ornamental shrubs. Some of them, as C. rotundifolia and G. micro- phylla — both from the north of India — are much planted for covering walls. COTOPAXI, ko-to-paks'e: loftiest active volcano in the world, is in Ecuador, in the e. chain of the Andes, abt. 50 m. s. of the equator. Humboldt gave the height at 18,800 ft. ; Reiss, the tirst to ascend it (1872) found it 19,500 ft. above the sea. The valley at its foot, however, is itself 9,000 ft. high. The upper part of C, a perfect cone of 4,400 ft. is entirely covered with snow, except that the verge of the crater is a bare parapet of rock. Whymper, who ascended 1880 to the edge of the crater, gives the height as 19,600 ft. Below the snow is a well-marked barren belt covered with lichens and shrubs, below w^hich again is torest. Smoke issues from the summit; sounds as of explosions are occa- sionally heard; and above, a fiery glow is often visible by night. Lava rarely flows even during eruptions, but flame, smoke, and immense volumes of ashes are then ejected; and when the heat melts large masses of the snow lying on the sides, destructive floods are occasioned in the valleys beneath. The first eruption recorded was in 1533. Others followed in 1698, 1743, 1744; and in 1768, most terrible of all. On the latter occasion ashes were carried 130 m., and thickly covered an extensive area. C. was quiet till 1851. In 1854, 1855, and 1856 there were erup- tions of more or less violence. COTQUEAN, n. kot'kwen {cot, a small house, and queaUy a woman: a probable corruption of cock-qucan =^ male- woman] : an effeminate man ; a man interfering in woman's concerns; a feeble womanly man. Note. — Wedgwood sug- gests, Dut. kutte; Fin. kiUta, the distinctiv features of a woman, as the etymology of cot in cotquean: in OE., cut is a term of abuse for a v/oman— hence Cutty: see under Cut 2. COTRONfi. ko trond: town of Italy, province of Catan- zaro, on a point of land projecting into the sea; lat. 39 7 n., long. 17° iO' e. Pop. above 7,000. It is almost sur- rounded by the Esaro (ancient ^sarus), which here has its embouchure. C. is very strongly fortified. Its streets are dark and narrow, and its port of no importance. C. posses- ses interest from its antiquity and historic associations. It owes its origin to a colony of Achgeans, as far back as B.C. 710, its ancient name being Croton or Crotona. It soon became prosperous, wealthy, and powerful. Its walls measured 12 m. in circumference, and the territory over which it extended its sway was considerable. Its inhabi- tants were celebrated for athletic exercises, and they car- ried off most of the prizes at the Olympic games. Milo w^as its most renowned athlete. Pythagoras settled here about the middle of b.c. 6th c; but the influence M^hich he exercised by means of a league of his formation, be- 15 COTSWOLD— COTTA. came obnoxious to the citizens, and he was expelled. About B.C. 510, C. sent forth an army oi above 100,000 men to fight the Sybarites, who were utterly defeated, and their city destroyed. The war with Pyrrhus completely ruined the importance of C, and B.C. 2d c. it had sunk so low, that a colony of Romans had to be sent to recruit its well-nigh exhausted population. It never recovered its prosperity. Some ruins of the old are near the modern city, the most important of which is a Doric column, part % of a once magnificent temple to Juno, on Cape Colonne or Nau (the Naus <^ the ancients). COTSWOLD, n. kois'wold [AS. cote, a hovel; wold, a wood]: inclosures for sheep in an open country; a breed of sheep. Cotswold Hills, or Coteswold, range of oolitic and lias hills, traversing the middle of Gloucester- shire, England, from Chipping Camden in the n.e., by Cheltenham and Strou-1, to near Bath in the s.w. They are parallel to the Avon and Severn, and separate the Lower Severn from the sources of the Thames. They are 54 m. long, and in some parts 8 broad, and cover 312 sq. m., with an average height of 500 to 600 ft. Thejiighest points are Cleave Hill, 1,134 ft., and Broadway Hill, 1,086 ft. The soil is a clayey loam, with gravel and stone- brash. The surface is generally bare, with little wood; corn, turnips, and sanfoin are grown, and coarse- woolled sheep fed on them. At Stroud, they are crossed by the Thames and Severn Canal, and the Swindon Junction railway. COTTA, kot'd: name of a very old German publishing- house, established at Tubingen 1649, and still one of the most flourishing in Germany. The family came from Italy about the beginning of the 15th century. JoHANN FiiiEDRiCH Freiherr VON C. was the most prominent member of the family, a theologian, and one of the most eminent publishers that Germany ever produced: 1764, Apr.27— 1832, Dec, 29; b. Stuttgart. He was educated at the Univ. of Tubingen, and for some time practiced as an advocate. In 1787, he undertook to conduct the family book-trade at Tubingen; and in 1795 established XheHoren, a literary journal, under the editorship of Shiller. In the same year, he commenced two larger periodicals, the Poll- UscJien Aniialen, and the Jahrhuclier der Baukunde. In 1798, he established the Allgemeine Zeitiing (at Augsburg, now published at Munich), the Almanack fur Damen, and similar works. C. now began to publish the works of the illustrious modern authors of Germany, such as Goethe, Herder, Fichte, Schelling, Jean Paul, Tieck, Voss, The- rese Huber, Matthisson, the Humboldts, Joh. von Miiller, and Spittler. Besides the periodicals already mentioned, C. established the MorgenUatt and the Liter aturblatt, and carried on the Kunstblatt, founded by Schorn. In 1810, he went to live at Stuttgart. The nobility of his family, which dated far back, was confirmed in his person under the title of Fi'eihen* C. von Cottendorf . In 1824, he intro- 16 COTTAGE— COTTIN. duced the first steam-press into Bavaria, and shortly after- ward founded at Munich the Literary and Artistic Insti- tute. C.'s political principles were liberal, but temperate. In the diet of Wiirtemberg, and afterward as pres. of the Second Chamber, he was always the fearless defender of constitutional rights. In manners, C. was simple and pure; and though covered with 'ititles and orders from dif- ferent governments, he had neither the pride nor the self- ishness of a hereditary patrician. The first Wiirtemberg proprietor who abolished servitude on his estates, C. also furthered the interests of his farmers by establishing model-farms, and by setting an example in all rural im- provements. COTTAGE, n. kot'tij [mid. L. cotdgmm, a serf's dwell- ing: Fin. koti, a dwelling place: AS. cotSj a hovel (see Cote 2)]: any small detached house; a small country house. Cot tager, n. -er, one who lives in. Cot ter, Cot tar, n. Mt'ter, and Cot tier, n. kot'yer, contractions for cot- tager. Cottage orne, or'nd [F. adorned, decorated] : a cottage of a superior and ornate character, the residence of one in good circumstances. Cottage-piano, n. a small upright piano. COT TAGE: small dwelling-house, detached from other buildings, and usually one story in height. Originally applied to a humble order of dwellings in the country, the term C. now embraces a wide variety of structures, from the cottage orne of the French, to the simple but not unat- tractive cabin in the English rural districts, and the moun- tain chalet of Switzerland. In England, where universal security enables the people to establish dwellings in retired and picturesque situations, the building of cottages has been brought to great perfection. For the different styles of this class of houses, see the elaborate work of J. C. Lou- don, on Cottage Architecture. The subject of proper C. accommodation, as regards the laboring peasantry of Eng- land and Scotland, has lately engaged serious attention: see papers in the Transactions of the National Assoc. for the Pro- motion of Social Science. The best methods of keeping cows, pigs, poultry, bees, etc., are ordinarily described under the comprehensive title of C. economy: see Cobbett's Cottage Economy; also Chambers's Information for the People. COTTBUS, or KOTTBUS, kot'hos: town of Prussia, province of Brandenburg, on the Spree, about 70 m. s.e. of Berlin. It is an ancient place, surrounded by walls, and it has an old castle with towers, a royal palace, a gymnasium, and manufactures of beer, woolens, linen, leather, and to- bacco. Pop. (1885), 28,265. COTTER, n. kbt'ter [a probable corruption of Cutter]: a wedge-shaped piece of wood or other material employed to fasten the parts of a structure; a key: see Gib. COTTID^, kot'tl-de: family of spiny-finned fishes; type. Coitus. COTTIN, kO'tang, Sophie: 1773-1807, Aug. 25; b. Ton- n COTTING— COTTLE. neins (Lot et-Garonne): popular French authoress. Her maiden name was Ristaud. Educated at Bordeaux, she was married, when only 17 years of age, to M. Cottin, a Parisian banker, who left her a widow at the age of 20. She had early shown a love of literature; and to cheer the solitude of her affliction (for she had no children), she be- took herself to the composition of verses, and even ven- tured on a long history. But in fiction she was destined to win unfading laurels. In 1798, appeared Claire d Albe; in 1800, Malmna; in 1802, Amelie Mansfield; in 1805, Ma- thilde; and in 1806, Elisabeth, ou les Exiles de Siberie, a work which has been translated into most European lan- guages, and has always been extraordinarily popular with the young. COTTING, John Ruggles, m.d., ll.d: 1787-1867, Oct. 18; b. Acton, Mass.: scientist. He was educated at Am- herst College, the medical school of Dartmouth College and Harvard Univ.; ordained a Congl. minister 1810, studied chemistry and the allied sciences, manufactured a line of chemical compounds never before attempted in this country, at Boston, 1812-15; was prof, of chemistry at Am- herst College and the Pittsfield Medical School; and, re- moving to Augusta, Ga., 1835, made an agricultural and geological survey of Burke and Richland cos. on the invi- tation of the leading cotton-planters. A copy of his report with the analyses of the cotton lands, and finely executed maps and drawings, w^as solicited by the emperor of Russia for the royal library. Subsequently he undertook a similar survey of the entire state, but had to desist from lack of funds. Among his published works are an IntroducUon to Chemistry/ {Boston, 1822), and Synopsis of Lectures on Geology (Trenton, 1825). COTTLE, kdt'l, Joseph: abt. 1774-1853; b. England: poet. In early life he was a bookseller, then became a publisher in Bristol, and brought out the first poems of Southey and Coleridge, 1796. Re was noted for his stead- fast friendship for those poets in their adverse days, as well as for his own poetical writings — Malwrn Hills, Alfred, and The Fall of Cambria, Reminiscences of Coleridge and Southey (1847), and various essays. Id COTTON. COTTON, n. kot'tn [F. coton; Sp. algodon; Arab. qoHon; prov. F. coutou, wool, flock, cotton]: a soft downy sub- stance resembling fine wool, consisting of hairs attached to the seeds of a plant grown in warm countries; the thread made from it; the cloth made from it; calico: Adj. made of or pertaining to cotton. Cottony, a. kot'tn-i, soft like cotton. Cotton-gin, -fin, a machine to separate the seeds from the cotton-wool. Cotton-plant, the various species of Gossyp'iam, ord. Malvdcem,i^YO(\\icmg the cotton of com- merce. CoTTON-PRESS, a prcss in which cotton is baled for transportation and storage. Cotton-thistle, the book- name for Onopordon, a genus of composite plants: see Thistle. COTTON, V. kot'tn [W. cyteno, to agree, to consent]: in OE., to agree; to succeed. Cot toning, imp. Cottoned, pp. kbt'tnd. COT'TON: important vegetable fibre, extensively culti- vated in various parts of the globe, within the 35th parallels of latitude. 1. Botanical and Commercial Classiflmtions. — C. is the produce of all the species of the genus Gossypium, which belongs to the nat. ord. Malvacem, and is thus allied to Mal- low, Hollyhock, Hibiscus, etc., the general resemblance to which is very apparent, both in foliage and in flowers. The species are partly shrubs, partly herbaceous, and either perennial or annual; they are natives of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America, but their cultivation has extended far into the temperate zones. They all have leaves with three to five lobes, which in a very young state are often sprinkled with black points, and rather large flowers, mostly yellow, but sometimes in whole or in part purple; the flowers very soon fall off; they grow singly from the axils of the leaves, and are surrounded at the base by three large, heart-shaped, cut or toothed, involucral leaves or bracts, partially growing together as one. The fruit is a 3-5-celled capsule, springing open when ripe by 3-5 valves, and containing numerous seeds enveloped in C, w^hich is generally white, but sometimes yellow, and issues elasti- cally from the capsule after it has burst open. The figure represents a species of C. plant found in India, and shows the manner in which the C. escapes from the capsule. Some of the other kinds have the flowers larger in propor- tion, and the leaves divided into more numerous and much deeper and narrower lobes; but the general appearance of all is very similar. Botanists differ in opinion as to the number of distinct species, and there are very many varie- ties in cultivation, the number of which, throuc:!! climatic in- fluences and other causes, is continually inereasinp:; but there are certain leading peculiarities on account of which some botanists and practical farmers rcckice all, at least of the cultivated kinds, to four primary species— viz., 1. Gossypium Barhadense; 2. G. Herbaceum or Indicum; 3. G. Peruvia- num; and 4. G. Arhoreum. The produce of the first species is the most valuable. The beautiful long-stapled silky wool known as ' Sea Island ' is a variety, and is grown exclu- 19 COTTON. sively upon the islands and a portion of the mainland of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida; the saline ingre- dients of the soil and atmosphere being indispensable elements of the growth. The plant bears a yellow flower, and the seeds are small, black, and quite smooth, and the wool is easily separated therefrom; but when sown far inland, away from the saline influences of the coast, the seeds increase in size, and become covered with innumera- ble short hairs. A large percentage of the crops raised in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, etc., are varieties of this species, though, owing to climatic influences, the wool is shorter in staple and less easily separated from the Cotton (Gossypium tricuspidatum). seeds than Sea Island. The commercial value of the latter kind varies from 25 cents to 75 cents per lb., rare speci- mens sometimes realizing |1.25 or |1.50 per lb. The better descriptions of Egyptian cotton belong to G. Barhadense, and bring 25 cents to 62 cents per lb. in the Liverpool market. The short-staple varieties, known as New Orleans, Mobile, etc., sell at from 10 to 20 cents, extra qualities sometimes bringing 25 cents per lb. G. herhaceum is found in India, China, Egypt, etc. The principal com- mercial varieties are those known as Surat, Madras, and short-stapled Egyptian. It is a small shrubby plant, bears a yellow flower, the seeds are covered wath short grayish down, and the staple produced, though not long, is very 30 COTTON. fine. Its price varies from 7 to 18 cents per lb. A variety is cultivated in the United States, and the C. known as nankeen is thought to belong to this species. G. herhaceum can be profitably cultivated in colder countries than any other species of C. plant. The third species is a native of S. America, and the ' green seed ' C. of the United States appears to be a variety. The stem reaches 10 to 15 ft. in height, the flowers are yellow, and the capsules contain eight or ten black seeds, firmly attached in a cone-like mass. The wool is long and strong-stapled, and in value stands next to Sea Island and long-stapled Egyptian. Maranham, Bahia, and Maceio are varieties which sell in Liverpool at from 16 to 28 cents per lb. G. arhoreum is found in India, China, etc., and, as its name imports, is a large tree-like plant. It bears a red flower, and produces a tine yellowish-white wool. Varieties of it have been long cultivated in the United States, and, with the requi- site soil and climate, are said to produce a wool some- what resembling Sea Island. 2. Cultivation. — The plant is a very delicate organism, and requires a peculiar soil and climate for its due devel- opment. The method of cultivation is much the ^ame in the various countries where the fibre is grown; but the most perfect system is that practiced in the United States. Although the plant is not, strictly speaking, an annual, it is found more profitable to destroy the shrub, after the crop is gathered, and sow new seed every j^ear. The preparation of the land takes place during the winter months. After the ground has has been thoroughly plowed, and as soon as all symptoms of frost have disap- peared, the soil is laid off into rows varying in width from 3 to 4 ft., according to situation and quality of the soil. The seed is then sown along the centre of the beds in a straight furrow, made with a small plow or opener; but in some plantations the seed is sown in holes from 12 to 18 inches apart. The sowing commences in March, and gen- erally continues through April; but sometimes, owing to late spring frosts, the planting is prolonged to May. The young shoot appears above ground in about eight to ten days, and is then and subsequently weeded and thinned. Blooming takes place about the beginning of June — in early seasons, toward the latter end of May; the average date is about June 5. As a general rule, C. is a dry- weather plant. For plowing, the planter requires just suflicient rain to give the soil a moist and spongy texture. During the early stages of its growth, the crop flourishes best with a warm, steamy sort of weather, with an occa- sional shower until blooming; too much rain being pro- ductive of weeds and wood at the expense of wool, while a severe drought produces a stunted plant forced into too early maturity, and resulting in a small and light-stapled crop. Much, however, depends on the position of the plantation; lands in hilly or upland districts obviously requiring more moisture than those in the plains and river- bottoms. From the date of blooming to the close of the picking season, warm, dry weather is essential. Picking i\ COTTON. generally commences in Aug., occasionally in July, and continues until the occurrence of frost — about the end of Oct. or beginning of Nov. — puts a stop to the further growth of the plant. All the available hands of the plan- tation, young and old, are called into full employment during the harvest. The C. is gathered into baskets or bags suspended from the shoulders of the pickers, and when the crop has been secured, it is spread out and dried, and then separated from the seeds. The latter process was formerly performed by hand — a tedious operation, by which one hand could clean only a pound or so a day; but since the invention of the saw-gin by Eli Whitney, 1793, the process of cleaning has been both rapid and eltectual. This machine is composed of a hopper, having one side formed of strong parallel wires placed so close together as to exclude the passage of the seeds from within. The wool is dragged through the apertures by means of circular- saws attached to a large roller, and made to revolve between the wires, the seeds sinking to the bottom of the hopper. This process is adopted only in cleaning the short-stapled varieties of American C, the seeds of which adhere so firmly to the wool as to require a considerable amount of force to separate them. The Sea Island variety is cleaned by being passed through two small rollers, which revolve in opposite directions, and easily throw oil" the hard smooth seeds. In India, though the saw- and other ma- chine-gins have been introduced in some districts, the wool is mostly cleaned by means of the primitive roller. Both descriptions of gins are used in Egypt and Brazil. The C. cleaned by the roller-gin, being uninjured thereby in staple, realizes the better price; but the deterioration caused by the sa»w-gin is compensated for by the greatly increased quantity cleaned; the latter turning out four or five times as much work as the former in an equal space of time, and thereby considerably reducing the expense of cleaning. The introduction of improved gins has very largely in- creased the production of cotton in Egypt and Brazil during the past 14 years. 3 Production and Distribution. — The oldest C. -producing country is India, in which empire the plant has been grown and manufactured from time immemorial. Early mention is made of it in the annals of Egypt also, and it is believed to have a high antiquity in all parts of Africa. In the west- ern world, it was found by Columbus, but was not so ex- tensively cultivated as in the east; though during the past half -century the culture there has outstripped, both in quantity and quality, the produce of the Old World. Down to the commencement of the present century, the C. con- sumers of Europe were dependent upon the E. and W. In- dies and the Levant for their raw material; but the inven- tive genius, superior farming, and greater energy brought to bear on the culture in the United States, had, prior to the war of secession, almost secured the monopoly of sup- plying the manufactures of Great Britain and the European continent with this valuable fibre. The average import of American cotton into Great Britain, 1858-60, reached 79 per •22 COTTON. cent, of the entire arrivals; during the war the proportion fell to 3^ per cent.; but in 1871, it rose to 58 per cent. History of tlie Cotton Trade. — United States. — The intro- duction of the plant is traced as far back as 1536, but the export trade did not commence until two and a half cen- turies later, the first shipment of importance being about 2,000 lbs. in 1770. In 1791, the amount reached 189,316 lbs. In 1793, the invention of the saw gin gave a new stim- ulus to the trade, and in 1800, the exports reached 17,789,803 lbs.; from which period the shipments have continued to increase, being over 124 000,000 lbs. in 1821, 277,000,000 lbs. in 1831, 530,000,000 lbs. in 1841, 927,000,- 000 lbs. in 1851, and about 2,160,000,000 lbs. in 1860. Simultaneously with this rapid increase in production, there was, down to 1851, a gradual decline in the price of the wool, in consequence of improved processes of cultiva- tion and cleaning, and the cheapening of carriage, etc. ; the average price in Liverpool, in 1793, being Is. M. per lb.; in 1801, 2s. 2d.\ in 1811, Is. 2d. \ in 1821, 9^(^.; in 1831, M.\ in 1841, ^Id.) in 1851, 5fcZ. per lb.; from which period, however, the downward course was not only checked, but a movement in the opposite direction commenced, the average for 1856-61, being Id. per lb.; the low prices cur- rent having caused consumption to overtake production. The outbreak of the civil war in 1861, and its contiouance until 1865, completely revolutionized the industry of the South. The abolition of slavery added materially to the cost of producing cotton; and this, with the general rise which has taken place in values of all kinds during the past 12 or 15 years, has raised the price at which it will pay to sell American cotton in Liverpool to nearly %d. per lb., against an average of Hd. per lb. for the five years ended with 1861. During the war, middling Orleans touched 2«. '7\d. per lb. In 1867, Dec, there was a decline to 7|d — every one expecting a return of old prices; in a few months, there was a reaction to Is. \d. Since then the tendency has been downward; the average for 1875 being lid., against M. in 1874, and M. in 1873. The following table is interesting as showing the wide fluctuations which have taken place in the exports of cot- ton from the United States during the 12 years ending in 1871, expressed in millions oilh^. In 1871-2, there was a reduction to 933,000,000 lbs., owing to a failure of the crop. Weight, ^^JY lbs. ' cents. 1859- 60 1767.6 10.85 1860- 61 307.5 11.07 1861- 62 5.0 23.30 1862- 63 11.4 58.43 1863- 64 10.8 83.43 1864- 65 6.6 86.58 Weight, cents. 1865- 66 650.6 43.24 1866- 67 661.5 30.1 1867- 68 784.3 19.2 1868- 69 644.3 24.9 1869- 70 900.4 23.3 1870- 71 1462.9 14.8 In 1874-5, the weight exported was about 1,178,700,000 lbs.; in 1878-9, 1,628,400,000 lbs., and in 1879-80, 1,822,- 000,000 lbs. 23 COTTON. STATEMENT OP THE PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND AVERAGE PRICE OF FIFTY CROPS (1826-75) OF COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES, ACTUAL AND PROPORTIONAL, IN AVERAGE PERIODS OP FIVE YEARS EACH (expressed IN THOUSANDS OF BALES). Average Produce o Proportional of u O Produce of Periods 3 of o a Five Years. eorgia via Savannah. , Carolina v Charleston . Carolina Virginia. Florida vii palachicola, Alabama via 1 Mobile. ouisiana, M rk., Tennes: and Texas verage T eorgia. Carolina. N. Carolina ; 1 Virginia. o labama. suisiana, etc O m < < O m < 1826-30. 216 152 91 4 84 302 849 25^ m 10| 35^ 38| 1831-35. 252 194 69 29 143 424 1111 22| m 23 12| 1836-40. 267 249 44 96 295 673 1624 m 151 5| 18i 41| 1841-45. 246 314 28 141 421 874 2024 12i 15i- 7 20| 1846-50. 285 341 21 161 410 993 2211 12| 15^ 1 7i 18? 44-1 1851-55. 338 449 42 168 508 1377 2882 Hi 15i H 5| 17f 47| 1856-60. 400 458 63 154 646 1900 3621 12# 11 If 4i 171 521 1866-70. 371 192 188 56 314 1299 2420 15| 8 7| 2i 13 53| 1871-75. 604 375 469 14 329 1939 8730 16| 10 12-1 3 8 8| 52 Periods of Five Years. Average Exports to Av'ge Consumption of U. S. {N. of Virginia only). Average Stock at close of Season. Total Average Deliveries. Proportional Distribution of Total Average Deliveries. Average Price p. lb. of Whole Crop. Great Britain. France. Other Foreign Ports. Total. ■J 61| 60f 59| 58| 53| 553 54f 49| 50| 1 France. bp || 6 5| 3| 5i m 13i 13| O M c -2 O e« c S 6^ 13 171 15| 16 21| 20 18| 32^ 281 Five Years. ^* QO fl c. 9| 8x^5 K15 8f lOf 23| 1826-30. 1831-35. 1836-40. 1841-45. 1846-50. 1851-55. 1856-60. 1866-70. 1871-75. 539 673 966 1181 1180 1595 1970 1234 1898 173 202 308 347 308 387 464 237 261 46 41 88 172 229 323 485 206 507 758 916 1362 1700 1717 2305 2919 1677 2666 114 193 255 325 477 576 678 798 1062 35 58 54 91 163 126 119 95 85 872 HOP 1617 2025 2194 2881 3597 2475 3727 191 19 14 13^ 12| 9| 7 c. m ii| i2i 81 9| lU 28 The figures between 1861-65 were disturbed by the war. Until a few years before the war, the bulk of the crops grown in the various states were shipped at the several ports of each state — Alabama C. at Mobile, Georgia C. at Savannah, and so on ; but the more general introduction of railways has diverted a great deal of C. from the old chan- nels. The increase under the head 'N. Carolina and Vir- ginia' is owing almost entirely to this cause. One of the most remarkable features in the last line of the above ta- ble is the large proportionate increase in the consumption of the United States. Cotton seed is remarkably rich in oil, now used for a va- riety of purposes. The crop of C. seed in the United States amounts to about 3,000,000 tons, or 180,000,000 bushels; in 24 COTTOK. 1881, the oil-mills consumed 180,000 tons in the manufac- ture of C, seed oil, while less than half of the remainder was used for fertilizers, for seed, and for feeding stock (the residue being totally lost). C.-seed cake or meal is especially rich in nutritious matter for farm-stock, causing cattle to fatten rapidly, and producing very rich milk (though the butter is not improved). Boiled C. seed, with hay or straw, is admirable feeding. The oil is admirable for culinary purposes, and is said to be equal to the best lard. East Indies. — After the United States, the most exten- sive C. -producing country is India. The plant is indi- genous to the soil, and the culture and manufacture have existed from prehistoric times. A century ago, the west- ern world was almost entirely dependent upon the east for its C. goods, but within the past hundred years the order of things has been almost reversed. The mills of Lanca- shire, England, and those of New England and other parts of the United States are now in successful competition with the famed looms of India, and the natives of that vast empire find it cheaper to take English calicoes in exchange for their raw C, than it is to manufacture their own cloth- ing. The first import of East Indian C. into Great Britain was in 1783. The average receipts, from that year to 1792, were 65,550 lbs.; from 1793 to 1800, 2,223,039 lbs; 1801 to 1810, 6,357,000 lbs.; 1811 to 1820, 24,016,805 lbs.; 1821 to 1830, 18,835,567 lbs ; 1841 to 1850, 79,815,403 lbs.; and 1851 to 1859, 23,017,310 lbs. In 1820, only 224 pounds weight of C. -yarn, and 14,191,177 yards of goods, were exported from Britain to India; but in 1880, the figures, including shipments via Suez, were 44,000,000 lbs. yarn, and 1,670,- 000,000 yards of calico. It is impossible to ascertain the total amount of C. raised in India; but the fibre is grown all over the peninsula, and is used for all the purposes for which we employ C, flax, wool, and mostly hemp. The following figures give some idea of the extent of the ex- port branch of the Indian cotton-trade; they show also the expansion incidental to the American war. WEIGHT AND VALUE OF COTTON EXPORTED FROM INDIA. lbs. £ 1857 319,653.524 4,487.949 1860 345,953.569 5,687,6-24 1863 473,678,421 18,779,040 lbs. £ 1866 803,150,424 35,587,389 1869 691,196,905 19.778,924 1872 809,240,087 21,272,430 Prior to the civil war in America, the supply of C. from India was merely supplementary to that from the United States. With a small crop in America, prices advanced, and the imports from India increased; but with a large American yield, prices drooped, and ther eceipts from In- dia fell oil'; the surplus produce finding its way to China, or being consumed in the interior. This is in a measure still the case (as is shown in the above figures), though not to the same extent as formerly. By the introduction of im- proved methods of cultivation, cleaning, etc. , the quality of Indian C. has been greatly improved; and it is now much more generally used than it was 12 or 15 years ago. In 1879-80 the E. Indies exported 1,189,000 bales to Europe; COTTON. 1880, had 13,307 looms, 1,471,000 spindles, and 89,537 per- sons employed in C. manufacture; 1887-88, produced 1,508,000 bales; and 1887, had 2,420,000 spindles in opera- tion. Brazil. — The C. trade of Brazil has had extraordinary development during the past ten years, ovv'ing to the im- petus given to the cultivation of the plant during the American war, and to the general adoption of the saw gin in place of the roller-gin; this substitution of the American gin has produced quantity at the expense of quality; but the demands of line spinners have been met by increased supplies from Egypt. The subjoined statement shows the progress made by this branch of Brazilian trade: EXPORT OF BRAZIL COTTON TO EUROPE. Bales. Bales. 1831—1835, average 175,000 I 1861—1865, average 201,000 1841—1845, " 105,000 1866-1870, 614,000 1851—1855, " 149,000 | 1871—1874, " 723,000 In 1874-5 the exports to Europe amounted to 615,000 bales; 1875-6, rose to 647,000; and 1879-80 fell to 161,000. Egypt. — The C. plant has been known in Egypt from time immemorial; but the trade, properly so called, was first introduced by the celebrated Mehemet Ali, about 50 years ago. The first exportation took place 1821, and amounted to 944 cantars. During the seven years ending 1827, 1,011,697 cantars were produced, or 144,528 cantars per annum. In the next septennial period, there was a falling oft", owing to the withdrawal of a large number of laborers to carry on the wars of the pasha in Soudan, etc., and Syria; the exports therefore only reached 900,521 can- tars, or 128,646 per year. The transactions of the subse- quent seven years show considerable improvement, the total shipments being 1,498,042 cantars, and the annual average 214,006 cantars. During the years 1842-48, the total rose to 1,549,909 cantars, being an annual average of 221,415 cantars. Since then, the trade has continued to augment. The average shipments of the years 1849-59 were 473,282 cantars. The cantar is equal to 94 lbs., and there are about 5^ cantars to the bale of the present (1873) average size; so "that the exports in 1849-59 represented 86,000 bales per annum. In 1865, the shipments reached 406,000 bales; in 1875 they amounted to 347,000 bales— or 2,020,000 and 1,908,000 cantars respectively. Great Britain is the principal consumer of Egyptian C, after which is Austria, then France. The following figures show the destination of the C. exported from Alexandria during the six years ending 1875, Sep. 30. EXPORTS TO FnHanrl France Austria , ii^ngiand. gp^.^ j^^j^ lotai. 1870 177,631 26.356 26,735 230,722 1871 246,513 14,974 52,391 313,878 1872 274.921 2-2,.577 43.967 341.465 1873 299.082 35.251 50,580 384,913 1874 312,172 54,540 43.545 410,257 1875 273,019 34,644 39,651 347,314 COTTON. Egypt produced 440,600 bales (1878-9), 446,870 (1879-^80); and 416,000 a887-8); and exported to Europe (1876-7) 202,- 000 bales, (1877-8)156,000, (1878-9) 119,000, and (1879-80) 123,000. OtJier Countries. — C. is grown in many other countries beside those above reviewed. During the infancy of the trade, British spinners received 75 per cent, of the C. con- sumed from the AY. Indies, and the remainder from the Levant; with the great expansion of the culture in the United states, the supplies from the W. Indies gradually fell off, the planters tinding it more profitable to occupy their labor and capital in the production of sugar and other growths. Early in the present century, the exports to Great Britain from the W. Indies averaged 80,000 bales per annum; but by 1858, they had dwindled to 6,500 bales, of which only about 2,200 bales were from the W. Indies, properly so called. Under the stimulus of the high prices during the C. famine, the supplies to Great Britain from miscellaneous sources — that is, from all countries except the United States, East Indies, Brazil, and Egypt — rose from 6,500 bales in 1858, and 9,800 in 1860, to 23,000 in 1863, and 131,000 in 1865. AVith the decline in prices, the import fell to 100,000 in 1868. There was an increase to 166,000 in 1872, owing to the high x^rices in that year, but the increase was chielly from Pern. Since that year, with a falling market, the import from ' other countries ' has annuall}^ diminished, being only 89,000 bales in 1875, against 166,000 in 1872. the decrease, like the previous in- crease, being principally in Peruvian. Twenty years ago, Peruvian cotton was almost unknown in the Liverpool market; in 1864, the imports reached 27,000 bales; in 1872 the}' amounted to nearly 105,000 bales; but in 1875, they fell to 56,000 bales. 4. Consumption in Europe and the United States. An im- mense quantity of C. is consumed annually in India, China, and Africa, but there are no means of ascertaining even an approximation of the amounts so used. There are 11 spin- ning and weaving mills in Bombay, containing 404,000 spindles, and 4,294 looms; and there are 8 mills in other towns of the presidency. 'These,' saj's an official report (1873), 'are quite independent of the old native manufac- tories, and were started entirely in consequence of the in- feriority of the piece goods imported from Manchester.' This inferiority was occasioned by the excessive and dele- terious method of sizing adopted during the C. famine, in order to meet the demand for low-priced goods, and is a matter which has lately occupied the serious attention of the Manchester chamber of commerce. Besides the mills in the Bombay presidency, factories have been erected in the Bengal and Madras presidencies, and in the N. W. and Central Provinces; a considerable native manufacture is carried on also in Burmah. Great Britain. — The origin of the C. trade of the conti- nent dates as far back as the 10th c, at about which period the staple was introduced into Spain by the Mohammedans. Since that time, the manufacture has continued to expand, 27 COTTON. more or less, until it has arrived at its present gigantic pro- portions. Though we have early mention of C goods in the annals of almost every country of Europe, still the progress of the trade wds very slow until within the past hundred years. Indeed, before the middle of the 18th c , C. goods, properly so called, were never produced — the fabrics manufactured being a mixture of either C. and linen, or C. and wool, C. yarn being used for weft only. It is from the dates of the patents of Wyatt (spinning by rollers, 1788), Arkwright (water-frame, 1769), Hargreaves (jenny, 1770), Crompton (mule, 1779), and Cartwright (loom, 1785), that the rise of the modern manufacture must be dated. The stimulus given to the trade of Britain by these inventions was instantaneous, and when adopted on the continent, a few years after their utility had been sufficiently proved, similar effects followed there. The following figures give an idea of the rapid increase in con- sumption of C. in Great Britain : IMPORT OP COTTON WOOL INTO GREAT BRITAIN. United States. none none none 189,316 487,600 Tear. lbs. 1701 none 1751 none 1771, one year after Arkwright's ) loom and Hargreaves' >■ jenny. ) 1780, year after Crompton's mule 1785 1791 1794, year after the invention of I the saw-gin. f 1800 1820 89,999,174 1840 487,856,504 1860 1,115,890,608 1871 1,038,677,920 1875 816,223,920 The imports of cotton ioto Britain, 1880, were 1,628,664,- 576 lbs., valued at £42,772,088. The following table fur- nishes particulars of the imports, exports, and home con- sumption of C. in Britain in periods from 1801 to 1875 : SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION OF RAW COTTON IN GREAT BRITAIN, IN THOU- SANDS OF BALES, 1801—75. Total Of all kinds, lbs. 1,976,359 2,976,610 4,764,589 6,766,613 18,400,384 31,447,605 19,040,929 43.379,278 151,672.655 592,488,010 1,390.938.752 1,778.139,776 1,458,598,470 Average Periods of Ten Years. Import. Export. Home Con- sumption. Total Deliveries. United States. Brazil. Egypt. West Indies, etc. East Indies. Total. 1801—10... 127 72 81 19 299 8 291 299 1811- -20.. . 1.59 130 54 70 413 31 346 377 1821—30.... 436 144 36 26 54 696 65 630 695 1831-40.... 818 128 31 25 131 1130 97 1014 1111 1841—50.... 1190 113 52 13 209 1577 176 1403 1579 1851— 60 ... 1778 125 106 9 432 2450 362 2070 2432 1861—70 ... 907 332 227 80 1405 2951 804 2151 2955 1871-75 ... 1873 525 397 129 1138 3962 727 3183 3910 COTTON. The bales vary considerably in weight. In 1875 the aver- ages were as follow: United States, 489 lbs.; Brazilian, 160 lbs.; Egyptian, 602 lbs.; Smyrna, 370 lbs.; W. Indian, etc., 205 lbs.'; Siirat, 890 lbs.; Madras, 300 lbs.; and Ben- gal, 300 lbs. During the C. famine, a considerable quan- tity of C. was received from China in bales averaging 266 lbs. The comparative statement in the following table shows the relative importance of the various sources of supply — actual and proportional — in 1802; and on the average in 1828-80, 1858-60, and 1874-5. The quantities are given in iiiillions of pounds — 82*1 equal 82,100,000 lbs. The factory returns for 1879 state that there were in Great Britain in that year, 43,206,690 cotton spindles, and 514,900 power-looms, and that 482,900 persons were em- ployed in the manufacture. In 1875, the figures were 41,- 300,000 spindles, 468,000 looms, 479,500 persons. It is said that the buildings and machines have cost £70,000,000, and Weight in lbs. 1802 1828—1830 185&-1860 1874—1875 America Egypt, etc West Indies, etc Total 32-1 105 150 2-7 173-3 30-4 5-5 5-8 23-2 970-3 19-4 40-1 10-8 176-4 837-9 73-2 170-2 21 2 386-6 636 238-2 1217-0 14801 Proportion. 1802 1828—1830 1858—1860 1874—1875 America Brazil Egypt, etc West Indies, etc East Indies and China 53-2 17-4 250 4-4 72-7 12-8 23 2-4 9-8 79-7 1-6 3-3 0-9 14-5 56-3 4-9 11-4 1-4 260 100-0 100-0 100-0 100 0 that a floating capital of £80,000,000 is employed in carry- ing on the trade. If we take into consideration the persons employed in the building of the mills and making of the machines, and in the buying and selling of the raw and manufactured niaterial, it will be found that something like 4,500,000 individuals are dependent upon the pros- perity of the cotton trade for their livelihood. The total quantity of yarn exported 1880, was 215,000,000 lbs., worth £12,000,000; and the total quantity of calicoes, cambrics, fustians, etc., was 4,495,000,000 yards, worth £57,677,000. Besides these, there were £6,000,000 worth of lace, small- wares, etc. ; which raises the total value to £75,677,000, 99 COTTON. France and Alsace. — The first import of C. into France was in 1668 — viz.; 350,000 lbs. via Marseilles from the Le- vant. In 1750, the receipts reached 6,978,588 lbs.; but during the wars of the Revolution and the first Empire, little progress was made. In 1815, the import was 86,- 200,000 lbs.; in 1825, it rose to 55,150,000 lbs.; in 1836, to 118,000,000 lbs.; in 1846, to 159,000,000 lbs.; in 1856, to 211,000,000 lbs.; in 1860, to 270,000,000 lbs. In 1862, the arrivals fell to 127 millions, owing to the stoppage of sup- plies from America. In 1869, the consumption was esti- mated at 242 millions; but the war with Germany cut down the figures to 165 millions in 1870, and 185 millions in 1871. In 1874, there was a rise to 208 millions. These latter figures are exclusive of Alsace and Lorraine, which use about 65 million lbs. ; making 273 millions for France, as she stood before the war, against 242 millions in 1869. In 1880 the importation of raw C. amounted to 263,000,000 lbs., and there were 5,000,000 spindles in operation, exclu- sive of Alsace-Lorraine where there were about 1,700,000. Belgium. — The average import of C. into Belgium, 1836- 40, was about 39,500 bales; in 1846-50, 56,600 bales; in 1856-60, 61,000 bales; in 1870, 91,000 bales; in 1874, 127,- 000 bales; and in 1880, 46,754,000 lbs. In 1874, 91,000 bales were consumed; part of the remainder was forwarded to Germany, Switzerland, or Alsace, and part was added to stock. The number of spindles in Belgium was esti- mated at 800,000 (1880). Switzerland. — The trade of this confederation has flour- ished. In 1833, its consumption was about 6,000,000 bs. ; in 1843, about 22,000,000 lbs.; in 1859, about 28,000,000 lbs.; in 1874, about 52,500,000 lbs. The first spinning- machine was set up at Zurich 1807. In 1826, the number of spindles was 300,000; in 1830, 400,000; in 1835, 650,000; in 1840, 750,000; in 1845, 850,000; in 1850, 950,000; in 1860, 1,350,000; and 1881, 1,850,000, with over 25,000 looms. Prior to the Franco-Prussian war, the Swiss spin- ners received the bulk of their raw material ma France, but now they are supplied mainly through Holland and Germany. The manufactured products of Switzerland are well liked, and compete successfully with those of England in the various continental markets. In 1880 the importation of raw C. amounted to 49,000,000 lbs. Holland. — The C. trade of Holland is chiefly a transit one. The imports, (1872) were 268,000 bales; (1873) 180,- 000 bales; (1874) 168,000 bales; (1880) 92,698,000 lbs. The deliveries were (1872) 224,000; (1873) 180,000; (1874) 183,- 000; but only about 28,000 bales per annum were retained for consumption, the remainder passing to Germany, etc. The number of spindles in Holland is about 245,000. German Empire. — Under this head are included the various political divisions of Germany. The several states have made considerable progress in production of C. fab- rics. The C. is received chiefly through the ports of Ham- burg and Bremen, but a considerable quantity also is re- ceived via Holland and Belgium, while a further portion is received into s. Germany from Trieste. The average im- 30 COTTON. ports into Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam, and Rotterdam, in the live years ending with 1840, reached 109,000 bales; in the five years ending with 1855, they averaged 233,000 bales; in the three years ending with 1874, they averaged ()")5,000 bales; in 1880 they amounted to 327,000,000 lbs. The deliveries in the last named period, however, did not exceed 044,000 bales— the remainder being retained in stock. The number of spindles in Germany (1846) was about 815,000; (1858) 2,000,000; (1874) 3,500,000, besides 1,700,000 in Alsace; total, 5,200,000; and (1881) in Ger- many alone 4,815,000. The Germans consume nearly the whole of their own produce, and are besides large buyers of English yarns and goods. The leading seat of the manufacture after Alsace is Saxony; then follow Bavaria, Prussia, Baden, Wurtemberg, etc. Austria. — In the C. trade, Austria has made the least progress of any country on the continent. In 1854, there were in all Austria, including Lombardy and Venice, about 1,533,000 spindles; Avhile in 1872 (including the Italian provinces for the purpose of comparison) there were only 1,900,000 — an increase of only 24 per cent, in 18 years.— In 1881, the number in Austria Hungary was esti- mated at 1,765,000. The manufacturers receive nearly the whole of their raw material via Trieste. The deliveries from that port averaged about 82,000 bales in the five years ending with 1840; 107,000 in 1851-55; 125,000 in the three years ending with 1874, and aggregated 153,000,000 lbs. 1880, when the number of spindles was reported at 1,750,000, looms 29,546. The C. trade of Trieste has in- creased considerably since the opening of the Suez Canal, by which means the spinners of Austria and s. Germany have been brought into direct communication with India. Formerly, a large quantity of C. was annually imported to Trieste from Liverpool, but the success of M. Lesseps' en- terprise has entirely destroyed this branch of trade. Italy. — The statistical materials relating to this part of the continent are very scanty. The imports into Genoa and Naples, 1851, amounted to about 31,000 bales; in 1860, they reached 94,000, but a portion of this was forwarded to Switzerland and other places. In 1870, the import was only 47,000 bales; in 1871, the figures reached 92,000; in 1874, fell to 61,000; and, 1880, rose to 95,000,000 lbs. There are considerable imports also into Venice and Naples. The number of ppindles in Italy was estimated, 1881, at 985,000. Spain. — The C. trade of Spain is the oldest in Europe, but until recently has made the slowest progress of any. During the past 25 years, however, it has greatly improved. In 1850, the annual consumption was only about 80,000 bales; (I860) 106,000; (1870) 152,000; (1874) 189,000. In 1880 the importation of raw C. amounted to 91,000,000 lbs.; there were 1,800,000 spindles in operation, which in- creased to 1,835,000, 1881. Eussza. — The C. manufacture of this empire is of com paratively recent origin. The imports of raw C. in 1824- 26 (average of three years) were only 2,700,000 lbs. ; in 1833 -85, they reached 6,200,000 lbs.;in 1845-47, 28,000,000 lbs.; COTTON. in 1853-55, 55,000,000 lbs.; in 1858-60, 94,000,000 lbs.; in 1869-70, 100,000,000 lbs., besides a considerable quantity from Bokhara, say 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 lbs.; and, 1880, 175,000,000 lbs. In 1879 there were 84,956 mechanical looms in operation and 178,094 persons employed, and, 1881, the number of spindles was reported at 3,640,000. Sweden, etc. — There are in Sweden and Norw^ay about 310,000 spindles. The coarser sorts of yarn are produced, and the annual cousumption of C. is about 18,000,000 lbs.; 20,000,000 lbs of raw material was imported, 1880. United States. — About four-fifths of all the C. product of the world is grown in the United States. It is generally understood that the first attempt to raise it was made in Va. as an experiment, 1621; and it is interesting to note that while its cultivation is now confined exclusively to the states and islands of the south, its earliest progress was toward the north. It was grown in small quantities and for individual domestic use in Md., Del., N. J., Peun., and N. Y., long before it reached the proportions of a distinctively southern staple. Seeds from the n. were planted in Ga., and the Carolinas, 1733, and in La., 1742, and the first ex- ports were made from Charleston, 1747, followed by others from N. Y., Md., Va., and N, C, 1770. The first C.-mill built in the United States was in 1791, a year that yielded 2,000,000 lbs. of the staple; the second, 1795, when the ex- ports amounted to 6,276,300 lbs., and the imports 4,107,000; the third, 1803, when the crop was over 50,000,000 lbs., and the export nearly 30,000,000; the fourth, 1804; followed by 11 more mills during the next three years. By 1810 the exports had run up to 94,000,000 lbs.; in 1821 the crop was 180,000,000 lbs, and the export nealy 125,000,000; and, 1825 the product reached 255,000,000 lbs. In 1810 the mills had 31,000 spindles in operation; (1831) 1,246,503; (1850) 3,633,- 693; (1860) 5,035,798; (1874) 9,415,000; (1880) 11,500,000; (1881) 11,875,000; (1883) 12,660,000; (1884) 13,200.000; (1885) 13,250,000; (1886) 13,350,000; (1887) 13,500,000. In 1831, the consumption amounted to 182,000 bales; (1850) 613,000; (1860) 843,000; (1871) 1,173.000; (1880-1) 2,118,- 000; (1881-2) 2,197,000; (1882-3) 2,375,000; (1883-4)2,244,- 000; (1884-5) 1,909,000; (1885-6) 2,278,000; (1886-7) 2,423,- 000. The total production in the United States (1876-7) was 4,485,423 bales; (1878-9) 5,073,531; (1880-1)6,589,000; and (1887-8) 6,864,000. In 1880 there were 756 C.-mills in operation, with 11,500,000 spindles, 230,222 mechanical looms, 189,629 operatives, and a working capital of over $200,000,000. Until 1845, supply kept constantly ahead of demand, and, at the close of that year, the stock of C. in Europe reached 1,219,000 bales, or about 27 weeks' con- sumption, the average rate at that time being about 45,000 bales per week. The result was a very serious fall in prices — middling Orleans descending to 3fc?. per pound. The produce of the United States had almost driven the growth of every other country out of the market; and, in 1846, the exports to Europe from the United States repre- sented 86 per cent, of the total arrivals. The great decline in values naturally led to a serious reduction in the rate of 82 COTTOK production, which reduction was further aggravated by unfavorable seasons in the South, and in 184(3 the exports from the United States fell to 401 million pounds, and in 1847 to 364 millions, against 626 millions in 1845. Then followed a sharp reaction in prices, and ultimately an im- portant recovery in the amount of supply. Between 1845 and 56, however, consumption encroached upon produc- tion to such an extent, that the stock in Europe at the close of 1856 was only 439,000 bales, or about six weeks' con- sumption, against 1,219,000 bales, or 27 weeks' require- ments, at the end of 1845. In the autumn of 1857, there- fore, middling Orleans touched 9|fZ. per pound. Thence to 1860, there was a gradual recovery in stocks, and a corres- ponding decline in prices; but even at the end of 1860, the stock was only 782,000 bales, or about 9^ weeks' con- sumption, and though middling Orleans had, in the inter- val, declined to slightly below Qd., the average price for the five years ending with 1861 was 7d. per pound. Then followed the war of secession, with effects already noted. The following tables, showing (1) the C. product of the world; (2) the C. consumption of the world; (3) the num- ber of spindles in the world; (4) the number of looms and operatives employed in the C. manufacturing industry in the world; and (5) the deliveries of C. to Europe, compiled from the latest available reports, indicate the high position that the United States occupy in the production, manu- facture, and supply of this great staple: COTTON PRODUCT OF THE WORLD. (BALES.) Countries. Bales. 1876-7. 1878-9. 1879-80. 1887-8. East Indies 4,485,423 1,506,000 5,073,531 *6,589,000 6.864,000 i. 508.000 '416.000 416,000 52,000 Egypt 440,600 449.000 102,000 446 870 252,410 23,430 Brazil, West Indies, Peru.. . Turkey, Snnyrna Total 449,000 102,000 6,542,423 7,311,710 6,065,131 9,256,000 cotton consumption of the woRjiD. (bales.) BALFS, etc., at 400 LBS. 1880-1. 1881-2. 1882-3. 1883-4. Total Europe Total United States Total World 3,572,000 2,956,000 3,640,000 3,198,000 3,744,000 3,380.000 666,000 3.380,000 6,528,000 2,118,000 6,838,000 2,197,000 7,124,000 2,375,000 7,046,000 2,244,000 8,646,000 9,035,000 9,499,000 9,290,000 * Product of 1880-1. COTTON. CONSUMPTION OF THE vtorijD— Continued. Bales, etc., at 400 lbs. 1884-5. 1885-6. 1886-7. 3,433,000 3,255,000 3,628,000 3,446,000 3,707,000 3,588,000 Total United States 6,688,000 1,909,000 7,074,000 2,278,000 7,295.000 2,423,000 8,597,000 9,352,000 9,718,000 1887. 23,180,000 42,740,000 13,500,000 2,420,000 81,840,000 «D GO OO 22,900,000 42,700,000 13,350,000! 2,260,000 81,210,000 1885. 22,750,000 43,000,000 13,250,000 2,145,000 81,145,000 00 00 22,650,000 43,000,000 13,200,000 2,000,000 80,850,000 1883. 22,500,000 42,000,000 12,660,000 1,790,000 78,950,000 1881. 3,640,000 310,000 4,815,000 1,765,000 245,000 1,850',000 800,000 5.000,000 1,835.000 985,000 1 21,245,000 40,100,000 11,875,000 1,500,000 74,720,000 1880. 3,380,000 310,000 4,750.000 1,750,000 235 000 1,850,000 800,000 5,000,000 1,800,000 930,000 20,805,000 39,750,000 11,500,000 1,471,000 73,526,000 5^1 COTTON. MECHANICAL LOOMS AND OPERATIVES EMPLOYED IN THE COTTON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Countries. Years. Mechanical Looms. Opera- tives. 1875 1877 1878 1877 1880 1879 1876 1880 1880 84,353 59,409 514,911 22,467 29,546 84,956 13,517 230,223 13,307 : III Austria 178,094 Italy 189,629 39,537 COTTON DELIVERIES TO EUROPE. (BALES.) Years. Number of Bales. United States. East Indies. Brazil. Egypt. Other Countries Total. 1873- 4 1874- 5 1875- 6 1876- 7 1877- 8 1878 9 1879-80. . . . 2,722,000 2,587,000 3,132,000 3,013,000 3,476,000 3,664,000 3,715,000 1,534,000 1,615,000 1,395,000 1,269,000 877,000 897,000 1,189,000 600,000 615,000 647,000 479,000 247,000 125,000 161,000 370,000 293,000 232,000 202,000 156,000 119,000 123,000 264.000 336,000 464,000 441,000 435,000 257,000 447,000 5,518,000 5,418,000 5,570,000 5,404,000 5,191,000 5,064,000 5,636,000 exports and DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF AMERICAN COTTON IN BALES. 1882-3. 1883-4. 1884-5. 1885-6. 1886-7. Consumption, U. S. and Canada. Total : . 4,695,905 2,140,532 3,880,466 2,042,867 3,898,905 1,764,326 4,296,825 2,087,785 4,414,326 2,265,324 6,836,437 5,923,333 5,663,231 6,384,610 6,679,650 The following table exhibits the acreage of the C. -grow- ing states in the order of production, according to official reports, 1880 : States. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. Alabama Arkansas South Carolina.. Louisiana North Carolina.. Tennessee Florida 1,397,835 1,170,832 774,806 1,250,427 597,857 523,535 847,044 388,474 463,042 143,727 1,537,618 1,311,331 914,269 1,387,972 693,512 570,652 940,218 450,629 518,605 158,099 1,706,755 1,455,577 1,097,122 1,499,009 811,409 677,717 1,034,239 513,717 596,395 167,584 1,501,944 1,310,020 1,119,064 1,289,148 722,154 571,222 827,391 457,208 548,683 152,501 2,016,326 1,611,702 1,483,500 1,732,250 1,133,000 955,050 1,415,730 621,428 780,000 185,393 Indian Territory. Total 7,557,579 8,432,905 9,509,524 8,499,335 11,934,37? COTTON. States. Mississippi Georgia Texas Alabama Arkansas South Carolina. . . Louisiana North Carolina. . . Tennessee Florida . . Missouri Indian Territory . Virginia Kentucky 1876. 1,976.000 1,515,000 1,483,500 1,73-^,250 1.133,000 945.500 1,260,000 609,000 741,000 165,000 Total. , 11,560,250 1877. 2,055.040 1,530,150 1,706,025 1,766,895 1,189,650 917.135 1,335,600 584,640 755,820 166,650 12,007,605 1879. 2,093,330 2,617,138 2,173,732 2,330,806 1,042,976 1,364,249 864,787 893,153 722,569 245.595 32,711 35,000 24,000 2,667 14,441,993 In 1884, the TJ. S. State Dept. issued the following esti- mate of the amounts of C. that would be required for con- sumption by the several countries during that year, and the countries from which the demand would have to be supplied, based on the reports of the consular officers and compiled in response to a resolution of Congress : Countries of Consumption. The United Kingdom. . Germany , Russia France Austria-Hungary Spain Italy Belgium Switzerland Sweden China Holland Mexico Canada Portugal Norway All other Total consumption Countries of supply: British India Egypt Brazil Asia Minor All other Total outside U. S . The United States. Grand Total 36 COTTOK. The following table shows the annual crops, in bales of 440 lbs., 1829-87, Sept. 1: Bales. 870,415 996,845 1,068,848 987,487 1,070,438 1,205,324 1,254,328 1,360.752 1,422.930 1,801,497 1,360,532 2,177,835 1,634,945 1.683.574 2,378,875 2,030,409 2,394,503 2,100,537 1,778,651 Year. 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 , 1861 1862-1865 1866. ... Bales. 2,347,634 2.728,596 2,096,706 2,355.257 3.015,029 3.262,882 2,930,027 2,847,339 3,527,845 2,939,519 3,113,962 3.851,481 4,669.770 3,656,006 No record. 2,193,987 2,019,774 2,593,993 2,439,039 Year. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876., 1877. 1878. 1879., 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883., 1884., 1885. 1886. 1887. The following compendium of C. manufactures in the United States shows the number of looms, spindles, bales used, and persons employed, as reported, 1881, Jan. 1; but excludes factories and mills where C. is not an exclusive, but a component material used in the manufacture : States. Looms. Spindles. Bales used. Operatives. Alabama 1,060 55,072 14,887 1,600 28 2,015 720 64 18,036 931,538 107,877 15,49T 823 48,858 7,512 695 816 350 3S 4,713 200,974 67,874 6,678 24 4.860 2,261 281 776 33,396 11,558 720 Kentucky 73 9,022 4,215 359 120 6,096 1,354 108 Maine 15,978 696,685 112,361 11.318 2,325 125,014 46,947 4,159 94,788 4,465,290 578,590 62,794 Michigan 131 12,120 600 208 Mississippi 704 26,172 6,411 748 Missouri 341 19,312 6,399 515 New Hampshire 25.487 1,008,521 172.746 16,657 New Jersey 3,344 232,305 20,569 4,658 New York 12,822 578,512 70,014 10,710 North Carolina , 1,960 102,767 27,508 3,428 Ohio 42 14,328 10,597 563 Pennsylvania 10,541 446,379 86,355 11,871 Rhode Island 30,274 1.649,295 161,694 22,298 South Carolina 1,776 ■ 92,788 33,099 2,195 Tennessee 1,008 46.268 11,699 1,312 Texas 71 2,648 246 71 Utah 14 432 29 Vermont 1,180 55.088 7,404 785 Virginia 1,324 44,336 11,461 1,11« Wisconsin 400 10,240 3,173 383 Total 230,223 10,921,147 1,586,481 181,628 37 COTTON. U. S. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1821-87. Fiscal Years. 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1820 1830 1831 1832, 1833 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837 1838. 183.^, 1840. 1841 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845 1846. 1847. 1848, 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857, 1858 1859 1860, 1861. 1862 1863 1864. 1865 r-"6f) 1^'67. 1.-^68. 1869. 1870 1871, 1872. 1873. 18?'4, 1875 1876 1877 1878. 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 C. Manufactures. Raw C. Imports. $7,589,711 10.246,907 8,554,877 8,895,757 12,509,516 8.348,034 9,316,153 10,996,270 8,362,017 7,862,326 16,090,224 10,399,653 7,660,449 10,145.181 15,367,585 17,876,087 11.150,841 6,599.330 14,908,181 6,504,484 11,757,036 9,578,515 2,958,796 13,236,830 13,360,729 12,857,422 14,704,186 17,205,417 15,183,759 19,681,612 21,486,502 18,716,741 26,412,243 32,477,106 15,742,923 24,337,504 28,114,924 17,574,142 26,026,140 9,079,676 24,722,079 8,904,051 14,121,589 14,341,501 7,324,438 27,6.52,413 23,872,474 16,668,382 19,088,783 21,900,898 26,587,995 29,983,671 31,810,680 24,922,254 24,199,793 19,850,107 16,456,296 19,398,791 19,928,310 29,929,306 31.219,329 34,351,292 36,8.53,689 30,454,476 28,152,001 30,381,774 29,474,281 8ti Exports. $1,138,125 1,159,414 1,010 232 1,259,457 1,126,313 2,858,681 2,255,734 2,831,473 3,758,755 ' 3,549,604* ' 3,122,546 2,970,690 3,223,550 2,898,780 4,327,928 3,545,481 4,082,533 5,718,205 4,923,129 4,734,424 7,241,205 7,672,151 8,768,894 5,535,516 5,857,181 6,967.309 6,115,177 5,651,504 8,316,222 10,934,796 8,059,549 2,946,464 2,906,411 1.246,216 3,323,637 1,780,165 4,608.235 4,871,0.54 5.874.222 3,7S7.282 3.5.^18.136 2.304,3:50 2,947,528 3.095,840 4.071.822 7,722,978 10,235.843 11,435,628 10,853.950 9.981,418 13,. 571, 387 13,212,979 12,951.145 11,885,211 11,836,591 13,959,934 15,090,060 COTTON. The following table shows the highest ant lowest price of C. in the United States, in cents, per lb., : 825-86 (the prices 1862-77 are on a gold basis, the others currency) : Highest. 27 14 12 13 11 13 11 12 17 16 20 20 17 12 16 10 11 12 8 11 14 14 10 11 10 11 Lowest. 13 9 7 7 9 10 15 12 7 9 11 Year. 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865, 1866, 1867. 1868, 1869, 1870. 1871. 1872 1873. 1874. 1875. 18;6. 1877. 1878, 1879 1880 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885, Highest. 12 9 15 13 13 9 12 11 11 10 28 11 68 20 88 54 1.90 72 1.22 33 52 32 36 15 33 16 35 25 26 15 25 15 25 18 21 13 19 15 17 13 13 11 13 11 12 9 13 9% 13 \^ 11% m In the healing art, C. and the cloth and wadding made from it are used for wrapping up and keeping warm, and of late, much more than formerly, for binding up burns and wounds. A prejudice formerly prevailed against the use of C, as irritating to wounds; but experience has show^n this opinion unfounded, and C. is now used in many hos- pitals quite as freely as linen. Cotton Manufacture. — It has already been remarked that the modern s}'stem of C. manufacture dates no further back than about 1760. Prior to the mechanical inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and CartwTi^ht, the arts of spinning and weaving were entirely domestic, and the instruments of manipulation much the same as those which had been in use in the East for centuries before. By means of the ancient distaft* and spindle, or the more re- cent spinning-wheel, only one thread at a time was pro- duced, and the process, as may be imagined, was tedious, and not very remunerative; besides which, only a very inferior yarn was the result; for w^hile a tolerable thread could be spun from flax, the produce of C. was soft, weak, and uneven, and in weaving was used for weft (or transverse yarn) only, with linen, woolen, or worsted for the warp (or longitudinal yarn). Altogether, in the middle of the '69 " COTTOK 18th c, the machinery for spinning was much more imper- fect than that for weaving, and the weavers of the time were often at a stand for want of yarn to go on with. This state of things had long occupied the attention of the thinking portion of the spinners, but without any prac- tical result until the invention of the 'jenny,' by Har- greaves, about 1767. By this machine, eight threads at a time could be spun against the one of the spinning-wheel. Hargreaves was much abused by the populace of his native town and neighborhood, who feared that the invention would deprive them of all employment; the machine was destroyed, and the inventor compelled to leave his birth- place. Genius, however, ultimately triumphed, and the ' spinning-jenny ' was patented at Nottingham, 1770. The year previously, Arkwright had patented his ' water- frame,' or ' throstle,' for spinning by rollers, by means of which a stronger and much firmer yarn was produced. It was about this period that fabrics composed entirely of C. were woven for the first time, the ' jenny ' supplying the weft, and the ' throstle ' the warp. A few years later, Mr. Crompton brought out a new piece of mechanism, which he styled the ' mule- jenny,' from its combining the princi- ples of both Hargreaves' and Arkwright's patents; but it had an advantage over both, insomuch as it produced a much finer yarn than either. The ' mule ' came into full play in or about 1780, which is the period assigned for the beginning of the muslin trade. There was now no longer a scarcity of yarn ; the fear was, that there would be too much, for it was clear that the hand-loom weavers of the time could not keep up with the improved spinning-ma- chinery. But the invention of the ' power-loom ' by Dr. Cartwright, 1785, set aside all doubts in this respect; the question now was, whether a sufilcient quantity of raw C. could be obtained to keep pace with the requirements of the rising manufacture. W. India C, which, 1784, averaged Is. M. per lb., rose to 2s. in 1788, 2s. Id. in 1792, and 28. M. in 1798. Great exertions were made to obtain increased supplies from India; but the invention of the saw-gin in America brought the required succor from an unexpected quarter. It was only by means of this machine that the production of the short-stapled C. of the United States could be made at all remunerative. The export of hand- cleaned C. from the U. S., 1791, was only 189,316 lbs , and in 1792 only 138,328 lbs. ; but the year after the appearance of the gin— 1794— the exports rose to 1,601,700 lbs ; (1795) 6,276,300 lbs.; (1800) 17,789,803 lbs. But to return. The first ' mule- jenny ' contained about thirty spindles, which, instead of being stationary, as in the 'jenny ' and ' throstle,' were placed on a carriage, which was moved outward while twisting, to increase the fineness of the thread, and inward again, to wind the yarn on the spindles. This required the constant attendance of a spin- ner to wheel the carriage forward and backward; but sub- sequent improvements have gone so far as to produce what is called the self-acting mule, two or three of which together require the assistance of only one person, generally a boy 40 COTTON. or girl, whose place it is to piece any of the threads which may break during spinning. Mules of this construction are made with as many as 1000 or 2000 spindles, sometimes more; and with the self -actor, as now improved, a single thread has been produced measuring upwards of one thou- sand miles in length, and yet weighing but one pound ! Processes preliminary to spinning. — The raw material is received from the various producing countries, packed either in bags or square bales. On arrival at the mill, the C. first enters the mixing-room, where it is sorted, and the various qualities, which are often contained in a single purchase, laid out in layers of equal extent, one over the other, and trodden close together. In this manner, two descriptions of C. are sometimes placed in one mixing. When Surat, for instance, is scarce and dear, and short- stapled low American plentiful and cheap, spinners of what are called coarse numbers invariably use a mixture of both growths; the same of other kinds, provided there is an ap- proach to equality in length of fibre. C. of different shades of color also are sometimes spun together, in order to pro- duce a particular yarn. A quantity of this hing, as it is called, is then raked down from the top to the bottom of the side, a portion of each layer being thus secured. This is carried to the scutching or willoicing -machine, by means of which the C. is cleansed from all impurities, such as sand, seeds, leaf, etc. The cleaned C. is then taken to the spreading -mad line, through which it passes, and is then wound, in a fleecy state, upon a large wooden roller, to be transferred to the carding -ma chine. The latter machine is brought into requisition for the purpose of drawing out the fibres of the C. into parallel layers, so as to facilitate the twisting of them together. Originally, this process was performed by hand. The first improvement was made by Lewis Paul, 1748, and the next by Hargreaves, 1760. Ark- wright and subsequent spinners have perfected the machine. The C. was formerly cleaned by hand. The sliver is next passed through the drawing -frame, which removes all ine- qualities, and reduces the bands to one uniform thickness. Here also several of the slivers are joined together (called doubling), so as to form one continuous cord, which is still further lengthened and increased in fineness by the roving- machine, whence it passes on to bobbins ready for spinning. For a full description of the various processes above glanced at, see Spinning: Weaving. For other branches of the subject, see Calico-printing: Calendering: Dye- ing: etc. The finer kinds of yarn are spun from Sea Island and long-stapled Egyptian, and from them are fabricated mus- lins, laces, etc. From Brazil and the better classes of short- stapled American, come cambrics, calicoes, shirtings, sheet- ings, etc., and from the inferior qualities of American and Surat are spun the coarse yarns required for fustians and other heavy fabrics. Yorkshire broadcloths are sometimes half cotton. From warps of C, and wefts of wool or worsted, are formed varieties of Orleans cloths, Cobur^s, mousseliues de laine, damasks, etc. There are also fabrics 41 COTTON. composed of silk and C, linen and C, alpaca and C, etc. Of the total amount of yarn produced, from one-fifth to one-fourth is exported in its raw state. The following fig- ures give an idea of the progress of British export trade in C. yarns and goods: Yarn. 1816 Total Spun. Total Exported. lbs. 78,987,200 622,840,000 494,766,000 965,993,000 1,120,525,000 lbs. £ 15,740,675 2,628,448 63,678,116 4,133,741 135,766,487 6.963,235 197,343,655 9,870,875 220,599,004 14,516,093 1830 1860 1874 •••• Manufactured Goods Exported. Entered by the Yard. At Value only. Total Value of Yarn and Goods. 1816... 1830.... 1845.... I860.... 1874 ... Yards. £ 189,263,731 12,309,079 441,578,498 14,119,770 1,091,686,069 18,029,818 2,776,218,427 40.346,342 3,587,132,479 54,355,800 £ 746,643 1,175,153 1,126,288 1,795,703 5,380,477 £ 15,684,170 19,428,664 26,119,341 52,012,380 74,232,370 In 1818, 14,743,675 lbs. of twist were exported from Bri- tain, of which 14,727,882 lbs. went to Europe, and only 1,861 lbs. to India and China: (1843), 149,206,448 lbs. were exported; 128,664,218 lbs. to Europe; 899,746 lbs. to Amer- ica and Africa; 12,642,484 lbs. to India and China: (1874), of the 220,599,'000 lbs. exported, 77,438,000 lbs. went to Germany and Holland, 62,781,000 lbs. to India, China, and Japan: (1880), total yarn exported, 215,544,800 lbs. In 1820, Germany was the best customer for both British plain and printed cottons. The next largest consumer for cottons was Italy; then followed the Brazils, United States, Russia, Portugal, E. Indies, Holland and Belgium, W. Indies, etc.; and for jorm^^cZ cottons — British W.Indies, United States, Italy, Holland and Belgium, Portugal, E. Indies, Brazil, etc. The Netherlands were the principal buyers of British laces and small w^ares; then Germany, British W. Indies, Central America, Brazil, United States, E. Indies, Portugal, Russia, Italy, etc. At the present time, the E. Indies take nearly one-third of British export- ed manufactured goods. For plain calicoes, the next best customer for Britain is China; then Turkey, Brazil, Egypt, United States, Portugal, Italy, Germany, etc. ; of printed and dyed calicoes, Turkey is the largest purchaser; then India, Brazil, Germany, United States, France, W. Indies. Central America, etc. The United States take nearl}^ one- half of the British exports of lace and patent-net; then Bel- gium, France, Holland, Germany, etc. The United States - - ' ■ 42 ...... - COTTON. take over one-third of British exports of stockings, and one- half of the British shipments of other sorts of hosiery; then Australia, the Argentine Republic, etc. One-fourth of the sewing-thread exported from Britain goes to the United States; then Germany, Brazil, Russia, etc. Subjoined, is an estimate of the weight and value of the total production of cotton manufactures in Great Britain, with the cost of cotton consumed, and the balance remain- ing for wages, all other expenses, interest of capital, and proht for the years 1870, 72, and 74 (OOO's omitted, i.e. 1,071, 770=^:1,071, 770,000): WEIGHT. 1870. lbs. 1872. IDS. 1874. lbs. 1,071,770 129,310 1,175,345 134,965 1,266,129 145,604 942,460 1,040,380 1,120,525 Do. piece-goods, etc. . 186,078 616,232 140,150 211,940 698,840 129,600 220,599 726,000 173,926 942,460 VALUiC. 1,040,380 1,120,525 £14,671 61,424 17,050 £16,710 69,900 15,660 £14,516 66,934 20,110 Total £93,145 42,145 £102,270 48,054 £100,560 40,225 Left for wages, expenses, profits, etc. £51,000 £54,216 £60,335 The figures relating to the exports of 'piece-goods, etc.,* include two-thirds of the goods shipped as apparel, haber- dashery, etc. The average annual production of yarn and goods for the three years 1870-72, was 1,018,563,000 lbs,, distributed as followed: Exported to India, China, Japan, etc., includ- lbs. per cent. ing 47,000,000 lbs. yarn 333,000,000 32. 70 Exported to all other countries, including 150,- 1 66.000 lb.s. yarn 529,030,000 51 . 94 Left for Home Consumption and Stock 156,533,000 15.36 Total as above 1,018,563,000 100.00 111 round numbers, therefore, it maybe said that one-third of the total Britsh production of cotton goods is exported to the East, one-half to other countries, and one-sizth consumed at home. With the great improvements in the mechanics of the trade, and the reduced price of the raw material, a gradual but considerable decline has taken place in the cost and price of the fabrics produced. Vhe price of 1 lb. of yarn containing 100 hanks, (1786) was 38s.; (1807) 6s. (1829) 3s. M.\ at the present time, 2s. M, The cost of weaving during the last 60 years has been reduced upward of 60 per cent. A species of calico, selling at 6s. per yard toward the close of the last century, can be purchased in our day at as many pence. The average price per yard of goods exported from Britain (1815) was Is. 5id; (1825) 10|(f.,- 4a COTTON. (1835) 6|(f.; (1845) S^c?.; (1859) In 1864, the price rose to per yard, but in 1874 it fell to 3|(^. per yard. The average price per lb. of ya/rn exported (1815) was Bs. 7|(^.; (1825) \s. Wld.) (1835) Is. 4p.; (1845) 1« ^ld.\ (1859) life?. In 1864, the average rose to 2s. 4f(i. per lb.; but, in 1874, fell to Is. 'did. per lb. The most profitable years for spinners are said to have been 1845, 48, 59, 60, and 71. The earnings of the work-people in Britain have, upon the whole, steadily increased from year to year. The following table furnishes the rates current in 1839, 49, 59, and 75. It will be observed that the proportionate advance during the last-mentioned 16 years was much greater in the lowest than in the highest paid hands: AVERAGE WEEKLY WAGES. 1839 1849. 1859. 1875. Week of \ 69 hours. Week of 60 hours. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 24 0 28 0 30 0 32 0 Warehousemen 18 0 20 0 22 0 26 0 Carding Department — 12 0 Scutchers (women and'girls). . . . 7 0 7 6 8 0 Strippers (young men) 11 0 12 0 14 0 19 0 25 0 28 0 2^0 32 0 Spinning on Self-acting Mules — Minders. 16 0 18 0 20 0 25 0 Piecers (women and young men) 8 0 9 0 10 0 16 0 20 0 22 0 26 0 30 0 Throstle Spinning — Spinners (girls i4 to 18 years) 4 0 4 6 5 0 9 0 " (women) 7 0 7 6 9 0 13 6 18 0 20 0 24 0 26 0 Ruling — Throstle reelers (women) 9 0 9 6 9 6 12 6 Warpers ... . 22 0 22 0 23 0 26 0 23 0 23 0 25 0 30 0 Doubling — Doubters (women) 7 0 7 6 9 0 12 6 24 0 25 0 26 0 32 0 Other branclies show the same ratio of advance. The following table exhibits the extent of the British manufacture at the close of 1874: Estimated weight of cotton consumed 1,226,129,000 lbs. value of same, at Tfd. per lb £40,226,000 " weight of yarn produced 1,120,525,000 lbs. Declared weight of yarn exported 220,599.000 lbs. value of yarn exported (Is. 3%c?. per lb.) . . £14,516,000 Number of yards of goods exported 3,587,132,000 yards. Declared value of same (3|c?. per yard) £54,356.000 " " other cotton goods exported £5,380,000 Total declared value of al' cotton manufactures exported £74,232,000 Total declared value of all British exports £297,650,000 Proportion of cotton exports to ent^'^'e exports per cent 25 per cent. Estimated number of persons employed 479,000 " average rate»of wages per week I'ds. " total amount of wages paid in twelv<* months £15,190,000 ESTIMATED FIXED CAPITAL. Cost of 41,300,000 spindles, at 25s. to 27s. per spindle, inclusive of buildings, etc £53,690,000 Cost of 463,000 power- looms, at £26 each 12,038,000 £65,728,000 44 COTTON. COT TON, Gun: see Gun Cotton. COTTON, kbt'n, John: 1585, Dec. 4—1652, Dec. 23; Derby, England: patriarch of New England. He was ed- ucated in Trinity College, Cambridge; obtained a fellowship in Emmanuel College and became tutor, lecturer, and dean there; was appointed vicar of St. Botolph's church, Boston, Lincolnshire, 1612; and, excepting a brief suspension for refusing to observe some ceremonies of the established church which he believed unscriptural, preached there with great effectiveness till 1632. Then specific charges were preferred against him, and he was cited to appear and an- swer before Abp. Lared. He declined to obey, fled to Lon- don, and thence emigrated to the United States, landing at Boston, 1633, Sept. 4. In the following month he was or- dained teacher of the First Church in Boston (organized 1630) and colleague of the Rev. John Wilson, the pastor, and retained his connection with the church till his death. He was eloquent and forcible in the pulpit, an accomplished Greek, Latin, and Hebrew scholar, a strict Sabbatarian, and author of nearly 50 published works, including the noted The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven (1644), and Milk for Babes (1646). COT TON, Sir Robert Bruce: 1570, Jan. 22—1631, May 6; b. Denton, Huntingdonshire, England: distin- guished English antiquary, founder of the Cottonian Library now in the British Museum. He was educated at Cambridge, and soon after taking his degree b.a. in his 16th year, he commenced those archeological pursuits which have made his name famous, and proved of such immense value to British historians. The dissolution of the monasteries about half a century before, dispersed many valuable collections of manuscripts into private hands, and C. hunted up and purchased these wherever praticable. On account of his eminent abilities and great knowledge, he was frequently consulted by ministers of state on difficult constitutional points and international questions. In 1600, at the request of Queen Elizabeth, 'who desired to have the views of the Soc. of Antiquries on the matter, he wrote A Brief Abstract of the Question of Precedency between England and Spain. King James, by whom he was made a knight, employed C. to vindicate the conduct of his mother, Mary Queen of Scots, also to examine whether the Rom. Catholics, on account of whom some alarm was then felt in the nation, should be impris- oned or put to death. C. took the most humane view of the matter. His intimacy with the Earl of Somerset led him to be suspected of complicity in the death of Sir Thomas Overbury, and in consequence he was imprisoned for about five months. In 1629, a tract entitled A Project how a Prince may make himself an Absolute Tyrant, was obtained from his library, the tendency of which was considered dangerous to the liberty of the state. His library was ac- cordingly declared unfit for public inspection, and he himself was denied all use of it. His heart being bound up in his library, he pined and died in less than two years afterward. 45 OOTTOK FAMINE. The CoTTONiAN Library, which now forms so impor- tant a part of the British Museum, was, after the death of Sir Robert C.'s son and grandson, who augmented it con- siderably, invested in trustees for the use of the public. In 1730, the library was removed to Ashburnham House, Westminster, where the royal collection was; and in the following year a hre occurred in the house, in which about 114 out of the 958 MS. volumes of which the library con- sisted were reported as ' lost, burned, or entirely spoiled; and 98 damaged so as to be defective.' Fortunately, how- ever, under the care and intelligence of skilful keepers, a great number of these injured volumes have been restor- ed, so that the library now consists of nearly 900 vols., of which, says Mr. Edwards in his Memoirs of LihrarieSy ' nearly 200 are state papers of the highest value. They include a vast series relating to the diplomatic intercourse between England and almost every state of Europe, exten- ding from the reign of Edward III. to that of James I.; and of these documents, no small proportion consists of the original letters of sovereigns and of statesmen. Even those papers not original have high authority, as being, for the most part, coeval transcripts. ' The Cottonian Lib- rary was transferred to the British Museum (q.v.) 1757. In addition to the MSS., the Cottonian collection comprises many valuable coins and antiquities. COT TON FAM INE: decrease of the cotton-supply in Great Britain in 1861 and following years, occasioned by the war of secession in the United States; with its results in manufactures and trade— a striking episode. The years 1859 and '60, unparalleled for the magnitude of the cotton manufacture, had much to do with the col- lapse that followed. So rapidly has this branch of industry increased in Lancashire, that the annual number of immi- grants into that county from other districts have varied from 10,000 to 20,000 for a long series of years, irrespective of the natural increase of population by the excess of births over deaths. The imports of raw cotton, the exports of man- ufactured cotton, the number of mills, the number of hands, all were at their maximum in 1860. The imports were 1,391,000,000 lbs., of which 1,054,000,000 were worked up in Great Britain. There were 1,920 mills in Lancashire, 275 in the adjacent portions of Cheshire and Derbyshire, and enough elsewhere to make up a total of 2,650. There were 440,000 hands employed in these mills; by age, 90 per cent, adults and young persons, and 10 per cent, children; by sex, 44 per cent, males, and 56 females. The machinery was worked by steam-engines having an ag- gregate of 300,000 horse-power. There were more than 80,000,000 spindles, making from 4,000 to 6,000 revolutions per minute; and 350.000 power-looms. The tixed capital in mills and machinery was valued at £54,000,000; while the money paid for wages in that year was £11,500,000. The cotton goods of various kinds manufactured for home con- sumption used up 180.000,000 lbs. of cotton, and were val- ued at £24,000,000; w^hilethe exported goods — consisting of 2,710,009,000 yords of calico, muslins, etc., and 197,000,000 COTTON FAMINE. lbs. of yarn— were valued at £50,000,000; besides £2,000, - 000 more for cotton hosiery and small wares. The total value for home consumption and export, £76,000,000, ex- ceeded the total imperial revenue for that year. The fact that of 1,390,000,000 lbs. of cotton imported, no less a weight than 1,120,000,000 came from the United States, shows the tremendous effect to be expected from any stoppage in the American cotton-trade. Irrespective of this, however, there would have been a stagnation in British manufacturing dis- tricts in 1861, even if raw cotton had been plentiful and cheap. The manufacturers had glutted all the markets by the wholly unprecedented extent of their operations in 1860. The English warehouses, as well as those elsewhere, w^ere full; and time was needed to carry off the immense stock. There were cotton goods on hand in Great Britain at the end of the year ralued at £20,000,000; while in India British merchants continued to pour in goods even when the con- signments of 1860 exceeded £17,000,000. Fort Sumter was bombarded 1861, April. This was virtually the beginning of the war of secession and of the rise in the price of cotton. A blockade was early established by the Federal government of Washington; and it was only by ' running ' this blockade that cotton-laden ships could cleaj from the Southern or Confederate ports. The price of Middling Orleans (the kind of cotton mostly used, and that which governs the price of all other kinds) rose from 7f(f. to 9d., lOd., and 12d., as the year advanced. There w^as thus a twofold motive for lessening the operations of the Lancashire mills — the markets were so fully supplied with manufactured goods, that no immediate augmentation was necessary; while the increase in the price of the raw mate- rial rendered manufacturing less profitable than before. The Liverpool dealers made colossal fortunes by the enormous rise in price of every bale of cotton which could reach the country from any quarter; while the manufacturers were also prosperous, because they could sell their accumulated stocks of calicos and yarns at much higher prices than had been obtainable in 1860. It w^as the operatives who suffered One by one, the mills were put upon half-time, because the mill owners had not much inducement to spin and weave, under the extraordinary double influence above adverted to. It was not until autumn, however, that these effects were heavily fell, when there was the enormous quantity of 1,000,000,000 lbs. of cotton, raw and manufactured, on hand in Great Britain. When half-time began at the mills in Oct., there were, in Lancashire and the two." neigh boring counties, 890 spinning-mills, 593 weaving-mills, 635 spinning and weaving mills, and 151 other cotton-mills of miscellane- ous kinds, employing 369,453 factory hands; and all these four classes of establishments became equally embarrassed. India or Surat cotton could still be had in considerable quantity, at lOd. per lb. instead of its formar price of 5d. ; but it was greatly out of favor, on account of its dirty condi- tion, and the shortness and hardness of its staple. In Nov., there were 49 mills stopped, throwing out 8,063 hands, while 119 were working half-time— placing something like 20,000 COTTON FAMINE. ersons on half their usual wages. In Dec. , Middling Or- leans rose to 12d. So singular was the state of things, and so unlike what would be called a ' famine,' under other cir- cumstances, that the actual quantity of raw cotton in Great Britain at the end of the year (280,000,000 lbs.) was greater than ever before known in the history of the trade; but as the market price of yarns and piece-goods at that time scarcely equaled that of raw cotton plus wages, the manu- facturer could scarcely operate without a loss; and therefore he either closed his mill, or placed his hands on half-time. It was not so much a famine of cotton as a famine of em- ployment. The year 1862 opened very gloomily. Relief committees began to be formed in Manchester, Wigan, Blackburn, Preston, and other towns, to distribute subscribed funds to such of the hands as were totally out of work. The streets were thronged with the unemployed; but there was no dis- turbance, and scarcely any begging. Sewing-schools were established by ladies in the several districts, to teach the factory girls useful domestic needle-work — of which they are generally very ignorant — to get them to make clothes for themselves and others; and to shield them from the vicious temptations which would beset them during a period of idleness. The ladies also won upon the affection of the girls by reading to them, and sympathizing in many ways with their sorrows. Many of the manufacturers set apart large rooms as school-rooms and soup-kitchens for the boys and men, and abundant stores of soup were pro- vided at Id. per basin. The poor-law board sent down in- structions to the local guardians how to give as much elas ticity as possible to the system of parochial relief. In April, Blackburn had only 18 mills on full-time out of 84, the rest being either on half-time or closed; and there were 9,000 of the inhabitants receiving parochial relief. Most of the other towns were in nearly as bad a plight. In May, matters were worse; Preston had 10,000 operatives out of work, and Blackburn had about half employment for 27,000. Middling Orleans rose in price to 16d., and manufacturers had more inducement to speculate in cotton than to spin it. Meanwhile, great efforts were made to assist the distressed operatives. The letters of a * Lanca- shire Lad ' in the Times, with the text ' Con yo help us a bit ? ' made a great impression. The Daily Telegraph raised a fund of £5,000 by its own exertions. The Lancasliire landowners established a * cotton district relief fund ' in London, to which they subscribed £11,000 in one day; the Lord Mayor established a 'Mansion-house committee,' which received subscriptions from all parts of the w^orld; Manchester established a ' central relief committee,' as a nucleus for various local funds; while a great county meeting brought in £130,000, of w^hich £70,000 was sub- scribed in one day in one room. Mr. Faruall was sent down by the Poor-law board, as special commissioner, to super- intend the plans for parochial relief. A Rate-in-aid Bill was passed through parliament, to enable the government to issue orders in council, authorizing parishes to raise 48 COTTON FAMINE. moueyon the guarantee of future rates; it was only to be done where the current poor-rate had already reached a high figure, and the money raised 'vvas to be applied strictly to mitigate the distress of the operatives. Notwithstand- ing all these sources of assistance, the work-people became red\]ced to great distress. ' The pawnbrokers' stores,' said an eye-witness, 'were glutted with the heir-looms of many an honest family. Little hoards were drained to meet the exigences of the lime. Many found it the sorest trial of their lives to ask for food; and it is a happy circumstance for all to remember, as it is honorable to those of whom it is recorded, that none suffered more severely than those who had a struggle to overcome their unwillingness to subsist upon food which they had not earned. Rents were falling in arrears, and many a house which had held only one family, was now occupied by three or four, in order to economize rent fuel, and furniture.' Nevertheless, none died of privation, and the average sickness was even less than usual. It was a fact well ascertained that spirit- drinking was less indulged in than while the out- door poor relief was about £1,000,000 more than in an equal period of average times. During the course of the famine, the losses of the trade amounted to between £65,000,000 and £70,000,000, including from £28,000,000 to £30,000,000 loss of wages to operatives. Of the latter amount about one-fourth was recovered in the form of relief, or in wages for employment in the above public works. In some dis- tricts in 1863, the poor-rate rose to nearly 6^. in the £. In the same year, the average rate for the whole of the cot- ton districts was 2^. 2|6Z., against only7|d in 1861. The fluctuations in the value and quantity of cotton available during this extraordinary period are strikingly shown in the following parallel columns, relating to the raw cotton imported, and the money paid for it: Quantities (Cwts.). Value. I860 12,410,000 11,223,000 4,678,000 5,978,000 7,976,000 8,732,000 12,296,000 £35,757,000 38,653,000 31,093,000 56,278,000 78,204,000 66,032,000 77,521,000 1861 1862 1863 1864 1866 It was a gloomy winter, that of 1862-3, for the mill- hands. The import of C. fell to 524,000,000 lbs, against 1,257,000,000 in 1861, and 1,391,000,000 in 1860. In Oct., the loss of wages was estimated at £136,000 per week. In Nov. there were 208,000 persons in the Lanca- shire district receiving out-door parochial relief, and 144,000 others aided by subscribed funds; there were at the same time 20,000 mill-girls at the sewing- schools. At Christmas, there were 247,000 hands totally out of work, and 165,000 others only partially employed. In the same month, 234,000 persons, or 24 per cent, of the total popu^ 49 COTTON FAMINE. lation of the districts affected, were in receipt of charitable relief. Vast sums were sent from various parts of the world to be spent in winter-clothing only, and prodigious stores of second-hand clothing were contributed by private families. As the money relief seldom exceeded 26'. or 2^. Qd. ,per week per applicant, to purchase clothing out of this w^as of course impracticable. The small shopkeepers also suffered greatly; for there was only one-third the amount of wages received by their customers per week that had been received two years before. Emigration schemes were much discussed, but were not carried on very largely, because Lancashire men felt convinced that trade would revive after a time. Meanwhile, the r^ate of wages was not lowered; few mill-owners proposed it, and the operatives were immovably against it; however small the quantity of work, it was paid for at the old rate. In 1863, the average number of persons out of w^ork was 189,000, and that of those only partially employed, 129,000; in 1864, the ligures were 134,000 and 97,000 respectively; and those for the first live months of 1865, 107,000 and 68,000. No date can be named for the actual cessation of the distress; it died out by degrees. The first relief came from the source of the distress, the United States. During the autumn and early winter of 1862 the citizens of the United States, though with hearts and hands full with the agonies and necessities of war, contributed sufficient food and clothing to load three vessels, the George Oriswoldy Achilles, and Hope, which hastened to the relief of their suffering cousins, and reached Liverpool, 1863, Feb. When the manufacturers had sold off their old stocks, they recommenced buying more to spin and weave; because, though the price of raw cotton was enormously high (2s. M. for Middling Orleans in 1863, May), the sell- ing price for calicoes and muslins was now proportionably high, and therefore they could manufacture at a profit In 1863, June, a * Public Works Act' was passed, to enable the government to advance £1,200,000 for public works in the cotton districts — partly to make good drainage, roads, water supply, etc., and partly to yield £600,000 or £700,000 as wages to the unemployed cotton-hands in doing so much of the work as they could manage. The money (to be repaid by parish rates at subsequent dates) was to be ad- vanced by the Exchequer Loan Commissioners on the recommendation of the Poor-law Board, and a government engineer was to examine and sanction the several works to be executed. All these operations w^ere to be confined strictly to the cotton districts, where the distress existed. Mr. R. A. Arnold, the resident govt, inspector of these public works, states in his History of the Cotton Famine, that by 1865, June, there had been works planned, and in great part executed, under the clauses of this and a supple- mentary bill, to the amount of £1,846,000. They com- prised the making or improving of 276 m. of street and highway, 304 m. of main sewxr, reservoirs for 1,500,000,000 gallons of water, several parks and cemeteries, and a large area of land-drainage. Nearly 30,000 persons had 50 COTTON GRASS-COTTUS. bceu fed by the wages paid the cotton operatives on these works. The subscriptions to meet the distress reached £2,U00,000; while the out-door poor relief was about ill, (-'00, 000 more than in an equal period of average limes COTTON GRASS, {Erio- jphorum)'. genus of plants of the nat. ord. Cyperacece, hav- ing the fruit accompanied with long silky hairs which spring from the base of the ovary. The species are not very nu- merous; they are natives of the colder regions of the n. hemisphere, and their white cottony fruit -bearing spikes are seen in moors and bogs. The cottony substance has been used for stulnng pillows, making candle - wicks, etc. Mr. Helliwell has shown that a lirm and beautiful cloth can be made of it; and, according to him, it might be gathered in some places, without culti- vation, at a cost of twopence or threepence per pound. The stems of a Himalayan species, E. cannahinum, called Bhahhur, yield a very strong fibre, and are much employed for making cordage, being simply twisted into cables, of which rope-bridges are usually made; but they are not durable, and require much repairing every year. — C. G. is said to be valuable for sheep pas- tre. Its leaves w^ere formerly employed as a remedy for diarrhoea, and the spongy pith of the stem to expel tape- worms. COT TONWOOD: see Poplar. ' COTTON-WORM: caterpillar of the tribe of noctua moth, genus helioihes. There are two kinds, each with 16 legs. The hrst^ of a general green color striped with yellow and dotted on the back with black, has a rapid un- dulating motion, attains a length of 1^ inches, deposits 10- 15 eggs on the under surface of the leaves, and dies soon afterward. The eggs are hatched in 6-15 days, and the young begin to eat the leaves almost immediately. The second is of a general j^ellow color, though sometimes brown or green, with black spots and short hairs, has a slow, even motion, is capable of laying 500 eggs, has three broods a year, and deposits its eggs singly in each flower, whence the worm eats its w^ay into the boll and feeds till the boll is about to fall, then goes to another. Both varie- ties are believed to have originated in s. America. COTTUS, kot tns: genus of acanthopterygious fishes, of the Mailed CJieek family or Sclerogenidce, having a large de- Cotton Grass (Eriophorum). COTULA-COTYLEDON. pressed head, more or less armed with spines or tubercles, a tapering body destitute of scales, and two dorsal tins. Some of the species are marine, others inhabit freshwater. Of the latter, the bull-head (q.v.) is an example. The marine species are found mostly in northern seas. The Sea Scorpion {G. Scorpius) and the Father Lasher {G. Buba- lis), are often left by the receding tide in rock-pools and among sea-weeds. The greatest size to which they attain on the British coasts is only abotit 10 inches, but in more northerly seas, they become much larger. They form a principal part of the food of the Greenlanders. Notwith- standing their large gill-openings, they live long out of water. COTULA, n. kot'u-la: genus of composite plants, type of the tribe Gotulece, tribe Semcionidem. COTUR NIX: see Quail. COTYLA, n. kot'i-ld, or Cot'yle [Gr. kotiiU, a cup or socket]: in aiiat., the socket or hollow that receives the end of another bone. Cot yloid, a. -loyd [Gr. eidoSy shape] : resembling the socket of a joint. COTYLEDON, n. kbt'i-le'don [Gr. kotuUdon, a cup-like hollow — from koiule,2i hollow, a small cup]: in hot., a seed- lobe, or seed-leaf; a principal part of the embryo in phan- erogamous or flowering-plants. Cryptogamous plants are acotyledonous (q.v. ): their seeds or spores have no cotyledons. Phanerogamous plants are divided according to their seeds into monocotyledonous (q. v.), having only one C. , and dicotyle- donous (q.v.), having two cotyledons. With the latter are ranked some Goniferm remarkable for having more than two cotyledons, which form a sort of whorl. The cotyle- dons enclose the plumule or gemmule\ and in germination they usually come above groimd as the first leaves (seed- leaves) of the young plant — the plumule, in dicotyledonous plants, appearing between them — and they become at the same time more leaf -like; but in some plants, which have thick fleshy cotyledons, they remain undergound. In either case, they contain a store of nourishment, by w-hich the young plant is sustained on its first germination. In- stances of cotyledons remaining under ground, may be seen in the common pea and bean; and instances of cotyledons coming above ground, in the kidney-bean and scarlet runner, plants of the same nat. order. Cotyledons are sometimes very thick, sometimes very thin and deli- cate; those of the same seed are generally equal, but not always; they are frequently undivided, but sometimes cut and lobed. The cotyledons of dicotyledonous plants are often simply applied face to face; when, if the radicle is folded along their edges, they are said to be accumbent\ if it is folded on their back, they ars incumbent. Sometimes the two cotyledons of a seed are condupUcate, or laterally folded; sometimes they are reclinate, or folded from apex to base; sometimes conwlute, or laterally rolled up; some- times circinate, or spirally rolled up with the apex inner- • most. These terms are of importance in descriptive botany, as characters of high value are often furnished by COUCH— COUCY. the seed. — C. in anatomy, is applied to the portions of which the placentae of some animals are formed, as in the ruminants: Cot'yle'donous, a. -le'do nus, pertaining to; having a seed-lobe. COUCH, n. kowch [F. couclier, to lay down— from OF. colclier, or It. colcare, to lay down — from L. collbcare, to lay or place dow^n — from L. con, locdre, to lay]: a place for rest or sleep; a bed; a sofa; in making malt, a layer or stratum of barley spread on the malt-floor; a layer or stratum of color, size, etc. : Y . to lie down, as on a bed or place of repose; to lay down in a bed or stratum; to conceal or express in words obscurely; to include or y comprise; to recline on the knees, as a beast; I'&v^ to crouch; to fix a spear in the posture for ^_Jv ^ ^ attack; to depress or remove the film that ^^^^^'^^'^'^-^-^ overspreads the pupil of the eye, called a Couchant. cataract (q.v.); in OE., to plate or lay over, as scales. Couch ing, imp. Couched, pp. kowcht. Couch EK, n. one who couches cataracts. Couch'- LESS, a. Couchant, a. kowch' ant [F.]: in heraldry, a beast lying down with the head raised up; squatting: if the head also is down the beast is dormant. COUCH GRASS {Triticum repens), called also Wheat Grass, Dog Grass, Quickens, and Squitch or Quitch: a grass which, though of the same genus with wheat, is known chiefly as a troublesome weed. It is common in most parts of Europe and N. America. It grows to a height of 1^-3 ft., and has two-rowed spikes and flat spikelets, the side of which is applied to the rachis. It is perennial, and its creeping roots render it extremely difficult of extirpation; they are carefully gathered out of land under cultivation, but they make the plant very useful in fixing loose sandy soils, so as to form pasture. It is not, how^ever, esteemed a very nutritious grass. The roots are sweet and mucilaginous, and are collected at Naples for feeding horses; they have also been dried and ground into meal, to make bread in times of scarcity. A kind of beer is made from them, and in some countries they are much used in domestic medicine. They are diaphoretic and aperient. — The popular name, Squitch, or Quitch, is given also to some other perennial grasses. COUCY, ko-se' , Renaud, Castellan of, court-poet, belonging to the north of France: probably in the latter part of the 12th c. The love-songs ascribed to him are distinguished above all similar productions of the same epoch by great warmth of passion. They are ^^^^^^ ^^^ss addressed, of course, to a mistress, whose name, in accordance with the fashion of the time, is not mentioned. From their contents, we can gather little or 53 COUEPIA— COUGH. nothing of the circumstances of C. 's life, except that he had become a crusader, and had separated himself very reluctantly from the object of his adoration. It is sup- posed that he accompanied Philippe Auguste and Kichard Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, probably in the service of Raoul, Sieur de Coucy, with whom, indeed, he is often confounded. Like Tristan and Isolde, C. and his mistress soon became patterns of true but unfortunate lovers. As early as the first half of the 13th c, the Uoman d'Aventure gives a very prolix and incredible account of both. The best edition of the Chansons du Chdtelain de G. was b} Frang. Michel (Paris 1830). COUEPIA, n. ko-ep'l-a: genus of plants, ord. CJirysobala nacece. The wood of C. guianensis, a large tree 60 ft. high is durable and heavy. The Indians use its bark in the manufacture of their pottery. COUGAR, D. ko'gdr [S. Amer. word: F. couguar]: the American panther: see Puma. COUGH, V. kof[sin imitative word: Dut. kuch, a cough; kuchen, to breathe with difficulty]: to expel the air from the lungs with considerable force and noise; to expecto- rate: N. an effort of the lungs to throw off offending mat- ter, as phlegm from the air-passages, accompanied with considerable noise: Coughing, imp.: Coughed, pp., koft. — Coughing, considered physiologically, consists, 1st, in a long inspiration, which fills the lungs to a greater extent than usual; 2d, in the closure of the glottis, or narrow opening in the organ of voice (see Larynx), at the com- mencement of the act of expiration; and, 3d, in the sudden forcing open of the glottis by the violence of the expiratory movement. In this way, a blast of air is driven upward from the lungs through the mouth, which carries with it any sources of irritation that may have been present in the air-passages. C. may occur from irritation in the back of the throat, in the larynx, trachea, or bronchial tubes, and may be excited by acrid vapors, by irritant gases, or by articles of food or drink— such as even a drop of water or a crumb of bread — making their way into the air-passages, instead of into the pharynx, or by excessive or morbid secretion from the walls of the air-tubes, or even by the entrance of cold air, when the lining membrane of the air-passages is abnormally irritable. It is not easy to explain* to the non-professional reader how cough is produced. From the medulla oblongata, or uppermost part of the spinal cord (lying within the cavity of the cranium), there is given off a very important nerve, called, from its distribution to the lungs and stomach, the pneumogastric nerve (q.v.), which contains both sensory and motor filaments. The sensory filaments are distributed to the mucous lining of the larynx, trachea, etc. Any such irritating substances as have been mentioned may produce an impression upon these sensory filaments, which, being conveyed to the medulla oblongata, gives rise, through the motor filaments, to the transmission of motor imjDulses to the various muscles concerned in the act of 54 COULD— COUMARINE. coughing. Other motor nerves, especially those supplying tlie intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, co operate powerfull}^ with the motor filaments of the pneumogastric. The object of C. in the animal economy is unquestion- ably to guard against the danger of the entrance of me- chanical and chemical irritants into the air passages; and accordingly, the mucous membrane, especially of their upper part, is endowed with a most exi^uisite sensibility, which, when aroused by irritation or by a state of disease, provokes incessant coughing until the irritation be allayed or removed. Cough is an exceedingly common symptom of all diseases of the respiration: see Pneumonia: Con- sumption: Bronchitis : Catarrh: etc. Cough occurs among the lower animals under similar conditions. From continued breathing of a close foul atmosphere, the bronchial mucous membrane becomes unduly irritable; hence the prevalence of chronic cough among the cows in overcrowded town dairies. Chronic cough also occurs in horses, usually as a sequel to repeated attacks of bronchitis. It constitutes unsoundness, is best treated by repeated doses of belladonna and camphor, but often requires for its entire removal a run at grass. COULD, V. kud [AS. cuthe, was able]: past tense of can; had sufficient power, moral or physical; had sufficient capacity: see Can 2. COULEES, n. plu. kit-lez [F. coulee — from couler, to flow as melted metals— from L. coldre, to filter, to run]: in geol., streams of lava, whether flowing or become solid. COULOMB, ko-lbiig'y Charles Augustin db: 1736 — 1806, Aug. 23; b. Augouleme, France: inventor of an in- strument — the Torsion Balance (q.v.) — to measure the force of magnetic and electrical attraction. In early life, he entered the engineers. In 1777, he gained a prize by an essay on the construction of magnetic needles [Sur les Ai- giiilks Aimantees). In 1779, his Theorie des Machines simples gained the prize ofl'ered by the Acad.; and, in 1781, he was a third time successful, in an essay on the friction and resistance of cordage, etc., used in machines. In the same year, he was elected member of the Acad., and his services were employed on all the most difficult problems in mechanics. Having offended certain influential persons by reporting unfavorably on their project of a navigable canal in Bretagne, C. was for some time imprisoned, but received from the States of Bretagne a present of a sec- onds' watch, as a reward of his firm opposition to an ex- pensive and unprofitable scheme. C. lived in retirement during the Revolution, and became a member of the Insti- tute, 1804. COULTER, n. kdl'ter [OF. coultre—iYom L. culter, a plowshare, a knife: F. coutre, a coulter]: the sharp iron of the plow in front of the share which cuts off the furrow- slice from the fast land; also Col ter: see Plow. Coul- terneb, n. kdl'ter-neh, a sea-bird, so named from the blade- like shape of its neb or bill; the puffin. COUMARINE, or Coumarin, n. ko'ma-rm, known C0UM0UND0UR08— COUKCIL. also as Tonka Steakopten (see Steahopten): odoriferous substance, which gives agreeable fragrance to the well- known Tonka Bean {q.v.){I)ipterlx odorata), used for flavor- ing snuft" ; the Woodruff {Asperula odorata) ; the Melilot {MelUotus officinalis) ; a number of grasses, as the sweet- scented Vernal Grass {Anthomnthum odoratum)\ and the Faam or Fahani leaves {Angraicu7n fragrans), much prized among the Asiatics for their vanilla-like scent; and is probably the cause of similar fragrance in many other plants. C. may be procured from Tonka beans by digestion in ether. It crystallizes in small prisms, is colorless, has the smell of the bean, and is scarcely soluble in cold water, but dissolves in boiling water. A beverage well known in Germany as May Brink, made of wine and woodruif, derives its flavor from coumarin. COUMOUNDOUROS, ko^mdn'dij ros, Alexander: 1818 -1883, Mar. 10; b. Athens: Greek statesman. He entered the Greek chamber of deputies 1850, became pres of that body, and was subsequently appointed a minister of state with charge of the dept. of finance. His first ofticial step was to propose to the chamber a bill for the recognition of the Greek debts of 1814 and 25 contracted in the struggle for freedom. The measure at first failed, but he clung to its moral and political necessity, and succeeded in securing its adoption, 1879. He was frequently prime minister of Greece, and held the otfice longer than any contemporary Greek statesman. His popularity was very great through the country, and he was often called the Cavour of Greece. COUNCIL, n. kown'sil [F. concile, an assembly — from L. concilliim, an assembly: It. concilio\. an assembly met for consultation, or convened to give advice; a meeting of delegates from churches, in some denominations, with only advisory or moral power, in others, of high authority, e.g. provincial, national, and ecumenical councils: see Council, or Synod: a municipal body: see Town council. Coun'- ciLOR, n. -Ut, a member of a council. Coun cilorship, n. the office. Common council, in the city of London, and other cities, the body which represents the citizens. Ecumenical council, ek'u-meri'i-kdl-, in eccles. hist,, a general council or assembly of a select number of ecclesias- tics of various ranks representing the whole church. Privy council (q. v.), a select number of persons for advising a sovereign in the administration of public affairs. Council- board, the table around which councilors sit in consulta- tion.— Syn. of * councir: meeting; congress; diet; convoca- tion; convention. COUN CIL, or Syn od, in Eccles. Hist.: assembly of ec- clesiastical dignitaries, for regulating the doctrine or discip- line of the church over a provincial or larger area. In modern usage, C. has a different application, denoting an assembly gathered from any wide area, usually a representa- tive but not authoritative body, embracing several affiliated sects, and meeting for free and helpful conference on mat- ters of common concern, but with no legislative function; e.g., the Pan-Presbyterian Council. COUNCIL. As early as the 2d c., church councils were convened, in which only one or two provinces took part, the bishops and presbyters binding themselves to carry out the decisions ar- rived at, in their own communities. These assemblies were commonly held in the chief town or metropolis of the prov- ince, and the bishops of such capitals — who after the 8d c, bore the title of metropolitan — were wont to preside over the meetings, and to consider questions of doctrine and dis- cipline which had arisen within the territory. Over these metropolitan councils were established, at a later period, the provincial synods, exercising authority over several united provinces, and finally, the national councils. After the 4th c, when the Christian religion was established in the Roman empire, we read of ecumenical, i.e., universal councils, so called because all the bishops of Christendom were invited or summoned by the emperor. In some early synods, bishops, presbyters, and others, took part in the deliber- ations; but after the opening of the 4th c, only the bishops were convened. According to the doctrine of the Rom. Cath. Church, the pope alone, or, by way of exception in some cases, the college of cardinals had the power of convening ecumenical councils, which, in the Rom. Cath. view, represent the universal church under the guidance of the Holy Ghost. Questions were determined by the majority of votes, and the pope or his proxy pre- sided and confirmed the resolutions carried in the synod. In matters of faith, the Holy Scriptures and the traditions of the church were the guide; while in lighter matters, hu- man reason aud expediency were consulted. In matters of faith, ecumenical councils are held +0 be infallible; but in other matters of discipline, etc., the latest synod decide ques- tions. The question of the pope's subordination to the decrees of the ecumenical councils was long and warmly debated, but the recent Vatican council may be said to have set the ques- tion at rest. Twenty ecumenical councils are recognized in the Rom. Cath. Cnurch — 9 eastern and 11 western. 1. The synod of apostles in Jerusalem, wherein the rela- tion of the Christian doctrine to the Mosaic law was deter- mined. (Acts, XV.) 2. The first C. of Nice, 325, to assert the Cath. doctrine respecting the Son of God in opposition to the opinions of Arius: see Nice (or Nic^a), Councils OF. 3. The first C. of Constantinople, convoked under the Emperor Theodosius the Great (381), to determine the Cath. doctrine regarding the Holy Spirit: see CoNSTANTmoPLB, Councils of. 4. The first C. of Ephesus, convened under Theodosius the Younger (431), to condemn the Nestorian heresy : see Ephesus, Council of. 5. The C. of Chalce- don, under the emperor Marcian (451), which asserted the doctrine of the union of the divine with the human nature in Christ, and condemned the heresies of Eutyches and the Monophysites- see Chalcedon, Council of. 6. The sec- ond C. of Constantinople, under Justinian (553), which con- demned the doctrines of Origen, Arius, Macedonius, and others. 7. The third C. of Constantinople, convoked under the Emperor Constantine Y., Pogouatus (681), for the con- demnation of the Monothelite heresy. 8. The second C. of 51 COUNCIL. Kice, in the reign of the Empress Irene and her son Con- stantine (787), to establish the worship of images. 9. The fourth C. of Constantinople, under Basilius and Adrian (869), the principal business of which was the peace of the eastern and western churches, and the deposition of Pho- tius, who had intruded himself into the see of Constanti- nople, and the restoration of Ignatius, who had been un- justly expelled. — The ecumenical councils, to this point, may be said to have been acknowledged generally as authorita- tive in both the Eastern and the Western churches, though there were some large local exceptions. After this, the councils called ecumenical were so only in name, the schism between the two churches having now become complete. The remainder of the list are not acknowledged by the Greek Church. — 10. The lirst Lateran C, in Rome under the Em- peror Henry y., and convoked by the pope, Calixtus II (1123), to settle the dispute on investiture (q.v.): see La.tbr- AN Councils. 11. The second Lateran C, under the Em- peror Conrad III. and Pope Innocent II. (1139), condemned the errors of Arnold of Brescia and others. 12. The third Lateran C, convened by Pope Alexander HI. (1179), in the reign of Frederick I. of Grermany, condemned the 'errors and impieties ' of the Waldenses and Albigenses 13. The fourth Lateran C , held under Innocent III. (1215), among other matters asserted and conflrmad the dogma of transub- stantiation, and necessity for the reformation of abuses and the extirpation of heresy. 14. The tirst ecumenical synod of Lyon, during the pontificate of Innocent IV. (1245), had for its object the promotion of the Crusades, the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline, etc. 15. The second ecum- enical synod of Lyon, during the pontificate of Gregory X. (1274): its principal object was the re union of the Greek and Latin churches. 16. The Synod of Yienne in Gaul, under Clemens V". (1311), convoked to Suppress the Knights Templars, etc. 17. The C. of Constance, convoked at the request of the Emperor Sigismund, 1414: it sat for 4 years, asserted the authority of an ecumenical C. over the pope, and condemned the doctrines of John Huss and Jerome of Prague: see Constance, Council, of. 18. The C. of Basel, convoked by Pope Martin Y., 1430, sat for nearly 10 years, and purposed to introduce a reformation in the discipline, and even the constitution of the Rom. Cath. Church: all acts passed in thisC, after it had been formally dissolved by the pope, are regarded by the Rom. Cath. Church as null and void: see Basel, Council of. 19. The celebrated C. of Trent, 1545—63; opened by Paul III., and brought to a close under the pontificate of Paul lY. : sea Trent, Council of. The Yatican C. above mentioned, 1870, decreed the infallibilit}^ of the pope: see Yatican, Council of. Among the provincial or local synods convened after the division of the church into east and west, was that of Cler- mont (1096), when the first crusade was proposed, and that of Pisa (q.v.) 1409, when three popes were contending for the see of Rome. Among Protestants no general C. has ever been convened ; but several particular synods have de- 58 COUJ^CIL. cided various questions. Of these synods one of the more remarkable was that of Dort, 1618, when Calvin's creed was asserted against the Arminians: see Arminius. The decrees of the Rom. Cath. councils were edited by Mansi (31 vols. 1759-98). See Hefele's Conciliengeschichte (7 vols. 1855-74). COUNCIL, IN Congregational Church usage: as- sembly of delegates directly representative of churches, called for some special purpose or occasion of fellowship between churches, and dissolved when the business is fin- ished. A C. is called usually by a church which, newly organized, seeks recognition as in fellowship with other churches; also by a church in the settlement or dismissal of a pastor, or whenever it sees its special need of the aid or advice of other churches. It may be called also by an indi- vidual member for ad\ice as to bis course in reference to an action by bis church whicb he deems a grievance. The de- cisions of councils have no authoriiy as law; but being ex- pressive of christian sentiment in any given case, they bring to bear a strong moral pressure, which, as matter of fact, is very seldom disregarded. Councils consist of any rersonable number of churches. The selection and calling of them is done by the cliarch (or in rare cases the individ- ual) directly interested, issuing to such churches as are de- sired a fornial invitation to a C. to be held at a specified place and time, for a clearly stated purpose, and to be com- posed of designated churches. All these churches receive an identical invitation, or Letter Missive, and each may accept or decline it according to its own judgment. Each church accepting the letter missive is represented in the C, usually by its pastor and one other delegate. Only the busi- ness indicated in the letter missive can be considered in the C. A council has no function outside of or beyond the let- ter missive which is its charter; nor has it power to change that letter, or to make any change in the constituency which that letter indicates. The Congl. Churches of the United States have held several general C.'s, to consider matters of common denominational importance; and, 1871, at Oberlin, O., they organized a national C, meeting once in three years; this body is not a council or assembly of churches, but rather a bod}^ of delegates from state or district asso- ciations or similar bodies, meeting in conference for the gen- eral furtherance of Christian work. Thus it is without the functions of the councils of churches above noted, and gives no advice in questions of christian fellowship between churches. It is precluded, as are also the regular councils, from exercising any legislative or judicial authority. Its moral influence has been considered helpful in various ways. COUNCIL, IN THE Reformed Episcopal Crurch: as- sembly of ministers and laymen, created by the provisional constitution of the church, adopted 1873, Dec. 2. The gen- eral C. consists of all the bps. and presbyters of the church, with lay representatives who must be communicants and members of the congregations which they represent. The 5» COUNCIL BLUFFS— COUNCIL OF WAR. lay represeutuliou consists of one deputy for each 50 com municauts in each congregation, and every congregation is entitled to at least one deputy. The bps. do not consti- tute a separate house nor exercise a veto power, but vote with the presbyters when a vote is taken by orders. The pres. is chosen by ballot from among the bps., serves a term of one year, and during it is the presiding bp. of the church. Six or more adjoining congregetions with 6 or more presbyters may associate themselves in a synod, imder the jurisdiction of a bp., and the body shall embrace all the ministers of the church within the limit, and such a number of lay deputies from each congregation as the synod determines. Each congregation has its own individ- ual C. which co-operates with the minister in all matters beyond the jurisdiction of the vestry. COUNCIL BLUFFS: city, cap. of Pottawattamie co., Iowa, at the base of a picturesque range of a high bluffs; 3 m. e. of the Missouri river, 4 m. e. by n. of Omaha, Neb., 141 m. w.s.w. of Des Moines by rail, 817 m. w. of Davenport, and 1,000 m. n. of St. Louis; on the Kansas City St. Jos- eph and C. B. ; Chicago Rock Island and Pacific, Burling- ton and Missouri River, Chicago and Northwestern, and Union Pacific railroads; area 24 sq. m. An iron bridge over the Missouri rivei*, nearly a m. long, connects it with Omaha and provides transit for passenger and freight trains and street cars, and its extremities are connected by a horse railroad. Its public buildings include a state deaf and dumb institution founded 1842, a commodious co. court- house built 1867 at a cost of $50,000, a city hall, 2 public halls, a library, and a Y. M. C. A. hall and reading room. The educational buildings embrace a very pretty high- school that cost $50,000, 6 ward schools and a grammar school, a Rom. Cath. seminary for girls, and a school for boys. There are 9 churches, 2 Meth. Episc, and one each Bap., Congl.. Lutheran, Presb., Rom. Cath., Uni- tarian, and United Brethren; 2 national banks with a capital of $150,000, 2 savings banks, 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 3 breweries, 2 flour mills, iron works and machine shops, and manufactories of steam engines, agricultural implements, carriages and wagons, furniture, brooms, and cigars. C. B. derived its name from a council held on the biufi's with the Indians by Messrs. Lewis and Clark, 1804, was occupied by a community of Mormons, who named it Kanesville, 1846, and v/as incorported under the name of C. B. 1853. Pop. (1870) 10,020; (1880) 18,063; (1885) 21,557. COUNCIL OF WAR: conference of officers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The French make a special provision for a Coun- cil of Defence in a garrison. The governor or command- ant may summon the heads of departments to meet him in consultat'on whenever he may think such a step desirable; and the opinions expressed at such meetings are placed upon record. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits 60 COUKSEL— COUNT. the opiniou of a C. of W. before surrendering to besiegers. The English military code leaves these matters to the dis- cretion of the commander. In the navy, a C. of W. con- sists usually of tlag-officers only; but officers of lower rank occasionally assist. COUNSEL, n, kown'sel [F. conseil — from L. consilium, deliberation]: advice; opinion or advice given for the in- struction or guidance of another; consultation; secret opin- ions; design; purpose; will; one who advises in matters of law; an advocate; a barrister: see Advocate: Attorney: Barrister: V. to advise; to give advice or a deliberate opinion to another for his guidance; to warn; to admonish. Coun selling, imp. Coun selled, pp. -seld. Coun- selor, n. -lei\ one who advises another; an advocate; a barrister. Coun'selorship, n. the office of a counsellor. To keep counsel, to keep any design or purpose secret. — Syn. of 'counsel, v.': to admonish; instruct; recom- mend. COUNT, V. kownt, formerly spelled compt, as in accompt [F. compter or conter, to count, to reckon — from L. compu- tdre, to sum up— from con, putdre, to clear up, to arrange: It. computare]: to number; to sum up; to reckon; to esteem or consider; to ascribe to; to rely on: N. number; act of numbering; total amount; in law, a particular charge in an indictment. Count ing, imp. Count ed, pp. Count er, n. one who; that which is used in reckoning numbers; a table on which money is counted or goods laid; an imitation of a piece of money. Count able, a. -d-bl, that may be numbered. Countless, a. that cannot be numbered; innumerable. Count-out, an adjournment of the house of commons when fewer than forty members are present — only made, however, when the attention of the Speaker is called to that fact by a member. Count for Account, in , a question in arithmetic. Count-wheel, the wheel that regulates the number of blows that a clock is to strike at the end of each hour.— Syn. of 'count, v.': to cal- culate; reckon; compute; estimate; enumerate; rate; judge; think. COUNT, n. kotmt [OF. conte; F. co7nte — from L. comi- iem, an associate: It. conte]: name given to the great offi- cers of state under the Frankish kings; a foreign title of nobility answering to English earl: Countess, n. kowntes [F. comtesse], the wife of a count or an earl. In classical writers, down to the end of the 4th c, the meanings at- tached to the word co7nes (Lat. form of Count) were com- paratively few and simple. At first it signified merely an attendant, and differed from socius chiefly in expressing a less intimate and equal relation to the person accompanied. Suetonius uses it for an attendant on a magistrate. A little later, in Horace's time, it was applied to those young men of family whom it had become customary to send out as pupils under the eye of the governor of a province, or the commander of an army. Very soon, the fashion of having similar attendants at home was introduced, and Horace speaks of this necessity as one of the miseries of a high COUNT AND RECKONING-COUNTENANCE. position. The emperor, of course, had many comites (Lat. plu. of comes) in this sense; and to these, as he gradually became the centre of power, he transferred the various offices of his household, and even of the state. Around his person these comites formed a sort of council of state, resembling that instituted by the first Napoleon. The ex- ample of the emperors of the west was followed by the em- perors of the east, though at Byzantium the title attached less to the office than to the individual. Most of the titles of British court officials are translations of those belonging to similar officers in the lower empire. The comes sacrarum largitionum was the grand almoner; the comes curm, the grand-master of ceremonies; the comes wsiiarms, the grand- master of the wardrobe; comes equorum regiorum, the grand equerry, etc. The comes marcarum, or count of the marches, there can be little doubt, was the original of the marquis of later times. In France, the C. of the palace {comes palatii nostri) was the highest dignitary in the state after the maire of the palace; and, in the 11th c, he had already acquired a rank apart from that of the other counts. He presided in the court of the sovereign in his absence, and possessed sovereign jurisdiction. The habit of insti- tuting counts-palatine was adopted by Sijain and England. Those counts who, at a later period, as rulers of provinces, assumed something approaching to sovereign power, arro- gated to themselves the right of appointing counts-palatine under them — e. g., the Counts of Chartres, of Champagne, of Blois, Toulouse, etc. ; and the ancient houses of Chartres and of Blois continued to claim in perpetuity the title of C. -palatine as that of their eldest sons. Counts of this sovereign class owed their origin to the feebleness of the later Carlo vingian kings, under whom they contrived grad- ually to convert the provinces and towns which they had governed as royal officers into principalities hereditary in their families. It was then that the counts came to be known by the names of their counties. Since the great revolution, the title of C. in France has been purely hon- orary, and has been used with a license which has almost deprived it of even that character. The title was never used in England, though its Latin equivalent has always been the common translation for earl (q.v.), and the wife of an earl, from a very early period, has been styled coun- tess. For the history of the office in Germany, where it was of great importance, see Graf. COUNT AND RECK'ONING, in the law of Scotland: form of process, by which one party compels another to account judicially, and to pay the balance which may be found due. COUNTENANCE, n. kown'te-ndns [F. contenance, capac- ity, looks— from mid. L. continen'tid, gesture, demeanor — from L. continere, to hold together, to preserve — from con, tenere, to hold]: the whole external features of the body; the appearance of the features of the human face; look; favor; goodwill; support; superficial appearance; show: y. to show favor; to support; to encourage; to aid; COUNTER— COUNTER-CHANGED, fn OE., to make a show of; to act suitably to. Coun'te- NANCING, imp. COUN TENANCED, pp. -ndnst. COUN TE- NANCER, n. -ser, odg who. In countenance, in favor; pleased. To keep in countenance, to support; to aid by favor; to please by giving assurance to; to keep from de- jection or dismay. To put in countenance, to encourage; to make cheerful by support; to bring into favor. Out of countenance, annoyed and vexed; abashed; dismayed. To PUT OUT OF countenance, to annoy and vex; to dis- concert; to abash. COUNTER, n. kowu'Ur [see Count 1]: a false or spuri- ous piece of money, as that used in reckoning in games; money in contempt ; a table for receiving goods, or laying down money on. COUNTER, ad. koicnter [F. contre — from L. contray against]: contrary; in opposition; the wrong way: another form of prefix Contka, opposition or contrariety: see list - of prefixes. COUNTER, n. kown'ter, or Coun'ter-ten'or, -ten'er, [L. contra, in opposition to]: m music, the part immediately below the treble, sung by the highest adult male voice and the lowest female voice— formerly an under part serving as a contiusl to a principal part. COUNTERACT, v. koicn'ter akt' [F. contre-irom L. contra, against, and actus, done]: to act in opposition to; to hinder; to defeat; to frustrate. Coun terac ting, imp. Coun'terac TED, pp. COUN TERAC TIVE, a. -dk'tiv, tend- ing to counteract. Coun terac tion, n. -dk'shun, hin- drance; action in opposition. Counter-agent, be who or that which acts in opposition to. COUNTER-APPROACH, u. koicn'ter-dp-prdch' [F. con- tre — from Lat. contra, against]: in military engineering, a trench or passage cut by the defenders of a fortified po.^t from some of the outworks towards the besiegers, and lead- ing to a battery in a small work. Its object is to enable the defenders to foil the appi'oaches of the besiegers, by carrying the fight further away from the body of the place, and enabling the besieged to enfilade the besiegers' batter^ ijs and approaches. COUNTER- ARCH: a vertical arch connecting the top of buttresses or pillars. COUNTER- ATTRACTIVE, a. korm ter-dt-trdk' iw [coun- ter, and attractive\. attracting in a different or in an op- posite direction. Coun ter-attrac tion, n. opposite at- traction. COUNTERBALANCE, v. koicnter-bdl dns [counter, and balance]: to weigh against with an equal w^qightj to act against with an equal power or effect; to neutralize: N. equal weight or power. COUNTER-BUFF, v. kow7i' ter-hiif [counter, and huff\. to repel; to strike back: N. a blow^ in a contrary direction. COUN'TER-CHANGED, or, Con'ter-changed, in Her- aldry: when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other. 63 COUNTER-CHARGE— COUNTER-GUARD. COUNTER-CHARGE, n. kown'Ur-cMrj [counter, and charge]', an opposite charge. Counter-charm, n. -charm [counter, and charm] : that by which a charm is dissolved or destroyed: Y. to destroy the effect of enchantment. Counter- CHECK, n. -cMk [counter, and check]: check in opposition to another; hindrance: Y. to oppose or stop by some obstacle. Counter-cur rent, n. -kur'rhit [counter, and current]', a current in an opposite direction: Adj. running in an opposite direction. COUNTER-DRAIN, n. koicn' ter-dran [counter, and dram]', a drain runing parallel to a canal or artificial water-course to collect the leakage-water. Counter- draw, V. draw [counter, and draw]: to copy a design or painting by means of fine linen cloth, oiled paper, or any similar transparent substance spread over it, through which the strokes appearing are traced with a pencil. COUNTER-EYIDENCE, n. kown'ter-ev'i-dens [counter, and evidence] : evidence or testimony opposing some other evidence. COUNTERFEIT, v. koicn'ter-fU [F. contrefait, de- formed — from contre, against; faire, to make — from L. contra, against; facere^ to make]: to copy or imitate with- out authority or right; to forge; to imitate with a view to deceive; to feign; to dissemble: Adj. false; forged; made in imitation of something else; not genuine: N. a cheat or im- postor; one who pretends to be what he is not; that which is made in imitation of something else: in OE., a likeness; a copy. Coun terfeit ing, imp. : N. the act of one who counterfeits; the process: see Coining. Coun terfeit'ed, pp. Coun terfeit er, one who. — Syn. of * counterfeit, a.': spurious; fictitious; suppositious; adulterated; sophisticated; fabricated; hypocritical. COUNTERFESANCE, n. koim' ter-fez' dns [OF. contre- faisance—hom contrefaire, to counterfeit] : in OE. , a coun- terfeiting; a forgery. COUNTERFOIL, n. hoion'ter-foyl [counter, and L. folU um, a leaf]: the corresponding leaf; the corresponding part of a tally or check. Counter-gauge, n. -gaj [counter and gauge]: in carpentry, a method of measuring joints. COUNTERFORT, in Fortification: mass of stone or brickwork added to the revetment of a rampart, in such a way as to form a buttress for resisting the pressure of the mass of earth. Counterforts occur at intervals of about 20 ft. , and assist in preventing the earth from pushing down the revetment-wall into the ditch. COUNTER-GUARD, n. kown'ter-gdrd [counter, and guard]: in rail., an outwork designed to defend the two faces of a bastion or ravelin from a direct fire, so as to re- tard a breach being made: it consists of two lines of ram- part parallel to the faces of the bastion or ravelin, and separated from them by a narrow ditch. The crest of the C. must be some three ft. lower than that of tlie w^orks it covers, in order not to obstruct the defense. Lest the enemy should establish a battery on the C, the terre- 64 COUXTER-IRRITANT— COUNTERMINE. plein, or flat space beliind its parapet, is made very nar- row. COUXTER-IRRITAXT, hncn'ter-ir'i-Phit [counter, and irritant]: in med., substance employed to produce an artiticial disease, or secondary irritation, for tlie relief of the original one. Sucli substances are applied to the skin so as to redden (rubefacients), to vesicate (blisters or vesica- tories), or to produce pustules, purulent issues, or even sloughs of skin and of the subcutaneous textures. The milder are mustard (see Cataplasm), turpentine applied on warm cloths, and spirit or acetic acid in lotion. The stronger are blisters of cantharides (q.v.) or of ammonia; croton-oil (q v.) or tartar emetic (q.v.), in ointment; setons, caustic or pea-issues, and the moxa; and above all, the ac- tual cautery (q.v.) or hot iron. None of the stronger C. should be used without careful consideration and medical advice; great mischief is often done by their careless or improper use. C. relieve internal pain, and tend to pro- mote the absorption of morbid effusions. Amoug horses, C. are much used for strains and diseases of the joints, but should never be applied in recent cases, or while the part is hot or intiamed. Cantharidine prepara- tions, or ointment of biuiodide of mercury, are the most convenient. For cows, use hot fomentations, followed by the smart infriction of mustard-paste; for dogs, soap-lini- ment, strengthened, if required, by ammonia or turpen- tine. COUNTERMAND, v. kown Ur-mdnd' [F. contremander — from L. cordra, against; mand'tre, to command]: to give an order contrary to one given before; to annul or forbid the execution of a former command: N. a contrary order. COUN TERMAXD ING, imp. COUN TERMAND ED, pp. COUNTERMARCH, v. koicn ter-mdrcli [counter, and march]: to march back: N. a marching back; a change of measures; in mil., to move a body of troops to the rear without any change of their original order — that is, to move them backward. "Coux terafarch ixg, imp. : see March- ing. COUX TYRMARCHED, pp. mdrcht. COUNTER-MARK, n. koicn ter-mdrk [counter, and mark]: mark or token added in order to afford security or give proof of quality; stamp seen on some ancient coins or medals, supposed to denote that the coin was captured from an enemy; artiticial cavity made in the teeth of horses to disguise their age: Y. to add a mark as a test of quality, etc. ; to make an artificial canity in the teeth of a horse. COUNTERMINE, n. kown ter-min [counter, find mine]: a gallery sunk in the earth in the attack or defense of a fortified place in order to blow up the works of an enemy is called a mine — one dug to destroy a mine is called a countermine; a secret project to frustrate any contrivance: Y. to mine in opposition, or to search for an enemy's mine; to frustrate by secret measures: coux termi'xixg, imp.: coux TERMiXED, pp. -miTid. — Countermine, in military en- gineering, is a gallery or chamber excavated under the gla- cis or some other part of a defence-work of a fortress. Its 65 COUNTER-MOTION— COUNTERPOINT. purpose is to foil a besieger. In a fortress on a large scale, there are envelope galleries, coanter-scarf galleries, listen- ing galleries, galleries of communication, and other sub- terranean passages, under various parts of the outworks, all for the purpose of assisting the defenders in discov- ering and frustrating plans laid by the besiegers. List- ening galleries are sometimes pushed forward even to the foot of the glacis. In such places, selected men put their ear to the ground, and listen for the approach of an enemy, as denoted by the sound of tools used in driving a mine or gallery of attack. The sound of a pickaxe so em ployed can be heard through the ground at a distance of 60 feet. As there are no openings above, these galleries cannot be driven beyond a certain distance, as the sappers w^ould be stilled for want of air. If a mine be driven to blow up the defense works, a C. is driven to blow up the besiegers; and sometimes the two parties carry their works so far as to meet in the subterranean passages, and there fight. If there be only a thin wall of earth left between them, they will fire pistols through bored holes, or drive in cartridges or smoke-balls. This work is carried on mostly by sappers and miners. COUNTER-MOTION, n. kown' ter-mo shim [counter, and motion]: an opposite motion. Coun'ter-move'ment, n. 'Tnov'ment [counter, and movement]', a movement in opposi- tion to another. COUNTERPANE, n. kown' ter-pan [F. courte-pointe, a counterpane, corrupted into contre-yointe — from OF. coulte- pointe— from L. culcita puncta, a stitched cushion]: the upper covering of a bed, having the stitches arranged in patterns for ornament; a quilt or coverlet. COUNTERPANE, n. koicn'ter-pdn [OF. contrepan, a pledge, a pawn— from contre, against; pan, a pawn or gage] : in OE., the counterpart of a deed or writing. COUNTERPART, n. koim'ter-pdrt [counter, and part]: the part that answers to another; the key of a cipher; in music, the part to be applied to another, as the bass is the counterpart to the treble. COUNTER-PASSANT, kown' ter -pas' sant, in Heraldry: when two beasts are passing each other the contrary way. COUNTER-PLEA, n. koicn'ter-ple [counter, and plea]-. in Icm, in an incidental pleading, the plaintiff's reply to the defendant's plea. Coun ter-plead, v. -pled, to plead the contrary of; to deny. Coijnter-plot, n. [counter, and plot]', artifice opposed to an artifice: V. to oppose one machination by another. CouN TER-PLOT TmG, n. act of plotting against a plot. COUNTERPOINT, n. kbwnter-poynt [F. contrepoint, counterpoint — lit., point against point — from L. contra- punctus: It. contrappunto]: an opposite point; in music, the placing of notes so as to indicate the harmony of parts; the art of combining and modulating sounds in several dis- tinct parts. In the early age of musical science, notation was represented by mere points on the lines. The setting 66 COUNTERPOIKT of parts to a melody already represented by a row of dots or points was therefore called punctum contrapuncium. In this respect C. is nothing else but the uniting of various harmonious parts. In a more circumscribed sense, it is the art or manner of accompanying a given melody with other parts. Simple C. is a musical combination where the melody of the parts is not mixed or changed, and may be either all in notes of the same length or of different lengths, as for example: ^^ ^ ^ If the parts be constructed in regard to one another so that COUNTERPOISE-COUNTER SECURE. they can be changed, or transposed over or under each other, without alteration in the movement, or injury to the harmony, it is then called double C, as in Fig. 2. As double C. consists of the changing or transposing of one part over or under another, it follows that there must be as many different kinds of it as there are dilferent in- tervals in the scale. We have, therefore, double C. of the octave as in Fig. 1, of the twelfth, tenth, ninth, etc. That of the octave, is, however, the most useful, as it is more free in movement, and easier to recognize. Fig. 2 admits of dilferent transpositions. The first indication of contrapunctal writing is to be found in the 12th c. by Adam de la Hale, who received a genuine artistic education in the Netherlands, but was far in ad- vance of his time; for his style of music was forbidden to be performed in the church by a bull of the pope, w^ho gave Palestrina an order to replace it with a more simple music. The best masters for C. have been Kirnberger and Al- brechtsberger in former times; and, in modern times, Schneider, Hauptmann, and Dehn. COUNTERPOISE, n. koion'ter-poyz [F. contre-peser, to counterpoise — from L. cordra, against; pensdre, to weigh: F. poids; OF. pois, a weight] : a weight against a given weight; an equal weight; a weight sufficient to balance an- other in the opposite scale; a force or power sufficient to balance another force or power: V. to weigh against with an equal weight; to act against with equal power and effect. CouN TERPOis'iNG," imp. Coun terpoised, pp. 'poyzd. COUNTER- POISON, n. kown' ter-poy' zn [counter, and poi8on\: a medicine which destroys the effects of a poison; an antidote. COUNTER-PROJECT, n. kown'Ur-prbj'ekt [counter, and project] : a scheme or proposal given in opposition to an- other. Coun'ter-proof, n. -prof, in engramng, a print taken off from another just printed, with the view of ascer- taining the state of the plate. COUN TER-PROOF: impression obtained from afresh- ly-printed proof of an engraving, by laying it, before the ink is dry, upon plain paper, and passing it through the press. By this means the ink is transferred from the wet proof to the plain paper, and a reversed impression is ob- tained, often of use in enabling the engraver to judge of the success of his w^ork. COUNTERSCARP, n. koim' ter-skdrp [L. contra, against; It. Scarpa; F. escarpe, the slope of a wall, or the steep front of a fortification]: in a fortified place, the slope or nearly vertical side of the ditch next the enemy, often the whole covered way w^hich surmounts it, — the interior slope is called the scarp or escarp. COUNTER-SECURE, v. kown'ter-se-kur' [counter, and secure] . to render more secure by corresponding means, or by means to match. Cotjn'ter-secu'rity, n. secur- ity given to one who has become surety for another. 68 COUNTERSIGN— COUNTLESS. COUNTERSIGN, n. laown' Ur-sln [F. contresigner , to countersign — from L. contra, against; signum, a mark]: a private signal, word, or phrase given to sentinels on guard, inspectors, etc., to enable them to distinguish friends; it is usually a simple word secret except to tuose immediately concerned, and is changed often as requisite for security; a w^atchword: V. to sign a document in addition to another to attest its authenticity. Coun'tersign'ing, imp. Coun - tersigned, pp. -slnd. CouN ter-sig'nal, n. -sig nal, a signal to answer or correspond to another. Coun'tersig - NATURE, n. the signature of a secretary, or of a subordinate, added to the signature of a superior. COUNTERSINK, v. Icoicn'ter-sink [counter, and 8ink\. to drill a conical depression in wood or metal to receive the head of a scre^ COUNTER-SLOPING, koicn'ter -sloping [counter, and slope]: in mil., a surface w^hich slopes inward instead of outward, as is usual in fortifications — usually applied to glaces and revetments. COUNTERTENOR, koKn'ter-ten'er [F. contreteneur: It. contratenare — from tenore, a tenor]: see Cotjnter 3. COUNTERVAIL, v. kown'ter-ml [OF. contremloir, to avail against — from L. contra, valere, to be stong]: to act against with equal force or power; to equal; to balance. Coun tervail ing, imp. Coun'tervaileu', pp. -vdld'. COUN'TER-VAIR, kown'ter-mr: a heraldic fur. It dif- fers from Vair by having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures are Or and Azure. COUN'TERVALLA'TION, in Military Engineering: chain of posts constructed by the besiegers of a fortified place; it completely surrounds the place at a certain dis- tance, and is intended to prevent sorties of the besieged. The posts are generally small redoubts, either isolated or connected by a line of earthw^orks. It is only during very protracted sieges that countervallations are constructed. They bear a certain relation to circumvallation (q.v.). COUNTER- VIEW, n. koicn'ter-vu [counter, and view]: an opposite view; a posture in w^hich two persons front each other; contrast. Coun ter vote, v. -vot, to vote in opposition to; to outvote. COUNTER - WEIGH, v. kow?itf r-wd [counter, and weigh]: to weigh against; to counterbalance. Coun'ter- WHEEL, V. -hwH, to move backward and forward in oppo- sition to other movements. Coun ter-work, v. -werk, to hinder by contrary operations; to counteract. COUNTESS, n. koimt'es [F. comtesse, fem. of comte — see Count 2] : the wife of an earl or count. COUNTING, n. kownt'tng [see Count 1]: reckoning; computing. Counting-house or -room, the room or house appropriated by a trader, manufacturer, or merchant, for keeping their business-books, accounts, etc. COUNTLESS, r.: ?^ee under Count L ^mERsm Of COUNTRY-COUNTY CORPORATE. COUNTRY, n. kitn'tn [F. contree, country— from It. contrada, the district lying opposite you— from mid. L. contrdtti, the country lying before or opposite — from L. contra, over against— land seen before you, as by mariners from the sea]: the laud or territory occupied by a people or nation; rural districts; a kingdom or state; any tract of land; one's residence or native soil: Adj. pertain- ing to the districts beyond a town; rural; rustic; untaught; rude. Country seat, a residence at a distance from a town or city. Countryman, a rustic; one not a native of town; one born in the same country. Countrify, v. kan- tri-fl, to make or alter so as to have a rural or countrified appearance; to make to have the manners or habits of the country. Countrified, a. fid, having the an- and mien of a rustic— Syn. of ' coiintry, n.': land; globe; world; territory; region; earth; — of ' countryman ': peasant; clown; hind; swain; husbandman. COUNTRY DANCE [improperly used for Contra DANCE, Fr. contre-danse, of which the English term is a cor- ruption] : dance in which as many couples can take part as there is space to accommodate them; at the commence- ment, the gentlemen being ranged on one side, and the ladies on the opposite. In its figure, the dancers are con- stantly changing places, leading one another forward and back, up and down, parting and uniting again. The nu- merous different figures, which give an interest to this dance, are generally designated with a particular name. The music is sometimes in f time, and sometimes in f time, and the step is more smooth than springing: see Dancing. COUNTY, n. koicn'ti [Norm. F. counte; F. comte; It. contea, a county — from L. comltem, a companion (see Count 2)]: originally an earldom or district under a count; a particular division or district of a state or kingdom; a shire. The terms county and shire are applied on no uni- form principle. In England and Scotland, the shires are also called counties; but in Ireland, the term C. seems to be exclusively employed. Such, likewise, appears to be the case in the British colonies and United States: see Shire. — In the United States, county is the political division of a ' state, except in La. where the counties are called parishes. There are nearly 4,000 counties in the U. S. Each county lias a court and a prison, sometimes more than one of these. The supervisors of the various townships in a county are a board of administration for financial and other affairs ©f the county. They are elected by popular vote. In some cities, wards correspond to townships, and the common council acts as the administrative county board. County -town, the chief town of a county where the district courts and markets are held. COUNTY, n. kown'ti: in OE., for Count, frequently found in Shakespeare. COUN TY COR PORATE, in England: one of certain cities and towns, some having territory annexed to them, some scarcely any, w^hich possess the privilege of being governed by their own sheriffs and other magistrates alto- •JQ COUNTY COURTS. gether independently of the counties in which they are situated. The act 3 Geo. i. c. 5, for regulating the office of sheriff, enumerates twelve cities and live towns in this position. The cities are London, Chester, Bristol, Coven- try, Canterbury, Exeter, Gloucester, Lichfield, Lincoln, Norwich, Worcester, and York. The towns are Kingston- upon-Hull, Nottingham, Newcastle upon-Tyne, Poole, Southampton. Coventry ceased to be a county corporate 1842; and Berwick-on-Tvveed is now one of the eighteen. There is one similar county corporate in Scotland (Edin- burgh); and in Ireland, eight (as Dublin and Limerick). See Local Government. COUN'TY COURTS: Courts having jurisdiction in counties. According to Blackstone, the Sciremote or ancient county court was established in Enghuid by Alfred the Great about 870; the suitors themselves being the judges. Henry II. appointed justices of assize courts, 1176, and thus the C. C. became superseded for judicial purposes. There is still a remnant of jurisdiction left in these ancient courts, unconnected, however, with the recovery of debts; out- lawries of absconding offenders are here proclaimed, and certain proceedings connected with the election of coron- ers, knights of the shire, etc. take place in the old county court. The modern C C. were established in all the cities and large towns of England and Wales, 1846, chieliyby the ef- forts of Lord Brougham; and the courts commenced busi- ness, 1847, March. In 1865 an equity jurisdiction was confer- red on the C. C. to £500, and the judges have all the power and authority of the Court of Chancery in equitable suits. The C. C. are courts of record. In England and Wales there are 499 courts, divided into 55 circuits, presided over by 56 judges. The judges are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, or, where the whole district is in the duchy of Lancaster, by the chancellor of that duchy. Their salaries, owing to extended jurisdiction, are now nearly all £1,500, and have, with slight variations, been made uniform throughout the country. Judges resigning from perma- nent disability are allowed a retiring pension not exceed- ing two-thirds of their aimual salary. Each court has a registrar, appointed by the judge. In certain classes of cases a jury may be demanded. The number of jurymen to try a cause in C. C. is live. There were only 993 causes tried by a jury in 1878, out of 616,490 causes tried. The plaintiff obtained a verdict in 599,883 cases, and the de- fendants obtained verdicts or non-suits in 16,607 cases. There is a right of appeal in all cases where more than £20 is claimed, and by leave of judge in all other cases. There were only 87 appeals in 1878. There is no uniformity in the judicial systems of the states in the American Union, either in the number, name, character, or jurisdiction of C. C, the mode of selecting judges, or their tenure of office. In the majority of popu- lous COS. there are at least four courts, the sessions, oyer and terminer, common pleas, and orphans'. In some, the fciessions' courts are divided into quarter, geueral, and spe^ n COUNTY PALATINE— COUP. cial, each with a separate judge. The surrogate of the co. of New York has an iudepeudent court of original juris- diction. In other states and cos., the probate of wills, set- tlement of estates, and protection of widows and orphans, may be conducted before any judge having jurisdiction in thfe CO., the surrogate merely acting as clei-k. Again, in some states, judges have only jurisdiction in the co., dis- trict, or circuit to which they are elected or appointed and assigned, or in a single designated court; while in other states, N. J. for example, a judge of the supreme court is competent to preside over any court in the state. Judges are now elected by popular vote in 24 states, for terms ranging from 2 to 21 years. In Mass., N. H., Conn., Vt., 11. L, and N. J., they — as are also the co. prosecutors — are appointed by the gov. and confirmed by the senate for terms that vary, but average 7 years, and reappointments are frequent. The custom of selection by appointment is becoming more general, with tenures extendins: through good behavior. 8ee Judiciary in the United States. COUNTY palatine": in England, a county formerly possessing peculiar privileges. The name, derived from palatium, palace, was applied because the earls who owned the counties had grand palaces and maintained themselves in almost regal state. Within their jurisdictions, these owners enjoyed such royal powers as the pardoning of crime and issue of various writs. The courts of the C. P. had exclusive jurisdiction in law and equity of all cases arising within the limits of their respective counties, the judges who held them sat by special commission from tne owners of the several franchises and under their seal, and all process was taken in the name of the owner of the franchise, though subsequently to the 27 Hen. YIII. c. 24 it ran in the king's name. These counties have either passed into the hands of the crown, or have lost their pecul- iar privileges to a great degree. COUNTY RATE: local tax in England and Wales, for defraying the expenses to which counties are liable; such as the maintenance of bridges, jails, lunatic asylums, prose- cutions and costs incident thereto, coroners, etc. It is levied on all property liable to be assessed for the relief of the poor. Rogue-money in Scotland, and the grand jury cess in Ireland, are the taxes most nearly resembling the English county rate. COUP, n. ko [F. coup — from OF. colp— from It. colpo — from mid. L. colpus, a stroke]: a blow; a stroke. Coup- de-grace, n. kode-grds [F. stroke of mercy]: finishing* stroke; death-stroke. Coup-de-main, n. kude-mang [F. stroke of hand] : in mil. , a sudden and vigorous attack to capture a position. Coup-de-soleil, n. kode-sbl-el' [F. a stroke of the sun] : a disease produced by exposure of the head to the rays of the sun; sunstroke (q.v.). Coup-d'etat, kodd td [F. a stroke of statcl: a sudden and decisive blow; arbitrary encroachment suddenly effected by any of the governing authorities on the constitution of the state, alter- ing or setting aside the prerogatives of other parts of the T2 COUP— COUPLES. body politic: in politics, a stroke of policy. Coup-d'ceil, n. kO-ddl' [F. a stroke or glance of the eye]: a general view of anything, comprehending in one survey all the re- lations of a complicated affair: in art, the general effect of a picture or group at first sight. Coup de theatre, a trick of the stage to produce an effect by surprise; thence, any analogous proceeding. COUP, V. kowp [Icel. kaup, a bargain, a sale; kaupa, to bargain, to sell]: in Scot., to bargain; to barter; to over- turn: N. a bargain: see Cope 3. COUPE, n. ko-pd' [F. coupe, cut, broken: connected with CoupJ: the front division of a stage coach or diligence. COUPED, kopd [Fr. coups'], in Heraldry: head, or any limb of an animal cut off" from the trunk, and smooth. It is distinguished from erased, i.e., forcibly torn off, and therefore ragged and uneven. A distinction is made also between coulped and couped close, the latter signifying that the head or limb is cut off' close, leaving no part of the neck or trunk attached to it. When crosses, bars, bends, and the like, are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they also are said to be couped. COUPLE, n. ktip'l [F. couple — from L. copula, a band or tie]: the chain or tie that holds dogs together; two or a pair; the male and female; a man and his wife; two of the same species or kind taken together; a brace; in math., a pair of forces acting on a body on each side of a fixed point, so as to turn the body round this fixed point: V. to link, chain, or unite one thing to another; to fasten toiJ^ether; to unite as man and wife; to marry. Coupling, imp. kup'- ling: N. that which couples or connects, as the coupling of two railway carriages; in an organ, a register (handle or knob controlling action) by which two or more rows of keys can be connected by a mechanism so that they can be played together. Coupled, pp. kup'ld. Couplet, n. kup'let [F.] : any two lines which rhyme; a distich; but the term is more frequently used by critics to denote two lines which contain the complete expression of an idea, therefore to a certain extent independent of what precedes or follows. The poetic wits of the age of Queen Anne excelled in this kind of aphoristic versification. Pope, it has been said, reasons la couplets: for example: ' 'Tis with our judgment as our watches, none Go just alike, j-et each believes his own.' Couples, n. plu. kup'ls, a pair of opposite rafters in a roof nailed at the top 'where they meet, and united by a beam of wood at the bottom. Coup'lings, n. plu. sliding boxes or nuts that connect the ends of a tube, or one tube or shaft to another. Couplement, n. kup'lment, in OE., a pair; two or more together. Coupling -pin, a bolt used for connecting railway carriages, and for certain parts of machinery. COUP LES, in Statics: pairs of equal parallel forces act- ing in opposite directions, and at different points of a body. When two parallel forces act in opposite directions on a 13 COUPLES. body, they may be replaced by one equal to their differ- ence acting parallel to them in the direction of the greatest, at a point not between but beyond the points where they are applied; and which point recedes the further from their points of application the nearer they approach equality, receding to an intiuite distance when they become equal, and when their resultant accordingly is zero: (see Parallel Forces). In this limiting case, the forces constitute a couple; they have no tendency to traiislate the body; their action goes wholly to make it rotate about an axis passing through its centre of gravity, and perpendicular to the plane in which the couple acts. Such being the case, a couple cannot be replaced or counteracted by any single force, for such a force would produce translation; it can only be replaced or balanced by other couples. The length of the straight line which meets the lines of action of the forces at right angles is called the ' arm ' of a couple, and the product of the force into its arm is called its * moment. ' Most of the leading propositions in the theory of C. are readily seen to be true, as soon as stated. For instance, as the axis round which a couple tends to make a body rotate passes through the body's centre of gravity perpendicu- larly to the plane of the couple, it does not matter what position the couple occupies in its own plane. Also, sup- posing the body to be rigid, the couple may be moved into any plane parallel to its own, provided its new position be rigidly connected with the original position. It is obvious also, on the principle of the lever, that the efficiency of the couple depends on its moment simply, so that its arm may be shortened or lengthened at pleasure, provided the force be increased or diminished as the case may require, so as always to make the product of the force and arm the same. Suppose ropes fastened at the bow and stern of a ship pull- ing with equal force in opposite directions; they will make the ship turn round an axis through its centre of gravity, at a rate depending on the force applied to the ropes. If the ropes be fastened to opposite points of the vessel nearer midships, it will turn round at the same rate, only provided the force applied to the ropes be increased; and, on experi- ment, it would be found tliat the force must be increased so as that its product into the distance between the ropes shall equal the product of the force in the first case into the length of the ship. Through this we can compoimd C. acting in the same plane, for we can turn them round till their arms coin- cide, and then give them a common arm; their forces will then act in the same lines, when their resultant into | the arm will be the new couple. So two C. situated in planes inclined at any angle to each other may be replaced by a single couple (see fig). Suppose the C. both to be moved in their respective planes till their arms coincide with the line of intersection of the planes, CD 74 COUPON-COURAKT. Briag them then to a common arm in this line, AB. At each end of this arm we shall have a pair of forces, say P and Q, inclined to one another at the angle of inclina- tion of the planes. Their resultant, by the composition of forces, will be a force R, acting in a line between the planes. We shall have then forces R acting at each end of the arm, and evidently in directions parallel and opposite. R X arm, AB, then, is moment of the re- sultant couple. Having seen how to compound C. whose planes are inclined to one another, the theory of the com- position of C. may be said to be complete, for if they are in parallel planes, we know we can bring them into the same plane and to a common arm, and so into a common couple. In statical theory, any number of forces acting on a body, and not in equilibrium, may be reduced to a single force, a single couple, or a single force and a single couple. We have shown that the C. may all be reduced to one, as well as those forces which do not produce couples. If the single force do not act perpendicularly to the plane of the couple, it can always be compounded with the forces of the couple, so as to reduce the whole to a single force; if it act perpendicularly, then it cannot be compounded with the couple, and the body will have at once a motion Of trans- lation and motion of rotation. COUPON, n. Mpong [F. coupon— ixom couper, to cut or cut off J: warrant or note or check, billet, certificate, etc., attached as a counterpart to transferable bonds: coupons are successively cut off to be presented for payment of dividends as they fall due: the term is applied chiefly to a dividend or interest warrant, to be presented for payment by holders of debentures such as government bonds. COUPURE, D. kopur [F. couper, to cut]: in mil., an in- trenchment of any kind formed behind a breach, whose ob- jects is to enable the besieged to prolong the defense; a ditch and parapet made through the rampart as far as the revetment. COURAGE, n. kur'dj [F. courage — from OF. corage — from mid. L. coratlcum — from F. coeur, heart, courage— from L. cor, the heart: comp. Gael, curaidh, a hero; curaisd, courage]: strength of mind; bravery; fearlessness; valor; resolution; that quality of mind which enables men to en- counter dangers and difficulties with firmness and without fear. Coura'geous, a. -a jus, brave; fearless; daring; en do wed with firmness; without fear. Coura'geously, ad. -li, in a courageous manner; stoutly; boldly. Coura'- GEOUSNESS, n. -jus-nes, the quality of being courageous; bra- very. — Syn. of 'courage': intrepidity; daring; gallantry: heroism; hardihood; firmness; boldness; resolution; au- dacity; — of ' courageous ': bold; intrepid; undaunted; val- iant; gallant; heroic; valorous; hardy; enterprising; adven- turous. COURANT, n. ku-rdnt' [F. courant, running — from F. courir, to run — from L. curro, I run]: that which spreads news very quicklj; a newspaper: in heraldry, a., running. CouRANTO, n. ku-ran to, a piece of music in triple time, COURB-COURIER. COURB, V. korh [F. courher, to bend, to bow— from courhe, a curve — from L. curms, crooked, curved]: in OE., to bend or bow; to stoop as a suppliant. Courb - ING, imp. CouRBED, pp. korbd. COURBET, k<}r-ha', Gustave: 1819, June 10—1877, Dec. 31; b. Ornans, France: painter. He was sent to Paris to study law 1839, but soon changed his mind, took lessons in art, studied the works of famous Florentine, Venetian, and Flemish artists, and began exhibiting 1844. His works comprised, portraits, landscapes, and genre pieces, and he soon became noted for studies of the nude female form. In 1855, dissatisfied with the places assigned some of his paintings in the Salon exhibition and the re- jection of others, he withdrew all his works, erected a building near the Salon, and there exhibited 40 paintings at a small admission fee. In 1860, the jury of the Munich exhibition assigned him an entire room. He held extreme views in art, religion, and politics, was an early adherent of the commune, directed the overthrow of the Yendome column, was prohibited exhibiting 1872, and was con- demned to pay the cost of a new column on the Place Vendome 1873, for which his property was confiscated and sold. COURBEYOIE, kor-heJi-mm' : town of France, dept. of Seine, on the left bank of the river Seine, about 5 m. n.w. of Paris. C. has well-built houses, mostly supplied with gardens, and large barracks erected by Louis XV. Its principal manufactures are white-lead and brandy, and it has some commerce by the Seine. Pop. (1881) 15,010. COURGNE, k6i m-ya: market-town of Piedmont, at the foot of a hill on the w. side of the Orca, 12 m. w.s.w. of Ivrea. It has several convents. Pop. 5,600. COURIER, n. kur'l-er [F. courrier; OF. courier — from L. currOy I run]: a runner; a special messenger with let- ters or dispatches from a distance; a travelling servant at- tached to a family. — There are two distinct classes of couriers, Government and Primte. The first are employed by government to carry, securely and expeditiously, im- portant dispatches to and from ambassadors at foreign courts. Active, and accustomed to travel, speaking several languages, and with a sutticient idea of their own conse- quence, they will set out at a moment's notice, pursue theii way by steamer, by rail, by hired voiture, or on horse- back, with little intermission by night and by day, until they reach their destination. Acquainted with routes, ofiicials, and methods of clearing the way, and provided with all proper credentials, including a requisite supply of cash, nothing interrupts them in their eager course. Primte Couriers. — These have similar accomplishments to the first class, but are in the service of private parties. They are usuall}^ persons of middle age, natives of Switz- erland, France, or Germany, who have either been at some time gentlemen's familiar servants, or been long em- ployed as attendants on families travelling. In some in- stances, they are of English origin, and have travelled COURIER. again and again through Europe with emplo^'Crs who relish the dignity of having a man-servant, and dislike personal responsibility and trouble. Of whatever nativity, the courier has settled down into a perfectly cosmopolitan character. With equal fluency, he speaks English, French, Italian, and German, with perhaps Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian; he is acquainted with processes of getting passports and vises; knows the best routes, the best hotels, and w^here anything notable or curious is to be seen. Act- ing for the time as a servant, he is not intrusive. Whether by railway or steam-boat, he knows his place, and makes his appearance only when he is wanted. Ko doubt, the courier is an expensive luxury; his usual wages being from $40 to |50 a month, independently of travelling- fares. His keep at inns, though nominally paid by him- self, practically weighs with the hotel-keeper in making out the bill. ' A courier, however, though an expensive luxury, is one which conduces much to the ease and pleas- ure of travelling, and few w^ho can afford one wall forego the advantage of his services. He relieves his master from much fatigue of body and perplexity of mind, in unravel- ling the dithculties of long bills and foreign moneys, sparing his temper the trials it is likely to endure from dis- putes with innkeepers, postmasters, and the like. If clever and experienced, and disposed to consult the comfort of his employer, he is a most useful person. His duties con- sist in preceding the carriage at each stage, to secure relays of post-horses; he must make arrangements for his employ- er's reception at inns where he intends to pass the night; must secure comfortable rooms, clean and well-aired beds, and order meals prepared and fires lighted, taking care that his master is called and the post horses ordered at the right hour. He ought to have a thorough knowledge of everything that relates to a carriage; he should examine it at the end of each day's journey, to ascertain whether it requires any repairs, which should be executed before set- ting out. He should superintend the packing and unpack- ing of the luggage, etc. It falls to the courier to pay inn- keepers and post-boys; and he ought to take care that his master is not overcharged. Besides this, he performs all the services of waiting and attendance, cleaning and brush- ing clothes; and he is not perfectly accomplished unless he has a smattering of the art of cookery ' (Murray's Hand- hook for Travelers on the Continent). As among ordinary domestics, there are honest and' dishonest C, and it is of importance that travellers should not hire them without proper recommendations as to character. For places at which C. are to be heard of, see the work above quoted: also Bradshaw's Continental Railway Guide. In Paris, in- formation respecting them may be obtained at Meurice's Hotel. COURIER, k6-re-d\ Paul Louis: 1772, Jan. 4—1825, Apr. 10; b. Paris: French political writer. He was edu- cated for the army, but, without neglecting military studies, he showed special predilection for ancient literature. In 1793 he became lieut. of artillery, served in the Italian T7 COURLAN—COURLAND. campaign 1798-9, and in 1803 was appointed chef-d'escadron. After the battle of Wagram, he tendered his resignation, which was accepted. He went to Switzerland and Italy, returning to his native country 1812. Before this he had been known publicly only by his translations from the classics. In 1816 he appeared for the first time as a politi- cal pamphleteer, and rapidly obtained a brilliant reputa- , tion. The piece in which he made his debut was the Pe- tition aux Deux Ghamhres. In 1819-20, he published in a journal, called Le Censeur, a series of letters containing an exposition of his political ideas, which were those of an ar- dent constitutional reformer. These letters, for keenness, wit, and eloquence, have been compared to those of Pascal. His Simple Discours (1821) was directed against the project then entertained of purchasing Chambord for the Due de Bordeaux in the name of the nation. It is exceedingly vig- orous, clever, and sensible, and had great success. For his audacity, he was tried and condemned to one month's imprisonment. In 1823 he published his Liw^ety a kind of memorandum -book; and in 1824 his Pamphlet des Pam- phlets, finely called by Armand Carrel Le Chant du Cygne (the Swan's Death-song). His death was by assassination near his own house at Veretz, dept. of Indre-et-Loire, a little before sunset the murderer was never detected. C. was the pamphleteer of the middle class. Manly earnest- ness, pleasant wit, cutting irony, and admirable sense are his characteristics. Time, which generally dims the lus- tre of a pamphleteer's reputation, has not touched that of C, which is still as bright as ever. COURLAN, kor'lan: bird of the genus aramus, some- times classified with the rail family, generally chocolate- brown in color, with white-streaked feathers, toes cleft to the base, and broad rounded wings 13 inches long. It is a wading bird, the only one of its family, has a peculiar cackling cry, attains a length of 27i inches in Fla. and the W. Indies, but is much larger and less streaked with white in S. America, and is a rapid runner and short flyer. COURLAND or Kurland, kor'land: Russian govern- ment, a province of what are called the Baltic provinces; lat.56° — 58° n., long. 21° — 27° e. It was formerly an inde- pendent duchy — properly, indeed, two duchies, Courland and Semgall — and belonged, with Livonia, to the Teutonic Knights. The difficulty of resisting the Russians led to the acknowledgment, 1561, of the feudal sovereignty of Po- land; and the last grand-master, Gotthard Kettler, secured the duchies of Courland and Semgall for his family. The country was long distracted by the contentions of two par- ties, one Russian and the other Polish; and after being for some time completely under Russian influence, and the scene of many Russian intrigues, it was finally united to Russia, 1795. It has about 10,500 sq. m. ; is generally level, with ranges of low hills, and contains man}^ lakes, bogs, forests, and downs, but some parts have a very fertile soil. The proprietors of land are mostly German; the peasantrj^, of Lettish or Esthonian extraction, are engaged chiefly m COURSE— COURSING. husbandry; there is little manufacturing industry or com- merce. The capital is Mitau, but the most flourishing town is Libau.— Pop. of C. (1880) 682,000, mostly Protes- tants. COURSE, n. kors [F. cours—ivom L. cursus, a course, a journey — imm curro, I run: It. corso']: a swift journey; a career; a race; the ground on which the race is run; gen- erally a passing, moving, or motion forward within limits; the progress of anything; ueual manner; order of procedure; way of life or conduct; natural bent; the dishes set on table at one time; elements of an art or science exhibited and ex- plained in a series of lessons or lectures, as a course of chemistry; a continued range of stones or bricks in the wall of a building, of approximately uniform thickness; the track of a ship: V to run through or over; to hunt; to chase; to move with speed. Cour sing, imp.: N. the sport of chasing and hunting hares with grayhounds. Coursed, pp. kdrst. Cour ser, n. -stir, a swift horse; a war horse; a very swift running bird inhabiting s. Europe and n. Af- rica. Cour ses, n. plu. -sis, in a sJiipy the principal sails, the lower sails — comprising main sail, fore sail, main stay- sail, fore-staysail, and mizzen-staysail: above the courses is the group of top sails, and the highest of all the group of top-gallant sails: in geol , thin regular strata, from their being superimposed upon one another like the hewn courses of a building; the menses. Of course, by consequence; that naturally follows, as, a matter of coarse. In the course of, at some time during. — Syn. of * course, n.': road; way; passage; route; race; manner; method; suc- cession; mode; series; progress; advance; track; direction; procedure; sequence; conduct; behavior; regularity. COURS ING: method of hunting hares by greyhounds, in which the dogs follow the game by sight, instead of by scent. C. is of very ancient date, having been practiced by the Greeks. Within the last 20 years, its popularity as a sport has greatly increased, and the breed of the greyhound is now studied in England with almost as much care and zest as that of the race-horse. The method is as follows: Meetings are held in open districts, well frequented by hares, where the greyhounds — technically called ' dogs,' as foxhounds are technically called * hounds '—are entered by their owners for a variety of stakes, which are to be competed for — C, in this respect, partaking of the nature of a race between horses. The first thing done is to select a judge to decide upon the merits of the be?^t dogs; second, a * slipper ' is appointed to hold the dogs in leash, and start them at the hare; and, third, a flag-steward is chosen, who remains near the judge and announces the color of the vic- torious dog by means of a red or white flag, according as the competitors are arranged. The next thing done is to * beat ' the field for a hare. When one is found, the judge usually allows it 80 or 100 yards ' law ' before he cries to the ' slipper ' to let the dogs ' go. ' Upon the word * go, ' the ' slipper ' liberates the animals by a spring attached to the ' slips '—i.e.; the long strong cprd held by the ' slipper ' 7f COURT. and communicatiDg with the leathern collars fixed round the necks of the dogs. The judge's duties now begin in earnest. He follows the dogs wherever they go, calcula- ting carefully the number of 'points' made by each— a ' point ' being any meritorious achievement on the part of the dogs (as when the one outstrips the other at any time, or turns the hare, i.e., causes it to ' double'); and at last he adjudges the victory, not necessarily to the dog which has killed the hare, but to the one which has made the most points during the course, i.e., which has exhibited the hnest qualities of speed, sagacity, endurance, etc. COURT, n. hurt [F. cour—ivom OF. court; It. carte — L. cohortem, a cattle-yard, an inclosed place: comp. Gael. coir, a circle or inclosure where justice was administered; allied to Polish grod, city; Sw. gard; Eng. yard and garden]'. an open space of ground attached to a house inclosed by a wall or fence; a small paved square or space surrounded by houses; the palace of a king, also the persons attached to his person as attendants, council, etc. ; a place of justice, likewise the judges and officers engaged there; civility; flat- tery; the art of pleasing: Y. to endeavor to please; to woo or pay addresses to a woman; to solicit; to seek. Court'- ING, imp. Courted, pp. kort'ed. Court ship, n. the act of soliciting favor; paying addresses or making love to a woman. Court ier, n. -yer, a man who attends at the courts of princes seeking for favors or advancement; one who flatters to please. Courteous, a. kert'yus [OF. cor- tois]: affable; polite; civil; obliging; of elegant manners. Court eously, ad. -II. Court'eousness, n. Courtly, a. kortliy elegant; refined; worthy of a court: Ad. in the manner of a court. Court liness, n. -nh. Courtesan, n. ker'te-zdn [Sp. cortesana — from corte, court]: a woman of loose virtue. Court-martial, n., a court of justice composed of military or naval officers for the trial of offenses committed in the army or navy. Court-plaster, a black sticking-plaster — formerly used in patches on the face by ladies as ornaments or beauty-spots. Court- yard, an inclosed space before a house: see Farm Buildings. Court-cards [a corruption of coat or coated card\. pictured cards; in card-playing, king, queen, and knave of a suit. Court-day, a day on which a court sits to administer justice. Court-dress, a dress suitable for appearing at court, or a levee. Court-leet, -let [Dut. laet, a peasant tenant]: the court of the copyhold tenants, as op- posed to the CouRT-BARON for the freeholders of the baron; a court of record held within a lordship or manor for the disposal of minor offences: see Common Law, Courts of. — Court of Common Pleas: see Common Law, Courts OF. — Syn. of 'courteous': condescending; accessible; ob- liging; well-bred; complaisant. COURT: originally, the square or space inclosed by the buildings of a feudal castle; hence, the persons im- mediately surrounding a feudal chief or superior. In this application it now denotes the residence and surroundings of sovereign piinces. In England, and other free countries "so COURT. ' the court ' means little more than the family and attend- ants of the sovereign, viewed not in a private but a public capacity. The bishops and nobles, the ministers of the Queen for the time being, andjother persons entitled to pre- cedence, either on hereditary, official, or personal grounds, are those who habitually encircle the sovereign; * the court circle,' consequently, means those persons of distinction and their families, who are in the habit of approaching the Queen, and of associating with the other members of the royal famil}^ But this circle is one the circumference of w^hich is marked by no absolute line, like that w^hich in France, under the old monarchy, divided the C. from the city. COURT, in law: see Courts of Justice (References). COURT, kor, Antoine: 1696, May 17— 1760, June 15; b. Villeneuve de Berg, France: Prot. minister. His pa- rents, humble peasants and stanch adherents of the perse- cuted Reformed Church, were unable to give him even an ordinary education, but brought him up to fear God and to study the Scriptures. When he was 8 3^ears old the Camesard revolt was suppressed, and when 17 he began at- tending the secret meetings of the Protestants and exhort- ing the devoted congregations Two years later, Louis XIV issued a decree declaring that all who professed the Reformed faith should be punished as relapsed heretics. This proclamation, added to the long course of persecution by the govt. , determined him to attempt to deliver the Protestants and build up their church. He began his la- bors by insisting upon the holding of regular meetings for religious instruction and worship; the suppression of the fanaticism of * inspired teachers ' and the disorders that it created; the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline through the establishment of consistories, conferences, and synods; and the systematic education of pastors. He formed con- gregations at Languedoc, Dauphine, and Provence, organ- ized the Church of the Desert, and, when a price w as set on his head, tied from France to Lausuanne, 1780, wdiere he founded a theological seminary of which he was pres. till his death. COURT, Presentation at: personal introduction into the presence of a sovereign, with the ceremonial accom- panying. This honor, obtained only by persons of re- spectable position, is sought not only for the eclat of the ceremonial, but as giving a certain stamp of character; for, having been received by the sovereign, a person may with justice expect to be received anywhere. Valuable so far as a credential, a reception at C. is carefully guarded from abuse. At the C. of Queen Victoria, there is scrupulous ex- clusion of all men or women of damaged reputation. Those who aim at the distinction of being presented at C. belong chiefly to what are called the higher circles — nobility and landed gentry; officers in the army, navy, and higher de- partments of the civil service; judges, magistrates, church- dignitaries, members of the learn'ed professions; and the wives and daughters of these respective classes. Men of COURTALLUM. scientific, literary, or artistic attainments do not generally attempt to appear at C; neither do the classes engaged in trade. It is usual to be presented on taking office, or on attaining some personal dignity, or on arriving from an important and distant expedition. Young ladies of good family are said 'to come out,' on being presented at court. What perhaps contributes more than anything else to se- cure selectness, is the obligation of appearing in ' court- dress,' an expensive and fantastic costume of old date; from which only those who assume professional uniforms are exempted. As is well known, the court- dresses of ladies are superb. Some of the usual notions among for- eigners arriving in England — those from the United States in particular — as to the practicability of indiscriminate presentation at C, are erroneous. It is the duty of the lord chamberlain at St. James's to furnish information regard- ing the steps to be adopted by those who desire to be pre- S3nted at C, either at levees, which are restricted to gen- tlemen, or at drawing-rooms, which are chiefly, though not exclusively, for ladies. The days on which these re- ceptions take place are advertised in the newspapers some days before, with necessary directions for preventing con- fusion. Her majesty's birthday is the occasion on which the greatest reception of the year takes place, but there are no new presentations on that day. Any British subject who has been presented at C. in England, can claim to be presented by the British ambassador at any foreign court. Those who wish to be mere spectators can obtain tickets to the corridor, where they see the company passing in and out, by applying to the lord chamberlain. For this pur- pose, however, an introduction is required. It is indis- pensable that the names of gentlemen desiring to be pre- sented, and of the nobleman or gentleman who is to pre- sent them, be sent to the lord chamberlain's ofl&ce several days previously, in order that they may be submitted for the queen's approbation. Gentlemen are also requested to bring with them two large cards, with their names clearly written upon them, one of which is left with the queen's page in the presence-chamber, and the other is delivered to the lord chamberlain, who announces the name to her majesty. The same rules apply to ladies. Lists of pres- entations appear next day in the principal London news- papers. COURTALLUM, Jcor-tdl-lum' : town of the dist. of Tin- nevelly, presidency of Madras; lat. 8° 56' n., and long. 77° 20' e., near the junction of the eastern and western Ghauts. Open toward the e., at a height of 700 ft. above the sea, it is elsewhere embosomed in hills, having, in its immediate neighborhood, a deep glen which affords easy communication between the opposite shores of Hindustan. The place is a favorite retreat for invalids, deservedly en- joying a reputation for salubrity of air, richness of vegeta- tion, and beauty of scenery. The indigenous flora com- prises 2,000 species; and many exotics, such as the nutmeg, clove, and cinnamon, have been introduced with success. 82 COURTESAN—COURTESY TITLES. COURTESAN, n. : see under Court. COURTESY, n. ker'te-si [from court: F. courtiser, to pay court to, to flatter; courtoisie, civility]: tlie polish and polite manners of the court; politeness of manners com- bined with kindness; civility; an act of civility or respect; favor not by right. Courtesy, n. k'^rt'si, an act of re- spect or reverence paid by a woman: Y. to perform an act of respect, etc., as a woman. CouRTESYmo, imp. or kert'- si-ing. CouRTESiED, pp. kert'sid. — Syn. of * courtesy = ker'te-si':' politeness; urbanity; complaisance; civility; elegance, etc. COUR TESY, or Curtesy, in Law: life interest which, in England and Scotland; the surviving husband has in the real or heritable estate of the wife. It is remarkable that, both in England and in Scotland, this customary right should be regarded as a national peculiarity— that in Eng- land it should be called the C. of England, and in Scot- land the C. of Scotland — vvhereas it is well known to be peculiar to neither of them. Traces of it are to be found in a constitution of the emperor Constanstine (Code 6, 60, 1); and there can be no doubt that it has found a place, with all the peculiarities which now belong to it, in the couiume of Normandy. The four circumstances w^hich are requisite to make a tenancy by C. in England are — mar- riage, seizin of the wife, living issue (living at time of birth), and the wife's death. In both countries, the child must be the mother's heir; and it is consequently said that C. is due to the surviving husband rather as the father of an heir than as the widower of an heiress. * See Settled Estate, for English law^ on one point; for Scottish law, see Hunter on Landlord and Tenant, i. p. 119. COUR TESY TITLES: titles assumed by or given to individuals, and which have no validity in law, not hav- ing been imparted by the sovereign or other competent authority. The term C. T. is best known in connection with the titles given by popular consent to the sons and daughters of certain English peers. C. T. are to foreign- ^ ers a perplexing part of the highly artificial social system wiiicli prevails in Britain. English dukes, marquises, earls, and viscounts have several titles, accumulated by distinct patents in their progressive steps in the peerage. Thus, a duke may at the same time be a marquis, an earl, a baron, and a baronet; a marquis may be also an earl, etc.; and an earl is almost always a baron. In ordinary parlance, they respectively take only their highest title. One of the inferior titles so set aside is permitted, as a matter of social dignity, to be assumed by the eldest son. For example, the JDuke of Bedford being also Marquis of Tavistock, his eldest son takes the title of Marquis of Tavi- stock; and the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry being also Earl of Dalkeith, his eldest son takes the title of Earl of Dalkeith: such titles are of the class called courtes}^ titles. When it happens that the inferior title is of the same name as the first, there is a somewhat different usage. For example, the Earl of Gosford being also Yis 83 COURT-FOOL, count Gosford, his eldest son, to prevent confusion, takes only the family surname, Acheson, with the prefix Lord- Lord Acheson. The youngest sous of dukes and mar- quises have the courtesy title of Lord prefixed to their Christian and surname: as, for example, lord Fred- erick Charles Cavendish, a younger son of the Duke of Devonshire; or Lord Archibald Campbell, a younger son of the Duke of Argyll. The eldest son of an earl, w^hen not a viscount, takes his father's second title of lord: as, for example, the eldest son of the Earl of Wemyss is styled Lord Elcho. It is to be kept in mind, that titles by courtesy do not raise their bearers above the rank of com- moners; that, consequently, they are eligible for election as representatives to the house of commons. Very many of the peers, indeed, begin their political career as county or borough representatives under their C. T. , serving in this w^ay a kind of apprenticeship as statesmen before they are advanced, by the decease of their fathers, to the house of lords. Ihe daughters of dukes, marquises, and earls have the title Lady prefixed to their Christian and surname; and in the event of their marrying a person of inferior rank, they retain the title Lady with their Christian name, adding the surname of their husband. Yet, these are but courtesy titles. The only valid title that they can claim in virtue of their birth, is the prefix Honorable, which is applicable alike to the sons and daughters of peers. The wives of baronets receive the courtesy title of Lady ; their lawful designation betog Dame. Ladies who have had a title by a first marriage, retain it as a matter of courtesy when they are married a second time, though the alliance be with a person without a title — a circumstance sometimes leading to awkwardness in designation. In Scotland, the eldest son of a baron has the courtesy title of Master. For example, the eldest son of Lord Elibank is styled Master of Elibank. The title Eight Honorable is given in some few instances by courtesy to officials, as in the case of the Lord Advo- cate for Scotland. The judges of the court of session in Scotland, on first taking their seat on the bench, assume the courtesy title of Lord with their ow^n surname or a ter- ritorial title. But such titles are used only senatorially. In writing, the real name is subscribed. The titles of Mr. or Master and Esquire (q. v.), are now given by courtesy to nearly all classes of persons. For an exact definition of titles by courtesy of members of the peerage, see the Handbook to the Desk, or any good Letter -lor iter . COURT'-FOOL : jester formerly kept for entertainment in courts of sovereigns and houses of the nobility. From very ancient times there was a class of persons w^hosc busi- ness it was to while aw^ay the time of the noble and w^ealthy, particularly at table, by all manner of jests and witty say- ings. Alexander the Great, Dionysius of Syracuse, Augus- tus and his successors, maintained such jesters. It w^as, repulsive vocation became fully developed, and that the however, during the middle COURT FOOL. oiiice of jester or fool became a regular and iudispeiisa. ble court office. The symbols of such a personage were — tlie shaven head ; the fool's cap of gay colors, with asses' ears and cock's comb ; the fool's sceptre, w^hich was vari- ously formed ; the bells, w^hich w^ere mostly attached to tlie cap, but likewise to other parts of the dress ; and a large collar. The rest of the costume w^as regulated by the taste of the master. Of these professional fools some obtained a historical reputation, as Triboulet, jester to King Francis I. of France, and his successor, Brusquet ; Klaus Narr, at the court of the elector Frederic the Wise of Prussia, whose jests have been repeatedly printed ; and Scogan, court-fool to Edw^ard IV. of England. The kings and regents in Scotland had their jesters, as was usual in their time ; and the sarcastic sayings of some of these privileged personages — such as those of Patrick Bonny, jester to Regent Morton— are still remembered among the national facetim. English court jesters died out with the Stuarts ; one of the last of the race being the famous Court-fool and Buffoon. From Harleian MS. fourteen century. Archie Armstrong, whose death, 1646, took place charac- teristically, on April 1. Besides the regular fools recog- nized and dressed as such, there was a higher class, called merry councilors, generally men of talent, who availed themselves of the privilege of free speech, to ridicule in the most merciless fashion the follies and vices of their contemporaries. Of these, Kunz von der Rosen, jester to the Emperor Maximilian I. ; John Heywood, a prolific 85 COURT-HAND— COURT-MARTIAL. dramatic poet and epigrammatist at the court of Henry VIII.; and Augely, a French courtier, were particularly distinguished for talent and wit. In all times there existed at courts persons who, without becoming jesters by pro- fession, were allowed the privilege of castigating the com- pany by their witty and satirical attacks, or who served as the general butts. Among these were, on the one hand, tlie Baxon general Kyau, celebrated for his blunt jests ; and on the other, the learned Jacob Paul, Baron Gund- ling, whom Frederic William 1. of Prussia, to show his contempt for science and the artihcial court system, loaded with titles. Flogel's and Nick's German treatises on this subject, and Dr. Doran's History of Court Fools, are inter- esting works. Such a history forms a kind of barometer of the manners and morals of courts at different times. At a later period, imbecile or w^eak-minded persons were kept for the entertainment of the company. Even ordinary noblemen considered such an attendant indispensable; and thus the system reached its last stage, and toward the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th c, was finally abol- ished. It survived longest in Russia, where Peter the Great had so many fools that he divided them into distinct classes. COURT'-HAND: name given in England to the old Gothic or Saxon handwriting, as distinguished from the modern or Italian handwriting. The old way of writing continued in the law-courts after it had been superseded elsewhere, and hence its name of Court-hand. COURT-MAR TIAL: court for the trial of any one be longing to the army or navy, for some breach of military or naval law. The members of the court fill the functions both of judge and jury. Courts-martial are general, district or garrison, and regimental. The first is the only one of the three empowered to award death as a punishment. In the U. S. army it consists of not less than 13 commissioned otticers of proper rank; and a deputy judge-advocate is specially appointed to conduct the prosecution: it can be convened only by order of the president, or the general of the army, or an officer in command of a department. A non-commissioned officer, or a private, may be tried b}^ any one of the three kinds of court; but a commissioned officer only by a general court-martial. A district ox garin- son C. may be convened by a field-officer commanding, and consists of not less than three commissioned officers, with an officer not lower than a captain to act as judge- advocate: it tries lower officers (non-commissioned, etc.) and the rank and file. A regimental C. may be convened by the commanding officer of a regiment or detachment; it consists of not less than three commissioned officers; it treats of minor ofl:enses, and can award only minor punish- ments. In all these kinds of C. the members are sworn in; the court is an open or public one; the vote or sentence is de- cided by majority, the junior members voting first; but two-thirds of the whole number, in a general C. are uecef?- fc6 COURT OF LOVE— COURT OF SESSIOX. sary to give validity to a sentence of death. Before exe- cution, the sentence of every military court-martial has to be approved and contirmed by the convening authority. Sometimes Courts of Inquiry are held instead of a C, not to try or to punish, but to make an investigation; the members not being on oath. Such a court occasionally precedes a court-martial. Naval courts-martial consist of higher officers, and can be convened only on the order of the president, or the sec. of the navy, or the commander of a tleet,— -or, if outside of U. S. jurisdiction, by the commander of a squadron. The C. is open to all the crew and others as spectators. COURT OF LOVE, in the age of chivalry: assembly of high-born women, in the age of chivalry, w^ho decided questions of courtesy, etiquette, or love according to a rigid code of 31 articles. It was established in Provence, France, in the best days of the troubadours; and after its dissolution, Rene, king of Anjou, and Cardinal Richelieu attempted in vain to restore it Among the celebrated wo- men who presided over it were Countess de Die and Laura de Sade. The following specimen of the questions sub- mitted to it for decision has been preserved: A lady listen- ed to one admirer, squeezed the hand of another, and touched with her toe the foot of a third. Query, which of the three was the favored suitor ? COURT OF SES SION: highest civil tribunal in Scot- land: instituted in the reign of King James Y., by statute, 1532, May 17. The object of its institution was to dis- charge the judicial functions which originally belonged to the king and his council, and which, since 1425, had in a great measure devolved on a committee of parliament, as the great council of the nation. The C. of S. consisted at first of 14 ordinar}^ j^idges and a president One-half of these judges and the president were churchmen, and the practice of appointing ecclesiastics to the bench did not cease for some time, even after the Reformation. In 1830, the number of judges was reduced to 13, and that is still the full number, though since 1877 there have actually been but 12 judges. Of the five lords ordinary, jimior " judges appointed to sit as an outer house, four only sit daily. The judgments of the outer house, with a few statutory exceptions, are appealable to the Inner House. The youngest judge, or junior lord ordinary, officiates in a separate department of the outer house, called the bill chamber (q.v.), where summary petitions, and other branches of busines speculiarly requiring dispatch, are dis- posed of. In cases of great difficulty, the lords ordinary are called in, and a hearing before the whole court, or in presence, as it is called, takes place, with the lord president presiding. The judges are appointed by the crown, and hold their offices for life. With few exceptions, the judg- ments of the inferior courts of Scotland are reviewable by the C. of S., but this rule does not apply to the small-debt courts. The judgments of the C. of S. may be appealed to the house of lords within two years. COURTR AI— C 0 U SIN. COURTRAI, kor-tra: (Flemish Kortryk): town of Bel- gium, province of West Fianders, about 30 m. s. of Bruges; lat. 50'' 49' n., long. 3^ 18 e. It is built on both sides of the Lj^s, is surrounded with walls, and has a castle, a citadel, a fine old bridge Hanked with Flemish towers, a noble town hall, and a beautiful Gothic church, founded 1238 by Bald- win, Count of Flanders. Though a busy manufacturing place, C. is very clean. Table damask and other linen are principal articles of manufacture. There are extensive bleaching-grounds in the vicinity, and the neighboring plains supply fine flax in large quantities to many European markets. In 1302 the Flemings, citizens of Ghent and Bru- ges chiefly, w^on a splendid victory over the chivalry of France beneath the walls of C, more than 700 gijt spurs (worn only by French nobles) being afterwards gathered from the dead by the victors. The battle was hence named ' The Battle of the Spurs.^ Pop. (1880) 26,943. COURTS OF JUSTICE: see Judiciaky in the United States: Common Law, Coukts of: Admiralty Court: Admiralty Jurisdiction: County Courts: Court of Session: Chancery, Court of: Chancellor, Lord: Equity: Judge: Attorney: Advocate: Barrister. COUS-COUS, n. kos'kos: a favorite dish in western Africa, composed of millet-flour, flesh, and the leaves of the baobab; called also lalo. COUSEOUS, or Cuseus, or Spotted Phalanger: see Phalanger. COUSIN, n. kuz'n [F. cousin — from OF. cosin; prov. F. cusrin — from mid. L. coslnus, a corruption of L. consobrl- nus, a cousin-german] : any relation more distant than a brother or sister; the son or daughter of an uncle or aunt; title of address used by a king to his nobles. Cous inly, a. -U, having the relation of cousins: Ad. becoming a cousin. CousiNS-GERMAN, the children of brothers or sisters. COUSIN, ko-zang' ,YiCTon: 1792, Nov. 28—1867; b. Paris: founder of systematic eclecticism in modern philosophy. He studied with brilliant success at the Lycee Charlemagne. In 1812 he was appointed Greek tutor in the Ecole Nor male, and in 1814, Examiner in Philosophy. In the following year he became assist. prof, to Royer-Collard at the Sor- bonne, and threw himself heartily into that reaction against the sensualistic philosophy and literature of the 18th c. then in vogue. Following the path of his senior, he became an exponent of the doctrines of the Scotch metaphysicians, but exhibited far more brilliancy, energy, and warmth of expres- sion than the original authors of these doctrines. In 1817, C. visited Germany, where he was introduced to bolder and more speculative systems of philosophy than any that he had yet knowm. He studied successively, or at the same time, Plato, Kant, Jacobi, Fichte, and Schelling. A second visit to Germany, 1824-5, also had important consequences. Suspected of carbonarism, he was arrested at Dresden by the police and sent to Berlin, where he w^as detained six months. He took advantage of his compulsory residence in the capital of Prussia to study the philosophy of Hegel, 88 COUSIX. which exercised considerable influence on^his susceptible in- tellect. On bis return to France, he took a decided stand against the reactionary policy of Charles X.; and in 1827, when the comparatively liberal ministry of Martignac came into office, C, who had for some ^^ears been suspended from his professorial functions, was reinstated in his chair. Mean- while, he had appeared as an author. During 1820-27, he published his editions of Proclus and Descartes, and part of his celebrated translation of Plato, finished 1840, in 18 vols. The year 1828 witnessed the most splendid triumph in the career of C. as a philosophic teacher. It is said that to find an audience as numerous, and as passionately interested in the topics discussed, as gathered round C, it would be nec- essary to go back to the days of Abelard and other mediaeval teachers of philosophy. C. was still young, simple, and pure in his habits; his doctrines were for the most part new to his hearers, bold, and in harmony with the spirit of the time. The finest qualities of the national genius appeared in his lectures, a Vvonderful lucidity of exposition, an exqiu- site beauty of style such as no modern or ancient philosopher, except Plato, has equalled; a brilliancy of generalization and criticism that enchanted every one; and a power of co-ordinat- ing the facts of history and philosophy in such a manner as to make each illustrate the other and reveal their most in- tricate relations. At this period, C. was one of the most in- fluential leaders of opinion among the educated classes in Paris; and consequentl}^ after the revolution of 1830, when his friend Guizot became prime-minister, C. was made a member of the Council of Public Instruction; in 1832, a peer of France ; and latter director of the Ecole Normale. His efforts for the organization of primary instruction are seen in those valuable reports which he drew up, from personal observation, on the state of public education in Germany and Holland. In 1840, he was elected a member of the Academic de8 Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in the same year be- came minister of Public Instruction in the cabinet of Thiers. The revolution of 1848 found in C. a friend rather than an enemy. He aided the government of Cavaignac, and published an anti-socialistic brochure, called Justice et Ghar- ite. After 1849, he disappeared from public life. It is more easy to state what philosophical doctrines have received exposition at the hands of C. than to determine precisely what are his own. At first a disciple of Royer- Collard and the Scotch school, he was attached to the psy- chological method of investigation; afterward a keen student of the German school, he expounded the views of Schelling with such copious enthusiasm, that he might legitimately enough have been considered a thorough pantheist. Judg- ing from such a book as Bu Vrai, Bu Beau, et du Bien, (1853), he seemed more disposed, latterly, to regard philo- sophy in its religious and aesthetic relations: see Eclectic- ism. C.'s chief works (besides those already mentioned) are Fragments Philosophiques (1826), Cours de VHistoire de la PhilosopMe (1827),, Ouvrafjes inklites d' Abelard (1836), Cours d'Histoire de la Fhilosophie Modervve (1841), Cours d'ilistoire 89 COUSINS— COUTIION. de la PMlosophie Morale au XVIII^ Steele (1840-41), Lemons de PhilosopMe sur Kant (1842), Des Pensees de Pascal (1842), Etudes sur les Femraes et la Societe du XVIT^ Sitcle, etc. (1853). C. also contributed a great variety of papers to the literary and philosophic Reviews of France. COUS INS, First: see Marriage. COUSSINET, n. kos'si-iiet [F.]: the impost stone on the top of a pier; the ornament in an Ionic column between the abacus and echinus. COUSTOU, k