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Salaiatytaete siete y Yt eR ee Pees ati Da area ai WEP tery te SREP a etersetig nati alty at whi ang eg ta Peete ich eh atom hs le libibogetinas ta po tate tale toy be : eto -terch ra etna ba be 8 Se eltns'e Mole is helt Mofo beta high Sedaris Bal Ns py be het 3 ta ia aay ier gy ine leioa Stns Het eg a plese Wee ake eae nee sista So Uke Geta miata etabeN Saye ; hes Ps ats Nartekeths ay Pe habe he fering Me Ty 7 te phi Menentect ster aceatnnn eles Seance eRe Shine heesenneenn ene toe Sie Ne dope Medi do tic tne Se ewe Se lee Sater ie whe tg Vee he hg ee ia Yaliv'te teh hs ee FORE MeO e Oeiig e ve RN a CU eet a ane eed ‘ : 3 Auta thePahh Ts s"2 Teta tg stetutetnneticta ts utes et xs nwt d . ae nt , 24 Srey eninge; eh: Cee ea Case achat tate tety: Shetty het tions tote hatte tetera eek ee ORT ectettatetene tae eee “eke ay tee a wry 3s Theis Rew “ac? & * ay dou aee mewn ati acFam et ee eee Ons Ag hg | SAIN CENN ewe Wis taipetietcir renee eS cetety! pe Swe TET Nae he a ts9* ~ m 5 Wer tet A Fine ie Re? So Peron: Sct Nm tote ihe NADA TS phuidand Seka tok Creel ae PRR ng atin VAY wand Hoven ag Ep iy tae a Thy ee Hie : el tk See 6 ee dew att ike E ¥ PS SER See ca yy Me de de he OEE Ma yay a i aad SENSE Setty Waring. te sie Sy ss ta Pa" Se iat Shy sferita Wart He: eet Matt Ni ay tails oereeTaae shee Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. University of Illinois Library L161— 0.1096 * +! ey Ler ¥ 5 4 » Una ey} Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2021 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/religiouspolicyoOOhigb THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DURING THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD BY CHESTER PENN HIGBY, A. M. aN Instructor in History, West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK 1918 Rat a AR hp B : Qar\s KAA PREFACE THE attention of the author of this monograph was first directed toward the history of Bavaria during the Napo- leonic period in the fall of 1914. At that time he cherished the hope that his study and investigations in this country might be supplemented by research work in European col- lections of historical material. The prolongation of the war, however, has interfered with this plan and the author has been forced, in consequence, to modify somewhat the subject of his dissertation and to base it entirely on the material to be found in American libraries. As a result, this monograph is based almost entirely on source material found in the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, Columbia University Library, the Boston Public Library and the library of Harvard University, and sufh- cient source material for a wholly satisfactory treatment of a number of topics has not been found. An investigation of further statistical material, the mass of pamphlets which the religious policy of the Bavarian government called forth and, above all, the archives of the Bavarian government, would undoubtedly reveal much additional material bearing on the subject of this monograph. The author also wishes to make acknowledgment of the assistance which has been given him at different stages of his task. Special courtesies extended to him by those in charge of the Library of Congress, Columbia University Library and the library of Harvard University have facilitated greatly the work of collecting material. Two of the author's students have contributed greatly to the work of putting the 5] 5 654681 aS | 6 % \ 6 PREFACE [6 im author in touch with persons familiar with European relig- ious customs. Professor Hazen has kindly consented to read the proofs, and the generosity and encouragement of several members of the faculty of Political Science have made possible the publication of the dissertation in the Studies in History, Economics and Public Law. ERRATA “The passage in the text based on note I on page 110 should read as follows: “Their re-establishment in Bavaria was announced to the Chapter of the order on August 9, and the church and monastery of the Theatins, at Munich, were turned over to the knights for use as a church and a residence of the Grand Prior of the Bavarian branch of the order respectively. The Grand Prior was in the future to be a prince of the ruling family.” Note 1 on page 110 should read as follows: ‘1“Den 9. Aug. wurde von Minister Montgelas die neue Einsetzung des Maltesersordens dem versammelten Malteserkapitl. erdffnet. Auch wird kiinftig die Kirche der Theatiner (welche aufgehoben werden) zur Malteserkirche und das Kloster zur Wohnung des Grosspriors (wozu fiir ktinftig ein baierischer Prinz ernannt-werden soll) bestimmt werden.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 67. = CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The subject—The geographical limits of the subject—The chrono- logical limits of the subject—The three divisions of the subject. 13 PARTS BAVARIA IN 1799 CHAPTER II POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS Area and population of the lands subject to the elector of Bavaria —The nature of the country—The cities and market towns— Poverty and idleness—Crime—Schools—The ministerial organi- zation in the central government—The invisible government— The governmental boards for Upper and Lower Bavaria—The effect of past history on the political divisions of Bavaria—The local administrative districts of Upper and Lower Bavaria—The method of selecting subordinate officials. ........... °2f CHAPTER ITI THE Position OF CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS The dominant position of the Catholic religion in Bavaria—The declarations of the legal codes concerning Catholics and heretics —The religious policy of Maximilian III Joseph—The religious - policy of Charles Theodore—The persecution of the Illuminati under Charles Theodore—Censorship of the press under Charles Theodore—The number and location of the Protestant subjects of the elector—The number and location of the Jews living in Bavaria—The restrictions under which the Jews of Bavaria lived. 34 7] 7 Q CONTENTS [8 PAGE CHAPTER IV THe BAVARIAN CLERGY The Bavarian dioceses—The Bavarian parishes—The number of secular clergy—The incomes of the parish priests—The duties and incomes of the subordinate clergy—The clergy of the cathe- dral and collegiate churches—The regular clergy—The possessing orders—Their wealth and numbers—The mendicant orders—The hermits—The Teutonic Knights and the Knights of Malta— Total number of the clergy in) Bavaria... . 5 < \ a) sys CHAPTER V THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE The concordats concluded with the neighboring bishops—The con- cordat of 1583— The attempt of Maximilian III Joseph to modify the relations of church and state by electoral decree—The efforts of the Bavarian government to check the growth of church property—The position of the bishops in the struggle of church and state—The opposition of the bishops to the decrees of Maxi- milian III Joseph—The relations between Charles Theodore and the bishops—The relations of Charles Theodore and the Pope— The relations of church and state at the end of Charles Theo- Gore’s Leis cys | sia hej hs Can a ae ok On ee 63 CHAPTER VI THE RELicious LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE The general situation—Shrines and relics—Pilgrimages—Indecor- ous proceedings on religious holidays—Insanitary religious prac- tices—Efforts of the Bavarian government prior to 1799 to reform the religious life of the people—Decrees against the shooting of firearms and the ringing of bells in time of storm—Efforts of the Bavarian government to limit the number of holidays—Decrees against religious plays and representations. . . 1 Ne a PART ight THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DURING THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD AND ITS IMMEDIATE EFFECTS CHAPTER Vil THe NEw GOVERNMENT AND ITS First MEASURES Popular reception of the news of Charles Theodore’s death—The new Elector—Abandonment of the policy of religious uniformity 9 | CONTENTS PAGE —Dismissals of the government— Ministerial appointments of the new government—The College for the Censorship of Books abol- ished—The government’s unsuccessful attempt to suppress the Knights of Malta—Reduction of the amount collected by the mendicant monks—The policy of the new government toward eRe VENTS ae AAG) pes tie tk RE EDEL RNG 8, BF GRR SpE a ESP py CHAPTER VIII THE TOLERATION POLIcy OF THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT The establishment of a Protestant court chape!—The decree of 10 Nov., 1800—The decree of 26 Aug., 1801—The Protestant sub- jects acquired by the state through the secularizations of 1802 and 1803—The edict of to Jan., 1803—Legislation concerning mixed marriages—The Protestant subjects acquired by the state through the annexations of 1805 and 1806—The situation of the Protestants in Bavaria on the eve of the organic religious edict of 24 Mar., 1809—The immediate effect of the introduction of the policy of religious toleration—The establishment of Protestants in Cath- olic districts—The establishment of Catholics in Protestant dis- tricts—The Herrnhutters—The Mennonites—The Catholic oppo- sition to the new religious policy of the Bavarian government— Concessions of the Bavarian government to the Jews prior to 1813—Education— Military service—The Poll Tax-—-Government regulations concerning Jewish residence, worship, travel, beg- ging, petty huckstering and trade in real estate—The organic edict of 1813 concerning the status of Jews in Bavaria—Legisla- PCONCeNiTie Tie! LOWS AILeT LATS oe lide) 2 bly ote’ Meh an ELS CHAPTER IX CoNFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY Scope of the secularizations in Bavaria—Secularization of the men- dicant houses and the monasteries and convents not represented in the estates—Suppression of the begging of monks—The sec- ularizations authorized by the ‘‘conclusion of the Empire’’— The amount of Church property put at the disposal of the elector by the ‘‘conclusion of the Empire’’—The suppression of the mediate monasteries and convents—The history of the seculariza- tion of the monasteries at Munich—The manner in which the removal of the monks and nuns from the secularized establish- ments was carried out—The provision made for the future of the monks and nuns—The struggle of the ‘government to force the monks into useful occupations—The provision made for the future 10 CONTENTS [ 10 PAGE of the friars—The fate of the monastic churches and libraries— The gains of the government from the secularizations Official and popular protests against the secularization policy of the gov- ernment—The secularization of the property of the collegiate churches—The suppression of the religious hermits—The confis- cation of the property of the pious foundations, the Knights of Malta and the Teutonic Knights—The destruction of crosses, chapels, oratories and churches—The later policy of the govern- ment toward chapels ‘and'churches: 3 v5 > ae eh ee CHAPTER X THe INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT IN PURELY SPIRITUAL MATTERS Slight progress of the government before 1803—The declarations of the ordinance of 7 Mar., 180j;—Regulation of the promulgation of ecclesiastical decrees—Regulation of communication with Rome—Regulations of the government concerning appeals to the civil power against the decisions of ecclesiastical authorities —Rights asserted by the government in respect to ecclesiastical laws, constitutions and assemblies—Interference of the govern- ment in the conduct of religious services—General policy of the government toward the secular clergy—The system of appoint- ment and promotion established by the government for the Catholic clergy—The system of appointment and promotion established by the government for the Protestant clergy—The appointments and promotions of the government ~The system established by the government for the care of aged Catholic priests ~The system established by the government for the care of aged and incapacitated Protestant clergymen—The provision made by the government for the care of the widows and orphans of Protestant clergymen—The general tendency of the measures taken by the government in behalf of the Catholic and Protestant PlErS VINER: feel ny dt : at SERED CHAPTER XI INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT IN MATTERS PARTLY RELIGIOUS AND PARTLY SECULAR IN CHARACTER The subjects defined by the government as matters of a mixed nature -The efforts of the government to decrease the number of religious holidays, processions, pilgrimages and annual fétes— Popular opposition to the policy of the government—Active ir] CONTENTS nt PAGE resistance at Munich and Straubing—The passive resistance of the mass of the people— Later modification of the government’s policy in regard to the number of religious holidays, processions, pilgrimages and annual fétes—Expedients employed by the gov- ernment to insure the success of its policy—The failure of the government—Causes of the government’s failure—Legislation aiming at the purification of the services of the Church—Measures dealing with the observance of particular church holidays—Meas- ures dealing with the ordinary services of the Church— Measures dealing with popular religious customs—Success of the govern- ment in its efforts to purify the services and religious practices of the people—Police measures of the government affecting the Church—Sanitary measures of the government affecting the SmI MMe Sel Tet IAA) Ag Way ty. ao ese) ek et sien a eae CAREER ATT INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT IN PuRELY SECULAR MATTERS Extent of the government’s intervention in purely secular matters —Success of the government prior to the secularizations of 1802 and 1803—Provisions of the ‘‘ Conclusion of the Empire’’ con- cerning the position of the bishops—Intervention of the govern- ment in regard to the estates of the clergy--Suppression of the practice of sending the wills of the clergy to the bishop for con- firmation — Legislation concerning the position of the nuns, monks and knights turned out into the world by the seculariza- tions—Declaration of the ordinance of 18 Nov., 1803 concerning the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical and secular authorities— Declaration of the edict of 7 May, 1804—Declaration of the or- ganic edict of 24 Mar., 1809—Difficulty experienced by the gov- ernment in enforcing its policy—Exemption of the clergy from military service—Exemption of the clergy from taxation . to Oo LS) PARTING THE PERMANENT EFFECTS OF THE RELIGIOUS PoLICy FOLLOWED BY THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DURING THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD CECA D Day 2b RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA AFTER I8I15 Declaration of the constitution of the German Confederation con- cerning religious toleration— Declaration of the Bavarian consti- tution of 1818—Declaration of the second supplement of the con- 12 CONTENTS [ 12 PAGE stitution concerning the rights of the inhabitants of the state in regard to religious and ecclesiastical societies—Discrimination against Protestants in regard to public office in 1819—Addition of the Greek Orthodox Church to the number of publicly accepted churches—Enforcement of the edict of 1813 against the Jews— Success of the government in reducing the number of Jews en- gaged in huckstering and peddling—Enforcement of the restric- tions on the marriage and settlement of Jews—Effects of their enforcement on the emigration of Bavarian Jews to the United States—Removal of the restrictions on residence and occupation of Jews in 1861—Extension of full civil and political. rights to Jews IN AB7T Lea Nabi atlanta ern eae JMS SN CHAP AEROg ry THE CONCORDAT OF I817 The efforts of the government to negotiate a concordat during the Napoleonic period—The provisions of the concordat of 1817— The delay in putting the concordat into effect—The growth of monastic institutions after the adoption of the concordat . .. . 320 CHAPTERVOY THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE AFTER I815 The importance of the organic edict of 26 May, 1818, concerning the external legal relations of the inhabitants of the state in re- gard to religion and ecclesiastical societies—Comparison of the organic edict of 1809 and the organic edict of 1818—The policy of the government after 1815 in regard to the practice of ringing the church bells in time of storm—Policy of the government after 1815 in regard to religious plays—Policy of the government after 1815 in regard to processions and pilgrimages ......... 334 CHAPTER XVI CON CLUSIONSis ie lata fie hin odie ou nictics Weenie Ate ‘iso ton el fie ipa ea CLAP VER AL INTRODUCTION LIKE every other state of Western Europe, Bavaria un- derwent numerous and far-reaching changes during the Napoleonic period. At the close of Charles Theodore’s long reign in 1799 Bavaria was a group of backward, poorly governed, loosely organized, almost exclusively Catholic lordships held together mainly by the bond of their common allegiance to an elector who regarded them as his private property. As a result of territorial, governmental, eco- nomic and religious changes, as astonishing and important for Bavaria as those experienced by France during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period, Bavaria, by 1815, had become a modern state. The following discussion is concerned solely with the causes, nature, extent and result of the policy followed by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period in matters of religion. The geographical limits of the subject need further defi- nition for at least three distinct reasons. First, two differ- ent meanings were regularly attached to the name Bavaria during the latter part of the eighteenth century. In its most restricted sense the term Bavaria meant the two duchies known as Upper and Lower Bavaria. The name was likewise used to designate the entire group of duchies and lordships acquired by the electors of Bavaria prior to the accession of Charles Theodore, elector of the Rhine Palatinate, to the throne of Bavaria in 1777. Second, the ruler of Bavaria lost comparatively early in the Napoleonic 13 13 14 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [14 period all of his outlying possessions and received in com- pensation a group of territories that made Bavaria a com- pact, well-rounded state. Third, the territories gained by Bavaria during the Napoleonic period at the expense of Austria and Prussia were not affected by the religious policy of the Bavarian government as much as the remain- ing lands of the Bavarian ruler, because the Prussian and Austrian laws already in force in those territories were more favorable to the secular power than the laws of Bavaria.’ At the time of his accession to the throne of Bavaria Max- imilian IV Joseph, the successor of Charles Theodore, was nominally sovereign of a compact group of territories in the valley of the Upper Danube and several detached terri- tories situated in the valley of the Rhine. The compact group of territories consisted of Upper and Lower Bavaria, Neuburg, Sulzbach and the Upper Palatinate. The more important of the detached possessions of the Bavarian elec- tor were the Rhine Palatinate and the duchies of Zwei- brucken, Julich and Berg.” Of these territories the ruler of Bavaria possessed by 1806 only the compact group of lands in the valley of the Upper Danube. By the treaty of Lunéville, signed 9 Feb- ruary, 1801, the larger part of the Rhine Palatinate, the duchies of Julich and Zweibriicken, and several small lord- ships were ceded to France.* By the Reichsdeputations- hauptschluss of 1803 the portion of the Rhine Palatinate i“ Dans les provinces ci-devant prussiennes ou autrichiennes les lois particuliéres a ces monarchies continuoient a étre en vigueur; elles différ- olent des notres et étoient plus favorables au pouvoir séculier.” Denk- wiirdigkeiten des Grafen Maximilian Joseph v. Montgelas iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns (1799-1817). Herausgeben von G. Laubmann und M. Doeberl ( Miinchen, 1908), p. 144. ‘Cited hereafter as Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, 2J. Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topograplisches Lexikon von Baiern (Ulm, 1796, 1797), art. “ Baiern.” 3 Art. vi. Martens, Recueil des traités (2d ed.), vol. vii, p. 298. re] INTRODUCTION ts left in the possession of Bavaria by the treaty of Lunéville was ceded to Baden,’ Hesse-Darmstadt,? and Nassau- Ussingen,* and several detached bits of territory enclaved in the lands of other rulers were ceded to the rulers of those lands. Finally, by a treaty concluded at Schonbrunn, 16 December, 1805, the Duchy of Berg was ceded by Bavaria to Napoleon.* Most of these ceded lands were permanently lost to the state and were but slightly affected by the relig- ious policy followed by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period. As a compensation for these territorial losses Bavaria acquired enclaved and adjoining lands that in most cases have remained permanent parts of the state. By the “ con- clusion of the Empire’’, adopted 24 March, 1803, Bavaria gained either all or important parts of five of the former bishoprics of the Empire — Wurzburg and Bamberg, two fertile, rich and populous principalities situated northwest of Bavaria in the valley of the Main; Freysing, a compara- tively small bishopric enclaved in the southern part of Bava- tia; Augsburg, lying to the southwest between the Lech, Mller and Danube rivers; and part of Passau, just east of Bavaria: seventeen former free imperial cities and towns; twelve abbeys; and the provostship of Kempten—all of them situated in Swabia and Franconia.’ By the treaty of Press- burg, signed 26 December, 1805, Bavaria obtained the for- mer free imperial city of Augsburg,® the Margraviate of Burgau, the former bishopric of Eichstaedt, all immediately 1 Art. v. Martens, op. cit., p. 459. 2 Art. vii. Jbid., pp. 461-463. 3 Art. xii. Ibid., pp. 465-467. *De Clerg, Recueil des traités, vol. 2, p. 145, “Convention conclue a Schonbrunn le 16 décembre 1805 entre la France et la Baviére pour des cessions de territoires,” art. 2. 5 Art. ii. Martens, Recueil des traités, vol. vii, p. 453. § Art. xiii. Jbid., vol. viii, p. 392. 16 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [16 to the west; and the county of Tyrol, including the prin- cipalities of brixen and Trent, the seven lordships of Voral- berg and a number of other territories just south of Bava- ria." Early in 1806 Bavaria secured the Margraviate of Ansbach at the expense of Prussia.” By the treaty dated 12 July, 1806, which established the Confederation of the Rhine, Bavaria obtained the former free imperial city of Nuremberg * and a considerable number of small princi- palities and lordships held previous to 1806 by free imperial knights * and the Teutonic Order.’ By the treaty of Vienna, dated 14 October, 1809, Bavaria gained the former provost- ship of Berchtesgaden, the former archbishopric of Salz- burg and adjoining districts of Upper Austria.° Finally, by the treaty concluded with France, 28 February, 1810, Bava- ria acquired the former Prussian Margraviate of Bayreuth ‘ and the principality of Ratisbon.* Two of these new acqui- sitions were lost before the downfall of Napoleon. By the treaty of Pressburg, Bavaria surrendered the former Bishop- ric of Wurzburg to the Archduke Ferdinand,’ and by the treaty of 28 February, 1810, it gave up southern Tyrol to Napoleon.'® After the overthrow of its powerful protector 1 Art. vili. Martens, op. cit., p. 390. ® Ansbach was ceded by Prussia to Napoleon by a treaty signed 15 Feb., 1806. Cf. De Clercq, Recueil des traités de la France, vol. 2, p. 154. This treaty was based on a treaty dated Vienna, 15 December, 1805, which was never ratified by Prussia. Cf. ibid., vol. 2, p. 143. The cession of Ansbach to Bavaria by Napoleon was agreed to in the same treaty by which the cession of Berg was effected. Cf. ibid., vol. 2, p. 145. 8 Art. xvii. Martens, Recueil des traités, vol. viii, p. 484. ‘Art. xxiv. Ibid., pp. 485-486. 5 Art. xvii. Ibid., p. 484. ® Art. iii. Martens, Noveau recueil des traités, vol. 1, pp. 211-212. 7Art. i. DOllinger, Sammlung, Batertsche V erordnungen, i, 70. VArtitiel bid. ip, 233. * Art. xi. Martens, Recueil des traités, vol. viii, p. 391. 10 Art. iii. Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, i, 233. 17] INTRODUCTION 17 and master, Napoleon, Bavaria was forced to retrocede Voralberg, Salzburg, the rest of Tyrol and all the Austrian cessions of 1809 except the former Provostship of Berchtes- gaden.* | Because of these territorial changes the term Bavaria will be used exclusively in the following discussion to desig- nate the compact group of territories in the valley of the Upper Danube possessed by the elector of Bavaria in 1799 and the enclaved and contiguous territories that from time to time were added to the original group by the favor of Napo- leon. It will be the aim of this discussion to describe the religious policy of the Bavarian government toward the group of territories thus defined as Bavaria and especially those parts of Bavaria in which laws greatly favoring the secular power had not already been introduced by Prussia and Austria. The chronological limits of the subject cannot be defined as definitely as its geographical limits have been. The Napo- leonic period, however, can reasonably be considered to have begun in Bavaria with the accession of Maximilian IV Joseph, 16 February, 1799, to the electoral throne that Charles Theodore had so long occupied. With this change of rulers came very definite changes in the policy of the Bavarian government. In matters of religion particularly the government of Charles Theodore had pursued a policy characterized by all the features that have made the phrase “old régime ” hateful to modern times. The tolerance, sec- ularizations and modernism that characterized the govern- 1 These cessions of territory were effected by two treaties: “ Conven- tion entre S. M. Impériale d’Autriche et S. M. le Roi de Baviére, signée a Paris le 3 Juin 1814,” art. i, Martens, Nouveau recueil des traités, vol. ii, p. I9; and “ Traité entre Sa Majesté l’Empereur d’Autriche, et Sa Majesté le Roi de Baviére pour fixer les limits et les rapports de leur états respectifs, signé a Munich le 14 Avr. 1816,” art. i, tbid., vol. iii, Te 22. 18 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [18 ment of Maximilian IV Joseph from the time of its acces- sion to power were a decided contrast to the intolerance, superstition and subserviency to the most reactionary ele- ments among the Catholic clergy displayed by the govern- ment of Charles Theodore. The close of the Napoleonic period in Bavaria cannot be as definitely dated as its begin- ning. Nevertheless the three treaties concluded between Bavaria and Austria after the defeat of Napoleon at Leip- sic, the acceptance of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna by Bavaria, and the reopening of diplomatic rela- tions between the Papacy and the court of Munich are boundary marks for Bavaria between the Napoleonic period and the “ Era of Metternich.” A discussion of the religious policy followed by the Bava- rian government during the Napoleonic period naturally falls into three parts: first, a description of the religious conditions found by the government of Maximilian IV Joseph upon its accession to power in 1799; second, a de- scription of the policy followed by the government of Maxi- milian IV Joseph until the defeat of Napoleon and the immediate effects of its policy; third, the permanent effects of the religious policy followed by the Bavarian government during this period. Pi uty REY) NH fe } PAN EF } iy ‘ A> ree Tee 1 ss BAVARIA IN 1799 . Cah AIHAYAR CHAPTER II POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN respect to area and population, the group of duchies and lordships inherited by Maximilian Joseph in 1799 formed the third power of the German Empire. They com- prised slightly less than one-tenth of its estimated area of 12,000 German square miles * and they contained over one- fifteenth of its estimated population of twenty-eight or thirty million persons.” The territories of the elector, however, were scattered through southern Germany from the western boundary of Austria to the eastern boundary of the Bata- vian Republic, and the greater part of the Rhine Palatinate, the duchies of Jiilich and Zweibriicken, and a number of un- important lordships no longer formed an actual part of the elector’s dominions. Like the other lands of the Empire on the left bank of the Rhine, these territories had been occu- pied almost continuously since 1793 by French armies and their cession to France had already been agreed to by Prus- sia and Austria, the two most powerful states of the Em- pire, in the treaties of Basel and Campo Formio. Their occupation by the French deprived the elector of something like two hundred square miles of territory and a half mil- lion subjects. In spite of these losses, however, an area of nearly nine hundred square miles and a population of about one and three-fourths millions persons remained under his actual control. The elector’s compact group of territories .on the Upper Danube which have been designated Bavaria 1 Annual Register, 1799, “ History of Europe,” p. 122. 2 [bid. 21} 21 22 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [22 comprised an area of 784 square miles and a population of one million three hundred thousand persons.* In 1799 Bavaria was considered a backward country by writers of the day. Its population of one million three hundred thousand only sparsely settled and partially utilized its nearly eight hundred square miles of territory. The nature of the country itself had been an obstacle to its development. Upper Bavaria was a mountainous, for- ested country of many lakes, only moderately suited to agriculture,” and the Upper Palatinate is described as a mountainous, stony, sandy, unfertile region.* Lower Bavaria, which was described by one writer as a fruitful region, with excellent meadows and rich arable land,* was the only district of Bavaria which made a favorable im- 1 Bestand des Pfalz-Bayerischen Churstaats vor der Revolution: QO. M. Einw. Bayern ta.dhiztm) Bayern ali the one che p 576 990,000 Db doberptale Oe ue ea ee Reel 130 175,000 CPN GNDUTe Toy Gaelen oe ce aimee eee ae 52 92,000 A Sulzback (eee eee ee eS es 26 43,000 784 1,300,000 RHBINDIRIS es ee pT Uk eel epi bee Rhee 150 400,000 TUalichiind (Bergen! ste sil). cia wee toe Oe ee 130 400,000 Pusamimen Nie. bios lew ten teres 1,064 2,100,000 ZW CADTUCK ETE hue eink holes baie ca labilb ea he aie 60 36,000 G. F. Kolb, Handbuch der vergleichenden Statistik, (1857), pp. 146-147. Cf. also A. C. Gaspari, Der Deputations-Recess, “ Vergleichungs- Tafel”; C. Cruttwell, The Universal Gazeteer or Geographical Diction- ary (London, 1798), art. “ Bavaria”; J. Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baiern, art. “ Baiern”; J. S. Putter, An Historical Development of the Present Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, (trans. by J. Rumford, London, 1790), vol. iii, appendix. 2 J. Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Batern.” 3 Tbid., art. “ Oberpfalz.” * 1 bid. art.” Batern.”’ 23 | POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 23 pression on observers. Johann Kaspar Riesbeck, who reached a number of very unfavorable conclusions about Bavaria, thought it more than probable that barely one-half of the country was cultivated as it ought to have been.* His judgment, however, was likely due to his first impres- sions of the country. The road from Augsburg to Munich, by which he entered Bavaria, passed through a very deso- late, uncultivated region.” The people lived in cities, market towns and villages, sur- rounded by the three fields inherited from medieval times, and on detached farms. Few of the many cities and towns with which Bavaria was usually credited by writers of that time were of any size. Riesbeck found no town of any im- portance in all Bavaria, except the capital. “ You would never imagine,” he said, “‘what pitiful little holes Landsberg, Wasserburg, Landshut and many other places, which make a great figure on the map, are. To all appearances neither Ingoldstadt, nor Straubingen, nor any of the greater towns, except Munich, contain above four thousand souls.” * Con- temporary statistics give a little more favorable picture. Munich was credited with a population of thirty-seven thou- sand persons,* Straubing with seven thousand five hundred and thirty-one,” Neuburg with six thousand,° Burghausen with four thousand,’ and Sulzbach with three thousand.*® 1“Upon the whole it is more than probable that hardly one half of the country is cultivated as it ought to be.’ J. K. Riesbeck, Travels Through Germany, vol. i, ch. ix, p. 96, (Maty’s trans., London, 1787). 2“ A great part of the country which you see on this road is entirely uncultivated.” Jbid., vol. i, ch. viii, p. 62. 3 Tbid., ch, ix, pp. 93-94. *J. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, i, 34. 5 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Straubingen.” 6 [bid., art. “ Neuburg.” 7 Tbid., art. “ Burghausen.” 8 Tbid., art. “ Sulzbach.” 24 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [24 Aibling probably furnishes a fair example of a Bavarian market town. In 1800 it had a population of one thousand and fourteen persons living in two hundred houses. In this population of one thousand persons were seven members of the clergy, thirty-one officials of the Landgericht and the town, nine metal workers, seven leather and skin workers, five glass workers, nine workers in linen, twelve workers in wool and silk, forty-two day laborers and one hundred and thirty persons employed as innkeepers, cooks and in other trades coming under the special supervision of the police.’ A good many things indicate the existence of a great deal of poverty and idleness in the country. Riesbeck reported no vestige of industry in either town or country, and brew- ers, bakers and innkeepers as the only rich tradesmen.* According to the report of another writer there was a great number of very poor people in the Upper Palatinate who had almost nothing to eat during a great part of the year save potatoes.* Actual beggars, too, seem to have been extremely numerous. Munich was reported to have one thousand two hundred and seventy-five—one for every twenty-nine persons... The Upper Palatinate was credited with two thousand two hundred and thirty-four actual beg- gars,” and two of the four districts known as RKentamter, into which Upper and Lower Bavaria were divided, were supposed to have six thousand seven hundred and forty- three.* The situation, however, is more strikingly shown 1 Churpfalzbaierisches Regierungsblatt, 8 Feb., 1804, pp. 121-122. The title of the official publication of the Bavarian government varied from year to year. It will be cited hereafter as the Regierungsbiatt. 2 Riesbeck, op. cit., ch. ix, p. 94. * Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Oberpfalz.” 4 Tbid., art. “ Miinchen.” 5 Jbid., art. “ Oberpfalz.” 6 Tbid., arts. “\Miinchen” and “ Landshut.” 25] POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 25 by an experiment made by a traveler through southern Bavaria than by statistics. Before starting on a twelve or fourteen-hour ride from Tolz to Wasserburg, by way of Miesbach, Aibling and Rott, he provided himself with two hundred and eighty-eight pfennig. He then gave one pfen- nig to each beggar who stopped him on the road. At the end of his journey he had only thirty-seven pfennig left.’ To frighten the beggars, signboards were erected at the boundaries of the local districts, known as Pfeggerichte,- according to one writer, on which were placed pictures of the various arts of the executioner and the inscrip- tion, “Punishment of beggars, tramps and vagrants.” Those for whom they were intended were so little impressed by them, however, that they are reported to have been fre- quently found eating their noonday meal under the protect- ing shade of these signs.” Whatever foundation there may have been for this picturesque tale, it certainly portrays cor- rectly the boldness of the Bavarian beggars and the ineffect- iveness of the government in the latter part of the eighteenth century. | Criminals seem to have been as numerous in Bavaria in 1799 as beggars. Gallows stood thick on the roads and the number of executions seems to have been truly appalling. A Regierungsrath of Burghausen asserted publicly that be- tween 1748 and 1776 not less than eleven hundred persons were executed in his district, which had a population of only 1“ Auf einer Tagreise von 12 bis 14 Stunden von Tolz tiber Miesbach, Aibling, Rott nach Wasserburg wollte ich die Probe machen, wie viel ich wohl brauchen wiirde, um der Betteley zu geniigen. Ich liess mir zu diesem Ende in Tolz fiir einen Gulden, und zwolf Kreuzer, Pfennige (also 288 Stiicke) reichen. Von diesem Stimmchen bleiben mir, da ich in Wasserburg ankam .. . nur noch 37 Pfennige: und doch hatt’ ich keinem Bettler mehr als ein Stiick gereicht. Volle 251 Male ward ich also um eine Gabe gebethen, und um so an einem Tage um 1 fl, 2 kt. 3 pf. geprellt.” Regierungsblatt, 30 May, 1801, pp. 344-349. _ * Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 26 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT |26 about one hundred and seventy-five thousand.* The crim- inal code in force in Bavaria in 1799 contained a long list of crimes and a most barbarous array of punishments.” In no other German state, according to one writer, were so many men beheaded, hanged, burned and broken at the wheel as in Bavaria.* For a time, after one of the min- isters had read Beccaria while he was half asleep, as Ries- beck picturesquely puts it, the Bavarian government fol- lowed a somewhat milder policy.* The increase of robber bands, however, caused a reaction during the closing years of Charles Theodore’s reign toward the former severe penalties.” In education, likewise, Bavaria had made little progress by 1799. Such advance as had been made had been almost wholly the work of the preceding half-century. In the rural districts there were either no schoolmasters at all or miser- able wretches that could scarcely read and who were paid but fifty to one hundred florins yearly—poorer pay than was given to day laborers.* Maximilian III Joseph, who pre- 1“ Todesstrafen sind sehr haufig. Die Galgen stehen dicht an den Strassen. . . . Ein Regierungsrath von Burghausen hat in ein Offent- lichen Schrift versichert, dass in der einzigen Regierung von Burg- hausen, der kleinsten unter allen, von J. 1748 bis 1776 nicht weniger als 1100 Menschen durch die Henker hingerichtet worden seyen. Eine ungeheure Anzahl, da jener Fleck Landes etwa 174,057 Menschen ent- halt.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 1Codex Juris Bavarici Criminalibus de Anno M.DCC.LI. (Zweyte Auflag, Munchen, 1771). 3G. G. Bredow, Chronik des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, i, 411. * Riesbeck, op. cit., vol. i, ch. ix, p. 80. 5 Bredow, op. cit., i, 411. 6 “Die baierische deutsche Landschulen befinden sich imm Ganzen nicht imm besten Zustand; doch in einem weit bessern, als vor 50 Jah- ren... [man] trift .. . in einem ganzen Landgericht oft kaum 3 bis 4 planmassige Schulen, an ... Bis unter die Regierung Maximilian (III) Josephs steckte Baiern in vielen wissenschaftlichen Fachern in grosser Finsterniss. .. . Auf dem Lande waren entweder gar keine Schulmeis- 27] POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 27 ceded Charles Theodore on the throne of Bavaria, had made a considerable effort to advance the education and culture of his lands. Under his auspices an Academy of Sciences was founded at Munich in 1759,* which soon began to issue the first numbers of the series of historical, mathe- matical and philosophical contributions, which is still being added to. A Schuldirection, likewise, was established at Munich, in which Heinrich Braun was the leading spirit after 1755.° After the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 their property was devoted to the improvement of the schools. Maximilian III Joseph’s successor, however, very soon deprived the schools of their new endowment in order to found a Bavarian branch of the Order of Malta and turned the schools over to the monks.* At the close of Charles Theodore’s reign, in consequence, there were but eight hundred and fourteen schoolmasters in Upper and Lower Bavaria to nine hundred and sixty-eight parishes, ter, oder elende Wichte, die zur Noth schlecht genug lesen konnten; ... der Schulmeister ein jahrliches Einkommen von 50 bis 100 fl.,... hat, . . . und sie schlechter als Taglohner gehalten wurden.” Melchin- ger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” P 1Cf, “Stiftungsurkunde der churbaierischen Akademie der Wissen- schaften, 28 Marz, 1750,” in W. L. Westenrieder, Geschichte der baier- tsche Akademie der Wissenschaften, pp. 21-25. 2“ Fine Schuldirection oder ein Schulamt, das in Mutinchen seinen Sitz hat, fithrt die Aufsicht itber das ganze baierische Schulwesen, welches seit 1765 dem vor einigen Jahren verstorbenen Herrn Heinrich Braun ... ungemein vieles zu danken hat.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 3“ Von der Einfithrung der Malteser in Baiern, von dem Geschenke, das ihnen der izige Churfiirst mit den sammtlichen Exjesuitengutern gemacht hat, werden E. W. vermuthlich gehdrt haben, so wie auch davon, dass alle unsre Gymnasien und Lyceen (etliche Kanzeln zu Ingol- stadt, und in der hiesigen Akademie ausgenommen), an Klostergeist- liche, . . . iiberlassen worden sind.” Vide “ Westenrieder an Pfeffel in Versailles,’ 4 Nov., 1783, Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der koniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 16, iii, 140, (Mun- chen, 1883). 28 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [28 and frequently no paid schoolmaster was to be found in a whole group of villages.* | The scattered duchies and lordships that recognized the elector of Bavaria as ruler were not united and administered in 1799 by a strong central government. The Rhine Pala- tinate and the Duchy of Berg had separate governments of their own.” For the Upper Palatinate, Neuburg, Sulzbach, Upper and Lower Bavaria, and the little lordships in Swabia there was a ministry composed of a minister of finance; a special directing minister for the Upper Palatinate, Neu- burg and Sulzbach; a Grand Chancellor charged with such matters as justice, police and fiefs; a minister of foreign affairs; and two ministers without departments. Military affairs were in charge of a council of war, whose president worked directly with the elector. The ministers met once, sometimes twice, a week in a conference, at which the elector himself was almost always present. At this conference all the boons, favors and pensions were given, offices were con- ferred and greater questions were decided.* The incum- 1“ ?Man] trift ... oft in mehrern Doérfern keinen besoldeten Schul- meister an. Man kann dieses von selbst daraus schliessen, dass in dem eigentlichen Baiern 968 Pfarreyen und... nur 814 Schulmeister vor- handen sind.” Melchinger, op .cit., art. ‘ Baiern.” 2“Ti en étoit de méme du Palatinate du Rhin et du duché de Berg, ou il existoit pour la premiére de ces provinces une cour supréme des appels, une régence, une cour de justice séparées, un conseil présidial, ou siégeoient les chefs de trois colléges, exercoient dans la province les fonctions ministérielles. . . . Le duché de Berg depuis plus d’un siécle étoit administré par une régence, nommée conseil intime et présidée par un chancelier, une chambre des finances a elle. La justice s’y adminis- troit par une cour de justice, un tribunal des appels séparés.”’ ‘Mont- gelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. iT. 3... le ministere étoit composé d’un président de la chambre fai- sant les fonctions de ministre des finances pour la Baviére; d’un ministre dirigeant particulier pour le Haut-Palatinat, les duchés de Neuburg et de Sulzbach; d’un grand chancelier chargé des détails des affaires régi- 29 | POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS | 29 bents of these offices in the time of Charles Theodore seem to have been men of no great ability. Less than two months before Charles Theodore’s death Westenrieder secretly paid his respects to the group in office at that date. Zetwiss, the commander of the army, he described as an archblockhead, and Count Tattenbach, the chancellor, as an old idiot. All of the ministers in office at the time were foreigners, or at least natives of the elector’s outlying possessions.t Wes- tenrieder’s judgment was undoubtedly colored by his life- long prejudice against foreigners, but the ministers of Charles Theodore seem to have found small favor with any one. In addition to the ministers the equally important invis- ible government of women and priests should be mentioned. Riesbeck, writing of it early in Charles Theodore’s reign in Bavaria, asserted that “ he who could see things as they are, and would trace every intrigue back to its origin, would find the first movers of the machine in a monk’s cowl or a petticoat.” * Two members of this invisible government became notorious. The first in point of time was Father Frank, an ex-Jesuit, and the court preacher and confessor minales, ainsi que de la justice, de la police et des fiefs; il dirigeoit en méme tems la chancellerie intime. ... Un ministre des affaires étran- géres correspondoit avec les agens politiques a l’étranger. . . . Deux ministres d’Etat sans département fixe.” “Tous ces ministres se réunissoient une, quelque fois deux fois par semaine dans une conférence, a laquelle le souverain assistoit presque toujours lui-méme, et ott tous les dons, toutes les graces et pensions étoient données, les emplois conférés, les affaires majeures decidées.” “Un conseil de guerre dirigeoit le militaire. . . . Le président travail- loit directement avec l’électeur.” Jbid., p. 12. 1 Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der Koeniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 16, ii, “Aus dem handschriftlichen Nachlesse L. Westenrieders,” von A. Kluckhohn, i, “ Denkwirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher,” p. 60. Cited hereafter as Westenrieder, Denkwiirdig- keiten und Tagebiicher. * Riesbeck, op. cit., vol. i, ch. ix, p. 70. 30 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 30 of the elector. Stephan von Stengel, the cabinet secretary of Charles Theodore, left a very unflattering pen-picture of Frank in which he describes him as “the most stupid, or rather the sole blockhead among all the Jesuits that I ever knew . . . a scandal mongerer of the first class and a most unblushing liar.” * Father Lippert remained in power down to the end of Charles Theodore’s reign and made himself particularly notorious by his persecution of the clergy. Un- der date of 22 August, 1796, Westenrieder wrote an exceed- ingly unflattering description of Father Lippert entirely too long to print,’ and at the time of his dismissal Westenrieder wrote a ridiculous poem about him.* For the government of Upper and Lower Bavaria and the little lordships in Swabia there existed a number of colleges to supplement the work of the ministers. They included a superior council of government for boundaries, high police and all interior affairs except finance; a chamber of finance; a college of commerce which judged in the last resort cases of confiscation and gave advice on manufactures, customs, transportation and industry when asked for it, which ac- cording to Montgelas seldom happened; an ecclesiastical council to which was entrusted the rights over the clergy entrusted to the elector, the proposal to benefices, and the supervision of the administration of religious foundations; and a college of censorship which exercised the police of the book trade and the censorship of books printed, sold or sent into the country.* For the Upper Palatinate, Neuburg and Sulzbach there was a distinct regency and chamber of finance.” 1K. T. Heigel, Quellen und Abhandlungen zur neuern Geschichte Bayerns, (Neue Folge, Muenchen, 1890), iv, 334-335, “Neue Denk- wirdigkeiten vom Pfalzbayrischen Hofe unter Karl Theodore.” * Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 58. ® Ibid,’ p. 03. * Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaliung Bay- erns, Pp. 13. 5 Ibid. 31] POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS aa The organs of government through which the elector ruled his dominions and the limits of their jurisdiction had been determined largely by the accidents of inheritance in- stead of by careful planning. Bavaria, in consequence, had a costly and inefficient political machine that was the despair of reformers. Sulzbach, with an area of only twenty-six square miles and entirely surrounded by the Upper Pala- tinate, had a separate government until 1790.*. The situa- tion of the Nordgau, the eastern half of the divided duchy of Neuburg, was very similar. Although it was but four hours distant from Amberg, the capital of the Upper Pala- tinate, and had to the south of it Salern and Zeitlarn, two small districts of the Upper Palatinate, it had a separate government until after 1799.” Upper and Lower Bavaria were divided into administra- tive districts known as Rentdimter or Regierungen, which were subdivided into districts known as Pfleggerichte.* Ordinarily, however, the Pfleggerichte did not include the lands of monasteries and nobles or the cities.* Some of these Pfheggerichte were only a single square mile in area, while others were so long and broad that from ten to twelve and five to six hours were required to journey across them. The administrator of such a district was known as a Pfleger. He looked after the levying of taxes, justice and the policing of the district. He was required to be a graduated jurist, 1Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Sulzbach.” 2“ Tst es nicht sonderbar, das Nordgau (einen Theil des Herzogthums Neuburg) Neuburg unterzuordnen, das von der Pfalz fast durchaus umgeben, und zunachst kaum 4 Stunden vom Amberg entfernt ist? dann bey Regensburg zwischen Baiern und den Nordgau wieder zwey kleine Aemter (Salern und Zeitlarn) der obern Pfalz einverleibt zu sehen.” J. Aretin, Baiern nach den Frieden von Liineville, i, 14, et seq. 5 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 4 Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 13. 32 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 32 and he was assisted by a clerk of the court and three or four other clerks. The Pfleger were usually knights, poor noble- men or members of the burgher class. Their legal income was ordinarily one thousand to fifteen hundred gulden, but they are reported to have known many ways of increasing their revenues. Apparently they frequently bore the title and received the income of the office, while its duties were performed by commissioners who lived almost entirely from taxes. Twelve of these districts are reported to have been at one time in the hands of one knight. An appeal could be made from the Pfleggerichte to the Regierung and from the Regierung to the electoral Hofrath.* The monasteries and noblemen in their lands and the magistrates in the cities en- joyed approximately the same rights in matters of justice, police and direct taxes as the electoral Pfleger enjoyed. The exact extent of their jurisdiction, of course, was defined in the charters which they had received.” 1“Die Unterabtheilung des Landes besteht aus Eintheilung in die Gerichte, oder Land- und Pfleggerichte oder Pflegamter, die von ver- schiedenen Grosse sind. Manche haben nur eine Quadratmeile zu ihrem ganzem Umfang; andere aber haben Io bis 12 Stunden in die Lange, 5 bis 6 Stunden in die Breite. Der Vorgesetzte eines solchen Bezirkes heisst Pfleger... . Er verwaltet die Justiz, die Finanzen und die Polizey seines Bezirks, zu welchen Geschaften er noch einen Gericht- schreiber, und drey bis vier Schreiber in seiner Kanzley hat. Der Pfle- ger selbst muss ein graduirter Jurist seyn. . . . Einige dergleichen Pfleger sind auch Kavaliers, Barone aus nicht sehr vermoglichen Stand, ... Thre Einkiinfte mogen gewohnlich etwa zwischen I000 und 1500 Gulden seyn. Mancher weiss, seine Reventien auf tausenderley Arten, etwa auch durch strenge Eintreibung der Strafgelder noch zu ver- mehren, ... Zwolf dergleichen Pfleggerichte gehdren den Rittern des H. Georgs. .. . Von diesen Pfleggerichten kann man an die Regierung, worunter das Gericht gehort, und von der Regierung an den kurfuerst- lichen Hofrath appelliren.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 2“ Tes couvens et les seigneurs dans leurs terres, les magistrats dans les villes et leurs banlieues avec plus ou moins d’étendue suivant la teneur des chartes, jouissoient en matiere de justice, police et percep- tions directes des mémes droits de ressort que les baillages électoraux.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, D.°18. 33] POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 33 in 1799 Deputations that for some time had replaced the officials known as Rentmeister were supposed to inspect the different subordinate officials and to denounce the abuses which they found.’ Their usefulness, however, was almost destroyed by a system of expectancies which provided in advance a successor for each vacant position and prevented the government from exercising any choice in the selection of its subordinates.” The inevitable result of this system, as the government of Maximilian [V Joseph quickly learned by experience, was that the initial force of every move of the central government was largely or wholly dissipated in the loosely geared and antiquated parts of the administra- tive machine instead of being quickly and forcefully trans- mitted to the subjects of the state. 1 Montgelas, op. ctt., p. 14. 2 Ibid. CHAPTER III THE POSITION OF CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS In 1799 the Catholic religion was the dominant religion in Bavaria and the people had the reputation of being the most zealous Catholics in Europe.* In Upper and Lower Bavaria, the Upper Palatinate, Neuburg and the little lord- ships in Swabia, Catholics alone were authorized to hold public worship or to pursue an occupation.* The ex-Jesuit Cramer could with reason call Munich Rome and boast to Pius VI during the latter’s visit to Bavaria in 1782 that heretics had slipped into all parts of Germany, but never into Catholic Bavaria.® The dominant position of the Catholic religion in Bavaria is well illustrated by the provisions of the criminal code in force in Upper and Lower Bavaria and the Upper Pala- tinate. Apostates and renegades, who abandoned the Cath- olic religion to become heathen, Jews or Mohammedans 1C, Cruttwell, The New Universal Gazateer or Geographical Diction- ary, art. “ Bavaria.” 2“Lors de l’avénement de V. M. la religion catholique étoit exclu- sivement dominante dans les duchés de Baviére, de Neuburg, du Haut- Palatinat, les possessions de la maison palatine en Souabe. C’étoit la seule dont l’exercise public fit autorisé, dont les membres pussent exercer des emplois.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaliung Bayerns, p. 116. 8 “Der exjesuit Cramer nennt Miinchen das deutsche Rom. Bey der Ankunft Pabst Pius VI im J. 1782 in Miinchen rithmte eben dieser Jesuit dem heiligen Vater an, dass ‘in alle Theile Deutschlands Ketzer- eien eingeschlichten waren, aber nie das allezeit katholische Baiern.’ ”. Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 34 [34 Se 35 ] CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 35 were subject to the punishments of beheading and the con- fiscation of their property; * notorious heretics, who know- ingly cherished and upheld opinions contrary to the Catholic creed and maintained them after having received adequate instruction from the clergy, incurred the penalties of per- manent banishment or imprisonment until the heresy was acknowledged, given up and recanted; and in case the heret- ical doctrines were diligently spread, and others were seduced and set against the authorities, the seducer or agi- tator was to be executed by the sword and his body burned at the stake.* Such heretics and renegades, naturally, could not make legal testaments.* The stealing of a monstrance or pyX was punishable by burning, and in cases where the host itself was stolen or desecrated, by burning alive.* 1“ Abtriinnige oder Renegaten welche mit Verlassung des Christ- katholischen Glaubens den heydnischen, jtidischen, mahometanischen annehmen, werden ohne Unterschied, ob sie vorher schon einmal an- derer Religion gewest, oder nicht, mit dem Schwerdt und Confiscation der Giiter gestraft ...” Codex Juris Bavarici Criminalibus, de Anno M.DCC.LI. (Zweyte Auflag, Miinchen, 1771), p. i, c. 7, sec. 4. 2 “Offenbare notorische Kezer, welche denen christ-katholischen Glau- bensartikeln wiederige Meynungen wissentlich hegen, verfechten, und nach vorlaufig von der Geistlichkeit eingenommen genugsamen Unter- richt, den Irrthum nicht ablegen, sondern halsstarig behaupten; seynd entweder des Landes gegen geschworner Urfehd auf ewig zu verweisen, oder einzusperren, und mit geringer Kost so lang in Versahr zu halten, bis sie ihren Fehler erkannt, abgelegt, und wiederrufen haben. Werden aber die kezerischen Lehren mit Fleiss ausgesprengt, andere dadurch verfithrt, oder wohl gar gegen die Obrigkeit aufgebracht; so sollen dergleichen Verithrer oder Aufwiegler mit dem Schwert hingericht, und der todte Corper auf dem Scheiterhaufen verbrannt werden. . . .” Tid. 'p..1,, C7, Sec. 5. 3 Codex Maximilianeus Bavaricus Civilis, (Miinchen, 1759), p. 3, ¢. 3, sec. 3. *“Kirchendiebe, . . . werden mit Beodachtung folgenden Unter- schieds gestraft: I mo. Monstranzen- und Ciboriendiebstahl, worin die heilige Hostien zugleich mit entwendet, oder verunehret wird, mit lebendiger Verbrennung gestraft.” Codex Juris Bavarict Criminalibus, Gpaci p. 1, Cc. 2, sec. 17. 36 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 36 Speaking insultingly of God himself, his divine attributes or his saints — particularly of the Virgin Mary — or of the Catholic Creed, its articles and mysteries, the holy scrip- tures, divine worship, or of other things in the divine plan, incurred a penalty of arbitrary fine, imprisonment, public disgrace or heavier punishment for the first offence; ban- ishment and beating with rods for the second offence; and death by the sword for the third offence.* Sacrilege com- mitted by knowingly striking, kicking, throwing at, step- ping upon, defiling, spitting on or breaking, in scorn or de- rision, the likeness of God or his saints, or a priest perform- ing the divine service or administering the sacraments, in- curred the penalty of death by the sword, and desecration of the host incurred the penalty of burning alive at the stake.* ven so enlightened a ruler as Maximilian III Joseph '“Die Gotteslasterung, da man von Gott selbst, dessen gottlichen Eigenschaften oder seinen Heiligen, fiirnemlich der seligsten Jung- frauen Maria Mutter Gottes oder von dem christ-katholischen Glauben, dessen Artikeln und Geheimnissen, der heil. Schrift, dem wahren Gottesdienst, oder auch von anderen Dingen in Absicht auf Gott, schimpflich und verachtlich spricht, wird das erstemal wilkiirlich mit Geld- Gefangniss- offentlicher Schand- und nach Beschaffenheit der Lasterung, sonderbar, wenn sie mit gutem Bedacht, Ausgesonnenheit oder grosser Aergerniss veriibt worden, mit hoherer Straf, das zweyten- mal aber, wo die erste Correction nicht verfangen hat, mit ewiger Landsverweisung und dem Staubbesen; sofort das drittemal, wenn etwan der correctus die Landschuld erhalten hat, mit dem Schwerdt am Leben bestraft...” Codex Juris Bavarici Criminalibus, op. cit., p. 1, C7 BCU. 2“ Wer sich hingegen an denen Bildnissen Gottes, oder seiner Heili- gen, oder auch an einem Priester in Verrichtung des Gottesdienst und Administrirung der heil. Sacramenten aus Spott und Verachtung der- selben mit Schlagen, Stoffen, Werfen, Tretten, Besudeln, Anspeyen, Zerbrechen, und dergleichen Thatlichkeiten fiirsetzlich und wissentlich vergreift, wird gleich das ertemal mit dem Schwerdt, von dem Leben zum Tod hingerichtet. Hat sich aber jemand auf jetzt-verstandene Weis gar an heil. Hostie verlohren; wird er auf dem Scheiterhaufen lebendig verbrannt.” Jbid., p. i, c. 7, sec. 2. 37] CArHOLICS PROTESTANTS (AND VEWS 37 issued ordinances designed to maintain the Catholicity of his dominions unimpaired. A decree of 1753 asserted that many Jews and other inhabitants of the Lutheran and Cal- vanist sects were to be found in Munich contrary to the law of the land and the ordinances of the police, and provided that neither Jews nor other non-Catholics should be per- mitted in the future to make a long or permanent stay.* Under Maximilian Joseph’s successor the laws designed to maintain the supremacy of the Catholic religion in Bava- ria were enforced with great severity. Especially during the latter part of Charles Theodore’s reign his government was animated by a zeal for the ancient principles of the Catholic religion that put it in opposition to nearly every intellectual tendency of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury, silenced or drove out of the country scores of the elec- tor’s most enlightened subjects and permanently embittered hundreds of others.” Charles Theodore’s persecution of the Illuminati, which began in 1785 and continued unabated to the close of the 1“... Thre Churfurstl. Durchlaucht, unser gnadigster Herr wollen solchemnach gnadigst, das weder ein Jud, so nicht allhier nothwendig zu thun, und derowegen sonderbaren Pass erhalten, fernerhin mehr geduldet, noch auch einem Acatholico der langere, oder bestandige Aufenhalt gegen die gnadigste Mandata gestattet, und denen ersteren von ihren Domestiquen mehrer nicht zugelassen werden sollen, als was sie hdchst nothwendig gebrauchen. .. .£” “Verordnung: Juden u. Acatholici Sign. den 14 July 1753,” in Mayrische Generalien Samm- lung, v. J. 1788, vol. 4, pt. 2, no. 88, p. 775. 2“ Vers la fin de ce regne la cour devenue sombre et religieuse mit plus d’activité et de suite dans l’exécution des anciennes ordonnances sur l’uniformité du culte. ... La sévérité de l’administration contre les lumiéres ne leur permettant de les recueillir qu’a demi, il en résulta une instruction partielle et incompléte avec une envie d’attaquer tout ce qui avoit été fait, dont les conséquences facheuses se firent sentir, quand V. M.... tous les gens de mérite . . . eut appelés a son ser- vice.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, pp. 120-121. 38 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [38 reign, is particularly notorious. The first decree against the Illuminati, apparently, was the general ordinance of 22 June, 1784, which decreed the abolition of the lodges of Masons and Illuminati in Bavaria.* The next year a de- cree, dated 16 August, 1785, ordered the leaders of the lodges, in person, and the rank and file, in writing, to de- clare within eight days their complete withdrawal from the Iiluminati. They were to promise, in addition, that they would neither attend the secret meetings of the lodges, nor enlist others in them, nor contribute to them, nor join for- eign lodges. Those who trespassed further against the general ordinance or allowed the period of eight days to pass without making the ordered declaration were not only to be cashiered upon their discovery, but they were to be punished by heavy fines or other severe punishments. The informer, however, was to be rewarded and his name kept secret.” In this way there was introduced into Bavaria a system that left no man safe or secure while Charles Theo- dore lived. 1 Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1788, vol. 4, pt. 8, no. 162, p. 1485, et seq. 2“ Alle und jeder dieser Sekt noch anhangende Vorstande und Mit- glieder der Collegien langst inner 8 Tagen von der Zeit der in plena sessione beschehenen Publication schriftlich, und zwar die Vorstande unmittelbar bey der hochsten Stelle, die andern Mitglieder aber ent- weder ebenfalls alldort, oder bey ihren Vorstand sich angeben und manifestiren sollen, mit Erklarung, dass sie von dieser Seckt ganzlich abstehen, sohin weder ihre Winkel-Conventicula mehr besuchen, noch andere dazu verleiten und anwerben, oder dahin contribuiren, viel- weniger sich bey auswartigen Logen engagiren wollen und werden... .” “ . . Jene hingegen, welche das General Mandat weiter ubertretten, keine vollstandige Parition leisten, oder obigen Termin ohne verstand- ener Manifestation und Erklarung verstreichen lassen, und erst nach der Hand entdeckt wurden, sollen nicht nur ipso facto cassirt seyn, sondern auch mit ergiebiger Geld- oder anderer empfindlicher Strafe belegt, die Denunianten aber recompensirt, und in Geheim gehalten werden.” “Mandat: Freymaurer und Illuminaten,’ 2 Mar., 1785, in Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, vol. 4, pt. 8, no. 80, pp. 1006-1008. 39 | CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 39 Drexeln, who later became Professor of Greek at Lands- hut, was one of the victims of Charles Theodore’s policy and spent, in consequence, seventeen years in Italy away from his native land.’ Another victim was Schuhbauer, who afterward became a councillor in the Schuldirectorium erected by Maximilian 1V Joseph.” Another who suffered from the policy followed by Charles Theodore in regard to the Illuminati was von Schwerin, director of mines in Bava- ria toward the close of Charles Theodore’s reign, who lost his post and was banished from the country because he was suspected of Illuminism. He found refuge in Prussia, how- ever, where he soon became a Bergrath.* Young priests suspected of the least connection with the Illuminati were declared incapable of receiving parishes and were even thrown into prison for weeks, as was Gossner, who was condemned to four weeks’ imprisonment in the ecclesiastical house of correction by the ecclesiastical councillor Mayr.* Fischer, at one time a professor at Burghausen, and later a beneficiary and school director at Mindelheim, was suddenly seized in bed, taken away by force, mistreated and shut up 1“ Bin schonen Act der Gerechtigkeit hat unsere preisswiirdige Regi- erung dadurch ausgetibt, dass sie Drexeln, ein Opfer der grausamen Illuminatenverfolgung, der atts seinem Vaterland betrieben, 17 Jahre in Italien lebte, feierlich zuriickberufen. .. .” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, i, 220. 2 .. Auch Schuhbauer einst mit Milbiller in Passau und vorher ue Dida Daveeks 3“ Bin Hr. v. Schwerin war vor ungefahr 8 Jahren Bergverwalter in Bayern .. . er wird des Illuminatismus angeklagt, er verliert als “dessen verdachtig’ sein Amt, und wird aus dem Lande verwiesen. Im Preus- sen, wo er noch Verwandte hat ... wird [er] Bergrath....” Ibid., ili, 368. 4“ Manner, welche die Inquisition bisher am meisten verfolgt, ja, zu jeder Pfarrey unfahig erklart hatte, erhalten nun die besten Pfarreyen. So bekam kurzlich die unter 9 Pfarreyen ein Hr. Gossner, den der Inquisitor (der Geistl. Rath und Fiskal Mayr) im vorigen Jahre sogar auf 4 Wochen ins geistliche Zuchthaus condemnirt hatte... .” Jbid., Pp. 370. in Bayern verfolgt, ist zuruckberufen. . . 40 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 40 in a tower at Munich, and after a long imprisonment ban- ished from Bavaria. His difficulties were the result of just such a secret accusation as the law of 16 August, 1785, en- couraged. His accuser was a certain Atterer, who received an important parish and the title of ecclesiastical councillor.* Another victim of the persecution was Luerner, who lost both his parish and deanship and underwent several weeks’ imprisonment because he was “ seriously suspected” al- though “ indeed not convicted of Illuminism.” * In spite of the steady persecution of suspects, the repeated renewal of the decrees against the order and the sharpening of penal- ties, the efforts of the government to stamp out the Illumi- nati, according to its own confession, met with no great success.* While Father Frank and Father Lippert were distin- guishing themselves by their persecution of the Illuminati, the College for the Censorship of Books was endeavoring to prevent both the publication of suspected books and their introduction from abroad. Under the leadership of Schnei- der, who became particularly odious through his work as 1“ Fin Hr. Ficher, vorhin Professor zu Burghaussen, dann Beneficiat und Schuldirektor zu Mindelheim, wird vor ungefahr 10 Jahren plotz- lich aus dem Bette geholt, gewaltsam weggefiihrt, misshandelt, und in einen Thurm zu Miinchen gesperrt. Die Bosheit hatte ihm dem Fir- sten als Illuminaten und Lasterer seiner Majestat angeben. . . . Der verdiente Man wird nach langem, driickenden Arreste formlich aus seinem Vaterlande verwiesen, und sein verziiglichster Angeber, ein gewisser Atterer, erhalt eine sehr eintragl. Pfarrey nebst dem Char- acter eines Churf. Geist]. Rath.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, iti, 371-372. 2“ De Illuminatismo non convictus quidem, graviter suspectus, wie die Worte in der Verdammungs-sentenz lauten, verlor der treffliche Mann [Lirner] durch Lippert und Roéssle . .. Dechant und Pfarrey.” Jbid., PP. 373-374. 3 Cf. Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1788, vol. 4, pt. 8, no. ¥32, p. 1044. “Straf des Illuminatismus,’ 16 Aug., 1787; ibid., v. J. 1797, vol. 5, pt. 6, no. 66. “Von denen Illuminaten und dergleichen Sekten.” 15 Nov., 1790. 41 | CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS AI censor, the board put under its ban such books as the works of Wieland and Frederick the Great and the dramas of Les- sing." “ You can have no comprehension,” wrote Westen- rieder in December, 1796, to Wolf in Berlin, “ of our liter- ary situation and our constitution. Already a suspicion that I am having something printed abroad, and hence having something printed which the completely crazy censor here has not seen, will take away from me all desire to write any- thing, and who knows what will happen to me that will press me down. You may get some idea of the greatness of our misery from the fact that not a soul has the courage to complain about it; everyone is silent, and whoever has a head, his head sinks with his heart. . . . If you answer me, seal the letter carefully and address it plainly to Electoral Secret Councillor Westenrieder in legible Latin letters. If you could give me an address to which I could direct letters to you by means of an envelope addressed to a friend of yours, it would please me greatly.” * Restricted in 1“Ten 26 Marz war ich in Btichercensurcollegie. Da war gemeldet, dass Wieland, item die Werke des Ko6nigs von Preussen verboten worden seyen. . . . Nun heiss es, Lessings Schauspiele sollten ein- geschickt werden.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, Pp. 53. 2“ Sie konnen sich unmoglich einen Begriff von unsern gegenwartigen literarischen Zustand, und von unsrer Verfassung machen. Schon ein Verdacht, dass ich imm Ausland etwas drucken lasse, was die hiesige ganz und gar narrische Censur nicht gesehen hat, wurde mir auf immer alle Lust, etwas zu schreiben, benehmen, und wer weiss, was wiirde mir geschehen, das mich niederdruckten wiirde. Sie mdgen sich einige Vorstellung von der Grdsse unsres Kummers dadurch machen, dass nicht eine Seele den Muth hat, sich dartiber offentlich zu beklagen, Alles schweigt, und wer ein Kopf hat, dem sinkt der Kopf nach dem Herzen. .. . Wenn Sie mir antworten, so schliessen Sie ja den Brief sorgfaltig, und lassen Sie durch eine lesbare Hand mit lateinischen Lettern die Addresse schreiben an den Churf. g. Rath W. Wenn Sie mir eine Addresse geben k6énnten, dass ich Briefe an Sie mittels eines Umschlags an einen Ihrer Freunde in Leipzig addressiren dtirfte, so ware es mir sehr lieb.” Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der kéniglich Bayer- ischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. 16, pt. iii, (Miinchen, 1883), DP. 151, ef seq. 42 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [42 thought and work by the censor and likely to be accused on very slight grounds by the informer, “ men did not begin to breathe freely ” until death removed Charles Theodore from the land he had so long oppressed. The exceptions to this general religious uniformity were a comparatively small number of Jews and a considerably larger number of Protestants. The Protestants were to be found in the Duchy of Sulzbach and the lordships of Or- tenburg, Pyrbaum and Sulzburg. In the Duchy of Sulzbach there were twice as many Lutheran parishes as Catholic.* The relations of the two religious parties in the duchy had been determined by a declaration made in 1652.* The two small lordships of Pyrbaum and Sulzburg were situated in the Upper Palatinate near the border of Ansbach. Pyrbaum was estimated to have an area of three-fourths of a square mile and a population of one thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven persons; and Sulzburg was supposed to have an area of one square mile and a population of two thou- sand seven hundred and eighty-eight persons.* The Counts of Wolfstein, who had been lords of Pyrbaum and Sulz- burg from 1347 to 1740, had declared themselves Protes- tants at the beginning of the Reformation. When the line of the Counts of Wolfstein died out in 1740, the Protestant population of the small lordships fell into the hands of the elector of Bavaria. According to the explanation of Mont- gelas, the breaking out of the war of the Austrian Succes- sion soon after the acquisition of Pyrbaum and Sulzburg by Bavaria, the personal enlightenment of Maximilian III 1J. S. Putter, An Historical Development of the Present Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, vol. iii, appendix, p. 25. 2“Une déclaration de 1653 fixa l’état du duché de Sulzbach.” Mont- gelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 116. 3J. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, i, 41. 43 | CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 43 Joseph, and the spirit of the century all combined to prevent the ruler of even the most Catholic country of Europe from attempting a forcible conversion of his new subjects. In consequence, the greater part of the population of the two little seignories still held in 1799 the Protestant faith trans- mitted to them by their forefathers. The free practice of the Catholic religion, however, was permitted in both the lordships, and after 1758 there had been a Catholic church in Pyrbaum.* In 1799 the Lutheran lordship of Ortenburg was still counted as an independent state of the Empire. The four villages composing it were situated near Vilshofen in Lower Bavaria and were entirely surrounded by the lands of the Bavarian elector.*® The number of Jews living in Bavaria in 1799 was ap- parently small. For nearly two hundred years after 1555 the Jews had been excluded from Bavaria, but during the War of the Spanish Succession they had succeeded in estab- lishing themselves in the country again.* In 1796 Munich was reported to have fifty-six Jewish inhabitants grouped into twenty-one families.” They seem likewise to have been 1“Le comte de Wolfstein faisoit la seule exception a cette régle générale. Les possesseurs s’étoient déclarés pour la réforme dés son origine. C’est dans cet état qu’il avoit passé a la Baviére en 1740; la guerre de la succession d’Autriche qui s’alluma bientdt aprés, les lumiéres personelles de Maximilien III, le siécle déja trop avancé a cette €poque ne permirent pas qu’on y fit des changemens. Les sujets de cette petite seigneurie étoient restés paisiblement dans la croyance que leur avoient transmise leurs ancétres.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 116. 2“Die Einwohner sind evangelisch; doch haben auch, seit der Herr- schaft unter baiernscher Landeshoheit stehet, die Katholiken freye Religionstibung, und seit 1758 ist hier eine katholische Kirche.” Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baiern, arts. “ Pirnbaum, Piirnbaum, Pirnbaum”; and “ Sulzburg.” ®Ibid., art. “Ortenburg.” * The Jewish Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” 5 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Munchen.” 44 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 44 fairly numerous at Straubingen* and in the Upper Pala- tinate.* According to the supplement of the Bavarian Civil Code, Jews had received electoral permission to settle in the Upper Palatinate only at Snaittach, but they had crept in surreptitiously elsewhere.* In 1796 the total number living in the Upper Palatinate was estimated at eight hundred and thirteen.* A protest made by the Jews of Pyrbaum and Sulzburg in 1756 because of their exclusion from trans- actions in real estate at Neumarkt indicates their presence likewise 1n those two small lordships.° There are some indications that the number of Jews had been increasing at Munich, at least during the closing years of the eighteenth century. Westenrieder, whose investigations in the geog- raphy and statistics of Bavaria form the basis for all esti- mates of Bavarian population at this period, complained in 1795 of the “ Jews without number” in Munich, and seems to imply that they were one element of the “terrible mass of useless people ” which had grown up in the country after 1779." In 1799 the possession of a special electoral concession * 1 Melchinger, of. cit., art. “‘Straubingen.” 4Tbtd., art. “ Oberpfalz.” “Tn der obern Pfalz ist nur ein einziger Ort, namlich zu Schnaittach, Pflegamts Rottenberg, allwo die Judenschaft fiir bestandig tolerirt und ansassig ist...demohngeachtet find die Judenschaft hier und dort allerhand Wege, sich einzuschleichen...” Anmerkungen iiber den Codicem Maximilianeum Civilem, pt. v (Miinchen, 1844, Neue unveran- derte Auflage), c. 20, sec. 3, p. 585. * Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Oberpfalz.” 5 Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vi, 113, “ Mandat: die Beschwerde der Judenschaft zu Sulzburg wegen des ihr nicht gestattet werden wollenden Ankaufs liegender Griinde in der Schul- theisserei Neumarkt.” ® Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 57. 7A facsimile of such a “ Special-Concession” is given in the Jewish Encyclopedia, art. “ Germany.” 45] CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 45 was the basis for a legal residence in Bavaria. This con- cession, however, gave them protection only and not citizen- ship or the right of holding office. The restrictions under which the Bavarian Jews lived in 1799 were severe, but no worse than those which the Jewish race encountered else- where in Western Europe. The law expected them to live quietly, peacefully and without giving offence; to mark themselves by a distinctive dress; and to practice neither de- ception, nor usury, nor the sacrilege, profanation or defa- mation of the Catholic religion. In the Passion Week and on Easter they were required not only to keep indoors, but to close their windows and doors. They were never to seduce a Catholic from his religion or to hinder the conver- sion of a Jew after he had reached the age of discretion. They were forbidden to hire themselves out as domestics of Christians or to hire Christians as domestics or wet-nurses. They were subject to a protection tax, a poll tax, the quar- tering of troops in their houses, but not in their synagogues, and all the burdens borne by other inhabitants of the state. The amount of freedom which they enjoyed in matters of conscience and worship depended on the origin and wording of their tolerance patents or concessions.’ Jews could not 1“ .. kein Jude [darf] ohne Churfiirstl. Special-Concession in den Churlanden mehr aufhalten, die durchreisenden aber mitissen bei der ersten Mautstation einen Geleitsbrief nehmen, ausser dem Sabbath nirgend zweimal ubernachten, dem nachsten Weg nach durch das Land ziehen, und sich hierunter dem Geleitsbriefe durchaus gemass beziehen ... Die Conditiones und Cautelae, worunter man sie zu recipiren pflegt, sind gemeiniglich diese, dass sie friedlich, ruhig und ohne Aergerniss leben, sich durch besondere Kleidung distinguiren und erkenntlich machen, keine gestohlenen Sachen an sich bringen, Betrug, Wucher und Gotteslasterungen oder Schandungen und Schmahungen gegen unsere Religion nicht ausiiben, in der Charwoche und an Ostertage nicht nur in publico nicht erscheinen, sondern auch Thtire und Fenster verschliessen, sich weder bei Christen als Dienstboten und Ehehalten verdingen, noch diese zu dergleichen diensten annehmen, christliche Saugamen nicht gebrauchen, ihre Kinder, welche post annos discretionis convertiren 46 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [46 accuse Catholic Christians in a criminal court,’ or testify against them; * and in case a contract between a Jew and a Christian was to be discharged, the transaction had to take place in the presence of the Christian’s magistrate or of the magistrate of the locality, when the assignment took place at a public market.* In so far as they were not subject to special laws, the Jews of Bavaria were subject to the same laws as other inhabitants of the state.* wollen, oder andere dahin Inclinirende keineswegs davon abhalten, viel weniger einen Christenmenschen verfithren, und zu ihrer Religion bereden sollen... Mittels der Reception und Toleranz erlangen sie zwar das Burgerrecht eben nicht, wohl aber den Schutz... und haben dagegen nicht nur das Schutzgeld zu verreichen, sondern auch alle Onera wie andere Unterthanen und Schutzverwandte, abzutragen... Der Einquar- tirung sind nur ihre Synagogen, nicht aber andere Judenhauser befreit. In Kirchen- und Ehesachen, wie auch in andern unter sich obschwebenden Handeln halten sich die Juden an das mosaische Gesetz . . . Ob und wie weit man ihnen in loco receptionis die Gewissensfreiheit, und den Offentlichen oder heimlichen Gottesdienst zu gestatten habe, hangt zwar meistenfalls von dem Herkommen oder dem Inhalte ihre Concessionem, oder Toleranz-Patent ab.” Anmer- kungen iiber den codicem Maximilianeum Bavaricum civilem (Neue unveradnderte Auflage, Miinchen, 1844), pt. v, c. 20, sec. 3, p. 585, et seq. 1“ Rs werden aber hievon peinlichen Anklage alle jene ausgesch- lossen: ...2do. Juden... gegen katholische Christen.” Codex Juris Bavarici Criminalibus, p. 2, c. 2, sec. 2. OT DEA (Duley Cs oy See: £“Vermog Churfitirstlichen Decrets von Anno 1751 wie auch voriger Lands-Ordnung und Freyheit Juden und Christen tiberhaupt kein Contract oder Handlung, sie mag Namen haben, wie sie wolle, aus- genommen, soviel die mit Churftirstlichen Passen und Toleranzen ver- sehene Juden, oder ausser Land getroffene Handlung betrifft, doch soll auch ... der Reichs-Abschied von Anno 1551 Sect. 79 beobdachtet, mithin selbe allezeit vor des contrahirenden Christens Obrigheit, oder wenn die Verschreibung auf offenen freyen Markten geschiehet, vor der Obrigkeit selbigen Orts sub Poena Nullitatis entrichtet werden, welches sich jedoch hier zu Land nur von unsiegelmassigen Personen versteht...” Codex Maximilianeus Bavaricus Civilis, p. 4, c. I, sec. 14. “Tn allen tbrigen aber beurtheilt man sie regulariter nach dem namlichen Rechte, wie andere Reichs- und Landesunterthanen oder 47 | CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 47 Most of the decrees dealing with the Jews issued by the Bavarian government in the years preceding 1799 reveal its intention to prevent any increase of the Jews in numbers. They dealt immediately, however, with Jewish trade, travel and transactions in real estate. The customs ordinance drawn up for the Upper Palatinate in 1769 forbade the peddling of merchandise by native or foreign Jews under pain of confiscation of the goods, and provided that only Jews having electoral patents should be admitted to the public markets.* An ordinance of 17& provided that for- eign Jews who had not been accepted as electoral managers or as protected foreigners, or furnished a special electoral permit which gave them admission to the yearly fairs of Bavaria, were to be rejected at the first custom house. The goods of Jews passing through Bavaria were to be sealed and their owners warned not to break the seal in an attempt to carry on a secret trade, until the last Bavarian custom house had been reached. According to the ordinance itself, the ordinance was issued because at fair times, particularly, a mass of foreign and, for the most part, impecunious Jews slipped into the country, and with their insignificant wares attempted to deceive the public, and most seriously injured the legitimate traders that were provided with good wares, by reason of the fact that on account of the poorer quality of their goods they were able to dispose of them at a cheaper Einwohner, soweit keine besondere Ausnahme mit ihnen gemacht ist...” Anmerkungen tiber den Codicem Maximilianeus Bavaricus civilis, pt. v, c. 20, sec. 3, p. 587. 1“Wir wollen demnach, dass nicht minder sowohl Unseren eingeses- senen als denen auswartigen Juden das Hausiren mit Kaufmannswaaren wie diese, obgemelt und benannt sind, bei Straf der Confiscation ver- bothen, und wenn sie nicht mit einem, wie obstehet, ingrossirten Patent versehen, auch die 6ffentliche Markte mit Kaufmannswaaren zu bauen nicht zugelassen sein sollen.” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Ver- ordnungen, vi, 90, “Oberpfalzisches Mauth- und Accis Mandat de Anno 1769,” 9 Oct., 1769. 48 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [48 price and to take in exchange for them all sorts of things.’ In 1791 the ordinance of 1781 was renewed because of the mass of begging and other undesirable classes of Jews that were creeping into the country unprovided with an elec- toral pass, in defiance of the ordinance of 1781, purchasing melted-down silver and stolen articles, and carrying on a false money exchange.* The prohibition of 1781 was again renewed in 1795.° An explanatory ordinance of 1795, however, excepted Jews possessing an officially attested good reputation and provided with adequate property.* Jews entering Bavaria were required to take a letter of safe 1“ Seiner Churfurstl. Durchlaucht zu Pfalzbaiern...ist missfalligst zu vernehmen gestanden, dass sich in Hochstdero diesseitigen Landen, be- sonders zu Marktszeiten, eine Menge fremder und meistentheils unbe- mittelter Juden einschleichen, und mit ihren geringhaltigen Waaren nicht nur das Publikum zu hintergehen trachten, sondern auch den berechtigten, mit guten Waaren versehenen Handelstand empfindlichst beschadigen, indem diese Juden ihre Waaren wegen der schlechten Qualitat theils wohlfeiler zugeben, theils allerlei Sachen dagegen einzuhandeln pflegen, mithin desto leichtern Absatz finden, und foglich das Publikum um so sicherer benachtheiligen konnen...so verordnen Hochstdieselben anmit gnadigst, dass ktinftighin keinen fremden Juden, die nicht als Hof- factors oder diesslandische Schutzverwandte aufgenommen, oder mit keinem besondern Churfiirstl. Pass von der Churfiirstl. hochsten Stelle selbst versehen sind, der Eintritt in hiesige Lande zu Besuchung der Jahrmarkte gestattet, sondern selbe jedesmal bei der ersten Granzsta- tion sogleich zuriickwiesen, den Transitirenden aber die bei sich fuhrenden Waaren behorig obsignirt, und dabei bedeutet werden solle, bei wirklicher Confiscations—so andern empfindlichen Leibesstrafen bis zur lezten Station die Obsignation nicht zu erbrechen, noch minder einen heimlichen Verkehr ihrer Waaren zu versuchen.” Do6llinger, op. cit. vi, 245-246, ‘Mandat: von der einschleichenden Judenschaft und ihren Handel,” 3 Dec., 1781. 1Tbid., vi, 246, ‘“Mandat: Juden, fremde, wie zu behandeln,” 2 Dec, 1791. 2 Ibid., vi, 246-247, “ Mandat: die Behandlung der fremden Juden an den Granzen btr.,” 18 Dec., 1795. ° Tbid., vi, 247, ‘‘ Mandat: die Behandlung der fremden Juden an den Granzen btr.,” 31 Dec., 1795. 49] CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS AND JEWS 49 conduct from the first custom house and were then to pro- ceed through the country by the most direct route. They were forbidden, in addition, to stay two nights at any point, except on the Sabbath.* Decrees issued in 1786 and 1787 finally forbade the purchase of real estate by Jews in the Upper Palatinate and Sulzbach.’ But two decrees issued by the Bavarian government be- fore 1799 can be described as for rather than against the Jews. A decree of 1787 ordered that the person or persons who insulted Jews by word or act were to be handled as criminal disturbers of the public peace and security and were to be punished, in proportion to the circumstances of the case, with bodily punishment, imprisonment, or even sharper punishment.* An ordinance of 1792 finally pro- vided that Jews were to be permitted to bury their dead as hitherto in accordance with their custom, on condition that in each case a death certificate from an experienced physi- cian or surgeon was presented to the authorities.* 1 Anmerkungen tiber den codicem Maximilianeum Bavaricum civilem, pt. v, c. 20, sec. 3, p. 585, et seq. 2Dollinger, of. cit., vi, 112, “ Mandat: die Judenkaufe betr.,’ 24 July, 1786: and ibid., vi, 114, ‘““Mandat: den Guterhandel der Juden btr.,” 7 Sept., 1787. 3 Tbid., vi, 233, “ Mandat: Insultirung der Juden btr.,” 17 Aug., 1787. 4 Tbid., vi, 112, “Mandat: die Beerdigung der Juden btr.,’ 20 Oct., 1792. CHAPTERAIV, THE BAVARIAN CLERGY At the time of Maximilian [TV Joseph’s accession Bava- ria lay in the dioceses of Sulzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Freising, Augsburg, Eichstaedt, Bamberg, Chiemsee and Constance.* None of these dioceses, however, lay wholly in Bavaria,” and the number of Bavarian parishes which they contained varied greatly. The bishopric of Con- stance included but two,* and the bishopric of Chiemsee but three Bavarian parishes.” In contrast to these the diocese of Augsburg included one hundred and eighty-two,° and the diocese of Regensburg three hundred and ninety-five Bavarian parishes.’ The bishops maintained some officials in the principal cities of their dioceses, but their tribunals and the seminaries for the training of candidates for the priesthood were situated at their places of residence. The dioceses were divided into the districts known as rural deaneries, which were subdivided into parishes.® 1J. Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baiern, art. “ Baiern.” 2“Tes Etats bavaro-palatine n’avoient aucum évéque qui dépendit du souverain.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staats- verwaltung Bayerns, p. 117. 3 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” * Tbid. 5 Tbid. 6 [bid. " Ibid. &“TLes diocéses étoient divisés en doyennés ruraux. Les évéques en- tretenoient a la vérité des officiaux dans quelques villes principales, mais le fond des affaires se traitoit dans leur résidence. ‘C’est la quils exercoient leur juridiction par leurs tribunaux ecclésiastiques, et que leurs séminaires étoient établis.” Monteglas, op. cit., p. 117. 50 [50 51] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY SI According to contemporary statistics, Upper and Lower Bavaria alone contained about nine hundred parishes, and Upper and Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate and the lordships in Swabia a total of about twelve hundred parishes.* After centuries of haphazard growth the par- ishes of Bavaria were often inconveniently arranged and varied greatly in size, population and income. There were parishes like those of Ludenhausen * and Oberamphenbach,* which contained as few as one hundred and sixty-one and two hundred and two souls, and parishes like Neumarkt, which contained three thousand three hundred and fifty-two or more persons.* The Bavarian parishes were likely to have a number of chapels and from one to four churches besides the main church of the parish. In Upper and Lower Bava- ria alone there were reported to be one thousand nine hun- dred and four such churches and five hundred and forty- eight chapels in 1796.° A few examples taken at random from the notices of parish vacancies published from time to time in the Regierungsblatt illustrate this point. The parish of Reute which had a population of three hundred and fifty-two persons had two chapels.° The parish of Frauen- steten with a population of four hundred souls had four churches in addition to the main parish church.’ The parish of Steinhoring with a population of nine hundred and six- teen persons living in thirty-four hamlets had three such subordinate churches.* Many of the parishes are reported 1 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” * Regierungsblatt, 30 Aug., 1800, p. 1385. 3 Ibid., 9 Sept., 1800, pp. 1421-1422. ‘ Tbid., 13 Jun., 1810, pp. 460-461. 5 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” © Regierungsblatt, 10 Jun., 1809, pp. 883-884. 'Tbid., 8 Apr., 1809, pp. 638-639. ®Tbid., 1 Apr., 1809, pp. 587-588. 52 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [52 to have been so poorly arranged that frequently persons living in one parish had to pass through the limits of another parish and journey two or three hours to reach the main church of their own parish.* The parishes were usually looked after by the secular clergy, but many of the parishes had come into the posses- sion of the monasteries and were cared for by monks. Both the secular and the regular clergy formed a larger propor- tion of the population of Bavaria in 1799 than they do at present. In 1796 the Upper Palatinate was reported to have one hundred and fifty parish priests, one hundred and twenty cooperating or assistant parish priests and seventy- five beneficiaries.” Upper and Lower Bavaria were esti- mated at the same date to have three thousand one hundred and seventy-nine members of the secular clergy employed in the parishes, benefices and curacies of the two duchies.* If the one hundred and five parishes which Neuburg and Sulz- bach * were reported to have were as well supplied as the other parishes of Bavaria, the number of the parochial clergy in Bavaria in 1791 must have been over thirty-seven hun- dred. The income of the parish priests varied greatly and in most cases was only partly paid in cash. The parish of 1“Tyenn nirgends hat wohl der Zufall bei dem Entstehen der Pfarreien so blind oder so eigensinnig gewaltet, als in Baiern: da giebt es machtig grosse Pfarreien, oder solche, wo der Besitzer in reichen Uberflusse lebt, indess wohl auch ein anderer sich karzlich durch- bringst; und, was besonders emport, es giebt (nicht wenige) Filialorte, deren Bewohner durch den Bezirk fremder Pfarreien in ihre Mutter- kirche wandern miissen, und die wohl 2 bis 3 Stunden davon entfernt sind!” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1804, iii, 264-265. * Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Oberpfalz.” 3 [bid., art. ~ Barern.” J. S. Putter, 4n Historical Development of the Present Constitution of the Germanic Empire, vol. iii, appendix, p. 25. 53] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY 53 Elpersroth, with a population of four hundred persons, was estimated to yield its parish priest an income equivalent to six hundred florins. Only ten florins, however, of the en- tire sum was paid in cash. The one hundred and twelve Seidleim of grain and oats which the parish priest received and the yield of the glebe land were reckoned as equivalent to the remaining five hundred and ninety florins.t The parish priest at Reute received from the three hundred and fifty-two inhabitants of that parish an income estimated to be the equivalent of three hundred and twenty florins and fifty-eight kreuzers. The actual income consisted of a defi- nite salary of one hundred and fifty-six florins and forty- one kreuzers, the yield from the glebe land and fees amount- ing to fifty-four florins and one kreuzer.* The income of the parish priests, however, frequently ran much higher than the incomes paid by the parishes of Elpersroth and Reute. The parish priest at Wending received two thou- sand five hundred and sixty-four guldens from a parish of two thousand one hundred and forty inhabitants; * and the parish priest at Neumarkt received an income of one thou- sand six hundred florins from a parish containing a popu- lation of three thousand five hundred and fifty-two persons.* The parish priests in most cases must have had a rectory, although usually no mention of a dwelling was made in the notices concerning vacant parishes which were inserted by 1“ Bekanntmachung: Pfarrei Elpersroth...400 Seelen...ihre Ein- kiinfte bestehen in 10 fl. fixer Geldeinahme, 16 Seidlein Kern, 32 Seid- lein Korn, 64 Seidlein Hafer und den Reveniien aus den zur Pfarrei gehorigen Grundstiicken, und berechnet sich der ganze Ertrag unge- fahr auf 600 fl.” Regierungsblatt, 8 Apr., 1800, p. 637, et seq. 2“ Pfarrei Reute...352 Seelen...tragt an Widdums-Einkinft 88 f1, an Zehenten 22 fl. 16 kr., an bestimmten Kompetenz 156 fl. 41 kr., an Stoll- und Jahrtags-Gebiihren 54 fl. 1 kr., zusammen also 320 fl. 58 kr....” Tbid., 10 Jun., 1809, pp. 883-884. 3 [bid., 17 Jun., 1809, pp. 944-945. 4 Tbid., 13 Jun., 1810, pp. 460-461. 54 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [54 the government in the Regierungsblatt from time to time after the accession of Maximilian IV Joseph. The two following examples which were obtained from the Regier- ungsblait probably are fairly representative of the provision made for the housing of the parish priests. The parish of Miulhausen, which had a population of four hundred and sixty persons and yielded an income of one thousand two hundred and eighty-seven florins and forty kreuzers, had parish buildings which cost four thousand and eighty-one florins and six and three-fourths kreuzers.* The parish of Oberamphenbach, which had two hundred and two inhabi- tants and yielded an income of five hundred and sixty-two florins and twenty-one kreuzers, possessed parish buildings which cost three thousand one hundred and fifty-eight florins and fifty-eight kreuzers. Of this sum the (horse?) stable, wash-house and cow stable represented one thousand four hundred and ninety-two florins and fourteen kreuzers. The rectory, which was under the same roof as the horse stable, and a barn and wagon-shed represented, apparently, the re- maining portion of the sum expended on the parish build- ings." To add to the confusion of the situation the par- ishes, in many cases, seem to have obtained the tithes of other parishes and to have used them for their own benefit, 1 Regierungsblati, 24 Sept., 1800, p. 1002. 2“Samtliche Pfarr- und Oekonomie-Gebaude zu Oberampfenbach... wurden den 5 September 1805 durch einen Bliz eigeaschert, und den 5 April 1806 von den Baukosten 3158 fl. 58 kr....ratifizirt... Kaum waren die Gebaude hergestellt, so brannten in Mai verflossenen Jahres der Stadl, das Waschhaus, und der Kithestall, wahrscheinlich durch gelegtes Feuer, ab; diese Gebaude erfodern nach den Ueberschlagen einen Aufwand von 1402 fl. 14 kr.; ... Das Pfarrhaus und der Pferde- stall stehen unter einem Dache, dazu gehort ein Wurzgarten... die ubrigen Oekonomie-Gebaude bestehen in einem Kuh- und Schweinstalle, in einem Stadl und Wagenbehialtnisse... Der Pfarrsprengel umfaszt... 202 Seelen...jahrliche Einnahme...562 fl. 21 kr.” Jbid., 9 Sept., 1800, Pp. 1421-1422. 55] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY 5s to the injury of the parish to which they rightfully be- longed.* The duties and income of the subordinate clergy seem to have varied greatly. The incumbent of the early mass benefice at Lech auf Tamberg was expected to read mass, to assist in the care of souls and to help in the school. For these services he received a free dwelling, wood and two hundred and twenty-five guldens.” The holder of the curate- chaplainship at Grossdorf, Illerkreise, had the care of ninety-seven families and no early mass. For performing this duty he received a free dwelling, wood and two hun- dred and sixty-five florins. The holder of the curate- benefice of Oberdorf received only three hundred and thir- teen florins and fifty-six kreuzers for caring for the sick in a population of twelve thousand persons, inspecting five schools, conducting early mass on Sundays and the holidays recognized by the government, catechizing the youth on those days, hearing confessions and assisting in the parish church with the preaching.* 1“ Oder es zieht ein Pfarrer von den Orte den Zehenten, der einem andern als arbeitendem Pfarrer angehort (dessen Einkiinfte diirftig, oder doch weit geringer sind)...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1804, ili, 265. 2“ Kin jeweiliger Besizer hat, nebst freier Wohnung und Beholzung, jahrlich 325 Gulden rein Einkiinfte, und die Verbindlichkeit zu Lesung der Stiftungsmessen, zur Aushiilfe in der Seelsorge und vorztiglich zum jugendlich Schulunterrichte.” Regierungsblatt, 8 Apr., 1800, p 639. 3 Ibid., 3 May, 1809, p. 714. 4“Die Verbindlichkeiten eines jeweilen Beneficiaten bestehen: (a) in Besorgung der Kranken seines aus ungefahr 1200 Seelen bestehenden Bezirkes, (b) in Respizirung der in seinem Bezirke existirenden 5 Schulen, (c) in Haltung der Friihmesse an Sonn- und gebotenen Feiertagen in seiner Kaplanei-Kirche frith 7 Uhr, (d) in einer Katachese an eben diesen Tagen fiir die Jugend, (e) in Aushilfe in der Pfarrkirche an gesetzten Tagen durch Pre- digen, Beichthoren &c.” Regierungsblatt, 29 Dec., 1810, p. 1474, “Die Erledigung des Kurat-Beneficiums Oberdorf betr.” 56 KELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [56 The clergy connected with the cathedral and collegiate churches ought to be included in an account of the secular clergy of Bavaria. All the dioceses but Chiemsee had cathe- dral chapters composed of persons of noble birth, and most of the cathedrals contained one or more foundations of canons, to which a great number of benefices were attached.* There were likewise at least eight collegiate churches in Bavaria.” Westenrieder estimated that about three hundred of the cathedral clergy belonged to Bavaria and that about six hundred clergy were connected with the collegiate churches of the electorate.* In 1799 the regular clergy of Bavaria were divided as in other Catholic countries into mendicant and possessing orders. The possessing orders had about fifty-nine separate establishments for men in Upper and Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate,* and all but six or seven of the houses 1“ Bey allen diesen... Bisthiimern (Chiemsee ausgenommen) befindet sich ein adeliches Domkapitel, und in den bischdflichen Stadten meistens ein oder mehrere Chorstifter, wozu noch eine Menge gestifteter Bene- ficien kommt.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” *Ibid. They were situated at Munich, Landshut, Habach, Wiesen- steig, St. Wolfgang, Straubingen, Alten Oecettingen and Vilshofen. Putter, op. cit., vol. iii, appendix, pp. 22-25, places the number of col- legiate churches in Bavaria at twelve. *Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 4“Mannliche Abteien sind . .. Ander, Attel, Benediktbaiern,. Beierberg, Bernried, Beicharding, Diessen, Dietramszell, Ettal, Furstenfeld, Heil. Kreuz in Donauworth, Inderstorf, Neustift, Pollingen, Rott, Rottenbuch, Schaftlarn, Scheiern, Schlech- dorf, Steingaden, Tegernsee, Thierhaupten, Wessobrun, Weiarn, Weihenstephan, Frauenzell, Gotteszell, Mallersdorf, St. Manz, Metten, Nieder Altaich, Ofterhofen, Priesening, Priel, ‘Rohr, Weltenburg,. Windberg, Aldersbach, Aschbach, Au, Fiirstenzell, Gars, Herrenchiem- see, St. Nikola bey Passau, Baumburg, ‘Raitenhasslach, St. Salvator, Seeon, Varnbach, St. Beit, St. Zenno, Ensdorf, Muhlfeld, Reichen- bach, Speinshard, Walderbach, Waldsassen, Weissenohe.” Jbid. Cf. also Dr. A. Buchner’s, Geschichte von Bayern, x, 78. In this list Andechs is given instead of Anders, and Michelsfeld instead of Miuhlfeld. 57] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY 57 were represented in the provincial estates.* About two- thirds of the fifty-nine houses belonged to two orders. The Benedictine monks had twenty-four monasteries in Bavaria and the regular Augustinian Canons had seventeen. Of the remaining houses, seven belonged to the Cistercian order, four to the Premonstratensian Canons, and one to the Car- thusian order.* The possessing orders were estimated in 1796 to have one thousand four hundred and eighty-five monks in their Bavarian houses. The Bavarian houses, naturally, differed widely in respect to wealth and the number of inmates. The monastery of the regular Augustinian Canons at Au contained twelve monks,* the Cistercian abbey at Waldsassen in the Upper Palatinate fifty,” and the Benedictine house at Nieder- Altaich sixty-five or seventy. Not all of the monks belong- ing to the monastery of Nieder-Altaich, however, resided there. Some of the monks of the monastery served as pro- vosts on the manors of the monastery, others acted as par- ish priests in some of the villages and two detachments lived under the rule of priors away from Nieder-Altaich itself. Nieder-Altaich was considered the richest monastery in the Bavarian circle and had an income of ninety-five thousand gulden.® The Benedictine abbey of Ober-Altaich, 1The monasteries at Ander, Inderstorf, Frauenzell, Gotteszell, Ofterhofen, Priesening and Seoon, which are given in the list of “Mannlichen Abteien” in Melchinger, op. cit., art. ‘“‘ Baiern,’ are omitted in the list of “standische Abteien” in Buchner, op. cit., x, 78. 2 Cf. ibid. and Melchinger, op. cit. Cf. also separate articles on each monastery in Melchinger. The monastery at Au is listed as a Bene- dictine house in Buchner and as a house of the regular Augustinian Canons in Melchinger. 3 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” ord. .art. | Au,” 5 Tbid., art. ““ Waldsassen.” 6“ iess Kloster zahlt gewohnlich 65 bis 70 Monche, wovon zwey Detachments abwesend sind, und das eine unter einem Prior zu St. Oswald an der Granze von Bohmen, und das andero zu Rinchnach steht. 58 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [58 which was considered a very well-managed house, had an income of fifty thousand gulden.* According to contem- porary estimates of the wealth of the monasteries, their average income must have been about thirty thousand florins.” There were nine orders of Mendicants in Bavaria in 1796 and in the neighborhood of one thousand seven hundred and thirty-two friars. The Franciscans with thirty houses and seven hundred and seven members, and the Capuchins with sixteen monasteries, seven hospitals and five hundred and twelve friars, were the two most important mendicant orders in Bavaria. The other mendicant orders represented in Bavaria were the shoe-wearing Austin Friars, the barefoot Carmelites, the shoe-wearing Carmelites, the Paulites, the Theatins, the Hieronymites and the Dominicans. The Aus- tin Friars had five regular houses, the two Carmelite orders six, the Paulites two, and each of the other three orders one house each. The mendicants drew the greater part of their support from direct grants from the electoral treasury, gifts of various sorts and systematic begging.* Their sup- port, in consequence, was a heavy burden on the people. The Franciscans alone received one hundred and twenty- nine thousand two hundred and ninety-nine florins and fifty-eight kreuzers in money gifts in 1768, and the gifts in kind were valued at a like sum.* Auch einzelne Monche stehen als Pfarrern auf den Dorfern, oder als sogenannte Probste auf ’'Schlossern, die zur Abtey gehéren.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. ‘“ Nieder-Altaich.” 1“ Ober-Altaich...fiihrt gute Oekonomie, und hat schone Kapi- talien an baren und ausgelehnten Geldern. Man schatzt thre jahrlichen Einktinfte auf 50,000 Gulden.” Jbid., art. “ Ober-Altaich.” 2“ Fine gleichzeitige Piece giebt die reine Rente der aufgehobenen blos pfalzbaierischen mediatisirten Manns- und Nonnenabyteyen auf die Summe von 1,957,000 fl.” Buchner, op. cit., x, 79. *“ Mendikanten. Diese sind (1) die geschuhte und ungeschuhte Augustiner...haben in Baiern (Regenspurg mit eingeschlossen) 59] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY 59 Besides the establishments for men there were thirty- three convents for women in Bavaria. Most of them were situated in the cities and towns. Only eight of the thirty- three were represented in the provincial estates. The thirty- three convents belonged to at least fourteen different orders and they were estimated in 1796 to have nine hundred and forty-seven nuns living in them.* 6 Kloster 4 Superiorate. Diese Kloster sind zu Miinchen, Regens- burg, Seemannshausen, Ingolstadt, Ramsau, Schdnthal. Die Superiorate sind Bettbrunn, Rettz, Viehbach, Aufkirchen. Die meisten dieser Kloster ziehen Gratialen; sie nehmen iiberdiess Messtipendien an,... und kollektiren jahrlich etlichmale im ganzen Land... Die ungeschuhte Augustiner in Tara leben von Gratialen und Kollektiren,... (2) Die barmherzigen Briider haben...ein Kloster, nemlich in Miinchen und kollektiren. (3) Die Dominikaner haben...ein Kloster...in Lands- hut. Sie kollektiren ebenfalls. (4) Die Franziskaner besitzen in Baiern 30 Kléster und Hospitia; nemlich zu Miinchen, Amberg, Alten Oettingen, Cham, Dingolfing, Dietfurt, Eggenfelden, Freystadt, Frey- singen, Ingolstadt, Josephsburg, Kehlheim, Kemnat, Landshut, Landau, Marienberg, Neukirch, Neuenburg, Neuen Oettingen, Pfaffenhofen, Pfarrkirchen, Pfreindt, Regensburg, Schleissheim, Schrobenhausen, Straubingen, T6lz, Vohburg, Weilheim und Zeilhofen. Die sammt- liche Anzahl war (im J. 1770) 822. Vermoge dreyer vorhandenen eigenen Rechnungen, welche man 1769 in der Registratur der Fran- ziskaner fand, ersah man, dass die baierische Franziskaner Provinz (mit Einschluss der hienach abgesonderten, ganz geringen 5 auswartigen Kléster) im 1768 bloss an Geld, als an landesherrlichen Gratialien, Mess- und andern Geldalmosen 129,299 fl. 58 kr. eingenommen habe. Die Naturalien, welche die Franziskaner jahrlich im ganzen Lande kolle- ktiren, betragen wenigstens eben so viel, als die Geldeinnahme. (5) Hieronomitaner haben...ein Kloster, nemlich auf dem Lechel zu Miinchen. (6) Die Kapuziner haben in Baiern 16 Kloster...und 7 Hospitia. Sie leben von der Kollektur und einigen Gratalien, und haben allein zu Ttirkheim und Nymphenburg gewisse Fundationen. (7) Karmeliter; die geschuhten haben in Baiern 2 Kloster, zu Straubin- gen und Abensberg... Die ungeschuhten Karmeliter haben drey Kloster, nemlich zu Mtinchen...Schwangau und Urfarn... (9) Die Paulaner haben ...ein Kloster...zu Miinchen, und eins zu Amberg. Sie leben von Gratialien und von Kollektiren... (10) Die Theatiner haben... ein Kloster, nemlich zu Miinchen,...und...[sie]...von der Freyge- bigkeit des Hofs leben.” Buchner, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 1“ Weibliche Abteien sind... Altomtinster, Angerkloster zu Munchen, 60 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [60 The religious hermits of Bavaria were estimated in the same year to number two hundred.* They depended to a large extent on gifts and begging for support, and in con- sequence they were sometimes classed as mendicants.* The hermits in the bishopric of Freising formed a corporation and seem to have been in the habit of holding an assembly each year. An electoral decree of 1766, which designated the articles that were to be left for the next,occupant in the cell of a hermit who had died in the diocese of Freising, throws considerable light on the sort of life led by the her- mits. The principal articles mentioned in the decree were a crucifix, two pictures, four or five books of a religious nature, a service book and the gospels; the bedding needed for the hermit living in the cell and for one visiting brother, covers and a straw sack; underwear and outer clothes; two towels; two tablecloths, a knife, spoon, table and chair; a clock or alarm bell and the tools and utensils required iy the kitchen, table and garden.® Chiemsee, Geissenfeld, Hohenwarth, Ktihbach, Nieder-Schonfeld, Seligenthal zu Landshut...Frauenkloster, welche keine Abteien sind . . (1) zu Miinchen das Bittrichregelhaus, . ... die Salerinnen, die Servitinnen, die ungeschuhten Karmeliterinnen, die Nonnen auf dem Lilienberg, die Paulerinnen, die englandischen Fraulein, die Damen de notre Damen, die Elizabetherinnen, (2) zu Ingolstadt Franziskanerinnen und Ursulinerinnen. (3) Zu Landshut Ursulinerinnen, Franziskaner- innen und Kapuzinerinnen. (4) Zu Landsberg Ursulinerinnen. (5) Zu Straubingen Ursulinerinnen und Elisabetherinnen. (6) Zu Vieh- bach Augustinerinnen. (7) Zu Altenhohenau Dominikanerinnen. (8) Zu Reitberg Franziskanerinnen. (9) Zu Mindelheim Franziskanerinnen, und englandische Fraulein zu Mindelheim und Burghausen. (10) In der obern Pfalz zu Amberg Salesianerinnen; und zu Schwarzhofen Dominikanerinnen.” Buchner, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” 1 Tbid. 2“Die Klausner leben von Gratialen und Betteln.” Jbid. 3“ die einem Eremiten nothwendige Meublen, als da sind ein grosses Krucifix, sammt zweyen Bildern, die Biicher, so das Institutum verschreibet, benanntlich das Leben der heiligen Altvater, das Buch 61] THE BAVARIAN CLERGY 61 ras Both the Teutonic Knights and the Knights of Malta had commanderies in Bavaria. The first order had only two commanderies in the electorate,’ but the second order had twenty-four secular and four spiritual commanderies.” The Knights of Malta particularly, by reason of their wealth and the character of their membership, formed a striking contrast to the lowly mendicants and hermits. The Bava- rian branch of the Knights of Malta, as has already been explained, was founded in 1781 by Charles Theodore and was endowed at the expense of the schools with the prop- erty which had been confiscated from the Jesuits a few years earlier.” The net income of this property was re- ported in 1803 to be one hundred and seventy-one thousand florins.* The capital value of the property of the Knights of Malta was estimated to be about six million florins.° The elector’s natural son became Grand Prior of the new branch of the order.° | Even after large allowances are made for exaggerated estimates, the clergy of Bavaria formed entirely too large a proportion of the population of the state. According to Patris Rodequez von der Vollkommenheit geistliche Lehrschul P. Neudegger, zwey oder drey Betrachtungsbiicher, ein Officium, Evan- gelium, und Institut, item die Bettstattel fiir sich, und einem ankom- menden Bruder, sammt Decken Strohsack, und Leibtiicker, dann zwey Hand- und Tischtticher, Messer, Loffel, Tisch, und Sessel, eine Uhr, oder da keine vorhanden, einen Wecker, ferner die Habit, Kuchel- Tisch- und Gartenzeug ...” Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1784, vol. 2, pt. 6, pp. 1083-1084, “ Privilegium der Fremiten Kongre- gation Freysinger Didces.” 7 Mar., 1766. ' Melchinger, op. cif., art. “ Baiern.” 2 Ibid. 3 The electoral decree establishing the order is given in Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1788, vol. 4, pt. 6, no. 103, pp. 787-789. 4C. G. Bredow, Chronik des neungehnten Jahrhunderts, i, 515. 5 Ibid. Cf. also Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” ® Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, 1, 69. 62 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [62 one contemporary estimate, there were eight thousand four hundred and forty-three Bavarian clergy in 1796.7 An earlier estimate gave Bavaria three thousand seven hundred and sixty-five parochial clergy and three thousand five hun- dred and sixty monks and nuns, or a total of seven thousand three hundred and twenty-five religious persons.” A mod- ern estimate gives Bavaria at about the time of the secular- izations in 1802 and 1803 three thousand and twenty-eight secular clergy, three thousand two hundred and eighty-one monks and one thousand two hundred and thirty-eight nuns —a total of seven thousand five hundred and forty-seven religious persons.* They were very unequally distributed, however, through the state. To compensate for the three hundred clergy at Ingolstadt in a population of eight thou- sand persons,* or for the nine hundred and thirty-one clergy at Munich® in a population of less than thirty-six thou- sand,”° there must have been many places in Bavaria very meagerly supplied with Catholic clergy. | 1 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” * Putter, op. cit., vol. iii, appendix, p. 22. 3 Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, Introduction by Doeberl, p. xlvi. 4 Allgemeine Zeitung, 1802, vol. 2, no. 104, p. 416. ° Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Baiern.” *j. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, i, 34. OTEAT DE Ra THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE THE relations of the Bavarian state and the Catholic hierarchy previous to 1799 were regulated primarily by concordats which had been concluded at various times be- tween the Bavarian government and the bishops having jurisdiction over Bavarian territory. According to Mont- gelas, the state had concluded concordats with all the bishops in 1583, with Eichstadt and Bamberg in 1638 and 1654, with Augsburg in 1684, with Passau in 1690, and with Freising in 1718 and 1723.* A collection of these agree- ments was published by the Electoral Academy of Sciences in 1769.7 From this collection it would seem that the bishops of Eichstadt, Bamberg and Constance had not been parties to the agreement of 1583,° and that the concordats of 1638 and 1654 with Eichstadt and Bamberg, and of 1723 with Freising, for some reason were not included in the collection. 1“Tyes concordats conclus en 1583 avec tous les évéques, en 1638 et 1654 avec Eichstaedt et Bamberg, 1684 avec Augsbourg, 1690 avec Passau, 1718 et 1723 avec Freysing, les [des principes...sur le rapport du clergé avec le gouvernement et l’ordre civil] fixoient.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 117. *Concordaten und Recessen, welche zwischen Chur-Bayrn, dann denen umliegenden Erz- und respective Hochstiftern Salzburg, Passau, Freysing, Regensburg, Augsburg, und Chiemsee,...getroffen... worden. (Neue Auflage. Gedruckt bey der churfurstlichen Akademie des Wissenschaften, 1769). 3“Concordata de Anno 1583. Mit Salzburg, Passau, Freysing, Regenspurg, Augspurg und Chiemsee,” in ibid., p. 3, et seq. 63] 63 64 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [64 The concordat of 1583 was by far the most important of the agreements concluded by the bishops and the electoral government. The seven chapters of the concordat regulated the visitations of the bishops, the election and confirmation of prelates, the crimes and punishment of ecclesiastical per- sons, presentations to church benefices, the persons and goods of the clergy, and matrimonial causes. The visita- tions of the bishops, according to the agreement of the two parties, were to be made with the foreknowledge of the elector and in coordination with electoral commissioners when a general visitation of the diocese was to be made, when the laity as well as the clergy were to be visited and examined, and when the visitation concerned secular mat- ters. Special visitations for the investigation of some par- ticular spiritual matter, however, could be made by the bishop without the presence of a secular commissioner.* After the death of a prelate the spiritual and secular author- ities were to set a day for the election of his successor. The secular commissioners were then to be present at the elec- tion, and in case the election was conducted in a regular manner the secular commissioners were to confirm the per- son elected in the name of the Bavarian elector. During 1“Primum. De Visitationibus ac Juribus Episcoporum. Ut visitatio cum praescitu Principis, & ad junctis Ducalibus sive Commissariis, sive Consiliariis instituantur, Ipseque Princeps de tantae molis negotio intra provinciarum suarum fines conficiendo, certior flat, aequum judi- catur in tribus casibus. Primo, ubi Laici simul Clericis visitandi, & examinandi erunt. Secundo, ubi in visitatione temporalium rerum tractatus suscipietur. Tertio, si quando solius etiam Cleri visitatio, tamen generalis, seu universalis instituenda videbitur... Quarto vero casu, ubi ‘Reverendissimi Domini Ordinarii visitationem frequenta- buntur particularem, ac pro sui Officii ratione in Clerum, ac utriusque sexus religiosas Personas, circa Religionis negotium ac disciplinam Ecclesiasticam inquisituri sunt, rem per se soli, suo suorumque arbi- tratu administrabunt, atque in omnibus supradictis visitandi casibus, Serenissimus Dux promotionis studium, & brachii saecularis auxilium, benigné promptéque offert....” Concordata de Anno 1583, loc. cit., D.. 3) ebreu. iro 65 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 65 the period of such a vacancy, however, no administrator was to be placed in charge of a monastery without the ap- proval and consent of the bishop.t Ordinarily when an ecclesiastical person committed a crime he was to be handed over to the bishop or to the representative of the bishop. When, however, an ecclesiastical person was seized with forbidden weapons in his possession he was to be taken charge of by the secular authorities. When laymen were summoned before the spiritual authorities they not only were not to be prevented from appearing, but they were to be urged and compelled by the secular authorities to comply with the summons. If a layman struck a priest he was to demand spiritual absolution from the spiritual authorities in addition to undergoing the punishment inflicted by the state. The portion of the fines imposed by the spiritual authorities, that remained after the payment of the fees of the case, was to be used in Bavaria for the construction of churches or for some other religious purpose.” The right of pre- i“Secundo. Quo ad Electiones Praelatorum, mortuo Praelato ad utrumque & Ecclesiasticum & saecularem magistratum referatur, qui inter se convenient de die electionis constituenda: Cujus electionis tractatui intererunt Ducales Commissarii (ipsi autem electioni non aliter quam, si in compromissarios seu scrutatores assumantur) atque ubi Electio Canonicé processerit, & electus statim confirmari deberit, Principis nomine, qui adsunt electioni factae assensum praestabunt.” “Si vero ex intervallo Confirmatio seu institutio petenda erit, tum electus & confirmandus approbationis seu assensus litteras Ducales secum feret. Nec etiam vacanti alicui Monasterio Principis nomine dabitur, aut imponetur administrator sine ordinarii consensu.” Con- cordata de Anno 1583, loc, cit., p. 3, et seq. 2“ Tertio. De Personis Ecclesiasticis, ita est conventum, quod Clerici delinquentes ad Ordinarium quisque suum, vel deputatum ab Episcopo remittantur, quodsi iis ab Episcopis pecuniaria poena fuerit irrogata, parte ejus aliqua Notariis causae, ac Pedellis cessura, residuum in Ecclesiarum fabricas, vel similes pios usius, intra Bavariae fines col- lecetur, idedque significabunt Ordinarii Praefectis in quanto mulcta- verint, ne intercipiantur istae pecuniae. Deprehensi vero Clerici cum prohibitis armis, in amissione eorum a magistratu saeculari plectentur.” “VLaici quoque provinciales, ubi ex causa citationi inserta, spirituale 66 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [66 senting to benefices during the months of the Pope, which was exercised by the electors of Bavaria, was not to be ex- tended to benefices over which another possessed the right of presentation, or to the feudal fines of the church.* In most cases arising out of the subject of tithes the bishops were to have jurisdiction. When, however, the tithes had become secular property; when both parties, or at least the accused person, was a layman; when the case concerned the payment of tithes; when the case was a question of fact and not of property; and in contracts in which the tithes had been assigned for a period, the secular authorities were to have jurisdiction.” When a member of the clergy, who had made a regular will, died, the heirs, whether they were members of the clergy or laymen, were to describe the prop- erty bequeathed, present the will to the vicar for confirma- tion, and then execute it in the locality where the priest died or where the bequeathed property lay. When, how- negotium esse constiterit, comparere non prohibebuntur, sed contumaces in comparendo poenis potis coercebuntur & adigentur.”’ “Ac de Clericis percussoribus, ubi conveniendi puniendique 1i sint, jam supra commemoratum est.” “Laici vero percutientes Clericum, ut ultra poenam a saeculari magistratu irrogatam, etiam absolutionem Canonicam petere teneantur, tamquam Juri consonum recipitur .. .” ‘Concordata de Anno 1583, loc. cit., p. 3, et seq. 1“iv...Pontificii quoque mensis Jus praescriptum non extendet Serenissimus Dux ad ea beneficia, in quibus alteri Jus Patronatus com- petit. Et quia de paucioribus forte adhuc disceptari contingit, inibitur utrinque talis controversiae sopiendae commoda aliqua ratio.” Jbid. 2Q «6 v...Sic etiam in causarum Decimalium cognitione, Ordinarii Jus suum conceditur. Eae tamen in certis casibus, a Jure permissis, ad saecularem quoque magisiratum spectant, puta in iis decimis, quae jam effectae sunt Juris Laici: ac ubi vel uterque vel reus tantum Laicus est: item in contractibus decimalibus temporarius, scilicet ubi fructus tantum decimarum ad tempus venditi locative sunt: atque etiam in casu soluti, vel non soluti; & in possessoriis, ubi nuda facti quaestio est, nihilque proprietatis admixtum continetur, & similibus casibus, de quibus ad Jus ejusque interpretes relatio habeatur.” Ibid. ae 67 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 67 ever, a priest died without leaving a will, the vicar or an electoral officer—whichever was first informed of the death —was to seal the property left, and after informing the representative not present the two were to agree on a day for settling the estate of the deceased. The inventorying of the property, the satisfying of the creditors and the divid- ing of the property among the heirs was then to be done jointly by the representatives of state and church.’ Finally, marriage affairs and other matters generally recognized as subject to the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical consistory were to be left to the jurisdiction of the church courts.* Besides the concordat of 1583, the collection published by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in 1769 contained the agreements concluded by the Bavarian government with the bishop of Augsburg in 1684,° the bishop of Freising in 1718,* the bishop of Regensburg in 1539,” the archbishop of Salzburg in 1628,° and the bishop of Passau in 16090.‘ None of these agreements added to or materially altered the 1“ vi...Clerici, qui legitimo testamento confecto mortem obeunt, bona relicta Testamentarii, sive Ecclesiastici ii sint, sive saeculares discribant ipsum Testamentum Vicario...pro confirmatio offerant, illiudque deinceps exequantur, nec tamen id alio, quam eo loco, ubi Sacerdos vita functus est, bonaque ita relicta sita sunt; ubi vero quis intestatus decedat, tum vel Vicarii... ; vel Officarii Ducales, ad quos primum de obitu perlatum fuerit, bona relicta obsignent, etiam absente altera parte: ad quam tamen de eo statim referatur, ut deinceps com- muni consilio diem statuant, in qua, Inventario simul ab itis confecto, creditoribus ante omnia satisfiat: ...” Concordata de Anno 1583, loc. ctt., p. 3, et seq. 2“vii...Causae matrimoniales aeque aliae liquido consistoriales foro Ecclesiastico libere committuntur, sic etiam poenitentiarum in- jugendarum judicium Ordinariis: eorumque deputatis in populo Catho- lico liberum semper erit...” Jbid. 3 [bid., p. 20, et seq. * Ibid., p. 31, et seq. 5 Tbid., p. 45, et seq. $ Ibid., p. 49, et seq. TTbid., p. 51, et Seq. 68 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [68 provisions of the concordat of 1583. Their principal func- tion apparently was to define, clarify and reassert the prin- ciples already laid down in the concordat of 1583. In the latter part of his reign the liberal-minded Maxi- milian III Joseph, the predecessor of Charles Theodore, en- deavored to modify by electoral decree those relations between church and state which had been established in Bavaria by the concordats. His aim was to modify the provisions of the concordats in the interest of the state. The principal subjects dealt with by his decrees were the holding of Bavarian benefices by foreigners; cases arising out of betrothals; monastic vows, the punishment of monks and nuns, and the collection of funds by the monasteries ; the relation of monastic establishments in Bavaria to for- eign superiors and houses; the Placetum Regium and the acquisition of property by the church. In spirit the decrees were merely anti-clerical, not anti-Catholic. The holding of Bavarian benefices by foreigners was dealt with in a decree of 20 December, 1768. According to the preamble of the decree the greater part of the prelatures, priories, deaneries, parishes, canonships and other ecclesias- tical benefices in the state were held by the subjects of for- eign states. The government ordered, in consequence, that in the future no one should be admitted through any sort of an election or by any patron to a Bavarian prelature, priory, deanery, parish, canonship or other kind of an ecclesiastical benefice unless he was a native-born citizen or had been granted the rights of a citizen by the elector.* 1“ |. Uns ist missfalligst zu vernehmen gekommen, wie dass die Pralaturen, Probsteyen, Decaneyen, Pfarren, Canonicaten, so andere geistliche Beneficien in Unseren Landen grossen, theils mit auswartigen Subjectis besetzt [sind] . . . Befehlen demnach zwar gnadigst, doch ernstgemessen, dass in Zukunft keiner durch was immer fiir eine Wahl, oder von was immer fiir einen Patronen zu einer innlandischen Pralatur, Probstey, Decchaney, Pfarr, Canonicat, oder sonstig geist- 69 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 69 A decree of 24 July, 17609, struck at the jurisdiction of the church courts over betrothals. The state, according to the decree, could no longer consider cases arising out of be- trothal contracts as spiritual matters. Such cases, in conse- quence, were to be handled in the future by the secular courts like other judicial matters, with the single exception that in case there was a delay in attending to the case an appeal to a higher court might be made in thirty days in- stead of the usual sixty days. No appeal to the spiritual authorities, however, was ever to be made.'* Two of the decrees of Maximilian III Joseph dealt with the Bavarian monasteries. The decree of 2 November, 1769, regulated monastic vows, discipline and collections. Bavarian subjects of both sexes were forbidden to assume the final monastic vows of any religious order before they were twenty-one years of age. All monastic prisons and places of confinement, likewise, were to be completely done away with and demolished, and no head of a monastery or convent was to attempt to imprison or to inflict any other liches Beneficium mehr zugelassen werden solle, wenn er nicht ein gebohrnes Landskind, oder aber mit dem Jure indigenatus schon vorlaufig von Uns begnadiget ist...” Sammlung der neuest und merkwuirdigsten Churbaierischen Generalien und Landesverordnungen (Minchen, 1771), p. 512, “ Mandat de Anno 1768. Von dem ad Bene- ficia Ecclesiastica erforderlichen indigenatu.” 1“ ..Wir nun...an dem Contractu sponsalitio gar nichts Geist- liches befinden k6nnen, sondern solchen fiir eine blosse weltliche Handlung ansehen, so ist Unser Will und Meinung, dass die dariiber entstehende Processen und Irrungen auch nirgend, als bey Unsern nachgesetzten Obrigkeiten und Dicasteriis, wie all andere Justissachen, von den Klagern angebracht, verhandelt und ausgemacht werden sollen, mit dem alleinigen Unterschied, dass die Verhandlung hier- innen allemal summarissime, und die Appelation nicht inner den sonst gewohnlich 60, sondern zu desto mehrern Beschleinigung dieser keinen langen Verschub leidenden Sachen langst inner 30 Tagen sub poena desertionis geschehen, der Recours aber an die geistliche Obrigkeiten in hac causa nere seculari nimmermehr Platz haben solle.” Jbid., pt. 6, no. Xi, pp. 514-515, “ Mandat de Anno 1769 in puncto Sponsalium.” 790 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT | 70 form of bodily punishment on his subordinates, or to as- sume any jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases. In the interest of discipline no monk or nun was to be confined in a separate cell longer than twelve days, or to be placed on short rations longer than eight days. Cases requiring severer measures were to be left to the jurisdiction of the eccle- siastical council. If the crime was punishable, according to the laws of the land, by exile, life imprisonment, or bodily or capital punishment, the offending monk or nun was to be expelled from his monastery, after the removal of his re- ligious habit, and handed over to the secular authorities. The collection of funds, finally, whether made by mendi- cants, hermits or the subordinate clergy in the parishes, was forbidden after 1 May, 1770.* 1“ mo. Niemand Unserer Unterthanen, wer es immer sey, beiderley Geschlechts, die feyerlichen Ordensgeliibde in welchen Orden es immer seyn mag, und was immer derselbe fiir Priviligien vorzugschutzen oder Statuta unter sich errichtet haben mdchte, vor dem 2Isten completen Jahre seines Alters ablegen solle, noch konne... 2do. Dass von nun an alle klosterliche Kerker und Gefangnisse ganzlich abgethan seyn und demolirt werden, und dass sich kiinftigen keinerlei Ordensobern, oder Oberinnen...unterfangen sollen, mit Gefangniss oder anderen Leib- strafen gegen ihre Untergebenen zu verfahren, noch auch einiger Civil- oder Criminalcognition sich anzumassen. Wir wollen ihnen zwar die media correctionis paterne & regularis domesticae, obne welche die klosterliche gute Disciplin nicht wohl erhalten werden mag, keineswegs benehmen, hierinnen aber solche Maass vorgeschrieben und bestimmet haben, dass kein Religios oder Klosterfrau langer, als...12 Tage, in einer abgesonderten, reinlichen, und den iibrigen ganz gleichen Zelle eingesperret, und mehr nicht als 8 Tage lang mit geringer Aetzung abgebiisset werden darfe. Sollte aber nach Maass der Uebertretung sodanne Busszeiten zu verlingeren ermissiget wer- den; so haben sich die Ordensobern hierum bey Unserm geistlichen Rath zu melden, und weiteren Bescheid zu gewartigen. Waren hin- gegen die Verbrechen, so Gott verhiiten wolle, von derjenigen Gattung, auf welche nach Unseren Landesgesetzen die Landesverweisung, Leib- und Lebenstrafe, oder ewige Gefangniss, geschlagen sind, So haben sie die delinquerenden Religiosen nach abgenommenen Ordenshabit ohne weiters auszustossen, und der weltlichen Obrigkeit zu tiberant- 71 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 71 The purpose of the decree of 30 December, 1769, was to lessen the control of foreign superiors over Bavarian relig- ious houses. All orders having more than three houses in Bavaria were ordered to erect the houses in Bavaria into a separate Bavarian province and to establish separate congre- gations, which were to be ruled over by provincial presidents, in conformity with rules and statutes approved by the elec- tor. The orders affected by the decree were the Cistercians, Premonstratensians, Jesuits, Augustinians, Barefoot Car- melites, Franciscans and Capuchins. These orders were not to receive commands, inspectors or correctors from the heads of their orders, not to make contributions to them, nor to be represented personally at the general chapters of the orders. In addition, all provincial and local superiors, abbots, heads of convents, deans, priors, rectors, ministers, vicars, custodians, definitors, assistants, procurators, stew- ards and other officials and dignitaries of the orders were to be chosen from native-born citizens. When the laws and customs of the orders permitted it, their elections and chap- ters were to be held at Munich. At all elections, however, a commissioner, selected from the ecclesiastical council, was to be present in the name of the elector, but without prej- udice to the freedom of the election. Permission to hold the provincial chapter, also, was to be sought from the ecclesiastical council of the elector. The Theatins, Brothers of Mercy, Barefoot Augustinians, Hieronymites, Domin- icans, Paulites, Shoe-wearing Carmelites and Carthusians, worten,... Wir verordnen...3tio. Dass von Iten May an des nachst eintrettenden 1770stens Jahrs in Unsern gesamten Landen alle soge- nannten Collecturen der ‘Religiosen ohne Unterschied und Ausnahme cessiren, tnd aufgehoben seyn sollen,...also sollen auch alle Samm- lungen, deren auf denen Pfarreyen als Kaplan, und Cooperatores be- findliche Weltpriester, und noch vielmehr jene der sogenannten Ein- sidler, Klaussner, und dergleichen...von obiger Zeit an abgestellt, und verbothen sind...” Jbid., pt. 6, no. vi, p. 502, et seq., “ Mandat de Anno 1769 die Klosterliche Disciplin, Ordnung und Collectur betr.” 72 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [72 on the other hand, who had fewer than four houses in Bavaria, were permitted by the decree to remain in the provinces to which they had previously belonged. They were not permitted, however, to receive any commands or visitations without the preliminary investigation and ap- proval of the ecclesiastical council, or to attend in person provincial chapters held abroad. In no religious commun- ity, finally, were more than one-sixth of the members to be foreign subjects.* 1“FErstlich sollen alle Orden welche mehr als drey Hauser oder Conventer unter Unserer Landsbothmassigkeit besitzen, sich von allen Auswartigen trennen, und jeder Orden ein eigene Provinz und Con- gregation unter sich errichten, welche von einem eigenen Provincialen oder respective Praside und Statuten (die Wir Uns aber vorher ein- zusehen, und nach Befund zu bestatigen vorbehalten, und zu dem Ende vom jedem Orden ein Exemplar ihrer Statuten zu Unserem geistlichen Rath in Zeit von zween Monaten gewartigen) regieret werden sollen. Zu solchem Orden gehoren nun (1) die Cisterciener, (2) Pramon- stratenser, (3) Jesuiten, (4) Augustiner, (5) baarftissige Carmeliter, (6) Franciscaner, (7) Capuciner. Die solchergestalt erricteten eigenen ‘Provinzen sollen...ihrem General-Ordens-Obern hinftran keinerley Obedienzen, Visitatores oder Correctores annehmen, noch einige Geld- oder andere Contributiones,...alldahin itbermachen, noch auch die Generalcapitel persGnlich beschicken, sondern sie mogen gleichwohl die ihnen bey sothanen Generalcapiteln zustandigen Activ und Pas- sivstimmen mittels Ausfertigung behoriger Vollmachten durch andere vertretten und geltend machen lassen...” “Drittens wollen Wir absolute und ohne einige Ausnahme, bey vorbemeldten Strafen, dass alle Provinz- und Local-superiores, Abbates, Praepositi, Decani, Priores, ‘Rectores, Ministri, Vicarii, Custodes, De- finitores, Assistentes, Procuratores, Oeconomi, oder wie dergleichen Aemter und Dignitaten immer benamset werden mogen, aus Unseren eigebohrnen Landskindern erwahlet und _ bestellet werden sollen. Belangend ““Viertens die Provincialkapitel, so vermogen dieselben zwar der bisherigen Observanz, und eines jeden Ordens-nach (jedoch in Unserer allhiesigen ‘Residenzstadt,) gehalten und darinnen die Wahlen der Provinz-Localsuperiorn, Definitorn &c. vergenommen werden: Es soll aber jederzeit ein Commissarius aus Unserem geistlichen Rathsgremio, wie bey andern Pralatenwahlen, in Unserm Namen dabey gegen- wartig seyn, jedoch unbeschadet der canonischen Freyheit, unter Unsern 73 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 2% The government of Maximilian III Joseph, likewise, in- sisted on the recognition by the Church of the principle that the government had the right to give or withhold its assent to the promulgation of an ecclesiastical ordinance. As early as 1766 the Bavarian government declared null and void a patent issued by the bishop of Freising without the approval and consent of the government, which con- demned and suppressed in the bishopric of Freising the work entitled Veremund von Locksteim as an injurious work and disadvantageous to the true principles of the Church, the dignity of the Pope, the laws of the Church, and ecclesiastical and secular princes. This principle was not eingebohrnen Landskindern die Anstandigsten zu erwahlen, als welche Wahlireyheit Wir auf keinerley Weise zu bekranken erlauben werden. So oft demnach ein solches Provinzialkapitel gehalten werden soll, hat die Provinz bey Unserem geistlichen Rath die Erlaubniss dazu in Zeiten zu erbitten, und um Abordnung eines Commissarii das gehor- samste Anlangen zu stellen... Was iibrigens und Fiinftens diejenigen Orden belanget, die weniger als vier Convente oder Hauser in Unseren Landen, und unter Unserer Bothmassigkeit inne haben, dergleichen sind (1) die Theatiner, (2) barmherzigen Briider, (3) baarftissige Augustiner, (4) Hieronymitaner, (5) Dominicaner, (6) Paulaner, oder Fratres minimi, (7) schuhtragende Carmeliter, und (8) Karthauser, so wollen Wir zwar gnadigst gestat- ten, dass sie bey ihren bisherigen Provinzen verbleiben mdgen, doch darfen sie einige Obedienzen, Visitationen oder dergleichen, ohne vor- herige Einsicht und Genehmhaltung Unseres geistlichen ‘Raths anneh- men, noch die Provinzialcapitel ausser Lands personlich beschicken... Siebentens,...verordnen Wir hiemit, dass in keiner geistlichen Com- munitat,...ktnftigen mehr, als hochstens der 6te Theil Auslander einge- nommen werden darfen...” Jbid., pt. 6, no. viii, pp. 510-512, “ Mandat de Anno 1769. Separation der innlandischen Kldster von Auswartigen Provinzen.” 1“ Nicht ohne Unserer und jedermanniglichen sonderbarer Befrem- dung ist erst vor einigen Tagen ein Fiirstl. Freysingisches Ordinariats- patent in Offentlichen Druck erschienen, vermog dessen unter anderen schadlichen Biichern tiberhaupt auch der so betitulte Veremund von Lockstein, als ein wider die wahre Grundsatz der Kirchen ausstossiges, dem Aussehen der Pabsten und allgemeinen Kirchenversammlungen, geistlich und weltlich Ftirsten nachtheilig, auch sonst in mehr Weeg 74 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [74 embodied in a general decree, however, until 5 April, 1770. This ordinance provided that no one was to be commanded to execute a general order of a bishop before it had been in- spected and approved by the electoral government, and that any parish priest or other ecclesiastic who ventured to pub- lish a general ordinance in which the highest political and ecclesiastical prerogatives of the elector were closely touched, was to be seized immediately for a preliminary hearing before the ecclesiastical council.' The government of Maximilian [I] Joseph finally at- tempted to hinder the accumulation of Bavarian property in the hands of the Church. The decree of 1764, however, came at the close of a century of effort by the Bavarian gefahrliches Werk angesehen, und desswegen in dem ganzen Bisthum Freysing verboten und verworfen seyn sollen.” “Wir sind selbst gar weit davon entfernt, dass wir schadlich- und gefahrlichen Buchern, zumal jenen, welche den wahren Grundsatzen der katholischen Religion nicht bestehen kénnen, Schutz und Protek- tion angedeihen lassen sollten... ‘Gleichwie Wir demnach obiges Verbott anderst nicht, als fiir einen offenbaren Eingriff in Unsere Landeshoheitsrechten ansehen konnen, so deklariren Wir solches auch hiemit fiir null und nichtig... ” Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1784, vol. 2, pt. 6, no. li, p. 1086, “Landsherrliche Deklaration tiber den von Freysing verbotenen Vere- mund von Lockstein.” 29 Aug., 1766. 1“Tiebe Getreu! Nachdem von Unserer hochsten Stelle gnadigst resolvirt worden; in Unseren Landen, zu Bayern, und den obern Pfalz gleich andern katholischen Staaten keinerley geistliche Verord- nungen, und Gesetze ohne vorausgehender Unserer Landesherrlichen Einsicht, und Benehmigung fiirohin ad Effectum bringen zu lassen, so befehlen Wir hiemit gnadigst, dass zur Execution einig bischdflicher Generalverordnungen, wann sie nicht vorhero von Uns eingesehen, und zu exequiren anbefohlen worden keine Hand gebothen, und wofern ein pfarrer, oder anderer Geistlicher sich unterstehen dutirfte, eine dergleichen Verordnung zu publiciren, worinnen Unsrer h6ch- sten Landes- und Kirchenschutzgerechtsame zu nahe getretten wiirde, selbige sofort jedoch mit vorheriger Anfrage bei Unserem geistlichen Rath abgenommen werden.” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Ver- ordnungen, vol. 8, pt. I, pt. 64. 75 | THEA RELATIONS, OF CHURCH: AND STATE 75 government to check this evil. As early as 1672 the gov- ernment had ordered that in the future noble estates should not be alienated to any one but a noble without the consent of the elector." The decree of 1 August, 1701, was a far more important measure. It prohibited the acquisition by monasteries or convents, houses of God, hospitals, poor and orphan asylums, and similar institutions, of houses, tene- ments, vineyards, meadows, fields, alpine meadow lands, forests, pasture lands, hunting grounds, fishing rights, sec- ular tithes, jurisdiction, or anything else classed as immov- able property without special electoral consent, by purchase, transfer, gift, will, bequest, exchange, foundation, or by any other means of alienation. All such alienations were declared by the decree null and void and of no effect. In order, however, not to prohibit or hinder persons from leav- ing legacies, foundations and other pious bequests for the good of their souls, individuals were permitted by the decree to give or bequeath for such purposes gold, movables, and even real estate if they lacked anything else. Bequests of real estate, however, were not to come into the hands of the convents, ecclesiastical communities and churches, but they were to be put up for sale at a suitable price.” The ordi- nance of 16 September, 1730, forbade the sale of real estate to the clergy on the ground that it took the land out of cir- culation.* In spite of these decrees, however, as the pre- ‘rambles of the laws themselves confess, the acquisition of property by the Church continued unchecked." The elec- toral consent was in all probability obtained many times, 1Dollinger, op. cit., xi, 1263, “Auszug aus der Pragmatik wegen der Fideicommission, Verzicht der adelichen Tochter, so anders. Anno 1672.” 2 Tbid., xi, 1263-1266, “ Von dem Amortizationis Gesetz,” 1 Aug., 1701. 5K. Weber, Gesets- und Verordnungen Sammlung fiir das Komg- reich Bayern, 1, 4. *Dollinger, op. ctt., xi, 1269-1274. 76 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 76 and frequently the negligence of local officials must have allowed the Church to acquire property unchallenged. ‘The monastery at Rott, for example, was charged by the gov- ernment in 1759 with failing to dispose of two estates be- queathed to it by the wife of the Burgomaster von Scho- bing. The decree issued by the government of Maximilian III Joseph in 1764 was far more stringent than any of the measures which preceded it. It forbade for the future the acquisition by convents and other ecclesiastical corporations, through gift or bequest, of secular property in Bavaria valued at more than two thousand gulden. Such a sum, moreover, was to be given by the same person but once. Any sum given or bequeathed in excess of two thousand gulden was to go to the legal heirs. Foreign property to any amount, however, could be acquired. Hospitals, orphan asylums and other foundations for the care of the poor, churches, seminaries, schools and stipends or benefices for secular priests were not included in the prohibition. The brotherhoods, on the contrary, were limited to the sum of fifty florins.’ 1 Dollinger, op. cit., xi, 1268, “ Von ‘Straffallen contra legem amorti- zationis,” 12 Jan., 1750. 2“ Tmo. ‘Sollen die Kloster und all andern Corpora ecclesiastici hinfuro weder per actum inter vivos noch mortis causa, wie das immer geschehen, und Namen haben mag. von Inlandisch- weltlichen Vermogen an Geld oder Geldeswerth mehr als Zweitausend Gulden hiesiger Landeswehrung titulo lucrativo auf einmal acquiriren kénnen... 3tio. Kann diese Summa weder durch einen Religiosen noch jemand andern Ofter als einmal in das Kloster oder geistliche Corpus gebracht werden,........- Der tiberschuss, welcher 5to. mehr als Summam Pragmaticam betrifft, soll gedachten Erben und Successoribus zwar ebenfalls, jedoch ander- gestalt nicht als gegen Abzug der namlichen Quartae pauperum, welche die Kloster und Stiftungen, darinn zu leiden gehab haben, sowohl bey Successoribus ab intestato, als ex testamento zugehen.... Bey dem auslandischen Vermogen wollen Wir &vo. Unsern Klostern und Stif- tungen gern gonnen, was sie auch tiber das determirte Quantum durch Erbschaften, Schenkungen, Fundationen, und sonst alio quocumque de- 77 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE a7 From the concordats and decrees which have just been described it can easily be seen that the problem of adjust- ing the relations of church and state had been found a diffi- cult one to solve, even in as orthodox a country as Bavaria. The chief obstacle to a satisfactory adjustment of them by the state was the group of bishops that exercised jurisdic- tion over the parishes in the dominions of the elector.’ The strength of the bishops lay in the fact that they not only were powerful officials of the Church, holding positions not in the gift of the elector, but were also independent princes of the Empire, ruling in several cases secular states of real political importance, and considering themselves the equals of the elector.” As a result of their peculiar position, the bishops were able to rely on the laws and tribunals of the mum zu titulo acquiriren vermogen. gmo. Verstehen Wir unter den geistlichen Stiftungen hierin, falls weder die Spitaler, noch Waisenoder Krankenhauser und andere zu Behuf der Armen gemachte Stiftungen Pfarrkirchen und Filialen, Seminaria Clericorum, Schulen, und Stipen- diosorum oder gestiftete Beneficia fiir Weltpriester, foglich sollen alle jetztbenannte Causae piae, so viel sich deren in Unsern Landen befinden, unter gegenwartiger Verordnung nicht begriffen, sohin ihren Acquisitioni- bus auf keine gewisse Summam eingeschrenkt seyn. Die von Uns appro- birte Bruderschaften aber, nehmen Wir nicht nur aus, sondern setzen sie vielmehr soweit herunter, dass keine mehr als 50 fl. titulo lucrativo auf einmal erlangen kann...12mo. Heben Wir Eingangs gedachte legem amortizationis nicht nur nicht auf, sondern bestatigen und erneuern solche vielmehr in omnibus und per omnia...” Ddllinger, op. cit, xi, 1269-1274, “Erweiterung des Amortizationsgesetz,” 13 Oct., 1764. 1“Le zéle pour les anciens principes, pour Ja religion catholique, la situation politique des évéques n’avoient pas été trés favorable a Vétablissement des principes justes et convenables sur le rapport du clergé avec le gouvernement et l’ordre civil.” Montgelas, Denk- wiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Siaatsverwaliung Bayerns, p. 117. 2“Tes Etats bavaro-palatins n’avoient aucum évéque qui dépendit du souverain. Ils resortissoient aux dioceses de Salzburg, de Passau, Ratisbonne, Bamberg, Freysing, Augsbourg, Eichstaedt, Worms, Spire, Mayence, Cologne, Munster dont els titulaires, princes immédiats euxmeémes, se croyoient et étoient les égaux des électeurs.” Ibid. 78 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [78 Empire,’ as well as on the jealously guarded rights of the clergy, when rival secular rulers assailed the rights and privileges which the bishops had previously enjoyed. To their positions of great power, moreover, the bishops usually brought a zeal for the Catholic religion and its ancient principles that prevented any voluntary adjustment of the relations of church and state in Bavaria in the interest of the state.” It was the bishops, therefore, who took up the gauntlet thrown down to the Catholic clergy by Maximilian III Joseph. They protested against the measures of the Bava- rian government on the ground that their spiritual and dis- ciplinary, as well as their political authority was under the protection of the laws and chief of the Empire,’* and in 1772 they sent a negotiator to Munich in the person of the bishop of Chiemsee for the purpose of drawing up, in cooperation with the electoral commissioners, the bases of a new gen- eral agreement concerning jurisdiction and disciplinary forms. At the time of Maximilian [II Joseph’s death in 1777, however, the conference, after five years of discus- sion, had reached an agreement on only two comparatively insignificant points dealing with betrothals and commissions for elections.* 1 Montgelas, op. cit., p. 120. piiidy Dell7 3“ Ces derniéres mesures qui se succedérént-coup sur coup, excitérent l’attention la plus sérieuse du haut clergé. Ceux des évéques dont la juridiction ecclésiastique s’étendoit en Baviére, partant du principe que Vépiscopat formoit un corps, et que leur autorité spirituelle et dis- ciplinaire n’étoit pas moins sous la protection des lois et du chef de Pempire que leurs droits régaliens, protestérent hautement contre ce qu’ils appeloient des actes arbitraires.” Jbid., p. 119. 4“ Tls envoyérent a Miinich dans la personne de l’éveque de Chiemsee un négociateur chargé d’arréter avec des commissaires électoraux les bases d’un nouvel arrangement général sur la jurisdiction et les formes disciplinaires. Les conférences s’ouvrirent en 1772, elles trainérent en 79 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 79 Charles Theodore, the successor of Maximilian III Joseph, began his reign with a vigorous restatement, in the Geist- liche Rathsordnung of 1779, of the principles of his prede- cessor. The measures of Maximilian III Joseph concerning the promulgation of ecclesiastical ordinances, monastic vows and discipline, and cases arising out of betrothal contracts were specifically reaffirmed. The clergy, likewise, were de- clared citizens of the state and subject to the laws and juris- diction of both the state and the Church.* In spite of the assertion of Montgelas that he did not maintain the firm tone with which he began,’ there is no indication that Charles Theodore yielded any important point to the bish- ops. The decree of 13 March, 1780, which established a standard procedure to be followed in the election of rural chapters,* the decree of 22 December, 1784, concerning the procedure to be followed in handling the estates of de- ceased clergymen,* and the recess concluded with the bishop of Augsburg in 1785, concerning the Duchy of Neuburg,” longueur, comme on devoit s’y attendre d’aprés la complication du sujet et l’extréme différence dans l’esprit et les principes respectifs. Lorsque le pays perdit le 30 décembre 1777 le meilleur et le plus éclairé des ses princes, on n’étoit encore convenu que de deux articles assez insignifians sur les commissions pour les élections des prélats et les fiancailles.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. T19. 1“7T ’électeur Charles Théodore...prescrivit méme par un édit du 16 aotit 1779 avec plus de rigueur que jamais l’exacte observation des lois de Maximilien et des souverains qui avoient régné avant lui.” Ibid. The text of the “ Geist]. Rathsordnung vom Jahre 1779” is given in full in Mayrische Generalien Sammlung, v. J. 1784, vol. 2, pt. 6, no. xcix, pp. 1126, et seq. 2“ Cependent cette fermeté ne se soutint pas.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. II9. 3 Mayrische Generalicn Sammlung, v. J. 1788, vol. iv, pt. 6, no. exxvili, pp. 805-806. 4Tbid., no. cxxx, pp. S07-So8, “Behandlung der gcistlicken Verlas- senschaften.” 5 Ibid., no. cxxxvil, pp. S18-828, “ Recess mit dem Ordinariat Augs- burg von Jahr 1785.” 80 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [80 all reveal an intention on the part of Charles Theodore to maintain the rights of his state against the bishops and the subordinate clergy. Westenrieder, who seems to have served quite frequently as an electoral commissioner at the election of new prelates, was apparently a stickler for the rigid observance by the spiritual authorities of the concor- dats and electoral decrees. As late as 1791 he insisted, un- doubtedly with the approval of the elector, at the installa- tion of a newly elected prelate at the monastery of Metten, that the bishop should read the prescribed formula in the language and at the place prescribed by the ecclesiastical council.t In fact, Charles Theodore’s warm friendship with the Pope and his long effort to have Bavarian bishoprics established whose incumbents would be nominated by him- self were very largely the result of the elector’s dissatis- faction with his relations to the surrounding German bishops.* It was in his relations with the Pope, therefore, and not the lower ranks of the clergy that Charles Theodore failed to maintain the rights of his state. In spite of his friendship with the Pope, however, Charles Theodore had made little progress by the end of his reign toward the establishment of the much desired Bavarian bishoprics. In 1785 a Papal nuncio had been sent to Munich, clothed with the powers of a bishop within the limits of the electoral court, and with extraordinary powers of dispensation and jurisdiction, but further than this feeble beginning the Pope was unable, and probably unwilling to go.* 1 Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 48. “On essaya de se servir du saint-siége contre les prétentions des évéques, on trotivoit moins d’inconvéniens dans le pouvoir d’un supérior étranger et éloigné que dans l’influence des consistoires, toujours présens sur les lieux, 4 méme de se faire valoir, et qui parloient sans cesse des lois et des tribunaux de l’empire.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 120. 8“Le saint-siége permit que l’électeur attirat 4 sa cour en 1785 un 81] THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 81 In 1799, therefore, the clergy—particularly the bishops— exercised many powers in Bavaria now exercised by the state. ‘he bishops still ordered, or made in person, partial visitations of their dioceses whenever they judged it expe- dient, but general visitations were made only with the ap- proval of the civil government and in codperation with a commissioner appointed by the secular government.’ Dis- putes concerning the marriage itself, entrance into marriage and its dissolution still came within the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts; but disputes concerning the property of married persons, the succession, maintenance and legiti- macy of children, came under the jurisdiction of the secular courts.” The real property cases of the clergy were carried nonce...mais il ne répondit a cette complaisance et d’autres encore que par quelques facultés extraordinaires accordées au méme nonce en matiere de dispense et de juridiction délégée; il n’auront pu, quand il Yauroit voulu, répondre au désir secret de l’électeur, qu'il fat érigé dans ses Etats des évéchés nouveaux dont les titulaires a4 sa nomination seule ne dépendroient que de lui. La délégation des pouvoirs épis- copaux a un titulaire in partibus sous le titre d’évéque de la cour, dont la jurisdiction se bornoit aux commensaux du palais, et qui sous le titre de grand aumonier présidoit au culte de la chapelle étoit un trop faible commencement de l’execution de ce plan ... pour meriter la moindre attention ...” Montgelas, of. cit., p. 120. *“Les évéeques ordonnoient ou faisoient eux-mémes des visites par- tielles dans leurs diocéses, toutes les fois quils le jugeoient a-propos, mais les visites générales n’avoient lieu que de Yaveu du gouvernement, qui adjoignoit un commissaire séculier A celui de Vofficialité.” Jbid., p. 118. 2“Von Strittigkeiten zwischen Eheleute oder Eheverlobten Personen ...ist hier nur folgendes zu bemercken. tmo. Wann es um die Ehe selbst, und deren Contrahir- oder Dissolvirung zu thun ist, so gehédrt die Sach an die Geistliche Obrigkcit; falls aber 2do. der Streit nur die Gtiter der Eheleuten, insonderheit die Succession, Alimentation, oder Rechtmassigkeit ihrer Kindern und andere dergleichen Effectus mere Civiles betriff, so soll sich die weltliche Obrigkeit von der Geist- lichen weder unter dem Vorwand der Connexion, noch sonst hierin einigermassen vergreiffen lassen, viel weniger die Partheyen selbst bey Vermeydung unnachlassiger Straf und Ahndung ihren Recurs dahin nehmen.” Codex Maximilianeus Bavaricus Civilis (Miimchen. 1739), Gonky c..0; Sec. 4d. 82 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 82 to the secular tribunals for settlement; but their personal and criminal cases were settled in the ecclesiastical courts. The prelates, nevertheless, who were members of the pro- vincial estates, were an exception to this general rule. Be- cause of their peculiar relation to the sovereign, they were under the jurisdiction of the secular courts in personal cases of acivil nature.* Trials concerning tithes were decided by the secular judges when the tithes were the property of lay- men or one of the parties to the trial at least did not belong to the clerical order. The sealing, inventorying and pub- lishing of the wills of the parish priests and other beneficed clergymen, was done by a mixed commission.” The elector had extensive powers of nomination over the lesser bene- fices of the dicceses. Prebends entered into possession of their tempcralities only by order of the sovereign and the intervention of a secular judge, and the elector nominated all the officers of the chapters and to the livings and bene- fices of electoral foundation. The elector, likewise, made nominations to the other prebendaryships during the months of the Pope. The prelates and rural deans were elected by the clergy, but the elections took place in the presence of commissioners of the elector, who were able to prevent the 1“ Tes causes réelles des ecclésiastiques étoient portées aux tribunau. séculiers; les causes personnelles ou criminelles resortissoient aux ofh- cialités. Les prélats qui, en qualité de membres des Etats, dépendoient d’une maniére plus particuliére du souverain, formoient une exception a cette régle; ils reconnoissoient méme dans les affaires personnelles, mais seulement aux civiles, la compétence des cours de justice élector- ales.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, pp. 117-118. 2“Tes procés pour dimes se décidoient par les juges électoraux, dans les cas, ot les dimes étoient réputées laiques, ou dans ceux, ott tous les deux plaideurs ou du moins le défendeur n’appartenoient pas a lordre clérical. Le scellé, l’inventaire, la publication de testament chez les curés et bénéficiers se faisoient par une commission mixte.” Jbid., p. 118. 83 | THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 83 choice of any one not agreeable to the government. The superiors of nunneries and the guardians and priors of houses of the friars had to obtain, likewise, electoral confir- mation. The edict of 1768, also, concerning the filling of benefices with Bavarian subjects was still in force. The clergy were subject, as a rule, to all the charges of the state, except for such modifications as various privileges and sep- arate agreements with private individuals and corporations had introduced into the state.” The clergy and the churches were forbidden, moreover, to acquire more than the sum of two thousand florins in the form of capital or real estate.” 1“Aucune prébende n’entroit en possession du temporal qu’en vertu d’un ordre du prince et par l’entremise du juge séculier. La cour nommoit a tous les communicats et dignités de chapitre, aux cures et bénéfices de fondation électorale. Elle jouissoit des mois du pape pour toutes les autres prébendes de ce genre...Les prélatures, les doyens ruraux étoient éligibles, mais l’élection se faisoit en présence des com- missaires de l’électeur, qui sans assister au scrutin pouvoient donner lexclusion a tout sujet qui ne convenoit pas aut gouvernement. Les votes clos ne pouvoient pas avoir lieu dans les actes d’élection des doyens ruraux. Les supérieurs des maisons de religieuses et les gardiens et prieurs des monastéres de mendians devoient obtenir de meme la confirmation électorale.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 118. 7“TLe clergé étoit assujetti, dans la régle, 4 toutes les charges de Y’Etat, sauf les modifications que des privileges ou recés particuliers avec quelques individus ou corporations avoient introduites.” J/bid., Del? 3“Tes lois publiées en 1701, 1764, 1765 interdisoient au clergé et aux églises toute acquisition de bien-fonds et de tout capital qui surpas- seroient la somme de 2000 florins.” Jbid., p. 118. CHAPTER Vi THE ReEvLiGious LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE Tue laity in Bavaria were as much out of sympathy with the religious tendencies of the eighteenth century as the gov- ernment and the clergy. For them the age of miracles was not past. Their land was filled with sacred shrines and wonder-working relics, their calendar with the feast days of the Church, and their days with processions, pilgrimages and sensuous representations of religious mysteries. They still put their trust in the shooting of firearms and the ring- ing of bells as a protection against storms, and in the excr- cism of evil spirits by the priests as a remedy for sickness and cattle plagues.* In short, the religious life of the great mass of the people was still mixed with much of the coarse- ness, superstition and insanitariness of the Middle Ages. Every town and monastery, apparently, possessed some object venerated by the faithful. Landshut, for example, had an especially famous wonder-working statue of Christ,” Munich had a statue of the Virgin much venerated by the people,* and Neuburg had two.* The monasteries seem to have been particularly rich in relics. The Cistercian abbey ef Aldersbach, situated in Lower Bavaria not far from Vils- 'Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1259, ‘“Auszug: das Exorcisiren und Segensprechen betr.” 2J. Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baiern, art. “ Landshut.” ’ Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, 1, 55. *Melchinger, op. cit., art. ““ Neuburg.” 84 | [84 85 | THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 8s: hofen, had in its collection of relics a small piece of Christ’s cross, a large piece of the chemise of the Virgin Mary, a back tooth of John the Baptist, two bones from the arm of Saint Ursula, the legs of the founder of the order, and the head of the Pope and martyr Urban. The Benedictine monastery of Andechs was apparently equally rich in holy relics, and the mountain on which it was built was generally supposed to contain the bones of a half-million saints.” These religious relics were not always, by any means, of ancient origin. In 1799 the wonder-working statue of Christ at Landshut was only about forty years old. Ac- cording to local tradition, the painter commissioned to paint the statue had completed his task with the exception of a loin cloth when he stopped work one evening. During the night, however, the statue turned so far around, through shame at being thus left, that the painter upon his arrival the next morning found it unnecessary to do anything more to the statue. It was known, in consequence, as the “Christ without a loin cloth.” * The possession of a famous shrine 1“ Unter den Reliquien siehet man hier ein Stiickchen vom Creuiz Christi; ein grosses Sttick von dem Hemde der Jungfrau Maria; einen Stockzahn von Johann, dem Taufer, zwo Spindeln von dem Arm der heil. Ursula; Beine von dem Ordensstifter, Das Haupt des Pabsis und Martirers Urban; . . . nebst andern heiligen Seltenheiten . . .” Melchinger, op. cit. 2“TDieses Kloster ist wegen der iiberaus grossen Anzahl heiliger Reliquien und anderer Kirchenschatze weit und breit in grossen Ansehen und Ruf der Heiligkeit, indem selbst der Berg durch und durch mit Gebeinen und Leibern beynahe einer halben Million Heiliger angeftillt seyn soll.” Jbid., art. “Andechs.” | 8“Auf dem Kirchhof steht ein achtes Denkmal des Aberglaubens, welches erst vor etwa 40 Jahren angesonnen und gestiftet ward... Es ist ein wunderthuendes Kreuzbild, ein Christus ohne Schaamtuch... Ein Maler hatte den Auftrag, dieses Crucifix zu malen. Nach einigen Tagen war gegen Abend hin das ganze Bild bis auf Schaamtuch, fertig. Der Maler war zu nachlassig, noch am nemlichen Abend das Schaam- tuch zu malen, verschob es bis auf den kunftigen Tag, und gieng in 86 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [86 or collection of relics was often an important economic asset to a locality. The wooden statue of the Virgin at Pas- sau, just east of Bavaria, brought to the city each year thou- sands of pilgrims, who were an important source of income to the inhabitants.* The collegiate church at Alten-Oettingen had an even more remarkable statue of the Virgin. It drew so many pilgrims to the city each year that an entirely new city, Neu-Oettingen, grew up to minister to their wants.’ In a land of so many shrines and relics, processions and pilgrimages naturally played an important part in the life of the people. They were held for a great variety of rea- sons: to show the subordinate position of the minor churches of a parish to the main church; * to celebrate the holidays of the Church; * to verify the boundaries of fields and parishes; ° and to obtain such special blessings as good dieser Gesinnung von dem Bild weg. Uebernacht schamte sich das Bild, so en face ohne Schaamtuch da zu hangen; und als der Maler Tags darauf kam...fand er dass sich das Bild uber Nacht von selbst so sehr auf die Linke Seite gedrehet habe- dass kein Schaamtuch mehr nothig war...” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Landshut.” 1“ Die Einwohner kennen ...wenig von irdischer Industrie .. Das tibrige Publikum lebt durch die Domherren und ihr Gefolge, durch die Hofbediente und Pensionisten, durch die zahlreiche Geistlichkeit und die Studenten. Ein Nahrungszweig ist auch der Marienhilfberg. Die hdlzerne Marienbild hat ehedem die hellen Thranen geweint!” Ibid) sartis\ Passat.” 2“Dieses Alten Oettingen ist der Hauptort unter allen Wallfahrten in ganz Baiern...Es geschahen hierher schon in den uralten und finstern Zeiten des Aberglaubens so tibermassige Wallfahrten zu einem holzernen wunderthatigen Marienbild, dass sie zu Anbau der Stadt Neuen Oettingen...Gelegenheit gegeben haben, indem der Zulauf so stark gewesen, dass die Wallfahrer hier nicht alle unterkommen konn- ten.” Ibid., art. “Alten Oettingen.” *Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1099, “ Die Fronleichnams-Prozessionen auf den Lande betr.” * Particularly on Corpus Christi Day, St. Mark’s Day, and the Mon- day, Tuesday and Wednesday of Rogation week. > Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1238. “ Den Felderumritt betr.” 87 | THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 87 harvests * and better weather.” They varied in importance from processions of mere local and parish significance to pilgrimages of national magnitude. A great many par- ishes seem to have had, in addition to the processions pre- scribed by the Church, one or more processions of local origin. The people of Munich, for example, made a pil- grimage on Whitmonday every third year to Mt. Andechs, a place ten hours distant from the city, and returned on the following day.” Persons from a great many places jour- neyed each year to the Mountain of the Trinity near Regens- burg;* and to places like Passau,’ Andechs°® and Alten- Oettingen ‘ the pilgrims evidently came in crowds through- out the whole year. The religious celebrations of the people seem to have been characterized by many indecorous proceedings. The gov- ernment decrees of this period complain in particular of the disorder during the services on Corpus Christi day and the revelry in the public houses after the service; * the drinking and debauchery on the holidays of the Church; the plays and dramas presented on those days; ° and the proceedings which characterized the processions and pilgrimages that 1 Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, 1138, “ Das Erndte-Gebet betr.” 2 A description of such a procession at Munich in 1785 is given in Westenrieder’s, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 31. *“Die biirgerliche Congregation geht alle drey Jahre am Pfingst- montag nach dem Berg Andex wallfahrten...” IJbid., p. 69. *“Un pélerinage qui avoit lieu tous les ans, le 15 juin, et ot l’on se redoit de beaucoup d’endroits, sur le mont de la Trinité, pres de Ratisbonne, a été défendu...” Journal de Debats, 11 Messidor, an. 10, dispatch dated, “ Munich, 19 juin.” 5 Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Passau.” *Tbid., art. “Andechs.” TIbid., art. “Alten Oettingen.” ®Dollinger, op. cit, vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1099, “Die Fronleichnams Prozessionen auf dem Lande betr.” ° Cf. infra, p. 97, notes I, 2 and 3; and p. 98, note I. 88 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [8&8 kept the pilgrims out over night... The government even found it necessary to forbid the bringing of dogs into the churches.” Another group of the popular religious customs might be classed as insanitary. The burial of the dead in the churches * and the maintenance of public cemeteries in the cities * were still common practices. One custom of the rural districts was particularly nauseating. Dough was set to rise on the winding sheet of dead persons, and cakes baked from this dough were then eaten by the friends and relatives of the deceased, while they were crowded together in the room where the dead person lay.” The Bavarian government by 1799 had made some efforts to reform the religious life of the laity by legislation. The principal practices dealt with by the government decrees were the shooting cf firearms and the ringing of bells in time of storm, religious plays and dramas, and processions, pilgrimages and the number of holidays. 1They are hinted at in the ordinances against Kreusgdange. Cf. Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1211, “Die abgewurdigte Feiertage und Kreuzgange betr.”’ ' * Ibid., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1064-1065, “Hunde in der Kirche.” 9 Mar., 1795. 3 Regierungsblatt, 2 Feb., 1803, pp. 65-66, “Das Verbotwidrige Beer- digen der Leichen in den Kirchen und deren Grifte betr.,” 28 Jan., 1805. 4 Ibid., 13 Feb., 1805, p. 205, “Auftrag an samtl. Landgerichte und Polizey-Kommissionen der Hauptstadte,” 11 Feb., 1805. 5“Tn vielen Gegenden Baierns herrscht noch auf dem Lande die Gewohnheit, dass sich die Verwandten, Nachbarn und Bekannte oft bis 20 Personen in dem Hause eines Verstorbenen einfinden, und da bis zur Begrabniss bey der Leiche in dem meistens sehr engen, und niedrigen Wohn- und Speisezimmer einen Rosenkranz nach dem andern abwechs- lungsweise bethen, wie nicht minder, dass man an einigen Orten den Korper des Verstorbenen mit einen weissen Tuche bedeche, auf seibes bis zur geigneten Gahrung die geknettete Mehlmasse lege, selbe sonach aus der Pfanne zu sogenannten Kiicheln backe, und diese an die Gaste vertheile.” Jbid., 13 July, 1803, p. 467, “Auftrag: Missbrauche bey Leichen auf dem Lande betr.,” 7 July, 1803. 89 | THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 89 The first measure of the Bavarian government against the practice of shooting with firearms in time of storm was the decree of 13 June, 1773. It was a very timid measure indeed. The government admitted the good accomplished in many places by the practice of shooting in time of storm with firearms, and denied having any intention of doing away with either the shooting of firearms or the ringing of bells at such times, but contended that experience showed these practices to be beneficial only when the storm was ap- proaching, and to be injurious once the storm was over the horizon. The decree urged the advisability, therefore, of instructing the public in the /ntelligenzblatt concerning the two effects of the practice and their natural causes.’ It is hardly likely that the ministers of as enlightened a prince as Maximilian IIT Joseph really believed their own decree, and probably it was the purpose of the government gradually to educate the people away from the foolish and sometimes dangerous practice. Ten years later, however, by the de- cree of ¢ August, 1783, the government definitely forbade the ringing of bells in time of storm, although at the be- ginning of a storm a call to prayer, and at the end of a storm a call to give thanks, might still be sounded.* The 1“Da das Wetterschiessen schon viele Jahre her an manchen Orten gut gethan hat, so gedenkt man zwar selbes so wenig, als das Wetter- lauten abzuschaffen; nachdem aber auch die Erfahrung giebt, dass sowohl eines als anderes nur bei anrtickenden Wettere von guter Wirkung ist; hingegen bey dem schon zu nahe oder gerad uber den Horizont stehenden ungewitter nur desto schadlicher zu seyn pflegt, so wird nicht undienlich seyn, wenn man das Publikum tber den Unter- schied dieser beeden Wirkungen und die nattirliche Ursachen derselben in dem Intelligenzblatt genugsam belehren und avertiren lasst.” Dol- linger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1150, ‘‘ Mandat: das Wetterschiessen betr.,” 13 Jun., 1773. 2“NNachdem die ledige Erfahrung durch eingelaufene Berichte und Sffentliche Zeitungs-Blatter bewiesen hat, dass das bisher wblich gewesene Wetterliuten mehr schadlich als ntitzlich, und eben darum go RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [90 following year the government ordered that a fine of twenty Reichsthaler, or imprisonment if the offender had no prop- erty, should be the penalty for disobeying its orders. The repetition, both before and after 1799, of the government's prohibition of the custom and the open confession of the decrees of 1734 * and 1788 * that the earlier decrees on the subject had not been heeded, prove conclusively the govern- ment’s lack of suecess in dealing with this practice. The efforts of the government to limit the number of Church holidays in Bavaria make a very similar story. In its efforts to limit the number of holidays observed in Bava- ria, however, the government had the Pope as an ally. By the Papal Bull of 16 May, 1772, the holidays of the Church were limited to Easter, Easter Monday, Whitsunday, all Sundays of the year, Christmas, New Year’s day, Epiphany, Ascension day, Corpus Christi day, the five feasts of the Purification, Annunciation, Ascension, Nativity and Im- maculate ‘Conception of the Virgin Mary, and the feasts of Saint Joseph, John the Baptist, Peter and Paul, Saint Ste- in dem meisten auswartigen Orten abgeschaft sei; so wollen Seine Churfurstliche Durchlaucht kraft einer bei hochster Stelle unterm 28. abhin gefassten huldreichsten Entschliessung anmit gnadigst, dass kiinftigenhin in Hochstdero hiesigen Landen ausser des gewohnlichen, zu Anrufung des gottlichen Beistandes bestimmten englischen Grusses und des nach geendigten Gewitter zur Danksagung abermal zu geben- den Zeichen, in keinem Orte mehr zum Wetter gelautet ...” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. &, pt. 2, p. 1151, “ Mandat: das Wetterlauten betr.” 1 Aug., 1783. 1“T1ochstdieselben befehlen daher gnadigst, dass kunftighin, wenn sich jemand noch weiters dergleichen anmassen soll, diejenigen, die iiber das Gewitter wider die Vorschrift lauten, oder das Lauten veran- lassen, mit 20 Reichsthaler Straf ad fundum Pauperum: die unver- mOglichen aber mit Zuchthausstrafen belegt werden sollen...” Jbid., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1151-1152, “ Mandat: das Wetterlauten btr.,” 23 July, 1784. 2 Ibid. 8 Ibid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1152, “ Mandat: das Lauten zum Gebet bei Hochgewittern betr.,” 11 Apr., 1788. gi] THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE OI phan, All Saints and the principal patron saint of each church. On these days the faithful were to worship in the usual manner of Catholics, by fasting on the evening before, attending mass and refraining from labor. On the other holidays of the Church, however, they were permitted to labor and carry on their business, and they were freed from the necessity of observing the fasts formerly prescribed for those days.’ The Papal bull was followed by the electoral decree of t4 December, 1772. The limitation of the number of the Church holidays was defended cn the ground that experi- ence proved that the multiplication of holidays promoted idleness, debauchery and the dishonor, rather than the honor of God, to say nothing of the harm that days spent for the most part in sensuality and revelry caused to in- dustry and agriculture. The subjects of the elector were 1“Es sollen namlich hinfiiran die Fest- oder Feyertage, als das Osterfest, oder die Auferstehung des Herrn sammt dem nachst fol- genden Montag, das Pfingstfest auch mit dem nachst darauf folgende Montag, hernach alle Sonntage des Jahrs, das Fest der Weihnachten, ...des neuen Jahrs,...der heiligen drei kénigen, der Himmelfahrt, und des Fronleichnams Jesu Christi, dann auch die ftinf der seligsten Jungfrau Maria geheiligten Tage, als namlich der ‘Reinigung, Verkiindi- gung, Himmelfahrt, Geburt, und Empfangniss, tiberhin noch die Festtage des heiligen Josephs, des heiligen Johann des Taufers, der heiligen Apostel Peter und Pauls, aller Heiligen, des heiligen Erz- martyrers Stephan, und des vornehmsten Patron einer jedweden kirche beybehalten und gefeyert werden...In allen diesen obbemel- deten Fest- und Feyertagen also sollen die Christglaubigen nach altem Gebrauche der katholischem Kirche dem heiligen Messopfer beyzu- wohnen, von knechtlicher Arbeit sich enthalten, und am Vorabend derselben zuvor schon gebothene Fasten zu halten verbunden seyn. In den tibrigen Festtagen aber erlauben Wir, dass nicht nur allein aller Handel und Wandel getrieben und alle knechtliche Arbeit verrichtet werden diirfe, sondern Wir sprechen auch eben diese Christglaubigen von der Schuldigkeit, an den Vorabenden dieser aufgehaltenen Feyer- tage zu fasten...wie auch von dem Gebothe an diesen Tagen die heilige Mess zu horen, ganzlich los und Frey.” Weber, Gesets- und Verordnungen Sammlung fiir das Kénigreich Bayern, 1, 18-109. g2 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [92 commanded, in consequence, to celebrate only the holidays recognized by the bull of 1772, and to keep their stores, shops and places of work open on other days. The ringing of bells on the evening before one of the feasts abolished by the Papal bull, as an announcement of its approach, was forbidden. The government threatened to proceed crim- inally against those who attempted by the use of force, threats or any other means to prevent other persons from working on the proscribed holidays. The decree ordered, also, the closing of all places devoted to buying and selling— particularly those selling beer, mead, coffee, brandy and food—on Sundays and the holidays recognized by the gov- ernment, during the forenoon and afternoon service, under penalty of a fine of twenty-four Reichsthaler for the first offence, fifty for the second and loss of license for the third. The parish clergy, finally, were expected to explain the pressing need of the measure.’ 1“ Die leidige Erfahrung gibt, dass die Verhelfaltigung der Feyer- tage mehr zu Missigang und Ausschweifungen, mithin auch mehr zu Beleidung als Ehre Gottes gereiche, des tibergrossen Schadens zu geschweigen, den solche unndthige mit Schweigerey und Ueppigkeiten meistentheils zugebrachte Feyertage mittels Versaumung der Hand- und Feldbarkeit dem gemeinen Wesen zuziehen. Gleichwie nun eben dess- wegen bereits in verschiedenen katholischen Landen eine merkliche Verminderung der Feyertage vorgegangen...ist... Imo. Ausser den in dem pabstlichen Breve Ausdriicklich begriffenen keine andere Feyertage mehr beybehalten werden sollen. 2do. Ist nicht allein die bisher tblich vorlaufige Verkiindigung des abgethanen Feyertages, sondern auch am Vorabend desselben das gewohnliche Glockenzeichen oder sogenannte Feyerabendlauten allerdings zu unter- lassen. 3tio. Mtissen an diesen Tagen alle Handwerkstatte, Kaufladen und Krambuden, wie sonst an einen Werktage zu geschehen pflegt, bey schwerer Ahndung offen stehen. Und Gleichwie dadurch gto. Unsern Unterthanen dadurch mehr Zeit und Gelegenheit zu Erwerbung des taglichen Brods verschaft wird, so versehen Wir Uns auch zu ihnen, dass sie sich diese Zeit zu Nutzen machen, und solche zu berufsmassigen Arbeit um so fleissiger verwenden, als man diejenige, welche sie ent- weder mit Gewalt, Bedrohung oder sonst abhaltung wollen, als Storer 93] THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 93 The government repeated its prohibition against the ob- servance of the abolished holidays in 1773, 1780, 1785 and 1786. From these decrees it would seem that the chief ob- stacles encountered by the government in its efforts to en- force the electoral decree of 16 December, 1772, were the popular enjoyment of the holidays, and the popular inter- ference with those who attempted to obey the injunctions of the government. The decrees of 1773, 1780 and 1785 in- dicate quite clearly the difficulties encountered by the gov- ernment. The ordinance of 19 April, 1773, warned the public against hindering at home or on the streets or in the fields, by joking or mistreatment, those who wished to work on the former holidays." The decree of 29 September, 1780, admitted that the efforts of the government in Neu- der oOffentliche Ruhe und Verachter der Offentlichen Gebothe mit schweresten Strafe, auch wohl gar nach Befund der Sachen kriminalisch behandeln wiirde....Zu den Seelsorgern und Predigern versehen Wir Uns 6to. Gleichfalls gnadigst, dass ste dem Volk die dringende Bewegur- sachen, warum einige Feyertage abgeandert worden, ausfuhrlich und Oofter vortragen, auch jedermann zu den schuldigen Gehorsam gegen die Kirche und den Landesftirsten nachdrucksamst hierin ermahnen werden. 7mo....Wir auch hiemit ernstlich befehlen, das wahrend vor- und nachmittagigen pfarrlichen Gottesdienst, alles Kaufen und Verkaufen sowohl in Stadten als auf dem Lande ganzlich unterlassen, auch alle Schenk-, Kaffee-, Meth-, Brandwein- und Kochhauser sammt den Wirthsgarten durchaus und ohne Atisnahme verschlossen bleiben sollen, und zwar unter 24 Reichsthaler Strafe wider die Uebertretter zum erstenmal, zum zweytenmal mit 50, und dann zum drittenmal mit Verworchung der Gerechtigkeit, wovon allemal ein Drittel dem Auf- bringer mit Verschweigung seines Namens,...verbleiben soll.” Dol- linger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1185-1186. 1“Auf Churfiirstl. gnadigste Special-Anbefehlung wird hiemit jeder- mann kund gemacht, dass niemand unterstehen solle, diejenigen, so an den mit Consens Sr. pabstlichen Heilikeit von geistlich- und welt- licher Obrigkeit aufgehobenen Feyertagen zu Hause, auf der Gasse, oder auf dem Felde, eine Arbeit vernehmen wollen, die mindeste Hinderniss in den Weg zu legen, die Arbeitenden zu spotten, oder zu misshandeln...” Ddllinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1186, “ Mandat: von der Arbeit an den aufgehoben Feyertagen betr.,” 19 Apr., 1773. g4 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [4 burg, at least, had been for the most part of no avail, be- cause the greater part of the inhabitants of the duchy, through lack of a real knowledge of their duties and an exaggerated zeal, believed themselves obligated to celebrate the abolished holidays, and many of them, by reason of a predilection for idleness, drunkenness and other kinds of dissipation, criminally ventured to pass the abolished holi- days without working. As a result, the better thinking heads of families were hindered to the utmost on these days in carrying on their occupations through the disobedience and laziness of apprentices and servants. All electoral sub- jects, including apprentices and servants, were forbidden, therefore, to play, drink or frequent the taverns and dancing places before six o’clock in the evening on the abolished holidays; and the parishes were forbidden, under any pre- text whatever, to establish on their own initiative any new holiday, or to have divine service or religious processions on any of the abolished holidays.* Five years later, how- '“ Nachdem Wir aber in jenen Zeitverlauf vom 6 Jahren zu Unsern grossten Missfallen vernehmen mitissen, dass diese vorgehabie fiir das allgemeine Wohl abzweckende Anordnung, meistentheils dadurch vereit- let worden, weil eines Theils viele, ja die meisten Innwohner Unseres Herzogthums aus Mangel einer achten Kenntniss ihrer Pflichten und ganz tbertriebenen Eifer noch immer diese abgewiirdigt und verlegten Festtage feyern zu mtssen sich verbunden glauben, andern Theils aber einige aus selbsten nicht so viel aus Trieb der Andacht, als aus einem zur offenbaren Aergerniss ihnen anklebenden Hang des schad- lichen Mussigangs, Trunkenheit so andern schadlichen Ausschweifun- gen mehrbesagt abgewtirdigte Feyertage ohne Arbeit zuzubringen sich hochst straflich unterfangen, endlich auch mehrere der besser den- kenden Hausvaier durch den Ungehorsam, und die Tragheit ihrer Dienstbothen, Handwerksgesellen, Knechte und Madchen, an Forstet- zung ihrer Arbeiten an solchen mittels pabstlichen Erlaubniss hierzu gewidmeten Tagen dusserst behindert werden, . . . (1) Verbiethen Wir anmit Unsern sammtlichen Unterthanen, dann den MHand- werksgesellen und Dienstbothen an den abgewurdigten Feyertagen alles Spielen und Zechen, dann die Besuchung der Wirthhauser und Tanzplatze vor der 6ten Stund des Abends...(2) Gehet Unser 95 | ZHE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 95 ever, the government was still encountering the same ob- stacles. According to a decree of 1785 some inhabitants of the electorate, through lack of a real understanding of their duties, and a false zeal, believed themselves bound to cele- brate the proscribed holidays, and others, from a predilec- tion for idleness and dissipation rather than piety and re- ligious devotion, not only continued to demand these holi- days for themselves, but even through ridicule, threats and at times the most criminal acts kept others from working on those days.* In the following year, however, the previous measures of the government concerning the abolished holidays and the processions held on those days were considerably modified by the decree of 22 August, 1786. No one thereafter was to be forced to work on the proscribed holidays, and the penalties of the earlier decrees were to be inflicted only on those who persuaded or hindered other persons from work- ing on those days. The government withdrew, likewise, its gnadigste Willensmeinung ferners auch dahin, dass den Gemeinden in Zukunft nicht mehr erlaubt seyn solle aus eigner Willkir sich selbst einen Feyertag, der Vorwand hierzu moge auch seyn, welches es immer wolle, zu machen, oder an einen abgewurdigten ehemaligen Feyertage, oder gar an einen Werktag einen feyerlichen Gottesdienst halten zu lassen, oder ein Procession anzustellen...” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1187-1180, ‘“ Mandat: von den abgewiidigten Feyer- tagen im Neuburgischen betr.,” 29 Sept., 1780. 1“ .indem sich einige Innwohner der diesseitigen Kurlande aus Mangel einer achten Kenntniss ihrer Pflichten, und aus einem Schei- neifer, die abgewirdigten Feyertage noch immer halten zu miussen, verbunden zu seyn glauben, andere hingegen nicht aus Andacht oder Frommigkeit, sondern blos aus einem alten Hang zum Mussig- gange, und gewohnlichen Ausschweifungen noch fortfahren, dieselben nicht nur selbst feyerlich zu begehren, sondern sogar andere Personen, die den diesfalls ergangenen gemeinniitzigen Verordnungen Pflicht- massig gehorchen woilten von der Arbeit theils mit Schimpfworten und Bedrohungen, theils aber durch die strafbarsten Thathandlungen abzuhaiten...” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1190-1193, “ Mandai: von dem abgeschaften Feiertagen betr.,” 1785. 96 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [96 earlier prohibitions against celebrating divine service and holding religious processions of ancient origin or those which were held for the purpose of obtaining some praise- worthy object, like rain or better weather.* It would seem from the first ordinance on the subject issued by the next sovereign of Bavaria that the practical result of the decree of 22 August, 1786, was a restoration of the abolished holli- days to the position which they had formerly enjoyed.” 1“Die in Betreff der aufgehobenen Feiertage und Kreuzgange erlas- sene Churfiirstliche Verordnungen... werden der vielen Anstande halber, welche sich in dem Vollzug bisher ergeben haben, hiemit dahin erlautert und modificirt, dass pro Imo. zwar Niemand an diesen Tagen zur Arbeit gezwungen, dagegen aber auch niemand, der die Arbeit ohne erheblicher Ursach unter- lasset, mit einem Nachlass an den praestandis, unter was flr einen Vorwand solcher immer gesucht wiirde, begiinstiget, folglich die andere generalmadatenmassige Strafen nur gegen jene allein, welche nicht nur selbst nicht arbeiten, sondern sogar andere von der Arbeit abreden, anhalten, oder daran hindern, verhangt werden sollen; und die hiernachst 2do. die pabstliche Bull vom 16 Mai, 1772...an besagten Tagen: nur die Schuldigkeit, Messe zu horen, nicht aber die den Heiligen gewidmete Gottesdiensten und Messen aufhebt, solche noch ferner, wie vorher, in jeder Kirche gehalt.n wissen will... ; so hat man sich allerdings hiernach zu achten, und nichts daran abzuandern. 3tio. Mogen auch die Kreuzgange, und Prozessionen, welche von alters hergebracht sind, oder sonst aus l6blichen guten Ursachen, z. E. bei allgemeinen Gebet um Regen oder schon Wetter vorgenommen werden, sowohl an den Sonn- als aufgehobenen Fest- und andern Werktagen, in der naimlichen Maas, wie zuvor, jedoch allemal mit behoriger Vorsicht, damit keine Unordnung und Missbrauche so leich- terdinge darunter einschleichen konnen, ihren ungehinderten Forigang nehmen.” Dollinger, op. cit. vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1194, “ Mandat: die abgeschaften Feiertige und Kreuzgange betr.,” 22 Aug., 1786. 2“Wir haben mit Missfallen bemerkt, dass an jenen ehemaligen Feyertagen, welche durch das Breve Pabst Klemens des XIV vom 16ten May 1772, und die vom Unserm Regierungsvorfahrer Churfiirst Maximilian Joseph dem Dritten unterm I4ten Christmonats hierauf erlassene Verordnung abgewiirdigt worden, von dem gréssten Theil unserer Unterthanen nicht gearbeitet werde, und dass iiber diess viele derselben allerley neue Feyertige, Bittginge, und so weiter selbst ein- 97] (THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMON PEOPLE 97 The Bavarian government issued a number of decrees before 1799, likewise, against the presentation of passion plays on religious holidays and the use of representations of any sort in processions. A decree of 31 March, 1770, pro- hibited the presentation of such plays in both the rural dis- tricts and the cities and towns, on the ground that the great- est mystery of religion did not belong to the stage—partic- ularly on fast days and in the Passion Week. The proces- sions usually held on Good Friday, however, were to be held in a devout manner without speeches, ridings around or other disorderly proceedings. The prohibition against the presentation of the Passion plays on church holidays was repeated in 1781 7 and again in 1793.* The decree of 20 zufiihren suchen, tiberhaupt aber die nutzlichen Wirkungen jener pabstlichen Bewilligung nicht erzielet worden seyen.” Regierungsblatt, 19 Dec., 1801, pp. 799-802, “ Verordnung: die abgewiirdigten Feyertage betr.,” 4 Dec., 1801. 1“ Nachdem Wir Uns gnadigst entschlossen haben, in Unseren sammt- lichen Churlanden in Stadt- und Markten sowohl, als durchgehends auf dem Lande die Passions-Tragédien ganzlich abzuschaffen, und in Anbetracht, dass das grésste Geheimniss Unserer geheiligten Religion keineswegs auf die Buhne gehore, weder in den Fasten, am mindesten aber in der Heiligen Charwochen mehr zu gedulden: als habt ihr gleich heuer; was die Charwoche belangt, auf diesen Unseren ernst- gemessenen und unabanderlichen Befehl nach aller Strenge zu halten ... Was die Charfreytagsprozessionen betrifft, so sollen sie in Zukunft nur in einem andachtigen Umgang ohne Spriiche, Herumreissungen, und dergleichen Unifdrmlichkeiten gehalten werden...” Dédllinger, op. cit. vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1234, ‘‘Mandat: Passions-Tragédien, und Charfreytagsprozessionen betr.,” 31 Mar., 1770. 2 Tbid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1242, ‘““ Mandat: die Missbrauche bei der Fron- leichnams- Processions- und Passions-Tragodien betr.,” 6 Jun., 1781. 3“ Die Ursachen, welche Seine Churfirstliche Durchlaucht zu diesen héchsten Verfiigungen bewogen haben, waren, dass die grossen Geheimnisse Unserer Religion kein Gegenstand fiir die Buhne sind, dass durch die Auffihrung dergleichen Spiele das Volk von der wahren Andacht und Anbetung abgehalten, von seinen Berufsgeschaften entfernt, sofort zum Miussigang, nur zu oft zu andern Ausschwei- fungen verleitet wird, und weil tberhaupt der Zeitliche Gewinn, welchen 98 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [98 July, 1793, renewed the prohibition of the government on the ground that such performances kept the people from real worship and devotion, and led to idleness and often debauchery by keeping the people from their daily work. Moreover, the temporary gains, which were really the prin- cipal reason for such spectacles, could not be considered against their injurious results. Two decrees issued in 1781 * forbade the use of representations of any sort in proces- sions. The decree of June 8 was the most specific. It for- bade the use of representatons made by living persons on triumph wagons, stages or on foot, the masking of riders, and the custom followed by the farmers’ and burghers’ sons of dressing as soldiers. man bei dergleichen Vorstellung stillschweigend zur Hauptabsicht hat, gegen die hieraus entspringenden Schadlichen Folgen in gar keine Betrachtung genommen werden darf...” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1235, ““Mandat: von Passions-Tragédien und derlei Spielen,” 20 Juli, 1793. 1Tbid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1242, ‘Mandat: die Missbrauche bei der Fronleichnams- Processions- und Passions-Tragdédien betr.,” 6 Juni, 1781. The second of the decrees ran in part as follows: “ Nachdem Seine ‘Churfiirstliche Durchlaucht kraft anhero erlassenen gnadigsten Rescript- dd. 6 d. ausdriicklich gnadigst anbefohlen haben, dass bey denen nicht nur Fronleichnams sondern all andernen Prozessionen sowohl in hiesiger Residenzstadt, als auch in dem ganzen Lande von nun an sammentliche masquirte Reutereyen, wie auch alle mit leben- digen Personen entweder auf Triumphwagen, Tragbiihnen, oder zu Fuss gemachte Vorstellungen,...alle Verkleidungen der Bauerpur- schen und BtirgersOhne zu Soldaten ganzlich unterbleiben, und abge- schaft seyn sollen;...” Jbid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1242, “ Mandat: mas- quirte Reutereyen und Vorstellungen bey Prozessionen betr.,” & Jun., 1781. Pare Lan Lt THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DURING THE NAPO- LEONIC PERIOD AND ITS IM- MEDIATE EFFECTS i r) # yey val Fe RL et ; : , TELGt? ‘ TAs rr ‘ f oy) +b be 4 ig Ma iy : CHAPTER Vil THE NEw GOVERNMENT AND Its First MEASURES Ow 16 February, 1799,* death finally removed the elector Charles Theodore from the land he had so long oppressed. When Maximilian II] Joseph died on 30 December, 1778, according to the report of Westenrieder, the capital and the whole nation wept. The death of Charles Theodore, how- ever, evoked feelings of an entirely different nature. Ac- cording to Westenrieder, the whole city began to breathe freely once more; each one wished the other luck, and all waited with impatience the proclamation of the new elec- tor, Maximilian ['V Joseph.* Very little seems to be known about the life of the new elector before 1799. He was born in 1756, and was a younger son of the Zweibrttcken branch of the House of Wittelsbach.* From 1777 to the breaking out of the French Revolution he seems to have served as a colonel in the French army.’ From that time on until 1799 he seems to 1 The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1799, “ Deaths,” p. 255. 2“ die ganze Stadt fieng endlich an, frey zu athmen,....Beym Hintritt des Max Joseph den 30 Dec. 1777 zerflossen die Ganze Stadt und die ganze Nation in Thrainen. Heute frolokte alles, und jeder wiinschte dem andern Gliick. Man erwartete mit Ungeduld die Pro- klamation des neuen Churfiirsten Maximilian (IV) Joseph.” Westen- rieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. Ot. 3 Regierungsblatt, 15 Jan., 1806, p. 17, “ Genealogie des Koniglichen Hauses von Baiern.’” 4“Der Konig von Frankreich hatte den Prinzen zum Obristen des Regiments Elsass ernannt. Also begab er sich im Jahre 1777 zum Dienst-Antritt nach Strassburg, wo er bis zum Jahre 1789 sein Stand- 101 | 101 102 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 02 have lived in a state of rather genteel poverty... Upon the death of his elder brother, in 1795, he nominally became duke of Zweibriicken, but, most unfortunately for him, the French were at the time in actual possession of his duchy and had no intention of giving it up.” Four years later, as was explained in the last paragraph, he fell heir to the more substantial heritage of Bavaria. The new elector had been twice married to Protestants.*. From a ruler who had lived much of his life in the more rational atmosphere of eighteenth-century France and had been subjected for twenty years to Protestant influence in his family, the Bava- rian people had a right to expect a policy very different from that followed by Charles Theodore. The very first measures of the new elector after his. arrival at Munich on the evening of February 20 “ awoke the most joyous hopes” * “among the friends of better things” ° in both Bavaria and other states of Germany, and quartier behielt, doch Musse genug zu Reisen nach Paris und ins stidliche Frankreich wahrend jener Periode fand.” G. G. Bredow, Chrontk des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, 1825, p. 461. 1“ Fier [Mannheim] und in Darmstadt bei den Eltern seiner Gemah- lin lebte er langere Zeit als ein ancien Colonel, anfanglich von den Apagnagen des Herzogthums Zweybriichen; als aber diese ausblieben, und sein Bruder Karl fliichten musste, von geringen Beitragen, die ibm Karl Theodore und die bayerische Landschaft zukommen liessen ... vorziiglich aber von Darlehen, welche ein jiidischer Bankier Selig- man...zu verschaffen wagte.” A. Buchner, Geschichte von Bayern, rele & 2“At Manheim, after a short illness, his serene highness the Duke of Deux-Ponts. His Dominions have been in possession of the French, with some few intervals, for more than two years past. The suc- cession to the Duchy devolves to Maximilian Joseph...brother to the late reigning Duke.” Gentleman’s Magazine, 1795, “Deaths,” April 1, Pp. 439. ’ Catholic Encyclopedia, Art. “ Bavaria.” *G. G. Bredow, Chronik des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, i, 411. 5 Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, 65. 103 | THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES 103 clearly indicated the general policy the new government intended to follow. ‘The police were no longer used to en- force an external submission to the forms of the Catholic religion. A verbal order forbade further demands for tickets of confession, and every person was allowed to fol- low the dictates of his own conscience as long as he did not show by his speech or conduct a lack of respect for the Catholic religion. By February 29, also, the Papal Nuncio, ather Lippert, Schneider, the Director of the ‘College of Book Censorship, Zetwiss, the commander of the army, and the ministers, von Vieregg and Count Leiningen—six of the most notorious members of Charles Theodore’s government —had been dismissed from the government service.* Most of the ministers of the preceding government, however, seem to have been released from active service but to have retained their rank and salary.’ The ministerial appointments of the new ruler seem to have met with as much favor in the eyes of the party of re- 1“T)és que V. M. eut pris possession des Etats bavaro-palatins, son premier soin fut de faire cesser l’activité de police, par laquelle on avoit cherché a introduire une soumission hypocrite aus pratiques extérieures de la religion... Un ordre verbal interdit les demandes des billets de confession, on cessa de préter l’appui du bras séculier pour réprimer de simples ommissions de ce genre, chacun fut laissé a sa conscience, du moment, ot il ne s’écarta ni par discours ni par actions du respect di au culte national.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 121. 9 2“ Den 29 Febr. Seit den 20 Febr. haben sich eine Menge Aenderungen ergeben. Der papstliche Nuntius ist abgedankt. So auch der bertich- tigte Lippert und der Biichercensurcollegii-Director Freyherrn von Schneider... Auch die Minister von Vieregg und Leiningen, so wie der Zetwiz . . . von ihren Stellen entfernt.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdig- keiten und Tagebiicher, p. 63. 3“ Par le decret du 25 février 1799 le nombre des ministres dirigeant les departemens et ayant voix et séance au conseil, Staats-Conferenz, fut réduit a quatre... Tous les autres furent dispensés de leur activité en conservant leur rang et leur traitement entier.” Montgelas, op. cit., ips 1s: 104 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [104 form as did his dismissals. The electoral decree of 25 Feb- ruary, 1799, established a ministry with four departments. By this decree Montgelas was placed in charge of the depart- ment of foreign affairs, Count Morawizky of the depart- ment of ecclesiastical affairs, Baron von Hompesch of the department of finance, and Baron von Hertling of the de- partment of Justice.* Three of the new ministers had been in the service of Charles Theodore: von Hompesch and von Hertling as ministers,” and Count Morawizky as ambas- sador at Rastadt.* The notes left by Westenrieder, how- ever, which have already been quoted many times, show how much the officials of even so despotic a ruler as Charles Theodore could be out of sympathy with their master. Count Morawizky in particular seems to have been recog- nized at once as an ally of the friends of reform in Bava- ria.* Montgelas, the new minister of foreign affairs, was 1“ Seine Churfiistl. Durchl. haben den hochsten Entschluss gefasst ... far die Zukunft ein Departement der Auswartigen Geschafte, eines fiir die Finanz, eines fiir Justiz, und eines fiir die Geistlichen Gegen- stande zu errichten...Als Minister des Geheimen Finanz-Departements fir alle Churftirstl. Lande haben Se. Churftrstl. Durchl. Dero geheimen Staats- und Conferenz-Minister Freyherrn von Hompesch, als Minister der Departemens der auswartigen Geschafte...Freyherrn von Mont- gelas, als Minister des Departements der geistlichen...Grafen von Morawizky, und als Minister des Justiz-Departements... Freyherrn von Hertling,...gnadigst bestimmt...” Sammlung der Churpfalz-Baier- ischen allgemeinen und besonderen Landesverordnungen von Sr. Chur- fiirstl. Durchlaucht Maximilian Joseph IV, (Herausgeben von G. K. Mayr, Miinchen, 1800), pt. 2, no. iv, p. 31, “Die kinftige Geschafts- Behandlung in samtlichen Churfiirstlichen Staaten.” This work cited hereafter as Mayrische Sammlung von r8oo. * Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 60. 3“Tyen 16. Marz ist der Graf Morawizky von Rastadt, wo er nach der Abreise des Grafen Max Preising baier Gesandter war, hier zu Munchen wieder angekommen.” J/bid., p. 64. 4“ Der Herr Minister, Graf v. Morawizky, Westenrieder, der rihm- lichst bekannte Gelehrte, die Geh. Rathe Zehntner und Branka sind es die im Bunde mit dem “humanen und helldenkenden” Max Joseph 105 | THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES 10S by no means a stranger in Munich, although for some years he had been in the service of the dukes of Zweibrucken. He was born in Munich in 1759 and was a member of a noble family of Italian origin. After completing his aca- demic studies he had been made by Charles Theodore, suc- cessively, Privy Councillor, Chamberlain, and Councillor of the College of Book Censorship.* Upon the discovery of his name in the register of the Illuminati, however, he fell into disgrace and went over into the service of the dukes of Zweibriicken.” In 1796 he had been entrusted by Maxi- milian Joseph, at the time duke of Zweibrucken, with the delicate and important post of foreign affairs ® at a time when the least mismanagement of his post might have caused the permanent loss of Zweibricken to the French without any compensation being given his master. From the time of his arrival at Munich in 1799 until his fall in 1817 Montgelas exerted a powerful influence on the poli- cies of Maximilian [IV Joseph’s government. The influence on the domestic policy of Maximilian IV Joseph’s govern- fiir das Beste des Vaterlandes und der Menschheit arbeiten.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, 66, “ Ueber Baiern, Aus einem Briefe vom r2ten November.” 1“. Montgelas...aus einer altadeligen italienischen Familie abstam- mend, wurde 1759 zu Miinchen geboren und daselbst, nach Vollendung seiner akademischen Studien, schon im Jahre 1777 als Hofrath anges- tellt. Zwei Jahre nachher erhielt er die Wtirde eines Kammerherrn und Biicher-Censur-raths.” Bredow, op. cit., 1817, p. 238. 2 .In diesem Jahr (1788) kam er [Montgelas] in Ungnade, weil sein Name auf dem Verzeichniss der Illuminaten gefunden wurde. Er nun... ging in die Dienste des Herzogs Karl von Zweibrucken und nach dessen Ableben 1795 in die seines Bruders...” Buchner, op. cit., x, 5. 3“Am 21 tibertrag Churfitirst Max Joseph dem Freiherrn v. Mont- gelas, welcher seit dem August 1796 mit seinen Geschaften politischer Natur betraut war, das Ministerium der auswartigen angeiegenheiten.” Denkwiirdigkeiten des Baycrischen Staatsministers Maximilian Grafen von Montgelas (1799-1817), (Stuttgart. 1887), p. 31. 106 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [106 ment of the man, later known as “the hope of the Illu- minati’’ and the ‘ enemy of the clergy,’ + does not seem to have been recognized at once. At any rate, a letter from Bavaria, dated 12 November, 1799, in Wieland’s liberal Teutsche Merkur, assured the readers of that famous mag- azine that “the minister Count von Morawizky, the very famous and well-known scholar, Westenrieder, and the Privy Councillors Zehntner and Branka are the ones that work in conjunction with the humane and clear-thinking Maximilian Joseph for the good of the Fatherland and mankind.” ° By a decree of 2 April the notorious College for the Cen- sorship of Books, which had played a most obnoxious role in the preceding reign and which had been, to use the words of the decree itself, most “ disadvantageous to the liberal progress of the sciences,’ was abolished and replaced by a special Book Censorship Commission. The new commis- sion was subordinate to the new department of ecclesiastical affairs and was composed of a director and five other coun- cillors.* It was the change in the personnel of the new i. scharfe Beurtheiler und erbitterte Feinde fand er genug unter den beriihmtesten politischen Schriftstellern Deutschlands, die ihn wohl gar die Hoffnung der Illuminaten, den Feind...der Geistlichkeit, ...-nannten.” Bredow, op. cit., 1817, p. 239. 2“ Der Herrn Minister, Graf v. Morawizky, Westenrieder, der ruhm- lichst bekannte Gelehrte, die Geh. Rathe Zehniner und Branka sind es die im Bunde mit dem humanen und helldenkenden Max. Joseph fiir das Beste des Vaterlandes und der Menschheit arbeiten.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, 66, “ Ueber Baiern. ‘Aus einem Briefe vom t2ten November.” 8“ Seine Churfiirstl, Durchlaucht haben daher nach reifer Ueberle- gung den Entschluss gefasst, die kollegialische Verfassung des Biicher- Censurwesens, welche dem liberalen Gang der Wissenschaften nach- theilig zu seyn scheint, aufzuheben, und an dessen Statt eine Biicher- Censur-Special-Kommission,...eintretten zu lassen,.... Zu Mitgliedern dieser gnadigst anzuordnenden Special-Komission bestellten nun Hochstdieselben...1. Den geist]. Rath Lorenz Westen- 107] THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES 107 body, however, and not the change in name that encour- aged the party of reform. Both Westenrieder, the director of the new body, and Joseph Marius Babo, one of its five councillors, had suffered directly from the policy followed by the College of Censorship before 1799. Westenrieder had been involved in a vexatious dispute with it over his Historical Calendar only the year before. The appointment of P. Maximus Imhof, Prior of the Augustinian monastery at Munich, as a councillor was hailed by the Teutsche Mer- kur as a “ beautiful proof that the spirit of genuine enlight- enment differentiates humanely and considers the individual more than his dress.” ? The unsuccessful attempt of the new government to sup- press the Order of Malta, which had been founded by Charles Theodore in 1781, was another proof to the re- formers of the spirit animating the new government.” By an agreement drawn up in 1782, and revised in 1788 and rieder, als Direktor. Dann 2. den Mtinz- und Bergrath Mathias Flurl, 3. den geistl. Rath. Jos. Klein, 4. den wirkl. Rath und geheimen Sekretar Jos. Marius Babo, 5. den Hofrath von Mann, und 6. den Prior den hiesigen Augustiner-Konvents P. Maximus Imhof.” Mayrische Samm- lung von 1800, pt. 6, no. iv, pp. 252-253, “Die Errichtung einer Biichercensur-Special-Kommission.” 2 ‘Apr., 1799. 1“ Dagegen ward eine Biichercensur-Kommission errichtet ...namlich (1) der geist] Rath Lorenz Westenrieder, als Director—noch im vorigen Jahre mit den Censurrathen, besonders einem gewissen aus Strassburg emigrirten Dietrich, in verdriessliche Differenzien ver- wickelt (wegen seines historischen Kalendars), noch im vorigen Jahre geneckt und verfolgt von der Censur, und jetzt selbst Direktor der Btichercensur-Kommission!... (2) der wirkl. Rath und Geh. Sekretair, Jos. Marius Babo, eben der berthmte Schriftsteller, iiber den vorhin in seinem Vaterlande so manche schwere Welle der Verfolgung gieng; ...und (6) zum schodnen Beweise, dass der Geist achter Aufklarung auicch Menschlicher unterscheidet, und mehr auf den Mann als das Kleid sieht, der Prior der Augustiner zu Miinchen, P. Maximus Imhof.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, 67-68. 2 Thid., p. 69. 108 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [108 1795, a commission under the leadership of Duke William cof Bavaria had been constituted that was to take charge of the Bavarian government in the event of Charles Theodore’s unexpected death at any time. One article of the instruc- tions drawn up for the commission’s guidance provided for the immediate suppression of the Order of Malta in the event of Charles Theodore’s death. On the evening of 16 February, 1799, accordingly, the chests and accounts of the order, both at the house of the Grand Prior, von Bretzen- heim, and at the house of the chancellor, were sealed, a com- missioner was dispatched to Ebersberg and the other com- manderies, and the order was declared abolished.* The commission made the mistake, however, of looking only at the instructions which had been prepared for it. Like Napoleon a year earlier, when he seized the island of Malta, the commission forgot to reckon with the new Grand Mas- ter of the order, Czar Paul of Russia. Upon learning of the suppression of the order in Bavaria, the enraged Czar ordered the Bavarian ambassador set across the boundary in a kibitka and ordered the Russian troops, which hap- pened to be advancing toward the Rhine at the time, to 1“Der nunmehrige Churftirst hatte wahrend seines ersten Aufen- thaltes in Miinchen imm Jahr 1795 mit einer Ueberarbeitung der 1782 entworfenen und 1788 revidierten Aktenstticke sich beschaftigt, welche die Besitznahme der churbayerischen Staaten fiir den Fall betrafen, wo Carl Theodore unvermuthet mit Tod abgehen sollte... Durch einen Artikel der fiir ihn [den Herzog von Bayern] zu diesem Zweck ent- worfenen Instrucktion war er nun beauftragt, sofort die Aufhebung des Malteserordens auszusprechen und alle Besitzungen desselben fur den Staat mit Beschlag zu belegen.” Denkwiirdigkeiten des Bayer- ischen Staatsmimsters Maximilian Grafen von Montgelas (1799-1817). pp. 36-38. “Noch heute abend wurden die Kassen und Rechnungen der Mal- teser im Haus des Brezenheim, dann des Malteserkanzlers obsignirt, ein Commissair nach Ebersperg etc. geschicht, und der Orden fur aufgehoben erklart.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tage- biicher, p. OI. 109] THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES 10g treat Bavaria as an enemy country." The wrath of the Czar was finally appeased, however, by the treaty of 12 July, 1799. In this treaty the government of Bavaria promised to re-establish the order and its members to all the rights and privileges which they had enjoyed in Bavaria, Sulzbach, Neuburg and the Upper Palatinate before the order’s sup- pression, to recognize the Czar as Grand Master,? and to send a commission to Russia to swear allegiance to the Czar as head of the order.* Their re-establishment in Bavaria '** Diese Massregel, ohne Anstand ausfiihrbar zur Zeit wo sie besch- lossen wurde, war es nicht mehr, seit der Kaiser von Russland sich feier- lich fur das Haupt und den Beschutzer des Ordens erklart hatte... Der Herzog von Bayern... vollzog einfach die frither erhaltenen, und die Unterdrickung des bayerischen Grosspriorates s wie die Beschlagnahme seines Vermogens wurde, sobald der Churfirst die Augen geschlossen hatte, sofort bekannt gemacht.” Denkwiirdigkeiten des Bayerischen Staaisministers Maximilian Grafen von Montgelas (1790-1817), pp. 36-38. “Der bayerische Gesandte... wurde sogar in einer Kibitke bis an die Grenze transportiert, wiewohl der Kaiser ihm bisher sehr gnadig gesinnt gewesen war...das russische Corps, welches sich auf dem Marsch nach dem Rhein befand, erhielt den Befehl, Bayern als Feindes- land zu behandeln.” J/bid., p. 38. 2“Art. 1. oS. A. S. lélecteur de Baviere s’engage pour sa personne, ses successeurs et tous ses proches, a rétablir l’ordre de Malthe dans les duchés de Baviére, Sulzbach et Neuburg, ainsi que dans le Haut-pala- tinat, sur le méme pied qu'il a été établi par son prédécesseur...et de réintegrer dans l’exercise de tous ses droits, privileges et immunités...” “Art. ii. S. A. S. lélecteur de Baviére s’engage de méme a rétablir dans l’entier exercise de leur dignités et dans l’administration de leur commanderies...tous les chevaliers inscrits sur le tableau général de Pordre...” “Art. iii, S. A. S. V’électeur de Baviére reconnoit solemnellement S. M. Vempereur de Russie en qualité de grand-maitre de Vordre de St. Jean de Jerusalem...” Martens, Recueil des trattés, vol. 6, pp. 694-696, “ Traité entre S. M. l’empereur de Russie en qualité de grand- maitre de l’ordre de St. Jean de Jerusalem et S. A. S. l’électeur Bavaro- Palatin...signé le 12 juillet 17¢9.” ’“Der Zorn des Kaisers liess sich besanftigen...durch das Ver- sprechen...eine Obedienzdeputation nach Petersburg zu senden, um dem Kaiser als Grossmeister die Huldigung der bayerischen Ritter darzubringen.” Denkwiirdigkeiten des Bayerischen Staatsministers Maximilian Grafen von Montgelas (1799-1817), p. 38. 110 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [110 was announced to the Chapter of the order on August 9, and the church and monastery of the Theatins, at Munich, was turned over to the knights to be used as a residence of the Grand Prior of the Bavarian branch of the order. The Grand Prior was in the future to be a prince of the ruling family.’ The ordinance of 30 August, 1799, did something, like- wise, to relieve the laity of the great burden which the col- lections of the mendicant friars put on them. In that year they were to collect only one-half as much as in the preced- ing year.” The friends of reform were encouraged, also, by the policy followed by the new government toward the schools. Positions in the schools seem to have been filled as far as possible by men in sympathy with the views of the new government. By an electoral decree announced to the Ecclesiastical ‘Council April 11, Westenrieder, the famous scholar, was appointed one of the three commissioners for the Latin schools.* The appointment of Mutschelle as Pro- fesscr of Pastoral Theology and Director of Studies at '“ Den 9, Aug. wurde von Minister Montgelas die neue Einsetzung des Maltesersordens dem versammelten Malteserkapitl. erdffnet. Auch wird kiinftig die Kirche der Theatiner (welche aufgehoben werden) zur Wohnung des Grosspriors (wozu fir ktinftig ein baierischer Prinz ernannt werden soll) bestimmt werden.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdig- keiten und Tagebiicher, p. 67. 2“ Bevor Wir tiber eurem unterm 12ten des ausgehenden Monaths erstatteten wohlbemessenen Bericht in Betreff des Bettelmonchswesen iiberhaupt eins Final-Entschliessung zu fassen gedenken, befehlen Wir euch provisorie fiir diess Jahr ... dass ihr den um Aufnahms- bewilligung sich meldenden Mendicanten-Orden die Halfte so viel, als in dem Jahre gestorben sind, aufzunehmen, als maximum bewilliget sollet ...” Mayrische Sammlung von 1800, pt. 6, no. xvii, p. 271. 3“Ten 11 April wurde in geistl Rath ein churf. Dekret verlesen ...Zu Schulcommissarien des latein. Schulwesens wurde ich mit dem geist]. Rath Prentner, dann dem Schulrector Steiner, als Beysizer, gewahlt.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 65. Iii] THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES jy} Munich, of Romer as Professor of ‘Church History at the Lyceum there, and the calling of Sailer, Weber and Zim- mer from Dillingham to the University of Ingolstadt, were cited by the Bavarian correspondent of the Teutsche Merkur as examples of men found suitable by the government to fill the upper positions in the schools. Romer had been dis- missed in 1796 from the post of Director of the German Schools in the bishopric of Augsburg on the ground, it was generally reported, that he was a member of the party of enlightenment. Sailer and Zimmer had been dismissed from their posts in the University of Dillingham in 1794 and 1795, respectively, without explanation, and only an un- usual degree of wisdom, uprightness and zeal for the cause, according to the Teutsche Merkur, kept Professor Weber at the University. Sailer became Professor of Christian Morals and Pastoral Theology at Ingolstadt, and Zimmer Professor of Dogmatic Theology." The government was r«’..so0 wurde dennoch beschlossen, die obern bloss mit solchen Mannern zu besetzen, die man selbst, auf dem genannten Wege, zum Lehramt geschickt fande. So wurde z. B. Mutschelle, der trefliche und _verdienstvolle Schriftsteller, zum Professor der Pastoraltheologie und zum Direktor der Studien zu Miinchen ernannt...Und Herr Romer, Verfasser eines schonen Religionshandbuch...ward Professor der Kirchengeschichte am Lyceum zu Miinchen. Er ist derselbe, welcher vor einigen Jahren zu Dillingen, erst als Prafekt der geistlichen Zoglinge und dann als Direktor der teutschen Schulen, angestellt war, mit Versprechen einer bleibender Versorgung....im J. 1796 ward er fortgeschicht...und sagten indess die Anhanger der herrschenden (Jesuiten- und Obskuranten-) Parthey laut: man schicke ihn deswegen fort, weil er auch ein Aufklarer sey ...Indess bekamen doch die Professoren Sailer, Weber und Zimmer den ehrenvollen Ruf an die Universitat Ingolstadt... Diese Manner haben vor einigen Jahren... die kleine Universitat Dillingham zu einem—vergleichungsweise—sehr grossen Flor emporgebracht...Doch jetzt brach die furchterliche Re- voluzion aus (die Emigranten kamen nach Koblenz) und...unter dem Schutze derselben erhielten die Gegner der Herren Prof. S. W. und Z, allmahlig, und von 1792 bis 1794 ganz das Ulebergewicht... Nur eine seltene Kiugheit, Rechtschaffenheit, und der Eifer ftir die gute 112 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [112 very much hampered at this time, in carrying out its plans for the schools, by a lack of funds.* Charles Theodore had purposely emptied the treasuries of the government before his death,” and the government of Maximilian IV Joseph, as has been explained, was prevented from applying to this object, as it seems to have planned to do, the property con- fiscated from the Knights of Malta.* The new government found it necessary, in consequence, to leave the lower schools for a time in the hands of the monks.* The charge that the professorial positions were filled by avowed opponents of all religions was not true certainly of the government’s ap- pointments in 1799.° The professorial posts at Munich were filled by six members of the secular clergy, two reg- ular canons of the Augustinian order, one Benedictine monk, and certainly not more than two laymen. At Amberg three Sache konnten ihn [Prof. Weber] der Universitat noch erhalten... Sailer und Zimmer wurden (1794 und 1795) ‘in Gnaden’ entlassen, d. h. ohne Ausgabe der Ursachen und ohne Vorwurf...Hr. Zimmer ist Prof. der Theologie (Dogmatik) ... Hr. Sailer lehrt die christliche Moral und die Pastoraltheologie...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, 1, 70-75. “Fur die Universitat zu Ingolstadt sollten mehrere gelehrte Manner, und zum Theil selbst aus dem Auslande, berufen worden. Allein bey naherer Untersuchung des alten akademischen Fonds... Man war also genothiet, den Plan vor der Hand noch sehr einzuschranken, theils wegen des ebengedachten Mangels, theils wegen der geforderten Zurtickgabe jener Gtiter an die Matheser.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, 72. 2“ Karl Theodore leerte so viel mdglich alle Kassen des Landes, und legte das Geld (man weiss fiir wen) in auswartigen Banken.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, ii, 245. Cf. also, the Denkwiirdigkeiten des Bayerischen Staatsminister Maximilian Grafen von Montgelas (1799- 1817), p. 20, et Seq. 2 Cf. supra, p. 109, notes I and 2. ‘“ Bhieben nun gleich die untern Schulen, aus Mangel an Fond, in den Handen der Monchen...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, i, -70. > Catholic Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” 113] THE NEW GOVERNMENT AND FIRST MEASURES 113 of the four posts were filled with Benedictine monks.* Seventeen monks in all from thirteen monasteries were ap- pointed to the nineteen professorial positions in the Gym- nasiums of Bavaria.* The work of the government in behalf of internal reform —4xii. Fir das Schulhaus zu Miinchen ernennen Wir egnadigst die nachfolgende Professoren. In der Theologie (a) Fur Dogmatik und Patrologie den bisher zu Ingolstadt als Lehrer der Theologie angestellt gewesenen Marian Dobmaier Bene- diktiner von Weissenohe. (b) ftir Kirchengeschichte und Kirchenrecht den Inspector der deutschen Schulen zu Mtinchen Weltpriester Franz Andre Nemer; (c) fur Moral-Pastoral-Liturgie und geistlichen Beredsamkeit den Pfarrer zu Berg Sebastien Mutschelle.... In der Philosophie (a) Physik und Mathematik den Prior der Augustiner Maximus Imhof dahier ; (b) Logik und Metaphysik-kritische Erklarung der schweren latein- ischen Klassiker, den Weltpriester Schmidt, bisher Professor an der Militar Akademie dahier ; (c) praktische Philosophie und Padagogik den Weltpriester Kajetan Weiler. In der IJ. rhetoriken Klasse. Den Weltpriester Lechner, Prediger am Stifte zu U. L. Frau dahier. In der I. Rhetorik. Den Professor Badhauser der Militar-Akademie. Fiir die grammatischen Klassen. Den Kanonikus ‘Regularis P. Weinzierl von Polling zur 3ten, den Weltpriester Waukerl zur 2ten, und den Instruktor am Erziehungsinstitute dieses leztern Adalbert Jungmair zur Iten grammatischen Klasse. Fur das Schulhaus zu Amberg. Theologie. (a) Kirchenrecht und Kirchengeschichte Maurus Schenkl, Benedik- tiner von Priifening, (b) Dogmatik, Moral, Pastoral-Theologie u. s. w....Dominikus Gallowitz, Benediktiner von Oberaltaich. Philosophie. (3) Physik und Mathematik, Pradidl Repititor der mathematischen Wissenschaften zu Munchen. (b) Logik, Metaphysik, praktische Philosophie, Benedikt Schneider Benediktiner zu Oberaltaich.” Mayrische Sammlung von 1r8o00, pt. 6, no. xxi, p. 277, et seq., “Die neue Organization des lateinischen Schulwesens,” 24 Sept., 1799. 114 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [yj 14 was cut short by a renewal of the general European war.’ The elector was absent from Munich from 26 June, 1800, to 14 April, 1801.7. The misfortunes of the state during the war, however, led to the important step of removing the University from Ingolstadt to Landshut. The move had been discussed for some time, but upon the advance of the French under General Moreau toward Ingolstadt, in the middle of May, sixty wagons were got together for the transportation of the University officials, and in the first days of June the professors moved their colleges to Land- shut.* 1 Buchner, Geschichte von Baiern, x, 10. 2 Ibid. 3“ Weil der Stadt Ingolstadt eine Festung, und bei ihrer niedern Lage an der Donau, und bei einigen sumpfigten Umgebungen ziemlich Ungesund ist; so wurde der Plan gemacht, sie nach Landshut zu ver- setzen... Als Moreau nach den Schlachten bei Engen, Mosskirch und Biberach, in der Mitte des Mays gegen Ulm vordrang...und zu Ingolstadt schon Anstalten gegen eine Belagerung gemacht wurden; ....da ging der Plan durch....60 Wagen wurden aufgeboten, um die Zubehorden derselben zu transportiren, und schon in den ersten Tagen des Junius setzten die Professoren...zu Landshut ihre Kollegien fort ...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1800, ii, 245. CHAPTER VIII THE TOLERATION POLICY OF THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DuRInG the course of the Napoleonic period the Bavarian government abandoned the exclusively Catholic policy which the predecessors of Maximilian IV Joseph had followed, and granted a considerable amount of toleration to Luth- erans, Calvinists, Mennonites, Herrnhuters and Jews. The concessions of the government were granted only gradually and the amount of toleration extended by its decrees to the various non-Catholic sects just enumerated varied greatly. While Lutherans and Calvinists were finally put on a foot- ing of equality with Catholics, Mennonites and Herrnhuters enjoyed only the right of private devotion, and the Jews still labored under many of their medieval restrictions. The first measure of the government in favor of the Prot- estants, granted the Protestants of Munich a very restricted kind of toleration indeed. In order to fulfil the marriage contract signed by the elector at the time of his marriage to the electress, the government decreed on 24 January, 1800, and again on April 8 of the same year, the establishment of a private court chapel in which the chaplain of the electress might hold religious services and administer the comforts of religion to all the persons of her faith that were in her ser- vice. The government permitted also the other Protestants established at Munich, whether they had been drawn there by chance or the demands of their business, to take part in these services, and, so long as it was done in their own houses behind closed doors, to have the sacraments admin- 115] 115 116 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [116 istered to themselves and to have their children instructed in religion. The Protestant ecclesiastic was still compelled, however, to appear in the streets in civil dress, to procure special licenses from the ministry for marriages between persons of different religious faiths, to surrender the eccle- siastical fees to the Catholic clergy, and to report all mar- riages and births to the Catholic clergy to be recorded in their registers.* The Protestants did not have to wait long for a more generous measure. A decree of 10 November, 1800, pro- vided that the profession of another religion should no longer exclude anyone from settling in the territories of the elector.*. This decree seems to have been communicated to the electoral officials in writing and never to have been pub- lished.” In the following August, however, an ordinance, 1“Te 24 janvier et le 8 avril 1800 le gouvernement décréta l’établisse- ment d’une chapelle particuliére de cour, ott le prédicateur de cabinet de l’auguste compagne de V. M. feroit le service et administreroit les secours religieux a toutes celles des personnes de sa communion qui seroient attachées a son service particulier; on permit aussi que tous les autres protestans établis dans la capitale, ott que le hazard ou leurs affaires y auroient amenés, pussent assister a ces cérémonies religieuses, que les sacremens et les autres secours leur fussent distri- bués, que leur enfans recussent l’instruction religieuse, mais seulement dans leur maison a huis clos. On assujettit encore Il’ecclésiastique protestant 4 ne se montrer dans les rues que dans son costume civil, a ne se munir de licences particuli¢éres du ministére pour tous les mariages mixtes, a abandonner les droits d’étoile aux curés catholiques, a leur communiquer tous les actes de mariages et de naissances pour les transcrire sur leur régistres.” Montgelas, Denkwirdigkeiten iber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 122. 2“Les distractions de la guerre laissérent passer avec la méme facilité la publication du 10 novembre 1800, en vertu de laquelle la profession d’une autre religion que la catholique ne devoit plus a l’avenir €tre un titre d’exclusion a la formation d’un établissement dans les Etats bavarois.” Ibid. 3 Montgelas, Denkwiirdigketten tber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, Introduction by Doeberl, p. lv. On 1 and 30 September 1800 117] THE TOLERATION POLICY 117 which embodied the main principle of the decree of 10 No- vember, 1800, was issued and published in the Churfiirst- liches Pfalzbmerisches Regierungs- und Intelligenzblatt of 5 September, 1801. The ordinance was mainly devoted to a defence of the policy of toleration. The principal argu- ments of the government in favor of its policy were the absence of any constitutional obstacle to the policy of toler- ation, in the fundamental laws of either the Empire or the state, the beneficial effects on agriculture and industry of the competition of members of other religious confessions in the acquisition of real estate and the carrying on of trade, and the experience of more progressive states in which the exclusion of members of other religious confessions on ac- count of their religion, when they possessed otherwise the qualities of good and useful citizens, had long been recog- nized as contrary to reason and the spirit of the Christian religion. The subjects of the elector, finally, were urged to put aside all hate and to receive all members of other re- ligious confessions, who settled in the territories of the elector, with the respect and love which every religion pre- scribed for mankind; and the officials of the government were warned neither to cause nor to permit any interfer- ence with the settlement in Bavaria of members of other religious confessions, when they were provided with sufh- cient property or were distinguished through their skill.’ the government seems to have placed non-Catholics on an equality with Catholics in the Upper Palatinate and Neuburg in regard to the purchase of real estate. These orders, apparently, were never pub- lished. Doeberl gives the following extract, “die nichtkatholischen Kaufer sollten den tibrigen, soviel den Genuss und Besitz der Giter betrifft, ganz gleich zu halten sein.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. liv. 1“Zu dieser Verfiigung sind Wir sowohl durch die Ueberzeugung, dass weder in der Reichs- noch in der Landesverfassung einiger Grund zu solcher ausschliessung liege, als auch durch die Betrachtung bewogen worden, dass die Konkurrenz anderer Religionsverwandten zu dem Erwerb liegender Griinde, und zu Ausiitbung der Gewerbe, der 118 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [118 If the Bavarian government had not already voluntarily abandoned in the ordinances of 10 November, 1800, and 26 August, 1801, its former exclusively Catholic policy, the acquisition of a substantial number of Protestant subjects in 1803 through the “ Conclusion of the Empire”? would un- doubtedly have forced the government to modify its policy for the benefit of its newly acquired subjects. One at least of the five former bishoprics of the Empire obtained by Bavaria in the secularizations of 1802 and 1803, ten of the former free imperial cities and towns, two of the imperial abbeys and the provostship of Kempten contained Protestant inhabitants, most of the Protestants being Lutherans. The population of four of the cities and towns—Memmingen with eleven thousand inhabitants,’ Nordlingen with eight Landeskultur, und dem Gewerbfleiss nothwendiger Aufnahme, Antrieb, und Ermunterung verschaffen miisse.” “ Dieses wird durch das Beyspiel anderer in der Kultur fortschrei- tender Staaten bewahrt, wo die Ausschliessung anderer Religionsver- wandten wegen ihrer Religionseigenschaff, wenn sie tibrigens alle Eigenschaften eines guten, und niitzlichen Burgers besitzen, schon langst als der Vernunft, und dem Geiste der Christlichen ‘Religion zu wider anerkannt worden ist.” “Obschon daher durch die gestattete Ansassigmachung anderer Re- ligionsverwandten nichts verordnet wird, was den bestehenden recht- lichen Verhaltnissen entgegen lauft, und wozu ein neues Gesetz noth- wendig ware, so haben Wir doch ftir zweckmassig gefunden, sammt- lichen Unterthanen Unsere bestgemeinte Absicht zu erdfnen, in der Zuversicht, dass sie sich bestreben werden, mit Beseitigung alles Re- ligionshasses anderer Religionsverwandten, welche sich in Unsere hero- bern Landen auf gesetzlichen Wegen ansassig machen werden, mit der Achtung, und Liebe zu begegnen, welche jede Religion dem Menschen vorschreibt.” “ Sammtliche Obrigkeiten des Landes werden zugleich erinnert, dass sie der Ansassigmachung anderer 'Religionsverwandten, soferne dieselbe die gesetzliche Erfordernisse in Erftillung bringen, sich durch Geschick- lichkeit auszuzeichen, oder sonst mit zureichenden Vermodgen versehen sind, kein Hinderniss machen, oder gestatten, sondern sich jederzeit Unserer Willensmeinung gemass benehmen sollen.”’ Regierungsblati, 5 Sept., 1801, pp. 559-562, “ Verordnung: die Ansassigmachung anderer Religionsverwandten betreffend.” 26 Aug., 1801. 1J. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, v. 95-106. 119] THE TOLERATION POLICY 119 thousand,’ Rothenburg with twenty-four hundred,’ and Bopfingen with from sixteen * to eighteen hundred *“—-were almost entirely Lutheran in religion. The greater part of the population of Windsheim with four thousand ° inhahi- tants, and of the city of Kempten with over three thousand ° inhabitants were likewise Lutheran in religion. In the three cities of Dinkelsbuhl,‘ Kaufbeuern * and Ravensburg,’ with an estimated population of fifteen thousand in all, the Cath- olics and Lutherans were nearly equal in numbers. Finally, only twenty-three hundred of the eight thousand inhabitants of Leutkirch were Catholics.*° The monastery of Otter- beurn was reported to have nine hundred Catholic subjects at Erkheim and a somewhat smaller number of Luth- erans; ** the monastery of Roggenburg had some Protes- tant subjects, apparently, at the tiny village of Burafingen; *° and the provostship of Kempten had enough Calvinist sub- jects living at Herbishofen and Groenenbach to support two Protestant ministers.** The bishopric of Wurzburg, finally, was reported to contain some Lutheran and Calvinist in- .1J, Aretin, of. cit., v, 63-67. 2 Cruttwell, The New Universal Gazateer or Geographical Dictionary, art. “ Rothenburg.” 3 Tbid., art. “ Bopfingen.” 4A. C. Gaspari, Der Deputations-Recess mit historischen und statis- tischen Erlauterungen und einer Vergleichungs-Tafel, pt. 2, p. 30. 5 Tbid., cf. also Cruttwell, op. cit., art. “ Windsheim.” 6 Tbid., art. “ Kempten.” Cf. also Aretin, op. cit., v, 3-5. 7 Ibid., v, 85-94. 8 Tbid., v, 47-53. © Ibid., V, 13-17. Die. -V,073-74. 1 Jbid., iii, 36. " Tbid., iti, 55. 0iG...1¥, 21-22. 120 KELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [120 habitants who preferred to the Diet of the Empire, from time to time, grievous complaints of oppression and injus- tice.’ The situation of the Catholics and Protestants in the newly acquired territories varied greatly.” At Ravensburg ® and Dinkelsbuhl,* for example, Catholics and Protestants seem to have lived on an equality. At Kaufbeuern, on the other hand, the Lutherans controlled all the machinery of government,’ and at Leutkirch the number of Catholic burghers was limited to twenty-five.© The “ Conclusion of the Empire” only guaranteed that the form of worship of each of the secularized countries was to be maintained and protected, and that the possession and peaceable enjoyment of its church property and school funds was to be left to each religion.‘ It would hardly have been possible, how- ever, for the most orthodox ruler to have maintained such a 1 Cruttwell, op. cit., art. “‘ Wurzburg.” 2“ ..in den Uns angefallenen Entschadigungs-Landen in Franken und Schwaben Einwohner von verschiedenen Glaubens-Konfessionen sich befinden, die nicht tiberall gleiche biirgerliche Rechte geniessen, sondern an manchen Orten noch unter dem Drucke harter einschrank- ender Gesetze stehen,...die Duidung fremder Religions-Verwandten an manchen dieser Orte bisher entweder ganzlich verboten, oder doch wenigstens sehr erschwert war...” Regierungsblatt, 19 Jan., 1803, p. 25, “Edict: die ‘Religionsfreyheit in den churftrstlichen Herzog- thiimern Franken und Schwaben btr.” Io Jan., 1803. * Aretin, op. cit., v, 13-17. 4 Tbid., v, 85-04. * Ibtd., v, 47-53. ° Ibid., v, 73-74. ™Texercise du culte actuel de chaque pays est maintenu et mis a labri de toute atteinte. Il est laissé en particulier 4 chaque religion la possession et la jouisance paisible des biens d’église et fond d’écoles qui lui appartiennent, conformément aux stipulations du traite de Westphalie. Toutefois il dépend du souverain de tolérer des individus d’un autre culte et leur accorder la pleine jouissance des droits civils.” Martens, Recueil des traités, vol. vii, pp. 518-519. 121] THE TOLERATION POLICY wat hodge-podge of religious rights and oppressions as existed in the Franconian and Swabian lands acquired by Bavaria in 1802 and 1803. The Catholic majority would scarcely have acquiesced quietly in a situation that permitted the Protestant minority to oppress them at some points in the electorate, and the Protestant minority was too numerous and too strongly entrenched to permit such advantages as it possessed to be withdrawn without receiving compensation for their loss. The edict of 10 January, 1803, therefore, by which the government granted religious toleration to its new subjects in Franconia and Swabia, was both a natural extension of the decrees of 10 November, 1800, and 26 August, 1801, and the logical result of the acquisitions of 1802 and 1803. The edict of 1803 was a much more specific and definite measure than either of the decrees granting toleration which preceded it. All the Christian confessions existing in the lands received in compensation for the lands lost by Bavaria on the left bank of the Rhine were guaranteed the right to practice their own form of religion and the possession and enjoyment of their school funds and actual church property, in so far as the latter had not been secularized. Further- more, the members of all Christian confessions already established in the hereditary states of the elector, or mem- bers who wished to settle in them, were granted the full en- joyment of civil rights in such a way that when they had fulfilled the remaining legal requirements for settlement, religious differences were not to exclude them either from the possession of real estate or from.the remaining active and passive rights of citizens. The most worthy subjects of the state were to be chosen, in the future, for govern- ment positions without any discrimination between the three Christian confessions recognized in Germany. No subject, whatever his religion, was to be expected to do anything 122 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [122 contrary to his religion or his conscience. Persons not yet united with an ecclesiastical parish of their own, therefore, were never to be disturbed in their private devotions, and no hindrance ever was to be placed in their way if they at- tended a church of their own faith in the vicinity, or if they wished to have the sacraments administered to themselves quietly by the clergy. In all things which would not limit their freedom of conscience they were to be reckoned as be- longing to the parish in which they lived, and they were re- quired to pay the usual fees to the clergy of that parish. As soon, however, as they possessed a sufficient number of persons and the necessary means for the formation of a parish of their own confession the electoral government never was to deny them permission to form such a parish, and their incorporation in the parish of another confession was thereupon to cease. No religious confession was to be re- quired to celebrate the holidays of another confession, and each confession was to be free to work on the holidays of other confessions as long as their worship was not disturbed and the respect was paid which was always due a congrega- tion assembled for the performance of religious ceremonies and customs. The Bavarian government, finally, never was to interfere in constitutional legislation affecting the church alone, or in matters of actual doctrine and faith. The right of supervision, however, which belonged to the state by both general and German constitutional law, was to be carefully guarded.’ ait AEST A | Darnach I. bestatigen Wir nicht nur sammtliche in Unsern Entschadigungs- Landen befindliche christliche Konfessionen nach dem Sect. 63. des Reichs-Deputations-Schlusses vom 23sten November vorigen Jahrs, ihre bisherige Religionsttbung mit allen ihren annexis, und versprechen sie gegen jede Krankung darin sowohl zu schtitzen, als inbesondere den Besizt und Genuss ihres eigenthiimlichen Kirchenguts (soweit solches 123 | THEY TOLERATION, POLICY 123 The abandonment of an exclusively Catholic policy forced keiner Sakularization unterworfen) und ihres Schulfonds, nach Vor- schrift des westphalischen Friedens, ihnen ungestort zu erhalten, sondern 2. Wir ertheilen auch allen christlichen Religions-Verwandten, welche in genannten Unsern Erbstaaten schon wirklich wohnen, oder sich allda niederlassen wollen, den vollen Genuss birgerlicher Rechte, dergestalt, dass wenn sie die tibrigen gesezlichen Erfordernisse dafir erfiillen, die Verschiedenheit ihrer Konfessionen und Besitze liegender Griinde, noch von den ubrigen Aktiv- und Passiv-Rechten eines Biirgers aus- schliessen solle. 3. Auch den kiinftiger Besetzung der Staatsamter werden Wir jederzeit nur auf die Wirdigsten, ohne Unterschied der im teutschen Reiche eingeftthrten drey christlichen Religion, den landesvaterlichen Bedacht nehmen. 4. Keinem Unterthanen, von welcher Konfession er sey, so je etwas zugemuthet werden diirfen, welches seiner Religions- oder Gewissens- Freyheit entgegen ware, daher sollen diejenigen, welche noch in keiner eigenen kirchlichen Gemeinde vereiniget sind, in ihrer Hausandacht nie gestOrt werden; auch soll ihnen kein Hinderniss in Weg gelegt werden, wenn sie Kirchen ihrer Konfession in der Nachbarschaft besuchen, oder durch Geistliche daher in ihren Hausern in der Stille die Sakra- mente sich administriren lassen wollen; jedoch werden sie in allem, was ihre Gewissensfreyheit nicht beschrankt, zu der gewohnlichen Ortspfarrey, gerechnet, und miissen dahin die hergebrachten Stollge- _buhren entrichten. 5. Sobald sie aber ein hinreichende Anzahl zur Bildung einer eigenen Gemeinde ausmachen, und die dazu erforderlich Mittel besitzen, so werden Wir ihnen die Erlaubniss dazu nie versagen, wo alsdenn ihre Einverleibung in eine Pfarrey anderer Konfession aufhort. 6. Kein Religionstheil soll schuldig seyn, die besondern Feyertage des andern zu feyern, sondern es soll thm freystehen, an solchen Tagen sein Gewerbe und Handthierung auszutiben, jedoch ohne Storung des Gottesdiensts des andern Theils, und ohne dass die Achtung dabey verlezt werde, welche man jeder versammelten Gemeinde bey Austibung ihrer religidsen Handlungen und Gebrauche schuldig ist. 7. Wir werden Uns zwar in die innere konstitutionelle Gesezgebung des Kirchenwesens, in eigentliche Lehr- und Glaubenssachen nie einmischen, tiber die Ausiibung derjenigen Rechte aber, besonders der obersten Aufsicht, welche der héchsten Staatsgewalt sowohl nach dem allgemeinen, als positiven teutschen Staatsrechte dartiber zustehet, soli sorgfaltig gewacht werden...” Regierungsblait, 19 Jan., 1803, pp. 25-28, “Edict: die Religionsfreiheit in den churfirstlichen Herzog- thiimern Franken und Schwaben betreffend.” Io Jan., 1803. 124 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT {124 upon the Bavarian government the problem of marriages between persons of different religious faiths, which has not been settled even yet to the satisfaction of all the religious parties... The problem, apparently, did not become at all acute until the secularizations of 1802 and 1803 added a substantial number of Protestant subjects to the population of the state. No general ordinance dealing with the sub- ject, at least, was issued until 18 May, 1803. Up to that time, undoubtedly, the contracting parties had been forced to obtain a special electoral license. The general ordinance of 1803 met the more obvious questions arising from such marriages, but the great complexity of the problem evidently was only gradually recognized. The marriage of persons belonging to different religious confessions, however, was permitted, and the dismissory letters were to be granted to each of the newly betrothed without discrimination, whether they wished to be married by the clergyman of the bride- groom or of the bride, if they had paid the customary fees. Unlimited freedom, moreover, was granted the betrothed at the time of their marriage to determine, with the advice of their parents or guardians, in a marriage contract drawn up according to the customary legal forms, the religious educa- tion of their future children. If during their marriage the two contracting parties found it advisable on well-considered grounds to make changes in the marriage contract previously entered into, they were to be granted permission to make such changes, provided the same legal forms were observed as were prescribed for the drawing up of lawful marriage contracts. If, however, the contracting parties, before or at the time of their marriage, made no agreement in the pre- scribed manner concerning the religious education of their children, no agreements about their education were to be made later during the married life of the contracting parties, 1 Catholic Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” 125] THE TOLERATION POLICY 125 but the sons were to be brought up in the religion of their father, and the daughters in the religion of their mother, until they reached the age of eighteen. At the end of their eighteenth year children were to be free to choose any one of the three Christian churches recognized in Germany. Neither a surviving parent nor a guardian was to change a contract, but they were required, on the contrary, to allow the children to continue until their eighteenth year in the religious education begun in accordance with the terms of the marriage contract... An ordinance dated 13 March, 1“Da sowohl Unsere alte als neue Erbstaaten von verschiedenen Claubensbekenern bewohnt werden, welche in den Fall kommen konnen, Heurathen unter sich schliessen zu wollen, so sollen solche vermischte Ehen als Folge der in Unsern Erblanden eingefithrt btrgerlichen Toleranz ungehindert, und jedem der neuverlobten ohne Unterschied, ob sie sich bey dem Pfarrer des Brautigams oder der Braut trauen lassen wollen, wenn sie die hergebrachten Gebithren bezahlt haben, die Dimissoriales ertheilt werden; damit aber auch allen Irrungen, welche tiber die Erziehung der aus dergleichen Ehen erzielten Kinder entstehen konnten, vorgebogen werde, so verordnet Wir ttens. Den Verlobten solle eine uneingeschrankte Freyheit belassen werden, beym Eintritt in die Ehe mit Beyrath ihrer Eltern, oder Vor- miinder die Religions-Verhaltnisse ihrer kiinftigen Kinder in ordnungs- massigen Ehepakten nach den in jeder Provinz hergebrachten gesez- lichen Formen zu bestimmen. 2tens. Finden sie wahrend ihrer Ehe aus wohl tiberlegten Ursachen rathlich, in ihrer eingegangenen Eheberedung Abanderungen zu treffen, so soll ihnen dieses zwar gestattet seyn, jedoch nicht anderst, als unter Beobdachtung der namlichen gesezlichen Formen, welche fir die Errichtung giiltiger Ehepakten vorgeschrieben sind. 3tens. Wenn die Kontrahenden vor oder bey ihrer Verehelichung uber die Religions-Verhaltnisse ihrer kinftigen Kinder auf die be- merkte Art nichts verabredet haben, so sollen weitere Vertrage hiertber wahrend ihrer Ehe nicht mehr statt haben, sondern die Sohne sollen in dem Glaubensbekenntnisse des Vaters, und die Tochter in dem Glauben der Mutter bis zur Erreichung der Discretions-Jahre, welche fur beyde Geschlechter auf das zurtickgelegte 18te Jahr festgesezt werden, erzogen werden. 4tens. Nachdem sie aber diesen Jahresziel gelangt sind, so soll es von ihrer freyen Wahl abhangen, zu einer, oder der anderen der in 126 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [126 1807, established the principles to be followed in the educa- tion of the illegitimate children of Protestant mothers—one of the problems left unsolved by the ordinance of 18 May, _ 1803. As long as no actual marriage with the Catholic father took place, the Protestant mothers of illegitimate children were to be permitted to baptize and educate their children in the Protestant religion. In case an actual mar- riage with the father of the child took place, however, the ordinance of 18 May, 1803, was to take effect.’ The permanence of the new policy of the Bavarian gov- ernment toward non-Catholic Christians was still more defi- nitely assured by the events of the years 1805 and 1806, which brought to the state both substantial gains in territory and a considerable number of new Protestant subjects. The treaty of Pressburg brought into the state at least two new groups of Protestants. At Lindau the greater part of the burghers seem to have been Lutherans;? and at Augsburg the Catholics and Protestants must have been nearly equal in number, as the two confessions had an equal number of dem teutschen Reiche eingefithrten drey christlichen Kirchen tber- zutreten. stens. Weder dem den andern wuberlebenden Ehegatte, noch den Vormiindern ist erlaubt, in diesen gesezlich bestimmten Religions- Verhaltnissen eine Aenderung zu machen; sondern sie sind gehalten, die angefangene Erziehung in dem bestimmten Glaubensbekentnisse bis zu den Discretions-Jahren die Kinder vollenden zu lassen...” Regter- ungsblatt, 25 May, 1803, pp. 321-323, “ Verordnung: die Religionsver- haltnisse der Kinder bey vermischten Ehen btr.,” 18 May, 1803. 1“ |. den protestantischen Miittern unehelicher Kinder ohne einige Beschrankung gestattet werden solle, diese in ihrer Religion taufen und erziehen zu lassen, in so lange nicht eine wirkliche [Ehelichung mit dem katholische Vater erfolget; in welchem Falle Unsere Verordnung vom 18 May, 1803, eintritt...” Regierungsblatt, 4 Apr., 1807, pp. 518-520, “Verordnung: die Religions-Erziehung unehelicher Kinder betr.,” 13 Mar., 1807. * Cruttwell, op. cit., art. “ Lindau.” According to the Regierungsblatt of 20 Apr., 1807, p. 867, et seg., Lindau had a population of 6493 in 1806. 127] THEN TORERATIONS POLICY 127 parish churches.‘ A few months later, through a series of treaties between Prussia and France,” and France and Bava- ria,*° Bavaria acquired the wholly Protestant Margraviate of Ansbach from Prussia. By the treaty which established the Confederation of the Rhine, finally, the former free im- perial city of Nuremburg with a population almost entirely Lutheran,* the small Franconian county of Castell with over seven thousand Protestant inhabitants,® and the Luth- eran lordship of Ortenburg,® were acquired by the state. The final concessions of the Bavarian government to its Protestant subjects during the Napoleonic period were made in the organic edict of 24 March, 1809. Previous to the issuing of that edict the Bavarian government had conceded to Protestants the right of settlement in the state, permission to purchase real estate, freedom to worship as they had wor- shiped before becoming Bavarian subjects, civil rights and (to Lutherans and Calvinists) the right of helding public office. In 1809, however, the Protestant clergy still were forbidden to appear on the streets in clerical garb, and they still were required to hand over to the Catholic clergy their ecclesiastical fees and to report to the Catholic clergy for registration, the baptisms and marriages performed by them. The organic edict of 24 March, 1809, finally put the Luth- erans and Calvinists on a footing of equality with the Cath- olic subjects of the Bavarian elector. The edict was in reality a supplement to the Bavarian constitution of 1 May, 1808. It defined in great detail the 1 Cruttwell, op. cit., art. “Augsburg.” 2 De Clerq, Recueil des traités de la France, vol. ii, p. 154. 3 Ibid., vol. 11, p. 145. 4 Cruttwell, op. cit., art. “‘Nuremburg.” 5 Regterungsblatt, 11 May, 1808, p. O51, et seq. 6 Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Eatern, art. “ Ortenburg.” 128 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [128 rights of Bavarian citizens in relation to religion and eccle- siastical societies. A complete freedom of conscience was guaranteed to every subject of the state, and no one, in consequence, was to be subjected to compulsion in matters of faith and conscience. No one was to be excluded from the enjoyment of the civil law or citizenship because of his faith. Sectarians, however, who withdrew themselves from any of the duties of citizenship were allowed to lay claim to the protection of the civil law and the rights of citizenship only to the extent to which these had been granted to such sectarians in the organic law concerning their admission into political society. No one, nevertheless, whatever his religion, was to be denied the right of private devotion. The express consent of the government was required for the uniting of several families for the practice of their religion. and all secret gatherings under the pretext of private devo- tion were prohibited. Every inhabitant of the state who had reached the age of twenty-one years and was mentally and by nature capable of making such a choice, was given the right to choose his own religious party. A transfer of membership from one church to another was to be announced in person to the parish priest or spiritual leader of both the abandoned church and the newly chosen church, and all rights and privileges in the abandoned church were lost by such a transfer. Such a transfer of membership, however, was to have no influence on the citizenship, honors and dig- nities of an individual unless he changed, on the ground of religious conviction, to a religious party which possessed only a limited claim to the privileges of citizenship. No religious party, finally, was permitted to induce, through either force or deceit, a member of another religious party to transfer his religious allegiance. The edict of 24 March, 1809, likewise repeated in sub- stance the ordinances of 18 May, 1803, and 13 March, 1807, 129] THE TOLERATION POLICY 129 dealing with the education of the children of persons be- longing to different religious confessions, and provided for a number of situations not met by the earlier measures. Neither the divorce nor the separation of the parents of such children was to have any influence on the religious education of the children. A change of religious allegiance on the part of the parents, likewise, was to have no influence on the religious education of the children if a definite marriage contract concerning their religious education existed. [Fos- ter-children were to be educated in the religion which they had previously followed. Natural children legitimized through marriage or recognized by the father were to be educated in the same manner as legitimate children. Other- wise, natural children were to be educated in the religion of the mother. Foundlings and natural children of unknown parentage were to be educated in the religion of the per- sons or foundling institutions taking them, when such per- sons and institutions belonged to one of the three publicly recognized religions of the state. In other cases they were to be educated in the faith held by the majority of the in- habitants of the place in which they were found. Upon reaching their twenty-first year such children had the same right as other children to choose their religious party. Only the Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches were recognized by the edict as publicly accepted churches. I[n- habitants of the state who did not belong to one of these three publicly recognized churches were to be treated in matters of religion and ecclesiastical societies as the existing special laws and ordinances prescribed. No religious or ecclesiastical societies, except those of the three publicly recognized confessions, were to be introduced into the state without the express approval of the government. They were required, likewise, to present the creeds and constitu- tions of their churches to the government for inspection and 130 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [130 approval. The publicly accepted ecclesiastical societies were to enjoy the rights of public corporations; the buildings used by them for religious worship were to be protected like other public buildings; and their clergymen were to enjoy the privileges and respect of public officials. A religious society which had not received the rights of a publicly ac- cepted religious society at the time of its approval by the government was to be considered merely as a private soci- ety. ‘Such societies were forbidden to use bells or any of the other marks which custom and the laws had appropri- ated for the publicly accepted churches; and their clergymen were to enjoy as such no special privileges. They were guaranteed, on the other hand, the right to hold divine ser- vice in a building set apart for such worship and to practice, both in their houses and in their places of assembly, the cus- toms prescribed by their religion. Every approved public and private ecclesiastical society was granted the right to regulate, under the supervision of the state, and in accord- ance with its creed and the church constitution approved by the government, all its internal affairs. Under this head the edict included religious doctrine, the form and celebration of divine service, clerical administration, the religious educa- tion of the people, ecclesiastical discipline, the approbation and ordination of church servants, the consecration of churchyards and buildings devoted to worship, and the ex- ercise of jurisdiction over such clearly ecclesiastical matters as questions of conscience and the fulfilment of religious and ecclesiastical duties prescribed by the dogmas, symbol- ical books and constitution of a church. The publicly ac- cepted churches of the kingdom were permitted to possess and acquire property; the right of a private ecclesiastical society to possess and acquire property depended on the wording of its charter of approval. | rey THE TOLERATION POLICY 131 The edict of 24 March, 1809, finally, regulated the rela- tions of different religious societies to each other. The re- ligious societies of the state were under obligation to respect each other. Every church was granted the right of de- manding complete protection for its services from interfer- ence by members of other religious confessions. No church was to be compelled to take part in the services of another church. Members of a publicly accepted church who did not reside in a parish of their own faith, were permitted to unite with a distant parish of their faith as long as it was within the limits of the state. The members of a publicly accepted ecclesiastical society were granted the right to form parishes of their own faith at any place as soon as they had the necessary means for the support of the church officials, for the expenses of divine worship and for the erection and maintenance of the necessary buildings. The edict laid down likewise the principles to be followed when the par- ishes of two different religious confessions used the same church building. When one religious party was without a burial place of its own the existing churchyard of the place was to be considered as the common burial ground of the inhabitants. Every publicly accepted ecclesiastical parish, likewise, was granted the right, upon payment of the fees, to use the bell of the churchyard at the time of a burial.’ 1“Abschnitt i. Kapitel i. Religions- und Gewissens-Freiheit. $1. Jedem Einwohner Unsere Reiches ist durch den § vi der Kon- stitution eine vollkemmene Gewissensfreiheit gesichert. Er darf dem- nach in Gegenstanden des Glaubens und Gewissens keinem Zwange unterworfen werden. §2. Die Religions-Eigenschaft an und ftr sich schliesst Niemand weder von dem Genusse der biirgerlichen Privat-Rechte, noch von dem Staats-Btrgerrechte aus. § 3. Glaubensgenossen, welche in Riicksicht auf ihre Religions-Grund- size gewissen biirgerlichen Rechte sich entziehen, und in Beziehung auf dieselben eine Befreihung davon erhalten haben, konnen auf die Theil- 132 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [132 The immediate effects of the Bavarian government’s new nahme an den im § 2 enthaltenen Rechten nur in dem Masse Anspriiche machen, wie dieselben in den organischen Gesezen titber ihre Aufnahme in die Staats-Gesellschaft bestimmt sind. § 4. Die einfache Haus-Andacht darf Niemand, zu welcher Religion er sich bekennen mag, untersagt werden. § 5. Sobald aber mehrere Familien zur Ausiibung ihrer Religion sich verbinden, so wird jederzeit hiezu Unsere ausdrtickliche Genehmigung erfodert, nach den im zweiten Abschnitte folgenden naheren Bestim- mungen. § 6. Hiernach sind alle heimliche Zusammenktinfte unter dem Vor- wande des hauslichen Gottesdienstes, verboten. Kapitel 2. Wahl der Religions-Partei. § 7. Die Wahl der \Religions-Partei ist jedem Staatseinwohner nach seiner eigenen, freien Ueberzeugung iiberlassen. § 8. Derselbe muss jedoch das hiezu erfoderliche Unterscheidungs- Alter, welches fiir beide Geschlechter auf das zuriickgelegte ein und zwanzigste Jahr bestimmt wird, erreicht haben. §9. Da diese Wahl eine eigene, freie Ueberzeugung voraussezt, so kann sie nur solchen Individuen zustehen, welche in keinem Geistes- oder Gemiiths-Zustande sich befinden, der sie derselben unfahig macht. § 10. Keine Partei darf die Mitglieder der anderen durch Zwang oder List zum Uebergange verleiten. § 12. Der Uebergang von einer Religions-Partei zu einer andern muss allezeit bei dem einschlagigen Pfarrer oder geistlichen Vor- stande sowohl der neu gewahlten, als der verlassene Kirche pers6nlich erklart werden. § 13. Durch die Religions-Aenderung gehen alle kirchliche Gesell- schafts-Rechte der verlassen Kirche verloren; dieselbe hat aber keinen Einfluss auf die allgemeinen staats-biirgerlichen Rechte, Ehren und Wiurden; ausgenommen, es geschahe der Uebertritt zu einer ‘Religions- Partei, welcher aus dem Grunde des § 3 im ersten Kapitel nur eine beschrankte Theilnahme an dem Staats-Burgerrechte gestattet ist. Kapitel 3. Religions-Verhaltnisse der Kinder aus gemischten Ehen. § 19. Die Ehescheidungen oder alle sonstige rechtsgiiltige Auflosungen der Ehe konnen auf die Religion der Kinder keinen Einfluss haben. § 20. Der Uebergang der Aeltern zu einem anderen Glaubens- Bekenntnisse kann eine Verdnderung in dem Religions-Verhaltnisse der Kinder in dem Falle nicht hervorbringen, wenn ein tiber diesen Gegenstand bestimmender Ehe-Vertrag vorhanden ist. § 22. Pfleg-Kinder werden nach jenem Glaubens-Bekenntnisse erzogen, welchem sie in ihrem vorigen Stande zu folgen hatten. 133] THE TOLERATION POLICY 133 policy of religious toleration are rather difficult to estimate. § 23. Durch Heurath legitimirte nattirliche Kinder werden, in Bezie- hung auf den Religions-Unterricht, dem ehelichen Kinder gleich geachtet. § 24. Die ibrigen nattirlichen Kinder, wenn sie von einem Vater anerkannt sind, werden in Ansehung der Religions-Erziehung gleichfalls wie die ehelichen behandelt; sind die aber von dem Vater nicht aner- kannt, so werden sie nach dem Glaubens-Bekenntnisse der Mutter erzogen. § 25. Findlinge und natiirliche Kinder, deren Mutter unbekannt ist, folgen die Religion derjenigen, welcher das Kind aufgenommen hat, soferne er einer der Offentlich eingefiihrten Kirchen angehort, oder der Religions-Partei des Findling-Institutes, worin sie erzogen werden. Ausser diesen Fallen richtet sich ihre Religion nach jener der Mehrheit der Einwohner des Findungs-Ortes. § 27. Nach zuriickgelegtem ein und zwanzigsten Jahre steht es den Kindern frei, von der im § 7 jedem Staats-Einwohner gestatteten Wahl der Religions-Partei Gebrauch zu machen. Abschnitt ii. Von Religions- und Kirchen-Gesellschaften. Kapitel i. Thre Aufnahme und Bestatigung. § 28. Wir haben in Unsern tiber Religions-Freiheit erlassenen friitheren Verordnungen, vorziiglich in dem Edikte vom Io Janner 1803... die in Unserm Ko6nigreiche bestehenden drei christlichen Glaubens-Konfes- sionen als dffentliche Kirchen-Gesselschaften mit gleichen Rechten bereits anerkannt,—welche Verordnung hiemit bestatiget werden. § 29. [Diejenige Einwohner] Unsers Reiches, welche zu einer der drei obigen Kirchen sich nicht bekennen,....sind...nach den uber ihre biirgerlichen Verhaltnisse bestehenden besonderen Gesezen und Ver- ordnungen zu behandein.... $30. Religions- oder Kirchen-Gesellschaften, die nicht zu den bereits gesezlich aufgenommenen gehé6ren, diirfen ohne Unsere ausdriickliche Genehmigung nicht eingeftihrt werden. § 31. Sie mtissen vor der Aufnahme ihre Glaubens-Formeln und innere kirchliche Verfassung zu Finsicht und Priifung Uns vorlegen. Kapitel 2. Rechte und Befugnisse der aufgenommenen und respec- tive bestatigten (Religions- und Kirchen-Gesellschaften. § 32. Die mit Unserer ausdriicklichen Genehmigung aufgenommenen Kirchen-Gesellschaften geniessen die Rechte offentlicher Korporationen. § 33. Die zur Ausiibung ihres Gottes-Dienstes gewidmeten Gebaude sollen wie andere Offentliche Gebaude geschuzt werden. § 34. Die zu Feier ihres Gottes-Dienstes und zum Religions-Unter- richte bestellten Personen geniessen die Vorztige und Achtung Ooffent- licher Beamten. § 36. Eine Religions-Gesellschaft, welche die Rechte offentlich auf- 134 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [134 Statistics were not systematically collected in Bavaria until genommener Kirchen-Gesellschaften bei ihrer Genehmigung nicht erhalten hat, wird nicht als eine Offentliche Korporation, sondern als eine Privat-Gesellschaft geachtet. § 37. Es ist derselben...verstattet [§ 38]...die Anstellung gottes- dienstlicher Zusammenkiinfte in gewissen, dazu bestimmten Gebauden, und die Austbung der ihren Religions-Grundsazen gemassen Gebrauche sowohl in diesen Zusammenkiinften, als in den Privat-Wohnungen der Mitglieder. § 39. Den Privat-Kirchen-Gesellschaften ist aber nicht gestattet, sich der Glocken oder sonstigen Auszeichnungen zu bedienen, welche Geseze oder Gewohnheit den 6ffentlichen Kirchen angeeignet haben. § 40. Die von ihnen zur Feier ihrer Religions-Handlungen bestellten Personen geniessen als solche keine besonderen Vorziige. §$ 42. Jeder genehmigten Privat- oder Offentlichen Kirchen-Gesell- schaft kommt, unter der obersten Staats-Aufsicht, nach dem imm iii. Abschnitte enthaltenen Bestimmungen, die Befugniss zu, nach der Formel und der von der Staats-Gewalt anerkannten Verfassung ihrer Kirchen alle inneren Kirchen-Angelegenheiten anzuordnen. Dahin gehoren die Gegenstande (a) der Glaubenslehre, (b) der Form und Feier des Gottes-Dienstes, (c) der geistlichen Amtsftihrung, (d) des religidsen Volks-Unterrichtes, (e) der Kirchen-Disciplin, (f) der Approbation und Ordination der Kirchen-Diener. (g) der Einweihung der zum Gottes-Dienste gewidmeten Gebaude und der Kirchhéfe, (h) die Ausiibung der Gerichtsbarkeit in rein-geistlichen Sachen, namlich: des Gewissens oder der Erfiillung der Religions- und Kirchen- Pflichten einer Kirche nach ihren Dogmen, symbolischen Biichern und darauf gegrtindeter Verfassung. § 48. Die in Unserm KoOnigreiche als Offentliche Korporationen auf- genommenen Kirchen sind berechtiget, Eigenthum zu besizen, und nach den hieriiber bestehenden Gesezen auch kiinftig zu erwerben. $49. Die Eiggenthums-Fahigkeit der nicht Ooffentlichen Kirchen- Gesellschaften wird nach ihrer Aufnahms-Urkunde, oder wenn in dieser hiertiber nichts festgesezt ist, nach den ‘'Rechten der Privat- Gesselschaften bestimmt. Abschnitte iv. Von dem Verhaltnisse Vershiedener Religions- Gesellschaften gegen einander. Kapitel 1. Allgemeine Staats-Pflichten der Kirchen gegen einander. 135] THE TOLERATION POLICY 135 after the close of the Napoleonic period and only very gen- eral statements, in consequence, can safely be made con- cerning either the number of Protestant immigrants at- tracted to the country by the new toleration ordinances, or the number of Protestant subjects acquired through the various shiftings of territory that took place in the Napo- leonic period. The economic and social effects of such a policy, on the other hand, are nearly always incalculable. The positive evidence, finally, concerning the popular recep- tion of the government’s toleration policy comes almost en- §95. Die im Staate bestehenden Religions-Gesellschaften sind sich wechselseitig gleiche Achtung schuldig; ..... §96. Jede Kirche kann fiir ihre Religions-Handlungen von den Gliedern aller tibrigen Religions-Parteien vollkommene Sicherheit gegen Storungen aller Art verlangen. § 97. Keine Kirchen-Gesellschaft kann verbindlich gemacht werden, an dem aussern Gottesdienste der anderen Antheil zu nehmen..... § 99. Religions-Verwandte einer Offentlich aufgenommen Kirche, welche keine eigene Gemeinde bilden, k6nnen sich zu einer entfernten Gemeinde ihres Glaubens innerhalb des Reiches halten. §103. Den Mitgliedern der Offentlich aufgenommenen Kirchen- Gesellschaften steht die Bildung einer eigenen Gemeinde aller Orten frei, wenn sie das erfoderliche Vermogen zu Unterhalte der Kirchen- diener, zu den Ausgaben fiir den Gottesdienst, dann zur Errichtung und Erhaltung der nothigen Gebaude besizen, oder wenn sie die Mittel hiezu auf gesezlich gestattenem Wege aufzubringen vermogen. Kapitel 2. Vom Simultan-Gebrauche der Kirchen. § 109. Wenn ein Religions-Theil keinen eigenen Kirchhof besizt, oder nicht bei der Theilung des gemeinschaftlichen Kirchen-Vermogens einen solchen fiir sich anlegt, so ist der im Orte befindliche als ein geschaftlicher Begrabnissplaz fur samtliche Einwohner des Ortes zu betrachten,..... § 118. Der Glocken auf den Kirchhdfen kann jede offentlich auf- genommene Kirchen-Gemeinde bei ihren Leichenfeierlichkeiten, gegen Bezahlung der Gebiithr, sich bediehen.” “Edikt iiber die ausseren Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner der Konigreichs Baiern, in Bezie- hung auf Religion und kirchliche Gesellschaften, zu nahern Bestimmung der §§ vi und vii des ersten Titels der Konstitution,’ 24 Mar., 1809, in Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1800, p. 807, et seq. 136 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [136 tirely from government sources and the friends of the new policy. Some Protestants, at any rate, began to take advantage of the newly granted permission to settle in Bavaria soon after it was extended to them by the government. As early as July, 1801, a Protestant had purchased the license of a tav- ern-keeper at Munich and was knocking at the door of the magistrates for admission to the rights of municipal citizen- ship.* Shortly after the ordinance of 26 August, 1801, was published Johann Gottlieb von Herder, the poet and critic, became a subject of the elector and purchased an estate in the Upper Palatinate. The settlement of Herder in Bavaria evidently was seized upon at once by the friends of the policy of toleration as an example of the beneficial effects which might be expected from the adoption of a policy of religious toleration.” As early as 1802 Protestants seem to have been in attendance at the Gymnasium and the Lyceum at Mun- ich; * and a dispatch in the Journal des Debats, dated 14 March (1802), reported that a considerable number of for- elgners — particularly manufacturers, artisans and cultiva- tors of the soil had flocked into the country since the adop- tion of religious toleration.* 1 Tn diesem Monat bekam der hiesige Magistrat [einen Auftrag?] von der Generallandesdirection einen Protestanten, der eines hiesigen Weinwirths Gerechtigkeit gekauft hatte, als Biirgher anzunehmen.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 68. 2“ Dieses Edikt war kaum noch im Auslande bekannt, so bekront es schon der glanzendeste Erfolg. Herder—ein allgemein geschatzter Name—kauft sich in der obern Pfalz ein Gut, und wird Maxens Unter- thanen...” Regierungsblatt, 21 Nov., 1801, pp. 745-746, “ Empfindungen tiber die Toleranz in Baiern. Eingesandt.” 3“ Es fallt hier nicht mehr auf, was manin Augsburg fur unerhort und Himmelschreiend erklaren witirde: dass Protestanten (Sdéhne des Geh. Raths v. Schenk, eines unserer verdienstvollen Staatsrathe...) und sogar Juden an Gymnasium oder Lyceum studiren...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, 1, 66. *“Tepuis que la tolérance des cultes est établis dans ce pays, il y 137] FHEVTOLERATION POLICY b37 By July, 1803, according to the Teutsche Merkur, a group of Protestant cultivators of the soil was settled near Rosen- hain, a town east of Munich and not far from the Inn river. The settlement, which was called Karolinenfeld in honor of the electress, was situated in an extensive, uninhabited moor. At the time the correspondent of the Teutsche Mer- kur wrote, houses for seventy farmers had been erected and twenty Catholic and forty Protestant families were living there. Because of their lack of funds, however, the forty Protestant families had not yet been constituted a parish.’ A similar colony of Protestant agriculturists must have established themselves about the same time in the Danube Moor, near Ingolstadt, since early in 1804 two Protestant candidates were called from Ulm to serve as ministers at the settlement of Karolinenfeld and a settlement near In- golstadt.* affue un nombre considérable d’étrangers, et surtout de fabricans, douvriers et de cultivateurs. L’électeur fait assigner a ces derniers des terres defrichées, principalement dans le duché de Neubourg, sur les deux rives du Danube. On leur donne de grands evantages...” Journal des Debats, 5 Germinal, an. 10. 1“ Karolinenfeld (von dem Namen unserer geliebten Kurfiirstin so- genannt) heisst das neue Dorf; und es ist wohl unter allen das glticklichste. Ein und eine halbe Stunde von Rosenhain lag ein grosses Moos, ein langer, Oder Grund. Nun sehen Sie da ein fruchtbares und blithendes Land..... Siebenzig htibsche, neue und reinliche Bauerhauser lachen hier dem Auge des reisenden Beobdachters entgegen, 40 protestantische, und 20 katholische Familien wohnen hier; und wahre Toleranz, Eintracht und Friede bltihen daselbst..... Der Pfarrer im nachsten katholischen Dorfe (denn noch erlaubten Finanzumstande nicht die Errichtung einer eignen Pfarrey) tauft die Kinder der Protestanten, und begrabt ihre Leichen...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, iii, 385-388. 2“7on Ulm sind zwei Kandidaten berufen, um die ersten protes- tantischen Landpfarrer in Baiern zu seyn;...der eine ftir die Kolonie bei Rosenheim, der andere fiir die neue Ansiedelung an der Donau 138 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [138 A great many of the incoming Protestants, naturally, set- tled at Munich. Westenrieder wrote in January, 1809, that the inhabitants of the capital had seen many Protestant funeral processions since 1800.* The difficulty experienced by the Protestants of the capital in establishing an independ- ent parish, however, would seem to indicate that, for sev- eral years at least, their numbers were comparatively small. Early in 1802, apparently, the Protestants living in Munich were granted by the elector the right of holding their ser- vices in public.” These were the first public Protestant ser- vices that the city had known since its occupation by Gus- tavus Adolphus one hundred and seventy years earlier.” By a resolution of 5 July, 1806, the Protestants of the capital were given permission to establish a parish of their own, which should enjoy all the privileges possessed by a parish.* From an ordinance of 21 December, 1806, however, it would seem that the Protestants had been unable to take advantage of the permission to found a parish, granted to them in July, gegen Ingolstadt hin bestimmt.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1804, iii, 255. The work of draining and settling the Donaumoos was begun in the previous decade. Brockhaus, Konversations Lexikon, art. “ Donau- moos.”’ 1“Yen 11. Janner paradirten die thiesigen Protestanten bey dem Leichenbegangnisse... durch die Kaufingergasse... (Wiewohl seit 1800 schon sehr viele Leichenziige der Protestanten gesehen wurden, so hatte doch dieser Zug etwas besonders neues und Besizergreifendes. Es war...kein katholischer Priester mehr dabey...)” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigketten und Tagebiicher, p. 88. 2“T’électeur a permis aux protestants, démeurant a Munich, l’exercise public du service divin d’aprés les formes de leur religion.” Journal des Debats, 21 Ventose, an. I0. *“ Jetzt zuerst seit 170 Jahren horte man auch wieder Offentlich protestantische Predigten in Miinchen.” Bredow, Chronik des neun- sehnten Jahrhundert, i, 411. 4 Regierungsblatt, 30 July, 1806, p. 272, “‘ Bekanntmachung: die Protes- tantische Pfarrey zu Miinchen betr.,’ 17 July, 1806. 139] PHEOTOLERATION POLIC ¥. 139 because of a lack of funds. By the latter ordinance, in con- sequence, the financial obstacles to the foundation of a Prot- estant parish were removed. The former Salvator Church was given to the Protestants as a place of worship, and the chaplain of the electress, assisted by a vicar, was to act as head of the parish. As long as the court chapel and the parish at Munich were united, the government was to pro- vide a suitable salary for the vicar and to contribute to the support of the other employees of the parish. The new parish was to include the Protestants living in Munich and any Protestants in the surrounding districts who were nearer to Munich than to any other Protestant parish. Both Cath- olics and Protestants, finally, were to use the churchyard of the city in common.’ 1“ Wir haben unter Beziehung auf das Religions-Edikt vom Io. Janner 1803 in Unserer Entschliessung vom 5 Julius 1806 den hiesigen Einwohnern der augsburgischen Konfession zwar die Bildung einer eigenen Gemeinde bewilligt. Da diese aber vorziiglich wegen Abgang der hiezu erfoderlichen Mittel bis jetzt noch nicht zu Stand gebracht werden konnte, ... haben Wir folgende Beschliisse gefasst. 1. Um die in Unserer hiesigen Residenz-Stadt zu errichtende pro- testantische Pfarrey von dem blos temporaren Hofgottesdienst un- abhangig zu machen, und ihre Existenz auch ftir die Zukunft zu sichern, soll der protestantischen Gemeinde fiir ihren Pfarr-gottesdienst die vormalige Salvators-Kirche iibergeben werden. Weil aber 2. die zu ihrer inneren Errichtung erfoderlichen Fonds noch nicht ausgemittelt sind, so soll die zu errichtende Stadtpfarrey mit der Hof- kirche Ihrer Majestat Unserer Frau Gemahlin, und die Stelle Ihres Kabinets-Predigers mit der Stelle eines protestantischen Pfarrers vor der Hand vereiniget werden. 3. Damit die dadurch vermehrten Arbeiten des Kabinets-Predigers von ihm gehodrig besorgt werden konnen, so soll ihm ein geistlicher Gehilf unter dem Namen Vikarius beygegeben werden. Jenem als Pfarrer kommt die obere Leitung aller kirchlichen Geschafte.... 6. Der Kirchhof bleibt noch zu Zeit gemeinschaftlich fur die Katho- liken und Protestanten..... 7, Zum Sprengel der hiesigen protestantischen Pfarrey gehoren alle hier wohnenden Protestanten, so wie alle diejenigen aus der angran- 140 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [140 In 1810 the government issued a document that gave a complete and accurate list of the Protestant parishes of the kingdom. It was the proclamation of 7 December, 1810, concerning the organization of the Protestant deaneries of the kingdom.* By that date there were over six hundred Protestant parishes in Bavaria. Very few of them, how- ever, were the result of the immigration of Protestants into districts previously Catholic. The only exceptions to the exclusive Catholicity that had formerly existed in the duchies of Upper and Lower Bavaria were the parishes of Munich, Karolinenfeld and Polling, the former equestrian lordship of Ortenburg, and the principality of Regensburg just acquired. More than half of the twenty-two thousand inhabitants of the city of Regensburg were reported, in 1796, as being Protestants.” In addition, the ordinance re- ported a single Protestant parish in the Salzach Circle, at least one in the former duchy of Neuburg, and a very few in the upper Palatinate and Sulzbach. With these few ex- ceptions, the Protestant parishes lay in the districts of Swa- bia and Franconia, which had been acquired by Bavaria zenden Gegend, die einer protestantischen Kolonie-Pfarrey nicht naher Sind 2h 8. So lange diese Pfarrey mit der protestantischen Hofkapelle verei- nigt bleiben wird, werden Wir dem dabey angestellten Personal fiir die iibernommenen ausserordentlichen Arbeiten verhaltnissmassige Zulagen bewilligen, auch fiir den neuangestellten Vikarius...” Regierungs- blatt, 10 Jan., 1807, p. 77, et seq., “ Verordnung: die protestantische Pfarrey zu Miinchen betr.,” 21 Dec., 1806. 1 Regierungsblatt, 22 Dec., 1810, p. 1400, et seq., “ Bekanntmachung: die Organization und Besezung der protestantischen Distrikts-Dekanate betr., 7 Dec., 1810. Formations- und Ernennungs-Liste der protes- tantischen Distrikts Dekanate des Ko6nigreichs.” 2“ Nach den hiesigen Sterbelisten ... m6gen ungefahr 22,000 Menschen hier seyn,... Die protestantische Religion ist die herrschende...doch sind auch sehr viele katholische (fast die halfte der) Einwohner hier ..” Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Batern, art. “ Regensburg.” T41 | THE TOLERATION POLICY I4I from time to time by the favor of Napoleon. Nearly one- fourth of the entire number in the list were situated in the former Prussian Margraviate of Bayreuth, which had just been handed over to Bavaria by the treaty of 28 February, 1810. The intention of the government in issuing the toleration edicts plainly was to permit the establishment of both Cath- olic parishes in districts formerly exclusively Protestant, and Protestant parishes in districts which had been previously exclusively Catholic. The establishment of a Catholic parish in the city of Ansbach in 1807 seems to have been one of the few examples of the invasion of a Protestant district by the Catholics. By a resolution of 7 March, 1807, the Catholics of the city were granted permission to establish a Catholic parish in the city. The new parish was to include Catholics living in the city of Ansbach and any Catholics living in the surrounding districts who were nearer to the parish at Ans- bach than to any other parish of their church. The former Catholic chapel was to be used for the time being as a parish church, and the parish was given permission to place on it at their own expense a clock and a bell. The churchyard at Ansbach was to be used by both confessions. Processions outside of the parish church were expressly forbidden, but the Catholic priest was granted the right of accompanying to the grave the bodies of his deceased parishioners.’ 1“y. Unseren, in der Stadt Ansbach wohnenden, katholischen Unter- thanen soll, in Erwagung ihrer schon gegenwartig betrachtlichen Anzahl, und der ausgewiesenen hinlanglichen Mittel, in Gemassheit des Reli- gions-Ediktes vom 10 Janner 1803, eine ordentliche katholische Pfarrey zu bilden, und ihre Religion auszutiben gestattet seyn. 2. Der Bezirk dieser Pfarrey soll neben den katholischen Ein- wohnern der Stadt Ansbach auch jene des platten Landes, welche keiner andern katholischen Pfarrey naher liegen, umfassen... 3. Als Pfarrkirche kann vorlaufig noch das bisherige katholische Bethhaus beniitzt werden; auch steht der Gemeinde frey, dieses mit Uhr und Glocken auf ihre Kosten versehen zu lassen. 8. Der Kirchhof soll den Katholiken mit den Protestanten unter 142 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [142 In 1812 there seem to have been some Herrnhuters living in the Rezat circle, and it is not unlikely that the community had come under the jurisdiction of Bavaria when Ansbach was handed over to Bavaria in 1806. By a decree of 29 April, 1813, the right of private devotion, which was granted to all Christians by the organic edict of 24 March, 18009, was confirmed to the community. They were forbidden, on the other hand, to have any relations whatever with foreign communities of their sect.’ The Mennonites never have been very numerous in Bava- ria, but their peculiar religious tenets began to make trouble for the Bavarian government as early as 1805. By the Bavarian conscription ordinance of that year the Mennonite der in dem Organizations-Rescripte der protestantische Pfarrey dahier ...enthaltenen Bedingung gemeinschaftlich seyn. g. Der katholische Pfarrer kann die Leichen seiner Gemeinde 6ffent- lich zu Grabe begleiten, und sonst alle pfarrlichen Rechte nach dem katholischen Kirchen-Ritual austiben, in so ferne die Gestze des Staates nicht entgegen sind, und die andern Konfessions-Verwandten schuldige Achtung, dadurch nicht verlezt wird. Prozessionen ausser der Pfarr- kirche sind aber ausdriicklich untersagt...” Regierungsblatt, 21 Mar., 1807, pp. 444-447, “Auszug einer allerhochsten Entschliessung an die konigliche Kriegs- und Domainenkammer zu Ansbach, vom 7 Marz, 1807. Die Errichtung einer katholischen Pfarrey zu Ansbach betr.” 1“ .,.nach Ansicht der Bestimmungen in den §§ 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 28, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 390, 40 Unsers Edictes vom 24 Marz 1809, iiber die aussern Rechtsverhaltnisse der Einwohner Unsers Reiches in Beziehung auf Religion und kirchliche Gesellschaften haben Wir beschlossen wie folgt : (1) Den sich so nennenden Assoziirten der Herrnhuter-Brider- Gemeinde zu N. wird die Erlaubniss zu ihren Privat Andachten unter Aufsicht der Polizei ertheilt. (2) Dagegen bleibt denselben strengstens untersagt, mit auswartigen Briider-Gemeinden, deren geistlichen oder weltlichen Vorstehern oder Missionaren in irgend einer Verbindung zu stehen,—von ihnen Visita- tionen oder Verhaltsvorschriften anzunehmen, oder die Briider- Gemeinde mit Geldbeitragen zu unterstiitzen...” Ddllinger, Samm- lung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1787, ‘““Mandat: die Herrnhter zu N. betr.,” 29 Apr., 1813. 143] THE TOLERATION POLICY 143 families of a recruiting district were granted permission to pay into the treasury one hundred and eighty-five florins for each Mennonite conscripted by the government. Upon the payment of this sum the places of the Mennonites in the regiments and battalions were to be filled by volunteers from other families of the district. By the ordinance of 23 De- cember, 1812, the Mennonites who found it incompatible with their religious beliefs to allow their conscripted sons to be employed in the wagon train or in some other branch of the army in which they would not be called upon to shed blood, were permitted to replace their sons with substitutes.” In regard to their solemn depositions, the ordinance of 20 October, 1811, provided that whenever a Mennonite was permitted in either a civil or a criminal suit to make a solemn affirmation in the capacity of either a witness or a party to the suit, he was to certify beforehand by the testimony of an elder, teacher or leader of his sect that he had been born 1“ Keine Glaubenskonfession kann einen Unterthan von der Miulitar- dienstpflichtigkeit befreyen,... jedoch gestatten Wir in Riicksicht ihrer Religiosen Meynungen, dass ihre Familie [Menonisten und Juden] in einem Rekrutirungs-Distrikte fiir die sie treffende Zahl von Mannschaft pr. Kopf 185 fl. an die Militarkasse bezahlen, wofiir durch freywillige Anwerbungen die von ihnen zu stellen gewesene Mannschaft bey den einschlagigen Regimentern oder Bataillons zum Besten der tbrigen Familien ersezt wird.” Regierungsblatt, 13 Feb., 1805, p. 248, “ Re- script: das Militar-Kantons-Regelment betr.” 2“Tn so ferne dieselben den \'Soldatenstand mit ihren Religions- meinungen nicht vereinbarlich finden, worttber jedoch zur Zeit von keiner andern Seite her eine Anzeige erstattet worden ist, und sich auch dabei nicht beruhigen mé6chten, dass ihre militarpflichtigen und zur Ejinreihung bestimmten Sohne bei dem Fuhrwesen oder einer Militar-Oeconomie-Branche in Zugang gebracht wiirden, als wobei sie nicht in den Fali kamen, Blut zu vergiessen, ist ihnen die Einstellung von Ersatzmannern zu gestatten, darauf aber auch alles Ernstes zu bestehen...” Ddilinger, Sammlung, Baterische Verordinuingen, vol. Vill, pt. 3, pp. 1782-1783, “ Mandat: die Militarpflichtigkeit der Menoniten betr.,” 23 Dec., 1812. 144 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [144 into that faith or had belonged to the sect at least a year, and that he had led hitherto a blameless life. He was then to be reminded in a general way by the judge, with the assistance of a teacher or leader of the sect, both of the obli- gation which he had taken upon himself at the time of his entrance into his church, and of his civil duty to speak the pure, unfalsified truth. In addition, he was to be instructed that his yes and no were here completely equal to an actual oath and that a false affirmation entailed the penalties laid down by the law for cases of perjury. After this prelimi- nary warning the Mennonite was to make his solemn affir- mation after repeating a pledge to affirm nothing but the truth.* The government’s policy of religious toleration met with some protest, but with less than might have been expected from as orthodox a country as Bavaria. The very limited degree of toleration extended to the Protestants of Munich (rt) Wenn ein Menonite in einer Zivil- oder Kriminal-Sache, als Zeuge oder Partei, zu feierlicher Versicherung an Ejidesstatt zugelassen werden soll, so muss derselbe zuvor durch ein Zeugniss eines Aeltesten, Lehrers, oder Vorstehers seiner Religions-Partei gehorig bescheinigen, dass er entweder in dieser Religion geboren sey, oder sich wenigstens seit einem Jahre zu derselben bekennt, und bisher einen untadelhaften Wandel gefuhrt habe. Sodann ist derselbe. (2) von dem Richter, allenfalls nach Befinden der Umstande, mit Zuziehung eines Vorstehers oder Lehrers dieser Religionspartei, im Allgemeinen der Verbindlichkeiten, welche er bei dem Eintritt in seinen Glauben und in dem Taufbund, ibernommen habe, so wie seiner Birgerpflicht die reine unverfalschte Wahrheit auszusagen, zu erinnern, und: tiberdiess zu belehren, dass das Ja, und Nein hier dem wirklichen Fide vollig gleich gelte, und dass eine falsche Betheurung die dem Meineide gedrohten gesezlichen Strafen nach sich ziehe. (3) Nach dieser vorlaufigen Ermahnung ist den Komparenten der Handschlag abzunehmen, begleitet von der nachzusprechenden Betheu- rungsformel: “ich verspreche mit gegenwartigen Handschlag, wie bei meinem Taufbunde die reine Wahrheit zu sagen!” MRegierungsblatt, 23 Oct., I81I, pp. 1601-1603, ‘‘ Verordnung: die feierlichen gerichtlichen Autissagen der Menoniten btr.,” 20 Oct., 1811. 145] THE TOLERATION POLICY TA5 by the decrees of 24 January and 8 April, 1800, according to Montgelas, did not excite the least murmur.* The pro- posal to admit a Protestant as a citizen of Munich, however, seems to have aroused the stoutest opposition. The magis- trates, according to Montgelas, made the strongest possible remonstrance and were supported in their protest by the Estates of Bavaria.” Eight days after the first demand for the admission of the Protestant as a citizen had been made the elector repeated the request in a personal letter and ac- companied it with many threats concerning the results of a refusal.* Thereupon “ each magistrate ended,” according to the rather naive account of Montgelas, “by surrendering without reply to the reasoning of the government and relig- ious toleration triumphed over the obstacles which had been put in its way.” * In other words, religious toleration tri- umphed by using the weapon of intolerance—coercion. The French invasion seems to have diverted public attention from the ordinance of 10 November, 1800.” The proposal to per- mit the Protestants of the capital to hold public services, however, seems to have evoked a protest from the Catholic 1“ Une tolérance si bornée, accompagnée de tant de ménagemens pour Yopinion dominate n’excita pas le plus léger murmure.’ Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 122. 2“ ..quand...on voulut...admettre un protestant au droit de bour- goisie dans le capitale. L’opposition alors se manifesta hautement; le corps municipal fit les remonstrances les plus fortes, les Etats de Baviére les appuyeérent.” Jbid. 3“ Den 29. Juli schichte der Churfurst an den Magistrat ein Hand- billet, worin dem Magistrat mit vielen Drohungen auf den Weigerungs- fall befohlen wurde, den Protestanten allsogleich als Btirger anzuneh- ) men...” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 68. 4“Chacum finit par se rendre a ce raisonnement sans réplique, et la tolérance religieuse triompha des obstacles qu’on avoit voulu lui opposer.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 123. 5 “Les distractions de la guerre laiss¢rent passer avec la méme facilité la publication du 10 novembre 1800...” Jbid., p. 122. 146 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAV ARIAN GOVERNMENT [146 clergy. At about the same tirhe, likewise, the Committee of the Estates seems to have recovered its courage sufh- ciently to make another protest against the policy of relig- ious toleration.” Montgelas was able to write in his memoirs in 1817, however, that from the time of the issuing of the organic edict of 24 March, 1809, “all the religions had lived in peace; and, with the exception of some rivalries which pertained to the clergy rather than to the people, there had been no complaints or protests in regard to the subject of religious toleration.”’ * Even as early as 1803 the parish priest at Paffenhofen was reported by the correspondent of the Teutsche Merkur to be baptizing the children and con- ducting the funerals of his Protestant neighbors at Karo- linenfeld.* The relatively small amount of protest against the gov- ernment’s policy of religious toleration probably indicates popular submission to the policy rather than popular ap- proval of it; and the “ reasonable spirits ’ whose approba- tion, according to the Moniteur,’ the edict of 26 August, 1“T ’électeur a permit aux protestans démeurant a Munich, l’exercise public du service divin d’aprés les formes de leur religion. Le clergé catholique, qui a fait des représentations a ce sujet, n’a pas réussi dans ses démarches.” Journal des Debats, 25 Ventose, an. I0. >“Le comité des états a... fait...de nouvelles réclamations contre ... Pédit de la tolération et des cultes...” Jbid., 30 Germinal, an. Io, dispatch dated, “ Munich Io avril.” 3“ Depuis ce moment [1809] toutes les religions ont vécu en paix, et je ne sachs pas qu’a l’exception de quelques rivalités qui tiennent aux ecclésiastiques plutdt qu’au peuple, il se soit élevé ni plainte ni réclamation a cet égard.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 124. 4“Tyer Pfarrer im nachsten katholischen Dorfe...tauft die Kinder der Protestanten, und begrabt ihre Leichen auf den kathol. Gottesacker, ohne Widerrede seiner Gemeinde. Pfaffenhofen heisst dieses Dorf.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, iii, 387, “ Karolinenfeld. Ein Protes- tantisches Koloniedorf bei Miinchen.” 5“ Cet édit a obtenu l’approbation de tous les esprits raisonnables.” Gazette National ou le Moniteur Universal, an. 10, no. 3, p. 3, dispatch dated, ‘‘ Munich, le 10 septembre.” 147] THE TOLERATION POLICY 147 1801, had obtained probably constituted a very small part of the population of Bavaria. One of these reasonable spirits, in what apparently was the sole example of a “ letter to the editor,” which the Kegierungsblait published during the Napoleonic period, wrote that general joy would have arisen concerning the gracious and paternal disposition which the edict of toleration disclosed if common sense and humanity were really the general possession of mankind, but that since deep-rooted prejudice, hoary errors and an obscurantism creeping in darkness ruled the heads of so great a number, the elector must be content with the approval and heartfelt eratitude of the few who knew how to comprehend the great idea of the sovereign.* The Jewish subjects of the ruler of Bavaria had to wait until the 10 June, 1813, for a general law regulating their situation in the state. A great deal of special legislation, however, preceded the organic edict of 10 June, 1813. Ina few points the medieval restrictions under which the popu- lation of Bavaria had lived previous to 1799 were modified in favor of the Jews by this special legislation. In the main, however, the ordinances dealing with the Jews, which were issued by the Bavarian government before 1813, breathed a spirit of hostility to the race and implied, even when they did not explicitly assert, with the ordinance of 18 June, 1804, that the Jews were an undesirable element in the state.” 1“ Wenn gesunder Menschenverstand und Humanitat allgemeines Antheil der Menschen waren, so miisste tiber diese gnadigste und wahrhaft landesvaterliche Verfiigung auch allgemeine Freude antstandem seyn: allein wenn noch tief eingewurzelte Vorurtheile, ergraute Irr- thumer und im Finstern schleichender Obskurantism einen so grossen Theil der K6pfe beherrschen, so muss sich der edle Fiirst gleichwohl mit dem Beyfall und Herzensdanke der wenigen begntigen, welche die groose Idee des Fiirsten zu fassen und zu schatzen wissen.” Regierungs- blatt, 21 Nov., 1801, pp. 745-746, ““Empfindungen tber die Toleranz in Baiern. Ejingesandt.” 2“ Wir haben schon in den ersten Jahren Unserer Regierung durch 148 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [148 One of the important concessions made by the Bavarian government to the Jews during this period was admission to the schools. As early as 1802 Jews seem to have been at- tending the Gymnasium and Lyceum at Munich,* and on September 1 of that year Abraham Pirmasenzer, a Jewish boy from Weissenburg, in Alsace, was awarded the first prize in religious and moral philosophy.” The first ordi- nance of the government that regulated the relation of the Jews to the schools, however, was the ordinance of 18 June, 1804. By this measure all Jews were granted the right of attending all the higher and lower schools of the state, with- out any interference. When no separate Jewish school ex- isted, Jewish parents were required like ‘Christian parents to send their children to the Christian schools. The General- Schuldirectorium was to see to it, however, that neither the religious freedom of Jewish children nor their freedom of conscience was interfered with, and that no ground for mis- trust was given to Jewish parents. Jewish children were not to be required, in consequence, to be present in the schools during prayers or religious instruction. When a Jewish community possessed a school of its own the school was to be subject to the general regulations and arrangements for mehrere Beweise... bestatigt gefunden, dass die Juden in ihrer derma- ligen Verfassung als schadliche Mitglieder des Staates zu betrachten sind,...” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baterische Verordnungen, vi, 200- 202, “ Verordnung: den verbesserten Schulunterricht bei den Juden betr.,” 18 June, 1804. 1“Es fallt hier nicht mehr auf, was man in Augsburg fiir unerhort und Himmelschreiend erklaren wiirde: dass Protestanten und sogar Juden an Gynasium oder Lyceum studiren...” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1803, i, 66, “ Fortschritte wahrer Religiositat und Aufklarung in Bayern.” >“ Bey der Pramienvertheilung der Studenten den 1. Sept. kam ein Judenknab, Abraham Pirmasenzer, von Weissenburg in Elsass, Studiosus der ersten Grammatik hier, das erste Pramium hier aus der (katholischen) Religions- und Sittenlehre...” Westenrieder, Denk- wirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 72. 149 | THE TOLERATION POLICY IAQ the schools in matters of instruction, in so far as the in- struction did not relate to religion.* The royal resolution of 31 December, 1810, ordered that Jewish children between the ages of six and twelve years capable of attending school should be compelled by the local school commission, with the assistance of the police if necessary, to attend the ordinary Christian schools. Unauthorized schools and unlicensed private tutors, on the other hand, were not to be tolerated. The religious instruction of Jewish children was to be given by the leader of the Jewish community in hours not used by the school.” 1“ (1) Der jiidischen Jugend soll in Zukunft allgemein erlaubt sein, alle sowohl hohern als niederen in Unsern Landen bestehenden Lehran- stalten zu ihrer Bildung und zu ihrem bessern Unterrichte ungehindert zu besuchen. (2) Wenn jtidische Gemeinde eine eigene Schule besitzt, oder eine solche auf ihre Kosten errichten will, so soll sie solches dem General-Schul- und Studien-Directorio anzeigen, und sie ist in Anse- hung des Unterrichts, in soweit solcher auf die Religion sich nicht bezieht, an die hiertuber bestehenden allgemeinen Vorschriften und Einrichtungen gebunden, uber deren Beobachtung die einschlagigen Schulinspection zu wachen haben.... (3) Wo keine eigenen jiidischen Schulen bestehen, soll simmtlichen jiidischen Eltern, wie Unsern christ- lichen Unterthanen aufgeben werden, ihre Kinder in die christlichen Schulen zu schicken... Das General-Schuldirectorium wird aber Sorge tragen, damit dabei die Religions- und Gewissensfreiheit der jiidischen Jugend nicht verlezt, und Anlass zum Misstrauen der Eltern gegeben werde; wesshalb die jiidischen Schiiler weder dem Religionsunterrichte, noch dem Gebete in den Schulen beizuwohnen haben... Dé6llinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vi, 200-202, “ Der verbesserten Schulunterricht bei den Juden betr.,’ 18 June, 1804. 2“ (7) Alle schulfahigen und schulpflichtigen Judenkinder vom 6. bis 12. Jahre sollen in die christlichen Stadtschulen, wie diess auch schon frither verordnet worden ist, eingewiesen und zum fleissigen Schulbesuch durch das Local-Schulcommissariat, auch nothigenfalls unter Mitwirkung der Polizei-Direction, angehalten, Winkelschulen aber oder ungepriifte Privatlehrer durchaus nicht geduldet werden.” “(3) Fur den mosaischen Religions-Unterricht der Judenkinder ist vom Vorsteher der diesortigen Judenschaft, in besonderen, mit den Offentlichen Schulstunden nicht kolidirenden Stunden, geeignete Sorge zu tragen.” Ibid., vi, 205-206, “Allerhochste-Entschliessung: den Ele- mentar-Unterricht der Juden-Kinder allhier betr.,” 31 Decr., 1810. I50 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [150 In regard to military service, the conscription law of 1805 made the same concessions to the Jews as it made to the Mennonites. The Jewish families of a recruiting district were permitted to purchase the release of Jewish conscripts by paying into the treasury one hundred and eighty-five florins for each Jewish son conscripted by the government. The places of the Jews thus released were to be filled, as far as possible, by voluntary enlistments from other families of the district." The government repeatedly confirmed, how- ever, the right of Jews to fulfil their military obligations in person,” and the Jews evidently valued more highly the op- portunity afforded them of assuming another of the duties of ordinary citizens than the opportunity of escaping the dangers of military service.*® A third important concession of the Bavarian government to the Jews was the abolition of the special poll tax which had formerly been levied on them. In 1805 the Jews of Munich were allowed to substitute a yearly tax of twenty florins per family in place of the poll-tax which they had previously paid.* Three years later the further collection of 1“ Keine Glaubenskonfession kann einen Unterthan von der Muilitar- dienstpflichtigkeit befreyen, daher sind auch... Juden derselben un- terworfen, und werden wie die iibrigen, konscribirt; jedoch gestatten Wir in Rticksicht ihrer religiosen Meynungen, dass ihre Familie in einem Rekrutirungs-Distrikte fiir die sie treffende Zahl von Mannschaft pr. Kopf 185 fl. an die Militarkasse bezahlen, woftir durch freywillige Anwerbungen die von ihnen zu stellen gewesene Mannschaft bey den einschlagigen Regimentern oder Bataillons zum Besten der wtbrigen Familien ersetzt wird.” Regierungsblatt, 13 Feb., 1805, p. 248. “Re- script: das Militar-Kantons-Regelment betr.” The date 30 Apr., 1804, given in Dollinger, is evidently a misprint. Cf. Jewish Encyclopedia, att.“ Bavaria.” 2 Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 219, “‘ Allerhochste Entschliessung: 17 Feb., 1808; ” and ibid., vi, 220, “Allerhéchste Entschliessung: 20 July, 1808.” 3 Jewish Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” 4“ T] partit la méme année un réglement pour les juifs de la capitale; 151] THE TOLERATION POLICY 151 a poll-tax from Jews—particularly in Nuremberg, Donau- worth and Bamberg—was prohibited by the royal resolution of 16 March, 1808." For a time at least the more stringent regulations to which the Jews were subjected in regard to residence, worship, travel, begging, petty huckstering and trade in real estate must have offset to a considerable extent the concessions which the government made to them in regard to education, taxation and military service. The regulations issued by the government in 1805 for the Jews of Munich furnish a good example of the situation of the Bavarian Jews between 1799 and 1813. The Jews living in Munich under electoral pro- tection were permitted to live in either their own or rented houses on any street of the city. All Jewish births, mar- riages and deaths were to be reported to the police and re- corded by them in a register kept for that purpose. Each family received a number which was to be handed down, ordinarily, from father to son. Only one child in a family, as a usual thing, was to be permitted to marry, and to this child the family number was to be handed over. Two chil- dren from a family were permitted to marry only when there had been, by some chance, a decrease in the total number of ....On abolit ’ancienne capitation a laquel ils étoient assujettis, Leib- zoll, en y sustituant un droit annuel de 20 florins par famille.’ Mont- gelas, op. cit., p. 139. “ ..die unter hiesigen Schutze begriffenen Juden sind aber verbunden, jahrlich eine Abgabe von 20 fl. von jeder Familie zur Staats-Kasse zu entrichten,...” Regierungsblati, 26 Jun., 1805, p. 715, “Das Regulativ fiir die Judenschaft in Mtinchen betr.,” 17 Jun., 1805. 1“Nachdem durch die erlassene allgemeine Zollordnung der Leibzoll der Juden abgeschaft ist, so solle kiinftig auch die Perception einer solcher Abgabe den Communitaten und Privaten, welche sich bisher in dem Besitze derselben befanden, nicht mehr gestattet, und in Folge dessen insonderheit in Niirnberg, Donauworth, Bamberg und andern Orten, wo sie noch iiblich ist, unterlassen werden.” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 231, “Allerhochste-Entschliessung: den Leibzoll der Juden betr.,” 16 Mar., 1808. 152 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [152 Jewish families in the city. Widows were permitted to re- marry only when they had no children. They were per- mitted to marry foreigners only when a considerable increase in the wealth of the state could result from the marriage. No marriage of a Jew was to be allowed without the pre- vious investigation by and consent of the police; and every Jew wishing to marry was required to prove that he owned property of the value at least of one thousand Reichsthalers. The Jewish community at Munich was to select and nomi- nate some one to represent it with the officials of the gov- ernment in the common affairs of the community. They were allowed to practice their religious customs in a private place without the interference of members of other religious confessions, and they were to be assigned a special burial ground. They were allowed, after securing the consent of the elector, to engage in occupations not controlled by the gilds, to establish factories and shops, and, as long as the laws concerning petty huckstering were not infringed, to trade in twenty-five enumerated articles. In regard to loans and exchange, they were subject to both the civil law and the regulations of the police. They were expressly forbidden, however, to trade in the evidences of pay or to transact business with minors or other persons under paternal con- trol. Their business records and contracts, moreover, were to be drawn up in the German language. The Jews living under electoral protection, finally, as has been mentioned, were required to pay yearly a tax of twenty florins per family in place of the poll-tax which had previously been levied on them by the government.’ The only important 1“5 Den unter churftirstlichen Schutze hier sich befindenen Juden ist erlaubt, in jeder Strasse, wo sie wollen, in gemietheten oder eigenen Hausern zu wohnen. 3. Ueber die hiesigen Juden soll bey der Polizey ein Matrikel gehalten, und alle Geburts- Traungs- und Todesfalle bey derselben angezeigt werden. 4. Jede Familie erhalt ihren bestimmten Numer. Von der Familie 153 | THE TOLERATION POLICY ia modification of these regulations before 1813 seems to have been the prohibition against the alienation of houses or real estate to Jews contained in the royal resolution of 6 June, 1812." kann daher nur ein Kind heirathen, auf welches die Numer tbertragen werden kann, andere Judenkinder, konnen nur alsdann heirathen, wenn sich in der Zahl eine Minderung ergeben hat. 5. Witwen dtirfen nur heirathen, wenn sie kinderlos sind, sie konnen nur alsdann ein fremdes Subjekt erwahlen, wenn hiedurch ein betracht- liches Verm6gen in das Land kommt. 6. Ueberhaupt solle keinem hiesigen Juden die Vereheligende ohne vorgangige Untersuchung und Bewilligung der Polizeybehorde gestattet, und jeder sich vereheligende Jude ein Vermogen von wenigstens tausend Reichstalern auszuweisen gehalten sein..... 8. Die hiesige Judenschaft soll einen Vorsteher wahlen, und vorsch- lagen, welcher ihre gemeinschaftliche Angelegenheiten bey den vorge- sezten Stellen bu besorgen hat. 9. Den Juden solle erlaubt seyn, ihre Religionsgebrauche an einem Privatorte auszuiiben, ohne von andern Religionsverwandten hierin gestOrt zu werden; es soll ihnen auch ein Begrabnissort angewiesen werden. 10. Den Juden solle erlaubt seyn, Fabriken und Manufakturen mit vorgangiger landesfirstlicher Bewilligung anzulegen, sich mit Gewerben zu beschaftigen, welche nicht zunftmassig getrieben werden, und mit folgenden Produkten, ohne Uebertretung des Hausierverbote, Handel zu trieben:....[25 classes of articles] ....In ‘Rucksicht ihrer Wechsel und Anlehens-Geschafte haben sie sich ganz den btrgerlichen und polizeylichen Gesetzen zu unterwerfen. 11. Die Handlungsbitcher und Kontrakte der Juden sollen in teutscher Sprache abgefasst seyn. Den Juden ist verboten, Besoldungsscheine einzuhandeln, sie sollen sich enthalten, mit minderjahrigen oder unter vaterlicher Gewalt stehen- den Personen zu handeln;..... 14. ...die unter hiesigen Schutze begriffenen Juden sind aber ver- bunden, Jahrlich eine Abgabe von 20 fl. von jeder Familie zur Staats- Kasse zu entrichten,...” Regierungsblatt, 26 Jun., 1805, pp. 712, et seq., “Verordnung: das Regulativ fiir die Judenschaft in Munchen betr.,” 17 Jun., 1805. 1“ Wir haben Uns bewogen gefunden, zu verordnen, dass von nun an und bis zur Bekanntmachung der erfolgenden allgemeinen Verord- nung tiber die kiinftigen Verhaltnisse der Juden, in Munchen keine Veradusserung eines Hauses oder Grundsttickes an einen Juden rati- 154 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [154 The intention of the government to prevent the increase of the Jews in numbers, which is so unmistakably disclosed by the regulations of 1805 for the Jews of Munich, was the purpose of the nine or more ordinances issued by the gov- ernment between 1799 and 1813, which dealt with the beg- ging, travel and settlement of the Jews. The ordinance of 5 October, 1801, which renewed the ordinance of 1780 against begging, ordered all foreign Jews engaged in either trade or begging to quit the territories of the elector within fourteen days after the publication of the ordinance.* The resolution of 28 December, 1804, of the electoral Landes- direction of Bavaria ordered the customs officials to keep all Jewish beggars and cther vagrants out of the country.” By 1805, however, according to an ordinance of April 3, “ the number of Jews ... had increased considerably .. .” in both the “city of Munich . . . and the rural districts.” The government ordered all foreign Jews, in consequence, to announce each time upon their arrival at a place, the business which had brought them there, and to set a time for ficirt, oder die Briefs-Errichtung oder Umschreibung im Grundbuche auf einen solchen verftigt werde:...” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 122-123, “Allerhéchste Entschliessung: den Hauserkauf der Juden in Miinchen betr.,” 6 Jun., 1812. 1“Alle auslandische Bettler...[und] Handeljuden...sollen in Zeit von 14 Tagen nach Publication dieser Verordnung die herobern Staaten verlassen...” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 249, “ Verordnung: die Erneue- rung der Bettelordnung von 1780 betr.,” 5 Oct., 1801. 2“Da die Verordnung wegen Zurtickweisung herumziehender fremder Betteljuden und andern Gesindels von den Churfurstl. Mauthamtern laut offizieller Anzeige bisher hochst ahndungswiirdig vernachlassiget worden, so werden dieselben mittelst gegenwartigen Auftrags hiemit nachdriicklichst angewiesen, in Zukunft bei strengster Verantwortung keinem fremden Betteljuden oder einem andern Menschen, der sich mittelst Passe nicht genug ausweisen kann, den Eintritt in diesseitige Lande zu gestatten...” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 249-250, “ Entschliessung der Churfiirstl. Landesdirection von Bayern: die fremden Betteljuden und andere Vaganten betr.,” 28 Dec., 1804. a 155] THE TOLERATION POLICY Iss their departure that would bear some relation to their an- nounced business; a stay of longer than eight days, how- ever, was not to be tolerated without the special permission of the higher authorities.1_ In 1809 the government issued a still more stringent measure. For a year after its publica- tion no Bavarian Jew was to be permitted to remain outside the circle in which he resided without receiving from the judge or police official of his district a pass in which the business and purpose of his journey were plainly set forth. This pass was to be presented by the holder to the author- ities at each place he stopped, and was to be left with them to be viséd. The officials issuing the pass were to satisfy themselves that the alleged business actually existed. The officials, on the other hand, to whom the pass was presented were not to tolerate a longer stay than the business required. No foreign Jew who, through his appearance or the pres- ence of his wife and children, aroused a suspicion that he might attempt to support himself in Bavaria by begging or some other illegal means was to be granted admission to the country, even upon the presentation of a pass, unless the business which he had in Bavaria was plainly stated or he was able to identify himself to the satisfaction of the police 1“ T)a diessorts die Beschwerde vorgekommen ist dass sich die Anzahl der Juden nicht nur in hiesiger Stadt, sondern auch auf den Lande betrachtlich vermehrt habe, welches um so auffallender seyn muss, als die Ertheilung des Judenschutzes von seiner Churftirstlichen Durch- laucht gang allein abhangt, und keiner Landes-behorde jemals tiberlassen worden ist; so ergeht hiemit an alle Landgerichte und iibrige Polizey- behorden des Landes der Auftrag, bey Verantwortung nichts gegen die hieriiber bestehenden Gesetze zu gestatten, und in Zukunft jedem fremden Juden, welcher sich nach seiner Ankunft jedesmal sogleich bey der Obrigkeit des Ortes mit Auszeigung seiner Geschafte, welche ihn dahin gefiihrt haben, zu melden hat, einen mit diesem Geschafte in Verhaltniss stehenden Termin zu seinem Aufenthalte, welcher aber in keinem Falle ohne beygebrachte hoherer Erlaubriss uber acht Tage dauern darf, anzuberaumen...” Regierungsblatt, 10 Apr., 1805, p. 493, “Auftrag: den Aufenthalt der Juden in Baiern betr.,” 3 Apr., 1805. 156 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 156 officials stationed on the boundary line. On the other hand, if the pass of a traveling Jew was approved by the officials of the government, the Jew was to go to the place to which his business called him by a definitely determined route from which he was not allowed to wander." The frequent repetition of the government’s orders and the increasing stringency of the ordinances indicate that the government was having considerable difficulty in enforcing its Jewish policy. Over two hundred Jews, according to the government’s own assertion, arrived at Hurben in the Lech Circle within the space of two months.” The resolu- 1“(1) Ein Jahr lang, von Bekanntmachung der gegenwartigen Ver- ordnung an, soll keinem inlandischen Juden gestattet seyn, ausser dem Kreise, in welchen er wohnhaft ist, ohne Pass seines vorgesezten Landgerichts oder Polizei-Kommissariats, in welchem das Geschaft und der Antrag seiner Reise genau und bestimmt angegeben sind, sich aufzuhalten. Dieses Pass hat derselbe bei der Obrigkeit des Ortes, wo ihn seine Geschafte sich aufzuhalten nothigen, vorzuzeigen und von derselben kontrasigniren zu lassen. Die Obrigkeit des leztgedachten Ortes hat den Aufenthalt nicht langer, als die Geschafte es nothwendig machen, zu gestatten. Die Pass ausstellendene Behérde hat sich wohl zu versichern, dass sie nicht durch die Angabe eines gar nicht existirenden Geschaftes getaucht werde... (2) keinem auslandischen Juden, welcher durch sein Aeusseres beftirchten lasst, dass er sich im Lande durch Bettel, oder auf andere unerlaubte Art fortzubringen versuchten modochte, besonders wenn derselbe mit Weib und Kindern an der Grenze ankommt, soll, selbst gegen Vorweisung eines Passes der Eintritt in Baiern gestattet werden, wenn nicht sein Geschaft, welches er in dem Lande hat, bestimmt und deutlich darin ausgedriickt ist, oder er sich auf andere hinreichende Art dartiber vor der Grenz-Polizei-Behorde ausweisen kann. Nur in diesem Falle darf die Fortsetzung der Reise gestattet, der Pass von der gedachten Behdrde visirt, und der reisende Jude an den Ort, wohin ihn sein Geschaft fiithrt, auf einen genau zu bestimmenden Weg, den er nicht verlassen darf, instradirt werden...” Regterungsblatt, 23 Aug., 1809, pp. 1357-1360, “ Bekanntmachung: die in- und Auslandischen Betteljuden betr.,” 16 Aug., 1809. 2“ .in dem Orte Hiirben, im Lechkreise, in Zeit von weniger, als zwei Monaten tiber 200 Individuen angekommen sind.” Ibid. 157] THE TOLERATION POLICY Taz tion of 1 October, 1807, seems to indicate that the sub- ordinate officials were conniving at the illegal infiltration of Jews. By this resolution the officials in Swabia were forbidden to infringe any longer on the electoral pre- rogatives by granting certificates of protection to Jews.* The Jews themselves, on the other hand, undoubtedly learned many ways of circumventing the orders of the gov- ernment. There were probably, for example, a good many fraudulent transfers of electoral patents. The ministerial resolution of g December, 1811, established with great defi- niteness the conditions under which a Jewish patent of pro- tection was to be transferred by a Jewish father to some other member of his family. Such a transfer was to take place only when the actual death of the holder, or his age, sickness or condition permanently prevented him from con- tinuing his business or occupation, and he should declare himself desirous of surrendering his patent of protection on these grounds and of supporting himself by his savings or by some arrangement with his family. The officials, on the other hand, were to satisfy themselves of the actual existence of the father’s alleged incapacity, and to see to it that no head of a family continued his business after the surrender of his patent.* 1“ Wir haben aus der eingesendeten Judenbeschreibung ersehen, dass sowohl das General-Landes-Commissariat, als die Landesdirection, Judenschutz ausgefertigt haben. Da aber die Ertheilung des Juden- schutzes und auch die Bewilligung der Heirathen der Juden Unserer Allerhochste Entschliessung vorbehalten werden sollen, so hat Unsere Landesdirection in Schwaben sich hiernach zu achten.” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 31, “Allerhochste Entschliessung: 1 Oct., 1807.” 2“Dem k. General-Commissariat wird auf seinen Bericht vom 6. November 1. J. in untenstehendem Betreff erwiedert, dass die wirkliche Erloschung eines Judenschutzes nicht nur alsdann vorhanden sei, wenn das Oberhaupt einer beschtitzten Judenfamilie wirklich stirbt, sondern auch alsdann, wenn das Familienhaupt durch Alter, Krankheit oder andere untibersteigliche Umstande an der Fortftthrung seines Handels 158 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [158 The Bavarian government devoted a great deal of atten- tion between 1799 and 1813 to the small peddling of the Jews. Until about 1809, apparently, the aim of the govern- ment was to suppress immediately their petty huckster- ing and to limit their trading to the public markets. In 1800+ and 18o1,? in general ordinances, and in 1806,°* in an ordinance applying exclusively to the province of Bamberg, the government forbade entirely all selling from house to house by Jews. By the ordinance of 10 January, 1800, they were ordered to confine their trading to the public markets and fairs of Bavaria; * and by the ordinance of 11 September, 1805, they were still more definitely limited to the markets at Munich, Landshut, Staubingen, Alt- and Neucoetting, Gern, Passau and Ingolstadt.° By the ordi- oder anderer Gewerbe auf immer gehindert ist, und aus diesen ieee i jederzeit wohl zu untersuchenden Grtinden seinen Schutz selbst auf- geben, und sich ohne Handel entweder vom ersparten Vermogen oder im Austrage nahern zu wollen sich erklart. Wobei das k. General-Ccmmissariat zu sorgen hat dass jene Schutzentsagungen nicht ohne erwiesene Gewerbsunfahigkeit geschehen, und dass das dem Schutz entsagende Familienhaupt seinen Handel nicht fortsetzte.” Ddllinger, op. cit., vi, 31, “ Ministerial Entschlies- sung des Innern: Ansassigmachung der Juden betr., 9 Dec., 1811. 1 Tbid., vi, 91-92, ‘““ Mandat: das sogenannte Hausiren mit Kaufmanns- waaren auf dem Lande btr.,” 10 Jan., 1800. 2 [bid., vi, 92, ‘““Mandat: die Hausiren und herumziehender Handler btr.,” 30 Jun., 1801. 5 Regierungsblatt, 10 Jan., 1807, pp. 58-59, “ Verordnung: den Handel der Fremden Juden btr.,”’ 31 Dec., 1806. 4“ .der freie und ungehindert Verkauf derselben [Kaufmanns- waaren] soll nach deutlichem Inhalte des § 18. der provisorischen Zoll- und Mauthordnung vom 7 Dezember vor. Jahres nur auf 6ffentlichen Markten, Dulten oder Messen, welche dazu geeignet sind, platz finden ..” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 91-92, ““ Mandat: das sogenannte Hausiren mit Kaufmanns-waaren auf dem Lande betr.,” 10 Jan., 1800. 5“ Durch ein hochstes Rescript vom 30sten August dieses Jahrs ist in Riucksicht der Marktsbeziehung der Juden verordnet worden: dass zwar denselben erlaubt seyn solle, gegen Vorzeigung eines Attestats ihrer 159] THE TOLERATION POLICY 159 nance of 31 January, 1806, likewise, foreign Jews were permitted to frequent the public markets of Bamberg only when they possessed considerable property or represented business houses of some size.‘ The ordinance of 10 Jan- uary, 1800, was the answer of the government to a protest against the peddling by Jews, and particularly by Jewish servants, which the merchants of the electorate had pre- sented three days earlier.” The ordinance of 30 June, 18o1, was issued in behalf of the elector’s faithful subjects in the cities and market towns who were being seriously oppressed and injured in their occupations, after the hardships suffered during the war, by the wandering peddlers and Jewish traders.* Orts-Obrigkeit die dffentlichen Markte zu Miinchen, Landshut, Straub- ing, Alt- und Neuoetting, Gern, Passau und Ingolstadt beziehen zu diirfen, jedoch die Beziehung der tibrigen Markte in Baiern ihnen nicht gestattet, sohin keinem Juden, ein Patent ertheilt werden solle...” Regierungsblatt, 18 Sept., 1805, p. 961, ““ Verordnung: die Marktbezie- hung der Juden betr.,” 11 Sept., 1805. 1“ Tn hinsicht auf den Handel fremder Juden in der Provinz Bamberg verordnen Wir:...2. Nur solchen auswartigen Juden, welche ander- warts ein betrachtliches Vermodgen, oder eine ausgebreitete Handlung besitzen, kann die Landesstelle gegen eine verhaltnissmassige ein jahrlich zu erneuendes Patent ertheilen, welches dem Besitzer nur das Recht giebt, in der Provinz Bamberg und den dazu gehodrigen Ritter- orten die Offentliche Markte zu beziehen, jedoch niemal einen Hausier- handel zu treiben...” Jbid., 10 Jan., 1807, p. 58, ‘“‘ Verordnung: den Handel der Fremden Juden betr.,” 31 Dec., 1806. 2“ Der Handelstand in Unsern herobern Staaten hat Uns schon den 7 Laufenden Monats die Vorstellung gemacht, dass sowohl In- als Auslander ; vorziiglich aber Knechte der Juden, das ganze Jahr hindurch mit Kaufmannswarren hausiren, d. i. Kaufmannswaaren zum Verkaufe in die Hauser tragen...” Dollinger, op. cit., bd. vi, 91-92, “ Mandat: das sogenannte Hausiren mit Kaufmanns-waaren auf dem Lande betr.,” 10 Jan., 1800. 8“ Veranlasst durch die unangenehme Anzeige; dass Unsere getreue Birgerschaft in Stadten und Markten nach erlittenen Drangsalen des Krieges nun auch durch das verbotene Hausiren und Herumziehen 160 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 160 In the royai resolution of 6 September, 1809, the govern- ment abandoned its attempt to suppress immediately ped- dling by Jews, because of the insurmountable obstacles that inherited custom and lack of property and training placed in the way of a speedy changing of the lives and occupations of the Jews, and the government began to work instead for the gradual elimination of the practice. The General-Com- missariate of the Main, Rezat, Pegnitz and Altmuhl circles were authorized, in consequence, to grant licenses to peddle to the fathers of Jewish families who were able to prove their honesty and good conduct through satisfactory and lawfully attested certificates, and who were not in a position to maintain themselves in some other way. The licenses were to be issued for a year only and were to be renewed the first of each year. In each license the district in which the peddling might be carried on was to be stated; and this district could include only the circle in which the ped- dler lived and the adjoining foreign districts. The peddling itself was to be carried on only by a member of a licensed family, and in every case the member of the family engaged in this business was to carry with him the license to peddle. Every licensed Jewish peddler who was guilty of dishonesty in trade, or of any misuse of his license, was to be deprived immediately of his license and denied forever the privilege of peddling. As the object of the government in permitting such peddling was solely to provide a means of support for peor Jewish families, the licenses of Jews who could dis- pense with their licenses because of their ability to carry on ancther occupation cr because of the property which they unangesessener Landkramer, und Handelsjuden um so empfindlicher gedruckt und in ihren Gewerben Beeintrachtiget werde, erinnern Wir hiemit alle Unsere und standische Behorden an ihre Pflicht, und be- fehlen zu folge Unsere bei héchster Stelle gefassten Entschlusses...” Dollinger, op. cit., bd. 6, p. 92, “ Mandat: die Hausiren und herumzie- hender Handler betr.,” 30 Jun., 1801. 161] THE TOLERATION POLICY rat had acquired, were not to be renewed.’ The plans of the 1“ Wir haben Uns theils in frither getroffenen Verfiigungen, theils noch in ferner zu erlassenden Verordnungen den Zweck vorgesetzt, die zahlreiche Classe der jiidischen Einwohner Unsers Konigreiches von der schadlichen Absonderung, in welcher selbe von den tibrigen Staatsbiirgern lebt, zuriickzufiihren und sie vorziiglich zu jenen Gewerben und Beschaftigungen, worin auch diese ihren Erwerb finden, hinzuleiten. Allein die Hindernisse, welche ererbte Gewohnheit, Mangel an Vermogen und an Gewerbskunde und andere Ursachen einer schnel- len Umanderung in der Lebens- und Erwerbsweise der Juden untibersteiglich entgegen setzen, lassen die vollige Erreichung Unserer Allerhochsten Absichten nur allmahlich und nach beharrlich fortge- setzten Bemiihungen erwarten. Da bis dahin die grosse Anzahl armer Judenfamilien, vorziiglich in dem Main-, Rezat-, Pegnitz- und Altmithlkreise ihres gewohnten zum Theil einzigen Erwerbszweiges nicht entbehren kann, so verordnen Wir: (1) Die General-Commissariate der vier genannten Kreise werden autorisirt, solchen jiidischen Familienvatern welche ihre gute Auf- fihrung und ihre Redlichkeit im Handel durch hinreichende und gerichtlich bestatigte Zeugnisse erweisen kd6nnen, und welche durchaus ausser Stande sind, sich auf eine andere Art fortzubringen, Erlaub- nissscheine zum Hausirhandel zu ertheilen. (2) Diese Erlaubnissscheine werden auf ein Jahr unentgeltlich, jedoch gegen Entrichtung der Stempel- und Taxgebuhren, in der befolgenden Form ertheilt, und mussen mit dem ersten Janner jeden Jahres erneuert werden. In diesen Scheinen muss der Bezirk, auf welchen sich der Hausir- handel erstrecken darf, und welcher jederzeit nur dem Kreis, worin der Handler Ansassig ist, und das benachbarte Ausland begreifen kann, ausgedriickt werden. Auch kann nur allzeit ein Glied der berechtigten Familie, welches jederzeit den Erlaubnissschein im Original bei sich tragen muss, auf diesen Handel ausgehen. (3) Jedem so berechtigten judischen Hausirhandler, der sich der Unredlichkeit im Handel oder irgend eines Missbrauches seiner Berech- tigung schuldig macht, soll der Erlaubnissschein sogleich abgenommen und ihm der Hausirhandel auf immer untersagt werden. (4) Da die Absicht ist, dass dieser Hausirhandel, welcher bloss zur nothdiirftigen Subsistenz armer Judenfamilien noch gestattet wird, nach und nach aufhoren soll, so sollen auch solchen Juden, welche wegen erworbenen Vermogens, oder wegen Befahigung zu einer andern Erwerbsart, die auf alle Weise zu unterstiitzen ist, desselben entbehren konnen, die Erlaubnissscheine durchaus nicht wieder erneuert werden ” QDollinger, op. cit., vi, 93-94, “Allerhéchste Entschliessung: den Hausirhandel der Juden betr.,” 6 Sept., 1800. 162 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [162 government in regard to peddling by Jews probably were frustrated to a considerable extent, as was true in so many other cases, by the wilful disobedience or the negligence of its subordinate officials. In 1811, at any rate, the govern- ment expressly forbade the General-Commissariat of the Iller circle to issue, on its own initiative, to the Jews of that circle any more licenses to peddle.* In regard to transactions in real estate, the general policy of the Bavarian government was to forbid the buying and selling of real estate by the Jews. By the ordinance of 10 June, 1790, the Jews of Sulzburg, Sulzbach and the Upper Palatinate were excluded from all transactions in plots of ground, tenements and other kinds of real estate, on the ground that great frauds and oppressions were inflicted on the subjects of the elector—frequently with the cooperation of the subordinate officials—to the great disadvantage of both the state and its subjects.” By the royal resolution of 1“TDa das Hausiren durch mehrere Verordnungen...ausdriicklich und allgemein verboten ist; so war das General-Commissariat des Illerkreise nicht befiigt, eigenmachtig vor Aufhebung oder Abanderung dieses gesetzlichen Verbots, Hausir-Scheine fiir die in seinem Bezirke befindlichen Juden zum Hausirhandel zu ertheilen. Dasselbe wird... hiemit angewiesen, diese zu Hausiren gegebene Erlaubniss ohnverziig- lich zurtickzunehmen, die ausgestellten Hausir-Scheine cassiren zu lassen, und die den Hausirhandel verbietenden Gesetze gehorig zu handhaben .. .” Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 94, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung des Innern: Hausirhandel der Juden betr.,” 14 Dec., 1811. 2“ Nachdem Seine Churfiirstl Durchlaucht zu Pfalzbayern . . . bei Gelegenheit der von den Schutzjuden zu Sulzburg unterthanigst nach- gesuchten Bestatigung des freien Handels und Wandels mit Grund- stiicken und Hofgtitern, dann andern Realitaten aus den zu hochsten Handen, und Einsicht hiertiber genommenen Akten missfalligst ersehen, welche grosse Betrtig-Wucherei, und Bedriickungen der Unterthanen zu deren und des Staats empfindlichsten Nachtheil dabei vorgegangen, wozu noch sogar in Geheim von manchen subalternen Gerichtspersonen straflich mitgewirkt worden: als wird hiemit gnadigst verordnet, dass sammentliche Sulzbiirger sowohl, als Oberpfalzische und Sulzbachische Juden ohne Ausnahme zu kinftiger Behebung solch gemeinschadlichen 163] THE TOLERATION POLICY 163 12 May, 1806, apparently, Jews were prohibited from trad- ing in real estate in all parts of the kingdom except Fran- conia.* By a resolution of 4 August, 1807, finally, the ordi- nance of 10 June, 1799, was extended to all parts of the kingdom.” The effect of the ordinances and resolutions which have just been described must have been largely nullified, however, by the permission which was granted to the Jews in 1807 to bid against other citizens when the royal domain was being auctioned.* The real reason for this action of the government was the fact that most of the Unwesens bei Gutszerstriimmerungen iiberhaupt bei Veradusserungen liegender Griinde von allen dessfallsigen Kauf- und Tausch-Contracten, wie auch von allen hierin von ihnen bisher gepflogenen Unterhandlungen fiir allzeit ausgeschlossen sein...” Ddllinger, ibid., vi, 117-118, “Mandat: den freien Handel der Juden mit Grundstiicken und Hof- gutern btr.,” 10 Jun., 1799. 1“Die Juden sind, (indem sie ausser den frankischen Fursten- thiimern, und auch in diesen nur unter gewissen Bedingungen zu Kaufe zugelassen werden) von den Licitationen vorschriftsmassig ein fur allemal ausgeschlossen.” Jbid., vi, 121, ‘“‘Allerhochste Entschliessung: die bei Realitaten Verkaufen auszuschliessenden Juden betr.,’ (Aus- zug), 12 May, 1806. 2“Nachdem Uns von Unserer Frankischen Landesdirection vorge- stellt wird, welche Missbrauche und Gefahrden von den Juden bei Guterzerstrummerung auf dem Lande getrieben werden, so wollen Wir, bis auf fernere Bestimmung tiber die Verhaltnisse der Juden, die unter 30. Mai 1799 an die oberpfalzische Landes-Direction erlassene, und von dieser unter dem 10 Juni desselben Jahres ausgeschriebene Verordnung nicht nur erneuern, sondern auch auf alle tibrigen Theile Unseres Konigreiches ausdehnen.” /J/bid., vi, 121, “Allerhéchste Entsch- liessung: den Giiterkauf der Juden betr.,” 4 Aug., 1807. 3 “Auf dem Bericht Unserer Kriegs- und Domainen Kammer zu Ansbach vom 29ten August dieses Jahres wird Unser allerhochstes Rescript vom 4ten gedachten Monats, die Giiterkaufe der Juden betreffend, dahin, erlautert, dass es sich auf 6ffentliche Gtiter-Kaufe bei Versteigerung der Staats-Realitaten, wohin es von dem Nachkaufer abhangst, sich vor allem Wucher zu schiitzen, weil er die Versteigerungs-Preise leicht erfahren kann, nicht zu erstrecken habe.” Regierungsblatt, 31 Oct., 1807, p. 1652, “ Bekanntmachung: die Gtiter-Kaufe der Juden betr.,” 9 Oct., 1807. 164 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [164 capital of the country was in the hands of the Jews, and their competition in consequence would increase the value of the real estate and the receipts of the government.* By 1813, apparently, the government felt that it was nec- essary to draw up an organic law that would codify and take the place of the mass of special laws that had accumu- lated. In the first place, the government itself felt, accord- ing to the admission of Montgelas, that the various ordi- nances concerning the Jews which had been issued between 1799 and 1813 had complicated matters more than they had regulated them.” In the second place, the various annexa- tions of territory had probably added to the complexity of the problem by increasing considerably the Jewish popula- tion of the state. The monastery of Kaiserheim, for ex- ample, which fell to the share of Bavaria in the seculariza- tions of 1802 and 1803 had two hundred Jewish subjects in the Swabian village of Butterwiesen.* The provostship of Kempten, likewise, had two hundred and seventy Jewish subjects in the village of Binswangen.* From the ordinance of 6 September, 1800, finally, it would seem that a great many poor Jews lived in the Main, Rezat, Pegnitz and Alt- miihl circles, which were made up for the most part of newly acquired districts in Franconia.” The organic law of 1“ Ta circonstance que la majeure partie des capitaux se trouvoient déja a cette époque entre les mains des hébreux et que leur concurrence hausseroit la valeur des objets m’avoit engagé a proposer cette exception a la régle générale sur les instances du ministre des finances.” Mont- gelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die imnere Staatsverwalitung Bayerns, PP. 139-140. 2“ Tous ces décrets partiels compliquoient la législation plus qu’ils ne la régloient...” Ibid., p. 140. 3J. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, iii, 26. ST bids Livan FT. 5Dollinger, op. cit., vi, 93-94, “Allerhochste Entschliessung: den Hausirhandel der Juden betr.,” 6 Sept., 1809. 165 | THE TOLERATION POLICY 16 10 June, 1813, was the government’s solution of the prob- lem which confronted it. The civil rights and privileges granted by this organic edict could be claimed only by Jews who had obtained resi- dence in the state in a legal manner. The Jews of the king- dom were required to report to the police officials, in order that it might be recorded in the Jewish registers kept by the police, information about their age, vocation, and station in society, and the size of their families. They were to present to the police officials also their letters of protection, conces- sions, and permissions to reside in the country. The police officials were then to inspect these certificates of natural- ization and, if they were satisfactory, the police were to demand from the Jews presenting them a declaration con- cerning the family names they wished to assume, in case they did not already possess any. They were not permitted however, to choose family names that were already common or that belonged to well-known families. They were thence- forth to use these names in all their transactions. If the General-Commissariat approved of the registration of a Jew in the Jewish register kept by the police, the Jew was to take the oath of allegiance on the Bible. Thereupon his formal enrollment in the register followed. An abstract of the record in the register was then to be given him, which was to take the place for him and his descendants of the former certificates of protection. Jews who failed to register in the prescribed manner were to be treated as foreigners. The sections of the edict dealing with the immigration and marriage of the Jews, continued the government’s for- mer policy of preventing their growth in numbers. The immigration and settlement of foreign Jews in the kingdom was absolutely forbidden. The number of Jewish families in those places in the kingdom where Jews were already settled ordinarily was not to be increased, and in those places 1606 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [166 where the number was too great the number of Jewish fami- lies was to be reduced gradually. The granting of permis- sion to settle either in places where Jews were already set- tled or in places where Jews were not already settled was declared a prerogative of the central government. The goy- ernment declared its purpose to settle only in three cases: on account of the establishment of factories or large com- mercial enterprises; on account of the adoption of a trade in which the mastership had been obtained; and because of the purchase of sufficient land to enable the purchaser to support himself by agriculture without recourse to trade. Jews wishing to marry, on the other hand, were required to prove that the total number of Jewish families would not be increased by the marriage and that they were in a position to support a family in some way other than by peddling. In the sections of the edict of 10 June, 1813, which dealt with the occupations of the Jews and their purchase of real estate, the aim of the government was to discourage the Jews from engaging in such trades as peddling and the exchanging of money, and to encourage them to take up such civil occu- pations as agriculture, handicrafts, manufacturing and the ordinary forms of trade. They were allowed to acquire, in consequence, both the use and full ownership of houses, fields and other kinds of real estate, and to use them in any lawful manner. The consent of the central government was necessary, however, for the purchase of a residence at Mun- ich. They were forbidden, on the other hand, to acquire seignorial rights over lands or the proprietorship of lands when the usufruct was the property of another person. When the usufruct was already owned by them, however, they were allowed to acquire full ownership of a property. When houses and real estate were purchased for the purpose of reselling them, the transaction had to take place at a public auction. They were allowed to lease fields for their 167 | THE TOLERATION POLICY 167 own use, but they were forbidden to lease them to others. They were permitted, moreover, to till the fields which they had purchased with the aid of either Jewish or Christian servants. They were forbidden, however, to employ for- eign Jews as servants. They were allowed, also, to carry on all the industries and crafts that Christians were allowed to carry on, except breweries, beer shops and inns, provided that the regulations concerning the settlement of Jews were complied with. To carry on a craft which had been incor- porated into a gild, naturally, they had to obtain member- ship in the gild. The formation of Jewish gilds, however, was strictly forbidden. Jews accepted by masters as ap- prentices were to be enrolled, apprenticed, discharged and provided with articles of apprenticeship like Christian ap- prentices and journeymen. Jews, on the other hand, who became masters were allowed to accept and employ both Christians and Jews as apprentices and journeymen. In order to carry on a wholesale, retail or exchange business Jews were required to prove their possession of an adequate amount of capital and of the technical ability prescribed by law. Their business records, finally, were to be kept in the German language. Only fathers of families, who were unable to support their families in any other way, were allowed to carry on a peddling trade. The Jews living in the different parts of the kingdom were not allowed to form themselves into a political parish. They were to share with the other inhabitants the privileges and duties of the parishes in which they were living, unless they were engaged in the peddling trade. Jews engaged in peddling or petty huckstering were to have no share in the property of the parish in which they resided, except such right as they already possessed. Jews carrying on agricul- ture or a licensed occupation, on the contrary, were to enjoy the full rights of parish members in the lands of the parish. 168 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [168 The edict of to June, 1813, finally, defined in consider- able detail the religious rights of the Jews. They were guaranteed a complete freedom of conscience. They were to enjoy, likewise, the privileges extended to private eccle- siastical societies by the organic edict of 24 March, 1809, in so far as they were not modified in the edict of to June, 1813. Whenever at least fifty families were residing in a political district of the kingdom, they were to be permitted to form a religious parish of their own and to have a rabbi, burial place and (at some point where police officials were stationed) a synagogue of their own. In places where they formed no ecclesiastical parish they were limited to the simple private devotions prescribed by the organic edict of 24 March, 1809. All secret gatherings under any pretext whatever, in consequence, were forbidden. The Jewish rabbis and their substitutes were to be proposed by the members of the ecclesiastical parish and to be examined by the General-Kreis-Commissariat. The rabbis and _ their substitutes were required by the edict to be enrolled as royal subjects in the Jewish registers, to be masters of the Ger- an language and well educated, and to be of good moral character and without a trace of usury or false bankruptcy. At the time of his acceptance the Jewish rabbi was required to take a solemn oath to obey absolutely the laws of the king- dom, not to teach or permit anything contrary to the laws, to inform the government correctly of anything against its in- terests, and to enter into no sort of relationship with a for- elen superior. Rabbis already in office at the time the edict was issued were required to take a similar oath. The juris- diction of the rabbi was confined to ecclesiastical matters exclusively, and any exercise of judicial jurisdiction under any pretext whatsoever, as well as any interference in civil or political affairs, was forbidden under pain of fine or arrest. Jewish church property was to be used exclusively 169] THE TOLERATION POLICY 169 for worship. The property of each parish, also, was to be administered by the rabbi and two representatives chosen by the parish. The earlier concessions of the government in regard to education and admission to the schools, finally, were again confirmed to them.’ 1“S1. Nur diejenigen jiidischen Glaubensgenossen konnen die in diesem Edikte ausgesprochenen btirgerlichen Rechte und Vorziige erwerben, welche das Indigenat in Unsern Staaten auf gesezliche Weise erhalten haben. §2. Zum Genuss derselben wird die ‘Eintragung in die bei Unsern Polizei-Behérden anzulegenden Juden-Matrikel vor allem vorausgesezt. § 3. Zu diesem Ende mussen binnen drei Monaten nach der Kund- machung dieses Ediktes alle in Unserm Reiche befindlichen Juden bei der Polizei-Behorde thres Wohnorts mit Angebung ihres Standes, Alters, Familien-Zahl, und Erwerbungsart sich melden, und ihre Schuz- briefe, Konzessione oder Aufenthalts-Bewilligung urschriftlich vorlegen. § 4. Diese Polizei-Behorde hat die Aufnahms-Urkunden nach Unsern frihern Edikten und Deklarazionen vom 31. Dezember 1806...vom 19 Marz 1807... dann 28 Juli 1808... zu priifen, und wenn sie dieselben gultig findet, von dem Juden die Erklarung abzufodern; (1) ob und welchen bestimmten Familien-Namen derselbe, wenn er nicht schon einen hatte, annehmen wolle, und..... §5. Den Juden ist nicht erlaubt, hiebei Namen von bekannten Familien, oder solche welche ohnehin schon haufig gefuhrt werden, zu ihren kiinftigen Familein-Namen zu wahlen. § 7. Wenn das General-Kommissariat den Juden zur Aufnahme in die Matrikel geeignet findet, muss derselbe den oben vorgeschriebenen Unterthans-Eid auf die Bibel ablegen, worauf dessen Eintragung in die Matrikel geschieht, und ihm zu seiner Legitimazion ein Auszug aus derselben ertheilt wird, welche fiir ihn und seine Nachkommen die Stelle der bisherigen Schuzbriefe vertritt. §9. Der Jude ist verbunden, den in der Matrikel eingetragenen neuen Namen in allen seinen Geschaften zu fithren. § 10. Diejenigen Juden, welche binnen 3 Monaten entweder (1) ihre Aufnahms-Urkunde nicht vorlegen, oder (2) einen Familien-Namen anzunehmen; oder (3) den Unterthans-Eid abzulegen sich weigern, sollen kiinftig lediglich als fremde Juden behandelt werden. $11. Jede Einwanderung und Niederlassung fremder Juden im Konigreiche ist durchaus verboten. § 12. Die Zahl der Juden-Familien an den Orten, wo sie dermal bestehen, darf in der Regel nicht vermehrt werden, sie soll vielmehr nach und nach vermindert werden, wenn sie zu gross ist. 170 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [170 In the few months which intervened between the issuing of § 13. Die Ansassigmachung tiber die Zahl an denselben Orten, wo sich bereits Juden befinden, oder die Ansassignachung in Orten, wo noch keine Juden sind, kann nur von der allerhochsten Stelle, und wird auch von derselben nur unter den nachstehenden Voraussezungen bewilligt werden: (1) wegen Errichtung von Fabriken oder grossen Handelsunterneh- mungen ; (2) bei Ergreifung eines ordentlichen Handwerks, wenn sie die Austtbung eines Meisterrechts erhalten haben; (3) wenn sie so viel an Grund und Boden zur eigenen Bearbeitung erkaufen, worauf eine Familie vom Feldbau ohne darneben Handel zu treiben, sich gut ernahren kann...... §14. Auch bei der Fortsezung rezipirter Familien wird kinftig die Erlaubniss zur Heurath auf den Schacherhandel nicht mehr ertheilt, wenn auch die Zahl der rezipirten Familien hiedurch nicht vermehrt wurde; sondern der Heurath nachsuchende Jude muss neben der Aus- weisung, dass dadurch die bestimmte Zahl nicht iiberschritten werde, noch besonders darthun, dass er mit Ausschluss des Schacherhandels einen ordentlichen durch das Gesez gebilligten Erwerbszweig treibe, und sich und seine Familie dadurch zu ernahren im Stande sey. § 15. Um die Juden von ihren bisherigen eben so unzureichenden als gemeinschadlichen Erwerbs-Arten abzuleiten, und ihnen jede erlaubte, mit ihrem gegenwartigen Zustande vereinbare Erwerbs-Quelle zu erOffnen, sollen dieselben zu allen biirgerlichen Nahrungszweigen, als Feldbau, Handwerken, Treibung von Fabriken und Manufakturen und des ordentlichen Handels, unter den nachfolgenden Bestimmungen zugelassen, dagegen der gegenwartig bestehende Schacherhandel all- mahlig, jedoch so bald immer moglich ganz abgestellt werden. §16. Den Juden soll daher gestattet seyn, das volle und das Nuz- Eigenthum (Dominium plenum et utile) von Hausern, Feld und andern liegenden Griinden zu erwerben, und dieses Eigenthum auf jede durch die Geseze erlaubte Art zu bentitzen. Das abgesonderte Ober- Eigenthum (Dominium directum) tiber Griinde, deren Nuz-Eigenthum andern zusteht, so wie gutsherrliche Rechte tberhaupt zu erlangen und zu besizen, bleibt den Juden durchaus untersagt. Einem' Juden ist jedoch erlaubt, das Ober-Eigenthum desselben Grundes, von welchem er das Nuz-Eigenthum selbst besizt, an sich zu bringen, um hievon das volle Eigenthum seines Grundes zuerlangen. . . . §17. Die Juden konnen durch jiidische oder christliche Dienstboten ihre Felder bearbeiten lassen: die Verwendung auslandischer Juden wird jedoch nicht gestattet. Die Pachtung von Feldgriinden ist ihnen erlaubt, die Verpachtung untersagt. 171 | (OH GE TOLBRADION:, POLICY 171 the edict of 10 June, 1813, and the close of the Napoleonic § 18. Die Betreibung aller Manufakturen, Fabriken, Gewerbe und Handwerke, sie mdgen ziinftig oder nicht ziinftig seyn, (Brauereien, Schenk- und Gastwirthsschaften ausgenommen) ist den Juden, in so ferne ihrer Ansdssigmachung nichts in Wege stehet, wie dem ‘Christen gestattet. Die ziinftigen Gewerbe kénnen von ihnen nur betreiben werden, wenn sie ordentlich eingezunftet sind. Es sollen aber keine eigenen jiidischen Ziunfte bestehen, sondern die zu Betreibung eines Gewerbes oder Handwerkes hinlanglich Befahigten mit Personal-Konzessionen oder auch mit erworbenen Realgerechtigkeiten versehenen Juden konnen sich in die bestehenden Ztinfte aufnehmen lassen. Die von einem Meister in die Lehre und als Gesellen aufgenommenen Juden soll von den Ziinften, wie christliche Lehrjungen und Gesellen eingeschrie- ben, aufgedungen, freigesprochen, und mit Lehrbriefen versehen werden... Es versteht sich, dass jeder Jude, welcher einmal zur Meister- schaft gelangt ist, selbst wieder christliche und jiidische Lehrjungen und Gesellen aufnehmen und halten diirfe. § 19. Eben so sollen die Juden zu dem ordentlichen Wechsel, Gross- und Detailhandel mit ordentlicher Buchfiihrung (welche jedoch nur in Teutscher Sprache geschehen darf) zugelassen werden, wenn sie das hinreichende Vermogen, die gute Auffiihrung, und die Gewerbsbe- fahigung, welche die Geseze vorschreiben, ausgewiesen, und eine ordent- liche Real- oder Personal-Handels-Konzession nach den allgemein geltenden Grundsazen erlangt haben. § 20. Aller Hausier-Noth- und Schacherhandel soll in Zukunft ganz- lich verboten, und eine Ansadssigmachung hierauf durchaus untersagt bleiben. Nur von denjenigen hierauf bereits ansassigen jiidischen Hausvatern, welche sich dermal auf andere Art zu ernadhren nicht vermogen, darf derselbe noch in so lange fortgesezt werden, bis sie einen andern ordentlichen Erwerbszweig erlangt haben, wozu die Polizeibehorden bestens mitzuwirken wissen werden.... § 22. Die in den verschiedenen Orten des konigreichs wohnenden Juden, si modgen sich von ordentlichen burgerlichen Gewerben, oder noch ferner von dem Nothhandel ernahren, bilden keine eigenen Juden- Gemeinden, sonder schliessen sich an die christlichen Bewohner des Orts in Gemeinde-Angelegenheiten an, mit welchem sie nur eine Gemeinde ausmachen. Sie theilen mit den tibrigen Bewohnern die Gemeinde-Rechte und Verbindlichkeiten, jedoch mit der Ausnahme, dass die Nothhandel treibenden Juden an den Gemeinde-Griinden jener Orte, in welchen sie wohnen, (in so ferne ihnen nicht bisher schon Rechte darauf zustanden, welche ihnen vorbehalten bleiben) keine Nuzung und keinen Antheil haben. Die Landbau oder ordentliche 172 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 172 period only one edict of much importance was issued by the konzessionirte Gewerbe treibenden Juden geniessen hingegen auch in Riicksicht der Gemeinde-Griinde die vollen Rechte der Gemeinde- Glieder. § 23. Den jiidischen Glaubensgenossen im Konigreiche wird voll- kommene Gewissens-Freiheit gesichert. Sie geniessen alle, den Privat- Kirchengesellschaften durch das Edikt vom 24 Marz 1809 im 2. Kapitel des ii Abschnitts...eingeraumten Befugnisse, in so ferne sie in der gegenwartigen Verordnung nicht abgeandert oder nicht bestimmt sind. § 24. Wo die Juden in einem gewissen, mit der Territorial-Eintheilung des Reiches iibereinstimmenden Bezirke, in einer Zahl von wenigstens 50 Familien vorhanden sind, ist ihnen gestattet eine eigene kirchliche Gemeinde zu bilden, und an einen Orte, wo eine Polizei-Behorde besteht, eine Synagoge, einen Rabbiner und eine eigene Begrabniss- statte zu haben. § 25. Wo sie keine kirchliche Gemeinde bilden, sind sie lediglich auf die einfache Hausandacht beschrankt, und alle heimliche Zuzammen- kunfte unter dem Vorwande des hauslichen Gottesdienste sind ihnen ... verboten .).. § 26. Die Ortsrabbiner und Substituten werden von den Mitgliedern der Kirchen-Gemeinde vorgeschlagen, von den General-Kreis-Kom- missariaten gepriift, und nach Befund bestatigt oder verworfen... § 27. Der zum Rabbiner oder Substituten vorgeschlagene Jude muss (a) als koniglicher Unterthan in Matrikel eigetragen, (b) der teutschen Sprache machtig, und tiberhaupt wissenschaftlich gebildet, (c) ohne Mackel des Wuchers oder eines betruglichen Banquerouts, und sonst von einem gutem und sittlichen Lebenswandel seyn. §28. Bei der Bestatigung hat der Rabbiner einen feierlichen Eid dahin abzulegen, dass er den Gesezen des Reiches durchgehends schul- dige Folge leisten, Nichts gegen dieselben lehren oder gestatten, wo er etwas dagegen erfahren wiirde, solches der Obrigkeit treulich anzeigen, und in keine Verbindung irgend einer ‘Art mit auslandischen Obern sich einlassen werde. § 29. Die in dem drei vorhergehenden Artikeln enthaltenen Bestim- mungen finden auch auf die dermal bestehenden Rabbiner ihre Anwendung. § 30. Der Wirkungkreis der Rabbiner wird ausschliessend auf die kirchlichen Verrichtungen beschrankt, und alle Ausiitbung von Gerichts- barkeit, unter welchem Vorwande sie immer angesprochen werden wollte, so wie alle Einmischung derselben und der Barnosen in btrger- lich oder Gemeinde-Angelegenheiten wird bei ernstlichen Geld- und Arrest-Strafen, nach Umstanden selbst der Entlassung verboten.... § 31. Das jiidische Kirchen-Vermogen bleibt dem jiidische Kultus 173 | THE TOLERATION POLICY 173 government. The ordinance of 17 April, 1814, made a number of important concessions to the widows of Jews. The widow of a registered Jew was to possess the protec- tion which her husband had enjoyed, and to enter into all the rights of a head of a Jewish family. Her family, in consequence, was to be counted as one of the Jewish fami- lies. In case the husband had supported himself and his family by peddling, the widow was granted permission to carry on the business temporarily until some other means of support had been acquired. In case the widow was un- able to carry on the business herself, she was given permis- sion to carry it on with the help of some member of her family, her sons or her servants. Such persons, however, acquired no permanent claim on the business of peddling. Upon the remarriage of a widow her permission to carry on a peddling trade automatically and permanently ceased. The children of such a widow, on the other hand, under no circumstances inherited the permission to carry on a ped- dling trade. They were to be forced, on the contrary, to take up some other means of earning a living.’ ausschliessend tberlassen. Es wird in den einzelnen Kirchen- Gemeinden durch das Rabbiner und zwei von der Gemeinde erwahlte Mitglieder verwahltet. § 32. Die Juden-Kinder beider Geschlechter sind gleich jener Un- serer tibrigen Unterthanen zu Offentlichen Schulbesuche in Stadten und auf dem Lande verbunden, und sie erhalten, mit Ausnahme der Reli- gionslehre, gleichen Unterricht mit denselben...” Regierungsblatt, 17 July, 1813, p. 921, et seq., “ Edikt tber die Verhaltnisse der jiidischen Glaubensgenossen im Konigreiche Baiern.,” 10 Jun., 1813. 17, Jede hinterlassene Wittse eines immatrikulirten Juden = sezt den Schutz ihres verstorbenen Ehemannes fort, und tritt in alle Ver- haltnisse eines jiidischen Familien-Hauptes. Ihre Familie muss daher in die jeden Orts bestehende Normal-Zahl, welche nach Unserm Edikte vom 10 Juni v. Jahres §13*) in der Regel nicht tberschritten werden darf, allezeit mit eingerechnet. ii. Hat ein dermal bestehender jiidischer Hausvater, unter den im § 20. des namlichen Edikts angegebenen Umstanden, sich und die 174 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [174 Seinigen vom Nothhandel ernahrt; so ist dieser Handel auch der hinter- lassenen Wittwe einsweilen, bis sie einen andern ordentlichen Erwerbs- Zweig, oder andere hinlangliche Subsistenz-Mittel erlangt haben wird, zu gestatten, und dessen Austibung, falls sie ihn nicht selbst betreiben kann, durch eines ihrer angehorigen Familienglieder, Sohne oder Dienstboten zu erlauben. Diese Stellvertreter...erwerben hiedurch ftir ihre eigenen Personen durchaus keinen bleibenden Anspruch auf das Handels-Gewerbe oder die Ansassigkeit. iii. In dem Falle, dass eine jtidische Wittwe zu weitern Ehe schreiten will, kommen die Bestimmung des § 14. in dem oft erwahnten Edikte zur Anwendung; wonach der Jude, welcher die Wittwe ehelichen will, darzuthun hat, dass er mit Ausschluss des Nothhandels einen ordent- lichen Erwerbszweig zu treiben, und sich und die Familie dadurch zu ernahren im Stande sey. Mit der unter diesen Bedingungen obrigkeitlich gestatteten Wiederverheurathung der Wittwe erldscht demnach die vorher gehabte Erlaubtniss zum Nothhandel von selbst und fur immer. iv. Die den dermal schon ansdssigen jiidischen Hausvatern und ihren Wittwen zur Zeit noch bewilligte Nachsicht des Nothhandels erbt schliisslich in keinem Falle auf die hinterlassenen Kinder fort; und die Ansassigmachung hierauf darf denselben nicht gestattet werden, son- dern sie sind unnachsichtlich anzuhalten, andere ordentliche Erwerbs- zweige zu ergreifen...” Regierungsblatt, 23 Apr., 1814, p. 807, et seq., “Verordnung: die hinterlassenen Wittwen und Kindern der Juden betr.,” 17 Apr., 814. CHAPTER IX THE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY Tue Napoleonic period witnessed the seizure of a very large amount of Church property by the Bavarian govern- ment and the suppression of nearly all the religious orders of the state. Very soon after the suppression of the Knights of Malta and the confiscation of their property had been prevented by the Czar, a number of monasteries and con- vents were seized by the government for the benefit of the University at Ingolstadt * and the schools at Munich,’ and by the close of the Napoleonic period the property of all the monasteries, convents, chapters of collegiate churches, mili- tary orders, pious foundations and religious brotherhoods of the state had been confiscated by the government. The members of the orders thus deprived of their property had been sent back into the world or gathered into central insti- tutions, and their orders were well on to the road to ex- tinction through the death of the surviving members.” 1“ Die Dominikaner in Landshut sind aufgehoben, zum Besten der Universitat; das Kloster der Nonnen zu Seligenthal bei Landshut wird zu gleichem Zweck administrirt (die Existenz ward ihnen geschenkt, weil sie Schule halte).” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1802, i, 76, “Aus Bayern. Landshut, den 19ten Dec., 1801.” Cf. also, Gazette National ou Le Moniteur Universal, an. 10, no. 114, p. 455; and Allgemeine Zeitung, 1802, no. 104, p. 416. 2“Vor ein paar Tagen ging hier eine kurfiurstl. Kommission zu den Karmelitern und kiindigte ihnen ihre Aufldsung an.- Das Haus wird den lateinischen Schulen, die Einkiinfte werden dem Fond der teutschen zufallen.” Der Teutsche Merkur, op. cit. Cf. also, Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 68. 8“ On conserva un ou plusiers couvens centraux pour chaque ordre, 175] 175 176 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [176 The first general measure providing for the suppression of monasteries was a decree of 25 January, 1802. This decree, apparently, has never been published by the Bava- rian government. According to Montgelas, it provided for the suppression of those monasteries and convents of the possessing orders which were not represented in the pro- vincial Estates, and of all the houses of the mendicant orders.* For the carrying out of the plans of the govern- ment a separate commission was created, consisting of the president of the ecclesiastical council, Count Sennsheim, and five other members.” At some time in February, electoral commissioners were dispatched by this commission to all the houses and hospitals of the Augustinian, Franciscan, and Capuchin friars to inform them of their suppression. The foreign-born friars were sent home and the native-born friars were to be assembled in a few central institutions. The commissioners were to take an inventory, likewise, of all the revenues and furniture of the suppressed institu- tions.* afin que ceux qui se trouveroient trop agés pour rentrer dans le monde et pour qui la vie contemplative auroit encore des charmes pussent continuer a s’y livrer sans étre arrachés a leurs habitudes.’ Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, pp. 126-127. 1“Dés le 25 janvier 1802, avant qu’il eut encore été question officiellement de sécularization, on avoit commencé l’exécution de ce systeme général de suppression du clergé régulier par le Décret qui supprimoit les maisons de tous les moines mendians, tous les mon- astéres qui n’avoient pas voix et séance aux Etats des provinces ainsi que toutes les abbayes du Haut-Palatinate.” Jbid., p. 127. 2 Regierungsblatt, 10 Feb., 1802, p. 93, “ Die Anordnung einer be- sonderen Kommission ftir das Klosterwesen betr.,” 6 Feb., 1802. >“Tm Monat Hornung wurde den Augustinern, Franciscanern und Kapuzinern durch churf. an alle Convente und Hospitien abgeordnete Commissarien bedeutet dass sie aufgehoben, und bestimmt seyen, in einige Wohnorte Versammelt zu werden, und daselbst abzusterben. 177] THE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 177 The next move of the government was the suppression of the practice of begging which had been followed hitherto by the religious orders. By an ordinance of 13 March, 1802, collections by either Bavarian or foreign monasteries were forbidden after April 1.1_ The practice, however, prob- ably was not completely done away with for some time. At the end of March the privilege of making such collections was temporarily restored to the Brothers of Mercy at Mun- ich, because no adequate means of support had as yet been provided for them; * and in the following year permission to make a general collection was granted to the brothers, because the number of sick in their care had greatly in- creased.* There seems to have been considerable begging Die im Ausland gebohrne wurden in ihr Vaterland geschickt. Alle klosterlichen Einkiinfte, Hausgerathschaften u. dgl. wurden auf- gezeichnet.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 68. 1“Es wird daher verordnet, dass vom Isten Aprils d. J. an in den gesamten churftrstlichen oberen Landen alle sogenannte Kollekturen der Religiosen, sowohl von inn- als auslandischen Klostern ohne Unter- schied und Ausnahme aufhoéren sollen.” Regierungsblatt, 17 Mar., 1802, p. 182, “ Verordnung: das Betteln der Religiosen-Orden betr.,” 13 Mar., 1802. 2“ Da nun unter diesen Orden auch die Fratres Misericordiae be- griffen sind: indessen aber fiir dieselben, dann die von ihnen zu unter- haltenden Kranken noch kein hinreichender Unterhalt als Surrogat hat hergestellt werden kénnen; so soll diesen noch einsweilen das Sammeln oder Kollektiren bis auf weiters Verordnung gestattet bleiben.” Regierungsblatt, 14 April, 1802, p. 264, “Das Kollektiren der barm- herzigen Briider betr.,” 31 Mar., 1802. 3“Tn Verhadltniss des hiesig erweiterten Krankenhauses bey den barmherzigen Briidern, und der zugenommenen Bevolkerung hat sich auch die Zahl der in dieses Institut aufzunehmenden Kranken vermehrt, und hiedurch der Bedarf an Betten, Ueberziigen, Leinen, so andern zur Pflege der Kranken erfoderlichen Bediirfnisse vergrossert. Deren Beyschaffung liegt dermal ausser den Kraften dieses zum Wohl der leidenden Menschheit bestehenden Instituts; weswegen Seine Churfiirstliche Durchlaucht bewogen worden, vermittelst hodchster Entschliessung vom 22sten abhin bey barmherzigen Brtidern eine alleemeine Sammlung in hdchstdero Residenzstadt Munchen derge- 178 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [178 carried on by the friars also, in defiance of the prohibition of the government. Three different times within a year the government repeated its orders against the practice because they were being disregarded by the friars. After 1802 the secularization movement in Bavaria was merged to a large extent in the larger movement which was guided, if 1t was not initiated, by Napolecn. The next sec- ularization of church property in Bavaria, in consequence, was authorized by the “conclusion of the Empire” of 25 February, 1803.* By this important measure all the prop- erty of the chapters, abbeys, and endowed monasteries and convents, whether mediate or immediate, in both the new and old possessions of the electorate, of which there had been no formal disposal made in other articles of the “ con- clusion of the Empire,” as well as the chapters, abbeys, monasteries and convents, formally and by name assigned in indemnity to Bavaria, were put at the disposal of the elector, with all their property, rights, capital and revenues, except for the fixed endowment, which was to be conserved for the cathedrals, and the pensions, which were to be paid to the suppressed clergy.° The monasteries could be sup- stalt zu erlauben, dass selbe, von einigen Mitgliedern dieses Kranken- hauses unter Aufsicht und Begleitung einiger Kanzeley-Offizianten des hiesigen Armen-Instituts mit geschlossnen Biichsen vorgenommen werden dirfe.” Regierungsblatt, 16 Feb., 1803, pp. 103-104, “Die den barmherzigen Briidern in hiesiger Hauptstadt bewilligte Sammlung betr.,” 4 Feb., 1803. 1Jbid., 21 July, 1802, p. 529, “ Verordnung: das Betteln auslandischer Mendikanten in Lande betr.,” 19 July, 1802; ibid., 8 Sept., 1802, p. 633, “Verordnung: die auslandischen Mendikanten btr.,” 25 Aug., 1802; ibid., 8 Jun., 1803, p. 367, “ Bekanntmachung und Auftrag: das heim- liche Betteln der Franziskaner-Monche betr.,” 2 Jun., 1803. 2“Te gouvernement appropria a la couronne en vertu du §35 du recés de députation du 26 avril 1803 les biens et propriétés de tous les chapitres, abbayes, prieurés des anciens et nouveaux Etats.” Mont- gelas, op. cit., p. 126. 3“xxxv. Tous les biens des chapitres, abbayes et couvens fondeés, 179 | ZHE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 179 pressed or preserved as the elector chose. The seculariza- tion of the convents, however, was to be effected only in concert with the bishop of the diocese. The electoral con- sent in any case was necessary hereafter for the reception of novices by either monasteries or convents.*. The en- joyment of the property assigned in indemnity was to commence on 1 December, 1802,” and all alienations of property made by the monasteries and convents after 24 August, 1802, that were not the result of their ordinary administration, were declared null and void.* Definite pro- tant des anciennes que des nouvelles possessions, tant protestans, que catholiques, tant mediats qu’immédiats, dont il n’a pas été formellement fait emploi dans les arrangemens précédens, sont mis a la libre et pleine disposition des princes territoriaux respectifs, tant pour dépenses du culte, frais d’instruction et autres établissemens d’utilité publique, que pour le soulagement de leurs finances, sous la réserve formelle: De la dotation fixe des Cathedrales qui seront conservées ; Des pensions du clergé supprimé, conformement aux réglemens dont une partie se trouve ci-dessous et les autres seront determinés in- cessament. xxxvi. Les chapitres, abbayes et couvens nommément et formelle- ment assignés en indemnité, de méme que ceux mis a la disposition des princes territoriaux, passent a leurs nouveaux possesseurs avec tous leurs biens, droits, capitaux, et revenus en quelque lieu quw ils soient situés, sauf les distractions expresses.” Martens, Recueil des traités, (2 ed.), vol. vii, p. 499, “ Recés de la députation de Empire.” 1 “xiii. La sécularisation des couvens de femmes récluses ne peut s’effectuer que de concert avec l’évéque diocesain; mais les couvens d’hommes seront a la disposition des princes territoriaux, ou des nouveaux possesseurs, qui pourront les supprimer ou les conserver a leur gré. Les uns et les autres ne peuvent recevoir de novices que du consentement du prince territorial ou du nouveau possesseur.” Jbid., vol. vii, p. 505, ‘““Recés de la députation de l’Empire.” 2§xliii. “La jouissance des biens assignés en indemnité commence du premier décembre 1802...” Jbid., vol. vii, p. 505, “Recés de la députation de l’Empire.” ’“8xliv. Toutes les aliénations qui ne sont pas une suite de l’admin- istration ordinaire, et qui auraient été faites par les abbayes et couvens aprés le 24 aotit sont declarées nulles.” Jbid., vol. vii, p. 505, “ Recés de la députation de l’Empire.” 180 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [180 vision was made also for the pensioning of the administra- tors and conventuals of all the chapters, abbeys, monasteries and convents, mediate and immediate, secularized by the princes. The conventuals of the princely and immediate abbeys of the Empire were to be maintained in some com- munity in a way suitable and conformable to their previous manner of life. Those who went out from their institutions with the approval of the sovereign were to receive, until they were otherwise established, a pension of from three hundred to six hundred florins, according to the revenues of their foundation. The maintenance of the lay brothers was to be provided for in the same manner. The novices, who were not yet bound by vows, were to be sent back by the elector with a proportional pension for three years.* The mediate chapters, abbeys, monasteries and convents in the countries secularized were to be treated in the same manner as the immediate and princely abbeys. The abbots incontestably mediate, or whose immediacy had been pre- viously contested, were to receive pensions ranging from two to eight thousand florins in amount, according to the income of their abbeys. Their conventuals were to receive pensions ranging in amount from three to six hundred florins. The lay brothers and novices of such monasteries were to be treated like the lay brothers and novices of the immediate monasteries.* The pious foundations, on the 1“Ivii. Les conventuels des abbayes princiéres et immédiates de Empire, continueront d’étre entretenus dans quelque communauté d’une maniere convenable et conforme a leur ancien genre de vie. Ceux qui en sortirent avec l’agrément du souverain, toucheront, jusqu’a ce qu’ils soient autrement établis, une pension de 3 a 600 florins, suivant les revenus de leur fondation. Il sera pourvu de la méme maniére a la sustentation des freres lais. Les novices qui ne sont pas encore liés par des voeux, peuvent étre renvoyés par le souverain avec une pension proportionelle de trois années...” Martens, op. cit., vol. vii, p. 515, “'Recés de la députation de l’Empire.” 2“Ixiv. Les chapitres, abbayes et couvens médiates dans les pays =) 181] HE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 18; contrary, were to be maintained, but they were always to be subject to the surveillance and authority of the sovereign.* A very large amount of church property was thus put at the disposal of the elector. In the older possessions of the elector the property of the sixty-six? or so monasteries and convents represented in the Estates, as well as the prop- erty of at least eight collegiate churches, was put at the dis- posal of the sovereign. By virtue of the ‘ Conclusion of the Empire” itself the property of the twelve free Imperial abbeys of Waldsassen, Eberach, Irsée, Wengen, Soefflinge, Elchingen, Ursberg, Roggenburg, Wetterhausen, Otto- beuern, Kaiserheim and St. Ulrich, and of the monasteries, convents and collegiate churches of the one provostship, the five bishoprics and the twelve free Imperial cities and towns assigned to Bavaria as an indemnity for its losses on the left bank of the Rhine, as well as the property of these governments themselves, were left, likewise, to the mercy of the elector.* Within the jurisdiction of the Imperial abbey of Ottobeuern there was a small convent containing séculariser, seront traités sur le pied établi ci-dessus pour les immédiats Me Les abbés dont lV’immediateté a jusqu’ici été contestée, ou qui sont incontestablement médiats, recevront proportionellement au revenu de leurs abbayes, une pension de deux a huit mille florins: leurs con- ventuels et ceux des autres couvens trois a six cent florins. Les freres lais et novices seront traités sur le méme pied établi ci-dessus pour ceux des fondations immediates.” Martens, op. cit., vol. vii, p. 519, “Recés de la députation de l’Empire.” 1“1Ixy, ‘Les fondations pieuses et de charité seront conservées comme toute proprieté particuliere en restant toutefois soumis a la surveillance et a l’autorite des souverains.” Jbid., vol. vii, p. 519, “Recés de la députation de !’Empire.” 2Cf. J. Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baiern, art. “ Baiern”; and A. Buchner, Geschichte von Bayern, x, 78. 8 Martens, op. cit., pp. 453, 497-490, “Recés de la deputation de Empire,” §§ ii and xxxiv-xxxvi. 182 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [182 nineteen Benedictine nuns; * in the provostship of Kempten there were two monasteries with sixty-two conventuals in all, and a nunnery;* and in the twelve free cities and towns there were eight monasteries and convents with a total of one hundred friars and nuns in five of the institu- tions.* The bishoprics in all probability had in proportion to their area and population nearly as many monasteries and convents as Bavaria.* The Bavarian government proceeded promptly and vig- orously to take advantage of the opportunities for the sec- ularization of church property thrown open to it by the “Conclusion of the Empire.’ By an ordinance of 3 No- vember, 1802, all the mediate monasteries, convents, abbeys and foundations in the older possessions of the elector were forbidden to accept novices or to alienate their prop- erty.” In the following year, by an ordinance of 18 March, 1J,. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, iii, 37. 2 Ibid., vi, 21-22. ’ At ‘Ravensburg there was a Capuchin monastery with I9 friars, a Carmelite monastery with 25 friars, and a convent of Franciscan nuns. Cf. ibid., v, 16. At Kaufbeuern there was a convent for Franciscan nuns with 17 nuns. Cf. ibid., v, 51. At Leutkirch there was a convent for 18 Franciscan nuns. Cf. ibid., v, 73. At Dinkelsbithl the Carmelites and Capuchins both had houses. Cf. ibid., v, 86. At Memmingen there was a monastery of the Order of St. Spiritus de Roma in Sasia, a monastery of the Augustinian Eremites and a monastery of Fran- ciscan monks. Cf. ibid., v, 100, et seq. *In the bishopric of Augsburg there were 9 collegiate churches, a cathedral chapter with 4o canons and 41 other beneficiaries, 25 abbeys, 34 mendicant houses, 2 foundations for women and 28 convents. Based on Plac. Ign. Braun, Diocesan-Beschreibung, ii, p. 161, et seq. Cf. Kirchenlexikon, art. “Augsburg.” In the bishopric of Wurzburg there were 26 monasteries, 6 convents, 4 collegiate churches and I cathe- dral chapter. Based on Schéff, Historische Statistische Beschreibung — des Hochstifts Wiirzburg, 1802. Cf. Kirchenlexikon, art. “ Wurzburg.” 5 Regierungsblatt, 10 Nov., 1802, pp. 778-779, “ Provisorische Maas- regeln gegen die in den herobern Landen fundirte, noch nicht in Besch- lag genommene Kloster und Stifter betr.,” 3 Nov., 1802. 183] THE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 183 1803, a commission was created by the government to supervise the secularizations in the older possessions of the elector authorized by the “ Conclusion of the Empire.” It consisted of the president of the General Landesdirection, von Weichs, and six other members.’ Two members of the new commission had belonged to the commission created to supervise the secularizations authorized by the Bavarian decree of 25 January, 1802. In the same month that it was created commissioners were sent to all the Bavarian abbeys, commissioned to sell the abbeys and all the prop- erty possessed by them. The prelates of these institutions were to receive three florins and the ordinary monks one florin a day.* Similar measures seem to have been taken by the government in the new possessions of the state in Swabia and Franconia. The evidence for a comprehensive and detailed descrip- tion of the manner in which the secularization of the monas- teries and convents was actually carried out does not seem to exist in this country. The measures of the government probably were executed in the country at large much as they were at Munich. At least fifteen of the eighteen monasteries in and around Munich were secularized by the government during the Napoleonic period. In 1799 the monastery of the Theatins, as has been explained, was turned over to the restored Knights of Malta to be used as a residence for the Grand Prior of the Bavarian branch of 1 Regierungsblatt, 23 Mar., 1803, pp. 192-193, “Das bey der chur- fiirstlicher General-Landesdirektion angeordnete Separat in standischen Klostersachen betr.,” 18 Mar., 1803. 2“TDiesen Monat [Marz] giengen an die baier. Abteyen Commis- sarien ab mit dem Auftrag alle Abteyen und alles dahin gehorize zu verkaufen. Die pralaten bekommen des 3 fl., die gemeinen religiosen aber 1 fl. Pension...” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tage- biicher, p. 73. 184 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [184 the order. On 19 December, 1801, an electoral decree suppressing the Carmelite friars at Munich was read in the ecclesiastical council. The buildings of the monastery were assigned by the decree to the Latin school at Munich and its revenues to the German school.” The monastery of the Franciscan friars seems to have been the first monastic in- stitution at Munich affected by the decree of 25 January, 1802. On the morning of 4 March, 1802, over a month after the decree suppressing the mendicant monasteries was issued, forty-three of the friars from the Franciscan monas- tery were started toward Ingolstadt in carriages belonging to the court.“ A few members, however, were left behind for a time to supervise the packing of the baggage of the order and to care for members who were sick at the time.* On the 27 March the Capuchin friars were started in a 1“Auch wird kiinftig die Kirche der Theatiner... zur Malteserkirche und das Kloster zur Wohnung des Grosspriors... bestimmt werden.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 67. 2“Den 19. Dec., als an einem Samstag, wurde im geistlichen Rath ein churf. Dekret, dass die hiesigen Carmeliter von Miinchen sich in andere Kldster des Landes entfernten sollen. abzulesen...” Jbid., p. 68. “Vor ein paar Tagen ging hier eine kurfirstl. Kommission zu den Karmelitern und kindigte ihnen ihre Auflosung an. Das Haus wird den lateinischen Schulen, die Einktinfte werden dem Fond der teutschen zufallen.” Der Teutsche Merkur, 1802, i, 76, dispatch dated, ‘“Landshut I9ten Dec., 18or.” 3“Den 4. Marzen in der Frih um 3 Uhr wurden durch Hofkutschen die hiesige Franziskaner von der Stadt weg und nach Ingolstadt gefihrt, wo sammtliche Franciscaner des Landes zusammen kommen, und lebens- langlich (mit einer Pension von 150 fl. fiir jeden Kopf) bleiben sollen.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p.69. Cf. Journal des Debats, 4 Germinal, An. Io 4“Theils die Pflege einiger Kranken, theils der Umstand, dass das Gepacke der Franziskaner unter der Aufsicht von Individuen aus ihrer Mitte besser besorgt werden wiirde, waren die. Veranlassung, dass man einige derselben noch auf eine Weile hier beliess.” Regier- ungsblatt, 31 Mar., 1802, pp. 219-220, “ Die hier zuriickbliebenen Franzis- kaner betr.,” 24 Mar., 1802. 185 | THE CONFISCATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 185 similar manner toward Rosenheim.t *863. Auch ist derselbe befugt, wenn er wahrnimmt, dass bei einer Kirchen-Gesellschaft Spaltungen, Unordnungen oder Missbrache ein- gerissen sind, zur Wiederherstellung der Einigkeit und kirchlichen Ordnung, unter seinem Schuze Kirchen-Versammlungen zu veranlassen, ohne jedoch in Gegenstande der Religionslehre sich selbst einzumischen.” Ibid. 219] THE'INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 219 The government interfered in a great many ways, like- wise, with the actual conduct of religious services. Public prayers for the various members of the royal family were repeatedly prescribed in a minute and definite manner by the state." The use of German church hymns in the Catholic services * and the introduction of a particular hymnal in the Protestant churches was ordered by the state.* The clergy were forbidden to discriminate in their baptismal * and funeral ° services between legitimate and illegitimate chil- dren. The first important declaration of the Bavarian govern- ment during the Napoleonic period concerning its policy toward the secular clergy appeared early in 1802, soon after the suppression of the mendicant friars was announced. The declaration of the government was in the form of a circular to the secular clergy of Bavaria. In this document the government declared its intention to re-establish the secular clergy in the position and rights which they had possessed in the earliest period of Christianity before monas- ticism was known. The secular clergy were urged, conse- quently, to save their honor and prove to the people their capacity for the great work of the priesthood and the use- lessness of any other substitute; and to feel the greatness 1 Seven such decrees are given in Dollinger, op. cit., ii, 96-101. 2 Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. 2, pp. 1070-1071: “ Den Gebrauche des deutschen Kirchengesang betr.,” 27 Aug., 1802; “ Die Einftithrung des deutschen Kirchengesang betr.,” 1 Feb., 1803. 3 Regierungsblatt, 15 Mar., 1815, pp. 169-171, “ Bekanntmachung: die Einfithrung des neuen Protestantischen Gesangbuch betr.,’ 26 Feb., 1815. 4 Tbid., 13 Apr., 1803, p. 232, “ Missbrauche des Offentlichen Aktus btr.,” 5 Apr., 1803. The government meant Kultus instead of Aktus. Cf. Regierungsblatt, 20 Apr., 1803, p. 256. 5 Tbid., 1 Jun., 1803, p. 345, “ Verordnung: die bey Beerdigung der Kinder in einigen Kirchensprengel herrschenden Missbrauche betr.,” 24 Mar., 1803. 220 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [220 and nobility of their calling and regain the popular confi- dence really due them. They were urged, therefore, not to limit their calling to the performance of mass and service at the altar or to the observance of outward rites, but to ex- tend it to all the just and reasonable demands of their par- ishes and consider themselves as teachers and instructors to whom the religious and moral education of a whole nation has been entrusted. Their official conduct, in consequence, was not to be determined by the source or amount of their fees but by the local needs of their parishes. They were urged to realize, furthermore, that the ignorant should never lack instruction from the pulpit, that those in error should never lack correction in the confessional, that the suffering should never lack the consolation of. religion, and that those in need of counsel and help should never lack the assistance they needed. In order that their help, moreover, might not be made vain through any contrast between their words and deeds, they were to strive to main- tain the power of their office by an irreproachable manner of life and to avoid in their conduct all things contrary to moral edification or the dignity of their order. By follow- ing this course dissatisfaction would gradually be silenced and the conviction would be established that real Catholic and Christian worship had gained rather than lost by the measures of the government.* 1“ Wir haben... keinen andern Zweck als... anderseits...den Welt- priesterstand in jene ursprtingliche ‘Wirksamkeit und Rechte der Seel- sorger wieder einzusetzen, die er in den Aaltesten Zeiten der Christenheit, wo das Monchswesen noch ganz unbekannt war, ausschliesslich be- hauptet hatte,..... Es hangt also hauptsachlich von diesem Welt- priesterstande selbst ab, durch sein Benehmen in diesem wichtigen Zeit- punkte seine Ehre zu retten, seine vorziigliche Fahigkeit und sein Zulanglichkeit fiir das grosse Geschaft der Seelsorge sowohl, als auch damit die Entbehrlichkeit jedes andern Surrogats durch That und Erfahrung dem Volke anschaulich zu beweisen. Wir vertrauen daher zuversichtlich auf die Ehrliebe und den Eifer 221 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 221 In its efforts to create in Bavaria a body of parochial clergy satisfactory to itself the government did not limit itself to exhortation. Exhortation alone probably would have had little effect if it had not been followed by the in- troduction of a system of clerical appointment and promo- aller Glieder dieses Standes, dass sie diese schone Gelegenheit zu ihrer eigenen Rechfertigung und zur Wiederherstellung des ihnen gebiihren- den Vertrauens nicht unbentizt lassen, sondern das Grosse und Edle ihre Bestimmung selbst fiithlen, und dieses Geftihl zur Triegfeder und Richt- schnur ihres Betragens machen werden. Ein aufmerksamer Riick- blicht auf die Geschichte der ersten christlichen Jahrhunderte... wird sie lehren, ihren Beruf nicht bloss auf den weniger mithsam Theil desselben, namlich auf den eigentlichen Opfer- und Altardienst, oder die Beobachtung ausserliche Gebrauche zu beschranken, sondern ihn vielmehr auf alle gerechte verntinftige Forderungen ihrer Gemeinden auszudehnen, und sich als eigentliche Volkslehrer und Erzieher zu betrachten, deren Handen die religiose und sittliche Bildung einer ganzen Nation grossentheils anvertraut ist. Es wird sie lehren, den Umfang ihrer Amtsverrichtungen nicht so fast nach dem Herkommen oder nach dem Verhaltnisse der damit verbundenen Taxen, sondern vielmehr nach den Lokalbedtirfnissen ihrer Gemeinden zu bestimmen, eye Sie werden es dann selbst einsehen, wie nothig es sey, es dem Unwissenden nie an Offentlicher Belehrung von der Kanzel, den Verirr- ten nie an Zurechtweisung im Beichtstuhle, den Leidenden an Kranken- betten nie an den seligen Trostungen der Religion, und uberhaupt allen Raths- und Hilfsbedtirftigen nie am nothigen Zuspruch und Beystande ermangeln zu lassen. Und damit die Wirksamkeit dieses Zuspruches durch keinen Wider- spruch zwischen Worten und Werken vereitelt werden moge, so werden sie sich zugleich bestreben, die Kraft ihres sorgenvollen Berufes durch das Beyspiel eines untadelhaften Priesterwandels zu unterstiitzen, und jede Aiisserung irgend einer niedrigen Leidenschaft von Eigenutz oder Sinnlichkeit, jedes Merkmal eines rohen ungebildeten Karakters, kurz alles, was der sittlichen Erbauung widerspricht, und unter der Wirde ihres Standes ist, sorgfaltig zu vermeiden. Dadurch werden jene obge- meldete Klagen des missvergniigten Vorurtheiles allmahlig zu Schweigen gebracht werden, und endlich der bessern Ueberzeugung Platz machen, dass der acht christkatholische Kultus durch die von Uns genommen Massregeln nichts verloren, sondern vielmehr betrachtlich gewonnen habe.” Regierungsblatt, 17 Mar., 1802, p. 172, et seg., “Circulare an die gesamte Weltgeistlichkeit in den churfurstlichen oberen Staaten.,” 11 Mar., 1802. 222 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [222 tion which was controlled by the government. At the be- ginning of Maximilian IV Joseph’s reign, however, there were two obstacles to the introduction of an orderly system of appointing and promoting parish priests. The right of appointing the secular clergy to the parishes and benefices in Bavaria lay in the hands of private patrons to a large ex- tent. The custom prevailed in many of the parishes, fur- thermore, of resigning a parish in favor of a particular individual. The second obstacle was removed by an ordi- nance of 17 February, 1803, which forbade for the future the practice of resigning the parishes to particular individ- uals. Until an institution for the care of the clergy was established pensions in proportion to their parish incomes were to be assigned to deserving parish priests unable to perform their pastoral office because of the infirmities of age. For some time, however, the government did not establish either a general pension system or an institution for the care of the clergy. The first obstacle to the intro- duction of an orderly system of appointing and promoting the parish clergy was removed to a large extent by the sec- ularization of the bishoprics, collegiate churches, monas- teries and convents. The bishoprics, collegiate churches, 1“Tn Erwagung dass die Kirchengesetze selbst Resignationen zum Besten eines Dritten nicht begiinstiget wissen wollen—dass sie zu einem unanstandigen, der geistlichen Seelsorge nachtheilgen Gewerbe mit geistlichen Aemtern Anlass geben,—dass hiedurch wiirdigen Kandi- daten des Pfarramts der legale Weg zu Pfarreyen zu gelangen, gesch- malert, und dem Staate die Mittel benommen werden wiirdige Priester auf eine ihren Verdiensten entsprechende Art zu befdrdern; so wird kiinftigen keine Resignation einer Pfarrey an ein bestimmtes Subjekt mehr gestattet, wohl aber den verdienten Pfarrern, welche dem Hirte- namte Alters Gebrechlichkeiten wegen nicht mehr vorzustehen in Stande seyn wollten, eine den pfarrlichen Einkunften angemessene lebenslang- liche Pension in so lange bestimmt werden, bis die Organisirung einer geistlichen Versorgungs-Anstalt in diesseitigen churftirstlichen Landen zu Stande kommen wird.” Regierungsblatt, 23 Feb., 1803, pp. 115-116, “Die Resignation der Pfarreyen betr.,” 17 Feb., 1803. 223] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 222 monasteries and convents which fell into the hands of the Bavarian government all had extensive rights of patronage.* The archbishop of Salzburg, for example, presented to most of the parishes, vicarships and benefices under his political control.” The bishop of Regensburg, in contrast, was re- ported in 1796 to have scarcely a dozen parishes in his patronage.” The Bavarian monasteries in the bishopric of Augsburg, as has been mentioned, had twenty-nine parishes to which they possessed the right of presentation; * those of the bishopric of Passau had thirty-one; ° and those of the bishopric of Salzburg had thirty-six. The Catholic prelate over the provostship of Kempten even possessed the peculiar right of naming the reformed ministers at Groenen- bach and Herbishofen.’ The collegiate church at Habback, 1“VLe droit de patronage exercé par les évéques en qualité de sou- verains, de fondateurs, de démembrement d’un bénéfice a charge d’amés ou non et pas simplement comme chefs de diocéses, ceux des chapitres, prieurés, abbayes et couvens supprimés passérent a la couronne.” Mont- gelas, Denkwiirdigkeitten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, G. 127 2“ Zu den meisten Pfarrern, Vikariaten, und Beneficien im Lande ernennet der Erzbischof; nur das Bisthum Chiemsee, die Kldster St. Peter und St. Zeno prasentiren auf einige Pfarren.’ J Melchinger, Geographisches Statistisch-Topographisches Lexikon von Baern, art. “ Salzburg.” 3“Der Bischof... hat kaum ein Duzend Pfarreyen zu vergeben.” Ibid., art. “ Regensburg.” 4 Regierungsblatt, 3 Jan., 1807, p. 39, et seqg., “ Bekanntmachung: die Organization der vormaligen Klosterpfarreyen im Bisthume Augs- burg betr.,” 17 Dec., 1806. 5 Ibid., 17 Dec., 1806, p. 467, et seq., “‘ Bekanntmachung: die Organi- zation der vormaligen Stifts- und Klosterpfarreyen im Bisthume Passau betr.,” 1 Dec., 1806. 6 [bid., 6 Jun., 1807, p. 924, ““ Bekanntmachung: die Organization der vormaligen Stifts- und Klosterpfarreyen im Bisthume Salzburg,” 14 Apr., 1807. 7“ Die Reformirten in Amte Gronenbach haben 2 Prediger, zu Gronen- bach und Herbishofen, welche der Abt ernennt und Pflegamt bestat- tiget.” J. Aretin, Baiern nach dem Frieden von Liineville, iv, 22. 224 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [224 likewise, had rights of patronage over two parishes,* and the collegiate church at Vilshofen over seven.* The rights of patronage exercised by the bishops as sovereigns or found- ers, or by reason of the dismembering of a benefice and not as chiefs of dioceses, and by the chapters, priories, abbeys, monasteries and convents suppressed by the government as a result of the secularization of church property, passed into the hands of the crown with the bishoprics and institutions which exercised them. Even before the “ Conclusion of the Empire”’ was signed the government ordered that all the rights of patronage and presentation which had be- longed to the lands, princes, abbeys, cities and other cor- porations in Swabia, assigned to the elector in compensation for his losses on the left bank of the Rhine, were to be exercised in the name of the elector. Rights of patronage, moreover, which had come into other hands through neglect were to be defended by the holders. Foreign patrons, fur- thermore, were forbidden to present an individual to a Bavarian parish unless he was a native of the state, had completed his studies in schools and universities of Bavaria, Swabia or Franconia, and had presented satisfactory evi- dence concerning his moral conduct and the adequateness of his preparation for the work of the priesthood, and had, in consequence, been acknowledged by the proper Landesdtrec- tion as a suitable person for presentation to a parish.® 1 Regierungsblatt, 3 Jan., 1807, p. 30, et seq., “ Bekanntmachung: die Organization der vormaligen Klosterpfarreyen im Bisthume Augsburg betr.,” 17 Dec., 1806. 2“ Es ist... hier...ein Kollegialstift zu St. Johannes dem Taufer, welches mit Einschluss des Probsts von 12 Chorherrn besetzt ist. Es halten aber hier nur 5 Residenz, die andern versehen Pfarreien auf dem Lande.” Melchinger, op. cit., art. “ Vilshofen.” 3“ (1) so sollen alle jene Patronats- und Prasentationsrechte, welche in den Uns zur Entschadigung angewiesenen schwabischen Landen, Fiirsten, Aebten, Stadten oder sonstigen K6rperschaften zugestanden 225] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 225 By a decree of 8 August, these principles were extended to the hereditary estates of the elector.'| By an ordinance of 22 September, 1803, finally, the electoral rights of patron- age in Franconia were asserted.” A decree of 11 October, 1803, however, provided that the rights of patronage be- longing to the bishoprics of Eichstaedt, Salzburg and Re- gensburg, and to the foundations and monasteries within their boundaries, were to be left provisionally as they had been.* This must have been, at best, only a temporary haben, in Zukunft in Unserm Namen ausgetibt werden...Die durch Nachlassigkeit oder auf sonstige unrechtmassige Art in andere Hande gekommen Patronatsrechte sind durch dieselben zu vindiciren. (2) Fremden Patronen ist nicht zu gestatten, auf eine Pfarrei ein Individuum zu prasentiren, wenn es nicht folgende Eigenschaft besitzt: (a) es muss ein Eingeborner des Landes sein: (b) auf Unsern in- landischen Schulen und Universitaten in Schwaben, Bayern oder Franken seine Studien vollendet; und (c) giltige Zeugnisse tiber sein sittliches Betragen und die nothigen wissenschaftlichen Kentnisse zur Seelsorge bei einer der genannten Landes-Directionen vorgelegt haben, und von dieser darnach als fahig zur Prasentation fiir eine Pfarrey erkannt worden sein.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. i, p. 606, “Aus- zug aus dem hochsten Rescript von 14 Feb., 1803.” 1 Wir finden Uns . .. bewogen, den aufgestellten Grundsatz: dass nach den durch die Sdacularizationen veranderten Verhaltnissen der bischdflichen Gerechtsame in Fiirstenthum Wurzburg das Patronats- recht in allen jenen Pfarreien und sonstigen Beneficien Uns zustehe, auf welchen kein Jus patronatus laicale privatum haftet, welchen Grundsatz Wir nach den namlichen Ansichten in Unserer schwabischen Provinz gegen den Bischof von N. schon frtther behauptet haben, und in Vollzug haben setzen lassen, nunmehr zu einem Normal-Gesetz fiir Unsere sammtlichen Erbstaaten zu erheben.” /bid., vol. viii, pt. ii, p. 500. ‘Das landesherrliche Besetzungsrecht betr.,” 8 Aug., 1803. 2 Tbid., vol. viii, pt. i, p. 501, et seq., “Das landesherliche Patronats- recht betr.,” 22 Sept., 1803. 3“ (5) die ubrigen Patronatsrechte, welche den Bisthtmern Eich- stadt, Salzburg und Regensburg und den in ihren Landesgranzen gelegenen Stiftern und Klostern zustunden, wegen ihren besondern verhaltnissen, welche eine nahere Bestimmung erfordern, provisorisch in ihrem bisherigen Zustande dergestalt belassen, dass die seit der Civil- 226 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT 226 arrangement, as by 1810 the territories formerly ruled by these bishops as sovereigns had been acquired by Bavaria. The danger of becoming involved in disputes with the Prince Primate and Archduke Ferdinand must have been responsible for this delay of the Bavarian government in asserting its rights of patronage. Although the important ordinance of 7 May, 1804, re- served to the government the right of passing measures by which it could assure itself of the competence and worthi- ness of the clergy, the government waited for over two years before introducing a general system of appointing and promoting the clergy. In an ordinance concerning the col- lation of benefices, dated 5 December, 1806, the government declared that all benefices and parishes which belonged to the patronage of the king were to be conferred only after a rigorous examination on the worthiest and most efficient subjects. Actual parish priests, on the contrary, who had already been recognized as fit through actual investiture and installation in a legal manner, were to be transferred and promoted without further examination to other par- ishes and benefices. Priests who had filled during ten years a public office in the state or a professorship, were likewise exempted from examination.” The ordinance of 30 De- Besitznahme Prasentirten nur als administratoren der Temporalien angesehen werden sollen.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. i, p. 594, “ Die Auswartigen Pfarr-Prasentations-Rechte betr.,” 11 Oct., 1803. 1“ Wir wollen zwar der bischoflichen Bevollmachtigung zur Seelsorge nicht eingreifen, jedoch behalten Wir Uns alle jene Massregeln vor, durch welche Wir Uns der kiinftigen Befahigung und Wuirdigkeit der anzustellenden Geistlichen versichern konnen.” Regierungsblati, 23 May, 1804, p. 500, et seq. “ Verordnung: die Verhaltnisse zur geist- lichen Gewalt betr.,” §5, 7 May, 1804. 2“iRs ist die ausdrucklich Willensmeynung Seiner Majestat, dass alle Pfrunden, Pfarreyen und Benefizien, welche zum k6niglichen Patronatsrechte gehdren, nicht anders, als nach einer strengen Priifung, und zwar den wirdigsten und brauchbarsten Subjekten ver- —— ls 227] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 227 cember, 1806, contained an elaborate set of regulations for the examinations which were to be given to candidates for parishes. According to this ordinance all ecclesiastical bene- fices which belonged to his majesty’s patronage were to be conferred in the future only after a rigorous examination of the competing candidates. Examinations for this pur- pose were to be announced in each province every second year. The announcement of the examinations was to pre- cede the examination itself by at least three months and the examinations were to be given ordinarily in May. Only natives and members of the clergy upon whom the rights of citizenship had been conferred and who had served at least ten years in a Bavarian parish or five years in a public office were to be admitted to the examinations. In addition, can- didates for promotion were required to prove the legal completion of their studies at Bavarian gymnasiums, lycees and universities, and to present the usual sealed testimonials concerning their morals and service from their bishops, local judges and Landesdtirections. ‘The classes exempted from the examinations were the actually installed and in- vested parish priests, the councillors of the Landesdirections, professors of universities and lycees, professors at middle schools who had taught ten years and those who had already passed such an examination. The latter class, however, were required to prove, through testimonials, a continuance of their good conduct. The conducting of the examination liehen werden sollen..... Wirkliche Pfarrer hingegen, welche durch die wirkliche Investiture und Installation auf eine gesetzmassige Art schon als fahig anerkannt sind, koénnen ohne weitere Prtifung auf eine andere Pfarrey oder Pfriinde versetzt, und befordert werden. Die namliche Ausnahme ist auf jene Priester anwendbar, welche zehen Jahre lang ein Offentliches Amt in Staate, oder eine Professors- Stelle bekleidet haben.” Regierungsblatt, 17 Dec., 1806, p. 465, et seq., “Verordnung: die Verleihung der Pfriinden und Benefizien in Ober- und Niederbayern betr.,” 5 Dec., 1806. 228 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [228 was to be entrusted ordinarily to an examining board con- sisting of three councillors to be named by the president of the Landesdirection, the theological professors of the lycees and an actual parish priest. The examination was to con- sist of a written examination in the theological sciences, particular attention being given to exegesis and church his- tory, and actual exercises in teaching and the work of the ministry. Each candidate was to be required to prepare a sermon and to recite orally at least a portion of it, and to undertake a catechization. The classification of the com- petent candidates was to be determined by a majority vote of the examiners. The clergy recognized in this manner as competent were to be promoted to the vacant parishes and benefices in the order of their classification and, other things being equal, according to the length of their service as priests. The deserving priests, in consequence, who had remained in poor parishes for a long time, were to be trans- ferred to larger or more satisfactory parishes. The candi- dates of the first class were permitted to refuse three times parishes yielding a net income of less than six hundred florins and to await vacancies in better parishes. The can- didates of the lower classes, on the contrary, were denied this privilege. Candidates of earlier examinations were to be considered in the disposal of parishes and benefices before candidates of later examinations. The secular clergy, fur- thermore, were to be promoted to the secular parishes and the former monks were to be promoted to the parishes for- merly in the gift of the monasteries. After the first exam- inations had been held, private patrons were to be required to present only such members of the clergy as had been ex- amined and accepted, but they were not to be required to take the candidates in the order in which they were classi- fied. The ordinance renewed also the prohibition against the resignation of parishes in favor of a definite person. ‘ i - , OO 229 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 229 This ordinance, moreover, did not affect the clergy of Tyrol, Swabia and Franconia.t The ordinance of 30 December, 1“(1) Alle geistliche Pfrunden, welche zu Unserm Patronate gehoren, werden Wir zukiinftig nicht anders, als nach einer strenger Prifung der sich darum meldenden Subjecte verleihen. (2) Zu diesem Ende wollen Wir, dass in jeder Provinz von der betreffenden Landesdirection alle zwei Jahre ftir die dahin geeigneten Candidaten ein Concurs ausgeschrieben werde. (3) Die Bekanntmachung muss wenigstens drei Monate zuvor geschehen, und der Concurs selbst wird gewohnlich im Monate Mai erOffnet. (4) Bei dem Concurse kénnen nur jene Landeseingeborne, oder sonstige Geistliche, denen Wir das Indigenat verliehen haben, und (5) welche die seelsorge wenigstens zehn Jahre lang auf inlandischen Pfarreien ausgetibt, oder fiinf Jahre ein Offentliches Amt in Staate begleitet haben, auftretten. Ferners miissen sich (6) alle Concurscandidaten iiber die gesetzmassige Vollendung ihrer Studien auf inlandischen Gymnasien, Lyceen, Universitaten legitimiren ; (7) wtber ihre Sitten und Verdienste ordentliche, verschlossene Zeugnisse ihres Bischof, der Landgerichte, in deren Bezirke sie die Seelsorge ausgetibt haben, dann der vorgesetzten Landesdirection selbst beibringen........ (10) Dem Concurse sind nicht mehr unterworfen: (a) wirklich installirte und investirte Pfarrer; (b) lLandesdirectionsrathe; (c) Professoren auf Universitaten und Lyceen; (d) Professoren auf Mit- telschulen, wenn sie zehen Jahre das Lehramt versehen haben; (e) alle bei einem Concurse bereits Approbirte; doch sollen diese leztern nach Umstanden durch Zeugnisse die Fortsetzung ihres guten Beneh- mens beweisen. (11) Die Leitung des Concurses geschieht durch drei vom dem Prasidenten der Landesdirection zu ernennende Rathe, mit Zuziehung der theologischen Professoren des Lyceums und ein wirklichen a iatters ts... (12) Die Priifung besteht in einem schriftlichen Examen aus den theologischen Wissenschaften mit besonderer Rticksicht auf Exegese und Kirchengeschichte, dann aus den practischen Pastoralibungen und der Padagogik. (13) Jeder Candidat soll eine Rede fiir das Volk ausarbeiten, und wenigstens einen Theil derselben miindlich vortragen; auch (14) sich einer Catechisirriibung unterzeihung. (16) Die Classification der Competenten, mit besonderer Rucksicht auf die Sitten und Verdienste derselben, geschieht nach der Mehrheit der Stimmen der Commissare und ubrigen Examinatoren..... 230 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [230 1806, was modified only in details during the Napoleonic period. In 1808 actual councillors of the bishops, when they held Bavarian ecclesiastical positions, were exempted from the examinations by a decree of 27 February.* By a later decree, however, this exemption was modified in such a way that it included only councillors of the bishops who had served as councillors for a period of five years, or as (22) Die auf solche Art als fahig erkannten Geistlichen werden Wir sodann nach der Ordnung der Classification-und, wo alles Uebrige gleich ist,—nach ihrem Alter in der Seelsorge auf die erledigten Pfarreien und Beneficien befordern, auch bewilligen, dass (23) verdiente Pfarrer, welche auf geringern Pfarreien langere Zeit gestanden haben, auf eintragliche oder ihnen sonst zutraglichere Pfar- reien versetzt werden. (24) Die Candidaten der ersten Classe, oder diejenigen, welche die Ordnung der Beforderung am ersten betrifft, konnen eine unter 600 fi. Bruto-Einnahme fatirte Pfarrei dreimal, jedoch nicht Ofter, an einen der Ordnung nach folgenden tberlassen, und die Erledigung einer bessern erwarten; jene der zweiten oder folgenden Classen hingegen haben das Befugniss dieser Wahl nicht. (25 Die Candidaten der friiheren Concurse gehen jenen der spateren (26) Uebrigens hat es bei der Verordnung zu bewenden, dass die Weltpriester auf Sacularpfarreien, die ehemaligen Religiosen hingegen auf die Klosterpfarreien vorztiglich befoOrdert werden sollen; auch (28) Wiederholen Wir Unsere Entschliessung vom 14 Feb., 1803, wodurch die Resignationen der Pfarreien an ein bestimmtes Subject verboten sind....... (29) Alle Privatpatronen sind gehalten, alsobald nach dem ersten Concurse nur solche Geistliche zu prasentiren, welche gepriift, und in die Classification aufgenommen worden sind, jedoch sind sie nicht schuldig, der Classificationsordnung zu folgen...” Dollinger, op. ciz., vol. viii, pt. 1, p. 546, et seqg., “Die Concurse zur Besetzung der Pfarreien betr.,” 30 Dec., 1806. 1“ Wir haben beschlossen, unter den gegenwartigen Verhaltnissen die bei den inlandischen bischdflichen geistlichen Stellen wirklich dienenden \Rathe bei der Besetzung der Pfarreien und Beneficien Un- seren Landesdirections-Rathen gleich zu stellen, sohin sie von der angeordneten Concursprifen auszunehmen...” J/bid., vol. viii, pt. i, p. 569, “ Die Anstellung der bischoflichen Rathe auf Pfarreien betr.,” 27 Feb., 1808. 231] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 23 pastors the required number of years.t| An ordinance of 26 March, 1812, provided that all important Catholic preaching positions, particularly those in the great cities and those at shrines visited by pilgrims, were to be filled in the future on the basis of the results obtained from special examinations designed to discover special oratorical pow- ers.” By an ordinance of 5 May, 1813, the period of ser- vice required of candidates for promotion was reduced from ten to eight years.* Finally in 1815 the government an- nounced that holders of benefices could be transferred to benefices of the same class without undergoing examination if they otherwise met the requirements of the government. * The ordinance of 30 December, 1806, so Montgelas as- 1“ ..von nun an nur jene bisch6dflichen Consistorialrathe, welche in dieser Eigenschaft fiinf Jahre Dienste geleistet oder bereits die Normalzahl der Seelsorgejahre erfillt haben, an den Vortheilen Un- serer am Eingange angefuhrten Entschliessung Theil nehmen konnen.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. i, p. 569, “ Die Anstellung der bischo- flichen Rathe auf Pfarreien betr.,” 23 July, 1808. 27. Alle wichtigeren katholischen Predigerstellen, vornamlich in grossern Stadten, an vielbesuchten Wallfahrtsorten und dergleichen, sollen kiinftighin, wie diess in einigen Reichskreisen auch schon bisher geschehen ist, nach den Resultaten besonderer, d. i. von den allgemeinen Pfarramtskonkursen verschiedener, jedoch gleich diesen jederzeit of- fentlich auszuschreibender Predigtamts-Konkurse, als dem verlassigsten und Unserer Unter Gegenstanden gemischter Natur werden diejenigen verstanden, welche zwar geistlich sind, aber die Religion nicht wesent- 247 | 247 248 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [248 exercising the right of regulating matters of a mixed nature almost from the beginning of Maximilian Joseph’s reign. One of the first measures of this kind issued by the gov- ernment of Maximilian Joseph was the ordinance of 4 De- cember, 1801, concerning the secularized holidays. The purpose of the government in issuing this measure was to continue the policy which had been followed by the Bava- rian government between 1772 and 1786 in regard to super- fluous holidays and religious processions. The subjects of the elector were forbidden to celebrate the religious holi- days suppressed by the Bull of Clement XI'V issued in 1772. The ordinance of 22 August, 1786, which had had the prac- tical effect of reversing the policy followed by the govern- ment from 1772 to 1786, was repealed. The use of all out- ward signs and acts by which the suppressed holidays might lich betreffen, und zugleich irgend eine Beziehung auf den Staat und das weltliche Wohl der Einwohner desselbén haben. § 88. Dahin gehoéren: (a) alle Anordnungen tiber den aussern Gottesdienst, dessen Ort, Zeit, Zahl u. s. w. (b) Beschrankung oder Aufhebung der nicht zu den wesentlichen Theilen des Kultus gehorigen Feierlichkeiten, Processionen, Nebenan- dachten und Ceremonien; (c) Errichtung geistlicher Gesellschaften und sonstige Institute; (d) Geltibde; (e) organische Bestimmungen tiber geistliche Bildungs-, Verpflegs- und Straf-Anstalten; (f) Eintheilung der Didcesan-, Dekanat- und Pfarr-Sprengel; (g) alle Gegenstande der Gesundheits-Polizei, in so weit diese kirch- liche Anstalten mit berihren. § &. Bei diesen Gegenstanden dtirfen von der Kirchengewalt ohne Mitwirkung der weltlichen Obrigkeit keine einseitigen Anordnungen geschehen. §90. Der Staats-Gewalt steht die Befugnis zu, nicht nur von allen Anordnungen itiber diese Gegenstande Einsicht zu nehmen, sondern auch durch eigene Verordnungen dabei alles dasjenige zu hindern, was dem Offentlichen Wohle nachtheilig seyn konnte.” Regterungs- blatt, 14 Juni, 1809, p. 807, et seq., ‘“Edikt ttber die aussern Rechts- Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Ko6nigreichs Baiern...,” 24 Mar., 1809. 249 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 249 be recalled was likewise forbidden. In the list of forbidden signs and acts the ordinance included preliminary announce- ments of the suppressed holidays; the ringing of the eve- ning bell; all public divine services that were usually held on the evenings before the legal holidays; the ringing of bells; the decorating of the altars and churches; high masses ; masses celebrated at unusual times on work days; sermons; and all other devotional and church practices prescribed for holidays; the closing or not opening of stores, counting houses and workshops; and racing, dancing, playing and carousing in the taverns before six o’clock in the evening or engaging in other practices not usually indulged in on work days. The subjects of the state were expected, moreover, to employ themselves diligently at their occupations on the suppressed holidays. Every head of a family and master of apprentices or servants who failed to keep those under him at work on those days was to be fined for the benefit of the poor fund of his locality. The apprentices and servants, likewise, whether men or women, were to be punished as criminals if they offered opposition to the authorities. Be- ginning with the year 1803, furthermore, the names of the suppressed holidays were to be transferred to Sundays in all the calendars printed in the elector’s hereditary states. All Bavarian calendars printed in a manner contrary to the directions of the government were to be confiscated and de- stroyed. Calendars printed outside of the country in a manner contrary to the directions of the government were to be stopped at the frontiers by the custom officials, or in case they slipped into the country they were likewise to be confiscated and destroyed. In addition, the publishers, printers and distributers of such illegal calendars were to be punished in a manner suited to the circumstances of the case. All consecrations of churches, feast days of patrons, processions, pilgrimages and the so-called betrothal holidays 250 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [250 were to take place henceforth on Sundays and the legal holidays. In the future, moreover, no other “ cross- gangs’ or Rogation processions except those held on St. Mark’s Day and in Rogation Week were to be permitted. Other processions might be held on Sundays and other holi- days if the consent of the government was obtained. In localities where the local “ cross-gangs”’ kept the partici- pants out one or more nights, only one such procession a year was to be held, and the other “ cross-gangs ”’ of local origin were to be consolidated with the procession tolerated by the government. ‘“ Cross-gangs’”’ and Rogation proces- sions into foreign countries were absolutely forbidden. In exceptional cases, such as sickness, cattle plagues and long- continued wet or dry spells, the parish priests were to be permitted to unite with their parishes, in order to hold Roga- tion processions in the parish churches. The ordinance was to come into force at the beginning of 1802. The govern- ment expressed the hope, finally, that the subjects of the state would themselves see the general utility of the ordi- nance and would convince themselves that the government sought to lead them to diligence and to remove a cause for idleness. The parish priests, in addition, were ex- pected on every occasion to instruct the people through wisely selected talks concerning the true purpose of the government in suppressing the holidays and to lead them through their own convictions to give the proper obedience to the commands of the Church and the state.» The pur- a eso 'Verordnen Witt, oi. “ttens Dass die unter dem 22sten August 1786 tiber diesen Gegen- stand erlassene Verordnung hiemit ganzlich aufgehoben sey, und dagegen 2tens keiner der vom Pabst Klemens dem XIV. abgewiirdigten Feyertage mehr gehalten werden soll. Wir verbiethen daher 3tens sowohl in als ausser den Kirchen alle ausserliche Kennzeichen und Handlungen, wodurch das Andenken an diese abgeschaften Feyer- tage wieder erneuert werden kann. Unter die ersteren geh6ren die vorlaufige Verktindung des abgethanen 251] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 251 pose of the government in issuing the ordinance, according Feyertages, das Lauten des Feyerabendzeichens, das Feyerabendmachen, alle offentliche Gottesdienste, die an Vorabenden der Sonn- und noch bestehenden Feyertage iiblich sind. Feyerliches Gelaut und Zieren der Kirchen und Altare, Hochamter, Messen zu einer an Werktagen un- gewohnlichen Zeit, Predigten, ‘Christenlehren, und alle andere in Rucksicht ihrer Art und Zeit nur fiir Feyertage bestimmte Andachts- tibungen und Kirchhandlungen. Unter die zweite Gattung solcher Zeichen und Handlungen geh6ren: Schliessen oder nicht 6ffnen der Handlungsgewolbe und Komptoirs, der Laden und Werkstatte, das Rennen, Tanzen, und andere an Werktagen ungewodhnliche Unter- haltungen. Insbesondere verbiethen Wir das Spielen, und bestandige Zechen in den Wirthshausern vor der gewohnlichen Feyerabendstunde 6 Uhr Abends, gleichwie und 4tens Unsere Unterthanen durch die neuerdings abgeschafte Feyer- tage an Zeit und Gelegenheit zu Aeusserung ihres Gewerbfleisses gewinnen, so erwarten Wir von ihnen, dass sie solche zu ihren Berufs- arbeiten fleissig verwenden werden. Jeder zuwider handelnde Haus- vater, Handwerksmeister, und Dienstherr, welcher seine Untergebene oder Dienstbothen zur Arbeit an den abgewtirdigten Feyertagen nicht anhalten wtirde, soll ftir jeden Kontraventionsfall mit einem zum Armenfond eines jeden Orts, die Gesellen und Dienstbothen aber sowohl mannlichen als weiblichen Geschlechtes nach der Ehehalten- ordnung, und in Falle der Widersetzung gegen Obrigkeit nach Um- standen kriminal bestraft werden, Auch sollen 5tens vom dem Jahre 1803 angefangen in allen Kalendern, welche in Unsern obern Erbstaaten gedruckt werden, die Namen der abgewtirdigten Feyertage nach der an Unsere General-Landesdirek- tion erlassenen Weisung fiir immer auf die Sonntage versetzt ETUC. te ee Alle nach besagter Vorschrift nicht verfasste Kalender sollen, wenn sie im Lande gedruckt sind, nicht gestempelt, konfizirt und vernichtet; so fern sie aber vom Auslande kommen, an den Granzen von den Mautamtern zurtickgewiesen, oder wenn sie inner Landes erschienen, wie die inlandischen behandelt werden. Ueber diess soll gegen die Drucker, Verleger, und Verbreiter solcher verord- nungswidrigen Kalender nach Umstanden noch besondere angemessene Bestraffung eintreffen. 6tens Alle Kirchweihen, Patrozinienfeste, Kreuzgange, Wahlfahrten und Prozessionen, so wie die sogenannten verlobten Feyertage sollen kiinftig nunmehr an den Sonn- und gebothenen Festtagen statt haben. 7tens Gestatten Wir auch ftir die Zukunft keine andere allgemeine Kreuz- oder Bittgange mehr als die in der Verordnung vom r4ten 252 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [252 to the preamble, was to do away with a situation in which the artisans and servants went neither to church nor to work on the suppressed holidays. On the contrary, these classes gave themselves up to drinking, dancing and gambling, and were then easily led into every other dissipation; and in con- sequence of these practices the honor of God was not pro- moted, the true end of religious worship was defeated and Janer 1785...enthaltenen, und von der Kirche selbst am Markustage und in der Kreuzwoche angeordneten, welche von der im vorstehenden §. befohlenen Verlegung ausgenommen seyn sollen; alle ubrigen konnen an Sonn- und Feyertagen [gehalten seyn?] in so ferne sie eine beson- dere landesftrstliche Bewilligung fiir sich haben, dass hiedurch die pfarrlichen Verrichtungen, keinen Abbruch leiden. S8tens In Betreff jener Lokaikreuzgange, welche vermog eines be sondern Herkommens an ein bestimmtes Ort eingeftihrt sind, und wo es nothig ist, eine oder mehrere Nachte auszubleiben, verordnen Wir, dass jedem Orte jahrlich nur ein derlei Kreuzgang erlaubt sey, und die ubrigen etwa noch hergebrachten sich an diesen allein gestatten anschliessen sollen. gtens Bey ausserordentlichen Zufallen, z. 'B. allgemeinen Krankheiten, Viehfall, langer anhaltenden ‘Regen oder Trockene, soll kein Kreuzgang erlaubt seyn; jedoch sollen sich die Pfarrer mit ihren Gemeinden vereinigen, damit statt desselben Bethstunden in der ordentlichen Pfarrkirche jeden Orts am nachst zu erwahlenden gebothenen Feye- tage gehalten werden. totens Alle Bitt- und Kreuzgange in das Ausland verbiethen Wir hiemit ohne Unterschied ein- ftir allemal ganzlich. 12tens Die Verbindlichkeit dieser Unserer hdchsten Verordnung vom dem nachst eintrettenden neuen Jahren an beginnen..... und 13tens erwarten Wir von allen Unseren Unterthanen, dass sie all- gemein niitzliche Absicht gegenwartigen Verordnung von selbst ein- sehen, und sich iiberzeugen werden, dass Wir sie zur Arbeitsamkeit an- fithren, und die Veranlassung zum Muissiggange allenthalben zu ent- fernen suchen.” “Zugleich versehen Wir Uns zu den Seelsorgen, Predigern und Pfarren, dass sie das Volk durch kluggewahlte Vortrage bey jedem Anlasse ttber den wahren Zweck der Abwiirdigung der Feyertage belehren, und dasselbe aus eigner Ueberzeugung zu dem schuldigen Gehorsam gegen die Kirche und Uns ihrem Landesftirsten anleiten werden.” Regierungsblatt, 19 Dec., 1801, pp. 799-804, “ Verordnung: die abgewiirdigten Feyertage betr.,” 4 Dec., 1801. 253] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT aug the state was deprived of an extraordinary amount of labor.* The “useful effects” of the ordinance, however, very plainly stood first in the mind of the government. The main provisions of the ordinance of 4 December, 1801, were extended to the newly acquired territories in Swabia by an ordinance of 22 August, 1803.7, They must have been ex- tended, likewise, to the newly acquired territories in Fran- conia sometime between 1803 and 1807, as an ordinance of 5 July, 1807, complained of their non-observance in the province of Bamberg.’ The new policy of the government in regard to super- fluous holidays, processions, pilgrimages and annual fetes seems to have met with no popular approval, and in some places opposition reached the proportions of riots requir- ing military intervention for their suppression. The riot “Da nun bey dem bisherigen Zustande die Ehre Gottes, nicht befordert, wohl aber dem wahren Zwecke aller Religionsiibung entge- genhandelt, und dem Staate durch den Miissiggang eine ausserordent- liche Menge Arbeit entzogen wird, indem Handwerker und Dienst- bothen in Stadten und auf dem Lande an solchen Tagen weder zum Gottesdienste....noch zur Arbeit gehen, dagegen dem Trunke, dem Tanze, und dem Spiele nur desto freyer sich ergeben, und allen anderen Ausschweifungen sodann leichter fortgerissen werden, wodurch die Wohlthatig Absicht ganz vereitelt wird, von welcher sowohl der pabstliche Stuhl als Unser ‘Regierungsvorfahrer Churftirst Max. Joseph der Dritte bey Abgewtirdigung der Feyertage geleitet wurden, so verordnen Wir...... ” Regierungsblatt, 19 Dec., 1801, pp. 7099-804, “Verordnung: die abgewiirdigten Feyertage betr.,” 4 Dec., 1801. 2“ (1) ...jenes Mandat [4 Dec., 1801] auf Unsere ganze schwabische Provinz ausgedehnt und in derselben verkiindet werde...” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, pp. 1207-1208, “ Die Abgewurdi- gung der Feiertage, und die Bitt- und Kreuzgange in den Schwabischen Entschadigungslanden betr.,” 22 Aug., 1803. 3‘ Aus den erstatteten Anzeigen erhellet dass die bestehenden Verord- nungen, in Betreff der abgewiirdigten Feiertage, nicht allenthalben genau befolght werden; ....” Regierungsblatt, 27 Jun., 1807, pp. 1050-1052, “ Provinzial Verordnung: die abgewiirdigten Feiertage in der Provinz Bamberg betr.,” 5 Jun., 1807. 254 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [254 which occurred at Munich in June, 1802, was the most widely reported and apparently the most serious of these popular disturbances. The-civil congregation of Munich, according to Westenrieder, was in the habit of going on a pilgrimage to Mt. Andech every third year, on the Monday after Pentecost, and of returning the next day to the city.* In 1802, according to the official report issued by the goy- ernment, the congregation received permission to make its usual pilgrimage to the mountain after the congregation had agreed in writing to abandon the usual solemn entry into the city and to enter during the night because the fol- lowing Tuesday was a working day.” The clergy, the most highly respected burghers and the magistrat of the congre- gation, according to Westenrieder, observed the agreement to the letter and returned singly and for the most part late in the evening. A troop of the commoner citizens, however, with whom other persons of an inferior sort associated them- selves, wished to enter the city publicly by the Sendlinger gate.” At this point the returning pilgrims seem to have 1“Den 8 Juni am Pfingstdienstag ereignete sich wegen der Zurtick- kehr einer Wallfahrtsprocession ein merkwtirdiger Zufall. Die biirger- liche Congregation geht alle drey Jahre am Pfingstmontag nach dem Berg Andex wallfahrten, und kommt am Dienstag zuriick, und halt ihren feyerlichen Einzug.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 60. >“Die hiesige Buiirger-Kongregation erhielt die Erlaubniss, ihren Kreuzgang nach dem Berge Andechs am Pfingstmontage vornehm-n zu durfen, jedoch nach ihrem eigenen schriftlichen Erbieten, mit dem Anhange, dass sie den feyerlichen Riickzug am darauf folgenden Dienstage, als einem Werktage unterlassen, und die Rtickkehr im Stillen nehmen sollten, woriiber der churfiirstlichen Polizeydirektion zu wachen aufgetragen wurde.” Regierungsblatt, 7 July, 1802, p. 482, “ Die tumultuarischen Auftritte in der Pfingstwoche zu Munchen betr.,” 3 July, 1802. 3“ Die Geistlichkeit und die ansehnlichen Biirger, so wie der Con- gregationsmagistrat hielten sich genau an jene Erklarung, und kamen i 255] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 2: 5 Y ’ been met by the Director of Police, Baumgartner, who tried to dissuade them from carrying out their purpose, in the same manner that he had the people of a village on the pre- vious forenoon. But the mob pressed forward in the wild- est disorder, laid violent hands on the Director of Police. and then rushed on through the Sendlinger street toward the center of the city. On their way they seem to have rung the bell in the Church of St. John * and to have broken through a column of soldiers, with fixed bayonets, drawn up across the street. When they reached the main station of the Watch Westenrieder saw them from his window. While passing his house they filled the entire street, but a few houses farther along the street they began to go two and two. Before them they had a becowled cross-bearer accompanied by two citizens. They evidently passed Wes- tenrieder’s house nearly on the run. He estimated their number to be about three hundred. The appearance of a whole cuirassier regiment on the scene ° finally put an end einzeln, meist erst am spaten Abend, nach der Stadt; allein ein Trupp der gemeinsamen Biirger, wozu sich andere niedere Leute gesellten, wollte schlechterdinge 6ffentlich einziehen, und diese sammelten sich unter dem Sendlinger Thor,....” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 69. 1“ Wahrend die Kreuzganger sich hiezu anschickten .... eilte ihnen der Polizeydirektor entgegen, und glaubte sie durch Vorstellungen von ihrem straflichen Ungehorsame abzuhalten, da er das namliche bey einer Dorfsgemeinde den Vormittag zuvor bewirkt hatte. Ihr verwegener Taumel gieng aber so weit, dass sie im wildesten Ungestiime vordrangen, sich selbst an der obrigkeitlichen Person straflich vergriffen, und dem Zustromen von Volkshaufen, durch die herbeyeilenden Militarpatrouillen verschieden gestort, unordentlich durch die Strasse zogen, und sich der Glocken in der heiligen Johannes- kirche bemachtigen.” Regierungsblatt, 7 July, 1802, pp. 482-486, “ Die tumultuarischen Autfiritte in der Pfingstwoche betr.,” 3 July, 1802. 2“ Sie drangen weiter durch die Sendlinger Gasse (in der Johannes- kirche musste gelautet werden) bis zum Rufinithurm, wo sie eine Reihe Soldaten antraten, welche die Gasse sperrten, und den ankom- menden die Bayonette vorhielten. Die Menge drang durch, und 256 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [256 to the disturbance for the time being. The crowds which had assembled out of curiosity were dispersed and steps were taken to bring about the arrest of an ironmonger, Dietrich, who had been especially prominent in the attack on the police director, and of several other persons who had misconducted themselves.* Lines of infantry, stretching entirely across the streets, followed immediately by detachments of cavalry, passed through all the principal streets; the gates of the city were closed; and the patroling of the city continued throughout the night. At five o’clock the next morning Westenrieder found two companies of infantry and mounted orderlies in the square, but at one o'clock in the afternoon and at seven in the eve- ning he found no sign of them. The journeymen artisans, however, took advantage of the disturbance to demand the removal of various causes of complaint. In reply to the elector’s personal promise that the greatest possible consid- eration of their claims would be taken, they most irrever- ruckte in Massa bis zur Hauptwache, wo einige drohend voriibergiengen. Hier sah ich sie von meinen Fenster aus. ‘Sie waren noch in Massa und besetzten mithin die volle Gassen; doch einige Hauser herab fiengen sie wieder an zween und zween zu gehen. Voraus hatten sie einem bekutteten Kreuztrager, neben welchem zween Biirger gingen, .. . Im ganzen waren es ungefahr dreyhundert Kopfe. Sie rannten mehr als sie giengen .... Nach einigen Minuten kam schon Infanterie aus der Kaserne, und nach einer kleinen Viertelstund das ganze Kurrassierregiment von der Isarkaserne.” ‘Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 69. '“Die von allen Seiten eingetreffenden Militarkommando, welche mit bescheidenem Ernste die, grossentheils aus Neugierde versam- melten Volkshaufen zerstreuten, stellten aber bald die offentliche Ruhe in den Strassen wiederum her... der biirgerliche Stadtmagistrat [wurde] fiir die Arretirung des Eisenhandlers Dietrich, welcher sich bey der Misshandlung des Polizeydirektors vorziiglich auszeichnete, und der wtibrigen Verbrecher, welche Burger sind, verantwortlich gemacht.” Regierungsblatt, 7 July, 1802, pp. 482-486, “Die tumul- tuarischen Auftritte in der Pfingstwoche zu Miinchen betr.,” 3 July, 1802. 257] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT Pade ently demanded that the matter be put in writing on the spot, and spent the day in their meeting places instead of at work. In the evening Westenrieder passed the entire length of the Sendlinger street where the assembly halls of the journey- men were and found all in movement. Numerous strong patrols of foot and horse traversed the long street contin- uously. The gates were open during the day, however. Be- fore night it was announced by trumpet that the journey- men who failed to work on the following day were to be handled by the military. On the morning of the next day Westenrieder found only the orderlies posted in the square at five o’clock. Shortly after six o’clock some in- fantry and the whole cuirassier regiment arrived at the square, and about seven o’clock the patroling of the city began again. Two companies of infantry and two squad- rons of cavalry searched all the lodging houses along the Kaufinger street and such journeymen as were found were taken first to the town hall and then to the riding school. Later in the morning two cannon were brought before each gate of the city and three were placed in front of the Schwa- binger door of the riding school. At eleven o’clock it was announced by trumpet that the government was forced to adopt military measures since the journeymen would not give in; and everyone was ordered to betake himself home in order to avoid injury. The patrols then continued to pass through the streets and to make arrests. The arrested per- sons were taken to the riding school.t They numbered in 1“ Sie [Infanterie aus der Kaserne, und...das ganze Kiirrassier regiment] postirten sich auf dem Plaz, und theilten sich augenblicklich gegen alle Hauptgassen. Voraus gieng eine die ganze Gassenbreite ausfiillende Linie der Infanterie, hinter welcher unmittelbar und so nahe an der Linie als moglich, die Kavalrie kam. Im kurzen Pausen zogen unaufhérlich starke Patroulen voriiber. So wahrte es die ganze Nacht .. . Die Thore waren geschlossen. Den 9. Juni. Als ich den andern Tag um 5 Uhr frith tiber den Plaz 258 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [258 all, according to the official account of the trouble, one hundred and sixty-seven. Of this number, one hundred and fourteen were sent to work, four were confined until evening, two were forcibly sent to the army, one was gieng, standen noch die paar Compagnien Infanterie und die Reiter- ordnanzen auf den Plaze. Als ich aber nach 1 Uhr Mittag und nach 7 Uhr Abends wieder voriiber gieng, war schon alles wieder besetzt. Heute mischten sich namlich die Handwerksbursche in die Sache, und sie wollten bey dieser Gelegenheit verschiedene Beschwerden abgethan wissen. Der Churfirst kam selbst auf die Hauptwache, und sah der Sache zu. Man versprach den Burschen, dass auf ihre Forderung die nur moglichst ersinnliche i Rucksicht genommen werden wiirde; allein das befriedigte sie gar nichts; sie wollten auf der Stelle alles schrift- lich haben. Sie arbeiten nichts, sondern waren auf der Herberge. Ich gieng Abends durch die ganze Sendlinger Gasse, wo die meisten Herbergen sind, und fand alles in einer diistern Bewegung. Viele starke Patroulen zu Pferd und zu Fuss durchkreuzten unaufhorlich die lange Gasse..... Heute waren die Thore gedffnet, aber tiberall standen Reiterwachen...... Vor Nacht wurde mittels Trompetenschall ausgerufen, dass man den folgenden Tag jene Handwerksbursche, welche nicht arbeiten und sich auf der Herberge wiirden antreffen lassen, militarisch behandlen werde. Den 10. Juni. Als ich nach fiinf Uhr iiber den Plaz gieng, sah ich noch die Ordnanzen zu Pferd und zu Fuss stehen. Um sechs riickte Infanterie und bald darauf das ganze Kutirrassierregiment wieder nach dem Hauptplaz. Um sieben Uhr fieng man an mit dem Umritt der grossen Patroulen. Durch die Kaufinger Gasse zogen zwey Com- pagnien Infanterie, und hinter jeder derselben ein Schwadron Kavalerie. Diese durchsuchten alle Gasthauser, und nahmen die Handwerks- bursche, wo sie einige fanden, mit sich fort, und brachten sie erst auf das Rathhaus, dann nach der Reitschule...... Vor alle Thore wurden 2 Kanonen, und nach dem Schwabinger Thor der Reitschule zu drey gebracht. Um 11 Uhr wurde bey Trommelschlag ausgerufen, “dass man, nachdem die hiesige Handwerksbursche sich nicht figen wollen, genothiget sey, militarische Gewalt eintretten zu lassen. Jederman mochte demnach also gleich sich nach Hause begeben, um in keinen Schaden zu kommen..... Die grossen Patroulen ritten unaufhorlich durch die Gassen, durch die Au und das Lehel, und brachten immerzu Arrestanten ziemlich viele miteinander .... Man fihrte die Hand- werksbursche nach der Reitschule . . . ” Westenrieder, op. cit., pp. 70-71. 259] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 259 handed over to the police, ten were left in military im- prisonment, two were put in the city prison, and thirty-four foreigners were sent to their lodging houses. On the twelfth of June two of the especially guilty were publicly punished with twenty-five lashes.‘ Westenrieder felt that the impor- tance of the affair had been exaggerated and that the gov- ernment had failed to show a spirit of moderation.’ A very similar disturbance seems to have occurred earlier in the year at Straubing. The artisans at Straubing, accord- ing to a dispatch in the Journal des Débats, refused to work on Easter Tuesday and were imprisoned in consequence. The people then rose to obtain their release and light cav- alry to the number of one hundred and fifty were dispatched by the government to suppress the riot.* According to a 1“Den triten Junius morgens verfugten sich auf churfiirstlichen hochsten Befehl der Stadtkommandant, Polizeydirecktor und Stade oberrichter in die Reitschule, wo sie iiber die vorhandenen 167 Arres- tanten Kopf fiir Kopf Verhor vornahmen, und hievon (a) 114 zur Arbeit entliessen, (b) 4 bis zum Abend im Strafarreste behielten, (c) 2 zum Soldatenstande abgaben, (d) 1 der Polizey tberliefterten, (e) ro in das Militarbefangniss liessen, (f) 2 in das stadtische Gefangniss tibergaben, (g) und 34 fremde Handwerksbursche auf die Herbergen verwiesen. Den 12ten Junius Vormittags wurden 8 vorztiglich Schuldige aus dem Arrest vor die Hauptwache zur Offentlichen Bestraffung gebracht, diese aber nur an zweyen mit 25 Stockprtigeln vollzogen, und die tbrigen wiederum in den Strafarrest zurtickgefthrt.” Regierungsblatt, 7 July, 1802, pp. 482-486, “ Die tumultuarischen Auftritte in der Pfingstwoche zu Miinchen betr.,” 3 July, 1802. 2“ Die Sache war im Grund des Larmens nicht werth und verrath keinen Geist der Massigung.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 71. “Tl y a eu a ce sujet des mouvements a Straubingen; les ouvriers ayant refusé de travailler le mardi de Paques, furent mis en Prison; le peuple s’est ameuté pour obtenir leur déliverance, et il a fallu envoyer dans las ville 150 chevaux legers bavaro-palatins, pour comprimer la sédition. Il paroit que depuis les troubles ont recommencé, et Il’on 260 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [260 later dispatch in the same journal, four of the offending citizens were exposed in the pillory, one was condemned to six years of imprisonment, several of the journeymen were publicly beaten and several others were turned over to the army as recruits.’ | In describing the disturbance at Munich, Bredow’s Chromk des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts asserted that the disturbance in the country districts was more general still. The people, unwilling to be deprived of their holidays and pilgrimages, broke into the churches, rang the bells, held aloft the procession banners, and marched through the coun- try with cudgels in one hand and rosaries in the other, * The disturbances at Aibling and the monastery of Baum- berg were sufficiently serious to cause commissions to be sent to those places by the government.” Illegal processions assure que le 2 de ce mois, les portes de Straubingen étoient encore fermées.” Journal des Débats, 25 Floreal, an. 10, dispatch dated, “ Stuttgart, 7 May.” Cf. also, ibid., 29 Floreal, an. 10, dispatch dated, “Augsburg, 6 May.” 1“Vélecteur de Bavicre a fait punir plusiers des insurgés de Straub- ings, qui s’étoient opiniatrés a feter le mardi de Paques malgré son ordonnance. Quatre bourgeois de cette ville ont été exposé au pilori: lun d’entr’eux a été condamné a une detention de six ans dans une maison de correction, plusiers compagnons ouvriers ont été batonnés publiquement, d’autres ont été livrés aux troupes.” Jbid., 5 Prairial, an, 10, dispatch dated, “ Stuttgard, 14 May.” 4“Allgemeiner noch war die Gahrung auf dem Lande; man wollte sich die Feiertage und Wallfahrten nicht nehmen lassen, erbracht die Kirchen, lautete, holte die Prozessions Fahnens heraus, und durchzog das Land mit Prtigeln in der einen und Rosenkranzen in der andern Hand...” G. G. Bredow, Chronik des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderis, i, 414. 3“ Genehmigen Wir zwar das Gutachten Unserer General-Landes- direction, dass zu Untersuchung des auffallenden Vorfalles zu Aibling und der wahren Veranlassung desselben eine Commission abgeordnet werden... . Auf dieselbe Art ist auch eine Commission zur Unter- suchung des Vorganges zu Kloster Baumburg abzuschicken.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. 2, pp. 1201-1203, “ Die Befolgung der Verordnung iiber die abgewiirdigte Feiertage betr.,” 26 Jun., 1802. 261] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 264 seem to have been held in 1802, likewise, in the district of Miesbach and in the parish of Sorching in August, in the parish of Pfaffenhofen in September, and in the parishes of Aying and Bachern in October. At Vilshofen the popu- lace seems to have been on the point of stoning a priest who ventured to encourage them to work on the suppressed holidays.” The following year, evidently, witnessed similar popular demonstrations against the policy of the government in re- gard to holidays and processions. On August 8th the Land- vrichter of Dachau, Rosenheim, Traunstein, Neumarkt, Din- golfing, Erding, Friedberg, Kling, Zwiesel, Krayburg and Landberg were instructed to call on the garrisons at Mun- ich, Landshut and Straubingen for military aid against popular uprisings. The ordinance was evidently the answer of the government to disturbances which had already taken place. In the spring the government had found it necessary to send a whole company of infantry to the parishes of Reith im Winkel and Rupolding in the Landgericht of Traun- stein.” In July an illegal procession had been held in the 1“Auf die Berichte Unserer Bayerische Landesdirection vom 6. August 1802 wegen eigenmachtigen Kreuzgaingen im Gerichte Miesbach- vom 25 August 1802 wegen dem Kreuzgang der Gemeinde Sorching, Landgerichte Pfatter- vom 6 September wegen der Gemeinde Pfaffen- hofen, vom 4 October wegen der Gemeinde Aying Landgerichts Aibling- vom 11 October wegen der Gemeinde Bachern- dann vom 21 Juli 1803 wegen den von einigen Unterthanen im Landgerichte Erding eigen- machtige unternommenen Kreuzgangen, bedeuten Wir....” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. viii, pt. 2, p. 1227, “Die von einigen Gemeinden eigen- machtig unternommenen Kreuzgange btr.,” 23 Jan., 1804. 2“ .vor ein paar Jahren wollte man den Prediger steinigen, der es zuerst wagte, die hiesige Biirgergemeinde, zur willigen befolgung der bestgemeynten churfiirstl Verorodnung, ‘An den abgewutrdigten Feiertagen zu arbeiten’, aufzumuntern.” Churbaierische Intelligenz- blatt, 11 Feb., 1804, p. 108, “Auszug eines Briefes von Vilshofen.” 3“°So hat bereits im Frihlinge dieses Jahre eine unmittelbare Kom- mission die Gemeinden der Reith im Winkel, und Rupolding im 262 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [262 Landgericht of Erding.* In the ordinance of August 8th, finally, forty-five parishes were accused by the government of defying its orders concerning the superfluous holidays.’ The government evidently found the passive resistance of the people to its policy even harder to deal with than the open rioting. This form of resistance seems to have mani- fested itself immediately after the ordinance of 4 December, 1801, was issued. A government proclamation of 22 Jan- uary, 1802, ordered the local authorities to enforce the pro- visions of the ordinance of 4 December, 1801, against those who had celebrated the feast of St. Sebastian on January gegenwartigen Landgerichte Traunstein, (unterstiizt von einer vollen Kompagnie des Infanterie-Regiments Herzog Pius) zur Ordnung, und Erkenntniss der hohen Absichten der Regierung zurtickgefiihrt; und nach den namlichen Grundsatzen haben die Landrichter zu Dachau, Rosenheim, Traunstein, Neumarkt, Dingolfing, Erding, Friedberg, Kling, Zwiesel, Krayburg und Landsberg ... auf Verlangen unterzeichneter Landesstelle in gleich respektabler Zahl abmarchirenden Militar nach benannten Kirchspiels-Gemeinden zur Exekution einzulegen, welche heur mehrmal in wilden Horden ausgezogen sind, um den Gesetzen zu trotzen, und der Religion einen eben darum von ihr verabscheuten Dienst zu _ leisten.” Regierungsblatt, 14 Sept., 1803, pp. 715-717, “ Bekanntmachung: die Exekution wegen eigenmachtigen Kreuzgangen betr.,” 30 Aug., 1803. 1 Dollinger, op. cit., bd. 8, th. 2, p. 1227, ‘ Die von einigen Gemeinden eigenmachtige unternommenen Kreuzgangen betr.,” 23 Jan. 1804 Cf. note 19. *“ Diese, durch Unwissenheit und Aberglauben, grossentheils aber durch Verwilderung, und unsinnigen Hang zur Ziigellosigkeit strafbar gewordene Gemeinden sind: Taufkirchen, Schwindeck, Thirnthenning, Ottering, Dassingen, Bogtareith, Greissstadt, Mamming, Bischofmaiss, Truchtlaching, Bienberg, Kirchberg, Wolfgang, Feldkirchen, Langen- preysing, Buch am Erlbach, Vilsheim, Kapfing, Kemeten, Eibach, Zehl, Altenburg, Reicherstorf, Friedling, Langevils, Grandhausen, Miinchs- dorf, Unterbachhammer, Oberbachhammer, Sigersdorf, Ernstorf, Tacherstorf, Gesensstorf, Froschham, Oberfroschham, Kostlbach, Zweykirchen, Hofkirchen, Flossing, Adelshofen, Nassenhausen, Kiem- ing, Oberrott, Niedering und Stephanskirchen.” Regierungsblatt, 14 Sept., 1803, pp. 715-717, “ Bekanntmachung: die Execution wegen eigenmachtigen Kreuzgangen betr.,’ 30 Aug., 1803. 263 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 263 2oth in defiance of the orders of the government. Those who had amused themselves in the taverns on that day, with music and dancing, before six o’clock in the evening, were to be summarily dealt with; and notices were to be for- warded to the government concerning the ecclesiastical per- sons and corporations that had overstepped the government’s orders in any way in regard to services of the church. The government was to be notified, likewise, concerning those who had exerted themselves to instruct and urge the people to obey the laws.* A decree of 30 October, 1803, even accused the inhabitants of the state of introducing new holidays and processions. The festivals in honor of local and diocesan saints seem to have made the government con- siderable trouble also.” The feasts of St. Benno, St. Kor- 1“Allen churftirstlichen und landstandischen Gerichtsbehorden, dann burgerlichen Magistraten gehen hiemit gnadigste Befehl zu: (1) Den vierten Paragraph der hodchsten Verordnung vom Aten Dezember 1801 wegen der abgewiurdigten Feyertage ...im Bezug auf das, gleich anderen verlegte Sebastienfest zu vollziehen, ...... (2) diejenigen zu bestrafen, welche dasselbe am 20sten diesem Tage in Wirthshausern mit Musik und Tanz, dann vor dem Eintritte der Abendstunde mit Spiel und Zechen sich belustiget, oder als Wirthe daran Antheil genommen haben. (3) Die Bestraften sind mit Bestimmung des Standes summarisch, hingegen diejenigen geistlichen Personen und Corpora namentlich anzuzeigen, welche das Verboth riicksichtlich des Gottesdienstes auf irgend eine Weise tibertretten, oder in Gegentheile (5) neben Beobachtung des Gesetzes auch das Volk hiertiber zu belehren und zum Gehorsame zu bewegen, sich beeifert haben.” Regierungsblatt, 3 Feb., 1802, pp. 75-76, “Auftrag: die abgewtirdigten Feyertage betr.,” 22 Jan., 1802. 2“ Nicht zufrieden die von der Kirche abgewiirdigten Feiertage offentlich und hartnackig unter dem Scheine einer rechtglaubigen Frommigkeit beibehalten zu haben, erlaubten sich viele auch ihre Mitbiirger, an allen Arbeit, an diesen Tagen zu hindern, neue Feier- tage und Bittgange neben den alten einzufiihren, und dem achten Sinne jener niitzlichen Verfiigungen gerade entgegen zu handeln.” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. viii, pt. 2, pp. 1208-1212, “Die abgewiirdigten Feiertage und Kreuzgange betr.,” 30 Oct., 1803. 264 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [264 binian and St. Willibad were mentioned particularly in the ordinance of 23 October, 1806,* and those of St. Ulrich and St. Afra in the decree of 26 July, 1805.2. The feast of St. Korbinian seems to have been celebrated as late as 1805, even at Munich.* The government’s prohibition against the celebration of these feasts was extended to all parts of the kingdom, and particularly to Franconia, by the ordinance of 11 July, 1807.* The celebration of these feasts evidently already had been forbidden in Franconia, as the govern- ment had complained in May that the priests of Bamberg were celebrating high masses and masses at unusual hours 1“ Die Festtage der sogenannten Land- und Bisthums-Patronen, z. B. das Fest. des heil. Benno, Korbinian, Willibad u.s. w...... gehoren unter die abgewirdigten Feyertage.” “Die Art, wie die Patrozinien und Kirchweihfeste .... gefeyert werden sollen, ist . . . so deutlich und bestimmt vorgezeichnet, dass sich weder der Geist, noch die Absicht dieser . . .. Verfiigungen verkennen lasst.” . “Da sich indessen mehrer Beamten, Pfarrer und Gemeinden ver- schiedene Erlauterungen willktirlich erlauben, welche dem Zwecke und dem Buchstaben der landesherrlichen Vorschriften auf keine Art angemessen sind; so sieht man sich veranlasst, ... zu verordnen 5 Wil Rape ” Regierungsblatt, 5 Nov., 1806, pp. 402-403, “ Verordnung: die Patrozinien und Kirchweihfeste betr.,” 23 Oct., 1806. 2“ Mehrere Pfarrer und Gemeinden haben den Zweifel geaussert, ob die Feste des heiligen Bischofs Ulrich, und der heiligen Mart. Afra, welche bisher in dem Bisthum Augsburg am 4ten July und am 7ten August jahrlich gefeyert zu werden pflegen, unter die abgewiirdigten Feyertage zu zahlen seyen.” Regierungsblatt, 31 July, 1805, p. 815, “ Die abgewiirdigten Feyertage betr.,” 26 July, 1805. 3“Ten 20. Oct. [1806] Corbinian. Heute durfte das Corbinianfest zum ersten mal nicht mehr gefeyert werden.” Westenrieder, Denk- wiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 82. 4“ Wir wollen daher die von Unserer Landesdirektion in Baiern unter 23 Oktober, 1806... . bekannt gemachte Provinzial-Verordnung Oem auf Unsere samtliche Staaten erstrecket wissen; wonach also die Patrozinien der Didzesan-Patronen allenthalben auf den nachsten Sonntag verlegt werden sollen.” Regierungsblatt, 25 July, 1807, p. 1171, “Verordnung: die Festtage der Diozesan-Patronen betr.,” 11 July, 1807. 265 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 265 on the forbidden holidays in defiance of the government’s orders.” The difficulties experienced by the government in en- forcing its religious policy are well illustrated by its efforts to enforce the provision of the ordinance of 4 December, 1801, concerning the printing of the suppressed holidays in black, instead of red letters, as formerly. In the decree of 14 December, 1801, the local officials of the government were instructed to call the printers of calendars before them, and point out to them the sections concerning the printing of the calendars.” In February, 1803, all officials of the government were ordered to seize the calendars for 1803 which had the suppressed holidays marked with red and to send them to the government. They were likewise to give the parish priests to understand that they were not to receive such illegal calendars in the future, and much less display them.* In the decree of 14 March, 1804, the Landesdirec- 1“ Aus den erstatteten Anzeigen erhellet, dass die bestehenden Verordnungen, in Betreff der abgewiirdigten Feiertage, nicht allen- thalben genau befolgt werden; dass sich die Pfarrer und Gemeinden eigenmachtige Abanderungen hierin erlauben, und erstere an diesen Tagen solemne Hochamter oder sonst feierlichen Gottesdienst, oder wenigst die Messe zu einer anderen als der an Werktagen gewohnlichen Zeit und zwar hauptsachlich zu jener, in welcher sonst an Sonn- und Festtagen der Gottesdienst gepflogen wird, halten.” Regierungsblatt, 27 Jun., 1807, pp. 1050-1052, ‘‘ Provinzial-Verordnung: die abgewiirdigten Feiertage in der Provinz Bamberg betr.,’ 5 Jun., 1807. 2“ Sind die Buchrucker an Orten, wo sie sich mit dem Privilegio Kalendar drucken zu darfen, befinden, ohngesaumt vorzurufen, und selben die Stellen aus der Verordnung wegen kiinftiger Einrichtung der Kalendar fiir das Jahr 1803 wohl begreiflich vorzuhalten, sohin ein von ihnen wegen vorgegangener dieser Publikation zu unterschreiben kom- mendes Amtsprotokoll forderlich anher einzusenden.” Regierungsblatt, 19 Dec., 1801, pp. 805-806. 8“Es sind bischofliche Vikariats-Kalendar fiir gegenwartiges Jahr zum Vorscheine gekommen, worinn der héchstlandesherrlichen Verord- 266 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [266 ition of Upper and Lower Bavaria ordered the police to re- port twice a year on the calendars seized by them.* In the decree of 21 December, 1807, the police in the provinces of Bavaria and Swabia were ordered to confiscate the illegal calendars published by the printer Roesl in Augsburg.’ After this date the government seems to have given up the struggle. The government began to modify its policy in regard to the forbidden holidays early in 1802. By an ordinance of 21 May, 1802, the Rogation processions formerly held on Show Friday were transferred to Whitmonday.* Then by nung zuwider, die abgewiirdigten Feyertage noch an ihren alten Stellen, und mit rothen Farben ausgezeichnet sind. Alle Behorden werden hiemit befehligt, diese Kalender . . . hinweg- mehmen zu lassen, und die in den Pfarrhdfen befindlichen von den Pfarrern abzuverlangen. ... Zugleich wird befohlen, den Pfarrern auf dem gewohnlichen Wege . zu insinuiren, dass sie derley normalwidrige Kalender, bey person- licher Haftung kiinftig weder mehr annehmen, noch viel weniger in Pfarrhoffen und iSakristeyen affigiren.” Regierungsblatt, 16 Feb., 1803, p. 89, “ Verordnung: die bischoflichen Vikariats-Kalendar betr.,” 1 Feb., 1803. 1“ Zugleich erhalten sie hiemit den Befehl, sich halbjahrig hieher zu legitimiren, wie sie ihre Aufsicht tiber diesen wichtigen Zweig der Polizey gepflogen, welche schadliche Volksschriften, Bilder, Lieder, Kalender sie vorgefunden, und in Beschlag genommen haben, und welche bessere Schriften im Gegentheile zum Vorschein gekommen?” Regierungsblait, 21 Mar., 1804, p. 271, “ Auftrag: die Biichertrodler auf dem Lande betr.,” 14 Mar., 1804. *“Man macht hiemit samtliche Polizei-Behorden auf die von dem Buchdrucker Ros] in Augsburg fiir das Jahr 1808 ausgegebenen verord- nungswidrigen Schreib- und Taschenkalender aufmerksam, ... so ergehet auch die ... Behorden in Baiern die Weisung, diese Kalender .. zu konfisziren, und hieher einzusenden.” Regierungsblatt, 6 Jan., 1808, pp. 116-117, “ Auftrag an samtl. Polizei-Behdérden in Baiern: die von dem Buchdrucker Rosl in Augsburg ausgegebenen Kalender betr.,” 21 Dec., 1807. 3 Regierungsblatt, 26 May, 1802, pp. 383-384, ‘“ Den vom Schauerfreytag auf den Pfingstmontag verlegten Bittgang betr.,” 21 May, 1802. 267 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 267 an ordinance of 26 June, 1802, the officials of the govern- ment were secretly instructed to give up the attempt to col- lect a fine of one florin from the fathers of families and masters of artisans and servants who failed to keep their subordinates at work on the suppressed holidays. The provision was not formally annulled, however. The fine was to be collected, on the other hand, from persons who made use of the forbidden signs on the suppressed holidays, from those who interfered with the work of others on those days, and from servants who were reported by their masters for refusing to work on the suppressed holidays. For the time being, also, the celebration of the feast of the principal patron saint of each place was to be permitted. Processions from foreign countries, however, were forbidden. The par- ishes were to be warned, moreover, that the whole parish would be held responsible and punished by a military execu- tion if processions with flags, crosses and sticks were held in defiance of the orders of the government.* By an ordi- 1“ Wir haben... gnadigst zu beschliessen geruht: (1) dass die... Strafe von 1 fl. flr jeden Hausvater, Handwerks- meister oder Dienstherrn, welcher seine Untergebenen oder Dienstboten zur Arbeit an den abgewiirdigten Feiertagen nicht anhalten wtirde, zwar nicht formlich aufgehoben, dagegen aber allen Beamten und Orts- obrigkeiten durch eine besondere Weisung bedeutet werden solle, solche nur bei jenen auszuwenden und in austibung zu bringen, (a) welche die ausserlichen Zeichen eines Festtages an einem abgewtirdigten Feier- tage beibehalten, (b) oder an solchen Tagen andere in ihrer Arbeit storen, und (c) gegen diejenigen Dienstboten, die sich den Befehl ihres Dienstherrn nicht zur Arbeit fiigen, und von letzteren angezeigt werden. (3) In Betreff der Patrocinienfeste .... wollen Wir einstweilen gestatten, dass die Patrocinien (des Hauptpatrons eines jeden Ortes) als blosse Kigchenfeste gefeiert werden diirfen ... so soll (4) sammtlichen Gemeinden von ihren Obrigkeiten und Pfarrern bekannt gemacht werden, dass, wenn sie gegen das landesfiirstliche Gebote an unerlaubten Tagen mit Fahnen, Kreuzen, Stangen oder sonst in Vereinigung zu einem Bittgange ausziehen wiirden, die ganze Ge- 268 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [268 nance of 27 July the public celebration of the annual fétes of the Church in the chapels of private houses was forbid- den.*. By an ordinance of 30 October, 1803, a procession on Corpus Christi Day was added to the number of regular “ cross-gangs ”’ tolerated by the government.” By an ordi- nance of 23 October, 1806, the celebration of the annual fete in all churches and chapels except the main church of a parish was forbidden,* but in the following year the pro- hibition of the government was modified in such a way as to permit subordinate churches, which had their own ser- vices throughout the year, to celebrate the annual fétes in their own churches.* meinde dafiir verantwortlich sein, und mit militarischer Execution belegt werden wurde. (5) Auch wollen Wir in Zukunft den Eintritt auslandischer Kreuz- gange in Unsere Lande nicht mehr gestatten .. .”’ Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1201 et seq., ““ Die Verfolgung der Verordnung uber die abgewtirdigten Feiertage betr.,” 26 Jun., 1802. , 1“Tiesem fiir die Zukunft zu begegnen, wird die Offentliche Bege- hung des Kirchweihfestes in einer Hauskapelle, und alle im Eingange angefiihrten Zeichen, dadurch die Feyer dem Volke bekannt gemacht wird, ... hiemit fiir immer untersagt ...”’ Regterungsblatt, 13 July, 1803, pp. 465-466, “ Verordnung: die 6ffentliche Feyer des Kirchweih- festes in den Hauskapellen betr.,” 7 July, 1803. 2“ (10) Auch werden in Zukunft keine anderen allgemeinen Proces- sionen, Kreuz- und Bittgange mehr gestattet, als jene, welche in der ganzen katholischen Kirche am hohen Fronleichnamsfeste, am Feste des heil. Marcus, dann am Montage, Dienstage und Mitwoch in der Kreuzwoche eingefiihrt und erlaubt sind... .” Dd6llinger, op. ctt., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1208-1212, “Die abgewiirdigten Feiertage und Kreuzgange betr.,” 30 Oct., 1803. 3“ (7) Die Kirchweihfeste der Filialen Nebenkirchen und Kapellen hingegen werden hiemit ohne Ausnahme aufgehoben, und verbothen.” Regierungsblatt, 5 Nov., 1806, pp. 402-403, “ Verordnung: die Patro- zinien und Kirchweihfeste betr.,” 23 Oct., 1806. 4“QObschon die am Oktober vorigen Jahres tiber Kirchweihen erlassene General-Verordnung die eigene derlei Feste in Filial-Kirchen unter- sagt, so sind doch solche Filiale davon ausgenommen, welche das ganze Jahr hindurch ihre eigene Gottesdienste haben... .” Regierungsblatt, 269] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 269 In 1803 the government,adopted the expedient of moder- ating, to some extent, the taxes of those observing the in- junctions of the government in regard to the suppressed holidays. By an order dated 19 April, 1803, the subordi- nate officials of the government were instructed to give no subject any consideration in the matter of taxes unless he had worked on the Church holidays which had been de- clared illegal by the government.* Another expedient of the government was the judicious use of punishment and praise among the clergy. Those who opposed the policy of the government in regard to the suppressed holidays were punished and those who supported the government were praised. Philip Sperber, chaplain at Eching, was found by the government to be lacking in the qualities of a teacher of the people, on account of remarks made by him at a chapel at Ast on Candlemas Day in the year 1802 and was condemned, in consequence, to confine- ment at Dorfin for an indefinite period.” At the close of 10 ‘Oct., 1807, p. 1550, ‘‘ Bekanntmachung: die Kirchweihfeste in den Filialkirchen betr.,” 23 Sept., 1807, Kon.-Landes-Direktion in Neuburg. “Allen Expositur, welche ihre eigenen Seelsorger, und das ganze Jahr hindurch Gottesdienst haben, ist die Feier des Kirchweihfestes zugleich mit der Mutterkirche am dritten Sonntag im Oktober gestattet. ...? Regierungsblatt, 14 Nov., 1807, p. 1694, “ Verordnung: die Kirch- weihen der Filialen betr.,” 31 Oct., 1807. 1“ F's ergehet demnach an alle Churfirstlichen und standischen Be- hérden der ernstliche Befehl, von nun an keinen Unterthanen in irgend einen Nachlass-Libelle gutachtlich vorzutragen, er hatte denn vorher genugsam bewiesen, dass er alle jene Monatstage an welchen vorhin die abgewiirdigten und verlegten Feste der Heiligen gefeiert worden, zur Arbeit angewendet haben. Nur diese, welche bei allem Fleisse, der in ihren Kraften stand, un- fahig erfunden werden, ohne Nachlass ihre Staatsabgaben zu bestreiten und ihre Wirthschaft fortzuftihren, sind solcher Riicksicht wiirdig, und werden in der Nachlass-Tabelle, . . . gutachtlich vorgetragen.” Ddl- linger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1205, ‘Die noch immer gefeierten Fest- tage, und deshalb gesperrte Nachlass-Begutachtung betr.,” 19 Apr., 1803. 2 Am Lichtmesstage dieses Jahrs hat sich der Kaplan von Eching, 270 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [270 1802 the government commented favorably on the efforts of several members of the clergy in behalf of the govern- ment’s religious policy. Joseph Rauschmair, parish priest at Feldnoching near Dachau, won a place on the govern- ment’s roll of honor by preaching on Candlemas Day on the text, “Who opposes authority opposes God’s ordinance.” Franz Sales Nutzinger, parish priest at Rhain, was included in the government’s list because he had zealously defended the ordinance of 4 December, 1801, on religious, moral and economic grounds and had demonstrated so undeniably the beneficial effects of the measure. Prosper Dallinger, preacher of the Augustinians at Ingolstadt, and Franz Markus were likewise designated by the government: the first for a useful and informing talk to the Sebastian brotherhood; the second for a chancel talk on St. Xaverius day. The beneficed clergy were warned at the same time that those who opposed the ordinance of the government would be punished. The unbeneficed clergy, furthermore, were warned that opposition to the policy of the govern- ment would entail the loss of their chances for appointment to benefices.* der Hofmarkt Kronwinkel, gegenwartiger Provisor zu Reichenkirchen, Landgerichts Erding, Priester Philip Sperber, unterfangen, in der Filial- kirche zu Ast eine Predigt zu halten, in der er iiber die landesherr- lichen Verordnungen ritcksichtlich der abgewiirdigten Feyertage, und gegen einen Theil der Geistlichkeit auf eine strafbare Art loszog..... Die churfirstliche General-landes-direktion, aus den Untersuchungs- akten, und selbst aus der eigenen Verantwortung des genannten Pries- ters uberzeugt, dass derselbe die Eigenschaften eines Volkslehrers nicht besitze, hat einstimmig mit dem geistlichen Rathe beschlossen, denselben in das Priesterhaus nach Dorfin auf eine unbestimmte Zeit einzuweisen. ...” Regierungsblatt, 28 Apr., 1802, pp. 306-300, “ Die abgewurdigten Feyertage betr.,” 14 Apr., 1802. *“ Priester Joseph Rauschmair, Pfarrer zu Feldnoching, Landgerichte Dachau, hielt am Lichtmesstage in seiner Pfarrkirche eine Kanzelrede, welche ganz der Fassungskraft seiner Zuhorer, und den vorliegenden Umstanden angepasst war. Er nahm von dem Gegenstande des Festes 272) THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 2At In spite of the government’s threats, modifications of policy, punishment of offenders and inducements to obe- dience, the laws concerning the suppressed holidays were evaded or openly defied almost everywhere. In the matter of the calendars, Montgelas confesses that the government had to shut its eyes in order not to ruin the printers who made their living by printing them." A decree of 1808 con- cerning the calendars printed by a certain Roesl at Augs- Gelegenheit, die Lehre zu begrtinden und an’s Herz zu legen, welche sein Vorspruch enthielt: ‘Wer der Obrigkeit widersteht, der wider- steht Gottes Verordnung u. s. w.’” “Priester Franz ‘Sales Nutzinger, Stadtpfarrer zu Rhain, erwarb sich ein ahnliches Verdienst durch seine am 14 Februar gehaltene Kanzel- rede, worinn er die hdchste Verordnung aus religidsen, moralischen und Okonomischen Grtinden eifrigst vertheidigte, und den unverkenn- baren Nutzen derselben so nachdrticklich bewies, dass zwey offizielle Anzeigen ihren Inhalt zu rithmen wetteiferten.” “Prosper Dallinger, Prediger der Augustiner zu Ingolstadt hat als geistlicher Vorstand der Sebastians-Bruderschaft eine sehr niizliche, und unterrichtende Kanzelrede ahnlichen Inhalts gehalten und in Druck gegeben.” “Ferners wurde die churftirstliche hochste Stelle in Kenntniss jener Kanzelrede gesezt, welche Priester Franz Markus, Pfarrer zu Herz- hausen bey Schrobenhausen am Xaverius-Feste verflossenen Jahrs mit gliicklicher Wirkung gehalten hat.” “Die Polizey-Behérden haben diese Kundmachung auf gewohn- liche Weise samtlichen Pfarrern mitzutheilen, und zu erdfen, dass man zwar diejenigen geistlichen Individuen, welche sich im verflossenen Jahre verordnungswidrig benommen haben, und bestraft worden, mit Offentlicher Benennung gegenwartig verschone, und ihre Vergehen als Verirrung ansehe, dass aber ihre Namen bey weitern Uebertretungen und abgenothigten Straffallen ohne weiters der Publizitat iibergeben, die noch unprabendirten geistlichen Individuen aber auch zugleich aus dem Folio Beneficiorum wiirden gestrichen werden.” Regierungsblatt, 16 Feb., 1803, p. 100, et seqg., “ Bekanntmachung: die sich Volksbildung verdient gemachten Geistlichen betr.,” 28 Jan., 1803. 1“T] fallut méme fermer les yeux sur les contraventions que se per- cettoient les imprimeurs du pays pour ne pas ruiner ceux que le débit de ces petits ouvrages faisoit exister.” Montgelas, Denkwuirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 131. 272 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [272 burg seems to have been the last attempt of the government to enforce its policy.* The causes of the government’s failure probably were stated correctly by Montgelas himself. According to his ex- planation the people clung to their holidays partly from laziness, partly because they regarded it as burdensome and unjust that the days of labor should be increased without the pay of domestics and others who worked for fixed periods being increased proportionally, and partly because of the force of custom.’ The remainder of the legislation of the Bavarian govern- ment concerning subjects of a mixed nature is hard to clas- sify. The laws dealt with a great variety of subjects and in many cases aimed at more than one object. For con- venience, however, they may be classified as police measures, measures dealing with popular religious practices, and measures aiming at the purification of the service of the ‘Church. The latter class was by far the largest. For con- venience this group of laws may be subdivided into meas- ures dealing with the observance of particular holidays of the Church and measures dealing with the ordinary services of the Church. The principal church holidays regulated by the government were the Passion Week, Ascension Day, Whitmonday, Corpus Christi Day, Advent and Christmas Eve. 1 Regierungsblatt, 6 Jan., 1808, pp. 116-117, “Auftrag an samtl. Polizei- Behorden der Provinz Baiern: die von dem Buchdrucker Ré6sl in Augs- burg ausgegebenen Kalender betr.,” 21 Dec., 1807. 2“Te peuple, en partie par paresse, en partie par intérét, parce qu'il regardoit comme onéreux et injuste de multiplier ses jours d’occupation sans augmenter en méme tems les gages des domestiques et de tout ce qui rendoit son tems et ses peines a terme fixe, aussi par la routine qui le tient attaché a ce qui existe, et par l’instigation des pasteurs plus zélés qu’instruits, opposa a la volonté prononcée de 1!’administration une force d’inertie a laquelle on ne s’étoit pas attendu.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 131. eee THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 2772 The laws concerning Passion Week dealt principally with the passion plays and other performances presented at that time. The ordinance of 14 September, 1801, the first meas- ure of Maximilian IV Joseph’s government dealing with this subject, merely renewed the decrees of 31 March, 1770, 27 March, 1792, and 20 July, 1793, against the presentation of passion plays in the Passion Week.* The decree of 10 March, 1803, defined very specifically the manner in which the death of Christ was to be represented. To invite prayer the Sanctissimum, covered with a white veil, was to be set out on an adequately lighted side altar, hung with black, and on the screen in front of the altar the representation of the Lord in the grave might be portrayed. The measure was defended by the government on the ground that the representations in the Passion Week, through which one of the holiest periods in the suffering of Christ was disfigured and debased to a means of support, must be a source of irri- tation to every true Catholic who had clear ideas of the pre- cepts of religion and the customs of the Church.’ 1“ Nachdem Wir vernommen, dass in Unseren hiesigen Landen hin- und wieder die Passionstragedien zuwider Unserer gnadigsten General- verordnungen de datis 31ten Marzens 1770, 27ten Marzens 1792, und 2oten July 1793 aufgefiihrt werden; als wollen Wir solche fir die Zukunft ganzlich abgestellt, und sowohl Unsere eigene, als die standische Beamte auf die genaue Befolgung dieser Unser gnadigsten Verord- nungen bey selbsthaftung, und Strafe vom 30 Reichsthaler unnachsicht- lich hiemit angewiesen haben.” 14 Sept., 1801. Regierungsblatt, 26 Sept., T80I, p. 614. 2“ Tedem Katholiken, der reine Begriffe von den Gebrauchen der Kirche hat, mtissen die Vorstellungen in der Charwoche, durch die eine der heiligsten Epochen in der Lebens- und Leidensgeschichte Christi entstellt, und von jener der Erhabenheit des Gegenstandes witirdigen Darstellung zu einer Unterhaltung herabwirdigt wird, zum gegriin- deten Aergernisse gereichen.” “Um also dem Zwecke dieser grossen und jedem Christem so wich- tigen Feyer wieder naher zu kommen, und die Vorstellungen der Wiirde des Gegenstandes entsprechend zu machen, wird hiemit verordnet, dass 274 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [274 An ordinance of 24 April, 1803, dealt with two customs practiced on Ascension Day and Whitsunday which in the opinion of the government did not correspond to the dignity of religion or the spirit of its solemn truths, dishonored the churches and gave to the enemies of the truth new matter for ridicule and slander. The first of the two practices was the custom of bearing aloft on Ascension Day a picture or wooden statue of Christ amid the tumultuous throng of the passing people. The other practice was the custom of rep- resenting on Whitsunday the arrival of the Holy Spirit by the letting down of a dove.*. Three days before this ordi- nance was passed the government had forbidden the fur- ther observance of these customs in the province of Neu- burg.” die Grabvorstellung Christi von laufenden Jahre anfangend, darinn bestehen solle: (1) Das Sanctissimum bleibt mit einem weissen Flor bedeckt auf einem schwarz behangten hinlanglich beleuchteten Seiten- altare zur Anbethung ausgestellt; und (2) auf dem antipendium die Vorstellung des in dem Grabe liegenden Heilands abgebildet.” Re- gierungsblatt, 16 Mar., 1803, p. 178, “ Die Grabvorstellung in der Char- - woche betr.,” 10 Mar., 1803. 1“ Cebrauche und Ceremonien, welche der Wiurde unsere heiligen Religion, und dem Geiste ihrer erhabenen Wahrheiten nicht ent- sprechen, entehren die Kirche, und geben den Feinden der Wahrheit neuen ‘Stoff zu spotten, zu lastern, und das Christenthum selbst veracht- lich zu machen. Unter diese Zweckwidrige Gebrauche gehore vorziiglich (a) die in vielen Dorfen, Markten und Stadten bisher gewohnliche sogenannte Himmelfahrt, wo eine hdlzerne Statue oder ein Bild Christi — an Stricken unter larmenden Gedrange des herbeystromenden und gas- senden Volkes in die Hohe gezogen wird; und (b) der nur einigen Orten noch herrschende Missbrauch, wo die Ankunft des heiligen Geistes am Pfingstfeste durch eine herabgelassene Taube sinnlich dargestellt...wird.” Regierungsblatt, 27 Apr., 1803, p. 258, “ Verordnung: die Zwechwidrigen Ceremonien am Himmelfahrts- und Pfingstsonntage betr.,” 24 Apr., 1803. 2 Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1237, “Die am Christi Himmel- fahrtstage gewohnlichen Vorstellungen betr.,” 18 Apr., 1803. 275 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 275 The government issued a large number of ordinances regulating the celebration of Corpus Christi Day, but many of them were mainly police measures. The ordi- nances of 5 April, 1803, and 21 June, 1803, were of this kind. The first forbade the practice followed by the boys in some of the country districts, on Corpus Christi Day and other holidays, of dressing-up as soldiers, shooting with fire arms and carrying around the figures of girls. The second measure forbade the custom of placing young trees along the streets on Corpus Christi Day. The alleged object of the second measure was the protection of the forests and the avoidance of unnecessary expenditures.” An ordinance of 17 May, 1803, abolished the practice followed in many places of compelling the congregation of a subordinate church, which was provided with a priest of its own, to march to the main church of the parish on Corpus Christi Day and join in the procession of the main church as a sign of their subordination to the main church of the parish. 1“Y)a man dessen ungeachtet ersehen musste, dass sich Bauernbursche in einigen Gegenden erlauben, sich bey Prozessionen noch immer in Soldaten umzukleiden, und auch zu schiessen, wie nicht minder dass Figuren bey diesen Gelegenheiten von Madchen herumtragen werden: als will man alle derley von der wahren Gottesverehrung abziehende, und nur meistens zum Lachen und Spotten, wohl auch oft zu Ungliicken, z. B. Feuerbriinsten Anlass gebende Unfiige hiemit ganzlich fiir die Zukunft abgeschaft wissen. ...” Regierungsblatt, 13 Apr., 1803, pp. 232-233. “Auftrag: die Fronleichnams- und andere Prozessionen betr.,” 5 Apr., 1803. 2“Tn Erwagung, dass die Aufstellung junger Baume in den Gassen bei den Fronleichnamsprocessionen eines theils weder zum Religions- cultus, noch zur Beférderung der Andacht etwas beitragt, anderer Seits aber den Waldern einen Nachtheil und den Unterthanen Kosten verursacht, so wollen Wir den... . gemachten Auftrag Unsere ober- pfalzischen Landes-Direction und die Abschaffung dieses Gebrauchs um so mehr gnadigst begnehmigen, als die Oberpfalzer, gemase den Vor- schreiten fiir derlei Anordnungen von selbst empfanglich sind. .... if Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1101-1102, “ Die Aufstellung der Baume bei der Fronleichnams-Procession betr.,” 21 Jun., 1803. 276 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [276 The priests were instructed by the ordinance to hold the Corpus Christi Day procession, in the future, at their own churches at the end of the service. The government de- fended the measure at considerable length. The old and weak were deprived by the cld custom of all religious ser- vices; the young, tired after the long march, satisfied them- selves with a low mass and then hastened to the taverns, where they surfeited themselves with food and drink; the press of those who attended the high mass, the crying of the children and the movement back and forth of the adults destroyed all devotion and dishonored religion; the proces- sion itself encouraged disorder of various sorts; and after the procession the debauchery in the drinking places began again and both sexes became drunk.* In 1807 and 1808 the 1“ Am vielen Orten Bayerns, wo sich keine selbststandigen Pfarrer, sondern exponirte Seelsorger befinden, sind diese, einer druckenden Gewohnheit nach, verbunden, an dem Fronleichnamstage ihre Gemein- den, welchen sie doch sonst alle pfarrliche Verrichtungen zu leisten haben, zur Hauptpfarrkirche zu fithren, und da, zum Zeichen der abhangigkeit und des pfarrlichen Verbandes die grosse Procession zu begleiten. Der gewohnliche pfarrliche Gottesdienst unterbleibt auf solche Art in allen Filialkirchen, alte und schwache Personen sind desselben beraubt, die jungen und starkern aber, mtide von dem weiten Gange begntigen sich bei ihrer Ankunft im Pfarrorte mit Anhorung einer Stillmesse und eilet dem Wirthshause zu, wo man sich mit Speise und Trank uberfullt. | So itibel vorbereitet wohnt nun ein Theil des Volkes dem Hochamte bei; das Gedrange in den zu kleinen Pfarrkirchen, das Geschrei der Kinder, das Hin- und Wiederstossen der Erwachsenen, das Driicken derselben zerstOrt alle Andacht und entehrt die Religion. Bei dem hierauf folgenden ungeheuren Processionszuge..... die Unordnung, welche bei so einem Volksconcurse herrscht, das Gelachter der Jiingen, welche das Gebet zerstoren, sind die nattrlichen und un- vermeidlichen Folgen, neben welcher Aufmerksamkeit auf den Haupt- gegenstand unmoglich bestehen kann. Kaum erst am hohen Mittage endet sich dieser Umzug, dann setzt sich die Schwelgerei in den Zechstuben fort; beide Geschlechter trinken sich voll, und inan k6mmt mit genauer Noth am spaten Abend in der Stunden weit entfernten Heimath an....... 277 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 277 government regulated with great minuteness the Corpus Christi Day procession in the provinces of Upper and Lower Bavaria, Neuburg and Bamberg. Many of the parishes had been evading the orders of the government concerning the “ cross-gangs ”’ by holding two and three processions at the time of the feast of Corpus Christi. The government ordered, in consequence, that only one Corpus Christi Day procession should thereafter be held. In the cities where there were several parishes the parish priests were to take turns in leading the procession and service. The assistants of the parish priests were to conduct the Corpus Christi Day processions and services at the subordinate churches which they regularly served.* In 1814, however, the government Zu Abstellung dieser argerlichen Unfiig wird hiemit verordnet: (1) Jeder exponirte Seelsorger, welcher die pfarrlichen Functionen in seiner Filialkirche zu leisten hat, ohne Unterschied des Ranges oder ausserlichen Characters und Titels, wird hiemit verbunden, am Fron- leichnamstage die feierliche Procession an seinem Seelsorgerorte nach geendigtem Gottesdienste zu halten. (2) Folglich hort der Zug der mit solch eigenen Seelsorgern ver- sehenen Gemeinden zur Hauptkirche an diesem Tage auf... .” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1099-1100, “ Die Fronleichnams- Processionen auf dem Lande betr.,” 17 May, 1803. 1“ Demungeachtet [Verordnung, 17 Mai, 1803] hat man in Erfahrung gebracht, dass sich die Geistlichkeit nicht allenthalben nach dieser Ver- fiigung achte, wie denn auch in einigen Orten an Fronleichnamstage und in der Octav zwei und anderen sogar drei derlei processionen gehalten werden. Diese Ungleichheit in Zukunft zu entfernen, wird hiemit Nachste- hendes neuerdings verordnet: (1) Die Fronleichnams-Procession wird in Stadten und Markten sowohl als auf dem Lande nur am Feste allein gehalten, und weder am Sonntage, der in die Octave fallt, und noch am Schlusstage der Octave wiederholt. (2) In Stadten, wo mehrere Pfarreien sind, wechseln die Pfarrer alle Jahre mit der Procession. (4) ... jeder der Hilfpriester aber halt den Gottesdienst und die Procession in der Filialkirche, die er gewOohnlich excurrendo versieht. 278 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [278 definitely disavowed any intention of subjecting the Cathe- dral churches to the regulations just described.’ An ordinance of 23 November, 1801, ordered that the service usually held at midnight on Christmas Eve should be held thereafter at five o’clock in the morning.” This ordinance was in all probability gradually extended from the provinces of Upper and Lower Bavaria to the other prov- inces of Bavaria, since in 1806 it was extended to Tyrol,® the province in which the government was most cautious about ordering innovations. By an ordinance of 4 January, 1803, the government forbade representations of the birth of the Savior and prohibited begging during Advent and Christmas time. The attention of the government had been called to ..’ Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1102-1103, “ Die Fronleich- nams-processionen in der Provinz Bayern betr.,” 9 Mai, 1807. “Diejenigen Bestimmungen, welche durch die Ausschreibung der Koniglichen Landesdirection von Bayern vom g. Mai v. J. in Ansehung der Fronleichnams-Procession fiir Ober- und Niederbayern bekannt gemacht wurden, sollen auch in Zukunft in der Provinz Bamberg ihre Anwendung finden... .” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1104, “ Die Fronleichnams-Processionen in der Provinz Bamberg betr.,” 11 Mai. 1808. Cf. also, ibid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1103, “Die Fronleichnams-Processionem in der Provinz Neuburg betr.,” 5 Nov., 1807. 1“Die allgemeine Verordnung vom Mai 1807 nur von einsachen Pfarrkirchen spricht, und daher nicht auf Domkirchen zu beziehen ist. ... Ibid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1104, ‘‘ Die Fronleichnams-Procession in der Stadt N. betr.,” 7 Jun., 1814. 2“ Auf einen zur churfiirstlichen hochsten Stelle von dem churfiirst- liche-geistlichen Rathe erstatteten Bericht wird gnadigst verordnet, dass die mitternachtlichen Gottesdienste der heiligen Christnacht auf die Morgenstunde fiinf Uhr versetzt seyen, welches also jedermanniglich im ganzen Lande hiemit bekannt gemacht... wird...” Regierungs- blatt, 5 Dec., 1801, p. 767, “ Verordnung: die mitternachtlichen Gottes- dienst in der heiligen Christnacht betr.,” 23 Nov., 1801. 3 Tbid., 28 Nov., 1807, p. 1755, et seq., “ Verordnung: die Christnacht- feier in Tirol betr.,” 14 Nov., 1807. 279 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 279 the subject by the actions of a band of weavers which had used such a representation to evade the laws about begging.* The ordinances concerning the ordinary services of the Church dealt with a number of different practices which in the opinion of the government dishonored religion. By an ordinance of 1 September, 1803, the clergy of Upper and Lower Bavaria were forbidden to relate from the pulpit alleged miracles. In October the prohibition was extended to the province of Neuburg.” The government defended the measure on the ground that the alleged miracles, as a usual thing, had not been investigated by either the elec- toral or ecclesiastical authorities, but were based on the assertions of a single uneducated person. The practice, moreover, opened the door wide to error and superstition.* 1“ Die bestehenden Polizey Verordnungen haben langst jede Betteley verboten. . . . Demungeachtet war in jiingster Advent- und Weihnacht- zeit missfallig zu bemerken, dass eine Gesellschaft von Webern, aut dem Lande aber verschiedene Processionisten herumzogen, und Lieder von plumper Schreib- und Versart absangen. Dazu kamen auch Vor- stellungen religidser Gegenstande, insbesondere der Geburt des Menschen-Erlésers, welche zu erhaben sind, als dass man gleichgiltig zusehen konnte, wenn sie an ungeeigneten Orten, von inkompetenten Subjecten angefuhr, zum Deckmantel des Miissigangs und niedriger Betteley missbraucht, und ihre Wtirde und Ansehen beleidigt werden. Die einschlagigen Polizey-Behérden errinnert man hiemit an thre Pflicht, die Betteley aller Art, sie mag directe auftreten, oder indirecte sich einschleichen, — insbesondere aber derley religidse Vorstellungen . mit Ernste zu unterdrticken....” Regierungsblatt, 19 Jan., 1803, p. 39, et seqg., ““ Das verbothwidrige Betteln betr.,” 4 Jan., 1803. 2Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1262, “Das Verktinden der Wundergeschichten betr.,” Neuburg, 31 Oct., 1803. 3“Da nun derley Geschichten, weder von der geistlichen noch welt- lichen Obrigkeit untersucht werden, auf der Aussage einzelner, ins- gemein wenig wunterrichteter Personen beruhen, und dem Irr- und Aberglauben Thor und Angel 6ffnen; so ergehet hiemit die hdchst- landesherrliche Verordnung, dass in Zukunft das Verkiinden solcher Wundergeschichten bey schwerer Ahndung gianzlich unterbleiben solle.” Regierungsblatt, 7 Sept., 1803, p. 688, “ Verordnung: das Verktinden der Wundergeschichten auf 6ffentlichen Kirchen-Kanzeln betr.,” 1 Sept., 1803. 280 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [280 By a proclamation of 20 September, 1803, the government offered to assist the parishes to replace their badly painted and unsuitable pictures with better pictures." By an ordi- nance of 15 January, 1805, the clergy of Upper and Lower Bavaria were forbidden to allow the congregation to make more than one donation at the altar during a mass for the dead. The parish priests and their assistants were ordered to agree on a division of this single donation.” The measure does not seem to have been enforced at Munich, however, until over three years later. For under date of 25 July, 1808, Westenrieder reported that such a police regulation had been enforced on that day for the first time, at the fun- eral of a surgeon named Boeschin.* The government devoted a good deal of attention also to the time and length of time the church bells were rung. 1“ Hs ist bekannt, dass sich in einigen Pfarr- und Filialkirchen, sonderheithich auf dem Lande, manchmal Gemahlde vorfinden, die oft so schlecht gemahlt, als von zweckwidriger Vorstellung sind. Wenn sich nun einige Kirchen derley unschicklicher Altarblatter ent- ledigen wollen, und an deren Stelle bessere zu besitzen wtinschen; als haben die Vorsteher derselben die Lange und Breite der Altarblatter bey unterzeichneter churfirstlichen Stelle anzuzeigen, wonach man ihren Wtinschen zu entsprechen sich bemiihern wird.” Regierungsblati, 28 Sept., 1803, p. 770. “ Bekanntmachung: die Kirchen-Gemahlde betr.,” 20 Sept., 1803. 2“... haben Seine Churfirstliche Durchlaucht vermég gnadigster Rescripts vom 28sten. Dezember des verflossenen Jahres verordnet, dass kiinftig bey den pfarrlichen Gottesdiensten nur Ein Opfergang statt haben solle, welcher sogleich nach dem sogenannten ‘Staffelgebethe zu beginnen hat, wobey tibrigens aber den Pfarrern und ihren Hilfspri- estern iiberlassen wird, sich iiber eine schickliche und billige Abtheilung der Opfergaben selbst zu vereinigen.” Jbid., 16 Jan., 1805, p. 105, “Verordnung: die Opfergange bey dem Pfarrlichen Gottesdienste betr.,” 15 Jan., 1805. 8“o0 Juli. [1808] Heute wurde bey dem fiir die Chiruginn Bdschin bei St. Peter gehaltenen Seelamt zum ersten Mal ein neues Policey- regulativ, vermdg dessen bey Seelamtern nur ein einziger Opfergang seyn darf....in Erfillung gesetzt.” Westenrieder, Denkwitirdig- keiten und Tagebiicher, p. 87. 281] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 28; The first ordinance of Maximilian IV Joseph’s government was issued under date of 7 August, 1800. The ringing of the church bells between the evening and morning bells, ex- cept in time of storm and on Christmas Eve, was forbidden. Even in time of storm, however, the bell was not to be rung longer than two minutes. On work days, furthermore, the church bells were to be rung only once, and not longer than five minutes, for services of the Church. The use of the large bell of a church on such days, however, was not to be permitted. The monasteries, furthermore, were forbidden to ring bells for services peculiar to the orders to which the monasteries belonged. During funeral processions the church bells were not to be rung longer than one-half of a quarter of an hour. The ringing of the church bells during continuous adoration and forty hours of prayer was limited to a short signal at the beginning and end of the service. For evening prayers, the litany and similar occasions the bells were to be rung only five minutes. During public pro- cessions, on the contrary, the former customs were to be observed.* This ordinance was evidently not very well “i Das Gelaute zu Nachts ist ganz aufgehoben, und von dem Abend- grusse bis zum folgenden Morgengrusse solle kiinftig keine Glocke mehr angezogen werden, folgende zwei Falle, namlich (a) das Gelaute in der Christnacht zur Mette, ... und (b) das Lauten bei Hochgewittern (welches in Zukunft sowohl bei Tag als bei Nacht nur einmal ein paar Minutten lang statt haben solle) sind hievon ausgenommen..... ii. Auch ist sammtlich hier befindlichen Klostern, alles Gelaute bei Gottesdiensten, die vorztiglich ihren Orden betreffen, so wie das Chor- gelaute ganzlich untersagt. Bei Tage und zwar an Werktagen solle zu jedem Hauptgottesdienste nur einmal nicht langer als 5 Minuten gelautet werden. Alles Gelaute mit den grossern Glocken hat an solchen Tagen ganz zu unterbleiben. iv. Das Gelaute bei besondern Veranlassungen wollen Wir auf fol- gende Art beschrankt wissen: (b) bei Leichenbegangnissen solle nie langer als % Viertel Stunde gelautet werden. 282 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [282 obeyed, and its principal provisions, in consequence, were repeated with some slight modifications in an ordinance of 14 February, 1807.*. Later in 1807 the ringing of church bells on Friday to recall the death of Christ, on Thursday to recall the anguish of Christ, and at noon for the benefit of the countrymen was expressly permitted.” The practice of ringing the church bells for a full hour between twelve and one o'clock at the time of death seems to have been prohibited by the ordinance of 14 February. Because of the persistence of many parishes in continuing the practice, the government provided in November a fine of twelve Retchs- thaler for this offence.* Two other ordinances throw a little additional light on the government’s religious policy. In 1801 the various local and electoral officials were forbidden to quarrel over their (d) bei der ewigen Anbetung und dem 40 stiindigen Gebete solle das stiindliche Lauten unterbleiben und nur am Anfange und Ende gelautet werden. (e) zu dem Abendandachten, Rosenkranz, Litanei u. s. w. soll nur ein einziges Zeichen mit der Glocke fiinf Minuten lang gegeben wer- den.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1145-1146, “Das Gelaute in den hiesigen Kirchen. betr.,” 7 Aug., 1800. 1 Regierungsblatt, 28 Feb., 1807, pp. 341-343, ‘“ Verordnung: das Glocken-Gelaute betr.,” 14 Feb., 1807. 2“7, Das sogenannte Mittags-Gelaute, welches dem Landmanne und der arbeitende Klasse auf dem Lande in Beziehung auf seine Tagesord- nung nothwendig ist, soll auch kinftig bestehen. 3. Das Gleiche versteht sich vom Morgen- und Abendgrusse- von der Scheidung an Freitagen, zur Erinnerung an die Todesstunde Jesu- von der Angst Christi an Donners-tags-Abenden nach dem Abendgrusse.” Ibid., 11 July, 1807, pp. It2t-1122, ‘‘ Provinzial-Verordnung: das Glocken-Gelaute in der Provinz Baiern betr.,” 20 Jun., 1807. 3“ Dieser widersinnige Missbrauch wird hiemit, in Folge der aller- héchsten Verordnung vom 14 Februar 1807... und der nachfolgten Erlauterung vom 20 Juni... bei 12 Reichsthalern Strafe abgeschaft. . 2’ Tbid., 28 Nov., 1807, pp. 1757-1758, “ Auftrag an die samtl. Orts- obrigkeiten in der Provinz Baiern: das sogenannte Himmel-Lauten betr.,” 7 Nov., 1807. 283 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 283 positions in religious processions. The ordinance prescribed very minutely also the manner in which they were to par- ticipate." In 1808 Westenrieder recorded that neither a royal deputy nor a deputy of the Munich magistracy accom- panied the procession for fear of displeasing the spirit of the times.” In 1803 the government forbade the parishes to invite neighboring parishes to parish festivals, on the ground that the coming together of such large numbers of people gave an opportunity for dissipation and did not con- tribute to religious devotion.*® In spite of the legislation of ‘Charles Theodore’s govern- ment on the subject, the common people of Bavaria evi- dently still were very much given, in 1799, to ringing bells and shooting firearms in time of storm. In May, 1800, the government renewed the decrees of 1783, 1784 and 1791 against the practice.* An ordinance of 24 April, 1806, on 1 Déllinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1141, et seqg., “ Die ungebihrlichen Differenzen und Rangstreitigkeiten bei Processionen betr.,” 21 Sept., 1801. 2“ 23 Juni. Heute durfte zwar die hergebrachte Fronleichnams- Procession gehalten werden, allein es gieng weder ein kon. Deputirten .. noch ein Deputirter vom Stadtmagistrat mit; wie leicht zu erach- ten aus Furcht, zu missfallen dem Zeitgeist.” Westenrieder, Denk- wiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 87. 3“ Eis ist bey vielen Pfarreyen in Baiern die Gewohnheit, dass die Gemeinden fremder Pfarrsprengel, zu grossen kirchlichen Festen, durch so betitelte Verkundzettel, oft auf mehrere Stunden eingeladen werden. Da durch dieses ewige Hin- und Herlaufen der Gottesdienst, und christliche Unterricht in der eigenen Pfarrey versaumt, bey dem Zu- sammenflusse der Menge die Andacht nicht gewinnt, und meistens bey solchen Gelegenheiten Anlasse zu Ausschweifungen gegeben wird, als geschiet hiemit an alle Seelsorger der strenge Auftrag, solche Verkund- zettel kiinftig nicht mehr in fremde Pfarrsprengel zu versenden, und derley Gemeinden zu ihren Festen einzuladen, vielmehr solche mit eigenen Gemeinden allein mit Wiirde und Anstand zu feyern..... Regierungsblatt, 28 Sept., 1802, p. 762, “ Verordnung: die Verktnd- zettel bey kirchlichen Festen betr.,” 17 Sept., 1803. 4“ VJnsere General Landes-Direction erhalt hiemit auf ihren Bericht 284 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [284 the same subject asserted, however, that the earlier ordi- nance had been evaded very generally under the pretext of giving a signal for prayer. In the future, according to the new ordinance, failure to observe the orders of the govern- ment on this subject was to be punished by a fine of twenty Reichsthaler or by imprisonment. For a second offence the punishment was to be doubled. During the preceding year, according to this ordinance, eighteen persons had been killed by lightning in Upper Bavaria alone while ringing church bells during storms. The people were urged to depend on silent prayer during great disturbances of nature rather than on a custom contrary to the sentiments and conceptions of true piety and devotion and the teachings of experience and science." As late as 1814, however, an attempt was made in the capital itself to ring the bells of two of the vom 16 April abhin den Auftrag das Lauten und Schiessen bei Donner- wetter in der durch die Mandate von 1783, 1784 und 1791 verbotenen Maass neuerdings zu verbieten, und dieses Verbot dem Regierungs- und Intelligenzblatte einverleiben zu lassen.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1154, “ Das Lauten und Schiessen bei Hochgewittern betr.,” 20 May, 1800. 1“ Allein noch immer werden diese gemeinntitzigen Verfiigungen nicht pflichtmassig beobdachtet unter dem Vorwande eines Zeichens zu Gebethe. . . . In verflossenen Jahre wurden daher in Oberbaiern an verschiedenen Orten achtzehnt Personen, wahrend des Glockenlautens, in den Kirchenthiirmen vom Blitze erschlagen. 5. Wenn man sich an einem Orte dem Verbothe des Wetterlautens wiedersetzen sollte, so werden Vermdogliche, als Storer der dffentlichen Ruhe, mit 20 Reichsthalern ad fundum pauperum, und bey wiederholtem Frevel um das Doppelte gestraft;—Unvermogliche aber mit einer ange- messenen korperlichen Strafe belegt.” Ai Aepeiae ce so streitet alles Wetterlauten gegen die Gefiihle, und Be- griffe einer wahren Gottesverehrung und Frommigkeit eben so sehr, als gegen die Erfahrung, und die Wissenschaft. Bey jenem grossen Naturerscheinungen kam eine wahrhaft religidse Sinnesart nur auf stille Anbethung des hochsten Urhebers der Natur fihren...” Regierungsblatt, 7 May, 1806, p. 157, “‘ Provinzial-Verord- nung: Wetterlauten betr.,” 24 Apr., 1806. 285] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 28 parish churches during a storm. The parish priests and other officials of the churches were ordered, in consequence, to take precautions against similar attempts.* The practice of riding around the fields with the Sanc- tissimum for the purpose of causing good harvests was an- other of the popular religious customs regulated by the gov- ernment. An ordinance of 29 March, 1803, forbade the observance of the practice, but permitted the parishes in which the custom had been established to hold a procession on foot on Whitmonday.* By an ordinance of 28 April, 1804, the government permitted such processions to be held on any of the four days on which “ cross-gangs”’ could lawfully be held.* Two days later the government forbade the use of all kinds of display in such processions.* 1“ Auf geschehene amtliche Anzeige, dass ein wahnsinniger oder muthwilliger Mensch unlangst sowohl in der Frauen-, als auch in der Peterskirche den Versucht gemacht habe, Sturm zu lauten, erhalt das Konigliche General-Kreiscommissariat den Auftrag, den diessortigen Pfarrern und wubrigen Kirchenvorstanden die Weisung zugehen zu lassen, geeignete Vorsorge zu treffen, dass die Seile der Kirchenglocken vor jedem Missbrauch verwahrt, und die Zugange zu denselben wo moglich gesperrt werden.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. I159- 1160, “‘ Die Verwahrung der Glockenfeile in den kirchen betr.,” 14 Apr., 1814. “Um dieses Hinderniss achter Religionsiibung zu beseitigen, wird hiemit folgendes verordnet: 1. Der Felder-Umritt findet nicht mehr statt. Dagegen 2. an Orten, wo dieser Umritt gewohnlich war, am Pfingstmondtage eine prozession zu Fuss zu veranstalten, gleich derjenigen, welche zufolge der bestekenden Verordnung vorigen Jahrs vom Schauerfreytag auf den genannten Pfingstmondtag verlegt worden.” Regierungsblatt, 6 Apr., 1803, p. 217. ‘“‘ Verordnung den Felder-Umritt betr.” 3“ Auf den Bericht Unserer Bayerischen Landesdirection vom 21. dieses und in Erwagung der in selbem angefithrten Griinde wollen Wir enadigst gestatten, dass der sogenannte Felderumgang mit dem Sanc- tissimum an einem der vier erlaubten Kreuzgangstage, und mit Hinwe- glassung alles verbotenen Gepranges gehalten .... werden konne.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1138, “ Den Felderumgang betr.,” 28 Apr., 1804. i“ |. der sogenannte Felderumgang mit dem Sanctissimo .... an 286 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [286 An ordinance of 21 July, 1803, attacked the custom of attempting to ameliorate physical evils by means of exor- cism, the blessing of the priest or other form of spiritual assistance." The custom seems still to have been very com- mon among the lower classes. The priests were commanded to refrain from attempting to cure the physical ills of either men or cattle by the use of exorcism, the blessing of the priest or any other sort of spiritual assistance, under pain of removal from their parishes and benefices or personal arrest. The custom, according to the government, encour- aged credulity among the lower classes and caused proper means of healing to be ignored until too late to prevent death.” The prohibition of the government against the practice was extended to Neuburg by an ordinance of 31 October.°® In 1807 the government seems to have done away with the method used from ancient times of marking the pres- ence of death in the house by placing a cross of straw be- fore the house until the body was removed from the house. einem der .. erlaubten Kreuzgangstagen, und mit Hinweglassung alles verbotenen Gepranges gehalten werden diirfe.”’ Dollinger. op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1138-1130, “ Den Felderumgang betr.,” 30 Apr., 1804. 1 Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1259, “ Auszug: das Exorcisiren in Segensprechen u. s. w. betr.,” 21 July, 1803. 2“ Kis werden die Klagen immer lauter und haufiger, dass sich einige Geistliche . . . erlauben sogenannte geistliche Mittel zur Heilung ver- schiedener Krankheiten bey Menschen und Vieh auszutheilen, wodurch die Leichtglaubigkeit des gemeinen Mannes genahrt, die geeigneten Heilungsmittel vernachlassigt, das Uebel durch Zogerung oft unheilbar gemacht, lieblose Gesinnungen gegen dem Nebenmenschen verbreitet, und nicht selten hochst traurige Folgen bis zum Mord und Todschlage, wie ein neueres Beyspiel belehrt, erzeugt worden.” Regierungsblati, 28 Sept., 1803, p. 762, “ Verordnung: das Exorziren, und Segensprechen, und Austheilen geistlicher Mittel betr.,’ 30 Aug., 1803. > Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1261-1262, “ Das Exorcisiren und Segensprechen, und Austheilen geistlicher Mittel betr.,” Neuburg, 31 Oct., 1803. 287] THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 287 Under date of July 2, Westenrieder noted that the ancient custom had been abolished that week.* The evidence concerning the success of the government in enforcing the various laws just described is very scanty indeed. In Tyrol the policy of the government helped to produce the rising of 1809, and in 1810 the government seems to have modified its policy considerably without for- mally repealing any of the ordinances of the preceding years. According to the statement of Montgelas, the fur- ther destruction of the outward sign of religion in the country districts was forbidden; the holding of some pil- grimages and some processions was permitted ; and the pre- sentation of sacred plays was again allowed.* One of the results of this change in policy was the royal resolution of 3 March, 1811, which granted the parish of Oberammergau the right to give a Passion Play on the 3, 4, 10, 23 and 30 June, 1811.° The repetition of the prohibitions of the gov- ernment in regard to a number of the religious customs of the people is still another slight indication of the govern- ment’s lack of success in enforcing its religious policy. 1“ Juli. Seit urdenklichen Zeiten wurde vor das Haus, worinn jemand gestorben war, ein Kreuz von Stroh... . gelegt, bis der Verstorbene fortgetragen wurde. Dieser uralte Gebrauch wurde diese Woche abge- schaft.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigkeiten und Tagebiicher, p. 85. “Ce fut principalement pour apaiser les peuples de cette province [Tyrol] et parce que le gouvernement, ayant prévalu partout dans son systéme, pouvoit sans inconvénient en adoucir l’application . .. sans révoquer cependant positivement aucune des lois portées jusqu’ici. On défendit sous main de toucher aux signes extérieurs dans les cam- pagnes, on permit quelques pélerinages, quelques processions et la repré- sentation des comedies saintes.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 132. 8“ Wermog allerhdchster Entschliessung d. 3 Marz h. a. wurde der Gemeinde Oberammergau kon. Landgerichts Schongau die Bewilligung zu Auffiihrung eines Passions-Schauspiels erlaubt. Die hiezu bestimmten Tage sind der 3. 4. Io. 23. und 30. Juni dieses Jahrs.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 96. 288 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [288 Many of the police measures of the government, which affected religion, dealt with burial customs. An ordinance of 26 January, 1803, forbade the practice of burying the dead in family vaults within the churches.* In an ordinance of 8 February, 1803, the public exposure of the dead in the churches was forbidden.* In 1805 an investigation of the churchyards in the populous cities was ordered by the gov- ernment.* A provincial ordinance of 3 April, 1803, forbade both the practice of exposing the dead in the churches and the maintenance of churchyards in the cities in the province of Wurzburg.* An order of 7 July, 1803, forbade any fur- ther practice of the custom of twenty or thirty relatives and neighbors crowding into the room occupied by the body of a dead person until the time of the funeral and eating 1“ Fis ergehet demnach an alle Behorden und Pfarrer, das allgemeine Verbot, dass sie von nun an keine Beerdigung irgend einer Leiche in den Kirchen und deren Griiften mehr gestatten, sondern dieselben durchgehends in den gemeinen Kirchh6fe verfiigen sollen.” Regierungs- blatt, 2 Feb., 1803, p. 65. “ Verordnung: das verbotwidrige Beerdigen der Leichen in den Kirchen und deren Griifte betr.,” 28 Jan., 1803. * Regierungsblatt, 16 Feb., 1803, p. 92, ‘Das Verboth, die Leichen in den Kirchen beyzusetzen betr.,” 8 Feb., 1803. “Da es eine der nothwendigen Maassregeln einer wohl eingerich- teten Polizey ist, dass die Kirchhdofe der volkreichen Stadte und Markte allenthalben ausser dem Bezirke ihrer Gemeinheiten verlegt werden . . . so erhalten hiemit samtliche churfiirstliche Polizey-Kommissionen .... und samtliche churfiirstliche Landgerichte den Auftrag...die Anzeige zu machen: (1) In [welchen] ... Stadte und Markte die Begrabnissplatze ausser- halb dem Bezirke der Wohnungen, wann, und auf welche Veranlassung verlegt sind, und in welchen jene Platze sich noch innerhalb dieser Bezirke befinden. ...” Jbid., 13 Feb., 1805, p. 205, “Auftrag,” dated 11 Feb., 1805. *Dollinger, op. cit., bd. 8, th. 2, p. 1174, et seq., “Das Beerdigen und Aussetzen der Leichen in den Kirchen und deren Griften, dann die Entfernung der Kirchhdfe aus den Stadten und Ortschaften betr.,” Wurzburg, 3 Apr., 1803. 289 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 289 meal cakes which had been set to rise on the sheet covering the dead.* Other police measures of the government aimed at the abolition of customs dangerous to property, health and life. The people seem to have been very reckless in the use of both fire and firearms. An ordinance of 28 June, 1802, applying to the Upper Palatinate forbade the practice of shooting with small arms during Corpus Christi Day and other processions.” An ordinance of 3 July, 1804, forbade the practice of shooting during weddings, church festivals and similar ceremonies in either Upper or Lower Bavaria.’ An ordinance of 13 June, 1807, forbade the building of fires in the public streets, and ordered the clergy to see to it that the holy oil was burnt only in a brazier in the church- yard and that no one was permitted to ignite pieces of wood from the blaze of the oil or to bear the pieces away with them if they did succeed in lighting them.* Later in the 1“ Tn vielen Gegenden Baierns herrscht noch auf dem Lande die Ge- wohnheit, dass sich die Verwandten, Nachbarn und Bekannte oft bis 20 Personen in dem Hause eines Verstorbenen einfinden . . . wie nicht minder, dass man an einigen Orten den Korper des Verstorbenen mit einem weissen Tuche bedecke, auf selbes bis zur geeigneten Gahrung die geknettete Mehlmasse lege, selbe sonach aus der Pfanne zu soge- nannten Kiicheln bache und diese an die Gaste vertheile. .. . Es ergehet demnach an alle landgerichtische, standische, und andere Obrigkeiten der ernstgemessenste Befehl, diese Gewohnheiten allent- halben, wo sie sich vorfinden, auf der Stelle abzuschaffen.” Regierungs- blatt, 13 July, 1803, p. 467, “ Auftrag: Missbrauche bey Leichen auf dem Lande btr.,” 7 July, 1803. 2Déllinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1243-1244, “ Erneuertes Verbot wegen Schiessen bey Processionen betr.,” Amberg, 28 Jun., 1802. 3 Regierungsblatt, 4 July, 1804, p. 218, “ Verordnung: das Schiessen auf dem Lande bey Hochzeiten, Kirchweihen und dergleichen betr.,” 3 July, 1804. 4 (3) _. . die Geistlichkeit angewiesen werden solle, die heiligen Oele blos in einer Glutpfanne auf dem Kirchhofraume zu verbrennen, ohne dass jemanden erlaubt sein solle, Holz dabei anzuztinden, oder 290 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [290 year a provincial ordinance applying to Upper and Lower Bavaria was issued which forbade the practice of lighting large torches of wood in the consecrated fire on the Satur- day before Easter, since these torches were then left until the end of the service in a corner or stable in charge of careless children or young people.* In the following April the measure was extended to all parts of the kingdom.” An ordinance of 18 May, 1803, applying to the Upper Palatinate, which forbade the practice of strewing grass in the churches on Whitsunday and Corpus Christi Day, was largely a health measure. The use of both grass and birch trees on these days was prohibited by the ordinance on the ground that both experience and the testimony of physi- cians showed that the exhalations from the plants and trees in an enclosed place were often very injurious to the health of the old and weak.* The provision concerning the use of angeztindetes hinwegzutragen.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1240- 1241, “Das Offentliche Verbrennen der heiligen Oele betr.,” 13 Jun, 1807. 1“ F's herrscht noch immer in vielen Orten, vorziiglich auf dem Lande, der Missbrauch, am ‘Charsamstage bei der Feuerweihe grosse Holz- brande herbeizuschleppen, dieselben bei dem neugeweihten Feuer anzu- zunden, und bis zum Ende des Hochamtes in den ndachstgelegenen Winkeln der Hauser, oder in Stadeln unterzubringen. Da dieses Geschaft gewohnlich unvorsichtigen Kindern und jungen Leuten anvertraut wird; ... die gemeinen Leute in dem aberglaubische Missbrauch so und dergestalten verboten, dass jeder der eine brennbare Materie, Holz, Schwamm und _dergleichen, bei dem Charsamstage-Feuer anzuztinden kiinftig sich unterstehen wird, unnachlassig um 3 Reichs- thaler abgestraft werden soll... .” Regierungsblatt, 19 Dec., 1807, p. 1841, “ Provinzial-Verordnung: die Feuerweihe am ‘Charsamstag in der Provinz Baiern betr.,” 17 Nov., 1807. 2“ Wir haben beschlossen, die von Unserer Landesdirection in Bayern uber die Feuerweihe am Charsamstage unter 17 November v. J..... kundgemachte Provinzial-Verordnung auf Unser gesamtes Reich auszudehnen. .. .” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, pp. 1241-1242, “ Die Feuer- und Wasserweihe an dem ‘Charsamstage betr.,” 23 Apr., 1808. 3“ Fs herrscht noch vielfalltig der Gebrauch am Pfinst- und Fron- 201 | THE INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 291 trees for such purposes may have been inserted also with a view to protecting the forests from destruction. leichnamsfeste in den Kirchen Gras, vorziiglich Weihergras und Schloden aufzustreuen, und an allen Ecken Birkenbaume aufzustellen. In Erwagung, dass die Ausdiinstungen dieser Krauter und Baume sehr heftig und nach erprobten Erfahrungen und Bestatigung der Aerzte an eingeschlossenen Orten der Gesundheit der Menschen, besonders bei alten oder schwachlichen Personen sehr nachtheilig sind, und solche nur zu oft krank oder wohl gar vom Schlage getroffen worden;.... beschliesst Churfiirstliche Landesdirection diese Missbrauch ganzlich abzuschaffen, und von nun an zu verbieten... .” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1101, “ Die Abschaffung des Gebrauchs, in den Kirchen, Wei- hergras und Schloden auszustreuen, und Birkenbaume auszustellen betr.,” Amberg, 18 Mai, 1803. CHAPTER rl INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT IN PURELY SECULAR MATTERS ANOTHER result of the legislation of the Bavarian gov- ernment during the Napoleonic period was the removal of nearly all matters of a purely secular character from the jurisdiction of the Church. The purpose of the government was clearly stated in the organic religious edict of 24 March, 1809. The object of the government, according to this ordinance, was to have both the religious and ecclesiastical societies and the officials and members of such societies con- duct themselves in accordance with the laws of the state in all matters which they had in common with other civil soci- eties. In this edict the government included under this head the contracts and testamentary depositions of the clergy; decisions concerning the real estate, movable property, usu- fructs, revenues, income and rights of churches and eccle- siastical persons; ordinances and sentences concerning cler- ical crimes and punishments which had an influence on the civil rights of the clergy; marriage laws, in so far as they affected the civil contract and its effects; privileges, dispen- sations, immunities and exemptions for the benefit of re- ligious confessions, parishes, members of religious societies and the places and property devoted to religious uses, in so far as they concerned political or civil relations; general standards in regard to the building and maintenance of churches and other ecclesiastical buildings; decisions con- cerning admission to ecclesiastical benefices; and directions 292 [292 293 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 293 concerning the establishment of church registers as a basis for population tables, and as registers of the civil status of persons, and concerning the legality of parochial docu- ments.* From the time of Maximilian IV Joseph’s accession in 1799, the government seems to have endeavored to return to the principles of the declaration of 16 August, 1779. At least Montgelas asserts that betrothal cases again came under the jurisdiction of the secular tribunals and that an effort was made to restore successively to the secular tribu- nals all the functions that, according to usage and the con- 17, “§72. Die Religions- und Kirchen-Gesellschaften mtissen sich in Angelegenheiten, die sie mit anderen biigerlichen Gesellschaften gemein haben, nach den Gesezen des Staats richten. § 73. Diesen Gesezen sind in ihren biirgerlichen Beziehungen sowohl die Obern der Kirche, als einzelne Mitglieder derselben auf gleiche Art unterworfen. i § 74. Zur Beseitigung aller kiinftigen Anstande werden nach solchen Beziehungen als weltliche Gegenstande erklart: (a) alle Vertrage und leztwidrige Dispositionen der Geistlichen, (b) alle Bestimmungen iiber liegende Giiter u. s. w. fahrende Habe, Nuzung, Renten, Rechte der Kirchen und kirchlichen Personen, (c) Verordnungen und Erkenntnisse tiber Verbrechen und Strafen der Geistlichen, welche auf ihre biirgerlichen Rechte einen Einfluss haben, (d) Ehegeseze, in soferne sie den biirgerlichen Vertrag und dessen Wirkungen betreffen, (e) Privilegien, Dispensationen, Immunitaten, Exemptionen zum Besten ganzer Kirchen-Gesellschaften, einzelner Gemeinden oder Gesellschafts-Genossen, oder der dem Religions-Dienste gewidmeten Orte und Giiter, in soferne sie politische oder biirgerliche Verhaltnisse bertihren ; (f) allgemeine Normen tiber die Verbindlichkeit zur Erbauung und Erhaltung der Kirchen und geistlichen Gebaude; (zg) Bestimmungen iiber die Zulassung zu Kirchen-Pfriinden ; (h) Vorschriften tiber die Einrichtung der Kirchen-Listen, als Quellen der Bevolkerungs-Verzeichnisse, Register des Civil-Standes, und iiber die Legalitat der pfarrlichen Dokumente.” Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1800, p. 897, et seq., “ Edikt tiber die ausseren Rechts-Verhalt- misse der Einwohner des Ko6nigreichs Baiern ... ,” 24 Mar., 1800. 294 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [294 cordats, they should have shared with the diocesan courts.* It is very unlikely, however, that the government made much progress in this direction until the secularizations of 1802 and 1803 had removed many of the difficulties which previously had stood in the way of the government.* Any ereat invasion of the rights of the bishops would have cre- ated an outcry which would have brought to their assistance effective aid from Austria. In 1803, however, the power of the bishops to oppose the temporal authorities was greatly weakened and the actions of the Bavarian government had the sanction of the “Conclusion of the Empire” and the support of the mediating powers. The effect of the “ Con- clusion of the Empire” on the bishops was to leave them their rank while depriving them of their power. They were to conserve their personal dignity with the rank that was attached to it and to enjoy their personal immediacy. They were to retain, likewise, their jurisdiction over the persons employed in their personal service in such a way that after they had informed the superior authorities of the country, they were to be able to choose in civil cases the tribunal of first instance to which the cases were to be carried. In criminal cases they were to be able to make the preliminary investigations. Civil cases were then to pass like other cases 1“ Quant a la police du culte et a l’exercise de la jurisdiction ecclé- siastique V. M. des l’époque de son avénement songea a rappeler les dispositions de la déclaration du 16 aotit 1779, dont on s’étoit trop écarté dans les derniéres années du feu électeur. L’édit du rer aottt 1769 qui rendoit aux tribunaux séculiers la compétence en matiére de fiancailles fut renouvelé et exécuté, on s’attacha a leur rendre sticcessivement toutes les attributions que suivant l’usage et les concordats ils auroient dit partager avec les officialités.” Montgelas, Denkwuiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 124. 2“ Tes sécularisations en soumettant les évéques a la souveraineté de V. M. diminuérent les moyens de resistance qu’ils auroient pu opposer a ce plan et en facilitérent l’exécution.” Ibid. 295 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 295 to the courts of appeal of the sovereign. After the question of competence was duly established in criminal cases the accused was to be brought before the criminal courts of the country. The servitors of the bishops, however, were to submit to the laws, and in particular to the police regula- tions of the country. The bishops received no guarantees concerning the other rights of jurisdiction which they had exercised.* The Bavarian government began to make use almost im- mediately of the opportunity to extend its jurisdiction at the expense of the bishops which the secularizations of 1802 and 1803 afforded it. Under date of 28 December, i802, the subordinate officials of the government in Swabia were ordered to discontinue the practice of handling the estates of the deceased clergy in cooperation with ecclesiastical officials. When a clergyman died thereafter they were to take exclusive charge for the benefit of the secular court of the sealing, handling and settlement of his property. In order, however, that there might be no interference with the performance of the divine services in the case of the bene- ficed clergymen, the sacred vessels and other indispensable 1“§xlIviii. Tous les souverains depossédés conservent leur dignité personelle, avec le rang qui y est attaché, de meme que la jouissance de leur immediateté personelle. § xlix. Les princes évéques, . . . conservent en outre la jurisdiction sur les personnes employées a leur service, de maniére qu’ils puissent, dans les causes civiles, choisir, aprés en avoir informé les autorités superieures du pays, le tribunal de premiére instance auquel elles devront étre portees, et dans les cas criminels, prendre les premiéres informations. Les causes civiles passeront, quant aux autres instances, aux tribunaux d’appel du souverain; dans les affaires criminelles au contraire, lorsque la compétence sera duement constatée, le prévenu sera traduit devant les tribunaux criminels du pays. Il est entendu que tous les serviteurs d’un tel prince devront se soumettre aux lois exis- tantes du pays; ou qui pourront etre rendues dans la suite et particu- liérement aux ordonnances de police.” “Recés de la députation de YEmpire,” in Martens, Recueil des traités, vol. vii, pp. 500-511 (2d ed.). 296 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [296 things were to be entrusted to safe hands. For the purpose of taking charge of these things, a representative of the rural dean concerned could be admitted to the proceedings, but not the slightest share in the judicial handling of the property was to be conceded to this representative. The unsealing, disposal and delivery of the property of the clergy to the heirs was to be done in the same manner. In case the ecclesiastical courts or officials had reason to lay claim to a clerical estate, they were to be informed of the date fixed for the delivery of the estate, in order that they might make good their claims like other persons.*. The provincial decree of 18 February, 1803, established the procedure to be fol- '“ Es ist unterm 28 Dezember vorigen Jahrs ... an diesseitig pro- visorische Regierung dahier bekannt gemacht worden, dass in der Chur- bayerisch schwabischen Provinz keine geistliche Cumulativ mehr bei der Behandlung geistlicher Verlassenschaften statt haben solle; als erhalten (1) die zu dem herwartigen Regierungsbezirk gehorigen Stadte und ubrigen Amtsbehorden den gemessensten Auftrag, bei allen sich erei- genden Sterbfallen der Geistlichen nicht nur die Obsignation tiber das zuruckgelassene Vermogen, sondern auch die Erbschaftsverhandlungen und Auseinandersetzung von weltlichen Gerichts wegen alleinig und ausschliesslich vorzunehmen, damit aber (2) bei prabendirten geistlichen Personen keine Hemmung in den gottesdienstlichen Verrichtungen entstehe, so sind die heiligen Gefasse und andere unentbehrlichen Stiicke von der ‘Sperre auszunehmen und in sichere Hande zu tibergeben. Zu dieser Uebernahme kann (3) ein Abgeordneter des betreffenden Decanats, welchem jedoch nicht die geringste Theilnahme an der gerichtlichen Verhandlung ein- zuraumen ist, zugelassen werden. . . . Eben so ist (4) bei der Entsiegelung, Auseinandersetzung und Verabfolgung der geistlichen Verlassenschaften an derselben Erben privative ftrzu- schreiten, und da Falle sich ergeben konnen, wo die geistlichen Gerichte oder Behorden an die Erbmasse des Verstorbenen einigen Anspruch zu machen hatten, so solle ihnen von dem zu Ausantwortung der Verlassen- schaft festgesetzten Termin Nachricht gegeben werden, damit sie gleich jedem andern Betheiligten ihre Anspriiche geltend machen konnen.” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. I, pp. 148-149, “ Cumulativ-Behandlung der geistlichen Verlassenschaften betr.,” Dillingen, 25 Jan., 1803. 297] INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 297 lowed when members of the clergy were named as executors in the wills of clergymen. In such cases the clergymen named as executors were to be admitted as witnesses to the proceedings of the secular courts in order that they might be convinced that the testament had been executed according to the wishes of the testator." The principles applied to Swabia in the decree just described were gradually extended to the other territories of the realm. Ina decree of 23 June, 1803, they were applied to the military clergy of Bavaria; ° in an ordinance of 23 August, they were extended to Fran- conia; * and in a decree of 18 November, 1803, they were applied to the ordinary clergy of Upper and Lower Bavaria.* These principles were finally incorporated in the organic religious edict of 24 March, 1809.° An ordinance of 13 November, 1803, was directed against the practice of sending the wills of the clergy to the dio- cesan court for confirmation. From that date on no mem- ee”... bei allen ohne Unterschied sich ergebenden \Sterbfallen der Pfarrer und Beneficiaten, auch sonst prabendirten Geistlichen, die privative Erbschafts-Verhandlung von weltlicher Behorde auch dann vorgenommen werden solle, wenn gleich in geistlichen Testamenten Geistliche zu ‘/Executoren ernannt sind, indem Letztere in diesem Falle lediglich als Zeugen zu den amtlichen Verhandlungen zugelassen, damit sie sich iiberzeugen mdgen, dass das Testament nach dem Sinn des Tes- tators in Vollzug gesetzt werde.” Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. 1, p. 149, “ Privatweltliche Verhandlung der geistlichen Verlassenschaften betr.,” Dillingen, 18 Feb., 1803. 2 Tbid., vol. 8, pt. i, p. 150, “ Die Obsignationen und Erbschafts-Ver- handlungen bei ‘Sterbfallen Militar-Geistlichen betr.,” 25 Jun., 1803. 3 Jbid., vol. 8, pt. i, p. 151, “ Die Obsignationen und Erbschafts-Ver- handlungen bei Sterbfallen geistlicher Personen betr.,” Bamberg, 23 August, 1803. 4 Regierungsblatt, 23 Nov., 1803, pp. 956-957, “ Die Behandlung geist- licher Verlassenschaften betr.,” 18 Nov., 1803. 5 Tbid., 14 Jun., 1800, p. 897, et seq., “‘ Edikt ttber die ausseren Rechts- Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern... ,” 24 Mar., 1800. 298 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [298 ber of the clergy was to be obliged to present a will for con- firmation to the diocesan court, as the practice was a sort of secular jurisdiction.* The prohibition was extended to the provinces of Wurzburg and Bamberg by an ordinance of 5 December, 1803.* In a provincial ordinance of 9 March, 1807, applying to Bamberg, the prohibition was re- peated and the bishop was deprived, in addition, of the privilege of inheriting the estates of members of the clergy who died intestate. In the future the treasury of the state was to take the place of the bishop in such cases.* After the dissolution of the monasteries the Bavarian ‘Tn Erwagung, dass die bey Vermachtnissen geistlicher Personen iblich gewesene Bestatigung des Vikariats eine bloss den Gang der Geschafte verzOgernde Formlichkeit gewesen ist, wodurch den Bethei- ligten kein rechtliches Prajudiz erwachsen konnte, und in weiterer Erwagung, dass dieses aus einer Art weltlicher Gerichtsbarkeit her- vorgehende Befugniss, bey den veranderten Verhaltnissen der Vika- riate, welche nunmehr sich lediglich mit Gegendstanden des obersthirt- lichen Amtes zu beschaftigen haben,—nicht mehr zustehen konne, haben Wir beschlossen, die erwahnte Férmlichkeit der Testaments- Bestatigungen aufzuheben, und verordnen daher, dass kein Geistlicher zur Einsendung letzwilliger Vermachtnisse von nun angefangen, mehr schuldig und gehalten seyn solle.” Regierungsblatt, 23 Nov., 1803, p. 955, ‘“Verordnung: die Testaments-Bestatigung bey Vermachtnissen geistlicher Personen betr.,” 13 Nov., 1803. 2 Dollinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. i, p. 155, “ Verordnung: die Testaments- Bestatigung bei Vermachtnissen geistlicher Personen,” Bamberg, 5 Dec., 1803. $“(4) Die vorhin bei Vermachtnissen der Geistlichen ublich gewesene Formlichkeit der Bestatigung durch das bischdfliche Vikariat bleibt in Zukunft nebst der hieftir bezogenen Taxe durchgehends aufgehoben. (5) Eben so cessirt nach Bestimmungen des Reichs-Deputations- Schlusses des mit dem reinen Hirtenamte unvertragliche fiscalische Successionsrecht der Bischofe in den Verlassenschaften der ohne Tes- tament verstorbenen Geistlichen. .. . (7) Sind aber keine rechtmassigen Erbfolger mehr vorhanden, so succedirt der landesherrliche Fiscus in der namlichen Art, wie bei weltlichen erblosen Riicklassen.” Jbid., vol. 8, pt. i, p. 157, “ Die Erb- folge in den Verlassenschaften der Bambergischen Geistlichkeit betr.,” Q Mar., 1807. 299 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 299 government found it necessary to legislate concerning the position of the monks and nuns who had been turned out into the world again. The most important measure of the government dealing with this matter was an ordinance of 17 November, 1803. Except in the case of those members of religious orders who remained in the central institutions after the suppression of their monasteries, all ordinances against the ownership and inheritance of property by con- ventuals and members of the regular clergy were declared null and void. [From the time of the dissolution of their monasteries or their departure from their houses with elec- toral approval, religious persons without distinction as to order or rank were to be permitted to own, inherit and be- queath property like other inhabitants of the state. After the proclamation of the ordinance, furthermore, such per- sons were not to be excluded from an inheritance by other heirs, under the pretext of their renunciation of the world or of a definite sum established by the amortization laws. The provisions just described were specifically extended also to the religious persons who had abandoned their houses during earlier reigns and had received permission to obtain benefices; to the nuns who had received electoral permis- sion to leave their convents or whose houses had been sup- pressed ; and to the members of the regular clergy who were regularly presented and invested as parish priests, perma- nent vicars and local chaplains.* After the suppression of 1“ (Wir haben beschlossen] ...... (1) Alle in Unsern Erbstaaten bestehende Verordnungen gegen die Eigenthums- und Erbfahigkeit der Klosterleute und Regular-Personen unter folgenden nahern Bestimmungen fiir aufgehoben zu erklaren, dass (2) Alle Religiosen ohne Unterschied des Ordens und der Wiirde, von der Zeit der wirklichen erfolgten Aufldsung der respektiven Klos- tergemeinden, oder des mit Unserer landesfiirstlichen Bewilligung erfolgten Austrittes einzelner Individuen, Eigenthums- und Erbfahig, sohin zu allen Handlungen und rechtlichen Geschaften unter Lebenden, oder von Todes wegen, insbesondere aber dazu befugt seyn sollen, iiber 300 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [ 300 the Knights of Malta, similar rights were given to the com- manders and knights of the order by an ordinance of 31 March, 1809.* The first general statement of Maximilian IV Joseph’s government concerning the amount of jurisdiction to be conceded to the ecclesiastical and secular courts in the future seems to have been contained in the ordinance of 18 November, 1803, concerning the handling of clerical estates, which has already been referred to. As has been mentioned, all truly spiritual matters were to be left, as before, under ihr gleich anfangs von Uns als solches anerkanntes Privatgut . . . oder tuber ihr in der Folge ausser dem Kloster gesezmassig erworbenes Vermogen Testamente zu errichten, und solches an andere zu vererben, dann auch andern als Testaments-Erben oder ab intestato zu succed- iren, Legaten und Schankungen von Todeswegen anzunehmen uw. s. w. Demnach modgen sie auch (3) in Zukunft von andern weltlichen Erben unter dem Vorwande der geleisteten Verzicht, oder einer in den Amortizations-Gesetzen bestimmten pragmatischen Summe, von einer Erbschaft weiter aus- geschlossen werden, .. . (5) Diese Verordnungen sollen sich auch auf jene Religiosen erstrecken, welche schon unter den vorigen \Regierungen mit landes- furstlicher Bewilligung die Klauser verlassen, und die Befahigung zu Sakular-Benefizien erhalten haben. (6) Die Nonnen sollen an allen obigen Rechten auf gleiche Art von dem Zeitpunkte an Theil nehmen, wo ganze Konvente aufgeldset, oder Einzelne mit landesfiirstlich Erlaubniss dieselbe verlassen wiirden;... (7) Sind zwar die auf den ehemaligen Kloster-Pfarreyen exponirten Religiosen, wenn sie nicht bloss provisorisch daselbst bestehen, sondern in der Folge ordentlich prasentirt, und investirt, oder sonst als Pfarrer und respective bestandige Vikarien oder Lokal-Kaplane definitiv be- stattiget werden, von nun an als ausgetrettene Religiosen zu betrachten, sohin ebenfalls Eigenthums-Erbfahig; dagegen (8) bleiben die in den Kl6dstern und Central-Konventen kinftig vereinigt fortlebenden Individuen der Religiosen-Orden ausgenommen.” Regierungsblatt, 14 Dec., 1803, pp. 997-1000, “ Verordnung: die Eigen- thums- und Erbfahigkeit der Religiosen betr.,” 17 Nov., 1803. 1Tbid., 12 Apr., 1809, p. 641, “ Konigliche allerhochste Erklarung: die Erb-Testaments- und sonstige Dispositionsfahigkeit der Kommandeurs, Ritter u. s. w. des Maltheser-Ordens teutschen Grosspriorats betr.,” 31 Mar., 1800. 301 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 301 the jurisdiction of the spiritual authorities. The temporal government, however, expressly retained its rights of pro- tection and supervision. In secular matters, on the con- trary, both in the civil crimes of the clergy and in matters like tithes, which by their nature were secular, the jurisdic- tion was to be exercised by the proper secular court.1 The organic edict of 7 May, 1804, delimited the spheres of the secular and the ecclesiastical authorities even more specifi- cally. ‘The temporal courts, according to this ordinance, were to have complete jurisdiction over the criminal offences of the clergy, civil lawsuits of a personal nature, and dis- putes arising out of legal contracts and the estates of de- ceased clergymen. Merely disciplinary matters, which re- lated solely to the standing and official position of the clergy, were to be left to the investigation and jurisdiction of the bishop, as long as the protection of the state against a misuse of the ecclesiastical power was not sought. When an appeal for the protection of the state was made in such a case, however, nothing was to be decided before a pre- liminary investigation had been made by the state. The ecclesiastical authorities were then to be informed of the results of the government’s investigation. In criminal cases of the clergy, on the other hand, the diocesan court was to 1“ cr) Alle wahrhaft geistliche Sachen sollen, wie zuwor, der geist- lichen Gerichtsbarkeit ungest6ret unterworfen bleiben, und der geist- lichen Gewalt sollen in die Gerechtsame ihres Oberhirtenamtes, foglich in Gegenstanden der Religion, der Amtsftthrung, der (Lehre, und des Wandels der unter ihrer Aufsicht stehenden Geistlichkeit keine Ein- eriffe, oder Einmischungen geschehen; jedoch werden dabey in den geeigneten Fallen Seiner Churfirstlichen Durchlaucht der landesfurst- liche Schutz und die Oberaufsichts-Rechte vorbehalten. (2) In weltlichen Angelegenheiten der Geistlichen aber, so wie in ihren burgerlichen Verbrechen, und in Gegenstanden, die nach ihrer Natur weltliche sind, als Zehenden . . . gebiithrt die Erkenntniss in der Regel den churfiirstlichen einschlagigen Justizstellen. ...” Regierungs- blatt, 23 Nov., 1803, pp. 955-957, “ Verordnung: die Behandlung geist- licher Verlassenschaften betr.,” 18 Nov., 1803. 302 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [302 be informed of the results of the government’s investiga- tion, in order that it might take suitable action in regard to the ecclesiastical position of the criminal. In like manner, the government expected to be informed by the diocesan authorities of the disciplinary transgressions of the clergy and the punishments inflicted upon them. These general principles were expressly incorporated into the organic re- ligious edict of 24 March, 1809.7 In 1810 they were defi- nitely extended to the newly acquired principality of Re- gensburg.* According to a statement of Montgelas, the 1“41. Obgleich in Ansehung der Gerichtsbarkeit iiber Geistliche in ihren peinlichen Vergehen, in biirgerlichen Personal-Klagsachen und bey allen tbrigen aus biirgerlichen Kontrakten hervorgehenden Streitsachen, dann in Sterbfallen der Geistlichkeit, es bey Unseren erlassenen Verordnungen sein Verbleiben behalt, so soll doch in blossen Disziplinarsachen, welche einzig auf die geistliche Standes- und Amts- verhaltnisse sich beziehen, dem Einflusse des Oberhirtenamtes des Bischofes kein Hinderniss entgegen gesezt, sondern solche sollen seiner Untersuchung und Judikatur tberlassen bleiben, wenn nicht Unser landesfiirstlicher Schutz gegen Missbrauch der geistlichen Gewalt nach- gesucht wird, in welchem Falle jedoch nichts verfiigt worden soll, ohne die Beschwerde zuvor untersucht, und die geistlichen Behorden dartiber vernommen zu haben. Bey peinlichen Fallen sollen die Ordinariate allezeit von dem Erfolge der Untersuchung in Kenntniss gesezt werden, um darnach auch von ihre Seite gegen die Person des Verbrechers, in Beziehung auf seine geistlichen Verhaltnisse, das Geeigne e verfiigen zu konnen. Eben so erwartet man von den Ordinariaten, diss sie den weltlichen Landesstellen die Disziplinar-Vergehen, und ihre Bestrafung anzeigen werden... .” Regierungsblatt, 23 May, 1804, p. 500, et Seq., “Verordnung: die Verhaltnisse zur geistlichen Gewalt betr.,” 7 May, 1804. 2 Ibid., 14 Jun., 1809, p. 897, et seq., “ Edikt uber die aussern Rechts- ” Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des K6nigreichs Baiern .. . ,” 24 March, 1809, §§ 76, 79 and 80. >“ Nachdem das Ftirstenthum Regensburg mit Unserm Konigreiche vereinigt worden, so erklaren Wir hiemit die geistliche Gerichtsbarkeit, so weit sich dieselbe auf biirgerliche Handlungen und Verhaltnisse bezieht, und jeden privilegirten Gerichtsstand der geistlichen Personen fiir erloschen und aufgehoben.” Ddllinger, Sammlung, Baterische V erordnungen, vol. 8, th. i, pp. 123-124, “ Die geistliche Gerichtsbarkeit in dem ehemaligen Fiirstenthume Regetisburg betr.,” 30 Aug., 1810. 303 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 303 matrimonial causes of Catholics and the separation of the bodies and goods of Catholics, were decided by the eccle- siastical tribunals, but the secular judges took cognizance of all that related directly or indirectly to the civil effects of marriage, and of actions relative to betrothals.* The government evidently had little difficulty in broad- ening its jurisdiction at the expense of the ecclesiastical authorities. The ordinance of 22 April, 1806, which as- serted that various ecclesiastical officials were still issuing orders in civil suits of the clergy and appropriating for themselves jurisdiction over such cases,? seems to have been the only complaint made by the government against the spiritual authorities. By the end of the Napoleonic period the opposition of the bishops to the policy of the Bavarian government must have ceased entirely, since the bishops of Eichstaedt and Passau and the archbishop of Ratisbon were the only Bavarian bishops who survived the Napoleonic period.® 1“ Tes causes matrimoniales, les séparations de corps et de biens des Catholiques, appartenoient aux tribunaux ecclésiastiques, mais les juges séculiers prenoient connoissance de tout ce qui directement ou indirecte- ment tenoit aux effets civils du mariage, regardé comme contrat et des proces relatifs aux fiangailles.’ Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die annere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 144. 2“ Da nun verschiedene geistliche Behorde noch immer fortfahren, Verftigungen in biirgerlichen Personal-Klagsachen der Geistlichen zu erlassen, sich die Entscheidung derselben zuzueignen, und den konig- lichen Unterthanen zwecklose Kosten zu veranlassen, so sieht die unter- zeichnete konigliche Landes-Direktion sich verpflichtet, die aller- gnadigsten Verordnungen im Betreffe des geistlichen Gerichtsstandes in Erinnerung zu bringen.” Regierungsblatt, 23 Apr., 1806, p. 148, “Verordnung: die Gerichtsbarkeit iiber die geistliche Personen betr.,” 22 Apr., 1806. 3 “Tis n’existoient que deux évéques, celui d’Eichstaedt et de Passau, et un archeveque, .. . [au 2 février 1817].” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 143. The archbishop of Salzburg, as has already been explained, retired to his family estates in Bohemia after the secularizations of 1802 and 1803. 304 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [304 In two respects the clergy were not put on an exact equality with the other subjects of the state. They received complete exemption from military service and some slight exemption from taxation. The subject of the military ser- vice of the clergy seems to have been mentioned for the first time in an ordinance of 6 July, 1809, concerning the establishment of a national guard. By this measure em- ployees of the state, physicians and the clergy were ex- empted from taking part in the actual military service.* By an ordinance of 25 July, 1800, the parish priests and other beneficed clergymen engaged in the care of souls were freed from contributing to the support of the national guard.* In the conscription law of 1812, Catholic theological students, who had been permitted to receive ordination to the higher orders of the priesthood and Protestants accepted as candi- dates for the pastoral office were exempted from military service.* In an ordinance of 22 May, 1814, the clergy of 1“... Da aber die Staatsdiener, Aerzte und Geistlichen durch die nicht minder wichtigen Geschafte ihres Berufes grossentheils gehindert sind, an dem wirklichen Dienste Antheil zu nehmen, so soll es denselben gestattet seyn, die sie trefenden Dienste durch andere eingereihete National-Gardisten versehen zu lassen.” Regierungsblatt, 12 July, 1809, p. 1003, et seq., “Organische Verordnung iiber die Einrichtung einer National Garde.,” 6 July, 1809. 2“ (3) die Pfarrer und tibrigen bepfriindeten, wirklich mit der Seelsorge beschaftigen Geistlichen sind von der Leistung der Beitrage befreit zu halten; ...” Jbid., 2 Aug., 1809, pp. 1193-1194, “ Verord- nung: die Theilnahme der Geistlichen an der National Garde betr.,” 25 July, 1809. 3 “858. (c) Eben dasselbe gilt bei denjenigen, welche sich in einem geistlichen Seminar befinden, um sich fiir den geistlichen Stand aus zubilden. Wird es den darin befindlichen Katholiken gestattet, die hohern Weihen zu empfangen, und werden die Protestanten als Pfarramts- Kandidaten aufgenommen, um zu Ordination nach, der eingefiihrten Kirchenordnung zugelassen zu werden, so wird ihnen ebenfalls die Entlassung aus der Militarpflichtigkeit bewilliget.” Regierungsblatt, 8 Apr., 1812, p. 593, et seq., “ Verordnung: Konscriptions-Gesez.,” 29 Mar., 1812. eo 305 | INTERVENTION OF THE GOVERNMENT 305 all the religious confessions were definitely forbidden to enter the army.’ By decrees dated 19 June, 1810, 2 January, 1811, and 3 July, 1812, the government exempted the incomes of parish priests with incomes yielding less than six hundred florins, and the incomes of other beneficed clergymen when their incomes yielded less than four hundred florins, from both direct and communal taxation.” By a proclamation of 29 May, 1812, the Protestant clergymen with incomes of eight hundred florins or less were exempted from taxation.* The reason for this action of the government was the advance in prices which had brought the Protestant clergymen with their numerous families almost to the state of mendicancy.* 1“ y, Keine Geistlichen Unseres Konigreiches, ohne Unterschied der christlichen Confessionen, soll gestattet werden, sich in ein Militarcorps einreihen zu lassen, und personlichen Waffendienst zu leisten. “si. Keiner soll zu einer personellen Substitution oder zu irgend einer Reluition jenes Dienstes in Geld gehalten sein.” Ddllinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. i, p. 179, “Die Exemption der Geistlichen vom pers6nlichen Militardienste und von der Reluition der- selben betr.,” 22 May, 1814. 2“ Le gouvernement eleva jusqu’a six cents florins les portions con- erues qui jusqu’ici n’avoient été que 300 florins et exempta les dites portions congrues de tout impot direct et charges communales par décrets du 19 juin 1810, 2 janvier 1811, 3 juillet 1812.” Montgelas, op. ett, p. 134. 3“ (1) Die wunverehlichten protestantischen Geistlichen sind den Katholischen gleich zu halten, und muss denselben eine Kongrua von 600 fl. respektive 400 fl. frei bleiben. (2) Bei den verheuratheten Geistlichen soll diese Kongrua auf 800 fl. fiir die Pfarrer, und auf 600 fl. fiir jene, welche den katholischen Benefiziaten gleich zu achten sind, erhoht werden.” Regierungsblatt, 17 Jun., 1812, p. 904, et seq., “ Bekanntmachung: die Besteuerung der protestantischen Geistlichkeit betr.,” 29 May, 1812. 4“ Cette mesure amenée par l’augmentation progressive du prix des choses étoit également juste et nécessaire. I1 falloit mettre les pasteurs en état d’exister avec décence, si on vouloit que leur ministére fut respecté; les plaintes des ministres protestans reduits presqu’a mendi- cité avec leur nombreuses familles l’appeloient d’ailleurs depuis long- temps.” Montgelas, op. cit., p. 134. Hs f \ \ Woe Mi : iB Pi area) oh Mey tse Dir Lee A) oe Oe ely eae Pate deai tet th 1) } WW \ Yh di wis } ni } ; Uae i } : Ais i ] Ay} Wy) ii, ay Ms WPAN ie aN i . ee MA Dea eH hes %, ¢ » Pit aT} Diya: y t ‘4 pes Wd) ‘ y, I j { MP fis t ‘ - i ‘ y wan aK WAS ; i an eT aa hue ah a Naeger un Hae rm ee { Ye eee a! An na Tt aed it ai eed PART III fate rN VANeEN TD EPERCTS OF THE. RE- Pwo ory POLLOWERD BY THE BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT DURING DHE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD CEEAT TR iT RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA AFTER I815 THE rights and privileges which had been acquired, grad- ually, by non-Catholics in Bavaria during the Napoleonic period were retained by them after 1815, and in most cases these rights and privileges were again guaranteed to them in important constitutional documents. The first of these documents, in point of time, was the constitution of the German Confederation, which was signed at Vienna, 8 June, 1815. Article XVI of this constitution definitely stipulated that, in the lands and territories of the Confederation, the religious differences of Christians could not form the basis for discrimination in regard to their enjoyment of civil and political rights. The Jews, on the other hand, were merely promised that the diet of the Confederation would take up for consideration the means of effecting an improvement of the civil position of the Jews in Germany, so that in partic- ular the enjoyment of civil rights might be provided and assured them in return for their assumption of all civil duties in the states of the Confederation.’ 1“ Die Verschiedenheit der Christlichen Religionsparteyen kann in den Landern und Gebieten des Deutschen Bundes keinen Unterschied in dem Genuss der btirgerlichen und politischen Rechte begriinden. Die Bundesversammlung wird in Berathung ziehen, wie auf eine moglichst ubereinstimmende Weise die birgerliche Verbesserung der Bekenner des jiidischen Glaubens in Deutschland zu bewirken sey, und wie insonderheit denselben der Genuss der btirgerlichen Rechte gegen die Uebernahme aller Biirgerpflichten in den Bundesstaaten verschaft und gesichert werden kénne. Jedoch werden den Bekennern dieses Glaubens bis dahin die von den einzelnen Bundesstaaten bereits ein- gerdumten Rechte erhalten.” Art. xvi, Martens, Nouveau recueil des traités, vol. 2, pp. 353-367. 309] 309 310 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [310 As far as the position of non-Catholics was concerned, the Bavarian constitution of 26 May, 1818, was in itself a document of much less importance than two documents which were issued as supplements to the constitution. The principle of freedom of conscience, however, was confirmed in two different places in the constitution,’ and the three publicly accepted Christian churches were again guaranteed full equality in regard to civil and political rights. The members of non-Christian religions, on the contrary, were to continue to enjoy only such civic rights as had been con- ceded to them in the organic edicts which had established their position in political society.* The two publicly ac- cepted Protestant churches, moreover, were definitely as- signed representation in the two chambers of the Landtag, the legislative body created by the constitution. The presi- dent of the Protestant General Consistorium was to have a seat in the upper chamber,* and one-eighth of the represen- 1“ Rreyheit der Gewissen, und gewissenhafte Scheidung und Schit- zung dessen, was des Staates und der Kirche ist; . . . . Baiern!—Dies sind die Grundziige der aus Unserm freyen Entschlusse euch gegeben Verfassung. ...” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 6 Jun., 1818, p. 102, “ Verfassungs-Urkunde des Konigreichs, Baiern.” “89. Jedem Einwohner des ‘Reichs wird vollkommene Gewissens- Freyheit gesichert. .. .” Ibid., p. 117. Die in dem K6nigreiche bestehenden drey christlichen Kirchen-Gesell- schaften geniessen gleiche btirgerliche und politische Rechte. Die nicht christlichen Glaubens-Genossen haben zwar vollkommene Gewissens-Freyheit; sie erhalten aber an den staatsbirgerlichen Rechten nur in dem Maase einen Antheil,—wie ihnen derselbe in den organischen Edicten tiber ihre Aufnahme in die ‘Staats-Gesellschaft zugesichert ist.” Ibid. 3 “82, Die Kammer der Reichs-Rathe ist zusammengesetzt aus... . (5) ... dem jedesmaligen Prasidenten des protestantischen General- Consistoriums; ... Jbid., p. 121, “ Verfassungs-Urkunde des Konig- reichs, Baiern, Titel vi.” BI] RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA 311 tatives of the lower chamber were to be selected from the Catholic and Protestant clergy.* The second supplement of the constitution of 1818, which defined the rights of the inhabitants of the state in relation to religious and ecclesiastical societies, was almost identical in form and language with the organic religious edict of 24 March, 1809. The provisions of the edict of 1809 in regard to freedom of conscience,? freedom from compulsion in regard to matters of faith and religion, private devotion,® secret gatherings under the pretext of private devotion,* and the necessity for obtaining the express consent of the government for the uniting of several families for the prac- tice of their religion,” were repeated in the law of 1818 in exactly the same language. The two sections of the earlier ordinance, however, in regard to sectarians who withdrew themselves from any of the duties of citizenship were en- tirely omitted.° The sections of the earlier edict in regard to choice of religious party were incorporated in the later 1“$7. Die Zweyte Kammer der Stande-Versammlung bildet sich.... (c) aus Geistlichen der Katholischen und protestantischen Kirche; Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 6 Jun., 1818, p. 123, et seq., “ Verfassung-Urkunde des Konigreichs Baiern, Titel vi.” “So. Von der auf solche Art bestimmten Zahl stellt... .. (b) die Klasse der Geistlichen der Katholischen und protestantischen Kirche ein Achttheil; ...” Jbid. 2 [bid., 17 Jun., 1818, p. 140, et seq., “ Edict tther die aussern Rechts- Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern, in Beziehung auf Religion und kirchliche Gesellschaften,” Zweyte Beylage zur Ver- fassungs-Urkunde des Reichs, Abschnitt i, § 1, 26 May, 1818. 3 [bid., § 2. 4 Ibid., § 4. 5 Ibid., § 3. 6 Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1809, p. 807, et seq., “ Edikt tiber die aus- seren Rechtsverhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern ... .,” $§ 2 and 3, 24 Mar., 1809. 212 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [312 edict without any change whatsoever. The same thing was true in regard to most of the sections of the two edicts which dealt with the religious situation of the children of parents belonging to different churches.* The later edict, however, modified in some respects the provisions of the earlier edict in regard to the religious education of the chil- dren when one of the parents adopted the religion of the other parent. When such a change of religious allegiance took place, and the religious education of the children was not regulated by a marriage contract, the children were to be educated in the religion of the parents, unless they had already been taken into a church of another confession through confirmation or communion.* The section of the earlier edict, moreover, which specifically confirmed to the children the right to choose their church after they had reached the age of twenty-one, was omitted in the edict of 1818." The Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed Churches were again recognized by law as the publicly accepted churches of the state.” The sections of the ordinance of 1818 which 1 Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 17 Jun., 1818, p. 149, et seq., ‘“Edikt tiber die 4ussern Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konig- reichs Baiern. .. .” Abschnitt i, Capitel 2, 26 May, 1818. *Ibid., Capitel 3. 3“... geht aber ein Ehegatte zur Religion des andern tiber, und die Ehe hort dadurch auf, gemischt zu seyn, so folgen die Kinder der nun gleichen Religion ihrer Eltern, ausgenommen sie waren—dem beste- henden Ehevertrag gemass—durch die Confirmation oder Communion bereits in die Kirche einer andern Confession aufgenommen, in welchem Falle sie bis zum erlangten Unterscheidungs-Jahre darin zu belassen sind.” Ibid., § 18. * Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1800, p. 807, et seq., “ Edikt tiber die aus- seren Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern . . .,” Abschnitt i, Kapitel 3, § 27, 24 Mar., 1809. °“Die in dem Konigreiche bestehenden drey christlichen Glaubens- Confessionen sind als Offentliche Kirchen-Gesellschaften mit gleichen 313 | RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA on dealt with the position of non-Catholic individuals and soci- eties,* the rights and privileges of accepted ecclesiastical societies,” and of the relations of such societies to each other,* were likewise practically identical with the sections of the ordinance of 1809 which dealt with the same matters. The government which was to be set up for the two pub- licly accepted Protestant churches was defined in the second appendix to section 103 of the supplement to the constitu- tion of 1818, which has just been described. The chief organ of government was to be an Ober-Consistorium, com- posed of a president and five councillors. This body was to be subordinate to the minister of interior, and one of the five councillors was to belong to the Reformed Church.* In spite of the government’s renewal of the guarantees under which the Protestants of Bavaria had been living, there are indications that after 1815 there were some birgerlichen und politischen Rechten, nach den unten forgenden nahern Bestimmungen anerkannt.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreitch Baiern, 17 Jun., 1818, p. 140, et seq., “ Edikt iiber die 4ussern Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern....” Abschnitt ii, Capitel 1, § 24, 26 May, 1818. 1 Tbid., §§ 25, 26 und 27. 2 Tbid., Abschnitt ii, Capitel 2. 3 Tbid., Abschnitt iv. *“81. Das oberste Episcopat und die hervorgehende Leitung der Protestantischen innern Kirchen-Angelegenheiten soll kiinftig durch ein selbststandiges Ober-Consistorium ausgetibt werden, welches dem Staats- Ministerium des Innern unmittelbar untergeordnet ist. §2. Dasselbe besteht: (a) aus einem Prasidenten des Protestantischen Glaubens-Bekennt- nisses ; (b) aus vier geistlichen Ober-Consistorialrathen, unter welchen Einer der reformirten Religion ist; (c) aus einem weltlichen Rathe;... Gesetzblatt fiir das Koénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 437, et seq., “Edikt iiber die innern Kirchlichen Angelegenheiten der Protestant- ischen Gesammt-Gemeinde in dem KoOnigreiche.,” 26 May, 1818. ” 314 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [314 social and political disadvantages in being a Protestant. In 1819, for example, at a time when the Protestants numbered over a million persons and constituted nearly one-third of the population of the state, there was not a single Protestant among the eight ministers of the central government. Fur- thermore, only one of the sixteen Staatsrathen, four of the fifteen ambassadors, four of the twenty-six Mimstenal- Rdathen, four of the thirty-one Ober-A ppelationsrathen, three of the thirteen Appelations-Gerichts-Prasidenten, four of the thirteen Kreis-Regierungs-Prisidenten, and one of the eleven Appelations-Gerichts-Direktoren were Protestants. Among the subordinate servants of the state the dispropor- tion was declared to be equally glaring.* Since 1818, only one additional church has been recog- nized by the government as a publicly accepted religious society. The law of 1 July, 1834, extended to the members of the different branches of the Greek Orthodox Church the same civil and political rights as were enjoyed by the mem- bers of the three other churches recognized by the govern- ment as publicly accepted churches. The law itself, fur- thermore, was declared a fundamental law of the kingdom 1“ Obgleich Baiern jetzt unter seinen Bewohnern tiber eine Million Protestanten zahlte,—diese also fast 4 seiner Bevolkerung ausmachten, —und obwohl die Constitution den drei christlichen Confessionen gleiche Rechte und Ansprtche auf alle ‘Staatsamter zusprach, gab es doch unter den acht Staats-Ministern nicht einen Protestanten. Unten den 16 Staatsrathen war nur ein Protestant; unter den 15 Gesandten nur 4; unter den 26 Ministerialrathen gleichfall nur 4; unter den 31 Ober- Appelationsrathen wieder nur 4; unter den 13 Appelations-Gerichts- Prasidenten nur 3; unter den 13 Kreis-Regierungs-Prasidenten eben- falls nur 4; und unter den 11 Appelations-Gerichts-Direktoren nur I Protestant. Diese seltsame Erscheinung welche bei den unteren Staatsdiener- Klassen fast noch greller als bei den hohen Staatsamtern hervortrat, konnte schwerlich auf Rechnung des blossen Zufalls geschrieben wer- den... .” G. G. Bredow, Chronik des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, 1810, Pp. 326-327. Sis | RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA 315 and was to have the same force as if it were incorporated in the constitution.t The number of persons in Bavaria who belonged to the Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox Churches, however, was never very large. Even at the present time these churches have less than two thousand communicants in the state.” The policy adopted by the Bavarian. government during the Napoleonic period in regard to the Jews did not prove to be quite as permanent as the policy adopted by it during the same period in regard to non-Catholics. For half a century, however, the edict of 10 June, 1813, remained a part of the fundamental law of the state, and a serious at- tempt to enforce its various provisions seems to have been made. The peddling and petty huckstering carried on by the Jews seems to have made nearly as much trouble after 1815 as in the years preceding 1815.* The government seems to 1“ Art. i. Die Bekenner der unirten sowohl, als der nichtunirten griechischen Kirche geniessen mit den Bekennern der in dem Ko6nig- reiche bereits verfassungsmassig bestehenden drei christlichen Kirchen- gesellschaften gleiche birgerliche und politische Rechte. Art. ii. Gegenwirtiges Gesetz soll als ein Grundgesetz des Reiches angesehen werden; es hat von dem Tage der Bekanntmachung anfan- gend dieselbe Kraft, als stiinde es wortlich in der Verfassungs-Urkunde, und kann nur in der durch § 7 des Tit. x der Verfassungs-Urkunde vorgeschriebenen Art wieder abgedndert werden.” K. Weber, Neu Gesetz- und Verordnungen-Sammlung fiir das Konigreich Bayern mit Einschluss der Reichsgesetzgebung, 11, 741, ‘Gesetz von 1 Juli 1834 die biirgerlichen und politischen ‘Rechte der griechischen Glaubensgenossen betr.” 2 The Statesman’s Year-Book, 1918, p. 937. 3 Cf. Dollinger, Sammlung, Baterische Verordnungen, vi, 99-100, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung: den Hausirhandel der Juden betr.,” 11 Nov., 1820; ibid., vi, 100-101, ‘‘ Ministerial-Entschliessung: den Hausir- handel der Israeliten betr.,” 30 Sept., 1822; ibid., vi, 101-102, “Ministerial- Entschliessung: das Hausiren der Juden in den vormaligen Oberdonau- kreises betr.,” 1 Apr., 1823; ibid., vi, 102, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung: das Hausiren der Juden betr.,” 11 May, 1823; ibid., vi, 103-104, “ Aus- 316 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [316 have made considerable progress, nevertheless, in its policy of encouraging the Jews to take up other occupations. In 1821 the number of Jews engaged in peddling was asserted to be only two-thirds as large as the number engaged in the same occupation in 1817. In spite of this notable reduction, the number of licenses to peddle issued by the government was two thousand six hundred and five. In other words, one-fourth of the ten thousand six hundred and sixty-three Jewish families in the state were at least partly supported by peddling. Two hundred and fifty-two families, how- ever, made their living from agriculture; one hundred and sixty-nine families devoted themselves to some branch of industry; and eight hundred and thirty-nine Jewish sons worked as apprentices or journeymen in trades.* The government seems neither to have relaxed the laws zug aus dem Abschied fiir den Landrath des Oberdonaukreises vom II May, 1830; ibid., vi, 104, “ Auszug aus dem Abschied fiir den Landrath des Regenkreises vom 11 May, 1830.” “.... Zahlreich vorliegende Berichte gewahren die Ueberzeugung .... dass namentlich der jiidische Hausier-Handel in vielen Gegenden noch dermal in einer mit den klaren gesetzlichen Bestimmungen der §§ 15 und 20 des Ediktes tiber die Verhaltnisse der jiidischen Glaubens- genossen vom 10 Juni 1813 unvereinbaren Ausdehnung fortbesteht. . . .” Ibid., p. 104, et seqg., “ Ministerial-Entschliessung des Innern: den Hausierhandel im Allgemeinen und in den Granzcontrollbezirken in- besondere btr.,” 20 Jun., 1832. 1“Bs gab gegenwartig in den baierischen Staaten 10,663 israelitische Familien, die eine Seelenzahl von 53,402 Individuen ausmachten. Von jenen Familien hatten aber bereits im Jahre 1821 nicht weniger als 252 ihre Niederlassung auf der Ackerbau begriindet; 169 Familien wid- meten sich verschiedenen Gewerben, und 839 Judensohne arbeiteten als Lehrlinge oder Gesellen bei Handwerkern, so wie sich auch mehrere fiir die Landwirthschaft praktisch ausbilden. Freilich waren bei dem allen noch 2605 Hausier-Handels-Patente an Juden ausgegeben worden; allein jener als so verderblich verschriebene Hausier-Handel der Juden hatte sich doch seit 1817 schon wirklich um ein Drittheil vermindert, und die Regierung wachte mit Strenge iiber den genauen Volizug der dariiber bestehenden Gesetze.” Bredow, op. cit., 1822, p. 214. 317] RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA 317 concerning the settlement and marriage of Jews nor to have discriminated against the Jews in enforcing them. The re- quests of foreign Jews for permission to settle in the state seem to have been regularly refused.t The marriage of Bavarian Jews to foreign Jewesses, on the other hand, was permitted.” The provisions of the law of Io June, 1813, which had for their purpose the restriction of Jewish fami- lies to a definite number, seem likewise to have been regu- larly enforced. In 1814, for example, a widow, Mendl Neustaedter, was apparently given permission to re-marry because the number of Jewish families in the city would not be increased by the marriage.” In 1828, in contrast, a i“. ..nachdem in dem Edicte iiber die jiidischen Glaubensgenossen im Reiche vom 10 Juni 1813 die Einwanderung und Niederlassung fremder Juden im KoOnigreiche durchaus verboten ist, so kann dem Gesuche des Israeliten Salomon Henry, welcher mit dem Orte Auf- hausen an Wurtemberg abgetreten wurde, ihm die Erlaubnis, sich in Oettingen Ansassig zu machen, nicht willfahrt werden.” Do6llinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnung, vi, 18, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung des Inner: das Gesuch des Salomon Henry von Aufhausen betr.,” 8 Mar., 1819. “Die k. Regierung des Oberdonaukreises K. d. J. empfangt daher die mit Bericht vom 6. v. Monats vorgelegten Acten mit dem Auftrage zuriuck, den Magistrat der Stadt Augsburg unter Aufhebung seines Beschlusses vom 24. September 1833 zu erganzende Instruction und gesetzlichen Bescheidung des Ansassigmachungsgesuches des u. s. w. Obermaier geeignet anzuweisen.” Jbid., vi, 17, “ Allerhochste Ent- schliessung: die Ansassigmachung des Israeliten Karl Obermayer von Augsburg iiber die Matrikelzahl betr.,” 12 Mar., 1835. 2“ Tndem Wir im § 11 Unsers Edicts vom 10 Junius 1813 die Ein- wandrungen und Niederlassungen fremder Juden in Unserm KoOnig- reiche verboten, war es keineswegs Unsere Absicht, auch die Vereh- lichungen solcher inlandischen Juden, welche bereits ansassig sind, oder die Ansadssigkeit vorschriftsmassig erlangen, mit auswartigen Jidinen, die nicht selbststandig, sondern nur in Verbindung mit ihren Ehe- mannern eine Familie bilden, zu untersagen. .. .” Ibid., vi, 17-18, “ Die Hierathen auswartiger Jiidinen nach Bayern betr.,” 1 Oct., 1816, 3“*Da durch die beabsichtigte Wiederverehelichung der Judenwittwe Mendel Neustidter die Zahl der bereits bestehenden und castrirten 318 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [318 Jew was denied permission to settle because the number of Jewish families would be increased by the settlement.* As a result of the government’s strict enforcement of the sec- tions of the edict regulating the marriage and settlement of the Jews, one-half of the Jewish youth of Bavaria are re- ported to have emigrated to the United States.’ Though the Jews of Bavaria seem to have been dissatis- fied with the edict of 10 June, 1813, from the very first,° they had to wait until 1861 for an important modification of the laws under which they lived. In that year the Bava- rian “andtag abolished all restrictions with regard to their residence and occupations.* In 1863 some slight concessions Judenfamilien hiesiger Stadt nicht vermehrt wird; so hat das General- Commissariat des Isarkreises diesen speciellen Fall vorerst . . . zu ent- scheiden. ...” Ddollinger, of. cit., vi, 16-17, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung (des Innern): die Wiederverehlichung der Judenwittwe Mendl Neu- stetter betr.,” 26 Feb., 1814. 1“ Die Vorstellung des Israeliten Salomon Flesch zu Hainsfarth wegen Ansdssigmachung resp. Verliehung der ersten sich erledigenden Matrikel-Nummer folgt hierneben sammt Duplicat, unter Hinweisung auf die Bestimmungen des Edicts tiber die Verhaltnisse der judischen Glaubensgenossen vom 10. Juni 1813 § 13 mit den Bemerken, dass Anwartschaften auf Schutzstellen nicht statt finden... .” Jbid., vi, 40, “ Ministerial-Entschliessung (des Innern): die Vorstellung des Israel- iten Salomon Flesch zu Hainsfarth, wegen Ansdssigmachung resp. Ver- leihung der ersten sich erledigenden Matrikel-Nummer betr.,” 29 Jan., 1828, 2 Jewish Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” 3“ Ces principes législatifs qu’on s’étoit attaché a combiner avec tant de soin ne satisfirent entiérement personne. Les hébreux, surtout les plus éclairés d’entre eux, crurent apercevoir dans les restrictions que la loi conservoit encore un reste de cet esprit de persécution et d’exclusion qui blessoit a la fois leur délicatesse et choquoit leur vanité.” Mont- gelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, p. 142, *“ Dem an Uns gebrachten Gesammtbeschlusse vom 8 Mai d. Js. ent- sprechend verordnen Wir mit Gesetzkraft: Die gemas der §§ 12, 13 und 18 Absass 1 des Ediktes vom 10 Juni 1813, die Verhaltnisse der israelitischen Glaubensgenossen betreffend, EE 319] RELIGIOUS TOLERATION IN BAVARIA 319 were made to the Jews in matters of religion. In 1871, finally, the federal law of 3 July, 1869,’ which gave equal civil and political rights to all inhabitants of the Confedera- tion regardless of their religion, was extended to Bavaria.” Thenceforth, in consequence, the Jews of Bavaria possessed in full the privileges as well as the duties of citizenship. riicksichtlich Ansassigmachung und des Gewerbsbetriebes der Israeliten in den Provinzen diesseits des Rheines bestehenden Beschrankungen sind aufgehoben.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Konigreich Bayern 1861 und 1862, no. 10, Miinchen, 18 November 1861, “ Abschied fiir den Landtag des Konigreichs Bayern,” Abschnitt iii, C. § 15. 1K. Weber, Gesetz- und Verordnungen Sammlung, vi, 186, “ M. C. v. 29. Juni 1863, die Verhaltnisse der israelitischen Cultusgemeinden betr.” 2“ Alle noch bestehenden, aus der Verschiedenheit des religiosen Bekenntnisses hergeleiteten Beschrankungen der biirgerlichen und staatsbtirgerlichen Rechte werden hiedurch aufgehoben. ...” Bundes- Gesetzblatt des Norddeutschen Bundes, 1869, p. 292, “ Gesetz, betreffend die Gleichberechtigung der Konfessionen in btirgerlicher und staats- biirgerlicher Beziehung, vom 3 Juli 1869.” 8 Ibid., 1871, p. 87, et seq., “ Gesetz, betreffend die Einfithrung Nord- deutscher Bundesgesetze in Baiern, vom 22 April 1871,” §§ 1 and 2. CHA PTE Rw xy. THE CONCORDAT OF I817 AT no time during the Napoleonic period did a permanent break with the Papacy form a part of the religious policy of the Bavarian government. The break which actually oc- curred between the two powers, after the secularizations of 1802 and 1803, was the result of the Bavarian government's determination to control henceforth the Catholic hierarchy in Bavaria. In 1806, in consequence, the Bavarian ambas- sador at Rome was instructed to open negotiations with the Papacy for the purpose of effecting an agreement concern- ing the organization of the hierarchy in Bavaria, and in 1807 a series of conferences between della Genga, the Papal Nuncio, and commissioners of Bavaria took place and some progress was made toward drawing up an agreement. Through the advice of the Austrian government, according to Montgelas, these negotiations were abruptly broken off by the Papacy and no further steps toward the formulation of a concordat between the Papacy and the Bavarian govy- ernment were taken until the Napoleonic period came to an end. The overthrow of Napoleon, however, cleared away most of the obstacles to the conclusion of such an agree- ment and a concordat was finally drawn up and signed in 1817 by representatives of the Papacy and the Bavarian government. * 1“Tes réformes ecclésiastiques firent la plus grande sensation sur le pape .... le souverain pontife ne voulut ni admettre le principe des sécularisations ni relever les voeux d’aucun des religeux qui réclamérent de lui cette faveur. .. . Aprés la dissolution du lien germanique en 1806 320 [320 321] THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 321 According to this concordat the Roman Catholic Apostolic religion was to be maintained intact in the whole extent of Bavaria and in the territories belonging to it, with those rights and prerogatives which it ought to enjoy according to the divine order and the canon law.’ The episcopal see of Freising was to be transferred to Munich and raised to metropolitan rank. The boundaries of the bishopric, how- ever, were to remain as they had been and the incumbent of the office was to bear the title of Archbishop of Munich and Freising. The episcopal churches of Augsburg, Passau and Regensburg, were to be subordinated to the new Archbishop as suffragan churches, and the metropolitan rank of the church of Regensburg was to be suppressed. During the lifetime of the bishop then in office, however, the bishopric of Passau was to enjoy the privilege of exemption from the new arrangement. The episcopal church of Bamberg was cet important objet fut repris. On envoya des instructions au ministre de V. M. a Rome avec ordre d’ouvrir une négociation particuliére pour constituer l’ordre hiérarchique du royaume. Elles eurent assez de suc- cés, pour le della Genga vint ici en 1807. Les conférences commencé- rent entre les commissaires de V. M. et lui... . On étoit déja convenu des conditions principales .. . lorsque tout a coup le nonce partit sous prétexte que des affaires pressantes et les ordres de sa cour l’appeloient a Stuttgart. On eut occasion d’apprendre depuis que ce changement subit de résolution avoit été provoqué par le cabinet autrichien Ce moment perdu ne se retrouva pas de plusiers années. .... Les evénéments ayant rendu la liberté au pape en 1814 et les affaires de Europe se trouvant définitivement terminées par le traité de paix du 20 novembre 1815, on songea a reprendre les négotiations relatives a la reconstruction de l’ordre hiérarchique en Baviére.” Montgelas, Denkwiirdigkeiten iiber die innere Staatsverwaltung Bayerns, pp. 135-136. oF ep eel \iw 1“ Articulus i. Religio Catholica Apostolica Romana in toto Bavariae Regno terrisque ei subjectis sarta tecta conservabitur cum iis juribus, et praerogativis, quibus frui debet ex Dei ordinatione, et canonicis sanc- tionibus.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. “Das die innern Katholischen Kirchen-Angelegenheiten im Kénigreiche ordende Concordat mit Sr. pabstlichen Heiligkeit Pius VIL” Datum Romae die 5 Junii anni 1817. Reo RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT Were: also to be raised to metropolitan rank, and the episcopal churches of Wurzburg, Eichstadt and Speyer were assigned to it as suffragan churches. The territory of Aschaffenburg, which formerly had belonged to the diocese of Mainz, but which belonged in 1817 to the diocese of Regensburg, and the portion of the diocese of Fulda situated in Bavaria, were to be united with the bishopric of Wurzburg. In a similar manner the portion of the diocese of Constance lying in Bavaria, as well as the exempt district of Kempten, were to be incorporated in the diocese of Augsburg. The Bavarian portion of the diocese of Salzburg and the territory of the exempt Provostship of Berchtesgaden were to be incor- porated partly in the diocese of Passau and partly in the diocese of Munich. The bishopric of Chiemsee was abso- lutely suppressed and its territory was united to the diocese of Munich.* The incomes for the support of the archbishops and bishops were to be based on property and permanent funds, T™“ Art. ii. . . . Sedem Frisingae Monachium transferet, eamque eriget in Metropolitanam, quae pro Dioecesi sua habebit Territorium actuale Frisingensis Dioecesis; ejus tamen Ecclesiae Antistes, ejusque Succes- sores Archiepiscopi Monachii et Frisingae nuncupandi erunt. Eidem Antistiti Episcopales Ecclesias Augustanam, Passaviensem, et Ratisbonensem praevia Metropoliticae Qualitatis suppressione, in Suf- fraganeas assignabit. Antistes tamen Passaviensis Ecclesiae actu vivens exemtionis privilegio, quoad vixerit, gaudebit. Bambergensem ‘Cathedralem Ecclesiam in Metropolitanam eriget, illique in Suffraganeas assignabit Ecclesias Episcopales Herbipolensem, Eichstettensem et Spirensem. Territorium Aschaffenburgense olim ad Moguntinam, nunc ad Ratis- bonensem Dioecesum pertinens, et partem Bavaricam Fuldensis Dioecesis Herbipolensi Dioecesi adjunget. Partem autem Bavaricam Constantiensis Dioecesis cum exempto territorio Campidunensi Augustanae Dioecesi uniet. Simili Modo partem Bavaricam Dioecesis Salisburgensis et terri- torium exemptae Praepositurae Berchtolgadensis partim Monacensi Dioecesi uniet, cui quidem Dioecesi, praevia suppressione Sedis Chi- emsis, hujus quoque Ecclesiae Diocesim assignabit.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Konigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 323 | THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 323 which were to be handed over to the bishops and archbishops to be freely adminisered by them. These funds and prop- erties, furthermore, were never to be alienated or trans- formed into money payments. During vacancies in the archiepiscopal and episcopal sees the dignitaries, canons, pre- bends or vicars were to raise and preserve the amount of these incomes for the benefit of the churches concerned.’ The king, moreover, with the advice of the archbishops and bishops, was to provide adequately endowed houses in which sick and aged deserving clergymen could find a refuge and support.” The king promised, furthermore, in consideration of the advantages which the religious orders had brought and could still bring to the ‘Church and the state, and to give to his holiness a proof of his highness’ zeal, to permit some monasteries and convents for the education of the young ir religion and science or for the care of the sick to be re- stored with a suitable endowment.*® 1“ Art. iv. Redditus Mensarum Archiepiscopalium in bonis fundique stabilibus liberae Archiepiscoporum et Episcoporum administratione tra- dendis constituentur. Quorum omnium reddituum summae salvae semper et integrae con- servandae erunt, et bona fundique, ex quibus provenient, nec distrahi, nec in pensiones mutari poterunt. Tempore autem vacationis Archi- episcopalium et Episcopalium Sedium, Dignitatum, Canonicatuum, Prae- bendarum seu Vicariatuum, praedictae reddituum summae in utilitatem respectivarum Ecclesiarum percipiendae et conservandae erunt.” Ibid. 2“ Art. vi. Majestas Sua Regia, collatis cum Archiepiscopis et Epis- copis consiliis, assignabit pariter cum sufficienti dote domum, in qua infirmi ac senes Clerici benemeriti solamen et asylum reperiant.” Jbid. *“ Art, vii. Insuper Majestas Sua considerans, quot utilitates Ecclesia atque ipse Status a Religiosis Ordinibus preceperint, ac precipere in posterum possint, et ut promptam suam erga Sanctam Sedem volun- tatem probet, aliqua Monasticorum Ordinum utriusque Sexus Coenobia ad instituendem in Religione et Litteris juventutem, et in Parochorum subsidium, aut pro cura infirmorum, inito cum Sancta Sede consilio, cum convenienti dotatione instaurari curabit.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 324 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [324 The property of the seminaries, parishes, benefices, church buildings and all other church foundations was to be main- tained for all time undiminished, and it was neither to be alienated nor transformed into pensions. The Church was to have the right also to gain new possessions. Such new possessions, furthermore, were to have the same rights as other church property.* In consideration of the advantages arising from the con- cordat for the affairs of the church and religion, his holiness promised to bestow forever on his majesty, King Maximil- ian Joseph, and his Catholic successors, through apostolic letters which were to be made out immediately after the ratification of the concordat, permission to nominate worthy and suitable ecclesiastics, who possessed the characteristics required by the principles of the Canon Law, to the vacant archiepiscopal and episcopal sees. His holiness was then to ° invest them with office according to the usual forms. Before their investiture, however, the nominees of the king were not to interfere in any way with the conduct or administra- tion of the churches to which they might be named. The annates and chancellory taxes were to be established anew on the basis of the yearly income of each bishop.* His Holli- 1“ Art. viii. ‘“ Bona Seminariorum, Parochiarum, Beneficiorum, Fabri- carum, omniumque aliarum Ecclesiasticarum fundationum semper et integre conservanda erunt, nec distrahi, nec in pensiones mutari po- terunt. Ecclesia insuper jus habebit, novas acquirendi possessiones, et quidquid de novo acquisieret, faciet suum, et censebitur eodem jure ac veteres fundationes Ecclesiasticae. .. .” Geseizblatt fiir das Komg- reich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 2“ Art. ix. Sanctitas Sua, attenta utilitate, quae ex hac Conventione manat in ea, quae ad res Ecclesiae et Religionis pertinent, Majestati Regis Maximiliani Josephi, ejusque Successoribus Catholicis per Lit- teras Apostolicas statim post ratificationem praesentis ‘Conventionis expediendas in perpetuum concedet Indultum nominandi ad vacantes Archiepiscopales et Episcopales Ecclesias Regni Bavarici dignos et idoneos Ecclesiasticos Viros iis dotibus praeditos, quas Sacri Canones requirunt. Talibus autem Viris Sanctitas Sua Canonicam dabit Insti- 325 | THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 325 ness was to confer the provostships at both the archiepis- copal and episcopal churches. The king, on the other hand, was to nominate the deans and, during the six months of the popes, the canons. In three of the remaining six months of the year the archbishops and bishops, and in the other three months the chapters of the archiepiscopal and epis- copal churches, were to nominate the canons. Only natives of the state, however, could be nominated to the chapters of the archiepiscopal and episcopal churches. The vicar- ships at the metropolitan and cathedral churches were to be bestowed at the will of the archbishops and bishops. The dignitaries, canons, and all beneficiaries under obligations in the matter of residence were forbidden to hold more than one benefice at a time. They were required, moreover, to observe the regulations concerning residence. The king, furthermore, was to have the right to present to all the parishes, curacies and simple benefices that his ancestors, the dukes and electors, had presented to. He was also to tutionem juxta formas consuetas. Priusquam vero eam obtinuerint, regimini seu administrationi Ecclesiarum respectivarum, ad quas desig- nati sunt, nullo modo sese immiscere poterunt. Annatarum vero et Cancellariae taxae proportionabiliter ad unius cujusque Mensae annuos redditus de novo statuentur.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 1“ Art. x. Praeposituras tam in Metropolitanis quam in Cathedralibus Ecclesiis conferet Sanctitas Sua; ad Decanatus nominabit Regia Ma- jestas, quae etiam ad Canonicatus in sex mensibus Apostoliciis sive Papalibus nominabit. Quoad alios autem sex menses, in eorum tribus Archiepiscopus et Episcopus, in reliquis vero tribus Capitulum nomi- nabit. In Capitula Ecclesiarum tam Metropolitanarum quam Cathedralium in posterum alii non admittentur, quam indigeni qui praeter qualitates a Sacro Concilio Tridentino requisitas .... versati sint. ... Vicariatus vero in iisdem Metropolitanis et Cathedralibus Ecclesiis libere ab Archi- episcopo vel Episcopo conferentur..... Dignitates, Canonici, et Beneficiati omnes residentiales uti a plurali- tate Beneficiorum et Praebendarum juxta Sacros Canones prohibentur, ita ad residentiam secundum eorum ‘Canonum rigorem, salva semper Sedis Apostolicae auctoritate adstringuntur.” Ibid. 326 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [326 have the right to present to all the benefices to which eccle- Siastical corporations no longer existing had had the right to present. The subjects of the elector, likewise, who were legally in possession of rights of patronage, were to present to parishes, curacies and benefices under their patronage. When parishes and curacies were conferred by patrons, the archbishops and bishops were to invest canonically the eccle- siastics presented, after a preliminary testing of their knowledge and morals, if they possessed the required qual- ities. The presentations to benefices, moreover, were to take place within the period of time prescribed by the Canon Law or they would be bestowed by the archbishops and bishops. All other parishes and curacies and benefices, which the former bishops of the eight churches had presented to, were to be presented at will by the archbishops and bishops to persons accepted by the king.’ In managing their dioceses the archbishops and bishops were authorized to exercise all the powers which, in accord- 1 “Art xi. Rex Bavariae ad ea Beneficia tam Parochialia, quam Curata ac Simplicia praesentabit, ad quae ex legitimo jure patronatus sive per dotationem, sive per fundationem, sive per constructionem acquisito ejus antecessores Duces et Electores praesentabant. Praeterea Majestas Sua praesentabit ad ea Beneficia, ad quae Cor- porationes Ecclesiasticae actu non existentes praesentabant. Subditi Majestatis Suae, qui jure patronatus legitime, ut supra, gau- dent, ad Beneficia respectiva tam Parochialia quam Curata, ac Simplicia hujusmodi juri patronatus subjecta praesentabunt. Archiepiscopi vero et Episcopi praesentatis debita requisita haben- tibus, praemisso circa doctrinam et mores examine ab ipsis Ordinariis instituendo, si de Parochialibus, aut de Curatis Beneficiis agatur, Canonicam dabunt Institutem. Praesentio autem ad omnia ista Beneficia intra tempus a Canonibus praescriptum fiet, sects ea libere ab Archiepiscopis et Episcopis Con- ferentur. Reliqua ero Beneficia omnia tam Parochialia, quam Curata, ac Sim- plicia, quae antecessores Antistites octo Ecclesiarum Regni Bavariae conferebant, libere ab Archiepiscopis et Episcopis personis Majestati Suae gratis conferentur.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kémgreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. B27) THE CONCORDAT) OF 1817 ane ance with the church discipline confirmed by the Holy See, belonged to them by reason of their pastoral office by virtue of the declaration or command of the Canon Law. In par- ticular they were authorized to appoint members of the clergy, whom they found suitable for such offices, as vicars, councillors and assistants in the administration. They were authorized, likewise, to receive into the clerical order, and to advance to the higher orders, those whom they consid- ered necessary and useful, if such persons had passed be- forehand the examination, which was to be taken in the presence of the archbishops and bishops with the codpera- tion of the Synodal examiners. Those persons, on the con- trary, who were found by the archbishops and bishops to be unworthy were to be prevented from receiving consecration. Ecclesiastical matters, and in particular marriage cases, which according to canon 12 of session 24 of the holy Council of Trent belonged to the ecclesiastical judge, were to be handled and decided by the ecclesiastical courts. The clearly secular concerns of the clergy, such as contracts, school affairs and matters connected with inheritance, were to be subject to the jurisdiction of the secular courts. The bishops and archbishops, furthermore, were authorized to employ the censures of the Church against members of the clergy who deserved punishment, or against members of the clergy who, while they were not honorable members of the clergy, still wore the dress becoming to their order and dig- nity; to inflict, with the reserve of the canonical recourse. the punishments stipulated by the Council of Trent or other punishments which appeared appropriate to the circum- stances; and to remove the clergy to seminaries or other houses set apart for that purpose. They were also to em- ploy the censures of the Church in the same way against those of the faithful who made themselves guilty of infring- ing the principles of the Church or the holy canons. The 328 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [328 archbishops and bishops, furthermore, were accorded the right of announcing freely to the clergy and people of their dioceses their instructions and ordinances in ecclesiastical matters. In addition, the communication of the bishops, the clergy and the laity, with the Holy See, in clerical and ecclesiastical matters was to remain entirely free. The bishops and archbishops, also, were authorized, in coopera- tion with the king, to erect, divide and unite parishes. They were authorized, likewise, to prescribe public prayers and other pious customs, provided that the welfare of the Church or the people demanded them.’ 1“ Art. xii. Pro regimine Dioecesum Archiepiscopis et Episcopis id omne exercere liberum erit, quod in vim pastoralis eorum ministerii sive ex declaratione, sive ex dispositione Sacrorum Canonum secundum praesentem et a Sancta Sede adprobatam Ecclesiae disciplinam competit, ac praesertim : (a) Vicarios, Consiliarios, et Adjutores administrationis suae consti- tuere Ecclesiasticos quoscumque quos ad praedicta officia idoneos judi- caverint ; (b) ad statum ‘Clericalem assumere, et approbatis a Sacris Canonibus titulis ad Ordines etiam majores, praevio examine ab ipsis Archiepis- copis et Episcopis aut eorum Vicariis cum Examinatoribus Synoda- libus instituendo, promovere, quos necessarios aut utiles suis Dioecesibus judicaverint, et e contrario, quos indignos censuerint, a stsceptione Ordinum arcere, quin ab ullo quovis obtentu impediri queant; (c) ‘Causas Ecclesiasticas atque in primis causas Matrimoniales, quae juxta Canonem 12. sess. 24. Sacri Concilii Tridentini ad Judices Eccle- siasticos spectant, in Foro eorum cognoscere, ac de iis sententiam ferre, exceptis causis mere civilibus Clericorum, exempli gratia, contractuum, debitorum, haereditatum, quas Laici Judices cognoscent et definient; (d) In Clericos reprehensione dignos aut honestum Clericalem habi- tum eorum Ordini, et dignitati congruentem non deferentes, poenas a Sacro Concilio Tridentino statutas, aliasque quas convenientes judi- caverunt, salvo Canonico recursu, infligere, eosque in Seminariis aut dominibus ad id destinandis custodire: censuris quosque animadvertere in quoscumque fideles Ecclesiasticarum Legum et Sacrorum Canonum transgressores ; (e) Cum Clero et Populo Diocesano pro munere officii Pastoralis communicare, suasque Instructiones, et ordinationes de rebus Eccle- siasticis libere publicare; praeterea Episcoporum, ‘Cleri et Populi Com- 3209] THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 3209 In case the archbishops and bishops informed the gov- ernment that books had been printed or introduced into the kingdom of which the contents were contrary to the faith, good morals or church discipline, the government was to take care to hinder in the legal manner their distribution.* The archbishops and bishops were required by the con- cordat to take an oath of allegiance and loyalty to his majesty the king. They were to swear not to carry on a correspondence or to take part in any meeting or to enter into any suspicious organization, either domestic or foreign, which could be injurious to the public peace; and to report to his majesty anything disadvantageous to the state which came within their knowledge.’ All other matters which concerned ecclesiastical persons and property, and of which no mention was made in the concordat itself, were to be settled in accordance with the accepted principles of the Church.* Both of the contracting municatio cum sancta Sede in rebus spiritualibus et negotiis Ecclesias- ticis prorsus libera erit; (f) Collatis cum Regia Majestate, praesertim pro convenienti reddi- tuum assignatione, consilius, Parochias erigere dividere vel unire; (g) Praescribere vel indicare preces publicas, aliaque pia opera, cum id bonum Ecclesiae, vel Status, aut Populi postulet.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Koénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 1“ Art. xili. Quoties Archiepiscopi, et Episcopi libros aut in Regno impressos, aut in illud introductos Gubernio indicabunt, qui aliquid fidei, bonis moribus, aut Ecclesiae disciplinae contrarium contineant, Guber- nium curabit ut eorum divulgatio debito modo impediatur.” bid. 2“ Art. xv. Archiepiscopi et Episcopi coram Regia Majestate jura- mentum fidelitatis emittent sequentibus verbis expressum: ‘Ego juro et promitto, me nullam communicationem habiturum, nullique consilio interfuturum, nullamque suspectam unionem neque intra neque extra conservaturum, quae tranquiltati publicae noceat, et si tam in Diocesi mea quam alibi noverim aliquid in Status damnum tractari, Majestatis Suae manifestabo.’” Ibid. 8“ Art. xvii. Caetera, quae ad res et personas Ecclesiasticas spectant, quorum nulla in his Articulis expressa facta est mentio, dirigentur omnia et administrabantur juxta doctrinam Ecclesiae, ejusque vigentem et approbatam disciplinam. ...” Ibid. 330 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [330 parties promised, on behalf of themselves and their succes- sors, an exact observance of the articles of the concordat.* Although the concordat bears the date 5 June, 1817, it did not become effective for four years. This delay seems to have been due in part to the interpretation put upon the law by the Bavarian government, and in part to the char- acter of the persons nominated by the king to the arch- bishoprics and bishoprics of the state. The date 5 June, 1817, itself is misleading, as the agree- ment was not actually ratified until 24 October, 1817. -Then in the following year, in spite of the plain declaration of the concordat to the contrary, the government published the concordat as an appendix to the constitution of 26 May, 1818, and treated it as a law regulating merely the inner affair of the Catholic Church in Bavaria.* Although the Bavarian government, with one-third of the population of the state Protestant, could hardly have regarded it in any other light, the Holy See protested against this inter- pretation of the concordat. In reply the Bavarian govern- ment declared that the concordat with the Papacy and the ‘“ Edict concerning the external legal relations of the inhabi- tants of the kingdom to religious and ecclesiastical organ- izations’ of 26 May, 1818, were to be considered as state. laws for the Catholic and Protestant Churches respectively.’ 1“ Art. xviii. Utraque Contrahentium pars spondet se, successoresque Suos omnia, de quibus in his Articulis utrinque conventum est, sancte servaturos, et a Majestate Regia praesens Conventio Lex Status declara- bitur.” Gesetzblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq. 2 Ibid., 22 July, 1818, p. 397, et seq., “Anhang zu dem 103 § des Edictes iiber die Aussern Rechtsverhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern in Beziehung auf Religion und Kirchliche Gesellschaften in der Beylage ii. zu dem Titel iv. § 9. der Verfassungs Urkunde des Konig- reichs. nro. i. Das die innern Katholischen Kirchen-Angelegenheiten im K6nigreiche ordende Concordat mit Sr. pabstlichen Heiligkeit Pius Vile? 3“ | | die inneren katholischen Kirchenangelegenheiten ordende 331 | THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 331 The Annual Register of 1818, also, reported that “ His Holiness has refused to recognize the appointment of sev- eral bishops proposed by the King of Bavaria; some on account of their doctrines and others on account of their morals. This refusal had excited no very agreeable sensa- tions at Munich.” * It was not until September, 1821, in consequence, that the Bavarian government declared that the obstacles which had delayed the execution of the con- cordat were removed, and that the concordat was hence- forth in force.’ The concordat was a victory for the Bavarian govern- ment rather than the Papacy, in the main. The most revo- lutionary provision of the concordat was the promise made in article nine to permit the establishment of some monas- teries and some convents in the state. The Bavarian gov- ernment, however, was very slow in fulfilling this promise. Some twenty monastic houses apparently survived the con- fiscations of the Napoleonic period.* In most cases these establishments must have served as homes for the surviving monks and nuns. In 1823 the Carmelites in Wurzburg —mit Seiner pabstlichen Heiligkeit Pius VII am 5 Juni abgeschlossene und am 24 October desselben Jahres radificirte Concordat, so wie das Edict tiber die innere kirchlichen Angelegenheiten der protestantischen Gesammtgemeinde in dem Ko6nigreiche vom 26 Mai 1818, als besondere eine jede der genannten beiden Kirchen betreffende Staatsgesetze zu betrachten sind; ...” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol. 8, pt. 1, pp. 287-288, “Die in Namen Seiner Majestat des Konigs an Seine pabstlichen Heiligkeit ... abgegebene Erklarung..... Bey: Nov., 1818. 1 Annual Register, 1818, “ Chronicle,” p. 68, March 29, Rome. 2 Déllinger, op. cit., vol. 8, pt. i, p. 280, “Den Vollzug des Concordats betr.,” 15 September, 1821. 3’ There were thirty-four monastic establishments in Bavaria in 1832, according to Bredow’s Chronik des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, 1832, p. 308. About fourteen of them seem to have been founded or reéstab- lished after the conclusion of the concordat of 1817. 332 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [332 received permission to accept six novices for the purpose of recruiting their numbers.* In the same year the Salesian Sisters at Innersdorf received permission to continue their organization. They were not to be bound in the future, however, by permanent vows, and they were to serve as one of the educational institutions under the protection of the state.” In 1827 the Church seems to have obtained permis- sion to restore several monasteries. Among these institu- tions were a Scottish monastery at Regensburg for the education of Scottish youths, a Benedictine monastery at Metten and a convent for women at Dillingen. Eight Fran- ciscan priests and five lay brothers, furthermore, estab- lished themselves at Munich in the monastery which had formerly been occupied by the Hieronymite Friars.* By a 1“ Der erste ‘Schritt von der im Concordat mit der rémischen Curie zugestandenen Bewilligung, zu Aufnahme von Kloster-Novizen Ge- brauch zu machen geschahe in Wtirzburg, woselbst die Karmeliter wirk- lich Erlaubniss erhielten, zur Wieder-Erganzung des Convents sechs Novizen aufzunehmen.” Bredow, Chronik des Neunzehnten Jahrhun- derts, 1823, p. 256. 2“ Der zweite Schritt geschahe zu Innersdorf bei Dachau wo sonst eine Abtei regulirter Chorherrn, seit 1783 aber ein Kloster ftir Sale- sianer-Nonnen bestand. Diese Frauen hatten sich . .. mit dem Unter- richte junger Madchen beschaftiget. Jetzt erhielt sie nicht nur die Be- willigung des Fortbestandes ihres Kloster; sondern dieses erhielt auch die Bestimmung, in Zukunft eine vom Staate Beschtitzte Anstalt fir den Unterricht und die Erziehung der Jugend zu sein, wobei jedoch fiir die Nonnen keine ewig bindende Geliibde mehr statt finden sollten!” Jbid., p. 256, et seq. >“ Rucksichtlich der katholischen Kirche verdient besonders bemerkt zu werden dass man doch den Konig zu bewegen gewusst hatte, zum Zwecke des Cultus und Unterrichts die Restauration mehrer Kléster zu bewilligen. Darunter war die vorztiglichsten: das zu einem |Seminar fiir schottische Jiinglinge bestimmte Schotten-Kloster zu Regensburg; das Benedictiner-Kloster zu Metten im Unter-Donau-Kreise, .... und das Frauenkloster zu Dillingen, .... Ja, zu Miinchen selbst kamen an tsten. Novbr. d. J. acht Franziskaner-Priester nebst fiinf Laienbrider vor der St. Anna Pfarrkirche an, zogen unter Vortragung eines Krauzi- fixes paarweise in die Kirche, und nahmen, nach abgehaltenen feier- lichen Gottesdienste, von dem fiir sie eingerichteten Hieronymitaner- Kloster besitz!” Jbid., 1827, p. 3606. 333] THE CONCORDAT OF 1817 333 royal resolution of 18 June, 1830, the restoration of the Franciscan monastery at Lechfeld was authorized.* In 1831 a convent of Franciscan nuns at Kaufbeuern and a convent for English Dames at Mindelheim were reéstab- lished.* Fourteen monasteries in all seem to have been re- stored in the six years between 1827 and 1832, and there were thirty-four all told at the latter date.* From 1832 on, however, the number of houses and inmates increased very rapidly. By 1841 there were one hundred and sixty-one monasteries and congregations; and by 1873 there were six hundred and twenty—ninety-six for men and five hundred and twenty-four for women. The number of inmates grew during the same period from two hundred and fifty-six monks and seven hundred and sixteen nuns to one thousand and ninety-four monks and five thousand and fifty-four nuns.* By 1904 there were one thouand nine hundred and eighty-five regular clergy living in eighty-six monasteries and hospices, and twelve thousand five hundred and eighty- six nuns living in 79 houses and 1,087 dependencies. Nearly all the female religious devoted themselves to teaching the young and nursing the sick.” i“, nach einer koniglichen Entschliessung vom 18ten Junius kam es zur Wiederherstellung des Franziskaner-Klosters auf dem durch die Hunnenschlacht beriuhmt gewordenen Lechfold.” Bredow, op. cit., 1830, Pp. 422. 2“Am 26sten October d. J. ward die einkleidung der neu aufgenom- menen Nonnen in das restaurirte Kloster der Franziskanerinnen zu Kaufbeuern, von dem Official Egger mit grosser Feierlichkeit voll- zogen ;—und zwei Tage spadter ging die Uebersiedelung der seit Auf- hebung des englischen Institute zu Mindelheim (1809) sich im Augs- burger Institute aufhaltenden englischen Nonnen in das wiederher- gestellte Mindelheimer Institute... .. * ‘Thid., 1831, p. 223. 3“ Es gab jetzt in Baiern wieder 34 Kloster ... in den leztverflos- senen sechs Jahren waren 14 Kloster restaurirt worden..... O bids. 1832, p. 308. Weber und Welte, Kirchenlexikon, art. “ Bayern.” 5 The Catholic Encyclopedia, art. “ Bavaria.” CHAP TER UX: THE RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE AFTER I815 THE relations which had existed between church and state during the Napoleonic period were modified to a con- siderable extent after 1815. These modifications were due, however, to a change in the spirit with which the laws were administered rather than to any change in the laws them- selves. The most important of the laws regulating the re- lations of the two powers was the organic “ Edict concern- ing the external legal relations of the inhabitants of the kingdom to religion and ecclesiastical societies,” of 26 May, 1818, which has already been referred to. This important edict, as has already been mentioned, was in the main a repetition of the sections of the important organic religious edict of 24 March, 1809, and it was published as an ap- pendix to the Bavarian Constitution of 1818. The edicts of 1809 and 1818 differed only slightly in the sections dealing with the relations of church and state in religious and ecclesiastical matters. The sections of the earlier religious edict, which dealt with the spheres of the two powers* and the right of the state to hear appeals against the misuse of ecclesiastical power,’ to order public prayers in the churches,* to intervene in the internal affairs 1 Gesetzblati fiir das Konigreich Baiern, 17 Jun., 1818, p. 149, et seq., “ Edict tiber die 4ussern Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konig- reichs Baiern ... ,” 26 May, 1818, §§ 50 and 51. 2 Ibid., 8§ 52, 53 and 54. 8 [bid., § 55. 334 [334 335 | RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 335 of a church for the sake of harmony,’ and to be informed concerning what was taught and done in the ecclesiastical assemblies of the churches of the state,? were repeated in the edict of 1818 with only a few entirely insignificant changes in phraseology. The more important parts of the section of the edict of 1809 which provided that no law, ordinance or decree of any sort of the church authorities could be published or executed without a preliminary ex- amination and approval by the government, was retained in the edict of 1818,* but the parts of the earlier edict which prescribed the procedure to be followed in executing the principle was entirely omitted.* The section of the earlier edict, also, which subjected all changes in the constitution or laws of a church to the supervision and confirmation of the government,’ and the section concerning the jurisdic- tion of foreign ecclesiastics,” were likewise omitted in the edict of 1818. There was almost no change in the sections of the two edicts which dealt with the relations of church and state in purely secular matters. The section of the edict of 1809 which guaranteed that the parochial property would neither be confiscated nor transformed into mere money payments, was completely omitted in the edict of 1818.7. The section of the earlier edict, furthermore, which dealt with the privileged position of ecclesiastical superiors was also 1 Gesetzblatt fiir das Konigreich Baiern, 17 Jun., 1818, § 56. 2 Tbid., § 57. 3 [bid., §§ 58 and 59. * Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1809, s. 807, et seq., “ Edikt iiber die aus- seren Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des K6nigreichs Baiern . . .,” § 59, 24 March, 1809. 5 Ibid., § 68. 8 [bid., § 70. 7 Ilid., § 86. 336 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [336 omitted. In the edict of 1818, on the other hand, all mem- bers of the clergy were granted a privileged position in the courts of the state.* The organic religious edicts of 1809 and 1818 differed from each other more in the sections dealing with the sub- jects of a mixed nature than in either of the two groups of sections which have just been described. The religious brotherhoods and “ cross-gangs ” were added to the list of subjects of a mixed nature which were to come under the jurisdiction of the state.* Three sections of the earlier edict, on the other hand, were omitted in the edict of 1818. They included the section which provided that irrevocable vows should have no legal effect on the civil status of indi- viduals,* the section which forbade the holding of divine service during the night,® and the section which expressly renewed all the ordinances which had been issued up to that time concerning subjects of a mixed nature and in partic- ular those against the suppressed holidays, “ cross-gangs ”’ and brotherhoods.°® Three of the subjects defined by the religious edict of 26 May, 1818, and the other Bavarian laws, as subjects of a mixed nature, continued to attract the attention of the Bavarian government after 1815. One of the subjects was 1 Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1809, § 77. 28 67. Sie geniessen nach Titel v, § 5, der Verfassungs-Urkunde in biirgerlichen Fallen den befreyten Gerichtsstand.” Geseztblatt fiir das Kénigreich Baiern, 17 Jun., 1818, s. 149, et seg., “ Edict tiber die dussern Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des K6nigreichs Baiern . 26 May, 1818. 3 Tbid., § 76. *Regierungsblatt, 14 Jun., 1800, s. 807, et seq., ‘‘ Edikt iiber die aus- seren Rechts-Verhaltnisse der Einwohner des Konigreichs Baiern . . .,” § 94, 24 March, 1809. 5 Tbid., § 93. 6 Tbid., § QI. 337 | RELATIONS OF CHURCH ANDY S LATE aay the practice of ringing the church bells to avert storms. The attitude of neither the Bavarian government nor its subjects seems to have undergone any marked change. In 1815, according to Westenrieder, the government ordered that the bell of the Frauenkirche, which was regularly rung at five o'clock in the afternoon, should not be rung hence- forth during a storm.’ In 1817 the government expressly renewed all the ordinances against the custom which it had previously issued. The government confessed, however, that the custom was still followed in many localities.* As late as 1832 the government issued a decree against the practice, which followed closely the lines marked out by the earlier decrees of the government. According to this measure the church bells might be rung at the beginning and end of a storm for a period of three minutes as a signal for prayer, but the ringing of the church bells during the storm itself was absolutely forbidden. The localities which disregarded the prohibition of the government were threat- ened with a withdrawal, for a longer or shorter period, of the privilege of ringing the church bells as a signal for prayer. *“Nun wird um 5 Uhr nachmittag taglich zum Rosenkranz in der Frauenpfarrkirche gelautet. Wenn aber um diese Stund eben ein Donnerwetter eintrift, was heut den 9 May, 1815 geschehen ist, so darf nicht zum Rosenkranz gelautet werden, damit die Leute nicht meynen, man laute zum Donnerwetter.” Westenrieder, Denkwiirdigketten und Tagebticher, p. 107. 2“ Wir haben wahrgenommen, dass ungeachtet des durch wiederholte Verordnungen gegebenen Verbotes des Glockenlautens bei Hochgewit- tern dieser Unfug an manchen Orten auf dem ‘Lande noch immer fort- dauere. Indem Wir daher dieses Verbot hiemit erneuern, tragen Wir samt- lichen Behorden auf, ftir dessen Beobachtung strenge zu wachen.” Regierungsblatt, 9 July, 1817, p. 619. “ Verordnung: das Wetterlauten btr.,” 25 Jun., 1817. 3. haben Wir Uns bewogen gefunden, die in der Verordnung vom 24. April, 1806, das Wetterlauten betreffend, enthaltene Bestim- 338 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [338 In the matter of religious plays the government seems to have followed the same policy, approximately, which it had been following since 1810. Under date of 15 April, 1817, the Ministry of the Interior replied to an inquiry in regard to representations of that kind in the Passion Week, that, in general, the previous ordinances of the government were to be obeyed, but that some exceptions could be made.* In regard to processions and pilgrimages the policy of the government underwent a considerable change. On 1 June, 1817, the German Biirgercongregation at Munich was per- ‘mitted to hold a procession which had been suppressed since 1803. In 1819, on the feast of St. Benno, the government mung, dass auch die sogenannten Zeichen zum Gebete unter diesem Verbote begriffen sein sollen, dahin zu mildern, dass in Zukunft vor dem Ausbruche eines Gewitters mit einer Glocke ein kurzes, auf die Dauer von drei Minuten zu beschrankendes Zeichen zum Gebete gegeben und dasselbe nach Beendigung des Gewitters wiederholt werden dunia; Vie. (1) das Lauten wahrend des Gewitters oder mit mehreren Glocken zugleich bleibt auch fiir die Zukunft aufs Strengste verboten, und es sind nicht nur die darauf gesetzten ‘Strafen unnachsichtlich zu ver- hingen, sonder es ist iiberdies in jenem Gemeinden, welche das in vorstehender Weise gestattete Lauten zum Gebete missbrauchen, und in den Unfug des Wetterlautens verfallen sollten, die hiemit ertheilte Milderung nach Verhaltniss der Umstande auf kiirzere oder langere Zeit ausser Wirksamkeit zu setzen.” Dollinger, Sammlung, Baierische Verordnungen, vol, 8, pt. 2, p. 1157, et seq., “ Das Verbot des Wetter- lautens betr.,” Bad Briickenau, 26 Aug., 1832. 1“ Auf den Brief vom 2. d. M. wird erwiedert, dass zwar in All- gemeinen auf die Beobachtung der wegen der Grabvorstellung in der Charwoche ergangenen Verordnungen gehalten werden miisse; dass jedoch in einzelnen Fallen, wenn die Errichtung heiliger Graber mit bildischen Vorstellungen unternommen werden will, nachgesehen werden kénne, soferne hiebei keine unanstandigen oder unschicklichen Darstellungen angebracht werden, die Kosten ohne alle Belastigung des Kirchenvermogens durch freiwillige Beitrage . . . bestritten werden kénnen, und sonst keine Missbrauche dabei vorkommen.” Jbid., vol. 8. Dt ne ee7.n le Grabvorstellung in der Charwoche betr.,” 15 April, 1817. 2“Ten 1. Juni, als am hl. Dreyfaltigkeitssonntag durfte von der deutschen Biirgercongregation die seit 1803 eingestellte nachmittagige Procession wieder gehalten werden.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. 109. OO 339 | RELATIONS OF CHURCH AND STATE 339 allowed a cross and flags to be borne through the Isar gate of Munich toward the Frauenkirche.t Under date of 24 April, 1815, the government permitted a pilgrimage to be held in the newly acquired province of Aschaffenburg.* In 1818, however, the government seems to have reverted somewhat toward the policy which had been followed dur- ing the Napoleonic period. Under date of 2 May, 1818, the government declared that inasmuch as the exceptional circumstances which had caused a greater complacency on the part of the government in regard to Rogation pro- cessions and “ cross-gangs”’ no longer existed, deviations from the ordinances of the government concerning these matters should be made only in exceptionally pressing cases.» In 1828* and 1831 ° the government issued de- crees in harmony with the principles laid down in the de- cree of 2 May, 1818. 1“Den 16 Juni, am Bennotag, ist durch das Isarthor ein Kreuz mit hohen Fahnen nach der Frauenkirche gezogen.” Westenrieder, op. cit., p. II0. 2“... Seine Konigliche Majestat haben mir durch Rescript vom 6. d. M. in Betreff der N’chen Wallfahrt auf meine Anfrage erdffnen lassen, dass .... die Wallfahrt nach N. nicht zu untersagt. ... [ist] ..” Dollinger, op. ctt., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1231, “ Wallfahrten betr.,” 24 Apr., 1815. 2“ Auf euren Bericht vom 21, April d. J. erwiedern Wir euch, dass, nachdem jene ausserordentlichen Umstande, wegen welchen Wir in den beiden verflossenen Jahren in Ansehung der Bitt- und Kreuzgange auf dem Lande eine grossere Nachsicht haben eintreten lassen, nicht mehr bestehen, diese Gegenstande, wieder in die Schranken der gegebenen gesetzlichen Bestimmungen zuriickgebracht, die vorkommenden An- stande durch kluges und umsichtiges Benehmen beseitigt werden sollen, und dass nur bei ganz besondern dringenden Verhaltnissen eine Abwei- chung unter den Vorsichtsmassregeln, wie sie in Unserm Rescripte vom 28 April v. J. ausgedrtickt waren, zugelassen werden konne.” Jbid., vol, 8, pt. 2, p. 1232, “ Bittgange betr.,” 2 May, 1818. *Tbid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1232, et seq., “ Wallfahrten und Kreuzgange betr.,” 10 Nov., 1828. 5 [bid., vol. 8, pt. 2, p. 1233, ‘ Flur-Umgange betr., ”? 14 July, 1831. ge CAPA PER i Vuk CONCLUSIONS Tue Bavaria of 1799 and its ruler have had a bad repu- tation in modern times. The religious conditions which ex- isted in Bavaria at that time, and the religious policy which had been followed by the elector, Charles Theodore, for three decades, have been responsible to a large extent for this bad reputation; and much evidence which justifies this conclusion undeniably does exist. The laws, the people and —most inexcusable of all—the government were most intol- erant of Protestants, Jews and the slightest lack of respect toward the Church and the clergy. The numbers and wealth, and occasionally the indolence and morals of the clergy, furnished the hostile and indifferent a basis for many just criticisms. The Bavarian clergy enjoyed rights and privileges, and their foreign superiors exercised powers, which modern states no longer tolerated. The government's censorship of the press, the influence of the clergy over the policy of the government, and the fanaticism and super- stition prevalent among the rank and file of both clergy and laity, looked backward to the Middle Ages instead of for- ward to modern times. All of these features, however, have been emphasized many times in the last century by critics of the Ancien Régime in Bavaria. On the other hand, much evidence that explains or miti- gates to some extent these religious conditions and policies has, as a usual thing, been ignored by modern writers; and there has been altogether too great a tendency to depict 340 [340 341 | CONCLUSIONS 341 the reign of Charles Theodore as a period of darkness and gloom and the reign of Maximilian Joseph as a time of sunshine and light. At most, Bavaria could not have been more than twenty years behind France — the home of the philosophers — in introducing the religious reforms advo- cated by the religious liberals of the eighteenth century. Except for a considerable increase in intolerance, the gov- ernment of Charles Theodore seems to have been much like the governments which preceded it. The chief offence of Charles Theodore was his failure to keep pace with the changes which were taking place outside of Bavaria—par- ticularly in France. The contrast, furthermore, between the religious policy of ‘Charles Theodore and the religious policy of Maximilian IV Joseph was not always so great as it is usually represented. Against a censorship of the press, which could suppress the works of Wieland and the dramas of Lessing, in the years preceding 1799, must in fairness be mentioned the demolition of historic churches and the sale of valuable books and manuscripts as waste paper in the years following 1799. Against the intolerance of Charles Theodore and Father Lippert must be set the intolerance of humane liberals like Maximilian Joseph and Montgelas. Against the demand for tickets of confession at Easter time, and the prohibition of the use of meats on the days desig- nated as fast days by the church, must be set the destruc- tion of crosses, oratories and chapels, and the suppression of processions, religious plays and ceremonies, rooted in the affections and the habits of the people. Against the exile and harassment of the Illuminati and liberals must be set the close confinement of the Franciscans of Weilheim in the inn at Munich and the dismissal of the Brothers of Mercy at the capital from their self-imposed task of charity. Fin- ally, against the “ persecution’? of a Gossner by confine- ment in prison for four weeks must be set the punishment 342 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [342 of chaplain Philip Sperber with indefinite confinement for remarks made by him on Candlemas Day 1802 at a chapel at Ast. The government of Charles Theodore, finally, made a start toward carrying out two of the important phases of the religious policy of Maximilian Joseph’s gov- ernment. In the first place, Charles Theodore relished as little as his successor, apparently, the intervention of for- eign superiors in Bavarian affairs, and strove as hard as his successor, if less successfully, to establish strictly Bava- rian bishoprics, which should be filled by appointees of the ~ -sovereign’s choosing. His lack of success, as his disputes with the German bishops and his long negotiations with the Pope clearly prove, was due to a lack of means rather than to any lack of will. Any rash seizure of the powers exer- cised by the bishops, who ruled the Church in Bavaria, would have resulted in the intervention of Austria in their behalf; just as the suppression of the Knights of Malta in 1799 caused the intervention of Russia, and the seizure of the lands of the imperial Knights, enclaved in or adjoining Bavaria, caused the intervention of Austria in 1803. In the second place, the government of Charles Theodore made a beginning toward regulating the religious life of the people. An honest and sustained effort seems to have been made to limit the number of religious holidays and proces- sions, to suppress the religious plays, and to do away with the ringing of bells in time of storm, the shooting of fire- arms for the same purpose, and a number of other danger- ous or foolish practices. ‘Chronologically the religious policy of Montgelas and his master may be divided into three periods. The first extends from the beginning of Maximilian Joseph’s reign to the fall of 1802. During this period of about two and one-half years the government experienced a definite change of front; passed several fundamental laws which changed 343] CONCLUSIONS 343 Bavaria from an exclusively Catholic country to a country marked by a considerable degree of religious toleration; secularized the monasteries of the mendicant orders and those houses of the possessing orders which were not repre- sented in the provincial estates; and began to pass meas- ures modifying the religious life of the people. During this period the government acted entirely on its own initiative. The second period was marked by the secularization of the greater part of the political and religious property of the Church, further measures making toward tolerance, and a mass of legislation affecting the religious habits of the people. It began in the latter part of 1802 and lasted for about eighteen months. During this period the Bava- tian government was beginning to be caught in the whirl of Napoleonic influences—particularly in the matter of the secularization of Church property—but was not yet dominated by Napoleon. The third period covered the re- maining years of the Napoleonic period. It was a period of completion, consolidation and modification. Mistakes in policy were corrected, old principles were expanded over new districts, and general laws were passed which codified the previous legislation of the government. The four most important phases of the religious policy of the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period were the introduction of a considerable degree of religious toleration ; the secularization of the property of the monastic orders and of the chapters of cathedral and collegiate churches, and the dissolution of the chapters and monastic orders themselves ; the subjection of the clergy and the Cath- olic hierarchy to the control of the state; and the regulation of the religious life of the people. The policy of religious toleration was the most revolutionary of the four. At the end of the Napoleonic period the Jews had yet to be freed from the greater part of the limitations which had set them 344 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [344 off from other subjects of the elector in 1799; Christians who were not Catholics, Lutherans or members of the Re- formed Church had acquired freedom of conscience and very limited rights of private worship; while Lutherans and members of the Reformed Church had been put on an equality with Catholics, but had by no means attained re- ligious freedom. The secularization policy carried out by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period was also a new policy for Bavaria. Although there evidently had been con- siderable discussion of the subject, the suppression of the Jesuits and the confiscation of their property by the state was the only important example of the secularization of Church property which Bavaria itself had actually wit- nessed before 1799. This policy was a most drastic solu- tion of several problems which were demanding attention at the time: the steady increase of property in the hands of the Church; the empty treasury inherited by Maximilian Joseph’s government from that of his predecessor; and the intellectual and moral decline of the monasteries them- selves. The policy of secularization, however, was most clumsily executed, with the result that the state lost many of the material advantages which it should have derived from the policy and alienated from itself important elements among the population subject to it. The government was only partially successful, further- more, in its efforts to subject the clergy and the Catholic hierarchy to the control of the state. At the end of the Napoleonic period the Bavarian government had under its supervision a comparatively pliant body of clergy which was educated, examined, appointed and promoted by it; but the Catholic hierarchy had been almost destroyed as the result of the government's seizure of the powers which it coveted and the refusal of the Papacy to submit to the 345] CONCLUSIONS 345 seizure of the rights which the hierarchy had up to that time exercised. The success of the Bavarian government, furthermore, was very largely due to the moral support which it received from the surrounding powers. The policy of regulating the religious life of the people was neither wise nor successful. The failure of Maxi- milian III Joseph and Charles Theodore to modify the re- ligious life of the people should have warned the govern- ment of Maximilian IV Joseph to move with a great deal of wariness in introducing again a policy in which those rulers had failed. The government was attempting, more- over, to accomplish by legislation a task which should have been left to education. The government acutely irritated the people by the policy without modifying to any marked degree either their religious habits or sentiments, and was forced in the end to abandon the policy to a large extent. Two features of the religious policy followed by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period have remained as permanent government policies. The tolera- tion policy adopted by the Bavarian government during this period has been modified in only two ways. The Greek Orthodox Church has been put on an equality with the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed Churches, and the Jews have been freed from the restrictions which had not been removed by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period. In the second place, the concordat of 1817 extended the sanction of the Church over most of the adjustments in the relations of the state and the Catholic hierarchy made by the Bavarian government during the Napoleonic period, and finally established the Bavarian bishoprics, of which Charles Theodore had dreamed and for which Maximilian Joseph had unsuccessfully negotiated after 1806. The secularization policy, on the contrary, proved to be only a temporary measure; and after 1815 346 RELIGIOUS POLICY OF BAVARIAN GOVERNMENT [346 very little effort was made to regulate the religious life of the people. While, therefore, some much needed and long overdue reforms were introduced by the Bavarian govern- ment during the Napoleonic period, and some exceedingly spectacular and revolutionary measures were inaugurated and more or less successfully executed, the roots of the Napoleonic period, as far as the religious policy of the Bava- rian government is concerned, reach back into the half- century which preceded it, and its branches reach out across the century which followed it. VITA (CHESTER PENN Hicspy was born near Ottawa, Illinois, on October 27, 1885. He prepared for college in the public schools of Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, and at Kittanning Academy, Kittanning, Pennsylvania. He received from Bucknell University at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, the degree of A. B. in 1908, and the degree of A. M. in 1909. From 1908 to i911 he was instructor in History in the high school at Fairmont, West Virginia. From I9g11 to I912 he was instructor in History and from 1912 to 1916 he was Assistant to the President and instructor in History at the Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, West Virginia. From 1910 to 1915 he was enrolled at Columbia University as a graduate student in History and attended seminar courses conducted by Professors Sloane and Shotwell and lecture courses given by Professors Robinson, Shepherd, Shotwell, Hayes, Schuyler, Dutcher and Krehbiel of the Department of History and by Professors Seligman and Simkhovitch of the Department of Economics. Since 1916 he has been instructor in History at West Virginia Univer- sity, Morgantown, West Virginia. 347 1, i, ko oe, Hy URBANA UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ~~ a Sine ay ad

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