AND PRODUCER GAS PHILADELPHIA INDUS'! OF 'iiv. MOND GAS WITH BY-PRODUCT \ ' ■ 1 * * > * » LIBRARY OF tHF UNIV^Hb! ot ILLINOIS V . ** , 400 H. P. GAS PRODUCER POWER PLANT Gas Producers AND The bildt Automatic Feed Device PATENTED SOLE MAKERS R. D. WOOD & CO. Engineers, Iron Founders, Machinists PHILADELPHIA, PA. Gas Fuel AND THE APPLICATION OF PRODUCER GAS TO MANUFACTURING PURPOSES J903 Copyright, 1903, by R. D. Wood & Co. 2-1903-2500. R . D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia 5 UNIVERSAL HYDRAULIC BEAM SHEAR—TURRET TYPE. p 1298 6 R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. A 260,000 GALLON TANK ON TOWER 100 FEET HIGH DESIGNED AND BUILT FOR THE JACKSONVILLE WATER WORKS, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. R. D. Wood Cubic feet. Turf . 45 Wood . 35 v > Application of Producer Gas. —It has been applied with such marked economy for so many purposes that it is now con¬ sidered essential to the prosecution of many lines of industry, notably Steel Works, Rolling Mills, Smelting Furnaces, Glass Works and Chemical Works. Its almost exclusive use in these and many new fields is only a question of time, for the reason, emphasized now by failing natural gas supply, that our only staple and reliable source of Heat on a large scale is coal and that the most satisfactory method of utilizing its heat is to first convert it into Gas and Ashes; this is the function of a Gas Producer. However, in considering the use of producer gas in any new field it is well to bear in mind its relative weakness (it has only about one-fifth the energy of good illuminating gas per cubic foot), and that its most successful applications are in operations where a considerable body of the gas is burned rather than in very small R. D. hVood & CoPhiladelphia. 27 work,where illuminating gas is suitable. Yet it is by far the cheapest gas made per unit of heat, and contains more of the energy origi¬ nally in the coal than any other. These facts make it a very economical fuel when properly applied, and, in addition to the large high temperature furnaces where it has long been used, there are many cases where it can be applied with convenience and economy when low, even heats are needed, and the secondary economies are more important than the saving in the fuel consumed. But in this class of work as much depends on the proper application of the gas to the special purpose as on its production. THE TAYLOR GAS PRODUCER. A Gas Producer is perhaps the simplest of all metallurgical furnaces; in fact, almost any vessel capable of containing a deep bed of incandescent coal through which a current of air, or air and steam, can be forced or drawn is a good producer for a short time. But from the time they were first brought into use, thirty years or more ago, up to nearly the present, the removal of the ashes and clinkers has been always attended with a serious expenditure of time, labor and fuel. Various plans to overcome these difficulties have been tried, but now almost all producers are constructed with some sort of a grate, and differ principally in the kind used, or in some detail of construction. The Taylor Producer was designed as a result of the troubles experienced by its inventor, Mr. W. J. Taylor, in the use of various types of producers for manufacturing producer gas in connection with his ore-roasting kilns at Chester Furnace, N. J., during a period of more than twelve years. The irregular quality and quan¬ tity of the gas, the frequent stoppages necessary for cleaning, the excessive labor and the great waste of coal in the ash in the best producers then attainable, conspired to turn his attention to the invention of an apparatus as free as possible from these defects. After experimenting for years, Mr. Taylor designed a solid circular bottom or table to carry a deep bed of ashes, and arranged to revolve; the revolving of this bottom discharges the ash and 28 R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. clinker over its edge into a sealed ash pit beneath. This device has been well received by engineers and the manufacturing public. What Constitutes a Good Gas Producer. —It is some¬ times said that anything in the form of a closed box with a grate under it is good enough for a gas producer; and, in fact, several types of gas producer which are nothing more than such crude appliances have come into use owing to the general desire to obtain everything of the cheapest possible construction; the sole idea apparently being to make something to sell cheap, regardless of the essential conditions for producing good gas continuously, with minimum labor and no waste of fuel. These conditions are briefly as follows: 1. A continuous automatic feeding device which shall spread the coal uniformly and continuously over the entire surface of the fire. This avoids the customary losses and annoyance from escap¬ ing gases at the dropping of a full charge at once, as in usual methods of feeding. Experience has shown that in some applica¬ tions of producer gas the disturbing influence of intermittent charg¬ ing seriously affects the heating operation. The beneficial effects of the continuous feed are felt in a uniform gas of better average quality and of regular flow, in reduced labor of attendance and advantage to workmen, while further promoting the cleanliness and order of the plant and the economy of its operation. 2. The incandescent bed of fuel must be carried on a bed of ashes several feet thick. This is necessary in order that the fuel shall gradually burn out and cool before being discharged. If this is not done, and the incandescent fuel is carried down close to a grate, it is impossible to prevent its passing through the grate in considerable quantities as coke; and even such as is fully burned out passes away hot instead of cool and moist. 3. It is necessary to carry the blast up through this deep bed of ashes, by means of a conduit, to near the point where the fuel is incandescent, and thus avoid the necessity of blasting through the ashes. By this means the depth of ashes upon which the fire is carried can be made as great as is desired. This is not the case with producers whose blast is supplied underneath the grates; they, of necessity, have to carry a very shallow bed of ashes, with consequent loss of fuel in so doing. R. D. Wood &* CoPhiladelphia. 29 , 4. The point where ashes are removed must be open and vis¬ ible to the attendant while removing them, as it is absolutely neces¬ sary that he sees what he is doing. It must also be cool enough for- him to work without great inconvenience. Producers which work with closed or water-sealed bottoms do not cover this important point; the attendants dig into the ashes which they cannot see, and therefore cannot control the fire intelligently; they have to guess what they are doing. In many such producers the ashes have to be forced through the grates by long bars from above, which involves a large amount of the hardest and most trying labor, and necessi¬ tates the carrying of a comparatively shallow bed of fuel, as other¬ wise the men cannot force their bars through it from above. This., shallow fuel bed and excessive poking results in a poor gas, high in carbonic acid, for one of the essential conditions for making carbonic oxide and for decomposing the steam is a deep bed of incandescent fuel* The work with the bar of the attendant above should be merely to distribute the fuel properly over the surface after it has been dropped from the hopper, and not to poke holes through the fire. The ashes should be removable from a clear, open,, space below, and not through grates. 5. It is necessary that the support upon which the contents of the producer are carried should be level and horizontal. Any form of sloping grate, no matter how the slopes are arranged, will pro¬ duce an uneven thickness of fire bed; the blast will have freer access through the fire at some points than at others, and there will always be a shallow place through which coke easily finds its way before being properly consumed. Any form of grate is undesirable, because it necessitates the passage of ashes through it; but a sloping grate is particularly objectionable. There is usually no access to. the place where clinkers are formed, or, if such access is provided, it opens right into the gas-producing zone, which involves either shutting off the producer entirely or the possibility of suffocating the attendant by the escape of gas. For a successful gas producer the conditions .are summarized as follows: 1. A continuous and automatic feed; the former for regularity and uniformity of gas prpduction with 30 R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. A REVOLVING BOTTOM GAS PRODUCER, WITH BILDT CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC FEED. R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 31 improved quality, the latter for eliminating negligence of attendants. 2. A deep fuel bed carried on a deep bed of ashes; the first to make good gas, and the second to prevent waste of fuel. 3. Blast carried by conduit through the ashes to the incandescent fuel. 4. Visibility of the ashes, and accessibility of the apertures for their removal, arranged so that operator can see what he is doing. 5. Level, grateless support for the burden, insuring uniform depth of fuel at all points, and consequent uniform¬ ity in the production of gas. The Bildt Patents broadly cover point No. 1. While many attempts have been made to accomplish this result, the Bildt Con¬ tinuous Automatic Feed Device, manufactured by us, is the only practicable arrangement ever offered to the trade and kept success¬ fully in operation. As to points Nos.' 2 and 3 any construction which carries the blast up through a deep bed of ashes, the point of application of the blast to the fuel thus being at some height above the bottom of the ash bed, is an infringement. The conditions Nos. 4 and 5 are also covered in a most excellent arrangement; and, while it may be varied in detail, it will be found that our design is a most practicable and thoroughly mechanical one, which cannot be surpassed for simplicity and effectiveness. Referring to the preceding cut A, the No. 8 Producer is shown as charged with anthracite coal, the incandescent fuel being sup¬ ported by the bed of ash, which is put upon the revolving bottom before firing; and this bed of ash is maintained as essential to the successful operation of the producer. It will be noticed that the revolving bottom is of greater diameter than the bottom of the bosh, and is placed at such a dis- 32 R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. tance therefrom that when it is revolved the ash, which forms its own slope at an angle of about 55 °, is discharged uniformly by its own gravitation over the periphery and into the sealed ash pit below (which is under blast pressure), all without stopping the producer, and with little interference with the making of gas. In the regular operation of the producer the line between the ashes and fuel is kept about six inches above the cap on the central air pipe, thus per¬ mitting the fire to come into contact only with the brick lining; and all ironwork is kept away from the heat. The grinding is done as fast as the ashes rise too far above the desired line; say every six to twenty-four hours, according to the rate of working. The bed of ash is kept about three and a half feet deep on the revolving bottom in the larger sizes, so that ample time is given for any coal which may pass the point of air admission without being consumed to burn entirely out; while in a producer with a grate it would have fallen into the ash pit and been wasted. This is an important point and gives this producer a record for economy of fuel superior to that of any other, tests of a week or more having been made when the loss of carbon in the ash averaged less than one-half of one per cent. The turning of the revolving bottom causes a grinding action in the lower part of the fuel bed and closes up any channels that may have been formed by the blast, thus keeping the carbonic acid in the gas at a minimum. A few turns of the crank at frequent intervals will keep the fuel bed in a solid condition, reducing the necessity of frequent poking from above. The door of the ash pit is opened, say once a day, for taking out the ashes and clinkers; this requires but a short time, and interferes but little with the continu¬ ous working of the producer. The blast is generally furnished to the producer by a steam jet blower. A fan blower may be used if more convenient, but then a small steam pipe must be run into the vertical air pipe to supply the steam necessary for softening the clinkers and keeping down the temperature of the producer. In general, it is desirable to use as large a proportion of steam as can be carried without lowering the temperature of the fuel bed below the point where all the steam will be dissociated, but any steam passing through the fuel bed into the gas will reduce its effectiveness. The injected air and steam are introduced through a central pipe, and are discharged radially therefrom in order to prevent too R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia 33 WMmwJm Wsffimmm TXmvmim ?* 5 r«$r /.v/' ///Mtmm iH ffHIfflTTTTTT H flrflll f inn iiiiiiiiiiw uimmi TWWHfT W—’WIIIW ■w jiiiiiiiiiii,iiiiiiiiiii:iiiiiiiiii11«« !iii!ijiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiiii;iniiuiniii '// mw //. iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiii iiiniiiiiiiiiHia wM/m, w// WAY/////, ////, ////// '////A//////-. MmSBammm k i . n ; // /^Swi»nniiMiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii)iiliiiii)Miim)iiiiiii..)iiii)iiiiiiniliiiiiiiiiiiiliiflTnT ..^■llllllllin'iTTTTTT. .11 ■ 11 r i i ■.. i11 j i n r: i -11 i . i 11i i 11 ■ i. i >■:• i.. REVOLVING-BOTTOM GAS PRODUCER, HALF WATER-JACKET UPPER CASING. 34 R. D. lVood.& CoPhiladelphia. much travel of the gas next the walls, which is the line of least resistance. This pipe is placed with its top at a point sufficiently high to carry the required bed of ashes, the top of which should never be brought as low as the top of this central air pipe. Sight or test holes are placed in the walls, so that the- dividing line between the ashes and the incandescent coal can be ascertained at any time. Sometimes this dividing line becomes higher on one side than the other. To remedy this, four sets of agitating bars or scrapers are arranged just above the revolving table, any of which may be pulled out in case the ashes grind down too fast on one side; this retards the discharge on that side and levels up the ash bed. Gates are also provided, where anthracite coal is to be used, which may be ar¬ ranged around the bottom of the ash bed to entirely cut off the discharge of ash on the low side when necessary. The boshes are perforated for the admission of punching bars, which are inserted through the observation doors in the lower casing, for the breaking up of occasional clinker which by inattention or bad coal, or both, has become too large to pass down and out without trouble. The preceding illustration B shows a No. 7 Producer of the half water-jacketed type, and which is especially adapted to service in gasifying coals of inferior quality liable to clinker. The water- jacket rises from the top of the bosh about half-way upward so as to extend around the space occupied by the incandescent fuel, the producer being lined above the water-jacket with fire brick in the ordinary way. The clinker will not adhere so readily to the smooth sides of the water-jacket as to fire brick, and the former is not liable to injury when the poker-bars are used from above. This design is modified in special instances by carrying the water-jacket all the way to the top; but water-jacketed producers are not recommended where the gas is used for heating purposes, as, compared with brick-lined producers, there results from the use ct thcwater-jacket a loss of temperature, and consequently less dis¬ sociation of steam. Hence, unless the heat of the water can be utilized (see page 74) or the character of the coal necessitates the use of the water-jacket, the brick-lined producer is preferable. There are, However, many operations where a considerable quantity of hot water is required. In such cases, if the water has not to be retained against boiler pressure, the casings require less staying for requisite strength, and are therefore of simpler and cheaper construction. R. D. PVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. 35 The Bildt Continuous Automatic Feed Device. —It is generally recognized that the more uniform the freshly .charged layer of coal is kept in a gas producer, the better the results obtained by the more uniform combustion prevailing. Gas producers are ordinarily charged with coal by fil.ing some form of hopper either by hand or from some overhead chute. By releasing the “bell,” “cone damper,” or equivalent device, the charge falls into the pro¬ ducer. The best of such devices have long been recognized as deficient by not evenly distributing the coal over the gas producing surface, a defect remedied, but still imperfectly, by the attendant using a spreading bar inserted through the poker holes of the pro¬ ducer top-plate. Because of this varying thickness in the fuel bed, the gases vary in composition at different portions of the bed, excess of carbonic acid and other inert gases arises with consequent waste of fuel. The bed will burn better in one place than another, form¬ ing local channels of higher heat and stronger tendency to clinker- ing. Moreover, the charging operation being repeated every ten to twenty minutes, a great volume of gas escapes at each dropping of a charge, a loss further increased by the subsequent opening of the poker holes for spreading the coal and breaking up incipient clink¬ ers. The workman in such an atmosphere is soon enervated and frequently the producer is left to adapt itself as best it can to these irregularities of feeding, and, human-like, resents it later by serious internal difficulties. The Bildt continuous automatic feed, as its name implies, con¬ tinuously delivers the fuel in a steady shower of coal in controlled volume from the deflecting surfaces of a constantly rotating dis¬ tributer. Being automatic, it eliminates any possible negligence on the part of the attendant in supplying fuel, and receiving its supply from a closed storage magazine above the producer, it avoids the serious loss of gas arising from other methods of charging. The storage magazine is of a capacity requiring to be filled at longer intervals than usual, and then, as stated, with trifling, if any, loss of gas. Thus a large saving in fuel and labor is effected, while the comfort and health of the attendant is pro¬ moted. Where but one producer is in use, or, in any case where the fluctuations in the gaseous current are injurious, and they are sometimes seriously so, this form of feed will be of increased value. By its use also producers of greater area can be successfully 36 R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia. operated where hand charging would fail, as the coal can be dis¬ tributed equally as well over a large as over a small area. The apparatus consists of a receiving hopper surmounting the main storage magazine, communication between the two being regulated by the horizontal rotating register or gate operated by a lever. BILDT CONTINUOUS AUTOMATIC FEED. Below the main magazine is suspended the distributer plate, its inclosing shield or hood, as well as the inverted conical base of the magazine, being water cooled. The influence of the cooling water and the location of the plate above the gaseous current facilitates the discharge with strongly caking coals. The distributer plate is supported by a steel shaft passing upward through the storage cylinder and suitably guided as shown. At the upper end of the R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 37 shaft, above the supporting bracket, a worm-wheel and worm im¬ part rotation to the receiving hopper which, through its radial arms and hub keyed to the shaft, revolves the distributer. The hand- wheel nut upon the threaded end of the axis gives means of adjust¬ ing the distance between the distributer plate and the coal reservoir. By such adjustment, and further by variable speed (one revolution in i-J to 6 minutes) secured through step cone pulley, the rate of coal discharge is readily controlled. Instead of belting, the worm may be driven by fixing on the countershaft an eccentric the rod of which, extending to the axis of the worm, cairies a pawl engaging a ratchet wheel on the worm shaft. DEVELOPMENT OF CURVE REPRESENTING LINE OF DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRIBUTER PLATE. In the sides of the magazine are holes for insertion of rod or inspection when necessary. The lower lip of the dome inclosing the distributer plate slips over the flange or rib rising from inner 38 R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. edge of the top plate, the joint thus formed being sealed by the water lute as shown. The apparatus, as a whole, may be readily lifted from the top plate, and, therefore, is easily accessible and facilitates entrance to the producer when desired. The cut preceding is a geometrical development of the lower edge or line of distribution of the coal from the distributer and is a spiral. Such line of distribution is secured on the distributer by having a dependent flange, the flare of which deviates to carry the distribut¬ ing edge along the line of a spiral as far as experience has shown necessary. The cut clearly shows that by the revolution of such a construction every portion of the gas-producing surface is covered by some point of discharge of this plate. In operating, while still sufficient coal remains in the main magazine to prevent escape of gas and with receiving hopper full, the register is opened, allowing the coal to enter the storage com¬ partment. If desired, the gate may again be closed and the opera¬ tion repeated, or, in first instance, the full capacity of magazine is drawn from overhead bin. Worcester, Mass., U. S. A., February n, 1898. This is to Certify that a Gas Producer supplied with the Bildt Patented Automatic Feed Device in connection with a heating furnace has been in use continuously at the Washburn & Moen Works for the past seven months. The distributing disk shows no material wear; the apparatus has re¬ quired no repairs, and its general excellence can be highly commended. The coal is continuously and uniformly distributed over the charging area,, and the gas is of uniform and excellent quality, and steadily supplied. The consumption of coal is greatly reduced, as well as furnace waste,, labor and repairs. The analysis of the gas produced is as follows: CO2 . 4.9 O .None CO . 26.8 C2H4 . 0.4 CH. 3.5 H . 18.1 N .46.3 100.00 WASHBURN & MOEN MFG. CO. F. H. Daniels, General Supt . Noth:. —See also text on Producer Gas Power Plants for further testimonials. R. D. Wood £r CoPhiladelphia . 39 The preceding letter indicates the estimate of this apparatus held by those familiar with its use, and where the producers use soft coal. Experience has amply demonstrated the durability of this dis¬ tributing plate, exposed though it is to the hot gases and radiation from the fuel bed, while the simplicity and stability of construction of the whole avoids apprehension of frequent repairs. Distributers which have been in use twenty months were still intact when last examined. The apparatus is adapted to either anthracite or bituminous coals, and of the latter the following are analyses of coals with which it has been successfully operated and in “run of mine” grades: Water .So Volatile matter.36.70 Ash . 7.65 Sulphur .61 Fixed carbon . 54-85 Coke . 62.50 10.00 42.00 5-70 2.20 42.00 47.70 With both coals it permits the use of the finer sizes and in¬ ferior, cheaper grades. Working results in our producers with this feed on such grades of anthracite is more fully detailed in the description of the Erie Railroad engine gas plant. Regularity of flow and in the composition of the improved quality gas, economy in coal, maintenance of better fuel bed, reduc¬ tion in labor, increased comfort of attendance, cleanliness of opera¬ tion and elimination of neglect of feed are features of this device which must commend it to those at all familiar with gas producer practice. Since the previous issue of this pamphlet a large number of these devices have been installed on both soft and hard coals, two of the largest steel works having equipped their producers with this feed. Whenever desired, for reasons of special practice, dis¬ tributer plates of cast steel may be substituted for the usual cast iron! It is made in sizes to suit the various diameters of producers. Prices quoted upon application. 40 R, D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia. Another arrangement of top plate, hopper and stoking of which we have supplied a number is the patented device of J. Wm. Gayner, of Salem, N. J. The device also includes a disposition of flues and scraping attachments which permits of clearing away ac¬ cumulations without interruption to the process. The construction is an outgrowth of his experience in the operation of gas producers in the glass industry, and is designed as a simple expedient for lessening labor and promoting continuous operation by keeping clear the gas conduits where usually most obstructed by deposits of soot, etc. By water-sealed hopper lid, gas tight lever fulcrum, suspended stoking bars, etc., there is secured a minimum of gas leakage and of effort in manipulating these producer attachments. The arrangement has given good satisfaction, and we are pre¬ pared to furnish them or quote on application. The Producer is regularly made in the seven sizes given on page 45, in which the design is altered to suit varying con¬ ditions incident to location, kind of coal to be gasified and other requirements. The type illustrated in Design A, p. 30, with a revolving bot¬ tom and shell lined with fire brick, is that usually adopted for anthracite and a good quality of bituminous coal. For bituminous coals liable to clinker, the design is in some cases modified, as previously explained, by a water-jacket, which should be selected only when those conditions exist (p. 34). In some rare instances, for very poor coal, the revolving gear has been eliminated, retaining the solid bottom only; but experience shows that even for such coal it can generally be used, during most of the day’s run, to advantage; hence we recommend its retention, though it may often be necessary to work down the ash in the usual way. The half water-jacketed producer has been successfully adopted in gasifying low-grade coals in Montana, and also in Illinois. The latter, in addition to from twenty to forty per cent, of ash, carries a large quantity of pyrites, so that the clinkers are large and extremely hard, testing the capacity of the producers most severely. In numerous instances this Producer has replaced the older type of grate-bar producers, the change resulting in a decided improvement in the quality and uniformity of the gas, and far R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 41 WATER-SEALED PRODUCER WITH BILDT FEED. (Shem Patent.) 42 R. D. PVood fir Co., Philadelphia. more perfect gasification, the loss of coal being practically nil. With producers of the half-jacketed type as used on inferior coals the water-seal may sometimes be adopted to advantage. With the Standard Producer, however, the water-seal is not necessary, nor is it recommended, in that it requires more space and is far from cleanly. Water-Sealed Producer. —There are, however, special cases where a water-sealed bottom may be desirable, and to meet which we have designed the water-seal type illustrated on page 41. The special feature of this producer is the double bosh. The air enter¬ ing the blast pipe, which protrudes through the bosh plate, passes to the vertical central air conduit and circulates also about the inner boshes. These are perforated, permitting the passage of the air into the ash bed, taking up its heat and insuring checking the escape of combustible matters in the ash. Any accidental obstruc¬ tion in the blast pipe is readily accessible by removal of the blank flange at extremity of the blast pipe. Poker holes are suitably placed about the bosh for the insertion of a bar if desired. Such producers equipped with the Bildt automatic feed are giving most excellent service, some of them operating with the lignite coals in Western districts. An extra heavy, plain cast iron top is sometimes substituted for the usual water-cooled top. Producers are generally placed upon an ordinary foundation at ground level, but in large batteries are frequently elevated and pro¬ vided with inverted cone bottoms, as illustrated on page 43, to receive the ash, which may then be discharged into conveyors or cars underneath them. Conveyors are also used in large installa¬ tions for carrying the coal into bins placed above the producers,, from which it may be drawn through chutes as required for charg¬ ing. Such a plant we have recently installed where all coal and ash are chiefly handled by automatic feeds and conveyors, reducing labor to a minimum. These modifications in our producer construction and practice are thus especially noted to emphasize the fact that almost every installation requires a special study of the surroundings, includ¬ ing the application of the gas, to insure the best results. In the operation of Gas Producers the personal equation is an all-important factor. Intelligent direction and conscientious atten- R. D. Wood Sr CoPhiladelphia 43 tion on the part of those in charge of producers will materially in¬ crease their efficiency. Not infrequently have instances been brought to our attention in which poor results obtained in one plant as compared with another were almost entirely due to carelessness. Again, it should be borne in mind that conditions often exist beyond the producers which materially alter the results. Especially should the mains have watchful care that dust accumulations do not ob¬ struct pipes and valves. Cleaning attachments should be carefully located for the convenience and least labor of the attendant. SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE LOWER PART OF A GAS PRODUCER, WITH 1 CONED ASH-HOPPER ATTACHED BELOW THE REVOLVING BOTTOM, AS ERECTED IN BATTERIES. Battery of 56 recently installed for Cambria Steel Works* 44 R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia. Special Advantages of the Producer: v 1. There is no grate to waste coal through, and there is practi¬ cally no waste in cleaning. The deep ash bed permits the coal to burn up clean, and in practice the carbon is frequently gasified so that less than one-half of one per cent, remains of the original carbon in the coal. 2. Any clinkers that will pass through a six-inch space will be discharged from the producer in regular grinding without any manip¬ ulation or waste of fuel, and this distance may be increased if desired. 3. Cleaning is done without stopping the producer for a moment, and the quality of the gas is only slightly injured for a short time; hence the producer is practically continuous, and at the same time it is just as perfect an apparatus when used intermit- ently. 4. By the use of the test or sight holes in the walls the at¬ tendant always knows when to grind down his ashes and when to stop. 5. In grinding down the ashes the settling of the fuel is active next to the walls, or it may be said the settling is more from the walls to the center, while the reverse is the case in all other pro¬ ducers. This is a feature that all experienced in producer practice will appreciate. 6. It is the most durable producer ever built. There is noth¬ ing to burn out, for the top of the ironwork is six inches below the fire, and the lower part of the producer is nearly cold. There is nothing to wear out, for all the parts are heavy cast¬ ings, and in ordinary working the table revolves only three or four times in a day. It will thus be seen that we have here all the condi¬ tions of a perfect gas producer for making gas from either an¬ thracite or bituminous coal, even of inferior quality. 7. When provided with the continuous automatic feed it will operate upon qualities and sizes of coal which may be gasified other¬ wise, if at all, only with greatest difficulty, while in steadiness of /gas production of uniform and improved quality it cannot be excelled. R. D. hVood & Co., Philadelphia 4 S Standard Sizes of Gas Producer. Design A. Size No. Inside Diam. of Brick Lining or Jacket. Area of Fuel Bed. Height to Top of Casing. Approximate No. of Wedge Fire Brick Required.* 8 8 ft. 50-3 ft- 16 ft. 3200 7 7 ft - 38.5 ft- 15 ft. 2800 6 6 ft. 28.3 ft. 15 ft. 2300 5 5 ft. 19.6 ft. 15 It. 2000 4 4 ft. 12.6 ft. 12 ft. I3OO 3 3 ^ 7.0 ft. IO ft. 950 2 2 ft. 3.1 ft. IO ft. 680 * Based on fire brick of sizes regularly used by us. Fire brick sizes vary with different makers. Larger sizes are made when necessary, the automatic feed being especially advantageous in larger producers. Connections are made ^ the diameter of Producer (see page 49 ), both inside brick lining. Prices on Application. Connections and fire brick for lining not included unless so. specified. Directions for starting and operating Producers, on page 93 . Competent men to erect and start up our Producers are furnished at moderate charges. PART OF BATTERY OF FOURTEEN PRODUCERS. 46 R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia c GATE VALVEj.WITH OUTSIDE SCREW STEM. D GATE VALVE WITH PLAIN STEM. List of Valves and Fittings for Gas Producers and Mains C—Gate Valve with Outside Screw Stem in all sizes from 6" to 6'. D— “ “ “ Plain Stem “ “ “ 6" to 6'. E—Explosion and Cleaning Door for End of Main, 14", 18", 20" (see page 47). F—Cleaning Door. Several sizes to suit Mains (see page 49). G—Sand Valve (with Explosion Door), 20", 24" (see page 47). H—Solid Seat Valve (with Explosion Door), 10", 12", 15", 18", 21" (see page 49). I—Manhole Cover. R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. 47 Explosion Door. Producer Installations. —The arrangement of producer plants and their connections naturally depends very much on local conditions. It is desirable to locate the producer as near as practicable to the point at which the gas is to be burned, thus utilizing the sensible heat of the gas to a greater degree (see page 59) in burning at the higher temperature, while the outlay for connections is minimized. To this end, the connection should be properly lined, as far as may be, with fire brick or other non-conducting ma¬ terial. They should be laid out with a view to possible extensions, and provided with cleaning and safety or explosion doors. We make a specialty of gas-producer installa¬ tions, including flues, valves and other details of approved design. We are also prepared to supply iron operating platforms; and, where so required, complete batteries of producers with coned ash bottoms, fuel bins, etc. An interesting instance of an installation of this kind is that of a battery of fourteen producers installed by us for the Guggenheim Smelting Company, parts of which are shown in the illustrations on pages 45, 48 and 51. Sand Valve. Piping Producer Gas. —Connections should be of such size and so designed and constructed as to convey the gas with, as little loss of its initial temperature as possible, and should be provided with suitable valves, safety devices and sufficient hand and man¬ holes. The loss in efficiency in piping long distances is greater in bituminous than in anthracite gas. In the former the loss is in¬ creased owing to the greater condensation and deposition of the unfixed heavy hydrocarbons, while in the latter (anthracite) practi¬ cally no loss results except from cooling. Probably five hundred feet is the maximum distance to which bituminous producer gas should be carried; and in such instances it is essential to have the flues of ample diameter,—the greater the distance the larger the flue,—making allowance, of course, for the partial consumption of 48 R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia FROM PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING PART OF AN ILLUSTRATION OF CONE- BOTTOM GAS PRODUCERS, WITH CONNECTIONS. In this battery the Producers are supplied with coned ash-hopper bottoms from which the ash is taken by conveyors, which are also used to convey the coal to bins above the Producers. R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 49 the gas along the line. It is usually best to line the flues with fire brick or other non-conducting material for their entire length, though cast iron mains of small diameter, 18 inches or less, prefer¬ ably protected with asbestos on the outside, are used for services which do not justify outlay for the larger lined mains. The size of connection to each producer should be about one-quarter the diameter of the producer inside of the lining,—thus an 8-foot producer should have a 24-inch con¬ nection. The mains, when reasonably short, should have the same area as the sum of all producer connections feeding them. H Solid Seat Valve. Cleaning Door. Gas per Ton of Coal. —As previously noted, the amount of gas produced from a ton of coal varies with the composition and general character of the coal and the method of operation, of which we may note especially the proportion of steam used in blowing the producer. But on the average it may be assumed that one ton of anthracite buckwheat coal produces about 170,000 feet of gas, containing 138,000 heat units per 1000 feet. Its composition will average as follows: CO, Carbon Monoxide .... H, Hydrogen ..... CH 4 , Methane, Marsh Gas . C 0 2 , Carbon Dioxide, “Carbonic Acid” N, Nitrogen ..... Per Cent. Per Cent. 22.0 to 3 °.° 15 0 to 7.0 3-0 to i -5 6.0 to i -5 54 -o to 60.0 100.0 100.0 A 50 R. D. PVood & CoPhiladelphia. The analysis of gas from bituminous coal is nearly the same, except that CH 4 is a trifle higher and the H frequently above the maximum noted in table. But, as a matter of fact, an analysis of bituminous gas does not properly represent its energy, as most of the volatile combustible of the coal passes off as a non-fixed gas and does not appear in the analysis (being condensed in the tubes of the analytical apparatus), yet it is utilized in the furnace. (For explanation see under Gas Fuel and Producer Gas.) Capacity of Producers. —The No. 8 Taylor Producer will easily gasify six and one-half tons of anthracite pea coal in twenty- four hours, and the smaller sizes somewhat more in proportion to their area. A deeper fuel bed is required when using bituminous coal than with anthracite, and the quantity gasified varies with the quality, usually more than anthracite. In ordinary service, on West Virginia or Pennsylvania bituminous coals, the No. 8 Producer will average eight tons in twenty-four hours, or 666 pounds per hour, and this coal is all gasified that is, converted entirely into gas and ashes; no coke whatever is found in the ash from the producer, a condition which does not exist in many other types, notably “water- sealed” of customary type, “sloping grate” and so-called “high capacity” producers, whose makers claim a capacity far beyond the possibility of making good gas or completely gasifying the coal so rapidly forced through them. The fusibility of the ash in any coal determines its maximum rate of combustion in a producer. Probably, with a coal having the most infusible ash, about fifteen to sixteen pounds per hour is the maximum amount that can be gasified continuously per square foot of fuel bed. An exception to this rule is found, however, in the lignites of the Western States, some of which can be gasified at a much higher rate. But with a very fusible ash the rate of combus¬ tion must be much reduced to make good gas continuously without excessive labor or much waste. Fuel .■—In making gas from bituminous coal the best results are obtained from a good, clean coal, low in ash and moisture and high in volatile matter. A poorer quality does not make as good a gas, nor can the producer be driven as hard. R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia 51 A PART OF A BATTERY OF FOURTEEN No. 7 CONE-BOTTOM GAS PRODUCERS. 52 R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. In high temperature work a high percentage of volatile hydro¬ carbons in the coal is very desirable, and a smaller consumption of coal is then needed to do a given work. (See under Gas Fuel and Producer Gas.) Thus, where local coals are but inferior and cheap, it may be cheaper to bring from a distance higher-priced coals of good quality. This is done advantageously in numerous instances. The size of coal is not so important, especially when the coal cakes, for it then fuses together into large masses, which on being broken with a bar make the fuel bed porous and open. The nut size is a very convenient one for use in the producer, although “run of mine” in which the lumps are small enough to pass through the hopper, or “slack,” or a mixture of the two, are used very success¬ fully. The clinkers which form from soft coal are rarely large, and are handled with little trouble, except when very lean coal is used. Although the producer works to best advantage on coal of good quality, yet the superior facilities for cleaning and the perfect appli¬ cation of the steam and air make it possible to use successfully a very inferior coal; but the gasification must be slower than with good coal. We have one large plant using a slack containing over forty per cent, of ash, and, what is worse, a large amount of sulphide of iron; certainly a very difficult coal to deal with. When anthracite is used the cheapest coal is a No. I buckwheat, with a low percentage of difficult fusible ash, low in moisture and high in volatile combustible. An important point in using an¬ thracite is that too much fine dust is very objectionable, as it makes the interstices too small, or much smaller in some parts of the bed than others. This tends to “honeycomb” the fire bed unless much barring is done. Or, what is still worse, if the resistance in the fuel bed is too great the blast will seek the walls as the place of least resistance, and the gas will be worthless, becoming high in carbonic acid. Anthracite in the form of culm or poorly prepared buckwheat cannot be gasified to advantage in a producer. However, as might be expected, a continuous feed adjusted to just maintain the proper fire surface, and thus showering the coal regularly and as gasified, largely assists in using these coals inferior because of size or quality. Because of the large percentage of ash in the smaller sizes of anthracite coal there is greater tendency to clinkering. Mixtures of coals from different mines may produce the same difficulty, the combined ash forming a more fusible residue than either coal alone. R. D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia : 53 ANTHRACITE COAL SIZES. Size and Name. Through a Round Hole. Over a Round Hole. Chestnut. i'/i inches diameter. X “ 9 (( (( T 000 322,000 137.455 156,917 78 R. D. Wood &■ Co., Philadelphia APPARATUS OF EARLIER DESIGN FOR SUPPLYING PRODUCER GAS TO 100 PIORSE POWER GAS ENGINE. SHOWS ROTARY INSTEAD OF STEAM BLOWER. ONLY SMALL FLOOR SPACE WAS AVAILABLE. ERECTED 1896. (From Photo.) R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 79 PRODUCER GAS POWER PLANTS. One Horse Power—One Hour—One Pound of Coal. “ MOND GAS ” WITH BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY. No question of engineering has greater interest for the profes¬ sion, is more worthy of attention or more likely to yield immediate and tangible results to industrial management than the economic generation of power. While in America we have constructed the largest steam power plants, and have kept pace with England and the Continent in the use of the most approved method of fuel consumption on old lines, American engineers have not given as much attention to cheapen¬ ing the production of power by using producer gas—a use which has grown so largely in England and Germany. The investigations and patents of Dr. Ludwig Mond, of Eng¬ land, cover the most important advance that has been made in this direction, “Mond gas” for power or heating being generated from bituminous coals. (See p. 89.) The Gas Engine .—The earliest types of internal combus¬ tion motors, it is true, fell short in regulation and smoothness of operation. Yet, established on an industrial basis less than twenty- five years ago, its present success and extended application can have been attained only by the development of a machine having inherent value with practical and substantial advantages. One reason for these advantages is in the much more direct conversion. In the steam engine the heat is first transferred from the coal to the water in the boiler, which, in the form of steam, is caused to expand its energy upon the piston of the engine; whereas, with the gas engine, the heat is transferred direct into the cylinder of the engine in the form of gas, without having first been converted into any other medium. This is not the whole difference, but is an important one. Growth of Producer Gas Power Plants. —There are now over 60,000 horse power of gas engines in daily operation with producer gas, some forty of such plants with our type of gas pro¬ ducer in every variety of service. Indeed, this combination gas plant, either in single or several units of engine, from 50 to 1500 8o R. D. hVood & Co., Philadelphia . horse power, now successfully competes with steam. One brake horse power per hour on one pound of coal has been attained, and we may look forward confidently to such performance or better as that of daily practice. Fuel Consumption and Efficiencies* —There are substan¬ tial reasons for this superiority of the gas producer-gas engine com¬ bination. The steam engine can be made an economical motor only when of enormous power. Between ioo and 500 horse power, and, under actual working conditions, the coal consumption per effective horse power per hour will range from 2.4 to 4 pounds. With smaller powers, current practice will require 5 or 6 pounds, while the average of an ordinary working district using a large number of small engines will be 10 or 12 pounds per effective horse power per hour. Twelve per cent, of the heat value of the steam converted into mechanical work is about the performance of the best types in large units. The most approved form of boiler will not transfer to the steam over 80 per cent, of the energy of the coal; 50 per cent, may be a minimum and 65 per cent, a fair average. The combined efficiency of the best engines and boilers is, therefore, not over 12 per cent. It is often much less, and with ex¬ tensive steam lines or scattered distribution of units, as in large manufacturing establishments, it is very low. The modern gas en¬ gine, however, even in small powers, will give an efficiency consid¬ erably higher than the largest and most economical steam engine. If, however, these gas engines are supplied with illuminating gas as fuel, a large portion of this economy disappears, because of the cost of the gas* Energy bought in the form of coal gas costs, at a dollar a thousand feet, about thirteen times as much as an equiva¬ lent amount of energy in the form of coal at three dollars per ton; hence, in order to take full advantage of the gas engine, we must produce the gas economically where it is used; and such a plant, consisting of a gas producer with suitable cleansing and storage ap¬ paratus, working in connection with a good gas engine, gives us the most economical power of the present day. With a theoretical thermal efficiency of 80 per cent., a practical of 26 to 30 per cent'., the gas engine will readily realize in actual working conditions 20 to 25 per cent, of the energy of the gas delivered to it. Indeed, as high as 31 per cent, has been attained when weak blast furnace gases served the motor. /?. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia. Si 3JJ?Z/A/0A/c <\ - ' r GT jt>A//U Z Jt’jy * Me AC ui * g O g > ° < ® r or F.° = 1.8 C.° T 32- Degrees Centigrade = f (Degrees Fahrenheit — 32). Degrees Absolute Temperature, T. = C.° -|- 273. Degrees Absolute Temperature, T. = F.° -f- 459. . , „ I — 273 0 on Centigrade Scale. Absolute Zero = < ' t — 459 on Fahrenheit Scale. Mercury remains liquid to — 39 0 C. and thermometers with compressed N. above the column of mercury may be used for as high temperatures as 400 0 to 500 0 C. Temperatures in some industrial operations: Degrf.es. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. *Gold—Standard alloy pouring into molds. Annealing blanks for coinage, furnace chamber, Silver—Standard alloy, pouring into molds. fSteel—Bessemer Process, Six-ton Converter: Bath of Slag. Metal in ladle. “ ingot mold . Ingot in reheating furnace . under hammer . Siemen’s Open Hearth Furnace: Producer gas near gas generator. “ “ entering recuperator chamber.. . “ “ leaving Air issuing from “ Products of combustion approaching chimney, End of melting pig charge. Completion of conversion. Pouring steel into beginning ending ... In the molds Siemen’s Crucible Furnace: Temperature of hearth between crucibles 1180 2156 890 1634 980 1796 1580 2876 1640 2984 1580 287^ 1200 2192 1080 1976 720 1328 400 752 1200 2192 1000 1832 300 590 1420 2588 1500 2732 1580 2876 1490 2714 1520 2768 l600 2912 * W. C. Roberts-Austen, t Prof. Le Chatelier. 7 g8 R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia, Blast Furnace on gray Bessemer: Opening in front of tuyere. j beginning to tap Molten metal end of tap. Degrees. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. . 1930 3506 . 1400 2552 . 1570 2858 Siemen’s Glass Melting Furnace: Temperature of furnace. 1400 2552 Melted glass . 1310 2390 Annealing bottles . 585 1085 Furnace for hard porcelain, end of “baking”.. 1370 2498 Hoffman red brick kiln, burning temperature. . 1100 2012 MELTING POINTS. c.° F.° C.° F.° Sulphur . .... 115 239 Copper . 1054 1929 Tin . ... 230 446 Cast iron, white.. 1135 2075 Lead . ... 326 6l8 gray .. . 1220 2228 Zinc. ... 415 779 Steel, hard. 1410 2570 Aluminum . .. ii57 “ mild. 1475 2687 Silver. . • • 945 1733 Palladium . 1500 2732 Gold. ... 1045 1913 Platinum . 1775 3227 HEAT UNITS. (See pp. 57 and 58.) A French Calorie = 1 Kilogram of H 2 0 heated i° C. at or near 4 0 C. A B'ritish Thermal Unit (B. T. U.) = 1 lb. of Hi>0 heated i° F. at or near 39 0 F. A Pound-Calorie Unit = 1 lb. of H 2 0 heated i° C. at or near 4 0 C. 1 French Calorie = 3.968 B. T. U. = 2.2046 Pound Calories. 1 British Thermal Unit = .252 French Calories = .555 Pound Calories. 1 Pound Calorie = 1.8 B. T. U. = .45 French Calories. 1 B. T. U. = 778 ft. lbs. = Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat. 1 H, P. = 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute. _ miulq _ 42.42 B. T. Us. per minute. = 42.42 X 60 = 2545 B. T. Us. per hour. The British Board of Trade unit is not a unit of heat, but of electrical measurement and = 1 kilowatt hour. = 1000 watts = — i-34 H. P. per hour. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. The following - gives the characters used by chemists to briefly designate various substances: CO2 [44]! = Carbon Dioxide, “Carbonic Acid,” Choke or Black Damp. CH 4 [ 16] f = Methane, Marsh Gas, Pit Gas or Fire Damp. H [1]* = Hydrogen. O [16]* = Oxygen. N [ 14] * = Nitrogen. H z O [ 18] f = Water. CO [28] f = Carbon Monoxide. C 2 H 6 [30] f = Ethane. C 2 H» [28]f = Ethylene or Olefiant Gas. C 2 H 2 [26] f = Acetylene. * Atomic weight. f Molecular weight. R. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia. 99 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FOR COMBUSTION IN OXYGEN. HYDROGEN, H. 2H2 -f- O2 2H2O. Relation by volume — (2 vols.) + (1 vol. ) = (2 vols. )• “ “ weight— 1 -f- 8 = 9 CARBON MONOXIDE, CO. 2CO + 0 2 = 2CO2. Relation by volume — (2 vols.) -f- (1 vol.) = 2 vols. “ weight— 7 + 4 = 11 OLEFIANT GAS, C 2 H 4 . C2H4 -f- 3O2 = 2CO2 -(- 2H2O. Relation by volume — (1 vol.) + (3 vols.) = (2 vols.) + (2 vols.). “ weight— 7 -f 24 = 22 + 9 MARSH GAS, CH 4 . CH 4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H 2 0 . Relation by volume — (1 vol.) -{- (2 vols.) = (1 vol.) + ( 2 vols.). “ weight — 4 -f- 16 = 11+ 9 1 cu. ft. of Hydrogen at 32 0 F. and 14.7 lb. per □" =.00599 lb- To find the weight of any other gas per cubic foot, multiply half its molecular weight by .00599. CALORIFIC POWERS OF FUELS CALCULATED FROM ULTIMATE ANALYSIS. Dulong’s formula: Heating value in B. T. Us. = r ^o [14*600 C + 62,000 (H — §) -f- 4050 S]. o * Heating value in Calories = t O-U to 2 B. T. Us. per Cubic Foot. Name. Symbol. Products of Combustion at 18 0 C. (64.4° F.), Water Liquid. Calories per Kilogram of Gas. B. T. Us. per Pound of Gas. .U V 73.0 U.O W Acetylene .. c 2 h 2 2 C 0 2 -f H 2 0 11,917 21,421 13,881 L 554 Benzine . ... 6 C 0 2 + 2 H 2 0 IO, 102 2,436 18,183 35,300 3*954 Carbonic Oxide... CO C 0 2 4,385 3,055 342 Ethane. c 2 h 6 2 C 0 2 + 3 H 2 0 12,420 22,356 16,692 1,870 f Ethylene . t (Olefiant Gas) c 2 h 4 2 C 0 2 + 2 Ii 2 0 H, 93 I 21,476 14,967 1,677 Hydrogen. h 2 h 2 o 34,180 61,524 3,062 344 | Methane. 1 (Marsh Gas) ch 4 C 0 2 -(- 2 h 2 o 13,320 23,976 9,548 1,070 Weight and Volume of Gases and Air Required in Combustion. Name. Weight per Cubic Foot in Pounds at 32 0 F. and 14.7 Pounds per Square Inch. Volume in Cubic Feet of 1 Pound of Gas at 14.7 Pounds per Square Inch. Cubic Feet Required to Burn ' 1 Cubic Foot ol Gas. Pounds Re¬ quired to Burn 1 Pound of the Gas. Cubic Feet Formed of 32 0 F. 62° F. Oxygen. U < Oxygen. Air. Steam. Cs O u Air . O cc O j-i 12.39 13.12 Carbon Dioxide .12300 8.12 8.60 Carbon Monoxide. .07830 12.77 13-55 •5 2-39 •57 2 - 4 B O I Hydrogen. ... .00599 178.80 189.80 •5 2-39 8.00 34-8 I 0 Marsh Gas . .04470 22.37 23-73 2.0 9.60 4.00 17.4 2 I Nitrogen.. .07830 I2 -77 13-55 • * * Olefiant Gas. .07830 12.77 13-55 3 -o 14.4 3-43 14.9 2 2 Oxygen . .08940 11.20 11.88 • • Air = 20.92 per cent, of Oxygen. i lb. Carbon burning to CO2 requires 11.6 lbs. of air. 1 “ “ “ “ CO “ 5.8 “ “ “ Liquid Hydrocarbons approximate 20,000 B. T. U. per lb. Good coal approximates 14,000 B. T. U. per lb. 2 y 2 lbs. of dry wood = 1 lb. of coal or .4 lb. coal = 1 lb. wood. SPECIFIC HEATS OF SUBSTANCES Glass .. 1937 Cast iron.1298 Wrought iron... .1138 Steel, soft.1165 SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS. Coal.20 to .24 Coke .203 Brickwork ) Masonry /. Wood.46 to .65 Copper.0951 Charcoal.2410 Mercury.0333 Water . 1.0000 IOI R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. AT CONSTANT PRESSURE. GASES. Air. Oxygen . Hydrogen . Nitrogen . Carbon Dioxide, C 0 2 . Carbon Monoxide, CO. Olefiant Gas (ethylene) C 2 Hj. Marsh Gas (methane), CH 4 . Blast Furnace Gas. Chimney Gases from Boilers. Steam, superheated . “ VOLUMETRIC 99 SPECIFIC HEATS. Air, Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen and Nitrogen = .019. Carbon Dioxide and Marsh Gas = .027. Producer Gas = .019. Volumetric specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 cubic foot 1 degree from 32 0 to 33 0 F. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. (Approximate.) Coal Gas, .400. Water Gas, .570. Producer Gas, .970. Air = 1.00. •2375 .2175 3.4090 .2438 .2170 .2479 .4040 .5929 .2280 .2400 .4805 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING DIAMETERS OF PIPE. Q = Discharge per hour; S = specific gravity of gas; h = pressure in inches of water; 1 = length of pipe in yds. D = Diameter of pipe. Then Q 2 SI 035° )V Ample margin should be allowed in calculations based upon this formula. As far as the effect of heat is concerned, the volume of a gas varies as its absolute temperature. Its absolute temperature is the ordinary tem¬ perature -f- 273 0 on the Centigrade or--f- 460° on the Fahrenheit scale. Each degree rise Centigrade increases the volume of its volume at o°C., or °f its volume at 32 0 F., approximately. HEATING VALUE OF SOME FUELS. Peat, Irish, perfectly dried, ash 4 per cent. 10,200 B. T. U. Peat, air-dried, 25 per cent, moisture, ash 4 per cent. 7,400 Wood, perfectly dry, ash 2 per cent. 7,800 Wood, 25 per cent, moisture . 5,8 oq “ Tan bark, perfectly dry, 15 per cent, ash. 6,100 Tan bark, 30 per cent, moisture . 4,300 Straw, 10 per cent, moisture, ash 4 per cent. 5.450 Straw, dry, ash 4 per cent. 6,300 Lignites. 11,200 “ The above are approximate figures, for on such materials qualities are very variable. 102 R . D. IVood & Co., Philadelphia. ■WEIGHT PER CORD AND COAL VALUE OF THOROUGHLY AIR-DRIED WOODS. S. P. Sharpless. Hickory or hard maple . 4,500 lbs. White oak . 3,85° “ Beech, red and black oak. 3,25° Poplar, chestnut and elm . 2,350 “ Average pine. 2,000 “ NATURAL GAS AND COAL. 1,800 lbs. coaL 1,54° 1,300 940 800 a u (< u Equivalent values for natural gas and coal vary considerably, no doubt from variations in quality of gas and coal and differences in practice. Ap^ proximately—• 35,000 cubic feet of natural gas = in heating value 1 ton of coal. FUEL OILS. American crude petroleum carries more of the lighter oils than the European or Peruvian. These latter leave when distilled a residuum or “fuel oil” consisting largely of the heavy oils. Steam atomizers give better results with them than the air spray. In some Russian tests the steam re¬ quired to atomize was 4 per cent, of the water evaporated. “Astatki,” “Mazoot,” petroleum refuse, reduced oil, etc., are terms used to designate fuel oil. Approximately 1 lb. oil = 1.45 lbs. coal. Test at Minneapolis Water Works showed that for same duty 224 gallons of oil weighing 6.875 lbs. per gal. = 1 ton (2,240) Youghiogheny coal. Urquhart gives value of oil and coal in weight as 10 : 7 = 1.43. R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia 103 Applications of Producer Gas to Metallurgical Operations: OPEN HEARTH AND CRUCIBLE FURNACES, SOAKING PITS AND REHEATING FURNACES, PLATE BENDING AND ANNEALING FURNACES, RETORT ZINC FURNACES AND THE ROASTING PROCESSES OF ORE TREATMENT. Manufacture of Chemicals: OXIDIZING AND REDUCING FURNACES, PHOSPHORUS, SODA AND SULPHATE FURNACES, ACID CONCENTRATION, WOOD DISTILLATION, PIGMENT FURNACES. Manufactures in Glass: TANK AND CRUCIBLE FURNACES, SHEET, GLASS AND BOTTLE WORK. Manufactures in Earthenware: KILNS AND MUFFLE FURNACES FOR PORCELAI AND CROCKERY WARE, ORNAMENTAL AND ROOFING TILES, BRICKS AND REFRACTORY MATERIALS AND CEMENT, LIME AND ENAMELING KILNS. 104 R. D. IVood Sr Co., Philadelphia, A SHIPMENT OF 48" PIPE LEAVING WORKS. CAST IRON PIPE and SPECIAL CASTINGS. 6o"x 6o"x 60" Y. Weight 57,000 Lbs. R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. 105 Constructors of GAS AND WATER WORKS. Manufacturers of all kinds and sizes of Cast Iron Pipe FOR WATER AND GAS MAINS, SEWERAGE, CULVERTS, etc. A full line of all Regular sizes usually in stock. PRICES ON APPLICATION. Inquiries should state size, kind, ap¬ proximate quantity and weight of pipes— or pressure under which they will be used ; and, if possible, the intended service, delivery desired, etc. FLEXIBLE JOINT PIPE. STANDARD FLANGE PIPE. SPECIAL CASTINGS. Send for Circular. Chemical and Sugar-House Work. HEAVY SPECIAL MACHINERY TO PURCHASERS' DRAWINGS. GENERAL CASTINGS. io 6 R. D. Wood & Co., Philadelphia. Designing and Constructing Engineers of GAS WORKS APPLIANCES SINGLE OR MULTIPLE LIFT GAS HOLDERS WITH OR WITHOUT STEEL TANKS. MITCHELL SCRUBBER. Matton & Mitchell Self-Sealing Mouth-Pieces, Purifiers, Condensers, Scrubbers, Bench Work, Center Seals, Gas Valves, Lamp Posts, etc. R. D. Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia 107 Manufacturers of the MITCHELL SCRUBBER. MITCHELL CENTER SEAL io8 R. D. PVood & Lo., Philadelphia. Hydraulic Valves* Every Valve has Clear Passage throughout equal to the area indicated by its size. The y z " and y" sizes are in Solid Bronze Shells and have screw-pipe connections. The and larger are in Cast Iron Shells, Bronze-lined, with flange connections. Price includes companion flanges. For Hard and Continuous service under any pressure. Specially adapted to STEEL WORKS PULPITS. LARGE VALVE WITH PILOT VALVE AND FLOATING LEVER. 3-Way or 4-Way each have only one spindle, giving the 4-Way valve but one-half the cup packings required in other modern valves. Perfectly Balanced and the Easiest Working valve yet introduced. The arrangement of leather cups gives the utmost durability ; will usually have six times the life of cups in Critchlow or other similar types. A worn cup is easily renewed in five minutes. Built with the Greatest Care under rigid inspection, and only the finest grade of material used throughout. R. D. PVood & Co., Philadelphia. 109 Builders of Hydraulic Fixed and Portable Riveters, Punches and Shears, ESPECIALLY DESIGNED For Service in the shops of Boiler Makers, Bridge and Ship Builders* Portable Hydraulic Riveter and Hydraulic Lift. HYDRAULIC I-BEAM AND SLAB SHEARS, and HYDRAULIC PLATE SHEARS. HYDRAULIC FORGING AND BENDING MACHINERY. HEAVY SPECIAL HYDRAULIC MACHINERY PRESSES, CUPOLA and MILL HOISTS. HYDRAULIC CRANES, ACCUMULATORS and INTENSIFIERS. Patent Hydraulic Lifting Riveter, for Girder Work, etc. no R. D. Wood £r Co., Philadelphia TRIPLE EXPANSION PRESSURE PUMPING ENGINES FOR ANY SERVICE. R. D: Wood Sr Co., Philadelphia. hi Manufacturers of “Gate” Valves, HUB, SCREW and FLANGE, for Water, Gas and Steam, and all purposes* Send for circular. Indicator Valve Post* (patented.) Designed especially for use with Water Valves connected with Fire Service, in Mill and Factory Yards, etc. R. D. WOOD & CO., PHILADELPHIA, SOLE MAKERS. This Post shows plainly, to every passer-by, whether valve is open or shut. It avoids the delay of hunting for a flush gate-box hidden under snow or dirt, or the delay of opening a frozen gate-box cover. Mathews’ Patent Fire Hydrants. Single or Double Valve, with or without the Patent Independent Cut-off. Send for descriptive circular of Mathews’ Hydrants. 112 R. D. Wood & CoPhiladelphia. Builders of Geyelin-Jonval Turbines FOR Power Plants, Electric Light Plants, Pumping etc. LARGE PLANTS A SPECIALTY Water Power Pumps and Turbines Pumping Stations. Turbines at Niagara. Stations, CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED.