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 Karsten Memorial Library 1908 
 
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 My09-1M 
 

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 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
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 University of Illinois Library 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY D. NUTT, 270 STRAND, 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Class 
 
 Book 
 
 
 Karsten Memorial Library 1908 
 
 Volume 
 
 My09-1M 
 
FRENCH CEAMMAR 
 
 FOR THE USE OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 t 
 
 F. ARMITAGE M. A. 
 
 
 O M » O IV. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY D. NUTT, 270 STRAND, 
 

an i 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 All those, who of late years have treated of French Gram- 
 mar, have acknowledged their obligations to Matzner. I can 
 only say, that without the aid of his books the present gram- 
 mar would never have been written, and that where I may 
 seem most to differ from him, I have only done so in carrying 
 out principles to which he was the first to call my attention. 
 I am not less indebted to Holder; his admirable gramma>r 
 has been by my side during the whole time I was writing; 
 I have rarely differed from him, and then only with the 
 greatest hesitation. 
 
 My object has been to produce a French grammar for 
 boys in our public schools, who spend a considerable portion 
 of their time in learning Latin. To utilize the knowledge, 
 they have so obtained, for the study of the same language in 
 a later form seemed a natural proceeding, and one which 
 would never have been neglected, had not the French teaching 
 been confided for the most part to masters, who were entirely 
 ignorant of Latin. At present the French master in most of 
 our public schools is a University man, who has had the same 
 training as the other masters, there is therefore no longer any 
 reason why the exact grammatical training, which boys receive 
 in learning their Latin Primer, should not be applied to the 
 study of modern languages, especially of French. The objec- 
 tion, which is usually made to teaching French as we teach 
 Latin, is, that when the result we wish to obtain is the power 
 of using a living language, time is lost in studying it scienti- 
 fically. But even if such were the case, there could surely 
 be no objection to using the knowledge, to which a boy has 
 
 1.99277 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 already painfully attained. I should have thought no word 
 needed on the subject, had not a reviewer of the first part 
 of my grammar in a paper especially devoted to education, 
 while objecting to the terminology as too scientific, quoted, as 
 an instance, the sentence Siihstantives in French are declined 
 hy number only^ and assured me that We have got beyond 
 cdl this. I venture therefore to say a few words on the teach- 
 ing of French in our public schools. 
 
 Of the two methods of learning a language no one will 
 deny that the natural one, as it may be called, by which we 
 all learn our own language, and which makes reasoning sub- 
 sidiary to memory, gives the best results. What the Germans 
 so admirably call Sprach-gefuhl., is only so to be obtained. 
 Nor can the unconscious exercise of the reasoning , which 
 enables English boys to distinguish the right use of shall and 
 should and woidd^ of our compound and simple tenses 
 etc., be other than of immense value as a means of educating 
 the mind. But for its application continual practice is re- 
 quired, such as is impossible in school teaching. For the 
 most part in our public schools two hours a week are given 
 to French, the classes consist of from thirty to forty boys. 
 The utmost time therefore, during which a boy has the oppor- 
 tunity of speaking French, is some four minutes a week, and 
 practically not half that time. The necessary result of at- 
 tempting such a method under such circumstances is the merest 
 smattering of French, useless for all practical purposes, and 
 for a boy’s mental progress most disastrous. A want of 
 exactness is too natural to a boy’s mind not to propagate 
 itself, and if masters would enquire, I have no doubt their 
 experience would be similar to my own, and that they would 
 find, especially with the higher forms, that any particularly 
 careless work in Greek or Latin composition had been imme- 
 diately preceded by a French or German lesson. It is then 
 a necessity for us to fall back on the other method of learn- 
 ing a language, in which the memory is subsidiary to the 
 reasoning ; and if we honestly accept the necessity, it is no 
 misfortune. As a training for young minds nothing can sur- 
 pass the conscious application of grammatical distinctions, and 
 in no way can such training be better carried out, than in 
 the teaching of the same foreign language in such different 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 V 
 
 stages as in Classical Latin and in French. No time is lost, 
 for our public school boys have become familiar with the use 
 of accurate grammatical terms in the Latin Primer, and will 
 only understand them the better for seeing them applied to 
 French Grammar. Nor need the practical result be a small 
 one. If we cannot succeed in giving boys the readiness in 
 expressing themselves in French, which comes from an oral 
 acquaintance with the language, we can at all events succeed 
 in getting them to read and write the language correctly, and 
 with such knowledge, that a month’s residence in a French 
 family would enable them to speak it easily, especially if, as 
 I afterwards recommend, they are assiduously practised in read- 
 ing English into French. 
 
 In treating of French Grammar from the point of view 
 of a Latin scholar it seemed to me that the changes, which 
 words have undergone in their progress from Latin to French, 
 were so numerous and often so involved, that at all events 
 for boys at school the accurate investigation of them was 
 hardly to be desired; nor would their previous studies be 
 available for this purpose. I have therefore for the most part 
 only given the Latin form as the original of a French one 
 without further trj^ing the process of change. In the second 
 appendix however, where I note more particularly the changes 
 from the Latin to French accidence, those who wish may see 
 the French verbal forms referred to their Latin originals. On 
 the other hand the extraordinary precision with which French 
 has followed certain laws in adapting itself under its new 
 condition to the rules of syntax, which governed the Latin 
 language in its older form, makes the study of Freuch syntax 
 from the point of view of the Latin, one of the most valuable 
 for the development of a boy’s mind, that can be found in 
 the whole cycle of philological studies. It is the part of 
 French grammar, which has been most neglected, and in trac- 
 ing the changes I have had to trust in a great measure to 
 my own resources. That I have succeeded I should be the 
 last to say, knowing as I do the difficulties of the task. So 
 much I can say, that I am not aware of having passed over 
 any French syntactical construction without having used all 
 my efforts to trace it to its source, and that I have done my 
 best to put in as clear a form as possible the difference be- 
 
YI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 tween Latin treatment and French. Where the subject seemed 
 to require more knowledge of grammar than most boys possess, 
 as in the consideration of the French conditional (page 135), 
 of dependant verbs (page 144), of the infinitive in general 
 (page 155), of the gerund (page 193), of the passive participle 
 (page 198) and of the cases (page 206), I have printed some- 
 times the whole chapter in smaller type. These portions may 
 be entirely omitted by most pupils; the more advanced will 
 I have no doubt read them with interest, and masters will 
 doubtless be glad to see an attempt to explain questions, 
 which were often a sore trouble to me in my teaching of 
 French. 
 
 The two great motives for the changes, which distinguish 
 French from Latin, are the rejection of case inflections, and 
 the new formation of the future in verbs. These with the adop- 
 tion of articles have so far given a new character to the lan- 
 guage, that a Frenchman must And it but little less difflcult 
 than an Englishman to put his thought into Latin. For the 
 French language seems strangely, though perhaps no more than 
 was to be expected, to share the characteristic usually attri- 
 buted to Frenchmen of carrying out a theory to its utmost 
 limits. 
 
 The adoption of articles, though judging from the Greek 
 it was likely to occur independantly of the rejection of case- 
 inflections, was no doubt rendered more necessary by their 
 loss. When once adopted as a means of marking the extent 
 in which a word is taken, the exactness with which this object 
 is attained is very noteworthy as compared with the Latin, in 
 which except from the context there is no way of distinguish- 
 ing whether a word is used as the name of an individual, 
 or of a part of a class, or of a whole class. While in Eng- 
 lish the definite article is scarcely used except as a weak de- 
 monstrative adjective, French, in this improving on the Greek, 
 uses it as part of a system for marking exactly the extent, 
 in which the terra which it qualifies, is taken. So if the term 
 being a common noun is taken in its full extent, the definite 
 article is used; if not in its full extent, it either applies to 
 one or more indefinite individuals included under the whole 
 term, or to an indefinite portion of the definite whole. All 
 these cases are accurately marked in French, lux if used of 
 
PKEFACE. 
 
 VII 
 
 light in general is la lumiere^ if of an individual light is une 
 lumiere^ if of an indefinite portion is de la lumiere; monies 
 if used of all mountains is in French les montagnes^ if of an 
 indefinite number of the whole included notion is des mon- 
 tagnes. A definite individual, or a definite portion of a class, 
 being a whole in itself, takes the definite article, in this case 
 in its original sense as a demonstrative adjective. 
 
 The loss of the case-inflections, which occurred later in 
 French than in the other Romance languages, necessitated im- 
 portant changes in order to retain the general laws of Latin 
 syntax. The chief of these are the great extension of the use 
 of prepositions and the giving up the free arrangement of 
 words in the sentence. The only instance in which case-in- 
 flections are retained is that of pronouns used as verb-encli- 
 tics. Hence the genitive, which in Latin was under the govern- 
 ment of a very small number of verbs, is wholly abandoned 
 in French. This necessitated the use of possessive pronouns 
 for the 3^ person, which did not exist in Latin. Further as 
 the inflected forms of pronouns are all verb-enclitics, it was 
 necessary to have some form incapable of inflection to replace 
 the noun, whenever not in immediate connection with a verb. 
 Hence the so-called independant or disjunctive forms of the 
 personal, relative and interrogative pronouns. But further the 
 Latin use of the same pronouns as adjectives and substantives 
 would necessarily lead to confusion, when the case-inflections 
 entirely, and the gender-inflections to a large extent were 
 given up. Hence different forms for substantival and adjectival 
 pronouns are employed in the demonstrative, relative and in- 
 terrogative pronouns; in the demonstrative to the exclusion 
 of the distinction of relative position so carefully marked in 
 Latin. In the case of adjectival pronouns used as complements 
 it would seem as if the language had hesitated, at first inclin- 
 ing to the use of separate forms answering to the indepen- 
 dant forms of substantival pronouns, and then pi’eferring to 
 treat such forms as substantives. So in the universal relatives 
 we find the complement form quel que distinct from the at- 
 tributive quelque — que ^), but the interrogative quel used attri- 
 
 A reviewer of the first part of this grammar in one of our 
 first literary newspapers suggested that I should here have written 
 
VIII 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 butively and predicatively ; while in the possessives the forms 
 mien^ tien etc. are in modern French used as substantives by 
 prefixing the definite article. Further, to the loss of the case- 
 inflections must be attributed the difference of usage in the 
 case of the infinitive mood in Latin and French. For the 
 gerunds and supines, with the exception of the gerund in -dum 
 with the preposition inter, have all to be represented in French 
 by the infinitive mood with prepositions. Again when the 
 accusative case was taken for the noun in all relations, the 
 Latin use of the infinitive with accusative of reference (acc. 
 C. inf,) had to be given up in most cases. For in French a 
 case of reference has almost always to be represented by put- 
 ting the word under the government of the preposition d (en- 
 seigner d guelqii^un le frangais) and this if used after a verb 
 enuntiandi must necessarily cause confusion. But on the other 
 hand the use of an infinitive mood with case of reference after 
 a verb efficiendi, only rarely to be met with in Latin and 
 then only as a poetic license, is regularly used in French, as 
 the preposition with the case of reference in most cases pre- 
 vents equivocation. (11 fit voir d ses soldats le champ de 
 hataille, cf. Aen. 2, 538. Nati coram me cernere letum fecisti) 
 
 But the great change in French from the Latin, which 
 seems to have changed a whole nation’s way of thinking, was 
 caused by the adoption of the new form for the future. At a 
 very early period in place of the old form of the first future 
 in Latin there was substituted a new compound of the infinitive 
 mood with the verb haheo, I have to love took the place of 
 I shall love. That the original sense maintained itself for 
 some time, probably while the old Latin future form was still 
 more or less in use, may be inferred from the fact that the 
 new compound cannot be used in a conditional clause with si. 
 He will do this is not inadequately represented by he has to 
 do this; but If he ivill do this, I will forgive him is far 
 better represented by if he does, than by if he has to do. 
 Still we find the new form of the future in the Strasbourg 
 oaths, the oldest French known. This compound of the pre- 
 
 quelque; did he think French quelque represented Latin qiiisquis? or 
 that aliquis was a universal relative? Otherwise I cannot understand 
 his suggestion. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IX 
 
 sent of hdbeo with the infinitive = I shall love, naturally 
 suggested an imperfect of the future , haheham amare = 
 I should love, which took the place of the Latin conjunctive 
 in the apodosis of conditional phrases, where the imperfect 
 was used in the protasis. By this form the use of the con- 
 junctive in principal clauses was gradually driven out, and 
 as in modern French with a few isolated exceptions the Latin 
 conjunctive became purely subjunctive. As a pure subjunctive 
 the mood could not maintain its objective nature, i. e. its in- 
 dependence of the feeling of the speaker, and in modern French 
 its use is subjective and expresses more or less distinctly that 
 what is so stated is not really the case in the opinion of the 
 speaker or of some other person^). 
 
 But this is not the place for a complete essay on the 
 development of French from Latin ; I have said enough to show 
 those for whom I am now writing, the masters who may use 
 this grammar in their classes, the object I have had in view. 
 At all events I have endeavoured to produce a French gram- 
 mar, such as is needed in our classical schools, which without 
 losing sight of the practical purpose of teaching how to read, 
 write and speak French correctly, may lead the student to 
 observe the principles of the language and to consider how 
 far in comparison with other languages and especially with 
 its older form as Latin it may be looked on as an efficient 
 instrument for expressing human thought. 
 
 For the terminology I have for the most part preserved 
 the usual French names. So while pointing out that the so- 
 called conditional is, in use ^ in origin, a future imperfect, 
 I have still kept the name, including it however among the 
 tenses of the indicative. What is usually called the past 
 
 1) The historical sequence of the changes dependant on the new 
 formation of the future is necessarily mere guess-work in the absence 
 of documents, which mark the progress in popular Latin between Plau- 
 tus and the Strasbourg oaths. The guess given above seems to me a 
 probable one, at all events allowable in the absence of evidence to the 
 contrary. But it might be suggested that the adoption of the imperfect 
 of the future to represent the Latin imperfect conjunctive obtained, be- 
 cause the loss of the Latin form of this tense had not at the time of 
 appearance of the new future been generally supplied by the Latin 
 pluperfect. 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 participle, I have in common with many later grammars called 
 the passive participle. By a mistake at first the French 
 spelling of independant was left uncorrected; as however the 
 uses so named are almost peculiar to Romance languages, 
 there seemed to me an advantage in retaining a French name 
 for a French use. Grammatical terms are generally used 
 in the same sense as in the Latin Primer and Public School 
 Latin Grammar. So Complement is used for Predicative 
 Adjective or Substantive, In discussing the change from the 
 Latin use the term prolative infinitive is used, but I have 
 preferred calling the use in French the infinitive as case of 
 reference. In the list of addenda et corrigenda^ besides 
 slight inaccuracies some serious mistakes are corrected. So 
 on page 113, paragraph gives what subsequently seemed 
 to me an entirely wrong notion of the force of the French 
 dative. It is the one usually given in grammars, and I had 
 not, when I wrote the paragraph, fully studied the subject. 
 On page 125 quelconque is reckoned among the universal re- 
 latives, but in modern French it is an indefinite, either ap- 
 proaching in force to the Latin libitives as in the example 
 there given, or used for an exclusive of the 3^ class as in the 
 example given on page 269. The last instance Littre gives 
 of its use as a universal relative is from the Psalter Tutes 
 genz qualescunques tu fesis; in the passage he quotes from 
 Villehardouin, where quelconque is followed by que^ M. de 
 Wailly reads quelque. On page 126 md and pas tin are 
 said to be really negative. The mistake is corrected on page 
 268, where it is shown, that while aucun^ like Latin ullus 
 admits the possibility of the action of the verb in reference 
 to the one instance and only excludes all others, nul and pas 
 un exclude absolutely. In old French this distinction was 
 * not made, as in Se nus i vient qui ait s^amor faussee^ If 
 any one comes, who has falsified his love. 
 
 I have endeavoured in the first part to give such exam- 
 ples as, while introducing as frequently as possible the special 
 grammatical forms treated of in the preceding lesson, might be 
 of service in giving the student a facility in expressing himself 
 in ordinary conversation. As a foreigner is always liable to 
 use expressions which though grammatically correct, would not 
 be employed by a native, I should not have ventured to give 
 
preface. 
 
 XI 
 
 sentences of my own composition as models, had not my friend 
 Professor Duffet, author of the well-known ,,M^thode pour 1’ etude 
 de la langue anglaise‘‘ kindly looked them carefully over. The 
 English of the examples is given at the end of each part, and 
 after each set of examples in the first part an exercise, which 
 no boy who has learnt his examples will have any difficulty 
 in reading into French, followed by questions on the chapter 
 of grammar. This exercise should on no account be written, 
 at all events until it has been read aloud once or twice. With 
 large classes the only possible way of attaining to any prac- 
 tice in rapidly expressing thoughts in French, is by reading 
 English into French at sight. Translating at sight is a valuable 
 exercise in learning any language, and one much neglected in 
 England. Where, as in Latin and Greek, conversational prac- 
 tice is out of the question, it is the only means of attaining 
 the readiness in use, which gives complete mastery of a lan- 
 guage. Few things strike an English schoolmaster more than 
 finding in a German school boys whose Latin prose composi- 
 tion is in elegance perhaps even inferior to that of an ordi- 
 nary English sixth form, able to translate Demosthenes with 
 equal ease into German or Latin. Exercises for use with the 
 first part are in course of preparation; the first course is al- 
 ready published. In these the pupil while following the course 
 of the grammar is gradually introduced to the chief rules of 
 the syntax; so that by the time he has reached the end of 
 the examples in the first part he will have such a practical 
 knowledge of French, that he will follow out with pleasure 
 the principle of those rules of syntax which he has for some 
 time back been applying. In the 2*^ part the examples are 
 all selected, some few from authors, whom I happened to be 
 reading while engaged in writing this grammar, but mostly 
 from the grammars of Matzner and Holder, or from the 
 examples given to the French grammars of Poitevi n and Le- 
 claire. In some instances I have given as examples transla- 
 tions of examples of Latin syntax taken from Ma d v i g’s, R ob y’s 
 or the public school Latin grammar. Of these the original 
 Latin, of the other examples an English translation is given at 
 the end of the syntax. Each lesson in Syntax should be begun 
 by requiring the pupils to read the translations back into 
 French, and each example then should be referred to its rule. 
 
XII 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 By this means I believe all confusion will be avoided, and an 
 apparently difficult rule will become clear and intelligible. 
 Corresponding exercises I have not given, as after working 
 through the first part the pupil should be quite able to read 
 some easy English book into French, a better practice than 
 translating short detached phrases. 
 
 Heidelberg, September 1873. 
 
XIII 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 FIRST PART. ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 I. The Alphabet 1 
 
 II. The Parts of Speech and their Accidents 2 
 
 III. The Articles 3 
 
 IV. Substantives 3 
 
 V. Gender of Substantives 5 
 
 VI. Feminine of Adjectives 6 
 
 VII. Feminine of Adjectives continued 7 
 
 VIII. Plural of Adjectives 8 
 
 IX. The Cardinal Numbers * 9 
 
 X. The Ordinal Numbers 10 
 
 XI. Pronouns 12 
 
 XII. Personal Pronouns 14 
 
 XIII. Possessive Pronouns 15 
 
 XIV. Demonstrative Pronouns 16 
 
 XV. Eelative Pronouns 17 
 
 XVI. Interrogative Pronouns 18 
 
 XVII. Pronominal Words 19 
 
 XVIII. Verbs 20 
 
 XIX. The Auxiliary Verb Avoir 21 
 
 XX. The Auxiliary Verb JEtre 23 
 
 XXI. Conjugations of Eegular Verbs 25 
 
 XXII. First Conjugation 26 
 
 XXIII. Second Conjugation, l^t Class 28 
 
 XXIV. Second Conjugation, 2^ Class 30 
 
 XXV; Third Conjugation 33 
 
 XXVI. Fourth Conjugation 35 
 
 XXVII. Euphonic Changes 38 
 
 XXVIII. The Passive Voice 39 
 
 XXIX. Pronominal Verbs 41 
 
 XXX. Neuter Verbs 43 
 
 XXXI. Irregular Verbs, l^t Conjugation 45 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter ' Page 
 
 XXXII. Irregular Verbs, 2^ Conjugation. Classes I, II, III . 48 
 
 XXXIII. Irregular Verbs, 2^ Conjugation. Classes IV, V, VI 50 
 
 XXXIV. Irregular Verbs, 3^ Conjugation. Classes I, II . . 51 
 
 XXXV. Irregular Verbs, 3^ Conjugation. Class III ... 53 
 
 XXXVI. Irregular Verbs, 4th Conjugation, Class I . . . . 54 
 
 XXXVII. Irregular Verbs, 4th Conjugation. Class II ... . 56 
 
 XXXVIII. Irregular Verbs, 4th Conjugation. Class III ... 57 
 
 XXXIX. Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs 59 
 
 XL. Adverbs 61 
 
 XLI. Prepositions 62 
 
 XLII. Conjunctions 62 
 
 Exercises 63 
 
 SECOND PART. SYNTAX. 
 
 I. The Articles 89 
 
 II. Inclusive Use of the Definite Article 89 
 
 III. The Article in Independant Partitives 90 
 
 IV. Demonstrative Use of the Definite Article 93 
 
 V. The Article with Proper Names 94 
 
 VI. The Indefinite Article 96 
 
 VII. Repetition of the Article 97 
 
 VIII. Omission of the Article 98 
 
 IX. Adjectives. Inflexion 100 
 
 X. Adjectives. Continued 103 
 
 XI. Personal Pronouns. Independant Forms 105 
 
 XII. Personal Pronouns. Conjunctive Forms 108 
 
 XIII. The Possessive Pronouns 112 
 
 XIV. Demonstrative Pronouns 114 
 
 XV. Relative Pronouns 117 
 
 XVI. Interrogative Pronouns 121 
 
 XVII. Pronominal Words 124 
 
 XVIII. Pronominal Words Continued 127 
 
 XIX. Verbs. Number and Person 129 
 
 XX. Tenses of the Indicative. Present and Past .... 131 
 
 XXL Tenses of the Indicative. Time Future 134 
 
 XXII. The Futures Continued 137 
 
 XXIII. Auxiliary Verbs of Tense 142 
 
 XXIV. The Imperative 142 
 
 XXV. The Subjunctive in Principal Clauses 143 
 
 XXVI. Dependant Verbs 144 
 
 XXVII. Use of the Subjunctive Generally- 146 
 
 XXVIII. The Subjunctive in Substantival Clauses 148 
 
 XXIX. The Subjunctive in Substantival Clauses Continued . . 150 
 
 XXX. The Subjunctive in Adjectival Clauses 151 
 
 XXXI. The Subjunctive in Adverbial Clauses 153 
 
 XXXII. The Infinitive in General 155 
 
 XXXIII. The Infinitive in place of a Finite Verb 162 
 
 XXXIV. The Infinitive as a Substantival Term in connection with 
 
 a Finite Verb 163 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 XXXV. The Infinitive as Object 166 
 
 XXXVI. The Objective Infinitive continued 170 
 
 XXXVII. The Infinitive as Case of Respect 174 
 
 XXXVIII. The Infinitive under the government of Prepositions . 176 
 
 XXXIX. The Infinitive with a continued 180 
 
 XL. The Infinitive with de 184 
 
 XLI. The Infinitive with de continued 188 
 
 XLIL The Infinitive with apres, avant, sansy par and 
 
 entre 190 
 
 XLIII. The Active Participles 193 
 
 XLIV. The Passive Participle in general 198 
 
 XLV. The Passive Participle 200 
 
 XL VI. The French Cases and Use of Prepositions .... 206 
 
 XLVIL Cases of Pronouns 209 
 
 XLVIII. Relations of a Substantive without Preposition in the 
 
 sentence 216 
 
 XLIX. The Preposition A 219 
 
 L. The Preposition De 227 
 
 LI. En and Dans, Sous and Sur 236 
 
 LII. AveCy CheZy Contrey Jusquey Moyennanty Far, Poury 
 
 Sansy Outre 242 
 
 LIII. The remaining Prepositions 247 
 
 LIV. Remarks on some Classes of Adverbs 253 
 
 LV. Affirmation and Negation 262 
 
 LVI. The Coordinative Conjunctions 277 
 
 Translation of Examples 287 
 
 Appendix I. Tables 320 
 
 Appendix II. Notes to Chapters of Part 1 326 
 
 
XVI 
 
 Addenda et Corrigenda. 
 
 Page 
 
 1. 1. 35, for ;past read passive. 
 
 2. 1. 2, after monosyllable add when preceding a word beginning with a votveL 
 4. 1. 3, for fetv read a few. 
 
 11. 1. 53, for minuits read minutes. 
 
 21. 1. 1, for s read tis. 
 
 22. 1. 26, for hey read they. 
 
 26. To 1st column add: 
 
 P. Nous parlerons, we shall speak, 
 
 Yous parlerez^ you will speak. 
 
 Us parleront, they will speak. 
 
 — 1. 15, 2d column for Perfect read Perfect Indefinite. 
 
 — 1. 18, 2d column add: Pluperfect. Tavais parle I had spoken. 
 
 27. Add at beginning: 
 
 First Conditional. 
 
 S. Je parlerais, I should speak, 
 iu parlerais, thou wouldst speak, 
 
 II parlerait, he would speak. 
 
 35. 1. 26, for dus read dus. 
 
 36. 1. 37, for quels read qu'elz. 
 
 38. 1. 15, for dipthong read diphthong. 
 
 39. 1. 16, for George read Georges. 
 
 55. 1. 26, for je crois read je crois. 
 
 56. 1. 2, after croitre add: in which verb the i is circumflexed, whenever not followed 
 
 by double s. 
 
 59. In the alphabetical list add one to the number of each chapter above XXX. So 
 for XXX read XXXI; for XXXI read XXXII etc. 
 
 90. 1. 18, for Frangais read frangais. 
 
 91. 1. 3, for man read men, 
 
 101. 1. 28, for La read la. 
 
 103. 1. 25, for riche read rich. 
 
 111. 1. 11, omit from or if to involved (see page 206). 
 
 113. 1. 4. omit paragraph b. (see page 208 par. 1 and page 211). 
 
 116. 1. 38 for independant read dependant. 
 
 125. paragraph 8. quelconque in modern French is never a universal relative (see preface 
 
 page X). 
 
 — 1. 34 after is used insert for. 
 
 126. paragraph b. is incorrect, (see page 268 note 1). 
 
 130. 1. 6 of examples for il read Us. 
 
 133. 1. 26 omit the. 
 
 134. 1. 5 of chap. XXI. after completed insert future. 
 
 — 1. 8 of chap. XXI. for seraient read seront. 
 
 135. 1. 15, for ducturos read ducturum. 
 
 — 1. 21, for at is read as it. 
 
 143. paragraph 1. In all probability in je ne sache the verb is in the indicative (see 
 page 336). 
 
 148. To paragraph 1. add: (see page 273. 2 and note). 
 
 154. 1. 6, after que insert = until. 
 
 197. To note 2. add: Joinville uses and ye /a^5 d sayofV as parallel ex- 
 
 pressions. 
 
 198. 1. 21, for silice read cilice. 
 
 226. in example 38, after que insert je. 
 
 243. 1. 31, for usque read de usque. 
 
 263. 1. 24, for as read for. 
 
 283. 1. 2, after French add, except when the notion of purpose is contained in the verb 
 of the principal clause. 
 
 336. 1. 20, instead of „The forms — root.^ read: In prendre the d is probably not the d 
 of Latin prehendere, which was lost, giving the old French form penre; to 
 this a d was added as in ceindre from cingere. Still in old French we find 
 sometimes the 3d plur. ind. il prendent. 
 
I. THE ALPHABET. 
 
 1. The alphabet in French is, as in Latin, the English alphabet 
 without w. 
 
 Modern French employs certain signs, the cedilla, the three ac- 
 cents and the trema, partly to distinguish different sounds expressed 
 by the same letter, partly on etymological grounds. These were not 
 used before the 15*^ century. 
 
 2. The cedilla is a little mark placed under c (q) when it has 
 the sound of a sharp s before a, o and u: as faqon^ pronounce fasson^ 
 but faconde, pronounce fahonde. 
 
 3. The accents are the acute, the graye, and the circumflex, 
 a) The acute (V accent aigu) stands on what is called the closed 
 
 e [e ferme) in a syllable not closed by a consonant: as honU^ ete. 
 But it may be followed in the same syllable by the flexional s of 
 the plural : as aimes, and by an e mute : as aimee^ aimees. It also 
 stands on words ending in -ege: as college, 
 b^) The grave accent stands on the open e {e oiucert) in a syllable 
 where e is followed by a consonant or consonants and e mute, 
 or by s not being the s of the plural : as ^premiere , cdehre , ires. 
 It serves to distinguish the preposition d'es from des the genitive 
 plural of the article. 
 
 b^) It stands on a in d to, Zd there, deja already, and distinguishes 
 the two former from a 3^ pers. sing. pres. ind. of avoir and la 
 feminine of the definite article, 
 b^) It stands on ou where, distinguishing it from ou or. 
 c) The circumflex stands on long vowels, and generally marks 
 the omission of a letter, usually s: as dprc (Lat. as^er)^ gout (Lat. 
 gustus). It is placed on the 1st and persons plural of the 
 perfect definite, and on the 3^ pers. sing, imperf. subj. of all 
 verbs except hair to hate; in verbs of the conjugation ending 
 in -aitre, ‘Oitre on those parts where the i is followed by a t; 
 and on fhree past participles, tu from taire^ du from devoir and 
 cru from croitre^ but only in their masc. sing. It serves to distin* 
 guish them from tu thou^ du the genitive of the article, and cru 
 the past part, of croire. 
 
 4. The trema is two dots placed over the second of two vowels 
 when both are to be sounded: as hair. When placed on e mute foL 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 1 
 
2 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH AND THEIR ACCIDENTS. 
 
 lowing gu it shows that the syllable is to he pronounced; langue is 
 a monosyllable, aigiie a dissyllable. 
 
 5. Elision of the vowel e occurs in je, me, te, se, le, ce, de, ne and 
 que, of the vowel a in la, whenever these words come before a word 
 beginning with a vowel or 1i mute, except that the pronouns do not 
 elide the vowel if they follow the verb, nor the articles before the nu- 
 merals onze, onzieme: as est-ce elle? le onze decemhre. In the com- 
 pounds of que the e is elided in jusque before all vowels, in presque 
 only in presquHle, in lorsque, puisque, quoique and quelque only before 
 personal pronouns and the indefinite article. 
 
 The vowel i suffers elision only in si if, when it comes before the 
 pronouns U, Us. 
 
 6. h in French is never sounded, but when it is mute the vowel 
 of the preceding word is elided, if capable of elision, or the final con- 
 sonant of the preceding word is sounded, wherever it would be sounded 
 if followed by a word beginning with a vowel. 
 
 If the li is aspirated elision cannot take place, nor can the word 
 it begins be sounded with the preceding as one word: as Vhomme, les 
 liommes (pronounce le zommes) but le Mros, les heros (pronounce le eros). 
 
 n. THE PARTS OP SPEECH AND THEIR 
 ACCIDENTS. 
 
 1. Besides the substantive, adjective and pronoun, which belong 
 to the nouns in Latin, French employs articles. 
 
 The article marks the definite or indefinite use of the substantive: 
 as le soleil the sun, les liommes (all) men, un liomme a man (some man 
 or other). 
 
 2. Many of the Latin flexions are lost in French. Of the nouns, 
 substantives and adjectives have lost their case-endings entirely, pro- 
 nouns partially. Yerbs have lost the inflections of the passive voice. 
 
 3. The substantive is declined by number only; the adjective by 
 number and gender. The numbers are two as in Latin. The genders 
 are two only, masculine and feminine. The Latin neuter is lost. 
 
 4. Instead of the case-endings modern French distinguishes the 
 subject and object by their position in the sentence, and uses prepo- 
 sitions to give the sense of the Latin genitive, dative and ablative. Most 
 uses of the Latin genitive are represented by the preposition de, of 
 the dative by d. Hence de and d are called case-prepositions. 
 
 5. The Latin declensions were not lost all at once. Old French 
 to the century distinguished subject and object by inflection. The 
 nom. sing., except in feminines, and the acc. plur. regularly ended in 
 s, as in the Latin 2^, 4th and 5th declensions; the acc. sing, and nom. 
 plur. were without s: as 
 
 S, Nom. Murs a wall, P. Nom. Mur walls, 
 
 Acc. Mur a wall. Acc. Murs walls. 
 
 Since the 15th century the nominative forms in general have been lost, 
 and the accusative alone remain. We still however find a few forms, 
 such as fils, Lat. filius, where the nom. form has prevailed. 
 
THE ARTICLES. — SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 3 
 
 ni. THE ARTICLES. 
 
 1. There are twO articles in French, the definite and 
 the indefinite. 
 
 The definite article is derived from the Latin pronoun ilium, 
 illam, illos, illas. The indefinite from the Latin numeral unum, unam. 
 
 2. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Sing. M. le, F. la. Plur. M. et F. les, the. 
 
 le and la lose their vowel before a word beginning with a vowel 
 or h mute: as Vhomme the man, Vdme the soul. 
 le when not elided, and’Ze^ are contracted into one word with 
 the case-prepositions de and a. 
 
 de le becomes dti, de les becomes des, 
 
 a le becomes an, a les becomes aux. 
 
 In old French we have contractions of the definite article and other 
 prepositions ; es for en les is still maintained in the title bachelier-esdettres. 
 
 3. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Sing. M. un, F. tme, a, an. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 1. 
 
 1. Le pain est sur la table de la salle a manger. 2. Donnez du 
 beurre et du miel aux enfants. 3. Voulez-vous dulait ou de la creme? 
 
 4. Yoici des (eufs et du sel. 5. Mettez les assiettes et le plat sur la 
 table. 6. Donnez de la viande an chien. 7. Le manche du couteau. 
 8. Mettez la cuiller de Fenfant dans la tasse. 9. Donnez une fourchette 
 a Fenfant. 10. Yersez de Feau dans le verre du professeur. 11. Don- 
 nez du pain a la mere des enfants. 12. Donnez de la moutarde et du 
 sel au pere.de la demoiselle. 
 
 IV. SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 I. Substantives are declined by number only. 
 
 The Plural is formed by adding s to the singular 
 (see II. 5). 
 
 Exceptions. 1. Nouns ending in s, X or z, remain 
 unaltered: as le hras the arm les hras, la croix the cross 
 les croix, le nez the nose les nez, 
 
 2. Those ending in -au, -eau and -eu take x for s* le 
 noyau the stone (of fruit) les noyaux, le feu the fire les feux. 
 
 3. Of those ending in -ou seven take x for s, the rest 
 are regular. These are: 
 
 le bijou the jewel le genou the knee 
 
 le caillou the pebble le hibou the owl 
 
 le chou the cabbage le joujou the plaything 
 
 le pou the louse. 
 
4 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 4. Those ending in -aZ change -at to -aux: as le clieval 
 the horse les chevaux. 
 
 But le hal the hall, le carnaval the eamaval, and few 
 others not often used, are regular. 
 
 5. Of those in -ail seven change -ail to auXy the rest 
 are regular. These are: 
 
 le hail the lease le soupirail the vent-hole 
 
 le corail the coral le travail the work 
 
 Vhnail the enamel le vantail the folding-door 
 
 le vitrail the church-window. 
 
 6. The following five are irregular: 
 
 ail garlic aulx betail cattle hestiaux 
 
 aieul ancestor aieux del heaven deux 
 
 ceil eye yeux. 
 
 But travail in the sense of report, statement^ ceil in oeil-de-hoeuf 
 a round window, del the head of a hed^ or a shy in a picture^ and 
 aieul a grandfather regularly take s. 
 
 II. In forming the plural of compound substantives attention 
 must be paid to the class to which each member of the compound word 
 belongs, and the relation which they bear to each other. 
 
 a. Both members take the plural inflection if they are adjective 
 and substantive or two substantives in apposition to each other: 
 as un heau-frere a brother-in-law des heaux-freres , un chou-fleur 
 a cauliflower des choux-fleurs. 
 
 Only one member takes the plural inflection, if of two sub- 
 stantives one is dependant on the other, or if one member only being 
 a noun is preceded by a word which does not admit of inflection: 
 as tin chef-d^ oeuvre des chef s-d^ oeuvre^ un appui-main a rest for the 
 hand des appuis-maiuj un vice-roi des vice-rois. 
 
 y. Neither member has the sign of the plural, if neither is a noun, 
 or if being a noun one member stands as object to the verb which 
 forms the other part of the compound, or if the compound is an 
 adverbial expression or elliptic sentence: as un oui-dire a vague 
 report des oui-dire^ un cure-dent a tooth-pick des cure-dent^ un 
 tete-d-tete^ des tete-a-tete. 
 
 But on the other hand the noun though governed by the verb 
 from the sense of the word requires the plural in un passe-port, 
 des passe-ports, un garde-fou, des garde-fous, and in some cases the 
 compound word is treated as a simple one. 
 
 III. The following have no plural inflection. 
 
 a. Indeclinable w^ords used as substantives : as les quand, les qui, 
 les quoi pleuvent de tous cotes Whens, whos, whats rain on all sides. 
 
 /?. Proper names, unless used for common nouns as when the 
 name is that of a race or family, or when the name denotes the 
 character rather than the individuals : or when the name of a man 
 
GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. fe 
 
 is used for that of a book, picture etc. : as les deux Corneille, ave^^ 
 Vous m les Smith d Paris? But les douze Cesars, les Guises, 
 nous n^aurons plus de Suetones, fai achete douze Telemaques. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 2. 
 
 1. Les enfants out des noix et des noisettes. 2. Le fils du comte 
 a des prix. 3. Le fermier a des brebis, des vaches et uii taureau. 
 4. Entendez-vous lavoix de Fenfant? 5. Les chevaux du general sont 
 a la ferme, 6. II a place le journal sur mes genoux. 7. Les voleurs 
 ont emport^ les bijoux et les eventails des dames. 8. II habitait le 
 chateau des rois, ses a'ieux. 9. Les neveux du medecin ont avale les 
 iioyaux des peches. 10. Avez-vous vu les tableaux de la reine? 
 
 V. GENDER OP SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 1. The Gender of French substantives is so arbitrary, that an 
 attempt to embrace every particular in rules and their exceptions would 
 only confuse the learner. But as general guides the following rules 
 may prove useful. 
 
 a. Masculine are days, months, seasons, trees and metals: as 
 dimanclie prochain next Sunday, janvier passe last January, le prin- 
 temps spring, le chene the oak, le fer iron. 
 
 Feminine are the names of moral qualities and of sciences: 
 as la piete piety, la modestie modesty. But le courage courage, 
 le vice vice. 
 
 2. Of terminations masculine are -age, ege, -aire, -ice, -isme and 
 -iste. 
 
 Except: 
 
 €age cage plage beach (of the sea) chaire pulpit 
 
 image picture rage madness paire pair 
 
 page page (of a book) affaire a matter grammaire grammar 
 
 and a few others. 
 
 Other terminations in e mute are mostly feminine. 
 
 3. Of terminations feminine are -te, -tie, -ion, -con, -son, and 
 -eur of abstract nouns. 
 
 Except: soupgon suspicion honlieur happiness Idbeur labour 
 
 huisson bush malheur misfortune coeur heart 
 
 poison poison honneur honour 
 
 and some others. 
 
 Other terminations in a consonant or full-sounded vowel are mostly 
 masculine. 
 
 4. The gender in Latin may generally serve to give the gender in 
 French. Masculine and neuter nouns being mostly masculine in French, 
 feminine nouns retaining their gender. The chief exceptions are: 
 
 1. Names of trees which are masculine in French. 
 
 2. Abstract words in -eur which become feminine : as la pudeur 
 pudor. 
 
 3. Latin feminines which are masculine in French : 
 
 un art ars un epi spica le front frons 
 
 le salut salus le sort sors. 
 
6 
 
 FEMININE OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 4. Latin masculines and neuters which are feminine in French: 
 la come cornu la cendre cinis la dent dens 
 
 la fin finis la fleur flos la mer mare 
 
 la poudre pulvis. 
 
 VI. FEMININE OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 I. Adjectives are declined by gender and number. 
 
 The feminine is formed by adding e to the masculine: as 
 joli pretti f. jolie; but if the masculine ends in mute no change 
 is made : as sage wise, good f. sage, 
 
 NOTE «. Adjectives ending in -gtt have the trema over 
 the e of the feminine, as otherwise a syllable would be lost 
 (see I. 4) as: aigti sharp f. aigue. 
 
 NOTE P, If the vowel e precedes the last consonant in the 
 masculine, it has the grave accent in the feminine unless the 
 consonant is doubled: as leger light f. legere, 
 
 II. Exceptions. 1. In the following terminations the last 
 consonant is doubled: 
 
 a, n in -ien and on: as aneien old f. ancienne, hon good 
 f. bonne. 
 
 /9. I in -eil and -el: as pareil like f. pareille., cruel cruel 
 f. cruclle. So also nul no f. mdle and gentil nice 
 f. gentille. 
 
 y. In the following five which have two forms in the 
 masculine: beau bel beautiful f. belle., mou mol soft 
 f. molle, fol mad f. folle, nouveau nouvel new 
 f. nouvelle, vieux^ vieil old f . vieille. 
 
 The first form is used before words beginning with 
 a consonant, the second before those beginning with 
 a vowel or h mute. 
 
 S. s of all terminations: as gras fat f. grasse^ epais thick 
 f. epaisse. But six adjectives ending in s form their 
 feminine differently according to their derivation: ras 
 (L. rasus) shorn f. rase, obtus (L. obtusus) obtuse 
 f. obtuse, absous (L. absolutus) absolved f. absoute, 
 dissous (L. dissolutus) dissolved f. dissoute, frais 
 (0. h. g. frisc) cold, fresh f. fraiche, Hers (L. tertius) 
 third f. tierce. 
 
 f. t o1l all terminations : as net clean f. nette, sot foolish 
 f. sotte. But the following derived from Latin past 
 participles are regular: coneret concrete, complet 
 
FEMININE OF ADJECTIVES CONTINUED. 
 
 7 
 
 replet full, inquiet anxious, prH ready, secret secret, 
 devot religious, as : f. concrete^ etc. So also idiot silly 
 f. idiote and mat dull-coloured f. mate, 
 
 EXAMPLES, 3, 
 
 1. Cette jeune fille est jolie. 2. L’eglise est tres-ancieniie. 3. Voila 
 un bel arbre a feuilles rondes. 4. Void une belle robe d’une etoffe 
 molle. 5. Les petites lilies sont sages et gentilles. 6. Cette soie est 
 tout-k-fait pareille a la mienne. 7. Cette haie est epaisse. 8. Ma soeur 
 est inquide. 9. Les couleurs sont trop mates. 10. L’assemblee est 
 dissoute. 
 
 VIL FEMININE OP ADJECTIVES CONTINUED. 
 
 Exceptions, 2. Adjectives ending in c change c either 
 («) into -que or (^) into -che. 
 
 u. caduc decaying f. eaduque hlanc white f. blanche 
 
 public public f. publique sec dry f. seche, 
 
 turc Turkish f. turquCy To these frais fratche pro- 
 
 but grec Greek f. grecque. perly belongs. 
 
 3. Adjectives ending in f change f to v before the e of the 
 feminine: as neuf new f. neuve, 
 
 4. Adjectivesending in x change to s before the e of the 
 feminine : as heureux happy f. heureuse. 
 
 But roux (L. russus) red f. rousse,, doux (L. dulcis) gentle 
 f. douce, faux false f. fausse. 
 
 5. Long long and obloiig oblong make longue, oblongue in 
 the feminine to keep the hard sound of the g, 
 
 6. The following five derived from the Latin resume in 
 the feminine a letter which the masculine has dropt. 
 
 coi (quietus) quiet f. coite benin (benignus) kind f. be- 
 favofi (favoritus) favourite nigne 
 
 f. favorite malin (malignus) arch f. ma- 
 
 jumeau (gemellus) twin f. ju- ligne. 
 
 melle. 
 
 Jumeau ought to be placed under l.y. of the exceptions, but it has 
 not retained the double form in the masculine. 
 
 7. Adjectives ending in -eur form their feminine in one 
 of three ways: 
 
 u. if derived from a Latin comparative form they are 
 regular: as superieur superior f. superieure, 
 fj, if derived from a French verbal root they change 
 -eur into -euse: as flatteur flattering f. flatteuse. 
 
8 
 
 PLURAL OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 y. those derived from a Latin substantive in -tor change 
 -teur to -trice^ as: inventeur f. inventrice; but vengeur 
 avenging has f. vengeresse^ enchanteur fern, enchanteresse 
 and so also some others. 
 
 NOTE. With some few substantives, as mere, tante, chose, peine, 
 peur, faim and others the adjective grand is generally written with an 
 apostrophe in place of the feminine e, as: grand’ mere; but of late the 
 apostrophe is often dropt, and rightly, as the fern, form grand is a 
 * remains of the rule in old French, that adjectives which in Latin were 
 of two terminations remained unchanged in the feminine. Similarly we 
 have lettres royaux, regalis being of two terminations. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 4. 
 
 1. II a un frere jumeau. 2. L’avarice est une passion basse et 
 honteuse. 3. J’ai un habit neuf, mais de vieilles bottines. 4. La langue 
 turque. 5. Ma sceur est tres-craintive. 6. Une reponse seche. 7. Des 
 paroles douces. 8. Yoila une chose curieuse. 9. II est d’une humeur 
 q'uerelleuse. 10. La nouvelle est fausse. 
 
 VIIL PLURAL OP ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The Plural of adjectives is formed according to the 
 same rules as that of substantives; except that hlcM blue 
 makes plural masc. hletis. 
 
 a. The adjectives hel, nouvel, vieil, fol and mol form 
 their masculine plural from the other form of the singular, 
 heaiix, nouveauXs vieux, foiis, moiis, 
 
 /9. Of the adjectives ending in -al the greater number 
 like the substantives of this termination change -al to 
 -aiix; but fatal, frugal, glacial, matin al, naval, penal, 
 fhedtral are said to form their masculine plural in s. 
 Such forms however as fatals etc. rarely occur and should 
 be avoided. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Adjectives in French do not form their degrees of 
 comparison by inflection, but by the use of adverbs. 
 
 a. To express the comparative of superiority plus is 
 employed: as il est plus age que moi he is older than I. 
 
 jS. To express the Superlative plus must be used preceded 
 by either the definite article or a possessive pronoun: as 
 ■ ma plus grande envie my greatest desire, les plus jolis 
 arhres the prettiest trees. 
 
 If the adjective follows the substantive, the article must 
 
THE CARDINAL NUMERALS. 
 
 9 
 
 be repeated: as les montagnes les plus elevees the highest 
 mountains. 
 
 Of the Latin comparative forms three are retained 
 in French: 
 
 bon good meilleur better le meilleur the best 
 
 mauvais bad pire worse le pire the worst 
 
 petit little moindre less le moindre the least. 
 
 But plus bon may be used in the sense of more simple^ plus mau- 
 mis is more common than pire, and plus petit is always used of per- 
 sons, moindre only of things and then not of physical size. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 5. 
 
 1. Elle a les yeux bleus. 2. Les zones glaciales. 3. II a eu des 
 juges impartiaux. 4. La loi coutumiere est quelquefois plus forte que 
 la loi ecrite. 5. Les hommes les plus vertueux sont les plus sages. 
 6. Ma soeur est moins forte que moi. 7. II est le meilleur des hommes. 
 8. II s’emporte pour la moindre chose. 9. Jean est un mauvais enfant, 
 Georges est encore pire, mais Henri est le pire de tons. 10. La maison 
 de ma tante est plus grande que la votre. 11. Son cheval est moins 
 beau que le mien. 12. Des succes de theatre. 13. II parle d’une ma- 
 niere theatrale. 14. II est plus ennuyeux que son frere. 
 
 IX. THE CARDINAL NUMERALS. 
 
 1 un, une 
 
 2 deux 
 
 14 quatorze 
 
 50 
 
 cinquante 
 
 15 quinze 
 
 51 
 
 cinquante et un 
 
 3 trois 
 
 16 seize 
 
 60 
 
 soixante 
 
 4 quatre 
 
 17 dix-sept 
 
 61 
 
 soixante et un 
 
 5 cinq 
 
 18 dix-huit 
 
 70 
 
 soixante-dix 
 
 6 six 
 
 19 dix-neuf 
 
 71 
 
 soixante et onze 
 
 7 sept 
 
 20 vingt 
 
 79 
 
 soixante-dix-neuf 
 
 8 huit 
 
 21 vingt et un 
 
 80 
 
 quatre-vmgt 
 
 9 neuf 
 
 22 vingt‘deux 
 
 81 
 
 quatre-vingt-un 
 
 10 dix 
 
 30 trente 
 
 90 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix 
 
 1 1 on^e 
 
 31 trente et un 
 
 100 
 
 cent 
 
 12 dou^e 
 
 40 quarante 
 
 101 
 
 cent un 
 
 13 trei^e 
 
 41 quarante et un 
 
 200 
 
 deux cents 
 
 1000 mille 
 
 1,000,000 unmdlion 1,000,000,000 unmilliard- 
 
 1. The units are joined to the tens by a hyphen only, 
 except un, une which is joined by the conjunction et to vingt, 
 trente Qio,. up to soixante; but quatre-vingt-un, cent un etc. 
 
 2. Vingt and cent take the plural s when, while qualifying 
 a noun, they are preceded by a multiple, and not followed by 
 another numeral, as: quatre-vingts hommes, but quatre-vingt- 
 
10 
 
 THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 deux hommes^ deux cents soldats, but deux cent cinquante 
 soldats. When used as ordinals (see X. 4.) they never take 
 the s: as page quatre-vingt. 
 
 3. Cent and mille are adjectives and therefore do not 
 take an indefinite article, cent hommes a hundred men, mille 
 graces a thousand thanks. But million and milliard are sub- 
 stantives, un million de francs a million francs. 
 
 4. Mille never takes the s of the plural: as deux mille 
 hommes two thousand men. 
 
 5. In giving the year after Christ mille is written mil: as 
 an 1 
 
 I mil huit cent soixante-treize in the year 1873. 
 en j 
 
 EXAMPLES. 6. 
 
 1. Mon oncle a deux maisons et quatre jar dins. 2. II 
 y a cent francs dans quatre livres sterling. 3. II y a mille 
 deux cents livres dans la bibliotheque de mon p^re. 4. II 
 y a sept jours dans une semaine, et vingt-quatre heures 
 dans un jour. 5. Je suis ne en dix-huit cent quarante-huit. 
 6. Neuf fois huit font soixante-douze. 7. Vingt et un et 
 quatre-vingt-onze font cent douze. 8. Mon fermier a un taureau 
 et onze vaches. 9. Le berger a sept cent soixante-quatorze 
 brebis. 10. Mon oncle a cinquante-trois ans. 
 
 X. 
 
 THE 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBERS, 
 
 premier, -ere 
 
 first 
 
 neuvieme 
 
 ninth 
 
 second, -de \ 
 
 T mnqt et unxeme 
 
 second 
 
 cent unieme 
 
 twenty-first 
 
 deuxieme J 
 
 hundred and first 
 
 troisieme 
 
 third 
 
 deux centieme 
 
 two hundredth 
 
 cinquieme 
 
 fifth 
 
 troiscent trente- 
 
 three hundred and 
 
 quatrieme thirty-fourth . 
 
 1. The ordinal numbers except the two first are formed 
 from the cardinals by adding -ieme; but those cardinals 
 which end in e mute throw the e away ; cinq adds and 
 neitf changes f to v. 
 
 2. Before on^e^^ onzieme the article is not elided, le onze 
 fevrier the eleventh of February. 
 
 3. Deuxieme is preferred to second when higher numbers 
 are implied. 
 
 4. The cardinal numbers from deux upwards are used 
 in place of the ordinal: 
 
NUMBERS. 
 
 11 
 
 a. in giving the day of the month : as le premier fevrier^ 
 le deux mars, le trente et un judlet, the of January, 
 the 2^ of February, the 31®^ of July. 
 
 for names of reigning sovereigns : as Charles premier, 
 Henri cinq, Pie neuf. But either second or deux may be 
 used, Charles second or Charles deux. 
 
 Quint is used for cinoi in speaking of the Emperor Charles the 
 fifth, and pope Sixtus the fifth, Charles-quint, Sixte-quint. 
 y. in all series, as of volumes, pages of a book, numbered 
 houses, etc., tome premier, page cinq, the first volume, the 
 fifth page. 
 
 FRACTIONAL NUMBERS. 
 
 ^/2 U 7 i demi, un tiers, un quart, ^'5 uncinquieme. 
 For all others the ordinal numbers are used. 
 
 Demi is an adjective. If the whole number is not ex- 
 pressed, it is placed before the substantive joined to it by 
 a hyphen and is invariable: as une demi-livre half a pound. 
 If the whole number is expressed demi follows the substantive 
 to which it is joined by the conjunction et, and agrees with 
 it in gender: as un metre et demi a metre and a half. The 
 substantive the half is la moitie. 
 
 NUMERAL ADVERBS. 
 
 une fois once, deux fois twice, vingt fois twenty times etc. 
 NOTE. For notation of time, 12 o’clock in the day is 
 midi, twelve at night is minuit; the other hours are noted 
 by the cardinal numbers in agreement with heure; as une 
 heure one o’clock deux heures two o’clock etc. The half-hours 
 are given by the adjective demi, in agreement with heure 
 when expressed: as midi et demi half-past twelve une heure 
 et demie half-past one, deux heures et demie half-past two. 
 From the hour to the half-hour the minutes are added, from 
 the half-hour to the hour they are usually subtracted from the 
 following hour, the word minuits being ordinarily omitted; as 
 line heure cinq five minutes past one, deux heures un quart 
 a quarter past two, midi moins vingt twenty minutes to twelve, 
 minuit moins un quart a quarter to twelve. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 7. 
 
 1. Charles est le premier, Guillaume le dernier de la 
 classe. 2. Des deux volumes de Racine, rendez-moi le second. 
 
12 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 3. L’histoire de la revolution fran^aise par M. Thiers est 
 dix volumes; void le deuxieme. 4. Le quarante et unieme 
 regiment est aux Indes. 5. Fran9ois premier, roi de Fra^nce, 
 et Henri huit roi d’Angleterre etaient contemporains. 6. Votks f 
 trouverez le passage tome quatre, page vingt-six. 7. II demeure 
 rue de Seine num^ro trente et un. 8. Quelle heure est-il? II 
 est trois heures moins dix. 9. J’ai achet4 aujourd’hui trois 
 mdres trois quarts de drap. 10. Si vous additionnez les fractions 
 un demi, deux tiers, trois quarts, un huitieme et cinq douzi^mes 
 vous aurez le total de deux et onze vingt-quatri^mes. 11. Mon 
 cousin est arrive le vingt-trois juin a quatre heures precises. . 
 
 12. Mon ami rran9oi3 est parti le premier mai a minuit un 
 quart. 
 
 XI. PRONOUNS. 
 
 Pronouns in French are variously declined; the per- 
 sonal pronouns by number and case, the possessives and de- 
 monstratives by gender and number, the relatives by case only, 
 the interrogatives by gender only. 4 
 
 The so-called cases of French pronouns are only in some few 
 instances the original Latin inflections as: je = ego, me — me. They 
 are mostly dialectic variations of the same Latin word , which custom 
 has assigned to different uses. So moi, toi, soi are the Picard, mi, ti, 
 si the Burgundian forms of the same oblique cases of the pronouns, 
 but modern French confines the Picard forms to the independant, the 
 Burgundian to the conjunctive use. So again eux , Us and les are all 
 different forms of the Latin iUos. The dative plural leur is on the 
 other hand an original Latin form illorum, but transferred from the 
 genitive to the dative. 
 
 But besides case , number and gender we find two uses 
 of pronouns distinguished by inflection in French which are 
 not so distinguished in Latin , viz. the independant and 
 complement uses. 
 
 1. As substantives have only one form whether subject, 
 object or under the government of a preposition, so pronouns 
 have one form which can be used in all relations; this is called 
 the independant or disjunctive form. 
 
 2. But if the pronoun comes into immediate connection < 
 with the verb as subject or object direct or indirect, or in 
 some cases with substantival verbs as complement, less full- 
 sounding forms are used. These are called the conjunctive 
 forms. 
 
PRONOUNS, 
 
 13 
 
 3. So for the pronoun of the 1®^ person singular moi^ 
 for that of the 3^ person feminine singular elle is the inde-^^ 
 pendant form. 
 
 These can be used in every relation in which the pronoun' 
 can be used. But if the pronouns are not emphatic, in those: 
 relations in which they are brought close to the verb, the.- 
 conjunctive forms take their place : as 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Elle et moi nous cherchons notre mere. She 
 and I are seeking our mother. 
 
 Elle cherche sa mere^ je cherche ma mere. She 
 is seeking her mother. I am seeking my 
 mother. 
 
 Notre mere nous cherche elle et moi. Our- 
 mother is seeking for her and for me. 
 
 Dir. Object. \Sa mere la cherche^ ma mere me che^xhe. Her 
 mother is seeking for her, my mother is 
 seeking for me. 
 
 On nous a donne des pommes d elle et d moi. 
 They gave some apples to her and me. 
 Indir. Object. ] On lui a donne, on m'a donm une pomme. 
 
 They gave her, they gave me an apple. 
 But the independant form must be used when governed 
 by a preposition, or when standing by itself and not in im- 
 mediate connection with a verb. 
 
 NOTE. The same distinction is also observable in the adjcctiTal 
 pronouns. A less emphatic form was used when the pronoun imme- 
 diately preceded its substantive, a more emphatic form when it stood 
 as complement. This distinction is employed in English in the posses- 
 sive pronouns; my is conjunctive, mine independant. In French however 
 the independant forms of adjectival pronouns are now employed as 
 substantival pronouns by prefixing the definite article, and the only 
 instance which remains of an independant adjectival form, is the uni- 
 versal relative quel que, in distinction from the conjunctive form quel-- 
 que que (see XVII. and Syntax). 
 
 4. In the personal pronouns of the 3^ person, and in the re- 
 latives the use as a complement of * Mre is marked by a special 
 inflection, the same in each case as is used to mark the direct 
 object. This is called the complement form. 
 
 5. Adverbs are used in some cases ^ as en and y for the 
 personal pronouns, dont and ou for the relatives, to supply 
 the missing case inflections of the Latin. 
 
14 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 XII. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 The personal pronouns are substantival. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 person. 
 
 2^ pers. 
 
 8^ pers, m. 
 
 8^ pers. f. 
 
 Independ, form. 
 
 moi 
 
 toi 
 
 lui 
 
 elle 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 je I 
 
 tu thou 
 
 il he, it 
 
 6^ZZeshe, it 
 
 ^ cc 
 
 S g 
 
 Acc. 
 
 me me 
 
 te thee 
 
 le him, it 
 
 la her, it 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 me to me. 
 
 to thee. 
 
 lui to him 
 
 lui to her 
 
 
 Comp. 
 
 
 
 le. 
 
 la. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Independ, form. 
 
 nous 
 
 vous 
 
 eux 
 
 elles 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 nous we 
 
 vous you 
 
 ils they 
 
 elles they 
 
 
 Acc. 
 
 nous us 
 
 vous you 
 
 les them 
 
 les them 
 
 $ g 
 
 Dat. 
 
 nous to us. 
 
 vous 
 
 leur 
 
 leur 
 
 
 
 
 to you. 
 
 to them 
 
 to them 
 
 6 
 
 Comp. 
 
 
 
 les. 
 
 les. 
 
 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 Independant form: soi. 
 
 I Acc. se himself, herself, itself, them- 
 
 Conhmctive forms :\ ^ ir i ir 
 
 ' Dat. se to himself, herself, itself, 
 
 • themselves. 
 
 ADVERBS USED AS PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 en of it, of them. y to it, to them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 8. 
 
 1. Veiiez avec nous. 2. Le petit cheval est pour toi, le 
 grand est pour lui. 3. La canne est pour vous, non pas pour 
 elle. 4. Qui est la? C’est moi. 5. II a parle d’eux. 6. C’est 
 lui qui nPa trompe. 7. Mes sceurs sont chez elles. 8. Je t’aime. 
 9. Ne me laissez pas. 10. II se loue. 11. Nous la grondons. 
 12. Vous nous aimez. 13. Elle vous cherche. 14. Embrassez- 
 le. 15. Void une pomme, mangez-la. 16. Ils les detestent. 
 17. Embrassez-moi. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 9. 
 
 1. II me donne une plume. 2. Je te c^de ma place. 3. II 
 leur repond. .4. Rendez-le lui. 5. Ils se procurent des avan- 
 tages. 6. Elles nous ont montre les bijoux. 7. Vous les ont- 
 elles montres? 8. II me Pa promis. 9. Vous ne le lui avez 
 
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 15 
 
 pas promis. 10. Voici les gants de vos cousins^ prenez-les. 
 11. Ne me les donnez pas, rendez-les leur. 12. Est-elle con- 
 tente de sa robe neuve ? Oui, elle en est tr^s-contente. 13. Ou 
 est le theatre? Venez avec moi, j’y vais. 14. Les nouvelles 
 sont vraies, vous pouvez vous y fier. 15. Etes-voiis la blanchis- 
 seuse? Oui, monsieur, je la suis. 16. Etes-vous les fils de 
 mon ami? Oui, nous les sommes. 17. Ne sont-elles pas ma- 
 lades? Non, monsieur, elles ne le sont pas. 
 
 xni. THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The 
 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 Sing. m. 
 Plur. 
 
 possessive pronouns are substantival and adjectival. 
 
 Adjectiyal. 
 
 mon f. ma 
 mes 
 
 ton f. ta 
 tes 
 
 son f. sa 
 ses 
 
 et f. notre 
 nos 
 
 et f. votre 
 
 VOS 
 
 et f. leur 
 lews 
 
 I my 
 I thy 
 
 \ his, her 
 J its 
 
 I our 
 
 I your 
 
 I their. 
 
 Substantival. 
 
 m. le mien f. la mienne \ 
 m. les miens i.lesmiennes] 
 
 mine 
 
 m. le tien 
 m. les tiens 
 m. le sien 
 m. les siens 
 m. le notre 
 
 f. la tienne 
 f. les tiennes 
 f. la sienne 
 f. les siennes \ hers 
 i.la notre 
 
 thine 
 1 his 
 
 les nbtres 
 
 m. le votre f. la vbtre\ 
 les vbtres \ 
 m. le leur f. la leuf 
 les leurs 
 
 ours 
 
 yours 
 
 theirs. 
 
 Before a voivel or h mute mon, ton, son must be used instead 
 of ma, ta, sa with a feminine noun : as ton aimahle soeur your 
 kind sister. 
 
 In Latin there are no possessive pronouns of the 3^ person. 
 This want is partially supplied in French by taking the accusative of 
 the reflexive pronoun suum, suam, suos = son, sa, ses for the pronoun 
 of the person singular of all genders, and the genitive plural illorum 
 = leur, leurs for the pronoun of the 3^ person plural. This explains 
 there being no feminine inflection of leur-, the s of the plural was added 
 when the origin of the pronoun was forgotten. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Ton pere, ta mere, tes freres et tes soeurs sont ici. 
 2. Cette dame est mon amie. 3. Cette dame est ma ch^re amie. 
 4. Votre tante ecrit a son fils. 5. Notre maisoii est petite , la 
 votre est plus grande, mais la leur est magnifique. 6. Elies 
 aiment leurs parents. 7. Lep6re et sa fille sontmorts. 8. Vous 
 avez VOS gants, mais Julie a perdu les siens. 9. Leurs chevaux 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 le 
 
 sont plus beaux que les notres. 10. Ma tante a laiss6 ses en- 
 fants chez leur grand’ mere. 
 
 XIV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 There are three demonstrative pronouns in French, two of 
 which are declined by gender and number, the third is inde- 
 clinable. They do not however differ like the Latin Jiic^ iste 
 and ille, or the English this and that, in marking different posi- 
 tions with regard to the speaker, but simply in their use, one 
 being substantival and independant, the second adjectival, the 
 third substantival but used both independantly and con- 
 junctively. 
 
 Substantival Independant. 
 
 Sing. m. celui f. celle this one. Sing. 
 
 that one 
 
 Plur. m. ceux f. celles these, Plur. 
 
 those. 
 
 Independant and Conjunctive. 
 
 ce this, that, these, those. 
 
 AdjectivaK 
 
 m. (ce) cet f. cette this^ 
 that 
 
 ces these, those « 
 
 1. The adjectival masc. form cet loses the t before a word- 
 beginning with a consonant or h mute: as ce livre this book,. 
 ce her os this hero. 
 
 2. The difference of position with reference to the speaker 
 is marked by the addition of the adverbs -ci and -la. These 
 particles in the case of the adjectival pronoun are attached to 
 the noun which it qualifies: as cet homme-ci, cette femme-lay 
 this man, that woman. 
 
 3. To celui, celle, ceux and celles these adverbs are joined 
 by a hyphen, and these pronouns cannot be used unless so 
 marked out, or else limited by a partitive genitive or a relative 
 clause: as Celui-ci est diligent, ceux-ld sont paresseux, this 
 one is diligent, those are idle. Mes livres et ceux de mon 
 frere, my books and my brother’s. Voild celle que faime le 
 mieux, this is the one I love best. 
 
 4. With the indeclinable ce, the adverbs -ci and -la are 
 written as one word and Id loses its accent. But if cela is the 
 subject of etre and the complement a substantive term ce Id are- 
 written separately, in a simple enunciation ce before and Id after 
 the verb , in a question both after the verb and ce joined to it 
 by a hyphen: as Ceci me plait, cela m'agacey this pleases me,. 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 17 
 
 that sets my teeth on edge. C'est la mon opinion, that is my 
 opinion. Sont-ce la mes livres? are those my hooks? 
 
 5. Void and voila (lit. see here^ see there) are used as 
 demonstrative particles, equal to a demonstrative pronoun and 
 the verb dre; when used with a pronoun, the pronoun precedes 
 them and is in the accusative case; as Void mon canif , here 
 is my knife. Me voila, here I am. 
 
 NOTE. The adjectival masculine form is entirely different from 
 the substantival ce. The former is derived from the Latin ecce — iste 
 and t is part of the word, and only dropped from not being sounded. 
 The latter is derived from the Latin hocce. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 11. 
 
 1. Celui qui parle est mon frere , celle qui I’ecoute est ma 
 soeur. 2. Ceux de nous qui sont riches doivent bien employer leurs 
 richesses. 3. Voila ce qui m’ennuie. 4. Get homme et cette 
 femme sont aveugles. 5. Ce monsieur me I’a dit. 6. Ces p^ches 
 sont mures. 7. Celui-ci m’aime, mais celui-la me hait. 8. Cette 
 femme-ci est la couturiere, non pas celle-la. 9. J’aime ceci, 
 mais cela m’agace. 10. Ces hommes-ci sont plus riches que 
 ceux-la. 11. Est-ce la le livre que vous demandiez? 12. Non, 
 monsieur, ce n’est pas la ce que je demandais; j’ai deja ce 
 livre-la. Ah! le voila! 
 
 XV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 There are two relative pronouns , both substantival; of 
 which qui, quoi, is declined by case only, lequel by gender and 
 number. 
 
 NOTE. To avoid confusion it must be noticed that qui quoi has 
 the same conjunctive inflections both as a relative and an interrogative, 
 but that the inflections which mark case in the relative, mark gender 
 in the interrogative. 
 
 1. Independant form. m. et f. qui neut. quoi. 
 
 i Nom. qui who, which, that 
 Conjunctive forms. | Acc. que whom, which, that 
 i Comp, que which, that. 
 
 2. Sing. m. lequel f. laquelle. Plur. m. lesquels f. lesquelles. 
 
 RELATIVE ADVERBS. 
 dont whose, of which oil to which, in which. 
 
 1. The pronoun lequel etc. is used as subject or object, 
 where the gender or number has to be noted to avoid confusion, 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 2 
 
18 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 but chiefly after prepositions in cases where qui is prevented 
 from standing by the limitations to its use (see Syntax). 
 
 The article in lequel, lesquels^ lesquelles contracts with the 
 prepositions de and d into one word duquel^ auquel^ auxquels^ 
 aiixquelles. 
 
 2. The adverbs dont and oil stand for the relative; dont 
 when it would be governed by de^ on when it would be go- 
 verned by a or dans. They are derived from the Latin de unde 
 and nhi and answer to the adverbs en and y used for personal 
 pronouns. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 12. 
 
 1. L’homme de qui j’ai re 9 U une lettre. 2. La fille a qui 
 j’ai donne de Targent. 3. Ce a quoi je pense. 4. Les ge- 
 neraux a qui on a demande des conseils. 5. L’homme qui 
 parle. 6. L’enfant que j’ai gronde. 7. Ce qui m’ennuie. 
 8. La femme qui coud. 9. Ce que mon ami me dit, m’^tonne. 
 10. Voici les maisons que j’ai achetees. 11. Qu’est-ce que 
 c’est? 12. Yoila ce que c’est. 13. Je sais ce que vous ^tes 
 et ce qu’ils sont. 14. Le magasin dans la devanture de la- 
 quelle j’ai vu la grande poupee. 15. Les personnes parmi 
 lesquelles il se trouvait. 16. L’oncle sous la tutelle duquel 
 il etait place. 17. La fourchette dont il se servait. 18. Les 
 hommes dont nous avons vu les portraits. 19. La colere on 
 elle se trouvait. 20. La maison ou nous allons. 
 
 XVI. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 There are two interrogative pronouns, one substantival, 
 the other adjectival; the substantival qui, quoi is declined by 
 gender only, the adjective quel by gender and number. 
 
 Substantival. 
 
 Independant form, m. et f. qui n. quoi. 
 
 Conjunctive form, m. et f. qui who? whom? n. que what? 
 
 Adjectival. 
 
 Sing. m. quel f. quelle, Plur. m. quds f. quelles what, which. 
 
 1. In order to distinguish subject and object in the sub- 
 stantival pronoun combinations with the relative pronoun are 
 used: as 
 
 ^ I m. et f. qui est-ce qui (qiiis est qui) who? 
 
 b. om. I qu'est-ce qui (quid est quod) what? 
 
 I m. et f. qui est-ce que (quis est quern) whom? 
 
 [ neutr. qu' est-ce que (quid est quod) what? 
 
PRONOMINAL WORDS. 
 
 19 
 
 in which the variations of the interrogative pronoun distinguish 
 the gender, and those of the relative the case. 
 
 2. The pronoun quel, quelle is used as a substantival 
 pronoun by prefixing the definite article, the two words being 
 written as one. 
 
 Sing. m. lequel, f. laquelle. Plur. m. lesquels, f. les- 
 queUes which of two or more. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 13. 
 
 1. Avec qui est-elle partie? 2. A quoi pensez-vous? 
 
 3. Qui te Ta dit? 4. Qui de nous a-t-il choisi? 5. Que vous 
 en semble? 6. Qu’a-t-elle? 7. Quelle fut sa reponse ? 8. Quels 
 livres avez-vous achet^s? 9. Qui est-ce qui vient de sortir? 
 10. Qu’est-ce done qui vous effraye? 11. Qui est-ce que vous 
 avez offense? 12. Qu’est-ce qu’il vous a propose? 13. Les- 
 quelles de ces dames voulez-vous inviter? 14. Voila deux robes, 
 laquelle pr^ferez-vous? 
 
 XVII. PRONOMINAL WORDS. 
 
 Pronominal words may be divided into seven classes: 1. the Uni- 
 versal Relatives. 2. Distributives. 3. the Inclusive. 4. the Exclusives. 
 5. the Determinatives. 6. the Pure Indefinites. 7. Impure Indefinites. 
 
 These classes will be farther considered in the syntax. 
 
 1. Subst. a. qui, que whoever quoi, que whatever. 
 
 jS. quiconque whoever. 
 
 Adjec. a. quelque | quelques | whatever. 
 
 fi. quel que quelle que, quels que queUes que whatever. 
 y. queleonque whatever. 
 
 NOTE, quelque que is only used attributively, quel que as a com- 
 plement. 
 
 2. Subst. chacun cliacune each one. 
 
 Adj. chaque each. 
 
 3. Subst. and Adj. tout toute, tous toutes all. 
 
 4. Subst. a. personne any one. \ 
 
 p. rien any thing. \ excluding all. 
 
 Subst. and Adj. a. aucunaucune, aucunsaucunesanjJ 
 /3. null nuUe none, no. 
 y. pas un, pas une not one. 
 
 5. Subst. and Adj. tell telle, tels telles such. 
 
 Subst. autrui others. 
 
 Adj. a. autre autres other. 
 p. meme same. 
 y. seul alone. 
 
 6. Subst. a. quelqu'un quelqu^une, qudques-um quelques-unes some 
 
 one, some. 
 
 I p, quelque chose something. 
 
 Adj. quelque, quelques some. 
 
 2 
 
20 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 7. Subst. on one. 
 
 Subst. and Adj. plusieurs several. 
 
 Adj. a. maint maintey maints maintes many a. 
 
 certain certaine, certains certaines certain. 
 y. differents differentes different. * 
 
 S. divers diverses different. 
 
 xvni. VERBS. 
 
 1. The French verb differs considerably from the Latin. 
 
 The Latin use of the pure conjunctive is expressed in French by , 
 a new tense, the conditional ; the past in the present and the simple 
 past, which are represented in Latin by a single tense form, have each 
 a separate form. On the other hand the same form serves for the 
 French present participle and gerund; the future infinitive and the 
 supines are lost; and the personal endings are so weakened that modern 
 French requires, that the subject if a pronoun should always be ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 2. Hence the verb finite has three moods: 1. The indicative ' 
 
 as: faime I love. 2. The subjunctive as: il est possible ({ue 
 faime it is possible that I may love. 3. The imperative as: 
 aime love thou. ^ 
 
 The verb infinite consists of: 1. The infinitive with two 
 tense forms. 2. The two participles. ^ 
 
 3. There are ten tense forms of the verb finite in the 
 indicative mood^ five simple, viz. the present, imperfect, per- 
 fect definite, first future and conditional, and five compound, 
 viz. the perfect indefinite, pluperfect, perfect anterior, second 
 future, and second conditional. 
 
 4. Compound tenses are formed by the tenses of the 
 verbs avoir to have, and etre to be with the passive participle. 
 
 In the active voice avoir lends its forms to the conjuga- 
 tion of all transitive verbs; Ure to that of all reflective verbs; 
 while of the neuter verbs some are conjugated with avoir and 
 some with etre. The whole of the passive voice is formed 
 by etre with the passive participle. 
 
 5. Of the indicative the present, imperfect and perfect, of the sub- 
 
 junctive the present are derived from the corresponding tenses in 
 Latin. The imperfect subjunctive is in form the Latin pluperfect con- 
 junctive. The future and conditional are derived from the infinitive 
 mood and the present and imperfect of avoir, je parler-ai = I have 
 to speak, je parler-ais {avais) ~ I had to speak. ^ 
 
 6. The circumflex accent on the 2^ person plural of the perfect , 
 and on the 3^ person sing, of the imperfect subjunctive marks the fal- j 
 ling away of the s of the Latin; aimdtes = amastis, aimdt = amasset. i 
 Old French inserted an s in the first person plural of the perfect par- 
 lasmes, so that this form now has also the circumflex ; nous parldmes. 
 
FORMATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR TO HAVE. 2t 
 
 7. The final s of the Latin 2^ person plural present Indicative is 
 changed in all French verbs but three into z, aimez , finissez etc., but 
 Ues, dites, faites. The same change occurs in all other tenses except 
 the perfect. 
 
 YTV formation of the auxiliary 
 VERB „AVOIR“ TO HAVE. 
 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 s. 
 
 J'ai 
 
 I have 
 
 s. 
 
 tTal eu I have had 
 
 
 tu as 
 
 thou hast 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 il a 
 
 he has 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 nous avons 
 
 we have 
 
 
 
 
 vous ave^ 
 
 you have 
 
 
 
 
 ils ont 
 
 they have. 
 
 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 s. 
 
 avals 
 
 I was having 
 
 s. 
 
 J'avais eu I had had 
 
 
 tu avals 
 
 thou wast having 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 U avalt 
 
 he was having 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 nous avlons 
 
 we were having 
 
 
 
 
 vous avle^ 
 
 you were having 
 
 
 
 
 ils avalent 
 
 they were having. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 j 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 s. 
 
 J'eus 
 
 I had 
 
 s. 
 
 Xeus eu I had had 
 
 
 tu eus 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 ll eut 
 
 he had 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 nous eumes 
 
 we had 
 
 
 
 
 vous elites 
 
 you had 
 
 
 
 
 ik eurent 
 
 they had. 
 
 
 
 
 FIRST 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 s. 
 
 J'aural 
 
 I shall have 
 
 s. 
 
 iP aural eu I shall 
 
 
 tu auras 
 
 thou wilt have 
 
 
 have had 
 
 
 il aura 
 
 he will have 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 p. 
 
 nous aurons 
 
 we shall have 
 
 
 
 
 vous aure^ 
 
 you will have 
 
 
 
 
 ils auront 
 
 they will have. 
 
 
 
22 FOKMATION OF THE AUXILIAKY VERB AVOIB TO HAVE. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. X aarais I should have 
 tu aurais thou wouldst have 
 il aurait he would have 
 P. nous aurions we should have 
 vous aurie^ you would have 
 ils auraient they would have. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. J' aurais eu I should 
 have had 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que faie that I may have | S. Que faie eu that I may 
 que tu aies that thou mayest i have had 
 
 have etc. 
 
 qu^il ait that he may have 
 
 P. q^ue nous ayons that we may have 
 que vous ayes that you may have 
 qu’ils aient that they may have. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que f 'eusse that I might have 
 
 quetueusses that thou mightest 
 have 
 
 quHl eut that he might have 
 P. que nous eussions that we might 
 have 
 
 que vous eussies that you might 
 have 
 
 qii^ils eussent that hey might 
 have. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que j^eusse eu that I 
 might have had 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 S. Aie have thou 
 P. ayons let us have 
 ayes have ye. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE. 
 Inf. pres. Avoir to have. 
 
 Inf. perf. Avoir eu to have had. 
 Part. pres. Ay ant having. 
 
 Part. past. Ayant eu having had. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 14. 
 
 1. As-tu froid? Non, j’ai chaud. 2. Nous ii’avons pas faim, nous 
 avons soif. 3. II avait si sommeil pendant le sermon, qu’il ne pouvait 
 s’empecher do dormir.^ 4. Xerxes en attaquant la Grece eut pour but 
 de se venger des Atheniens. 5. J’ai eu mal a la tete, et mon fr^re 
 a eu mal aux dents. 6. S’il avait eu vingt et un ans, il aurait eu une 
 belle propri^te. 7. Ayez pitie de nous. 8. Quand mon cousin aura 
 
FORMATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB ^ITBE TO BE. 23 
 
 quinze ans, il aura un cheval. 9. Quoiqu’il eut mille fois raison, il 
 aurait inieux fait de se taire. 10. Il est possible que vous ayez tort. 
 
 11. Quoique nous eussions peur, nous avions honte de ne pas sortir. 
 
 12. N’ayant point de nouvelles de nos parents depuis quinze jours, nous 
 avons grande envie de les revoir. 
 
 XX. FORMATION OP THE AUXILIARY VERB 
 „ETRE‘‘ TO BE. 
 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. 
 
 Je siiis 
 tu es 
 il est 
 
 nous sommes 
 vous etes 
 Us sent 
 
 I am 
 thou art 
 he is 
 we are 
 you are 
 they are. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 S. tPai ete I have been 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. J'Hais 
 tu etais 
 il etait 
 
 P. nous Hions 
 vous Hies 
 Us etaient 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 S. Je fus 
 tu fus 
 il fut 
 
 P. nous fumes 
 vous futes 
 Us furent 
 
 S. Je serai 
 tu seras 
 il sera 
 
 P. nous serons 
 vous seres 
 Us seront 
 
 I was 
 thou wast 
 he was 
 we were 
 you were 
 they were. 
 
 DEFINITE. 
 
 I was 
 thou wast 
 he was 
 we were 
 you were 
 they were. 
 
 I shall be 
 thou wilt be 
 he will be 
 we shall be 
 you will be 
 they will be. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE, 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. J^ avals He I had been 
 etc. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. J'^eus ete I had been 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. p/’ aurai He I shall have 
 been 
 
 etc. 
 
24 FORMATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB tlEE TO BE. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je serais 
 tu serais 
 il serait 
 P. nous serions 
 vous series 
 ils seraient 
 
 I should be 
 thou wouldst be 
 he would be 
 we should be 
 you would be 
 they would be. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. aurais ete I should 
 
 have been 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je sois 
 que tu sois 
 
 that I may 
 that thou 
 
 be 
 
 S. Que j^aie ete that I may 
 have beeu 
 
 mayest be 
 
 q^uHl soit that he may be 
 
 P. que nous soyons that we may be 
 que vous soyez thatyoumaybe 
 quhls soient that they may be. 
 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je fusse that I might be 
 que tu fusses that thou 
 
 mightest be 
 qtiil fut that he might be 
 
 P, que nous fussions that we might 
 
 be 
 
 que vous fussier that you might 
 
 be 
 
 quHls f iissent that they might be. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que j’eusse ete that I 
 
 might have been 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 S. Sois be thou 
 P. soyons let us be 
 soyez be ye. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE, 
 
 Inf. pres, i^tre to be. 
 
 Inf. perf. Avoir ete to have been. 
 Part. pres. Etant being. 
 
 Part. past. Ay ant ete having been. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 15. 
 
 1. Combien sommes nous? Nous sommes treize. 2. Nous etions 
 en hiver quand la nouvelle arriva. 3. Ce furent les Frangais qui as- 
 siegerent la place. 4. II est possible que mon pk’e ait ete chez vous. 
 5. Je doute que ces vers soient d’Horace. 6. Nous avons ete voir le 
 chateau. 7. S’il avait ete ici, il n’aurait pas ete tue. 8. S’il etait a 
 Paris , il serait deja chez nous. 9. Il sera de retour a six heures. 
 to. Sojez le bienvenu. 11. Quoique les soldats fussent fatigues, ils ue 
 
CONJUGATIONS OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 25 
 
 s’arreterent pas. 12. La chose etant ainsi nous n’avons plus rien a 
 faire. 
 
 XXI. CONJUGATIONS OP REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 1. There are said to be four conjugations distinguished 
 
 by the ending of the infinitive mood; the first ending in -er: as 
 parler to speak, the second in as finir to finish, the 
 
 third in -oir: as recevoir to receive the fourth in -re: as 
 vendre to sell. 
 
 2. In order to conjugate a verb four parts should be 
 known: a, the infinitive mood, the active and 7 . the passive 
 participle, and S. the perfect defnite; from these all other 
 parts may be easily formed ; from 
 
 «. the infinitive : f. the active participle present i 
 
 1. the 3 persons sing. pres. ind. 1. the 3 persons plur. pres. ind. 
 
 2. the 3 persons sing. pres, siibj. 2. the 3 persons plur. pres. subj. 
 
 3. the imperative sing. 3. the imperative plural 
 
 4. the future 4. the imperfect ind. 
 
 5. the conditional. 
 
 7. the perfect: 
 
 1 . the imperfect subj. 
 
 and with S, the passive participle all compound tenses are formed. 
 
 3. But as many verbs are irregular in the formation 
 of the singular of the present indicative, and of the present 
 subjunctive and future, to give the principal parts of a French 
 verb the following should in most cases be required : 
 
 1 . the infinitive mood finir 
 
 recevoir 
 
 voir 
 
 2 . the present parti- 
 
 
 
 
 ciple active 
 
 fvnissant 
 
 recevant 
 
 voyant 
 
 3. the passive parti- 
 
 
 
 
 ciple 
 
 fini 
 
 regu 
 
 vu 
 
 4. the pers. pres. 
 
 
 
 
 ind. 
 
 je finis 
 
 je regois 
 
 je vois 
 
 5. the 1®^ pers. per- 
 
 
 
 
 fect def. 
 
 je finis 
 
 je regus 
 
 je vis 
 
 6 . the 1 ®* person fu- 
 
 
 
 
 ture 
 
 je finirai 
 
 je recevrai 
 
 je verrai 
 
 7. the 1®* person pres. 
 
 
 
 
 subj. 
 
 que je finisse 
 
 que je regoive que je voie. 
 
26 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 In some few verbs : as oiler ^ acquerir, mour'b\ tenir, 
 venir^ mouvoir^ ponvoir^ vouloir^ hoire and faire it will be 
 necessary also to give the 3^ pers. plur. pres. ind. and for 
 two verbs dire and faire all three persons plural. 
 
 xxn. FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 The conjngation containing by far the larger number of French 
 verbs answers to the 1st conjugation in Latin ^ but includes also 
 verbs belonging to the second and third conjugations: persuader 
 
 persuadere, affliger affligere, and one belonging to the 4tii, tousser 
 tussire. 
 
 iniRST co:isrjxjG^j?LTiON. 
 
 parler parlant parle je parlai. 
 
 VFBB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIYE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Je parle I speak 
 
 tu paries thou speakest 
 il parle he speaks 
 P. nous parlons we speak 
 vous parley you speak 
 ils parlent they speak. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. J^ai parle I have spoken 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Je parlais I was speaking 
 tu parlais thou wast speaking 
 il parlait he was speaking 
 P. nous parlions we were speaking 
 vous parlies you were speaking 
 ils parlaient they were speaking. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 S. Je parlai I spoke 
 tu parlas thou spokest 
 il parla he spoke 
 P. nous parldmes we spoke 
 vous parldtes you spoke 
 ils parler ent they spoke. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 S. Je parler ai I shall speak 
 tu parleras thou wilt speak 
 il parlera he will speak 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. J'eus parle I had spoken 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. J'aurai parle I shall 
 have spoken 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 S. J'aurais parle I should 
 have spoken 
 etc- 
 
FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 27 
 
 P. nous parlerions we should speak 
 vous parlerieis you would speak 
 ils parleraient they would speak. 
 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je parle that I may speak 
 que tu paries that thoumayest speak 
 qu’il parle that he may speak 
 P. que nous parUons that we may 
 
 speak 
 
 que vous parliez that you may 
 
 speak 
 
 quHlsparlent that they may speak. 
 
 S. 
 
 Que faie parle that I 
 may have spoke® 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je parlasse that I might speak 
 
 que tuparlasses that thou mightest 
 
 speak 
 
 quHl parldt that he might speak 
 P. que nous parlassions that we might ; 
 
 speak i 
 
 que vous parlassiez that you might 
 
 speak 
 
 qums parlassent that they might 
 
 speak. 
 
 S. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Que j^eusse parle that 
 I might have spokeu 
 etc. 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 S. Parle speak thou 
 P. parlons let us speak 
 parley speak ye. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE. 
 Infin. pres. Parler to speak. 
 
 Infin. perf. ^twV*j?ar?ctohave spokem 
 Part. pres. Parlant speaking. 
 
 Part. past. having spoken. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Le rossignol ne chante-t-il pas an printemps? 2. Nous tacherons 
 de vous rendre heureux. 3. On a declare mon habit. 4. Je vous rappor- 
 terai demain les livres que vous m’avez apportes le mois dernier. 5. Que 
 comptez-vousfairedemain? Je compte aller voir les courses. 6. Ils chantaient 
 en entrant dans la maison. 7. J’etais sur que vous I’estimeriez plus 
 que son frere. 8. Quoiqu’il ait beaucoup pleure, je ne compte pas sur 
 lui, il a Fair de vouloir me tromper. 9. Quoiqu’il enseignat d’apres 
 une bonne methode, il n’etait pas bon maltre. 10. J’ai lone une maison 
 de campagne. 11. J’ai toujours doute qu’il louat sa maison. 
 
28 
 
 THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 xxm. THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 The second conjugation consists of verbs whose infini- 
 tive present ends in -ir. 
 
 They are divided into two classes according to the 
 formation of the participle present. 
 
 1. The first class ^ by far the larger, consists of verbs 
 which form their participle present by adding -m- to the stem 
 before the termination: as finir^ finissant. 
 
 This inserted is (iss) has arisen from the Latin inchoative forms 
 in - 65 CO, -isco. Fleurir comes not from florere but from florescere. But 
 this syllable is added to many verbs in French, which have not the 
 inchoative form in Latin as : punir, fmir etc. 
 
 2. The second class joins the termination immediately 
 to the stem of the verb : as partir, partant. There are only 
 twenty-two verbs so formed, and of these more than half are 
 irregular. 
 
 SESCO]Vr> CO][SrJXJGI^ATIOJV. Ist CLASS. 
 
 fmir finissant fini je finis. 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIYE MOOD. 
 
 PKESENT. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 S. Fai fini I have finished 
 etc. 
 
 S. Je finis I finish 
 tu finis thou finishest 
 il finit he finishes 
 
 P. nous finissons we finish 
 vous finisse^ you finish 
 ils finissent they finish. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Javais fini I had 
 
 finished 
 
 etc. 
 
 S. Je finissais I was finishing 
 tu finissais thou wast finishing 
 il finissait he was finishing 
 
 P. nous finissions we were finishing 
 vous finissiez you were finishing 
 ils finissaient they were finishing. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. Ji? finis I finished 
 tu finis thou finishedst 
 il finit he finished 
 
 S. J'^eus fini I had finished 
 etc. 
 
THE SECOND CONJUGATION, l^t Class. 
 
 29 
 
 V , nous fintmes we finished 
 vous finttes you finished 
 ils finirent they finished. 
 
 FIKST FUTURE. 
 
 Je finirai I shall finish 
 tu finiras thou wilt finish 
 il finira he will finish 
 P. nous finirons we shall finish 
 vous finire^ you will finish 
 ils finiront they will finish. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je finirais I should finish 
 tu finirais thou wouldst finish 
 il finirait he would finish 
 P. nous finirions we should finish 
 vous finiriez you would finish 
 ils finiraient they would finish. 
 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. J'aurai fini I shall 
 have finished 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 S. J'aurais fini I should 
 have finished 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODI). 
 
 PRESENT. I PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je finisse that I may finish 
 
 que tu finisses that thou niayest 
 
 finish 
 
 quHl finisse that he may finish 
 P. que nous finissions that we may 
 
 finish 
 
 que vous finissie^ that you may 
 
 finish 
 
 quails finissent that they may finish. 
 
 IMPERFECT. I 
 
 S. 
 
 Que faie fini that I 
 may have finished 
 etc. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je finisse that I might finish 
 
 que tu finisses that thou mightest 
 
 finish 
 
 qu^il finit that he might finish 
 P. que nous finissions that we might 
 
 finish 
 
 que vous finissiez that you might 
 
 finish 
 
 qu’ils finissent that they might 
 
 finish. 
 
 S. 
 
 Que j'eusse fini that I 
 might have finished 
 etc. 
 
150 
 
 THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 2^ Class. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 S. Finis finisli thou 
 P. fifiissons let us finish 
 ftnisscB finish ye. 
 
 THE VEBB INFINITE. 
 
 Infin. pres. Finir to finish. 
 
 Infin. perf. Avoir fini to have finished. 
 Part. pres, finishing. 
 
 Part. past. Ay ant fini having finished, 
 
 NOTE. Of the verbs of the class of the 2^ Con- 
 jugation 
 
 1. Ho/ir to hate retains the treina throughout the verb 
 except in the 8 persons singular of the present indicative je 
 hais, tu hais.^ il hait and consequently drops the circumflex 
 in the and 2^ persons plural of the perfect definite and in 
 the 8^ person singular of the imperfect subjunctive, nous 
 ha/lmes^ vous haites, qu'il hait. 
 
 2. Bhiir to bless has two forms of the passive participle: 
 heni henie blessed, henit henite consecrated. 
 
 8. Fleurir in its literal sense to blossom is regular. 
 Metaph. to flourish it changes eu to o in the present par- 
 ticiple and imperfect indicative florissant^ il Horissait. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 17. 
 
 1. Avez-vous afiranchi votre lettre? 2. En assujettissant 
 VOS passions vous reussirez a vous faire respecter. 8. Si vous 
 punissiez vos enfants, qiiand ils vous desobeissent, vous agiriez 
 bien envers eux. 4. Trois cents Lacedemoniens aux Thermo- 
 pyles perirent sur le champ de bataille pour remplir leur devoir 
 envers leur patrie. 5. Quoiqu^elle ne rougit pas, cette de- 
 moiselle avait honte de sa faute. /6. Ce fut Napoleon premier 
 qui envahit la Russie en 1812. Y. C’est mon p^re , qui a 
 choisi ce tapis. 8. Que Dieu vous b^nisse. 9. Quand vous 
 aurez eclairci ce passage, je vous applaudirai. 10. Il est bon 
 qu’une m5re cherisse ses enfants, et que les enfants ob^issent 
 k leur mkre. 
 
 XXIV. 2d CONJUGATION. 2d CLASS. 
 
 partir partant parti je pars je partis. 
 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Je pars I set out 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Que je parte that I may set 
 out 
 
THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 2<^ Class. 
 
 31 
 
 tu |)ar 5 *thou settest out 
 
 il part he sets out 
 P. nous partons we set out 
 
 votis partem you set out 
 
 ils partent they set out. 
 
 que tu partes that thou may- 
 est set out 
 qui^l parte that he may set out 
 P. que nous partions that we 
 may set out 
 que vous parties that you 
 may set out 
 quHls partent that they may 
 set out. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Je partais I was setting out 
 tu partais thou wast setting 
 out 
 
 il partait he was setting out 
 P. nous partions we were setting 
 
 out 
 
 vous parties you were setting 
 out 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 S. Pars set thou out 
 V, partons let us set out 
 parted set out. 
 
 ils partaient they were set- 
 ting out. 
 
 All the other simple tenses are formed in the same man- 
 ner as in finir. 
 
 The following verbs belong to the 2^ Glass of the 2^ Con- 
 jugation: 
 
 houiUir to boil 
 
 houil- 
 
 lant 
 
 houilli 
 
 je bous 
 
 nous bouil- 
 lons 
 
 je bouilUs 
 
 que je 
 bouille 
 
 (iomiV to sleep 
 
 dor- 
 
 mant 
 
 dor mi 
 
 je dors 
 
 nous dor- 
 mons 
 
 je dor mis 
 
 que je 
 dorm€ 
 
 faillir to be on 
 the point of 
 
 fail- 
 
 lant 
 
 failli 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 je faillis 
 
 — 
 
 fuir to fly 
 
 fuyant 
 
 fui 
 
 je fuis 
 
 nous 
 
 fuyons 
 
 je fuis 
 
 queje fuie 
 
 mentir to lie 
 
 men- 
 
 tant 
 
 menti 
 
 je mens 
 
 nous 
 
 mentons 
 
 je mentis 
 
 que je 
 mente 
 
 *partir to set 
 out 
 
 par- 
 
 tant 
 
 parti 
 
 je pars 
 
 nous 
 
 partons 
 
 je partis 
 
 que je 
 parte 
 
 *se repentir 
 
 se re- 
 
 repenti 
 
 je me re- 
 
 nous nous 
 
 je me re- 
 
 que je me 
 
 to repent 
 
 pen- 
 
 tant 
 
 
 pens 
 
 repentons 
 
 pentis 
 
 repente 
 
 sentir to feel 
 
 sentant 
 
 jsenii 
 
 je sens 
 
 nous 
 
 sentons 
 
 je sentis 
 
 que je 
 sente 
 
32 
 
 THE SECOND CONJUGATION 2^ Class. 
 
 servir to serve 
 
 servant 
 
 servi 
 
 je sers 
 
 nous ser- 
 
 vons 
 
 je servis 
 
 que je 
 serve 
 
 * sortir to go 
 out 
 
 sortayit 
 
 sorti 
 
 je sors 
 
 nous sor~ 
 tons 
 
 je sortis 
 
 que je 
 sorte 
 
 retir to clothe 
 
 vetant 
 
 vetu 
 
 je vets 
 
 nous 
 
 vetons 
 
 je vetis 
 
 quejevete. 
 
 * Verbs with an asterisk to them are conjugated with Hre, 
 
 NOTE. 1. It will be noticed that where the stem ends 
 in tivo consonants ^ the last is dropt before the flectional 
 s s t m the 3 persons singular of the present indicative. 
 
 2. Souillir drops -ill in the same persons, but in fair 
 the i is retained as part of the stem. 
 
 3. Fuir interchanges i and y according to the regular rule 
 (see XXVII. 2.). 
 
 4. VHir having only one consonant retains it before 
 je vUs , but loses it before t in the 3^ person sing. , il vU ; 
 it has the irregular participle vHli, but is placed in this list 
 as being regular in every other particular. 
 
 5. Faillir is defective having of the simple tenses only 
 the perfect definite, but all the compound ones. Defaillir 
 has the plural of the present, but not the past participle and 
 consequently not the compound tenses. 
 
 6. Compounds follow the same forms as the simple verbs, 
 
 except to distribute, asservir to enslave, and ressortir 
 
 de to belong to the jurisdiction of, which take the inserted 
 -iss of the first class. 
 
 7. Ferir to strike is only used in the expression sans 
 coup /eHr without striking a blow, ouir only in the infinitive 
 and passive participle , as fai oin dire I have heard say, 
 querir to fetch only in the infinitive, compounds follow 
 acquerir. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 18. 
 
 1. Ne mens pas, petit coquin. Voila que tu rougis de lionte. 
 Aucun mensonge ne peut plus te servir. 2. Quand partez-vous, mon- 
 sieur? Je comptais partir ce matin de bonne heure , mais j’ai dormi 
 trop longtemps, je partirai par le train de dix heures. 3. Si vous vous 
 repentez d’avoir menti, je consens a vous pardonner, mais ne mentez 
 plus. 4. Sortez-vous, mademoiselle, malgre la pluie ? On ne peut sortir 
 aujourd’hui; je pressentais bier qu’il allait pleuvoir. Moi, je suis sorti en 
 me servant d’un parapluie, et je sortirai encore dans une heure. 5. Cela 
 sent mauvais ; si vous vous servez de mauvaise huile, vous vous en re* 
 pentirez, j’cn suis siir. Des que je suis entre je me suis senti mal; je 
 sors, adieu. 6. Quand I’eau bouillira, versez-en dans la th^iere, il ne 
 
THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 33 
 
 faut pas en verser avant qu’elle ne bouille. Voila qu’elle bout. 7. La 
 cuisiniere a fait bouillir la viande, elle aurait du la faire rotir. 8. Pour- 
 quoi fuyez-vous? Laissez-moi , je vous en prie, je m’enfuis parce que 
 j’ai peur; si vous sortiez coinme moi d’un guet-a-pens, et que vous 
 sentissiez vos ennemis sur vos pas, vous vous enfuiriez aussi. 9. Ce 
 tonneau fuit, il faut que ce baquet nous serve de tonneau. 10. Quand 
 je Pai vu revelu pour la premiere fois de sa robe ecarlate j’ai failli 
 eclater de rire. 
 
 XXV. TBIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 The so called 3d conjugation consists of the tew verbs 
 ending in -emir viz. devoir and the compounds of the Latin 
 capere. All other verbs in -oir are irregular. 
 
 The 3d conjugation therefore consists in all of six verbs: 
 
 1. apercevoir to perceive 4. jpercetw to collect (taxes etc.) 
 
 2. concevoir to understand 5. devoir to owe 
 
 8 . decevoir to frustrate 6 . redevoir to owe still. 
 
 NOTE. The passive participle of devoir takes the cir- 
 cumflex in the masc. sing, to distinguish it from the article, 
 but not when inflected. 
 
 COIVJXJGIATIOIV. 
 
 recevoir recevant regu je regiis 
 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Jc regois I receive 
 tu regois thou receivest 
 il regoit he receives 
 P. nous recevons we receive 
 vous reeevez you receive 
 ils regoivent they receive. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 S. T ai regu I have re- 
 ceived 
 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je recevais I was receiving 
 I tu recevais thou wast receiving 
 ' d recevait he was receiving 
 \V.nous recevions we were receiving 
 vous recevie^ you were receiving 
 ils recevaient they were receiving. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. J’avais regu I had re- 
 ceived 
 etc. 
 
 s 
 
34 
 
 THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 S. Je regus I received 
 tu regus thou receivedst 
 il regiit he received 
 
 P. nous regumes we received 
 vous regutes you received 
 ils regurent they received. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. J^eus regu I had re- 
 ceived 
 etc. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 S. Jh recevrai I shall receive 
 tu recevras thou wilt receive 
 il recevra he will receive 
 
 P. nous recevrons we shall receive 
 vous recevrez you will receive 
 ils recevront they will receive. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. J'aurai regu I shall 
 have received 
 etc. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je recevrais I should receive 
 tu recevrais thou wouldst receive 
 il recevrait he would receive 
 
 P. nous recevrions we should receive 
 vous recevries you would receive 
 ils recevraient they would receive. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 J^uraisregu I should 
 have received 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIYE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je regoive that I may receive 
 
 que tu regoives that thou mayest 
 
 receive 
 
 quHl regoive that he may receive 
 
 P. que nous recevions that we may 
 
 receive 
 
 que vous reeeviez that you may 
 
 receive 
 
 qvbiHs regoivent that they may 
 
 receive. 
 
 S. Que j\ie regu that I 
 may have received 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je regusse that I might receive 
 que tu regusses that thou mightest 
 
 receive 
 
 qu^il regut that he might receive 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que feusse regu that I 
 might have received 
 etc. 
 
THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 35 
 
 P. q_ue nous regnssions that we might 
 
 receive 
 
 que vous regussiez that you might 
 
 receive 
 
 qu' Us regussejit they might 
 
 receive. 
 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERATIYE MOOD. 
 
 S. Hegois receive thou 
 P. recevons let us receive 
 recover receive ye. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE. 
 Infinit. pres. Itecevoir to receive. 
 Infinit. pert. Avoir regu to have re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Part. pres. Becevant receiving. 
 
 Part. past. Ay ant regu having re- 
 ceived. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 19. 
 
 1. Combien de lettres avez-vous regues ce matin? Nous en rece- 
 vons ordinairement de dix a douze; ce matin nous n’en avons regu que 
 neuf. 2. Je vous dois dix francs, et mes deux freres vous doivent 
 quioze francs, ainsi nous vous devons tons ensemble la somme de vingt- 
 cinq francs. 3. Quoiqu’il vous apergut, il ne voulait pas en avoir Pair. 
 4. Nous aurious ime longue vue que nous n’apercevrions pas d’ici la 
 ville d’ou nous sommes partis. 5. Napoleon trois dut se rendre prison- 
 nier a Sedan. 6. J’ai du partir ce matin, mais j ’attends des lettres 
 que je devais recevoir hier. 7. II a congu de vous une opinion avan- 
 tageuse. 8. Pendant que nous recevions les felicitations de nos amis, 
 nous apergtimes de loin le train de six heures qui passait. 9. Vous 
 auriez dti venir plus tot. 10. Voila les six francs qui vous sont dus 
 depuis hier. 
 
 XXVI. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 vendre vendant vendu je vendis. 
 VERB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Je vends I sell 
 tu vends thou sellest 
 U vend he sells 
 P. nous vendons we sell 
 vous vender you sell 
 ils vendent they sell* 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 S. J^ai vendu I have sold 
 etc. 
 
 g. 
 
36 
 
 THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je vendais I was selling 
 tit vendais thou wast selling 
 il vetidait he was selling 
 P. nous vendions we were selling 
 vous vendie^ you were selling 
 ils vendaient they were selling. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 ^.Je vendis I sold 
 
 tu vendis thou solclest 
 il vendit he sold 
 P. notis vendimes we sold 
 vous vendttes you sold 
 ils vendirent they sold. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 S. Je vendrai I shall sell 
 tu vendras thou wilt sell 
 il vendra he will sell 
 P. nous vendrons we shall sell 
 vous vendrez you will sell 
 ils vendront they will sell. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 ^.Je ve^idrais I should sell 
 tu vendrais thou wouidst sell 
 il vendrait he would sell 
 V,nous vendrions we should sell 
 vous vendriez you would sell 
 Us vendraient they would sell. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. J'avais vendu I had 
 sold 
 
 etc. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 S. J’eus vendu I had sold 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. J\urai vendu I shall 
 , have sold 
 etc. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 S. J'^aurais vendu 
 
 I should have sold 
 etc. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOI). 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je vende that I may sell 
 que tu vendes that thou mayest sell 
 qtid vende that he may sell 
 P. tque nous vendions that we may sell 
 que vous vendiez’ that you may sell 
 qiiils vendent that they may sell. 
 
 S. Quefaie vendu that I 
 may have sold 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je vendisse that I might sell 
 
THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 37 
 
 qiie tu vendisses that thou mightest 
 
 sell 
 
 qu’il vendU that he might sell 
 P. que nous vendissions that we 
 
 might sell 
 
 que voiis vendissie^ that you might 
 
 sell 
 
 qtiHls vendissentth^t they might sell. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Quefeusse vendu that 
 I might have sold 
 etc. 
 
 IMPERATIYE MOOl). 
 
 S. Vends sell thou 
 V.vendons let us sell 
 vender sell ye. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE. 
 
 Inf. pres. Vendre to sell. 
 
 Inf. perf. Avoir vendu to have sold. 
 Part. pres. Vendant selling. 
 
 Part. past. Ay ant vendu having sold. 
 
 In the verbs belonging to the fourth conjugation the 
 following euphonic changes must be noticed. 
 
 1. Battre to strike drops one t in the three persons 
 singular of the present indicative and in the 2^ person sin- 
 gular imperative : je hats., tu hats., il hat., hats. 
 
 2. Bompre to break retains the t in the 3*^ person sin- 
 gular, which other verbs lose, il rompt. 
 
 3. In vainer e to conquer c is changed to qu in all parts 
 of the verb, where it would precede a, c, i or o (see VII. 1): 
 nous vainquons, its vainquent, il vainquit., vainquant. 
 
 4. In coudre to sew (Lat. consuere), d takes the place 
 of s wherever it would come before s or r, and stands for t 
 in the 3^ person singular ind. pres.: coudre^ je eouds. tu eouds^ 
 il coud., je coudrai., je coudrais^ but cousant^ nous cousons^ 
 que je couse. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 20. 
 
 1. Qii’est-ce qu’il a perdu? C’est son porte-monnaie qu’il a perdu 
 aujourd’hui; hier c’etait sa montre; il perd tout ce qu’on lui donne, il 
 perdrait sa tete, si elle n’etait pas fixee. 2. Je te defends , mon fils, 
 de lire ce livre-la, rends -le tout de suite an libraire. 3. Qui est-ce 
 qui perdit la bataille de Worth? Ce furent les Fran^ais; ils se de- 
 fendirent avec un courage heroique , mais ils durent enfin battre en 
 retraite devant les forces beaucoup plus nombreuses des Allemands. 
 
 4.^ Qui attendiez-vous hier dans la salle-a-nianger? J’attendais mon 
 pere, qui m’avait defendu de sortir avant son retour. 5. Quand le do- 
 mestique descendra mes malles, je lui rendrai la corde qu’il m’a pretee. 
 6, Jean, ne reponds pas, mais descends tout de suite. Tu reponds 
 toujours. Un bon enfant descendrait sans mot dire. 7. Decousez ces 
 
38 
 
 EUPHONIC CHANGES. 
 
 ourlets, mes deiuoiselles , ils sont mal cousiis; je voudrais qiie vous 
 cousissiez avec plus d’attention. Toi, Jeanne, si tu ne couds pas 
 mieux demain, tu seras piinie. 8. Si on vainc ses passions, on est 
 plus vainqueiir qu’Alexandre qui vainquit les Perses, mais ne pouvait 
 vaincre ni son ambition, ni son orgueil. 9. S’il bat cet ane avec 
 tant de force il rompra ma canne, et s’il la rompt, certainement ii 
 me la payera. 
 
 XXVIL EUPHONIC CHANGES. 
 
 1. G and c if they have the soft sound in the infinitive 
 mood retain it throughout the verb ; for this reason where 
 they come before the vowels a, o or it in infiexions, c receives 
 the cedilla, as je commence, but je commengais, g takes an 
 e between it and the following vowel as je mange, but je 
 mangeais. 
 
 2. I and y, when the 2^ letter of a dipthong and termi- 
 nating a verbal root, are interchangeable, when preceded by 
 0 or a; i used if followed by a consonant or e mute, y if 
 followed by a fully sounded syllable beginning with a vowel: 
 as j^appnie, j'" appiiierais , but vons appuyes, fnyant, but je 
 fiiirai. The same change is sometimes made when y is pre- 
 ceded by a , but it is more usual to retain the y if preceded 
 by either a or e : as je paye, il grasseye. 
 
 3. If the , last vowel of the stem is e mute or e followed 
 by a single consonant, it is strengthened when the following- 
 syllable is mute. In the forms of the present e or e receive 
 the grave accent: as mener je mine, repeter je rcpete; in the 
 future and conditional e mute receives the grave accent, e 
 remains unaltered: as il menera, il repeter a • 
 
 Except: 1. Yerbs. ending in -eger do not change even 
 in the present; as proteger il protege, 
 
 2. Verbs ending in -eler and ~eter prefer doubling the 
 consonant: as appeler j\ip)peTle j^ appellerai , jeter je 
 jette je jetterai. 
 
 The following however follow the general rule : celer^ 
 ecarteler, geler, harceler, aclieter and decolleter. 
 
 4. When the 1®^ person singular ends in e mute, in a question 
 with je following the verb the e mute receives an accent : as 
 donne-je? do I give? In this case the otherwise strengthened 
 syllable remains unaltered: as j^ amine, but amene-je? The 
 
EUPHONIC CHANGES. 
 
 39 
 
 form is rarely used, the question being mostly asked by est- 
 ce que, est-ce qiie je donne? 
 
 Similarly we have eusse-je , fusse-je, would that I had, 
 would that I were, and dusse-je^ puisse-je from devoir and 
 pouvoir, 
 
 5. In the 3^ person singular of the present and perfect 
 definite of the 1®* conjugation and of the future of all verbs, 
 when in questions the verb is followed by the pronoun il or 
 elle^ a ^ is inserted which is really the t of the Latin 3^ person 
 singular as: parle-t-il? Is he speaking? 
 
 6. A euphonic s is added to an imperative^ 2^ person 
 singular ending in a vowel, when en or y follows: as portes- 
 en carry some of it, portes-y carry there. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 21. 
 
 1. Quoique ses ennemis le menagassent, le roi ne se decouragea 
 pas. 2. Pourquoi George effacait-il ses fautes? Parce qiie le maitre 
 I’exigeait. 3. Ne mangeons pas tout le pate, mais partageons-le plutot 
 avec nos camarades. 4. A quoi employez-vous votre temps le matin? 
 Je Pemploie a lire du Frangais, je ne m’ennuie jamais. 5. Mon ami 
 me renvoie toujours Pargent que je lui paye; vous voyez bien qu’il est 
 inutile de lui en envoyer. 6. J’espere que vous vous leverez de bonne 
 heure domain, messieurs; on attellera les chevaux a cinq heures. 
 
 7. Comment t’appelles-tu , pauvre petit? Je m’appelle Frangois, mon- 
 sieur. Qu’est-ce qui te ramene chez moi? Ne me cele pas la verite. 
 Si je vous revele mon secret, monsieur, vous ne me jetterez pas dans 
 la rue, n’est-ce pas? Te jeter dans la rue, n’aie pas peur, je te me- 
 nerai plutot chez toi en voiture. C’est que je voulais encore voir le 
 joli joujou que vous possedez; cela m’ensorcelle. Je ne possMe pas 
 de joujou, mon enfant. Mais, le voila qui etincelle. Cela, c’est une 
 bague a cacheter; voyons, donne-moi de la cire que je cachete cette 
 lettre et puis je te ramenerai chez I’ami qui te protege. 
 
 XXVIII. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 The passive voice is formed entirely by the verb ^^etre^^ 
 and the passive participle which agrees in gender and number 
 with the subject of the verb. 
 
 VEBB FINITE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Jc siiis aime I am loved 
 t'U es aime thou art loved 
 
 il est aime he is loved 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 S. J'ai ete Ihave been loved 
 tit as ete aime thou hast been 
 loved 
 
 il a ete aime he has been loved 
 
40 
 
 THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 P. noiis sommes aimes we are 
 loved 
 
 vous etes aimes you are loved 
 il sont aimes they are loved. 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. tVetais aime I wasbeing loved 
 
 P. nous etions aimes we were 
 being loved. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 S. fus aime I was loved 
 
 V.nous fumes aimes we were 
 loved. 
 
 V.nous avons ete aimes we have 
 been loved 
 
 vousavez He aimes you have 
 been loved 
 Us out He aimes they have 
 been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. J^avais ete aime I had been 
 loved 
 
 P. nous avion s He aimH we had 
 been loved. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. J^eus He aime I had been 
 loved 
 
 Y , nous eumes He aimes we had 
 been loved. 
 
 SUBJIJNCT 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Que je sois aime that I may 
 be loved 
 
 P. que nous soyons aimes that 
 we may be loved. 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Queje fusse aime that I might 
 be loved 
 
 P. que nous fiissions aimes that 
 we might be loved. 
 
 S. Sois aime be thou loved 
 P. soyons aimes let us be loved 
 soyez aimH ye loved. 
 
 ITE MOOD. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que faie He aime that I may 
 have been loved 
 P. que nous ayons He aimes that 
 we may have been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que feitsse etc aime that I 
 might have been loved 
 P. que nous eussions He aimes 
 that we might have been loved. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE, 
 Inf. pres. litre aime to beloved. 
 Inf. perf. Avoir ete aime to 
 have been loved. 
 Part. pres. ifUtant aime being 
 loved. 
 
 Part. past. Ayant eteaimeh'di.Ymg 
 been loved. 
 
 The use of the passive voice is comparatively small in 
 French, it being largely replaced by reflective verbs and the 
 
PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 41 
 
 pronoun on with the active voice: as A-t-on vu Mr, J, ce 
 matin? Has Mr. J. been seen this morning? Le hie se vend 
 a six francs le hoisseau. Corn is being sold for six francs a 
 bushel. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 22. 
 
 1. Un beau livre a ete envoye a ton adresse. 2. J’ai ete assailli par 
 des voleurs. 3. La ville de Rome fut prise, pillee et brulee par les 
 Gaulois. 4. Nos plus fastueux monuments seront effaces par le temps. 
 5. Nos campagnes sont egayees par le chant des oiseaux. G. Que per- 
 sonne ne soit juge par I’apparence. 7. Votre route sera abregee par 
 un gai compagnon. 8. II faut des jeux par lesquels nous ne soyons 
 pas fatigues. 9. Toutes les conditions sont nivelees par la mort. 10. II 
 faudrait que les prejuges et la superstition fussent chasses par I’instruction. 
 1 1. Ces fleurs seront cueillies lorsqu’elles auront ete developpees par la 
 chaleur. 
 
 XXIX. PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 Pronominal verbs are all conjugated with ^^etre^^ They 
 are of two kinds : those with which the reflexive pronoun is in 
 the accusative^ and those with which it is in the dative. In the 
 former the past participle agrees in gender and number with 
 the subject ; in the latter it remains unchanged throughout. 
 
 se flatter to flatter oneself se flattant flatte je me flattai. 
 
 VERB FINITE, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 S. Jb me flatte I flatter myself 
 
 tu te flattes thou flatterest 
 thyself 
 
 il se flatte he flatters himself 
 
 P. nous nous flattons we flatter 
 ourselves 
 
 vous vous flatten you flatter 
 yourselves 
 ils se flattent they flatter 
 themselves. 
 
 S. Je me suis flatte I have flat- 
 tered myself 
 tu fes flatte thou hast flattered 
 thyself 
 
 il s^est flatte he has flattered 
 himself 
 
 P. nous nous sommes flattes we 
 have flattered ourselves 
 vous vous etes flattes you have 
 flattered yourselves 
 ils se sont flattes they have 
 flattered themselves. 
 
42 
 
 PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Je meflattais I was flattering 
 myself 
 
 P. nous nous flattions we were 
 flattering ourselves. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 S. Je me flattai I flattered 
 
 myself 
 
 P. nous nous flattdmes we flat- 
 tered ourselves. 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 S. Jeme flatterai I shall flatter 
 myself 
 
 P. nous nous flatterons we shall 
 flatter ourselves. 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je me flatterais I should 
 flatter myself 
 
 P. nous nous flatterions we 
 should flatter ourselves. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S. Que je me flatte that I may 
 flatter myself 
 P. qite nous noits flattions that 
 we may flatter ourselves. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je me flattasse that I 
 might flatter myself 
 P. que nous nous flattassions 
 that we might flatter ourselves^ 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 S. Flatte-toi flatter thyself 
 Y, flattons-nous let us flatter 
 ourselves. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Jh m^etais flatte I had flat- 
 tered myself 
 P. nous nous etions flattes we 
 had flattered ourselves. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. Je me fus flatte I had flat- 
 tered myself 
 P. nous nous fumes flattes we 
 had flattered ourselves. 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 S. Je me serai flatte I shall have 
 flattered myself 
 P. nous nous serons flattes we 
 shall have flattered ourselves. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je me serais flatte I should 
 have flattered myself 
 P. nous nous serions flattes we 
 should have flattered ourselves. 
 
 LVE MOOD. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je me sois Haite that I 
 may have flattered myself 
 V.que nous nous soy ons flattes 
 that we may have flattered our- 
 selves. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je me fiisse flatte that 1 
 might have flattered myself 
 P. que nous nous fussions flat- 
 tes that we might have flattered 
 ourselves. 
 
 TEE VERB INFINITE, 
 Inf. pres. Se flatter to flatter 
 oneselL 
 
NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 43 
 
 flattes-vous flatter your- Inf. perf. S'Ure flatte to have 
 selves. flattered oneself. 
 
 Pres. part. Se flattering 
 
 oneself. 
 
 Part. past. S’efant flatte having 
 flattered oneself. 
 
 SECoiNm CLASS. 
 
 Of the verbs which take a reflexive pronoun in the dative 
 some are transitive as: s' attirer to diY2iW on oneself, others in- 
 transitive as: se plaire to please oneself; with the latter care 
 must be taken in the compound tenses not to make the participle 
 agree with the subject ; the former are easily distinguishable^ 
 and only inflect the participle when their accusative precedes 
 the verb : EUe s^est phi a nous dire des sottises she took plea- 
 sure in abusing us. Voild les sottises qttelle s’’ est plu d nous 
 dire this was the abuse she pleased herself in saying to us. Ellc 
 s^est attire des reproehes she drew down reproaches on herself. 
 Voild les reproehes qu'elles’est attires these were the reproaches 
 she drew down on herself. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 23. 
 
 1. Ma maisoii se vendra plus cher que je ne m’y serais attendu. 
 2. Ne nous affligeons pas des maux que Dieu nous eiivoie. 3. L’armee 
 s’etant divisee en deux corps se preparait a attaquer I’ennemi. 4. Ne 
 vous flattez pas que nous nous empressions de faire ce que vous vous 
 etiez imagine de nous demander. 5. C’est la la fln que je me suis 
 toujours proposee. 6. EHe s’est proi)Ose de faire un voyage en Suisse. 
 7. La fleur de ces arbustes ne s’epanouira pas avant qu’une douce 
 chaleur ne se soit repandue sur la terre. 8. Nous nous effrayerons 
 de la mort, si nous ne nous avouons pas que nous nous sorames bien 
 conduits. 9. Ces deux negociants se sont associes pour le commerce du 
 Levant. 10. Les deux redacteurs du journal du Soir se sont associe 
 deux ecrivains celebres. 
 
 XXX. NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 1. Neuter verbs are mostly conjugated with „avoir^^, 
 
 but the following are always conjugated with etre: 
 
 alter to go entrer to enter 
 
 ar river to arrive mourir to die 
 decoder to die naitre to be born 
 
 eclore to be hatched, partir to set out 
 
 to blow r entrer to go in again 
 
 retourner to return 
 sortir to go out 
 toniber to fall 
 venir to come. 
 
44 
 
 NEUTER, VERBS. 
 
 Compounds of venir are conjugated with Hre except 
 contrevenir a to contravene, and snhvenir a to relieve; con- 
 venir lias either etre or avoir, 
 
 2. Some neuter verbs are conjugated with both avoir and 
 Mr 6', with avoir to denote the action ^ with Mre the condition 
 as the result of the action; the principal of these are: 
 
 acconrir to hasten 
 
 apparaitre to appear 
 haisser to sink 
 
 changer to change 
 coucher to lie down 
 croUre to grow 
 
 dMJioir to decay, 
 resign 
 
 dehorder to overflow 
 degenerer to dege- 
 nerate 
 
 descendre to go down 
 cchapper to escape 
 Mlioner to strand fail 
 
 embellir to grow 
 
 beautiful 
 empirer to grow worse 
 grandir to grow tall 
 
 monter to go up 
 rojeunir to grow 
 young 
 
 vieiUir to grow old. 
 to live, dwell, take avoir, = to stop. 
 
 Hester, demenrcr — 
 remain, take etre. 
 
 All these verbs, when used transitively take avoir as: 
 on a descendu les malles they have brought down the luggage. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 The really impersonal verbs are very few in number 
 in French: such are il neige it snows, il hrnine it drizzles. 
 But many neuter verbs are also used impersonally as: il 
 parait it appears, il importe it is important. i 
 
 Faire is used impersonally with a substantive or adjective 
 following, as: il fait nuit it is dark, il fera chaud demain it 
 will be hot to-morrow, il a fait du hrouillard aujonrdliui it 
 ^ has been foggy to-day. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 24. 
 
 1. Napoleon xn^emier est ne le 15 Aout 1769, et il est mort le 
 2 Mai 1821. 2. Nous sommes convenus d’acheter ce qui ne nous avail 
 pas convenu d’abord. 3. Apres que nous fumes partis, la nouvelle liii 
 est parvenue que sa mere etait morte. 4. N’est-ce pas que mon fils 
 a bien grand! depuis que vous ne I’avez vu? Oui, monsieur, il etait 
 tout petit il y a trois ans, mais a present il est bien grandi. 5. Un 
 vieillard etait tombe et j’aiirais (je serais) accouru pour I’aider si son 
 fils n’etait pas aussitot sorti de la maison d’en face. 6. Quand etes- 
 vous arrivee, madarne? J’etais deja arrivee, quand vous etes sorti, mais 
 je ne voulais pas que I’on vous en prevint, avant que vous ne fussiez 
 rentre. 7. J’etais monte dans ma chambre, quand on est venu m’an- 
 noncer que tout le monde etait descendu; je suis descendu aussitot 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 45 
 
 pour voir si la voiture etait arrivee ; mais mallieureusement c’etait trop 
 tard, on etait deja parti. 8. Cette vieille dame est tout-a-fait rajeunie^ 
 mais elle ifen est pas pour cela embellie. 9. Quand je serai retourne 
 en Allernagne je ne reviendrai plus en France. 10. Je ne savais pas 
 que vous etiez monte, c’est pourquoi je ne suis pas monte pour vous 
 souhaiter la bienvenue. 
 
 XXXI. IRREGULAIl VERBS. 
 
 Under the name of irregular verbs are ranked for con- 
 venience sake: 1. those which form their tenses from dif- 
 ferent roots; 2. those which differ from the forms of 
 conjugation given above whether really anomalous, or appa^ 
 rently so from adopting dialectic variations formed regularly 
 in old French. 
 
 iniRST cojvjrxjOALTio:isr. 
 
 To the first conjugation belong two irregular verbs: aller 
 to go and envoyer to send. Aller takes its future tenses from 
 the Latin verb ire to go, and four persons of the present from 
 vadere. Aller is conjugated with Ure. 
 
 Inf. pres. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Part. 
 
 active 
 
 pass* 
 
 aller 
 
 allant 
 
 alle 
 
 Perf. 
 
 def. 
 
 Future 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 fallai 
 
 firai 
 
 va 
 
 allons 
 
 alle^ 
 
 
 Subj. pres. 
 
 S. que faille P. que nous 
 allions 
 
 que tu ailles que vous 
 allies 
 
 qu’il aille quHls aillent. 
 
 The imperative 2^ sing, takes an s before en and y: as 
 vas~y go there; see chap. XXVII. b. 
 
 Envoyer is irregular only in the future and conditional, 
 fenverrai I shall send; y and i are interchanged according 
 to XXVII. 2. 
 
 Pres. ind. 
 
 je vats 
 tu vas 
 il va 
 
 P. nous allons 
 vous alle^ 
 Us vont. 
 
 The verb s^en aller is given in full as a specimen of a verb 
 conjugated with Ure and as involving some confusion from 
 the number of particles. 
 
46 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S, Je m^en vais T go away 
 in fen vas thou goest away 
 il s^en va he goes away 
 
 P. nous nous en allons we go 
 away 
 
 vous vous en alle^ you go 
 away 
 
 Us s^en vont they go away. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Je nfen allais I was going 
 away 
 
 in fen allais thou wast going 
 away 
 
 il s^en allait he was going 
 away 
 
 P. nous nous en allions we were 
 going away 
 vous vous en allies you were 
 going away 
 ils s^en allaient they were 
 going away. 
 
 PERFECT INDEFINITE. 
 
 S. Je nfen suis alle I have gone 
 away 
 
 tu fen es alle thou hast gone 
 away 
 
 il s^en est alle he has gone 
 away 
 
 P. nous nous en somnies alles 
 we have gone away 
 vous vous en etes alles you 
 have gone awa,y 
 Us s'en sont alles they have 
 gone away. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Je nfen etais alle I had gone 
 a'way 
 
 tu fen etais alle thou haclst 
 gone away 
 il s^ en Hait alle he had gone 
 away 
 
 P. nous nous en etions alles we 
 had gone away 
 VOUS vous en etie^ alles you 
 had gone away 
 Us s''en etdient alles they had 
 gone away. 
 
 PERFECT DEFINITE. 
 
 S. Je nfen allai I went away 
 
 tu fen alias thou wentest 
 away 
 
 il s^en alia he went away 
 
 P. nous nous en alldmes we went 
 
 away 
 
 vous vous en alldtes you 
 went away 
 
 Us s’en allerent they went 
 away. 
 
 PERFECT ANTERIOR. 
 
 S. Je m’en fus alle I had gone 
 
 away 
 
 tu fen fus alle thou hadst 
 gone away 
 Us s'en fut alle he had gone 
 away 
 
 P. nous nous en fumes alles we 
 had gone away 
 vous vous en futes alles you 
 had gone away 
 ilss'en furent alles they had 
 gone away. 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 47 
 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 S. Je m^en irai I shall go away 
 
 tu fen iras thou wilt go away 
 
 il s'en ira he will go away 
 
 P. nous nous en irons we shall 
 go away 
 
 vous vous en irez you will 
 go away 
 
 iHs s’ en iront they will go 
 away. 
 
 FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Je nfen irais I should go 
 away 
 
 tu fen irais thou wouldst 
 go away 
 
 il s'en irait he would go away 
 
 P. nous nous en irions we should 
 go away 
 
 vous vous en iriez you would 
 go away 
 
 Us s’ en iraient they would 
 go away. 
 
 SUBJUNCT 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 S, Que je nfen aille that I may 
 go away 
 
 que tu fen ailles that thou 
 mayest go away 
 quHls s^ en aille that he may 
 go away 
 
 P. que nous nous en allions that 
 we may go away 
 que vous vous en alliez that 
 you may go away 
 quHls s'' en aillent that they 
 may go away. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE. 
 ^.Jem'’en serai alle I shall 
 have gone away 
 tu fen seras alle thou wilt 
 have gone away 
 il s’en sera alle he will have 
 gone away 
 P. nous nous en serons alias we 
 shall have gone away 
 vous vous en serez alles you 
 will have gone away 
 Us s'enseront alles they will 
 have gone away. 
 
 SECOND CONDITIONAL. 
 
 S. Ji? nfen serais alle I should’ 
 have gone away 
 tu fen serais alle thou wouldst 
 have gone away 
 il s^en serait alle he would 
 have gone away 
 P. nous nous en serions alles 
 we should have gone away 
 vous vous en seriez alles you 
 would have gone away 
 Us s'en seraient alles they 
 M^ould have gone away. 
 
 YE MOOD. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je ni'en sois alle that 
 I may have gone away 
 que tu fen sois alle that thou 
 mayest have gone away 
 qitil s'‘en soit alle that he 
 may have gone away 
 P. que nous nous en soyons alles 
 that we may have gone awa^^ 
 que vous vous en soyez alles 
 that you may have gone awa^^ 
 qiiils s'en soient alles that 
 they may have gone away. 
 
48 
 
 mEEGULAR VERBS. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 S. Qiie je m'en fusse a/?6that I 
 might have gone away 
 que iu fen fusses alle that 
 thou mightest have gone away 
 qu'il s''en flit alle that he 
 might have gone away 
 P. qiie nous nous en fussions 
 allc s that we might have g. away 
 que vous vous en fussier alles 
 that you might have gone away 
 qu'ils s'en fussent alles that 
 they might have gone away. 
 
 THE VERB INFINITE. 
 Pres. inf. S'en aller to go away. 
 Perf. inf. S'en etre alle to have 
 gone away. 
 
 Part. act. S'en allant going 
 away. 
 
 Part, passive. Alle gone. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 25. 
 
 1. Ou allez-Yous, monsieur? Je vais voir mon ami dans la chambre 
 k c6t6, il est malade. Pourquoi n’envoyez-vous pas cliercher un medecin? 
 J’irai d’abord demander comment se porte mon ami, puis j’enverrai 
 chercher un medecin. J’irais le chercher moi-meme, si j’avais le temps, 
 mats il faut que je m’en aille tout de suite, 2. Ou vont vos amies, ma« 
 dame? Elies sont allees a la rencontre de leur pere; ayant regu une 
 depeche, il fall ait qu’elles s’en allassent avant votre retour. 3. Adieu, 
 monsieur, dix heures vont sonner, il faut que nous nous en allions. Ne 
 vous en allez pas si tot, dans un quart d’lieure nous nous en irons 
 tous. 4. Ouvas-tu, Jean? Je vais chercher mes livres. Va-t-en, petit 
 paresseux, tu n’as jamais de livres, vas en chercher. 5. Comment allez- 
 vous a St. Cloud? Moi et mon frere nous allons a pied, mais mes 
 soeurs iront en voiture. 6. Ne seriez-vous pas all^s a pied s’il n’avait 
 pas fait trop chaud? Oui, mais par le temps qu’il faisait il fallait y 
 aller en chemin de fer. 7. Renvoyez-moi, s’il vous plait, les livres que 
 je vous ai envoy^s la semaine passee. Je les renverrai demain, soyez 
 tranquille. 8. Il est vrai que le danger va ton jours en croissant, mais 
 il ne faut pas nous laisser aller au desespoir. 
 
 XXXII. SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 The irregular verbs of the 2^ COIljug“ation may be divided 
 for convenience sake into six classes : 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 S. Que je nfen allasse that I 
 might go away 
 que tu fen allasses that thou 
 mightest go away 
 qifil s^ en alldt that he might 
 go away 
 
 P. que nous nous en allassions 
 that we might go away^ 
 que vous vous en allassie^ 
 that you might go away^ 
 qiCilss'en allassent that they 
 might go away. 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 S. Va-t-en go away^ 
 
 P. ollons-nous-cn let us go 
 
 away. 
 
 alle^-vous-en go away. 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 49 
 
 1. Those which follow the 1®^ conjugation in the present 
 tense and keep the t of the Latin participle , viz. convrir^ 
 oiivrir^ offrir and soitffrir, 
 
 2. Those which follow the 1®^ conjugation in the present 
 and future^ but have the participle regular : cueillir and sail- 
 Hr ; but compounds of saillir, assaillir and tressaillir have tbe 
 future regular. 
 
 3. Courir and mottrir which agree in the formation of 
 their perfect and future^ but differ in their present indicative 
 and passive participle. 
 
 4. Tenir and venir irregular in their passive participle^ 
 present ind.^ perfect, future and present subj. 
 
 5. Acquerir irregular in its passive participle, present, 
 perf. clef., future and present subj. 
 
 6 . Gesir a verb defective (to lie) which changes e into i 
 in the few forms in use. 
 
 C s I. 
 
 1 . couvrir to cover 
 
 2. Quvrir to open 
 
 3. offrir to offer 
 
 4. souffrir to suffer 
 
 couvrant 
 
 ouvrant 
 
 offremt 
 
 souffrant 
 
 convert 
 
 ouvert 
 
 offert 
 
 souffert 
 
 je couvre 
 fouvre 
 foffre 
 je souffre 
 
 je couvris 
 j'ouvris 
 foffris 
 je souffris. 
 
 C L ^ S S II. 
 
 1 . cueillir to gather 
 cueillant \cueilli 
 
 je cueille 
 
 je cueillis 
 
 2. saillir to jut out 
 saillant \sailli 
 
 il saille 
 
 il saillit 
 
 3. assaillir to attack 
 assaillant \assaiTli 
 
 j'assaille 
 
 fassaiUis 
 
 je cueillerai 
 il saillera 
 j'^ assaillir ai. 
 
 C ^ S S III. 
 
 1. courir to run 
 
 
 
 coiirant 
 
 'couru\je cours 
 
 
 je coiirus 
 
 2. mottrir to die 
 
 
 
 mourant 
 
 mart \je meurs 
 
 nous mourons 
 
 je mourns 
 
 
 tu meurs 
 
 vous moure^ 
 
 
 
 1 il meurt 
 
 Us meurent 
 
 
 je courrai 
 je mourrai. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 2G. 
 
 1. Les gamins ciieilleront toiites nos peches, si la porte du jardin 
 reste ouverte. 2. Couvrez-vous , monsieur, il fait froid. Merci, mon- 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 4 
 
50 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION CONTINUED. 
 
 sieur, j’ai mal a la tete, j’aime mieux rester decouvert. 3. En ouvrant 
 la porte je tressaillis a la scene qui s’ofFrait a mes yeux, deux homines 
 assaillaieut mon pere a coups de poing. 4. Pendant que ma soeur 
 cueille des fraises, je vais fermer les fenetres de la serre. Elies ont ete 
 ouvertes toute la niiit et les plantes en ont beaucoup souifert. 5. Si 
 vous accueillez les propositions que je vous ai offertes, vous vous cou- 
 vrirez cie gloire et vous recueilierez en peu de temps le fruit de vos 
 travaux. 6. Pourquoi avez-vous tressailli en recevant ces messieurs? 
 C’est que je suis un peu souffrante aujourd’hui. Kecueillez-vous un 
 peu, puis je vous raconterai ce qu’on a decouvert. 7. Le bruit court 
 que Napoleon trois est mort. Oui, il est mort en Angleterre, et tout 
 le monde s’empresse d’accourir a son convoi. 8. Quand une peste as- 
 saille une peuple, ce ne sont pas toujours les vieillards qui en meurent. 
 9. II mourra de depit si Pon accueille avec dedain les faits qu’il 
 a recueillis en parcourant toute une hemisphere. 10. Le pauvre pere 
 mourut ail moment meme ou son fils entrait dans la chambre. Celui- 
 ci courut Pembrasser, mais helas! ce n’etait qu’un cadavre qui gisait 
 siir le lit. 
 
 XXXIII. 2^" CONJUGATION CONTINUED. 
 
 e ^ 
 
 1. tenir to hold — tenant — temi 
 je'tiens — je tins — je tiendrai — que je tienne 
 
 2. vcnir to come — venant — vemi 
 
 je viens — je vins — je viendrai — que je vicnne. 
 
 Present Indie. 
 
 S. Je tiens 
 tu tiens 
 il tient 
 
 V.noiiS tenons 
 vous tenez 
 Us tiennent 
 
 Perfect Definite. 
 
 S. Je tins 
 til tins 
 il tint 
 
 P. 7iotis thimes 
 vous tlntes 
 Us tinrent 
 
 Imperative. Present Subj. 
 
 S. Tiens S. Qiie je tienne 
 que tu tiennes 
 qidil tienne 
 
 P. tenons P. que nous tenions 
 tenez que vous teniez 
 qu'ils tiennent. 
 
 o A s s 
 
 acquerir to gain — acquerant — acquis. 
 
 Present Indicative. Perf. Def. 
 
 S. Jacquiers J acquis 
 tu acquiers 
 il acquiert 
 V,nous acquerons 
 vous acquerez 
 Us acquierent 
 
 Future. Present Subj. 
 
 J acquerrai S. Que j\icquiere 
 que tu acquieres 
 qu'il acquiere 
 P. que nous acque- 
 rions 
 
 que vous aequeriez 
 qu'ils acquierent. 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 51 
 
 CLASS 
 
 gcsir to lie dead — gisant — il git 
 
 nous gisons 
 vous gisej^ 
 
 Us gisent. 
 
 The imperfect indicative je gisais etc. is the only other 
 part in use. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 27. 
 
 1. S’il ne s’abstient pas dii jeu, toutes les richesses qu’il a acqui- 
 ses ue lui serviront de rien; il deviendra bientot pauvre. 2. Yotre ami 
 vient de me dire que vous etes convenus de ne pas nous quitter avant 
 que mon fils ne revienne d’ Angle terre. 3. Je vous previens que la 
 place ne tiendra pas huit jours. 4. Si le jardin lui avait convenu, il 
 I’aurait achete, mais il tenait beaucoup a avoir plus de terrain. 
 5. Tout ce que nous acquerons par I’activite nous appartient de droit, 
 mais les biens qui nous proviennent de la fortune ne sont quhm pret 
 que la fortune pent a tout moment nous redemander. 6. Hs acquerront 
 Festime de ieurs amis s’ils tiennent toujours a leur parole. 7. Quoique 
 des affaires importantes le retinssent, mon pere soutenait qu’il parvien- 
 drait a etre pret pour son voyage dans deux jours. 8. Quoique son 
 ami soutint que M. J. etait innocent, le juge tint ferme et il y a a 
 present neuf jours qu’il est detenu en prison. 9. Pourquoi n’etes-vous 
 pas venu nous voir bier soir? J’allais justement sortir lorsqu’il survint 
 iin orage, qui me retint chez moi. Yous auriez dii an raoins nous 
 ecrire. Convenez-en. 10. Yous viendrez domain au spectacle, n’est-ce 
 pas? Oui, monsieur, et si vous retenez une loge pour la representation, 
 je vous en tiendrai compte. 
 
 XXXIV. THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 The irregular verbs of the 3^ conjugation may be roughly 
 included in threo classos : 1. Verbs which throwing away 
 -voir have monosyllabic participles passive and perfects, 
 2. Those which simply change -oir into -w, -us for the passive 
 participle and perfect and which insert a euphonic d in the 
 future, 3. Those which form their passive participle by 
 changing -oir to -is or -u and do not insert d in the future, 
 
 CLASS I. 
 
 1. mouvoir to move — mouvant — mu 
 
 Present Indie. Perf. Def. Future. Pres. Subj. 
 
 je meus — nous mouvons 
 tu meus — vous mouvez 
 il meut — Us meuvent 
 
 je mus 
 
 je mouvrai 
 
 que je meuve 
 
 4 
 
52 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. Class I. 11. 
 
 je peux 
 tu peux 
 il pent 
 
 je sais 
 tu sais 
 it salt 
 
 2. pleuvoir to rain — pleuvant — plu 
 
 il pleut I il plut I il pleuvra \qu’il pleuve 
 
 3. pouvoir to be able — pouvant — pu 
 
 — nous pouvons je pus 
 
 — vous pouvez 
 
 — Us peuvent 
 4. savoir to know 
 
 — nous savons 
 
 — vous savez 
 
 — Us savent 
 
 je sus 
 
 je pourrai 
 
 sachant — 
 je saurai 
 
 que je puisse 
 
 su 
 
 \que je sacJie. 
 
 C L jV S S II. 
 
 1. falloir to be necessary — — — fallu 
 
 Present Indicative. Perf. Def. 
 
 il fauf I il fallut | 
 
 2. valoir to be worth — 
 
 Future. Present Snbj. 
 il faudra \qtiU faille 
 valant — valu 
 
 je vaux — nous valons 
 tu vaux — vous valez 
 il vaut — Us valent 
 
 je valus 
 
 3. vouloir to wish 
 je veux — nous voulons je voulus 
 tu veux — vous voidez 
 il veut — Us veident 
 
 je vaudrai 
 
 - vouJant 
 je voudrai 
 
 que je vaille 
 que nous valions 
 que nous valiez 
 qu'ils vaillent 
 — votdu 
 que je veuille 
 que nous voidions 
 que vous voidiez 
 qu’ils veuillent. 
 
 NOTE. 1. Oi emouvoi}% promouvoir the passive participle 
 has not the circumflex emu^ promu, 
 
 2. Of pouvoir another form of the person indicative is 
 je puis ; this form alone is used in interrogatives and nega- 
 tives as : puis-je? 
 
 3. The imperative of savoir follows the present participle: 
 sache, sachons, sachez. 
 
 4. Prevaloir forms its present subjunctive que je pre- 
 vale etc. 
 
 5. The imperative of voidoir , veux ^ voulons^ voidjcz 
 is scarcely ever used ; in place of it the subjunctive veuillcz 
 is employed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 28. 
 
 1. En quoi puis-je vous etre utile, monsieur? Si vous voulez me 
 preter un parapluie, je vous en saurai bien gre, car il pleut a verse. 
 
THIRD CONJUGATION. Class III. 
 
 53 
 
 2. La foule s’emeut, il faut nous retirer d’ici. II vaudra mieux rester 
 tranquille, personne ne nous en vent. 3. Pouvez-vous me preter votre 
 impermeable? je ne sais pas ou est le mien. II fallait y penser plus 
 tot; il pleuvra bientot, et je veux sortir moi-meme. 4. Je ne saurais 
 Yous dire combien il a fallu insister, pour que mon fils voulut se sou- 
 mettre a ma volonte. 5. Veuillez me dire, monsieur, si ce livre vaut 
 la peine d’etre lu? Du tout; le livre ne vaut rien, vous pouvez en juger 
 par le premier chapitre. 6. Quoiqu’il me faille avouer combien j’ai tort, 
 je ne voudrais pas que tout le monde me traitat d’imbecile. 7. Je 
 voulais seulement vous annoncer que votre fils a su se tirer d’embarras, 
 afin que vous pussiez encore dormir tranquille. 8. Savez-vous comment 
 se meut cette machine-la? Je n’y comprends rien, il faudrait pour cela 
 etre mecanicien. 9. Il se pourrait que votre ami ffit prisonnier, mais 
 autant vaudrait etre mort. 10. Sachez, monsieur, que cet homme-ci 
 est le seul qui puisse vous aider; les autres ne peuvent rien faire qui 
 vaille. 
 
 XXXV. 3^ CONJUGATION CONTINUED. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 1. s'asseoir to 
 je 7nassieds 
 tu fassieds 
 il s' assied 
 
 sit down 
 je yn'assis 
 
 — s'asseyant 
 je m'assierai 
 
 — assis 
 que je m^asseye 
 
 nous nous asseyovs 
 vous vous asseyez 
 Us s'asseyent 
 
 2. dechoir to decay 
 
 je dechois \je dechus 
 
 3. voir to see 
 
 je vois \je vis 
 
 4. pourvoir to provide 
 
 je pourvois | je pourviis 
 
 5. surseoir to suspend 
 
 je sursois \je sursis 
 
 6. seoir to suit 
 il sied 
 Us sieent 
 
 — dechu 
 \je decherrai \que je dechoie 
 
 - voyant — vu 
 
 \je verrai \que je vote 
 
 - pourvoyant — - pourvu 
 
 \je pourvoir ai\que je pourvoie 
 
 - sursoyant — sursis 
 
 \je surseoirai \que je surseoie 
 
 - seyant —sis 
 
 il siera 
 
 NOTE. 1 . Choir to fall is only used in the inf. mood, 
 echoir has the part, present echeant^ its other tenses are like 
 dechoir, but it is only used in the 3*^ person. 
 
 2. Prevoir has its future je prevoirai. 
 
 3. Seoir to seat is only used in the participles, seard, sis. 
 
54 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 29. 
 
 1. Je I’ai vu qui s’asseyait tout triste; il avait les yeux ouverts, 
 mais ne voyait rieii. 2, Les voila assises pour la derniere fois sous 
 Pombre du grand chene; elles ne s’y assieront plus, nous ne les re- 
 verrons jamais. 3. Nous nous etions assis sur le gazon, nous ne nous 
 parlions pas, car nous prevoyions que nous ne nous reverrions plus de 
 notre vie. 4. L’appartement que j’ai vu est tres-bien, quand est-ce 
 quejepourrai y entrer? Asseyez-vous, niadame, que je voie quand mon 
 terme doit echoir. C’est ^a, vous pouvez entrer dans trois semaines, 
 mon terme echerra a la St.-Jean. 5. Les couleurs voyantes ne me ' 
 
 sieent pas, montrez-moi du bleu fonce. Si Madame vent s’asseoir un I 
 
 petit moment, elle sera servie a Pinstant. 6. Asseyez-vous ici, mon- | 
 sieur, vous verrez passer le cortege dans quelques minutes. C’est un 
 spectacle tres-remarquable ; il faut avoir vu ga. 7. Apres avoir pourvu I 
 de son mieux aux besoinsdeson armee, le general s’assit; il vit passer } 
 devant lui son ancien regiment, et il aurait voulu etre encore au temps 
 ou, en simple soldat, il ne lui fallait pourvoir qu’a ses propres besoins. 
 
 8. Ils se seraient assis sur le gazon s’il n’avait pas plu pendant la 
 nuit, mais voyant que la terre etait encore tout humide, ils prefererent 
 Tester debout.. 9. Assieds-toi, Charles. Mais ne voyez-vous pas, mon- 
 sieur, qu’il n’y a pas assez de place? il n’est pas convenable que je 
 m’asseye pendant que mes cousines restent debout. 10. Voulez-vous 
 vous asseoir, madame? Vous voyez que la robe de votre amie lui siera 
 a merveille, seulement en s’asseyant il lui faut prendre garde de 
 froisser la garniture. 
 
 XXXVI. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 The irregular verbs of the 4^^ COnjug’ation may be di- 
 vided into three classes: \ 
 
 1. Those which end their perfect in -us and their passive 
 
 participle in of these, five viz. boire, croire, lire, plaire , 
 
 and taire whose stem ends in a vowel change it to ti in the 
 perfect; concltire having a ti retains it. 
 
 Four viz. connaUre^ parattre, pattre and crottre reject 
 the euphonic t, which is replaced by ss in the present parti- 
 ciple, and change the dipthong to a in the perfect; but this 
 tense is wanting in pattre. Absoudre^ resoudre, dissoudre 
 and moudre reject the euphonic d and resume the I of the 
 Latin, moudre retaining notwithstanding the u of the dipthong. ’ 
 They form their passive participles absous, resous, dissous, but 
 the forms with I are also found, resolu as another form of the 
 participle, but only in the masculine, absolu and dissolu only 
 as adjectives. 
 
 Vivre forms its perfect and passive participle quite irregularly. 
 
 2. Verbs which form their perfect regularly, but have the ^ 
 strong participle ending in t derived from the Latin. These j 
 verbs all insert a euphonic d after n in the infinitive mood and \ 
 
FOURTH CONJUGATION. Class I. 
 
 55 
 
 future, and a euphonic g before n whenever it is followed by 
 a vowel throughout the verb. 
 
 3. Verbs which form their perfect in is. Of these the 
 greater number form the participle present by inserting a letter 
 before the termination , which had been dropt from the Latin 
 stem s for c, v for h and have the passive participle formed from 
 the Latin participle, some retaining the t and some dropping it. 
 
 C 3L. S S I. 
 
 1. hoire to drink — Ijuvant — hii 
 
 je hois 
 
 nous hiwons 
 voiis buvez 
 
 Us hoivent 
 
 je bus 
 
 que je boive 
 
 2. croire to believe — 
 
 croyant 
 
 — cru 
 
 je crots 
 
 nous croyons ’ 
 
 1 je crus 
 
 que je croie 
 
 3. lire to read — 
 
 lisant 
 
 — hi 
 
 je Us 
 
 nous lisons 
 
 1 je lus 
 
 que je Use 
 
 4. plaire to please — 
 
 plaisant 
 
 — plu 
 
 je plais 
 
 nous plaisons 
 
 1 je plus 
 
 que je plaise 
 
 5. taire to be silent — 
 
 ■ taisant 
 
 — tu 
 
 je tais 
 
 nous taisons 
 
 1 je tus 
 
 que je taise 
 
 6. concliire to conclude — 
 
 eoncluant 
 
 — conclu 
 
 je concUis 
 
 1 nous concluons 
 
 je conclus 
 
 1 que je conclue 
 
 7. connaUre to know — 
 
 connaissant 
 
 — connu 
 
 je connais 
 
 nous connaissons 
 
 je connus 
 
 1 que je conna isse 
 
 8. croUre to grow — 
 
 croissant 
 
 — C7^U 
 
 je crois 
 
 nous croissons 
 
 1 je crus 1 
 
 que je croisse 
 
 9. paitre to feed — 
 
 paissant 
 
 — wanting 
 
 je pais 
 
 1 nous paissons 
 
 wanting 
 
 1 que je paisse 
 
 10. paraitre to appear — 
 
 paraissant 
 
 — paru 
 
 je par at s 
 
 nous paratssons 
 
 1 je parus \ 
 
 que je paraisse 
 
 1 1 . ahsoiidre to absolve — 
 
 absolvant 
 
 — absous 
 
 j’absotis' 
 
 1 nous ahsoh^ons 
 
 1 wanting 
 
 1 que j'' absolve 
 
 12. resoudre to resolve — 
 
 resolvant 
 
 jresous 
 
 [rholu 
 
 je resells 
 
 nous resolvons 
 
 1 je resolus 
 
 que je resolve 
 
 1 3 . dissoudre to dissolve — 
 
 dissolvant 
 
 — " dissous 
 
 je dissous \ 
 
 nous dissolvons 
 
 1 wanting 
 
 que je dissolve: 
 
 14. moiidre to grind — 
 
 moidant 
 
 — moulu 
 
 je mouds 
 
 1 nous moulons 
 
 1 je moidus 
 
 1 que je moule- 
 
 15. vivre to live — 
 
 vivant 
 
 — vecu 
 
 je VIS 
 
 nous vivons 
 
 1 je vecus 
 
 que je vive.. , 
 
56 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. Class 11. 
 
 NOTE. 1. Notice the circumflex accent on tu masc. (but 
 fern, tue, plur. ius), on cni^ je crus, from croUre, and on the 
 i of all verbs in -attre, ~oUre whenever i comes before t, 
 
 2. jRepaUre to feed has the pass. part, repu and the 
 perfect repus. 
 
 3. Plaire and tdire, derived from the Latin ta- 
 
 cere incorrectly pronounced as if of the 3^ conjugation placere, 
 tacere, changed c to 5 and formed in old French their 3^ per- 
 son sing. pres. ind. plaist, taist; in modern French the s \n plaist 
 is represented by the circumflex, but the s in taist is lost, it tait, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 30. 
 
 1. Avez-voiis moulu le cafe, Jeanne? Je le moudrai tout de suite, 
 monsieur. C’est inutile, voila la cuisiniere qui le moud. 2. Qui a 
 moulu ce ble? Je I’ai fait moudre avec le moulin a bras, seulement 
 pour montrer comment on moulait autrefois le ble , quand il n’y 
 avait ni moulins a vapeur, ni moulins a vent. 3. C’est a peine si on 
 pent croire a la rapidite avec laquelle croissent les bambous dans les 
 pays chauds, un rejeton de quatre pouces de diamtoe croit quelque- 
 fois d’un pied dans les vingt-quatre heures. 4. Taisez-vous, vous dis- 
 je. Je me tairai si cela vous plait, mais mon silence ne vous absoudra 
 pas de cette accusation. 5. Pendant qu’il parlait je me tus, et des que 
 je m’apercus qu’il n’y avait plus rien a dire la-dessus, je conclus I’affaire 
 en buvant au succes de notre entreprise. 6. Connaissez-vous madame 
 J. ? Je la connais seulement de vue, mais ma soeur la connait depuis 
 deux ans. 7. Qu’est-ce que vous lisez? Je lis Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister, 
 j’en ai deja lu la traduction, et cela m’a tant plu, que je voulais lire 
 I’original. 8. M. D. vit-il toujours? Oui, monsieur, il a vecu pendant 
 trois mois dans I’indigence ; tout le monde le croyait mort , mais il 
 parait qu’on avait tort. 9. Buvez-vous du vin? Depuis un an je n’en 
 hois plus. Pourquoi 9a? Croyez-vous qu’il y ait du mal a boire dii 
 vin? Du tout, mais quand on a une fois trop bu, on a toujours peur 
 d’en faire autant. Je ne boirai plus de ma vie, j’en suis resolu. 10. Ils 
 ne meconnaitront pas vos efforts, ils ne vous ont pas exclu parce qu’ils 
 ne vous croyaient pas utile; mais ils ont reconnii, que I’affaire allait 
 toujours croissant et qu’il fallait y mettre fin. 
 
 XXXVII. 4'"^ CONJUGATION. 
 
 II. 
 
 1. plaindre to complain 
 
 plaignant | plaint 
 
 2. contraindre to constrain 
 
 con traign ant | contrain t 
 
 3. craindre to fear 
 
 craignant | craint 
 
 4. astreindre to bind down 
 
 astreignant \ astreint 
 
 je plains 
 je contrains 
 je crains 
 j\istreins 
 
 je plaignis 
 je contraignis 
 
 je craignis 
 fastreignis 
 
FOURTH CONJUGATION. Class III. 
 
 57 
 
 5. atteindre to attain 
 atteignant | atteint 
 
 6. ceindre to encircle 
 
 ceignant | ceint 
 
 7. enfreindre to infringe 
 enfreignant | enfreint 
 
 8. eteindre to extinguish 
 
 eteignant \ Heint 
 
 9. feindre to feign 
 
 feignant \ feint 
 
 10. peindre to paint 
 
 peignant | peint 
 
 11. teindre to stain 
 teignant | teint 
 
 12. joindre to join 
 joignant | joint 
 
 fatteins 
 
 j'^atteignis 
 
 je ceins 
 
 je ceignis 
 
 j^enfreins 
 
 fenfreignis 
 
 j'etcins 
 
 j'eteignis 
 
 je feins 
 
 je feignis 
 
 je peins 
 
 je peignis 
 
 je teins 
 
 je teignis 
 
 je joins 
 
 je joignis. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 31. 
 
 1. De quoi vous plaignez-vous? Je me plains cle ne pas pouvoir 
 sortir. Mon pere a voulu que je le rejoignisse a six heures, mais il 
 m’a enjoint de ne pas sortir s’il pleuvait. 2. Peignez-vous a I’aqua- 
 relle? Je peignais autrefois a Paquarelle, mais depuis deux ans je ne 
 peins plus qu’a I’huile. 3. Vous eteindrez la lampe , n’est-ce pas? 
 Eteignez-la vous-meme, s’il vous plait, mon pere m’enjoint toujours 
 de ne pas y toucher. 4. Quoique vous feignissiez de ne pas me croire, 
 je voyais bien, que vous craigniez que mes paroles ne fussent vraies. 
 5. Elle etait vraiment degoutante , elle avait les cheveux teints , un 
 diademe de fausses pierres lui ceignait le front , et elle s’etait si mal 
 peinte qu’il n’y avait pas a s’y meprendre. 6. Quelle que soit la ne- 
 cessite qui vous contraigne a ne pas ceder a nos prieres, vous n’attein- 
 drez pas votre but, vous ne parviendrez pas a nous detourner de notre 
 dessein. 7. Le feu est eteint, comme il fait froid! Combien je plains 
 les pauvres qui se trouvent contraints de se passer de feu par un 
 temps^ semblable ! 8. Brutus feignit d’etre fou, pour que la vengeance 
 du roi ne I’atteignit pas. 9. En depeignant les malheurs qui lui 
 etaient arrives, il se plaignit surtout de la trahison de ses amis. 10. Ne 
 craignez pas que nous atteignions notre but, je feignais seulement de 
 ne pas y croire. 
 
 XXXVIII. 4'"^ CONJUGATION. 
 
 III. 
 
 1. condiiire to ])ring, take 
 conduisant I conduit 
 
 je condnis 
 
 je conduisis 
 
58 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. Class III. 
 
 2. construire to construct 
 construisant | constmit 
 
 3. cuire to cook 
 
 cuisant | cuit 
 
 4. miire to hurt 
 
 nuisant | mii 
 
 5. Itiire to shine 
 
 liiisant I liii 
 
 6. ecrire to write 
 
 ecrivant | ecrit 
 
 7. dire to say 
 
 disant 
 
 dit 
 
 8. maudire to curso 
 maiidissant | maudit 
 
 9. faire to make 
 
 faisant 
 
 fait 
 
 je construis 
 
 je mis 
 
 je niiis 
 
 je liiis 
 
 j'ecris 
 
 je dis 
 nous disons 
 volts dites 
 Us disent 
 
 je maiidis 
 
 je fais 
 nous faisons 
 vous faites 
 Us font 
 
 je construisis 
 je cuisis 
 je nuisis 
 wanting 
 j’ecrivis 
 je dis 
 
 je maudis 
 je fis 
 
 10. confire to preserve 
 
 confisant \ confit je confis je confis 
 
 11. suffire to suffice 
 
 suffisant I suffi je suffis je suffis 
 
 12. rire to laugh 
 
 riant | ri je ris je ris 
 
 13. traire to milk 
 
 tray ant | trait je trais wanting 
 
 14. suivre to follow 
 
 suivant | suivi je suis je suivis 
 
 15. mettre to put 
 
 mettant | mis je mets je mis 
 
 16. prendre to take 
 
 prenant | pris je prends je pris 
 
 17. naUre to he born 
 
 naissant \ ne je nais je naquis. 
 
 NOTE. 1. Braire to bray and hruire to roar are only 
 used in the 3^ person sing. : 
 
 hraire pres. ind. U hrait fut. il hraira cond. il hrairait 
 
 Us hraient Us hrairont Usbrairaient 
 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ALL VERBS IBREGULAB. 59 
 
 hriwe pres. ind. il hr nit imperf. il hruyait 
 
 ils hrnient Us hruyaient. 
 
 2. Clore to close has pass. part, clos, pres. ind. je clos^ 
 hi clos, il clot, flit, je clorai, pres. subj. que je close, 
 eclore to blossom, pres, il eclot, fat. il eclora, pass. part, eclos^ 
 
 ils eclosent. 
 
 3. Frire to fry has pres. ind./6 fris, hi fris, il frit, pass, 
 part, frit, fut. je frirai, 
 
 4. Sour dr e to gush forth is only used in the infinitive 
 and 3^ person sing. pres. ind. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 32. 
 
 1. Il faisait deja chaud , la rosec luisait au soleil , toute la na- 
 ture lui souriait, niais lui, il ne se sentait ne que pour le malheur. 
 2. Savez-vous comment les groseilles sont cuites a Bar-le-duc? Non, 
 monsieur, je n’en sais rien, on dit que c’est un secret, je sals seulement 
 que les fruits confits y sont tres-bons. 3. Si tu prenais mon conseil 
 tu te mettrais au travail, il est deja huit heures et tii n’as rien fait, 
 prends garde que ta paresse ne te nuise plus que tu ne penses. 4. Mon 
 pere nous a conduits au thetoe hier soir, et nous avons beaucoup ri. 
 5. Que faites-vous au college de France? Je suis un cours d’histoire, j’y 
 prends mes notes, et puis a mon retour j’ecris au net ce que j’al 
 appris; j’y mets beaucoup de soins. 6. Ou etes-vous ne? Je suis 
 ne en Australie , mais mon pere naquit en Angleterre ; avant 
 
 sa mort il conduisit sa famille en Australie, et fit batir la maison 
 ou nous sommes nes. 7. Ne maudissez pas la fortune, vous- 
 
 meme vous dites que si vous aviez pris plus de precautions, vous 
 vous seriez mis a I’abri des malheurs qui vous ont poursuivL 
 8. Qu’ecrivez-vous la? J’^cris une lettre que j’aurais du avoir ecrite la 
 semaine passee, mais il a fait si beau temps, que je n’y faisais pas 
 attention. 9. Les enfants me font vraiment peur; ils suivaient tout-a- 
 I’heure un chemin tres-dangereux , mais il ne leur suffisait pas d’aller 
 lentement, ils couraient a toutes jambes, et a present les voila qui se 
 prennent a sauter par-dessus les haies. 10. Faites ce que je vous dis, 
 mettez votre chapeau, et nous irons a la rencontre de Madeleine qui 
 trait les vaches. Une promenade du matin ne nous nuira pas. 
 
 XXXIX. ALPHABETICAL LIST 
 
 OF ALL VEEBS lEREGULAR OR WITH PECULIARITIES 
 OF FORMATION WITH REFERENCE TO THE CHAPTER 
 IN WHICH THEY ARE MENTIONED. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. oiler XXX. 
 
 2. envoyer XXX. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. acqiierir XXXII, 5. 
 
 2. assaillir XXXI, 2. 
 
 3. Unir XXIII, n. 2. 
 
60 ALPHAIBETICAL LIST OF ALL VERBS IRREGULAR. 
 
 4. houillir XXIY, n. 2. 
 
 5. couvrir XXXI, 1. 
 
 6. courir XXXI, 3. 
 
 7. ctieillir XXXI, 2. 
 
 8. dormir XXIV, n. 1. 
 
 9. faillir XXIV, n. 5. 
 
 10. ferir XXIV, n. 7. 
 
 11. fleurir XXIII, n. 3. 
 
 12. fuir XXIV, n. 3. 
 
 13. gesir XXXII, 6. 
 
 14. hair XXIII, n. 1. 
 
 15. mentir XXIV, n. 1. 
 
 16. mourir XXXI, 3. 
 
 17. offrir XXXI, 1. 
 
 18. ouir XXIV, 11 . 7. 
 
 19. oiivrir XXXI, 1. 
 
 20. partir XXIV, n. 1 . 
 
 21. qtierir XXIV, n. 7. 
 
 22. se repentir XXIV, n. 1. 
 
 23. saillir XXXI, 2. 
 
 24. sentir XXIV, n. 1. 
 
 25. servir XXIV, n. 1 and 6. 
 
 26. sortir XXIV, n. 1 and 6. 
 
 27. sojiftrir XXXI, 1. 
 
 28. tenir XXXII, 4. 
 
 29. vmir XXXII, 4. 
 
 30. vHir XXIV, n. 4. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. asseoir XXXIV. 
 
 2. choir XXXIV, n. 1. 
 
 3. dkhoir XXXIV. 
 
 4. devoir XXV, n. 
 
 5. echoir XXXIV, n. 1. 
 falloir XXXm, 11. 
 
 7. mouvoir XXXIII, 1, n. 1. 
 
 8. pleuvoir XXXIII, 1. 
 
 9. pourvoir XXXIV. 
 
 Id. pouvoir XXXIII, 1, n. 2. 
 
 11. prevaloir XXXIII, n. 4. 
 
 12. prevoir XXXIV, n. 2. 
 
 I 13. savoir XXXIII, 1, n. 3. 
 
 14. (seoir) XXXIV, n. 3. 
 
 15. seoir XXXIV. 
 
 16. stir seoir XXXIV. 
 
 17. valoir XXXIII, 2. 
 
 18. voir XXXIV. 
 
 19. vouloir XXXIII, 2, n. 5. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 1. ahsoudre XXXV. 
 
 2. astreindre XXXVI. 
 
 3. atteindre XXXVI. 
 
 4. hattre XXVI, n. 1. 
 
 5. boire XXXV. 
 
 . 6. braire XXXVII, n. 1. 
 
 7. bruire XXXVII, n. 1. 
 
 8. ceindre XXXVI. 
 
 9. clore XXXVII, n. 2. 
 
 10. conclure XXXV. 
 
 11. conduire XXXVII. 
 
 12. confire XXXVII. 
 
 13. connattre XXXV, n. 
 
 14. construire XXXVII. 
 
 15. contraindre XXXVI. 
 
 16. cotidre XXVI, n. 4. 
 
 17. craindre XXXVI. 
 
 18. croire XXXV. 
 
 19. croUre XXXV, n. 
 
 20. ctiire XXX VII. 
 
 21. dire XXXVII. 
 
 22. dissoudre XXXV. 
 
 23. eclore XXXVII, n. 2. 
 
 24. ecrire XXXVII. 
 
 25. enfreindre XXXVI. 
 
 26. eteindre XXXVI. 
 
 27. faire XXXVII. 
 
 28. feindre XXXVI. 
 
 29. frire XXXVII, n. 3. 
 
 30. joindre XXXVI. 
 
 31. luire XXXVII. 
 
 32. lire XXXV. 
 
ADVERBS. 
 
 60 
 
 33. maiidire XXXVII. 
 
 34. mettre XXXVII. 
 
 35. moudre XXXV. 
 
 36. naitre XXXVII. 
 
 37. miire XXXVII. 
 
 38. j>aUre XXXV. 
 
 39. paraUre XXXV. 
 
 40. peindre XXXVI. 
 
 41. plahidre XXXVI. 
 
 42. plaire XXXV. 
 
 43. prendre XXXVII. 
 
 45. resoiidre XXXV. 
 
 46. rire XXXVII. 
 
 47. rompre XXVI, n. 2. 
 
 48. sour dr e XXXVII, n. 4. 
 
 49. siifftre XXXVII. 
 
 50. suivre XXXVII. 
 
 51. taire XXXV, n. 
 
 52. teindre XXXVI. 
 
 53. traire XXXVII. 
 
 54. vaincre XXVI, n. 3. 
 
 55. vivre XXXV. 
 
 44. repaitre XXXV, n. 1. 
 
 XL. ADVERBS. 
 
 1. Formation from adjectives. 
 
 a. Adverbs are formed from the feminine form of adjectives 
 
 by adding -ment , the Latin ablative as Jieureicx happy, heu- 
 
 reusernent happily. 
 
 If the adjective ends in a vowel, not e mute, the e is dropt: 
 as vrai true vraiment. But in crument, dument^ gaiment, assidimient, 
 this is marked by the circumflex. Exceptions are impuni impunement^ 
 gentil gentiment^ traitre traUreiisement, 
 
 y. If the adjective ends in -ant^ -ent, nt is changed to m, as: 
 prudent prudemment. 
 
 Exceptions are lent lentement^ and present presentement. 
 
 The following take an acute accent on the e preceding the ter- 
 mination : 
 
 aveugUment enormement incommodement profondement 
 commodement empressemenf ohscurement tiniformement, 
 communement importunement opinidtrement 
 confushnent immensement precisanent 
 
 f. Several adjectives are nsed without further addition as ad- 
 verbs, but, except rite quickly only with certain verbs as: sentir hon^ 
 mauvais, chanter faux, juste, parler liaut, has, couter, payer etc. clier^ 
 tenir hon, ferine, faire venir expres, voir clair etc. 
 
 g. Of hon the adverb is hien, of mauvais mal. 
 
 2. Comparison of adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs like adjectives form their comparative and super- 
 lative hj plus, le plus: as doucement, plus doucement, leplus 
 doucement. 
 
 But the following four have different forms : 
 
 Hen — mieux — le mieux, mal — pis — le pis, 
 
 heaueoup) — plus — le pjlus , pen — moins — le moins^ 
 
 For pis — le pis, pjlus mal — le plus mal are also used. 
 
62 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. - CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 3. Adverbs of quantity are heaucoiip much, many, com- 
 hieyi how much, how many, pen little, few, plus more, moins 
 less, tant so much, so many, autoMt as much, as many and que 
 how much, how many. 
 
 4. Adverbs of affirmation and negation are : 
 Affirmation: om, si, si fait yes. 
 
 Negation: non no, and ne not, which is generally com- 
 pleted hy other particles ; 
 
 ne — pas ] ^ ne — jamais never ne — giiere hardly 
 
 ne — point | ^ ne — plus no longer ne — que only. 
 
 For the consideration of these and other adverbs see 
 Part II. 
 
 XLI. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions in French are followed by an iininflected noun or 
 independant form of a pronoun. Some are derived direct from the 
 Latin , others are compound Latin forms, as avec with = apud hoc, or 
 substantives as chcz = casa. Compound prepositions are formed with 
 de and d not forming one word with the other component or 
 components, but par is written as one word in par-dessous, and 
 par-dessus. 
 
 XLII. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. Of the conjunctions the follovang always take a subjunctive 
 mood: 
 
 afin que in order that 
 avant que before 
 Men que although 
 de peur que \ 
 de crainte que ) 
 
 en cas que in case that 
 en attendant que until 
 d moins que unless 
 maJgre que \ notwithstan- 
 nonohstant que J ding that 
 
 non que not that 
 
 pour que in order that 
 
 quoique although 
 
 sans que without that 
 
 soit que — soit que whether — or. 
 
 2. The following are followed sometimes by an indicative^ 
 sometimes by a subjunctive: 
 
 que that de fagon que | 
 
 jusqu'd ce que until de maniere que j so that 
 
 au lieu que whereas de sorte que j 
 
 selon que according as 
 
 sinon que except that. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 63 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 1. 
 
 1. The bread is on the table of the dining-room. 2. Give the 
 children some butter and some honey. 3. Will you have some milk 
 or some cream? 4. Here are some eggs and some salt. 5. Put the 
 plates and the dish on the table. 6. Give the dog some meat. 7. The 
 handle of the knife. 8. Put the child’s spoon into the cup. 9. Give 
 the child a fork. 10. Pour some water into the professor’s glass. 
 11. Give some bread to the mother of the children. 12. Give the 
 young lady’s father some mustard and some salt. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 1. 
 
 1. Put some bread on the table. 2. Here are some forks and 
 some spoons. 3. Give the professor’s dog some milk. 4. The handles 
 of the forks. 5. Give the child the egg. 6. The eggs are on the 
 table. 7. Pour some cream into the young lady’s cup. 8. Will you 
 have some meat? 9. Give the children’s mother some water. 10. Put 
 some plates on the table of the dining-room. 11. Give the father of 
 the children a plate and a knife. 12. Give the mother of the young 
 ladies the meat and the mustard. 
 
 Questions on Chap. HI. 
 
 1. What are the forms of the definite article in French? 
 
 2. Wliat prepositions form contractions ivith the definite article? 
 
 3. What forms of the article are so contracted? 
 
 4. What are the forms of the indefinite article? 
 
 EXAMPLES, 2. 
 
 1. The children have some walnuts and some nuts. 2. The count’s 
 son has received some prizes. 3. The farmer has some sheep, some 
 cows and a bull. 4. Do you hear the child’s voice? 5. The general’s 
 horses are at the farm. 6. He placed the newspaper on my knees. 
 7. The thieves have carried off the jewels and fans of the ladies. 8. He 
 lived in the castle of the kings, his ancestors. 9. The nephews of the 
 physician have swallowed the stones of the peaches. 10. Have you seen 
 the queen’s pictures ? 
 
 READING EXERCISE 2. 
 
 1. The sons of the generals have carried off the prizes. 2. Give 
 me some walnuts. 3. Put the newspapers on the table. 4. Here are 
 some cabbages and some garlic (pi.). 5. Give the children some play- 
 things. 6. Have you seen the labours of the farmers? 7. Do you hear 
 
64 
 
 EXEECISES. 
 
 the voices of the ladies? 8. The queen has some pictures. 9. Have 
 
 you seen the castles of the king? 10. The farmer’s lambs and sheep 
 
 are at the farm. 
 
 Questions on Chap. IV. 
 
 1. Hoiv do substantives in French regularly form their plural? 
 
 2. What tvords have the plural the same as the singidarl 
 
 3. Hotv do nouns ending in -ai form their plural? Mention 
 exceptions. 
 
 4. What terminations tahe x for s? Give instances. 
 
 5. Name words ending in -on ivhich take x. 
 
 6. Name words in -ail ivhich change -ail to aux. 
 
 7. Give the French singular and plural for 1 . garlic, 2. the lease, 
 
 3. cattle, 4. the heaven, 5. the eye. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 8. 
 
 1. This yoiing girl is pretty. 2. The church is very old. 3. There 
 is a beautiful tree with round leaves. 4. Here is a beautiful dress of 
 a soft material. 5. The little girls are good and well-behaved. 6. This 
 silk is just like mine. 7. This hedge is thick. 8. My sister is an- 
 xious. 9. The colours are too dull. 10. The assembly is dissolved. 
 
 HEADING EXERCISE 3. 
 
 1. This silk is very thick. 2. Here is an old castle. 3. This lady 
 is very old. 4. My sisters are ready. 5. This little girl is foolish. 
 6. The cows are very fat. 7. The queen is cruel. 8. The new colours 
 are beautiful. 9. She is a well-behaved little girl. 10. Pour some 
 cold water into the glass. 
 
 Questions on Chap. VI. 
 
 1. How do adjectives regularly form their feminine in French? 
 
 2. Which adjectives take the trema on the last syllable of the fe- 
 minine ? 
 
 3. Which adjectives take the grave accent on the last syllable of 
 the feminine'l 
 
 4. Give instances masculine and feminine of adjectives which end 
 in -ieiij -oii^ -eil and -el. 
 
 5. Name the adjectives icliich have two forms in the singular mas- 
 culine, and give the feminine of each. 
 
 6. Give the feminme of iinl, gentil^ has, ras, las, ahsoiis, frais, 
 expres and tiers. 
 
 7. Give the feminine of eomplet, siijet, sot and (levot. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 4. 
 
 1. He has a twin brother. 2. Avarice is a low and shameful 
 passion. 3. I have a new coat, but old boots. 4. The Turkish lan- 
 guage. 5. Thy sister is very timid. 6. A dry answer. 7. Gentle 
 words. 8. This is a curious thing. 9. He is of a quarrelsome dispo- 
 sition. 10. The news is false. 
 
EXERCISP]S. 
 
 65 
 
 READING EXERCISE 4. 
 
 2 1 
 
 1. They are twin sisters. 2. She is malicious. 3. My sister is 
 2 1 2 1 
 
 very happy. 4. The Greek language. 5. She is my favourite sister. 
 
 2 1 
 
 G. The flower is white. 7. The plate is dry. 8. Some flattering words. 
 3. She has a new dress. 10. My sister is kind and gentle. 
 
 Questions on Chap. VII. 
 
 1. In loll at two 10 ays do adjectives in c form their feminine^ 
 Give instances of each and name the only exception. 
 
 2. What does final f* of the masculine become before the feminine 
 e ? Give an instance. 
 
 3. What does final x of the masculine become before the feminine e ? 
 Give an instance and name the three exceptions. 
 
 4. Give the feminine forms of long, coi, favori, beniii and jiimeau. 
 
 5. Into what three classes may adjectives ending in -eiir be divided^ 
 and how does each form the feminine'} 
 
 EXAMPLES. 5. 
 
 1. She has blue eyes. 2. The frigid zones. 3. He has had im- 
 partial judges. 4. The law of custom is sometimes stronger than the 
 written law. 5. The most virtuous men are the wisest. 6. My sister is 
 less strong than I. 7. He is the best of men. 8. He gets angry for 
 the least thing. 9. John is a bad boy, George is still worse, but 
 Henry is the worst of all. 10. My aunt’s house is larger than yours. 
 11. His horse is less handsome than mine. 12. Theatrical successes. 
 13. He speaks in a theatrical manner. 14. He is more annoying than 
 his brother. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 5. 
 
 1. She has beautiful eyes. 2. The laws are impartial. 3. The 
 2 1 
 
 strongest man is less strong than a horse. 4. My sister is prettier 
 than yours. 5. My father’s horses are handsomer than the horses of 
 
 2 
 
 my aunt. 6. The smallest things are sometimes very annoying. 7. Blue 
 1 
 
 eyes are the prettiest. 8. He is stronger than George, but less strong 
 than Henry. 9. John is a better boy than Henry. 10. The gentlest 
 words are sometimes the most annoying. 
 
 Questions on Chap. VHI. 
 
 1. What adjective ends in -eu and how does it form its plural? 
 
 2. IIoio do the adjectives loith tioo terminations in the masculine 
 singular form the masculine plural^ 
 
 3. Mention adjectives in -al ivhich do not form a masculine 
 plural in -aux. 
 
 4. How are the comparative and superlative of superiority formed 
 in French^} 
 
 5. Give the degrees of comparison of bon, manvais, petit. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar, 5 
 
66 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 6. 
 
 1. My uncle has two houses and four gardens. 2. There are a 
 hundred francs in four pounds sterling. 3. There are one thousand 
 two hundred books in my father’s library. 4. There are seven days in 
 a week and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. I was born in eighteen 
 hundred and forty-eight. 6. Nine times eight are (lit. make) seventy- 
 two. 7. Twenty-one and ninety-one are (lit. make) a hundred and 
 twelve. 8. My farmer has a bull and eleven cows. 9. The shepherd 
 has seven hundred and seventy-four sheep. 10. My uncle is fifty-three 
 years old. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 6. 
 
 1. There are thirty-five trees in my uncle’s garden. 2. My father 
 was born in the year eighteen hundred and seven. 3. Seven times 
 seven are forty-nine. 4. There are three hundred and sixty-five days 
 in a year. 5. The shepherd is eighty-six years old. 6. Seventy and 
 fifty-six are a hundred and twenty-six. 7. There are a thousand mil- 
 lion francs in four million pounds. 8. I have eighty books. 9. I 
 am thirteen years old. 10. My father was born in eighteen hundred 
 and nineteen. 
 
 Questions on Chap. IX. 
 
 1. Say of the multiplication table seven, eight, nine and twelve 
 times. 
 
 2. When is the conjunction et tised to connect the units and 
 tens? 
 
 3. When do vingt, cent and inille tahe the s of the plurals 
 
 4. Give the French for a hundred — a thousand — a million 
 — a thousand million. 
 
 5. When is mille spelt iniH 
 
 EXAMPLES. 7. 
 
 1. Charles is the first, William the last in the class. 2. Of the 
 two volumes of Racine give me back the second. 3. The history of 
 the French revolution by M. Thiers is in ten volumes^ here is the 
 second. 4. The forty-first regiment is in India. 5. Francis the first, 
 king of France and Henry the eighth , king of England were contem- 
 poraries. 6. You will find the passage in the fourth volume at the 
 twenty-sixth page. 7. He is living at number thirty-one. Rue de Seine. 
 8. What o’clock is it? It is ten minutes to three. 9. I have bought 
 three metres and three quarters of cloth to-day. 10. If you add the 
 fractions one half, two thirds, three fourths, one eighth and five twelfths, 
 you will have the sum of two and eleven twenty-fourths. 11. My cou- 
 sin arrived on the twenty-third of June at four o’clock exactly. 12. My 
 friend Francis left on the first of May at a quarter past twelve o’clock 
 at night. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 7. 
 
 1. You have given me back the second, give m.e back also, please, 
 the twenty-first volume of the history of France. 2. Is the ninety-ninth 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 67 
 
 regiment in India? 3. Francis the second, Charles the ninth and 
 Henry the third were sons of Henry the second. 4. You will find the 
 place at the fifth chapter, the hundred and first page. 5. We were 
 living at number seventy-three Boulevard St. Germain. 6. At what 
 o’clock do you leave? I leave at twenty minutes to five, but the train 
 does not leave before a quarter past five. 7. We shall arrive on the 
 twenty-first of June at twelve o’clock at noon. 8, One third, four ninths 
 and three eighteenths make seventeen eighteenths. 9. Are you the 
 last in your class? No, Sir, there are twelve of us, and I am the ele- 
 venth. 10. What o’clock is it? It is ten minutes past one. 
 
 Questions on Chap. X. 
 
 1. What euphonic changes are required in forming the ordinal 
 from the cardinal numbers? 
 
 2. When is deuxieme used rather than second? 
 
 3. In ivhat cases are the cardinal numbers used in place of the 
 ordinal ? 
 
 4. Give the French for the half, a half. 
 
 5. When is the adjective denii declined? 
 
 6. Give the French for a quarter to 12, 10 minutes past twelve, 
 half past one, half past two. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 8. 
 
 1. Come with us. 2. The little horse is for you, the tall one is for 
 him. 3. The walking-stick is for you, not for her. 4. Who is there? 
 I am. 5. He has spoken of them. 6. It was he who deceived me. 
 7. My sisters are at home. 8. I love you. 9. Do not leave me alone. 
 10. He praises himself. 11. We are scolding her. 12. You love us. 
 13. She is looking for you. 14. Kiss him. 15. Here is an apple, eat it. 
 16. They detest them. 17. Kiss me. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 8. 
 
 1. Where is my walking-stick? It is not here. Look for it. 
 
 2. The apple is for her, not for me. 3. Let us leave him alone, he 
 is at home. 4. Who has deceived them? We have. 5. Here are my 
 sisters, we were speaking of them. 6. Do not scold me. Sir. 7. They 
 detest each other. 8. Leave me alone, I do not love you. 9. We love 
 each other. 10. Here are our cousins, the horses are for them. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XI. 
 
 1. How are the personal^ relative and interrogative pronouns 
 declined? 
 
 2. What uses of pronouns are distinguished by inflection in French , 
 tvhich are not so distinguished in Latin ? 
 
 3. What do you mean by conjmictive forms? 
 
 4. Which of the Latin cases are represented by conjunctive forms 
 in French ? 
 
 5. What do you mean by a complement form, and in which pro- 
 nouns does it occur ? 
 
 5 * 
 
68 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 9. 
 
 1. He gives me a pen. 2. I give you up my place. 3. He answers 
 them. 4. Give it back to him. 5. They obtain advantages for them- 
 selves. 6. They (f.) have shown us the jewels. 7. Have they (f.) shown 
 them to you? 8. He has promised it to me. 9. You have not promised j 
 it to her. 10. Here are your cousins’ gloves, take them. 11. Do not ' 
 give them to me, give them back to them. 12. Is she pleased with 
 her new dress? Yes, she is very much pleased with it. 13. Where is 
 the theatre? Come with me, lam going to it. 14. The news is true, 
 you may rely upon it. 15. Are you the washerwoman? Yes, Sir, I am. 
 
 16. Are you the sons of my friend? Yes, we are. 17. Are they (f.) not 
 ill? No, Sir, they are not. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 9. 
 
 1. Have you shown them your walking-stick ? Yes, Sir, I have 
 shown it to them. 2. Have they given her the jewels? Yes, they have 
 given them to her. 3. Why do you not answer me ? I do not wish 
 to answer you. 4. Where is his walking-stick? Give it back to him. 
 5. Here are the horses, are you pleased with them ? 6. Are you the little 
 girl’s aunt? Yes, I am. 7. And you, are you her cousins? Yes, we are. 
 8. Are your mother’s jewels pretty? Yes, they are. 9. Where is the 
 house? We are going to it. 10. Give me back my pen. I have al- 
 ready given it back to you. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XII. 
 
 1. Which forms are alike in the pronouns of the and 2^^' persons ? 
 
 2. Give the forms of the personal pronoun, masculine dt feminine, 
 
 3. What adverbs are used to replace cases of the pronoun of the 
 3'^' person ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Your father, mother, brothers, and sisters are here. 2. This 
 lady is my friend. 3. This lady is my dear friend. 4. Your aunt is 
 writing to her son. 5. Our house is little, yours is larger, but 
 theirs is magnificent. 6. They (f.) love their parents. 7. The father and 
 his daughter are dead. 8. You have your gloves, but Julia has lost 
 hers. 9. Their horses are finer than ours. 10. My aunt has left her 
 children at their grandmother’s. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 10. 
 
 1. Where are your sisters? My sisters are at their aunt’s. 
 2. My friend Julia has lost her father and her mother. 3. Our horses 
 are bigger than yours. 4. Their house is beautiful, but mine is too 
 small. 5. Have you written to your grandmother? No, Sir, but we 
 have written to our cousins. 6. Where are your children? They are 
 at their cousins’. 7. This lady has left her son and daughter at her friend’s. 
 8. Has Julia lost her gloves? No, but I have lost mine. 9. My daugh- 
 ters are very good (sages), but hers are not. 10. Your horses are very 
 fine (ones), but theirs are too small. 
 
 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 69 
 
 Questions on Chap. XIII. 
 
 1. Which of the adjectival pronouns distinguish gender by inflec- 
 tion? Is this always the case? 
 
 2. What is the difference between the adjectival and substantival 
 forms of the pronouns of the & 2^ persons plural ? 
 
 3. Why does not leur take an e in the feminine? 
 
 4. Hoto is it that there is no distinction between liis and her in 
 French ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 11. 
 
 1. He who is speaking is my brother, she who is listening to him 
 is my sister. 2. Those of us, who are rich, ought to use their riches 
 well. 3. That is what troubles me. 4. This man and woman are 
 blind. 5. This gentleman told me so. 6. These peaches are ripe. 
 7. This man loves me, but that one hates me. 8. This woman is the 
 dressmaker, not that one. 9. I like this, but that sets my teeth on edge. 
 10. These men are richer than those. 11. Is that the book, which you 
 were asking for? No, Sir, that is not what I was asking for, I have 
 that book already. Ah ! there it is ! 
 
 READING EXERCISE 11. 
 
 1. This house is too large for us, that one is too small. 2. Those 
 who are rich ought to help those who are poor. 3. There is he, who 
 told me so. 4. Is that the dress, which you were asking for? No, 
 there it is. 5. This peach is ripe, but that one is not. 6. This man 
 is taller than that one. 7. This horse is finer than my father’s (that of my 
 father). 8. Do you like that? No, .1 like this better. 9. That is what 
 I wanted to see. 10. This coat pleases me, but those are very ugly. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XIV, 
 
 1. How many demonstrative pronouns are there in French^ and 
 how are they distinguished? 
 
 2. Hoiv do you distinguish this and that in French^ when these 
 pronouns are adjectives? 
 
 3. What limitations are there to the use of the substantival pronoun 
 
 celui 1 
 
 4. When does the masculine adjectival pronoun drop the t ? 
 
 5. How are this and that distinguished in the use of the indecli- 
 nable pronoun cel 
 
 6. Hoio are Toici and voila used? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 12. 
 
 1. The man from whbm I received a letter. 2. The girl to whom 
 I gave some money. 3. What I am thinking of. 4. The generals 
 whose advice has been asked. 5. The man who is speaking. 6. The 
 child whom I scolded. 7. What vexes me. 8. The woman who is sew- 
 ing. 9. What my friend tells me astonishes me. 10. Here are the 
 houses which I have bought. 11. What is the matter? 12. This is 
 what it is. 13. I know w^at you are and what they are. 14. The 
 
70 
 
 EXEKCISES. 
 
 shop in the window of which I saw the big doll. 15. The persons 
 among whom he happened to be. 16. The uncle in whose guardianship 
 he was placed. 17. The fork which he used. 18. The men whose por- 
 traits we have seen. 19. The state of anger in which she was. 20. The 
 house to which we are going. 
 
 BEADING EXERCISE 12. 
 
 1. The friend with whom he came. 2. The lady from whom he 
 snatched (arracJier) the rose. 3. George is a boy who listens to what 
 the master says to him, and whom the master never scolds. 4. Tell 
 me what is the matter. 5. There is the town to which we are going. 
 6. This is the man in whose garden we happened to be. 7. Let us 
 go into the garden of which you admire the trees. 8. The state of 
 misery in which we lived. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XV. 
 
 1. Hoio is qui, quoi declined as a relative, and as an interrogative 
 pronoun ? 
 
 2. What are the conjunctive forms of the relative qui, quoi! 
 
 3. When is the relative pronoun leqnel cf’c. used ? 
 
 4. What adverbs are used to replace relative pronouns and in 
 what cases? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 13. 
 
 1. With whom did she go? 2. What are you thinking of? 3. Who 
 told you so? 4. Which of us has he chosen? 5. What do you think 
 of it? 6. What is the matter with her? 7. What was her answer? 
 8. What books have you bought? 9. Who is it that has just gone out? 
 10. What is it then that frightens you? 11. Whom have you offen- 
 ded? 12. What has he proposed to you? 13. Which of these ladies, 
 do you wish to invite? 14. Here are two dresses, which do you like 
 the best ? 
 
 READING EXERCISE 13. 
 
 1. For whom are these books? 2. What is he talking of? 3. Who 
 v/ants to leave? 4. Whom does he want to see? 5. What does it mat- 
 ter ? 6. What is he looking for ? 7. Which are the dresses that you 
 have bought? 8. Who is it that is talking? 9. What answer did he 
 give you? 10. Who is it that is annoying you? 11. Whom has he 
 invited? 12. What did he say you? 13. Which of these books will 
 you buy? 14. Here are some apples and pears, which will you have? 
 
 Questions on Chap. XVI. 
 
 1. What are the interrogative pronouns in French? 
 
 2. What combinations are used to distinguish case in the inter- 
 rogative pronouns ? 
 
 3. What is the force of quel ivith the definite article ? 
 
EXERCISES, 
 
 71 
 
 EXAMPLES. 14. 
 
 1. Are you cold? No, lam hot. 2. We are not hungry, we are 
 thirsty. 3. He was so sleepy during the sermon, that he could not 
 keep from sleeping. 4. Xerxes in attacking Greece had as his object 
 the avenging himself on the Athenians. 5. I have had a headache, 
 and my brother has had the toothache. 6. If he had been twenty-one 
 years old, he would have had a fine property. 7. Have pity on us. 
 
 8. When my cousin is fifteen, he will have a horse. 9. Though he 
 was a thousand times right, he would have done better to hold his 
 tongue. 10. It is possible that you may be wrong. 11. Though we were 
 afraid, we were ashamed not to go out. 12. Not having heard from 
 our parents for a fortnight, we are very anxious to see them again. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 14. 
 
 1. Are the children thirsty? Yes, they are thirsty and lam hungry. 
 
 2. Were you not cold ? No, Sir, we were hot. 3. If he was sleepy, 
 he would have done better to go to bed. 4. Have you a headache? 
 No, Sir, but I have a toothache. 5. As soon as he was twenty-one, he 
 wanted to marry (se marier). 6. You are right; he was wrong in neg- 
 lecting {de with inf.) his friends so. 7. Don’t be afraid. 8. Although he 
 was afraid, he was ashamed to allow (avouer) it. 9. I shall be six- 
 teen years old to-morrow, and my cousin will be twenty. 10. We 
 have not seen him for a week ; I should have liked to have heard 
 from him. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XVHI. 
 
 1. Of what moods and tenses does the French verb consist? 
 
 2. Which verbs form their tenses with avoir, which icith etre ? 
 
 3. How does the French verb supply its imperfect subjunctive^ pt 
 future indicative, and first conditioned? 
 
 4. Account for the circumflex accent on the pt and 2^ persons 
 plural of the perfect indicative, and on the person singidar of the 
 imperfect subjunctive, 
 
 5. When is the final s of the 2^ person plurcd Latin retained in 
 French ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 15. 
 
 1. How many are there of us? There are thirteen of us. 2. It 
 was winter, when the news reached us. 3. It was the French wha 
 besieged the place. 4. It is possible that my father has been at your 
 house. 5. I doubt these lines being Horace’s. 6. We have been to see 
 the castle. 7. If he had been here, he would not have been killed. 
 
 8. If he were at Paris, he would be at our house by this time. 9. He 
 v/ill be back at six o’clock. 10. Welcome. 11. Although the soldiers 
 were weary, they did not stop. 12. As the matter is so, we have no- 
 thing more to do. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 15. 
 
 1. Is it possible that you have been at his house ? 2. If we had not * 
 been there, we should not have been hurt. 3. There were fourteen of 
 
72 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 us ; by this time there are but ten. 4. They will be back at three 
 o’clock. 5. Although he was weary, he has been to see the castle. 
 6. I doubt its being he who met us. 7. Be quiet. 8. If he were not 
 at home, he would be here. 9. As that is the case, I have nothing 
 more to do. 10. Whether I am {que with subj.) weary or not, I shall 
 be there. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 16. 
 
 1. Does not the nightingale sing in the spring? 2. We will try 
 to make you happy. 3. They have torn my coat. 4. I will bring 
 back to you to-morrow the books, which you brought me last month. 
 5. What do you intend to do to-morrow? I intend to go and see the 
 races. 6. They were singing, as they went into the house. 7. I was 
 sure that you would esteem him more than his brother. 8. Although he 
 wept much, I do not reckon on him, he seems to wish to cheat me. 
 
 9. Although he taught after a good plan, he was not a good master. 
 
 10. I have hired a country-house. 11. I always doubted his letting 
 his house. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 16. 
 
 1. Though he esteemed him much, he always doubted his being 
 a good master. 2. Have you let your country-house? No, I intend to 
 let it in the spring. 3. He has deceived me twice, let him deceive me 
 no more. 4. He was bringing me back the books, as I went into the 
 house. 5. Will your friend sing to-morrow? I think not, but he would 
 sing, if he was {on le lui) asked. 6. Why are you crying? Because 
 I am cold. 7. They had torn their books. 8. We intended to go and 
 see the races. 9. We will try to make her happy. 10. If you esteemed 
 me more, you would no longer doubt my loving you. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXI. 
 
 1. How are the conjugations distinguished in French'^ 
 
 2. What parts of the verb are derived from the infinitive? 
 
 3. What parts from the present iJarticiple'l 
 
 4. What part from the perfect? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 17. 
 
 1. Have you stamped your letter? 2. By subduing your passions, 
 you will succeed in making yourself respected. 3. If you punished 
 your children , when they disobey you , you would act well towards 
 them. 4. Three hundred Lacedaemonians at Thermopylae died on the 
 ’Afield of battle to fulfil their duty towards their country. 5. Though 
 she did not blush, this young lady was ashamed of her fault. 6. It 
 was Napoleon the first who invaded Russia in 1812. 7. It was my 
 
 father, who chose this carpet. 8. God bless you. 9. When you have 
 explained this passage, I will praise you. 10. It is right for a mother 
 to love her children, and for children to obey their mother. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 17. 
 
 1. When you have finished your letter, I will stamp ii. 2. He 
 lias not succeeded in making himself respected. 3. The Frenchmen, 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 73 
 
 who died on the field of battle , fulfilled their duty towards their 
 country. 4. If you do not explain this passage , I shall punish you. 
 
 5. You act rightly in punishing your children when they disobey you. 
 
 6. Don’t blush , my son, you have acted rightly. 7. He hates me be- 
 cause I do not praise him. 8. Although he hated me, he respected me. 
 9. Last year the chestnut trees were in blossom in the beginning of 
 May. 10. Athens flourished in the time (siecle) of Pericles. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXIII. 
 
 1. How are the two classes of the 2^^ conjugation distinguished? 
 
 2. What 'peculiarities are to he noticed in the conjugation of 
 
 hair 2 
 
 3. What are the two forms of the ptassive participle of heiiir? 
 
 4. When does fleiirir change eii to 
 
 EXAMPLES. 18. 
 
 1. Don’t tell lies, you little rascal. I see you are blushing for 
 shame. No lie can be of use to you any more. 2. When do you start. 
 Sir? I intended to start this morning early, but I have slept too long, 
 I shall start by the ten o’clock train. 3. If you are sorry for having- 
 told a lie, I am willing to pardon you, but tell no more. 4. Are ^^ou 
 going out notwithstanding the rain? It is impossible to go out to-day. 
 I felt sure yesterday, that it was going to rain. I have been out 
 with an umbrella, and I shall go out again in an hour. 5. That 
 smells nasty; if you use bad oil, you will be sorry for it, I am sure. 
 As soon as I came in, I felt ill ; I shall go out at once (lit. I go out)^ 
 goodbye. 6. When the water boils, pour some into the teapot, you 
 must not pour any in before it boils. Now it is boiling. 7. The cook 
 has boiled the meat, she ought to have roasted it. 8. Why are you 
 running away? Don’t stop me, please, I am running away, because I am 
 afraid; if you had just come out of an ambuscade, and knew your 
 enemies were after you, you would run away too. 9. This cask leaks, 
 we must make this bucket serve for a cask. 10. When I saw him 
 for the first time dressed in his scarlet robe, I could hardly help 
 laughing. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 18. 
 
 1. We intended to start by the eight o’clock train, but we slept 
 too long this morning, so we shall start to-night. 2. He is sorry for 
 having told a lie; will you pardon him? Yes, I am willing to do so 
 (y)^ but don’t let him tell any more. 3. I shall not go out, for I am 
 sure it is going to rain. If Caroline goes out, she can make use of my 
 umbrella. 4. Did you use boiling water? No, madam.e , it was not 
 boiling. 5. When the water boils, pour some into the teapot. 6. This 
 bucket leaks , and this cask does not smell sweet (hon)^ you must not 
 use them. 7. Even if fquand mhne with cond.) they knew their ene- 
 mies were after them, they would not run away. 8. When putting on 
 his new dress he could hardly keep from laughing. 9. If he dies 
 before his enemies, he will be sorry for it. 10. Don’t run away, my 
 son, we shall start directly. 
 
74 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXIV. 
 
 1. What change takes place in the three persons singular of the 
 present indicative of verbs of the 2^^ class , if the stem ends in two 
 consonants ? 
 
 2. How are these three persons formed in bouillir? 
 
 3. What irregularities occur in the conjugation of Tetir? 
 
 4. In ivhat tenses are faillir and defaillir defective"^ 
 
 5. What compounds of the 2^ class take the inserted iss of the 
 first class ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 19. 
 
 1. How many letters did you receive this morning? We usually 
 receive from ten to twelve ; this morning we only received nine. 2. I owe 
 you ten francs, and my two brothers owe you fifteen francs, so all 
 together we owe you the sum of twenty-five francs. 3. Although he saw 
 you, he wanted to seem as if he did not. 4. Even if we had a teles- 
 cope, we should not see from here the town, from which we started. 
 5. Napoleon the was obliged to give himself up as a prisoner at 
 Sedan. 6. I ought to have started this morning, but I am waiting for 
 some letters, which I ought to have received yesterday. 7. He has for- 
 med a favourable opinion of you. 8. While we were receiving the con- 
 gratulations of our friends, we saw at a distance the six o’clock train 
 passing. 9. You ought to have come sooner. 10. Here are the six 
 francs which are owing to you from yesterday. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 19. 
 
 1. I owe you ten francs and my brother owes you six; that is 
 (voild) sixteen francs that we owe you; but we intend to pay you to- 
 morrow all that is owing to you. 2. You perceive that we ought not to 
 remain in the town. 3. Though I saw him, I did not wish to seem 
 to do so. 4. He is not aware (s^apercevoir) of the favourable opinion 
 that you have formed of him. 5. Must they not receive the congra- 
 tulations which are owing to them ? 6. He ought to have received you. 
 7. Receive, my friend, the thanks which are owing to you. 8. We 
 ought to have had a telescope, without it (cela) we shall not see the 
 town. 9. I have received a letter from my son, he is to arrive to-night. 
 10. What ought we to do, that (pour que) he may not see, that we 
 did not expect him? 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXV. 
 
 1. Of lohat verbs does the so-called 3^ conjugation consist? 
 
 2, When does the passive participle of devoir take the circumflex 
 accent"^ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 20. 
 
 1. What has he lost? It is his purse, that he has lost to-day, yes- 
 terday it was his watch , he loses everything that is given to him , he 
 would lose his head, if it was not fastened on. 2. I forbid your rea- 
 ding that book, my son, give it back at once to the bookseller. 3. Wha 
 was it that lost the battle of Worth? It was the French, they defen- 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 75 
 
 ded themselves with heroic courage, but were obliged at last to re- 
 treat before the much larger forces of the Germans. 4. Who were you 
 waiting for yesterday in the dining-room? I was waiting for my father, 
 who had forbidden my going out before he came back. 5. When the 
 servant brings down my luggage, 1 will give him back the cord which he 
 lent me. 6. John, don’t answer, but come down at once. You alwaj^s 
 answer; a good boy would come down without a word. 7. Unpick these 
 hems, young ladies, they are badly sewn; I wish you would sew more 
 carefully. As for you, Jane, if you don’t sew better to-morrow, you 
 shall be punished. 8. If we conquer our passions, we are greater con- 
 querors than Alexander , who conquered the Persians , but could not 
 conquer either his ambition or his pride. 9. If he beats that ass so 
 hard, he will break my stick, and if he breaks it, he shall certainly 
 pay me for it. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 20. 
 
 1. Must we wait here till he comes down? Pie will come down in 
 five minutes, please (je vous en priej wait for him. 2. Why are you 
 sewing so badly to-day, your work was well sewn yesterday. 3. Napo- 
 leon, who conquered Europe, was himself conquered by his own ambition 
 and pride. 4. Bring down my luggage, and wait for me in the dining- 
 room. Yes, Sir, I will wait for you there. 5. Answer me, my son, 
 what do you expect from him? I expect some money from him, which 
 he ought to have paid me yesterday. 6. Give me back that book, did 
 I not forbid your reading it? 7. Although he defended himself with 
 heroic courage, he was obliged at last to surrender himself prisoner. 
 
 8. If he conquers his passions, he will conquer his greatest enemies. 
 
 9. He has broken my stick in beating that poor ass, though I forbade 
 his doing so. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXVI. 
 
 7. What euphonic change occurs in the present ind. of battre? 
 
 2. What peculiarity occurs in the 3*^ person sing, present ind. of 
 
 rompre? 
 
 3. What euphonic change does c undergo in yaincrel 
 
 4. What other instances have ice of the same change? 
 
 5. Whe7i does the euphonic d in coudre take the place of the ori- 
 
 ginal s? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 21. 
 
 1. Though his enemies threatened him, the king was not dis- 
 couraged. 2. Why was George scratching out his mistakes? Because 
 the master required it. 3. Don’t let us eat all the tart, but rather let 
 us share it with our schoolfellows. 4. How do you use your time in 
 the morning? I use it in reading French, I am never tired. 5. My 
 
 friend always sends me back the money, which I pay him; you must 
 
 see that it is no use sending him any. 6. I hope you will be up in 
 good time to-morrow, gentlemen; the horses will be harnessed by five 
 o’clock. 7. What is your name, poor little fellow? My name is Francis, 
 Sir. What brings you back to me? Don’t hide the truth. If I tell 
 you my secret, you won’t turn me into the street, will you? Turn you 
 into the street, don’t be afraid, I will rather take you home in a 
 
76 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 carriage. The fact is, I wanted to see again the pretty plaything, which 
 you have; it has a magical effect on me. I have not any plaything, 
 my boy. Why, there it is glistening. That, that is a seal-ring; let 
 us see, give me some sealing-wax to seal this letter, and then I will 
 take you back to the friend, who takes care of you. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 21. 
 
 1. What is your little girl’s name. Sir? Her name is Jane, ma- 
 dame. 2. He was eating some tart, and did not share it with his school- 
 fellows. 3. The master required that George should scratch out all his 
 mistakes, though it (cela) discouraged him. 4. If you use your time 
 well, you will not be tired. 5. If you conceal your secret from me, 
 I will not tell (reveler) you mine. 6. Why do you bring me this little 
 (fellow)? Because he has neither father nor mother and I cannot turn 
 him into the street. 7. I sent him all the money I had in my pos- 
 session, and he sent it back to me in a sealed letter. 8. Call Francis. 
 I have called him , but he is harnessing the horses. Why is he har- 
 nessing the horses? In order that my father may take me back in the 
 carriage to the lady, who takes care of me. 9. At what o’clock do 
 you get up in the morning ? I get up now at seven o’clock , but soon 
 I shall get up at six. 10. Let us share these cakes with our school- 
 fellows. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXVIL 
 
 7. What changes take place to preserve the soft sound of c and ^ 
 ivhen these letter's come before a, o or 
 
 2. What is the rule for the use of i or y when either of these 
 letters being the 2d voivel of a dipthong, is. the last letter of a verbal 
 stem? 
 
 3. What is the general ride for strengthening an e mute being the 
 last vowel in the stem, if the folloiving syllable is also mute ? 
 
 4. What are the tivo exceptions to the rule? 
 
 5. Name verbs ending in eler and eter which folloiv the general 
 
 ride. 
 
 6. When the pt person sing, ending in e mute is followed by the 
 pronoun je in a question, what euphonic change takes place? 
 
 7. In ivhat case is a t added to 3d persons singular ending in a 
 vowel ? 
 
 8. When is a euphonic s added to the imperative 2d pers. singular ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 22. 
 
 1. A beautiful book has been sent for you. 2. I have been at- 
 tacked by thieves. 3. The city of Rome was taken, pillaged and burnt 
 by the Gauls. 4. Our most magnificent monuments will be obliterated 
 by time. 5. Our country scenes are enlivened by tlie singing of the 
 birds. 6. Let no one be judged according to appearances. 7. Your 
 journey will be shortened by a pleasant companion. 8. We want 
 games, by which we may not be tired. 9. All ranks are levelled by 
 death. 10. Prejudices and superstition should be driven away by edu- 
 cation. 11. These flowers will be gathered, when they have been brought 
 out by the heat. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 77 
 
 (No reading exercise on the passive voice is given , as its use, though 
 sometimes necessary, is not generally advisable.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 28. 
 
 1. My house will sell for more than I should have expected. 2. Do 
 not let us grieve for the sorrows, which God sends us. 3. The army having 
 divided into two bodies prepared to attack the enemy. 4. Don’t flatter 
 yourself that we shall hurry ourselves to do what you had thought 
 
 fit to ask of us. -5. That is the end, that I have always proposed 
 
 to myself. 6. She has formed the design of travelling in Switzerland. 
 
 7. The flower of these shrubs will not open until a pleasant warmth 
 
 has spread itself on the ground. 8. We shall be frightened of death, 
 if we are not of opinion, that we have behaved well. 9. The two merchants 
 have joined partnership for trading in the Levant. 10. The two editors 
 of the Soir newspaper have brought two celebrated writers into connec- 
 tion with themselves. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 23. 
 
 1. The land has not been sold for as much as I had expected. 
 
 2. We must pick the flower before it opens. 3. We should not have 
 formed the design of selling the house, if my father had not been pre- 
 paring to travel in Italy. 4. The enemy made haste to attack us. They 
 had flattered themselves, that we should be frightened at their approach- 
 5. Having joined partnership for trading in wines they settled {s’etahlir} 
 at Rouen. 6. I do not flatter myself that you will be satisfied with 
 what I have proposed to myself. 7. Do not be afraid; you are behaving 
 well; it is all that one can ask. 8. Paul and Virginia loved each other 
 without telling each other so, and without knowing it ; they helped each 
 other {s^entr^ aider) eagerly, and rejoiced at being able to do each other 
 every day some little services. 9. They who promise in haste, will re- 
 pent at leasure. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXVIII. 
 
 1. What tivo classes are there of pronominal verbs? 
 
 2. Hoiu is the participle affected in the compound tenses of verbs 
 of the pt class? 
 
 3. When is the participle infected in verbs of the 2^^ class? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 24. 
 
 1. Napoleon the 1st was born on the 15^^^ of August 1769 and died 
 the 5tii of May 1821. 2. We have agreed to buy what did not at first 
 please us. 3. After we had started the news reached him, that his 
 mother was dead. 4. Has not my son grown very tall , since you saw 
 him? Yes, Sir, he was quite a little fellow three years ago, but now 
 he has grown very much. ^ 5. An old man had fallen, and I should 
 hava run to help him, if his son had not just then come out of the 
 house opposite. 6. When did you come, madame? I had come even 
 before you went out, but I did not wish them to tell you of it, before 
 you came in. 7. I had gone up into my room, when they came and told 
 
78 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 me that every one had gone down; I went down at once to see if the 
 carriage had come, but unfortunately it was too late, they had already 
 started. 8. This old lady has growm quite young again, but for all 
 that she has not grown prettier. 9. When I go back to Germany, I 
 shall not come to France again. 10. I did not know, that you had gone ] 
 up, so that I did not go up to bid you welcome. ■ 
 
 i 
 
 READING EXERCISE 24. 
 
 1. He w^ould have fallen in going out of the house, if his son had 
 not run to help him. 2. When the news reached me that my daughter 
 had arrived, I went down to see her. 3. We have agreed not to give 
 him a Vatch until (ne — que qiiand) he has grown taller. 4. She has 
 not grotvn prettier, since she came back. 5. My son was born on the 
 1st of May, the day when his brother died. 6. Why were not you here? 
 
 I should have come, but I was told that you were already gone. It 
 
 is true that I had gone out, but I should have come back to see you, 
 
 7. Though they have come to bid us welcome, they do not seem to 
 be very glad. 8. It whs dark when we w^ent out, so that we soon came 
 in again. 9. He remained only four days at Paris, and it w'as so 
 
 hot that he did not once go out. 10. Has the servant taken my 
 
 luggage up? I think so, for they tell me that he went up half an 
 hour ago. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXIX. 
 
 1. Name verbs always conjugated ivitli etre. 
 
 2. Which compounds of yenir are conjugated with avoir? 
 
 3. Wien verbs are conjugated with either avoir or etre, ichat 
 difference of meaning is indicated by each auxiliary? 
 
 4. When are rester and demeurer conjugated with avoir, when 
 tvith etre? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 25. 
 
 1. Where are you going, Sir? I am going to see my friend in 
 the next room, he is not w^ell. Why don’t you send for a doctor? I 
 will first go and ask how my friend is, and then I w ill send for a doctor. 
 
 I would go for him myself, but I am obliged to go away at once. 2. j 
 Where are your friends going, madame? They have gone to meet their 
 father; as they had received a telegram, they were obliged to go aw^ay 
 before you came back. 3. Goodbye, Sir, it is going to strike ten, we 
 must go away. Don’t go aw^ay so soon; in a quarter of an hour 
 we will all go. 4. AVhere are you going, John? I am going for my 
 books. Go away, you lazy little fellow, you never have any books, 
 go for them. 5. How are you going to St. Cloud? I and my brother are j 
 going on foot, but my sisters wall drive. 6. Should you not have walked, ; 
 if it had not been too hot? Yes, but in such weather w^e w^ere ob- j 
 liged to go by the railroad. 7. Send me back, i^ease, the books | 
 
 which I sent you last week. I will send them back to-morrow, don’t 
 be afraid. 8. It is true that the danger is grow ing greater and greater, 
 but w'e must not allow ourselves to despair. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 79 
 
 READING EXERCISE 25. 
 
 1. Don’t go away without me, if you will wait a quarter of an 
 hour, we will go together in a carriage. 2. Why did you not go for 
 the doctor, my boy {enfant)? My mother told me she would send the 
 servant to fetch him. 3. Shall we go to meet your sister? No, don’t 
 let us go, she will be here directly. 4. I am sending a telegram to tell 
 him that I shall go and see him to-morrow if the weather is fine. 5. Why 
 are you going away so soon? Because D. ’s carriage has come, and 
 I must go with her. 6. Send me, please , some of those books, that you 
 were going to buy. When I have read them, I will send you them 
 back again. 7. My sisters are going by railroad, but I am walking. 
 8. I am afraid he went away before receiving the telegram which we 
 sent. 9. Go away, my boy, if you have not any bread, go and fetch 
 some. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXX. 
 
 1. From ivliat Latin verbs does aller take its future and present 
 indicative ? 
 
 2. Translate va-t-en and yas en clierclier and account for the 
 t in the pt expression^ and the s of vas in the 2^- 
 
 3. In ivhich senses is envoyer irregular? 
 
 4. Wliat is the rule for the interchange of i and j in envoyer.^ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 26. 
 
 1. The street-boys will gather all our peaches, if the garden-gate 
 remains open. 2. Put on your hat. Sir, it is cold. Thank you, I have 
 a head-ache, I prefer being without my hat. 3. Opening the door I 
 shuddered at the scene which lay before my eyes: two men were attacking 
 my father with their fists. 4. While my sister is gathering some straw- 
 berries, I am going to shut the windows of the green-house; they were 
 open ail night, and the plants have suffered much from it. 5. If you 
 accept the proposals I have made you, you will cover yourself with glory 
 and will in a short time reap the fruits of your labours. 6. Why did 
 you start when receiving those gentlemen? The fact is I am not quite 
 well to-day. Take a little rest, and then I will tell you, what has been 
 found out. 7. There is a report, that Napoleon the third is dead. A"es, 
 he died in England and every one is in a hurry to get to his funeral. 
 8. When a plague attacks a people, it is not always the old men, who 
 die of it. 9. He will be ready to die of indignation, if the facts which 
 he has collected while traversing a whole hemisphere are received with 
 disdain. 10. The poor father died the very minute that his son came 
 into the room. The latter ran to embrace him, but alas! it was only 
 a corpse which lay on the bed. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 26. 
 
 1. Gather some of those peaches, please, and offer them to your 
 sister. I will gather them, if you like, hut I won’t offer them to my 
 sister, for they are not quite ripe, and if she ate any, she would suffer 
 from it. 2. He opened the door of the garden and ran at full speed 
 
80 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 to the forest. 3. He died while I was opening the windows. Did he 
 suffer much? He suffered a good deal yesterday; poor man, at all 
 events he does not suffer now. 4. Must I run, Sir? Yes, my boy, let 
 us run I will run with you, 5. These plants are suffering from the cold, 
 but by covering them, we shall keep them safe (garder), and later on 
 we shall o'et (remeillir) the fruit. 6. It is not customary to go into a . 
 church with your hat on; take your hat off. Sir. 7. He is ready to 
 die of grief; though he has suffered so much, no one receives him with 1 
 eagerness. 8. If he dies for his country, he will cover himself with ! 
 glory. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXXI. 
 
 1. Name the verbs of the 2^^ conjugation, ivhich follow the pi conju- 
 gation in the present tense only? 
 
 2. What other irregularity have they? ^ ^ mi* 
 
 3. What are the irregular .tenses in ciieillir and saillir i 
 
 4. In n'hat respect do the compounds of saillir differ from me 
 
 simple verb? . . ^ 
 
 0. What irregularities have coiirir and iiiourir in common? 
 
 6. What other irregidarities have they in ichich they differ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 27. 
 
 1. If he does not abstain from gambling, all the riches he^has 
 gained will be of no use to him; he will soon become poor. 2. lour 
 friend has just told me that you have agreed not to leave us betoie 
 my son comes back from England. 3. I warn you, that the place will 
 not hold out a week. 4. If the garden had suited him, he would have 
 bought it, but he was very anxious to have more ground. 5. x\li that 
 we gain by our industry belongs to us of right, but the goods which 
 come to us from fortune are but a loan, which fortune can demand 
 back from us at any moment. 6. They will gain the esteem ot their 
 friends, if they always keep their word. 7. Although important matters 
 detained him, my father maintained that he would succeed in being ready 
 for his journey in two daj^s. 8. Though his friend maintained that 
 W. ej. was innocent, the judge remained hrm , and he has now been 
 kept in prison for nine days. 9. Why did you not come and see us 
 last night? I was just going out when a storm came on which kept 
 me at home. You ought at all events to have written to us. You must 
 allow that. 10. You will come to the theatre to-morrow, won’t you? Yes, 
 Sir, and if you will engage a box for the evening, I will settle with you. 
 
 BEADING EXERCISE 27. 
 
 1. He has promised that he and his wife will come to the theatre 
 with us, but I doubt his keeping his word. 2. Would he succeed in 
 gaining the love of his father, if he abstained from gambling? I think 
 he would, if he abstained from gambling, but without that he will gam 
 nothing. 3. Whatever you may maintain to me, you will never succeed 
 in convincing me that his riches have been gained justly. 4. It had 
 been agreed that he should come back with us, but the storm which 
 came on, made it impossible. 5. You must come and see us, it you 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 81 
 
 don’t (sans cela) I shall think, that in gaining new friends, you are not 
 anxious to keep your old ones. 6. You must allow, you are anxious 
 for the esteem of W. J. 7. I will settle with you for what you have 
 just paid for me. 8. Is not there a garden belonging to the house? No, 
 Sir, but if you are very anxious for it, it is possible that we may succeed 
 in renting the land next to it. 9. Although he gain great riches, the man 
 who does not keep his word, cannot be happy. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXXII. 
 
 1. In what tenses of tenir and yenir is the root strengthened hy 
 the vowel i? 
 
 2. In what tenses of acquerir and conquerir is there metathesis 
 of e and i? 
 
 3. In which other tenses are these verbs irregular? 
 
 4. What tenses are in use of gesir? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 28. 
 
 1. What can I do for you. Sir? If you will lend me an umbrella, 
 I shall be much obliged, for it is pouring rain. 2. The crowd is get- 
 ting excited, we must withdraw from here. It will be better for us to 
 remain quiet, no one has anything against us. 3. Can you lend me 
 your waterproof? I don’t know where mine is. You ought to have 
 thought of that sooner, it will soon begin raining, and I want to go 
 out myself. 4. I cannot tell you how I had to insist, before I could 
 get my son to submit to my will. 5. Will you be good enough to 
 tell me, Sir, whether this book is worth reading? Certainly not, the 
 book is worth nothing, you can form an opinion of it from the first 
 chapter. 6. Though I must confess how wrong I am, I don’t want 
 every one to look on me as a fool. 7. I only wished to tell you, that 
 your son has managed to get out of the scrape, so that you might be 
 able once more to sleep comfortably. 8. Do you know how that ma- 
 chine is put in motion ? I don’t understand anything about it, it would 
 be necessary for that to be a mechanician. 9. It might be the case, 
 that your friend is a prisoner, but he might just as well be dead. 
 10. Know, Sir, that this man is the only one who can help you ; ‘no 
 others can do anything that can be of use. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 28. 
 
 1. Will you lend me an umbrella, for in five minutes it will pour 
 with rain? I shall be very glad (je veux bien) to lend you one, but 
 you could not use mine, it is worth nothing. 2. Be good enough to 
 relate the thing to me; I must know the details, that I may be able 
 to help my son; without that I could not get him out of his scrape. 
 3. We were obliged to come in again; it was raining hard and we did 
 not know where to take shelter. 4. It is better to be dead than dis- 
 honoured. 5. These books are not worth reading. If you will send them 
 back, I shall be much obliged. 6. Know, that that man is my brother. 
 
 7. You ought to read that little tale; I was very much moved by it. 
 
 8. Do you know, that I was near dying last week? I learnt (pres. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 6 
 
82 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 of savoirj it from a letter of your sister’s. 9. Though he has treated 
 me as an enemy, I have nothing against him. 10. Do you think, it 
 will rain to-morrow? I really could not tell you. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXXIII. 
 
 1. Which dissyllable verbs of the 3^ conjugation have monosyllabic 
 passive participles and perfects? 
 
 2. How do emouvoir, promouyoir differ from inouvoir? 
 
 3. What change of voivels takes place in the present indicative of 
 
 inoiivoir and poiivoirl 
 
 4. What change takes place in the present indie, of savoir and 
 falloir? 
 
 5. Name the verbs of the 3^ conjugation, which insert a euphonic 
 (1 in the future. 
 
 6. What change do these verbs undergo in the persons of the pre- 
 sent subjunctive which end in a muke syllable? 
 
 7. What is the present subj. of poiiYoirj and ivhen is the cor- 
 responding form of the present indicative required? 
 
 8. What is the present participle of savoir and lohat parts of the 
 verb are derived from it ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 20, 
 
 1. I saw him sitting quite sad; he had his eyes open hut saw'^ 
 nothing. 2. There they are, seated for the last time under the shade 
 of the great oak, they will never sit there any more, we shall never 
 see them again. 3. We had sat down on the grass, we did not speak 
 to each other, for we foresaw, that we should never see each other 
 again in life. 4. The suit of rooms which I have seen is very nice^ 
 when could I take possession? Sit down, madame, till I see when 
 my term is up. It is as I thought, you can take possession in three 
 weeks time, my term will be up on the 24^^ of June. 5. Bright colours 
 don’t suit me, show me some dark blue. If you will please to sit down 
 a minute, you will he served directly. 6. Take a seat here. Sir, you 
 will see the procession pass in a few minutes. It is a very curious 
 sight, it is well worth seeing. 7. After having provided as well as he 
 could for the wants of his army, the general sat down; he saw his old 
 regiment pass before him, and he would gladly have been again at the 
 time, when as a common soldier he had nothing to provide for but his 
 own wants. 8. They would have sat on the gi^ass, if it had not been 
 raining during the night, but seeing that the ground was still quite 
 wet, they preferred to remain standing. 9. Sit down, Charles. But, 
 Sir, don’t you see, there is no room ; it is not right for me to sit while 
 my cousins are standing. 10. Will you take a seat, madame? You 
 see that your friend’s dress will suit her admirably, only in sitting down 
 she must take care not to crush the trimming. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 29. 
 
 1. Though he sat down, he could not remain quiet whilst seeing 
 so many ladies still standing. 2. Let us see; if your term is up next 
 Thursday, you will be able to come and see us on Friday. 3. A good 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 83 
 
 general will provide for the wants of his soldiers. 4. W^hen shall we 
 see you again? I will see you on Saturday, if I have time. 5. When 
 <lid you see George last? I have not seen him for three days back. 
 6. If you sit down, my boy, you will see quite as well, and I shall be 
 able to see too. 7. They sat down, as they saw that they w'ould have 
 to wait some time. 8. I foresaw, that we should not find room enough 
 {oft) to sit down. 9. As soon as we saw the general coming to us 
 {s'appvocher) we ran to meet him. 10. This dress will suit you admi- 
 rably, you ought always to wear bright colours; nothing suits you 
 better. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXXIV. 
 
 1. Name the tenses of s^asseoir and snrseoir ivhich are differently 
 formed. 
 
 2. Name the tenses of Toir and poiirvoir ivhich are differently 
 formed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 30. 
 
 1. Have you ground the coffee, Jane? I will grind it at once, Sir. 
 Never mind, the cook is grinding it. 2. Who ground this corn? I had 
 it ground in the hand-mill just to show how corn was ground in old 
 times, when there were neither steam-mills nor wind-mills. 3. It is 
 scarcely credible how quickly bamboos grow in warm countries, a 
 shoot four inches in diameter sometimes grows a foot in the twenty- 
 four hours. 4. Hold your tongue, I tell you. I will hold my tongue, 
 if you like, but my silence will not absolve you from this accusation. 
 5. Whilst he was speaking, I held my tongue, and as soon as I per- 
 ceived there was nothing more to be said on the subject, I concluded 
 the matter by drinking to the success of our undertaking. 6. Do you 
 know madame J. ? I only know her by sight, but my sister has known 
 her for two years back. 7. What are you reading? I am reading 
 Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister; I have read the translation of it, and it 
 pleased me so much, that I wanted to read the original. 8. Is M. D. 
 still alive? Yes, Sir, he has been living in great want for three years; 
 every one thought him dead, but as it seems, they were wrong. 9. Will 
 you have some wine? I have not drunk any for a year back. Why 
 so? Do you think, there is any harm in drinking wine? Not at all, 
 but when one has drunk too much once, one is always afraid of doing 
 the same again. I shall never drink any more, as long as I live, I am 
 determined of that. 10. They will not fail to recognise your exertions; 
 they did not exclude you, because they did not think you useful; but 
 they have recognised, that the business was growing larger and larger, 
 and that an end must be put to it. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 30. 
 
 1. Who is grinding the coffee? I am. Sir, there is eight o’clock 
 striking and no one has ground it. 2. These shrubs don’t grow, I think 
 the reason is, because there is too much wind. Do you think (so)? 
 Why (niais)., the wind can’t touch them here. 3. Though all others remain 
 silent, I do not think that I ought to be silent. 4. Does your brother 
 know this book? Yes, Sir, he has read it, and he liked it so much, 
 
 6 * 
 
84 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 that he wishes me too to read it. 5. Whilst I was finishing what I 
 had to do, he appeared to be occupied with a book ; only at the end of 
 a quarter of an hour he was still reading the same page. 6. I absolve 
 him from all blame, and in absolving him I reproach myself for having 
 accused him. 7. He has lived, as {ce que) roses live, the space of an 
 hour. 8. While drinking he kept looking at me; I thought I was re- 
 cognised, but he said nothing. 9. The assembly was dissolved amid 
 cries of „long live M. Thiers !“ 10. I was wrong in holding my tongue, 
 I will do so no longer. 
 
 Questions on Chap. XXXV. 
 
 1. What four verbs of the fourth conjugation form their perfect 
 by simply changing the vowel or dipthong of the stem to -us? 
 
 2. Hoio do lire, plaire and taire form their present participle? 
 
 3. How do verbs ending in -aitre, -oitre form their present par- 
 ticiple ? 
 
 4. How do verbs ending in -oudre form their present participle ? 
 
 0. In ivhat respect does moudre differ form the others? 
 
 6. Name the irregular tenses of yiYre, 
 
 7. Distinguish tu, tu, cru, cru. 
 
 8. When do verbs in -aitre, -oitre take a circumflex? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 31. 
 
 1. What do you complain of? I complain of not being able to go 
 out. My father wished me to rejoin him at six o’clock, but he charged 
 me not to go out if it rained. 2. Do you paint in water-colours? I 
 used to paint in water-colours some time ago, but for two years back 
 I have only painted in oil. 3. You will put out the lamp, won’t you? 
 Put it out yourself, please, my father always charges me not to touch 
 it. 4. Although you feigned not to believe me, I saw plainly, that you 
 were afraid that ray words might be true. 5. She was really disgusting, 
 she had her hair dyed, a diadem of false jewels encircled her brow, 
 and she had painted herself so badly, that there was no possibility of 
 mistaking it. 6. Whatever necessity may constrain you not to yield 
 to our prayers, you will not gain your end, you will not succeed in 
 turning us from our design. 7. The fire is gone out, how cold it is! 
 How much I pity the poor people who are obliged to do without fire 
 in such weather as this. 8. Brutus pretended to be mad, that the ven- 
 geance of the king might not reach him. 9. In describing the mis- 
 fortunes which had happened to him, he complained especially of the 
 treachery of his friends. 10. Do not be afraid of our not attaining our 
 aim, I was only pretending to believe we should not. 
 
 READING EXERCISE 31. 
 
 1. What are you afraid of, my boy? I am afraid of my father 
 seeing me on foot, and thinking that I was only pretending when I com- 
 plained of my foot. 2. Does your friend paint in water-colours? Yes, 
 at present he has only painted in water-colours, but I hope he will 
 soon paint in oil. 3. I should be glad for him to gain his end, but 
 without our infringing on the respect which is due to our parents. 
 
EXEUCISES. 
 
 85 
 
 4. Do you wish me to put out the lamp? Yes, Sir, put it out, please. 
 
 5. What was he complaining of to-day, for he is always complaining 
 of something? He complained that we had not joined with him to 
 publish a book. 6. On reaching the top of the hills which surround 
 the town, though we complained of the fatigue, we were obliged to 
 allow that the view was worth the trouble. 7. The dress has been so 
 badly dyed , that we are afraid you can never wear it. 8. If you don’t 
 join us at six o’clock, we shall not succeed in catching the train. 9. Are 
 you not well? Oh yes, thank you, I was only pretending to be 01. 
 You ought never to pretend; if you pretend to be ill to-day, you may 
 be really ill to-morrow, and no one will believe it. 
 
 , Questions on Chap. XXXVI. 
 
 1. In ivliat tenses do verbs in -dre keep the dl 
 
 2. When do they insert a euphonic g? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 32. 
 
 1. It was already warm, the dew glittered in the sunshine, all 
 nature smiled for him , but he felt as if born only for misfortune. 
 2. Do you know how currants are preserved at Bar-le-duc? No, Sir, 
 I know nothing about it, they say it is a secret, I only know that the 
 fruits preserved there are very good. 3. If you took my advice you 
 would set to work, it is already eight o’clock, and you have done nothing, 
 take care that your idleness does not injure you, more than you ima- 
 gine. 4. My father took us to the theatre last night, and we laughed 
 a great deal. 5. What do you do at the college de France? I am at- 
 tending a course of lectures on history; I take my notes there, and 
 then on my return I write out, what I have learnt; I take great pains 
 with it. 6. Where were you born? I was born in Australia, but my 
 father was born in England; before his death he took his family to 
 Australia, and built the house in which we were born. 7. Don’t curse 
 your fortune; you said yourself, that if you had taken greater precau- 
 tions you would have put yourself in safety from the misfortunes which 
 have pursued you. 8. What are you writing there? I am writing a 
 letter, which I ought to have written last week , but it has been such 
 beautiful weather, thas I did not think of it. 9. These children make 
 me really quite afraid; they were going just now along a path which 
 was really dangerous, but it was not enough for them to go slowly,, 
 they ran as hard as they could, and there they are now setting to 
 work to jump over the hedges. 10. Do, what I tell you, put on your 
 hat, and we will go to meet Madeleine, who is milking the cows. A 
 walk in the morning will not do us any harm. 
 
 BEADING EXEBCISE 32. 
 
 1. You have an excellent cook , these trouts are done to a tiirn^ 
 {d point), and the fruits she has preserved are excellent. 2. He has 
 behaved very badly, he never reads, his extravagance is such that his: 
 father curses him, and you wish me to write to him, and tell him that 
 I am pleased with him ! 3. That is enough ; if you say one word more, 
 it will injure your client. 4. He was born in Bussia, but his uncle 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 86 
 
 brought him to Paris that he might attend the lectures at the college 
 of France. 5. My sister has put on her blue dress, and I should put 
 on mine, if you had not told me the day before yesterday that it was 
 badly made. 6. I don’t know what he will do ; he did not take the advice 
 of his friends, and now misfortunes are pursuing him from all sides. 
 7. Don’t do that; if you always laugh when people tell you the truth, 
 it will do you a great deal of harm. 8. Have you written your letter? 
 Not yet, I shall write it this evening. 9. Take care not to fall, and 
 if you follow this path, it will take you home. 10. By doing our duty, 
 we shall put ourselves in safety from the misfortunes which have hi- 
 therto pursued us. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 FIRST PART. ACCIDENCE. 
 
 Chapter Pag& 
 
 1. The Alphabet 1 
 
 II. The Parts of Speech and their Accidents 2 
 
 III. The Articles 3 
 
 lY. Substantives 3 
 
 V. Gender of Substantives 5 
 
 VI. Feminine of Adjectives 6 
 
 VII. Feminine of Adjectives continued 7 
 
 VIII. Plural of Adjectives 8 
 
 IX. The Cardinal Numbers 9 
 
 X. The Ordinal Numbers 10 
 
 XL Pronouns 12 
 
 XII. Personal Pronouns 14 
 
 XIII. Possessive Pronouns 15 
 
 XIV. Demonstrative Pronouns 16 
 
 XV. Eelative Pronouns 17 
 
 XVI. Interrogative Pronouns 18 
 
 XVII. Pronominal Words 19 
 
 XVIII. Verbs 20 
 
 XIX. The Auxiliary Verb Avoir 21 
 
 XX. The Auxiliary Verb £tre 23 
 
 XXI. Conjugations of Eegular Verbs 25 
 
 XXII. First Conjugation 26 
 
 XXIII. Second Conjugation, Dt Class 28 
 
 XXIV. Second Conjugation, 2^ Class 30 
 
 XXV. Third Conjugation 33 
 
 XXVI. Fourth Conjugation 35 
 
 XXVII. Euphonic Changes 38 
 
 XXVni. The Passive Voice 39 
 
 XXIX. Pronominal Verbs 41 
 
 XXX. Neuter Verbs 43 
 
 XXXI. Irregular Verbs, 1^^ Conjugation 45 
 
88 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter * Page 
 
 XXXII. Irregular Verbs, 2^ Conjugation. Classes I, II, III. . 43 
 
 XXXIII. Irregular Verbs, 2 ^ Conjugation. Classes IV, V, VI . 50 
 
 XXXIV. Irregular Verbs, Conjugation. Classes I, II . . . 51 
 
 XXXV. Irregular Verbs, 3^ Conjugation. Class III .... 53 
 
 XXXVI. Irregular Verbs, 4*^ Conjugation. Class I 54 
 
 XXXVII. Irregular Verbs, 4^^ Conjugation. Class II .... 56 
 
 XXXVIII. Irregular Verbs, 4^^ Conjugation. Class III .... 57 
 
 XXXIX. Alphabetical List of Irregular Verbs 59 
 
 XL. Adverbs 61 
 
 XLI. Prepositions 62 
 
 XLII. Conjunctions 62 
 
 Exercises 63 
 
 ‘vv'JXAAA.'VUVV 
 
SECOND PART 
 
 SYPiTTAX. 
 
 I. THE ARTICLES. 
 
 1. Every common noun in French must have a word 
 prefixed to note the extent in which it is used ; if used of all 
 that the term includes, the definite article is required, if of 
 only part, the partitive preposition de with or without the 
 article must be expressed ; if the word is used as the name 
 of an individual, it has either the definite or indefinite article. 
 (For exceptions see S. chap. VIII, 4.) 
 
 2. The definite article is used with common nouns to mark 
 that they are to be taken in a determinate sense, as applying 
 either to determinate notions, that is to all that is compre- 
 hended by the term, or to determinate individuals. 
 
 It has therefore a double force, an inclusive force when 
 applied to classes etc. , a demonstrative force when applied to 
 individuals. 
 
 3. The demonstrative force is the usual one in English; 
 the inclusive force is only found in the singular in scientific 
 forms of expression : as the lion is of the feline tribe (where 
 a lion or lions might equally well be said), and in the plural 
 when an adjective is used for a substantive : as the meeh shall 
 inherit the earth, 
 
 n. INCLUSIVE USE OP THE DEFINITE 
 ARTICLE. 
 
 The definite article is prefixed to all common nouns, which 
 are used of all that is included by the term. To express this 
 force in English we must use the inclusive adjectives all, every, 
 the whole, but more commonly it is left to be implied. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 7 
 
90 
 
 INCLUSIVE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Hence the French differs from the English, in that it pre- 
 fixes the definite article to 
 
 1 . Names of whole classes : as Les Jiommes sont mortels 
 (all) Men are mortal. 
 
 2. Names of materials: as L’or vaut plus que V argent 
 Gold is more valuable than silver. 
 
 3. Abstract nouns: as La foi, Vesperance^ la charite 
 Faith, hope, charity. 
 
 4. Nouns used distributively : as Deux francs la houteille 
 Two francs a (every) bottle. Nous avons conge le samedi 
 We have a holiday on Saturdays (every Saturday). 
 
 NOTE. When nouns of time are used distributively the preposi- 
 tion par usually takes the place of the article : as deux fois par an 
 twice a year, vingt sous par jour a franc a day. 
 
 5. In certain expressions where the including of the whole 
 class is mor^ or less idiomatic as : sentir la rose to smell of 
 roses, demander, faire Vaumone to ask, give alms, prendre le 
 deuil to put on mourning, enseigner apprendre le frangais to 
 teach, learn French (but parler frangais to speak French), 
 faire la paix^ la guerre to make peace, war, garderle silence 
 to keep silence etc. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 1. 
 
 1. Les murailles sont le papier des fous. 2. II faut eviter avec 
 soin les tournures et les expressions basses et triviales. 3. L’homme 
 est le meilleur et le plus mechant des animaux. 4. L’ignorance croit 
 aux sorciers et aux revenants autant qu’en Dieu. 5. Le chien aboie, 
 Fane brait, le cheval hennit, la vache beugle. 6. L’eau est une bois- 
 son plus saine que le vin. 7. J’ai paye ces pommes un franc la dou- 
 zaine. 8. Un autre souvenir precieux est celui de nos promenades du 
 dimanche. 9. Le ble se vend cinq francs le boisseau. 10. L’or est 
 plus precieux que le fer, mais le fer est le plus utile des metaux. 
 
 11. Nous avons conge deux fois par semaine, le jeudi et le samedi. 
 
 12. La simplicite est un des caracteres de la verite. 13. Les enfants 
 singent les hommes. 14. Les moeurs des abeilles et des fourmis sont 
 tres-curieuses. 15. Ce professeur enseigne-t-il le Frangais? Non, 
 monsieur, il enseigne le Latin et le Grec. 16. Ce mendiant vous a-t-il 
 demande Faumone? Naturellement , les mendiants le font toujours. 
 17. Ces livres sentent le tabac. 
 
 III. THE ARTICLE IN INDEPENDANT 
 PARTITIVES. 
 
 1. When a part only of what is signified by a noun is to 
 be spoken of, the noun has the article to show that it is taken 
 
THE ARTICLE IN INDEPENDANT PARTITIVES. 
 
 91 
 
 in its full sense, while the preposition de is prefixed to show 
 that the notion required forms only a portion of the whole: as 
 les Jiommes all men, des hommes some (of all) men, 
 le heurre (all) butter, du heurre some (of all) butter, 
 la reconnaissance gratitude (in general), de la recon- 
 naissance some degree, an act of gratitude. 
 
 The preposition de in this use loses entirely its preposi- 
 tional force of showing the relation of the noun it governs 
 to some other word, and the phrase may stand as subject, ob- 
 ject or complement of a verb, or under the government of any 
 other preposition but de, (See S. VIII, 2.) 
 
 1. Des soldats sont accounts Some soldiers ran up. 
 
 2. Dai bu du vin I have drunk some wine. 
 
 D a de V esprit He has wit. 
 
 4. Avec de la patience on pent tout faire With patience 
 we can do every thing. 
 
 Such phrases are called independant partitives and are 
 not to be considered as prepositional phrases. 
 
 2. In in dependant partitives the article is regularly used, 
 except : 
 
 1. an adjective precedes the substantive. 
 
 2. The partitive noun depends on a verb virtually 
 negatived. 
 
 I. The article is omitted with partitive nouns where an 
 adjective precedes, as in that case the noun is not taken in its 
 full extent, but only so far as the attached epithet extends : 
 as J ai de bon pain I have some good bread. 
 
 But D ai du pain rassis I have some stale bread , for 
 where the adjective follows, it is considered as an appositive 
 coinplement, so that the statement is I have some bread,, and 
 it is stale. 
 
 So again the article is not used when the adjective stands 
 without a substantive in apposition to en : Ave^-vous des 
 
 poires? Nous en avons d’excellentes Have you any pears? 
 We have some excellent ones. 
 
 But the article is retained even when the adjective precedes 
 the^ substantive, if the two form one notion to the whole of 
 which the article applies. This is the case: 
 
 cc. with compound words : as il a des petits-fils he has 
 some grand-children; 
 
 * 7 * 
 
92 THE ARTICLE IN INDEPENDANT PARTITIVES. 
 
 /9. when the adjective and substantive from usage get some 
 special meaning as : des 'petits pains rolls, dti bon sens good 
 sense, du bean monde fashionable people ; 
 
 y, when the stress is on the adjective : as faire des bons 
 citoyens et des bons Frangais to make good citizens and good 
 Frenchmen. 
 
 II. The article is omitted with partitive nouns which de- 
 pend on a verb virtually negatived. This is the ease : 
 
 a. in simple negative sentences : as je n’ai pas de pain 
 I have no bread; 
 
 /?. in negative questions ‘which expect the answer no: as 
 ave^-voiis pas d^amis? have you no friends? 
 
 But n^avez-vons pas des amis? que voiis faut-il de phis? 
 you have friends, have you not? what do you want more? 
 
 y. When the partitive noun is the object of an infinitive 
 mood governed by the preposition sans in a sentence not ne- 
 gative : as il me parlait sans me faire de compliments he 
 used to speak to me without paying me compliments (= and 
 did not pay). 
 
 But if the sentence is negative, the article is retained : as 
 il ne me parlait jamais sans me faire des compliments he 
 never spoke to me without paying me compliments (== he 
 paid me compliments). 
 
 But in all these cases the partitive word takes the article, 
 if followed by any limitation, which draws the negation to itself 
 so that the verb is really affirmative : as je ne dis point id 
 des choses frivoles I am not now saying frivolous things. Here 
 not the saying, but the frivolity is denied. Je ne fais pas 
 des vers ni meme de la prose^ quand je veiix I do not write 
 verses or even prose, whenever I like. Here it is not the 
 writing itself, but the writing at all times, which is negatived. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 2. 
 
 1. L’excessive joie arrache plus soiivent des larmes que des ris. 
 2. L’ambition conduit la vertu par des moyens et a des fins, qui sont 
 souvent indignes d’elle. 3. Il y a des homnies qui supposent toujours 
 de vils motifs aux actions les idus nobles. 4. On voyait partout des 
 gouttes de rosee etincelantes, qui ressemblaient a des diamants. 5. Pour 
 faire de la poesie il faut non seulement de Pesprit, mais encore de 
 rimagination. 6. Je veux a la campagne du petit-lait, de bon potage. 
 7. Il faut du bon sens et de la clarte dans toutes les poesies. 8. Je 
 ne vous dis pas ici des choses vagues. 9. Je ne prendrai pas de la 
 peine pour rien. 10. Qui de nous n’a trouve du charme a suivre des 
 yeux les nuages du ciel? 11. Ne me donnez pas des conseils qu’il 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 93 
 
 serait dangereux de suivre. 12. II ne peut parler sans faire des fautes. 
 13. Vous devez tons ecrire ce theme sans faire de fautes. 14. Une 
 banque doit reussir, si elle n’escompte qiie dii bon papier. 
 
 I IV. DEMONSTRATIVE USE OP THE DEFINITE 
 
 ARTICLE. 
 
 The definite article is used as a weak demonstrative pro- 
 ! noun to point out definite individuals. 
 
 The definite article is prefixed to common nouns, when 
 in the nature of things there can be but one individual signified 
 
 by the noun term : as le soleil the sun, le paradis paradise ; 
 
 or when common nouns by a further definition expressed or 
 I implied become the names of individuals: as les honimes que 
 ' fai rencontres the men I have met, Vempereur in’a invite the 
 emperor invited me, Vhomme d Vhabit noir the man with the 
 black coat, le pere de mon ami the father of my friend. 
 
 NOTE. The definite article in this use may be replaced by an 
 adjectival pronoun : as cet homme this man, mon pere my father. 
 
 Though mostly agreeing with English in the demonstrative 
 use of the definite article, French applies the rule more 
 
 rigorously in the following instances. 
 
 1. The article is used with all titles which prej3ede a 
 
 proper name: as Voncle Richard Uncle Richard, le Mont-Blanc 
 Mont-Blanc, le general Canrohert General Canrobert; and as 
 a vocative familiarly with nouns not followed by a proper 
 name, as: ho la vieille! Hull oh, old woman there! 
 
 2. With titles preceded by Monsieur^ Madame^ Made- 
 moiselle, Monseignenr as : Monsieur le president Mr. president, 
 Monseigneiir Varcheveque My lord Archbishop. 
 
 NOTE. These titles are used much more frequently in French 
 than in English, not only in addressing persons, but also politely in 
 speaking of them: as Comment se porte madame votre mere? How is 
 your mother? 
 
 3. With substantives of time defined by an adjective 
 or other expression: as V hirer prochain next winter, le mois 
 2)asse last month. But names of the months and days of the 
 week only take the article if the adjective precedes: as le 
 froid Janvier cold January, but Janvier passe last January, 
 dimanche prochain next Sunday. But always la mi-janviery 
 la mi-mar Sy the middle of January, of March. 
 
94 
 
 THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER NAMES. 
 
 4. With nouns defined from their being a material part, 
 or a necessary property of the subject of the sentence: as 
 cet arbre a Vecorce lisse this tree has a smooth bark, fai mol 
 au bras I have a pain in my arm. 
 
 NOTE. The epithet in the English form of these sentences 
 becomes an appositive complement in French, and where French uses 
 the definite article , English uses the indefinite article if the noun is 
 the object of the verb to liave^ otherwise a possessive pronoun. In 
 certain cases the pronoun is also required in French. (See S. XIII. 4. y.) 
 
 5. Further in some expressions the limiting expression 
 which justifies the demonstrative use of the article is always left 
 to be implied. Such are 
 
 1. avoir le temps to have time 
 
 2. il rC a pas le sou he has 
 
 not a farthing 
 
 3. ceder la place to give place, 
 
 retire 
 
 4. soye^ le bienvenu welcome 
 h.jeter Vancre to cast anchor. 
 
 6. souhaiter le bo7i jour to 
 
 wish good day 
 
 7. ve7'S les iroisheures about 
 
 three o’clock 
 
 8 . sur les liuit heures at eight 
 
 o’clock 
 
 9. d Za 7uaiso7i at home 
 
 10. faire la reverence to make 
 a bow, 
 etc. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 3. 
 
 1. II me parlait les larmes aux yeux. 2. Comment n’etiez-vous 
 pas chez le banquier Martigny, vous, la comtesse de Montfort? 3. Je 
 vis alors cet Alexandre , qui depuis a rempli la terre d’admiration et 
 de deuil. II a les traits reguliers, le teint beau et vermeil, le nez 
 aquilin, les yeux grands, pleins de feu, les cheveux blonds et boucles. 
 4. Cet arbre a I’ecorce tendre. 5. Ce vin a la couleur malade. 6. On 
 le condamna a avoir la tete tranchee. 7. II a Pesprit vif, le gout 
 delicat, le sens droit, le coeur bien place. 8. Soyez le bienvenu. 9. Ma- 
 dame la duchesse, parlous sans metaphore. Je suis a vos ordres, 
 Monsieur le ministre. 10. Ho I’ami ! un petit mot s’il vous plait. Je 
 n’ai pas le temps. 11. Le roi descendit de ses appartements pour 
 souhaiter a la reine la bien venue. 12. Tout le monde se met a faire 
 la reverence. 13. M. D. est-il a la maison? Oui, Monsieur, il est 
 arrive vers les six heures. 14. Il fit lever I’ancre. 15. Il faut 
 aujourd’hui meme, quoique je n’aie pas le sou, que je me donne iin 
 habit neuf. 16. On a mis les prisonniers au pain et a I’eau. 17. Le 
 lac £rie a plus de cent lieues de circonference. 
 
 V. THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER NAMES. 
 
 1. The article is not used with the names of persons, 
 unless they are used as common nouns, or are defined, as by 
 
THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER NAMES. 
 
 95 
 
 an adjective or relative clause etc. as: Napoleon est mort 
 Napoleon is dead, but le cruel Itohespierre cruel Robespierre. 
 
 NOTE. Le Christ always with the article, Jesus Christ always 
 without. Saint is not to be considered as an adjective for this rule, but 
 as a part of the name to which it is attached. 
 
 Except that the article is used with some few names of 
 great artists and poets mostly Italian: as V Arioste^ le 
 Carr ache, le Correge, leDominiquin, le Perugin, le Tasse, 
 le Tintoret, and also le Camoens and le Poussin. With Dante 
 and Titien it is also found but is better omitted. 
 
 2. The article is not used with the names of cities and 
 small islands, unless defined by an adjective or otherwise: as 
 Paris a capitule Paris has capitulated, but Vancienne Pome 
 ancient Rome. 
 
 Except with the names of some few towns , which were 
 originally common nouns , as le Havre (lit. the haven), la 
 Haye (lit. the enclosure)^ le Mans, le Caire, la Mecque etc., 
 as : II est ne au Havre, He was born at Havre. 
 
 NOTE. It is safer to use the form Vile de . . . with the name of 
 islands, as among those which do not take the article are Madagascar, 
 Crete, Chypre, Candie, Bhodes etc. and with la Sidle, la Corse, la 
 Sardaigne, V Islande Iceland takes the article. 
 
 3. The names of countries, provinces, the larger islands, 
 mountains and rivers not depending on a preposition take the 
 definite article : as V Amerique, la Bretagne, la Corse, VEtna. 
 
 NOTE. Except Bade, Maroc, Nassau, Oldenhourg , Weimar, and 
 compound names, as: Saxe- Weimar, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 
 4. After the preposition en expressing motion to or rest 
 in the country the names of well-known countries in the 
 singular have not the article. But if the name of the country 
 is in the plural, or has an adjective, or is distant and less 
 known , so that it is considered only as a whole , the article 
 must be used, and in place of en, dans must be used where 
 there is an adjective and the noun is singular, otherwise d, 
 as: aller en Italie , dans la Grande-Bretagne, a la Chine, 
 aux Indes, vivre en France, dans la nouvelle Zelande , au 
 Perou, aux J^tats-Unis. 
 
 5. After the preposition de the article is omitted when 
 the name of a well known country in the singular stands as 
 an attributive genitive depending on the names of features, 
 products etc. in opposition to the same in other lands, or 
 on the names of titles, or when it simply supplies the place 
 of an adjective giving the place of origin, action etc. as after 
 
96 
 
 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 armee^ guerre etc., as: les cotes de Portugal, la guerre 
 d'Esjjagne, la reine cC Angleter re, but le royaume des deux 
 Sidles, Vem{pereur de la Chine. 
 
 6. After the preposition de in the sense of removal from, 
 or when dependant on histoire or similar words a singular 
 distinction is made between masculine and feminine names of even 
 ’well-knowm countries, the masculine take the article, the feminine 
 not unless the whole of the country is especially intended, as: 
 venir dAllemagne, du DanemarJe, Histoire cVAutriclie, dii 
 Portugal. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 4. 
 
 1. Si tons les honimes etaient des Socrates, la science alors ne 
 leur serait pas nuisible. 2. Le siecle du Perugin et de Michel- Ang(3 
 preparait les siMes de Galilee, de Descartes et de Newton. 3. C’est 
 la qu’au Musee brillent le Guide, le Dominicain. 4. Oiii, j’irai 
 accompagne du seul Sganarelle. 5. Dans I’ancienne Rome le mois de 
 juillet s’appelait quintilis. 6. Le Paris d’il y a 350 ans, le Paris du 
 quinzieme siecle etait deja une ville geante. 7. A part la Prusse et 
 I’Autriche qui comptent parmi les grandes monarchies independantes, 
 les six principaux etats de la confederation germanique sont la Baviere, 
 ie Wurtemberg, la Saxe, le Hanovre, la Hesse et Bade. 8. Cette 
 consideration determina le consul d’Espagne a s’assurer du due de 
 Bragance ou du moins a Peloigner du Portugal. 9. Deja la goelette 
 etait en vue de la Corse. 10. Nous avons relache quatre jours a 
 Teneriffe. 11. Vous Penverrez en Europe. 12. II est alle aux Indes. 
 13. Un navire venant d’Europe. 14. II vient du Mexique. 15. L’empire 
 de Russie. 16. Le canton du Valais. 17. L’empereur de la Chine. 
 18. L’empereur d’Autriche. 19. Le fer de SuMe. 20. La toile bleue 
 du Bengale. 21. Histoire de Bourgogne. 22. Histoire de Languedoc. 
 23. La carte d’Espagne. 24. L’expedition du Portugal. 
 
 VI. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 As the indefinite article coincides in form with the numeral 
 un, une, so in meaning it always implies a limit in number. 
 It serves to mark either an individual of a class or an individual 
 species of a genus: as un Jiomme a man, le cygne est un oiseaii 
 a swan is a bird. 
 
 Hence its use is more restricted than that of the English 
 a, an. This must be noted in four cases. 
 
 1. It is not used for a whole class: as la haleine n^est 
 pas un poisson a whale is not a fish. 
 
 2. It does not stand with a noun in apposition to another: 
 as Paris fils du roi Priam Paris a son of king Priam. 
 
 3. It does not stand with an appositive complement, when 
 quality and not quantity is attributed *to a definite subject: 
 
REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 97 
 
 as II est medecin He is a physician, 11 n’osait s^avouer 
 repuhlicain He did not dare to confess himself a republican. 
 But if the subject is not definite, or if the complement is so 
 far defined as to become the name of an individual though 
 indefinite, un^ une must precede it : as G'^est un medecin He is 
 a physician, Son frere est un medecin tres-disiingue, 
 
 NOTE. The rules given for the use or absence of the indefinite 
 article in the singular apply to the use of the partitive des in the plural. 
 Hence in the plural we should have les cygnes sont des oiseaux, 
 Hector et Paris fils du roi Priam ^ Us sont mcdecinSj Us n^osaient pas 
 s^avouer repuhlicains , ce sont des viedecins, ses freres sont des medecins 
 tres-distingues. 
 
 4. The indefinite article is not used to qualify the object 
 in a negative sentence unless particularly defined. In its place 
 the partitive preposition de is used: as je }fai pas de canif 
 I have not a knife. 
 
 NOTE. This peculiar idiom is explained by the original force of 
 pas^ point etc. as substantives of quantity. 
 
 In one use the indefinite article occurs in French, where 
 it is not used in English, viz. when an adjective qualifies an 
 abstract noun: as il a montre un grayid courage he has shown 
 great courage. Here un grand courage is looked on as an 
 individual species of the genus courage, 
 
 Vn. REPETITION OP THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1 . The article is repeated with each substantive of a series, 
 if of different signification : as les gargons et les filles the boys 
 and girls, du sucre,, du cafe et du the some sugar, coffee and 
 tea, un homme et une femme a man and woman. 
 
 2. It is usually repeated with each of two or more 
 adjectives qualifying the same substantive if they precede the 
 substantive and convey different notions : as Vancien et le 
 nouveau testament the old and new testament. 
 
 3. But if the adjectives follow the substantive the article 
 may be repeated or not, and the substantive may be either in 
 the singular or plural: as the English and French languages 
 may be expressed in four ways. 
 
 La langue anglaise et la langue frangaise, les langues 
 anglaise et frangaise, la langue anglaise et la frangaise, la 
 langue anglaise ct frangaise. 
 
98 
 
 OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 4. The article is not repeated , if one idea is conveyed 
 by two substantives which require the same form of the article : 
 as Vecole des arts et metiers. 
 
 5. It is not usually repeated if two or more adjectives 
 qualify a single substantive and convey only one notion, unless 
 they are in the superlative degree : as les grands et puissants 
 Hats, but les plus grands et les plus puissants etats the 
 greatest and most powerful states. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 5. 
 
 1. Croyez-vous que cela soit d’une necessite absolue? 2. Par la 
 mode, du moins, la France est encore reine. 3. II me parait fort 
 honnete homme. 4. Monsieur est Anglais? 5. Ce sont evidemment des 
 Anglaises. 6. Mon frere est mMecin. 7. Ce n’est point un medecin, 
 ce n’est qu’un charlatan. 8. Le ciel etait d’azur, les flots d’un jaune 
 transparent. 9. Tout lui fut obstacle, rien ne lui fut secours. 10. Adraste 
 menait autour de lui trente Dauniens d’une force, d’une adresse, et 
 d’une audace extraordinaires. 11. Conde etait ne general. 12. L’ane 
 n’est point un cheval degenere. 13. II se presenta chez M. Perregaux, 
 riche banquier. 14. Je n’ai pas de carte sur moi. 1.5. Seulement le 
 mercredi et le samedi il y a quelques lemons de moins. 16. Le 
 minimum des legons est de cinq lemons d’une heure chaque jour, les 
 lundi, mardi, jeudi et vendredi. 17. Les pere et mere continuent de 
 les nourrir. 18. Les puissances vegetale et animale se mettent en 
 equilibre par des flux et reflux. 19. Les dogmes les plus vrais et les 
 plus saints peuvent avoir de tres-mauvaises consequences. 
 
 Vin. OMISSION OP THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The extent in which a common noun is taken is not noted 
 in French. 
 
 1. For the sake of brevity and to give force to the 
 sentence 
 
 a. In enumerations especially with ni—ni^ soit — soit.^ as 
 hommes, femmes, enfants, tons furent tues. Men, women, 
 children, all were killed. La nature ne fait ni princes, ni 
 riches , Nature makes neither princes , nor rich men. Soit 
 faute soit malheur Us ont peri. Whether it was their fault 
 or their misfortune, they have perished. 
 
 In proverbial phrases: as chat echaude craint Veau 
 froid, A scalded cat dreads cold water. 
 
 y. When the sentence begins with jamais: as jamais 
 prince ne fut plus cruellement trompe never was a prince 
 more cruelly deceived. 
 
OMISSION OF THE AKTICLE. 
 
 99 
 
 d. With some nouns' of multitude as: quantite^ nombre, 
 force and more rarely moitie^ multitude as: nombre de yens 
 fameux ont ecrit sur ce sujet a number of famous people 
 have written on this subject. 
 
 f . In exclamations when the verb is omitted ; as il n’a pas 
 voulu accepter ce que je ltd ai offert, Fierte! mais dest * 
 tine fierte que Von aime. 
 
 In titles, addresses, and short notices of all kinds, as: 
 il demeure rue de Seine, Tome premier^ page vingt-cinq, 
 
 2. For the sake of euphony when an independant partitive 
 is governed by de as: nous parlions de malheurs we were 
 speaking of some misfortunes, but nous pensions d des malheurs 
 we were thinking of some misfortunes. 
 
 3. When the noun from its use in the sentence loses in 
 a great measure its independant character, hence especially 
 when used 
 
 a, as an apposition or appositive complement (see VI. 3). 
 
 /?. as a dependant pai'titive completing the notion of an 
 adverb of quantity or a noun of measure as: beaucoup de 
 livres, un morceau de pain. 
 
 NOTE. But with a noun depending on hien the def. article must 
 be used as: bien des livres a great many books. 
 
 y. with a preposition as an attribute : as une montre 
 d'Or a gold watch, des bUes d Icdne wool-bearing animals, 
 des gouts contre nature unnatural tastes. 
 
 d. with a preposition as an adverb, as: d suitable, 
 
 en personne personally, par mer by sea, par crainte from 
 fear, d livre ouvert with open book, d vue d’oeil visibly. 
 
 €. as object to a verb with which it forms one notion, 
 especially when the noun is a noun of sensation, or when the action 
 noted by the verb is only general, and is defined by the substantive. 
 Such are avoir faim, soif, peur,^ raison, tort,^ to be hungry, 
 thirsty, frightened, right, wrong, faire alliance, cadeau, choix, 
 excuse to make an alliance, a present, choice, excuse. — The 
 number of such expressions is very great in French; the 
 principle on which they depend is well seen in the difference 
 between prendre conseil and suivre un conseil, between preter 
 serment and rompre le serment. In prendre conseil and 
 prUer serment there is no notion of quantity implied, they 
 mean scarcely more than to consult and to swear. But there 
 
100 
 
 ADJECTIVES. - INFLECTION. 
 
 must be an individual counsel before it can be followed, 
 and an individual oath before it can be broken. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 6. 
 
 1. Autre temps autre usage. 2. Void les frdes Martin, meme 
 taille, meme figure, memes habitudes de corps. 3. L’on ne voyait que 
 champs cultives, que chemins frequentes, qu’ habitations pressees. 
 4. Dignites, age, professions, religion n’arretdent point les fureurs de 
 la debauche. 5. iVcte premier, scdie premide. Le theatre reprdente 
 un salon, porte au fond. 6. Maison a louer. 7. Femme sage est plus 
 que femme belle. 8. Jamais podecomique ne rencontra des circonstances 
 si heureuses. 9. Je demeure place Vendome. 10. Mauvaise herbe croit 
 toujours. 11. II fit mettre le feu a quantite de paille mouillee. 12. 
 J’aime a relire les livres que j’ai lus nombre de fois. 13. Moitie de 
 I’armee de Ligurie fut jetee sur Nice, moitie fut condamnee a s’enfermer 
 dans Gdies. 14. Eose, tes mains sont de glace. 15. Nous mourons 
 de faim. 16. Je I’ai perdu de vue. 17. II a fait cela par crainte. 
 18. Traduisez mot par mot. 19. L’arbre a pain. 20. line lettre sans 
 date. 21. Une caisse d’epargnes. 22. Ce n’est pas servilite, c’est 
 regularite que Fobdssance. 23. Vous avez perdu votre pde, chose 
 deplorable, mais ordinaire. 24. On avait vu de la sur trois cotd. 
 25. La chose fit scandale. 26. Ne parlez pas si legdement de choses 
 que vous ne connaissez pas. 27. Les mdhants ont bien de la peine 
 a demeurer unis. 28. Les longues guerres entrainent toujours aprd 
 elles beaucoup de desordres. 29. II fait tout avec grace. 30. II com- 
 pose a coups de dictionnaire. 
 
 IX. ADJECTIVES. — INFLECTION. 
 
 1. An adjective agrees with the substantive in gender 
 number. If it qualifies more than one substantive it is 
 in the plural. If the substantives are of ditferent genders it 
 is masculine. 
 
 NOTE. Care is generally taken that the substantive next to the 
 masculine adjective should be masculine, as: Cliacun croyait sa vie et 
 son honheiir attaches au siicces. Every one thought his happiness and his 
 life bound up with success. 
 
 2. But the adjective may agree with the last substantive 
 only, if no ambiguity would thus arise, as: Toute sa vie vSa 
 He qiCim travail^ qiCime occupation continuelle. His whcle 
 life has been one continuous work and occupation. But On 
 clemancle un homme ou une femme ages An old man or woman 
 is required. 
 
 3. When the pronouns nous or vous are used for the singular, 
 though the verb is plural an adjective or participle in agreement 
 is singular, as; Ah! que vous Hes honne! How kind you are! 
 
 B. 1. Dewnhalf, is invariable, if preceding the substantive, 
 and forming with it one substantival expression, and is joined to 
 it by a hyphen, as : une demi-heure half an hour. 
 
ADJECTIVES. - INFLECTION. 
 
 101 
 
 If it follows, it is inflected, as: dix heurcs et demie half 
 past ten. 
 
 Demi is used substantively, in the masculine for a half, in the 
 fern, for the half hour, as : un clem.i et trois quarts font un et 
 tin quart a half and three quarters make one and a quarter. La demie 
 est sonnee It has struck the half hour. 
 
 But the half is la moitie. 
 
 2. Feu late, is inflected only when is stands between the 
 article or pronoun and the noun it qualifles, as : la feue reine, 
 but feu la reine the late queen. 
 
 3. Nil naked, bare, is inflected, if it follows its noun, or 
 if the noun it qualifies has the article. But when nu and its 
 substantive form together one attributive expression, it is 
 uninflected and joined to the substantive by a hyphen, as : Us 
 avaient la tete nue, but Us etaient nuUete they were bare- 
 headed, la nue propriete dhtn hien the ownership of a property 
 without the usufruct. 
 
 4. Attendu, y eompris, excepte, franc de port, ote, oui, 
 passe, sauf, suppose and vu are used unchanged in an absolute 
 construction if they precede their substantive, but are inflected 
 if they follow it, as : suppose ctUe circonstance, but cette cir- 
 Constance supposee this circumstance being supposed. 
 
 5. Ci-inclus and ci-joint are uninflected if they stand the 
 first word of an elliptic sentence whether the substantive has 
 the article or not, but in the middle of a sentence only if they 
 precede a substantive without the article , as ; CUinclus la 
 copie Copy inclosed. Vous trouverez ei-joint copie de sa lettre 
 or La copie de sa lettre ci-jointe You will find inclosed a copy 
 of his letter. 
 
 6. Flein full, is uninflected if it stands before a substan- 
 tive, which is the object of the verb avoir, as : Demand e-lui 
 des dragees, il en a toujotirs plein ses poches Ask him for 
 some sugar-plums, he always has his pockets full. 
 
 7. An adjective qualifying gens and standing immediately 
 before it, is feminine, if the feminine form differs in pronunciation 
 from the masculine: otherwise it is masculine, as: Ce sont 
 des gens fort dangereux They are very dangerous people. Les 
 vieilles gens sont soupgonneux Old people are suspicious. 
 Toutes ces honnes gens, but Tons ees braves gens All these 
 good people. 
 
 8. An adjec'ive after avoir fair agrees with fair if the 
 reference is to the outward appearance, but if to the feelings 
 
102 
 
 ADJECTIVES. - INFLECTION. 
 
 it agrees with the subject of the sentence, as: Elle a Vair 
 distingue She is a distinguished-looking person. EUe a Tair 
 honne She looks kind. French grammarians in citing such 
 sentences as the last, are always careful to add, that Vair 
 d'etre honne would be a more correct expression. 
 
 9. Many words used to express colour in French are really 
 substantives; they therefore stand unaltered sometimes alone, 
 sometimes dependant on the word couleur. Such are cerise^ 
 marron, orange etc.; rose and pourpre are generally looked 
 on as adjectives, and inflected, as: des ruhans roses 
 des rubans orange orange ribbons. 
 
 So also real adjectives of colour are treated as substantives 
 if followed by another adjective, or by an attributive phrase, 
 as : une robe grise a grey dress, but une robe gris de perle 
 a pearl-grey dress, des etofles rouge-fonce dark red stuffs. 
 
 10. Compound adjectives are not declined unless both compounds 
 are adjectives; if both compounds are equally attributive both are 
 declined; if the former qualifies the latter adverbially, the latter only 
 is declined as des oranges aigres-douces^ une fille nouveau~nee. 
 
 But often the adjectives are written separately, and then both are 
 declined, as une peche fraiclie cueillie. 
 
 Usage varies considerably in the inflection of compound adjectives; 
 the following are generally cited as varying in the latter compound 
 only f. clair-semee , com^t-vetue, demi-morte^ nouveau-nee. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 7. 
 
 1. Les femmes et les enfants etaient animes duplus grand courage. 
 2. Le travail et I’etude ne peuvent pas seuls former un orateur. 3. Le 
 sourire est une marque de hienveillance, d’applaudissement et de satis- 
 faction interieure. 4. Les SamoyMes se nourrissent de chair ou de 
 poissons crus. 5. La feue reine d’Espagne a legue aux pauvres douze 
 millions et demi de reaux. 6. Diogene marchait nu-tete, pieds nus et 
 couchait dans un tonneau. 7. Les montagnards qui sont nu-pieds en 
 toute saison, marchent rarement la tete nue. 8. Ma pendule ne sonne 
 pas les demies. 9. Toute nue la verite risque de deplaire. 10. J’ai 
 oui dire cela a feu ma soeur. 11. Vous recevrez franc de port les 
 lettres que je vous envoie. 12. Ote deux ou trois chapitres cet ouvrage 
 est excellent. 13. Ci-inclus une traite payable a presentation. 14. Je 
 vous envoie ci-jointe la lettre qui vous interesse. 15. J’ai des soldats 
 plein ma ville. 16. Tous nos gens sont arrives. 17. II n’y a de bonnes 
 gens que ceux qui rient. 18. Ces fruits ont Pair gates; du reste, ils 
 n’avaient pas Pair murs quand on les a cueillis. 19. Vos soeurs ont 
 achete un assortiment de rubans de toutes couleurs, blancs, ponceau, 
 verts, marron, roses, pourpre, bleus et orange. 20. Une jument bai-brun. 
 21. Une jeune pouliche chatain-clair. 22. Les beautes sont clair-semees 
 dans ce pome. 23. Le Pharaon faisait perir tous les nouveau-nes des 
 Hebreux. 
 
ADJECTIVES CONTINUED. 
 
 103 
 
 X. ADJECTIVES CONTINUED. 
 
 A. Position of adjectives. 
 
 The position of adjectives is affected either 1. by the 
 force of the word or 2. by laws of euphony. 
 
 1. As a general rule the adjective placed before the sub- 
 stantive has the force of an attribute, after it of an appositive 
 complement. Hence the following rules. 
 
 a. If the adjective is expressive of a character contained 
 in the notion of the substantive it stands before it ; if it marks 
 the substantive as an exception to the class to which it belongs 
 it stands after it, as : un fidele ami, but un homme fidele, un 
 pere dur. 
 
 Taken in its first meaning the adjective follows its 
 substantive, taken figuratively it precedes it, the figure being only 
 justified by its conformity to the character of the noun , as : 
 une robe noire, but un noir chagrin, 
 
 y. Adjectives of colour, taste, form, nationality etc. mostly 
 follow their noun, as serving to distinguish it from others of 
 the same class, as : une etoffe jaune, une table ronde, la langue 
 anglaise, but les vertes prairies, les jaunes epis, 
 
 S, Some adjectives change their meaning with their 
 position, chiefly in accordance with rules 1. and 2. as: 
 
 folio win Of — 
 
 good. 
 
 » = brave. 
 
 » = polite. 
 
 » = not rich. 
 
 » = impolite. 
 
 » = tall, 
 
 the substantive : bon, 
 long, petit, vaste, — 
 
 preceding bon — simple, 
 
 » brave = good, 
 
 » lionnUe — honest 
 
 » pauvre — contemptible, 
 
 » malhonnete — - dishonest 
 
 » grand = great 
 
 e. The following generally precede 
 mauvais, mechant, sot, — haut, gros, 
 beau, joli, vilain, — jeune, vieux. 
 
 2. But euphony often decides the position. 
 a. Polysyllabic adjectives generally follow their noun, and 
 always such as have words dependant on them : as 
 
 un beau tableau, un tableau magnifique, des paniers 
 pleins de pommes^ 
 
 Two adjectives coupled by et usually follow their noun; 
 if the conjunction is wanting, one generally precedes, the other 
 follows : as 
 
104 
 
 ADJECTIVES CONTINUED. 
 
 tin homme grand et fort, tin petit homme rahougri a 
 little stunted man. 
 
 B. Adjectives used as substantives. 
 
 1. Adjectives may be used as substantives by prefixing 
 an article ; of persons, both in the singular and plural : as le 
 sage, une ignorante, les vertiieux, des sots ; of things, mostly of 
 the abstract notion conveyed by the adjective and therefore 
 singular; as juger du fort et dii faille d\in discours. 
 
 2. As partitives adjectives stand with the preposition de 
 dependant on expressions which betoken a quantity. 
 
 a. W^ith the pronouns quelque chose, rien, ceci, cela, quoi 
 and que interrogative, and the neuter ce invariably as: quel- 
 que chose d'absurde something absurd, 7ien de plus difficile 
 nothing* more difficult, quoi de plus insense? what is there more 
 senseless? ce quHl y a de vrai what is true. 
 
 jS. With quelqu’un, 2 :)ersomte, aucun, numerals, and sub- 
 stantives of quantity frequently as: il y en a quelques-unes 
 d’asse^ belles there are some rather pretty ones, trois mille 
 hommes de tues three thousand slain, trois pieds de large, 
 three feet broad. 
 
 C. Comparison of adjectives. 
 
 In three instances French is more exact than Latin or 
 English in using adverbs in place of the inflections which mark 
 comparison. 
 
 «. When it is wished to state that one quality increases or 
 decreases proportionately to another we can use comparative 
 forms of adjectives and say the braver men are, the more modest 
 they are, meaning the more men are brave, the more they 
 are modest. French marks that here there is no comparison 
 between the two terms, not only by using in all cases adverbs, 
 but by separating them from the adjective, the adverb standing 
 before the verb , the adjective after, as : Plus on est brave , 
 plus on est modeste. Moins on est riche, plus on a honte de 
 ne pas depenser d' argent The less rich we are, the more ashamed 
 we are of not spending money. 
 
 /?. In the superlative degree when we wish to increase the 
 force of the adjective without any notion of comparison we 
 use the superlative degree. This can never be done in French: 
 My dearest father must be translated mon tres-cher pere ; 
 but my dearest hope will be mon plus cher espoir. 
 
PEBSONAL PRONOUNS. INDEPENDANT FORMS. 
 
 105 
 
 7. Where we use the superlative, not of a comparison 
 between the object so qualified and others of the same class, 
 but of one between different qualities or states of the same 
 object, the French rightly uses the superlative adverb, and not 
 the superlative adjective, so that the article le in le phis, le 
 mains remains unaltered, as: C'est ordinairement pendant 
 la niiit que les malades sont le phis inqiiiets. It is usually 
 during the night that sick persons are most restless (= are 
 restless more than at any other time). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 8. 
 
 1. La blanche neige siir la montagne. 2. Les immenses baleines. 
 3. L’heureux sejour des ames justes. 4. Les riches dons de la feconde 
 Ceres. 5. Les pares beautes de la poesie antique. 6. Charlemagne 
 etait un de ces tres-rares grands hommes, qui sont aussi des hommes 
 grands. 7. Par mon saint, messieurs les Fran^ais, vous etes de braves 
 gens! — Et des gens braves je m’en flatte. 8. Etre un homme honnete 
 ne suffit pas, il faut encore etre honnete homme. 9. Une blessure 
 mortelle. 10. Une mortelle tristesse. 11. La flotte danoise. 12. Nous 
 faisons cas du beau, nous meprisons Futile. 13. Le faible est destine 
 pour servir le plus fort. 14. A Paris le riche sait tout. 15. Ce sont 
 de pauvres aveugles. 16. Qu’ y a-t-il de plus simple que le quatrime 
 livre de Virgile? 17. La vertu a cela d’heureux, qu’elle se suffit a 
 elle-mtoe. 18. Vous vous attacherez quelqu’un d’aimable qui vous devra 
 tout. 19. Je ne connais personne d’aussi heureux que cette femme. 
 20. II lui reste encore un bras de fibre. 21. C’eut ete autant d’argent 
 d’epargne. 22. Plus Fexemple est grand, plus il est dangereux. 23. 
 Notre tres-cher grand -pere est mort. 24. Les idees sont le plus 
 naturelles, lorsqu’elles sont le plus conformes a la raison. 25. L’Angle- 
 terre etait le pays oii de bonne heure Feducation fut le plus fibre. 
 26, Je les ai faits le plus courts que j’ai pu. 
 
 XI. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. INDEPENDANT 
 
 FORMS. 
 
 1. The independant forms of pronouns are those, which 
 answer to that form of the substantive which remained, when 
 case inflexions were dropt. 
 
 The so called cases of French pronouns are simply 
 unemphatic forms used in immediate connection with verbs, and 
 no substantive, adjective or preposition can have a conjunctive 
 pronoun dependant on it. 
 
 To translate such a sentence, as The horse is an animal 
 
 useful to I ’ into French, a different construction is required 
 
 to represent the relation of the pronoun from that of the 
 substantive man to useful, 
 
 Arinitago, Frencli gratniTiaT. 8 
 
106 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. INDEPENDANT FORMS. 
 
 For useful as an adjective cannot govern a case of a 
 pronoun, and a verb must therefore be introduced: Le cheval 
 
 , • 7 f utile aux hommes. 
 
 Lst un ammal • . .n 
 
 \ qm nous est utile. 
 
 Hence the independant forms of the personal pronouns 
 may be used in all relations and must be used wherever the 
 pronoun is not in immediate connection with a verb, or when 
 though in connection with a verb special emphasis is laid 
 upon it. So 
 
 u. With prepositions, as : la lettre est pour toi the letter 
 is for you. 
 
 When complement of the verb etre.^ as: qui est la? 
 C^est moi. Who is there? I am. 
 
 y. When there is an ellipse of the verb to which the 
 pronoun belongs, as: II est plus grand que toi, He is taller 
 than vou are. 
 
 d. When strengthened by a word following as mhne 
 (which is joined to the pronoun by a hyphen), aussi or seul, 
 as : Eux-memes me grondaient. They themselves scolded me. 
 
 e. As antecedent to a relative clause, as : Lui qui me 
 menace He, who threatens me. 
 
 W^hen there is opposition, as Mon pere ne niaime pas, 
 toi, tu me detestes My father does not like me, and you 
 hate me. 
 
 Whenever a pronoun is one of two subjects or of two 
 objects, as: II nous regarde moi et toi He is looking at you 
 and me. Ils sont yartis lui ^ sa soeur He and his sister 
 have left. 
 
 NOTE. That almost always when an independant pronoun form 
 of the 1st or 2^ person, and generally when one of the person 
 is subject or object of a verb, a conjunctive form is also added, as: 
 'Eux-memes Us me grondaient They themselves scolded me, Je te meprisc 
 toi qui me menaces 1 despise you who are threatening me. 
 
 And further that when of two' subjects or objects one or both 
 are pronouns, a conjunctive pronoun in apposition is usually expressed, 
 as Mon fils et moi nous sonimes fatigues I and my son are weary. 
 
 2. The independant forms of the personal pronouns are 
 also used reflexive! y after prepositions, the pronouns of the 
 3^ person as well as those of the 1®*' and 2^^ person , as Tu 
 songes trap d toi You think too much about yourself. II 
 travaille pour lui He is working for himself. 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. INUEPENDANT FORMS. 107 
 
 Soi, though the independant form of the reflexive pronoun 
 of the 3^ person, is in use almost restricted to cases where 
 the subject is indefinite, as : On rit sonvent malgre soi We 
 often laugh in spite of ourselves. 
 
 3. The independant forms hiiy elle, enx. elles are chiefly 
 used of persons , rarely of things unless personified ; when 
 therefore these pronouns would come under the government 
 of prepositions in reference to things, various expedients are 
 adopted to avoid the necessity of using them. For the two 
 commonest prepositions de and a, in place of the preposition 
 and pronoun adverbs are used, en (Lat. inde) for de lui^ 
 d'elle^ d'eux^ d’elles^ y (Lat. ibi) for a lui, a elle^ d eux, delies. 
 If these forms would come under the government of any other 
 prepositions, some other form of expression is used: as Void 
 votre paletot.^ il ne faut pas sortir sans V avoir Here is your 
 great-coat, you must not go out without it. La table est Id, 
 mais il n^y a rien dessus The table is there , but there is 
 nothing on it. Void vos plumes, nous nous en servions pour 
 ecrire. Here are your pens, we were writing with them. 
 
 4. En stands regularly for the independant forms of the 
 pronouns of the 3^ person when governed by de. It is used 
 chiefly of things, less often of persons, except in a general sense, 
 but its use seems to be extending in this respect, as : Parle^- 
 vous de mon habit? Oui, nous en parlions. Were you speaking 
 of my coat ? Yes, we were speaking of it. Eougisse^-vous dc 
 VOS amis ? On ne doit pas en rougir. Are you ashamed of 
 your friends? You ought not to be ashamed of them. 
 
 Its most frequent use is to replace a partitive genitive, 
 where the pronoun in English is often omitted, especially after 
 numerals, as: Ave^-vou^ des poires? Oui, j'en ai. Combien 
 en ave^-vous? Pen ai trois. Have you any pears? Yes, I 
 have. How many have you ? I have three. 
 
 5. Y is used for d lui, d elle, d eux, d elles chiefly of 
 
 things, but with some verbs, as: se fier, penser, songer , also 
 of persons, as : Voild mes conditions, y consentez-vous ? Those 
 are my conditions, do you agree to them ? O'" est un ingrat, 
 
 r?y pensez plus. He is an ungrateful fellow, think no more 
 of him. 
 
 6. For position en and y are treated as the conjunctive 
 forms (XII. 3 k 4), but stand always after conjunctive pronouns, 
 if both occur in the same sentence y stands before en. 
 
108 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 Except that with an affirmative imperative y precedes toi, 
 which ending in a vowel would cause an unpleasant hiatus, as: 
 Fies~y~toi not Fie-toi y Rely upon it. 
 
 NOTE. En and y are equally used in their proper sense as 
 adverbs of place, en of motion from, y of either motion to, or rest in 
 " a place, as : Allez-voiis a la ville ? Non, fen reviens. Moi fy mis. 
 Voulez-vous y rester? Are you going to the town? No, I am on my 
 way back from it (thence). I am going there. Do you intend to 
 stay there ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 0. 
 
 1. Les liens que forme I’ambition ne tardent pas a etre romptis 
 par elle. 2. II faut etre moi pour trouver un plaisir a roder au pied 
 de ces bastions. 3. On pent etre soi sous le nom d’un autre. 4. Vous 
 savez mieux que moi combien il merite d’etre pleure. 5. Quoique je 
 n’eusse pas parle, c’est moi qu’il rassure. fi. II me prit chez lui des 
 mon enfance. 7. Je le choisis , lui de preference a tout autre. 8. II 
 me verra moi et mon domestique. 9. Le voila lui-meme. 10. La fortune 
 nous a persecutes lui et moi. 11. Quant a la raison que vous m’alleguez, 
 je m’y rends. 12. Je recois votre lettre, ma chere enfant, et j’y fais 
 reponse avec precipitation. 13. II est moins aise de se guerir de 
 I’ambition que de s’en preserver. 14. Rien n’est plus danger eux que 
 I’autorite en des mains qui ne savent pas en faire usage. 15. Les 
 princes sont surtout ceux qu’on pent le moins bien connaitre; la 
 renommee en parle rarement sans passion. 16. J’ai fait tant de 
 corrections, j’y en feral tant encore. 17. Quoique je parle beaucoup 
 de vous, ma fille, j’y pense encore davantage. 18. Cette maladie est 
 dangereuse, il pourrait en mourrir. 19. Avez-vous des nouvelles? Oui, 
 monsieur, nous en avons de bonnes. 20. Ce fondement est mal afferrai, 
 nous craignons de batir dessus. 
 
 XII. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 FORMS. 
 
 The conjunctive forms of pronouns are used as subject, 
 object, indirect object or complement always in immediate con- 
 nection with a verb, the adverbs en and y and the negative 
 particle ne being the only words allowed to intervene. 
 
 1. Je, me, te, se, le and la suffer elision before a word 
 beginning with a vowel, when they precede the verb. 
 
 2. The subject forms are placed after the verb and are 
 joined to it by a hyphen a. in questions, after quotations 
 which are the object of the verb, y. in wishes and concessive 
 sentences with the conjunction suppressed, S, when the sentence 
 is begun by certain adverbs as: a peine, atissi, au moins, 
 du moins, encore, en vain, peut-Hre, toujour s etc., as: 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 109 
 
 Qu^ ave^-vons dit? have you said? Cenest rien^ repon- 
 
 dit~ih It is nothing, he answered, y, infants ^ toujour s ainsi 
 puissie^-votis ' etre unis. Children, may you always he thus 
 united. Pent-etre ai-je eit tort. Perhaps I have been wrong. 
 
 NOTE. With the pronoun following if the l«t person singular of 
 the verb ends in e mute, the e mute receives an acute accent; if the 
 od person sing, ends in a vowel, a i is added joined by hyphens to both 
 the verb and the pronoun, as: Pttiss&je vous dormer Vexemple de 
 miiffrir ! May I give you the example of suffering ! Qidy a-t-il de plus 
 convendble a la puissance c[ue de secouriv la vertii? Wluxt is there more 
 suitable for power than to aid virtue? 
 
 3. The forms of the direct and indirect object precede the 
 verb, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively. If 
 both direct and indirect object are pronouns, the pronouns of 
 the and 2^ person precede pronouns of the 3^ person; but 
 if both pronouns are of the 3*^ person, the accusative pre- 
 cedes the dative, as: 11 me le donne. He gives it to me. 
 II le lid donne. He gives it to her. 
 
 NOTE. When pronouns are governed by a verb in the infinitive 
 mood without preposition and not negatived, they often precede the 
 verb on which the infinitive depends. This is always the case with 
 faire, laisser, entendre, voir, sentir and envoy er, and frequently with 
 devoir, j) our oir, voaloir, when followed by an, infinitive, as: Elle s’est 
 fait aimer. She has made herself loved. Pien ne le poiivait satisfaire. 
 Nothing could satisfy him. 
 
 4. In the imperative mood used affirmatively 
 
 cc. The pronouns of the direct and indirect object follow 
 the verb, as Pites-le-hd. Tell it her. 
 
 The accusative always precedes the dative, as Donne^-le- 
 nous. Give it to us. 
 
 y. Moi and toi are used for me and te except when the 
 adverb en follows, as Tais-toi. Hold your tongue. Prete^- 
 mUen. Lend me some. 
 
 8. The pronoun is joined to the verb by a hyphen, the 
 accusative if it is a pronoun, if not the dative, as Pendez- 
 le-moi. Give it back to me. Pendez-moi mon eanif. Give 
 me back my knife. 
 
 NOTE. With the imperative mood used negatively the usual rules 
 hold good. When two imperatives are joined by a conjunction, with 
 the latter either the usual rules, or the special imperative rules may 
 have force, as: Ne me le rendez pas. Do not give it back to me. 
 Eonnez-moi votre eanif, ou me le pretez {o\i prHez-le-moi). Give me 
 your knife or lend it to me. 
 
110 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 5. The forms of the direct and indirect object are also 
 used reflexively for the 1'^*’ and 2^^ persons, as Je m^aime, I 
 lo've myself. Vans Hes~voiis hlesse la main? Have you hurt 
 your hand ? 
 
 6. The forms il , and le accusative and complement, are 
 really neuter in certain cases. II before impersonal verbs, and 
 before eire with an adjective when the real subject, an infinitive 
 mood or a sentence, follows, as: 11 est juste qiCim meurtrier 
 perisse. It is right, that a murderer should die. 
 
 The accusative le is neuter when used to replace an infini- 
 tive mood or a sentence, as: Repondes-moi si' vous le 
 pouve^^ = si uous pouvez repondre^ Answer me if you can. 
 It also occurs in some few idiomatic expressions, as: V emporter 
 sur, to have an advantage over, le ceder d, to give way to etc. 
 The complement le occurs much more frecpiently as neuter (vid. 
 8. below). 
 
 7. The complement forms le, la, les, seldom expressed in 
 English, but necessary in French, because the verb Hre by 
 itself cannot stand as a predicate, are only used of persons, 
 when the subject is personal, as: Ces dames-ld sont-elles vos 
 cousines? Oui, monsieur, elles les sont. Are these ladies 
 your cousins ? Yes, *Sir, they are (they). 
 
 Of inanimate things these forms can also be used, when 
 the neuter pronoun ee is the subject, provided the pronoun is 
 not followed by a limiting expression as: Sont-ce Id vos mai- 
 sons? O'ui, ce les sont. Are these your houses? Yes, they 
 are. But JEst-ee Id votre soeur? Oui, E est elle. Is that your 
 sister ? Yes^ it is. 
 
 8. The neuter complement le is used, when the notion 
 replaced by it is that of an attribute, whether the reference is 
 to an adjective or a substantive used attributively , as: I^tes- 
 vous heureux? Oui, nous le sommes. Are you happy? 
 Yes, we are. Fles-vous instihitrice , mademoiselle? Non, 
 monsieur, je ne le s%iis pas. Are you a governess ? No, sir, 
 I am not. But Ftes-vous V institutrice ? Non, je ne la suis 
 pas. Are you the governess ? No, I am not. 
 
 9. A conjunctive dative form cannot be used for the 
 indirect object, if the accusative of the verb is a pronoun of 
 the or 2^^ person, or the reflexive pronoun. In these cases 
 the dative of the pronoun must be replaced by an inde- 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. CONJUNCTIVE FORMS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 pendant form with the preposition d, as II ni a ][)resente a 
 elle. He introduced me to her. But II me Va presentee. He 
 introduced her to me. 
 
 NOTE. It is not always the case that a verb which takes a noun 
 with the preposition a may take a dative of a pronoun. With penser, 
 songer d, etre d, en appeler d, renoncer d, accoutimier d and verbs of 
 simple motion as venir^ courir., the preposition d retains the special 
 force of the Latin ad'^ the noun therefore must he replaced by a 
 pronoun of the independant form and the preposition d retained, as : 
 Je pense d toi I am thinking of you. If however the verb of motion 
 is used figuratively, or if a further notion as of advantage or disadvan- 
 tage is involved, the dative of the pronoun is used, as : line idee me 
 cint An idea occurred to me (Lat. Venit mihi in mentem). 
 
 10. Pronouns are regularly repeated with each verb, but 
 in the case of subjects the repetition may be neglected to increase 
 the energy of the phrase, and of objects the pronoun need not 
 be repeated if the verbs are in a compound tense and require 
 the same case, as : II prit.^ qiiitta, reprit la cnirasse. He took 
 up, put down, and took again the breastplate. Voire pere mh 
 appris et raconte tons vos mallieurs. Your father has told 
 me of all your misfortunes and related them to me. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Diit-il oublier tout ce que j’ai fait pour lui, je ne regretterai 
 jamais de lui avoir ete utile. 2. S’il n’est pas fort riche, du moins 
 a-t-il de quoi vivre. 3. Que ne puis-je t’exprimer ce que je sens si 
 hien ! 4. Demande-toi le soir avant de te coucher le hien que tu auras 
 fait dans la journee. 5. Ne te reproche jamais I’assistance que tii 
 auras donnee a un malheureux. 6. Avez-vous quelques verites a faire 
 entendre aux rois? Ne les leur dites pas. 7. Si vos amis commettent 
 des fautes graves, reprochez-les leur franchement. 8. Reste dans le 
 jardin a m’attendre et promenes-y-toi un moment. 9. Cet homme est 
 malheureux; allez a lui; aidez-le; pretez-lui du secours, il vous le 
 rendra an hesoin. 10. Sont-ce vos clievaux qui se sont echappes dans 
 la foret? Ce sont eux. 11. Est-ce hien la votre pensee? Ce Test. 
 12. Vous parlez de mes litres; eh hien, le croiriez-vous, ce sont eux 
 qui me nuisent. 13. Etes-vous les prisonniers qu’on a amenes 
 d’Allemagne? Nous les sommes. 14. Les pauvres sont moins souvent 
 malades faute de nourriture, que les riches ne le devieniient pour en 
 prendre trop. 15. Etes-vous deputes de Paris? Nous le sommes. 
 fites-vous les deputes de cet arrondissement ? Nous ne les sommes pas. 
 16. Antoine et Brutus se sont attaques et se sont fait la guerre avec 
 fureur. 17. Us nous ont offert et predigue tous les secours possibles. 
 18. La mort nous guette, nous attend, nous frappe sans que nous nous 
 en apercevions. 19. II s’est presente a moi les larmes aux yeux. 
 
112 
 
 THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 xm. THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 1 . The substantival pronouns stand in place of a possessive 
 adjective and its substantive. 
 
 They are really independant adjectival pronouns (see A XL 3. n.) 
 •with the definite arlicle. We still find though rarely the use of these 
 forms as adjectives, when, standing without a substantive, they yet do 
 not connote the noun they qualify , as : Ses cUfauts sont siens^ comme 
 ^es qualites His faults are his own, as are his virtues. 
 
 In such phrases: as un mien ami for the usual de mes amis 
 a friend of mine, the forms mie^i, tien, sien, are occasionally found 
 used jokingly, as conjunctive adjectives. 
 
 NOTE. The substantival possessive pronouns arc also used as actual 
 substantives, in the singular of the property of the person, in the plural 
 of persons connected by relationship or other ties with the person, to 
 whom the pronoun refers, as : Entre parents si proclies qiie nous le 
 sommes le tien et le mien sont sans valeiir. Between such near relatives 
 as we are to each other, meiim and tmim have no meaning. Les notres 
 se sont hien comportes pendant le combat. Our men behaved well 
 during the fight. 
 
 2. The substantival possessive pronouns cannot stand as com- 
 plements in the sense of simple possession. This hooJc is mine 
 must be translated ce livre est a moi\ and similarly when there 
 is an ellipse of the verb, as in finishing a letter yours truly 
 Avould be translated tout a volts. 
 
 3. Son^ sa, ses. leitr and leurs chiefly refer to persons, 
 and in reference to things are replaced by the adverb en. But 
 this cannot occur, if the pronoun is in the same sentence as 
 the noun, or if the noun qualified by en is the subject of any 
 verb but Hre.^ or under the government of a preposition : as 
 Le chateau nest pas loin., fen apergois les creneaux^ the 
 casile is not far olf, I see its battlements; Les creneaux en sont 
 remarquahles^ its battlements are noteworthy. But le chateau 
 a perdu ses ermeaux, the castle has lost its battlements; 
 f apergois le sommet de ses creneaux., I see the top of its 
 battlements; ses creneaux se detachent d Vhorizon, its battle- 
 ments stand out against the horizon. 
 
 In one construction son, sa is used in French, where it cannot be 
 translated in English. Where sentir has a substantive of cognate 
 signification as object, son, sa is often added to mark the word as a 
 characteristic quality of the subject, as: Cela sent son ineillard, That 
 is like an old man (lit. smacks of its old man). 
 
 4. a. The definite article is used in place of a pos- 
 sessive pronoun with nouns, which stand in relation to the 
 subject as part to the whole (vid, S. IV. 4)-; if the verb is any 
 
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 IIB 
 
 other than avoir, a dative of a personal pronoun is added to 
 the verb : as Us se frottaient les yeiix, they rubbed their eyes. 
 Je me suis casse le hr as, I have broken my arm. 
 
 Further when the notion of benefit or injury to the 
 subject of the sentence is involved the above construction may 
 be used though the noun is not a part to the subject: as 
 JEUe lui baisa la main. She kissed his hand. 
 
 y. But if anything is unusual in the occurrence, or if a 
 lasting effect is signified, the possessive pronoun is used : as le 
 petit commengait a frotter ses yeux pour montrer qu il avail 
 dessein de pleiirer, the little fellow began to rub his eyes to 
 show that he intended to cry. Quoiqn'il soil toujoitrs incom- 
 mode de son bras. Although he still suffers from his arm. 
 
 The notions contained by such Avords as air, goiit, esprit, vie etc. 
 are treated in the same way as if they were material parts of the 
 subject, as : Cette femme a Vair fier, Tliat woman has a proud look. 
 
 5. Possessive pronouns cannot be pi-eceded by any pro- 
 nominal adjective except tout, as tons mes amis all my friends. 
 But we must translate both my friends by mes deux amis or 
 him et Vautre de mes amis, and these my friends by mes 
 amis que void. 
 
 6. In Monsieur, 3Iadame and Mademoiselle the pronoun 
 and noun are written as one word, but except with 3Ionsieiir 
 the above rule is applicable. Alonsieur from the disuse of 
 the word sienr (now only a legal term) is considered as a sub- 
 stantive, and we therefore can sa}^ ce monsienr, this gentle- 
 man, but cette dame, cette demoiselle. 
 
 7. Adjectival pronouns, whether possessive, demonstrative 
 or interrogative, must be repeated with each substantive ; 
 except that when one idea is conveyed by two nouns , the 
 pronoun in some few cases may be used once only in the 
 plural preceding th e two nouns , as : Ses pere et mere His 
 father and mother (= parents). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 11. 
 
 1. Chacun de nous a son devoir a remplir: faites le votre, je 
 remplirai le mien. 2. Les journaux attendent le jugement du public 
 pour y conformer le leur. 3. Votre crainte est plus fondee que la 
 notre. 4. La gaiete est la sante de Tame, la tristesse en est le poison. 
 5. L’eclat attire les orages de la fortune, mais I’obscurite met a Fabri 
 de ses coups. 6. II faut honorer son pere et sa mere. 7. L’auteur 
 d’un bienfait est celui qui en regoit le fruit le plus doux. 8. C’est 
 parce que For est rare que Fon a invente la doriire qui, sans en avoir 
 la soiidite, en a tout le brillant. 9, Cette affaire est delicate; le succes 
 
114 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 en est douteux. 10. Quand on est dans un pays il faut en suivre 
 I’usage. 11. Quand je I’ai apergu les jambes m’ont tremble et le coeur 
 me battait si fort, que je n’en pouvais plus. 12. II ne dechirait point 
 ses habits et ne salissait point ses mains. 13. J’ai la migraine, je 
 vais me coucher. 14. II n’a pu me recevoir, il avait encore sa migraine. 
 15. Il a la mauvaise habitude de se manger les ongles. 16. Zopyre 
 se coupa le nez et les oreilles pour faciliter a Darius la prise de 
 Babylone. 17. Elle lui donna sa main a baisser. 18. Qu’avez-vous, 
 Monsieur? Je souffre a ma jambe. 19. Qu’avez-vous, Madame? J’ai 
 mal au bras. 20. Rien ne sent plus son homme de genie. 
 
 XIV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A. Independant forms. 
 
 1. The substantival forms are all independant, but the 
 indeclinable ce is also used conjunctively and must be con- 
 sidered separately. They can only be used when defined by 
 the adverbs ci and Za, by a partitive genitive, or by a relative 
 clause (vid. A. XIV). 
 
 In some few instances the substantival *celui etc. is found defined 
 by an adjective or participle as: Dans des cir Constances comme celles 
 actuelles, Thiers. 
 
 2. When opposed to each other celui-ci^ celui-la etc. are 
 used like the Latin Me — ille to mean the latter — the former 
 as : les clocteiirs sticcedent aux martyrs ; eeux-ci n'avaient eu 
 que leur foi^ ceux-la ont leur foi et leur genie the latter had 
 only their faith, the former have their faith and their genius. 
 
 3. Ce as an independant form is either followed by a 
 relative clause, or has ci or la attached : as ee que fai dity 
 ce qui m’' amuse; ceci m' amuse , mais cela m'ennuie. 
 
 Only in some few prepositional phrases is it found without 
 further definition. Of these sur ce thereupon, is the only one 
 in common use. With a participle it occurs absolutely in ce 
 dit , ce fait this having been said , done , but the phrases 
 rarel)^ occur. 
 
 Cela is used, ce and la separate (vid. A. XIV. 4) as 
 grammatical subject of Hre^ the real subject standing as 
 grammatical complement, in the sense of such, of such a hind, 
 referring to what has preceded, as Ce sont la mes sentiments^ 
 Such are my feelings on the subject. 
 
 4. Of ceci and cela^ when not opposed, it may be noted 
 that ceci is used of what is actually present, cela more generally. 
 Ceci again is used like the Latin illud of what is tbout to 
 follow, cela of what has already been stated. 
 
 NOTE. Cela in familiar language is often written ga, and may be 
 used contemptuously even of persons. 
 
DEMONSTKATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 115 
 
 B. Conjunctive form ce, 
 
 Ce (c^ before a vowel, Q before a) as a conjunctive 
 pronoun may stand as subject to Hre^ or devoir and pouvoir 
 when followed by etre^ and in parenthetic sentences to sembler, 
 Ce is found as subject to etre in the following cases: 
 
 1. It stands for the personal pronouns il^ elle^ Us, elles 
 of persons already mentioned or where the reference cannot 
 be mistaken when the noun which is the complement of etre is 
 defined in quantity, that is when it is the name of an individual 
 as a proper name or a personal pronoun, or is defined by an 
 article, or an adjectival pronoun. Ce has the verb in the 
 plural if the noun .is plural, but in the case of a pronoun 
 usually only if of the 3*^ person as well as of the plural 
 number, as Qiii est Id? C'est Robert. Cest nous. Ce sort 
 des etudiants. Je croyais que c’etaient mes soeurs. N’etaient-ce 
 pas elles ? 
 
 2. It stands for celiti^ celle, eeiix.^ eelles, when a relative 
 clause, which defines the subject ce^ is put after the complement, 
 as : Ce sont nos metJiodes qiii nous egarent. Our habits are 
 what lead us wrong, (lit. those, which lead us wrong, are our 
 habits). As above (in 1) the verb is plural if the noun is 
 plural, or the pronoun is plural and of the 3^ person. 
 
 NOTE. In modern French the verb in the relative clause is 
 attracted to the number and person of the complement, as: C^est toi 
 qui Vas dit\ hut in older authors we also find it agree with the real 
 antecedent ce, as : Cest moi qui se nomme Sganarelle. Moliere. 
 
 3. It stands for the neuter pronoun il when the predicate 
 of etre is an adjective, but only when it refers to something 
 going before, as voiis etes fatigue., e^ est evident, but we must 
 say il est evident que vous Hes fatigue. In place of the 
 adjective an infinitive with d may stand as: c* est d dire. 
 
 The same rule applies to ce as subject to sembler, except 
 that its use then is not obligatory, even though referring to 
 
 what precedes as : vous deve^, me semble, Hre fatigue. So too 
 
 e?est vrai or il est vrai may be used in the middle of a sen- 
 fence with scarcely any difference of meaning. 
 
 4. Ce is subject of Hre when the predicate is a neuter 
 pronoun suppressed, so that c'est — o' est cela the case is, the 
 fact is : as c^est que vous ave^ tort the fact is that you 
 are wrong. This form is often used, as in English, to give 
 
116 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 special emphasis to words, when the word emphasized is placed 
 as an apparent complement to Hre^ as G^est a vous que je 
 parle It is to yon that I am speaking (lit. The fact is that 
 I am speaking to you). 
 
 Under this rule come the ordinary phrases est-ce que ? 
 rHest-ce pas ? Is it the case that — Is it not the case ? and 
 the conditional phrase si cen'^est except, as: II voiis ressenible^ 
 si ce rCest qu’il est trap petit He is like you, except that he 
 is too small. 
 
 5 . Ce stands as grammatical subject to Hre when the 
 real subject follows the predicate: as &est faiblesse decraindre 
 la philosopMe des pcCiens, Very frequently the real subject 
 is introduced by que when grammatically que introduces a 
 relative clause to the antecedent ce, of which the verb is 
 suppressed: as e'est une eharmante chose qu^une femme, a 
 woman is a charming thing, lit. that is a charming thing 
 which a woman is. 
 
 6. Ce stands pleonastically as subject to Hre marking 
 the identity of the subject with the predicate: as la propriete 
 dest le vol, property is nothing else than theft. This use is 
 especially common when the subject which ce recalls is a 
 previous demonstrative pronoun with a relative clause or an 
 infinitive mood. Its use is then imperative if the complement of 
 such a relative clause is a substantival notion, or if an infinitive 
 is the complement of etre as well as the subject: as Geliii que 
 faime le plus c’cst mon pere The person I love most is my 
 father, but celui que faime le plus est loin dHci. He, whom 
 I love most is far from here. Vivre ce n’ est pas respirer, 
 o' est agir. Living is not breathing but acting. 
 
 NOTE. The use of the demonstrative pronouns in French is much 
 more extensive than in English. While we employ the personal pronouns 
 of indefinite individuals, the French more correctly uses the demonstratives, 
 as: Gelui-Ja trouvera hien, qui pense Men He, who thinks well, will 
 find well. Again of definite individuals we often use expressions such 
 as the person, the man, the one, where the demonstrative would be 
 right, as : J\ii joint a ma lettre celle qui a etc ecrite par le prince. 
 I have added to my letter the one which was written by the prince. 
 (For the use of the demonstrative and relative in independant interrogations 
 see S. XVI. D. 3.) Lastly the demonstrative ce is continually used in 
 French to give the force to a word which in English would only be 
 conveyed by emphasis in pronunciation, as: Cest a vous que je 'parle 
 1 am speaking to 'you. Est-cc qii’il vous a dit ceJa ? Did he tell you so ? 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 117 
 
 EXAMPLES. 12. 
 
 1 . Tel est I’avantage qii’ont sur la beaute les talents; ceiix-ci 
 plaisent dans tons les temps, celle-la n’a qii’im temps pour plaire. 
 2 . Sur ce, bonsoir, frere, voila mon dernier mot. 3. Yous parlez de 
 gens desinteresses ; ceux-la sont rares. 4. Ceiui-la est pauvre, dont la 
 depense excMe le revenu. 5. C’est une belle priere que celle-ci : mon 
 Dieu, gardez-moi de moi-meme. 6 . II y avait ceci de particulier chez 
 les Remains , qu’ils melaient quelque sentiment religieux a Tamour 
 Qu’ils avaient pour leur patrie. 7. C’est moi qui vous le dis. 8 . L’argent, 
 mon clier, I’argent c’est la seule puissance. 9. Le plus grand des soins 
 ce doit etre celui d’eviter la famine. 10 . Ce sera vous, messieurs, qui 
 le ferez. 11 . Bien loin d’etre des demi-dieux, ce ne sont pas memo 
 des hommes. 12 . Je partis sans lumiere; si j’en avais eii, 9 ’aurait 
 peut-etre ete pis encore. 13. Je veux le voir. C’est inutile. 14. Quelle 
 heure est-ce? C’est huit lieures. 15. Ce furent les Pheniciens, qui, 
 les premiers, inventerent I’ecriture. 16. Est-ce qu’il y a quelqu’un ici? 
 17. II vous ressemble si ce n’est qii’il est trop petit. 18. Cesser do 
 vivre, est-ce un si grand malbeur? 19. Le vrai moyen d’etre trompe^ 
 c’est de se croire plus fin que les autres. 20. C’est beaucoup que de 
 savoir commander. 21 . Le premier commandement de la religion c’est 
 d’aimer Dieu. 22. Le besoin d’une nation c’est la paix. 23. Un avocat 1 
 A la bonne heure ! ga. pent etre utile, ga parle, ga fait du bruit. 
 
 XV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A. The in dependant forms. 
 
 The independant forms qui and qiioi are only of limited 
 use; they occur only under the government of prepositions 
 and only then with many restrictions. All deficiencies are 
 supplied by lequel, or by the adverbs dont and ou. 
 
 1 . Qui independant is only used of persons and personified 
 things. It may be under the government of any preposition 
 except entre and parmi^ as Celui de qui relevent tons les 
 empires He on whom all empires depend. 
 
 2. Quoi is only used with indefinite antecedents, such as 
 general notions, with the demonstrative ce, with quelque chose, 
 rien etc., as: Ce d quoi je pensais n'est plus jmssihle. 
 
 3 . Dont is used for de qui., de quoi, both of persons 
 and things , in almost all cases in which the preposition de 
 could govern the substantive^ it represents, as: Le general 
 dont j\ii mi le portrait, The general whose portrait I have 
 seen. La piece dont on parle, The play they are talking of. 
 Un appui dont on ne saurait se passer^ A support which 
 one could not do without. Bat in its original sense of motion 
 
118 
 
 EEL ATI VE PRONOUNS. 
 
 from a place dont is replaced hy d'ou^ as: La maison d^ou 
 il sort, The house from which he is coming out. 
 
 NOTE. In older authors dont is also used for a relative with 
 avec, par and pour, as: Cette douce violence dont elle nous entraine. 
 Mol. La harriere dont le del separa Venfer et la Imniere. Rac. Cette 
 liherte dont on voulut lui donner tant d^ amour. Montesq. But in modern 
 French, though de is used in certain cases of the instrument, and to 
 mark the objective relation of one substantive to another, dont cannot 
 be used in such relations, which must be expressed by lequel with the 
 roper preposition. 
 
 Dont is limited in use by its necessarily standing as the 
 first word of the relative clause ; it cannot therefore be used, 
 when the noun on which it depends is governed by a pre- 
 position ; in this case duquel etc. must be used , as : U ami 
 avec les soeurs duquel fai tant de fois joue, The friend with 
 whose sisters I have so often played. 
 
 4. Ou is used for a relative with the preposition d or 
 dans, but in modern French only in reference to place or 
 time , as : La maison ou je suis ne, The house in which I 
 was born. Au moment ou le hruit se fit entendre, The instant 
 in which the noise was heard. 
 
 Oil may be used for a simple relative = lequel etc. under 
 the government of the preposition de or par, as : Le cJiemin 
 par oil nous avons passe. The road by which we came. 
 
 5. The form lequel etc. supplies all deficiencies in the 
 independant forms ; hence its use is imperative 
 
 of persons when the relative is governed by entre or 
 parmi, as: Les fuyards parmi lesquels il se drouvait 
 
 of things a. When the relative governed by de cannot 
 stand the first word of its clause (vid. 3 above). When the 
 relative governed by d or dans does not refer to place or time, 
 as: line chose d laquelle il faut que vous prenie^ garde. 
 Tin combat de generosite dans lequel Orso fut vaincu. Y. When 
 the relative is governed by any other preposition , as : Les 
 sujets sur lesquels elle aimait ecrire. 
 
 B. Conjunctive forms. 
 
 1 . Of the conjunctive forms qui and que stand respectively 
 as subject and object of verbs without restriction of gender 
 or number, as: Vhomme — , la femme — , ce qui m'ennuie, 
 the man — , the woman — , the thing that troubles me. 
 Hhomme — , les choses — , ee que je deteste, the man — , 
 the things — , that which I dislike. 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Ill) 
 
 2. Que complement is only used with the neuter demon- 
 strative ce or with an adjective as its antecedent, as : Qu’est- 
 ce que cest ? What is it ? (lit. what is that which it is ?) 
 Infortunes que nous sommes, Unfortunate that we are. 
 
 NOTE. It forms the second compound of the universal relatives 
 qui que and quel que etc. and of the concessive adverbs quelque que^ 
 tout que^ which therefore can only be used with the verb etre. 
 
 Que complement is very frequently used with ellipse of 
 the verb to introduce the real subject of the sentence, when ce 
 stands as grammatical subject, especially with infinitives, as : 
 G’^est tres-desagreable que d' avoir des amis pauvres^ It is very 
 disagreeable to have poor friends (lit. that is a very disagreeable 
 thing which having poor friends is). 
 
 C. Uses of relatives. 
 
 1. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
 number and person, as: Nous qui Vaimons. Void les lettres 
 que fai recues. 
 
 Except that when ce is the antecedent, and the relative 
 clause stands after the complement, the relative is attracted 
 to the number and person of the complement as: C^est votre 
 frere et moi qui avons decouvert cette intrigue (lit. Those 
 who have discovered this intrigue are your brother and I) 
 (vid. XIV. B. 2. n). 
 
 2. The antecedent is rarely omitted in French. It occurs 
 
 a. In quasi-pro verbial phrases of an indefinite person, 
 
 when the relative clause acts as subject to the principal clause 
 and usually precedes it, as: Qui vend son coiur vendra son 
 honneur et sa foi. One who sells his heart, will sell his 
 honour and his faith. In the elliptic phrase comme qui dirait 
 — as one would say, though one were to say, the verb of 
 the principal clause is suppressed as well as the antecedent. 
 
 NOTE. From this use appareutiy arose the use of qui — qui, 
 one — another , as an indefinite pronoun , as : Chacun avait pris son 
 parti y qui pour le feu de joie, qui pour le Mai, qui pour le mystere. 
 Each had made his choice, one for the fire- works, another for the May- 
 pole, another for the play. 
 
 d The antecedent, being an indefinite thing, is omitted 
 in parenthetic phrases where the complement is an adverb in 
 the comparative form and precedes the copula, qui mieux est, 
 qui pis est, qui plus est ; but if the usual order is observed, 
 the antecedent is expressed, as: Ce qui est heaucoup pis What 
 is much worse. 
 
120 
 
 EELATIYE PRONOUNS. 
 
 3. If a sentence is the antecedent to a relative danse it 
 mnst be resumed in the demonstrative ce as : Que je n’ai pas 
 (Vami^ ce qiii me toiirmente^ vient de ma pamretL My 
 having no friend, which troubles me, is caused by my poverty. 
 
 NOTE. In translating from English into French or vice versa the 
 following differences must he noted in the use of the relative. 
 
 a. In French the sentence must he arranged so as to bring the 
 relative as near as possible to its antecedent. 
 
 /?. If the relative is the object of its clause, the subject if a sub- 
 stantive usually stands after the verb , as : Voila ce qu'a vu le soleil 
 (Vhier, This is what yesterday’s sun beheld. The same order is fre- 
 quently observed if the relative is governed by a preposition and the 
 object is a conjunctive pronoun, as : JSTotre vie est tin pelerinage, au- 
 quel nous condamne le sort Our life is a pilgrimage to which fate con- 
 demns us. 
 
 y. If the relative in English is the genitive ivhose dependant on 
 the object or complement of the clause we omit the article and place 
 the object or complement before the verb, as: Your old servant tvliose 
 uame I forget. In French, when the relative is the adverb dont or a 
 form governed by a preposition {de qui, duquel etc.) the article is ex- 
 pressed and the regular order maintained, as : Votre ancien laquais dont 
 fai ouhlie le nom. 
 
 S. In English , when the relative is the genitive whose , we often 
 use a relative and a personal pronoun of the same person in the same 
 clause; this must be avoided in French, by using the relative to ex- 
 press the object or indirect object of the verb and a possessive pronoun 
 to express the relation conveyed by the genitive, as : La femme que son 
 mari rend si mallieureuse The woman, whose husband makes her so 
 miserable. 
 
 In French a relative clause, which simply supplies the place of 
 an adjective, is treated as an adjective and not as in English as a 
 separate clause ; hence when it stands as an attribute , it is not marked 
 off by a comma, and it may stand parallel with an adjective (joined to 
 it by the conjunction et) without a repetition of the antecedent, as : Ce 
 n^esi pas ordinairement la perte rMle que Von fait dans une hataille 
 qui est funeste a un etat. It is not generally the actual loss, which 
 occurs in a battle, that is destructive to a state. Un hon auteur et 
 qui ecrit avec soin. A good author and one who writes carefully. 
 
 In English the. relative is frequently omitted, in French never, 
 as: Lliomme que faime The man I like. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 13. 
 
 I. Philippe flit assassine par Pausanias a qui il n’avait pas rendu 
 justice. 2. 0 Rochers escarpes, e’est a vous que je me plains; car jo 
 n’ai que vous a qui je puisse me plaindre ! 3. L’amour divin, dont 
 
 tout bien emane et par qui tout se soutient. 4. La question n’est pas 
 de savoir ce qui nous convient, mais ce a quoi nous con venous. 5. II 
 n’y a rien sur quoi on a tant dispute. 6. Les enfants par quoi so 
 maintient le gouvernement de la famille et de I’etat. 7. Vous avez 
 des habitudes auxquelles it faut renoncer. 8. Depuis quelque temps. 
 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 121 
 
 je ne sais ni ce que vous devenez ni ce que vous faites. 9. Hier fut 
 un jour sur les eventoents duquel il faut peut-etre jeter un voile. 
 10. La femme de votre oncle, laquelle est tres-charitable, a adopte cet 
 orphelin. 11. C’est etre criminel que d’etre miserable. 12. La maniere 
 dont tu saluas le cardinal. 13. Ces marques de bonte dont il se croyait 
 indigne. 14. Un petit cahier, ou j’ai note en courant les borreurs 
 dont j’ai ete le temoin. 15. A I’heure ou les betes feroces sortent 
 pour chercber leur proie. 16. Vous connaissez maintenant le but ou 
 vous devez tendre. 17. Napoleon sortit de ce Kremlin dont I’armee russe 
 n’avait pu lui interdire Tacces, mais d’ou le feu I’expulsait. 18. Lk 
 cbacun parlait de ses affaires ou quimieuxest des affaires de son voisin. 
 19. Ce qu’est Lafontaine dans le conte tout le monde le sait. 20. La 
 place qu’occupait cette ville celebre. 
 
 XVI. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 A. Independent forms. 
 
 1. Of the independent forms, qui is used of persons only, 
 quoi of things. They are used under the government of pre- 
 positions, and when the verb is suppressed, as : De qui paries- 
 vous? Of whom are you speaking? A quoi pense^-vous? Of 
 what are you thinking? Ah! c’est un reve ou une gageure? 
 Quoi done? Ah! It is a dream or a wager? What is? 
 
 NOTE a. Quoi used with the verb suppressed asks after a par- 
 ticular thing, and is not used like the English what^ to mean What 
 did you say ? What in such cases must be translated by the interro- 
 gative adverb Comment. As a simple exclamation quoi expresses asto- 
 nishment or indignation. 
 
 Qiioi is also used as object to an infinitive mood in ex- 
 clamations ; if no word intervenes between the pronoun and 
 verb, either quoi or the conjunctive form que may stand, quoi 
 dire! or que dire!, What can I say; but always quoi if a 
 word intervenes, as : Quoi lui dire ! 
 
 In the expression je ne sais quoi, as in the Latin nescio 
 quid, the sentence is left incomplete ; d quoi bon may be for 
 d quoi est-ce bon?, but seems more like a joking mistransla- 
 tion of the Latin cui bono? 
 
 NOTE g. Interrogative pronouns are not usually employed like 
 substantives under the government of the prepositions de and d to de- 
 fine substantival notions attributively. To translate therefore the English 
 whose in a sentence in which the verb is any other than the verb to 
 he, the question as to the person must be asked separately, and the 
 remaining limitation added in a relative clause, as : In whose house are 
 you staying ? A qui est la maison ou vous demeurez ? Whose voice did 
 I hear? Qui est-ce dont fai entendu la voix? But to avoid such a 
 periphrasis where the distinction of the person is not specially intended, 
 it is more common in French to ask the question less accurately by 
 
 Arraitage, French grammar. 9 
 
122 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 quel^ as : Quel chapeau mettez-vous Id ? Whose hat are you put- 
 ting on? 
 
 In one case only can de qui in direct interrogation define a sub- 
 stantive attributively, viz. when standing as complement to etre^ the 
 verb and complement being considered as forming one notion, as: De 
 qui Alexandre etait-il fils ? Whose son was Alexander ? 
 
 In dependant questions however, and exclamations with the verb 
 in the infinitive de qui sometimes occurs used attributively of a sub- 
 stantive, the periphrasis in these cases occasioning more difficulty, as : 
 Nous verrons par la faute de qui elle {la revolutiofi) degenera si vio- 
 lemment. Mignet. 
 
 B. Conjunctive forms. 
 
 1. Qui subject, object, and complement is mostly confined 
 to persons, as: Qui vous Va dit? Who told you so? Qui 
 demandes-vous ? Whom do you want? Qui est ce monsieur? 
 Who is this gentleman? But it is also used of things, in 
 questions where the notion of a person is not necessarily ex- 
 cluded, as: Qui me procure de si hon matin le honheur de 
 voire visile? To what am I indebted for the pleasure of so 
 early a visit? The forms qiii est-ce qui? Who?, and qui est- 
 ce que ? Whom ?, should only be used where the interrogation 
 is intended to have some special force, as indignation, sur- 
 prise, etc. 
 
 2. Que as subject is only used with otherwise impersonal 
 verbs, as qu^importe?\ and the neuter pronoun d is generally 
 retained, as: Qu^est-d arrive? What has happened? With per- 
 sonal verbs the form qu^est-ce qui must be used. As object 
 and complement que and quUest-ce que are used almost in- 
 differently, as : Que dit-d? or Qu^est-ce qu^d dit? What is 
 he saying? Que sommes nous? or Qu'est-ce que nous sommes 
 devant Dieu? What are we in the sight of God? 
 
 Q,ue^ like, the Latin quid^ is also used as an accusative of 
 reference, and so gets the force of an interrogative adverb of 
 cause ; it is used in exclamatory questions especially when ne- 
 gative, and is common with servir and avoir hesoin, as Que 
 tarde^-vous? What are you lingering for? Que n''est-il avec 
 nous? Why is not he with us? Que sert de s'expliquer da- 
 vantage? What is tho use of further explanations? 
 
 C. Idiomatic uses of interrogatives. 
 
 1. An adjective qualifying a neuter interrogative pronoun 
 takes the partitive preposition de^ as : Qii‘y a-t-il de medleur ? 
 What is there better ? Quoi de plus heau ? What can be 
 more beautiful? 
 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 123 
 
 2. When the question to be asked is not general but of 
 one individual or division of two or more, lequel is used both 
 of persons and things ; but if the partitive notion is a pronoun 
 the independant qui is preferred, as : Qui de nous — Laquelle 
 de ces dames choisisse^^-vous ? Which of us — Which of these 
 ladies do you choose ? 
 
 NOTE. When qui or lequel is thus used and the separate persons 
 or things are named, one of which is the required answer to the inter- 
 rogative, by a curious attraction, in place of being in apposition to the 
 interrogative pronoun, they are often put under the government of the 
 preposition de^ as if in apposition to the partitive notion dependant on the 
 pronoun, as : Soit quHl (Saint Louis) meure sur les mines de Carthage, 
 on ne sait lequel 'plus admirer, du chevalier, du clerc, du patriarche, 
 du roietde Vhomme, We do not know which character to admire most 
 in him, the knight, the ecclesiastic, the patriarch, the king or the man. 
 
 D. Dependant interrogations. 
 
 1 . In dependant interrogations the same forms of the pro- 
 nouns are used as in direct questions, except that the neuter 
 conjunctive form que only occurs when object of a dependant 
 infinitive. The order is however that of a direct statement, 
 as: A qui est le livreP Notis ne savons pas d qui il est. 
 Be quoi vous plaignez-vous ? Void de quoi je me plains. 
 
 2. The conjunctive form qui is used of persons in all con- 
 nections, as: Qui voule^-vous que je nomme? Je nommerai 
 qui vous voulez. Qui vous a dit cela? Je sais qui vous a 
 dit cela. 
 
 Of things qui is rarely used in indirect questions except 
 after void and voild, as : Voild qui m^ennuie, That is what 
 troubles me. 
 
 NOTE. The dependant interrogative phrase is considered as one 
 word and may stand as subject, object or under the government of a 
 preposition, as: Lieu ne fait jamais grace d qui ne Paime point. 
 Hence the phrases c'^est a qui with a future , detait d qui with condi- 
 I tional, and the elliptic d qui mieux mieux to express strong rivalry, as 
 I (fetait d qui p)recipiterait V execution de ce dessein, All vied in hasten- 
 ing on the execution of this plan. 
 
 3. In a question asked by the conjunctive que, quest-ce 
 qui, or quest-ce que, the pronoun must in oblique interrogation 
 be changed into the relative with the demonstrative ce as its 
 antecedent, as: Que voulez-vous? Je sais ce que vous voulez. 
 Qu'est-ce qui vous trouble? Je sais ce qui vous trouble. 
 
 Que in oblique interrogation is only found in short pa- 
 renthetic exclamations, as Coute que coute, Cost what it may, 
 Advienne que pourra, Come what may. 
 
 9 
 
124 
 
 PRONOMINAL WORDS. 
 
 Even when the question is repeated simply, and the verb 
 which should govern it is suppressed , for qtie we must use 
 ce quiy ce que^ as: Que voide^-vous ^ monsieur? Ce que je 
 veux? Je veux que tu me reconnais. What do you want, 
 Sir? What I want? I want you to recognise me. 
 
 NOTE. From the above it will be seen that English differs from 
 French in indirect interrogation, in that in English the form of an in- 
 direct question is generally not used, if the question is of a person, 
 and the interrogative pronoun would come under the government of a 
 preposition; in French the form of an indirect question is never used 
 if the question is of a thing and the interrogative pronoun would stand 
 as subject, object, or complement, as: A qui dois-je donner ce livre? 
 Donnez-le a qui vous voidez. To whom shall I give this book ? Give 
 it to any one you like. Que veut-il? Dites-moi ce qu’^7 veut. What 
 does he want? Tell me what he wants. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 14. 
 
 1. De qui veux-tu parler? 2. A qui de nous deux appartient le 
 jugement de nos interets? 3. A quoi pensez-vous? 4. Qui voudrait 
 revivre? 5. Qu’est-ce qui sent du plaisir en nous? 6. Qui est-ce qui 
 a suspendu ce globe de la terre, qui est immobile? qui est-ce qui en 
 a pose les fondements? 7. Que s’est-il done passe? 8. Que faut-il 
 pour emouvoir la multitude et Pentrainer ? 9. Qui soup^onnez-vous de \ 
 
 ce vol? 10. Qui est-ce que je vois? 11. Que vit done Cyneas de si 
 majestueux? 12. Que prouve cela? 13. Qu’est-ce que ttr veux? 
 14. Que sontles hommes eux-memes? 15. Que veux-tu que je devienne? 
 16. A qui pensez-vous parler? 17. Qu’est-ce que j’entends? 18. De- 
 quoi est-il question? 19. Chacun s’enfuyait a qui mieux mieux. 20. Que 
 vous en semble? 21. Que faire? 22. Je vais, lui dit le prince, a Rome 
 oil I’on m’appelle. Quoi faire? L’assieger. 23. II y a dans cette 
 affaire je ne sais quoi que je n’entends pas. 24. Duquel des deux voulez- 
 vous vous defaire? 25. Lequel est le plus heureux, du sage avec sa 
 raison, on du devot dans son delire? 26. Yoyons qui se defendra le 
 mieux. 27. Savez-vous seulement avec qui vous vivez? 28. Je ne 
 
 sais a quoi me decider. 
 
 XVII. PRONOMINAL WORDS. 
 
 1. The universal relatives answer to the Latin quisquis 
 and quicunque. 
 
 a. Of the substantival forms qui que seldom occurs- except 
 with ee and the verb Hre as : qui que g'ait ete qui vous Vait 
 dit^ il s'^est trompe, whoever it was that told you so, he ^ 
 was wrong. 
 
 jS. Quoi que is also used with other verbs, as: quoi que 
 vous pensiez!, whatever you may think. 
 
 7. Of the two adjectives quelque — 
 
 and quel quCj 
 que ^ ^ 
 
PRONOMINAL WORDS. 
 
 125 
 
 the former is conjunctive and always stands immediately before 
 its substantive, as quelque sujet qv! on traite^ whatever subject 
 is treated; the latter is independant (see A XI. 3. n.) and only 
 occurs as complement of as : Quel que soit le sujet qvHon 
 traite, Whatever may be the subject which is treated. 
 
 d, Quelconque always follows its substantive ; in negative 
 sentences it is always in the singular, but in affirmative it 
 may be plural as : Deux points quelconques etant donnes, Any 
 two points whatever being given. 
 
 €. Those universal relatives in which the component parts 
 of the word are written separately , all require the subjunc- 
 j tive. Allied to them is the adverb quelque que , which also 
 I requires a subjunctive, as: quelque puissant s quails soient^ 
 however powerful they are. 
 
 i 2. Of the distributives, chacun (quisque unus) answers 
 I to the substantival, chaque to the adjectival use of quisque. 
 
 I The form (diaeune is only now used with a feminine noun 
 dependant on the preposition de, as : chacune de ses paroles^ 
 
 , each of his words. 
 
 I 3. The inclusive tout is used to represent both the 
 i Latin totus and omnis the whole, all, every. 
 
 a. It is used substantively, in the singular neuter, as: d 
 tout prendre Louis XI etait un roi, considering everything 
 Louis the 11*^ "was a king; in the plural as masculine, 
 except in special reference to a feminine noun, as : tous vinrent 
 au devant de lui, all came to meet him. In neither case can 
 it stand as antecedent to a relative clause, as : tous ceux qui 
 m^aiment, all who love me. 
 
 i5. As an adjective, in the sense of every it stands 
 immediately before its substantive in the singular ; in the 
 sense of the ivhole it precedes an article or adjectival pronoun 
 as: en toute occasion on every occasion, toute la famille the 
 whole family. 
 
 NOTE. Before names of towns tout is used the whole without 
 the article, and is then always masculine , as : Lai parcouru tout 
 Borne., I have been through the whole of Rome. Qualifying a plural 
 noun whole must be translated by entier^ as : II jouait avec moi des 
 jours entiers. 
 
 ^ In the plural it usually precedes a substantive with the 
 definite article or adjectival pronoun, and has often a distributive 
 sense, as: tousles hommes all men, tous les mois every month. 
 
126 
 
 PRONOMINAL WORDS CONTINUED. 
 
 Before numerals the article is often omitted, as: tons deux 
 or tous les deux, both, tous trois or tons les trois, all three. 
 
 4. Of the exclusives, a. personne, rien {rem) and aucun 
 are really affirmative ; like the Latin quisquam and ullus 
 they are used where all are excluded, mostly in negative 
 sentences and under the government of the preposition sans, 
 but also in questions and in dependant clauses after words of 
 doubt. Without ne they are only negative when the verb 
 also is omitted, except that rien is occasionally so used under 
 the government of a preposition: as Dieu a cree le monde 
 de rien, God has made the world out of nothing. Personne 
 is masculine, and both personne and rien may have an adjective 
 with de dependant on them, as Je ne connais personne d’aussi 
 heureux que cette femme, I know no one so happy as that 
 woman. Si jamais personne est asse^ hardi pour Ventre- 
 prendre, il reussira, If any one is ever bold enough to 
 undertake it, he will succeed. Que vous a coute cela? liien. 
 What did that cost you? Nothing. Aucun as a substantiye 
 is only used in the masculine singular , as : On doit ne se 
 rendre suspect a aucun. We ought not to make ourselves 
 suspected by any one. 
 
 [3, Nul and pas un are really negative in themselves, but 
 the verb of the sentence also has ne before it, as: Nuts mat- 
 lieurs ne doivent ahattre Vhomme, No misfortunes ought 
 to prostrate a man. Still nul is used like the affirmative 
 aucun with the preposition ^sans, as: Sans nuls egards pour 
 les petits, without any care for the little ones. But it cannot 
 stand like the affirmative exclusives in questions etc. In such 
 expressions, as: Y a-t-il aucun moyen de le flecliir?. Is there 
 any means of softening him ? Je doute que personne V ait 
 dit, I doubt any one’s having said so, nul as a negative 
 could not stand. 
 
 Nul as a substantive is always masculine and singular, 
 as: Nul ne doit etre mis a mort que par les lois, No one 
 should be put to death except in accordance with the laws. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 15. 
 
 1. Qui que ce soit qui me demande, dites que je suis occupe. 2. 
 Quoi que ce puisse etre, j’en tiendrai le secret. 3. Je donnerai vingt 
 francs h quiconque me le dira. 4. Quelques efforts que vous fassiez, 
 
PRONOMINAL WORDS CONTINUED. 
 
 127 
 
 vous ne reussirez pas. 5. Quelque serment qui vous engage, n’y 
 manquez pas. 6. Quelle que fut votre intention, vous avez mal agi. 
 
 ! 7. II n’y a raison quelconque qui puisse me faire soumettre. 8. Remettez 
 
 ces livres chacun a sa place. 9. Chacun travaille pour soi. 10. Chaque 
 I jour m’apporte de nouveaux malheurs. 11. II est sorti sans regarder 
 personne. 12. Y a-t-il quelqu’un ici? Personne. 13. Je ne meprise 
 personne. 14. II est sorti sans rien dire. 15. Rien ne Femeut. 16. 
 Qu’est-ce que vous dites? Rien. 17. II est plus avance qu’aucun de 
 ses camarades. 18. Qui est-ce qui m’accuse? Aucun de nous. 19. Aucun 
 ami ne me reste. 20. Pas un des assistants ne voulait m’aider. 21. 
 Nul n’est sage a toute heure. 22. L’homme ne trouve nulle part son 
 bonLeur sur la terre. 23. Tout ce que je fais lui deplait. 24. Toute 
 la classe doit etre punie. 25. Us se sont tous sauves sans me repondre. 
 26. Tout homme a ses defauts. 
 
 XVIII. PRONOMINAL WORDS CONTINUED. 
 
 5. Of the determinatives 
 
 cc. Tel is really a demonstrative pronoun (Lat. talis) and 
 is used both substantively and adjectively. 
 
 Substantively it is masculine and singular, as: Tel qui 
 rit vendredi dimanche pleurera, He who laughs on Friday 
 will weep on Sunday. 
 
 Adjectively it has as its correlative, (in place of the Latin 
 qualis) when used attributively, another tel^ when used as a 
 complement, the relative que^ as: Telle vie^ telle fin, Such a 
 life has such an end. II est tel que son pere, He is such 
 as his father was. 
 
 Quel is used as its correlative only in elliptic expressions little used, 
 as: Des gens tels quels. 
 
 Tel like the Latin talis ut, may also be explained by a 
 consecutive sentence with que, as: Sa memoire est telle quHl 
 n’oublie jamais rien* His memory is such, that he never 
 forgets anything. 
 
 The English expressions so and so, such and such, which express 
 that a nearer specification is unnecessary, are rendered, the substantival 
 so and so by un tel, une telle, the adjectival such and such by tel ou 
 tel, as: M. un tel, Mr. So and so. Telle ou telle mile, Such and 
 such a town. 
 
 fi. Autrui is only used after prepositions, as: Le hien 
 d^autrui. Other people’s property. 
 
 y. Autre, autres (L. alter) represents in French both 
 alius and alter. 
 
 In the sense of alter (one of two) it is used both substan- 
 tively and adjectively. As a substantive with the definite article 
 
128 
 
 PEONOMINAL WORDS CONTINUED. 
 
 Vaufre, les autres are opposed to Vtm, Vtme^ les les unes. In 
 this way we gain the expressions, Vun et V autre both, Vun ou 
 V autre either, ni V unniV autre Vun Vautre each other, 
 
 as : Les uns et les autres sent partis, Both parties are gone 
 away, lls se nuisent les uns aux autres, They injure each 
 other. As an adjective it is used with the indefinite article, as : 
 un autre moi-meme, a second self. 
 
 In the sense of alius (other), autre is used both as substantive 
 and adjective in the singular either with the indefinite article, 
 or an indefinite pronoun, in the plural with or without an 
 article or with the partitive preposition de , as : Un autre. 
 Another man, Quelqu’ autre, Some one else, Tous les autres. 
 All others, Deux autres per sonnes. Two other persons, D^ autres 
 sauraient vous flatter. Others would know how to fiatter you. 
 
 Like alius it has also the meaning of different, both a 
 single autre and autre — autre, as dest une autre affaire, that 
 is a different matter. Autre temps, autre usage. Different times 
 have different customs. 
 
 In expressions like nous autres Frangais, we Frenchmen, 
 the autres only marks the separate character of those spoken 
 of from all others. 
 
 d. Meme, memes {semet ipsissimum) in the sense of ipse 
 is attached to personal pronouns by a hyphen, as: moi-meme, 
 vous-memes, and follows other pronouns and nouns, as: Ceux- 
 ci memes. These very men, Les rochers memes. The very rocks. 
 The same sense may be expressed by meme used adverbially, 
 when it precedes its substantive, as: Meme les rochers. 
 
 In the sense idem it precedes its noun and stands between 
 it and an article or pronoun, as: ces memes hommes these same 
 men, la meme figure, the same face. 
 
 e. Seul may also qualify a personal pronoun, as : nous 
 seuls, we alone. In the sense of single it stands between the 
 article or pronoun and the noun, as : mon seul espoir, my only 
 hope ; in the sense of alone it follows its noun : V esperance 
 seide peut nous consoler, hope alone can comfort us. 
 
 6. Of the pure indefinites 
 
 a. Quelqu^un only takes the number and gender inflexions 
 when followed by a partitive genitive ; as Quelqtfun a parle. 
 Some one has spoken. Quelques-unes de ces demoiselles. Some 
 of these young ladies. 
 
 /?. Quelque chose is considered as masculine , and the 
 
VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON. 
 
 129 
 
 adjective qualifying it has the partitive preposition this is 
 also generally the case with quelquhm^ as Qticlqite chose de 
 hon, Something good; Quelqidun de meilleur, Some better 
 person. 
 
 y. On (Lat. homo) con only stand as subject; the article 
 is sometimes prefixed, usually after si^ ou^ qid, quoij qiie and 
 et, as: Les efforts que Von fait, The efforts which people make. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 16. 
 
 1. Donnez-nioi quelques francs. 2. Quelqiies - lines de mes 
 connaissances ont parle avec lui. 3. Je veux quelqu’un de serieux. 
 4. II y a quelque chose d’etrange dans cette affaire. 5. On ne pent 
 travailler, ni pour soi ni pour les autres, si I’on ne se porte pas bien. 
 6. Tel veut des prix qui ne veut pas travailler. 7. II est tel qu’il a 
 toujours ete. 8. Une telle bonte m’afflige. 9. M. un tel me Pa raconte. 
 10. Vous remarquez toujours les defauts d’autrui. 11. D’autres sauraient 
 vous flatter, moi je vous dis la verite. 12. Autres temps autres moeurs. 
 13. Vous avez toujours les memes prejuges. 14. Je vous donne les 
 mmes conseils aujourd’hui qu’hier. 15. Ses amis memes ne pouvaient 
 le convaincre. 16. Meme ses amis se defiaient de lui. 17. Moi seul 
 j’ai ose le confronter. 18. Mainte difficulte disparait devant le courage. 
 19. Differentes personnes me Font dit. 20. Certaines gens se croient 
 sans defaut. 21. II me Fa repete a diverses reprises. 22. Plusieurs 
 me Font raconte. 23. Je Fai fait a plusieurs reprises. 24. Nous ne 
 voyons pas nous-mmes nos defauts. 
 
 XIX. VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON. 
 
 The general rules are as in Latin. The verb agrees with 
 its subject in number and person. — If there is more than 
 one subject the verb is in the plural. — If the subjects are 
 of different persons the verb agrees with a subject rather of 
 the person than of the 2*^, with one of the 2^ rather than 
 of the 3^. 
 
 But the verb with more than one subject may be sin- 
 gular, if one subject resumes the others ; or rhetorically it may 
 agree with the last subject, being understood with the prece- 
 ding ones; and it must be singular, when of two subjects 
 connected by ou — ou, or ni — ni, the one excludes the other. 
 
 More special rules are: 
 
 1. If a verb has for its subject a collective noun with 
 a plural noun and the preposition de dependant on it, it will 
 be either singular or plural according as the action is ascri- 
 bed to the whole body or to the individuals: as Varmee des 
 Gaulois attaqua Venmmi, The army of the Gauls attacked the 
 
130 
 
 YEEBS. NUMBEE AND BEESON. 
 
 enemy. La moitie de mes esdaves meritent la mort, Half my 
 slaves deserve to die. 
 
 NOTE. In the former case the noun is called a collectif general, 
 in the latter a collectif partitif, 
 
 2. La plupart with or without dependant noun has the 
 verb in the plural, as: La plupart croient que le honlieur 
 est dans la richesse; Us se trompent, Most people think that 
 happiness consists in riches; they are mistaken. 
 
 3. Le peu with dependant noun in the plural has the 
 verb in the singular if the action is referred to the notion of 
 fewness, if to the noun itself in the plural, as: Le peu de 
 jours que je suis reste d Paris ne m’a pas permis de visiter 
 tous les monuments de la ville, The few days I remained at 
 Paris did not allow me to visit all the remarkable buildings 
 in the place. Le peu de jours que je suis reste a Paris m’ont 
 suffi pour achever mes affaires, The few days I remained at 
 Paris were enough for me to finish my business. 
 
 4. If the real subject in the plural follows later in the 
 sentence and the neuter pronoun il or ce stands as gramma- 
 tical subject, the verb will always be singular to agree with 
 il; but with ee the plural is generally used unless the sub- 
 ject is one of the personal pronouns nous or vous, as : Il est 
 des hommes qu on ne peut pas aimer. There are men whom 
 it is impossible to love. Qui sont ces hommes? Ce sont des 
 negoeiants. Who are these men? They are merchants. G^est 
 nous qui sommes entres, It was we who came in. 
 
 5. Nous and vous used for the singular will have the 
 verb in the plural, but an adjective singular, as: J^tes-vous 
 fatiguee, Madame? Are you tired? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 17. 
 
 1. Toi et ton pere vous serez approuves de tout le monde. 2. Ni 
 I’or ni la grandeur ne nous rendent heureux. 3. Ni M. le due, ni M. 
 le cardinal ne sera nomme ambassadeur a Saint-Petersbourg. 4. Le 
 temps ou la mort sont nos remMes. 5. Nous sommes si peu faits pour 
 toe heureux ici-bas, qu’il faut necessairement que I’ame ou le corps 
 souffre, quand il ne souffrent pas tous deux. 6. Le moindre cboc, un 
 souffle est capable de vous renverser. 7. Il est, il est encore des mor- 
 tels genereux. 8. Il s’elevait des tourbillons affreux. 9. Ce sont des 
 victoires qui font les traites. 10. Ce peuvent toe de bonnes raisons. 
 11. Est-ce vous, mes enfants? Ils repondirent avec lesnoirs: Oui, e’est 
 nous. 12. Ce peu de paroles aurait suffi. 13. Le peu de troupes qu’il 
 a rassemblees ont tenu ferme dans leur poste. 14. La plupart des 
 gens ne font reflexion sur ^rien. 15. Nombre d’historiens Pont raconte. 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. PRESENT AND PAST. 131 
 
 16. Un petit nombre s’echapperent et se sauverent. 17. Une troupe 
 d’assassins entra dans la chambre de Coligny. 18. Une troupe de 
 nymphes couronnees de fleurs nageaient en foule derriere le char. 
 
 XX. TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE. 
 PRESENT AND PAST. 
 
 1. The present in French does not differ in usage from 
 the present Latin; it is used of an action conceived of as 
 going on in the present whether instantaneous or continuous, 
 a present act or a present habit. 
 
 The use of the present for the past, called the historic 
 present, is especially frequent and gives a very noticeable cha- 
 racter to narrative in French. By its interchange with the 
 other tenses of the past it gives a dramatic effect to the ac- 
 tions, which it describes, as: II char geles Prussiens Vepee 
 au poing; repousse a trois reprises, il se place alors a la 
 tete de deux regiments suisses formh en hataillons carres, et 
 protege la retraite soiis le feu de Vartillerie ennemie qui 
 prenait les rangs entiers a revers. La confusion fut 
 grande, car les milices des cercles allemands tirerent memo 
 sur les Frangais- 
 
 NOTE. As in English we often find the present used in ordinary 
 conversation for the past or future to give greater animation to the 
 sentence ; this is especially the case with verbs of arriving or departing 
 and of actions which depend on a condition, as: F arrive de Tarente et 
 fy retourne, Quand partez-voiis? Mais venez, ou tout est perdu. Lap- 
 prends que vous etes encore d Toulouse. 
 
 2. In Latin (Primer pag. 25) the perfect has to express 
 the past in the present as well as the simple past. This is 
 avoided in French by the use of a compound tense. The per- 
 fect indefinite expresses the past in the present, and is used 
 of an action which looked at from the point of the present 
 is spoken of as finished in the past. It is the most usual form 
 for expressing the past in ordinary conversation and of much 
 wider use than the English perfect with have. Not only where 
 we say I received a letter this morning, would the French 
 necessarily require the perfect indefinite, Pai regu une lettre 
 ce matin with the sense, I (who am present) have received a 
 letter, but this J tense*'^may_^be used of all completed past ac- 
 tions, unless some expression occurs which cuts off the action 
 from the present, as Les anciens admirant le feu ont cru, 
 que c^etait un tresor celeste que les hommes avaient derobe 
 
132 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. PRESENT AND PAST. 
 
 aiiX dietiX, The ancients in their admiration of fire thought it 
 was a heavenly treasure, which men had stolen from the 
 Gods. There is nothing in the statement here to cut off the 
 time expressed in the verb thought from the present, and it 
 is therefore represented in French by the perfect indefinite. 
 But Je me trouvai un peu incommode avec de V emotion 
 avant-hier; mais cela n^a point eu de suite^ I felt a little 
 oppressed with emotion the day before yesterday ; but there 
 have been no bad results. Here felt is expressed by the per- 
 fect definite, because the time it speaks of is separated from 
 the present by the mention of an intervening action. So of a 
 person living it would be said II est ne en 1800; but if we 
 say It naqidt en 1800, it would be implied that the person 
 was dead. 
 
 NOTE. When to give prominence to any notion it is made the 
 complement of a principal clause with the demonstrative ce as the sub- 
 ject and the remainder of the statement added as a dependent clause, 
 in French the present dest may be used no matter what the tense of 
 the dependent clause, and must be used if the tense of the dependent 
 clause is the perfect indefinite, as: He was thirty years old before he 
 ivrote his first tragedy may be translated by Ce n^est or Ce ne fut qu’d 
 Vdge de trente ans qtiHl composa sa premiere tragedie. But to accen- 
 tuate either brother or yesterday in the phrase My brother arrived 
 yesterday , we have C est mon frere qui est arrive hier, C’est hier 
 que mon frere est arrive for the English It was my brother ivho 
 arrived yesterday, It teas yesterday that my brother arrived. 
 
 3. The use of the imperfect in French does not in the 
 main differ from the use of this tense in Latin; it expresses 
 an action going on in time past, without reference to its be- 
 ginning or end; and hence is commonly employed of habitual 
 actions. A frequent use of the imperfect is to express subor- 
 dinate actions in a narration where the principal action is ex- 
 pressed by the perfect definite, as ; II etait neuf heures et 
 demie quand les deux chefs se rencontrerent, It was half past 
 nine, when the two chiefs met. 
 
 NOTE. Whether an action is represented as finished or still going 
 on in the past depends on the will of the writer; by using the imper- 
 fect the writer as it were represents himself as having witnessed the 
 action while still in course of fulfilment; so that while the use of the 
 historic present supposes the presence of the reader or listener, that 
 of the historic imperfect supposes the presence of the writer or narra- 
 tor. So in the instance given above, the sense is almost the same as 
 if the writer had said I heard the cloch striding half past nine. 
 
 4. The perfect definite expresses the simple past ; it dif- 
 fers from the imperfect in that the action is represented as 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. PRESENT AND PAST. 133 
 
 one action or course of action completed in the past, and 
 from the perfect indefinite in that it has no connection with 
 the present. It is the historic tense comparatively seldom used 
 in the language of ordinary life, except after conjunctions or 
 expressions of time, which mark a definite point as the com- 
 mencement or end of a past action, as : Les Gaulois prirent, 
 pillerent et hrulerent la ville de Rome, The Gauls took, pilla- 
 ged and burnt the city of Rome. 11 apprUait a tirer la 
 corde, quand Raymond ltd arreta le bras, He was just going 
 to pull the string, when Raymond stopped his arm. But in 
 narrative it may be used even of a course of action of long 
 continuance, so long as the time of the action is represented 
 as unbroken and distinct in itself, as : Gest la quHls passer ent 
 toutes leiirs apres-midi pendant les quelques semames qui les 
 separaient de leur depart. There it was that they passed all 
 their afternoons during the few weeks, which intervened be- 
 fore their leaving. 
 
 5. Of the two pluperfects, the pluperfect corresponds with 
 the imperfect, the perfect anterior to the perfect definite. The 
 latter tense is chiefiy used with conjunctions and expressions 
 of time, which mark the exact moment of the occurrence; 
 such are aussitot que, des que, d peine — que etc., as: 11 est 
 venu noxis voir, mats nous Hions partis. He came to see us, 
 but we had left. But 11 entra, aussitot que nous fumes 
 partis. He came in immediately after we had left. 
 
 6. One important difference between the English and French 
 in the use of the above tenses occurs, when an action is spo- 
 ken of as lasting, or having lasted through a certain portion 
 of time. In choosing the tense the speaker in English always 
 places himself at the beginning of the period, in French at 
 the end. So in the sentence 1 have been six iveeks at Paris 
 the full meaning is I have been and am still at Paris; this 
 is expressed in French by 11 y a six semaines que je suis a 
 Paris, Again in the past, in the sentence My father had 
 been half an hour in the room, when I came in, the sense 
 is My father had been and was in the rooxn, and it is ex- 
 pressed in French by Mon pere etait depuis une heure dans 
 la chambre lorsque fy suis entre. 
 
 7. For the use of the present and imperfect in place of 
 the future and conditional in the protasis of hypothetical sen- 
 tences introduced by si, see XXL B. 3. 
 
134 
 
 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. TIME FUTURE. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 18. 
 
 1. Je vous ai ecrit il y a une quinzaine de jours. 2. J’ai tenu 
 hier ma seconde seance, et j’ai ete comble d’applaudissements. 3. Au 
 moment ou ce nom retentissait M. Guizot sortait enfin des Tuileries. 
 4. Elle se mit a fuir, mais il etait trop tard. 5. On proclama une loi 
 martiale qui autorisait la municipalite a faire usage de la force. 6. J’y 
 etais a peine trois mois, que j’avais regu ce que je desirais le plus au 
 monde. 7. Des que Raymond eut donne le signal du depart, ses sol- 
 dats firent eclater leur joie. 8. Les Remains ont tou jours renonce a 
 leurs usages sitot qu’ils en ont trouve de meilleurs. 9. Je fus il y a 
 cinq ou six mois dans un cafe; j’y remarquai un gentilhomme assez 
 bien mis, qui se faisait ecouter. 10. Cromwell gouvernant en roi, assem- 
 blait les parlements; mais il s’en rendait le maitre et les cassait k vo- 
 lonte. 11. La seule croyance forte de nos peres fut la religion. Us n’en 
 avaient ni de politique, ni de morale. 12. J’arrivai avant-hier de Marly 
 et j’ai trouve toute la famille en bonne sante. 13. Ou done etais-tu 
 hier? Nous t’avons attendu. 14. Il savait done et il sut toujours, entre 
 autres choses, tout ce que I’Encyclopedie contenait. 15. Depuis deux 
 jours je ne quitte plus votre majeste. 16. Nous sommes ici depuis 
 deja trois ans. 17. Voila deja un an que tu suis les cours de Cratippe. 
 18. Archias avait depuis deja plusieurs annees son domicile ^ Rome. 
 
 XXI. TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE. 
 TIME FUTURE. 
 
 A. 1. Of the four future tenses in French verbs, the 
 1®^ and 2^ future express respectively an action in progress 
 and one completed in a time future in reference to the spea- 
 ker, the and 2^ conditional respectively an action in pro- 
 gress and one completed in reference to a past time expressed 
 or implied, as: cc. Qu'on m'avertisse quand les chevaitx 
 
 f arriveront -r x i i xi. i f coming. 
 
 { . , . , Let me know when the horses { , ® 
 
 [ seraient arrives [ have come. 
 
 /S. On devait m'avertir quand les chevanx ( ^ 
 
 ‘ ^ {seraient arrives. 
 
 They were to let me know when the horses | comin^ 
 
 [had come. 
 
 In cc. the time when the horses were to arrive is future to 
 the time when the speaker makes the observation, in /?. it is 
 future to the past time expressed in devait. 
 
 2. The conditionals are only used either a. in oblique 
 narration, when the past time referred to is expressed in the 
 principal verb, or jS. in a clause of a hypothetical sentence, 
 where the past time is contained in the other clause expressed 
 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. TIME FUTURE. 
 
 135 
 
 or implied; to represent the future in the past in other rela- 
 tions auxiliary verbs of tense are used (see XXIII. 2.). 
 
 NOTE. The French conditional is here treated as a tense; French 
 grammarians treat it as a mood, in form it is an imperfect or plu- 
 perfect of the future (see A. XXIII. 5.); in use it is a future in all 
 cases except in hypothetical sentences, in which the employment of the 
 tenses to imply impossibility of the fulfilment of the condition and 
 conclusion is purely conventional. It represents the Latin future infini- 
 tive dependant on a verb in a past tense, and also the imperfect and 
 pluperfect conjunctive. 
 
 A fact which is related as in past time being or having been 
 about to take place must be put in the future imperfect or pluperfect. 
 Hence with a declarative predication in the past we have the French 
 conditional answering to the Latin future infinitive [Scripsit se amicos 
 secum ducturos). II ecrivit quHl menerait avec lui ses amis. But if to 
 the main statement is added an adverbial clause of time or an adjec- 
 tival clause, these limitations may be looked at in two ways, either as 
 simple conceptions dependant on the realization of the main fact for 
 their realization, or as sharing the time of the main fact. Both of 
 these characteristics cannot be expressed by a simple tense form either 
 in Latin or in French, at is would require a future conjunctive which 
 neither language possesses, the Latin therefore chooses to represent 
 them as simple conceptions and uses the conjunctive, the P'rench pre- 
 fers to mark the time and uses the imperfect or pluperfect future (the 
 so-called conditional), as: (Scripsit se, cum proflcisceretur amicos quos 
 imenisset secum ducturum.) II ecrivit que, quand il partirait, il mene- 
 rait avec lui les amis quHl aurait trouves. 
 
 In hypothetical sentences when the verb of the protasis is in the 
 pluperfect the same thing occurs, the action in the apodosis may be 
 considered either as having been future to the time of the protasis, or 
 as a simple conception depending for its realization on the condition 
 having been fulfilled ; the Latin usually takes the latter view and uses 
 the conjunctive, but sometimes the former using the future; theP'rench 
 always uses the conditional, as : fSi scissem dixissem) Si je Vavais su, 
 je Vaurais dit. (Si illo die P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistis-ne ad arma 
 ituri?) Si P. Sestius eut ete tue ce jour-la^ auriez-vous couru aux 
 armes? But if the verb of the protasis is in the imperfect the case is 
 different. This imperfect is not used of time past, but is really in mean- 
 ing a present representing the Latin present and imperfect conjunc- 
 tive, even the latter of which was used of an action, which represented 
 as existing in time past really continued up to and was valid in time 
 present; the first conditional therefore in referring to it does not ex- 
 press an incomplete action future with reference to time past, which 
 it should do as an imperfect of the future, but is the statement of a 
 fact conditionally, implying at the same time that the condition and 
 consequently the fact is more or less uncertain. The use of the imper- 
 fect and conditional to express time present or future in reference to 
 the speaker is not even restricted as is the imperfect conjunctive in 
 Latin to express an impossibility of realization, as: Si sciam dicam 
 cannot be expressed otherwise in French than, as: Si scirem dicerem 
 would be expressed, viz. by Si je le savais je le dirais. 
 
136 
 
 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. TIME FUTURE. 
 
 B. Idiomatic use of the futures. 
 
 1. The futures in French, but more especially the 2^ fu- 
 ture, are frequently used to express what in the speaker’s opi- 
 nion must or ought to have happened, as: Ainsi ce sera un 
 faux Auguste JBarhier qui aura profite de V equivoque du 
 nom, So it must be a false A. B. who has taken advantage 
 of the similarity of name. 
 
 2. French like the Latin is more exact than English in 
 noting future time in dependant clauses. If the verb of the 
 principal clause is future or an imperative mood and so poin- 
 ting to future action, the verb must also be future in all de- 
 pendant clauses which take their time from the principal clause, 
 such as adverbial clauses of time and manner, and adjectival 
 clauses, as: Faites ce quHl vous pJaira, Do what you like. 
 Quand vous viendre^^ je vous raconterai toute Vhistoire, When 
 you come, I will tell you the whole story. Je ne cesserai 
 de craindre Carthage que quand jf aural appris qu’elle est 
 rasee. (De Carthagine vereri non ante desinam quam illam 
 excisam esse cognovero.) 
 
 3. In marked opposition to the above French differs from 
 the Latin, in that future tenses are not used in the protasis 
 of hypothetical sentences introduced by si if. Of time future 
 the present is used in the protasis when the condition is re- 
 presented as certain, probable or possible, the verb of the apo- 
 dosis being in the future ; the imperfect is used in the pro- 
 tasis when the condition is represented as impossible, impro- 
 bable or uncertain, the verb in the apodosis being in the con- 
 ditional, as: Si je le puis ^ je me permettrai d'arriver 
 demain vers sept heures , si je arrivals pas dest que je 
 serais plus fatigue encore que je ne le suis aujourd’hui. 
 St. Beuve. If I am (shall be) able, I shall take the liberty 
 of coming to-morrow about seven o’clock, if I should not come, 
 it would be from my being even more weary than I am to- 
 day. Si nous suivons la nature pour guide nous ne nous 
 egarerons jamais, (Naturam si sequemur ducem nunquam 
 aherrahimus.) 
 
 NOTE. This use of si in conditional clauses must be carefullj^ 
 distinguished from the use of si (whether) in objective clauses, in which 
 it may be followed by future as well as other tenses, as: Je ne sais 
 pas dil viendra, I don’t know, whether he will come. Je voulais savoir^ 
 sHl me dirait la verite , I wanted to know, if (whether) he would tell 
 me the truth. 
 
THE FUTURES CONTIKUED. 
 
 1B7 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Quaiid voiis m’aurez dit toute la verite je vous pardonnerai de 
 m’avoir trompe. 2. Si vous ii’avez pas completement reussi c’est que 
 vous aurez manque de prudence dans vos calculs. 3. Us se seront ren- 
 contres par hazard. 4. Vous aurez mal pris vos mesures. 5. Vous sau- 
 rez que je suis fils unique d’un riche bourgeois de Madrid. 6. Ecrive 
 qui voudra. 7. Je vous aiderai tant que je pourrai. 8. Apres que vous 
 aurez parle, il parlera. 9. Rendez fidMement ce qu’on vous aura con- 
 fie. 10. J’irai le trouver aussitot que mon oncle sera sorti. 11. Si tu 
 fais ce que tu dis, je t’en serai tres-reconnaissant; si tu ne le fais 
 pas, je te pardonnerai. 12. Je serai hien aise si vous venez avec nioi. 
 13. II me demande, si je viendrai avec lui. 14. S’il arrivait qu’on se 
 moquat de moi, il n’y aurait pas grand mal. 15. II doutait apparem- 
 ment s’il me desavouerait pour son neveu, ou s’il se deferait adroite- 
 ment de moi. 16. S’ils avaient suivi mes conseils et mes voeux, je les 
 aurais sauve. 
 
 XXII. THE FUTURES CONTINUED. 
 
 C. The conditionals in hypothetical sentences. 
 
 1. The conditionals are used in the apodosis of hypothe- 
 tical sentences to mark, that the conclusion is more or less 
 impossible, improbable, or uncertain. The conditional is 
 used of time present and future, the 2^^ of time past, as: S'^il 
 Halt id il vous le dirait If he were here, he would tell you 
 so. S'il venait demain il vous le dirait If he should come 
 to-morrow, he would tell you so. S^il avail He ici^ il vous 
 V aurait dit If he had been here, he would have told you so. 
 
 The verb of the protasis in such sentences is always in a 
 past tense (see B. 3. and below 3 note). 
 
 The French conditional represents in the apodosis of hypothetical 
 sentences the Latin conjunctive; but as there are but two tense forms 
 to represent four tenses of the Latin conjunctive, so the various de- 
 grees of uncertainty represented by the Latin present, perfect and im- 
 perfect conjunctive are all in French included under the l^t conditional, 
 which ranges in meaning from impossibility to an expression of slight 
 uncertainty. Si des {dederis), neget (negaret) and Si dares^ negaret^ must 
 equally be translated in French by Si tu off'rais, il ref user ait. 
 
 2. The condition is often expressed otherwise than as a 
 conditional clause and still more frequently entirely omitted 
 as in English, as: Que deviendrais-je sans eux? — s'ils ne 
 niaidaient pas, "What would become of me without them.^ 
 Il faudrait des ailes pour remonter cette tour = si on vou- 
 lait remonter, One would want wings to get to the top of 
 
 Arinitngo, Frencli granfiiHar. 10 
 
138 
 
 THE FUTURES COXTINUED. 
 
 this tower again. Un enfant le comprendrait i. e. Si on h 
 hii racontait A child would understand it. 
 
 Hence the conditional is used 
 
 (/. in indignant exclamations, as: Votidrie^-voiiS dire qne 
 les tragedies de Voltaire sont de matwais ouvrages! i. e. si 
 vous avie^ qiielque gout pour la poesie^ You don’t mean to 
 say that Voltaire’s tragedies are bad ones. 
 
 /?. like the Latin velim^ nolim^ maliniy to express poli- 
 teness or modesty, as: Je desirerais savoir de vous (Velim 
 ex te scire), where s^il m'tiait permis (si liceat) is implied. 
 Je ne saurais vous dire comhien cela me plait, i. e. mhne 
 si fessayais, I can’t tell you how much that pleases me. 
 
 y. in newspaper reports very frequently the 2*^ conditio- 
 nal is used impl 3 dng that the statement is not made on the 
 responsibility of the paper which quotes it, as though with 
 the suppressed protasis si on devait s'y fier, as: Void quels 
 sont nos renseignements sur Tissue des negociations de Sah- 
 hourg: Le comtc aurait renonce d faire un manifeste, les 
 negociateurs auraient egalement fxnonce d Videe de formider 
 des stipulations, V entente se serait fait d Vaimable, le 
 prHendant aurait fait de houche toutes les concessions jugees 
 necessaires. Le comte de Chamhord en un mot aurait toid 
 accorde. The count is said to have renounced etc. 
 
 3. If an improbable or impossible condition is introduced 
 by the conjunctions qiiand, quand mmie, quand l)ien meme, 
 lors mhne que (— even supposing that, even if), or by a re- 
 lative pronoun, the verb of the protasis as well as that of 
 the apodosis is in the P* conditional of an action in progi^ess, 
 in the 2^^ of an action completed in time future with refe- 
 rence to the speaker, as : Quand vo^^s me hairier je ne nien 
 plaindrais pas Even if you hated me, I should not complain. 
 Qui nous verrait cdors nous prendrait pour deux fous If 
 any one should see us then, he would take us for a couple 
 of madmen. 
 
 NOTE. There is here the same conventional use of a past tense 
 to represent impossibility, as was noticed (C. 1.) in si with the imper- 
 fect and pluperfect in the protasis, only the future time, inadmissible 
 with si, is expressed with quand etc., the so called l^t conditional being 
 an imperfect of the future is used for the future present, the 2*^ con- 
 ditional or pluperfect of the future for the future perfect. 
 
 4. The form of conditional sentence introduced by quand 
 to express that the condition is impossible, is frequently chan- 
 
THE FUTURES CONTINUED. 
 
 139 
 
 ged, the conjunction being omitted with the protasis and the 
 apodosis introduced by qiie^ as : Vous me hairier que je ne m'en 
 ][)laindrais pas Even if you hated me, I should not complain. 
 
 This form is usually explained by taking the dependant clause 
 with quand omitted as a principal clause and considering the clause in- 
 troduced by que as a dependant clause of consequence, the supposed 
 fact ( Vous me hmriez) would have as a consequence that the unexpec- 
 ted conclusion Cje ne m’en plaindrais pas) would take place. But it 
 seems simpler to take que as a particle of time used as an adversa- 
 tive particle like the English wJiile^ still. Compare such sentences, as: 
 J’etais d son cote quHl ne m^avait point entendu encore. If que intro- 
 duced a consequence it could hardly be omitted, but we not unfre- 
 quently find this the case both when the clause is interrogative and 
 not, as: II le dir ait y y pourrait-on croire? Even if he said so, could 
 one believe it? 
 
 5. Sometimes in place of the 2^^ conditional an imperfect 
 is used in* the apodosis of a hypothetical sentence to give 
 liveliness to the statement , the act which the conditional 
 states as about to have taken place if an impossible condition 
 had been fulfilled, being by the imperfect represented as having 
 begun to take place without being finished, as: 8i favais 
 dit an mot^ on vous donnait la mort. If I had said a word, 
 you would have been put to death. 
 
 Latin goes even farther and represents the act, which only would 
 have occurred, if a condition had been fulfilled which was not fulfilled, 
 as actually finished, as: (Ferierat inperkim, si Fahitis tantum ausus 
 esset quantum ira suadehat,) Cen etait fait de V empire , si Fahius 
 avait ose tout ce que la colere lui conseillait. 
 
 6. For the use of the pluperfect subjunctive in hypothe- 
 tical sentences for the 2 ^ conditional see XXV. 3. 
 
 D. The future tenses in oratio obliqua. 
 
 1. In oratio ohliqua of future time the futures are used 
 when the verb of the principal clause is in a tense in which 
 the action is looked at from the point of the present, as in 
 the present, perfect indefinite, or 2^ future indicative, or 
 in the imperative mood; the conditionals are used when the 
 verb of the principal clause is in a tense in which the action 
 is looked at from the point of the past, as in the imperfect, 
 perfect definite, pluperfect, 1®* or 2^ conditional or at times 
 the perfect indefinite. 
 
 The same rule is followed in English, where shall and will repre- 
 sent the French futures, should and would the French conditionals. But 
 in the case of the perfect indefinite, which has reference to the present 
 as well PS to the past, care must be taken when it is translated by 
 
 10 * 
 
140 
 
 THE FUTURES CONTINUED. 
 
 the English past tense to use the future in the dependant clause when 
 tlie event is future in reference to the speaker. In the sentence Vous 
 avez hlen premi que cette lettre mUiUendrirait the time expressed in 
 attendriralt is not future in reference to the speaker, but to the past 
 time expressed in vous avez prevu ; but in II a ete eonvenu que la du- 
 chesse viendra aujourdlmij the time expressed in viendra is future in 
 reference to the speaker as well as to the past time expressed in il a 
 ete eonvenu. 
 
 2. In substantival clauses French is not always as accu- 
 rate as Latin in marking future time; for this can only be 
 done when the indicative is used, and in two cases a Latin 
 future is represented in French by a tense either of the sub- 
 junctive or infinitive, which cannot mark future time. 
 
 a. When the dependant clause contains a statement which 
 from the nature of the principal clause is evidently a mere 
 conception of the speaker or of the person to whom it is at- 
 tributed and the subjunctive is therefore required (see XX Y.) 
 the present and perfect subjunctive are used respectively for 
 the and 2^^ future, the imperfect and pluperfect for the 
 conditionals, as: Je crois que mon frere viendra., but Je ne 
 crois pas que mon frere vienne. Je croyais que mon frere 
 serait arrive., but Je ne croyais pas que mon frere fut arrive. 
 
 Further with verbs which express a purpose and those 
 vei'bs the meaning of which points to future action, as: pro- 
 mettre., esperer, menacer, compter., resondre., s^aitendre., sta- 
 tuer etc., if the subject of the verb of the dependant clause is 
 the same as that of the principal verb, the infinitive with or 
 without preposition is used in place of que with the indica- 
 tive, the present infinitive corresponding to the 1®* future and 
 1®^ conditional, the perfect infinitive to the 2^ future and 
 2^^ conditional, as: II espere que son frere arrivera domain, 
 but II espere arriver domain. 11 avait que nous le 
 
 verrions aujourcThui, but 11 avait promts de nous voir an- 
 jourd'‘hui. 
 
 3. In adverbial and adjectival clauses of the oratio ohii- 
 qua, which as well as the verb of the substantival clause refer 
 to future time, French marks the future, while in Latin the 
 conjunctive mood is used and the future time not marked, as: 
 Je crois qtiil restera, quand les autres seront partis — 
 when they ha ve gone. Je croyais quil resterait quand les 
 autres seraient partis — when the others h a d gone. J ai 
 promts que equemd faurais lu le livre fen dirais mon avis. 
 
THE FUTUEES CONTINUED. 
 
 141 
 
 (Promisi me quum lihrum perlegissem sententiam meam die- 
 tumm essej 
 
 The adverbial and adjectival clanses are in the future even 
 when the indicative mood cannot be used for the verb of the 
 substantival clause, but is replaced by the subjunctive or in- 
 finitive (above J). 2 a and /?) as: Je ne croyais pas qu'il 
 restate quand les autres seraient partis, I did not think he 
 
 would stay when the others had gone. 11 nous a promis de 
 
 Tester quand les autres seront partis. He has promised to 
 stay, when the others are gone. 
 
 4. In hypothetical clauses of the oratio obliqua with the 
 verb of the principal clause in a tense which is followed by 
 either of the futures (above D. 1), the conclusion is marked 
 
 to be impossible, improbable or uncertain by the use of the 
 
 conditional, as is the case in oratio recta \ but if the verb of 
 the principal clause is in a past tense, the conditional must 
 be used in any case, and no distinction can be made. So 
 Si je le puis je viendrai, and Si je le pouvais je viendrais 
 are respectively represented by II dit que sHl lepeut il viendra 
 and 17 dit que s'il le pouvait il viendrait ; but both cases 
 are represented by II disait que s^il le pouvait^ d viendrait. 
 Here too as in oratio recta the protasis is often omitted; as 
 On a dit, qiie la faihlesse est le setd defaut qu'on ne saurait 
 corriger. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 20. 
 
 1. Je serais flatte si vous approuviez mon choix. 2. Si men coeur 
 etait fibre il pourrait etre a vous. 3. S’ils avaient fait couler des torrents 
 de sang leur nom aurait triomplie du temps. 4. Jamais des edifices 
 exposes a Fair ne se seraient ainsi maintenus. 5. J’aurais tant de 
 plaisir a vous appeler mon camarade. 6. Je parierais qu’il est inno- 
 cent. 7. Serait-il vrai? 8. Je n’oserais me promettre que vous me 
 feriez cette honneur. 9. Je voudrais bien etre a votre place et je 
 changerais volontiers avec vous. 10. Ce serait a refaire que certaine- 
 ment je le referais. 11. Quand je n’aurais d’autre preuve de I’imma- 
 terialite de Tame que le triomphe du mediant et Poppression du juste 
 en ce monde, cela seul m’empecherait d’en douter. 12. Le dernier des 
 Bourbons serait tue que la France n’en aurait pas moins un roi. 13. 
 Je serais votre ami quand bien mme vous ne le voudriez pas. 14. Si 
 le czar avait toujours eu cette humanite, c’ etait le premier des hommes. 
 15. J’ai pense que vous auriez pu nous en donner des nouvelles. 16. 
 Jesus Christ a promis qu’il viendra juger les vivants et les morts. 
 17. J’entends qu’ils soient soldes et habilles k mes frais et que tu sois 
 rembourse des depenses qu’ils pourront t’occasionner. 18. Vous gavez 
 
142 
 
 AUXILLVKY VEEBS OF TENSE. 
 
 qu^il m’a dit de ne le reveiller que lorsque j’aurais de mauvaises 
 nouvelles. 19. II semble que le roman et la comedie pourraient etre 
 aussi utiles qu’ils sont nuisibles. 20. En blamant cela tu fais voir, quel 
 consul til aurais ete en ce temps-la, si k" sort eut voulu que tu le 
 fusses. 
 
 XXm. AUXILIARY VERBS OP TENSE. 
 
 Besides avoir and etre with the passive participle, to 
 express certain nice distinctions of time we have the verbs 
 ne faire que de^ venir de^ alter, vouloir, and devoir employed 
 with the infinitive mood. 
 
 1. To express the immediate past French employs either 
 venir or ne faire qiie with the preposition de and an infinitive 
 mood, where we in English use the adverb just, as Je viens 
 de recevoir une lettre, I have just received a letter. Je venais 
 de recevoir une lettre, I had just received a letter. II ne 
 fait que de partir, He has just left. 
 
 2. To express the future in the present, corresponding 
 with the use of the perfect indefinite for the past in the pre- 
 sent, and the future in the past, except in the apodosis 
 of a hypothetical sentence (see XXI. A. 2), French uses the 
 present and imperfect of three verbs alter, vouloir and devoir, 
 according as the act may be best represented as future from 
 being in progress or in intention, or a necessary consequence. 
 Latin for these cases used the future participle with sum\ in 
 English we can give the force by the forms to he about to or 
 to he going to, as : Jallais partir pour alter te voir, guand 
 ton frere est arrive chez moi^ {Profecturus eram ad te 
 quum ad me frater tuus venit), Quand les aheilles veulent 
 s'envoler elles hourdonnent fortement touies d la fois, ( Quum 
 apes jam evolaturae sunt, consonant vehementer), Que puis-je 
 craindre, si apres la mort je ne dois pas Hre malheureux, 
 Oil meme si je dois Ure heureux, (Quid timeam, si aut non 
 miser post mortem, aut etiam heatus futurus sum), 
 
 XXIV. THE IMPERATIVE. 
 
 1. The use of the imperative ofiers no difficulties; the 
 missing persons are supplied by the present subjunctive. 
 
 2. Some few imperatives are used almost as interjections; 
 
SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 
 
 143 
 
 such are va^ aliens^ tiens^ tene^^ voyons, as Tims! voila du 
 nouveau. Why ! that is something new. 
 
 3. A perfect imperative is occasionally found formed by 
 the imperative of the verb avoir and the past participle, as : 
 Ayejs abandonne la ville quand Vennemi y entrera Take care 
 that you have left the city, when the enemy enters. 
 
 XXV. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 The subjunctive mood is so called, because it stands in 
 dependant clauses in a subordinate relation. In Latin , as 
 a pure conjunctive, the mood is common in principal clauses, 
 but in French this occurs so rarely, that it seems better to 
 give it the name, which expresses its distinctive use. In prin- 
 cipal clauses it is only found 
 
 1. In the expression je ne sache, as; Je ne sacJie pas 
 quHl y ait eu d^hommes Uancs devenus noirs,, I do not know 
 that there have ever been white men, who have become black. 
 
 2. In optative sentences, only in the three persons sin- 
 gular and the 3^ person plural of the present, and in the 
 3^^ person singular imperfect in the one expression Pliit d 
 Dieu que, 3>s: Dieu soit loue, la saison est bonne, God be 
 praised, the season is good. Plut d Pieu que mon frere fut 
 ici, Would to God my brother were here. 
 
 3. In the apodosis of hypothetical sentences the pluper- 
 fect subjunctive may be used in place of the 2^ conditional, 
 the choice of the form being only determined on euphonic 
 grounds ; hence we find the 3^ person singular, as being the 
 only person in which the double s does not occur, so used 
 far more frequently than the other persons. This is the only 
 instance of the retention in French of the Latin pure con- 
 junctive, and curiously enough, as the Latin use is retained in 
 the apodosis, so also in the protasis the pluperfect subjunctive 
 may stand for the pluperfect indicative with si, or the 2*^ con- 
 ditional with quand etc., the sentence in French thus corre- 
 sponding in tense and mood exactly with the Latin, as {Nun- 
 quam Uercides ad deos abisset, nisi earn sibi viam viriute 
 munivisset), Jamais Hercule ne fut alle che^ les dieux 
 {n'eut ete deifie), sHl ne se fut fraye cette route par $a 
 valeur. 
 
144 
 
 DEPENDANT VERBS. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 21. 
 
 1. Je viens de recevoir une lettre qui m’apprend que je vais etre 
 bientot premier lieutenant. 2. C’est ce que j’allais dire. 3. II doit y 
 avoir demain une assemblee generate. 4. La mere Angelique venait 
 d’obtenir du meme pape une autre grace. 5. Voulez-vous bien vous 
 taire ? 6. Je ne sache rien qui puisse me consoler de mon eloignement 
 de Paris. 7. Le ciel en soit beni. 8. Aliens, ne vous facbez pas. 
 
 9. Tenez, tenez ! Entendez-vous une voiture qui entre dans la cour? 
 
 10. Maudit sois-tu de m’oter cette joie! 11. Plut au ciel que je pusse 
 en douter. 12. Plut a Dieu qu’on reglat ainsi tous les proces. 13. 
 Comme TEcriture nous represente Dieu qui dit apres la creation de 
 Punivers: Que la lumiere soit, et elle fut: de meme je dis, que mon 
 corps se meuve, et il se meut. 14. Mettons ton jours le vice au rang 
 des malbeurs, et que la pitie tienne dans notre coeur la place de i’in- 
 dignation qu’il merite. 15. Un prince qui a prefere la paix a des vic- 
 toires qui n’eussent ete que pour lui seul, et qui n’auraient abouti qu’a 
 flatter sa vanite. 16.. Si le nez de Cleojiatra eut ete plus court, toute 
 la face de la terre aurait change. 17. Quand Ciceron eut ete a Usez 
 et que vous eussiez ete a la place d’Atticus, eiit-il pu parler autrement? 
 18. L’eut-il accablee du recit de ses bonnes fortunes, qu’elle n’y eut 
 rien vu d’etonnant et qu’elle se fut imagine qu’il en etait ainsi de tous 
 les hommes. 
 
 XXVI. DEPENDANT VERBS. 
 
 1. A verb, the action of which is dependant on that of 
 another verb, may be either the verb of a dependant clause 
 introduced by a conjunction, a relative or an interrogative 
 pronoun, when it will be either in the indicative or subjunctive 
 mood ; or it may be in the infinitive mood with or without 
 a preposition. 
 
 The choice of the mood depends on quite different grounds from 
 what it does in Latin; but at the same time, the French syntax of 
 dependant verbs cannot be clearly understood, except it is considered 
 as a development of the Latin, the changes being such as have natu- 
 rally grown up partly from the loss of the case-inflections of nouns, 
 partly from the new formation of the conditional, which made it pos- 
 sible to restrict the use of the conjunctive to dependant clauses, and 
 partly from the restriction of the substantival forms of the verb infinite 
 to two tenses expressing the incomplete and the complete action. In 
 consequence of this latter restriction the tenses of the infinitive, as no 
 longer serving to mark any distinction of time, and being used to re- 
 present the noun-forms of the gerund, gerundive and supines, have come 
 to be treated simply as verbal substantives. 
 
 A verb which expresses a dependant action is put in the 
 infinitive in French, wherever a verbal substantive could stand, 
 that is where the time of the action is sufficiently marked by 
 
DEPENDANT VERBS. 
 
 145 
 
 the principal verb, and when it is either clear or indilferent to 
 whom or to what as agent the action is to be referred. 
 
 6. But in all cases where a verbal substantive could not 
 stand, that is where the person, to whom the action of the 
 dependant verb is referred, is not clear unless expressed in 
 conjunction with the verb itself, or if the subject is to be 
 emphasized, or the time of the action requires to be stated, 
 in place of the infinitive a dependant cla>use is used, which 
 may be either substantival and stand as subject, or object 
 of the principal verb, or after expressions of feeling as case 
 of reference, or adjectival and qualify a word of the principal 
 clause as an epithet, or adverbial and qualify a word of the 
 principa.1 clause as an adverb. 
 
 From the above it will he seen how entirely clifiereut the French 
 treatment of dependant verbs is from the Latin. It is not merely a 
 difference in detail, but the principle of division is altogether changed. 
 Speaking generally it may be said that in Latin a dependant action 
 expressed by the subjunctive is opposed to that which may be expres- 
 sed either by the indicative or the infinitive; the difference is one of 
 meaning, as the subjunctive expresses conceptive statement, the in- 
 finitive and indicative express declarative statement. So that we have 
 the division : a dependant statement is either 1. conceptive or 2. de- 
 clarative; if conceptive it is expressed by the subjunctive, if declarative 
 either by the indicative or infinitive ; a declarative dependant statement 
 either a. accentuates the fact, or (3, not; if the fact is accentuated the 
 indicative, if not the infinitive is used. As: 1. Vereor ne veniat. 2. 
 a, Gaudeo quod venit. 2. /9. Gaudeo hunc venisse. In French on the 
 contrary these three sentences would come under the same head and 
 in each case the subjunctive would be required, as: 1. Je Grains qu^il 
 ne vienne, 2. «. and /3, Je snis hien aise quHl soit vemi. 
 
 Ill French a dependant action expressed by the infinitive is opposed 
 to one expressed either by the indicative or subjunctive, and the dif- 
 ference is one of form. So that we have the division, a dependant 
 action is either 1. one, the agent of which is expressed in the principal 
 clause from its standing in a certain relation to the principal verb, or 
 2. one the agent of which has no connection with the principal verb ; 
 in the former case the action is expressed by a verb in the infinitive, 
 in the latter by either the indicative or subjunctive ; a dependant action 
 the agent of which has no connection with the verb of the principal 
 clause is stated either a. as a fact or /3. as a conception; if stated as 
 a fact it is expressed by the indicative, if as a conception by the sub- 
 junctive. As: 1. II affirme avoir ete a Home. 2. a. II affirme qiie son 
 fils a He a Home. 2. [3. II nie que son fils ait He d Home. In Latin 
 these three sentences would come under the same head, and in each 
 case the infinitive wouldbe required, as: 1. Affirmat se Homae fuisse. 
 2. «. Affirmat filiurn Homae fuisse. 2. fi. Negat filinm Homae fuisse. 
 
 As a practical rule therefore a dependant action must 
 
146 
 
 USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE GENERALLY. 
 
 be expressed in French by an infinitive 1. if the agent is not 
 mentioned, as J\i fait punir mon fils, I have caused the 
 punishing of my son (had my son punished). 2. If the agent 
 is either the subject, object, or indirect object of the principal 
 verb, as II a promis de venir He has promised to come, Je 
 Vai prie de venir I have begged him to come, Je Ini ai or- 
 donne de venir I have ordered him to come. In all other 
 cases (the few exceptions will be mentioned under the infinitive) 
 a dependant action is expressed by a finite verb in a depen- 
 dant clause, when the verb is in the indicative mood, unless 
 in accordance with the rules stated in the following chapter 
 the subjunctive is required. 
 
 NOTE. In one case only an English subordinate clause has to 
 be expressed by a French infinitive. After a verb of stating or think- 
 ing, we use a dependant clause, even though the subject of the prin- 
 cipal and of the dependant verb is the same ; in French, as we have 
 seen, the infinitive is used, as : II croit avoir , rmssi. He thinks, he 
 has succeeded. 
 
 XXVII. USE OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 GENERALLY. 
 
 The subjunctive mood is used in French in dependant 
 clauses when it is evident from the principal clause, that in 
 the judgement of the speaker or of some other person to whom 
 the opinion is attributed, the statement of the dependant clause 
 is not a fact but a mere conception. 
 
 I. Hence generally it may be said that the use of the 
 subjunctive in substantival clauses is: 
 
 1. When the main clause is such as to mark the state- 
 ment as not the case, or as only possibly or probably the 
 case (XXVIII. A. 1, 2 and 3). 
 
 2. When the main clause is such as to mark the state- 
 ment as one which only ought to be the case and viewed 
 therefore as a simple conception (XXVIII. 4). 
 
 3. When the main clause contains an expression of feel- 
 ing with reference to the statement of the dependant clause 
 (XXVIII. A. 5). 
 
 Here in many cases the indicative would naturally be required, 
 as the subjunctive properly throws doubt on the statement. In Je suis 
 charme qtie voiis ayez de moi cette idee, I am delighted that you 
 should think so of me, the subjunctive according to its ordinary 
 use should suggest some doubt as to the person addressed thinking as 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 147 
 
 he is said to do, his doing so being only stated as a conception of the 
 speaker. Hence in Latin the infinitive with accusative, or quod with 
 the indicative would he used, except after verbs of fearing which 
 are constructed as if containing final force. But usage has agreed in 
 French to consider all facts which rouse emotion as conceptions of the 
 facts, without therefore throwing doubt on their reality. 
 
 4. If the main clause is such that the dependant clause 
 expresses an end or purpose unfulfilled and therefore merely 
 a conception (ch. XXIX). The first three cases are - included 
 under oblique enuntiation, the 4^^ is called oblique petition. 
 
 II. The subjunctive is used in adjectival and ad- 
 verbial clauses: 
 
 1. In final clauses expressing an end or purpose and 
 
 answering to oblique petition in substantival clauses (XXX. 1, 
 XXXI. 1). 
 
 2. In consecutive clauses, when the consequence is marked 
 
 as a simple conception, either in adjectival clauses by its being 
 given as not actually applicable to the antecedent, or in ad- 
 verbial clauses by its being only possible or in intention 
 
 (XXX. 2, XXXI. 2). 
 
 53. In temporal clauses, when the time of the event in 
 
 the dependant clause is subsequent to that of the principal 
 
 clause (XXXI. 3). 
 
 4. In hypothetical clauses, only when qiie is used to in- 
 troduce a 2^ condition in place of repeating si^ as the 2^ con- 
 dition is then looked on as dependant on the realization of 
 the (XXXI. 4). 
 
 5. In concessive clauses invariably, as the very notion 
 
 of the sentence requires that the fact should be looked on as 
 a conception of the speaker (XXX. 3, XXXI. 5). 
 
 6. In clauses of manner, where, as with sans que^ the 
 statement ia of what does not occur (XXXI. 6). 
 
 From the above it will be evident how the notion of the subjunc- 
 tive mood in French differs from that in Latin. In Latin its use is 
 objective, in French it is always subjective. The mere fact of an ad- 
 verbial or adjectival clause occurring in oratio ohliqua as not the 
 statement of the narrator, requires the use of the subjunctive in Latin; 
 in French the subjunctive would only be required, where the statement 
 is given as in his opinion not being actually the case. 
 
 Similarly in oblique interrogation the subjunctive is always used 
 in Latin, but not in French, with a single exception. 
 
 While in Latin after a verb of enunciation the objective clause 
 is an infinitive with accusative, whether it is stated as false or true, 
 in French it is in the subjunctive, if the statement is manifestly not an 
 actual fact in the opinion of the speaker, otherwise in the indicative, 
 
148 THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 XXVIII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN 
 SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 A. The subjunctive in oblique enuntiation. 
 
 In oblique enuntiation qite with the subjunctive stands 
 in a clause dependant or an expression, 
 
 1. which marks the statement as not’ the case. 
 Such are il n'est pas^ il est faux, il s'en faut, nier, discon- 
 venir, douter, ignorer, dcsesperer, all verbs of thinking, judg- 
 ing, stating, which arc negatived, or virtually negatived as 
 in a question etc.; such are dire, assurer, affirmer, pretendre, 
 soutenir, avotier, declarer, penser, croire, s'imaginer, se douter, 
 esperer, voir, savoir etc., as: Je n'espere pas qicil vienne, 
 
 I don’t expect he will come. * Il nie qne cela soil vrai. He 
 says that that is not true. 
 
 NOTE 1. If the clause is conditional, on which the clause intro- 
 duced by que depends, the subjunctive will be required, when it is 
 implied that the statement is not believed, as: Si je croyais que vous 
 pussiez me tromper, je ne vous parlerais plus, If I thought you could 
 deceive me, I would never speak to you any more. But Si vous croyez 
 que j'^ai raison, faites ce gue je vous conseille, If you think I am right, 
 do what I advise you. 
 
 NOTE 2. If the clause introduced hj gue precedes the clause on 
 which it depends, the subjunctive is required by rule 2, as uncertainty 
 remains till the statement is made, as : QuHl m’ait trompe, je le crois 
 hiefi, mais il ne le fera plus, I quite believe he has deceived me, but 
 he will do so no more. But je crois hien quHl vi^a trompL 
 
 2. which intimates that the statement is merely 
 possible and uncertain. Such are il est possible, si ce 
 fiest, il est difficile, il est rare, supposer, attendre, se defier, 
 le danger, on dirait, etc. as: Le danger est quHl nous voie, 
 The danger is that he may see us. Il semble qne vous ayez 
 froid. It would seem that you are cold. 
 
 NOTE. Some of these expressions may be used to express either 
 certainty or uncertainty according to the will of the speaker, and will 
 therefore take the indicative or subjunctive according to his intention, 
 as : Il semble gue vous soyez fdclie, It would seem that you are vexed. 
 
 II semble que vous Hes fciclie, It seems to me that you are vexed. 
 
 Il parait always takes the indicative, as it has the sense of it is 
 clear. So too generally il semble when the person is mentioned to whom 
 the opinion is ascribed, as: Il me semble gull n’ y a rien de mieux 
 d faire. 
 
 3. which concedes the statement. Such are ad- 
 mettre, concevoir, se figurer, il suffit, c‘‘est asse^, c'est pen, 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 149 
 
 (:est becmcoup etc., as: J'admets qiie tii sois lihre^ I allow 
 that you are free. Ocst asse^ qiie vans Vavoiiie^, It is 
 enough that you confess it. 
 
 4. which gives the statement as what ought to 
 be, must be. Such are il faut^ il est nexessaire, naturel, 
 juste, dhisage, temps, il importe, meriter, digne etc., as II est 
 temps quit paraisse, It is time for him to appear. Il est 
 digne que nous Vaimions, He is worthy to be loved by us. 
 
 5 . which contains an expression of emotion, 
 as wonder, joy, approbation, fear, sorrow, complaint, shame etc. 
 Such are se rejouir, Hre Men aise, Hre ravi, etre charme, 
 triste, fdclie, surpris, regretter, s^donner, apprcdiender, trem- 
 bler, craindre, avoir peur, honte etc., as: Je serais fdche 
 qu'on erut tout cela de moi, I should be sorry for them to 
 think all that of me. Quel maJJieur que vous n'aye^ pas 
 pu suivre votre vocation. How unfortunate it is that you 
 could not follow your vocation. 
 
 NOTE a. Verbs of emotion are followed by the cause of the 
 emotion, if a substantival notion, under the government of the prepo- 
 sition de', instead therefore of the subjunctive clause we often find the 
 cause of the emotion expressed by the preposition de and the demon- 
 strative ce with a relative clause, of which the verb is of course in 
 the indicative. It is therefore equally good French to say Je m'^etonne 
 que vous soyez id and Je iiCetonne de ce que vous etes id. 
 
 NOTE /?. Verbs of hoping, sisesperer, cojwpfcr etc., are not treated 
 as verbs of emotion, but of simple statement and take the future or 
 conditional, unless they are negatived, when by rule 1 they take the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 22. 
 
 1. Il n’a pas tenu a toi que nous fussions tous brules. 2. Il est 
 tres-faiix que les Orientaux aient plus de vivacite d’esprit que les Eu- 
 rop^ens. 3. Il est impossible que vous voyiez a present ma maitresse. 
 4. Ne croyez point que Thucydide soit long dans la description de 
 la peste. 5. Il n’etait pas encore poete, ou du moins il ignorait qu’il 
 le flit. 6. Il niera surement qu’il ait su la conjuration. 7. Nous 
 sommes riches, qui nous repond que nous le soyons demain? 8. Il 
 semblait en 1793 qu’il n’y eut plus de place pour des revolutions en 
 France. 9. Il s’en faut bien que nous connaissions toutes nos volontes. 
 10. Bertaud ne parait pas se douter qu’il fasse autre chose que suivre 
 ses devanciers. 11. Eh! qui vous a dit, reprit Bobespierre, qu’on ait 
 fait perir un innocent? 12. Peut-on croire que cette accusation soit 
 serieuse ? 13, Faites part de cette lettre a M. de la Chapelle, si vous 
 trouvez qu’elle en vaille la peine. 14. Que ce gout lui fut naturel cela 
 n’est pas douteux. 15. Snpposons qu’un enfant eiit a sa naissance la 
 stature et la force d’un homme fait. 16. C’est un hazard que vous 
 soyez seule. 17. Je concois que vous n’ayez pas pour de moi. 18, 
 
150 THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 "C’ost deja trop que mon imprudence ait pu vous compromettre. 19. 
 C’est le sort des monarchies que leur prosperite depende d’un seul 
 homme. 20. Elle merite que vous I’aimiez et que vous lui en donniez 
 des marques. 21. C’est dommage que^tu ne soies pas nee gargon. 
 22. II importe que vous y soyez. 23. Ecoute et tu vas t’etonner que 
 je vive. 24. Je craignais qu’il ne vint pas. 25. Croyez-vous qu’il le 
 fasse? 26. Je suis enchante que tout se soit passe ainsi. 27. J’ai 
 pour qu’il n’en ait trop dit. 28. II se plaint qu’on I’ait calomnie. 29. 
 On se plaint en Perse de ce que le royaume est gouverne par deux on 
 trois femmes. 30. C’est heureux qu’il fasse nuit. 
 
 XXIX. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTAN- 
 TIVAL CLAUSES CONTINUED. 
 
 B. The subjunctive in oblique interrogation. 
 
 In oblique interrogation the subjunctive in French is only 
 used, and then not invariably, after the impersonal il importe^ 
 as : 11 leur importait fort peu qui euf le dessus^ It mattered 
 little to them, which were the conqueror. l*eu importe sur 
 qui tomhera le sort^ It matters little on whom the lot may 
 fall. In all other cases the Latin subjunctive is represented 
 by the indicative in French, as: {Quaesivi ex puero^ quid 
 faceret^ ubi fuisset). Tai demands a Venfant ce quil faisait^ 
 oil il avait etc, 
 
 C. The subjunctive in oblique petition. 
 
 A subjunctive stands in an objective clause after all verbs, 
 which contain final force, that is, which point to the attainment 
 of an end, hence 
 
 1. after verbs of wishing. Such are vouloir , aimer ^ 
 aimer mieux^ preferer^ desirei\souhaiter etc., as: faime mieux 
 qtiHl se taise, I prefer his holding his tongue; 
 
 2. after verbs of permitting or preventing. Such are per- 
 mettre, souffrir^ trouver hon^ mativais, defendre, empecher, 
 prendre garde etc., as: Souffre^-vous que cela se fasse? Do 
 you allow that to be done? 
 
 3. after verbs of commanding and entreating. Such are 
 demander^ exiger, ordonner^ commander, prier, supplier etc., 
 as: J'exige que tu sois tranquille, I require you to be quiet. 
 
 NOTE a. But verbs of resolving, like verbs of hoping are followed 
 by the future or conditional, when rather the present statement than 
 the future action is intended, as : Us resolurent que ses ennemis seraient 
 reputes ennemis de VHat, They decided that his enemies should be con- 
 sidered enemies of the state. Hence also verbs of commanding may 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 151 
 
 be so constructed and are so found especially in official documents, as: 
 Ordoyine qiCil sera fait rapport d la coiir, Ordered that a statement 
 be made to the court. 
 
 NOTE /?. Some verbs, as dire, crier etc. may be used either of 
 simple statement, or as verbs of commanding implying a purpose; in 
 the latter case they are followed by a subjunctive, as: Dis-leur quHls 
 soient prets an hesoin, Bid them be ready if wanted. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 23. 
 
 1. Vous savez qui je suis et je sais qui vous etes. 2. On ne savait 
 qui il cherchait. 3. l\, ne lui importait quelles moeurs eussent ces peo- 
 ples. 4. Je souhaite que cet accord se fasse au plus tot. 5. Que 
 voulez-vous que je sache ? 6. Le roi de Prusse lui fit proposer alors 
 qu’elle lui cedat la basse Silesie. 7. J’entends qu’ils soient soldes et 
 habilles a mes frais. 8. J’aime qu’on soit sincere. 9. Je vous conjure 
 qu’il ne sache plus de mes nouvelles par vous. 10. II se contentait 
 qu’on priat en general pour le roi et la famille royale. 11. Je defends 
 qu’on prenne les armes. 12. Prends garde qu’on ne te voie. 13. Va 
 vite, cours, dis-leur qu’ils soient prets au besoin. 14. Je serais bien 
 injuste si je trouvais mauvais qu’on m’ attaquat a mon tour. 15. La 
 loi defendait qu’on leur otat la vie. 16. Mirabeau avait exige de Ca- 
 banis qu’il n’appelat pas de medeciu. 17. Ils ordonnerent que chaque 
 ville grecque qui avait ete a Philippe se gouvernerait dorenavant de 
 ses propres lois. 18. II fut regie que chaque candidat se couvrirait le 
 visage. 19. A qui dois-je que la terre de France me soit interdite? 
 20. Le fanfaron travaille k ce qu’on disc de lui qu’il a bien fait, 21. 
 En couronnant Wladislas, on evitait que la Russie ne devint la vassale 
 de la Pologne. 
 
 XXX. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADJECTIVAL 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 In adjectival clauses the subjunctive stands after a rela- 
 tive pronoun, or the adverbs dont or off, in final, consecutive 
 and concessive clauses. 
 
 1. In final clauses, to express a purpose, as Je cherche 
 quelqyftm qui me rende ce service, I am looking for some one 
 to do me this service. Us envoyerent des deputes qui con- 
 sidtassent Apollon, They sent deputies to consult the oracle 
 of Apollo. 
 
 2. In consecutive clauses (where the relative expresses 
 not the individual person or thing which, but the kind of 
 person or thing which) the subjunctive is used in French, only 
 when the antecedent being indefinite, the qualification given 
 by the relative ’ clause does not immediately apply. 
 
152 THE STIBJITNCTIVE IN ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 
 
 The subjunctive in adjectival consecutive sentences is of much more 
 restricted use than in Latin; for the relative in French cannot be used 
 as correlative of an adjective, so that such expressions as: talisest qu% 
 dignus est qiii^ fortior est quam qui have to be otherwise expressed 
 in French, as {Digna res est, quam diu miiltimiqiie consider emus) La 
 chose merite qu’on Vexamine — merite d^’etre examinee longtemps et 
 heaucoup. And even when the antecedent is a substantive, while the 
 Latin uses the subjunctive, whenever the relative has the meanin.sj of 
 such a one as that^ and can therefore use it even when the antecedent 
 is a definite person or thing, the French only employs the subjunctive 
 when the qualification of the relative clause is represented as not 
 applying to the antecedent, which must therefore be indefinite, such as 
 a notion negatived, a noun with the indefinite article, a partitive ex- 
 pression, or an indefinite pronoun, as: {Hoc non erat ejus, qui innu- 
 merabiles niundos mente peragravisset) Cela n’Hait pas de celui qui 
 avail parcouru par la pensee des mondes innomhrahles. 
 
 Hence the subjunctive is used in relative clauses of con- 
 sequence, 
 
 a, when the antecedent is a notion negatived or virtually 
 negatived, as in a question or hypothetical clause, as : II n’y 
 a aucun mHier qui n^ait son apprentissqge, There is no trade, 
 which does not require an apprenticeship. Oil trouverons- 
 nous tin ecrivain, qui ne peche jamais? Where shall we find 
 a writer, who never makes a mistake? 
 
 /9. when the qualification of the relative clause is repre- 
 sented as only possible, in wish, or in the future, or what 
 ought to be applicable to the antecedent, as Donne^-moi des 
 conseils qui soient plus legitimes^ Give me advice which would 
 be more lawful. II peut se trouver telles circonstances ou 
 il y ait necessite de eaclier son visage, Circumstances may 
 occur in which a man must needs hide bis face. 
 
 3. In concessive clauses in all cases. Hence 
 a. with the universal relatives qui que, quoi que, quel 
 que, quelque que, as : Quoi que ce puisse etre^ j\n tiendrai 
 le secret, whatever it may be, I will keep it secret. 
 
 /?. after superlatives and equivalent expressions as le 
 seid, le premier, le dernier, Vunique, or when by the use of 
 il n^y a the rest of the class, to which the antecedent be- 
 longs, are excluded, as Je suis le seul qui puisse lui parler, 
 I am the only one who can speak to him. Il n^y a que la 
 passion qui nous fasse agir. Passion alone makes us act. 
 
 The relative clause in these cases is concessive and takes the sub- 
 junctive, when it refers not to the individual person or thing, but to 
 the eminence assigned. In c\^st Vhomme le plus savant que je connaisse, 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 
 
 153 
 
 the relative clause refers not to the individual, but to his distinction, 
 as le plus savant — the cleverest, at least of my acquain- 
 tances. But the relative clause may refer to the antecedent itself, 
 and then it is no longer concessive; so that we sometimes find the 
 indicative used. Still the usage of the French language is to treat all 
 relative clauses following a superlative as concessive and therefore re- 
 quiring the subjunctive. Even with il n^y a que the subjunctive is 
 the more common mood of the relative clause, though the indicative 
 occurs more frequently than after superlatives, as II n’^y a que Vigno- 
 ranee qui pent rendre Hr anger d la vie exterieure. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 24. 
 
 1. II n’y a point de vice qui n^ait une fausse ressemblance avee 
 la vertu. 2. Ce n’est pas un mal que je veuille guerir. 3. Plus un 
 regard qui osat soutenir son regard, plus une parole qui osat s’elever 
 sans sa volonte. 4. II y a peu de rois qui sachent chercher la vm- 
 table gloire. 5. Si e’etait la fecondite qui transformat cette plante, 
 elle devrait donner des fleurs semblables dans Findividu entier. 6. II 
 est aussi difficile de trouver un homme vain qui se croie assez heureux, 
 qu’un homme modeste qui se croie trop malheureux. 7. Ils veulent 
 des plaisirs qui ne se fassent point attendre. 8. Tout le monde sou- 
 haitait avec ardeur un gouvernement stable et juste, qui assurat la 
 force et Punite du pouvoir, sans etouffer toute liberte. 9. Qu’est-i! 
 arrive qui puisse vous degager de Pobeissance? 10. On ne Pentendra 
 pas quelque chose qu’il fasse. 11. Quoi que vous ecriviez, evitez la 
 bassesse. 12. Quelles que soient les opinions qui nous troublent dans 
 la societe, elles se dissipent toujours dans la solitude. 13. Le meilleur 
 usage qu’on puisse faire de son esprit est de s’en defier. 14. L’homme 
 est le seul des animaux qui soit oblige de se vetir. 15. N^ron est le 
 premier empereur qui ait persecute Peglise. 16. II n’y a que les per- 
 sonnes qui ont de la fermete qui putesent avoir une veritable douceur. 
 17. II n’y a que la loi qui doive punir. 18. Le present est Punique 
 bien dont Phomme soit vraiment le maitre. 
 
 XXXI, THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADVERBIAL 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 The subjunctive is used: 
 
 1. In all final clauses after que, afin que, pour que, de 
 peur que, de crainte que, as Viens qu£ je te dise un mot 
 Come here, that I may say a word to you. Enferme^-le de 
 peur qu’U ne s’ecJiappe, Shut it up for fear it should get 
 away. 
 
 2. In consecutive clauses with que after tel, si, tellement, 
 tant, de sorte, en sorte, de maniere, de fagon, but only when 
 the consequence is intended to be one not real, or one only pos- 
 
 Arinitagx}, French granim.ar. 11 
 
154 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 
 
 sible or in intention, as : Je ferai mon theme de maniere 
 que vous en soye0 content^ I will write my exercise so that 
 you will be satisfied with it. But J^ai fait mon theme de 
 maniere que vous en serez content. 
 
 3. In temporal clauses after avant que, en attendant que, 
 que and jusqu^d ce que ; after the three former invariably, 
 as: II fut des citoyens avant qu'il fut des maUres, There 
 were citizens before there were masters. attends que mon 
 frere soit de retour, I am waiting till my brother comes back. 
 With jusqiC a ce que the indicative is used of an occurrence, 
 which has actually taken place, as : J'attendrai jusqu'd ce que 
 le temps soit remis, I will wait till the weather holds up. But 
 lls se sont promenes jusqu'd ce que la nuit les a surprts, 
 They were out walking till the night came upon them. 
 
 After negative sentences a subordinate clause of man- 
 ner, which however often in meaning comes near to an ad- 
 verbial clause of time or condition, is added with que — ne and 
 the verb in the subjunctive, as: Je rHirai point Id que tout ne 
 soit prH, I will not go there without (till, unless) all is ready. 
 
 4. In conditional clauses after que when replacing si, and 
 after the compound conjunctions, an cas que, en cas que, loin 
 que, pourvu que, pour peu que, soit que — soit que, suppose que, 
 and d moins que — ne, as: La raison pour marcher n'a 
 souvent quhme voie, Four peu qu^on s'en ecarte aussitdt on se 
 noie. Reason has often but one road to walk in, however little 
 we stray from it at once we are drowned. 
 
 5. In concessive clauses after quoique, Men que, encore 
 que, nonohstant que, malgre que, as: Fien qu'il change cVetat 
 il ne change pas Jdme, Although he changes his condition, 
 he changes not his soul. 
 
 6. In clauses of manner after sans que, as : Je sortis 
 sans que personne ne s^en apergut, I went out without any 
 one’s perceiving it. 
 
 NOTE. Most of what are usually reckoned as adverbial clauses, 
 and which for convenience sake have been so reckoned here, are really 
 substantival clauses in which the mood employed is in accordance with 
 the rules given in Chapt. XXVII und XXVIII. So after en attendant 
 the dependant clause is the object of the participle; after pourvu, sup- 
 pose the dependant clause is a case absolute with the participle; after 
 sansy pour, avant the dependant clause is governed by the preposition; 
 after de crainte, de peur, afin and the other compound conjunctions 
 where gue follows a substantive, the dependant clause is in apposition 
 to the substantive. Hence in the two latter classes of adverbial sen- 
 
THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 155 
 
 tences the infinitive, under the government of the preposition wliich 
 forms part of the compound conjunction, or with the preposition de 
 dependant on the substantive, naturall}" takes the place of the sub- 
 stantival clause, whenever the action of the infinitive is to be referred 
 to the subject of the principal verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 25. 
 
 1. Donnez-moi un lit ou une botte de paille que je puisse dormir. 
 
 2. Montrez a Dieu toutes les plaies de ton coeur afin qu’il les guerisse. 
 
 3. Pour qu’on vous obeisse, obeissez aux lois. 4. Clarisse le prie de 
 
 parler plus bas de crainte que son pere ne Fentende. 5. Je tacherai 
 de faire en sorte que vous soyez content de nous. 6. La mer laissait 
 le vaisseau presque a sec de maniere qiFon en eut pu faire le tour a 
 pied. 7. Son livre n’est pas si rare ni si gros qu’on ne le puisse lire 
 
 tout entier. 8. Ce cimeterre, disait le comte, je Fai enleve au cadi de 
 
 Yejer, qui m’en frappa trois fois avant que je lui otasse la vie. 9. 
 Berce par cette esperance il laissa son esprit s’egarer de reverie en 
 reverie jusqu’a ce que le sommeil le gagnat. 10. J’attends pour 
 Fepouser, que j’aie fait fortune. 11. Tout est perdu, si Fauteur n’a 
 pas remarque que Fannee commen^ait a Paques et qu’il Fait datee du 
 premier janvier. 12. L’amour propre vit et regne absolument en nous, 
 a moins que Dieu n’ait detruit son empire en versant un autre amour 
 dans notre coeur. 13. Qu’importe la verite de Fimitation, pourvu que 
 Fillusion y soit. 14. Je trouve que c’est le metier le meilleur de tons, 
 car soit qu’on fasse bien, ou soit qu’on fasse mal, on est toiijours paye 
 de meme sorte. 15. Loin que ce feu de Fadolescence soit un obstacle 
 a I’education, c’est par lui qu’elle se consomme et s’acheve. 16. Quoi- 
 qu’il flit vendu a la cour, il n’etait pourtant pas vil. 17. Et encore 
 qu’ils executassent la sentence, il ne consentirent jamais a s’y soumettre 
 formellement. 18. Je vous aime nonobstant que vous m’ayez fait bien 
 du mal. 19. J’ai bien verse dans sa chambre des larmes sinceres, sans 
 qu’elle ni personne s’en aper^ut. 20. On ne pent opprimer Fun de vous, 
 que tous ne soient opprimes. 21. Ils n’eurent point de repos qu’ils ne 
 les eussent fait mettre par Finquisition a 1 ’index. 
 
 xxxn. THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 In the use of the infinitive French differs perhaps more from the 
 Latin than on any other point. This was to be expected from the 
 great loss the language has sustained in forms of the verb infinite, the 
 Latin three tenses of the infinitive, supines, gerunds and gerundives 
 till having to be represented by two forms of the French infinitive. 
 In many cases it is difficult in Latin to fix the exact function which 
 the forms of the verb infinite fulfil; the forms of the infinitive waver 
 in use between the verb and the substantive, the forms of the gerundive 
 between the substantive and adjective. The development of the language 
 in French would seem to show, that those cases, where the verb infinite 
 in Latin appears to lose its substantival character, were the results of 
 false analogies followed by the learned but rejected by the more trust- 
 worthy instinct of popular use. The principal of these occur in a. the 
 
 ir 
 
156 
 
 THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 construction called accusativus cum infinitivo; where a nominative 
 complement is used with an infinitive of a copulative verb in the con- 
 struction called the prolative infinitive; and y. in the gerundive con- 
 struction. 
 
 a. The acc. c. inf. construction, in which the infinitive as the verbal 
 substantive may have been originally constructed with a contained accusative 
 of respect, had in Latin so far altered its character, that the accusative 
 bad come to be considered as the subject of the infinitive, and the 
 predication, which hence arose, was treated precisely as a clause con- 
 taining a finite verb. In French the infinitive is restricted to’ its ori- 
 ginal function as a verbal substantive, and if the noun or pronoun is 
 expressed to which its action is referred, in no instance can the con- 
 struction have the separate force of a finite clause. Audivi eum 
 JRornam proficisci and Je Vai entendu partir pour Borne convey per- 
 fectly distinct notions. In Je Vai entendu partir the infinitive is the 
 object and the accusative le is a case of respect to the infinitive = 
 I heard a leaving with reference to him = I heard him leave. In 
 Audivi eum proficisci the infinitive clause eum proficisci is the object 
 = I have heard that he is leaving^ which would have to be expressed 
 in French by a finite clause, J^ai entendu dire qu’U part pour Borne, 
 
 /?. In such sentences as cupio esse clemens compared with cupio 
 
 me esse clementem, the infinitive esse is evidently not treated as a sub- 
 stantive. Such an infinitive has been called prolative, because it ex- 
 tends the finite construction of the principal verb; esse is followed by 
 
 the nominative as the finite form sum would be. In French such in- 
 stances of infinitives clearly passing from the function of a substantive 
 to that of a verb cannot present themselves from the loss of the case- 
 inflections ; still it must be admitted that the infinitive after copulative 
 passive verbs, as : elk est censee etre clemente, seems little likely to 
 have come into use without the previous influence of the Latin prolative 
 infinitive. It is clear however that even in such sentences there is no 
 such insuperable objection to considering the infinitive as a case of 
 respect, as there is in Latin; and as in Bouvez-vous danser? it is more 
 in accordance with the general treatment of the infinitive in French 
 to consider danser as a substantive = Are you able in respect of 
 dancing, than as prolonging the finite character of pouvez, I have clas- 
 sed such infinitives under the head of the infinitive as a case of respect, 
 while retaining the term prolative to mark the origin of the construction 
 from the Latin prolative infinitive. 
 
 y. In Latin the substantival gerund passed into the adjectival ge- 
 rundive with passive signification ; in French, in cases where the gerund 
 is represented by the forms of the infinitive this was impossible, and 
 in the only instance where a gerund form is preserved, viz. in some 
 uses of the so-called participle present, such attraction never occurs. 
 Hence we find the adjectival gerund in all cases represented by the 
 substantival infinitive or gerund, (ad placandos deos) = pour apaiser 
 les dieux, (vir minim e contemnendus) = homme qui nkst nullement a. 
 dedaigner, (nullis ofticii praeceptis tradendis) = en ne donnant aucun 
 precepte sur le devoir. 
 
 Though the infinitive in French thus in construction adheres more 
 closely to the character of a substantive than in Latin, it never loses 
 
THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 157 
 
 its verbal character entirely; it always expresses a special action mo- 
 mentary or habitual, and never passes into a mere abstract noun. Con- 
 sequently it is not constructed with the definite article, the very few 
 infinitives so used having become simple substantives; nor does it 
 entirely correspond with the English verbal in -ing. In I like reading 
 good books where an habitual action is spoken of, the infinitive would 
 be used, J'aime d lire les bons livres; but in I like reading, where 
 ordinarily not the action noted by the verb to read, but an abstract 
 notion is implied, while German would translate it by an infinitive with 
 definite article das Lesen, in French we must use a substantive, J^aime 
 la lecture. Even in Latin we find infinitives used as abstract nouns 
 with an attribute, which cannot therefore remain infinitives in French, 
 as (Totum hoc displicet philosophari) Toute etude philosopliique deplait. 
 The peculiarity therefore of the French infinitive consists in the fact, 
 that while it never so far loses its verbal character as to become a mere 
 abstract noun, it is always strictly constructed as a substantive. 
 
 Excluding therefore the employment of the infinitive in elliptic 
 sentences, its uses in French are naturally classified under four heads, 
 1. as subject, 2. as object, 8. as case of reference, and 4. under the 
 government of a preposition. It will be necessary however carefully to 
 distinguish the prepositional use of de with the infinitive from its use 
 in marking the infinitive as subject or object. For as a rule the French 
 infinitive, used as subject or object, is constructed with the preposition 
 de, a usage for which it is difficult to assign any sufficient reason. 
 The most probable explanation seems, that at first the objective infini- 
 tive was confined to verbs declarandi et sentiendi, which are still con- 
 structed with the infinitive without preposition, and represented those 
 cases of the Latin acc. c. inf. construction in w^hich the subject of the 
 infinitive, being the same as the subject of the principal verb, might 
 be omitted even in Latin, as (Cum id nescire Mago diceret) Comme 
 Magon disait ne pas le savoir. When the predication expressed a 
 further sense beyond that of a simple statement or expression of feel- 
 ing, the Latin acc. c. inf. clause was represented by a preposition of 
 respect, as (Simulat se furere) II feint d^etre fou, = He is pretending 
 in respect of being mad. The number of such instances of the pre- 
 positional phrase filling the place of a Latin objective clause may 
 easily by analogy have led to the use of the preposition de with the 
 infinitive, wherever it stood in immediate connection with a verb as 
 its subject or object. 
 
 1. As subject therefore an infinitive with de or without preposition 
 corresponds with the Latin simple infinitive, as (Bene sentire recteque 
 facere satis est ad bene beateque vivendum), Bien penser et Men faire 
 suffit pour rime bien et heur easement. But a Latin infinitive clause, 
 as subject, must in French appear as a finite clause, as (Fama est 
 Gallos adventare) Le bruit court que les Gaulois arrivent. 
 
 2. As object the French infinitive may represent «. a Latin infini- 
 tive clause of oblique enuntiation, /3. a clause of oblique petition, y. a 
 prolative infinitive, or d'. a gerundive as oblique complement. 
 
 When an infinitive stands as object, its action is rarely one which 
 does not need to be referred to any particular agent, as in Bai fait 
 punir votre fils I have caused the punishing your son. Usually it is 
 
158 
 
 THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 necessary to particularise the action by referring it to a definite agent. 
 But the loss of the case-inflections in French almost prohibits the 
 expression of a subject of the infinitive unconnected with the principal 
 verb, because of the confusion which would hence arise. Such a sub- 
 ject therefore can only stand in three cases, when it is a relative 
 pronoun in the accusative (see XXXV. 1. a. n.); with an infinitive following 
 the verbs of hearing, seeing, and feeling, where it is indifferent whether 
 the agent of the infinitive action, or the infinitive itself is considered 
 as the object of the principal verb ; and with the factitive verbs laisser 
 and faire (XXXVI. 3). In all other cases if a subject of the infinitive is 
 expressed, it must stand in a definite relation to the principal verb, 
 that is, either as subject or indirect object, the infinitive itself being 
 the object. 
 
 a. The cases therefore in which the Latin acc. c. inf. construction 
 appears in French as an objective infinitive are comparatively few. For 
 it can only occur when the subject of the infinitive is the same as that 
 of the principal verb. (Promisit se venturum) = II a promis de venir, 
 but (Promisit te venturum) requires a finite clause, II a promis qiie tii 
 mendras. Farther the French infinitive cannot express a Latin inf. 
 c. acc, when the relation of the subject to the infinitive and not the 
 simple act is the object of the principal verb; (Affirmat se hoc fecisse) 
 = 11 affirme Vavoir fait, because the sense is He asserts the htXning 
 done it ; but in Bespondet se hoc fecisse not the substantival notion having 
 done it^ but the relation of se to fecisse is the object of respondet, and 
 therefore in French a finite clause is required, II repond quHl Va fait. 
 With respect to one class of verbs, that of verbs of wishing, it is 
 doubtful, whether the infinitive which follows them should be classed 
 as objective or prolative, whether in Je desire Hre clement^ we are to 
 consider desire as intransitive = I am desirous in reference to being 
 clement, and so representing (Cupio esse clemens), or as transitive = 
 either (Cupio me esse clementem) or (Cupio ut sim clemens). In fact 
 with all these verbs, except voiiloir, we find two constructions of the 
 infinitive possible, either with de, or without preposition; of these the 
 infinitive with de seems to represent the more independant use of 
 the verb of wishing, as governing an object, expressed in Latin by an 
 objective infinitive or subjunctive clause, while the infinitive without 
 preposition answers to the Latin prolative infinitive, which draws the 
 construction of the principal verb to itself, and so degrades it to little 
 more than an auxiliary verb of mood. 
 
 While from the above limitations the use of the infinitive in 
 French is much restricted as compared with its I^atin use in the in- 
 finitive clause, on the other hand its substantival character allows of 
 its use as object after verbs containing final force to a much greater 
 extent than in Latin, so that it largely replaces the Latin subjunctive 
 with ut, ne, quin, quominus, or without conjunction, in substantival 
 clauses, as (Vereor ne fallar) Je crains de me tromper = I fear the 
 
 *) The marlting of time by the Latin future infinitive is no longer possible by the 
 infinitive in French; but if a future time, implied though not expressed in the infinitive, 
 is referred to in a subordinate clause, the finite verb in such a clause will necessarily be 
 in the future, as II a promis de venir qnand tn voudras. (Chap. XXI. B. 2.) 
 
THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 159 
 
 deceiving myself, (Sine dem saviiim) Fermettez-moi de femhrasser — 
 Grant me the kissing yon. To represent a Latin objective final clause 
 the action of a French infinitive must, as in the case of the acc. c. 
 inf. he referred to a definite subject. The person on whom the final 
 force is exercised may be expressed in Latin either in the accusative 
 or the dative, as (Imperat milii nt abscedam), (Rogat me ut abscedam), 
 while verbs of both these kinds admit of the substitution of an 
 infinitive for the sulyunctive. In French the infinitive is regularly 
 used in both cases but with a difterence of construction. The infinitive 
 can only be the object when the principal verb containing final force 
 is trajective; while if the principal verb requires an accusative of the 
 person, the final clause is expressed by the infinitive under the govern* 
 ment of a preposition. In Je fordonne de i) art de part ir is the object; 
 in Je te prie de partir, de partir is a prepositional phrase, as is clear 
 from the form Je fen prie. What preposition should be used, and what 
 account should be given of its use, forms one of the chief difficulties in 
 the use of the French infinitive, but in no instance is it doubtful, as 
 is frequently the case in Latin, what is the function in the sentence 
 >of an infinitive after a verb containing final force, which governs an 
 accusative of the person. To translate Quis te emere coegit? it may 
 be doubtful whether we should say Qiii fa force d’aclieter or d acheter; 
 in translating Caesar legates ab opere discedere vetnerat by Cesar avail 
 empMie les deputes d'‘ abandonner Vouvrage it may be doubtful, whether 
 the force of de is that of separation = from abandoning, or that of 
 respect = in the matter of abandoning, but in each case the French 
 infinitive is not objective, but forms with the preposition an adverbial 
 phrase. 
 
 y. A French objective infinitive represents a Latin prolative infini* 
 tive after a transitive verb. Such infinitives are constructed with the 
 preposition de, so that it may be doubtful whether they ought not to 
 be classed under the infinitive used as a case of reference; (Oblitus sum 
 ad te scribere) J^ai oublie de vous eerire may = I have forgotten with 
 reference to writing to you or I have forgotten the writing to you. As 
 however in such sentences as II feint d"^ eerire, which represents a Latin 
 objective clause Simulat se scribere, and II 7ieglige d\ecrire which re- 
 presents a Latin prolative infinitive Negligit scribere, the French infini- 
 tives evidently stand in the same relation to the principal verb, I have 
 thought it better to class them all as objective. Especially as French 
 distinguishes rigorously between an infinitive following a transitive verb 
 and one following a neuter verb signifying a state or condition ; while 
 in Latin we have no distinction in the use of the infinitive in possum 
 scribere and iiegligo scribe^^e, French in the former case omits the 
 preposition before the infinitive, in the latter insists on it. Vouloir is 
 the only transitive verb in French which when followed by an infinitive 
 requires that it should be without preposition, the fact being that in 
 sense it is more usually a neuter verb expressing a state of feeling, 
 and answering to our will, than a transitive verb, answering to 
 our wish. 
 
 S. An objective infinitive in French represents a gerundive as 
 oblique complement. Whether the Latin construction called the gerun- 
 dive as oblique complement is rightly described by its name, may be 
 
160 
 
 THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 doubtful in Latin, at all events, if so, its representative in French is an 
 entirely different construction. The verbal notion, expressed by the 
 gerundive in Latin, is expressed in French by the infinitive as "object 
 to the principal verb; Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curat becomes 
 Char fait faire tin pont sur la Sadne ~ causes the making; Laudem 
 gloriamqiie P. Africani tuendam conservandamque suscepi becomes 
 Pai entrepris de venger et de maintenir Vlionneur et la gloire de 
 Sdpion = I have undertaken the avenging. This change has made 
 It possible to extend the construction to verbs, which in Latin cannot 
 he followed by the gerundive as oblique complement. Such are verbs 
 of hearing, seeing and feeling, with which the French objective infinitive 
 represents a Latin present participle in agreement with the object, more 
 rarely an infinitive clause ; Je fai entendu dire = (audivi te dicentem) 
 or (te ipsum dicere) or (ex te quum diceres). While with those verbs, 
 which in French allow of an objective infinitive the subject of which 
 is not expressed, the French active infinitive will represent a Latin 
 infinitive clause with the infinitive passive, as (Nullos honores mihi 
 decerni sino) Je ne me laisse decerner aucun honneur. 
 
 To complete the comparison between the objective infinitive in 
 French and its Latin predecessors it only remains to notice two cases 
 where a Latin infinitive form apparently objective is represented in 
 French by an adverbial infinitive with d. In doces rnusicam and daces 
 canere^ nmsicam and canere seem to stand equally as objects; French 
 more carefully marks, that in the latter case there is an ellipse of 
 the object, by using the infinitive under the government of a preposition, 
 Til enseignes d chanter. The ellipse of the object is similarly marked 
 in the case of the idiomatic Latin infinitive following haheo, do, mi- 
 nistro, as (dare bibere) = donner d hoire. 
 
 3. As a case of reference a French infinitive without preposition 
 represents a. a Latin prolative infinitive, /?. the active supine after 
 verbs of motion. 
 
 a. As has been above noticed the Latin prolative infinitive after 
 transitive verbs is in French represented by an infinitive with de and 
 treated as an objective infinitive. After neuter verbs which express 
 an effort a Latin prolative infinitive is in French represented by a 
 prepositional infinitive, the preposition being either de or d. This is 
 the case even when the infinitive action is not the result, but merely 
 the prolongation of the action of the principal verb. So that the pro- 
 lative infinitive is only represented by a French infinitive without pre- 
 position after neuter verbs which denote a state or condition, as (audeo 
 dicere) Jose dire, (Nequeo canere) Je ne puis pas chanter. 
 
 /?. The Latin active supine, really an accusative case implying 
 purpose, is exactly represented by the French infinitive without pre- 
 position, as indeed we find a simple infinitive used in its place by 
 
 Latin poets, as (Legati in castra Aquorum venerunt questum injurias) 
 Les deputes vinrent au camp des Eques se plaindre des injustices, 
 (Proteus pecus egit altos visere montes), Pt'otee mena son troupeau 
 visiter les hautes montagnes. 
 
 4. The French prepositional infinitive. 
 
 The prepositional infinitive is the most important of the divisions 
 
 under which the uses of the infinitive are arranged. For it not only 
 
THE INFINITIVE IN GENERAL. 
 
 161 
 
 includes the instances in which the Latin gerunds, gerundives and 
 passive supine have to be represented, that is the cases of the infinitive 
 noun not under the immediate government of a verb, but has drawn 
 to itself many constructions in which the simple infinitive stood in 
 Latin, and many others which could in Latin only be expressed by a 
 circumlocution. It would require an entire treatise to draw out all 
 these, but the principles on which the French language has developped 
 its use of the prepositional infinitive will be seen from the following 
 instances. The gerunds with and without prepositions are naturally 
 replaced by the French infinitive under the government of prepositions 
 (Ars scribendi) = Vart d'ecrire. The supine in ii constructed as a dative 
 of purpose (facile factu) = easy for doing is similarly expressed by 
 the French infinitive with d, facile d faire. The same construction 
 covered the uses of the gerundive with passive signification, except, 
 as we have seen, when used as oblique complement, (Vir minime con- 
 temnendus) = Homme millement d ^daigner^ a man by no means for 
 disdaining. But when once this principle obtained, it was capable of 
 very great extension. By the use of the compound passive infinitive 
 as well as the active the sphere of the prepositional infinitive was at 
 once doubled; (stiidium obtemperandi) = le desir d^oheir, but le desir 
 d'Hre obei expresses a relation impossible to express by a Latin form 
 of the verb infinite. In Latin the use of the gerunds is confined to 
 certain prepositions, and with many of these a gerund case is very 
 rare; in French though the infinitive is not found with all prepositions, 
 still the number of those so constructed is greater than in Latin; so 
 sine being unable to govern a gerund, to express the non-participation 
 of the subject in an act, it was necessary to employ a separate clause, 
 as (Consul, non expectato auxilio collegae, pugnam committit), Le con- 
 sul sans attendre le secours de son colVegue livre hataille. But the 
 great gain which the French prepositional infinitive has made over the 
 Latin gerund arises from the unrestricted way in w^hich all prepositions 
 except par are used with it, not merely to express the same relations, 
 w^hich they do w^hen governing substantives, but extending their sphere 
 very largely, when used in a figurative sense. So while w^e find the 
 Latin ablative gerund rarely governed by a verb or an adjective, its 
 French representative, de and the infinitive, follows adjectives just as 
 any other substantival term, as: (dignus odio) = digne de hame, so 
 (dignus qui ametur) = digne d^Hre aime; and it extends its sphere in 
 the expression of cause, so that at times the origin of the use is scarcely 
 recognisable, as: (Exsultare gaudio) = Sauter de joie, so (Sane gaudeo 
 quod te iiiterpellavi) = Je suis hien aise de f avoir interrompu. In 
 the same way the preposition a, w^hich with the infinitive was at first 
 used to replace ad with the gerund or gerundive in the sense of purpose, 
 was gradually so used as to transfer figuratively to actions all the re- 
 lations of place, which it expresses with substantives; so that as from 
 the notion of motion to a place d and infinitive like the Latin ad and 
 gerund, has the force of a final clause, J^amene quelgu^un — d Borne, 
 or — d croire\ so arrival at a place transferred to an action can give 
 the force of a conditional clause, as : A Borne — or ^ V entendre le 
 danger sera passe; and rest in a place may pass into an adverbial 
 clause of manner, as: Je passerai Vete d Paris — or d m^amnser. 
 
162 THE INFINITIVE IN PLACE OF A FINITE VEEB. 
 
 From the strong desire to secure definiteness of expression, which 
 characterises the French language, it was natural, that the prepositional 
 infinitive, when so developed, should replace in many instances the 
 vague uses of the Latin prolative infinitive; so we find the infinitive 
 with ciy de and pour in place of a simple Latin infinitive after neuter 
 and reflexive verbs, wherever the principal verb expresses an effort or 
 habit, as (Perstitit aspernari) H persista d dedaigner, — (Tendit di- 
 vellere nodos) II s^efforce de hriser les noeuds, (Amari ab eo laboro) 
 Je fais mes efforts pour etre aime par luL 
 
 In one case French has preserved a Latin gerund form, which 
 from its correspondance in form with the present participle (amantem 
 and amando by the rejection of the termination equally becoming 
 aimant) is always treated in French grammars under that head. The 
 so-called present participle with the preposition en, is the Latin gerund 
 in ‘do with the preposition in, though in sense it mostly represents the 
 gerund in -dim under the government of inter (see Chap. XLIII). 
 
 XXXin. THE INFINITIVE IN PLACE OP 
 A FINITE VERB. 
 
 The infinitive mood in French is comparatively rarely used in place 
 of a finite verb, but very extensively as a verbal substantive, it is usually 
 preceded by the preposition de which in this use has no prepositional 
 force, the preposition and infinitive standing sometimes for a finite verb 
 (below, 1. 2. 3.), sometimes as a substantival subject (chap, XXXIV) 
 or object (XXXV, XXXVI) to a finite verb, sometimes under the go- 
 vernment of another preposition (XXXIX). One of the chief difficulties in 
 arranging the uses of the French infinitive arises from the confusion 
 caused by the employment of de and the infinitive both as one simple 
 substantival term, and separately as preposition and verbal noun. With 
 the usual classification this confusion becomes hopeless; I have there- 
 fore ventured to differ from all previous grammars, and to class the 
 uses of the infinitive under two heads, in place of a finite verb, and 
 as a verbal substantive; the uses under the second head being again 
 divided, according to the distinction, which French marks so clearly 
 in the use of pronouns, into I. the infinitive in connection with a finite 
 verb, and II. under the government of a preposition. For purposes of 
 reference I have added in the appendix a list of verbs necessarily im- 
 perfect, classed as usual under the heads of the infinitive without 
 preposition, with de, and with d. 
 
 The infinitive in place of a finite verb. 
 
 1. The historical infinitive. 
 
 The infinitive moods with the preposition de is used in 
 place of a finite verb to express an action, which is repre- 
 sented as occurring simultaneously with another action ex- 
 pressed by a finite verb ; the infinitive is treated as coordinate 
 with the finite verb, as : Un Granger nia jete ce secret a la 
 
THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTANTIVAL TERM. 
 
 16 a 
 
 face, et chaque electeur alors de dire y^c^est vrai^^^ A stranger 
 threw this secret in my face, and every elector then cried ^,it 
 is true^^ 
 
 2. The exclamatory infinitive. 
 
 The infinitive is used elliptically without preposition in 
 exclamations and exclamatory questions, as: Ne craigne^ rien! 
 — Moi craindre! Don’t be afraid ! What, I afraid ! Quel parti 
 prendre? What steps must I take? 
 
 This use is very common in oblique interrogations, as : 
 Elle ne salt qite devenir, She does not know what to turn to. 
 
 3. The imperative infinitive. 
 
 The infinitive is used as an imperative in giving general 
 directions , as Pascal , giving rules for definitions , writes : 
 N'^omettre cmcim des termes nn pen ejysciirs on equivoques 
 sans definition, Let no term slightly obscure or equivocal be 
 left undefined. So commonly: Savoir, namely, S’^adresser an 
 concierge, apply to the porter etc. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 26. 
 
 1. Le jeune Bernardin a qui on faisait regarcler les tours de la 
 cathMrale: Mon Dieu! comme ils volent haiit! s’ecria-tdl; et tout le 
 monde de rire. 2. Elle lui dit qu’elle n’osait loner, antant qu’ils le 
 meritaient, des vers qui la louaient trop: lui de protester qu’ils ne la 
 louaient pas assez. 3. Enfoncer ce couteau moi-meme, chose horrible 1 
 
 4. Ou fair? comment me vaincre? ou trouver du courage? 5. Pour- 
 quoi le demander, puisque vous le savez? 6. Elle a toujours a qui 
 dire ses pensees. 7. Les dattes donnent a I’homme de quoi le nouiTii\ 
 le vetir et le loger. 8. Je ne sais comment faire. 9. Se donner tant 
 de mal pour un tel fils! 10. Mais que dis-je? toi te lafsser briser par 
 aucune chose? toi te corriger jamais? 11. L’attaquer, le mettre en 
 quartiers, Sire loup I’efit fait volontiers. 12. L’armee etait composee 
 de quinze mille hommes, savoir: dix mille hommes de pied et cinq 
 mille chevanx. 13. Voir sur cette matiere tel auteur. 
 
 XXXIV. THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTAN* 
 TIVAL TERM IN CONNECTION WITH A 
 FINITE VERB. 
 
 The infinitive as a verbal substantive in connection with 
 a finite verb may stand A. as subject or complement, B. as 
 object after transitive verbs, C. as a case of reference after 
 neuter and reflexive verbs. It is regularly constructed with 
 
164 THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTANTIVAL TERM. 
 
 the preposition de; the cases in which the preposition is 
 omitted are enumerated below. 
 
 A. The infinitive as subject or complement. 
 
 1. The infinitive as grammatical subject or complement 
 regularly has the preposition de^ as : De vans en faire aimer 
 nest qiie le dernier de vos soins, To make yourself loved by 
 her is the last of your cares. 
 
 But the infinitive is more usually without preposition : 
 
 cc. When it stands the first word of the sentence, as : 
 AUendre est impossible,, agir ne Vest pas moins, To wait is 
 impossible, to act is not less so. 
 
 /?. When it is the complement of a copulative verb, the 
 subject of which is also an infinitive, as Vegeter c'est monrir,, 
 To vegetate is the same thing as to die. 
 
 y. When the verb, of which it is the subject, is omitted, 
 as : A qtioi bon vouloir sativer ma vie ? Of what use is it 
 to wish to save my life ? 
 
 But if an infinitive is the subject of a relative clause, explanatory 
 of the demonstrative cc, with the verb omitted (see XIV. 5), it more 
 usually takes de, as: &est heaucoup qiie de savoir commander, It is 
 a great matter to know how to command. Sometimes however the 
 preposition is omitted, as: Cest meriter la mart que Vattendre, To wait 
 for death is to deserve it. 
 
 2. An infinitive as logical subject has the preposition de: 
 
 a. When the grammatical subject is the pronoun ?7, as; 
 
 II est bean de mourir pour la patrie^ To die for one’s country 
 is glorious. Except that with the impersonal expressions il 
 fait beau, il fait bon, il vaut antant, il vaiit mieux, a single 
 infinitive is without preposition, while the second infinitive of 
 comparison with il vaut autant, — mieux usually has de, 
 as: Il ne fait pas bon Ure de vos nippes, It is not a plea- 
 sant lot to be one of your things. Il vaut mieux courir le 
 risque de faire une guerre malheureuse, que de donner de 
 V argent pour avoir la paix, It is better to run the risk of 
 waging an unfortunate war, than to give money in order to 
 have peace. 
 
 NOTE. In the case of two impersonal verbs, il faut, and il semble, 
 an infinitive is used without preposition which appears to be the logical 
 subject; but that this infinitive is rather constructed as a case of re- 
 ference, is seen from the fact, that the accusative pronoun form le may 
 be substituted for it, as: Faut-il votis quitter? 11 le faut!, where the 
 construction seems to be: Is there a necessity in reference to leaving 
 yon? There is a necessity in respect to it. 
 
THE INFINITIVE AS A SUBSTANTIVAL TERM. 
 
 165 
 
 II semhle with a following adjective is regularly constructed with 
 de and infinitive as its logical subject, as: 11 me semhle raisonnable 
 d^agir awsi, Acting so seems reasonable to me. Without the predi- 
 cative adjective it was formerly so used, but at present it is only used 
 with the infinitive without preposition, for which, as with il faut the 
 pronominal form le may be substituted, as: 11 me semhle encore Ten- 
 tendre^ 11 vie le semhle = It seems the case in reference to hearing 
 him — in reference to it. 
 
 Where ce is the grammatical subject and the infinitive 
 follows in apposition, de is always used, as: Oest hien mal 
 S!effrayer ainsi ses amis, It is very wrong to frighten one's 
 friends so. 
 
 NOTE. In two cases an infinitive with d stands apparently as 
 logical subject, viz. after the expressions il reste, and c’est d quelquhiv ; 
 that the action however expressed by this infinitive is not the logical 
 subject, but, like the so-called objective infinitive with d, is explanatory 
 of an ellipse and denotes a resultant action, is clear from a comparison 
 of cases, where a real subject infinitive with de follows these expres- 
 sions. In c^est d moi d^oheir, puisque vous commandez, the infinitive 
 is the subject, = Obeying is for me (my dutyj since you are in com- 
 mand; but in Oest a Poncet a parler the subject is not the speaking 
 but the opportunity, which would result in Poncet’s speaking. So in 
 Il me rest ait d^etre ouhlie de vous the infinitive is plainly the subject, 
 = To he forgotten hy you was the lot ivhich remained for me. But 
 in II me reste d vous faire connaitre ses rapports avec les peuples, — 
 I have further to make clear to you his relations with the nations — 
 it is not the making clear which remained, but the task which would 
 result in making them clear. Still it is true that the two notions often 
 run into each other, in which case, for modern French, the infinitive 
 with d is to be preferred. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 27. 
 
 1. Autre chose est d’abreger les mots, autre chose de les estropier. 
 2. Toute son ambition etait d’agrandir ses etats. 3. Parler est impru- 
 dent, et se taire est bien lache. 4. Braver la mort n’est rien. 5. Bien 
 ecrire c’est tout a la fois bien penser, bien sentir, et bien rendre. 
 6. C’est bien criminel que d’etre miserable- 7. C’est assez que d’etre. 
 8. C’est avoir profit^ que de savoir se plaire aux ecrits d’Homh’e. 9. 
 Il est plus honteux de se defier de ses amis que d’en etre trompe. 
 10. Il ne depend point de nous d’avoir ou de ne point avoir des pas- 
 sions. 11. Il fait bon etre protege par elle. 12. Autant vaut vous 
 envoyer ce griffonnage-ci tel qu’il est. 13. Il vaut mieux s’exposer a 
 I’ingratitude que de manquer aux mis4rables. 14. Il y a beaucoup 
 d’occasions ou il vaut mieux se taire que de parler. 15. C’est uii 
 pesant fardeau d’avoir un grand merite. 16. C’est faiblesse de craindre 
 la j)hilosophie des paiens. 17. Il ne restait a Charles XII pour achever 
 sa premiere campagne que de marcher centre son rival. 18. Beste a 
 savoir. 19. Il restait k sauver quatre mille habitants. 20. C’est a vous 
 a jouer. 21. Qu’ils pleurent, c’est ^ vousde chanter. 22. C’est a vous. 
 
166 
 
 THE INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 
 
 Sire, a les faire cesser ; e’est a vous de tenir aux puissances etrangeres 
 le langage qui convient au roi des Frangais. 
 
 XXXV. THE INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 
 
 B. An infinitive in French may stand as object to ail tran- 
 sitive verbs, which by their meaning admit of an action as 
 object, provided that the subject of the infinitive, that is the 
 person to whom its action is referred, is clear from the sen- 
 tence itself. 
 
 The infinitive as object of a transitive verb, like the in- 
 finitive as subject is regularly constructed with de-, the pre- 
 position losing altogether its prepositional force and with the 
 infinitive forming one substantival notion, as: H feint d^efre 
 fdche, He pretends to be vexed (= the being vexed). 
 
 The French infinitive as subject is a simple substantive, and is 
 used irrespective of the person to whom the action is attributed; as 
 object on the contrary, it can only be used, where the person to whom 
 the action is attributed is clearly marked. For convenience sake there- 
 fore we use the expression the subject of the infinitive^ but it must be 
 remembered that by this expression it is simply meant, that as object 
 of a transitive verb a French infinitive with very few exceptions cannot 
 be used unless the action it expresses is referred to a particular 
 person mentioned in the sentence ; and not that the infinitive and 
 its subject form together the object of the principal verb. He 
 declared that he is right may be translated by the infinitive in French 
 II affirme avoir raison, because the sense is given by the infinitive 
 alone He affirms the being right. But the infinitive cannot be used 
 as object to translate He ansivered that he teas right, because the 
 verbal substantive alone cannot stand as object to the verb to answer. 
 
 The infinitive may stand as object to a transitive verb 
 
 1. When the subject of the infinitive is the same as that 
 of the principal verb. 
 
 2. When the subject of the infinitive is the indirect ob- 
 ject of the principal verb. 
 
 3. With a few verbs, when the subject of the infinitive 
 may be variously expressed, or even entirely omitted. 
 
 1. The infinitive as object when the subject is 
 the same as that of the principal verb. 
 
 This is the case with all simple transitive verbs, and with 
 trajective transitive verbs, except when the infinitive would 
 represent a clause of oblique petition after a verb containing 
 final force, or when after a verb of accusing or pardoning 
 it expresses the action which is imputed. 
 
THE INFINITIVE AS ^JECT. 
 
 167 
 
 a. The infinitive is without preposition after verbs a. of 
 stating, /?. of thinking, y, of wishing, as : J^affirme avoir vti 
 noire ami hier^ I declare I saw our friend yesterday, II peut 
 se persuader Mre tm grand general, He may be convinced 
 that he^ is a great general. J'aimerais atitant alter a p>icd, 
 I should like just as well to walk. 
 
 Such verbs are 
 
 cc, affirmer to affirm dire to state pvMier to proclaim 
 assurer to assure raconter to tell 
 
 avouer ] , ^ jurer to swear rapporter to report 
 
 confesser \ reeonnaitre to 
 
 acknowledge 
 
 declarer to declare pretendre to soutenir to maintain 
 assert (intend) 
 
 deposer to testify protester to temoigner to testify etc. 
 
 protest 
 
 /?. compter to intend 
 considerer to consider 
 croire to think 
 estimer to judge 
 entendre to mean 
 
 se figurer ) 
 s'imaginer J 
 
 to fancy 
 
 juger to be of opinion 
 penser to think, intend 
 se persuader to be convinced of 
 presumer to presume 
 prevoir to foresee 
 soupgonner to suspect 
 supposer to suppose etc. 
 
 ,y. aimer (mieux, autant)^ to like (better, just as well) 
 desirer to desire 
 esperer to hope 
 
 prefh*er to prefer 
 
 souhaiter ] , . , 
 
 7 . r to wish 
 vouloir J 
 
 etc. 
 
 NOTE 1. If the verb, on which the infinitive depends, is in a re- 
 lative clause, the subject of the infinitive may be a relative pronoun 
 in the accusative instead of the subject of the relative clause, as: La 
 France qiCon m^a dit etre heaucoup plus grande que le pays de Salo- 
 mon, France, which I am told is much larger than the country of 
 Solomon. 
 
 NOTE 2. It is to be noted that the verbs of stating and thinking 
 are only constructed with the simple infinitive, when the attention is 
 to be directed not so much to the fact itself, as to its being stated 
 <or thought; otherwise quc and a finite verb is to be preferred. So 
 
168 
 
 THE ^FINITIVE AS OBJECT. 
 
 that Je crois avoir raison = I tkinic I am right, Je crois qm fat 
 raison = I think I am right. Hence on the one hand, when the fact 
 of the statement is to be emphasized, such a verb as ecrire (= to 
 state in writing) may be constructed with the simple infinitive ; and on 
 the other when any of the verbs in lists a. and are used in a more- 
 extended sense, the infinitive they govern will in accordance with the 
 regular rule have de. So jurer = to promise on oath, compter = to 
 reckon on, juger with an appositive adjective neeessaire^ important etc. 
 take de, as: Pathiel avait compte d^epouser d^Einsiedel, Pathiel 
 
 had reckoned on marrying Mme d’Einsiedel. 
 
 NOTE 3. With difference of meaning the construction naturally 
 also changes ; so pretendre ~ to lay claim to, and penser = to think 
 of, turn the thoughts to, have the infinitive with d, as they would with 
 any other substantival notion, as : II ne pretend d rien, 11 ne pretend 
 d rien recevoir, II pensait d ses devoirs, II pensait d remplir ses de- 
 voirs. Dire (= to order) containing final force comes under division 2. 
 (Chap. XXXYI) and takes de with the infinitive. 
 
 NOTE 4. All the verbs of wishing except vouloir admit of a dif- 
 ferent construction with the infinitive. The principle seems to be, that 
 when the emphasis is on the principal verb, the infinitive is without 
 preposition, when the emphasis is on the infinitive it is constructed 
 with de. Practically the dependant infinitive usually has de, where it 
 is separated by a word or words from the principal verb, (as is the 
 case with the 2^ infinitive after aimer mieux — antant) and also when 
 the verb on which it depends is itself in the infinitive, as: Je n^espere 
 plus de ni’y revoir, I no longer hope to find myself there again, Vous 
 ne sauriez desirer de conserver sous vos ordres un officier qui etc. You 
 cannot wish to keep under your command an officer, who etc. 
 
 On the other hand the preposition is almost always omitted, if the 
 principal verb is in the conditional. 
 
 NOTE 5. The same construction as with aimer mieux is employed, 
 where, in place of aimer mieux or prefer er with a dependant infinitive, 
 the notion of comparison is given by the adverb plutot, as Je mourrais 
 plutot (— faimerais mieux mourir) que de le trahir, I would die rather 
 than betray him. 
 
 NOTE 6. Aimer may be constructed with the simple infinitive, 
 though it is not often so used except in the conditional ; it is found 
 rarely in modern authors, mostly in poetry, with de, as : Pourquoi pour 
 la justice ai-je aime de souffrir ? Lamartine ; but its most ordinary use 
 is with d and an infinitive, as though aimer were taken absolutely = 
 to take pleasure, and the infinitive with d expressed the manner, as 
 j^aime d lire, I like reading, take pleasure in reading (but see XXXV. 4. P). 
 
 b. With all other transitive verbs, an infinitive as object, 
 the subject of which is the same as that of the verb on which 
 it depends, is constructed with the preposition de ; the pre- 
 position and infinitive are treated as a single substantival 
 term, which may be used of future time no less than of time 
 present or past, and may stand equally well in place of an 
 
THE INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 
 
 1G9 
 
 objective clause, or prolatively, that is continuing the action 
 of the principal verb, as : II a jproMis de venir ce soir He 
 promised (the coming =) that he would come to-night. II re- 
 fuse de venir He refuses (the coming =) to come. 
 
 NOTE. Many verbs which admit of an objective infinitive with 
 de, may also be constructed with a personal object; in this case the 
 infinitive mood being no longer the object of the verb is constructed 
 with d, giving the aim of the action; of such are decider, dHerminer, 
 resoudre, refuser etc., as: II a decide de partir^ or II s’est decide d 
 partir, He determined to go away. 
 
 (For the infinitive with d after commencer^ continuer^ 
 discontinuer, essayer^ recommeneer see XXXVI. 4 a). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 28. 
 
 a. a. 1. II ne temoignait plus rien entendre. 2. Mon coeur de 
 son cote protesta n’y avoir aucune part. 3. 11 affirme I’avoir vu. 4. 
 Elle a avoue Pavoir fait. 5. Elle pretend le lui avoir dit. 6. Je 
 reconnais avoir regu cette somme. 7. 11 avait declare vouloir m’at- 
 tendre. 8. Personne ne dit avoir vu le prince ecrire. 9. II jure Pavoir 
 reconnu. 10. Les rois jurent a leur couronnement de conserver les 
 privileges de leurs sujets. 
 
 a. (3, 1. On apergoit des monarques qui se figurent etre des 
 souverains. 2. Si vous prevoyiez rester a Rochefort plus de dix jours, 
 vous m’enverriez par la poste votre premier rapport. 3. Les grands 
 ne croient toe nes que pour eux-memes. 4. II s’imagine toe un grand 
 homme. 5. Chacun dans ce miroir pense voir son image. 6. Nous 
 Comptons partir ce soir. 7. Peut-elle compter d’en toe crue sur sa 
 parole? 8. II jugea devoir se comporter ainsi. 9. J’entends ne le 
 vendre a personne. 10. Ce miserable estimait s’etre bien tire de 
 cette epreuve delicate et perilleuse. 
 
 a. y. 1. Elle aimait mieux vivre et mourir sans consolation que 
 d’en chercher hors de Dieu. 2. J’aimerais mieux manger que t’ecrire. 
 3. Je n’aime pas improviser des redites. 4. Je congois qu’on desire etre 
 a vous et vous avoir a soi. 5. Je desirerais seulement savoir quelle 
 forme vous prtorez. 6. II espto revivre en sa posterite. 7. J’espto 
 de leur faire justice dans une autre edition. 8. Nomme-moi les cli- 
 mats ou tu souhaites vivre. 9. Au lieu de rester neutre entre les 
 factions Dumouriez prefera rompre avec elles. 10. II prefere de perir 
 avec eux plutot que de les abandonner. 
 
 a. note 1. 1. II eut Paudace de dtorer tons ceux qu’il soupgonnait 
 avoir eu du penchant a secourir Persee. 2. Le roi Louis XIII ex- 
 pliqua pendant un quart d’heure Pavis qu’il estimait devoir etre suivi. 
 3. II (Phenix) se dit d’une personne qu’on pretend etre unique ou rare 
 dans son genre. 4. Sphinx, monslre imaginaire que les poetes disent 
 avoir eu le visage et les mamelles d’une femme. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 
 
 12 
 
170 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONTINUED. 
 
 b. I. Ils detestent d’attendre. 2. Elle ne bait pas d’etre grondee. 
 3. Ces rois qui osent m Miter de nous donner des fers. 4. II resolut 
 de cultiver mon esprit. 5. Regois un malheureux qui se resout a 
 I’etre. 6. Le sage cependant obtient d’toe ecoute. 7. J’evite d’etre 
 long et je deviens obscur. 8. J’achevai de gagner ses bonnes graces 
 par cette flatterie. 9. II entreprend de pousser jusqu’au Tibre les 
 conduits souterrains. 10. Je tiens a honneur de lui toe presente. 
 
 XXXVI. THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE 
 CONTINUED. 
 
 2. Where the subject of the infinitive is the indirect ob- 
 ject of the principal verb, the infinitive always has the pre- 
 position de. 
 
 This is the case with all trajective verbs, which can have 
 for their object a verbal action, 
 
 hence a. with all trajective verbs which contain final 
 force ; such are verbs of commanding : commander.^ crier dire., 
 ecrire., erjoindre, imposer^ mander, ordonner^ prescrire etc., 
 verbs of advising: conseiller., inspirer^ persuader., proposer, 
 recommander etc., and verbs of asking, granting, forbidding: 
 demander, accorder, permeitre, defendre etc., as: Je lui ai 
 conseille de travailler I have advised him to work. 
 
 /?. with such verbs of accusing, reproaching, pardoning, 
 as have for their object the act charged ; such are disputer, 
 imputer, pardonner, repr ocher etc., as: II m’a reproche d’avoir 
 neglige mon devoir, He reproached me with having neglected 
 my work (lit. to me the having neglected). 
 
 3. With a few verbs an infinitive without preposition may 
 stand as object, when the subject of the infinitive may be 
 variously expressed, or even entirely omitted. These are faire 
 and laisser and verbs of hearing, seeing, and feeling ; such 
 are apercevoir, entendre (to hear), ecouter, ou'ir, observer, 
 regarder, sentir, voir. 
 
 The object infinitive with these verbs may have its sub- 
 ject expressed, either as a case of reference to the principal 
 verb in the accusative or dative, or under the government 
 of one of the prepositions which express the agent, or lastly 
 the subject need not be expressed at all, as: Je les ai fait 
 pleurer I made them cry, (lit. I caused a crying in reference 
 
THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONTINUED. 
 
 171 
 
 to them). Je leur ai fait lire ce livre I made them read this 
 book (lit. I caused a reading this book in reference to them). 
 J’ai fait punir mon fils par le mattre I have had my son 
 punished by the master (lit. I have caused a punishing my 
 son by the master), Je Vai fait punir I have had him pu- 
 nished (lit. I have caused a punishing him). 
 
 Two cases are to be distinguished : cc, when the infinitive 
 has no object and [3. when the infinitive has an object. 
 
 a. When the infinitive has no object, its subject stands 
 as a case of reference to the principal verb in the accusative 
 and if it is a pronoun, it precedes the principal verb, if a sub- 
 stantive, it usually follows the infinitive, as: Je la vois venir 
 I see her coming, Je vois venir ma soeur I see my sister 
 coming. 
 
 NOTE. The accusative as a case of reference is contrar}^ to 
 French syntactical usage, which does not admit, as the Latin does of two 
 accusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing governed by the 
 same verb, but requires the person to be expressed in the dative. But 
 the infinitive, unless it has itself an object, does not in this construction 
 exercise the same influence as a substantive or pronoun. It is pro- 
 bably owing to the confusion, which this departure from the usual rules 
 has caused, that with all the verbs, of which we are treating, except faire^ 
 the accusative of reference is treated in two cases as the object of the 
 verb. For a. in compound tenses, if the accusative is a pronoun and there- 
 fore precedes the principal verb, the passive participle is inflected in 
 agreement with it, as Je les ai vus sortiVy but Jeles ai fait sortir; and f. 
 when the infinitive expresses an action, which if the verb were finite 
 would be reflexive, except after /u^Ve, the reflexive pronoun is expressed 
 with the infinitive, as: Je les ai fait asseoir (lit. I caused a sitting in 
 reference to them), but Je les ai vus s^asseoir I saw them sit down. 
 
 fi. When the infinitive has an object. 
 
 In this case the rule is that the noun of reference is in 
 the dative (if a substantive with a) as: Chaque jour encore 
 on lui voit tout tenter Each da}^ we see him try everything 
 (= in reference to him a trying everything). Jai entendu 
 raconter cette histoire a M. un tel T have heard Mr. So 
 and So tell that story. But the accusative is more common 
 except with faire^ as: Jai entendu M. un tel raconter cette 
 histoire. 
 
 In those cases where the sense would be complete without 
 expressing the subject to the infinitive, as : J’ai fait faire 
 un hahit^ I have had a coat made, it is always possible to 
 express the author of the action as the agent to the infinitive 
 
 12 * 
 
172 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONTINUED. 
 
 instead of as a case of reference to the principal verb, so 
 J'ai fait faire tin hahit par le tailleur; by this means ob- 
 scurity is avoided; J'ai fait faire iin hahit a man fils^ may 
 mean I have had a coat made for my son, or I have got 
 my son to make a coat, but J’ai fait faire un hahit d mon 
 fils par le tailleur removes all doubt. 
 
 4. The infinitive with d stands apparently as object to 
 a transitive verb in two cases : 
 
 a. when the infinitive expresses not the immediate action, 
 which ought to be expressed as the object of the principal 
 verb, but a course of action the attainment of which is to be 
 the result of the action of the principal verb. 
 
 Hence an infinitive with d follows aider, apprendre (to 
 learn, to teach), chercher, desapprendre, enseigner and montrer, 
 as : Je cherche d lui plaire I am trying to please him (= I am 
 seeking so as to please him). Je lui enseigne d ecrire, I am 
 teaching him to write (= so as for him to write). In these 
 instances it is plain, that his being pleased and his being able 
 to ivrite are not the immediate object of chercJier and ensei- 
 gner, but the object aimed at by the action of these verbs. 
 
 NOTE. Aider is also constructed with the acc. of the person, as: 
 aider quelqu’un d payer ses dettes, where of course the infinitive is 
 purely prepositional. 
 
 With the above-named five verbs are to be reckoned the 
 verbs commencer, continuer, discontinuer, essayer and recom- 
 meneer in one of their constructions. 
 
 They are constructed regularly (XXXV. b.) with de and 
 the infinitive, when the individual action is the object of the 
 verb, as : Continues d^eerire votre lettre. Go on writing your 
 letter (== continue the writing). But if a course of action is 
 signified to which the individual action would lead, the in- 
 finitive is constructed with d, as : Continues d m^ aimer eomme 
 autrefois. Go on loving me as in old times (— so as to love 
 me). With these verbs however the two notions often come so 
 close together, that it is difficult to distinguish them. 
 
 /?. an apparent objective infinitive with d occurs, when the 
 infinitive expresses not the immediate object of the verb, but 
 a further action, which would follow on the action of the 
 principal verb, if completed by an object, almost as if there 
 were an ellipse of a substantive, as : ai d travailler ce ma- 
 tin (= fai du travail d travailler) I have to work this mor- 
 
THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONTINUED. 
 
 173 
 
 ning. Je vous laisse a penser (— je vons laisse la 2^ensee 
 a penser) I leave you to think. This construction is used 
 with the verbs avoir, y avoir, demander, laisser, preparer 
 and trouver. This is possibly the explanation of the infinitive 
 with d after aimer, though in this case the infinitive is scarce- 
 ly to be distinguished from the immediate object of the verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 29. 
 
 2. «. 1. Dumouriez conseillait a Louis XVI cle renvoyer les rninistres 
 dont il avait a se plaindre. 2. Elle frassemblee) leur permit de defiler 
 dans son sein. 3. II commande au soleil d’animer la nature: 4. On 
 propose de danser. 5. Je n’ai cesse de lui crier de changer de con- 
 duite. 6. Des que mon homme d’affaires rentrera, vous lui direz de 
 venir me parler. 7. Vous ne me persuaderez point de souffrir les im- 
 modesties de cette piece. 8. Je vous defends tout retour et toute in- 
 quietude sur cela et de vous en confesser de nouveau ni k moi ni a 
 d’autres. 9. Les dieux ne lui ont pas accorde de revoir sa patrie. 
 
 10. On m’a recommande de veiller sur lui. 
 
 2. 1. Je vous reproche de borner la toutes vos pensees et toutes 
 
 VOS esperances. 2. On ne pent disputer a Rousseau d’avoir connu 
 parfaitement la mecanique des vers. 3. Pourrait-il m’imputer de craindre 
 le trepas ? 4. Je lui pardonne de m’avoir offense. 
 
 d. a. 1. La culture pour laquelle Dieu nous a fait naitre. 2. 
 La philosophie fait luire un jour nouveau. 3. II faut bieii faire et 
 laisser dire. 4. C’est une bonne maitresse, je ne I’ai pas entendue 
 gronder une seule fois. 5. Sans quelques chagrins, quelques douleurs, 
 on ne se sentirait pas vivre. 6. Je sens de jour en jour depto’ mon 
 genie. JI. Les a-t-on vus marcher parmi nos ennemis? 8. A-t-on jamais 
 oui parler d’aventures si merveilleuses. 9. J’aper^ois venir sa mortelle 
 eniiemie. 10. Je te regarderai travailler. 11. Elle faisait souvenir 
 la reine de la maniere miraculeuse dont Dieu s’etait declare pour elle. 
 12. II se mordit les levres et me fit asseoir. 13. Calchas fera taire 
 nos* pleurs. 14. Je crus devoir laisser s’ecouler quelques minutes. 
 15. Le gouverneur impatient deja de voir se vider cette capitale, en 
 faisait surveiller I’emigration. 
 
 3. 1. Presque tous les historiens ont dit ce que je fais dire 
 ici a Mithridate. 2. Fais-lui garder sa foi. 3. II fit payer a la ville 
 quatre cent mille risdales. 4. Quand on est heureux et fier, le courage 
 de faire accepter son bonheur aux autres parait facile. 5. On s’etonna 
 de leur voir prendre cet amusement pueril. 6. Allez laissez aux Grecs 
 achever leur ouvrage. 7. II y a plusieurs personnes qui se souviennent 
 de lui en avoir entendu faire le recit. 8. II est ici, et le roi doit les 
 lui entendre chanter au premier jour. 9. Mais vous, monsieur, qui 
 connaissiez la faute, pourquoi la lui avoir laisse faire? 10. J’ai oui 
 dire a feu ma soeur que sa fille et moi naquimes la m.eme annee. 
 
 11. Murat ecrivit a Napoleon une lettre que j’ai entendu lire a M. de 
 Mosbourg. 12. On I’entend parler tout seul, et on le voit faire des 
 gestes qui font peur. 13. Elle s’est fait aimer, elle m’a fait hair. 14. 
 
174 
 
 THE INFINITIVE AS CASE OF RESPECT. 
 
 Je m’y sens entraiiier par une trop douce puissance. 15. Ilelas! et 
 s’il se pent, fais-le-moi croire aussi. 16. II vous avait lu cette lettre, 
 et vous Favez laisse la donner a nies gens. 17. II fit bruler la ville 
 par ses soldats. 18. Pour nous faire comprendre de nos semblables^ 
 Dieu nous a donne le langage. 
 
 4. or. 1. Mentor lui tendait la main pour lui aider a nager. 2. 
 J’aidai au Rhodien confus a se relever. 3. Le roi avait cherche a di- 
 viser les cosaques pour les affaiblir. 4. II avait appris autre chose 
 qii’a monter a cbeval. 5. Ce fut la qu’il apprit a seduire les hommes, 
 art dont il eut souvent a se prevaloir. 6. II m’acbeta un alphabet, et 
 entreprit de m’apprendre lui-meme a lire. 7. Ceux qui parlent beau- 
 coup, lors meme qu’ils parlent bien, desapprennent souvent a ecrire. 
 
 8. 11 se trouva reduit pour vivre a montrer a ecrire a deux enfants. 
 
 9. Quelques animaux nous ont enseigne a batir des maisons. 10. Don 
 Fernand sortit une seconde fois pour essay er de pacifier la place pu- 
 blique. 11. Je me garderai bien d’essayer a le troubler. 12. La-des- 
 sus elle recommen^a de pleurer. 13. Quand les enfants commencent 
 a parler, ils pleurent moins. 14. Son pere continua a lui faire exercer 
 son corps. 15. Mathurin aurait continue de vivre au milieu de joies 
 ignorees. 16. Je n’ai jamais aime a prier dans ma cbambre. 17. Ceux 
 qui aiment a s’instruire ne sont jamais oisifs. 18. Le plus insense 
 commence cl’toe sage des I’instant qu’il commence a sentir son travers. 
 
 4. 1. Monsieur, voila M. Dimanche qui demande a vous voir. 
 
 2. Les peoples uses demandent k etre gouvernes. 3. II y a tout a 
 esperer. 4. Cela lui donna fort a penser. 5. Elle avait soin de pre- 
 parer a manger. 6. J’ai a faire une visite. 7. Je laisse a penser la 
 vie que firent ces deux amis. 
 
 XXXVII. THE INFINITIVE AS CASE OP 
 RESPECT. 
 
 C. 1. An infinitive without preposition is joined to neuter 
 verbs which express a state or condition tending to further 
 action, as : II pent nous Mre utile^ He may be useful to us 
 (lit. He is able in respect of being useful to us). 
 
 This infinitive is called prolative 
 on as an extension of the action of 
 
 Such verbs are 
 daigner to deign 
 devoir ought 
 
 etre cense^ suppose to be 
 thought, supposed 
 faillir to be on the point of 
 falloir to be necessary 
 manqiier to be on the 
 
 ?, because its action may be looked 
 the principal verb. 
 
 point of 
 oser to dare 
 paraitre to seem 
 penser to be on the point of 
 pouvoir to be able 
 savoir to be able 
 semhler to seem. 
 
THE INFINITIVE AS CASE OF RESPECT. 
 
 175 
 
 ‘l ' 
 
 To these must be added avoir heaii^ which, originally 
 meaning to have dll things favour able ^ has come ironically to 
 signify a state or condition with reference to a further action, 
 which would render that action useless, as : 11 a beau se re- 
 muer, il ne reussira pas. It is no use his using all his efforts, 
 he will not succeed. 
 
 NOTE 1. Faillir and manquer are both followed by the infinitive 
 with de and d as well as without preposition. With faillir in modern 
 French the preposition is mostly omitted. Manquer in the sense of 
 faif neglect has an infinitive with d when used affirmatively, mostly 
 with de when used negatively, as: J’ai manque d repondre d vos leitres^ 
 I have neglected answering your letters. Ne manquez pas de m’eveiller 
 Don’t fail to wake me. 
 
 NOTE 2. Penser is constructed with d in the sense of to think 
 of (see XXXV. a. note 3 and XXXVIII. 1. a). 
 
 For falloir and senibler see XXXIV. 2. note. 
 
 2. An infinitive without preposition is joined to verbs of 
 motion to express the action in reference to which the motion 
 occurs. Such verbs are aller., conrir^ descendre, entrer.^ en- 
 voy er.^ mener.) monter.^ retourner.^ venir etc., as: Coiirs cher- 
 cher le medecin, Run and fetch the doctor, Je Vai envoy e 
 chercher, 1 have sent for him. J^tre is similarly used in its 
 past tenses, as: Apres diner, la compagnie fut se promener 
 a la foire, After dinner the company went for a walk in the 
 fair. 
 
 NOTE. If the notion of purpose is strongly marked, the prepo- 
 sition pour must be used, as: Je viens non pas pour vous feliciter, 
 mais pour vous faire des reproches I come not to congratulate, but to 
 reproach you. In English the difference between the prolative force, 
 and the notion of purpose is generally noted by constructing the two 
 verbs, in the former case, as parallel, joined by the copulative con- 
 junction and, in the latter case by using the infinitive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 30. 
 
 C. 1. 1. J’ose encore I’esperer. 2. Je dois bientot, il me le semble, 
 
 mettre pour jamais habit bas. 3. Il n’y a rien qui rafraichisse le^ang 
 comme d’avoir su eviter de faire une sottise. 4. 11 ne faut pas croire 
 tout ce qu’on dit. 5. Tout doit tendre au bon sens. 6. Daignez 
 m’ouvrir vos bras pour la derniere fois. 7. Pour obtenir du credit il 
 faut paraitre en avoir. 8. Un homme aussi dangereux qiie paraissait 
 I’etre Don Garcia. 9. Don Fernand semblait avoir faibli dans I’affaire 
 de I’Escurial. 10. Chez les anciens les pretres et les pretresses etaient 
 censes commercer intimement avec le ciel. 11. On a beau etudier les 
 hommes et les approfondir, on s’y trompe toujours. 12. Cette action 
 pourtant me pensa perdre. 13. Je me mis a I’eau et si pen discrete- 
 
176 
 
 THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 ment qu’elle faillit me guerir non de mes maux mais de la vie. 14. 
 
 Sa prophetie faillit s’accomplir a la lettre. 15. Vous avez manque 
 
 me perdre entierement. 
 
 C. 2. 1. Ils allerent ensuite demeurer a Oviedo. 2. Par de nou- 
 
 veaux refus n'allez pas I’irriter. 3. Quelqu’un recitait quelque chose, 
 vers oil prose, puis nous courions recommencer a danscr. 4. Elle des- 
 cends oiivrir la porte. 5. Ils remonterent promptement se remettre 
 a leurs travaux. 6. Ils envoyaient leurs laquais battre les mains a la 
 Phedre de Pradon. 7. Ah ! s’ecria la bucheronne, pourrais-tu bien toi- 
 meme mener perdre tes enfants ? 8. Je viens vous sauver. 9. Ils ont 
 
 ete regarder jusque sous les lits. 10. II fut recevoir le corps de son 
 
 frere jusqu’a Pavie. 
 
 XXXVIII. THE INFINITIVE UNDER THE 
 GOVERNMENT OP PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The infinitive as a verbal substantive is governed by the 
 prepositions apres, avant^ de^ entre, par, pour and sans; 
 with avant it is constructed with the preposition de. 
 
 The infinitive with d. 
 
 The uses of the preposition d with the infinitive are 
 apparently all derived from the local uses of this preposition; 
 such a prepositional phrase may qualify a verb, an adjective 
 or a substantive, or a whole sentence. 
 
 As a denotes motion to a 'place, so with an infinitive it denotes 
 that the action of the principal verb is conducive to the action of the 
 infinitive; as it denotes arrival at a place, so with an infinitive it de- 
 notes a limit to the action of the principal verb; as it denotes rest in 
 a place, so with an infinitive it denotes that action, in which the action 
 of the principal verb is exercised. 
 
 A. The infinitive with d qualifying verbs. 
 
 1. The infinitive with d follows verbs, the action of which 
 is conducive to the action of the infinitive. Hence it follows 
 mOi. Neuter and reflexive verbs the action of which 
 is prolonged and results in another action. Such are 
 
 aspirer to aspire 
 co'nspirer to concur 
 consentir to agree 
 contribuer to contribute 
 incliner to be inclined 
 penser to think 
 
 pencher to be disposed 
 pretendre to claim 
 rever to dream 
 servir to conduce 
 songer to think 
 siiffire to be enough 
 
 tdcher to try 
 tendre to tend 
 travailler to use efforts 
 riser to aim 
 veiller to be careful 
 vaguer to attend 
 ' etc. 
 
THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 177 
 
 s*accorder to agree 
 s’appliquer to set to 
 
 to persist 
 
 s^entendre to arrange s^ohstiner | 
 
 s^Uudier to make it s’opinidtrer J 
 
 one’s business 
 
 s’efforcer to strive se liazarder to venture se refuser to refuse 
 
 s'^empresser to hasten se mettre to set to se resoudre to resolve; 
 
 as : II se mit a travailler, He set to to work ; Un hoynme 
 de coeur pense a remplir ses devoirs^ A conscientious man 
 gives thought to fulfilling his duties. 
 
 This use of the infinitive with d is extended to all ex- 
 pressions which signify an action tending to further action, 
 such as faire des efforts^ avoir de la peine etc., as : Quelqtie 
 effort qiie Von fasse a rompre vos beaux noeuds — Whatever 
 effort we make to break your fair-seeming bonds. It therefore 
 approaches in many cases very nearly in meaning to pour 
 and infinitive, the only difference being, that with pour the 
 notion of purpose is more strongly marked. 
 
 NOTE 1. Of the neuter verbs, eonsentir and idcher are equally 
 well constructed with de (see XL. 4. note). With tdcher at present 
 de is more usual, d is much more frequent in older writers; perhaps 
 the use of the objective infinitive with de after essay er has given rise 
 to a similar use with tdcher^ as though it were also transitive. 
 
 NOTE 2. Of the reflexive verbs s^accorder, s’empresser, s^efforcer 
 and se resoudre are also used with de and the infinitive (see XL. 4. 
 note). 
 
 /?. The infinitive with a follows transitive verbs, which 
 denote a direct influence exercised on there object urging it 
 to further action. Such are 
 {s'’)accoutumcr to accustom 
 
 amener to induce 
 
 appeler to summon 
 autoriser to autho- 
 rise 
 
 condamner to con- 
 demn 
 
 contraindre to 
 compel 
 
 cornier to urge 
 defier to challenge 
 
 (se) decider to decide 
 destiner to intend 
 
 (se) determiner to de- 
 termine 
 
 (se) devouer to devote 
 
 (se) disposer to dispose 
 (s) encourager to en- 
 courage 
 
 (s) engager to pledge 
 exciter to prompt 
 
 exliorter to exhort 
 (s^) exposer to expose 
 
 forcer to force 
 (s^) habituer to accustom 
 
 inciter to incite 
 incliner to dispose 
 
 instruire to give 
 instructions 
 inviter to invite 
 obliger to oblige 
 
 (se) porter to induce 
 preparer to prepare 
 
 (se) preter to lend 
 reduire to bring 
 (force) 
 
 solliciter to entreat 
 
 (se) soumettre to succeed 
 in forcing 
 
 (se) vouer to give up etc. 
 
178 THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 as : Nos hesoins nous indinent a adherer d ce qui est bon^ 
 Our needs dispose us to cling to ’ what is good. 
 
 NOTE 1. Of these verbs the three verbs of forcing contraindre^ 
 forcer, ohliger are said to be constructed with de of a single, definite 
 action; with d of a course of action, but the distinction is not always 
 observed (XL. 4. «. note). 
 
 NOTE 2. Decider and dHerminer (= to determine on) take an 
 objective infinitive with de, when they have no personal object; but 
 when they govern a personal object in the active, and consequently 
 always in the passive, they have the infinitive with d; as: IZ a decide 
 de renvoyer son domestique He has determined on sending his servant 
 away. Cette raison Va decide d ne rien entreprendre. A suivre mon 
 devoir je suis deter minee. 
 
 NOTE 3. Defier = to challenge has an infinitive with d; but in 
 the sense of to defy, to declare impossible, it has de and infinitive, as: 
 defier quelqn’un a boire, je vous defle de deviner cette enigme. 
 
 NOTE 4. ExJi07'ter and solliciter may have an infinitive either 
 with de or d: convier and inviter are so found exceedingly rarely 
 (XL. 4. a. note). 
 
 2. The infinitive with d follows verbs, which denote an action 
 limited in duration, to mark the limit to which the action of 
 the main verb extends. Such are 
 
 s’abaisser to stoop s^attendre to expect se resigner tohe resigned 
 
 s^arreter to stop se borner to confine se tarder to defer 
 
 s'^attacher to. adhere oneself etc. 
 
 aboutir to end faillir ) to be on the reussir to succeed 
 
 atteindre to contrixe to manquer ] point of to be reluctant 
 
 balancer] , parvenir to manage tenir to hold 
 
 Msiter j ^ renoncer to give up tarder to delay; 
 
 as: Je me borne d vous dire simplement les faits, I confine 
 myself to simply telling you the facts. I 
 
 NOTE 1. With s’attendre an infinitive with de is only found in 
 older authors; balancer, Msiter and tarder occasionally occur with de 
 and infinitive. With the impersonal il me tarde etc. the infinitive with 
 de is the logical subject. 
 
 NOTE 2. Manquer and faillir are frequently constructed with 
 an infinitive without preposition as expressing a state or condition (see 
 Chap. XXXVII. 1.). Manquer is also transitive (== to miss) and may 
 therefore be constructed with an objective infinitive with de, 
 
 3. The infinitive with d is added to any verb, which 
 expresses a continuous action, and gives that action in which 
 the action of the main verb is exercised. Of the verbs with 
 which this infinitive is usually joined are 
 
THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 179 
 
 s'amuser to amuse se divertir to amuse se passer to be em- 
 oneself oneself ployed (of time) 
 
 concourir to cooperate se fatiguer to use efforts perseverer to persevere 
 consister to consist gagner to gain persister to persist 
 
 couter to cost an effort s’interesser to take in- se plaire to take plea- 
 s^employer to busy terest sure 
 
 oneself scZasscr to weary oneself se travailler to do one'’ s 
 
 etre to be engaged se meler to busy oneself best 
 
 exceller to excel s'occuper to work risquer to risk, etc. 
 
 s^exercer to practise 
 
 as: II vaiit mieux s^GCCuper a jouer qu’a medire^ It is better 
 to employ one’s time in playing than in talking scandal. Vous 
 etes toiijoiirs a dire du mol des femmes, You are always 
 talking ill of women. 
 
 NOTE. When the notion expressed by the infinitive with d can 
 be expressed by a substantive, the prepositions en and dans are fre- 
 quently employed, as: passer la nuit en priere, passer la nuit a hien 
 dormir, II a depense tout son argent en bagatelles, or — d acJieter 
 des bagatelles. 
 
 Besides the above verbs this infinitive is especially com- 
 mon after all expressions of the lapse of time, as piasser la 
 nuit etc. The same is the case after avoir and prendre when 
 governing substantives either without the article or with an 
 indefinite or partitive article, and so expressing a conti- 
 nuous state of feeling ; such are avoir peine, plaisir, mau- 
 vaise grace, dtt gout, honte etc., prendre soin, plaisir etc. 
 On the other hand if the feeling spoken of is a particular 
 case, the descriptive infinitive with de is used qualifying the 
 substantive alone and not the whole expression, as : J^aurai 
 heaucoup de plaisir a vous revoir, but Aurai-je le pilaisir 
 de vous revoir? ♦ 
 
 NOTE. Pitre en humeur is always constructed with de and infini- 
 tive, Hre dimmeur with d and infinitive, in strict accordance with this 
 rule, the former signifying a temporary inclination, the latter an habi- 
 tual trait of the character. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 31. 
 
 1. a. 1. II y a dans quelques homines une certaine mediocrite 
 d’esprit qui contrihue a les rendre sages. 2. Les deux partis conspi- 
 raient a repousser I’ennemi commun. 3. Adieu, mon fils, songez a Dieu 
 et a gagner le ciel. 4. On incline a passer de la royaute a la repu- 
 blique. 5. II aspire a se distinguer. 6. Voltaire pretendait a etre 
 compte parmi les philologues. 7. Ces pieux faineants veillaient a bien 
 diner. 8. Je consens a me perdre afin de la sauver. 9. Enfin je con- 
 
180 THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 sens d’oublier le passe. 10. Je tacherai d’oublier cette injure. 11. II 
 tache a m’embarrasser. 12. Les evangelistes s’accordent a nonimer 
 Saint-Pierre devant tous les apotres. 13. II s’etudiait a reconnaitre 
 les talents. 14. Ne vous opiniatrez pas a defendre une cause si odieuse. 
 15. On s’empresse a vous voir, on s’efforce a vous plaire. 16. L’hon- 
 neur que les grands de Petat s’empressent de vous rendre. 
 
 1. 1. Vous avez accoutume vos fils a ne point vous cacber 
 leurs secrets. 2. 11 s’exergait a faire des armes. 3. II faut I’ainener 
 a prendre un parti. 4. Plus tard il a ete appele a sieger dans le senat. 
 5. II se disposait a partir. 6. Je vous autorise a parler en mon nom. 
 7. Je vous engage a Taller voir. 8. Elle m’exborta de consulter d’ha- 
 billes gens. 9. II n’y a rien qui exborte tant a savoir bien mourir 
 que de n’avoir point de plaisir a vivre. 10. II fut invite a prendre 
 part a la deliberation. 11. Deniandez a Juvenal ce qui Toblige de 
 prendre la plume. 12. Pour tuer une puce, il voulait obliger les dieux 
 a lui preter leur foudre et leur massue. 
 
 2. 1. Je me borne a vous dire simplement les faits. 2. Ce sub- 
 stantif n’est pas elegant et plus d’un ecrivain repugne a s’en servir. 
 
 3. Je tiens a vous convaincre de mon innocence. 4. Je ne m’arreterai 
 pas ici a vous decrire sa conduite. 5. J’en vins peu a peu a perdre 
 beaucoup de temps pour mes plaisirs. 6. 11 ne balanga pas a partir. 
 7. Je ne m’attends pas du tout a m’y amuser. 8. Il n’hesita pas a 
 favoriser son evasion. 9. Un grand coquin de coureur faillit a me 
 renverser. 10. Ces plantes delicates se fletrissent si on manque un jour 
 a les arroser. 
 
 3. 1. Il a employe son argent a secourir son frere* 2. Il ne 
 
 gagne pas a etre connu. 3. Il s’amusait a lire des romans. 4. Elies 
 
 se divertissaient a danser. 5. La liberalite consiste moins a donner 
 qu’a donner a propos. 6. Tel excelle a rimer qui juge sottement. 7. 
 Des serments et des promesses qui ne lui coutent pas plus a faire qu’a 
 violer. 8. Il a du gout a se faire voir. 9. Il y a autant de faiblesse 
 
 a fuir la mode qu’a Taffecter. 10. Ils cherchent de la gloire a mepri- 
 
 ser nos dieux. 11. Vous ne devez vous meler a reformer autrui que 
 quand vous n’aurez plus rien a faire en vous-meme. 12. Demostliene 
 ne s’entend pas fort bien a peindre les moeurs. 13. Tu vas passer 
 en(?ore une nuit a travailler. 14. Il n’y a pas surete a abdiquer le 
 crime. 15. Il prend plaisir a la tourmenter. 16. Il a bien de la peine 
 a nous comprendre. 17. Comme nous nous trouvames en humeur de 
 boire, nous fimes la debauche. 18. Je n’ai point lu, ni ne suis d’hu- 
 meur a lire leurs ecrits, 
 
 XXXIX. THE INFINITIVE UNDER THE 
 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS 
 CONTINUED. 
 
 B. The infinitive with a qualifying adjectives. 
 
 With adjectives either 1. The substantive qualified 
 
THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 181 
 
 by the adjective is the subject of the infinitive, or 2. The 
 subject of the infinitive is indefinite. 
 
 1. An adjective is followed by an infinitive with d, of 
 which the substantive qualified by the adjective is subject to 
 express the action in which the quality fittingly displays it- 
 self, as: Elle aimait a prevenir les injures par sa honte^ 
 vive a les sentir, facile a les pardonner^ She liked to prevent 
 insults by her kindness, sensitive in feeling them, ready to 
 pardon them' 
 
 Of adjectives which are followed by this infinitive are 
 all such as express a quality leading to further action. Such 
 
 are 
 
 adroit clever 
 dpre eager 
 ardent longing 
 assidu assiduous 
 attentif on the 
 watch 
 
 difficile unwilling ingmieux clever propre suited 
 
 enclin disposed 
 exact punctual 
 facile ready 
 inf atig able un- 
 wearied 
 
 habile quick 
 lent slow 
 long slow 
 prH ready 
 prompt hasty 
 
 sourd insensible 
 sujet subject 
 vif sensitive 
 etc. 
 
 NOTE. This infinitive corresponds with the infinitive with d which 
 follows verbs, the action of which is conducive to the action of the 
 infinitive (XXXVIII. A. 1). Hence participles of such verbs, as accou- 
 tume^ dispose^ porte are constructed in the same manner as, and might 
 be included in the list of, the above adjectives. 
 
 2. An adjective is followed by an infinitive with d, of 
 which the subject is indefinite, to express the purpose, for 
 which the quality is adapted, as: Uintrigue de cette piece 
 est penihle d suivre^ The plot of this play is hard to follow 
 (lit. hard for following). Une chose honteuse d dire, A thing 
 shameful to be said (lit. for saying). 
 
 NOTE. This infinitive is variously represented in English, some- 
 times by the active, sometimes by the passive infinitive, as seen in the 
 above examples, frequently too by the verbal substantive in -ing, as: 
 bon a manger good for eating. Any adjective expressing a quality, 
 which may be limited to a particular purpose, may be so explained, 
 so that we find some even of the adjectives given in the list above 
 so used. In the sentence Elle est facile d pardonner, if the subject 
 of pardonner is the pronoun qualified by facile, we must translate She 
 is ready to pardon', if the subject of pardonner is indefinite, we must 
 translate It (la faute) is easily pardoned. 
 
 3. Two adjectives quitte and sauf (Lat. quietus and 
 salvus) are followed by d and the infinitive with a peculiar 
 force of the preposition. In the ease of quitte the force of 
 the preposition seems to be the same as with a substantive 
 
182 THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 of price, quitte a etre gronde == free on condition of being 
 scolded, as quitte d bon marclie = free on easy terms. With 
 sauf on the other hand the infinitive with d is elliptic and 
 treated as a simple substantival term, as it is when the ap- 
 parent object of avoir etc. (see XXXVI. 4. /?.) ; so that sauf 
 d recommencer == the right to begin again being reserved, 
 as sauf Vappel = the right of appeal being reserved (see IX. 
 B. 4). 
 
 C. The infinitive with d qualifying substantives. 
 
 A substantive is qualified by an infinitive with a, 1. when 
 the substantive is abstract, and the subject of the infinitive 
 is the person to whom the quality is attributed, 2. when the 
 substantive is concrete and indefinite and is itself the subject 
 of the infinitive, 3. when an adjective which denotes preemi- 
 nence is used substantively and is itself the subject of the 
 infinitive, 4. when the substantive is concrete, and the subject 
 of the infinitive is indefinite. 
 
 1. An abstract substantive may be qualified by an infi- 
 nitive with d, when the subject of the infinitive is the person 
 to whom the quality expressed by the substantive is attribu- 
 ted, as : La promptitude d croire le maf Readiness to be- 
 lieve evil. 
 
 These substantives correspond in a great measure with the adjec- 
 tives given B. 1. above. With some substantives, as promptitude, ap- 
 plication, pente, assiduite the infinitive, which follows, necessarily has 
 d; generally it is optional, according to the sense intended, to use 
 either the infinitive with d, which gives the action in which the quality 
 displays itself, or the descriptive infinitive with de; as: On y verra 
 cette impuissance a mourir, St.-Beuve, II est heureusement dans Vim- 
 puissance de nuire, Voltaire (XL. C.). 
 
 2. A concrete substantive may be qualified by an infini- 
 tive mood with d, when the substantive is itself the subject 
 of the infinitive, as : c’est une affaire d vous perdre, It is a 
 matter capable of ruining you. 
 
 This infinitive corresponds with the use of the subjunc- 
 tive in adjectival consecutive sentences (XXX. 2) and is there- 
 fore used to qualify indefinite substantives. Hence in place 
 of an adverbial clause of consequence introduced by de ma~ 
 niere que, de fagon que (XXXI. 2.), when the subject of the 
 dependant clause is the same as that of the principal verb, 
 we may, in place of a finite verb, use an infinitive with d 
 qualifying the indefinite substantive mgniere or fagon, as : 
 
THE INFINITIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 183 
 
 II me regarda de fagon d me faire comprendre quHl rCen- 
 tendait Hen a ma question^ He looked at me in such a way, 
 that he showed me he understood nothing of my question. 
 
 3. The adjectives, which mark the substantive they qua- 
 lify as distinct from all others, when used substantively, are 
 followed by an infinitive with d of which they are themselves 
 the subject. Such are le seul^ le premier, le dernier etc. as: 
 11 a ete le dernier d se lever, He was the last to rise. 
 
 This infinitive corresponds with the use of the subjunc- 
 tive in adjectival concessive sentences (XXX. 3. /?). 
 
 NOTE. Ordinarily premier, dernier etc. are reckoned among the 
 adjectives followed by the infinitive with d. But it is only when 
 used substantively that they are so qualified. We cannot say II a He 
 le dernier etudiant d se lever, but qiii se soit leve. For the infinitive must 
 stand next to the word it qualifies; and in such phrases as: le der- 
 nier exemple d imiter, the infinitive qualifies exemple and not dernier, 
 as we say by the following rule un exemple d imiter, an example to 
 be imitated. 
 
 4. A substantive may be qualified by an infinitive with 
 d denoting purpose, of which the subject is indefinite, and in 
 this case the infinitive may stand either as attribute or com- 
 plement, as: Get homme d toujonrs fitir, This man always to 
 be avoided (lit. for always avoiding). Le voeu de la nation 
 nest pas d dedaigner, The nation’s fixed desire is not to be 
 disdained. 
 
 NOTE. The notion of purpose expressed by this infinitive is to 
 be taken in a very wide sense. To express it in English we have to 
 use different methods according as the purpose is more or less distinctly 
 marked. So in a dining- room, I have a letter to tvrite, a worh, 
 which must he begun again, the verbal attribute is represented in 
 French by the infinitive with d = for dining, writing, beginning again, 
 as une salle d manger, fai une lettre d ecrire, un ouvrage d recom- 
 mencer. While it would take a whole sentence to express the French 
 infinitive of purpose in un conte d dormir debout a story which no one 
 would believe, unless he were standing asleep. 
 
 D. An adverbial infinitive with d may qualify a 
 whole sentence, standing in place of an adverbial clause. Like 
 the English parenthetical infinitive (the Latin parenthetical ut 
 with subjunctive) it seems to express purpose. But in French such 
 an infinitive is not only used parenthetically, as in d vrai 
 dire to speak the truth, d tout prendre taking all in all, but 
 may stand for a conditional, causal, consecutive or final clause, 
 as : A compter de ce jour ses dessins devinrent plus clairs, 
 
184 
 
 THE INFINITIVE WITH BE. 
 
 Reckoning from that day his designs were more apparent. A 
 vaincre sans peril on triomphe sans gloire^ If we conquer 
 without danger we triumph without glory. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 32. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Etes-vous pret a partir? 2. II est enclinane rien faire. 
 
 3. Je I’ai troiivee prompte a se mettre en colere. 4. Un homme pent 
 avoir lu tout ce qu’on a ecrit sur la guerre, sans etre habile a la 
 faire. 5. Attentive a peser toutes ses paroles. 6. Ces arbres sont longs 
 a pousser. 
 
 2. 1. La chose est honteuse a dire. 2. Un mot important a com- 
 prendre. 3. Des merveilles cbarmantes a contempler. 4. Ce n’est pas 
 aise a trouver. 5. Ce passage est difficile a expliquer. 6. Ce serait 
 trop long a vous expliquer en un jour. 
 
 3. 1. J’irai toujours mon chemin, quitte a changer quand on 
 changera. 2. Mon cbeval etait vigoureux, et je crus pouvoir, avec son 
 secours, approfondir la verite, quitte a piquer des deux, si le bruit 
 repandu etait vrai. 3. Faites vite, sauf a corriger plus tard. 4. Oui, 
 je les donnerais! Sauf, plus tard, a les reprendre. 
 
 C. 1. 1. L’exhortation a combattre. 2. L’encouragement a bien 
 
 vivre. 3. La facilite a comprendre. 4. La fermete a soutenir la ve- 
 rite. 5. La licence a rimer alors n’eut plus de frein. 6. L’opiniatrete 
 des Remains a les subjuguer. 
 
 2. 1. Un sourire a glacer I’improvisateur le plus confiant. 2. C’est 
 un proces a ne jamais finir. 3. Je ne suis pas un brutal a n’ecouter 
 aucune raison. 4. II est homme a tout entreprendre. 5. Conduisez- 
 vous de fagon a vous faire aimer. 6. II parla de maniere a convaincre 
 les juges de son innocence. 
 
 3. 1. II a ete le premier a le remarquer. 2. Je ne veux pas etre 
 des derniers a vous feliciter. 
 
 4. 1. Sachez que vous n’etes roi qu’antant que vous avez des 
 peuples a gouverner. 2. Un homme a pendre, — a menager. 3. Une 
 chambre a couclier. 4. Un trone quel qu’il soit n’est pas a dedaigner. 
 
 5. Est-ce done une chose a dire gaiement? 6. C’est a s’y perdre. 7. 
 Dans ce moment surtout ou nos manufactures sont si a plaindre. 
 
 D. 1. II n’y a rien, a le bien prendre, qui soit capable d’irriter 
 ou d’encourager. 2. Cette pretendue regie, a la prendre sans restric- 
 tion est evidemment fausse. 3. Les apotres, a les regarder par les 
 yeux humains — — . 4. A les defendre mal je les aurais trahis. 5. 
 A I’entendre rien n’etait difficile. 
 
 XL. THE INFINITIVE WITH DE. 
 
 A. The infinitive with de qualifying verbs. 
 
 The infinitive with de^ as we have seen, may stand as 
 a subject, or as the object to a transitive verb. 
 
THE INFINITIVE WITH BE, 
 
 185 
 
 As a prepositional phrase we find it used in the senses 
 of 1. separation, 2. matter, 3. cause, 4. respect. 
 
 Frequently it is difficult to say under which head a verb should 
 be classed ; whether in cesser de parler, empecher quelquhm de faire — 
 the preposition has the force of separation or of respect ; I have classed 
 these verbs under the head of respect, as we do not find them used 
 with de and a substantive in the sense of separation. The verbs clas- 
 sed under the first three heads may equally well be followed by a sub- 
 stantive under the government of de, the verbs classed under the head 
 of respect on the contrary do not admit of such a construction. 
 
 1. Separation. De and infinitive follows the present and 
 imperfect of venir, — so that venir de obtains the force of an 
 auxiliary verb of tense (XXIII. 1.), — and verbs of hindering, 
 abstaining etc., such are (s^ )ahstenir, (s')arrUer, dispenser, 
 dissuader, desaccoutumer, (se) defendre, preserver etc., as: 
 11 vient de mourir, He has but just died, i7 m^a dispense 
 de faire maigre, He has exempted me from the necessity of 
 eating no meat. 
 
 2. Matter. De and infinitive follows verbs, when the 
 infinitive action is the matter with which the action of the 
 principal verb is concerned. Hence with verbs expressing sa- 
 tisfaction or the contrary, of remembering, conceiving, agreeing, 
 conversing, accusing etc. Such are degouter, se conienter, 
 s'ennnyer, (se) fatiguer, (se) lasser, (s)occuper, se rejotiir, 
 s'" apercevoir, s'aviser, se souvenir, s’agir, se meler, se saucier, 
 convenir, disconvenir, accuser, (s)excuser, soupgonner, par- 
 ler, causer etc., as: Tu ne fetais jamais avise de lui faire 
 le moihdre petit present. You had never thought of making 
 him the least little present. 
 
 NOTE. Such of these verbs as express a continuous action may 
 be constructed with d and the infinitive, giving the manner in which 
 the action of the principal verb is exercised (XXXVIII. 3). So se lasser 
 with a has reference to the manner, and = to strive to weariness in] 
 with de it has reference to the matter and = to be iveary of. 
 
 3. Cause. De and infinitive follow verbs which express 
 a judgement or a feeling, or an action which implies such 
 judgement or feeling, to give the cause of the action of the 
 principal verb. Of such verbs are (s)applaudir, hldmer, 
 (se) feliciter, se flatter, (se) glorifier, juger quelqu’un mat, 
 louer, pardonner, se piquer, punir, se plaindre, remcrcier, 
 triompher, se vanter etc., admirer, s'affliger, enrager, s' eton- 
 ner, frcmir, gemir, s'humilier, sHndigner, avoir honte, rougir, 
 
 Armitage, French graniinar. 13 
 
THE INFINITIVE WITH DE. 
 
 1§6 
 
 soiiffrir^ tremUer, etc. etc., as: II faut rougir de commettre 
 des f antes et non de les avouer, We ought to blush at com- 
 mitting faults, not at confessing them. J^aime les hommes 
 de f admirer, je les hairais de te meconnaUre, I like men for 
 admiring you, I should hate them for not recognising your 
 worth. 
 
 NOTE. Hence (cf. XXVIII. 5 n. a) three constructions may he 
 used to express the cause of a feeling or a judgement, a causal clause 
 with the verb in the subjunctive, a clause in apposition to the demon- 
 strative ce under the government of de, or, by the rule above, an in- 
 finitive governed by de. 
 
 4. Eespect. 
 
 a An infinitive with de is joined to neuter and reflexive 
 verbs which imply by . their meaning an extensibility of verbal 
 action. Such are hrtUer, cesser, consentir, s'aceorder, se de- 
 pexlier, s^empresser, s'efforcer, se hater, se presser, se resondre, 
 tdeher, hesiter, tarder, Hre en train, Hre en humenr etc., as: 
 II hrule d'etre d Rome, He is eager to be at Rome, Le jour 
 du depart ne tarda pas d'arriver. The day for leaving was 
 not slow in coming, II nest pas en train de rire. He is not 
 disposed to laugh. 
 
 NOTE. These verbs correspond with those given (XXXVIII. 1. a) 
 as constructed with the preposition d and the infinitive, and with those 
 given (XXXVH. 1) as constructed with the simple infinitive. All three 
 lists consist of verbs which have their action prolonged by the action 
 of the infinitive. Those_followed by the simple infinitive are verbs, 
 which express a state or condition in reference to the infinitive action, 
 the infinitive action being so much more important than tKat of the 
 principal verb, that this latter is almost degraded to the condition of 
 an auxiliary verb of mood. Of those verbs, which express more or less 
 of an effort, if their action is represented as occurring generally with 
 reference to the action expressed by the infinitive, the preposition de 
 is used; if more particularly as resulting in, or limited hy the infinitive 
 action, d is used. As it is often optional for the speaker to take either 
 of these views, with several verbs either de or d may be used before 
 the infinitive. We may agree with reference to an action, II a consenti 
 de m’accompagner, or with a view to an action, II a consenti d m^ac- 
 compagner. But the tendency in French is to confine the use to one 
 preposition, or else to use each preposition with distinct meanings. So 
 de or d is optional only with consentir, s^efforcer, contraindre, forcer, 
 ohliger, solliciter ; d is modern use, de in older authors with tdeher; 
 d is regular, de more or less rare with balancer, hesiter, tarder, exhor- 
 ter, s’accorder, se resoudre; d or de is optional with s^empresser = to 
 be eager, de is always used when = to make haste, 
 
 (I An infinitive with de is joined to verbs which contain 
 final force, replacing a final clause. Of such verbs are verbs 
 
THE INFINITIVE WITH BE. 
 
 187 
 
 of exhorting and entreating, warning, hindering, taking care 
 etc., avertir^ charger., conjurer., empecher., prier^ supplier, 
 sommer., (se) garder., n' avoir garde, prendre garde etc., as; 
 H m’a prie de me rendre che^ lui, He has begged me to call 
 at his house, Je Vai empeche de sortir, I prevented his going 
 out, Prenez garde de tomher, Take care not to fall. 
 
 NOTEl. By comparing this rule with (XXXVI. 2. a and XXXVIII. 
 
 1. /?) we obtain the complete French use of the infinitive after verbs 
 containing final force. If the influence is direct on the object inducing 
 to further action the infinitive with a is used, and for it a final clause 
 cannot be substituted. If the influence is indirect the infinitive with 
 de is used, which occupies the place of object if the verb is trajective, 
 otherwise is a prepositional phrase, and in place of the infinitive a 
 final clause may be used. If the verb does not in itself necessarily 
 contain final force, but may be so used, an infinitive with pour is re- 
 quired replacing a final clause with afin que. So Je Vai amene, invite 
 a faire quelque chose, Je Vai somme, prie de faire quelque chose, Je 
 lui ai commande, conseille de faire quelque chose, Je Vai fait venir 
 pour faire quelque chose. The infinitive and preposition in each case 
 representing a Latin final clause with ut and conjunctive. 
 
 NOTE 2. The negative which would be required in a subordinate 
 clause after verbs of hindering, taking care, avoiding, etc. is not re- 
 quired with the infinitive ; fai empeclie qu’il ne sorte = I hindered, 
 in order that he might not go out, je Vai empeche de sortir = I hin- 
 dered him with respect to his going out. Prenez garde de tomher = 
 Take care with regard to falling, where we use a negative „Take care 
 not to fall.^‘ 
 
 EXAMPLES. 33. 
 
 1 . 1. Grand dieu, conserve-nous ce roi victorieux que tu viens de 
 rendre a nos larmes! 2. line pareille recompense apres ce que je 
 venais de faire. 3. Pythagore s’abstenait de manger de la chair des 
 betes. 4. II me dit une infinite de choses que je me serais bien passe 
 d’entendre. 5. II ne pent se defendre de vous accompagner. 6. Tant 
 d’honneurs ne laissent pas d’etre a charge. 7. Mais est-il femme ou 
 fille qui puisse se tenir d’admirer ce qui brille? 8. Je n’ai pas laisse 
 d’en etre un pen honteux et cela m’a arrete de vous ecrire. 
 
 2. 1. L’on se repent rarement de parler peu; tres-souvent de trop 
 parler. 2. Je me fais grand plaisir de vous embrasser bientot. 3. Ja- 
 mais aucun homme ne s’avisera de dire qu’une maison, avec tons ses 
 meubles, s’est faite et arrangee d’elle-meme. 4. J’assistai a une deli- 
 beration ou il s’agissait de savoir si je serais perdu, brule ou fusille. 
 5. Ils jouissent de I’attaquer et de le detruire. 6. On I’accusa d’avoir 
 eu des intelligences avec I’ennemi. 7. II me soupgonne d’aimer la fille 
 d’un medecin qui n’est pas trop de ses amis. 8. Le ciel s’est done 
 lasse de m’etre impitoyable. 
 
 3. 1. J’enrage de voir ma prudence trompee. 2. Vous etes bonne, 
 madame, et je vous aime de.pleurer de ce qu’a ecrit ma mere. 3. On 
 
 ^ 13 * 
 
188 
 
 THE INFINITIVE WITH BE CONTINUED. 
 
 vous jugera mal d’aller ainsi en voiture publique. 4. Alexandre plenra 
 de n’avoir point d’Homere. 5. On vous appellera imposteiirs d’avoir 
 assure le contraire. 6. II s’indigne d’etre oublie. 7. Je souffre de vous 
 voir dans cette situation. 8. Je me sens mourir de songer qu’on va 
 clouer une biere pour cet bomme. 
 
 4. a. 1. Ne vous hatez pas de vous enrichir. 2. J’etais en train 
 de me divertir. 3. Grand roi, cesse de vaincre ou je cesse d’ecrire. 
 4. Ne vous efforcez pas a parler. 5. II s’effor^ait de soulever le far- 
 deau. 6. Je tacberai d’oublier cette injure. 7. Depecbez-vous de sortir. 
 8. Je vois que deja vous brtilez de me suivre. 
 
 p, 1. Sois desormais sans inquietude sur ton sort; je me charge 
 de t’en faire un des plus agreables. 2. Le fanatisme somme Dieu de 
 se venger. 3. Je te prie, en mourant, d’oublier ma douleur. 4. Prend 
 garde de te perdre. 5. Charles XII se mit en devoir d’empecher le 
 roi de Pologne de recueillir le fruit de cette ligue. 6. Avertissez-le 
 de venir. 7. Ils n’avaient garde de loger dans le meme palais. 8. Sa 
 mere la conjure en tremblant de presser son depart. 
 
 XLI. THE INFINITIVE WITH DE CON- 
 TINUED. 
 
 B. The infinitive w^ith de qualifying adjectives. 
 
 De and infinitive qualifies adjectives limiting the quality 
 in its origin or exercise to a particular action. The subject 
 of the infinitive is alvv^ays the substantive, qualified by the 
 adjective. 
 
 The relations so expressed are the same as when de and 
 infinitive qualify a verb : 
 
 1. Separation, disLedieu qu>on nomme Amour est pas 
 exempt d^aimer, The God called Love is not safe from loving. 
 
 2. Matter, as after avide, curieux^ desireux, impatient^ 
 las^ suspect etc., as : Ce prince desireux d'en apprendre da- 
 vantage^ This prince anxious to learn more about it. 
 
 3. Cause, after all adjectives, which express a feeling; 
 such are confus, content^ fier^ jfurieux, glorieux, honteux^ in- 
 consolable^ malheureuXj mecontent^ orgueilleux^ reconnaissant^ 
 triste etc., as : 11 est honteux d' avoir pleure^ He is ashamed 
 of having cried. 
 
 4. Kespect, after certain^ sur^ libre, digne^ indigne, ca- 
 pable, incapable etc., as : 11 est digne d'etre aime, He is 
 worthy of being loved. 
 
 From the general notion of respect, the infinitive with 
 de was naturally used in place of a clause of consequence. 
 
THE INFINITIVE WITH DE CONTINUED. 
 
 189 
 
 as with the four last named adjectives. This use is extended 
 to any adjective qualified by the adverb si — que^ as : Je ne 
 suis pas si sot qiie tVepouser mon maitre, I am not so foolish 
 as to marry my master. 
 
 NOTE 1. An adjective qnalifiod by assez or trop is sometimes 
 explained by the infinitive with de, but more frequently by the infini- 
 tive with pour, the notion in the case of the above adverbs coming 
 nearer to that of a purpose. 
 
 NOTE 2. The explanatory que in this construction may be omit- 
 ted, ^ as: Qui te rend si liardi de trouUer mon breuvage? This is usually 
 the case, when de and infinitive are explanatory of an adjective quali- 
 fied by assez or trop', Littre notes it as a peculiarity of Mas si 11 on, 
 that he inserts the que in such cases. 
 
 C. The infinitive with de qualifying substantives. 
 
 The infinitive with de is joined to abstract substantives 
 
 to define their notion, as Vart d’ccrire, the art of writing ; 
 very often it has the force of a clause of consequence, or 
 purpose, as : II avail le courage de lui repondre, He had 
 .courage enough to answer him. With substantives derived 
 from verbs or adjectives, which would be followed by the in- 
 finitive with d, it is often optional to use the infinitive with 
 de as a mere defining notion, or the infinitive with d marking 
 the action, in which the substantive notion is displayed, as: 
 Les desirs croUront par la facilite de Jes satisfaire, Desires 
 will increase with facility in satisfying them ; but Oest votre 
 trop grande facilite d me pardonner mes negligences qui me 
 rend negligent, It is your too great readiness to pardon me my 
 carelessness, which makes me careless. 
 
 NOTE 1. From this use of de with the infinitive we have the 
 infinitive with the compound prepositions au lieu de, au point de, to 
 express manner, d force de, sous prHexte de, faute de, [de) crainte de, 
 (de) peur de, to express cause, d condition de, to express condition, and 
 afin de (written sometimes separately, as: d cette fin de) to express 
 purpose. These constructions replace the corresponding adverbial clau- 
 ses, when the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of the prin- 
 cipal verb. 
 
 NOTE 2. When a substantive is thus explained by an infinitive, 
 as a general rule, there is a disinclination to allow of any further 
 determinative word being joined to it, such as a possessive or demon- 
 strative pronoun, or a substantive with de; My ivisli to please you 
 must be translated by Le desir que fai de vous plaire, not Moyi desir 
 de vous plaire. 
 
 D. The infinitive with de following particles. 
 
 De with the infinitive in the sense of separation is joined 
 
 to the particles hors, loin, pres and d moins, as: Hors de se 
 
190 
 
 THE INFINITIVE WITH CONTINUED. 
 
 troiiver au conseil il n^avait aucime fonction, Except attending 
 at the council he had no duty. 
 
 NOTE. De with the infinitive gives the notion of separation after 
 a moins, as it does with a substantive after plus^ moins, (Chap. L. A. 2). ^ 
 A moins d^etre fou il ne Vaurait pas fait, He would not have done it^ 
 unless he had been mad (= at less reckoning from being mad). In 
 this construction, as with avant que de (XLII. 2. n.) we sometimes 
 find que inserted, where it seems to vitiate the construction, as: Toute 
 puissance est faible a moins que d^etre unie; or de may he omitted and 
 the infinitive follow a moins que, as: Le moyen d^en rien eroire d moins 
 qdetre insense. But this last construction, like avant que with infinitive, 
 is gone out of use. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 34. 
 
 B. 1. Il est exempt de hien faire. 2. Un esprit avide de tout sa- 
 voir. 3. Nos soldats furent curieux de voir la fin de cette affaire. 
 4. Il etait desireux d’etendre davantage ses conquetes. 5. Las de se 
 faire aimer, il veut se faire craindre. 6. Il (mon coeur) est impatient 
 lui-meme de se rendre. 7. Lui tout confus d’etre pris sur le fait se 
 sauve a toutes jambes. 8. Tout fier d’avoir reussi. 9. Toute I’Egj^pte 
 inconsolable de cette perte. 10. Je suis certain de m’exposer a deux 
 reproches. 11. Yous serez libre de vous immoler dans trois jours. 12. 
 Je mourais ce matin digne d’toe pleuree. 13. Deux arpents suscep- 
 tibles de heaucoup augmenter en valeur. 
 
 C. 1. L’ardeur de vaincre cede a la peur de mourir. 2. De toutes 
 
 les tyrannies la plus absurde est celle de vouloir etre aime par devoir. 
 3. Il avait I’effronterie de dire cela, la bonte de me rassurer. 4. Don- 
 nez-vous la peine d’entrer. 5. On donna I’ordre aux troupes de se 
 retirer. 6. Metophis avait eu I’adresse de sortir de prison. 7. Je vous 
 prie done de ne pas vous refuser a leur curiosite, et au desir qu’ils 
 ont de vous presenter un hommage qui n’est pas celui de la flatterie. 
 8. Il s’eloigna, degoute deja de I’envie qu’il avait eue de causer avec 
 eux. 9. J’ai ete aussi pauvre que vous, mais au lieu de mendier je 
 me suis fait une hotte — . 10. On n’osait interroger personne crainte 
 
 d’apprendre plus qu’on ne voulait savoir. 11. Du mystere ! a quoi bon? 
 Afin d’aller au but. 12. Il avait remis son manoir sur un pied de luxe 
 aux seules fins de poser sa couronne baroniale etc. 
 
 D. 1. Je suis loin de vanter ma victoire et mon ze\e. 2. Nous 
 sommes plus pres d’aimer ceux qui nous haissent, que ceux qui nous 
 aiment plus que nous ne voulons. 3. Ton esprit fascine par les lois 
 d’un tyran, pense que tout est crime hors d’etre mussulman. 4. A 
 moins de le voir je ne le croirai pas. 
 
 XLII. 
 
 The infinitive with apres^ avant^ pour^ sans, par, and entre. 
 
 A. An infinitive follows thetwo temporal prepo- 
 sitions apres and avant. 
 
THE INFINITIVE WITH BE CONTINUED. 
 
 191 
 
 1. With aprcs the infinitive is in the compound tense, 
 as: On^e jours apres vans avoir quitte^ Eleven days after leav- 
 ing you. 
 
 NOTE. The present infinitive is sometimes found with apres both 
 in a temporal sense, as : apres hoire^ il West plus capable de rien, and 
 in the derived meaning of next to of choice, as : Apres lire^ ce que 
 faime le mieux, c’est — , Next to reading, what I like best, is — . But 
 this use should not be imitated. 
 
 2. With avant the infinitive is constructed with de, as : 
 Avant de mourir clle sera vengee, Before she dies she shall 
 be avenged. 
 
 NOTE. There are four constructions possible for an infinitive wdth avant, 
 the simple infinitive, que with the infinitive, de with the infinitive, or 
 que de with the infinitive. Of these the simple infinitive is no longer 
 in use except in legal language, avant dire droit etc. ; the infinitive 
 with que is purely poetic, the two other constructions are still in use, 
 de with the infinitive however being much more frequent than que de. 
 In avant de and infinitive, avant may either be a preposition, and de 
 with infinitive a single substantival term, as it is when subject or 
 object; or, since in all other cases prepositions are followed by the 
 simple infinitive, avant is probably an adverb, which is explained by 
 the prepositional infinitive, as is the case with loin, d moins etc. 
 
 The construction of avant que de with infinitive probably arose 
 from cases where the infinitive was a second infinitive of comparison, 
 so that Je voulais voir Calches avant que de partir would be used for 
 avant que je ne voulais partir, and the construction is the same as 
 after aimer mieux etc. ; but it is extended to cases, where no such ex- 
 planation is possible, but where avant que (= antequam) seems used 
 adverbially and explained by the prepositional infinitive, as: David vain- 
 quit les lions et les ours avant que d^oser attaquer Goliath, 
 
 B. The infinitive with pour. 
 
 Four with the infinitive expresses 1. purpose, 2. cause, 
 
 3. consequence. 
 
 1. Purpose after verbs or expressions which do not in 
 themselves necessarily possess final force, so that pour answers 
 to the English in order to (XL. 4 n. 1.), as: Dieti 
 fa fait pour Vaimer et non pour le comprendre, God made 
 you in order to love him and not to understand him. 
 
 2. Cause with expressions which denote an act, while de 
 is used with expressions which denote a feeling or a judgement 
 (XL. 3.); the infinitive is mostly in the compound tense, 
 as : Brutus fit mourir ses enfants pour avoir conspire centre 
 leur patrie, Brutus put his sons to death for conspiring against 
 their country. 
 
1.92 
 
 THE INFINITIVE WITH BE CONTINUED, 
 
 NOTE. An act which implies a feeling or a judgement is often 
 followed by de with infinitive, where jpoiir would equally well stand; 
 so after punir, venger etc., as : Je fai mime puni de V avoir arracM 
 (un secret). 
 
 The cause assigned by pour may be one, which would 
 naturally contradict the fact, so that pour is used ironically, 
 and with the infinitive gains a concessive force, as : On rDest 
 pas criminel toujours pour le paraUre, A man is not always 
 guilty, because he appears so. 
 
 3. Consequence, after the adverbs asse^^ trop, where, as 
 with pour que and subjunctive following the same adverbs, 
 the notion of consequence comes very close to that of purpose, 
 as: Vous etes trop ion pour vouloir me nuire^ you are too 
 good to want to hurt me. 
 
 Sometimes this consecutive use occurs without the expres- 
 sion of the adverb, where however it is implied and has to 
 be expressed in English, as : II y a id pour contenter tous 
 les gouts ^ There is enough here to satisfy all tastes. 
 
 C. The infinitive with sans^ par and entre. 
 
 Sans and infinitive replaces an adverbial clause of man- 
 ner introduced by sans que^ as: II descendit sans mot dire, 
 He came down without saying a word. 
 
 Par and infinitive is almost confined to verbs of begin- 
 ning, continuing and finishing; such are eommencer, continuer, 
 terminer, finir etc., as: Les liommes sont si betes quhme vio~ 
 lence repetee fvnit par leur parattre un droit, Men are so 
 stupid, that violence repeated ends by seeming a right. 
 
 Entre and infinitive is used in the sense of between, only 
 when the two terms are both infinitives, as: Entre dire de 
 mauvaises choses, ou en dire de bonnes que tout le monde 
 salt et les donner pour nouvelles, je n^ai pas d choisir. Be- 
 tween saying poor things, and saying good ones, which every 
 one knows, and giving them out for new, I have not to 
 choose. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 85. 
 
 A. 1. Alexandre apres avoir ote son anneau le remit a Perdiccas. 
 
 2. Onze jours apres vous avoir quitte nous sommes arrives a Genes. 
 
 3. Mais avant de mourir elle sera vengee. 4. Nathan ne vient pas 
 reprocher aigrement a David le scandale de sa conduite; il s’insinue 
 avant que de reprendre; il fait aimer la verite avant de la dire; i] 
 
THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 193 
 
 fait hair le crime avant de blamer le coupable. 5. Avant done que 
 d’^crire apprenez a penser. 
 
 B. 1. Pour juger de la beaute d’un ouvrage, il suffit de le consi- 
 derer en lui-mtoe; mais pour juger du merite de I’auteur il faut le 
 comparer a son siecle. 2. Le ciel fit les femmes pour adoucir nos 
 chagrins, nos humeurs, pour nous calmer, pour nous rendre meilleurs. 
 3. Pour n’avoir pas fait cette remarque on perdit beaucoup de temps 
 et de travail. 4. Il a ete chasse pour avoir trop parle. 5. Les lon- 
 gues soirees peuvent etre comparees aux longues marches pour etre 
 fastidieuses. 6. Pour aimer un mari I’on ne hait pas ses freres. 7. 
 Pour etre nes grands vous n’en etes pas moins chretiens. 8. Personne 
 n’est assez mechant pour vouloir le paraitre. 9. 11 est trop franc pour 
 vous tromper. 10. Quand on y a demeure sept ans, e’est pour en 
 mourir de chagrin. 
 
 C. 1. Il ne sert de rien d’etre jeune sans etre belle, ni d’etre belle 
 sans etre jeune. 2. 11 a commence par etre simple soldat. 3. J’ai fini 
 par etre servante chez le juif Don Issacar. 4. Il y a de la difference 
 entre avoir egard a et avoir des egards pour. 
 
 XLHI. THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 In French we have two forms of the so-called active 
 participles, a simple form for the incomplete, and a compound 
 form for the completed action. There are three distinct uses 
 of these forms to which separate names are assigned, viz. 1. 
 The gerund (gerondif), 2. The participle proper, and 3. The 
 verbal adjective. 
 
 The French form, which is called the participle present, represents 
 both the Latin gerund and the present participle, amando and aman- 
 tem after the rejection of their terminations both resulting in the French 
 aimant. As a gerund it has a substantival character and ranks with 
 the infinitive mood ; in Elle s^amusait d danscr^ and elle sauiait en 
 demsant the prepositional phrases are precisely parallel, and the difte- 
 rence of form arises simply from accident. In meaning the French 
 gerund under the government of the preposition en appears primarily 
 to represent the Latin gerund in -dum under the government of the 
 preposition inter^ and expresses an action, during which the action of 
 the main verb takes place; but if this is its primary use, it is exten- 
 ded so as to replace in most cases the Latin gerund in -do^ without 
 preposition, and with the preposition in. 
 
 The name gerund is now only applied to the form, when governed 
 by the preposition and in this case of course it is never inflected. 
 But in old P'rench, in which the distinction between the gerund and 
 participle was marked by the inflection of the latter, the gerund was 
 not necessarily governed by a preposition. In such a sentence, as : 
 2’orage mtigissant me faisait peur, mugissant may represent the sub- 
 stantival miigiendo, or the adjectival mugiens, in old French in the 
 former case it would be uninflected, in the latter it would have the 
 
194 
 
 THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 s or z which marks the nominative case. When however the nomina- 
 tive was no longer marked by inflection, the form mugissant was sup- 
 posed in both cases to be adjectival, and the rule was adopted, that 
 the participle should only be inflected when used as a simple adjective*). 
 This arbitrary rule, while covering all the cases where the gerund 
 might be mistaken for the participle, unfortunately includes many, 
 where according to Latin usage the participle, as partaking of the 
 character of an adjective, would be declined. The more important 
 distinction between the verbal substantive and the verbal adjective is 
 not only not marked, but the two are confounded ; while the minor 
 distinction between the verbal adjective used to express a lasting and 
 an instantaneous action is noted by inflection. In such a sentence as: 
 Les Spartiates mourant aux Thermopyles frapperent cV admiration 
 meme leurs ennemis^ the important distinction between moriendo and 
 morientes cannot be noted; while Fenelon writes on my ait des debris 
 flottant vers la cote^ but Calypso apergut des cordages flottants sur la 
 cotej because flottant vers expresses a momentary, flottants sur a pro- 
 longed action. 
 
 French therefore at present differs from the Latin, in that on the 
 one hand it does not mark the difference between the substantival 
 gerund and the adjectival participle, and on the other that it does 
 mark the difference between the participle when used as a participle 
 and when used as an adjective. 
 
 1. The active participle is used substantively and is called 
 the gerund, when it is preceded by the preposition en; it is 
 then never inflected, as: lls me regardaient en riant, They 
 looked at me, laughing all the time. 
 
 The preposition and verbal form in this use stand in 
 place of an adverbial clause of time, by which the action of 
 the principal verb is represented as taking place during the 
 time of the participial action. In its literal sense therefore 
 the simple form, which expresses an incomplete action, could 
 alone be used in this construction. But the construction is also 
 extended to express other adverbial clauses; so an adverbial 
 clause of cause, as: Nous perdons tout, madame, en perdant 
 Hodogune, We lose all, Madame, from losing Rodogune; or, 
 usually with the adverb tout, an adverbial clause of concession, 
 as: Les harhares aspiraient d la civilisation tout en en etant 
 incapailes. The barbarians aspired to civilization, though they 
 were incapable of it. In this last sense we And the com- 
 
 *) The confusion was further increased, because even the best French grammarians 
 were ignorant of the fact, that the participle present, being of one termination in 
 Latin, did not admit of a feminine inflection ; so that all kinds of theories were proposed 
 to account for the occurrence of such forms as la rosee i o mb a nt du del, les femmes 
 se fardant etc. 
 
THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 195 
 
 pound form also used with the preposition en^ as : II ne le 
 croira pas en V ay ant vii. He will not believe et, even though 
 he has seen it. 
 
 As an adverbial clause of manner en and the gerund is 
 used with the verb aUer^ but at present the preposition is 
 more often omitted, as : Mon esprit diminue an lieu qu'd 
 ehaque instant on apergoit le votre aller en augmentant^ My 
 mind is losing force, while we see yours each moment gaining 
 power. La dissolution allait toujours augmentant^ Profligacy 
 kept continually increasing. 
 
 The subject of the gerund is usually the subject of the main verb^ 
 hut when no obscurity arises, its action may be referred to any person 
 expressed or implied in the sentence. So in Je Vai vue en passant 
 the subject oi passant is necessarily Je, I saw her while I was passing. 
 But in Songez-vous qiCen naissant mes hr as vans ont regii the subject 
 of naissant is the object vous, and in En repetant ce discoiirs sa voix 
 Hait coupee par cles larmes the subject of repetant is implied in sa. 
 
 2. The active participle is used adjectively and is called 
 the present or the past participle active, when it is said of 
 a substantival term and expresses a passing action. It is then 
 never inflected. 
 
 The present and past participles active are used either 
 attributively, appositively, or absolutely. 
 
 a. Attributively or appositively the participle may qualify 
 any substantival term of the sentence, as ; Les honihes ecla- 
 tant portent autour d^elles la mort et Vincendie, The bombs, 
 as they burst, carried death and conflagration around them ; 
 On entendit les coups des terribles marteaux frappant Ten- 
 clunie.^ The blows were heard of the terrible hammers striking 
 the anvil. 
 
 NOTE. The adjectival participle qualifying the subject of the 
 clause is often interchangeable with the gerund preceded by en, and 
 is similarly used to express a clause of coincident time, of cause, of 
 condition or of concession. Naturally the distinction would consist in 
 the gerund being used, when the adverbial action is intended to qua* 
 lify the verb, the attributive participle when the participial action is 
 stated of the subject. But the two notions often come so close toge* 
 ther, that it is impossible to distinguish them. Indeed a notion which 
 would naturally be expressed by an attributive participle seems not 
 unfrequently put in the form of the gerund to give additional force to 
 the sentence, as in Ils se trainaient en grelottant, They dragged them* 
 selves on, shivering as they went; where the picture gains greatly in vi- 
 vidness by the shivering being represented as the action during which 
 the attempt to drag themselves along took place. Still in certain cases 
 
196 
 
 THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 the adverbial qualification clearly belongs to the verb so that the ge- 
 rund is required and the participle could not stand. 
 
 Such for instance is the case when the gerund has the force of 
 an adverbial clause of cause, while the action of the principal verb is 
 independent of the will or design of the subject, as: En faismt des 
 heureux un roi Vest d son tom% where the use of the gerundive marks 
 the result as undesigned ; but Ne pouvant dormir cette nuitj il a com- 
 mence une piece, dont U a tire le sujet de Vlliade, where en and the 
 gerund could not stand, since clearly it is the subject who is influenced 
 by the cause, and hence chooses his line of action. 
 
 /?. The participle is used absolutely, when the substantive 
 or pronoun which is the subject of the participial action is 
 without connection with the rest of the sentence, as: La dou- 
 leur me pressant foitUiais un jour mon troupeau, One day 
 from the grief which oppressed me (lit. grief oppressing me), 
 I was forgetful of my flock. 
 
 3. The active participle is used adjectively and is called 
 the verbal adjective, when it is said of a substantival term 
 and expresses a lasting action. It is then capable of inflec- 
 tion and agrees in gender and number with the word it qua- 
 lifies ; the simple form is alone so used. 
 
 The verbal adjective is used either attributively or pre- 
 dicatively or with the definite article as a substantive, as : 
 Les corp$ pesanis Heavy bodies, Elle est souffrante She is 
 not very well, Les passants Passers by. 
 
 To distinguish the verbal adjective from the present par- 
 ticiple the following rules are usually given. 
 
 A. The participle must be used uninflected 
 
 1. When negatived, as: C'est une honne femme ne gron- 
 dant jamais, She is a good woman, never scolding. 
 
 2. When it has an object or an infinitive mood depending 
 on it, as : Les Anglais furieux et jetant des pierres, The 
 English furious and throwing stones. 
 
 Hence the participle of a reflexive verb is never inflected. 
 
 3. When followed by an adverb, as : Toutes sent de 
 meme irempe, mais agissant diversement, All are of the same 
 character, but acting differently. 
 
 B. The verbal adjective is used and is inflected, 
 
 1. When it is used as a substantive with the definite 
 article, as : Les vivants, Living persons. 
 
 2. When it is the complement of a substantival verb, as: 
 
THE ACTIVE PAETICIPLES. 
 
 197 
 
 Je Vassitrai quails etaient vivanis^ T assured him they were 
 alive. 
 
 3. When it is preceded by an adverb, as : Une pature 
 toujours renaissante, A pasturage continually springing up 
 afresh. 
 
 In some cases the verbal adjective is distinguished in form 
 from the participle, so we have the adjectives convaincant, 
 excellent^ fatigant^ negligent etc. in contradistinction to the 
 participles convainquant^ excellant- fatiguant, negligeant etc. 
 
 NOTE 1. In one use the present participle, in agreement with 
 the substantive it qualifies, is not a lasting epithet. This is the case, 
 when a participle used absolutely and therefore properly uninflected 
 (B. /?. 2.) is together with its substantive treated as a single term to 
 mark a point of time. So a portes ouvrantes^ seance tenante etc. Such 
 expressions are however very limited in number. 
 
 NOTE 2. In a few instances a French present participle in agree- 
 ment with its substantive has the force of a purpose and seems to 
 correspond in use with a Latin dative gerund. Such are une musique 
 dansante^ music for dancing, une rue passante^ a thoroughfare^ une 
 couleur voyante^ a bright colour. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 30. 
 
 The Gerund. 1. Combien de peres tremblant de deplaire a leurs 
 enfants sont faibles en se croyant indulgents. 2. Nous entendons mal 
 nos interets, en sacrifiant I’avenir au present. 3. Une victoire en attire 
 une autre en consternant les vaincus, et en procurant aux vainqueurs 
 beaucoup d’allies. 4. En extravaguant en toutes choses comme vous 
 le faites, comment voulez-vous qu’on ne vous trouve pas extravagant? 
 5. Ces jeunes gens en etudiant toujours avec le meme soin, ne peuvent 
 manquer de reussir. 6. En disant ses paroles il donna la main au roi. 
 7. Le due de Glocester pleurait en regardant sa soeur. 8. Je vais 
 vous affliger en vous apprenant le sujet de mon voyage. 9. Tout en 
 vous ecrivant il me vient en pensee de vous envoj^-er deux lettres. 10. 
 Ce discours n’a merite qu’un accessit, tout en etant superieur en quel- 
 ques parties. 11. Pauvres creatures qui, en aj^ant garde les sensations 
 d’un autre age, en ont perdu la grace. 12. L’etat des villes alia tou- 
 jours en empirant. 
 
 The Participle. 1. Nous apercevions des debris flottant vers la 
 rive. 2. L’Angleterre cornbattant toujours a fini par etablir sa domi- 
 nation sur Plnde tout entiere. 3. Il pleurait de depit et il alia trouver 
 Calypso errant dans les sombres forets. 4. Les Spartiates cornbattant 
 et mourant aux Thermopyles firent comprendre aux Perses, qui se 
 croyaient deja triomphants, que des esclaves ne peuvent soumettre une 
 nation libre. 5. Plus de la moitie de la terre est peuplee d’animaux 
 vivant et mourant sans le savoir. G. C’est une personne dhm naturel 
 
198 
 
 THE PASSIVE PAETICIPLE. 
 
 doux, lie grondant, ne coiitredisant, ne desobligeaut jamais. 7. Azora 
 ayant passe deux jours chez une de ses amies, a la campagne, revint 
 le troisieme jour a la maison. 8. Margot seule resta a Pecart n’osant 
 bouger ni respirer. 9. Je traversal un desert lequel allait toujours 
 croissant. 10. Les ames, sans souplesse et sans appret, etaient actives, 
 entreprenantes, aimant ou baissant a I’exces. 11. Valerien ayant ete 
 pris par les Perses, et Gallien son fils negligeant les affaires, les bar- 
 bares penetrerent partout. 12. Les anciens n’ayant pas de boussole, 
 ne pouvaient guere naviguer que sur les cotes. 13. La republique 
 devant necessairement perir, il n’etait plus question que de savoir com- 
 ment et par qui elle devait etre abattue. 14. Je ne croyais pas que, 
 moi vivunt, elle dut jamais voir le jour. 
 
 The verbal adjective. 1. Nous apercevions sur la mer des cor- 
 dages flottants. 2. Les Frangais toujours combattants, toujours triom- 
 phants, porterent leurs aigles jusqu’aux extremites de PEurope. 3. II 
 y a des peuples qui vivent errants dans les deserts. 4. Une personne 
 obligeant quelquefois, pent n’etre pas une personne obligeante. 5. Un 
 monde d’allants et de venants. 6. Barbares ! oui, c’est-a-dire pleins 
 d’une seve nouvelle vivante et rajeunissante. 7. J’ai toujours vu ceux 
 qui voyageaient dans de bonnes voitures, bien douces, reveurs, tristes, 
 grondants ou souffrants. 8. Tous les portraits de ce peintre sont res- 
 semblants et frappants, tous les personnages de ses tableaux sont vi- 
 vants et parlants. 9. L’eglise de France resta divisee en deux factions, 
 les acceptants et les refusants. 10. Je peindrai les plaisirs en foule 
 renaissants. 11. Elies se remettaient au lit, mourantes de peur. 12. 
 Ces deux eglises egalement gemissantes sont irreconciliables. 
 
 XLIV, THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 The form of a French verb, which is called the past, or passive 
 participle, is not a participle, but a verbal adjective passive, which 
 Felps to form the passive participles, as it does the compound tenses 
 throughout the verb. 
 
 Derived from the Latin past participle passive, it has for the most 
 part lost its participial force; aime and amatus, though really the same 
 word, correspond in use only so far as the Latin participle may express 
 a settled condition, that is, in its adjectival use. So (domus ornata —) 
 maison meuhlee, (Male parta male dilahimtur =) Le hien mal acquis 
 se dissipe de meme. But where a particular act, or the completion of 
 an act, rather than its state when completed, is to be noted, the Latin 
 participle is no longer represented by the same French form. (Urbem 
 captam liostis diripuit) has not the same meaning as Vennemi pilla la 
 ville prise, but must be represented by prit la ville et la pilla; for the 
 Latin participle gives the sense of a separate act. (Ante Gapitolium 
 incensum) is not the same as avant le Capitole incendic, but as avant 
 Vincendie du Capitole; for the Latin participle notes the completion 
 of the act, and not merely the state after completion. The Latin con- 
 struction is however still used in oratorical style, as: Ld on celehra 
 
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 199 
 
 Bocroy delivre, les menaces d^un redoutahle ennemi tournees d sa liontc, 
 la regence affermie^ la France en repos^ et un regne qui devait etre si 
 beau commence par un si lieureux presage. 
 
 In the Latin construction from which the compound tenses of Ro- 
 mance verbs are descended, the participle is used as a simple adjective, 
 (habeo aliquid perspectum etc.). From the frequency of this use the 
 adjectival seems almost completely to have superseded the participial 
 force, so that we find the same compound form (amatus est) in Latin 
 a perfect, and in French a present. In fact there is no passive voice 
 in French verbs, but a form is used to supply it, composed of the 
 verb Hre with a passive verbal adjective as complement ; il est aime 
 is not the same as [amaiur) he is being loved., but = he is a person 
 loved. 
 
 The participle passive therefore corresponds with the present par- 
 ticiple active when capable of “Inflection, and if aimant is called the 
 verbal adjective active, aime should be called the verbal adjective pas- 
 sive. Hence when used in the formation of compound tenses with 
 avoir it is an adjective in agreement with the object, and should al- 
 ways agree with it in gender and number. Since the middle of the 
 17th century however the practice has obtained of inflecting the parti- 
 ciple only when the object precedes, and leaving it uninflected when 
 the object follows. This is usually explained by considering the par- 
 ticiple as used substantively and with the object of the verb in appo- 
 sition, J^ai fait (cela) une faute. 
 
 In the compound tenses of neuter verbs conjugated with avoir the 
 French participle may possibly represent the accusative of a substan- 
 tive formed from the supine stem, nous avons couru (= habemus cur- 
 sum)., and if so the noninflection of the participle is strictly correct. *) 
 But more probably they were formed after the analogy of the transi- 
 tive verbs. But with neuter verbs conjugated with Hre Latin furnishes 
 no precedent for the formation of the compound tenses. The form of 
 a passive participle may have been taken from the analogy of deponent 
 verbs, which retaining the passive form of the participle substituted 
 an active form for the rest of the verb; (morior) becomes mourir^ 
 while (mortuus) remains in mort ; {nasci) becomes naitre., while {natus) 
 remains in ne. In this case the compound tenses of such verbs are 
 descended from the compound tense forms of Latin deponents, and 
 nous sommes venus is used as if the Latin predecessor of je viens had 
 been (venior) instead of (venio). 
 
 The formation of the compound tenses of pronominal verbs offers 
 greater difficulty for the very reason, that we have an additional fact 
 to guide us. In almost all grammars, the participle is said to agree 
 with the direct object, so that in la jument s^est cabree the participle 
 
 *) Some French grammarians have in this way acc>'‘unted for the non-inflection of 
 the participle qualifying the object in transitive verbs. In old French, participles occur, 
 sometimes in agreement with the object, and sometimes uninflected, and the former 
 are supposed to represent the Latin participle, the latter the supine. In fixing the pre- 
 sent rule therefore French would simply have chosen the participial form v/hen the object 
 precedes, the supine when it follows. La page qwe fat lue (= Fagina quam kaheo lectam), 
 J’ai lu la page (— Habeo lectum paginam) I have the reading the page. 
 
200 
 
 THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 cahree is said to agree with the pronoun se, which is in the accusative 
 because Hre is used for avoir. But while French still marked case 
 by inflection, such participles are in the nominative. It is not possible 
 from the form of the pronoun to say whether it is in the accusative 
 or the dative, but at all events in such verbs as se cabrer the pronoun 
 is not the object in the compound tenses. In old French we And the 
 reflexive pronoun used freely with verbs to express, not merely an 
 act done by the subject to himself, but the action aB going on in the 
 subject, etrv (or rather the Provencal esser) even being so used. In 
 such a verb therefore as s^ahstenir the pronoun seems to fulfil a dif- 
 ferent function in the simple and in the compound tenses. In je ni^ah- 
 stiens the reflexive pronoun is the object, = I hold myself off, but in 
 Je me siiis dbstenu, where ahstenu is in the nominative case, the pro- 
 noun must be a case of reference = I am held off ivith 7'espect to 
 (by) myself. Such verbs therefore have in reality no compound tenses ; 
 but, as in the passive of transitive verbs, a form is used, composed 
 of the verb etre and the passive verbal adjective as complement. Je 
 me suis abstenu is only so far the perfect of s^abstenir, as may 
 
 be called the perfect active of mmeiv, or the perfect passive of a/. 
 
 According to this analogy the compound tenses of all pronominal 
 verbs are in modern French conjugated with Hre, and the practice 
 has extended so far, that even where the verb is only apparently re- 
 flexive, the verb Hre is used, as in nous nous sommes fait peindre, 
 where the reflexive pronoun clearly is governed by the infinitive, = 
 we have caused a paintmg ourselves. In the compound tenses of those 
 transitive verbs, which have a reflexive pronoun for their indirect ob- 
 ject, the origin of the construction is so completely forgotten, that while 
 Hre is used for avoir, the participle is made to agree with the object 
 as though the auxiliary verb were still looked on as a transitive verb 
 with independent construction. 
 
 With neuter pronominal verbs which govern a dative, as: Elle s^est 
 plu, the formation of the compound tenses seems to arise from two 
 false analogies; in their use of a participle in the passive form they 
 follow the analogy of neuter verbs derived from Latin deponents, and 
 in their use of Hre that of French pronominal verbs in general. 
 
 XLV. THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 The passive participle is used either 1. attributively, 2. 
 absolutely or 8. to form tenses of verbs. 
 
 1. Attributively, it agrees in gender and number with 
 the word it qualifies and replaces an adjectival clause, as : 
 Les peuples uses demandent a etre gouvernes, Nations, which 
 are worn out, require to be governed. 
 
 2. Absolutely, when the substantive or pronoun, which 
 is the subject of the participial action, is without connection 
 
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 201 
 
 with the rest of the sentence ; the participle agrees with it 
 in gender and number, as : Eux entres les portes se referment ^ 
 When they had gone in, the doors were shut again. 
 
 NOTE. Some participles are uninflected in an absolute construc- 
 tion, if they precede the substantive; such are attendu, y compris^ 
 excepte, ote^ oiii, passe^ suppose^ and vu (see IX. 4). 
 
 3. The passive participle used to form tenses of verbs. 
 
 a. In the passive voice throughout, in compound tenses 
 of neuter verbs conjugated with Hre^ and in compound tenses 
 of all pronominal verbs unless the reflexive pronoun is a da- 
 tive of the indirect object, the participle is always capable of 
 inflection, and agrees with the Subject in gender and number, 
 as : Its sont blesses^ They are hurt, Elies sont tombees, They 
 have fallen. Nous nous sommes vite repentis^ We soon repented. 
 
 /5. In the compound tenses of neuter verbs conjugated 
 with avoir^ of pronominal neuter verbs with the pronoun of 
 the indirect object in the dative, and of all impersonal verbs, 
 the participle is never inflected, as : Je ne sais combien d/ an- 
 nees cette guerre a dure^ I do not know how many years this 
 war has lasted. Ils se sont nui Tun d Vautre^ They have 
 injured each other. Les clialeurs exeessives qu’il a fait ont 
 cause beaucoup de maladies, The excessive heat, which there 
 has been, has occasioned a great many diseases. 
 
 NOTE 1. The verbs couter and valoir are sometimes considered 
 transitive, and sometimes intransitive and constructed with an accusa- 
 tive of price. They are only neuter, when used in a literal sense, as: 
 Les vingt mille francs que cette maison a, valu, coute. If used figura- 
 tively they are transitive and inflect the participle according to the 
 following rule y., as : On pent juger de$ embarras sans nomhre que lui 
 avail valus cette parente. But the practice of the best authors varies 
 
 NOTE 2. Of impersonal verbs those conjugated with etre are 
 only apparently impersonal. In II est arrive de grands maJheurs, the 
 neuter pronoun il is a real subject, to which de grands mallieurs is in 
 apposition, and the participle regularly therefore agrees with the gram- 
 matical subject. Most impersonal verbs conjugated with avoir are in- 
 transitive, and as there is no object, the participle is uninflected. Faire 
 and y avoir are transitive, and while French marked the object by 
 inflection, chaleur would as necessarily have been in the accusative in 
 il y a eu une grande chaleur, as in Nous avons eprouve une grande 
 chaleur. Consequently if the rule were strictly carried out, we 
 should have to say la grande chaleur quHl y a eue as we say la 
 grande chaleur que nous avons eprouvee. But the invariable practice 
 is to make these verbs follow the analogy of the other impersonal verbs, 
 and never inflect the participle. 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 14 
 
202 
 
 THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 y. In the compound tenses of transitive verbs conjugated 
 with avoir^ and of transitive pronominal verbs (though conju- 
 gated with etre) which have the reflexive pronoun of the in- 
 direct object in the dative, the participle agrees in gender 
 and number with the object, but only when it is preceded 
 by it, as : J^ai cueilli des fleurSj I have gathered some flowers; 
 but Voild les fleurs que fai cueillies, Here are the flowers I 
 have gathered. JElle s’est attire des reproches^ She has drawn 
 down reproaches on herself; but Ce sent Id les reproches 
 qu’elle s^est attires^ These are the reproaches she has drawn 
 on herself. 
 
 The object can precede in three cases. 
 
 1. If it is a personal pronoun, me, te^ la^ ee, nous, 
 vous, les, as : II nous a trouves, He has found us. 
 
 2. If it is a relative, que, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, les- 
 quelles, as : Les dames que fai rencontrees, The ladies I met. 
 
 3. In questions or exclamations, if it is an interrogative 
 pronoun or a substantive qualified by an interrogative pro- 
 noun, quel, quelle, quels, quelles, lequel etc. or a substantive 
 dependant on one of the adverbs of quantity eomhien or que, 
 as: Quelle robe ave^-vous choisie? Which dress have you 
 chosen? De ces Hoffes laquelle ave^-vous choisie? Which of 
 these materials have you chosen? Que de peines die s^est 
 donnees! What trouble she has taken! 
 
 The systematic carrying out of the above rule involves 
 in certain cases nice distinctions which require notice ; mistakes 
 may arise from two sources : either as in a. and b. from a 
 word which is not the object being mistaken for the object, 
 or as in c. from the object of another verb being mistaken 
 for the object of the verb to which the participle belongs. 
 
 a. The participle is not inflected when preceded by a word 
 which expresses duration in time or space, as: Les cinq heu- 
 res que fai dormi. The five hours I have been asleep. 
 
 b. The participle is not inflected when the place of an 
 object is taken by the adverb en used in a partitive sense, 
 as: Hclas! fetais aveugle en mes voeux aujourddiui; fen 
 ai fait centre toi, quand fen ai fait pour lui. Alas! I acted 
 blindly in my prayers to-day ; I ojffered them against you, 
 when I offered them for him. But if en is dependant on a 
 preceding adverb of quantit}^, as eomhien, autant or plus — 
 the combined expression is regarded as an accusative and the 
 
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 203 
 
 participle agrees with the word represented by en, as: Com- 
 bien en a-t-on vus jusqu'aux pieds des autels Porter un 
 coeur pHri de penchants criminels? How may of them have 
 we seen bear to the altars’ foot a heart imbued with vicious 
 longings ? 
 
 c. The participle is not inflected, when an object, though 
 preceding the principal verb, is governed by a following in- 
 finitive expressed or understood, or by a following clause, as: 
 Les precautions que fai du prendre^ The precautions I have 
 been obliged to take, II a pris toutes les precautions quHl 
 a pu, He has taken all the precautions he could. Les come- 
 dies que fai souffert qu^on ait jouees tant de fois^ The co- 
 medies which I have allowed them to play so many times. 
 
 NOTE. Hence with amir and donner it is often optional for the 
 writer to inflect the participle or not with scarcely any difference of 
 sense, as in Les obstacles que fai eu d surmonter or Les obstacles que 
 fai eus d surmonter^ in the former the prepositional infinitive depends 
 on fai eu and has que as its object, in the latter que is the object of 
 fai eus and d surmonter is explanatory of les obstacles. 
 
 But the chief difficulty lies in the use of those verbs, 
 which govern an objective infinitive the subject of which may 
 be expressed or not (XXXVI. 3). These are the verbs of 
 hearing, seeing and feeling, and the factitive verbs laisser 
 and faire. 
 
 If a pronoun precedes any of these verbs with following 
 infinitive, it must be governed either by the main verb or 
 by the infinitive ; in the former case alone would the parti- 
 ciple of the main verb agree with it. If therefore the infini- 
 tive is a neuter verb or has an object expressed, the pronoun 
 must be governed by the main verb, and it would seem that 
 therefore the participle ought to agree with the pronoun. But 
 in this case alone French admits of a transitive verb being 
 constructed with an accusative case which is not its object. 
 In Je Vai fait venir^ le cannot be object of venir which is 
 neuter; but neither is it the object of ai fait, for what 1 
 caused was the coming, not him. Le is therefore a case of 
 reference and the sentence, = I caused a coming in reference 
 to him. From the meaning of the verb this must always be 
 the case with faire with a following infinitive ; the infinitive 
 must necessarily be its object, and therefore in no case is the 
 participle fait inflected when an infinitive follows. In Je les 
 
 14 * 
 
204 
 
 THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 a% fait chanter^ the pronoun les may be either the object 
 of chanter and said of songs with the meaning I caused the 
 singing them; or it may be a case of reference to J'ai fait, 
 and, said of persons, have the meaning I caused with reference 
 to them a singing, or as we express it in English, I made 
 them sing; but in neither case is les the object of fai fait, 
 and the participle is therefore uninflecte^. 
 
 With the other verbs, viz. laisser, entendre, oiiir, voir, 
 and less commonly with other verbs of hearing, seeing and 
 feeling, as: apercevoir, sentir etc. the case is different. Their 
 meaning is such that the same sense is given, whether the 
 pronoun is the object and the infinitive the case of reference, 
 or vice versa. In Je Vai entendu venir two constructions are 
 possible ; either I heard him ivith reference to his coming, 
 or I heard a coming ilnth reference to him, both of which 
 equally well represent our English I heard him come. In 
 general the former construction is preferred in French, in 
 which the pronoun which is the subject of the infinitive is 
 made the object of the main verb, and the participle therefore 
 agrees with it, as : Je les ai entendus venir. Still the prac- 
 tice of the best authors is not uniform, as for instance Buff on 
 writes Je les ai vu prendre de petits poissons, where prendre 
 is the object of the verb, and les the case of reference. 
 
 The matter is further complicated, when the infinitive is 
 a transitive verb, which may also be used as a neuter. In 
 Je Vai entendu chanter the pronoun may be either under the 
 government of the main verb or of the infinitive; if said of 
 the subject of the infinitive, the construction, as we have seen 
 above, will usually be I heard him ivith reference to singing, 
 and the participle will agree with the object ; said of a woman 
 therefore we have Je Vai entendue chanter I heard her sing ; 
 if said of a song, the construction will be I heard a singing 
 it, and though chanson is feminine, as the pronoun is the 
 object of the infinitive, we must say Je Vai entendu chanter, 
 I heard it sung. 
 
 For practical use therefore the rule will be: 1. faire 
 followed by an infinitive never inflects the participle; 2. lais- 
 ser, oiiir, entendre and voir followed by an infinitive have 
 the participle in agreement with a preceding accusative pro- 
 noun, when the infinitive is neuter, or has a substantive as 
 
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 205 
 
 object; 3. the same verbs followed by an infinitive which 
 may be either transitive or neuter have the participle in agree- 
 ment with a preceding accusative pronoun, when it represents 
 the subject of the infinitive. 
 
 In the case of a relative referring to a substantive dependant on 
 le 'peii the rule given XIX. 3. holds good. The participle agrees with 
 the substantive dependant on le peu, unless the notion of fewness is 
 predominant in the relative, as in the principal clause, as: Le peu de 
 troupes qu’il avait rassemhle ne lui permit pas d’attaquer Vennemi^ 
 but Le peu de troupes qidil avait rassemblees tenaient ferme. The no- 
 tion of fewness which requires the verb in the principal clause to be 
 in the singular, need not necessarily extend to the relative clause, as: 
 Le peu d^ecrits quHl a laisses sur la litter ature^ est plein de gout, de 
 finesse et de lumieres. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 37. 
 
 1. Peu de richesses menagees avec soin valent mieux que de grands 
 tresors mat employes. 2. Tons deux partis des meraes principes, leur 
 gouvernement est devenu entierement different. 3. Une semaine au 
 plus ecoulee, il y avait deja des doutes en moi. 4. Lui mort, nous 
 n’avons" point de vengeur ni de maitre. 5. Les ames nobles gagnent 
 toujours a etre connues. 6. Deux femmes peuvent etre reconciliees, 
 tant qu’elles ne se sent point appelees laides. 7. Je suis seule echappee 
 aux fureurs de la guerre. 8. Ceux qui ont beaucoup vecu ont beau- 
 coup vu. 9. Xos soldats avaient repare leurs forces pendant les quel- 
 ques heures qu’ils avaient dormi. 10. Que de larmes et de millions 
 les conquetes de I’empire nous ont coutes! 11. Insectes invisibles que 
 la main du Createur s’est plu a faire naitre dans Pabime de Pinfini- 
 ment petit. 12. II s’est rassemble une foule de gens armes. 13. Les 
 pluies qu’il a fait ont nui aux productions de la terre. 14. Que de 
 temps, que de refiexions n’a-t-il “pas fallu pour epier et reconnaitre les 
 besoins, les ecarts et les ressources de la nature. 15. Toutes les occa- 
 sions de vaincre qui se sent offertes, il les a embrassees. 16. Elle n’est 
 pas telle que je Paurais voulue. 17. Quelle faute ai-je commise jusqu’ 
 ici. 18. Combien de phrases de ce genre les ecrivains de Napoleon 
 n’ont-ils pas lancees depuis dix ans dans le public! 19. Ma haine va 
 mourir que j’ai crue immortelle. 20. Autant Alexandre a attaque de 
 peuples, autant de victoires il a remportees. 21. Regardez les bijoux 
 qu’elles se sent procures. 22. Qui pourrait dire combien de siecles a 
 vecu celui qui a beaucoup senti et medite? 23. Il n’est que trop vrai 
 qu’il y a eu des aiithropophages ; nous en avons trouve en Amerique. 
 24. Helas ! de tons les jeunes gens qui criaient alors vive Bonaparte! 
 combien son insatiable ambition en a-t-elle laisses vivre? 25. Son sup- 
 plice fit plus de proselytes en un jour que les livres et les predications 
 n’en avaient faits en plusieurs annees. 26. Ne faites rien qui ne soit 
 digne des maximes que j’ai tache de vous inspirer. 27. Je lui ai lu 
 mon epitre posenient, jetant dans ma lecture toute la force que j’ai 
 pu. 28. La lettre que j’ai presume que vous recevriez est enfin arrivee. 
 
206 
 
 THE FRENCH CASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 29. Rica et moi sommes peut-etre les seals Persans que I’envie de sa- 
 voir ait fait sortir de leur pays. 30. La guerre ne se faisait point 
 autrefois comme nous I’avons vu faire du temps de Louis XIV. 31. 
 C’est une bonne maitresse, je ne Pai pas entendue gronder une seule 
 fois. 32. Les a-t-on vus marcher parmi vos ennemis? 33. Une pierre 
 que j’ai reconnue etre une pierre de touche. 34. Murat ecrivit a Na- 
 poleon une lettre que j’ai entendu lire. 35. Les cloches que j’ai en- 
 tendues sonner. 36. La femme que j’ai vu peindre. 37. Sophie Paver- 
 tit a Poreille de la peine qiPil a laisse prendre a son ami. 38. Elle 
 regagne par une course rapide le peu de moments qu’elle a perdus. 
 39. Je fus revolte du peu de confiance qu’il avait mis dans mon amitie. 
 
 XLVI. THE FRENCH CASES AND USE 
 OP PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 French in its employment of case-forms and prepositions, though 
 necessarily adopting an entirely new principle, yet separates itself from 
 the Latin as little as possible. The cases, which are only retained 
 in the personal and relative pronouns, mark immediate verbal influence, 
 and are therefore confined to four, the nominative, complement, accu- 
 sative, and dative. Of the nominative nothing need be said. The 
 complement pronoun form seems to have arisen from the want of an 
 unemphatic pronoun form in the 3<i person distinct from the nomina- 
 tive. Pronouns of the l^t and 2^ person, when complements of a sub- 
 stantival verb, are usually more emphatic than the subject; when this 
 is not the case, French introduces an unemphatic ce, as: L^etat c^est 
 moi. But the pronoun of the 3^ person is generally, when used as 
 a complement, less emphatic than the subject, as representing a quality 
 predicated of the subject. To avoid therefore using the independant 
 form of the pronoun, a form is employed corresponding with the accu- 
 sative. To class this use however under the accusative would be to 
 alter • entirely the notion of the accusative, which in French is the 
 same as in Latin; and probably 'would be a historical blunder, as the 
 forms Zc, Za, qite may as well come to us from ^ZZ^trZ, iZZa, quod as 
 from ilium., illam, quem, and in les we have only the same mistaken 
 analogy as in ils. 
 
 The accusative in French pronouns does not differ in use from 
 the Latin, except that it is not used in oblique construction as subject 
 of a verb in the infinitive, only the accusative of the relative being 
 so found in French (XXXV. 1. n. 1.); though with an infinitive de- 
 pendant on faire, if it has no object, the accusative may take the 
 place of the regular dative. 
 
 But the use of the French dative differs considerably from the 
 Latin use. For in the place it is strictly a verbal case (tihi in- 
 juriam intulit) — il fa fait une injustice, but (injuriam tihi illatam) 
 — Vinjustice faite d toi. Again it is not used as a simple acquisitive 
 dative, {donius pulclira milii aedificatur) = une belle niaison se construit 
 pour moi. It is only therefore as indirect object, that French retains 
 
THE FRENCH CASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 207 
 
 the Latin use of the dative. Except in a very few instances it is not 
 the nature of the action of the verb, which requires the dative, but 
 its formal limitation to a particular person. Hence most verbs, which 
 from their meaning only are constructed with a dative in Latin, have 
 an accusative in French; such are incommoder, gratifier, menacer, re- 
 rnercier^ servir etc., and compounds as contredire^ envier, satisfaire etc. 
 Nearly the only verbs in French which continue the Latin use of re- 
 quiring a dative because of their meaning, are the verbs of action 
 *plaire, nuire^ ohmr^ resister^ the verbs of condition appartenir^ ressem- 
 hler^ and the compounds subvenir^ succeder, survivre. Hence too a verb, 
 which has a dative of the person when it has a thing as direct object, 
 can also have the person as direct object in the accusative, conseiller 
 qiielque chose d quelquhm, or conseiller quelqu’un. The French dative 
 then is a formal case, depending not on the character of the verb, 
 but on the form* of the sentence; when an absolute action, as that of 
 a transitive verb on its object, whether a substantive or an infinitive 
 mood, or that of a neuter verb, when nothing further is needed for 
 a complete sentence but the subject and verb, is limited in its exercise 
 to a particular person, that person if expressed by a pronoun will be 
 in the dative. *j Hence the French dative represents not only the 
 Latin dative of the indirect object, but also a. the accusative of the person 
 with verbs which govern a double accusative, {Id liunc celavi) = Je 
 lui ai cache celd^ and the accusative subject of an infinitive in oblique 
 construction, wherever French allows of an infinitive as object, the 
 subject of which is neither the subject nor the indirect object of the 
 principal verb (aiidivi ilium hoc dicer e) = Je lui ai entendu dire cela; 
 in this latter case however French practice is not uniform (see XXXVI. 
 3. Note). 
 
 Whenever the person, to whom an absolute action is limited, as 
 not being expressed by a personal pronoun, cannot be in the dative, 
 the preposition d is used in modern French. From this fact and from 
 the appearance of a dative form given by the contraction of d with 
 the definite article, the practice has arisen of calling all substantives 
 datives, which are governed by d. Hence the greatest confusion pre- 
 vails, the interesting change, which the dative has undergone, is not 
 recognised, and a case the use of which is subject to the nicest re- 
 strictions, is confounded with the preposition, which is used to express 
 relation in the most general way. With even less excuse the name 
 of genitive is given to the preposition de ; for the principle, in accor- 
 dance with which cases in French are preserved, is by so doing dis- 
 regarded; and to call the prepositional phrase in Je vais d Borne or 
 in recevoir d bras ouverts a dative, or in II vient de Marseille or de 
 nos temps a genitive, is simply to disconnect entirely Latin syntax and 
 French. Indeed the representing the relations expressed in Latin by 
 
 *) The change in the conception of the dative in French from that of the dative in 
 Latin, is exactly the reverse of the treatment of the subjunctive mood; the notion of 
 the French dative is objective, depending on the form of the sentence, the L^tin dative 
 is subjective, depepding on the meaning of the verb, which governs it; the French sub- 
 junctive is subjective, depending on the meaning of the principal clause, the Latin sub- 
 junctive is objective, depending on the form of the sentence. 
 
208 
 
 THE FRENCH CASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 the genitive and dative in modern French seems to have been the last 
 extension of the use of the prepositions de and d. Long after the cases 
 were lost, the Latin genitive and dative, at least of persons, were re- 
 presented without preposition, a practice, of which we have still re- 
 mains in Hotel-dieu *) etc. The use of d to represent the Latin dative 
 seems to have arisen from the notion of direction to a person, and as 
 we have seen this is almost confined to a formal extension of the ver- 
 bal force. Hence when this notion is wanting, the Latin dative is 
 represented by some other preposition than a, (ponere aliquid pignorij 
 = deposer quelque chose en gage^ (non scholae sed vitae discimus) nous 
 nous instruisons non pour Vecole, rnais pour la conduite de la vie. 
 Similarly the Latin genitive is not represented by French de^ when it 
 would clash with the proper force of the preposition; this would be 
 the case with a predicative genitive giving the sense of possession; so 
 (donius est patris) la maison est a mon pere, but {Hie versus Plauti 
 non est) Ce vers n’est pas de Plaute, as in the latter example no 
 ambiguity is introduced. 
 
 From the necessity for representing by the preposition alone re- 
 lations, which in Latin may be represented, either by the case alone, 
 or by the preposition and case, each giving a separate distinction, we 
 might expect to find a number of new prepositions adopted to take 
 the place of such Latin prepositions as governed more than one case. 
 This is however only partially the case. Where the direction of the 
 action is expressed by the verb, French is not careful to mark it by 
 the preposition as well. Hence in place of a multiplication of prepo- 
 sitions, we find one French preposition doing the work of two or three 
 Latin; so French de represents not only Latin de and db, but for the 
 most part ex as well; and we even find the expression of the direction 
 of an action so completely left to be expressed by the verb, that with 
 prendre^ puiser etc. the Latin ex is represented by French dans, giv- 
 ing simply the place in which the action takes place. On the con- 
 trary where the verb gives no help to determine the nature of the 
 prepositional phrase, French varies the preposition, and introduces new 
 ones to attain an exactness for which Latin furnishes no precedent. 
 So in the expression of time, while Latin uses the simple ablative to 
 express a. a point of time at which, /?. an interval of time within 
 which, y. an interval of time in which, S. an interval of time after 
 which an action takes place, French distinguishes each of these cases 
 by a different preposition ; so a. {Hora sexta Caesar profectus est) Cesar 
 partit d la sixieme heure, /?. (Ees nostra aetate gestae) faits accomplis 
 de notre temps, y. ( Vix decern annis urhern unam cepitj II parvint d 
 peine en dix ans d prendre une seule viUe, S. {paucis diehus ad te 
 veniern) dans peu de jours je viendrai te trouver. 
 
 Again French prefers marking by a different preposition the same 
 relation, when used of place, and when used of time or metaphorically ; 
 
 *) Perhaps this may account for the fact, that of the six French prepositions formed 
 from substantives, the three which would naturally mostly precede persons, viz. chez, 
 parmi, malgre are used as simple prepositions, while lors, faute, manque are explained 
 by de. 
 
CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 209 
 
 so we have two French prepositions to represent one Latin, in the 
 case of vers and envers, of derriere and apres, of devant and avant. 
 
 One peculiar construction, which gives a very marked character 
 to French, must be noticed, viz. the treatment of prepositional phrases 
 as simple substantives. With de used to express partition this is car- 
 ried so far, that the prepositional phrase may stand as subject or ob- 
 ject of a verb (see III. 1). Generally such prepositional phrases are 
 only so far treated as substantives, as to be put under the government 
 of another preposition, so chez with dependant noun may be governed 
 by de, devant, par and pour ; avant and dependant noun by dh ; avec, 
 devant, entre, apres and dependant noun by de. This practice is 
 simply a continuance of the old custom, which has resulted in new 
 French prepositions compounded of two or three Latin ones, as : de~ 
 puis = (de post), devant = (de ab ante) etc. 
 
 .XL VII. CASES OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 The personal and relative pronouns mark by inflection 
 certain relations, in which they stand to the verb. These 
 may be called case-inflections, though they only partially cor- 
 respond with the Latin cases in form or signification. 
 
 The relations so marked are four, viz. 1. Subject, 2. 
 Complement, 3. Object, and 4. Indirect object. 
 
 As subject, complement and object the pronoun form may 
 stand either for a person or a thing; as indirect object only 
 for a person. 
 
 1. The nominative case marks the subject of the verb, 
 as : II est la, He is there. Lhomme' qui parle, The man, 
 who speaks. 
 
 2. The complement case marks the complement of a sub- 
 stantival verb, as: Etes-vous Vinstitutrice? Je la suis. Are 
 you the governess? Yes I am. Je ne sais ce que tout ceci 
 deviendra, I don’t know what all this will turn to (see XII. 
 7. 8 and XV. B. 2). 
 
 3. The accusative case marks the object of the verb, as: 
 Je Vaime, I love her, E enfant que nous aimons. The child 
 whom we love. 
 
 The accusative case may be used as a case of respect, 
 to give the subject of an infinitive dependant on faire, laisser 
 or a verb of hearing, seeing, or feeling, provided that the 
 infinitive has not itself an object, as: Je les ai fait sortir, 
 I got them to go out (XXXVI. 3. a and below 4 A. 2). 
 
210 
 
 CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 The accusative pronoun-form le is also used in place of 
 an infinitive mood, with verbs which express a state or con- 
 dition tending to further action, (XXXVII. C. 1), as: Faut- 
 il sortir ? II le faut. Must we go out? We must. 
 
 The accusative of the relative pronoun may further be used to 
 express some of the relations which in French may be expressed by 
 a substantive without preposition. So 
 
 a. As cognate accusative, as: Le chemin quHl va. The road he 
 is going. 
 
 jS. As accusative of extension in time or space, as: Les deux 
 heures que j’ai marcM m^ont fait le plus grand bien^ The two hours 
 during which I have been walking, have done me a great deal of good. 
 
 y. As the subject of an infinitive dependant on a verb of stating, 
 thinking, or wishing (XXXV. 1. a. n. 1), as: J’ai pu supposer vrai^ 
 ce que je savais avoir pu Vetre, I could suppose true, what I knew 
 might have been so. 
 
 S. To express price with the verbs couter and raZoi>,*as: Les 
 vingt mille francs que cette maison a coute. The 20,000 francs, which 
 this house has cost. 
 
 The accusative of the relative pronoun cannot be used to express 
 price with transitive verbs. Though it is perfectly good French to 
 say J’ai achete ces bottines vingt francs^ we cannot say Les vingt 
 francs que j’ai achete ces bottines me paraissent trop. Even with 
 couter and valoir the tendency at present is to treat the verb as trans- 
 itive and the relative as an objective accusative. 
 
 4. The dative case is used only of persons, and marks 
 the person affected by the action of a transitive verb on its 
 object, or by that of a neuter verb. 
 
 Hence A. With transitive verbs 
 
 a. A dative of the recipient is added to verbs of giving, 
 yielding, offering, promising, owing, pardoning, inflicting etc., 
 as: Je lid ai donne cinq francs, I gave him five francs. 
 
 /j. A dative of the person addressed is added to verbs 
 of telling, reading, proposing, showing, teaching, commanding, 
 forbidding, advising etc., as: Je lui enseigne la musique I am 
 teaching him music. Vans ne nfaurez rien persuade du tout, 
 you will have persuaded me of nothing at all. 
 
 NOTE. Persuader is also constructed with the person as object 
 and the thing persuaded under the government of the preposition de, 
 as : Vous croirez nous persuader de votre respect envers lui. 
 
 y. A dative of the person from ivhom the object is re- 
 moved is added to verbs of taking -away, concealing, asking, 
 buying, borrowing, stealing etc., as: 11 nf a vole cinq francs, 
 He has stolen five francs from me. 
 
CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 211 
 
 NOTE. Acheter^ arracher^ emprunter, oter and prendre are also 
 followed by de to express the person from whom. The dative expres- 
 ses properly the person affected by the action, and only accidentally 
 the person as the place, whence the thing is abstracted. If therefore 
 the latter notion predominates, de and an independant pronoun form 
 will be used in place of the dative, Je lui ai emprunte un crayon^ 
 but Avez-voiis emprunte ce crayon de mon cousin ou de moi? In mo- 
 dern French the dative is usually preferred, even though it allows of 
 ambiguity; for Jeliii ai acliete ce clieval may mean either I bought this 
 horse for him, or from him. 
 
 d. A dative is added to verbs, the object of which is a. 
 part of the person affected, or considered as necessarily be- 
 longing to him, as : Je lui ai casse le bras, I have broken 
 his arm. 
 
 €. A dative is used to express the subject of an objective 
 infinitive, which itself governs an object, as: Je lui ai fait 
 signer ces documents, I got him to sign these documents; but 
 Je Vai fait signer, I got him to sign. 
 
 A dative is used occasionally like the Latin dat. ethi- 
 CUS to express in the most general way the person interested 
 in the action, as: On lui lia les pieds, on vous le suspendit^ 
 They tied its feet together, they slung it, I assure you. 
 
 NOTE 1. In the case of transitive verbs, which from their mea- 
 ning admit of either a person or thing as their direct object, if both 
 are expressed, the person in French must be in the dative. So con- 
 seiller quelgifun, but Je lui ai conseiUe quelque chose] enseigner quel- 
 quhm, but Je lui enseigne le frangais. Hence verbs, which in Latin 
 take two accusatives, have in French the person expressed in the da- 
 tive, if the thing is named, otherwise in the accusative. 
 
 NOTE 2. If the object is a person expressed by an accusative 
 pronoun, a dative pronoun cannot stand as indirect object, but in place 
 of it an independant form must be used with the preposition d, as : 
 Dieu lui a livre son ennemi, but Dieu m^a livre d lui. 
 
 B. With neuter verbs and verbal expressions made up 
 of a substantival verb and complement. 
 
 a. A dative of the person affected may be added when 
 the action is absolute, that is when the mention of the per- 
 son is not necessary for the completion of the sentence. So 
 with verbs of seeming, as: paraitre, senibler, of being of 
 importance, as : importer, valoir, of presence or absence, as : 
 falloir, manguer, suffire, of happening, as : arriver, venir, of 
 suiting, as : convenir etc. ; and “with the verb substantive and 
 substantival or adjectival complement, when the agreement or 
 disagreement of the complement with the subject is further 
 
212 
 
 CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 referred to a particular person, as: II me semble quHl rCy a 
 Hen de mieux a faire^ It seems to me there is nothing better 
 to be done. Mon fils nous amuse et nous est tres-bon^ My 
 ;Son amuses us and is very good to us. 
 
 NOTE. With verbal expressions made up of a substautival verb 
 and complement a dative pronoun can only be used, when the state- 
 ment is viewed as absolute, and further referred to a particular per- 
 son. If the action is relative, as it would be, if the notion expressed 
 by the complement, and not the mere fact of its agreement or disa- 
 greement with the subject, were referred to a person, a preposition 
 and independant form would be required; and this is naturally the 
 more usual mode of expression, as: II a ete tres-bon pour moi; it would 
 have been impossible for Corneille to write Ma perte ne vous est qu^un 
 change avantageux for Ma perte n^est pour vous qu'^un change avan- 
 tageux. 
 
 [3, A suall number of verbs govern a dative, where the 
 action is relative, that is where for the completion of the 
 sentence, the naming of the person affected is necessary. The 
 chief of these are appartenir^ ressemhler^ ceder^ resister^ 
 nuire, plaire^ oheir^ desobeir^ repondre, repliquer and three 
 compound verbs, in which the force of the preposition is felt 
 separately, viz. suhvenir, suceeder and survivre^ as : 11 ne 
 faut pas lui desobeir^ We must not disobey him. II n! aura 
 a craindre que de la perdre et de lui survivre. All he will 
 have to fear is losing her and surviving her. 
 
 C. Certain verbs are constructed sometimes as transitive, 
 and have therefore the pronoun in the accusative, and some- 
 times as neuter with the pronoun in the dative. Such are 
 aider ^ applaudir^ commander^ insulter^ manquer and servir. 
 
 Aider is mostly transitive, unless the end aimed at is 
 expressed by an infinitive with d, as: Ils se sont appauvris 
 pour aider les pauvres, They have made themselves poor to 
 help the poor. But Mentor lui tendait la main pour lui 
 aider a nager^ Mentor held out his hand to him to help 
 him to swim. 
 
 Applaudir is generally transitive of outer signs of ap- 
 proval, but both constructions are found without real distinc- 
 tion, as: Je dois de votre coeur me montrer satisfait et 
 V applaudir ici du beau choix quHl a fait, I ought to show 
 myself satisfied with your heart, and applaud it in this case 
 for the good choice it has made. On ne le vit pas briguer 
 des auditeurs pour lui applaudir, He was not seen currying 
 
CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 215 
 
 favour with the audience in order that they might applaud 
 him. 
 
 Commander — to he in command of, with the accusative- 
 of the person expresses the simple fact; with the dative it. 
 implies also the right, as : Je me souviens toujoiirs que f etais 
 ne pour commander les femmes, I always hear in mind that 
 I was horn to command women. Ils avaient leve jiisqu^ci 
 soixante mille hommes de pied et ehoisi trois Graves chefs 
 pour leitr commander, They had levied as many as sixty 
 thousand foot, and chosen three hrave chiefs to command them. 
 When commander = to order has for its object the thing 
 ordered, it of course takes a dative of the person affected hy 
 rule A. /?. above. 
 
 Insulter like applahdir usually has the accusative of 
 outward acts of insult, the dative of the feeling == to scoff 
 at, hut the distinction is not always observed, as : Est-ce mon 
 maltre on moi que Von veut insulter? Is it my master or 
 myself that they wish to insult? On V entourait, on lui in- 
 sultait en face, They surrounded him, they insulted him to 
 his face. 
 
 Manquer — to miss, to fail in attaining, takes the accu- 
 sative ; = to he wanting, to fail, it takes the dative, as : Si 
 vous manque^ le trone, il faut perir tons trois. If you fail 
 to attain the throne, all three of us must come to ruin. II 
 ne leur a manque que des historiens, All they wanted was- 
 historians. Servir = to serve, to help, takes the accusative 
 = to profit, to he of use, it takes the dative, as : Les eve- 
 nements Vont Men servi. Events have helped him much. La 
 plupart s' en fdchaient, mais que leur servait-il? Most were 
 vexed, but what use was that to them ? With both manquer 
 and servir when used as neuter, the thing, with respect to 
 which want or advantage is predicated of the subject, may 
 he expressed with the preposition de, so that servir de gets 
 the force of to supply the place of, as: Aucun de tes amis 
 ne fa manque de foi. None of your friends have failed you 
 in the matter of fidelity. Je vous rends votre fils, et je lui 
 sers de pere, I give you hack your son, and supply for hinr 
 the place of a father. 
 
 NOTE. The relation expressed by the dative of pronouns is in- 
 the case of substantives expressed by the preposition d. In conse- 
 quence of this most French grammars include under the verbs which- 
 
‘214 
 
 CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 govern a dative all those which are followed by the preposition d, 
 such as coopere)% compatir etc., and distinguish between the use of 
 utteindre, toucher etc. with accusative and dative. That the preposi- 
 tion d does not in such cases represent a dative, and that a dative 
 pronoun cannot replace such a prepositional phrase, will be apparent 
 from the above. And consequently we find cooperer^ compatir when 
 said of a person followed by avec^ as: lls ont coopere d V execution 
 de mes desseins, but lls ont coopere avec moi; while je lui touche is 
 an impossible construction. 
 
 5. A pronominal case, dative or accusative is added to 
 certain neuter verbs throughout, and to the compound tenses 
 of all simple transitive verbs used reflexively, which seems to 
 stand to the verb as a case of respect, as: Je m^en vais, I 
 am going away, Je ne vois pets que Dieu se soit exclu de 
 s’en servir^ I do not see that God has debarred himself from 
 using them (lit. is debarred as far as he is himself con- 
 cerned), 
 
 NOTE. This case for neuter verbs is said by Die z to be a dative. 
 In the compound tenses of simple transitive verbs it is usually ex- 
 plained as an objective accusative, Hre being erroneously used for 
 avoir. This mistake has doubtless arisen from the fact, that in tra- 
 jective transitive verbs Hre is used for avoir in the compound tenses 
 and governs an accusative. In Ce livre fait tons les effets que je m^en 
 etais proposes the participle proposes is in the accusative case as it 
 agrees with que, which is the object of etais erroneously written for 
 avais. But in simple transitive verbs used reflexively the participle 
 was in the nominative case, as long as French marked case in parti- 
 ciples by inflection. So that the pronoun se in the example que Dieu 
 se soit exclu can only be a case of reference, and is either a dative, 
 as in Je leur ai fait chanter la chanson, or in the accusative as in 
 Je les ai fait chanter. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 38. 
 
 (§ 1. 2. 3.) 1. II me prit chez lui des mon enfance. 2. lls nous 
 
 envelopperent en un instant. 3. Elle se figure que je serai sa fille, 
 il lui tarde que je la sois. 4. Helas! Madame, vous me traitez de 
 veuve, il est trop vrai que je le suis. 5. Je voudrais que vous eussiez 
 vu ce que rn’est devenu ce bon pere, des le moment qu’il m’a paru si 
 bien instruit. 6. Je ne sais point, seigneur, ce que e’est que d’aimer. 
 7. Rien ne saurait les satisfaire. 8. Pour la derniere fois, sauvez-le, 
 sauvez-nous. 9. Je ne fais rien pour I’opinion, vous le savez. 10. On 
 lui a rendu un mauvais office en voulant le servir. 11. On le fit agir, 
 ecrire. 12. Il fallait comme moi I’avoir entendu declamer Mahomet. 
 13. Etienne crut devoir ouvrir passage a son ennemie et la laissa re- 
 joindre les siens. 14. Il me le semble. 15. Il le parait. 16. Que de 
 bien n’a-t-elle pas fait pendant le peu de jours qu’elle a regne 1 17. 
 
 J’ai encore quelques jours devant moi, je les veux vivre tout entiers. 
 
CASES OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 215 
 
 18. Les honneurs que j’ai regus, c’est mon habit qui me les a valus. 
 
 19. Louis XIV regretta en mourant les millions qu’avaient coutes a 
 la nation son luxe et sa magnificence. 
 
 (§ 4. A.) 1. Promettez-moi de me parler avec toute sorte de fran- 
 
 chise. 2. Que Petat ou je vous vois ne vous fasse pas de peine. 3. 
 Repondez-m’en, vous dis-je. 4. Loin de vous la ravir on va vous la 
 livrer. 5. Elle dit a Valentine qu’elle I’enverrait lui porter quelques 
 secc’irs. 6. On lui a persuade de se marier. 7. Cette victoire les 
 persuada que Dieu combattait pour eux. 8. Dieu me Pa donne, Dieu 
 me Pa ote, le nom du seigneur soit beni. 9. II lui prend la main. 10. 
 Et de quel droit me volez-vous mon nom? 11. II ne passait pas an 
 chateau un seul porte-balle que je ne lui achetasse quelque chose. 
 12. II lui serre vivement la main. 13. Qui plus que moi desire vous 
 voir une volonte ferme? 14. Je m’attachai a me perfectionner le gout. 
 15. On ne lui connait que deux ennemis. 16. L’ambition seule lui 
 inspira des crimes. 17. La senora veut-elle que je lui essaie ces bi- 
 joux? 18. II lui a demande son nom. 19. Je veux vous en gagner 
 a chacun cinq cents. 20. On crut en le lui faisant voir, adoucir son 
 chagrin. 21. Si nous leur laissons affiler a loisir les arrnes dont elles 
 nous subjuguent— . 22. S’il se pent, fais-le-moi croire aussi. 23. On lui 
 trouve un silice sur le corps. 24. Vous me supposez un merite que 
 je n’ai point. 25. Veille aupres de Pyrrhus, fais-lui garder sa foi. 
 26. On s’etonna de leur voir prendre cet amusement pueril. 27. II est 
 ici, et le roi doit les lui entendre chanter au premier jour. 28. Vous 
 me cachez la lumiere. 29. Dieu vous a, ma fille, donnee a moi. 30. 
 Que de mysteres s’offrent a moi! 31. N’as-tu pas cent ans? Trouve- 
 moi dans Paris deux mortels aussi vieux. 32. Allez me faire un tour 
 de valse, et revenez a onze heures. 
 
 (§ 4. B and C.) 1. Un jour plus pur me luit. 2. Pour defendre 
 
 la patrie il lui fallut la gouverner. 3. La memoire lui faiilit tout a 
 coup. 4. Nous ne plairons jamais aux autres autant que nous nous 
 plaisons a nous-mmes. 5. Nous vous paraitrions plus calmes, si la 
 chose ne regardait que nous. 6. Je pense, dit le prince, que jevoudrais 
 lui ressembler. 7. Comment ont-ils devine que tout ce qu’on pense de 
 ce premier etre lui soit indiiferent, et que toutes les religions qu’on 
 voit sur la terre lui soient egalement bonnes? 8. Son arrivee me fut 
 tres-agreable. 9. Dans nos etudes, quand mon theme etait fini, je lui 
 aidai a faire le sien. 10. II pouvait les aider dans leur recherches. 
 11. II nous a applaudis quand nous avons parle. 12. II s’aneantit lui- 
 mme tandis que tout I’univers lui applaudit. 13. II cherche une vertu 
 qui lui resiste moins. 14. Personne ne* veut leur nuire. 15. On lui 
 repondit par des sanglots. 16. Ces chefs fiers et du mme age n’etaient 
 guere propres a se commander I’un a I’autre. 17. Je ne sais pourquoi 
 un roi que je commande ose se nommer roi. 18. Ce meme Agamemnon 
 a qui vous insultez. 19. Ils se sont insultes publiquement. 20. II veut 
 parler, la voix lui manque. 21. II faut servir nos amis a leur mode. 
 22. Que lui servaient ses rares talents? 23. Votre feu se mourait. 
 24. L’esprit d’impiete se rit de ce qu’il y a de plus sacre. 
 
216 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT PREPOSITION. 
 
 XLVni. RELATIONS OP A SUBSTANTIVE 
 WITHOUT PREPOSITION IN THE 
 SENTENCE. 
 
 A noun substantive stands without preposition 
 
 1. As subject to the verb, which it precedes. 
 
 But the subject may follow the verb, when its position 
 would not cause ambiguity ; hence a. when the object prece- 
 des, as in questions, or quotations, as: (^%Ca fait de plus 
 V auteur que je defends? What more has the author done, 
 whom I am defending? C^est une revolte^ dit le monarque 
 etonne^ ,,It is a revolt,^ said the astonished monarch; or /S. 
 when the verb has no object, as: De vous vient mon pouvoiTy 
 From you comes my power (see XII. 2). 
 
 2. As complement of a copulative verb, as: Un hon livre 
 est un hon ami^ A good book is a good friend. 
 
 3. As object to a transitive verb, which it follows. 
 
 But the object may precede the verb in questions and 
 exclamations, as : Quel nohle coeur vous avez! W^hat a noble 
 heart you have ! and in some few expressions such as : chemin 
 faisant^ while on the way. 
 
 4. As apposition to a substantive whether with or with- 
 out preposition, as : II est parti avec le prince son frere^ 
 He has left with the prince his brother. Napoleon trois, em~ 
 pereur des Frangais^ est mort^ Napoleon the third, emperor 
 of the French, is dead. 
 
 When the noun in apposition is an appositive comple- 
 ment, it is usually without preposition ; so with creer, croire^ 
 couronner^ declarer^ faire^ estimer^ juger^ se montrer^ nom- 
 mer, naltre, proclamer, rendre, trouver etc., as: On Va 
 nomme amhassadeur a Londres. He has been appointed 
 ambassador in London, ^ut some verbs, as cJioisir, se donner^ 
 prendre^ reconnaUre and tenir^ require the preposition pour^ 
 as: cJioisir quelqu’un pour gouverneur, to choose some one 
 as governor; while others, as considerer^ regarder^ s’annoncer 
 etc., require the conjunction comme to be expressed, as: Les 
 soldats le consideraient comme un pere^ The soldiers looked 
 on him as a father. 
 
 5. As a noun of cognate signification; so after aller, 
 courir, jouer, causer^ parler^ sentir^ puer etc., as: Courir 
 les rues^ meme fortune, parler une langue, scntir le tdbac. 
 
SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT PREPOSITION. 
 
 217 
 
 NOTE. This use of the noun without preposition is comparatively 
 rare in French. In general either the neuter verb is treated as if it 
 were transitive, as ; Les degres que nous avons descendus si vite, or 
 the Latin cognate accusative is represented by the preposition de, as 
 expressing the manner, as (Ego vestros patres vivere arhitror et earn 
 quidem vitam^ quae est sola vita nominanda) Je crois que vos peres 
 vivent et qu^Us vivent de eette vie qui seule merite d^etre appelee vie. 
 
 6. To express measure as a limitation of adverbial ex- 
 pressions, as deux milles plus loin., two miles farther on ; trois 
 jours apres mon arrivee three days after my arrival. 
 
 Similarly the substantive fois is used to limit compara- 
 tive expressions, as : plusieurs fois aussi grand, many times 
 as large. 
 
 NOTE. The substantive without preposition represents here the 
 Latin ablative, as: (duohus millibus ultra), (tribus diebus post adven- 
 tum meumj, (multis partibus major). If the measure with comparatives 
 is expressed otherwise than by fois, the Latin ablative is expressed 
 regularly by the French de, as {dimidio minor) moindre de moitie. 
 (See Chap. L. 11. /3.) 
 
 7. Rest in a place and motion to a place may be ex- 
 pressed by autre part, quelque part, nulle part, but in no 
 other case in French by a substantive without preposition, 
 as : Autre part que chez moi eherehez qui vous encense. 
 Seek elsewhere than with me for one to pay you hommage. 
 
 8. To express a point in time the substantive without 
 preposition is used, when the time is not exactly given, but 
 the action may be supposed to take place within the time 
 named ; so in such expressions as un jour, V autre jour, tous 
 les jours, ce matin, ce soir, le matin, le soir, la veille, le 
 lendemain, la semaine passee, le mois prochain, Vannee der- 
 niere etc. The days of the week are so used without the 
 article, as dimanche, lundi etc., or distributively with the 
 article, le mardi, on Tuesdays. Further in giving dates, the 
 day of the month has no preposition, as: le premier juillet, 
 on the first of July; and the year is so given when Van is 
 expressed, but this is usually the case only with dates below 
 a hundred, or not of the Christian era, otherwise en is mostly 
 used, as: Van du monde trois mille, but en 1875. 
 
 9. Adverbially to mark extension in time or space, as: 
 Le chat etait craint une lieue a la ronde, The cat was feared 
 for a league round, Les Frangais travaillerent toute la nuit. 
 The French worked all night. 
 
 Armitago, French grammar. 15 
 
218 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT PREPOSITION. 
 
 10. Adverbially to mark the price, as: Je Vai vendu 
 cent francs le boisseau, I sold it at ten francs a bushel. 
 
 The substantive without preposition to denote value is 
 used after neuter verbs, as: couter, valoir etc.; after transitive 
 verbs, as: acheter, louer^ payer^ vendre the substantive of 
 price may stand if preceded by a numeral, otherwise it is 
 governed by a preposition, as: Elle vendit pour de Vor la 
 vie de son mari^ She sold for gold her husband’s life. 
 
 11. In addresses the substantive without preposition stands 
 as a vocative, as: Georges, que fais-tu? What are you doing, 
 George ? 
 
 NOTE. If the noun in the vocative is a common noun, it is in 
 French preceded either by a possessive pronoun or the definite article. 
 In the latter case in polite language with Monsieur, Madame or Ma- 
 demoiselle, as: Comment vous portez-vous, mon pere? How do you do, 
 father? M le president, M. president. Hola! la vieille! Halloh! old 
 woman. 
 
 12. A substantive frequently stands elliptically with the 
 verb omitted, as: Son soir. Good evening. 
 
 13. A substantive without preposition may stand absolu- 
 tely mostly with a participle, (XLIII. 2. f, XLV. 2) but also 
 with another qualifying limitation, as: Une semaine au plus 
 ecoulee, il y avail deja des doutes en moi, After at most a 
 week had passed I had already begun to doubt. Je ne puis 
 parler que Ics larmes aux yeux, I can only speak with tears 
 in my eyes. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 39. 
 
 1. Dieu a cree le ciel et la terre. 2. Solon, Fun des sept sages, 
 donnait des lois aux Atheniens. 3. Avant de faire le coup, ils jeterent 
 les yeux sur un successeur et choisirent Nerva, venerable vieillard. 
 4. De simple soldat qu’il etait on le fit sergeant. 5. Sa probite Fa 
 rendu Farbitre de tous les voisins. 6. II me couronna Dame de la 
 beaute. 7. Je le reputais homme d’honneur. 8. Ils n’osaient s’avouer 
 republicains. 9. Traitre, songe en mourant que tu meurs mon sujet. 
 10. On a joue un jeu d’enfer. 11. II est mort d’une mort naturelle. 
 12. Que tout respire ici luxe et magnificence. 13. Get or sent-il le 
 sang? 14. Get homme pue le vin. 15. Quelques jours apres — . 16. 
 
 Vingt-quatre heures plus tard — . 17. 11 demeure trois portes plus 
 
 bas, — deux etages plus haut. 18. II est mille fois plus blamable. 
 19. Un ouvrage plus necessaire aujourd’hui qu’il ne le fut le siecle 
 passe. 20. II les prechait le matin et le soir. 21. Le 11 septembre 
 nous decouvrimes la terre. 22. Pouvais-je vous conduire autre part? 
 23. On ne le trouve nulle part. 24. J’ai vu cet abbe-la quelque part. 
 25. Je coiitinuai ma route Fespace de six milles. 26. J’ai ete deux 
 
THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 219 
 
 heures a vous attendre. 27. Le meurtre d’un Frank est estime deux 
 cents sous d’or, celui d’un Romain proprietaire cent sous, la moitie 
 d’un homme. 28. Elle vend ce secret mille louis a Fouche. 29. Get 
 homme vaut son pesant d’or. 30. Bon jour, mon oncle. 31. Venez, 
 mes enfants. 32. Merci, I’ami. 33. Vite un flambeau. 34. Ce devoir 
 accompli il demandera vos ordres a genoux. 35. Bites, la main sur 
 la conscience, dites. 36. Tons les plus gros messieurs me parlaient 
 chapeau has. 
 
 XLIX. THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 The preposition d marks in the most general manner the 
 relation of the word it governs either to the sentence or to 
 a particular word, the exact nature of the relation being de- 
 termined by the context or by the meaning of the word so 
 qualified. When the relation cannot be so determined, but 
 requires to be expressed by the preposition itself, in place of 
 d some other preposition will usually be employed. The uses 
 of d, A. in prepositional phrases affecting the sentence generally, 
 will first be noted; and then B. its special uses in limiting 
 the meaning of verbs, adjectives and substantives. 
 
 A. The preposition d is used 
 
 1. In a local sense to express motion to a place, 
 arrival at a place, y. rest in a place. 
 
 cc. Motion to a place, as: aller d Paris^ to go to Paris; 
 mettre une chose d sa place, to put a thing in its place, 
 monter d cheval, to get on horseback. 
 
 NOTE. The use of a to signify motion to a person, though quite 
 correct, is ordinarily avoided. The English Come to me would be ex- 
 pressed according to the intention of the speaker by Venez aupres de 
 moi, Venez chez moi, Venez me voir etc., rather than by Venez d mm. 
 Hence d is used to give the point up to which in oppo- 
 sition to de used of the starting point, as: de Paris d Lyon 
 from Paris to Lyons; and with numbers, as: (de) vingt d 
 trente hommes, twenty to thirty men. 
 
 /S. Arrival at a place, as: arriver d Paris, to arrive at 
 Paris, a Ventree de Veglise, at the entrance to the church. 
 
 Hence d marks the point at which, where in English 
 the preposition is often omitted, as : dans la rade de Phalere, 
 d vingt stades d^Athenes, in the harbour ofPhalerum, twenty 
 stadia from Athens ; au nord-est, d Vest, north-east, east. 
 
 y. Rest in a place, as : II demeure d Paris, He lives 
 at Paris, Zamore vit encore au coeur de son amante, Zamore 
 still lives in the heart of his mistress. 
 
 15 * 
 
220 
 
 THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 In its local senses a is replaced by en or dans when 
 the action can be conceived as acting to or in the interior 
 of the place named. Hence with the names of countries, 
 while d is used of less known countries and of those which 
 are plural, because they may be conceived of as a point or 
 points, en or dans is used of European countries, aller au 
 PeroUf en Italie^ to go to Peru, to Italy; etre aux J^tats- 
 Unis^ en France, to be in the United States, in France. With 
 names of towns a is the regular preposition, dans is only used 
 when special attention is called to the act taking place 
 within the town (see Chap. LI). 
 
 With some verbs the place at which the action takes 
 place is expressed in French indifferently by a or dans, where 
 we regard rather the character of the action, and express the 
 place from which. These are puiser^ hoire and prendre, as: 
 puiser dans la fontaine — d la source (see Chap. LI). 
 
 To give the point up to which in opposition to de, en 
 usually replaces d, when the same word is repeated, and in 
 phrases, which have become used as single adverbs, as ; de 
 jour en jour, from day to day, but d^un jour d V autre ; de 
 pied en cap, from head to foot. 
 
 In some cases usage requires in French the use of the 
 special preposition, where we use the general one, so monter 
 en chaire, to go up to the pulpit, monter d Vautel, to go 
 up to the altar ; but more frequently d is used indifferently, 
 where we require distinct prepositions, as: monter d cheval, 
 to get on horseback, Hre d table, to be at table, Hre au lit, 
 to be in bed, porter une bague au doigt, to wear a ring on 
 the finger, avoir mat d Voreille, to have a pain in your ear, 
 jeter d terre — d Veau, to throw on land — into the water. 
 
 2. Of time to mark 
 
 ct. The point of time to which the action extends, as : 
 dHci d domain, before to-morrow, remettre une chose d 
 huitaine, to put a thing off for a week. 
 
 jS. The point of time at which the action takes place, 
 as: 11 est arrive a huit heures. He arrived at eight o’clock. 
 The point of time is frequently noted by a coincident action, 
 as : A cette terrible vue le matelot s’elanga d la mer, At this 
 terrible sight the sailor threw himself into the sea. 
 
 Contrasted with the use of the substantive without pre- 
 
THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 221 
 
 position to note a point of time (Chap. XLVIII. 8), d marks 
 the time more exactly, so that if the time is marked both 
 generally and more particularly, d stands with the more accurate 
 limitation, as : Le dix juillet d huit heures du soir. When 
 time when is given more generally, d is used with the words 
 epoque^ siecle^ saison^ mois, dge^ as: d Vepoque de la Be- 
 formation. With temps^ if plural, d is regularly used, less 
 often if singular (see Chap. L. 2). Of the names of the four 
 seasons d is only used with printemps^ as: au printemps, in 
 the spring; en is used with the other three (see Chap. LI); 
 and while en is used with names of months, as en Juin, 
 in June, we must say au mois de Juin, 
 
 3. Of manner. In many adverbial phrases, as: d Vim- 
 proviste, on the sudden, d tort, wrongly, d merveille, admi- 
 rably etc. 
 
 When the preposition d answers to the question How? 
 it is usually by giving an attendant circumstance ; this is 
 especially the case with verbs of distinguishing, as : voir, 
 connaltre, reconnaitre, juger, distinguer etc., as: A son air 
 un peu fou je vois qu’il est auteur, By his somewhat silly 
 manner I see he is an author. But the notion of attendant 
 circumstance easily passes into that of means or instrument. 
 Compare gagner quelque chose par son travail with nous 
 gagnons notre vie d cet humble metier. Hence such phrases, 
 as : recevoir d bras ouverts, to receive with open arms, pour- 
 suivre a coups de pierres, to throw stones at, crier d haute 
 voix, to cry aloud. Sometimes the preposition gains distri- 
 butive force, as: Prendre une voiture d Vheure, to take a 
 carriage by the hour. With verbs of selling, buying etc. the 
 attendant circumstance may mark either the manner or the 
 price, as: vendre d la livre, to sell by the pound, vendre d 
 bon marche, to sell cheap. While with jouer etc. the name 
 of the game is given with d, as we say to play at, as : jouer 
 aux echecs, to play chess. 
 
 4. Of respect, to mark the person or thing with reference 
 to which the statement is made, as: Oest tres-bien fait d 
 vous, It was very well done on your part. Je n^entrerai 
 point d ce sujet dans une discussion, I will not begin a dis- 
 cussion on this point. So in counting points in a game Nous 
 ctions dix a dix, We were ten all ; and in expressions such 
 
222 
 
 THE PKEPOSITION A. 
 
 as : pas a pas^ step by step. A curious use, which comes 
 under this head, is that of c*est a — c'etait a followed 
 by an indirect interrogative clause to express rivalry, as : C^est 
 a qui mieux mieuxj It is who will do it best. 
 
 5. Of possession in modern French a is only used predi- 
 catively, as : H n’a rien a lui^ tout est a ses amis^ He has 
 nothing of his own, all belongs to his friends. Except that with 
 independant forms of personal pronouns it is used attributively 
 (below 3. y.) and so frequently strengthens a possessive pro- 
 nominal adjective, as : Sa voiture a lui, His own carriage. 
 
 6. Of purpose a is but seldom used, as: imputer a crime ^ 
 to impute as a crime, prendre d temoin to take as a witness. 
 
 B. The uses of d to limit the meaning of verbs, adjec- 
 tives, and substantives. 
 
 1. With verbs the preposition d marks a, the end to 
 which the action is directed, /9. the point at which the action 
 is decided, y. that in which the action is exercised, 8, the 
 person or thing indirectly affected by the action. The uses 
 c^, /9, and y correspond with the uses of d with the infinitive 
 (see chap. XXXVIII. 1, 2 and 3); the use 8 corresponds 
 with the dative of pronouns. 
 
 a. With verbs of aiming, striving, accustoming, urging 
 etc. d marks the object to which the action is directed. Such 
 are (s^)adapter^ s^adonner^ concourir^ condescendre^ destiner^ 
 decider^ exhorter, haiituer^ inciter^ (se) preparer^ se prUer^ 
 pretendre and a great many others. Among these should 
 especially be noticed verbs of thinking, as : penser^ songer^ 
 rever etc., which in French are constructed with d, the sub- 
 ject of thought being considered as that, to which the thoughts 
 are directed, as : Aveugles pour la terre^ its aspirent aux 
 cieux^ Blind for earth, they aspire to heaven. A quoi pen- 
 se^-vous? Of what are you thinking? 
 
 NOTE. In the same way as verbs of thinking, regarder = to 
 look to, to take into consideration, and croire — to believe in, are 
 constructed with d, as: Avant de detruire il faut y regarder^ croire 
 aux revenants. On the other hand penser^ rever etc. may be transi- 
 tive, or rather constructed with a cognate accusative, and then are fol- 
 lowed by de, as: Que pensez-vous de lui? What do you think of him? 
 
 /?. With verbs of bringing near, fastening, adding to, 
 joining etc., d marks the person or thing at which the junction 
 is made; such are (s’)accrocher^ adherer, s’adosser, ajuster, 
 
THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 223 
 
 ajouter^ contribuer, joindre^ meler, reunir etc. So metaphori- 
 cally with verbs of agreeing, expecting, renouncing etc. d 
 marks the point at which the action is decided ; such are 
 accMer, acquiescer, consentir, s’entendre^ s'attendre^ renoncer^ 
 repugner etc., as: Est-ce ainsi qu^au parjure on ajoute 
 V outrage? Is outrage thus added to injury? Mais comhien 
 mon esprit repugne d ce devoir I How repugnant is this duty 
 to my mind! 
 
 NOTE. Certain verbs are constructed sometimes as transitive, 
 sometimes as neuter with d to mark the point which the action reaches ; 
 such are atteindre^ souscrire^ tenir^ gouter and toucher. 
 
 Atteindre is used with d when a strong effort is implied, so r 
 atteindre un certain age., but atteindre d la perfection. 
 
 Souscrire is transitive of the act of signing, as : souscrire un billet^ 
 but takes d when used metaphorically of general compliance, as: Tons 
 souscrivirent d cet arrangement. 
 
 Tenir = to hold to, and to depend on, has d, as : On tient beau- 
 coup aux choses dout on est continuellement occupe, Ces evenements 
 tiennent d des causes inconnues. Tenir may also be used as a neuter 
 verb with de in the sense of to be like, (see Chap. L. 13). 
 
 Gouter has d in the sense of to try by tasting, as: goutez au 
 potage, try if the soup is good. But gouter de is used almost in the 
 same way. 
 
 Toucher = to handle, or to be near has d, as: Ne touchez pas 
 aux tableaux. Nous touchons au printemps. For toucher de see Chap. L. 6. 
 
 y. With verbs expressing a continuous action, d marks 
 that in which the action is exercised. Such are (s')exercer, 
 participer, cooperer, compatir, sHnteresser etc. (see Chap. 
 XXXVIII. 3), as : Un esprit qu'on n'exerce d rien devient 
 lourd et pesant dans Vinaction, A mind which is not prac- 
 tised in any subject becomes heavy and sluggish in its in- 
 action. 
 
 As that in which an action is exercised is ordinarily 
 itself an action, these verbs are mostly followed by an infini- 
 tive mood with d; when however a substantive takes the 
 place of the infinitive, en or dans is frequently found in 
 place of a ; so Le talent de la parole dans lequel il s’etait 
 heureusement exerce. (For participer de see Chap. L. 13). 
 
 S. The preposition d marks the person affected by the 
 action of a transitive verb on its object or by that of a neu- 
 ter verb, whenever the person is expressed otherwise than by 
 a personal pronoun. 
 
 As with the dative of pronouns (see Chap. XL VII. 4), 
 the relation so marked may with transitive verbs be that of 
 
224 
 
 THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 4 
 
 the recipient, as fai donne le livre d mon frere^ I have given 
 my brother the book, or of the person addressed, as: JTai 
 raconte cela d mon ami^ or that of the person from whom, 
 as : II a vole cinq francs d son maUre^ or the person of 
 whom the object is a part, as: X ai casse le bras d mon 
 frere^ or the subject of an infinitive, which itself governs an 
 object, as: J’ai fait signer ces documents d M. B. With 
 neuter verbs the person affected will be governed by d when 
 the action is absolute, as : QuHmporte d VAngleterre de vieux 
 ossements? y or when the action is relative after the verbs 
 named in XLVII. 4. as: II oheit d son pere. To these 
 must be added remedier^ which used only of things is con- 
 structed with a, as: Bemedier d quelque chose to remedy 
 something. 
 
 NOTE. When the verb is transitive the relation so marked is 
 from the sense necessarily a relation to a person or personified 
 thing, except with verbs of taking away. We have seen (Chap. XLVII. 
 4 y. note) that these latter verbs as arracher, enlever, oter^ prendre 
 may be followed by dey as well as by a dative; this is the case much 
 more frequently, when the removal is from a thing. In this case d can 
 only be used, when a notion of loss is involved; we can say prendre 
 une feuille d un arhre^ but oter la nappe de la table. With intran- 
 sitive verbs d is used of things, wherever the verb would take a da- 
 tive pronoun of a person, as: II me manque trois francs^ 11 manque 
 trois francs d eette somme. With echapper however either d or de may 
 be used; de is used, when an actual escape, a coming out from is 
 meant, d when anything is avoided; so that echapper du naufrage 
 would be said of a man, who had suffered shipwreck and escaped, 
 echapper au naufrage of one who had lost his passage in a ship, which 
 was afterwards wrecked. 
 
 2. With adjectives and adverbs derived from them, 
 
 a. The preposition d is added to such adjectives as ex- 
 press relative position, or comparison, to give that, with re- 
 ference to which the quality is predicated. Such are anterieur,^ 
 inferieury par allele, posterieur, superieur etc., contraire, con- 
 forme, equivalent, identique, indifferent, preferable, semblable 
 etc., as: Ces deux lignes sont paralleles Tune d V autre. 
 These two lines are parallel to each other. Bendre un ser- 
 vice equivalent d celui que Von a regu, To do a kindness 
 equal to one we have received. 
 
 /?. To adjectives, which express a state of body or mind 
 to give the person or thing towards which the quality is di- 
 rected. Such are affable, attentif, favorable, importun, in- 
 
THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 225 
 
 dulgent, propice, rehelle, sensible, souple, sourd, severe, sujet 
 etc., as: Affables d tout le monde. Affable to every one. 
 Souple d la raison corrigez sans murmure. Yielding to rea- 
 son correct without a murmur. 
 
 y. To adjectives expressing advantage or disadvantage 
 to give the person or thing affected, as: L^eglise ne decide 
 point nuisihlement au salut. The church does not decide in 
 a manner likely to hinder salvation. 
 
 S, To adjectives which express suitability or the contrary 
 to express purpose; such are bon, convenable, endurci, neces- 
 saire, propre etc., as: Gela n\st bon d rien. That is good 
 for nothing. 
 
 €. To adjectives expressing a tendency to action, to give 
 the action to which the quality tends; such are dpre, ardent, 
 enclin, prompt etc., as: Un homme dpre au gain, A man 
 eager to win money. 
 
 To adjectives derived from verbs, which express adap- 
 tation in a passive sense, to give the person by whom the 
 quality may be exercised; such are accessible, docile, formi- 
 dable, impenetrable, inexorable, invincible, invisible, invulne- 
 rable, visible etc., as: Je voulais qy!d mes voeux rien ne 
 fut invincible, I wished that nothing should be invincible by 
 my prayers. 
 
 3. With substantives. 
 
 cc. The preposition d is used to mark the end or desti- 
 nation of the substantive, as: Uarmoire au linge, The linen- 
 cupboard, un moulin d papier, a paper-mill. 
 
 NOTE. Care must be taken to distinguish the attributive use 
 of d in the sense of destination, and that of de of simple definition, 
 le pot au lait, the milk-jug, le pot de lait, the jug of milk. 
 
 /?. To express a distinguishing mark of the substantive, 
 as : La chambre au balcon, the room with the balcony, une 
 canne d epee, a sword-stick. This use, the commonest attri- 
 butive use of the prepositional phrase with d, marks in the 
 widest manner the distinguishing characteristic of the substan- 
 tive as it appears to the speaker. The substantive mode, 
 maniere is often omitted, and the defining characteristic added 
 after d la without preposition, as : Un roman d la Walter 
 Scott. 
 
 y. To express possession, as: Un cousin d elle, A cousin 
 of hers, Une voiture d lui, A carriage of his own. This use 
 
226 
 
 THE PREPOSITION A. 
 
 is almost entirely confined to independant forms of personal 
 pronouns. 
 
 With substantives derived from verbs and adjectives, 
 which maintain the construction of the word from which they 
 are derived, as: La soumission aux ordres de Dieu, Sub- 
 mission to God’s commands, La reponse a cette question^ The 
 answer to this question. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 40. 
 
 A. 1. Paul allait s’elancer a la mer. 2. Le vent et la mer le 
 jetaient a terre. 3. La bataille qu’ils livrerent aux Lacedemoniens a 
 Oenoe. 4. L’on se promene au milieu de ces morts debout. 5. Tenez- 
 le toujours a quelque distance de votre personne. 6. Je vous dirai 
 cela a I’oreille. 7. Les mendiants ont moins de haine au coeur et 
 moins de flamme aux yeux. 8. D’Assaz, capitaine au regiment d’ Au- 
 vergne. 9. Orleans est au Sud de Paris. 10. Entre vous et moi c’est 
 a la vie a la mort. 11. Des gens a qui Ton doit couper le cou d’ici 
 a un mois. 12. Le 14 au soir on sentit tout-a-coup le fond diminuer. 
 13. Faites partir un courrier a I’instant. 14. Cette comete ne reparait 
 qu’a de longs intervalles. 15. S’asseoir a I’ombre, — au soleil. 16. 
 Au temps que les betes parlaient. 17. Au mois de mai. 18. A quel- 
 ques jours de Ik 19. Au bruit de sa mort. 20. Venir a grandes 
 journees. 21. Prendre une coupe a la main. 22. Traduire mot kmot. 
 23. Se battre a I’epee. 24. Aller a toute vapeur. 25. Percer a jour. 
 26. Fait a la main. 27. A mon serment I’on pent m’en croire. 28. 
 Les mauvais effets qui en germent a milliers. 29. Tirons a qui jouera 
 le premier. 30. C’etait a qui partirait le premier. 31. C’est mon opi- 
 nion a moi. 32. Votre devoir a vous est de partir. 33. Moise qui 
 m’a dit que j’etais fait a I’image et ressemblance de Dieu. 34. C^est 
 folie a vous de croire — . 35. MMee a elle seule bravait une armee. 
 
 36. A trois que nous etions nous ne pouvions soulever ce fardeau. 
 
 37. A mon avis. 38. A ce que vois. 39. Au secours. 40. Au voleur. 
 41. A ce soir. 
 
 B. 1. II se prepara au combat. 2. Ne vous appliquez pas trop 
 aux petites choses. 3. Louis Philippe d’Orleans fut appele au trone. 
 4. II faut se borner a cela. 5. II est si grand qu’il touche au plafond. 
 6. Sa robe s’accrocha a des rohces. 7. Qui se leve le matin ne sait 
 pas s’il atteindra le soir. 8. II n’atteint pas a I’energie de I’original. 
 9. Nous ne pensons ni a la mort dont Dieu nous menace, ni a I’im- 
 mortalite qu’il nous promet. 10. Je croyais au bonheur, je croyais a 
 la gloire. 11. Repugner a certaines demarches. 12. Meier de I’huile 
 a de la chaux. 13. Quand je I’aurais voulu, fallait-il y souscrire. 14. 
 n tient a son neveu bien moins qu’a son argent. 15. Je serais cer- 
 tainement mort, si j’avais goute seulement a tout ce que I’on m’offrait. 
 16. Des animaux tomberent morts en touchant h des habits qu’ils 
 avaient trouves dans la rue. 17. II touche a I’age ou I’on se corrige. 
 18. C’est en quelque sorte participer a une bonne action que de la 
 
THE PREPOSITION BE. 
 
 227 
 
 louer de bon coeur. 19. J’ai profile a ses lemons. 20. Rien ne plait 
 a des gens malades. 21. Repondez avec fermete a de telles pretentions. 
 22. Heureux celui qui ne survit pas a sa jeunesse, a ses illusions. 23.- 
 II importe a tout le monde. 24. II a retire sa confiance a Pavocat. 
 25. Des depouilles enleves a Pennemi. 26. Ils arracberent aux arbres 
 leurs fruits. 27. La marcotte a ete prise a un bon cep. 28. II a fait 
 accepter un cadeau a son ami. 29. Quand je vous ecris, je me laisse 
 conduire k ma plume. 30. J’ai entendu dire a votre frere que tous 
 viendrez. 31. J’ai trouve a votre ami un air soucieux. 32. Sa mort 
 fut conforme a sa vie. 33. Le juste severe k lui-meme. 34. La re- 
 spiration est necessaire a la vie. 35. Un homme de votre age, si 
 propre a la societe. 36. Nous sommes tous sujets aux lois du pays 
 ou nous vivons. 37. Un orateur veritablement ne au sublime. 38. 
 Alexandre n’etait plus le m^me; invincible aux dangers et aux fati- 
 gues de la guerre, il ne le fut point a la douceur du repos. 39. Une 
 demi-rame de papier a lettres. 40. Une montre a repetition. 41. 
 Un mancbe a balai. 42. Le marche aux fleurs. 43. Une voiture 
 k deux roues. 44. Une demarche a la Cromwell. 45. Une soupe aux 
 ecrevisses. 46. La fauvette' a tete noire. 47. Un homme a paradoxes. 
 48. La fidelite aux traditions. 49. Un exemple de resistance a Pop- 
 pression. 
 
 L. THE PREPOSITION DE. 
 
 The preposition de has in French greatly extended its Latin uses. 
 While it retains only in composition its local signification of down 
 from, to mark the origin of an action it is used not only of the start- 
 ing point in place or time, but also of the agent, instrument and 
 means. The Latin uses to express matter, cause, respect, and manner 
 are not developed to the same extent. But from the Latin use to 
 express partition its largest employment in French seems derived, by 
 which, when qualifying a substantive, it expresses the particular kind 
 or contents, the quality or description, the object of action implied in 
 substantives or adjectives, the thing in point of which a term is applied 
 and except predicatively the person or thing possessing. 
 
 The preposition de is used 
 
 1 . Of place to express the point from which motion takes 
 place or distance is reckoned literally and metaphorically, = 
 from, as ; A vingt stades d’ Athenes., Twenty stadia from 
 Athens. Ordinairement les voyageurs contemplent la chute 
 de ce locals Travellers usually look at the fall from this spot. 
 
 To this head belongs the use of de with all verbs which 
 give the notion of separation, as verbs of taking, receiving, 
 differing, freeing, defending etc., as: Tin souvenir heureux 
 qui ne s’effacera jamais de ma memoire,^ A happy recollection 
 which will never be effaced from my memory. Je vous de- 
 fendrais de Vorage, I would guard you against the storm. 
 
228 
 
 THE PREPOSITION DE, 
 
 NOTE a. Be follows dependre^ as the original metaphor of hang- 
 ing from is maintained, as: La conclusion depend des premisses, The 
 conclusion depends on the premises; similarly we have relever de, 
 
 NOTE /?. For the use of the dative with acheter, arracher, em- 
 prunter, oter, prendre see Chap. XLVIL 4. y, note; and for echapper 
 de and d Chap. XLIX B. 1. S. n. 
 
 With words expressing nearness, as: pres, proche, appro- 
 clfier, rapprocher, voisin, the distance is reckoned from the 
 object approached, so that pres de answers to our near to, 
 as: Je m’assis pres de lui, I sat down near him, (= at a 
 short distance from him), Je me croirais encore trop voisin 
 Jun perfide, I should still think myself too near a traitor. 
 
 With the words cote and part, but in no other case, de 
 may be used to mark where and whither, equally with whence, 
 as : Les mines sont du meme cote de la mer que le Vesuve, 
 The ruins are on the same side of the sea, as Vesuvius. Je 
 ne vais jamais de ce cote, I never go in that direction. 
 
 2. Of time de is used 
 
 cc. To mark the point from which time is reckoned, as: 
 D'aujourd'hui seulement je jouis de ma gloire, Only from 
 to-day do I enjoy my glory. 
 
 [S, Of time when, only in certain adverbial expressions, 
 as de jour et de nuit, night and day, de grand matin, very 
 early, de nuit, at night, de bonne heure, early, du temps de, 
 in the time of, du vivant de, in the lifetime of, de nos jours, 
 now-a-days etc., as: De tres-grand matin nous nous disper- 
 sdmes, We separated very early in the morning. 
 
 y. Time how long, only in negative or virtually negative 
 sentences, as : II n^a pas repose de toute la nuit, He has not 
 rested during the whole night, Elle etait bien la vieille la 
 plus grognon que je connus de ma vie. She was certainly 
 the most grumbling old woman that I have known in all 
 my life. 
 
 3. Of origin de is used in the most general way, as: 
 Dien n^est bon d’un homme disgracie. Nothing is good from 
 an ill-favoured man. De simple domestique qu’il etait il est 
 parvenu par degres au poste de premier secrHaire, From 
 the mere servant he was, he has gradually reached the post of 
 first secretary. Je le connais de vue, I know him by sight. 
 
 4. Of the standard of comparison de is used after the 
 adverbs plus and moins, when followed by a numeral, or by 
 
THE PEEPOSITION BE. 
 
 229 
 
 midi or minuit as being equivalents of douze heures^ as : 
 Nous etions plus de dix. There were more than ten of us. 
 (Lit. more reckoning from ten). 11 est plus de midi^ It is 
 past twelve o’clock. 
 
 5. The agent after passive verbs is expressed by de in 
 modern French only with a limited number of verbs, par 
 having largely taken its place in this use. De expressing the 
 agent is nearly confined to verbs which denote an affection 
 of the mind, or to verbs of accompanying, receiving, or leav- 
 ing, as: etre accompagne, ahandonne^ precMe.^ suivi, ac- 
 cueilli etc., as: H est respecte de tous^ He is respected by all. 
 Le comte de Toulouse etait suivi de TancrMe., The count of 
 Toulouse was followed by Tailored. 
 
 Even with the above-named verbs par will be used in- 
 stead of de when the action of the verb is not expressed ge- 
 nerally, but is limited by especial circumstances ; so Le pope 
 saint Leon^ plus puissant gu!AHius et que les armees ro- 
 maineSy se fit respecter par ce roi harbare et paten. 
 
 6. The instrument, means is expressed by de^ but only 
 to a limited extent, as avec and par in this use largely re- 
 place it. De is chiefly used, when the instrument is a part 
 of, or, as especially of clothes, closely belonging to the agent, 
 or else is necessary to the action of the verb, as: Je Vai vu 
 de mes propres yeux^ I saw him with my own eyes; but Tin 
 aveugle voit par les yeux de son guide^ A blind man sees 
 with the eyes of his leader. II Va frappe de son epee, He 
 struck him with his sword; but On tue avec une ^ee, A 
 sword is used for killing. 
 
 Hence the Latin cognate accusative is largely replaced 
 in French by de, as : Cinq-Mars rit aussi, mais d^un rire 
 amer, Cinq-Mars laughed also, but a bitter laugh. 
 
 A peculiar idiom is usually referred to this head, by 
 which verbs of playing are followed by de and the name of 
 the instrument, so jouer de la flute, to play the flute, sonner — , 
 donner du cor, to play the horn, pincer de la harpe, to play 
 the harp, toucher du piano, to play the piano. 
 
 7. The matter with which an act is concerned is expres- 
 sed by the preposition de. Hence with expressions of making, 
 consisting, filling, nourishing, enjoying, remembering, accusing 
 etc., as: La salle commengait a se remplir de monde. The 
 
230 
 
 THE PREPOSITION BE. 
 
 Toom began to be filled with people* II jouit de ses droits, 
 He enjoys his rights. 
 
 When the verb to which the prepositional phrase of 
 matter is added is transitive, French idiom differs little from 
 English; we say to accuse, suspect, consist etc. of as the 
 French say accuser, soupgonner, consister etc. de; except that 
 where the matter may also be considered as the means, we 
 generally use the preposition with with verbs; so we say to 
 fill a granary with corn, but a granary full of corn, while 
 French uses the same preposition in both cases: remplir un 
 grenier de hie, un grenier plein de hie. 
 
 But in French many verbs are used reflexively or as 
 neuters with a prepositional phrase of the matter concerned, 
 where we treat the notion of the verb as transitive. So shaper- 
 cevoir, s’aviser, se defier, se douter, s’emparer, se souvenir, 
 as: Elle s’est apergue de son erreur. She perceived her mis- 
 take. So of neuter verbs redouhler, heritor, jouir, user, 
 abuser, as: H faut redouhler de soins. We must use all our 
 eare. At the same time this is not always the case; so 
 apercevoir, douter are used as simple transitive verbs like 
 our perceive, douht, the transitive verb expressing the simple 
 act, the reflexive form the feeling in the agent. Redouhler 
 and heritor are used transitively as well as neuters; and user 
 is transitive = to use up, to deteriorate, and intransitive = 
 ^,to make use of.^ 
 
 8. Cause is expressed by the preposition de, especially 
 after all expressions of the feelings as admiration, grief, joy, 
 envy, anger etc. etc., expressions of judgement as: louer, 
 bldmer, pardonner etc., and such acts as imply such feeling 
 or judgement, as rougir, tremhler, punir, s’excuser, justifier 
 etc., as: Sache^-moi hon gre de cet enseignement, Be thank- 
 ful to me for this piece of advice. Elle rougissait de tout 
 ■sans rien faire dont elle eut d rougir, She blushed at every- 
 thing, without doing anything, at which she had need to blush. 
 
 9. Respect is expressed by de, as after verbs of informing, 
 disputing, agreeing etc., parler, avertir, disputer, convenir, 
 s'^agir, il en est, il y va etc. etc., as: Convenir du prix de 
 quelque chose, to agree about the price of something. 
 
 To this head seems referable the use of de with triom- 
 pher, changer, manqiier, where we say to triumph over, and 
 
THE PREPOSITION BE. 
 
 231 
 
 treat to ivant and to change as transitive verbs. Changer 
 transitive = to alter, changer de = to change. Manquer 
 transitive = to miss, manquer de = to be without. 
 
 The prepositional phrase of respect often stands elliptically as in 
 titles of books etc., as : Be Veducation physique, On physical education. 
 
 10. Manner is expressed by de, as: Feut~on se comporter 
 de la sorte? Is it possible for people to behave in that 
 way ? 
 
 11. Measure is expressed by de 
 
 a, either with adjectives of dimension, giving absolutely 
 the extension in time or space, as: Un baton long de tant 
 de pieds, A stick so many feet long, line fille dgee de vingt 
 ans, A girl twenty years old, or with comparative expres- 
 sions to give the difference in measurement between the ob- 
 ject spoken of and the one with which it is compared, as : 
 Quoiqu'il fut plus jeune de dix ans, Although he was ten 
 years younger, U s’en faut de heaucoup. It is very far 
 from being the case. 
 
 NOTE. The uses of de to express matter, cause, respect, manner, 
 and measure are so closely connected that it is often impossible to 
 distinguish them. They all seem only extensions of the use of the 
 preposition to express instrument, means, as the starting-point of an 
 action. Naturally therefore when the prepositional phrase limits not 
 an action but a quality, it expresses one of these extensions of 
 meaning. 
 
 12. Hence with adjectives de is used to express 
 
 a, matter, as with digne, indigne, capable, incapable, — 
 coupable, innocent, ignorant, — plein, vide, — avide, curieux, 
 desireux etc., as: Digne de foi, worthy of belief; coupables 
 des desordres publics, guilty of insurrection — un autel vide 
 d’ offrandes, an altar without offerings — il est curieux de 
 tableaux, he is fond of collecting pictures; 
 
 /^. respect as with exempt, leger, libre, fort, faible, 
 pauvre, riche etc., and very commonly with participles, as: 
 faible d^ esprit, weak in mind ; presse d" argent pressed for mo- 
 ney, jeune d^annees, young in years. 
 
 NOTE. With some of these adjectives the preposition gets the 
 force of separation from the context. But that the notion of the pre- 
 position itself is more general, is seen by comparing such expressions 
 as libre d^ ambition and libre de faire ce qu^on veut etc. Be in the 
 sense of separation seems only used with adjectives derived from verbs, 
 maintaining the construction of the verbs from which they are derived, 
 as: inseparable de sa mere. 
 
232 
 
 THE PREPOSITION BE. 
 
 When the prepositional phrase marks rather that in which the 
 quality manifests itself, than that with respect to which it is predica- 
 ted, en and dans will be used, so with richer fort etc.; so the pre- 
 positions would not be interchangeable in Bam VEurope les princes 
 sont riches de V argent qui circule dans leurs Etats, and un pays 
 riche en hies. 
 
 y. Cause with all adjectives which express an affection 
 of the mind, as: Content j heureux.^ honteux, triste etc., as: 
 Nul n‘est content de sa fortune ni mecontent de son esprit^ 
 No one is satisfied with his luck, or dissatisfied with his wits. 
 
 5. Measure, chiefly with adjectives of dimension, as: Tin 
 livre epais de trois doigts^ A book three fingers thick. 
 
 13. The preposition de marks pax’tition, and this not only 
 A. when dependant* on another word, or predicatively, but 
 also B. so that the prepositional phrase is used as an inde- 
 pendant substantive and may be either subject or object of 
 a verb or itself under the government of any other prepo- 
 sition (Chap. Ill), as : Un de mes amis^ One of my friends. 
 Elies ont toujours ete de Vopposition^ They have always be- 
 longed to the opposition. 11 est dans la vie de ces coups 
 du sort, Such strokes of fate occur in this life. 
 
 A. Dependant partitives. 
 
 a. The partitive expression may depend on a word ex- 
 pressed or understood, the latter being the case when it is 
 used predicatively, as : Flusieurs de mes ennemis, Many of 
 my enemies; Ils sont de mes ennemis, They are of the num- 
 ber of my enemies. 
 
 An adjective without the definite article is used par- 
 titively when it would qualify ah indefinite pronominal notion, 
 always with ceci, cela, ce qui, ce que, qui and quoi (in- 
 terrogatives), quelque chose and rien, as: Quoi de plus heu- 
 reux que ce qui nous arrive I What happier occurrence than 
 what is happening to us! It occurs frequently with quelqu*un, 
 personne, aucun, and with numerals and substantives which 
 express a quantity, as: H n’y a pas un mot de vrai dans 
 ce qu'il a dit. There is not a word of truth in what he 
 has said. 
 
 NOTE. A superlative adjective dependant on ce qui, ce que has 
 not the definite article, as: Ce qu’ont d^esprits plus fins et la ville et 
 la cour. 
 
 y. Instead of an adjective in the superlative degree qua- 
 lifying a substantive, by a frequent French idiom the super- 
 
THE PKEPOSITION BE. 
 
 233 
 
 lative notion, especially if used predicatively, is expressed by 
 a dependant partitive expression, as: La difference est sou- 
 vent des plus frappantes^ The difference is often very striking, 
 B. Independant partitives. 
 
 a. In independant partitives the prepositional phrase is 
 no longer either attributive or adverbial, but de has the force 
 of an indefinite adjective, of quantity in the singular, where 
 it is used of names of materials and abstract notions, and of 
 number in the plural, corresponding to the indefinite article 
 for the singular, as : Be Veau, Some water \ II a de V esprit, 
 he has wit; Be veritables savants, Really learned men. 
 
 /?. In negative or virtually negative clauses de replaces 
 the indefinite article of an indefinite individual, as: Pourquoi 
 n'ai-je pas de mere ? Why have not I a mother ? 
 
 This idiom is probably owing to the substantival charac- 
 ter of the words used to complete the negative, such as : pas, 
 point etc. ; so that originally the partitive expression was not 
 independant, but dependant on pas, point; but this use of 
 de is extended to cases where the completing substantive 
 is not used, as where the negative sense is expressed by sans, 
 or in questions, as: Sans avoir, en aimant, d’ohjet que son 
 amour. Without having an object in loving save her love. 
 
 NOTE. Certain verbs are followed by de and substantive, where 
 the prepositional phrase seems to be partitive in nature. These are 
 vouMr, essay er Sind gouter with which de and its case seems to fill 
 the place of object, and participer, tenir and trancher with which it 
 is apparently dependant on the notion of participation contained in 
 the verb. So La mort ne veut pas de moi. Death will not have any- 
 thing to do with me. Le mulet participe de Vane et du cJieval, The 
 mule shares the nature of the ass and of the horse. 
 
 14. Definition of a substantival notion is expressed by de, 
 a. Giving the person or thing possessing or causing, as : 
 Les jardins de Cesar , Caesar’s gardens ; Le signal du combat, 
 The signal of battle. II est de mon devoir d’agir ainsi. It 
 is my duty to act so. 
 
 NOTE. Be cannot express possession when the prepositional 
 phrase is predicative, as : Les jardins sont a Cesar, The gardens are 
 Caesar’s. 
 
 /?. Giving the particular kind or contents, as: Le grade 
 de colonel, the rank of colonel. Tine flotte de cent vaisseaux, 
 a fleet of one hundred ships, Le nom de liberte, The name 
 of liberty. Tine montre d’or, a gold watch, 
 
 Armitage, French gramraar. 
 
 16 
 
234 
 
 THE PREPOSITION DE. 
 
 NOTE 1. French and English mostly agree in the use of a pre- 
 positional phrase to express an apposition, but not always. So the 
 preposition is omitted in French when a street, church, castle etc. is 
 named after a person, while we either use the preposition, or prefix 
 the name as though it were an adjective; so L’eglise St, -Pier re = the 
 church of St. Peter, Bue Racine, but Rue Angers, while we say 
 George Street, Oxford Street, The de in Rue de Morny etc. is only 
 the sign of nobility, as we say de Morny, On the other^ hand with 
 fleum, riviere French uses the preposition, where we omit it, as La 
 riviere de Seine, the river Seine. With mot the preposition may be 
 used or not. 
 
 NOTE 2. In French as in English we have a peculiar idiom by 
 which an epithet is replaced by the corresponding substantive, to which 
 the word it would qualify is added with a preposition, as: Un grand 
 coquin de coureur, a great rascal of a footman, Une drole dHdee, a 
 funny notion. 
 
 y. Giving the quality or description, as: Un homme 
 d' esprit, an intelligent man ; Ces fleurs sent de ton gout, These 
 flowers are in good taste. 
 
 S, Giving the object of the action implied in the sub- 
 stantive on which it depends, as : U amour de Dieu, Love for 
 God. De ces sortes d'erretirs le remede est facile. For these 
 kinds of mistakes the remedy is easy. 
 
 15. In certain cases the use of de is very difficult to 
 class, so that it almost seems as if there were an ellipse of 
 the noun or prepositional phrase on which it depended. Such 
 idiomatic uses are: 
 
 a. With qualifier, trailer where de introduces the appo- 
 sitive complement, as: Qualifier quelqu‘un de fourbe, to call 
 a man a cheat. So too with on dirait, but with the further 
 complication of the object being omitted. 
 
 /?. With expressions of quantity, as: II suffit, e^est peu, 
 c^est trop etc., where de introduces the logical subject, as: 
 Oest peu d'‘un vengeur. An avenger is but little worth. 
 
 y. With servir, where de and its substantive seem de- 
 pendant on some phrase such as au lieu de, as: 11 nfa servi 
 de pere, He has been a father to me. 
 
 d. With Hre in the phrase Si fetais de vous, If I were 
 you; in this case we sometimes And a que inserted. Si fetais 
 que de vous, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 41. 
 
 1. Nous retirames des flots le miserable Paul. 2. Nous nous eloi- 
 gnames de ce lieu. 3. Vous m’avez chasse de chez vous. 4. Qu’exigez- 
 
THE PREPOSITION DE, 
 
 235 
 
 vous de moi? 5. Le bien ne depend pas du temps ni de la mode. 
 6. C’etait une fort belle terre qui ne relevait que du roi. Ceci est 
 de vous a moi, vous n’en parlerez pas. 7. Les maisons proches de la 
 riviere. 8. Madame, quel bonheur me rapproche de vous? 9. Voyez- 
 vous Londres de I’autre cote de Peap? 10. Votre dessein etait d’aller 
 du cote de la ville. 11. Je suis ici de jeudi. 12. Ce n’est pas d’au- 
 jourd’hui qu’ils meditent ce dessein. 13. De jour la chouette se cache 
 dans les trous, et de nuit elle va chercher sa pature. 14. II ne Pavait 
 pas apprise de jeunesse. 15. De tres-grand matin nous nous disper- 
 sames. 16. Confie de bonne heure aux Oratoriens. 17. Mettez-vous 
 done en campagne de cette chaleur! 18. Je n’avais ni dormi ni mange 
 de vingt-quatre heures. 19. Ils ne me mettront d’aujourd’hui en colere. 
 20. On me defend, monsieur, de plaider de ma vie. 
 
 1. Issu d’une bonne famille. 2. Cette idee n^est pas de vous. 3. 
 
 Profitez des avis qu’on vous donne. 4. Ce cep portait plus de vingt 
 
 grappes. 5. II ne s’y trouve pas moins de trente personnes. 6. Plus 
 
 de six mois s’etaient ecoules. 7. II etait cheri des siens, respecte de 
 
 ses ennemis. 8. Ces propositions n’etaient soutenues de personne. 9. 
 Appele de Dieu au ministere de sa parole. 10. Le prince entre pre- 
 cede de ses gardes. 11. Colomb etait regarde partout comme un homme 
 envoye du ciel. 12. Lie de gout et d’amitie avec les premiers hommes. 
 
 13. Elle nous faisait signe de la main. 14. Couvrant ma tete du pan 
 de mon manteau. 15. Je vous prie toujours de m’assister de vos 
 prieres. 16. Je suis vaincu du temps. 17. Je suis confondu de tant 
 de bonte. 18. Cela va de soi. 19. M. Dublanc apergut deux violons. 
 Qui joue ici de ces instruments? demanda-t-il. 20. La fantaisie de son 
 mari est de sonner du cor a la ruelle de son lit. 
 
 1. Ils vivaient de legumes. 2. Ils forgeront de leurs epees des 
 socs de charrue et de leur lances des faux. 3. Elle ne pent m’etre 
 suspecte ni de timidite ni d’impuissance. 4. Ils differaient d’avis. 5. 
 II se mele d’affaires qui ne le regardent pas. 6. Je me trompe de 
 mot. 7. Parle, ou e’est fait de toi. 8. II y va de votre vie. 9. II faut 
 redoubler d’attention. 10. Un ignorant herita d’un manuscrit. 11. 
 Nous sommes obliges a user de cette sage reserve. 12. II jouissait 
 d’une grande reputation. 13. Prince, vous abusez troptot de ma bonte. 
 
 14. L’ennemi s’apergut du depart. 15. Elle s’est doutee de ce qui se 
 faisait. 16. Cessez de vous en prendre aux autres de vos propres fau- 
 tes. 17. II voulut par la se punir d’un exces qu’il avait commis. 18. 
 Elle est here de sa fille. 19. Je suis effrayee de mon bonheur. 20. 
 Comment se trouve-t-on en France des Bourbons? 21. Nous ne nous 
 combattions que de civilite. 22. II est manchot de la main droite. 
 23. Elle fait la blessee et va trainant de I’aile. 24. Son esprit manque 
 de justesse. 25. J’ai change de couleur. 26. II triomphera de ses 
 ennemis. 27. II m’attaque de gaiete de coeur pour se faire connaitre 
 de quelque fagon que ce soit. 28. II est mon aine de trois mois. 29. 
 Un baton long de trois pieds. 30. Ma montre retarde de dix minutes. 
 
 1. Je n’ai connu d’ardeur que celle des combats. 2. Voila de ces 
 cas ou il est doux d’avouer qu’on a tort. 3. II faut du haut et du 
 bas dans la vie. 4. Je ne suis pas des plus a plaindre. 5. II vint 
 des derniers. 6. II y eut cent hommes de tues. 7. Est-il rien de plus 
 
 16 * 
 
236 
 
 EN AND BANS, SOUS AND SUB. 
 
 noir que ta lache action? 8. Sans doute ils n’ont aucun dessein d’ar- 
 rete. 9. On I’avait fait voir a tout ce qu’il y avait d’oculistes, de 
 chirurgiens, et mtoe d’operateurs plus fameux. 10. Je n’ai jamais 
 vu de ville plus jolie. 11. Nous n’avons point de roi que Cesar. 12. 
 Quand il a goute de mon vin, il me raconte ses aventures. 13. Le 
 pathetique participe du sublime autant que le sublime participe du 
 beau et de I’agreable. 14. Comme les demi-dieux, nous tenons moins 
 de la terre que du ciel. 15. L’ame de la jeunesse essaie de tous les 
 sentiments. 16. Tranchant du genereux il croit m’epouvanter. 17. Le 
 vent du nord. 18. Une guerre de vingt ans. 19. Get usage du mot 
 de sceptre se trouve a toutes les pages de I’ecriture. 20. Mon bour- 
 reau de maitre. 21. Le pays d’au-dela la Loire. 22. Quelle recon- 
 naissance tu me rends des bienfaits repandus sur toi! 23. La lecture 
 est d’une grande fatigue pour mes yeux affaiblis. 
 
 1. Il se laissa trailer de roi. 2. Les jurisconsultes de I’Europe 
 n’ont jamais qualifie ces jugements que d’assassinats. 3. Il semble 
 qu’il y ait comme une barriere invisible, on dirait d’un mauvais genie 
 qui sans cesse eloigne et detourne le but. 4. Il ne me suffit pas d’un 
 changement de forme. 5. Cela ne vous servira de rien. 6. Si j’etais 
 de vous je le planterais la. 
 
 LI. EN ANB DANS, SOUS AND SUB. 
 
 A. The prepositions en and dans represent in the main 
 the same relation, en in a general manner, dans when the 
 dependant substantive is limited ; used however of time each 
 preposition has its distinct force, and the more general cha- 
 racter of the relation expressed by en allows of its use in 
 many cases where dans would be wholly inadmissible. 
 
 The substitution of dans for en is comparatively of modern date, 
 and seems to have arisen from a dislike to the sound of le, les follow- 
 ing on en. This was avoided in old French by the contractions el, 
 es, the latter retained in bachelier’es-lettres. 
 
 En is seldom used before the definite article, never be- 
 fore le or les, seldom before V or la. 
 
 The main notion of en and dans is that of motion to 
 or rest in the interior of a place. 
 
 1. Of place, either of motion to = to, or of rest in 
 = in. 
 
 a. With names of countries en is used when the definite 
 article is not required, as when the name of the country is 
 singular and not qualified by an adjective etc. (see Chap. V. 4) 
 as: Hre en France, to be in France, passer en Espagne, to 
 cross into Spain. But if the name of the country has the 
 definite article, dans takes the place of en, as: Dans Vinculte 
 
EN AND DANS, SOUS AND SUB. 
 
 237 
 
 Caledonie Be mon sort va changer le cours, In sterile Cale- 
 donia the course of my lot will change. 
 
 NOTE. If the name of the country is plural, or less known, so 
 that the notion is rather of motion to, or rest in a particular spot, 
 than to or in the interior of a country, d will be used (see XLIX. A. 1. y.). 
 
 With names of towns en is not now used; dans only 
 when the notion of to or in is opposed to that of outside; 
 so after such verbs, as entrer, rentrer, introduire etc. Other- 
 wise a will be used. 
 
 /?. With names of things or persons which give the notion 
 of enclosed space, as monter, se promener en voiture, to get 
 into, to ride in a carriage. II est arrive dans une voiture 
 d lui, He came in his own carriage. 
 
 Of persons en is more usual with pronouns, dans alone 
 is used when the. name of an author stands for his works, 
 as : Tout foldtrait en elle, Everything was frolicsome in her. 
 La phrase dont vous parlez n'est pas dans Bossuet^ The 
 phrase you speak of is not in Bossuet. 
 
 Y» En is used to mark the limit, where de marks the 
 starting point, especially when the same word is repeated, as: 
 de ville en ville^ from town to town (see Chap. XLIX. A. 1). 
 
 8. Bans is used with certain verbs, as ehoisir, prendre, 
 puiser, hoire, manger, fumer to note the place in which the 
 action takes place, where we use from, out of denoting the 
 manner of the action, as : hoire dans la fontaine, to drink 
 from the spring. 
 
 2. Of time. 
 
 cc. The time in which a thing happens is expressed either 
 by en or dans, as : 11 viendra en janvier. He will come in 
 January, Ce prince allait mourir dans sa trente- sixieme 
 annee, This prince was about to die in his 36*^ year. 
 
 En is used where the article is omitted, as with the 
 names of the months, of the seasons (except spring, au prin- 
 temps) and before a numeral expressing the date of the year, 
 as: En juin, in June, en hirer, in winter, en 1875, in the 
 year 1875. Bans is used with journee, matinee, soiree, 
 annee etc. But frequently either preposition may be used 
 indifferently, as: En ce temps or Bans ce temps, at this time. 
 
 NOTE. As we have seen (see XL VIII. 8, XLIX. 2. L. 2. A) to 
 express the time at which a thing happens, we may in French either 
 use a substantive without preposition or one of the prepositions d, de, 
 en or dans. A marks the time most distinctly, the substantive 
 
238 
 
 EN AND DANS, SOUS AND SUE. 
 
 without preposition more generally, en still more loosely, as : En 1875, 
 le onze fevrier du soir. Dans gives the period at some time within 
 which, de the period throughout which, the action takes place. But 
 these differences frequently are without importance for the meaning 
 and we may say indifferently au temps de, dans le temps de, or du 
 temps de — . 
 
 The time, which will elapse before an action is finish- 
 ed, is expressed by en, as: Je finirai man devoir en trois 
 quarts d^heure, I shall finish my work in three quarters of 
 an hour. 
 
 y. The time, which will elapse before an action begins, 
 is expressed by dans, as: Je commeneerai mon devoir dans 
 trois quarts d’heure, I shall begin my work in three quarters 
 of an hour’s time. 
 
 §, As of place, en is used to mark the limit in time, 
 where de marks the starting-point, mostly when the same 
 word is repeated, but also in other phrases, as : de jour en 
 jour, from day to day, JaujourJhui en huit, this day week, 
 
 3. Figuratively en is used of anything within which an 
 action can be supposed to take place ; so, of manner, especially 
 mode of clothing, as: en secret, in secret, Ure en chemise, to 
 be in your shirt-sleeves; of attendant circumstances, as: vivre 
 en paix, to live in peace ; of the means and motive, as : En 
 trois sauts je fus chez lui, In three springs I was with him, 
 En vue des services qu’il a rendu, in consideration of the 
 services he has rendered ; of the material, especially after verbs 
 and adjectives of abounding, as: docteur en medecine, doctor 
 of medecine, une ter re fertile en hies, a good corn-growing 
 land; and lastly of a resulting state, as: etahlir en principe, 
 to establish as a (into a) principle. 
 
 NOTE. In the last sense en comes to have the sense of in the 
 place of, for, and corresponds very nearly to the conjunction comme;. 
 but comme implies the reality of the circumstance, il lui a pardonne 
 comme roi could only be said of a king = he pardoned him by the 
 poweVi he had as king] but il lui a pardonne en roi = he pardoned 
 him in a royal manner. 
 
 Figuratively dans, though much less frequently than en, 
 may express the manner, as : Il dejeuna dans son nouveau 
 costume. He breakfasted in his new costume; attendant cir- 
 cumstance, as: Vivre dans une paix honteuse, to live in 
 shameful peace ; means and motive, as : Dans leur depit Us 
 hrident Gibraltar, In their ill-humour they burn Gibraltar ; 
 
EN Am BANS, SOUS AND SUB. 
 
 239 
 
 the material, as : La force des JRomains consistait dans lew 
 infanterie.^ The strength of the Romans lay in their infantry; 
 resulting state, as : Convertir la conscience cibscwe dans une 
 conscience claire et distincte^ Change obscure consciousness 
 to a consciousness clear and distinct. 
 
 4. With the infinitive neither en nor dans is found; in 
 place of them d is used, as : lls doivent faire consister lew 
 honhenr dans la moderation.^ They ought to make their hap- 
 piness consist in moderation. La felicite des coews tels que 
 les notres Consiste d tout quitter pour le ionheur des autres.^ 
 The happiness of hearts such as ours consists in giving up 
 everything for the good of others. 
 
 But en is used before the participle present (gerund) 
 primarily in the sense of while (see Chap. XLIII. 1). 
 
 5. En is used to form many adverbial expressions, as: 
 en avant., en bas^ en haut^ en dessus, en travers^ en outre etc. 
 
 B. Sous under, Sur on, on to, used both of motion to, 
 and rest. 
 
 They are used, when the person or thing spoken of, and 
 that, under or over which it is said to be, are conceived of 
 as close together. When the two things are spoken of as 
 apart, the relative position is given by the adverbs au-dessous^ 
 au-dessus with de to give the point from which distance is 
 reckoned, answering nearly to the English belotv^ above^ as : 
 Le village est situe sur une colline.^ — au^dessus du pont., 
 The village is situated on a hill, — above the bridge. Se 
 cacher sous la table, to hide under the table, loger au^des- 
 .sous d’un medecin, to have rooms under a doctor. Metapho- 
 rically au-dessous, au-dessus are always used, when numbers 
 are in question, and generally of rank and worth, as: Les 
 enfants au~dessous de sept ans, Children under seven years 
 of age, Cet emploi est au-dessous de lui, This employment 
 is beneath him. 
 
 Dessous, desstts are at present used as adverbs, except when pre- 
 ceded by another preposition, as: jusque, de, or par, to the latter of 
 which they are joined by a hyphen; in this case the combined prepo- 
 sitional phrase is treated as a preposition and is not followed by de, 
 as : sauter par-dessus la harriere, oter quelque chose de dessus la table. 
 In older French they were treated as simple prepositions, hence the 
 adverbs Id-dessous, Id-dessus, ci-dessous, ci-dessus. 
 
 1. Of place, sous under, sur on, on to, as assis stir un 
 banc — sous un arbre, seated on a bench, -- under a tree; 
 
240 
 
 EN AND BANS, SOUS AND SUE. 
 
 monter sur une hauteur, to go up on to a hill, courir sous 
 la table, to run under the table. 
 
 2. Of time sous, after the lapse of, sur at, about, as: 
 Je feral cela sous quinze jours, I will do that in about a 
 fortnight’s time ; II est arrive sur les dix heures, He arrived 
 about ten o’clock. 
 
 NOTE. Bans is more usual than sous in the sense of after the 
 lapse of, except in the phrases sous peu, sous peu de temps. 
 
 To mark time by an attendant circumstance sous, like 
 the English under, is used of names of rulers, or of forms of 
 government for during the time of, as: Sous Louis XIII., 
 In the time of Louis the thirteenth. Sur is used like the 
 English on in the sense of immediately after, as: Sur cela 
 il sortit un quart dfheure. On this he went out for a quarter 
 of an hour. Hence with the same word repeated sur is used 
 of rapid succession, as : II fait folies sur folies. He commits 
 folly after folly. 
 
 3. Metaphorically, sous gives the notion generally of sub- 
 ordination, sur of superiority, as naviguer sous le pavilion 
 anglais, to sail under the English flag, regner sur des Fran- 
 gais, to reign over Frenchmen. 
 
 But in some instances the French prepositions in their 
 flgurative use no longer answer to the corresponding English 
 ones; so ct. sous is used, when the notion of secrecy is in- 
 volved, as : passer sous silence, to pass over in silence ; and 
 often as giving the condition to which the act is subjected, 
 where we use on as giving the authority on which it depends, 
 as : affirmer sous serment, to state on oath, sous peine 
 d^ amende, on pain of being fined. 
 
 jS. Sur is used of the model, standard, as : a juger sur 
 les apparences, to judge by appearances ; of the relation be- 
 tween two numbers, as : six pieds de haut sur cinq de large, 
 six feet high by five broad ; of the material on which an 
 action is exerted, as : les copistes ne se bornent pas a pecher 
 sur les consonnes, copiers are not satisfied with making mis- 
 takes in the consonants alone. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 42. 
 
 A. 1. Notre voyage eir France aura une fin heureuse. 2. Je serai 
 marie, si Ton veut, en Turquie. 3. Les pays baignes par le grand 
 
EN AND BANS, SOUS AND SUB. 
 
 241 
 
 Ocean soiit dans PAmerique du Nord : la Nouvelle-Bretagne, les Etats- 
 Unis etc. 4. Les mers interieures et les golfes que forme le grand 
 Ocean sont en Amerique : la mer de Behring etc. 5. II vit dans Paris. 
 6. Pour rentrer dans Londres il faut prendre par la rue B. 7. II est 
 en toi de perdre ou de sauver ton frere. 8. Dans moi-meme je dis : 
 pourquoi craindre tant. 9. Elle va souvent en des lieux qu’elle ne 
 veut pas que Pon sache. 10. 11 allait dans la foret chercher du bois. 
 11. II court de mer en mer, aborde en lieu sauvage. 12. Nous allames 
 dans un lieu qu’on appelle I’Orient, a une lieue dans la mer. 13. II 
 y en a des exemples dans St.-Simon. 14. Dans les temps bienheureux 
 du monde en son enfance — . 15. Soyez pret dans une heure. 16. 
 
 Gagne-t-on en un an un million sans crime? 17. Cependant d’beure 
 en beure Godoy recevait du camp frangais des nouvelles alarmantes. 
 18. Dans des coupes d’or ils boivent le trepas. 19. II choisit dans le 
 panier les plus belles cerises. 20. Toute I’eglise sera pour vous en 
 priere. 21. J’ai vieilli dans la misere et dans I’opprobre. 22. Elle 
 etait en habit d’amazone. 23. Toute la cour fut dans I’admiration de 
 la magnificence de ce present. 24. Vous serez en admiration de ces 
 conseils de la Providence. 25. Divisez cette pomme en deux. 26. C’est 
 un portrait en pied. 27. II n’y avait en femmes que Mme. de L. et 
 la comtesse de G. 28. Vous parlez en soldat, je dois agir en rol. 
 29. En tant qu’ennemis il les combattit; en tant que blesses il veilla 
 a leur salut. 30. Il Paffermit dans le trone. 31. Tons les chiens de 
 ses basses-cours composaient une meute dans le besoin. 
 
 B. 1. Ils brulaient de Pencens sur les collines, aussi bien que sous 
 les cbenes et sous les peupliers. 2. Cela s’est passe sous mes yeux. 
 3. A son arrivee le regiment se mit sous les armes. 4. A ces mots 
 sur un arbre il grimpa bel et bien. 5. J’ai ete sur pied toute la jour- 
 nee. 6. Voyez un peu! sur moi je n’ai pas cette somme. 7. La clef 
 est sur la porte. 8. Il marcbe sur mes pas. 9. Ecrivez cela sur votre 
 agenda. 10. Qu’on se figure des plaines sablonneuses sur lesquelles 
 Poeil s’etend et le regard se perd sans pouvoir s’arreter sur un seul 
 objet. 11. Sa croisee donnait sur la plaine. 12. Il arrivera sous peu. 
 13. Je crois que mon retour sera sur la fin de I’annee. 14. On a vu 
 arriver courrier sur courrier de divers cotes. 15. On a represente sa 
 conduite sous un mauvais jour. 16. Il me Pa dit sous le secret. 17. 
 Cela est defendu sous peine de la vie. 18. Nous avons eu deux beaux 
 jours sur buit. 19. Apres avoir traverse la montagne on trouve une 
 plaine de six milles de long sur deux de large. 20. C’est ce que 
 
 j’aime sur toutes choses. 21. Vous le prenez sur un ton bien baut. 
 
 22. Sur cette somme il faut retrancber tant. 23. Sur quoi vous croyez- 
 vous dispense de ce devoir? 24. Il est fort sur la grammaire. 25. 
 L’eveque est au-dessous de Parcbeveque. 26. Le tbermomtoe est au- 
 dessous de zero. 27. Ses cuirassiers le retirerent de dessous les cbe- 
 
 vaux. 28. Vous Pavez vendu au-dessus de sa valeur. 29. Il avait 
 
 par-dessus le marcbe les jambes fort tournees en dedans. 30. Passons 
 la-dessus. 
 
242 AVEG, CHEZ, CONTBE, JUSQUE, MOYENNANE 
 
 LH. AVEQ CHEZ, CONTBE, JU8QUE, 
 MOYENNANT, PAB, POUB, SANS, OUTBE. 
 
 A. Avec (Lat. apud hoc^ in use nearly corresponding 
 with cum) denotes community of action, = with. So 
 
 cc. Of company, as: II partit avec dix miUe hommes^ 
 He set out with 10,000 men. 
 
 Containing, wearing, having, as : Si fallais ressortir 
 avec les cheveux hlancs — If I were to come out with 
 white hair. 
 
 y. Of coincidence in time, as : naitre avec le printemps^ 
 mourir avec les roses, to be born with the spring, die with 
 the roses. 
 
 d. Of reciprocal action, as: II s^est hattu avec un tel, 
 He fought with so and so. 
 
 NOTE. Many verbs which express community of relation, union, 
 etc. are followed either by avec or d; avec is the more forcible of the 
 two and draws the attention to the relation as being reciprocal, spe- 
 cially intended etc. Such verbs are s’ accorder, avoir affaire, s’ arranger, 
 s’associer, commimiquer, comparer, se concilier, confiner, confronter, 
 s’identifier, joindre, marier, meler, parler, proportionner, avoir rapport, 
 reunir etc., as: La vtrite s’accorde avec la renommee, but Enfin Galba 
 s’accorde d nos soiiJiaits. 
 
 €. Of accompanying circumstances, as: On est etonne 
 qu^avec tout son esprit il fasse de pareilles sottises, It is 
 astonishing, that with all his sense he commits such acts of 
 folly. 
 
 It is by an extension of this use that avec is used : 
 
 1. Generally of the instrument and means, as: Nous 
 langons mieux les pierres avec la main droite qiiavec la 
 main gauche, We throw stones better with the right hand 
 than with the left. (For the use of de iii this sense see L. 6.) 
 
 2. In place of de of the material, when the material is 
 considered as not the usual one, or when for any reason spe- 
 cial attention is directed to it, as: idtir avec du hois, to 
 build of wood. 
 
 3. Of manner generally, while de (Chap. L. 10) is used 
 when the manner is more or less essentially a property of the 
 action, as marcher avec precipitation, to walk hurriedly, but 
 Vous marches d\m tel pas qu’on a peine a vous suivre, 
 You walk such a pace that it is difficult to follow you. 
 
AVEC, CHEZ, CONTBE, JUSQUE, MOYENNANE 24S 
 
 Avec and its noun may be under the government of de 
 in the sense of separation or distinction, as : Ces mers qui 
 divisent la Grece d^avec Vltalie, These seas which divide 
 Greece from Italy. 
 
 B. Chez (Lat. casa) — at the house of, as: Vous avez 
 des conferences, soit chez vous, soit chez vos amis. You hold 
 meetings either at your own home, or at your friends’ houses. 
 The use is extended to nations and individuals to give the 
 character, habits etc., and of an author it is said in the sense 
 of in the writings of, as : Le dialecte poetique, chez les Grecs, 
 etait le vieux Grec, The dialect of poetry with the Greeks 
 was old Greek. Chez Demosthene tout est dit pour le salut 
 public, In Demosthenes everything is said for the public 
 good. Chez and its case may depend on another preposition 
 of place, or chez and its noun joined by a hyphen may be 
 used as an ordinary substantive, as: Je viens d^aujjres de 
 chez vous. I am just come from close by your house. Ai-^ 
 je un chez-moi? Have I a home? 
 
 C. Centre = against. 
 
 a. In a local sense, as : II est encore a genoux la tete 
 appuyee centre le mur, He is still on his knees with his head 
 leaning against the wall. 
 
 /?. Figuratively of an opposed term, as: parier dix centre 
 un, to bet ten to one ; troquer la vertu centre le plaisir, 
 to exchange virtue for pleasure. 
 
 y. Of hostile opposition, as : Tout V empire a vingt fois 
 conspire centre lui. The whole empire has conspired against 
 
 him twenty times. In this sense a stronger expression is 
 
 envers et centre, as: Defendez Moscou envers et centre tons, 
 Hold Moscow against all comers. 
 
 D. Jusque = up to, sometimes written 
 
 jusques. 
 
 As a preposition jusque is only used with adverbs of 
 
 place, as ou, id, la, or with a prepositional phrase of place 
 or time, as: Jusqubu faut-il que j’ailleP How far must I go? 
 Jusqu’d quand seras-tu cache? How long will you be hidden? 
 Till to-day may be expressed either by jusqu’aujourd’hui, or 
 by jusqu^d aujourThui, as aujourdliui may be considered 
 either as a prepositional phrase, or an adverb of time. 
 
 E. Moyennant (participle of moyenner} = by means of, 
 
244 
 
 3I0YENNANT, FAB. 
 
 as : Vhomme de hien^ moyennant une conduite egale et simple^ 
 se fait cherir et honorer partout, A right-minded man by- 
 means of an even and simple course of life makes himself 
 every-where loved and honoured. By an extension of this 
 use moyennant gets the force of in return for, as: II faisait 
 corriger ses vers moyennant vingt louis-d'or par chanson, 
 He got his verses corrected for twenty louis d’or a canto. 
 
 F. Par (Latin per) expresses transmission. 
 
 In its local sense Latin per is mostly replaced in French by a 
 travers or dans, used of time by pendant or durant, as: (per mare) 
 d travers les /lots, (ut per eas [tunicas] cerni possit) afin qiCon put 
 voir a travers, (per saltus vagi) repandus dans les hois, (per triennium) 
 pendant trois ans. 
 
 1. Of place par expresses motion or extension through, 
 as: courir par 7nonts et par vaux, to run over mountains 
 and valleys, Cela se fait par toute la France, That is done 
 over all France. Jeter par la fenetre. To throw out of (through) 
 the window. This use is extended to denote a state, as of 
 weather etc., through which the action extends, as : Nous 
 fimes quatre lieues par une pluie hattante. We walked four 
 leagues in a pelting rain. 
 
 2. Figuratively of agency = by aid of, by the agency of. 
 
 a. Of the agent after passive verbs. In modern French 
 
 par replaces Latin ah of the agent in general, though de is 
 retained when the agent must necessa^'ily be expressed so as to 
 form almost one notion with the verb, as with verbs of the 
 affections and verbs of preceding, accompanying, following (see 
 Chap. L. 5). Even with these par will be used if any special 
 force rests on the agent, as : Le soleil est vu de tout le 
 monde; il est vu par les Americains, quand il ne Vest plus 
 par les Europeens, The sun is seen by every one, it is seen 
 by the Americans, when it is no longer seen by Europeans. 
 
 /?. Of the instrument or means, when considered as some- 
 thing apart from the person who employs them, (see L. 6), 
 as : Il arrivera par la poste. He will come by the post. 
 
 y. Of manner, when special stress is laid upon it, so that 
 it almost amounts to the notion of agency, as: On rVeeoute 
 que ce qu’on veut entendre par preference. We only listen 
 to what we wish to hear in preference to anything else ; 
 but De deux emplois qu'on lui offrit il a pris cela de pre- 
 ference, Of two places offered to him^he preferred to take 
 
JPAE, POUB. 
 
 245 
 
 that one. (See XLIX. 3, L. 10, above A. 3) and compare 
 obtenir quelque chose par force, with prendre une ville de 
 force, and agir a force ouverte. 
 
 Par of manner is especially common in a' distributive 
 sense, as : couper par morceaux, to cut to pieces ; so of time 
 in the place of the substantive without preposition of price 
 etc. (see Chap. XLVIII.) as: deux fois par jour, twice a day. 
 
 §. Of cause, as: s^ exposer d une mort certaihe par hu- 
 manite, to expose oneself to certain death from humanity. 
 
 «. In oaths giving the sanction, as : par ma foi, upon 
 my word. 
 
 In the phrase par trop, par like per in Latin merely 
 strengthens the force of trop. This use, frequent in old Frenchy 
 only now remains in this instance. 
 
 NOTE. In de par, as : Marchez de par le roi, par is probably 
 confounded with the substantive part. 
 
 G. Pour (Lat. pro) = for. 
 
 Pour has altogether lost the local sense of pro = in front of, 
 from which all the Latin uses are easily derived, and has largely ex- 
 tended some of the figurative uses, so supplying in a great measure 
 the Latin dative of advantage and disadvantage. 
 
 1 . = in behalf of, for, as : Mourir pour la patrie est 
 un si digne sort, To die for one’s country is so noble a fate. 
 
 2. Of the end, destination, as : Un chevol bon pour le 
 cabriolet, A horse good for single harness. " So with verbs 
 of leaving to give the place of destination, as : partir pour 
 Paris, to leave for Paris. Of time it notes the time at which, 
 or during which an action is intended to take place, as: bon 
 pour deux jours, good for two days. 
 
 In distinction to d, pour is used when the end is marked as being 
 intended, as: se preparer pour un voyage, but se preparer d la mort. 
 
 3. = in reference to, for: Je crains pour la liberte, 
 
 I fear for liberty. 
 
 Pour in this sense is very largely used. It is employed 
 not only when a statement is limited to a particular thing, 
 but also of persons, so that it is often synonymous with 
 envers, and it takes the place of the dative of pronouns, when 
 a closer reference is intended than the formal extension of a 
 predication to a particular person ; so A good name is of little 
 consequence to him might be expressed Une bonne reputation 
 lui est peu de chose, but Une bonne reputation est pour lui 
 aussi peu de chose qu^un parfum precieux serait pour eux. 
 
246 
 
 FOUB, SANS, OUTBE. 
 
 A good name to him is no more than a precious ointment 
 would he to these. 
 
 When pour at the beginning of the sentence names the 
 person or circumstance with reference to which the statement 
 is made, it scarcely differs from quant a = as to, as : Four 
 le grec, V edition devrait Ure hien soignee par quelqu'un qui 
 Ventendit, For the Greek the edition should be carefully re- 
 vised by some one who understood it. 
 
 4. == in place of, for, as: II donna le diamant en gage 
 <i un Armenien pour quelques milliers de roupies, He gave 
 the diamond in pledge to an Armenian for a few thousand 
 roupees. Choisir pour ami, to choose for a friend, peindre 
 trait pour trait, to paint feature for feature. 
 
 5. = m requital of, in return for, as: On rHaime pas 
 les gens pour ce quails sont, mais pour ce quHls paraissent 
 aux autres, People are loved not for what they are, but for 
 what they appear to 'others. 
 
 In this use 'pour, getting the sense of because of, is often used 
 almost synonymously with par, as : lls etaient fameux, Burrhus pour 
 son experience dans les armes^ Seneque pour son eloquence. In some 
 cases indeed the two prepositions were confounded; par in the con- 
 junction parce que banished the form pour ce que, the natural answer 
 to pourquoi, while pour with an infinitive to express cause took the 
 place of par. 
 
 H. Sans (Lat. sine) = without, as: Sans argent, point 
 d'affaires. Without money, no business. 
 
 I. Outre (Lat. ultra) = besides, beyond, as: On lui donna 
 cent ecus et outre cela on lui fit un present. They gave him 
 a hundred crowns, and made him a present besides. 
 
 The Latin local sense is only retained in French in composition, 
 as: Les voyages d^outre-mer. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 43. 
 
 1. II fut arrete avec une epee sanglante. 2. Deux statues avec 
 un costume de jeune fille. 3. II partira avec le jour. 4. La gloire 
 qui doit finir avec nous est toujours fausse. 5. Du vin mele avec de 
 Feau. 6. Comment etes-vous avec M. d’Aix? 7. II faut etre juste avec 
 tout le monde. 8. Heureux qui n’a point affaire avec ces messieurs- 
 la. 9. Sans leur donner le temps d’apprendre a quel petit nombre 
 ils avaient affaire. 10. Tu crois m’eblouir avec cet artifice. 11. Tan- 
 dis que vous avez vecu avec pudeur et avec innocence, vous n’avez pas 
 doute. 12. Nous suivions avec lenteur le cours du Pence. 13. Nous 
 dejeunious ordinairement avec du cafe au lait. 14. C’est vouloir prendre 
 
THE REMAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 247 
 
 la lune avec les dents. 15. Vos maisons seront incendiees. — 
 N’importe, nous les rebatirons avec des ossements. 16. Quand on aime 
 avec crainte, on aime avec excAs. 17. J’etais chez lui comme cbez 
 moi. 18. On ne pouvait les retenir chez elles. 19. La profession de 
 comedien etait infame chez les Remains et honorable chez les Grecs; 
 qu’est-elle chez nous? 20. G’est une conviction chez lui. 21. Tu 
 m’as mis hors de chez moi. 22. Les voila aux prises, pied centre pied, 
 mains centre mains. 23. C’est une chose centre les regies ordinaires. 
 24. Vous parlez centre votre pensee. 25. La citadelle fut sauvee centre 
 toute esperance. 26. II y a dix hommes qui mangent le revenu des 
 terres centre un laboureur. 27. Vous avez jusqu’ ici resiste sans couTber 
 le dos. 28. Jusque sur les autels on doit punir le crime. 29. Nous 
 y donnerons ordre moyennant quelque argent que nous contribuerons 
 pour cela. 30. Les promeneurs allaient et venaient par la salle. 31. 
 J’ai vu des gens de guerre epandus par la ville. 32. Tous deux tom- 
 bes par terre et prets a rendre le dernier soupir. 33. Nous etions par 
 trente degres de latitude. 34. Est-ce que vous trouveriez cela une 
 plaisanterie de bon gout, par hazard, par le temps qu’il fait? 85. 
 Leopold ha'i par les grands, aime par le peuple, estime par les savants. 
 36. L’Egypte est baignee par les eaux du Nil. 37. Tous les yeux 
 etaient baignes de larmes. 38. Charlemagne debute, dans son entre- 
 prise de civilisation, par deux choses. 39. Tous les hommes sont sem- 
 blables par les paroles. 40. On paye tant par tete. 41. Les ombres 
 par trois fois ont obscurci les cieux, Depuis que le sommeil n’est entre 
 dans VOS yeux. 42. Ses sermons y attiraient quantite de monde, bien 
 moins par la politesse du langage que par les grandes et solides verites 
 qu’il prechait. 43. Quand on est bon pour tous, on ne Test pour 
 personne. 44. Aveugle pour ses propres defauts. 45. Pour moi ces 
 choses-la ne m’apprennent plus rien. 46. Quant a moi j’y mettrais 
 encore I’oeil de Pamant. 47. II y a deux ans jour pour jour, que j’ai 
 epouse la plus jolie fille de Smyrne. 48. Pour qui me prenez-vous? 
 49. C’est un crime pour eux de rester a I’ecart. 50. Je n’en dis pas 
 davantage et pour cause. 51. Les memoires d’outre-tombe de Chateau- 
 briand. 52. II travaille outre mesure. 
 
 LIII. THE REMAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A. Entre and Earmi are said of the middle point both 
 literally and figuratively. 
 
 1. Entre = between of two persons or things, = among 
 of more than two, when the person or thing qualified by the 
 prepositional phrase is not represented as distinct from those, 
 amongst which it is said to be, as: II y a bien de la diffe- 
 rence entre les lois bonnes et les lois mauvaises^ There is 
 a great difference between good laws and bad laws. Entre 
 nos ennemis les plus a craindre sont souvent les phis petits, 
 
248 
 
 ENTEE, FAEMI, VEES, ENVEES. 
 
 Amongst our enemies the most to be feared are often the 
 smallest. 
 
 Notice the use of enU^e with mains ^ bras as being two, where 
 we use simply in, as: Son epoux la retient tremblante entre ses bras, 
 Her husband holds her trembling in his arms. 
 
 Entre and its noun may be used dependant on de giving 
 greater force to the de, either when used in the sense of se- 
 paration, as after such verbs, as: arracher, retirer etc., or 
 when used partitively, especially governing a personal pronoun, 
 as: La plnpart Centre vous, The greater number of you, On 
 V a retire d’ entre ses mains, They took it from his hands. 
 
 2. Earmi = amongst is used with plural or collective 
 nouns, when there is no connection between the person or 
 thing spoken of and those amongst which it is said to be, as: 
 II n'y a rien de solide ni de vraiment grand parmi les 
 liommes, There is nothing firm or really great among men. 
 
 With numerals parmi is only used, when the numeral 
 is indefinite ; parmi trois hommes cannot be said, but parmi 
 cent personnes vous n’en trouverez pas une qui — . 
 
 Parmi (Lat. per medium) was used in older French of a con- 
 tinuous quantity in accordance with the etymology; so Force moutons 
 parmi la plaine, La Fontaine. 
 
 NOTE. The distinction between entre and parmi is perfectly plain 
 in the above examples, but it is often much slighter. The usual exam- 
 ples given are II fut trouve entre les morts said of a corpse, and Or- 
 phee flit trouve parmi les morts as being'^alive among the dead. But 
 it is rarely that sentences take so simple a form as these, written to 
 illustrate the rule. Guizot writes of Edith: Elle parvint d retrouver, 
 parmi tons ces cadavres, le corps mutile de son amant, where the pre- 
 positional phrase qualifies the act of finding and not the body, a slight 
 distinction, which every Frenchman would feel without being aware of it. 
 
 B. Vers and envers express direction towards. 
 
 1. Vers in modern French is so used only of place, as; 
 11 s\chemina vers la ville, He walked towards the town. 
 Of time it expresses a point of time inexactly = at about, 
 as : Vers neuf Jieures il rentra pour songer a sa toilette, 
 About nine o’clock he returned home to see to his dress. 
 
 2. Envers = toivards is used figuratively of the mind, 
 as : Eon envers tout le monde, Kind to every one. 
 
 In older French vers is equally used of the mind, so frequently 
 in Moliere, and Voltaire has: Vun de V autre jaloux, Vun vers 
 V autre perfides. 
 
THE REMAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 249 
 
 C. Devant and Avant express precedence. 
 
 1. Devant of place = iefore^ as: Metier cela devant 
 le feu, Put that "before the fire. Lc pasteur marchait devant 
 nous, The clergyman walked in front of us. Hence like the 
 Latin cor am it is used for in the presence of, as : Ne dites 
 rien devant lui. Say nothing in his presence, and figuratively 
 of things, as: Malesherbes dont le talent s'est efface devant 
 sa vertu, Malesherbes whose talent was eclipsed by his virtue. 
 
 Devant in old French was used like avant of time, at present it 
 only so occurs as an adverb in the phrase comme devant. 
 
 Devant and its case are sometimes governed by de and 
 in legal phraseology by par, as : On m'arrache de devant 
 V empereur. They hurry me away from the emperor’s presence. 
 
 2. Avant of time = before, as: Avant le canon c'^etait 
 une ville de guerre, Before the use of cannon it was a for- 
 tress. Avant further expresses precedence in order, rank etc. 
 and hence of position in grammar, as: La sagesse profane 
 fait marcher les interUs de Vetat avant ceux de Vevangile, 
 Worldly wisdom makes the interests of the state precede those 
 of the gospeh 
 
 Avant is often used of a period not yet passed = before 
 the expiration of, where we in English say within, as: avant 
 trois semaines, within three weeks. Hence the French avant 
 peu (lit. before the expiration of a short time) is represented 
 by our before long. 
 
 D. Derriere and Apres express succession in place and 
 
 time. 
 
 1. Derriere of place = after, behind answers to devant, 
 as: Partons et courons sans regarder derriere nous, Let us 
 start and run without looking behind us. On a referme la 
 porte derriere moi. They shut the door after me. 
 
 2. Apres of time = after answers to avant, as: Apres 
 la pluie le beau temps, After the rain comes fine weather. 
 Apres is further used not only as avant of order, rank etc. 
 but generally of pursuit, so that in many cases it has really 
 a local signification, as : D eourut lui-meme apres Vofficier, He 
 ran himself after the officer ; hence it may be used synonymously 
 with derriere, as : Le fleuve gui etait apres notre camp, 
 The river which was behind our camp. The sense of pursuit 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 17 
 
250 
 
 THE EEMAINING PEEPOSITIONS. 
 
 seems to have given rise to the use of apres to mark that, 
 on which attention is bestowed, as : H est apres ses affaires^ 
 He is engaged on his business. 
 
 In apres the separate force of the de is not so much 
 felt as in Centre, d’avec etc. ; it is used of copying, painting, 
 as: peindre d^ apres nature, to painb from nature. Then like 
 suivant and selon = according to, as: D' apres ce qiCon 
 nia dit, According to what has been told me. 
 
 E. Sdon and Suivant = according to are almost syn- 
 onymous; still suivant retains to a certain extent the par- 
 ticipial force. 
 
 F. Des and Depuis are used to mark the starting point 
 in place or time. 
 
 Des = (de ex), Depuis = (de post) are merely strengthened forms 
 of de = d partir de. 
 
 Des = from, smce includes the starting point = at — 
 and from then onwards. It is not used when the ending 
 point is also given, and if used of a place does not give the 
 notion of extension in space. Depuis on the other hand 
 need not include the starting point, it is used when the 
 ending point is given by jusgu’d, and of a place to give 
 extension in space, as: Des son elevation il s^ est montre fier, 
 He showed his pride at his promotion and has done so ever 
 since. II est fter depuis son devation, Since his promotion 
 he has been proud. Nous hdbitions la meme maison des 
 notre jeunesse, We had been living in the same house from 
 the time of our youth. Nous avons habite la meme maison 
 depuis notre jeunesse jusqu'd notre depart de Paris, We had 
 lived in the same house from the time of our youth till we 
 left Paris. II se met d parler des la porte de la rue, He 
 began to talk at the street-door. On voyait couler le ruis- 
 seau de sang depuis la porte de la maison. The stream of 
 blood was seen flowing from the very door of the house. 
 
 Gf. Durant and Pendant = during. 
 
 Durant is used of a period in which an action has its 
 course. Pendant is also so used, but also more generally of 
 a period in which an event occurs whether prolonged or not. 
 Pendant is naturally therefore far the commoner preposition, 
 as : Durant des mois entiers il garde le silence, For whole 
 months he keeps silence. Elle s^ etait evanouie pendant le 
 combat, She fainted during the fight. 
 
THE REMAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 251 
 
 NOTE. Both words though now looked on as prepositions are 
 participles, and the construction is that of a case absolute (XLIIL 2. /?). 
 Hence durant is still found following the noun, as: On vous parle une 
 heure durant, et vous ne repondez pas d ce qu^on vous dit. 
 
 H. Sauf, JExcepfe and Horniis = except, are used al- 
 
 most without distinction. They are treated as prepositions, 
 but as with pendant and durant the so-called prepositional 
 phrase is really an absolute construction, the participle or ad- 
 jective remaining undeclined, as: argent procure ici-has 
 
 tous les Mens, sauf celui qui donne une valeur d tons les 
 autres, V affection. Money procures every good thing here on 
 earth, except the one which gives the value to all others, 
 affection. Sauf correction. Errors excepted. 
 
 I. Malgre and Nonobstant, 
 
 Malgre (Lat. malam gratiam) = against the will of, 
 as: Ce qu'on fait malgre soi est toujours difficile, What we 
 do against our will is always hard. Figuratively it is said 
 of any opposing circumstance, and is so practically synony- 
 mous with nonobstant, which is only of infrequent use, as: 
 J’aime il est vrai malgre votre defense, I love it is true in 
 spite of your forbidding it. 
 
 K. Some adverbs have only partly assumed the character 
 of prepositions, so that in certain cases they are followed im- 
 mediately by the dependant substantive, while in others, like 
 the so-called compound prepositions, they are explained by de- 
 Such are 1. pres, hors, vis-d-vis, d tr avers, 2. dessus, des- 
 sous, dedans, dehors, degd, deld, 
 
 1. a, pres = near, is usually explained by de, always 
 when used figuratively, but in a local sense it may be used as a 
 preposition, as : II demeure pres la porte Saint- Antoine, In 
 the same sense as pres, proche is also used with or without de; 
 
 fi. hors = except, is used as a preposition, = outside, 
 beyond, is explained by de, as: Nul n’aura de V esprit hors 
 nous et nos amis. No one will be witty except ourselves 
 and our friends. Des quHl fut hors de la cabane. As soon 
 as he was outside the cottage. litre hors de danger. To be 
 out of danger. 
 
 y, vis-d-vis = opposite and figuratively ivith reference 
 to is used either as preposition, or as adverb followed by de, 
 the latter when used of a pronoun, as: Places le stupide 
 Huron vis-d-vis le profond Anglais, Place the stupid Huron 
 
 17 * 
 
252 
 
 THE REMAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 opposite the profound Englishman, J'ai ouhlie de dire quHl 
 etait place vis-a-vis d’eJle, I forgot to say, he was placed 
 opposite her. 
 
 S. a travers = across^ through^ is a preposition, while 
 au travers with the same meaning is explained by de^ as: 
 Comment s' dancer a travers les vagues de cette mer de feu? 
 How is it possible to rush through the waves of this sea of 
 fire? Au travers des perils un grand cceur se fait jour. A 
 great heart makes its way through dangers. 
 
 2. Dessus, dessous, dedans.^ dehors, degd, deld are fol- 
 lowed immediately by their substantive when themselves pre- 
 ceded by a preposition, as by par, jusque etc. ; degd and deld 
 also when not so preceded. They are adverbs and explained 
 by de, when preceded by au or en, as: U passa par dedans 
 la ville, He passed through the interior of the town, En de- 
 dans et en dehors de la ville, Inside and outside the town. 
 Degd la riviere les recoltes ont He honnes, On this side of 
 the river the crops have been good. E imagination va au- 
 deld ou reste en degd de la realite. The imagination goes 
 beyond, or remains within the bounds of reality. 
 
 L. Of the compound prepositions nothing need be said. 
 They are adverbial expressions explained by de and its sub- 
 stantive; such are autour, aupres, le long, d cause, au lieu, 
 en face etc. etc. Faute, lors (Lat. illas horas) and manque, 
 though substantives not under the government of a preposi- 
 tion, are treated as prepositional phrases, as : J7 travaillait 
 dans son lit faute de hois. He worked in bed from want 
 of wood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 44. 
 
 1. Tours est entre Paris et Bordeaux. 2. Ces enfants mouraient 
 entre les bras de leurs meres. 3. Yous que I’Orient compte entre' ses 
 plus grands rois. 4. Quelle est ton occupation parmi ses arbres? 5. 
 J’ai visite les principals bibliotheques de I’ltalie, entre autres celles 
 de Rome. 6. Les a-t-on vus marcher parmi vos ennemis? 7. Jesus 
 vint a Bethanie ou il avait ressuscite Lazare d’entre les morts. 8. 
 Quelqu’un d’entre eux Pa fait. 9. 11 est bon d’etre charitable, mais 
 envers qui? c’est la le point. 10. Le premier moment de la vie est 
 le premier pas vers la mort. 11. Nous partirons vers midi. 12. Je 
 me prosternerai devant lui. 13. Tout s’ecartait devant lui. ^14. Elle 
 est sans reproche devant Dieu et devant les hommes. 15. Otez-vous 
 de devant mes yeux. 16. N’exigeons pas le prix avant la victoire, ni 
 le salaire avant le travail. 17. II faudrait mettre ce chapitre avant 
 
REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 253 
 
 Pautre. 18. Pedreras renourelle I’ordre, qu’il ait a partir avant peu 
 de jours. 19. II lui fall ait avant six semaines payer k Mme. Gervais 
 le terme courant. 20. Chevaliers, criait-il d’une voix plus terrible, 
 Devant nous I’ennemi, derriere nous les eaux; Sachons vaincre ou 
 mourir. 21. Ses gens venaient derriere lui. 22. Ils attirent tout apres 
 eux. 23. Je suis dans Pangoisse; j’attends apres le medecin. 24. Je 
 ne peins le monde que d’apres votre coeur. 25. Tableau d’apres Ra- 
 phael. 26. D’apres ce qu’on m’a dit, vous etes destine a de plus graves 
 occupations. 27. Les lois selon lesquelles Dieu a cree sont celles selon 
 lesquelles il conserve. 28. Notre bonbeur consiste a vivre suivant la 
 nature et la vertu. 29. Je fus avert! que la poste etait partie des 
 midi. 30. Le pape etait en froideur avec la France depuis 1805. 31. 
 J’avais commence des Lyon a ne plus guere entendre le langage du 
 pays. 32. Quelle tradition de heros chretiens, depuis le sang d’Abel 
 jusqu’a nous! 33. Vous m’aimez des longtemps: une egale tendresse 
 Pour vous depuis longtemps m’afflige et m’interesse. 34. Plus tard et 
 durant la decadence romaine, Pesprit fut absorbe dans la pratique et 
 le detail des lois. 35. Les poules pondent indifferemment pendant toute 
 I’annee, excepte pendant la mue. 36. Dans la nature, hormis le ciel, 
 Pocean et le soleil, ce ne sont pas les immenses objets dont je suis 
 inspire. 37. II lui a legue tout son bien, sauf une terre. 38. En ve- 
 •rite, sauf le respect que je te dois, je crois que nous nous trompons. 
 39. Sa perfide joie eclate malgre lui. 40. Cette grande publication se 
 poursuit avec succes, nonobstant le malheur qui vient de le frapper. 
 41. Christian vient de mourir a Cbieri, pres Turin. 42. II se trouvait 
 pres du lit d’une mourante. 43. II se proposa d’imiter tout dans ces 
 conquerants, hors leurs vices. 44. Qui peut vous mettre ainsi hors de 
 vous-meme? 45. La flotte de Charles s’arreta vis-a-vis Humblebech. 
 46. Je vous demande un secret absolu, pendant quelques jours, et 
 sourtout vis-a-vis de la comtesse. 47. L’eau se filtre a travers les 
 terres. 48. Les poissons ne voient presque rien au travers de Peau. 
 49. Charles XII se jette de sa chaloupe dans la mer, Pepee a la main, 
 ay ant de I’eau par-dela la ceinture. 50. On avait joint a son gouver- 
 nement de la Gaule cis-Alpine celui de la Gaule d’au-dela des Alpes. 
 51. Lors de Parrestation de son eleve il etait accouru a Paris. 52. 
 Les troupes saxonnes etaient postees le long de la riviere de Duina. 
 
 LFV. REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OP 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 A. Adverbs of place. 
 
 1. cc, ou, id, la, Ou is the relative and interrogative 
 adverb, id and Id are the demonstrative adverbs of place ; as 
 with prepositions the distinction of motion to and rest at is 
 not marked, ou = where, whither, id = here, hither. Id 
 = there, thither. Motion from is given by prefixing de to 
 
254 
 
 EEMAKKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 the same adverbs, d^ou — whence, d’ici = hence, de la — 
 thence. 
 
 For the distinction of d^ou and dont, see XV. 3. 
 
 /5. Ou as a relative adverb is equally used of time, but 
 not when under the government of a preposition, as: Au 
 moment on je passais, Just as I was passing ; id and Id are 
 used of time, chiefly when under the government of the pre- 
 positions de and jusque, as: jnsqu'ici, up to the present time. 
 
 y. Ci and Id are used as suffixes to demonstrative pro- 
 nouns (see Part 1. XIV. 2. 3. 4); ci also stands as a prefix, 
 as: Ci-git, Here lies, Les temoins ci-presents. The witnesses 
 here present. 
 
 2. JEW, y, dessoiis^ dessus, dedans, dehors, take the place 
 of a personal pronoun under the government of a preposition, 
 as oil does of a relative and preposition. En and y are only 
 used with reference to a substantival term previously named or 
 understood ; the others are not so restricted, as : Le livre n^est 
 pas sur la table, cherehez dessous, The book is not on the 
 table, look under it. Vientdl de la ville? Oni, il en vient. 
 Is he coming from the town? Yes, he is coming from it. 
 
 For the use of en and y otherwise than of place, see 
 Chap. XI. 4. 5. 
 
 En and y are used in many phrases idiomatically, when 
 they do not refer to a previous substantival term. See Exam- 
 ples 45. 
 
 3. Pres = near is used either preceded by an adverb 
 id, tout or by the preposition de, as : Nous Vavons vu de pres. 
 We have seen him quite close; or followed by de to give 
 the point from which the distance is reckoned (see Chap. L. 1), 
 as: Je m’assis pres de lui, I sat down near him. It is used 
 figuratively of an approach in number or degree, as : Pres de 
 deux mille hommes. Nearly two thousand men; and is in 
 some expressions preceded by d to give what must be reckon- 
 ed off, in which case it is not followed by de; so: d peu 
 pres almost, (lit. nearly to within a little), d cela- pres except 
 for that, and in negative sentences d beaucoup pres nearly, 
 as : Les femmes ne sent pas, d beaucoup pres, aussi fortes 
 que les hommes. Women are not nearly as strong as men. 
 
 B. The adverbs beaucoup, bien, peu, plus, davantage, 
 moins, assez, trop, autant, tant, combien, and que are used 
 
REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 255 
 
 in two entirely different ways according as they express (quan- 
 tity and number, or degree. When used of (quantity or num- 
 ber they are ^ treated, after the model of the Latin neuter 
 adjectives satis^ plus, paullum, tantum, multum etc., as sub- 
 stantives, and have their meaning completed by de and a de- 
 pendant substantive, or by the corresponding adverb en, which 
 in this case need not necessarily refer to a previous substan- 
 tival notion, as: Trop d'energie, Too much zeal, Feu d' argent, 
 But little money, II y en a heaueoup qui disent — , Many 
 people say — 
 
 The following peculiarities must be noted. 
 
 1. Beaucoup, — much, many, is never strengthened by any 
 other expression, so that the English many, much, very many, 
 a great many must all be represented by the simple heaucoup, 
 as : On fait heaucoup de bruit, puis on se console, They make 
 a great deal of noise, and then become reconciled. 
 
 NOTE. If the form of the sentence prevents the English many 
 from being represented by heaucoup, as when accompanied by a limi- 
 ting attribute, his many friends, the many hind friends he left behind 
 him, either the adjective nomhreux must be used, or some such expres- 
 mon as le grand nomhre, la grande guantite, as : Ses nomhreux amis, 
 Le grand nomhre de hons amis guHl avait quittes. 
 
 2. Bien like heaucoup cannot be strengthened. The de- 
 pendant substantive which follows it has the definite article 
 unless preceded by an adjective ; in the phrase bien d\iutres 
 however it is always omitted, as: Les mechants ont bien de 
 la peine a demeurer unis, W^icked men have much difficulty 
 in remaining united. 
 
 NOT E. The origin of the use of the article after hien is clearly 
 seen from the above example, hien being really an adverb of manner 
 the expression de la peine does not depend on it, but is the object 
 of ont = have trouble rightly', but in other cases hien is treated like 
 the other adverbs of quantity, only retaining the peculiarity of requir- 
 ing the definite article with the dependant noun, as: Bien des horn- 
 mes me I ont raconte, A great many men have told me so. 
 
 3. Feu = but little, but few, gives a negative notion. 
 If a positive quantity is to be expressed = in English a little, 
 a few, of quantity un peu, of number quelques must be used, 
 as: Hous buvons peu de vin. We drink but little wine, 
 Buvons un peu de vin. Let us drink a little wine, 11 a peU 
 damis. He has but few friends, II attend quelques amis ce 
 soir. He is expecting a few friends this evening. 
 
256 
 
 REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 4. Plus and mains are followed by de and dependant 
 nonn both of quantity and number, as: II s^y trouvait plus 
 dhommes que de femmes, There were there more men than 
 women, 11 a mains d^ argent que mai, He has less money than 
 I have. But where in English we compare the indefinite 
 quantity or number expressed by mare or less and a definite 
 number or quantity, as in Mare persans than ten, mare than 
 ten persans, mare than half etc,, French gives the definite 
 quantity or number as the point, from which the notion ex- 
 pressed by plus or mains is to be reckoned, as: Plus de dix 
 persannes, Plus de maitie. So also the expression mains de 
 rien. (See Chap. L. 4). 
 
 NOTE. The above is the only remains in French of the Latin 
 ablative of comparison. 
 
 5. Davantage is in sense the same as plus, but in modern 
 French must stand at the end of its clause, and can therefore 
 only have the adverb en, and not de and a substantive de- 
 pendant on it ; neither can it be followed by que with a second 
 term of comparison, as: Philippe affectait plus de maderatian 
 avec ses ennemis ; Alexandre en avait reellement davantage, 
 Philip affected more moderation with his enemies, Alexander 
 had really more. 
 
 6. Autant and tant = as much, as many, so much, so 
 many, differ like aussi and si (below C. 2) in that, when 
 a comparison is to be noted, autant is used in affirmative 
 clauses and occasionally in negative while tant is confined to 
 negative clauses, as: 11 bait autant d’eau que de vin, He 
 drinks as much wine as water, Je vans prateste que jamais 
 aucun predicateur ne nfa fait tant de plaisir que celui-ld, 
 I declare to you that never did any preacher give me as 
 much pleasure, as that one. 
 
 If a clause of consequence follows, tant alone can be used, 
 as: Cette tragedie affre tant de beautes que je Vaurais crue 
 de Pacine, This tragedy presents so many beauties, I should 
 have thought it written by Racine. 
 
 7. Cambien and the substantive dependant on it are 
 frequently, when the object of a transitive verb, separated 
 by the verb, as : Cambien avie^-vaus Wannees larsque naus 
 ftmes cannaissance? How old were you when I got to 
 know you? 
 
REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 257 
 
 8. Que takes the place of combien in exclamatory sen- 
 tences, as: Que de corps entasses^ que de membres epars 
 JPrives de sepulture ! How many bodies piled one on the other, 
 how many scattered limbs deprived of burial! 
 
 NOTE. After the analogy of the above adverbs we find a par- 
 titive prepositional phrase dependant on such adverbs as infiniment, 
 enormhnent etc., as: 11 a infiniment d’ esprit. For the exclusive ad- 
 verbs pas^ point, plus, guere see LV. B 
 
 C. All the above given adverbs are also used as adverbs 
 of degree, as: Je Vaime beaucoup, I like him very much, 
 un homme peu estime, A man but little esteemed. On ne pent 
 asse^ estimer un tel ouvrage, It is impossible to value such 
 a work enough. 
 
 The same distinctions obtain in this use, as when they 
 mark quantity or number; so beaucoup and bien cannot be 
 qualified by another adverb; peu expresses a negative, un 
 peu a positive degree, as: Je suis peu fatigue, I am but 
 little tired, Je suis un peu fatigue, I am rather tired; da- 
 vantage stands by itself at the end of the clause, as : Gardes, 
 obeissez sans tarder davantage, Guards, obey, without further 
 delay; autant is used in affirmative clauses, as: Je V estime 
 autant que son frere, I esteem him as much as his brother; 
 tant in negative clauses, and when followed by a clause of 
 consequence, as: Je ne V estime pas tant que son frere, Je 
 V estime tant que je lui ai confie ma vie, I esteem him so 
 much, that I have trusted my life to him. 
 
 It only remains to notice the restrictions with regard to 
 the class of words, which certain of them can qualify. 
 
 1. Beaucoup as adverb of degree, like the English much 
 qualifies only adjectives in the comparative degree and verbs, 
 while to increase the force of adjectives and adverbs tres is used, 
 our very. But in French tres and not beaucoup must be 
 used with passive participles, as: Je Vaime beaucoup, I like 
 him very much; but II est tres-aime. He is very much liked. 
 
 To qualify an adjective in the comparative degree, either 
 beaucoup may precede as an adverb of degree, as: II est 
 beaucoup plus grand. He is much taller; or it may stand as 
 a substantive with the preposition de to give the measure 
 (Chap. L. 11), as: II est plus grand de beaucoup. With 
 superlatives the latter construction can alone be used, as : 11 
 est le plus grand de beaucoup, He is much the tallest. 
 
258 
 
 EEMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 2. Nearly the same distinction is to be noted with aw- 
 tant and tant^ which are used with verbs, while aussi and 
 si take their place with adjectives and adverbs, aussi like 
 autant being mostly used in affirmative, si in negative clauses 
 of comparison, and when followed by a clause of consequence, 
 as : 11 est aussi estimable que sou frere ; 11 n^est pas si esti- 
 mable que son frere\ 11 est si estimable que je lui ai con fie 
 ma vie. But cc. with participles autant is used when an 
 agent is named or implied, aussi only when no agent is re- 
 quired, as: Get liomme est autant estime qiCaime^ This man 
 is as much esteemed, as loved. Paris n^est pas aussi peuple 
 que Londres^ Paris is not as thickly inhabited as London. 
 And with adjectives autant may be used, when it follows 
 the word it qualifies, as then the verb is understood in the 
 2^ clause, as : Cette qualite est aussi estimable que rare^ or 
 Cette qualite est estimable autant que rare,^ This virtue is as 
 estimable as it is rare. 
 
 With comparatives autant must be used substantively 
 governed by de to give the measure (Chap. L. 11), as: Le 
 regret est d^ autant plus vif que la faute est plus grave, 
 Regret is so much the more lively as the fault is more serious. 
 
 3. Combien in French, being really an adverb of manner 
 (quam bene), qualifies as an adverb of degree equally well 
 verbs and adjectives, and so answers to the English Jioiv much 
 as well as to how, as: Voyez done combien il vous estime, 
 See how much he values you, Voyes done combien nous 
 sommes heureux, See how happy we are. 
 
 ()ue in exclamatory sentences is similarly used, as: Ah! 
 que je suis heureuse! How happy I am ! Que fai pitie de 
 toi! How much I pity you! 
 
 NOTE. This how of degree must not be confounded with how 
 of manner = French comment, as: Comment trouvez-vous cette robe? 
 How do you like this dress? As que replaces combien of degree, so in 
 exclamations comme replaces comment of manner, and so obtains the 
 force of an adverb of degree, as: Comme il est change! How he is 
 changed ! 
 
 D. Three adverbs of degree the same in form as adjec- 
 tival pronominal words are at times confounded with them. 
 
 I 4 Tout (see XVII. 3) = altogether qualifies adjectives,, 
 substantives used adjectivally, and adverbial expressions. The 
 arbitrary rule for its use is, that it takes a feminine termi- 
 
REMAEKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 259 
 
 nation before a feminine adjective not beginning with a vowel 
 or h mute, as: La naivete d^une impression tout ideate^ 
 toute poetique^ The freshness of an expression altogether ideal^ 
 altogether poetic. 
 
 Before a substantive used adjectivally tout may either 
 agree with it, or with the subject of the sentence, or remain, 
 unaltered as an adverb, as : II etait tout instinct, tout coeur, 
 toute conftance, (G. Sand)^ He was all instinct, all hearty 
 all confidence. V Angleterre est toute SJiaJcespear (Chateaub.)* 
 England is all Shakespeare. EUe se montra d^aiord tout in- 
 dulgence (Ste.-Beuve). She showed herself at first all indul- 
 gence. 
 
 2. Meme, = -self’Selves, even, (see XVIII. 5. 8.) stands as 
 adverb before or after substantives, demonstrative pronouns,, 
 adjectives and adverbs, and with verbs. When it follows 
 substantives or substantival pronouns it is often treated as 
 an adjective, and takes the plural 5; with personal pronouns 
 to which it is joined by a hyphen it is always treated as an 
 adjective, as: J7 fit passer au fil de Vepee tous les habitants 
 d’une ville, meme les femmes et les enfants, He put to the 
 sword all the inhabitants of a town, even the women and chil- 
 dren. Les dieux meme ont brute quelquefois de feux illegi- 
 times, Even the gods at times have felt wrongful love. Les 
 rochers memes sont sensibles d de touchants accords, Even 
 rocks are sensible to touching strains. But if meme follows 
 more than one substantive, it is always an adverb, as: En 
 s' accrochant aux pierres, aux branches, aux plantes meme,, 
 By holding on to stones, branches, even plants. 
 
 3. Quelque is an adverb when it precedes and qualifies 
 a numeral = about, as : Une chambre de quelque six pieds 
 Carres, A room of about six square feet. But if it qualifies 
 not merely the number but the number and substantive toge- 
 ther = some, it is an adjective, as: quelques cents ans, Some 
 hundreds of years. 
 
 NOTE. The indefinite adverb quelque must not be confounded 
 with quelque — que, the adverb corresponding to the universal relatives 
 (see XVII. 1. e.) which precedes adjectives and adverbs = however,, 
 as : Quelque mediants que soient les hommes, However wicked men are. 
 
 E. 1. An adverb as attribute is usually under the go- 
 vernment of the preposition de, as : Vannee d^apres, the year 
 after. Only in some few cases adverbs are used as in English 
 
260 
 
 REMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 as attributive adjectives, as in un pays hien loin, a country 
 far away. 
 
 NOTE. In accordance with this rule nothing less would be ex- 
 pressed by rien de moins, as nothing excessive is by rien de trop. But 
 more frequently the de is omitted, as: Tu ne me demandes rien moins 
 que le secret de Vart, You ask me nothing less than the secret of the 
 art. In this construction moins qualifying rien is liable to be confused 
 with moins qualifying the verb, as: II n’est rien moins que sage, He 
 is anything but wise (lit. He is not anything to a less degree, than he 
 is wise). 
 
 2. The adverbs hien, mieux, mal, pis, are used idioma- 
 tically as predicates, as though a participle, which they qua- 
 lified, were suppressed, as: Est-ce que la personne vCest pas 
 hien? Is not the person suitable? 
 
 3. An uninflected adjective not unfrequently is used in 
 place of an adverb. This must necessarily be the case with 
 such adjectives as have no corresponding adverbial form ; such 
 are creux, dru, epais, gros, menu, possible, roide, rouge, 
 tortu, and the adverbially used participle comptant, as: II a 
 neige epais de trois doigts. The snow has fallen three inches 
 deep. 
 
 Others as soudain, vite, though without such necessity, 
 are generally so used ; but in general when an adverb exists, 
 the uninflected adjective is confined in use to certain verbs, 
 as: mettre, parler has — tenir, couter, sentir hon — , ache- 
 ter, couter, payer, vendre cher — voir, entendre, semer clair 
 
 — s''arreter, tourner, rester, couper court — filer doux — 
 alter, ecrire, marcher, tirer, riser droit — chanter, jouer, 
 raisonner, jurer, dater faux — frapper, parler, tenir ferme 
 
 — parler, lire haut — peser, mesurer, tirer, chanter, de- 
 viner, raisonner juste — sentir mauvais — etc. 
 
 NOTE. The position of adverbs in the sentence is very free in 
 French and may be affected by the degree of emphasis intended, by 
 euphony, or by convenience of construction, when an adverb has further 
 limitations attached to it. But in distinction from the English it must 
 be noted that with simple tenses the adverb mostly follows the verb, 
 as: Je V admire heaucoup, I greatly admire him ; 11 me gronde toujours, 
 He is always scolding me. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 45. 
 
 A. 1. Ne regarde pas d’ou tu viens, mais ou tu vas. 2. Par oil 
 faut-il que je commence? 3. II y eut un instant ou les plus deter- 
 mines palpiterent. 4. D’ici a deux heures Paffaire va s’engager. 5. 
 
EEMARKS ON SOME CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
 
 261 
 
 Revenez demain ; d’ici la j’aurai arrange votre affaire. 6. Le ci-devant 
 marquis de Surgy. 7. L’honneur est comme une ile escarpee et san& 
 bords; on n’y peut plus rentrer des qu’on en est dehors. 8. II m’en 
 veut de I’avoir quitte. 9. II en sera de cette reclamation comme de 
 celle de Tan passe. 10. En est-ce assez, 6 ciel? 11. C’en est trop. 12. 
 J’en suis pour mon argent et ma reputation. 13. C’en est fait, il est 
 mort. 14. N’est-il pas singulier que dans une ville aussi fameuse que 
 Carthage, on en soit a chercher I’emplacement meme de ses ports? 15. 
 Je ne vous en croirai qu’apr^s I’experience. 16. Souffrez, mes freres^ 
 que j’en appelle a votre conscience. 17. Quand deja on n’y voit guere^ 
 quand on a peine a marcher — . 18. C’est une affaire ou il y va du 
 
 salut de Fetat. 19. Vous n’y etes pas. 20. Il demeure tout pres. 21. 
 Elle se promene ici pres. 22. Il ne se trouve plus autant de lions en 
 Afrique, a beaucoup pres, qu’il y en avait autrefois. 23. On lui a 
 rendu tout son bien, a peu de chose pres. 24. Ils etaient un peu ivro- 
 gnes; a cela pres, fort honnetes gens. 
 
 B. 1. Les longues guerres entrainent toujours apres elles beaucoup 
 de desordres. 2. On demande a votre mari qu’il ait bien du soin de 
 moi. 3. Bien d’autres perils Font assailli. 4. Trop peu d’honneur 
 pour moi suivrait cette victoire. 5. Je vous recommande un peu de 
 repos, un peu de tranquillite. 6. Si j’en savais plus j’en dirais davan- 
 tage. 7. On a moins de genie que dans le siecle de Louis XIV, moins 
 de vrai talent, moins de grace et de politesse, mais on a beaucoup plus 
 de connaissances. 8. Cela coutera moins de dix francs. 9. Toute votre 
 felicite, Sujette a I’instabilite, en moins de rien tombe par terre. 10. 
 C’eut ete autant d’argent d’epargne. 11. Il ne faut point tant de ce- 
 remonies. 12. Combien y a-t-il de personnes ? 13. Que je sens a la 
 fois de surprise et de joie! 14. Qu’une ame genereuse a de peine a 
 faillir ! 
 
 C. 1. Il ressent mes douleurs beaucoup plus que moi-mme. 2. 
 Son dernier etat deviendra de beaucoup pire que le premier. 3. Le 
 christianisme, la derniere religion qui ait paru sur la terre, est aussi 
 de beaucoup la plus parfaite. 4. Je fuis les oisifs des villes, gens aussi 
 ennuyes qu’ennuyeux. 5. Le bon Louis XII fut autant aime que 
 Louis XI avait ete execre. 6. Rien ne m’a tant fache que cette nou- 
 velle. 7. Cornelius Nepos, auteur ancien et judicieux autant qu’elegant. 
 8. Il fut d’autant plus facile de le repousser. 9. Combien toutes les 
 richesses de la terre sont insuffisantes ! 10. Qu’il est beau de mediter 
 Fecriture sainte! 11. Voulez-vous savoir comment il faut donner, met- 
 tez-vous a la place de celui qui re^oit. 12. Comme il est bon! Comme 
 il est aimable! 
 
 D. 1. L’attaque de vendemiaire etait toute recente, 2. Elles etaient 
 tout etonnees, toutes confuses. 3. Singulier caractere des Fran^ais que 
 les passions memes ne peuvent etouffer. 4. Les plus rigoureux censeurs, 
 les ennemis meme de Cromwell, ne lui ont pas refuse un grand esprit. 
 
 5. Alexandre perdit quelque trois cents homines lorsqu’il defit Porus. 
 
 6. Quelque bien ecrits que soient ces ouvrages, ils auront peu de succes. 
 
 E. 1. On comptait que Fannee d’auparavant, il y avait eu quatorze 
 cents meurtres dans la ville. 2. Il y a en vous une chose de trop. 
 3. Il en prit les cordons avec ses deux pattes de devant. 4. Rentrons 
 
262 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 id, nous serons bien mieux. 5. Ces gardens ne sont pas si mal. 6. II 
 se fachait tout rouge. 7. Cette statue sonne creux. 8. Le plaisir de 
 faire du bien nous paie comptant de notre bienfait. 9. II ouvre un 
 ceil mourant qu’il referme soudain. 10. Coupons court aux erreurs 
 de ]a jeunesse. 11. II ne faut rien moins, pour nous satisfaire, que 
 I’espoir de redevenir heureux. 12. Ma comedie n’est rien moins que 
 ce qu’on veut qu’elle soit. 
 
 LV. AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 I. Adverbs of absolute affirmation and negation. 
 
 1. The adverbs of affirmation oni^ and or si fait differ 
 in that si and si fait affirm the opposite of what has been 
 stated and stand therefore after negative sentences, as : JVh 
 Vaime^-vous pas? Si, je Vaime. Don’t you like him? Yes, 
 I like him; but L' aimez-vous ? Oui, je Vaime. 
 
 2. These adverbs and the adverb of absolute negation 
 non are used to replace a clause, and therefore not only, like 
 the English yes and no, may stand alone, but also after the 
 conjunction que, as: Les uns disent que oui, les autres que 
 non, Some say yes, others no. 
 
 3. Non, which may be strengthened by pas, may also 
 be used like the English not to replace* a negatived verb (see 
 below II. A. 1. B.), as: Les calomnies sHmpriment, mais la 
 Teponse, non. Calumnies are printed, but not the answer ; or 
 it may stand with a clause dependant upon it, as: Non que 
 votve colere ou la movt vnUntimide, Not that your anger or 
 death frightens me; or it may negative an attribute, standing 
 with it in place of a negatived adjectival clause, as: Yerite 
 non contestee, A truth which is not contested. 
 
 II. Negation with exclusives. 
 
 To express negation in a sentence where a verl) is ex- 
 pressed, with few exceptions (see below III.) two things are 
 required, the particle ne must precede the verb to give the 
 negation, and an indefinite exclusive word must be used either 
 to give the extent to which the action of the verb is nega- 
 tived, or to direct the negation to a particular notion in the 
 sentence. 
 
 The particle ne is a verbal proclitic, and cannot be used 
 to negative any other part of speech but the verb, hence it 
 is necessary to mark in French by some special means, whe- 
 ther the action itself is negatived, or whether it is negatived 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 263 
 
 with reference to some particular notion in the sentence ; for 
 in both cases the negation is expressed by ne preceding the 
 verb. In the former case the exclusive adverbs pas or point 
 are used, and mark that the action of the verb is entirely 
 excluded. In the latter case, where we employ a universal 
 exclusive as no^ no one, never, or else prefix not to the par- 
 ticular notion we wish to negative, French keeps the negative 
 particle ne with the verb, and uses an indefinite exclusive to 
 mark the notion to which it is directed. 
 
 An indefinite exclusive word is one, which expresses an 
 indefinite individual or portion of a whole, and is only used 
 when the predication is denied of this, and by implication 
 therefore of the class or of the whole. In English we say 
 he has not any friends —, without a single friend — , 
 I care not a whit, where any, a single and a whit are in- 
 definite exclusives ; but any and a single may also be used 
 inclusively, as in any you like. He came with a single friend ; 
 and the use of a whit to give the extent, to which the action 
 of a verb is negatived, is quite exceptional. In Latin we have 
 a class of indefinite exclusives ullus, unquam, quisquam, which 
 are never used inclusively, and we find occasionally a word 
 like hiluni used exclusively to give the extent, to which the 
 action of a verb is negatived ; but negation by indefinite ex- 
 clusives is by no means the rule, it is always optional to use 
 a universal exclusive nullus, nunquam, nemo for the negative 
 particle and indefinite exclusive ; while the use of such a word 
 as an adverb of quantity with a verb is quite exceptional. 
 In French as there are no universal exclusives, and the nega- 
 tive particle is confined to the verb, indefinite exclusive words 
 are of far greater importance than even in Latin; they not 
 only form a class to themselves, and are necessary to com- 
 plete the negative particle ne, but, from their continually 
 accompanying a negatived verb, when the verb is omitted, 
 they are capable by themselves of expressing a negative. 
 
 NOTE. That a French exclusive expresses in use an indefinite 
 individual of a class, or an indefinite part of a whole, is strictly the 
 case; hut some of them have only attained this force by their use, and 
 have not such meaning originally. So the Latin universal exclusives 
 nul, nullement are treated as indefinite exclusives; the use of plus as 
 an exclusive = any more, a moment longer does not interfere with 
 its regular force; in jamais (Lat. jam magis) the original inclusive 
 force is almost lost, but still exists in a jamais, pour jamais; in guere 
 
264 
 
 AFFIEMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 = any great amount the etymology is doubtful, but its use in old 
 French, though more extensive than now-a-days (see below A. 2. a. 
 and 3.) is, so far as my reading goes, strictly that of an exclusive, 
 even at a time when aucun could equally well be used inclusively. 
 
 Indefinite exclusive words are of three kinds, either A. 
 they negative the action of the verb entirely and are not used 
 in an affirmative clause ; or B. they mark the notion in the 
 sentence with reference to which the verb is negatived, and 
 can be used even in affirmative clauses, where their use marks 
 the exclusion of the class to which they belong, or C. they 
 gain the force of exclusives simply from the context. 
 
 A. Exclusive words which negative the action of the verb 
 entirely are pas and point. 
 
 Pas — a step, and point = a point, are used like 
 ieaucotip etc. as adverbs of quantity and degree and may stand 
 either qualifying the verb adverbially, or as its object with 
 de and a dependant partitive, as: II ne vient pas, He is not 
 coming, (lit. He is not coming a step); Je n^ai pas de chance, 
 I have no luck, (as we might say I have not a ghost of a 
 chance). 
 
 NOTE. In older French other substantives were similarly used 
 in an exclusive sense to negative altogether the action of the verb. 
 Of these hrin a straw, and mie a cramb, are still occasionally found 
 in familiar style, as: Sans quHl se doute hrin de ce que — . Mot and 
 goutte, which are usually classed with these, seem rather to belong to 
 the class of words used exclusively (III. 4. below), as they only occur 
 as direct objects of the verb. 
 
 1. With a finite verb. Pas and Point differ in that 
 point implies the more energetic negative of the two ; hence 
 when the object or complement of the verb is an adverb of 
 quantity pas is usually employed. In negative questions ne 
 — pas for the most part expects an affirmative answer, as: 
 Ne suis'je pas ton pere, et ne me dois-tu pas respect? Am 
 not I your father, and do not you owe me respect? Ne — 
 point on the other hand is used, when a doubt is expressed, 
 which does not anticipate the answer, as : Frere, lui dis-je, 
 ne serie^-vous point, par hazard, domestique de la fille de 
 M, le docteur Murcia? Brother, 'said I, am I right in think- 
 ing you the servant of doctor Murcia’s daughter? 
 
 Both pas and point may be strengthened by du tout = 
 at all, as: Je ne Vaime pas du tout, I do not at all like it. 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 265 
 
 2. Without a verb, pas cannot stand by itself, but mostly 
 qualifies adverbs, as; Comment va-t-il? Pas Hen. How is he? 
 Not well. But point is found alone, as: Je suis sur qu’elle 
 vivra fort contente avec vous. — Point. I am sure she will 
 live very contentedly with you. Not so. Du tout even without 
 pas or point has a negative force in answers to questions, as: 
 Vous le connaisse^? Du tout. You know him? Not at all. 
 In incomplete clauses, in which the verb from a previous clause 
 is understood, non^ or non pas (see above I. 3) may be used 
 for OY point., except with adverbs, as: Je crains votre 
 silence et non pas vos injures., I fear your silence, and not 
 your abuse. 
 
 3. With an infinitive mood ne pas, ne point both pre- 
 cede the verb, unless the negative is to be strongly accented. 
 If the object of the infinitive is a personal pronoun, in older 
 authors it usually stands between ne and the exclusive, in 
 later authors between the exclusive and the infinitive, as: II 
 faut qu’il se prepare a ne me plus revoir. Volt. Je fermai 
 les yeux, esperant ne pas les ouvrir avant le jour. Merimee. 
 
 Pas and point, both denying the action entirely, no other 
 of the exclusive words included under A. and B. can stand 
 with them in the same sentence. 
 
 B. The second class of exclusive words are such as mark 
 the notion in the sentence, with reference to which the verb 
 is negatived. 
 
 Such are personne, rien, nul, nullement, aucun, aucune- 
 ment, pas un, guere, plus, mais, jamais, nonplus, ni, and que. 
 
 1. With a finite verb negatived by the particle ne, per- 
 sonne and rien always substantival, nul, aucun, and pas un 
 used both as substantives and as adjectives, exclude the action 
 of the verb with reference to a person or a thing, as: Pden 
 ne lui a reussi, Nothing has succeeded with him; Connaissez 
 les Ifiommes, eprouve^-les peu a peu; ne vous livrez a aucun. 
 Get to know men, try them little by little; trust no one 
 entirely. 
 
 Of the adverbs, nuUement and aucunement exclude the 
 action of the verb with reference to manner, as : Nen doutes 
 nuUement, Have no sort of doubt about it ; plus, and mais 
 with reference to future time, jamais to all time, as : Je ne 
 
 Amitage, French grammar. 18 
 
266 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION, 
 
 reverrai plus ces heaiix paysages, I shall not again see these 
 beautiful landscapes; Je neVai jamais vue^ I have never 
 seen her; guere excludes the action with reference to its full 
 extent, as : Le peuple ne connatt guere dans les riches autre 
 vertu gue la hienfaisance, Common people hardly recognise 
 (lit. do not recognise to any great extent) any other virtue 
 in rich men but benevolence ; non plus excludes for the second 
 time an action, which has been once excluded, as: II ne dort 
 non plus que son pere^ He is not sleeping any more than is 
 his father. 
 
 Of the conjunctions ni extends the exclusion to a second 
 notion, as : Ni lui ni son frere ne sont arrives, Neither he 
 nor his brother have come ; que marks the limit of the exclu- 
 sion, and introduces the cases to which it does not extend, 
 as : On ne loue d' ordinaire que pour Hre loue, Men usually 
 praise only with the view of being praised, (lit. do not praise 
 except to le praised). 
 
 cc. Aucunement is seldom used at present with a nega- 
 tived verb, and is indeed nearly confined to use 2. below, in ne- 
 gative answers, as: Vous Hes lien emu, il me semlle. — 
 Aucunement. You seem a good deal excited. Not at all. 
 
 /?. Rien like pas and point may be strengthened by du 
 tout, as : Ne me dis rien du tout, ou parle tout d fait, Tell 
 me nothing at all, or speak without reserve. 
 
 y. Mais (Lat. magis) is only used with pouvoir, as: 
 Je n^en puis mais, I cannot help it, (lit. I have no further 
 power in the matter). 
 
 S. Plus and guere are adverbs of quantity and like, the 
 other adverbs of quantity and degree may be used either 
 substantivally with de and dependant substantive, or adver- 
 bially, as : U n^a guere d) argent, He has hardly any money ; 
 C'est un don que le del ne nous refuse guere, It is a gift 
 that heaven scarcely ever refuses us. 
 
 €. Plus is not used as an exclusive, when it expresses 
 a comparative degree ; hence when plus expresses a compara- 
 tive in a sentence with a negatived verb, pas or point must 
 be used with the verb, as: II nSaime pas son fils plus que 
 son neveu = He does not love his son more than he does 
 his nephew. If the action is to be excluded for the second 
 time, which we sometimes express in English by using any 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 267 
 
 more^ as in He does not love his son any more than his 
 nephew in the sense of He does not love his nephew^ nor 
 his son either^ in French we must use non pltis^ as : 11 rHaime 
 son fils non plus que son neveu^ which would be more com- 
 monly expressed by using ni to extend the exclusion to a 
 second notion, as : 11 n^aime pas son fils ni son neveu non 
 plus. 
 
 L. Que has the force of autre que^ autrement que^ and 
 introduces the cases to which the negation of a previous action 
 does not apply. In many cases therefore it answers to the 
 English only* But in such a sentence, as: He was only joMng, 
 where the action of the verb is affirmed and no exceptions 
 are mentioned, we cannot say 11 n’a que plaisante; but to trans- 
 late it into French by ne — que, another verb must be in- 
 troduced the action of which is denied, except in the one point, 
 as : H n'a fait que plaisanter. Again if only excludes the 
 subject of the verb, ne — que cannot be used, as que only 
 excludes from a previous negation. Hence either seul, seule- 
 ment must be used or a periphrasis, such as il n'^y a que — 
 etc., as: Only the shadow remains for me = IJ ombre seule 
 nien reste; Only God can restore him his lost strength = 
 11 n^y a que J)ieu qui lui puisse rendre ses forces perdues. 
 
 2. Without a verb, exclusives of the second class have 
 negative force, as: QvHavez-vous vu? — - Rien, What did you 
 see? Nothing. Qui a etc ici? — Personne. Who has been 
 here? — No one. Quel enfant restera court a cette question? 
 Aucun, What child would stop at this question ? Not one. 
 Oh! monpere! est-ce possible? dit-il. — Que trop veritable, 
 continua VabbL Oh, father, is it possible? said he. — It is 
 only too true, continued the abbe. 
 
 a. In modern French guere is scarcely used, except in 
 clauses in which the verb and negative is expressed (see below 
 3. n. 1); in place of guere with the verb and negative under- 
 stood, as is the case with the other exclusives of the 2^ class, 
 peu must be used to express not much in an answer, and the 
 verb alone is understood without the negative ; so in answer 
 to the question Aime-t-il son maitre? we may answer either 
 Tres-peu i. e. H Vaime tres-peu, or Nullement i. e. H ne 
 Vaime nullement; but not Guere for H ne Vaime guere. 
 
 3. Besides their use with a negative verb, and in in- 
 
 is* 
 
268 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 complete sentences where the verb and negative particle is 
 understood, exclusives of the 2^ class are employed, where 
 by the mention of an indefinite individual, or of an indefinite 
 part, the remainder of the class or of the whole to which it 
 belongs, is excluded. Hence we find them in all virtually 
 negative sentences, such as in questions which require a ne- 
 gative answer, as: Cieux! a-t-on vu jamais^ a-t^on rien vu 
 de tel ? Good heavens ! Has any thing similar ever been seen ? 
 or when the verb with dependant infinitive in sense has the 
 force of a negatived action, as : J'eviterai avec soin d’offenser 
 personne, I shall take care not to offend any one ; or after 
 the preposition sans^ or the conjunction sans que^ as: Ha 
 parle sans que personne le contredU^ He spoke without any 
 one’s contradicting him ; or after a comparative, as : JJlysse 
 entend mieux que nul autre mortel les lois de Minos^ Ulys- 
 ses understands the laws of Minos better than any other man ; 
 or in a clause dependant on a negatived principal clause, as : 
 Je ne crois pas qu^aucun puisse y parvenir^ I do not think 
 that any one can attain to it, or in conditional clauses, 
 where the action, conditionally affirmed with respect to one 
 individual of a class, or the smallest portion of a whole, is 
 understood to be negatived of the remainder, as: Je nieure^ 
 en VOS discours si je puis rien comprendre, May I die, if I 
 can understand anything of your conversation. 
 
 NOTE 1. Although all the exclusive words of the 2^ class are 
 in French affirmative in sense, yet the original negatives have so far 
 regained their negative force, that they would not be used in a question 
 requiring a negative answer, still less in a clause, where the action is 
 affirmed of the exclusive itself though only conditionally. Such are 
 nul, nuUement, pas un, non plus and ni. But where the exclusive 
 sense is absolute as after sans or a comparative, even in modern French 
 nul etc. may be used, equally well with aucun etc. I am not well 
 enough read in middle French to he able to say when the change took 
 place, but in old French no such distinction is known, and nul was 
 used whenever aucun could be used at the present day. Similarly 
 guere, which in old French was used, wherever the sense of exclusion 
 prevailed, as in a clause dependant on a negatived principal clause, 
 or in a conditional clause, is now confined strictly to sentences in which 
 the verb is negatived. 
 
 NOTE 2. The pure indefinites quelque, quelqu^un, quelque chose are 
 sometimes found in place of the exclusives even in good authors, as: 
 On ne pouvait voir quelque chose de plus laid, Chateau b.; and not 
 unfrequently where ni should extend the exclusion to a second notion, 
 et takes its place, as: H n!y a rien dans Vantiquite de si majestueux 
 et de si philosophique. Volt. 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 269 
 
 0. Some words not invariably* exclusive, yet, when so 
 used, complete the negative without the adverb pas or point. 
 Such are 
 
 1. The universal relatives qui que ce soit^ quoi que ce 
 soit, and quelconque, and the interrogative que as object of 
 an infinitive in an indirect question, as: JerCy ai trouve qui 
 que ce soit, I found no one there, Je rCai que faire.^ I don’t 
 know what to do. 
 
 2. Autre as an exclusive can complete the negation when 
 it stands without an article, with or without the preposition 
 dCj as: On ne fit autre chose cette nuit-la que de veiller^ 
 They did nothing else that night but watch, II n^avait autre 
 titre d regner que la force^ He had no other title for reign- 
 ing, but force. 
 
 NOTE. As was noticed above (B. 1. que only gains its ex- 
 clusive force as introducing a second member of comparison after a 
 suppressed autre, and can be used only after the negative has been 
 expressed ; but when the full expression is used, the English only qua- 
 lifying the subject can be translated by autre que, as : Madame, autre 
 que moi n’a le droit de soupirer, Madame, only I have the right to sigh. 
 
 3. De and its noun used of duration of time (see L. 2. y) 
 may complete the negative without other exclusive word, as: 
 Je ne lui pardonnerai de ma vie, I will not pardon him 
 during my life (= at any moment in my life). 
 
 4. The exclusive character of the noun is often sufficiently 
 marked, not to require the presence of a regular exclusive 
 word by the omission of the article. Such is the case 
 
 C(. after the impersonal expressions II riy a, JZ n^est 
 followed by a common noun in the singular, and explained 
 by an adjectival clause, as: II n^y avait livre qu’il ne lut, 
 There was not a book he did not read; 
 
 fi. with the word mot as object of dire, repondre, son- 
 ner, and souffler, and with goutte as object of voir, com- 
 prendre and entendre, as : Je n'ai souffle mot, I have not 
 breathed a word; 
 
 y. with the expressions homme vivant, dme qui vive and 
 the like, as: Je n'en parlerai a dme qui vive, I will not 
 speak of it to any living soul. 
 
 III. Ne and finite verb without exclusive. 
 
 A. Ne is used without an exclusive to negative a verb 
 in a principal clause. 
 
27a 
 
 AFFIEMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 1. With the verbs savoir, ponvoir, oser^ houger and ces- 
 ser when the negative is not emphasized. If however the 
 subject of houger is a thing, pas or point must be used, as ; 
 Ne houger de grdce^ et nHnterrompez point votre discours, 
 Don’t move, pray, and don’t break off what you are saying. 
 But Les etoiles ne hougent pas, The stars do not move. The 
 other verbs are little more than auxiliary verbs of mood, and 
 as such naturally reject the emphatic adverb of exclusion, 
 which would separate them from the infinitive, with which in 
 sense they form one verb, as : Qui vit hai ne saurait long- 
 temps vivre, He who lives hated cannot live long. 
 
 2. Ne may negative a verb without pas in oratorical 
 questions which do not require an answer ; in questions, in- 
 troduced by gue to express astonishment or regret, the exclu- 
 sive must be omitted, as: Que n^ai-je He frappe! Why was 
 I not struck ! 
 
 3. In some few short expressions, as: A Dieu ne plaise, 
 God forbid; Nimporte, It does not matter; Qu'^d cela ne 
 tienne, It’s of no consequence. 
 
 NOTE. In one expression avoir garde de = to be careful not 
 to, no explanation has been given of the negative ne. According to 
 the analogy of prendre garde (XL. 4. the ne in Ils n’ont eu garde 
 de Vattaquer, They took care not to attack him, is entirely superfluous. 
 But garde seems to be used both in the sense of precaution against 
 and of care for ; in the former sense we have prendre garde de = to 
 take care against; in the latter n’ avoir garde de = to be anxious not 
 to. N avoir garde de would then be equivalent to n’ avoir cure de, 
 which, though usually = not to take care for, yet seems also used — 
 to take care not to, as : Li cers n^ot cure diar ester For la grant paor 
 que il a. Fergus. 118. 
 
 B. Ne is used without an exclusive to negative a verb 
 in a dependant clause, when the clause if stated independantly 
 would be affirmative. 
 
 Hence 1. when the negative in the dependant clause is 
 contradicted by a negation implied or expressed in the prin- 
 cipal clause. 
 
 cc. In substantival clauses the context alone will decide 
 whether the adverbial exclusive will be used or not, as: II 
 est impossible que les richesses ne donnent du pouvoir, It is 
 impossible that riches should not confer power. Here pas is 
 omitted, as the dependant clause stated independantly is 
 Niches confer power. But Nile n'etait pas sure que ce ne 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 271 
 
 fut point un songe^ She was not sure that it was not a dream. 
 Here point is used, because the dependant clause stated inde- 
 pendantly is It was not a dream. 
 
 [S, In adjectival clauses the exclusive is omitted if the 
 antecedent in the principal clause is actually or virtually ne- 
 gatived, as: Je ne dis rien gui ne soit connu.^ I say nothing 
 which is not known; i. e. What I say is known. II y a peu 
 de conjonctures ou it ne faille tout dire ou tout cacher., There 
 are few cases in which we ought not either to tell everything, 
 or to hide everything; i. e. In most cases we ought — . 
 
 y. In adverbial clauses of consequence the exclusive is 
 omitted, when the clause is dependant on a negatived principal 
 clause, as : Son livre rHest pas si gros qu'on ne le puisse 
 lire tout entier.^ His book is not so large that we cannot read 
 it right through. 
 
 Not unfrequently the expression of consequence is left to 
 be implied in the principal clause, so that gue — ne has the 
 same force as sans gue in an adverbial clause of manner, as: 
 On ne pent opprimer Vun de vous gue tons ne soient oppri- 
 mes.^ One of you cannot be oppressed without all being op- 
 pressed (= in such a way that all be not oppressed). 
 
 2. when the negation in the dependant clause is stated 
 only conditionally. So 
 
 a. Frequently in the protasis of conditional clauses, as : 
 Si je ne craignais de fatiguer votre majeste je lui ferais 
 encore observer — If I were not afraid to weary your majesty, 
 I would call your attention further — ; for Si je craignais.^ 
 je ne lui ferais pas observer would convey the same idea, 
 showing that the negation is not absolute. 
 
 NOTE. Ne without pas is always used to negative the protasis, 
 when the verb being Hre^ si is omitted and the subject follows the 
 verb, as : Je me soucierais fort peu de tout ce quHls peuvent dire, ri’Hait 
 Vartifice quHls ont de me faire des ennemis que je respecte. 
 
 In a clause introduced by d moins gue the verb is 
 regularly constructed with the particle being only occasio- 
 nally omitted in poetry, as : A. moins gue vous ne preniez 
 bien votre temps, vous n^en viendrez pas d bout, Unless you 
 use your time well, you will not get it done. 
 
 Similarly with sans gue when the principal clause is ne- 
 gative the verb of the dependant clause has occasionally ne, 
 as : On ne peut changer les relations des hommes entre eux. 
 
272 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 sans que^ peu apres, la litterature rCeprouve un changement 
 correspondant, Barante. The relations of men to each other 
 cannot change without literature experiencing shortly after a 
 corresponding change. 
 
 NOTE. In both these cases the dependant clause is conditionally 
 negative, though in English we do not so express it. Que in both ca- 
 ses introduces a negatived supposition; so in the sentences above we 
 have Supposing that you do not use your time wed, you will not get 
 it done for less, and Supposing that literature experiences no corres- 
 ponding change, the relations of men to each other cannot change 
 ivithout it. Littre in his dictionary says that sans que followed by 
 the subjunctive never takes ne; but instances occur in good authors, 
 and the use of ne with sans que may rest on the same principle as 
 with d moins que. 
 
 y. In a clause of purpose dependant on a verb, the mean- 
 ing of which points to the prevention of an end, as: Fuyez 
 qu’d ces soupgons il ne nous sacrifie, Fly that he may not 
 sacrifice us to these suspicions, i. e. He will otherwise sacri- 
 fice us. 
 
 Hence regularly after verbs of hindering, taking care etc. 
 as garden, prendre garde, empecher, eviter, tenir d etc., as: 
 Prene0 garde que Dieu ne change ce flambeau de sa place 
 et quHl ne nous laisse dans les tenehres, Take care that God 
 do not remove this torch from its place, and leave us in 
 darkness. He! voule^-vous, madame, empecher qu^on ne cause? 
 Would you prevent their talking, Madame? 
 
 (5. After verbs and expressions of fearing, as: Appre- 
 hender, avoir peur, craindre, trembler, de crainte que, de 
 peur que etc., when the principal clause is affirmative, the 
 dependant clause has ne of that, which it is feared will hap- 
 pen, ne — pas of that which it is feared will not happen, 
 as : Je crains quHl ne vienne, I am afraid he will come, Je 
 crains quHl ne vienne pas, I am afraid he will not come. 
 
 When the principal clause is negative or virtually nega- 
 tive, the dependant clause has not ne of that which it is fear- 
 ed will happen, and has ne — pas of that which it is feared 
 will not happen, as: Craignez-vous qu'il vienne? Are you 
 afraid he will come? Craignez-vous qu’il ne vienne pas? Are 
 you afraid he will not come ? 
 
 NOTE. With verbs of fearing French usage is not uniform either 
 with itself or with Latin. It so far follows Latin, that when the prin- 
 cipal clause is affirmative, and what is feared, is that something will 
 happen, the dependant clause expresses a negative wish, Vereor ne 
 
AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 273 
 
 veniat, Je crains quHl ne vienne. But in all other cases a verb of 
 fearing in French is followed by a clause of oblique enuntiation, in 
 which the use of the negative follows the regular rule, as in principal 
 clauses. Hence (Chap. XXVIII. 5) a dependant clause after verb of 
 fearing has been classed under oblique enuntiation, though the use of 
 the negative particle shows that when the principal clause is affirma- 
 tive, and what is feared is that something will happen, French usage 
 agrees with Latin, and considers the clause as one of oblique petition. 
 But French does not follow Latin, in constructing a clause dependant 
 on a verb of fearing as a clause of oblique petition, unless the prin- 
 cipal clause is affirmative; nor in constructing a dependant clause as 
 a clause of oblique interrogation, when what is feared is that some- 
 thing will not happen. 
 
 €. After expressions of doubt or denial, which are nega- 
 tived so as nearly to constitute an affirmation, as when dou- 
 ter^ nier, desesperer, disconvenir, contester are negatived, or 
 after such expressions, as: H ne parait pas douteux^ Qui 
 doute? Pen s'en faut, Comiien s'en faut-il? the verb of the 
 dependant clause, if in the subjunctive, generally’' has nc, as: 
 Croye^-moi^ plus fy pense^ et mains je puis douter^ qu'il 
 rCeeoutdt favorahlement sa requede^ Believe me, the more I 
 think of it, the less I doubt, that he will hear your request 
 favourably. 
 
 NOTE. When an expression which would mark the statement 
 as not the. case (XXVIII. 1) is negatived, the clause dependant on it 
 may have the verb either in the indicative or subjunctive; if the double 
 negation is equal to an affirmation the indicative will be used, as: On 
 ne saurait douter que les Germains achetaient leurs femmes^ Guizot; if 
 the double negation is equal to a concession, by rule 3. Chap. XXVIII 
 the subjunctive is required, as: Je ne nie pas quHl ait raison. J. J. 
 Rouss. But the prevalent usage in French authors seems to be neither 
 of these, but rather the one given above, in which the Latin use of 
 constructing these expressions with a consecutive clause introduced by 
 quin^ seems to be followed, represented in French by que — ne, as: (Non 
 erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent) II n'^etait pas douteux 
 que les Helvetes ne fussent tres-puissants ; (Hand multum abfuit quin 
 Ismenias interficeretur), II ne s^en fallut pas de beaueoup quJsmenias 
 ne fut tue. 
 
 C. An affirmative dependant clause has ne without pas 
 or point etc., if when stated independantly it would be nega- 
 tive. Such is the case 
 
 1. In adverbial clauses of time. 
 
 a. When depuis que, or following ilya — , voild — 
 with noun of time, gives the point of time, at which an ac- 
 tion happened, as the beginning of an interval, in which it 
 did not occur again until the time of the principal verb, the 
 
274 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 verb of the dependant clause will be in a compound tense, 
 as : II s'est passe Hen des evenements depuis que — II y a 
 longtemps que — Voild trois jours que — je ne fai vUj 
 Many things have happened since — It is long since — It 
 is three days since — I saw you. 
 
 NOTE. The above construction must not be confused with the 
 use of depuis que and que with a present, imperfect, or simple future, 
 where the dependant clause is really negative; for in the latter case 
 the action by the use of a simple tense is stated not to be occurring 
 at the time of the action of the principal verb, leaving it to be implied 
 that it did not occur in the interval (see Chap. XX. 6). II s’est passe 
 hien des evenements depuis que je ne te vois plus would be translated 
 into English, just as : II s’est passe hien des evenements depuis que je 
 ne ifai vu^ viz. by Many things have happened since I saw you^ be- 
 cause, in speaking of an action lasting through a certain period we 
 choose the tense to suit the beginning of the period. But in French 
 the two sentences are clearly distinguished; depuis que je ne te vois 
 plus would be said by a person writing, who was not in presence of 
 his friend; the clause is negative, and has regularly ne and the exclu- 
 sive adverb plus\ depuis que je ne fai vu would be said by a person 
 in presence of his friend; the clause is affirmative, and the ne is a 
 French addition to Latin usage marking, that if the dependant clause 
 were stated independantly it would be negative. Compare Plant. Amph. 
 302. (Agite pugni: jam diust, quom ventri victum non datis) Allons, 
 mes poingSf il y a dejd longtemps que vous ne fournissez plus au ventre 
 sa nourriture^ where the Latin negative is represented by the French 
 ne and the exclusive plus'^ and Pers. 822. (lam diu factum est, post- 
 quam hibimus) II y a dejd longtemps que nous n’avons hu, where the 
 Latin affirmative clause is represented by the French ne without the 
 exclusive marking that the clause if stated independantly would be ne- 
 gative, = we have not drunk for a long time. 
 
 /?. In a clause introduced by avant que^ ne may be used, 
 but is more often omitted, as: La source^ qui tarit presque 
 toujours avant que sa soif ne s’eteigne^ The spring, which 
 is almost always exhausted, before his thirst is extinguished. 
 
 2. In a clause introducing the 2^ term in a comparison 
 of inequality. 
 
 Such is the case when the principal clause, containing a 
 comparative adjective or adverb, plutot^ autre, autrement etc. 
 is affirmative, as : Mon voyage a ete plus heureux que je ne 
 pensais, My journey has been happier than I thought it would 
 be, (stated independantly, we should have I thought it would 
 not he happy), Fuis-je autrement marcher, que ne fait ma 
 famille? Can I walk differently from my family? (i. e. My 
 family does not walk differently). 
 
AFFIKMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 275 
 
 NOTE. As a general rule an affirmative principal clause is fol- 
 lowed by a dependant clause with ne, a negative principal clause by 
 a dependant clause without ne. But it may very well happen, that 
 the speaker may wish to express that the clause dependant on an 
 affirmative principal clause is not to be taken as a negative statement 
 when stated independantly or vice versa. So M. Vi lie main would have 
 failed in modesty, had he inserted ne in the sentence Ils sont peu 
 connus en France^ et mal traduits, plus mal que je fais; and Ponsard 
 could hardly write otherwise than Je ne peux paraitre autre que je 
 ne suis. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 4(1. 
 
 I. 1. N’en voulez-vous pas? — Oh! si, si je le veux! 2. Mais ce 
 n’est pas possible. — II parait que si, mademoiselle. 3. Ce sera, ma 
 fille. — Non. — Si. — Non, vous dis-je. 4. C’est mon frere. — Non 
 pas! 5. Elle se decidera a parler pour toi. — Je crains que non. 6. 
 Chose non coniiue. 
 
 II. A. 1. Nous n’avons point oublie ce que nous n’avons pas dit. 
 
 2. Cela n’est pas trop bien. 3. II est difficile d’aimer ceux que nous 
 
 n’estimons point. 4. La ville n’avait pas meme de rues. 5. Mon grand 
 voyage ne m’a point du tout fatiguee. 6. L’amour ne doit-il pas ceder 
 a la raison? 7. Ne t’a-t-on point flatte d’une fausse esperance? 8. Dis- 
 lej — Pas devant le monde. 9. On nous apprend a lire dans les livres, 
 dans les tableaux, et point dans les hommes. 10. On pent etre plus 
 fin qu’un autre, mais non pas plus fin que tous les autres. 11. A ce 
 prix-la j’aime mieux ne pas la regarder. 
 
 II. B. 1. Qui ne plaint personne ne merite pas qu’on le plaigne. 
 2. Bien n’est beau que le vrai. 3. Nul n’aura de I’esprit, hors nous 
 
 et nos amis. 4. Nul fleuve ne les arrete, nulle forteresse iie les effraie. 
 
 5. Je ne me melais plus d’aucunes affaires. 6. Nous ne vivons jamais, 
 mais nous esperons de vivre. 7. II faut qu’il se prepare a ne me plus 
 revoir. 8. Ce ne sont guere les gens heureux qui s’exilent. 9. Nous 
 n’avions guere que neuf ans. 10. Le malheureux lion bat Pair, qui 
 n’en pent mais. 11. Les Bomains ne firent jamais la paix que vain- 
 queurs. 12. II traita a fond ce que les autres n’avaient fait qu’effleurer. 
 13. Newton voyait clair jusque dans les choses qu’il ne faisait que soup- 
 ^onner. 14. Pas un seul ne vous ecoutera. 15. Je ne saurais passer 
 pour femme, a mon avis, ni pour veuve non plus. 16. Croyez que la 
 presumption ne tient lieu d’aucun talent, ni I’orgueil d’aucune vertu. 
 
 II. B. 2. 1. Vous a-t-il dit qui vous etes? — Pas encore. 2. Sais- 
 tu son nom? — Et toi? — Pas davantage. 3. Nous ne pouvons pas 
 accepter ce qu’il nous donne. — Pourquoi pas? 4. Ce fut un oubli et 
 pas autre chose. 5. Ferez-vous cela? — Du tout. 6. Massena avec 
 I’armee de Ligurie, point augmentee. 7. II avait peu d’intelligence, 
 beaucoup de paresse, aucune instruction. 8. Plus de pitie! Calchas 
 seul regne, seul commande. 9. Qu’est-ce? Bien, mon pere. 10. La foi, 
 dans Pascal, avait ete souvent languissante, mais jamais eteinte. 
 
 11. B. 3. 1. Qu’avons-nous plus a craindre? 2. Que lui ai-je dit 
 que d’indifferent ? 3. Qu’y avait-il done de si satisfaisant pour personne 
 
276 
 
 AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. 
 
 dans un tel malheur? 4. Comment pouvait-elle donner aucune stabilite 
 ni aucune force a un ordre de choses nominalement etabli ? 5. D’au- 
 tres idees I’empechent de vous rien refuser. 6. Cesse de plus mMer 
 ton interet au sien. 7. En proie a ce besoin de croire et a cette im- 
 possibilite de croire que par la raison. 8. II etait plus habile et plus 
 prompt que pas un de ceux qu’il aurait bientot sous sa gouverne. 9. 
 Je I’attribue plutot a mes soixante-dix annees qu’^ aucune maladie. 
 10. Ce n’est pas ma coutume de rien blamer. 11. Tais-toi, si jamais 
 plus tu me viens avertir! 12. II ne peut done eprouver qu’une tres- 
 petite douleur, si meme il en eprouve aucune. 13. La puissance des 
 Normands etait une puissance exterminatrice, s’il en fat jamais. 14. 
 Ennuye d’etre sans rien faire, il alia en Hollande. 15. Partez sans 
 plus tarder. 16. C’est moi-meme, messieurs, sans nulle vanite. 
 
 II. C. 1. Il n’y a mal quelconque. 2. Autre n’a mieux que toi 
 soutenu cette guerre. 3. Je ne sortirai de trois jours. 4. Il n’y a sorte 
 de calomnie que vous n’ayez mis en usage. 5. Il n’est, comme on dit, 
 pire eau que I’eau qui dort. 6. Mais e’est a la charge que, foi d’hon- 
 nete homme, vous ne le montrerez a ame vivante. 7. Je n’y comprends 
 goutte. 8. Ah! je ne dis plus mot; tu as raison, marquis. 
 
 III. A. 1. Je ne saurais me taire. 2. Cela ne peut tarder. 3. Dans 
 son appartement elle n’osait rentrer. 4. La liberte ne cesse d’etre 
 aimable. 5. Je ne bougerai de la, puisque vous I’ordonnez. 6. Le ma- 
 drier ne bougeait pas. 7. Qui ne s’est imagine la mer, les Alpes, 
 Rome? 8. ^1 que ne suis-je convert de cheveux blancs, courbe et 
 proche du tombeau comme Laerte, mon a'ieul? 9. Ne vous en deplaise. 
 10. S’il n’exige qu’une visite, qu’a cela ne tienne. 11. Mais vos fils 
 seront egorges. — N’importe, ils iront parmi les anges. 12. Je n’aurai 
 garde d’y manquer. 
 
 III. B. 1. Ce n’est pas que nous n’en ayons vu de nos jours, et 
 que nous n’en voyions encore des exemples. 2. Je ne puis cette fois 
 que je ne les excuse. 3. Il ne dit pas que ce que les papes ont decide 
 ne soit pas probable. 4. Vous ne direz rien que je ne puisse entendre. 
 5. EsLil un seul de vous qui ne tremble pour lui? 6. Soixante-dix ans 
 n’ont pas tellement appesanti ma plume que je ne fisse avec succes 
 une satire centre I’hydropisie. 7. Ne peut-il faire un pas qu’il ne 
 vous soit suspect? 8. Je ne me bats jamais qu’aussitot je ne tue. 9. 
 Quoiqu’il ne croie a rien, si ce n’est a lui-meme — . 10. Je ne sortirai 
 pas, si vous ne me venez prendre en voiture. 11. L’amour-propre vit 
 >et regne absolument en nous, a moins que Dieu n’ait detruit son em- 
 pire en versant un autre amour dans notre coeur. 12. Elle ne voyait 
 aucun etre souffrant sans que son visage n’exprimat la peine qu’elle 
 en ressentait. 13. Sors vite, que je ne t’assomme. 14. Prends garde 
 qu’on ne te voie. 15. Empechez qu’elle ne se mele d’aucune affaire. 
 16. J’ai bien peur qu’ils ne reussissent a le cloitrer. 17. Il est dange- 
 reux que la vanite n’etouffe une partie de la reconnaissance. 18. Peut- 
 on craindre que la terre manque aux hommes? 19. Ne craignez-vous 
 pas que monsieur le due ne reconnaisse que e’est vous-meme? 20. Vous 
 ne sauriez disconvenir qu’il ne vous ait parle. 21. Doutez-vous que 
 mes veux ne soient honorables? 22. Ne desesperez pas que ce moyen 
 ne vous reussisse. 23. Peut-on nier que les bonnes moeurs ne soient 
 
THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 277 
 
 essentielles a la duree des empires ? 24. II ne s’en faut presque rien 
 qu’il ne soit aussi grand que son frere. 25. II s’en fallait pen qu’il 
 
 U^GUt ftCllGVG. 
 
 III. C. 1. II y a longtemps que tu ne t’es occupe cle dessin. 2. Le 
 grand air me fera du bien ; il y a si longtemps que je ne Tai respire. 
 3. Je serai morte avant qu’il n’entre dans cette chambre. 4. N’ai-je 
 pas fait plus et bien plus que je ne devais? 5. On se voit d’un autre 
 ceil qu’on ne voit son procbain. 6. C’est encore plus vrai que vous 
 ne le croyez. 7. Je ne le connais pas plus que vous ne le connaissez. 
 8. Nous n’attachons pas a ces remarques plus d’importance qu’elles ne 
 le meritent. 
 
 LVI. THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 I. The coordinative conjunctions. 
 
 1. Of the copulative conjunctions et couples inclusive, ni 
 exclusive notions. 
 
 a, Ni, as we have seen Chap. LV. II. B. 3 ; though 
 derived from Latin nec is not negative in French, when the 
 verb is expressed ; but serves to complete the negative particle 
 ne which precedes the verb, as: II n' a ni pere ni mere, He 
 has neither a father, nor a mother. When the verb is omit- 
 ted like all other exclusive words, it can express negation, as: 
 A qui la faute? — Ni a mon frere ni a moi, Whose fault 
 was it? — Neither my brother’s nor mine. Ni corresponds 
 to the English either — or, when used copulatively, except 
 that either — or in English cannot be used as copulative 
 conjunctions, unless the exclusion has been previously marked, 
 as by a negative, the preposition without, a comparative etc., 
 but in their place the negative neither — nor has to be used, 
 as: II n'avait ni habit, ni chapeau, He had not either coat, 
 or hat, Ni habit, ni chapeau ne lui manquaient. Neither 
 coat, nor hat were wanting to him. 
 
 /?. When several negatived verbs are coupled by ni, the 
 negative particle ne is usually repeated with each verb, as: 
 Tin sot ni n^entre, ni ne sort, ni ne s’assied, ni ne se tait, 
 ni n^est sur ses jambes comme un homme d!esprit, A fool 
 does not come in, or go out, or sit down, or hold his tongue, 
 or stand like a man of sense. But sometimes ne is only ex- 
 pressed with the first verb, and understood with the rest, as : 
 Ne save^-vous pas que je ne puis, ni veux en avoir? Don’t 
 you know that I neither can nor will have any ? 
 
 y. When the negative particle ne is completed by an 
 
,278 
 
 THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 exclusive word of the 2^ class (Chap. LV. II. /5), a second 
 verb negatived with reference to the same exclusive is not 
 unfrequently coupled by et the exclusive being understood, as: 
 Or rien de pareil n’etait arrive et riarriva^ Thiers, where 
 we necessarily use the exclusive or, as: iVoto nothing of the 
 hind had happened, or did happen. If the notion is inclu- 
 sive, even after a negatived verb, et must be used, as we use 
 and, as: II ne cessait de le benir et de le remercier, He did 
 not cease to bless and thank him. 
 
 2. Ou — ou and soit — soit are disjunctive, and only 
 used when one notion replaces the other, the second being 
 either the alternative or the explanation of the preceding; 
 they are never copulative like the English either — or, as: 
 Je vivrai sans reproche, ou perirai sans honte, I will live 
 without reproach, or die without shame. Its avaient leur 
 logement dans les portiques ou galeries dont le temple etait 
 environne. They lived in the porches or galleries with which 
 the temple was surrounded. 
 
 3. The conjunctions are repeated with each member when 
 the copulative or disjunctive notion is emphasized, as: Voye^; 
 est-ce, madame, ou ma faute, ou la votre? But, Madame, is 
 it my fault, or yours ? But in a series the conjunction usually 
 only stands before the last member, as: Avant V affaire, le 
 roi, Vane, ou moi, nous mourrons, Before that, the king, the 
 ass, or I shall die. 
 
 II. The subordinative conjunctions. 
 
 1. Quand (Lat. quando) = when, tvhenever, is also used 
 with a verb in the conditional tense to introduce an impro- 
 bable or impossible condition (see XXII. 3), as : Quand vous 
 me hairier, je ne nVen plaindrais pas. Even if you hated 
 me, I should not complain. 
 
 2. Si = if is used mainly in conditional clauses and 
 never with a future tense (Chap. XXI. 3), as: SHI voulait 
 me parler, je n^y consentirais pas, If he should wish to speak 
 to me, I would not consent. Like the Latin si it is also 
 used in substantival clauses = whether, the conditional clause 
 appearing like a dependant question, and in this use it may 
 be followed by a future tense, as : Je lui ai demande, sHl 
 voudrait me parler, I asked him if he would wish to speak 
 to me. 
 
THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 a. To join a conditional clause introduced by si to the 
 context, not unfrequently que is prefixed, answering to the 
 Latin quod si, as : Pendant ma vie meme, vous aurez id 
 un pouvoir absolu ; ma confiance en vous sera sans homes. 
 Que si vous Ues insensible a tous ces avantages, du moins 
 laissez-moi Mentor, For the whole of my life, you will have 
 here absolute power ; my confidence in you will be without 
 limit. But if you are insensible to all these advantages, at 
 all events leave me Mentor. 
 
 /?. A dependant clause introduced by si may stand with- 
 out a principal clause. If the clause is conditional, standing 
 by itself it has the force of an impossible wish, as: Encore 
 si ce hanni n’eut rien aime sur terre ! Had but this banished 
 man loved nothing on earth ! If the clause is substantival it 
 has the force of a strong assertion, as : Quoi ! vous regrettez 
 Minutolo? — Si je le regrette! What, you regret Minutolo? 
 — Can you ask? 
 
 3. Comme (Lat. quomodo) = in like manner as, as: 
 II fuyait les discussions comme il cherchait les batailles, He 
 avoided discussions as he sought after battles. Comme is also 
 used to introduce a clause of time noting the coincidence of 
 a past act with some accompanying occurrence, = just as, 
 as: On la servit comme nous achevions, ou plutot comme il 
 achevait de manger la premiere, It was brought to table, 
 just as we were finishing, or rather as he was finishing eating 
 the first. Further comme may introduce a causal clause, but 
 only when the dependant clause precedes the principal, as : 
 Comme il y avait heaucoup de jeunes personnes dans la 
 chamhre, on proposa de danser, As there were a good many 
 young persons in the room, dancing was proposed. 
 
 NOTE. In place of repeating quand, si or comme, more usually 
 que is employed. As quand and comme are always constructed with 
 the indicative, so also is the que which replaces them. But although 
 si always takes an indicative, the que which replaces it must have the 
 subjunctive (see XXXI. 4). 
 
 4. Que with which all other French subordinating con- 
 junctions are composed, whether written separately or forming 
 one word with the remainder of the compound, is used in 
 three distinct senses, in each of which que is of difi’erent 
 origin. 
 
 A. Que = that serves to introduce all substantival clan- 
 
280 
 
 THE COOKDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 ses of oblique enuntiation or petition, and adverbial clauses 
 of consequence, purpose and cause. 
 
 French que, in this use derived from Latin quod, represents not 
 only quod, but also ut; and with the negative particle ne, it takes the 
 place of the Latin ne, quin and quominus, 
 
 1. A substantival clause may be used, not only in im- 
 mediate connection with the verb of the principal clause, as 
 subject, object, or case of reference, but also in absolute con- 
 struction with a participle, or under the government of a pre- 
 position, either immediately or in apposition to the demon- 
 strative ce. In this way a great number of compound con- 
 junctions are formed, which take the place of simple Latin 
 conjunctions. 
 
 a. The substantival clause introduced by que may stand 
 in an absolute construction with a participle. Hence the com- 
 pound conjunctions attendu que, Hen entendu que, exeepte que, 
 pose que, pourvu que, suppose que, vu que etc., as: Je ne 
 le blame pas, pourvu qvbil se contente, I do not blame him, 
 provided he satisfies himself. 
 
 With the prepositions d, de, en, sur, and par a sub- 
 stantival clause is not under the immediate government of the 
 preposition, but is expressed as an apposition to the demon- 
 strative ce, as : On se plaint en Perse de ce que le royaume 
 est gouverne par deux ou trois femmes. People complain in 
 Persia that the kingdom is governed by two or three women. 
 
 y. With the prepositions apres, avant, des, depuis, du- 
 rant, malgre, nonohstant, outre, pendant, pour, sans, selon, 
 suivant the demonstrative ce is not now used, but the clause 
 with que is governed by the preposition itself, as ; Pour 
 qu^une innovation soit pacifique, il faut qu’elle ne soit pas 
 contestee. For an innovation to be peaceful, it must not be 
 contested. 
 
 To these must be added puisque, composed of the old 
 preposition puis (Lat. post), which is now only used as a 
 causal conjunction = since, as: Tout vous est pardonne, 
 puisque je vois vos pleurs. All is forgiven you, since I see 
 your tears. 
 
 NOTE. After the analogy of postquam, antequam etc. the con- 
 junction que following avant, apres etc., and notably in puisque should 
 be placed under B. below as representing Latin quam, when avant, 
 apres etc. would be adverbs. But we find a great extension in old 
 French of the Latin usage of placing a dependant clause with quod 
 
THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 281 
 
 in apposition to a demonstrative. In Latin it is nearly confined to a 
 few prepositions ad^ in^ pro, as : (Pro magnitudine injuriae proque eo, 
 quod sumtna republica in hujus periculo tentaturj En raison de la 
 grandeur de Vinjure et parce que le salut de Vetat tout entier est com- 
 proniis par son peril. But in French we not only find avant ce que, 
 but even avecques ce que, in the sense of outre que, where the demon- 
 strative occurs twice; while the placing the dependant clause imme- 
 diately under the government of the preposition, as in malgre que, is 
 purely French, and could only have arisen, when all notion of case 
 endings was lost. 1 have therefore classed all cases of dependant 
 clauses under the government of prepositions as involving the omission 
 of ce, though such may not have been the case in each individual 
 instance. 
 
 S. When the clause depends not on a preposition, but 
 on a prepositional phrase, so in d cause que, au cas que, en 
 cas que, d condition que, afin que, au lieu que, de crainte 
 que, de peur que, as : Fut-elle bergere au lieu quelle est fille 
 du Yoi, Were she but a shepherdess, while she is a daughter 
 of the king. 
 
 NOTE. In most of these conjunctions, the substantival clause 
 is in apposition to the substantive; with de crainte que, de peur que 
 it is, as the clause with ne following timor etc. in Latin, objective. Au 
 lieu que seems to have arisen from a false analogy. 
 
 s. A substantival dependant clause introduced by que may 
 be used where there is ellipse of the principal clause. So 
 
 a. Where the principal clause is represented by an adverb, 
 as: Apparemment qu^d s'^etait apprivoise d nos figures. It 
 seemed that he had become used to our faces. 
 
 b. To supply the 3^ persons of the imperative, and in 
 wishes, as: Si (fest vrai, que je sois foudroye. If it is true, 
 may I be struck with lightning. 
 
 c. To express a thing incredible, as : Moi, seigneur, moi, 
 que f eusse une dme si traitresse, I, my lord, that I should 
 have so treacherous a heart. 
 
 d. To express a opposition, as: QuHl me vienne un 
 murmure, une plainte, je mets la main sur vous, Let me 
 only hear a murmur, a complaint, and my hand is on you. 
 
 NOTE. To this head belongs the clause introduced by d moins 
 que, in which the dependant clause is not explanatory of d moins but 
 is an independant supposition, as is seen both from the use of the sub- 
 junctive, and from the negative, as: Je ne le dirai pas d moins quHl 
 ne vienne, I will not tell it, unless he come, (Supposing he does not 
 come, I will not tell it at less). 
 
 Armitage, Frencli grammar. 19 
 
282 
 
 THE COOKDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 2. Que introduces clauses of consequence. 
 
 cc. Explanatory of tlie demonstrative adjectival pronouns 
 ce and tel^ or of an adverb, as si, tellement, tant, jusque-la, 
 as: II faisait un tel hruit qvHon ne pouvait rien entendre, 
 He made so much noise, that nothing could be heard. 
 
 NOTE. The Latin ita is lost in French and si cannot stand, like 
 our so, without an adjective or adverb for it to qualify. Hence so that 
 (ita ut) must be expressed by si with some other adverb, usually bien, 
 as : La nuit nous surprit si bien quHl faUut nous arreter en route. 
 Night came on us unawares so that we had to stop mid way. 
 
 i?. It helps to form the compound conjunctions en sorte 
 que, de maniere que, de fagon que, au point que, d un point 
 que, with the demonstrative tel understood, as: Je tdeherai 
 de faire en sorte que vous soyez content de nous, I will try 
 to act so that you may be satisfied with us. 
 
 y. With other expressions also the word of which que 
 marks the consequence may be omitted, as: Je suis dans 
 une colere que je ne me sens pas, I am in such a rage that 
 
 I do not know what I am doing. This is comparatively 
 rarely the case with an affirmative principal clause; but when 
 both principal and dependant clause are negative, que is 
 regularly used without its correlative, ne alone, without an 
 exclusive, negativing the consequence (see Chap. LV. Ill), as: 
 
 II rCa jamais rien fait quHl ne wfait consults. He has 
 never done anything without consulting me. 
 
 NOTE. Though quod is not used in consecutive sentences in La- 
 tin, yet when ut was lost, que would naturally take its place after the 
 analogy of the relative in adjectival consecutive clauses and of quin 
 resolved into que ne. 
 
 3 . Que introduces a clause of cause. 
 
 A causal clause is for the most part introduced by parce 
 que, puisque or comme, the simple que is in modern French 
 confined to the following cases. 
 
 Cl, After a direct or indirect question for which the de- 
 pendant clause gives the reason, as: Qu’ave^-vous done que 
 vous ne mangez point? What is the matter that you do 
 not eat? 
 
 [j. After d^autant with a comparative, as: Je la plains 
 Jautant plus que Mitliridate Vaime, I pity her the more, 
 because Mithridates loves her. 
 
 y. After e'est, as : Si je suis triste, c^est que j'^en ai su- 
 jet. If I am sad, this is because I have reason for it. 
 
THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 283 
 
 4. Que introduces a final clause. 
 
 Final clauses in modern French are almost always intro- 
 duced by the compound conjunctions afin que^ or pour que, 
 of an end to be attained, by de crainte que, de peur que of an 
 end to be avoided. Simple que is confined to clauses which 
 follow a command, as : Viens que je te dise un mot, Come 
 here, that I may say a word to you. 
 
 B. Que = as, than, serves to introduce a second term 
 of comparison. 
 
 French que in this use derived from Latin quam represents not 
 only quam but et, ac, atque and ut, and after a negative principal clause 
 nisi. Further as the correlative of tel, tant, autant, etc. it seems to 
 take the place of quantum or of an oblique case of qualis or qui. 
 
 a, Que introduces the second term of comparison after 
 a comparative degree, as: N^ai-je pas fait plus et hien plus 
 que je ne devais? Have I not done more, and much more 
 than I ought? 
 
 /?. After autre, autrement, ailleurs, as: Ce vin est hien 
 un autre vin que celui d!hier, This wine is certainly a diffe- 
 rent wine from the one we had yesterday. 
 
 y. After a principal clause negatived by ne alone, que 
 has exclusive force = any other than, any otherwise than 
 (see Chap. LV. B. 1. ^.), as : U amour n’a-t-il eneore triomphe que 
 de vous? Has love as yet triumphed over you alone? 
 
 5. After tant, autant, si, aussi, ainsi, de meme, as: 
 Jamais Von n^est grand qu' autant que Von est juste. Never 
 can a man be great, save so far as he is just. 
 
 6. After tel, le meme, though que may for the most part 
 be a relative in either the accusative or the complement case, 
 in some constructions it cannot be other than a conjunction, 
 as: Je me trouvai toute telle a eet egard que sinousavions 
 eu la deputation, I felt exactly the same in this respect as 
 if we had had the seat, Les mines sont du meme cote de 
 la mer que le Vesuve, The ruins are on the same side of the 
 sea as Vesuvius. 
 
 In the compound conjunctions a mesure que, a propor- 
 tion que the correlative adjective is omitted, as : Le honheur 
 fuit a mesure que nous le eherchons, Pleasure flies in pro- 
 portion as we seek it. 
 
 t. Of the same nature as the above is the conjunction 
 
 19 * 
 
284 
 
 THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 que, which helps to form the concessive conjunctions quoique^ 
 hien que^ pour peu que and the adverbs tout que^ quel- 
 que — que. It corresponds exactly with the relative que 
 which helps to form the universal relatives qui que^ quoi que^ 
 as: Quelque tons traducteurs qu’ils soient, Us ne compren- 
 dront pas ce passage^ However good translators they may be, 
 they will not understand this passage. 
 
 C. Que — when introduces a dependant clause of time. 
 
 French que in this use answers to Latin quum. 
 
 a. When que is explanatory of an adverbial expression 
 denoting the time to which the principal clause is referred. 
 Such are the adverbs maintenant^ d present, depuis hier, de- 
 puis longtemps etc. ; while in lorsque, tors (illas horas) now 
 generally forms one word with que. Such again are substan- 
 tives used adverbially without preposition, as: Un jour, un 
 soir, chaque fois, or in prepositional phrases, as : Du moment, 
 des V instant, depuis un an etc., as: Maintenant quHl est 
 parti. Now that he is gone ; La derniere fois que je tra- 
 versai le Simplon, Last time that I crossed the Simplon; 
 Dans le temps qu’il fut cJiasse, Rome se defit aussi de ses 
 tyrans. At the time when he was driven out, Rome rid her- 
 self of her tyrants also. 
 
 But if in such prepositional phrase the substantive has 
 no article, or is preceded by the demonstrative adjective cet, 
 the conjunction que cannot be used, but is replaced by the 
 relative adverb ou, as : Oui, Sire, en ce jour lieureux ou vous 
 futes donne a la France, — Yes, Sire, that happy day on 
 which you were given to France — . 
 
 NOTE. Whether the relative adverb ou or the conjunction que 
 is used in these constructions depends mainly on custom, Que seems 
 less used in modern French than previously. So at present oit always 
 follows au moment, dans la saison, d Vheure; generally dans le temps, 
 and may stand after aujourdliui, du moment, des V instant. Of course 
 in a Vheure quHl est, que is not the conjunction, but the relative in 
 the complement case. 
 
 /?. Que introduces a clause of time, when the action of 
 the principal clause gives the time at which the action of the 
 dependant clause begins; hence when the time limit of the 
 dependant clause coincides with such adverbs as a peine, dejd, 
 encore, or when the principal clause gives an action not yet 
 done, when the time of the dependant clause begins, as: A 
 peine futnl a Demotica avec sa petite cour, qu'on deposa 
 
THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 285 
 
 le grand-visir Soliman^ He was hardly at Demotica with his 
 little court, when the grand vizier Soliraan was deposed ; 
 Garcias n^etait pas hors de la salle^ gu'il y entra deux 
 cavaliers fort proprement vetus^ Garcias had not left the room, 
 when two gentlemen entered very well dressed. 
 
 y. When the principal clause gives the interval in which 
 the action of the verb of the dependant clause has or has not 
 taken place, as : JZ «/ a deux mille ans que Von ecrit et deux 
 mille ans que Von flatte^ For two thousand years people have 
 been writing, and for two thousand years they have been 
 flattering. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 47. 
 
 1. Je ne veux, ni ne dois, ni ne puis obeir. 2. Je n’ai point exige 
 ni serments ni promesses. 3. Ni la prudence ni I’humanite ne per- 
 mettent une telle conduite. 4. Comment la trouvez-vous ? Ni belle ni 
 laide. 5. J’ai bien verse dans sa chambre des larmes sinceres, sans 
 qu’elle ni personne s’en aper^ut. 6. Plus dangereux fleau que la peste 
 ni la guerre. 7. L’un ou I’autre cas est digne des siecles les plus 
 barbares. 8. Detale vite et cours; que si ce loup t’atteint, casse-lui 
 la machoire. 9. Je doute si vous viendrez a bout de cette affaire. 10. 
 Vous vous en souvenez? — Si je m’en souviens. 11. Encore s’il eut 
 plu a Dieu de lui conserver ce gout sensible de la piete! 12. Comme 
 elle a I’eclat du verre, elle en a la fragilite. 13. Vers le soir, comme 
 elle etait seule avec Virginie, il entra chez elle un grand homme vetu 
 d’une soutane bleue. 14. Comme vous etes parente de Mad. de Vernon, 
 vous avez sans doute son adresse a Paris. 15. Comme nous avons deja 
 dit, et que nous le verrons plus clairement ailleurs, — . 16. Quand tout 
 cedait a Louis et que nous crumes voir revenir le temps des miracles, — . 
 17. Ce serait chose plaisante si les malades guerissaient et qu’on m’en 
 vint remercier. 18. Je m’appelle Lorrain vu que je suis de la Lorraine. 
 19. II laissa son esprit s’egarer de reverie en reverie, jusqu’a ce que 
 le sommeil le gagnat. 20. Bethleem ou la sainte Vierge alia avec saint 
 Joseph se faire enregistrer, parce, dit I’Evangile, que c’etait leur pays. 
 21. Puis done qu’on nous permet de prendre haleine, — . 22. Au lieu 
 que Cesar disait insolemment que la republique n’etait rien, Auguste 
 ne parla que de la dignite du senat. 23. Heureusement que nous allons 
 bientot la quitter. 24. Qu’a cela ne tienne, Monsieur. 25. Moi, que je 
 vous haisse? 26. Qu’on soit blesse par un furieux ou par un aveugle, 
 on n’en sent pas moins sa blessure. 27. Faites les choses de maniere 
 que tout le monde soit content. 28. Es-tu toi-meme si credule que de 
 me soupQonner d’un courroux ridicule ? 29. Nul animal n’avait affaire 
 dans les lieux que Fours habitait. Si bien que, tout ours qu’il etait, 
 il vint a s’ennuyer, 30. Elies ressemblent que e’est incroyable. 31. 
 Ils n’eurent point de repos qu’ils ne les eussent fait mettre par I’in- 
 quisition a I’index. 32. Ou est done papa, qu’il n’est pas dans le cime- 
 
286 
 
 THE COORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 tiere? 33. Ses paroles me plongerent dans un desespoir d’autant 
 plus profond, que mon esperance avait ete plus vive. 34. S’il est parti, 
 c’est qu’il y avait sans doute, pour qu’il restat, des obstacles. 35. Re- 
 viens que je te revoie. 36. Je me plains de mon sort moins que vous 
 ne pensez. 37. II agit autrement qu’il ne pense. 38. Le despotisme 
 a regne ailleurs que dans I’empire remain. 39. Cela n’est pas si aise 
 qu’on le pense. 40. On sait que la temperature monte a mesure qu’on 
 descend dans I’interieur du sol. 41. Bien que je le souhaite de tout 
 mon coeur, je ne le puis pas. 42. Toute interessante que soit cette 
 question, elle demeure presque insoluble. 43. Voyons: depuis longtemps 
 que vous manquez de tout, Est-ce que cette vie est fort de votre gout? 
 44. Une semaine qu’il s’etait laisse arrierer pour son loger, il rencontra 
 son voisin. 45. Uu moment que je ne suis bonne a rien, je ne peux 
 que nuire involontairement. 46. Au dix aout, jour ou j’ai annonce 
 que — . 47. II s’est esquive que nous n’etions encore qu’au pont aux 
 Changeurs. 48. Je n’etais pas sorti de Londres que j’ai entendu ga- 
 loper sur mes traces. 49. II y aura demain huit jours qu’il est parti. 
 50. II y a longtemps qu’ils ne se voient point. 
 
TRANSLATION OP EXAMPLES 1-3. 
 
 287 
 
 Translation of Examples. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 1. 
 
 1. Walls are the paper of fools. 2. We must carefully avoid low 
 and trivial phrases and expressions. 3. Man is the best and the worst 
 of (all) animals. 4. Ignorance believes in wizards and ghosts, as much 
 as in God. 5. A dog barks, an ass brays, a horse neighs, a cow lows. 
 6. Water is a more wholesome beverage than wine. 7. I paid a franc 
 a dozen for these apples. 8. Another precious recollection is that of 
 our walks on Sunday. 9. Corn is being sold for five francs a bushel. 
 10. Gold is more precious than iron, but iron is the most useful of (all) 
 metals. 11. We have a holiday twice a week, on Thursdays and 
 Saturdays. 12. Simplicity is one of the characteristics of truth. 13. 
 Children mimic men. 14. The habits of bees and ants are very curious. 
 15. Does this master teach French? No, Sir, he teaches Latin and 
 Greek. 16. Did that beggar ask an alms of you? Of course he did, 
 beggars always do so. 17. These books smell of tobacco. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 2. 
 
 1. Excessive joy calls forth tears oftener than laughter. 2. Am- 
 bition leads virtue by means and to ends, which are often unworthy 
 of her. 3. There are men who always imagine vile motives for the 
 noblest actions. 4. Everywhere were seen glittering drops of dew, 
 which seemed like diamonds. 5. To write poetry not only wit is ne- 
 cessary but imagination as well. 6. In the country I like to get whey, 
 and good soup. 7. Good sense and perspicuity are necessary in all 
 kinds of poetry. 8. I am not now telling you vague reports. 9. I will 
 not take trouble for nothing. 10. Which of us has not found a charm 
 in following with his eyes the clouds of heaven! 11. Do not give me 
 advice, which it would be dangerous to follow. 12. He cannot speak 
 without making mistakes. 13. You ought all of you to write this exer- 
 cise without making any mistakes. 14. A bank ought to succeed, if it 
 only discounts good paper. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 3. 
 
 1. He spoke to me with tears in his eyes. 2. What! were you 
 not at banker Martigny’s, you countess of Montfort? 3. I then saw 
 that Alexander, who since then has filled the world with wonder and 
 mourning. He has regular features, a fine clear complexion, an aqui- 
 line nose, large fiery eyes, fair curly hair. 4. This tree has a thin 
 bark. 5. This wine has a sickly colour. 6. He was condemned to 
 have his head cut off. 7. He has a quick wit, delicate taste, good 
 
288 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 sense, and his heart in the right place. 8. Welcome! 9. Duchess, let 
 us talk without metaphor. I will do what you tell me, minister. 10. 
 Halloh my friend! one word with you please. I have not time. 11. 
 The king came down from his rooms to bid the queen welcome. 12. 
 Every one begins to make a bow. 13. Is M. D. at home? Yes, Sir, 
 he got here about six. 14. He ordered them to weigh anchor. 15. 
 I must give myself a new coat this very day, though I have not a 
 farthing. 16. They have put the prisoners on bread and water. 17. 
 Lake Erie is more than a hundred leagues in circumference. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 4. 
 
 1. If all men were like Socrates, knowledge would not then be 
 hurtful to them. 2. The age of Perugino and Michel Angelo prepared 
 the way for the ages of Galilei, Descartes and Newton. 3. Here at 
 the Museum, Guido and Domenichino are seen to perfection. 4. Yes 
 I will go accompanied by Sganarelle alone. 5. In old Rome July was 
 called Quintilis. 6. Paris of 350 years ago, Paris of the 15*^ century 
 was already a giant city. 7. Setting aside Prussia and Austria, which 
 rank among the great independant monarchies, the six principal states 
 of the Germanic confederation are Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Ha- 
 nover, Hesse, and Baden. 8. This consideration determined the Spanish 
 consul to make sure of the duke of Braganza, or at all events to re- 
 move him from Portugal. 9. The schooner was already in sight of 
 Corsica. 10. We remained four days in port at Teneriffe. 11. You 
 will send him to Europe. 12. He has gone to India. 13. A ship com- 
 ing from Europe. 14. He is coming from Mexico. 15. The Russian 
 empire. 16. The canton Valais. 17. The emperor of China. 18. The 
 emperor of Austria. 19. Swedish iron. 20. Bengalee blue cloth. 21. 
 History of Burgundy. 22. History of Languedoc. 23. The map of 
 Spain. 24. The Portuguese expedition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 5. 
 
 1. Do you think that is absolutely necessary? 2. In fashion, at 
 all events, France is still a queen. 3. He seems to me a very good 
 man. 4. Are you an Englishman, Sir? 5. They are clearly English- 
 women. 6. My brother is a doctor. 7. He is not a doctor, he is only 
 a quack. 8. The sky was azure, the waves transparent yellow. 9. 
 Everything was an obstacle in his way, nothing was a help to him. 
 10. Adrastus led in his train thirty Daunians of extraordinary strength, 
 skill and boldness. 11. Conde was a born general. 12. An ass is not 
 a degenerate horse. 13. He called on M. Perregaux, a rich banker. 
 14. I have not a card with me. 15. Only on Wednesdays and Satur- 
 days there are a few lessons less. 16. The minimum of the lessons is 
 five lessons of an hour each day, on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and 
 Friday. 17. The parent (birds) continue to feed them. 18. The vege- 
 table and animal kingdoms resume their equilibrium by fluxes and re- 
 fluxes. 19. The truest and holiest doctrines may have very bad con- 
 sequences. 
 
EXAMPLES 4--8. 
 
 289 
 
 EXAMPLES. 6. 
 
 1. Different times have different customs. 2. Here are the brothers 
 Martin, their shape, their face, the movements of their bodies exactly 
 alike. 3. Nothing was to be seen but cultivated fields, crowded roads, 
 and houses close together. 4. Dignities, age, professions, religion did 
 not put a stop to the madness of the riot. 5. The fi-rst act, the first 
 scene. The theatre represents a drawing-room with a door at the back 
 of the stage. 6. A house to let. 7. A well-conducted woman is better 
 than a beautiful woman. 8. Never did a comic poet meet with happier 
 circumstances. 9. He lives in the place Vendome. 10. Bad weeds grow 
 apace. 11. He ordered a quantity of wet straw to be set on fire. 12. 
 
 I like to read again books which I have read a number of times. 13. 
 Half the army of Liguria was thrown on Nice, half was condemned to 
 shut itself up in Genoa. 14. Rose, your hands are as cold as ice. 
 15. We are dying of hunger. 16. I have lost sight of him. 17. He 
 did so from fear. 18. Translate word for word. 19. The bread-fruit 
 tree. 20. An undated letter. 21. A savings-bank. 22. Obedience is 
 not servility but regularity. 23. You have lost your father, a sad thing, 
 but not uncommon. 24. From that point the view was open to three 
 sides. 25. The thing raised a good deal of scandal. 26. Do not speak 
 so lightly of things which you do not know. 27. The wicked find great 
 difficulty in remaining united. 28. Long wars always bring with them 
 many disorders. 29. He does every thing gracefully. 30. He composes 
 with the help of a dictionary. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 7. 
 
 1. The women and children were animated with the greatest cou- 
 rage. 2. Work and study cannot by themselves make an orator. 3. 
 A smile is a sign of kindliness, approval and satisfaction in the mind. 
 4. The Samoiedans live on raw flesh or fish. 5. The late queen of Spain 
 left by will twelve and a half million reals to the poor. 6. Diogenes 
 used to go bare-headed and bare-foot, and slept in a tub. 7. Moun- 
 taineers who go barefoot at all times of the year, seldom go bare-head- 
 ed. 8. My clock does not strike the half-hours. 9. Truth without 
 disguise runs the chance of displeasing. 10. You will receive free of 
 charge the letters I am sending you. 11. Take away two or three 
 chapters and the work is admirable. 12. Inclosed is a bill payable 
 on presentation. 13. I send you inclosed the letter which interests 
 you. 14. I have my villa full of soldiers. 15. All our servants have 
 come. 16. The only good people are those, who laugh. 17. This fruit 
 seems spoilt; indeed it did not look ripe when it was gathered. 18. 
 Your sisters have bought a lot of ribbons of all colours, white poppy- 
 coloured, green, marroon, pink, purple, blue and orange. 19. A dark 
 bay mare. 20. A young light-chesnut filly. 21. The beauties in this 
 poem are few and far between. 22. Pharoah had all the newly-born 
 children of the Hebrews put to death. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 8. 
 
 1. The white snow on the mountain. 2. The enormous whales. 
 3. The blest abode of righteous souls. 4. The rich gifts of fertile Ce- 
 
290 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 res. 5. The pure beauties of ancient poetry. 6. Charlemagne was one 
 of those very rare great men, who are also tall men. 7. Upon my 
 soul, you Frenchmen, you are good fellows ! — And brave ones too, 
 I hope. 8. To be a polite man is not enough, you must also be a 
 honest man. 9. A mortal wound. 10. A mortal sadness. 11. The 
 Danish fleet. 12. We make much of what is beautiful, and despise 
 what is useful. 13. The feeble are destined to serve the stronger. 14. 
 At Paris a rich man knows everything. 15. They are poor blind men. 
 16. What is there more simple than the 4^^ book of Yergil? 17. Virtue 
 is so far happy, that it is sufficient for itself. 18. You will attach 
 some amiable person to yourself, who will owe you everything. 19. I 
 know no one as happy as that woman. 20. He has still one arm free. 
 21. It would have been so much money saved. 22. The greater the 
 example, the more dangerous it is. 23. Our dearest grand-father is 
 dead. 24. Ideas are most natural, when they are most conformable to 
 reason. 25. England was the country, where education was most free 
 
 in early times. 26. I have made them as short as I could. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 9. 
 
 1. The ties, which ambition forms, are soon broken by her. 2. 
 No one but I would find a pleasure in rambling about at the foot 
 
 of these bastions. 3. A man can be himself under the name of another. 
 
 4. You know better than I do, how much he deserves to be lamented. 
 
 5. Though I had not spoken, I am the one whom he tranquillizes. 6. 
 He took me to his home from my earliest infancy. 7. I chose him in 
 preference to every other man. 8. He will see myself and my servant. 
 9. There he is himself. 10. Fortune has persecuted both him and me. 
 11. As to the reason which you plead, I yield to it. 12. I am in re- 
 ceipt of your letter, my dear child, and I am answering it in all haste. 
 13. It is less easy to cure oneself of ambition, than to keep oneself 
 from it. 14. Nothing is more dangerous than authority in hands which 
 do not know how to use it. 15. Princes are just those whom we are 
 least able to know well ; fame seldom speaks of them without passion. 
 16. I have made so many corrections, and I shall make so many more 
 still. 17. Though I talk much of you, my daughter, I think still more. 
 18. This disease is dangerous, he might die of it. 19. Have you any 
 news? Yes, Sir, we have good news. 20. This foundation is not firm, 
 we fear to build on it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 10. 
 
 1. Even if he should forget all I have done for him, I shall never 
 be sorry for having helped him. 2. If he is not very rich, at all events 
 he has enough to live on. 3. Why can I not tell you what I feel so 
 strongly. 4. Ask yourself at night before going to bed, what good you 
 have done during the day. 5. Never reproach yourself for the assistance 
 you have given to one who is unfortunate. 6. Have you any truths, 
 which you would have kings hear? Do not tell them to them. 7. If 
 your friends commit serious faults, reproach them frankly with them. 
 S. Stay in the garden and wait for me; take a turn or two there for 
 
EXAMPLES 9-12. 
 
 291 
 
 a short time. 9. This man is unhappy; go to him; help him; lend 
 him assistance, he will return it to you, when you need it. 10. Are 
 those your horses, which have run away in the forest? Yes, they are. 
 
 11. Is that really your notion? Yes, it is. 12. You talk of my titles ^ 
 well, you would hardly think it, they are what does me harm. 13. Are 
 you the prisoners brought from Germany? Yes, we are. 14. It is less 
 often the case that the poor are ill from want of food, than that the 
 rich become so from taking too much. 15. Are you members for Pa- 
 ris? We are. Are you the members for that county? No, we are not. 
 16. Antony and Brutus attacked each other, and made war on each 
 other furiously. 17. They have offered us and lavished on us every 
 possible assistance. 18. Death watches and waits for us and strikes 
 us without our noticing it. 19. He came to me with tears in his eyes., 
 
 EXAMPLES. 11. 
 
 1. Each of us has his duty to fulfil; you do yours, and I will 
 fulfil mine. 2. Newspapers wait for the judgment of the people to 
 make theirs suit it. 3. Your fear has more reason than ours. 4. Mer- 
 riness is the health of the mind; sadness is its poison. 5. Splendour 
 attracts the storms of fortune, but obscurity puts us in safety from its 
 attacks. 6. We ought to honour our father and mother. 7. The con- 
 ferrer of a kindness is he who receives its pleasantest result. 8. Be- 
 cause gold is rare, gilding has been invented, which, without having its 
 solidity, has all its brilliancy. 9. This is a ticklish affair; its success 
 is doubtful. 10. When we are in a country, we ought to follow its 
 customs. 11. When I saw him, my legs trembled, and my heart beat 
 so fast, that I was quite exhausted. 12. He never tore his clothes, 
 or dirtied his hands. 13. My head is aching, I am going to bed. 14. 
 He could not see me, his head was aching still. 15. He has the bad 
 habit of biting his nails. 16. Zopyrus cut off his nose and his ears 
 to enable Darius to take Babylon. 17. She gave him her hand to kiss. 
 18. What is the matter with you. Sir? I have a bad leg. 19. What 
 is the matter with you, Madame ? My arm hurts me. 20. Nothing 
 better marks the man of genius. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 12. 
 
 1. Such is the advantage which talent has over beauty: the former 
 pleases at all times, the latter has but one time for pleasing. 2. So, 
 goodnight, brother, that is my last word. 3. You speak of disinteres- 
 ted people, they are rare. 4. He is poor, whose expenditure exceeds 
 his income. 5. The following is a beautiful prayer : My God, preserve 
 me from myself. 6. There was this peculiarity in the Homans, that 
 they joined a certain religious feeling to their love for their country. 
 7. I tell you so. 8. Money, my dear follow, money is the only power. 
 9. Our chief care ought to be to avoid famine. 10. You, gentlemen, 
 will do it. 11. Far from being demi-gods, they are not even men. 
 
 12. I set off without a light; if I had had one, it might have been worse 
 still. 13. I wish to see him. It is no use. 14. AVhat o’clock is that 
 (now striking)? It is eight o’clock. 15. The Phoenicians wore the first 
 
292 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 who invented writing. 16. Is there any one here? 17. He is like you 
 except that he is too short. 18. Is it such a great misfortune to stop 
 living? 19. The best way to be deceived, is to think yourself more 
 cunning than others. 20. It is a great thing to know how to command. 
 21. The first commandment of religion is to love God. 22. Peace is 
 what a nation wants. 23. A lawyer! All right, he may be useful, he 
 is the kind of fellow to talk, and make a noise. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 13. 
 
 1. Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, to whom he had not done 
 justice. 2. Ye rugged rocks, to you I complain, for I have none but 
 you to whom I can complain. 3. Divine love, from which all good 
 proceeds, and by which everything is maintained. 4. The question is 
 not to know what suits us, but for what we are suitable. 5. There is 
 nothing about which there have been so many disputes. 6. Children, 
 whereby the government of the family and the state is maintained. 7. 
 You have habits which you must give up. 8. For some time back I 
 have not known either what was becoming of you, or what you were 
 doing. 9. Yesterday was a day, on the events of which we ought per- 
 haps to throw a veil. 10. Your uncle’s wife, who is very charitable, 
 has adopted that orphan. 11. To be miserable is to be criminal. 12. 
 The way in which you greeted the cardinal. 13. Those marks of kind- 
 ness, of which he felt himself unworthy. 14. A little memorandum 
 book, in which I noted down hastily the horrors of which I was a 
 witness. 15. At the time when savage beasts go forth to look for their 
 prey. 16. You know now the end at which you should aim. 17. Na- 
 poleon came forth from that Kremlin, to which the Russian army had 
 not been able to refuse him access, but from which fire was driving 
 him. 18. There every one spoke of his own business, or what is bet- 
 ter, of his neighbour’s ! 19. Every one knows what Lafontaine is in 
 
 his tales. 20. The place which this celebrated town occupied. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 14. 
 
 1. Who are you talking of? 2. To which of us two belongs the 
 right of judging of our interests? 3. What are you thinking of? 4. 
 Who would wish to live his life again? 5. What is it in us that feels 
 pleasure? 6. Who has suspended this globe of the earth, which moves 
 not ? Who has laid its foundations ? 7. What has happened then ? 
 8. What is wanting to rouse the crowd and draw it onwards ? 9. Whom 
 do you suspect of this theft? 10. Whom do I see? 11. What then 
 did Cyneas see that was so majestic? 12. What does that prove? 
 13. What do you want? 14. What are men themselves? 15. What 
 do you wish me to become ? 16. Who do you think, you are speaking 
 
 to? 17. What do I hear? 18. What is the matter in question? 19. 
 Every one fled away, one faster than another. 20. What do you think 
 of it? 21. What is to be done? 22. I am going, said the prince to 
 him, to Rome, whither they are summoning me. What for ? To besiege 
 it. 23. There is in this matter something which I do not understand. 
 
EXAMPLES 13-17. 
 
 293 
 
 24. Of which of the two would you wish to rid yourself? 25. Which 
 is the happier, the wise man with his reason, or the devotee in his 
 madness? 26. Let us see who will defend himself best. 27. Do you 
 even know, with whom you are living? 28. I do not know what to 
 decide on. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 15. 
 
 1. Whoever it may be that asks for me, say that I am engaged. 
 2. Whatever it may be, I will keep it secret. 3. I will give twenty 
 francs to whoever will tell it me. 4. Whatever efforts you make, you 
 won’t succeed. 5. Whatever oath binds you, do not break it. 6. What- 
 ever your intention may have been, your have acted badly. 7. There 
 is no reason whatever, that can make me give way. 8. Put these 
 books back, each in its place. 9. Every one works for himself. 10. 
 Each day beings me new misfortunes. 11. He went out without look- 
 ing at any one. 12. Is there any one here? No one. 13. I despise 
 no one. 14. He went out without saying anything. 15. Nothing excites 
 him. 16. What do you say? Nothing. 17. He is more forward than 
 any of his school-fellows. 18. Who accuses me ? None of us. 19. I 
 have no friend remaining. 20. Not one of those present would help 
 me. 21. No one is wise at all times. 22. Man finds his happiness 
 nowhere on earth. 23. All that I do displeases him. 24. All the class 
 ought to be punished. 25. They all ran away without answering me. 
 26. Every man has his faults. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 16. 
 
 1. Give me a few francs. 2. Some of my acquaintances have spo- 
 ken to him. 3. I want some steady person. 4. There is something 
 strange in this matter. 5. One cannot work either for oneself, or for 
 others, unless one is well. 6. There are boys who wish for prizes, 
 who yet won’t work. 7. He is what he has always been. 8. Such 
 kindness makes me sad. 9. Mr. So and so told me so. 10. You always 
 notice other people’s faults. 11. Others know how to flatter you, I tell 
 you the truth. 12. Different times have different customs. 13. You 
 still have the same prejudices. 14. I give you the same advice to-day, 
 as yesterday. 15. Even his friends could not convince him. 16. Even 
 his friends distrusted him. 17. I alone dared to confront him. 18. 
 Many a difficulty disappears before courage. 19. Several persons have 
 told me so. 20. Some people think they have no fault. 21. He re- 
 peated it to me on several occasions. 22. Several people have told me 
 so. 23. I have done so repeatedly. 24. We do not ourselves believe 
 our faults. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 17. 
 
 1. You and your father will be approved of by every one. 2. Nei- 
 ther gold nor greatness make us happy. 3. Neither the duke nor the 
 cardinal will be appointed ambassador at St. Petersburgh. 4. Time 
 or death are our remedies. 5. We are so little made for being happy 
 here on earth, that necessarily either the soul or the body suffers, if 
 
294 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 not both. 6 . The least shock, a mere breath is enough to throw you 
 down. 7. There are, there are still generous men. 8. There arose 
 frightful whirlwinds. 9. It is victories which make treaties. 10. They 
 may be good reasons. 11. Is that you, children? They answered with 
 the blacks : Yes, it is. 12. These few words would have been enough. 
 13. The few troops, that he drew together, maintained themselves in 
 their post. 14. Most people never think over anything. 15. A great 
 number of historians have related it. 16. A small number got away 
 and made their escape. 17. A baud of assassins entered Coligny’s 
 room. 18. A band of nymphs crowned with flowers swam in a crowd 
 behind the chariot. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 18. 
 
 1. I wrote to you a fortnight ago. 2. I gave my second lecture 
 yesterday, and was covered with applause. 3. Just when this name 
 was being shouted, M. Guizot at last came out of the Tuileries. 4. She 
 turned to fly, but it was too late. 5. Martial law was proclaimed, 
 which authorised the municipality to make use of force. 6. I had been 
 scarcely three months there, when I had received what I longed for 
 more than all else in the world. 7. As soon as Raymond had given the 
 signal for leaving, his soldiers gave vent to their joy. 8. The Romans 
 always gave up any of their customs, as soon as they had found a 
 better one. 9. Five or six months ago I was in a cafe ; I noticed there 
 a gentleman rather well-dressed, to whom people were listening. 10. 
 Cromwell governing as a king, summoned parliaments ; but he made 
 himself their master, and dissolved them at pleasure. 11. The only 
 strong subject of belief our fathers had was religion ; they had none either 
 political or moral. 12. I came from Marly the day before yesterday, 
 and found all the family in good health. 13. Where were you then 
 yesterday ? We waited for you. 14. He knew therefore, and always did 
 know, among other things all that the Encyclopaedia contained. 15. 
 For two days I have not left your majesty. 16. (Tertium jam annum 
 hie sumus). 17. (Annum jam audis Cratippum). 18. (Archias domi- 
 cilium Romse multos jam annos habebat). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 19. 
 
 1. When you have told me the whole truth, I will forgive you 
 for having deceived me. 2. If you have not entirelj succeeded, it is 
 because you have not been sufficiently prudent in your calculations. 
 3. They must have met by accident. 4. You must have made your 
 plans badly. 5. You must know that I am the only son of a rich ci- 
 tizen of Madrid. 6. Let any one write that pleases. 7. I will help 
 you all I can. 8. After you have spoken, he will speak. 9. Give back 
 faithfully what has been entrusted to you. 10. I will go and find 
 him as soon as my uncle has gone out. 11. If you will do what you 
 
 say, I shall be very gratiful to you for it, if you do not do it, I will 
 
 forgive you. 12. I shall be very glad, if you will come with me. 13. 
 
 He is asking me, if I will go with him. 14. If it should happen that 
 
 they laughed at me, it would not much matter. 15. He seemed to be 
 
EXAMPLES 18-21. 
 
 295 
 
 in doubt whether he should disavow me as his nephew, or whether he 
 should get rid of me cleverly. 16. If they would have followed my 
 advice and wishes, I should have saved them. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 20. 
 
 1. I should feel flattered, if you should approve of my choice. 2. 
 If my heart were free, it might be yours. 3. If they had made blood 
 run in torrents, their name would have triumphed over time. 4. Never 
 would buildings exposed to the air have been preserved in this way. 
 5. I should have so much pleasure in calling you my comrade. 6. I 
 would wager that he is innocent. 7. Can it be true? 8. I dare not 
 promise myself, that you would do me that honour. 9. I should very 
 much like to be in your place, and I would gladly change with you. 
 
 10. Even if it were to be done again, I should certainly do so again. 
 
 11. Even if I had no other proof of the immaterial nature of the soul, 
 
 than the triumph of the wicked and the oppression of the just, this 
 would alone prevent my doubting it. 12. Were the last of the Bour- 
 bons slain, France would none the less have a king. 13. I would be 
 your friend, even though you did not wish it. 14. If the czar had al- 
 ways shown such humanity, he would be the first of men. 15. I thought 
 you might have given us news of it. 16. Jesus Christ promised that 
 he would come to judge the quick and dead. 17. I intend them to be 
 
 paid and clothed at my expense, and that you should be reimbursed 
 
 for the expenses they may have caused you. 18. You know that he 
 
 told me to awake him only when I had bad news. 19. It seems that 
 
 novels and comedies might be as useful as they are injurious. 20. 
 (Quum haec reprehendis, ostendis, qualis tu, si ita forte accidisset, con- 
 sul illo tempore fuisses.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 21. 
 
 1. I have just received a letter which tells me that I shall soon 
 be first lieutenant. 2. That is what I was going to say. 3. There is 
 to be a general assembly to-morrow. 4. Mother Angelica had just re- 
 ceived another favour from the same pope. 5. Will you hold your 
 tongue? 6. I know nothing that can console me for my having to 
 leave Paris. 7. Thank heaven ! 8. Come, don’t be vexed. 9. Haha ! 
 Do you hear a carriage coming into the court? 10. Curse you for 
 robbing me of this joy! 11. Would to heaven I could doubt it! 12. 
 Would to God that all law-suits could be thus arranged! 13. As Scri- 
 pture represents God to us as saying after the creation of the universe. 
 Let there be light, and there was light ; so I say. Let my body move, 
 and it moves. 14. Let us always place vice among misfortunes, and 
 let pity hold in our heart the place of the indignation vice deserves. 
 15. A prince who has preferred peace to victories, which would have 
 been such for himself alone, and which would have had no other re- 
 sult, than to flatter his vanity. 16. If Cleopatra’s nose had been shor- 
 ter, the whole face of the earth would haye changed. 17. Even if 
 Cicero had been at Usez, and you had been in Atticus’ place, could 
 he have spoken otherwise? 18. Even if he had overwhelmed her with 
 
296 
 
 TKANSLATION OF 
 
 the narrative of his success in love, she would have seen nothing as- 
 tonishing in it, and would have supposed that all men were so. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 22. 
 
 1. It was not your fault, that we were not all burnt. 2. It is 
 very untrue that Orientals have more liveliness of mind than Europe- 
 ans. 3. It is impossible for you to see my mistress at present. 4. Do 
 not think that Thucydides is long in the description of the plague. 
 
 5. He was not as yet a poet or at all events he did not know he was. 
 
 6. He will certainly deny knowing of the conspiracy. 7. We are rich, 
 
 what guarantees our being so to-morrow? 8. It seemed in 1793 that 
 there was no longer room for revolutions in France. 9. We are very 
 far from knowing all our wishes. 10. Bertrand does not seem to have 
 any notion that he is doing anything but follow those who went before 
 him. 11. Who told you, eh! answered Bohespierre, that an innocent 
 person has been put to death? 12. Can one suppose, that this accu- 
 sation is serious ? 13. Communicate this letter to M. de la Chapelle, 
 
 if you think it worth while. 14. That this taste was natural to him 
 is not doubtful. 15. Suppose a child had at its birth the size and 
 strength of a grown man. 16. It is a chance that you are alone. 17. 
 I understand your not being afraid of me. 18. It is already too much 
 that my imprudence may have compromised you. 19. It is the fate of 
 monarchies that their prosperity depends on a single man. 20. She 
 deserves that you should love her, and that you should show her the 
 signs of it. 21. It is a pity that you were not born a boy. 22. It is 
 important for you to be there. 23. Listen and you will be astonished 
 that I am alive. 24. I was afraid he would not come. 25. Do you 
 think he will do it ? 26. I am delighted that everything has happened 
 in this way. 27. I am afraid he has said too much about it. 28. He 
 complains that he has been calumniated. 29. People complain in Per- 
 sia that the kingdom is governed by two or three women. 30. It is 
 fortunate that it is night. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 23. 
 
 1. You know who I am, and I know who you are. 2. They did 
 not know, for whom he was looking. 3. It did not matter to him what 
 habits these nations had. 4. I wish that this agreement should be 
 made as quickly as possible. 5. What do you want me to know ? 6. The 
 king of Prussia caused the proposition to be made to her then, that she 
 should surrender to him lower Silesia. 7. I intend them to be paid 
 and clothed at my expense. 8. I like people to be sincere. 9. I en- 
 treat you that he may hear no more news of me through you. 10. 
 He was satisfied with their praying generally for the king and royal 
 family. 11. I forbid their taking arms. 12. Take care they don’t see 
 you. 13. Go quickly, run, tell them to be ready at need. 14. I should 
 be very unjust, if I thought it wrong for them to attack me in my 
 turn. 15. The law forbade their depriving them of life. 16. Mirabeau 
 had required of Cabanis, that he should not send for a physician. 
 17. They published an order that each Greek town, which had belonged 
 
EXAMPLES 22—25. 
 
 297 
 
 to Philip should govern itself henceforward by its own laws. 18. 
 It was ruled that each candidate should cover his face. 19. To whom 
 do I owe it, that the land of France is forbidden me? 20. The boast- 
 er acts that people may say of him that he has done well. 21. By 
 crowning Wladislas they avoided Kussia’s becoming the vassal of 
 Poland. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 24. 
 
 1. There is no vice, which has not a false resemblance to virtue. 
 
 2. It is not an evil, which I wish to cure. 3. No longer a look that 
 dared to meet his look, no longer a voice that dared make itself heard 
 without his will. 4. There are but few kings who know how to seek 
 for true glory. 5. If it were fertility, which was changing this plant, 
 it ought to give similar flowers over the whole specimen. 6. It is as 
 difficult to find a vain man, who thinks himself fortunate enough, as 
 a modest man, who thinks himself too unfortunate. 7. They wish for 
 pleasures which need no waiting for. 8. Every one eagerly desired a 
 firm and just government, which might make safe the strength and 
 unity of power without stifling every liberty. 9. What has happened 
 which can free you from obeying? 10. People will not listen to him 
 whatever he may do. 11. Whatever you write, avoid meanness. 12. 
 Whatever are the opinions which trouble us in society, they always 
 disappear in solitude. 13. The best use a man can make of his wit- 
 tiness, is to distrust it. 14. Man is the only animal that is obliged to 
 clothe itself. 15. Nero is the first emperor that persecuted the church. 
 16. Only persons who have firmness, can have real gentleness. 17. 
 The law alone ought to punish. 18. The present time is the only 
 thing of which man is really master. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 25. 
 
 1. Give me a bed or a bundle of straw that I may go to sleep. 
 
 2. Show God all the sore places in your heart that he may heal them. 
 
 3. In order that you may be obeyed, obey the laws. 4. Clarissa begs 
 him to speak lower for fear her father might hear him. 5. I will try 
 to act so that you may be satisfied with us. 6. The sea left the ship 
 almost dry so that you could go round it on foot. ^ 7. His book is 
 not so rare, nor so large that one cannot read it right through. 8. 
 This scymitar, said the count, I took from the Cadi of Vejer, who struck 
 me with it three times before I took his life. 9. Soothed by this hope, 
 he allowed his mind to wander from r every to revery till sleep came 
 over him. 10. I am waiting to marry her, till I have made my fortune. 
 11. It is all over, if the author did not notice, that the year began at 
 Easter, and that he has dated it the first of January. 12. ^ Self-love 
 lives and reigns absolutely in us, unless God has destroyed its power 
 by pouring another love into our hearts. 13. What does it matter 
 about the truth of the imitation, provided that the illusion is there 1 
 
 4. I think it is the best trade of all, for whether a man does well, 
 r does badly, he is always paid just the same. 15. Far from this 
 
 Armitago, Frencli grammar. 20 
 
298 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 fire of youth being a hindrance to education, it is by its means that 
 education is perfected and finished. 16. Although he was sold to the 
 court, he was nevertheless not vile. 17. And even though they execu- 
 ted the sentence, they never agreed formally to submit to it. 18. I 
 love you notwithstanding that you have done me much harm. 19. I 
 wept sincerely in her room, without her or any one’s perceiving it. 
 20. One of you cannot be oppressed without all being oppressed. 21. 
 They had no rest till they had got them put on the index by the in- 
 quisition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 26. 
 
 1. Young Bernardin, when we made him look at the towers of the 
 cathedral, „Good heavens!^ cried he, ^How high they are flying and 
 every one began to laugh. 2. She told him, she did not dare to praise, 
 as much as they deserved, lines which praised her too much; he be- 
 gan to protest that they did not praise her enough. 3. Myself thrust 
 the knife in! how horrible! 4. Whither can I fly? How conquer my- 
 self? Where can I find courage? 5. Why ask, since you know it? 6. 
 She has always some one to tell her thoughts to. 7. Datetrees furnish 
 men with food, clothing, and house. 8. I dont know how to act. 9. 
 Fancy making oneself so unhappy for such a son? 10. But what do 
 I say ? You allow yourself to be overcome by anything ? You ever 
 correct yourself? 11. The army was composed of 15,000 men, namely 
 10,000 infantry and 5000 cavalry. 12. On this subject see such and 
 such an author. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 27. 
 
 1. It is one thing to shorten words, another to mangle them. 2. 
 His whole ambition was to enlarge his dominions. 3. To speak is im- 
 prudent, and to remain silent is very cowardly. 4. To brave death is 
 nothing. 5. To write well is at the same time to think well, to feel 
 well, and to express well. 6. It is very criminal to be miserable. 7. 
 It is enough to be alive. 8. To know how to take pleasure in the wri- 
 tings of Homer is to have gained some advantage. 9. It is more 
 shameful to distrust one’s friends, than to be deceived by them. 10. 
 It does not depend on us to have or not to have passions. 11. It is 
 pleasant to be protected by her. 12. It is just as well to send this 
 scribbling just as it is. 13. It is better to expose oneself to ingrati- 
 tude than to fail in one’s duty to the miserable. 14. There are many 
 occasions when it is better to be silent than to speak. 15. It is a 
 great burden to have great merit. 16. It is weakness to fear the 
 philosophy of the pagans. 17. All that remained for Charles XH to 
 do to finish his first campaign, was to march against his rival. 18. 
 That remains to be seen. 19. There were still 4000 inhabitants to be 
 saved. 20. It is your turn to play. 21. Let them weep, it is for you 
 to sing. 22. It is for you, Sire, to make them cease; it is your duty 
 to use to the foreign powers the language which befits a king of France. 
 
EXAMPLES 26—29. 
 
 299 
 
 EXAMPLES. 28. 
 
 a. a, 1. Ho no longer showed that he heard anything. 2. My heart 
 in its turn protested that it had no share in it. 3. He declares he 
 has seen him. 4. She has confessed she did it. 5. She says she told 
 him so. 6. I acknowledge I have received that sum. 7. He had de- 
 clared he would wait for me. 8. No one says they saw the prince write. 
 
 9. He swears he recognised him. 10. Kings at their coronation swear 
 to preserve the privileges of their subjects. 
 
 a. y?. 1. We see monarchs who fancy themselves sovereigns. 2. If 
 you should be likely to remain at Rochefort more than ten days, you 
 would send me your first report by the post. 3. Great persons think 
 they are born only for themselves. 4. He fancies himself a great man. 
 5. Every one thinks in this mirror he sees his image. 6. We intend 
 to leave to-night. 7. Can she reckon on being believed on her word? 
 8. He thought he ought to behave so. 9. I don’t intend to sell it to 
 any one. 10. This wretched man thought himself well over this deli- 
 cate and dangerous trial. 
 
 a. y, 1. She preferred living and dying without consolation rather 
 than seeking it apart from God. 2. I should prefer eating to writing. 
 
 3. 1 do not like bringing out as impromptus what has been said before. 
 
 4. I understand a man’s wishing to belong to you, and to have you to 
 himself. 5. I should only like to know which form you prefer. 6. He 
 hopes to live again in his posterity. 7. I hope to do them justice in 
 another edition. 8. Mention the climates to me, in which you would 
 wish to live. 9. Instead of remaining neutral between the factions, 
 Dumouriez preferred to break with them. 10. He prefers perishing 
 with them rather than abandoning them. 
 
 a. note 1. 1. He had the audacity to accuse all those whom he 
 
 suspected of having had a desire to succour Perseus. 2. King Louis XIH 
 explained for a quarter of an hour the opinion which he thought ought 
 to be followed. 3. It is said of a person who is supposed to be unique 
 or rare in his class. 4. Sphinx, an imaginary monster which is said 
 by the poets to have had the face and breasts of a woman. 
 
 b. 1. They hate waiting. 2. She does not dislike being scolded. 
 3. These kings who dare to think of putting us in chains. 4. He re- 
 solved on cultivating my mind. 5. Receive an unhappy man who makes 
 up his mind to be so. 6. The wise man however obtains a hearing. 
 7. I avoid being tedious, and I become obscure. 8. I successfully fin- 
 ished my task of gaining his favour by this piece of flattery. 9. He 
 undertakes to continue the subterranean conduits as far as the Tiber. 
 
 10. I hold it an honour to be presented to him. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 29. 
 
 2. a. 1. Dumouriez advised Louis XVI to dismiss the ministers of 
 whom he had reason to complain. 2. It allowed them to defile in its 
 presence. 3. He commands the sun to give life to nature. 4. They 
 propose to dance. 5. I have not ceased calling upon him to change 
 his conduct. 6. As soon as my agent returns home, you will tell him 
 to come and speak to me. 7. You will not succeed in persuading me 
 
 20 * 
 
300 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 to put up with the immodest allusions in that play. 8. I forbid all 
 further reference to that, and all anxiety about it, and your confessing 
 it again either to me or to others. 9. The Gods have not granted him 
 the privilege of seeing his country again. 10. I have been recommen- 
 ded to keep watch over him. 
 
 2. 1. I reproach you with limiting all your thoughts and all 
 your hopes to this. 2. We cannot dispute Rousseau’s having known 
 the mechanism of verses. 3. Could he impute to me the fear of death? 
 4. I forgive his having offended me. 
 
 3. a. 1. The culture for which God has caused us to be born. 2. 
 Philosophy makes a new day shine. 3. We must act well and let people 
 talk. 4. She is a good mistress, I have not once heard her scold. ^ 5. 
 Without some sorrows, some pains, we should not feel we were living. 
 6. I feel my genius dwindling away from day to day. 7. Have they 
 been seen marching amongst our enemies? 8. Has one ever heard talk 
 of such wonderful adventures? 9. I see his mortal enemy coming. 
 10. I will watch you work. 11. She reminded the queen of the mira- 
 culous way in which God had declared himself for her. 12. He bit his 
 lips and made me sit down. 13. Calchas will cause our weeping to 
 cease. 14. I thought I ought to allow some minutes to elapse. 15. The 
 governor already impatient to see this capital empty itself, had espe- 
 cial attention paid to the emigration from it. 
 
 3. /7. 1. Almost all historians have said what I make Mithridates 
 say here. 2. Make him keep his faith. 3. He made the town pay 
 400,000 rix-dollars. 4. When a man is happy and proud, the courage 
 necessary for getting others to accept his happiness seems easy. 5. 
 People were astonished at seeing them join in this puerile amusement. 
 6. Go, let the Greeks finish their work. 7. There are several persons 
 who remember having heard him tell it. 8. He is here, and the king 
 is to hear him sing them on the first day. 9. But you. Sir, who knew 
 the mistake, why did you let him make it? 10. I have heard my late 
 sister say, that her daughter and I were born the same year. 11. 
 Murat wrote to Napoleon a letter, which I have heard M. de Mosbourg 
 read. 12. You hear him talking to himself, and see him use gestures 
 which make one afraid. 13. She has made herself loved, she has made 
 me hated. 14. I feel myself drawn to it by too pleasant a power. 15. 
 Alas! and if it is possible, make me believe it too. 16. He had read 
 this letter to you, and you had let him give it to my people. 17. He 
 made his soldiers burn the town. 18. In order to enable those like 
 ourselves to understand us, God has given us language. 
 
 4. cf. 1. Mentor held out his hand to him to help him to swim. 
 2. I helped the Rhodian in his confusion to rise. 3. The king had 
 tried to divide the Cossacks in order to weaken them. 4. He had 
 learnt something else besides riding. 5. It was there that he learnt 
 how to beguile men, an art of which he had often to avail himself. 
 6. He bought me an alphabet, and undertook to teach me himself how 
 to read. 7. Those who speak much, even when they speak well, often 
 unlearn how to write. 8. He found himself reduced, in order to get 
 his living, to teaching two children how to write. 9. Some animals have 
 taught us how to build houses. 10. Hon Fernand went out a second 
 
EXAMPLES 30-31. 
 
 301 
 
 time to try to restore order on the public square. 11. I will take good 
 care not to try to trouble it. 12. On this she began crying again. 
 13. When children begin to talk, they cry less. 14. His father con- 
 tinued to make him exercise his body. 15. Mathurin would have gone 
 on living in the midst of joys of which he knew nothing. 16. I never 
 liked praying in my room. 17. Those who like learning, are never 
 idle. 18. The most foolish man begins to be wise from the moment 
 he begins to feel his wrong-headedness. 
 
 4. p, 1. Sir, here is M. Dimanche, who is asking to see you. 2. 
 Worn out nations require to be governed. 3. There is everything to 
 be hoped. 4. This gave him plenty to think of. 5. She took care to 
 prepare the food. 6. I have to make a visit. 7. I leave you to ima- 
 gine the life these two friends lived. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 30. 
 
 C. 1. 1. I still dare to hope so. 2. I shall soon have, I think, to 
 lay aside my dress for ever. 3. There is nothing which invigorates a 
 man, like having been able to avoid doing a foolish thing. 4. We must 
 not believe all that is said. 5. Everything ought to conduce to good 
 sense. 6. Deign to open your arms to me for the last time. 7. To 
 obtain credit we must seem to have it. 8. A man as dangerous as 
 Don Garcia seemed to be. 9. Don Fernand seemed to have given way 
 in the matter of the Escurial. 10. Among the ancients the priests and 
 priestesses were thought to have intimate dealings with heaven. 11. It 
 is no use studying men and trying to get to the bottom of them, we 
 are always deceived. 12. This action however was all but ruining me. 
 13. I got into the water and with so little prudence, that it was near 
 curing me not of my sufferings but of my life. 14. His prophecy was 
 nearly accomplished to the letter. 15. You all but ruined me utterly. 
 
 C. 2. 1. They next went and lived at Orviedo. 2. Do not go and 
 irritate him by new refusals. 3. Some one recited something, verse or 
 prose, then we ran and began dancing again. 4. She went down to 
 open the door. 5. They went up again quickly and set to work afresh. 
 6. They sent their footmen to clap Pradon’s PhMre. 7. Ah! cried the 
 wood-cutter’s wife, could you really yourself take the children in order 
 to lose them? 8. I am coming to save you. 9. They have been to 
 look even under the beds. 10. He went as far as Pavia to receive 
 the body of his brother. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 31. 
 
 1. a. 1. There is in some men a certain narrowness of mind which 
 helps to make them steady. 2. The two parties conspired together to 
 repulse the common enemy. 3. Goodbye, my son, think of God and 
 of gaining heaven. 4. The inclination is to pass from royalty to a re- 
 public. 5. He aspires to distinguish himself. 6. Voltaire claimed to 
 be reckoned among philologists. 7. These pious drones took care to 
 dine well. 8. I agree to ruin myself in order to save her. 9. In short 
 I agree to forget the past. 10. I will try to forget this insult. 11. He 
 is trying to confuse me. 12. The evangelists agree in naming St. Peter 
 
302 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 before all the apostles. 13. He made it his study to recognise talent. 
 14. Do not persist in defending so odious a cause. 15. They are eager 
 to see you, they are trying their best to please you. 16. The honour 
 which the great men of the state strive to render you. 
 
 1. /?. 1. You have accustomed your sons not to conceal their se- 
 crets from you. 2, He practised fencing. 3. We must bring him to 
 take a side. 4. Later on he was summoned to sit in the senate. 5. 
 He was preparing to start. 6. I authorize you to speak in my name. 
 7. I invite you to go and see him. 8. She exhorted me to consult 
 skilled men. 9. There is nothing that exhorts us so much to learn 
 how to die well, as having no pleasure in living. 10. He was invited 
 to take part in the deliberation. 11. Ask Juvenal what obliges him 
 to take up his pen. 12. To kill a flea, he wanted to oblige the Gods 
 to lend him their thunder-bolt, and their club. 
 
 2. 1. I restrict myself to simply telling you the facts. 2. This 
 substantive is not elegant, and more than one writer dislikes using it. 
 
 3. I hold to convincing you of my innocence. 4. I will not stop here 
 to describe his conduct. 5. I gradually came to throw away a great 
 deal of time for my pleasures. 6. He did not hesitate to leave. 7. I 
 do not at all expect to be amused there. 8. He did not hesitate to 
 favour his escape. 9. A great rascal of a runner all but threw me 
 down. 10. These delicate plants wither, if we miss watering them 
 one day. 
 
 3. 1. He has used his money in helping his brother. 2. He does 
 not gain by being known. 3. He amused himself by reading novels. 
 
 4. They amused themselves by dancing. 5. Liberality consists less in 
 giving than in giving seasonably. 6. A man may excel in rhyming, 
 who judges foolishly. 7. Oaths and promises which do not cost him 
 more to make than to break. 8. He has a taste for letting himself 
 be seen. 9. There is as much weakness in avoiding the fashion as in 
 affecting it. 10. They seek for glory in despising our Gods. 11. You 
 ought not to busy yourself with reforming others till you have nothing 
 more to do in your own case. 12. Demosthenes is not very skilful in 
 painting manners. 13. You are again going to pass a night in work- 
 ing. 14. There is no safety in leaving off crime. 15. He takes a plea- 
 sure in tormenting her. 16. He has great difficulty in understanding 
 us. 17. As we were in the humour for drinking, we made a debauch 
 of it. 18. I have not read and am not inclined to read their writings. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 32. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Are you ready to go? 2. He is disposed to do nothing. 
 
 3. I found her ready to get into a passion. 4. A man may have read 
 all that has been written on war, without being skilful in making it. 
 
 5. Careful to weigh all her words. 6. These trees are long in coming 
 into leaf. 
 
 2. 1. The thing is disgraceful to tell. 2. A word important to 
 
 be understood. 3. Wonders delightful to look at. 4. It is not easy 
 to find. 5. This passage is difficult to explain. 6. It would be too 
 long to explain to you in one day. 
 
EXAMPLES 32—33. 
 
 303 
 
 3. 1. I shall continue going my own way, free to change when 
 
 they change. 2. My horse was strong, and I thought I should be able 
 with his help to fathom the truth, free to use my spurs, if the report 
 spread was true. 3. Be quick, reserving the right to correct later on. 
 4. Yes, I would give them! Beserving the right to take them back 
 later on. 
 
 C. 1. The exhortation to fight. 2. The encouragement to live well. 
 
 3. Eeadiness to understand. 4. Firmness in maintaining the truth. 5. 
 License in rhyming had then no restraint. 6. The persistance of the 
 Romans in subduing them. 
 
 2. 1. A smile such as would freeze the boldest extemporizer. 2. 
 It is a never-ending lawsuit. 3. I am not so without feeling as to hear 
 no reason. 4. He is a man to undertake everything. 5. Behave so 
 as to make yourself loved. 6. He spoke so as to convince the judges 
 of his innocence. 
 
 3. 1. He was the first to notice it. 2. I do not wish to be one 
 of the last to congratulate you. 
 
 4. 1. Know that you are only so far a king as you have nations 
 
 to govern. 2. A man fit to be hung — a man to be treated with con- 
 sideration. 3. A bedroom. 4. A throne^ whatever it may be, is not to 
 
 be disdained. 5. Is this then a thing to be said lightly? 6. It is per- 
 
 fectly bewildering. 7. Especially just now when our manufactures are 
 so much to be pitied. 
 
 D. 1. There is nothing in it, if you take the matter in good part, 
 
 capable of irritating or of encouraging. 2. This pretended rule, if we 
 take it without restriction, is evidently false. 3. The apostles, when 
 we look at them with human eyes — . 4. Defending them badly I 
 
 should have betrayed them. 5. To hear him, nothing was difficult. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 33. 
 
 1. 1. Great God, preserve for us this victorious king, whom thou 
 hast now restored to our tears! 2. Such a rew'ard after what I had 
 just done. 3. Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of beasts. 
 
 4. He told me a great lot of things which I could have very well done 
 without hearing. 5. He cannot forbear accompanying you. 6. So many 
 honours are, for all that, a burden. 7. But is there a woman or a girl 
 that can keep from admiring whatever glitters? 8. I have nevertheless 
 been a little ashamed of it, and this has stopped me from writing. 
 
 2. 1. People seldom repent of talking little, very often of talking 
 too much. 2. I am enjoying the notion of soon kissing you. 3. No 
 man ever would take it into his head to say, that a house with all 
 its furniture made and arranged itself, 4. I was present at a consul- 
 tation in which the question was to know whether I should be hung 
 [pendu)^ burnt, or shot. 5. They enjoy attacking and destroying it. 
 
 6. He was accused of having been in correspondence with the enemy. 
 
 7. He suspects me of loving the daughter of a doctor who is not on 
 very friendly terms with him. 8. Heaven has then grown weary of 
 being pitiless to me. 
 
 3. 1. I am angry at seeing my prudence deceived. 2. You are 
 
304 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 kind, Madame, and I like you for weeping over what my mother has 
 written. 3. They will form a bad opinion of you for riding in this 
 
 way in a public carriage. 4. Alexander wept because he had not a 
 
 Homer. 5. You will be called impostors for having asserted the con- 
 trary. 6. He is indignant at being forgotten. 7. I am pained at see- 
 ing you in this position. 8. I feel ready to die in thinking that they 
 are going to nail up a coffin for this man. 
 
 4. a. 1. Don’t make haste to grow rich. 2. I was in the mood for 
 amusing myself. 3. Great king, cease to conquer or I cease to write. 
 4. Do not force yourself to speak. 5. He strove to raise the burden. 
 6. I will try to forget this insult. 7. Make haste and go out. 8. I 
 see that you are already eager to follow me. 
 
 /?. 1. Henceforward be without anxiety for your lot; I undertake to make 
 it a very pleasant one for you. 2. Fanaticism calls upon God to avenge 
 
 himself. 3. I beg you, now that I am dying, to forget my grief. 4. 
 
 Take care not to ruin yourself. 5. Charles XV prepared to hinder 
 the king of Poland from gathering the fruit of this league. 6. Give 
 him notice to come. 7. They were careful not to lodge in the same 
 palace. 8. His mother tremblingly entreats him to hurry his departure. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 34. 
 
 B. 1. He is exempt from doing right. 2. A mind eager to know 
 everything. 3. Our soldiers were curious to see the end of this matter. 
 4. He was anxious to extend his conquests farther. 5. Tired of making 
 himself loved, he wishes to make himself feared. 6. It is itself impa- 
 tient to surrender. 7. He, quite confused at being caught in the act, 
 runs away as fast as he can. 8. Quite proud of having succeeded. 9. 
 All Egypt inconsolable for this loss. 10. I am sure to expose myself 
 to two reproaches. 11. You will be free to sacrifice yourself in three 
 days. 12. I was dying this morning worthy of being mourned for. 13. 
 Two acres capable of increasing very much in value. 
 
 C. 1. Eagerness to conquer yields to fear of dying. 2. Of all ty- 
 rannies the most absurd is that of wanting to be loved from duty. 
 3. He had the face to say so, the kindness to reassure me. 4. Be 
 good enough to come in. 5. The order was given for the troops to 
 retire. 6. Metophis had been clever enough to get out of prison. 7. 
 I beg you then not to refuse yourself to their curiosity, nor to their 
 wish to pay you a homage, which is not that of flattery. 8. He went 
 away, already disgusted with his wish to talk with them. 9. I was as 
 poor as you, but instead of begging, I had a basket made . 10. They 
 did not dare to ask any one, for fear of learning more than they 
 wished to know. 11. Mystery! what is the use? In order that ive may 
 follow up our aim. 12. He had again placed his domain on a scale 
 of luxury with the sole object of establishing his baronial crown — . 
 
 D. 1. I am far from boasting of my victory and my zeal. 2. We 
 are nearer to loving those who hate us,, than those who love us more 
 than we like. 3. Your mind fascinated by the laws of a tyrant, thinks 
 that everything is a crime, except being a mussulman. 4. Unless I see 
 it, I shall not believe it. 
 
EXAMPLES 34-36. 
 
 305 
 
 EXAMPLES. 35. 
 
 A. 1. Alexander after taking off his ring gave it to Perdiccas. 
 
 2. Eleven days after leaving you we reached Genoa. 3. But before 
 dying she shall be avenged. 4. Nathan does not come and reproach 
 David sharply with the scandal of his conduct; he makes advances 
 before reproving; he makes the truth loved before speaking it; he 
 makes the crime hated before blaming the guilty. 5. Before writing 
 then, learn how to think. 
 
 B. 1. To judge of the beauty of a work it is enough to consider 
 it in itself; but to judge of the merit of its author it is necessary to 
 compare him with his age. 2. Heaven created women to soften our 
 griefs, our ill humours, to calm us, to make us better. 3. From not 
 having noticed this, much time and trouble was lost. 4. He has been 
 sent away for having talked too much. 5. Long evenings may be com- 
 pared to long marches for their irksomeness. 6. Because one loves 
 one’s husband, one does not hate his brothers. 7. Because you are 
 born great, you are not on that account the less Christians. 8. No one 
 is bad enough to wish to appear so. 9. He is too open to deceive you. 
 10. When one has lived there for seven years, it is enough to make 
 one die of sadness. 
 
 C. 1. It is no use to be young without being pretty, or to be 
 pretty without being young. 2. He began by being a common soldier. 
 
 3. I ended by being a servant at the house of the Jew Don Issachar. 
 
 4. There is a difference between having regard to and having regard for. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 36. 
 
 The Gerund. 1. How many fathers, fearing to displease their 
 children, are weak, while thinking themselves indulgent. 2. We mistake 
 our interests, when we sacrifice the future to the present. 3. One vic- 
 tory leads on to another by striking terror into the conquered, and 
 by procuring many allies for the conquerors. 4. When you talk extra- 
 vagantly about everything, as you do, how can you expect people not 
 to think you extravagant? 5. These young people, by always studying 
 with the same care, cannot fail to succeed. 6. While saying these 
 words he gave his hand to the king. 7. The duke of Gloucester looked 
 at his sister and wept. 8. I shall sadden you when I tell you the 
 reason of my journey. 9. While I am in the act of writing to you, it 
 occurs to me to send you two letters. 10. This treatise only deserved 
 an accessit, though it is superior in some parts. 11. Poor creatures! 
 who while keeping the feelings of a different age, have lost its grace. 
 12. The state of the towns got gradually worse. 
 
 The Participle. 1. We noticed some portions of the wreck 
 floating towards the shore. 2. England always fighting has ended by 
 establishing her dominion over the whole of India. 3. He wept for 
 vexation and went to find Calypso wandering in the dark forests. 4. 
 The Spartans fighting and dying at Thermopylae showed the Persians, 
 who thought themselves already triumphant, that slaves cannot subdue 
 a free nation. 5. More than half the earth is inhabited by animals 
 
306 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 living and dying without knowing it. 6. She is a person of kindly 
 nature, never scolding, never contradicting and never disobliging. 7. 
 Azor after passing two days at the house of one of his friends (f,) came 
 back home on the third day. 8. Margaret alone remained apart from 
 the others without daring to move or to breathe. 9. I crossed a de- 
 sert, which kept continually growing larger. 10. Their minds unac- 
 commodating and unaffected, were active, enterprising, loving or hating 
 to excess. 11. Valerian having been taken prisoner by the Persians, 
 and his-son Gallian neglecting business, the barbarians penetrated every- 
 where. 12. The ancients not having the compass, could scarcely do 
 more than sail along the coasts. 13. As the republic must necessarily 
 come to an end, the only remaining question was, to know how and 
 by whom it was to be destroyed. 14. I did not think that during my 
 life-time she would ever see the light. 
 
 The verbal adjective. 1. We noticed some rigging floating 
 on the sea. 2. The French, always fighting, always triumphing, car- 
 ried their eagles to the farthest ends of Europe. 3. Those nations who 
 live wandering in the deserts. 4. A person, while always obliging, 
 may be not an obliging person, 5. A world of comers and goers. 6. 
 Barbarians! Yes, you mean full of new sap living and making young. 
 7. I have always seen those, who travelled in good and comfortable 
 carriages, melancholy, sad, scolding or in pain. 8. All this painter’s 
 portraits are good and striking likenesses, all the figures in his pic- 
 tures are living and speaking. 9. The church of France remained di- 
 vided into two factions, tbe receivers, and the refusers. 10. I will 
 paint pleasures springing up afresh in crowds. 11. They went to bed 
 again half-dead with fear. 12. These two churches equally complaining 
 are irreconcilable. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 37. 
 
 1. Small riches managed with care are worth more than great 
 treasures badly used. 2. Both starting from the same principles, their 
 government has become entirely different. 3. After the lapse of at 
 most a week, doubts had already arisen in me. 4. When he is dead, 
 we have no avenger or master. 5. Noble minds always gain by being 
 knov/n. 6. Two women may be reconciled, so long as they have not 
 called each other ugly. 7. 1 (/*.) alone have escaped from the fury of 
 war. 8. Those who have lived much have seen much. 9. Our soldiers 
 had repaired their strength during the few hours they had slept. 10. 
 What tears and what millions the conquests of the empire have cost 
 us! 11. Invisible insects which the hand of the creator has been 
 pleased to bring to life in the depth of the infinitely little. 12. A crowd 
 of armed men assembled. 13. The rains, which there have been, have 
 injured the produce of the earth. 14. What time, what reflection has 
 it not required to examine and discover the needs, the divergencies 
 and the ressources of nature! 15. All opportunities for conquering, 
 which occurred, these he employed. 16. She is not such as I should 
 have wished her. 17. What fault have I committed till now? 18. How 
 many sentences of this kind have not Napoleon’s writers sent forth 
 
EXAMPLES 37-38. 
 
 307 
 
 among the public for ten years back ! 19. My hatred, which I thought 
 
 immortal is about to die. 20. As often as Alexander attacked a nation, 
 so often did he gain a victory. 21. Look at the jewels they have ob- 
 tained for themselves. 22. Who could say how many ages he has 
 lived, who has thought and meditated much? 23. It is only too true 
 that there have been cannibals ; we have found some in America. 24. 
 Alas ! of all the young men, who then cried. Long live Bonaparte ! how 
 many has his insatiable ambition allowed to live ? 25. His punishment 
 
 made more proselytes in one day, than books and sermons had made 
 in several years. 26. Do nothing, which is not worthy of the maxims 
 which I have tried to instil into you. 27. I read him my epistle se- 
 dately, putting into my reading all the force I could. 28. The letter, 
 which I presumed you would receive, has at last come. 29. Kica and 
 I are perhaps the only Persians who have been induced to leave their 
 country from a desire for knowledge. 30. War was not made formerly, 
 as we have seen it made in the time of Louis XIV. 31. She is a good 
 mistress I have not heard her scold once. 32. Have they been seen 
 marching among your enemies? 33. A stone which I recognised as 
 being a touchstone. 34. Murat wrote to Napoleon a letter which I 
 heard read. 35. The bells which I heard ringing. 36. The woman 
 whom I saw being painted. 37. Sophy told him in a whisper of the 
 trouble which he allowed his friend to take. 38. By rapid running 
 she regains the few moments which she has lost. 39. I was revolted 
 at the little confidence which he had placed in my friendship. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 38. 
 
 (§ 1. 2. 3.) 1. He took me home from the time of my childhood. 
 
 2. They surrounded us in a moment. 3. She fancies I shall be her 
 daughter, she longs for me to be so. 4. Alas! Madame, you treat me 
 as a widow, it is too true that I am one. 5. I wish you had seen 
 what this good father became to me, from the moment that he seemed 
 to me so well-informed. 6. I do not know, my lord, what it is to love. 
 7. Nothing would satisfy them. 8. For the last time save him, save 
 us! 9. I do nothing, you know, for what people may think. 10. They 
 did him a bad turn while wishing to be of use to him. 11. They 
 made him act, write. 12. You should have heard him, as I did, de- 
 claim Mahomet. 13. Stephen thought he ought to leave a passage open 
 for his enemy and allowed her to rejoin her party. 14. It seems to 
 me so. 15. It appears so. 16. What good did not she do, during the 
 few days she reigned! 17. I have still a few days before me, I wish 
 to live every moment of them. 18. As to the honours I have received, it 
 was my dress which obtained them for me. 19. Louis XIV when dying 
 regretted the millions his luxury and extravagance had cost the nation. 
 
 (§ 4. A.) 1. Promise me to speak to me with the utmost frankness. 
 
 2. Do not let the state in which I see you, cause you any pain. 3. 
 Answer to me for it, I bid you. 4. Far from taking her from you, 
 they will deliver her up to you. 5. .She said to Valentine that she 
 would send her to bring him help. 6. They have persuaded him to 
 marry. 7. This victory convinced them that God was fighting for them. 
 
308 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 8. God gave him to me, God has taken him from me, blessed be the 
 name of the Lord! 9. He takes her hand. 10. And by what r^ht do 
 you rob me of my name? 11. Not a single pedlar passed by the castle 
 without my buying something of him. 12. He presses her hand warmly. 
 13. Who wishes to see a strong will in you, more than I do? 14. 1 applied 
 myself to perfecting my taste. 15. He is only known to have two ene- 
 mies. 16. Ambition alone suggested crimes to him. 17. Do you wish 
 me to try you on your jewels, senora? 18. He asked him his name. 
 19. I wish to gain five hundred from each of you. 20. They thought 
 by letting her see him to soften her grief. 21. If we allow them at 
 their leisure to sharpen the arms, with which they subdue us — . 22. 
 
 If it is possible, make me believe it too. 23. They find a (cilice) hair- 
 shirt on his body. 24. You give me credit for a merit which I have 
 not. 25. Watch over Pyrrhus, see that he keeps his faith. 26. People 
 were astonished to see them engage in this childish amusement. 27. 
 He is here, and the king is to hear him sing them on the first day. 
 28. You are hiding the light from me. 29. My daughter, God has given 
 you to me 30. What mysteries present themselves to me! 31. Are 
 you not a hundred years old? Find me in Paris two persons equally 
 old. 32. Go and take a turn in a waltz to please me, and come back 
 again at eleven. 
 
 (§ 4. B and C). 1. A purer day is shining for me. 2. To defend 
 
 his country, it was necessary for him to govern it. 3. Memory failed 
 him suddenl 5 ^ 4. We shall never please others as much as we please 
 ourselves. 5. We should seem calmer to you, if the matter concerned 
 ourselves alone. 6. I think, said the prince, that I should wish to be 
 like him. 7. How have they found out, that all we think of this first 
 being is indifferent to him, and that all the religions we see on the 
 earth are in his sight equally good? 8. His coming was very pleasant 
 to me. 9. In our studies, when my exercise was finished, I helped 
 him to do his. 10. He could help them in their researches. 11. He 
 applauded us when we spoke. 12. He thought nothing of himself, 
 while the whole world applauded him. 13. He seeks a virtue which 
 may offer him less resistance. 14. No one wishes to injure them. 15. 
 He was answered by sobs. 16. These chiefs, proud and of the same 
 age were but little fitted one to command the other. 17. I do not know 
 why a king, whom I command, dares to call himself a king. 18. This 
 same Agamemnon, whom you insult. 19. They insulted one another 
 publicly. 20. He wishes to speak, his voice fails him. 21. We must 
 do good to our friends after their fashion. 22. Of what use to him 
 were his rare talents? 23. Your fire was going out. 24. The spirit 
 of impiety mocks at all that is most sacred. 
 
 EXAMPLES, 39. 
 
 1. God made heaven and earth. 2. Solon, one of the seven wise 
 men gave laws to the Athenians. 3. Before striking the blow, they 
 turned their eyes on a successor, and chose Nerva, a venerable old 
 man. 4. From a common soldier, which he was, they made him a 
 sergeant. 5. His honesty has made him the umpire of all his neigh- 
 
EXAMPLES 39-40. 
 
 309 
 
 hours. 6. He crowned me queen of beauty. 7. I esteemed him a man 
 of honour. 8. They did not dare to avow themselves republicans. 9. 
 
 Traitor, think, while dying, that you die my subject. 10. They have 
 
 been playing an infernal game. 11. He died a natural death. 12. How 
 everything here breathes luxury and magnificence! 13. Does this gold 
 smell of blood? 14. This man stinks of wine. 15. Some days after — . 
 16. Twenty-four hours later — . 17. He lives three doors lower down, 
 
 — two stories higher. 18. He is a thousand times more blameable. 
 
 19. A work more necessary now, than it was last century. 20. He 
 
 preached to them in the morning and evening. 21. On the eleventh 
 
 of September we saw the land. 22. Could I take you anywhere else? 
 23. They don’t find him anywhere. 24. I have seen that abbe some- 
 where. 25. I continued my way for six miles. 26. I have been two 
 hours waiting for you. 27. The murder of a Frank is valued at two 
 hundred soldi in gold, that of a Roman land-owner at a hundred soldi, 
 the half of a man. 28. She sells this secret to Fouche for a thousand 
 louis. 29. This man is worth his weight in gold. 30. Good morning, 
 uncle. 31. Come, children. 32. Thauk you, my friend. 33. Quick, a 
 
 light! 34. When this duty is accomplished, he will ask for your or- 
 
 ders on his knees. 35. Speak, your hand on your conscience, speak. 
 36. All the most important gentlemen spoke to me with their hats off. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 40. 
 
 A. 1. Paul was going to throw himself into the sea. 2. The wind 
 
 and sea threw him on land. 3. The battle they fought with the Lace- 
 demonians at QEuoe. 4. You walk in the midst of these dead men 
 standing upright. 5. Hold it always at some distance from you. 6. I 
 will whisper that into your ear. 7. Beggars have less hatred in their 
 heart, and less fire in their eyes. 8. D’Assaz a captain in the regi- 
 ment of Auvergne. 9. Orleans is south of Paris. 10. Between you and 
 me it is for life and for death. 11. People whose heads must be cut 
 off within a month. 12. The 14tii, in the evening, we suddenly felt the 
 bottom growing smaller. 13. Send off a messenger at once. 14. This 
 comet reappears only at long intervals. 15. To sit in the shade, — 
 in the sun. 16. In the times w'hen beasts talked. 17. In the month 
 of May. 18. Some days after. 19. On the report of his death. 20. 
 To come by long stages. 21. To take a cup in your band. 22. To 
 translate word for word. 23. To fight with swords. 24. To go full 
 steam. 25. To do open work. 26. Made by hand. 27. On my oath 
 you may believe me. 28. The bad results which spring from it in 
 thousands. 29. Let us draw lots to see who will play first. 30. It was 
 who should start first. 31. That is my opinion. 32. Your duty is 
 to leave. 33. Moses who has told me that I was made in the image 
 and likeness of God. 34. It is folly in you to think — . 35. Medea by 
 
 herself braved an army. 36. The three of us together could not raise 
 this burden. 37. In my opinion. 38. As far as I see. 39. Help ! 40. 
 Thief! 41. I shall see you again to-night. 
 
 B. 1. He prepared for the fight. 2. Don’t give yourself too much 
 to little things. 3. Louis Philippe d’Orleans was called to the throne. 
 
310 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 4. We must limit ourselves to that. 5. He is so tall that he touches 
 the ceiling. 6. Her dress caught on some brambles. 7. He who rises 
 in the morning does not know whether he will live till evening. 8. It 
 does not come up to the energy of the original. 9. We think neither 
 of the death with which God threatens us, nor of the immortality 
 which he promises us. 10. I believed in happiness, I believed in glory. 
 11. To dislike certain steps. 12. To mix oil and lime. 13. Even if 
 I had wished it, ought I to have assented to it? 14. He holds much 
 less to his nephew, than to his money. 15. I should certainly be dead, 
 if I had merely tasted all that was offered me. 16. Animals fell dead 
 from touching clothes, which they had found in the street. 17. He is 
 just at the age when a man amends. 18. To praise a good action 
 heartily is to a certain extent to share in it. 19. I have improved 
 from his lessons. 20. Nothing pleases people when ill. 21. Answer 
 such pretensions with firmness. 22. Happy is the man who does not 
 survive his youth and his illusions. 23. It is important for every one. 
 24. He has withdrawn his confidence from the lawyer. 25. Spoils taken 
 from the enemy. 26. They snatched the fruit from the trees. 27. The 
 layer has been taken from a good stock. 28. He has made his friend 
 accept a present. 29. When I write to you I let my pen guide me. 
 30. I heard your brother say that you would come. 31. I noticed an 
 anxious look in your friend. 32. His death was conformable to his life. 
 33. The just man severe towards himself. 34. Breathing is necessary 
 for life. 35. A man of your age so suited for society. 36. We are 
 all subject to the laws of the country in which we live. 37. An orator 
 really born for the sublime. 38. Alexander was no longer the same; 
 though invincible by the dangers and the toils of war, he was not so 
 by the softness of repose. 39. Half a ream of letter-paper. 40. A re- 
 peater. 41. A broom-stick. 42. The flower market. 43. A two- 
 wheeled carriage. 44. A Cromwellian step, 45. A cray-fish soup. 46. The 
 black-headed warbler. 47. A paradoxical man. 48. Fidelity to tradi- 
 tions. 49. An example of resistance to oppression. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 41. 
 
 1. We drew poor Paul from the waves. 2. We withdrew from 
 that place. 3. You have driven me from your house. 4. What do 
 you require of me? 5. Good depends neither on time nor fashion. 
 6. It was a very fine estate which was held from the king alone. 7. 
 The houses close to the river. 8. Madame, what good fortune brings 
 me near you! 9. Do you see London on the other side of the river? 
 10. Your intention was to go towards the town. 11. I have been here 
 since Thursday. 12. It is not from to-day only, that they have had 
 this plan in mind. 13. By day the owl hides itself in holes, and at 
 night it goes and seeks its food. 14. He had not learnt it in his youth. 
 15. Very early in the morning we dispersed. 16. Early entrusted to 
 the Oratorians. 17. What, begin the expedition in such a heat as this ! 
 18. I had not either slept or eaten for twenty-four hours. 19. They 
 will not put me in a passion all day to-day. 20. They forbid my plead- 
 ing, Sir, all my life long. 
 
EXAMPLES 41. 
 
 311 
 
 1. Born of a good family. 2. This notion is not yours. 3. Make 
 use of the advice which is given you. 4. This stock had more than 
 twenty bunches on it. 5. There are not less than thirty persons there. 
 6. More than six months had passed. 7. He was loved by his own 
 party, respected by his enemies. 8. These propositions were maintained 
 by no one. 9. Called by God to the ministry of his word. 10. The 
 prince enters preceded by his guards. 11. Colomb was every where 
 looked on as a man sent by heaven. 12. United in taste and friendship 
 with the first men. 13. She beckoned to us with her hand. 14. Co- 
 vering my head with the skirt of my cloak. 15. I beg you always to 
 aid me with your prayers. 16. I am conquered by time. 17. I am 
 confounded by so much kindness. 18. That is of course. 19. M. Du- 
 blanc saw two fiddles. Who is there here who plays these instruments? 
 he asked. 20. Her husband’s whim is to play the horn at her bed- 
 side. 
 
 1. They lived on vegetables. 2. They will forge ploughshares of 
 their swords, and scythes of their lances. 3. She cannot be suspected 
 by me either of timidity or of weakness. 4. They differed in opinion. 
 5. He busies himself in matters, which do not concern him. 6. I am 
 mistaking the word. 7. Speak, or it is all over with you. 8. Your 
 life is at stake. 9. You must be doubly attentive. 10. An ignorant 
 fellow inherited a manuscript. 11. We are obliged to use this wise 
 reserve. 12. He enjoyed a great reputation. 13. Prince, you take 
 advantage of my kindness too soon. 14. The enemy saw them start. 
 15. She had a suspicion of what was doing. 16. Stop throwing on 
 others the blame of your own faults. 17. He wanted to punish himself 
 by this course for an excess he had committed. 18. She is proud of 
 her daughter. 19. I am frightened by my good fortune. 20. How do 
 you get on in France under the Bourbons? 21. We had a contest but 
 only of courtesy. 22. He is deprived of the use of the right hand. 
 23. It pretends to be wounded and goes dragging its wing. 24. His 
 mind wants exactness. 25. I changed colour. 26. He will triumph 
 over his enemies. 27. He attacks me wantonly in order to get himself 
 known by any means whatever. 28. He is older than I by three 
 months. 29. A stick three feet long. 30. My watch is ten minutes 
 slow. 
 
 1. I knew no zeal but for the fight. 2. This is one of those cases, 
 in which it is pleasant to confess oneself wrong. 8. There must be 
 ups and downs in life. 4. I am not one of those most to be pitied. 
 5. He was one of the last to come. 6. There were a hundred men 
 killed. 7. Is there anything blacker than your shameful action? 8. 
 Doubtless they have no plan fixed. 9. He had been shown to all the 
 most famous oculists, surgeons and even operators. 10. I never saw 
 a prettier town. 11. We have no king but Csesar. 12. When he has 
 tasted my wine, he tells me his adventures. 13. The pathetic has in 
 it somewhat of the sublime, just as the sublime has in it somewhat 
 of the beautiful and of the pleasant. 14. Like the demi-gods we have 
 less of earth in us than of heaven. 15. The mind of youth makes 
 trial of all feelings. 16. Setting up for being generous he thinks to 
 frighten me. 17. The north-wind. 18. A twenty years war. 19. This 
 
312 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 use of the word sceptre occurs on every page of scripture. 20. My 
 tormentor of a master. 21. The country beyond the Loire. 22. What 
 gratitude you return me for the kindnesses lavished on you ! 23. Read- 
 ing is very fatiguing for my weak eyes. 
 
 1. He allowed himself to be treated as a king. 2. The juris- con- 
 sults of Europe have never termed these judgements other than assas- 
 sinations. 3. It would seem that there is as it were an invisible bar- 
 rier, one would almost say an evil genius that continually removed the 
 end farther off and out of the way. 4. A change of form is not 
 enough for me. 5. That will be of no use to you. 6. If I were you, 
 I would leave him there. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 42. 
 
 A. 1. Our journey to France will have a happy end. 2. I will 
 be married in Turkey, if they like. 3. The countries washed by the 
 North-Pacific ocean are in North- America : British America, the United 
 States, etc. 4. The inland seas and the gulfs formed by the North- 
 Pacific ocean are in America: Bering straight, etc. 5. He lives in Paris. 
 6, To go back to London you must take B.street. 7. It is in your 
 power to destroy or to save your brother. 8. I said to myself: why 
 be so much afraid? 9. She often goes into places, which she does not 
 wish known. 10. He used to go into the forest to seek for wood. 11. 
 He hurries from sea to sea, lands in desert places. 12. We went to 
 a place called POrient, one league out at sea. 13. There are instances 
 in St. Simon. 14. In the happy times of the world in its childhood—. 
 15. Be ready in an hour’s time. 16. Does a man gain a million in 
 a year without crime? 17. Still from hour to hour Gk)doy received alarming 
 news from the French camp. 18. From cups of gold they drink death. 
 19. He chose the finest cherries from the basket. 20. The whole 
 church will be praying for you. 21. I have grown old in misery and 
 shame. 22. She had a riding habit on. 23. The whole court was in 
 admiration at the magnificence of this present. 24. You will be in 
 admiration at these counsels of Providence. 25. Divide this apple in 
 two. 26. It is a full length portrait. 27. Of women, the only ones 
 were Mme. de L. and the Countess of G. 28. You speak as a soldier, 
 I ought to act as a king. 29. As enemies, he fought them ; as wounded, 
 he watched over their safety. 30. He established him on the throne. 
 31. All the dogs of his kennels formed a pack in case of need. 
 
 B. 1. They burnt incense on the hills, as well as under the oaks 
 and poplars. 2. That occurred in my sight. 3. On his arrival the regi- 
 ment presented arms. 4. At these words he climbed up into a tree 
 without more ado. 5. I have been on foot all day long. 6. Stop a 
 bit! I have not that amount about me. 7. The key is in the door. 
 8. He is walking in my footsteps. 9. Wjrite that in your note-book. 
 10. Fancy sandy plains x)ver which the eye stretches and the sight is 
 lost without being able to fix itself on a single object. 11. His win- 
 dow looked on the plain. 12. He will arrive shortly. 13. I think that 
 my return will be towards the end of the year. 14. Messenger after 
 messenger was seen arriving from different sides. 15. They have 
 
EXAMPLES 42—43. 
 
 313 
 
 represented his conduct in a had light. 16. He told me so in confi- 
 dence. 17. That is forbidden on pain of death. 18. We have had 
 two fine days out of eight. 19. After crossing the mountain you come 
 to a plain six miles long by two wide. 20. It is what I like above 
 everything. 21, You are assuming a very haughty tone. 22. Of this 
 sum we must subtract so much. 23. What reason have you for think- 
 ing yourself dispensed from this duty? 24. He is strong in grammar. 
 25. A bishop is inferior to an archbishop. 26. The thermometer is 
 below zero. 27. His cuirassiers drew him from under the horses. 28. 
 You have sold it above its worth. 29. He had his legs into the bar- 
 gain very much turned in. 30. To proceed. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 43. 
 
 1. He was arrested with a bloody sword in his hand. 2. Two 
 statues in the dress of a young girl. 3. He will set off at day-break. 
 4. The glory, which must end at the same time as ourselves, is always 
 false. 5. Wine mingled with water. 6. What terms are you on with 
 M. d’Aix? 7. We must be just to every one. 8. Happy the man w^ho 
 has nothing to do with those gentlemen. 9. Without giving them time 
 to learn how small a number they had to do with. 10. You think to 
 dazzle me by this artifice. 11. Whilst you lived in modesty and inno- 
 cence, you did not doubt. 12. We slowly followed the course of the 
 Peneus. 13. We generally had coffee for breakfast. 14. That is the 
 same thing, as wanting to catch the moon in your teeth. 15. Your 
 houses will be burnt. — Never mind, w'e will build them up again of 
 bones. 16. When a man loves timorously, he loves excessively. 17. 
 I Tvas with him as if I were at home. 18. It was impossible to keep 
 them (/’.) at home. 19. The profession of comic actor was disgraceful 
 among the Eomans and honorable among the Greeks ; what is it with 
 us? 20. It is a conviction with him. 21. You have made me beside 
 myself. 22. There they were struggling together, foot to foot, hand 
 to hand. 23. It is a thing opposed to ordinary rules. 24. You speak 
 in opposition to what you think. 25. The citadel was saved contrary 
 to all hope. 26. There are ten men who devour the produce of the 
 land for one labourer. 27. You have resisted hitherto without stoop- 
 ing. 28. To the very altars we should punish crime. 29. We will put 
 things in order by means of some money, which we will give for that 
 purpose. 30. Those walking went up and down in the room. 31. I saw 
 men in uniform dispersed about the town. 32. Both fallen to the ground 
 and ready to breathe their last sigh. 33. We were in thirty degrees 
 of latitude. 34. Would you think that a joke in good taste in this 
 weather ? 35. Leopold hated by the great, loved by the people, esteem- 
 ed by the learned. 36. Egypt is watered by the stream of the Nile. 
 37. All eyes were bathed with tears. 38. Charlemagne in his enter- 
 prise of civilization begins by two things. 39. All men are alike in 
 words. 40. You pay so much a head. 41. Thrice have the shadows 
 darkened the heavens since sleep has entered your eyes. 42. His ser- 
 mons drew large numbers there, much less from the polish of his lan- 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 21 
 
314 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 guage than from the great and steadfast truths which he preached. 
 43. When a man is kind to every one, he is so to no one. 44. Blind 
 to her own deficiencies. 45. For me these things no longer teach me 
 anything. 46. As for myself I will turn a lover’s eye upon it. 47. It 
 is two years ago, day for day, since I married the prettiest girl in 
 Smyrna. 48. For whom do you take me? 49. It is a crime in them 
 to remain aloof. 50. I say no more in the matter and not without 
 reason. 51. The Memorials of Beyond the grave by Chateaubriand. 
 52. He works immoderately. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 44. 
 
 1. Tours is between Paris and Bordeaux. 2. Those children were 
 dying in their mothers’ arms. 3. You, whom the East reckons among 
 her greatest kings. 4. What is your business among these trees? 5. 
 I have visited the principal libraries of Italy, among others those of 
 Rome. 6. Have they been seen marching among your enemies? 7. 
 Jesus came to Bethany, where he had raised Lazarus from the dead. 
 8. Some one of them has done it. 9. It is good to be charitable, but 
 towards whom? That is the question. 10. The first instant of life is 
 the first step towards death. 11. We shall start about twelve o’clock. 
 12. I will fall down before him. 13 All got out of his way. 14. She 
 is without reproach before God and man. 15. Begone from my sight! 
 16. Let us not require the prize before the victory, nor the salary 
 before the work. 17. This chapter must be put before the other. 18. 
 Pedreras renews the command, that he has to leave within a few days. 
 
 19. He had to pay Mme. Gervais the running quarter within six weeks. 
 
 20. Chevaliers, he cried in a terrible voice: Before us the enemy, 
 
 behind us the water; let us know how to conquer or die. 21. His 
 attendants walked behind him. 22. They draw all after them. 23. I 
 am in a state of anxiety; I am waiting for the doctor. 24. I only 
 paint the world after your heart. 25. A picture after Raphael. 26. 
 According to what I have been told, you are destined to more serious 
 occupations. 27. The laws, according to which God has created, are 
 those, according to which he preserves. 28. Our happiness consists in 
 living according to nature and to virtue. 29. I was told that the post 
 had been gone since twelve o’clock. 30. The pope had been unfriendly 
 towards France since 1805. 31. From Lyons on I began no longer to 
 
 understand much of the language of the country. 32. What a series 
 of Christian martyrs, from the blood of Abel to our own times! 33. 
 You have loved me long; a feeling of equal affection for you has long 
 distressed and interested me. 34. Later on and during the time of 
 Roman degeneration minds were absorbed in the practice and details 
 of law. 35. Hens lay indifferently throughout the whole year, except 
 when moulting. 36. In nature, with the exception of the sky, the 
 ocean, and the sun, it is not by large objects that I feel myself in- 
 spired. 37. He left him all his property, e'xcept one farm. 38. In 
 truth, without infringing the respect I owe you, I think we are mis- 
 taken. 39. His treacherous joy is clear in spite of himself. 40. This 
 great publication is going on successfully, notwithstanding the misfor- 
 
EXAMPLES 44-45. 
 
 315 
 
 tune which has just happened to it. 41. Christian has just died at 
 Chieri, near Turin. 42. He happened to be near the bed of a dying 
 woman. 43. He intended to imitate everything in these conquerors 
 except their vices. 44. What can deprive you in this way of all self- 
 control? 45. Charles’ fleet stopped opposite Humblebach. 46. I ask 
 absolute secrecy of you for some days, and especially (surtoutj with 
 respect to the countess. 47. Water filters through the earth. 48. Fishes 
 see scarcely anything through the water. 49. Charles XH throws 
 himself from his launch into the sea, sword in hand, with the water 
 above his belt. 50. There was added to his government of Cis-Alpine 
 Gaul that of Trans- Alpine Gaul. 51. At the time of his pupil’s arrest 
 he had hurried to Paris. 52. The Saxon troops were posted along the 
 river Duina. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 45. 
 
 A. 1. Look not whence thou comest, but whither thou goest. 2. 
 
 Where must I begin ? 3. There was a second in which the most de- 
 
 termined felt their hearts throb. 4. In two hours’ time from now the 
 engagement will begin. 5. Come back to-morrow; before then I shall 
 have settled your business. 6. The former marquis of Surgy. 7. Ho- 
 nour is like a steep island without landing-place; it is impossible to get 
 back to it, when once out of it. 8. He is vexed Avith me for having 
 left him. 9. It will be the same thing with this demand as with the 
 one of last year. 10. Is it enough, 0 heaven? 11. It is too bad. 
 12. I have lost my money and my reputation. 13. All is over, he is 
 dead. 14. Is it not strange that in a city as famous as Carthage, one 
 has to seek for even the position of its ports? 15. I will only believe 
 you after I have tried it. 16. Allow me, brethren, to appeal to your 
 conscience. 17. When a man can already scarcely see, and walks 
 with difficulty — . 18. It is a matter in which the safety of the state 
 is at stake. 19. You don’t understand. 20. He lives quite close. 21. 
 She is out walking near here. 22. There are nothing like as many 
 lions in Africa now, as there were formerly. 23. They have given 
 him back all but all his property. 24. They were rather given to 
 drinking, with that exception, very good people. 
 
 B. 1. Long wars always bring after them q great many disorders. 
 2. Your husband is asked to take great care of me. 3. A great many 
 other dangers have attacked him. 4. Too little honour for me would 
 accompany that victory. 5. I recommend you a little repose , a little 
 quiet. 6. If I knew more, I would tell more. 7. People have less 
 genius than in the age of Louis XIV, less real talent, less grace and 
 politeness, but much more knowledge. 8. That will cost less than ten 
 francs. 9. All your happiness, subject to instability, in less than no 
 time falls to the ground. 10. It would have been so much money 
 spared. 11. So much ceremony is not required. 12, How many per- 
 sons are there? 13. What surprise and joy I feel at once! 14. What 
 pain a generous mind feels in failure! 
 
 C. 1. He feels my griefs much more than I do myself. 2. His 
 last state will become much worse than the first. 3. Christianity, the 
 last religion which has appeared on earth, is also by far the tiiost 
 
 21 * 
 
316 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 perfect. 4. I avoid the idlers in towns, people as wearied as they are 
 wearisome. 5. The good Louis XII was as much loved, as Louis XI 
 was detested. 6. Nothing has vexed me so much as this news. 7. 
 Cornelius Nepos, an ancient author, as judicious as he is elegant. 8. 
 It was so much the easier to reject him. 9. How insufficient are all 
 earthly riches! 10. How good it is to meditate, on holy writ! 11. Do 
 you want to know how you ought to give, put yourself in the place 
 of him, who receives. 12. How good he is! How kind he is! 
 
 D. 1. The Vendemiaire attack was quite recent. 2. They {f.) 
 were quite astonished, quite confused. 3. Wbat a strange character 
 the French have, which even passions cannot stifle! 4. The most ri- 
 gorous censors, even the enemies of Cromwell, have not denied him a 
 great mind. 5. Alexander lost some three hundred men when he de- 
 feated Porus. 6. However well these works are written, they will have 
 but little success. 
 
 E. 1. It was reckoned that the year before there had been four- 
 teen hundred murders in the town. 2. There is in you one thing too 
 much. 3. It took hold of the strings with its two fore-paws. 4. Let us 
 go back here, we shall be more comfortable. 5. These boys are not 
 so bad. 6. He got quite red with annoyance. 7. This statue sounds 
 hollow. 8. The pleasure of doing good pays us ready money for the 
 kindness we have done. 9. He opens a dying eye, and shuts it again 
 at once. 10. Let us cut short the errors of youth. 11. Nothing less 
 is needed to satisfy us, than the hope of becoming happy again. 12. 
 My comedy is anything rather than what people wish it to be. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 46. 
 
 I. 1. Won’t you have some? Oh! yes, won’t I? 2. But it is 
 not possible. — It seems, it is. 3. It will be so, my daughter. — 
 No, — Yes, — I say, no. 4. It is my brother. — No! 5. She will 
 make up her mind to speak for you. — I am afraid not. 6. A thing 
 not known. 
 
 H. A. 1. We have not forgotten, what we have not said. 2. 
 That is not quite right. 3. It is difficult to love those, whom we don’t 
 esteem. 4. The town had not even streets. 5. My long journey has 
 not tired me at all. 6. Ought not love to give way to reason ? 7. 
 Have they not flattered you with false hope? 8. Tell it! Not before 
 people. 9. We are taught to read books, pictures, and not men. 10. 
 We may be cleverer than another, but not cleverer than all others. 
 11. At such a price I prefer not seeing her. 
 
 II. B. 1. He who pities nobody, does not deserve to be pitied. 
 2. Nothing is beautiful but what is true. 3. No one will be witty, 
 but ourselves and our friends. 4. No river stops them, no fortress 
 daunts them. 5. I troubled my head no longer with any business. 6. 
 We never live, but we hope to live. 7. He must prepare himself for 
 seeing me no more. 8. It is not happy people, who exile themselves. 
 9. We were only just nine years old. 10. The unhappy lion paws the 
 air, which cannot help it. 11. The Romans never made peace, except 
 as conquerors. 12. He treated thoroughly, what others had only touched 
 on. 13. Newton saw clearly even in those matters, which he only 
 
EXAMPLES 46. 
 
 317 
 
 suspected. 14. Not a single person will listen to you. 15. I could 
 not pass for a wife, nor in my opinion for a widow either. 16. Be- 
 lieve that presumption does not take the place of any talent, nor 
 pride of any virtue. 
 
 II. B. 2. 1. Has he told you who you are? Not yet. 2. Do 
 
 you know his name? Do you? — No more than you. 3. We cannot 
 accept what he gives us. Why not? 4. It was a forget and nothing 
 else. 5. Will you do so? Certainly not. 6. Massena with the army 
 of Liguria, not increased in number. 7. He had but little intelligence, 
 a great deal of laziness, no education. 8. No pity more! Calchas 
 alone reigns, alone commands. 9. What is the matter? Nothing, 
 Father. 10. In Pascal faith had often been languishing, never extinct. 
 
 II. B. 3. 1. What have we to fear any longer? 2. What have 
 
 I said to him, but what was of no consequence? 3. What was there 
 so satisfying for any one in such a misfortune? 4. How could it give 
 any stability or any force to an order of things nominally established? 
 5. Other notions prevent his refusing you any thing. 6. Cease to join 
 your interests any more to' his. 7. A victim to this need of believing, 
 and to this impossibility of believing, except through the reason. 8. 
 He was more skilful and more ready than any of those whom he would 
 soon have under his authority. 9. I attribute it rather to my seventy 
 years than to any disease. 10. It is not my custom to blame anything. 
 11. Hold your tongue, if ever again you come and warn me! 12. He 
 can only then feel very little sorrow, if he ever feels any. 13. The 
 power of the Normans was an exterminating power if ever there was 
 one. 14. Tired of living without doing anything, he went to Holland. 
 15. Go away without delaying any more. 16. It is myself, without 
 any vanity, gentlemen. 
 
 II. C. 1. There is no harm at all. 2. No other has better main- 
 tained this war than you. 3. I will not go out for three days. 4. 
 There is no kind of calumny which you have not put in use. 5. There 
 is, as people say, no worse water, than water which sleeps. 6. But it 
 is on condition that, on the word of an honest man, you will not show 
 it to any living soul. 7. I don’t understand a word of it. 8. Ah! I 
 won’t say a word more, you are right. Marquis. 
 
 III. A. 1. I should not be able to hold my tongue. 2. That can- 
 not be long delayed. 3. She dared not return to her apartment. 4. 
 Liberty does not cease to be kind. 5. I will not move from there, 
 since you order it. 6. The joist did not move. 7. Who has not pic- 
 tured to himself the sea, the Alps, Borne? 8. Oh! Why am I not 
 covered with white hair, bent down, and near the tomb, like my 
 grandfather Laertes? 9. With all due deference to you. 10. If he 
 only requires one visit, let that pass. 11. But your sons will be mur- 
 dered. No matter, they will join the angels. 12. I will take care not 
 to fail. 
 
 III. B. 1. It is not, that we have not seen any instances in our 
 days, or that we do not see them still. 2. I cannot this time help 
 excusing them. 3. He does not say, that what the popes have decided, 
 is not probable. 4. You will say nothing that I cannot understand. 
 5. Is there a single one of you, who does not tremble for him? 6. 
 
318 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 
 
 Seventy years have not so weighted my pen, as that I could not write 
 a satire against the dropsy. 7. Cannot he take one step without being 
 suspected by you? 8. I never fight without . at once killing my man. 
 
 9. Though he believes in nothing, except it be in himself. 10. I shall 
 not go out, unless you come to take me in a carriage. 11. Self-love 
 lives and reigns absolutely in us, unless God has destroyed its empire 
 by pouring another love into our heart. 12. She never saw any living 
 being suffering, without expressing in her face the pain she felt at it. 
 13. Go away quickly, that I may not murder you. 14. Take care they 
 don’t see you. 15. Prevent her mixing herself up in any matter. 16. 
 I am very much afraid they may succeed in shutting him up. 17. 
 There is danger, lest vanity stifle a part of gratitude. 18. Is it pos- 
 sible to fear, lest the earth fail men? 19. Are you not afraid that 
 the duke may recognise, that it is you? 20. You cannot deny that 
 he has spoken to you. 21. Do you doubt that my vows are honorable? 
 22. Do not despair of these means being successful. 23. Can it be de- 
 nied, that good customs are essential to the continuance of empires? 
 24. He is within a very little of being as tall as his brother. 25. He 
 had all but finished. 
 
 HI. C. 1. You have not been drawing for some time back. 2. The 
 open air will do me good; it is so long since I breathed it. 3. I shall 
 be dead before he comes into this room. 4. Have not I done more 
 and much more than I ought? 5. A man sees himself with different 
 eyes to what he does his neighbour, 6. It is even more true than 
 you think. 7. I do not know him any more than you know him. 8. 
 We do not attach more importance to these remarks than they deserve. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 47. 
 
 1. I will not, and ought not, and cannot obey. 2. I have not re- 
 quired either oaths or promises. 3. Neither prudence nor humanity 
 require such conduct. 4. What do you think of her? That she is 
 neither beautiful nor ugly. 5. I wept indeed in her room sincerely, 
 without either her or any one’s being aware of it. 6. A scourge more 
 dangerous than plague or war. 7. Either case is worthy of the most 
 barbarous ages. 8. Begone quickly and run; but if this wolf catches 
 you, break his jaw. 9. I doubt whether you will succeed in this matter. 
 
 10. You remember it? Can you ask whether I remember it? 11. If 
 it had but pleased God to preserve in him this tender feeling for piety! 
 12. As it has the brilliancy of glass, it has its fragility also. 13. To- 
 wards evening, as she was alone with Virginia, there came into her 
 room a tall man wearing a blue cassock. 14. As you are related to 
 Mad. de Vernon, doubtless you have her address at Paris. 15. As we 
 have said already, and as we shall see more clearly elsewhere — . 16. 
 When everything was giving way to Louis, and we thought we saw 
 the time of miracles return — . 17. It would be a funny thing, if the 
 patients were cured, and they came and thanked me. 18. They call 
 me Lorrain as I am from Lorraine. 19. He allowed his mind to wan- 
 der from one revery to another, till sleep overtook him. 20. Beth- 
 lehem, where the holy Virgin went with St. Joseph to be enrolled, 
 
EXAMPLES 47. 
 
 319 
 
 because, says the Evangelist, it was their country. 21. Since there- 
 fore we are allowed to take breath — . 22. While Caesar used inso- 
 
 lently to say, that the republic was nothing, Augustus only spoke of 
 the dignity of the senate. 23. Fortunately we shall soon leave her. 
 24. Don’t let that make any difference, Sir. 25. What , I hate you ! 
 26. Supposing that we are hurt by a madman, or by a blind man, we 
 feel our wound none the less. 27. Act so that every one may be 
 satisfied. 28. Are you yourself so credulous as to suspect me of ridi- 
 culous anger? 29. No animal had anything to do in the places which 
 
 the bear inhabited. So that, bear as he was , he began to get tired. 
 
 30. They are so much alike, that it is incredible. 31. They had no 
 
 rest, till they had got them put on the index. 32. Where is papa 
 then, that he is not in the cemetery? 33. His words plunged me 
 into despair as deep , as my hope had been intense. 34. If he has 
 gone, the reason doubtless was, that there were hindrances to his re- 
 maining. 35. Come back, that I may see you again. 36. 1 complain 
 of my lot, less than you think. 37. He acts differently from what he 
 thinks. 38. Despotism has reigned elsewhere than in the Eoman em- 
 pire. 39. That is not as easy as people think. 40. It is known that 
 the temperature increases in proportion as we go down into the interior 
 of the earth. 41. Although I wish it with all my heart 1 cannot do 
 so. 42. However interesting this question may be, it remains almost 
 insoluble. 43. Come now; now that you have been for some time in 
 want of everything, is this life very much to your taste? 44. One 
 week when he had allowed himself to get behindhand with his rent, 
 he met his neighbour. 45. From the moment that I am good for no- 
 thing, I can do nothing but injure involuntarily . 46. On the tenth of 
 
 August, the day on which I gave out that — . 47. He ran off, when we 
 were as yet only at the money-changers’ bridge. 48. I had not left 
 London when I heard some one galloping after me. 49. To-morrow 
 he will be eight days gone. 50. They have not seen each other for a 
 long time. 
 
320 
 
 Appendix I. 
 
 Appendix 1. 
 
 T ables. 
 
 1. The following nouns vary in meaning when singular 
 and when plural: 
 
 Hre aux abois to be at bay 
 armes coat of arms 
 arrets military arrest 
 ciseaux scissors 
 defenses tusks 
 effets goods, effects 
 epingles pin-money 
 savoir les etres to know one’s 
 way about a house 
 fers fetters 
 gages wages 
 hardes clothes 
 lettres literature 
 lumieres intelligence 
 lunettes spectacles 
 neveux descendants 
 ouies gills 
 trousses breeches 
 vacances holy days. 
 
 2. a. The following words always plural in French may 
 be expressed by a singular in English: 
 les agres the rigging les broussailles brush-wood 
 
 aux aguets on the watch les depens | 
 les alentours Ithe neighbour- les frais J 
 
 aboi bark 
 arme weapon 
 arrU sentence 
 ciseau chisel 
 
 defense prohibition, defence 
 effet result 
 epingle pin 
 etre creature 
 
 fer iron 
 gage pledge 
 harde leash 
 lettre letter 
 lumiere light 
 lunette telescope 
 neveu nephew 
 ouie hearing 
 trousse bundle 
 vacance vacancy 
 
 the cost 
 
 les environs j hood 
 les armoiries the hatchment 
 les arrhes the deposit 
 
 les epinards spinach 
 
 les epousailles the wedding 
 
 les etrennes the new year’s gift 
 
Tables of nouns. 
 
 321 
 
 les fiangailles the betrothal 
 les fonts the font 
 
 les relevailles the churching 
 
 les moeurs the character 
 
 les semailles sowing-time 
 les sevices (legal), cruelty 
 les tenebres darkness. 
 
 /?. The following words are mostly used in the plural 
 both in French and English: 
 
 les ancetres ancestors 
 les annales annals 
 
 les gens people 
 
 les langes swadling-clothes 
 
 les mouchettes snuffers 
 
 les prentices first-fruits 
 
 les mathematigues mathematics 
 
 les represailles reprisals 
 
 les tenailles pincers 
 
 les vivres provisions. 
 
 les archives archives 
 les arrerages arrears 
 les besides spectacles 
 les bestiaux cattle 
 
 les catacombes catacombs 
 les cisailles shears 
 
 les entrailles bowels 
 
 y. The following words singular in French are expressed 
 hj an English plural: 
 
 Vavoine oats 
 le pantalon trousers 
 
 le raisin grapes 
 la rongeole measles. 
 
 §, Vherbe the grass, but les graminees the grasses 
 
 une larme a tear, but des larmes or des pleurs tears 
 une pierre a gem, but des pierreries gems. 
 
 3. Nouns of two genders: 
 
 aigle m. = eagle generally, or' figuratively of a distinguished 
 man, f. = standard 
 
 amour m. in singular, mostly f. in plural, 
 automne m. but may be feminine in poetry. 
 chose f. but, used as a pronominal word in quelque chose or 
 quelque chose que, it is masculine, 
 couple m. of two living creatures united for some purpose, 
 f. of two things or persons accidentally brought together. 
 delice m. in singular, mostly f. in plural. 
 foudre m. figuratively un foudre d' eloquence^ f. = lightning^ 
 thunderbolt^ 
 
 gens m. unless immediately preceded by an adjective, the fe- 
 minine form of which differs from the masculine. 
 hymne both masculine and feminine ; it is said to be used 
 feminine only of a church hymn. 
 
322 
 
 Appendix I. 
 
 oeuvre m. only in the singular of a great and important act, 
 of a work of a musician, or an engraver, f. in its ge- 
 neral meaning worlc, deed, 
 
 orge m. in orge perle pearl barley, and orge monde hulled 
 barley, otherwise f. 
 
 orgue m. in the singular, f. in the plural. 
 
 Pdques m. except in some few expressions as faire de honnes 
 Pdques to receive the sacrament, d Pdques fleuries on 
 Palm-Sunday, Pdques closes low Sunday. 
 
 periode m. = 
 
 == interval of time with 
 
 notion of progress, high- 
 
 est point, f. astronomical or 
 
 chronological period, or 
 
 in grammar. 
 
 
 4. The 
 
 following words differ 
 
 in meaning according to 
 
 their gender: 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 aune 
 
 an alder-tree (alnus) 
 
 an ell (alena). 
 
 crepe 
 
 crape 
 
 a pancake 
 
 exemple 
 
 example 
 
 a writing-copy. 
 
 greffe 
 
 record-office 
 
 graft. 
 
 livre 
 
 book (liber) 
 
 pound (libra). 
 
 manche 
 
 handle 
 
 sleeve. 
 
 memoire 
 
 bill 
 
 memory. 
 
 merci 
 
 thanks 
 
 mercy. 
 
 mode 
 
 mood 
 
 fashion. 
 
 moule 
 
 mould (modulus) 
 
 muscle (muscula). 
 
 mousse 
 
 midshipman 
 
 moss. 
 
 office 
 
 office, duty 
 
 pantry. 
 
 page 
 
 page-boy 
 
 page of a book. 
 
 palme 
 
 hand-breadth(palmus) 
 
 palm (palma). 
 
 parallele 
 
 comparison 
 
 parallel line. 
 
 pendule 
 
 pendulum 
 
 time-piece. 
 
 pique 
 
 spade in cards 
 
 pike. 
 
 poele 
 
 stove (pensile) 
 
 frying-pan (patella). 
 
 poste 
 
 post, station 
 
 post for letters. 
 
 reldche 
 
 intermission 
 
 putting into port. 
 
 remise 
 
 carriage 
 
 coach-house. 
 
 solde 
 
 balance of accounts 
 
 soldiers’ pay. 
 
 somme 
 
 sleep (somnus) 
 
 sum (summa). 
 
 souris 
 
 smile (subrisus) 
 
 mouse (sorex). 
 
 tour 
 
 turn (tornare) 
 
 tower (turris). 
 
Tables of nouns. 
 
 32a 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 triomphe 
 
 triumph 
 
 trump. 
 
 vague 
 
 uncertainty 
 
 wave. 
 
 vase 
 
 vase 
 
 mud. 
 
 voile 
 
 veil (velum) 
 
 sail (vela, plur,). 
 
 To these 
 
 must be added feminine words, which become 
 
 masculine when used figuratively of men ; such are aide, cor- 
 nette^ enseigne^ fourhe^ garde^ manoeuvre^ paillasse^ pantomime. 
 
 5. Verbs followed by the Infinitive without preposition: 
 
 accourir 
 
 esperer 
 
 preferer 
 
 affirmer 
 
 faillir ( 2 ) ( 3 ) 
 
 pretendre 
 
 aimer autant 
 
 il fait beau 
 
 raconter 
 
 aimer mieux 
 
 il fait bon 
 
 reconnaitre 
 
 alter 
 
 falloir 
 
 rentrer 
 
 assurer 
 
 se figurer 
 
 retourner 
 
 avouer 
 
 sHmaginer 
 
 revenir 
 
 Ure cense 
 
 jurer (state 
 
 on savoir 
 
 compter (^) 
 
 oath) 
 
 sembler 
 
 il convient (^) 
 
 laisser 
 
 sentir 
 
 courir 
 
 manquer (^) (^) souhaiter 
 
 croire 
 
 mener (^) 
 
 se trouver 
 
 daigner 
 
 nier (^) 
 
 venir (^) (^) 
 
 desirer (^) 
 
 oser 
 
 voir 
 
 dire 
 
 ouir 
 
 vouloir 
 
 ecouter 
 
 parattre 
 
 il vaut mieux 
 
 entendre 
 
 penser 
 
 il vaut autant. 
 
 envoyer 
 
 pouvoir 
 
 
 6. Verbs 
 
 followed by the Infinitive with a: 
 
 aboutir 
 
 appeler 
 
 autoriser concourir 
 
 s’accorder 
 
 s’appliquer 
 
 avoir condamner 
 
 accoutumer (^) apprendre 
 
 avoir peine consentir (^) 
 
 aider 
 
 s’arr^ter 
 
 balancer consister 
 
 aimer 
 
 aspirer se borner conspirer 
 
 amener 
 
 s’attacher 
 
 chercher continuer (f) 
 
 amuser (^) 
 
 s’attendre 
 
 commencer (^) contraindre (^) 
 
 1. also without preposition, 
 
 2. also with a, 
 
 3. also with de. 
 
324 
 
 Appendix I. 
 
 decider (^) 
 
 s’ entendre 
 
 man quer ( (^) pretendre (^) (^) 
 
 defier (^) 
 
 essayer (^) 
 
 se mettre 
 
 renoncer 
 
 demander (^) 
 
 etre 
 
 montrer 
 
 repugner 
 
 desapprendre 
 
 s’etudier 
 
 obliger (^) 
 
 se rdsigner 
 
 determiner (^) 
 
 exceller 
 
 s’obstiner 
 
 resoudre (^) 
 
 devouer 
 
 exciter 
 
 s’occuper (^) 
 
 reussir 
 
 diiferer (^) 
 
 exercer 
 
 oublier (^) 
 
 servir 
 
 se disposer 
 
 exhorter 
 
 parvenir 
 
 songer 
 
 divertir 
 
 exposer 
 
 passer 
 
 suffire 
 
 donner 
 
 forcer (^) 
 
 pencher 
 
 tarder (^) 
 
 s’efforcer (^) 
 
 former 
 
 penser 
 
 tacher (^) 
 
 employer 
 
 s’habituer 
 
 persist er 
 
 tendre 
 
 s’empresser (^) 
 
 hesiter 
 
 perseverer 
 
 tenir 
 
 encourager 
 
 s’incliner 
 
 se plaire 
 
 travailler 
 
 engager (^) 
 
 instruire 
 
 porter 
 
 trouver 
 
 enhardir 
 
 s’interesser 
 
 prendre garde 
 
 venir (^) (^) 
 
 s’ennuyer (^) 
 
 inviter 
 
 e) 
 
 viser. 
 
 enseigner 
 
 laisser 0 
 
 preparer 
 
 
 7. Verbs followed by the Infinitive with de: 
 
 accord er 
 
 convenir 
 
 s’empresser (^) 
 
 menaeer 
 
 accoutumer (^) 
 
 il convient Q) 
 
 enjoindre 
 
 meriter 
 
 affecter 
 
 craiiidre 
 
 s’ennuyer (^) 
 
 negliger 
 
 il s’agit 
 
 crier 
 
 entreprendre 
 
 nier (^) 
 
 s’aviser 
 
 decider (^) 
 
 esp^rer (^) 
 
 s’occuper 
 
 n’ avoir garde 
 
 dedaigner 
 
 essayer (^) 
 
 offrir 
 
 avoir peiir 
 
 defier (^) 
 
 faire mieux 
 
 omettre 
 
 bruler 
 
 desirer (^) 
 
 faire semblant 
 
 ordonner 
 
 cesser 
 
 defendre 
 
 feindre 
 
 parier 
 
 charger 
 
 demander (^) 
 
 forcer (^) 
 
 permettre 
 
 choisir 
 
 se depecher 
 
 gager 
 
 persuader 
 
 commander 
 
 desaccoutumer 
 
 se hazarder 
 
 pr6ferer 
 
 commencer (^) 
 
 desesperer 
 
 s’inquieter 
 
 prescrire 
 
 compter (^) 
 
 determiner 
 
 jurer 
 
 presser 
 
 conjurer 
 
 differer (^) 
 
 laisser (^) 
 
 presumer 
 
 conseiller 
 
 dire 
 
 mander 
 
 pretendre (^)^) 
 
 consentir (^) 
 
 douter 
 
 manquer (^) (^) 
 
 prier 
 
 continuer (^) 
 
 ecrire 
 
 mediter 
 
 promettre 
 
 contraindre (^) 
 
 s’efPorcer (^) 
 
 se meler 
 
 proposer 
 
Tables of nouns. 
 
 325 
 
 protester refuser souhaiter (^) tenter 
 
 se rappeler se r^soudre supplier venir. (^) (^) 
 
 recommander sommer tacher (^) 
 
 To these must he added: 1. All verbs and verbal expres- 
 sions of the feelings followed by an infinitive which gives the 
 cause of the feeling. 2. All verbs which can have an action 
 as their object or material object, as achever^ eviter etc., 
 accuser^ s^apercevoir etc. 
 
326 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 Appendix IL 
 
 Notes to Chapters of Part I. 
 
 Chap. II.. Declension in old French. 
 
 Before losing all distinction of case by inflection French, 
 nnlike the other Komance languages, passed through an inter- 
 mediate stage, in which two cases were preserved. Of these 
 the one, the old Latin nominative marked the subject of the 
 sentence, the other, the Latin accusative, was used for the 
 substantive in all other relations. Naturally the subject case, 
 both as being less used, and as in many words the shorter 
 form, gave way before the one occurring in so many various 
 relations, and the modern form of French substantives is for 
 the most part the old Latin accusative. Hence the use of s 
 or its equivalents or -to mark the plural. On the other 
 hand the 5, which marked the nominative singular in Latin of 
 substantives of the 2*^, 4*^ and 5*^ declensions, and in old 
 French, is lost in modern French, except in fils^ filius, fonds 
 fundus, lacs laqueus, lis lilius, le0 latus, puits puteus, rets 
 retis, and in some proper names as: Charles Carolus, Orleans 
 Aurelianus, etc. Of imparisyllabics of the 3^ Latin declension 
 the Latin nominative has maintained itself, in place of the 
 accusative, only in ancetre antecessor, peintre pictor, sceur 
 soror, and trattre traditor. While both nominative and accu- 
 sative remain in chantre^ ehanteur, cantor, cantorem, maire^ 
 majeiir, major, majorem, moindre^ minem% minor, minorem, 
 pdtre^ pasteur^ pastor, pastorem, sire^ seigneur^ senior, se- 
 nior em. 
 
 Chap. III. The forms of tlie definite article. 
 
 The definite article le (ilium) la (illam) les (illos, illas) 
 is an exception to the general rule, that French words, popu- 
 larly formed, keep the accent of the Latin. But the comic 
 
Notes to Part I, Chapt. II~V. 
 
 327 
 
 Latin poets count the syllable of ilUmi as short, and it 
 disappeared entirely in ellum^ ellam = en ilium, en illam, 
 showing that the accent on the first syllable could have been 
 but a very slight one. Hence the same Latin word could 
 give the French il and le, Us and les. 
 
 Chap. IV. 1. Plural of substantives. 
 
 In old French s, X and z were frequently interchanged. 
 Hence we still have uez (nasus), cJiez (casa), rez (rasus). But 
 X was preferred when following u, and z for the most part 
 represented the sibilant which resulted from Latin is, as 
 (amatis) aimez. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 The three chief points of difference between Latin and 
 French in respect to the gender of substantives are : 
 
 1. Of Latin Masculines, abstract nouns ending in or, Fr. 
 eur, become feminine. For this change there seems no satis- 
 factory explanation. 
 
 Hence the variation in gender in amo^/T (Appendix Ipage 321). 
 In old French it is always feminine. In the 16^^ century 
 there was an attempt to bring back the Latin gender of these 
 words in or, which was successful in the cases of honneur and 
 labeur, and half successful in amour. 
 
 2. Latin feminines in us became masculine in French 
 and as in this number were included the names of most com- 
 mon trees, as: (alnus) aune, (buxus) buis, (cupressus) cypres, 
 (fraxinus) frene, (pinus) pin, (platanus) platayie, (myrtus) 
 myrte. as a rule trees are masculine in French. Other such 
 feminines, which have become masculines are : 
 
 atomus atome. 
 dialectus dialecte. 
 diametrus diametre. 
 domus dome. 
 exodus exode. 
 ficus figue. 
 
 pharus pJiare. 
 porticus porcJie. 
 sapphirus saphir. 
 smaragdus emeraude. 
 synodus synode. 
 vannus van. 
 
 3. Latin neuters mostly passed into the masculine; but 
 in some instances they became feminine, the plural being taken 
 as the form of the new substantive and being treated as a 
 feminine of the 1®* Latin declension. Such are: 
 arma arme. fila file. 
 
 cornua come. folia feuille. 
 
 festa fete. gaudia joie. 
 
328 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 grana graine, 
 idola idole, 
 insignia ens eigne, 
 labra levre, 
 mirabilia merveUle, 
 muralia muraille, 
 opera oeuvre, 
 paria paire. 
 
 pecora pecore, 
 pira poire, 
 poma pomme, 
 tempora tempo, 
 sponsalia epousailles, 
 tormenta tourmente, 
 vela voile, 
 volatilia volatile. 
 
 Hence tbe variation of gender in orgue (Appendix I.page 322). 
 Delice^ which like orgue is masc. in the singular, and fern, 
 in the plural, is the Latin (delicise), and was always feminine 
 till the 16^^ century, when the grammarians made the singular 
 masc. to correspond with (delicium). 
 
 Chapter XI, 
 
 When the Latin cases were lost, a reparatory process of 
 some kind was absolutely necessary to secure any degree of 
 clearness in the use of pronouns. Accordingly we find four 
 means adopted and more or less systematically carried out. 
 
 Pb The adoption of separate forms for pronouns when 
 used for substantives and when used for adjectives. 
 
 This was accomplished in the case of possessive pronouns 
 by retaining for the three persons singular the forms of meum, 
 tuum^ suum in two different dialects, the Burgundian form 
 being mon^ ton^ son for the accusative singular, mes^ tes^^ ses 
 for the accusative plural; while the Picard accusative singular 
 men, ten, sen seems to have furnished the substantival forms 
 mien, tien, sien. For the and 2^ persons plural the 
 stronger accent with which the pronoun was pronounced, when 
 used substantively, seems to have been the means of establish- 
 ing the difference between notre and notre from (nostrum), 
 and nos and nbtres from (nostros). The pronoun of the 
 3^ person plural only distinguishes its substantival from 
 its adjectival use by the habit, adopted by modern French, 
 of not allowing the definite article to precede an adjectival 
 possessive. 
 
 For the demonstrative pronouns the Latin tile supplies: 
 the substantival, iste the adjectival forms. 
 
 The relatives have lost the adjectival use altogel^her, for 
 where lequel is apparently so used, the substantive seems to 
 stand rather as an apposition, the construction being only 
 
Notes to Part I, Chapt. XI. XVII. 
 
 329 
 
 possible, when the substantive has been used before and is 
 repeated. 
 
 The interrogatives take their substantival forms from quis, 
 their adjectival from qualis. 
 
 Among pronominal words we have the substantival use 
 marked out by the addition of unus in chacun and quelqu’un. 
 
 2^. For the personal and relative pronouns the Latin no- 
 minative case was retained for the subject, the Latin accusa- 
 tive supplying the form not only for the object, but also, in 
 the personal pronouns of the 1®* and 2^ persons, for the in- 
 direct object. As this would have caused confusion in the 
 3^ person, two new forms were adopted : lui (illi huic) for the 
 singular, leur (illorum) for the plural. 
 
 3^. For the personal and relative pronouns a new dis- 
 tinction was marked between their use as predicates and as 
 subjects. The same distinction is observed in the adjectival 
 forms of the universal relative between quelque que and 
 quel que. 
 
 4*^. The most important perhaps of all the new expedients 
 was the adopting a form for the personal, relative and inter- 
 rogative pronouns, answering to the now caseless substantives, 
 whenever the pronouns are not in immediate connection with 
 the verb. The different forms in the Burgundian and Picard 
 dialects in this case, as in the possessive pronouns of the three 
 persons singular, served to mark the required distinction. This 
 form called sometimes disjunctive.^ sometimes independent.^ some- 
 times the prepositional case is formed regularly, as with sub- 
 stantives, from the Latin accusative, except in the case of the 
 relative and interrogative personal form, as quern would equally 
 with quod or quid have passed through que into quoi. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 The small number of pronominal words in French as com- 
 pared with the Latin is very remarkable, the loss in some 
 instances being a real disadvantage, in others onlyan appa- 
 rent one. Of the special words to denote one of two, uter.^ 
 alter ^ muter utercumque etc., French has only preserved 
 alter Fr. autre., and this no longer in its distinctive sense of 
 one of two. The Latin adjectives of quantity multus^ tantus., 
 quantus^ quotus^ quantus-cumque etc. are replaced by words 
 formed from the neuter of such adjectives, tant., peu., assez etc* 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 22 m 
 
330 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 constructed, as in Latin, either substantivally with a dependant 
 noun or adverbially with a verb ; and to these are added 
 others, as : heaucoup^ which as a substantive, or combien as 
 an adverb, by analogy have obtained the same double con- 
 struction. 
 
 Of the classes of Latin pronominals two are entirely un- 
 represented in French; of these the lihitiva^ as: quivis^ qui- 
 libet etc., form a real want, and have to be represented by 
 the already . overburthened single French inclusive tout^ or by 
 a periphrasis. The other lost class, the negative exclusives 
 nullus^ nemo, neuter are supplied by the affirmative exclusives, 
 a class much larger in French than in Latin owing to the 
 negative particle having become a mere verbal proclitic. 
 
 Some Latin pronominals have been transferred from one 
 class to another. Such is (nullus), nul, in consequence of the 
 negative exclusives being altogether thrown away. Aucun 
 (aliquis unus) uniting as it does a Latin indefinite, and an 
 affirmative exclusive ( uUus = unulus), has had a curious 
 history. In old French the first compound maintained its 
 force, and aucun was used as aliquis till late in the 15^^ cen-' 
 tury ; now it is strictly confined to the sense of ullus- Per- 
 haps as a consequence of the gradual passage of aucun to the 
 exclusives, the indefinite aliquis was replaced by the universal 
 relative (qualisqualis) quelque, while the old Latin mode of 
 expressing universality by doubling the pronoun had still suf- 
 ficient force to produce not only qui que, quoi que and quel 
 que (answering to the substantival and adjectival forces of quis- 
 quis, quidquid), but also added on another relative to the 
 already doubled quelque, to allow quel que to be used only 
 predicatively. Since the 16^^ century quelconque too has given 
 up its universal relative force and has become a simple inde- 
 finite, used also as an exclusive of the 3^ class (see page 269. I.). 
 
 The most noticeable French additions to the Latin prono- 
 minals are the indefinite on and the affirmative exclusives. 
 On which expresses what we find in Latin expressed by a verb 
 alone in the 2^ person singular, or sometimes the 1®* or 6*^ person 
 plural, was necessarily adopted, when the pronouns were more 
 frequently or necessarily expressed, and has obtained a large 
 use in the expression of the Latin passive. The affirmative 
 exclusives besides personne and rien to represent quisquam, 
 # 
 
Notes to Part I, Chapt XYII. XVIII. XXL 
 
 331 
 
 quidquam include three forms which answer in use to ullus^ 
 being used occasionally as substantives, viz. aucun^ nul and 
 pas un. 
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 Of the Latin verbal inflection we have remaining in French, 
 of the indicative the present, imperfect and perfect; of the 
 conjunctive the present and pluperfect ; of the imperative the 
 singular; of the verb infinite the present infinitive, the past 
 participle passive, and a form which equally represents the 
 present participle and the gerund in do. 
 
 Personal inflections. Person Sing. — The m, which 
 was lost even in Latin in the present indicative, has disap- 
 peared from all French tenses, and the personal ending is further 
 obscured by the addition of S, whenever cc, the form does not 
 end in e mute, or /?. in ai with 2^ person in -as. Hence in 
 the present indicative of all verbs not of the first conjugation, 
 except avoir, cueillir, as-, tres-saillir, offrir, couvrir, ouvrir, 
 and souffrir, in all imperfects and pluperfects indicative, and 
 in all perfects except of the first conjugation. 
 
 2^ Person Sing. The Latin s is throughout retained. 
 
 3^ Person Sing. The Latin t is retained in all full- 
 sounded terminations, except in the present of avoir and con- 
 sequently of all futures, in the perfect of verbs of the 1®* con- 
 jugation, and in the present of verbs whose stem ends in t, 
 d or c. Whenever however the 3*^ person sing, ends in a 
 or in e mute, a ^ is joined to the verb by a hyphen if the 
 pronoun il or elle follows the verb. 
 
 1 st Person Plural. Latin mus becomes mes in the perfect 
 of all verbs and in the present indicative of efre; ns in all 
 other tenses. 
 
 2^ Person Plural. Latin tis becomes tes in the perfect 
 of all verbs and in the present of etre, faire and dire; and 
 z (0. F. ts) in all other tenses. 
 
 3*^ Person Plural. Latin nt is throughout preserved. 
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 The Latin conjugations have had considerable influence 
 on the conjugation of French verbs, but as a system they can 
 scarcely be said to have been preserved. Of the Latin verb 
 inflections which have remained in French, the three persons 
 plural of the present and the imperfect of the indicative, the 
 
 22 * 
 
332 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 plural of the imperative, the present subjunctive, and the pre- 
 sent participle have become uniform in all verbs, leaving for 
 distinction of conjugation only the present infinitive, the three 
 persons singular of the present indicative, the imperative sin- 
 gular, the perfect, and the passive participle. These latter 
 tenses are formed in French according to two types, corres- 
 ponding to the 1®* and 4^^ Latin conjugations, leaving us as 
 French conjugations, those which are given above as the 1®* con- 
 jugation and the 1®* class of the second. Most of the Latin verbs 
 which have remained in the language have adapted themselves 
 to one or other of these two types, and all new verbs have 
 been and are so formed, verbs derived from substantives for 
 the most part ranging themselves under the 1®^ conjugation, 
 verbs derived from adjectives under the 1®* class of the second. 
 The remaining French verbs are all Latin verbs, which have 
 apparently been arrested in the process of transformation and 
 exhibit Latin forms, but in the greatest confusion. 
 
 The tenses which all verbs have in common will first be 
 considered, then those distinctive of the two French conjuga- 
 tions, and lastly the principles will be given shortly which 
 seem to have governed the formation of the irregular verbs. 
 
 I. Assimilated Tenses. 
 
 Present Indicative 3 Persons Plural. In the 1®* person 
 Latin a, e, i have all become o, for which no satisfactory 
 explanation has been given; in the 2^ person, e of repre- 
 sents Latin a of the 1®* conjugation, to which all verbs have 
 conformed. In these two persons the Latin accent of verbs 
 of the 3^ conjugation is displaced, with two exceptions faites 
 and dites. In the 3^ person the unaccented a, e, u of the 
 Latin have all become French e mute, with the exceptions of 
 ont^ font and vont. 
 
 The Imperfect. The French form ais is derived from 
 Latin eham^ to which verbs of the 1®^ Latin conjugation have 
 conformed. The old French form was -eve, h regularly becom- 
 ing V and e mute representing the unaccented a. By the 
 vocalization of v the termination became -oie, which was used 
 till the 16^^ century, when the e mute began to be omitted 
 and s added to the 1®* person. This -ois which was pronounced 
 ais was at length so written by Voltaire. 
 
 The Imperative Plural. For the 1®* and 2^ persons, 
 
Notes to Part I, CJiapt, XXL 
 
 333 
 
 French has adopted the same persons of the present indicative 
 in all verbs, except avoir^ etre^ savoir^ and vouloir in which 
 a form taken from the subjunctive is employed. 
 
 The Present Subjunctive. The three persons singular 
 are formed from the present subj. of the 3^ conjugation in Latin, 
 unaccented a becoming e mute\ the three persons plural from 
 the same persons of the subjunctive of the 2^ and 4^^ Latin 
 conjugations. In Old French the two forms, one from -am 
 = French e, the other from -earn (iam) = French ge (je) 
 occur, both for the singular and plural, even in verbs of the 
 conjugation. The 2*^ form has remained in the singulars of 
 aille^ sache, vaille^ and veuille in modern French. 
 
 The Participle Present is formed from that of the first 
 conjugation to which all the others have conformed. 
 
 II. The Tenses distinctive of the 1st and 2d French conjugations. 
 
 The Infinitive, Future, and Conditional. These three 
 are formed from the Latin infinitive, in the 1®* French conjugation 
 from the inf. -arc, which becomes regularly French -cr, in the 
 2^ from the inf. -ire which remains -ir in French. 
 
 The 3 Persons Sing. Present Indicative, and the 
 Singular of the Imperative. In the 1®^ conjugation the un- 
 accented Latin a of the 2^ and 3^ persons of the indicative, and 
 of the imperative, becomes e mute in French. In the 1®* person 
 the Latin o was regularly dropped in old French leaving, as 
 in the verbs of the other conjugations, the stem without in- 
 flection, but in modern French e mute is added by analogy 
 from the other persons, as if it also had ended in a. — In 
 the 2^ conjugation the terminations -co, -cis and -ce of the 
 inchoative ending -icco, which all verbs belonging to this con- 
 jugation have adopted in the present participle, present and 
 imperfect indicative, imperative and present subjunctive, are 
 dropt leaving a form ending in -is‘^ in the 3*^ person the t 
 of the 3^^ person was kept, it ended therefore in 0. F. in ist^ 
 the s of which has been dropt in modern French. 
 
 The Perfect of the 1®* French conjugation is formed from 
 the Latin perfect in -avi^ -asti etc., that of the 2^ from the 
 Latin perfect in -m, -isti etc. In the 1®* person plural from 
 the analogy of the 2^ person an s was inserted in old 
 French, for which a circumflex is used in modern French. The 
 
334 
 
 Appendix 11. 
 
 8^ person plural is derived from a Latin form with the penult 
 short, amaverunt = aimerent, finiverunt = finirent. The 
 imperfect subjunctive corresponds with the Latin pluperfect. 
 
 The Passive Participles are regularly formed for the 
 conjugation in ~e from Latin -atus^ for the 2*^ in from 
 Latin ~itus. 
 
 III. The irregular verbs. 
 
 Under this head must be reckoned not only those usually 
 so called, but also the verbs composing the 2^ class of the 
 2^ regular conjugation, and those of the 3^ and 4*^ French 
 conjugations as usually given. They are here accounted irre- 
 gular not as being irregularly formed from a Latin type, 
 though this is frequently the case, but as not having con- 
 formed to one or other of the two types of French conjuga- 
 tion. With the exceptions of aller and envoy er they are all 
 Latin verbs' of the 2^, 3^ or 4*^ conjugations, but the French 
 form does not by any means necessarily correspond with the 
 Latin conjugation, as Latin verbs frequently passed, probably 
 in low Latin, from one conjugation to another either wholly 
 or in part. So respondere^ respond^ responsum^ and ponere^ 
 posui^ positum have in French resulted in identical forms. 
 Fallere has given both faillir and falloir. placere both plaire 
 and plaisir. Of fremere and tremere, the former as fremir 
 has fully conformed to the French 2^ conjugation, the latter 
 as craindre conforms in the perfect alone. 
 
 The usual way of classing these verbs is by the ending 
 of the infinitive mood. Diez and after him most of the more 
 scientific grammars, class them according to the formation of 
 the perfect. According to the latter classification those verbs 
 are weak which accent the inflection, corresponding with those 
 verbs in Latin which append the inflection to the stem by a 
 derivative vowel; those verbs are strong which accent the stem 
 in French, corresponding with the Latin verbs which append 
 the inflection directly to the stem. But of the Latin verbs 
 which have not conformed to one or other of the two French 
 conjugations only those which form the 2^ class of the 2^ con^ 
 jugation (dormir, mentir etc.) are weak throughout ; the verbs 
 which form the 4*^ conjugation, as usually given, are reckoned 
 weak by Diez because of their perfect, but have the infinitive 
 strong; and the class to which ceindre^ joindre etc. belongs 
 
Notes to Part I, Chapt. XXI. 
 
 335 
 
 which Diez also reckons as weak, accent the stem in both the 
 infinitive and passive participle, and the inflection only in the 
 perfect. These latter in old French were strong, forming the 
 perfect by 5, not by -is, 
 
 There seems no reason for choosing the perfect rather 
 than the infinitive or than the participle as the characteristic 
 form by which to classify them. Different verbs seem to have 
 come over to the living conjugations in different ways, in some 
 the infinitive, in others the perfect having been first to conform. 
 I shall not therefore venture to do more in a grammar, in 
 which knowledge of old French is not supposed, than state as 
 shortly as possible the manner in which the forms of verbs 
 which do not correspond with those of the living French con- 
 jugations, seem to have arisen from the Latin, they differ 
 either A. in the stem or B. in the inflection. 
 
 A. The stem of a French verb is found in the present 
 participle, as it is then followed by a full-sounding syllable 
 beginning with a vowel, so that internal changes which it may 
 have undergone before appearing in that condition do not af- 
 fect the conjugation. In the regular verbs the stem of the 
 present participle in the conjugation remains unaltered 
 throughout the verb, in the 2^ conjugation the inchoative SS 
 is dropt in the infinitive, perfect and passive participle. The 
 unassimilated verbs differ from them in that 1. if the stem 
 of the participle has the inchoative ss , the infinitive has it 
 also, 2, the final consonant is liable to certain changes, and 
 3. the vowel of the stem is in certain cases diphthongated. 
 
 1. In such verbs as paraissant (parescentem) the inchoa- 
 tive syllable is treated as an integral part of the verb; it is 
 only when joined to i stems, that it is not used in the in- 
 finitive, and marks the 2^ conjugation. 
 
 2. «. If the stem ends in I (as in volant etc.) I is 
 vocalized to u unless followed by a syllable beginning wfith a 
 vowel. 
 
 /?. If the stem ends in v from Latin h or (as in 
 huvant^ devant^ ecrivant) , or in 5 from Latin 5 or c (as in 
 faisant^ cousant etc.) , or in ss from Latin sc (as in crois- 
 sant, naissant etc.) , or in following an n from Latin ng 
 or m (as in poignant, craignant etc.), these consonants are 
 dropt unless followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel. 
 
336 
 
 Appendix 11. 
 
 y. If in consequence of any of the above changes the 
 stem ends in n or u of resolved a d! is added to it before 
 r of the termination; if from the loss of ss the stem ends in 
 a vowel a ^ is added before r of the termination. 
 
 S. If the stem ends in a labiodental -f- r (as in ouvrant, 
 offrant), or in U (as in saillant, cueillant), an unaccented 
 Latin termination is not lost, as usual when the vowel is not 
 a, but is retained as e mute. An exception to this rule is 
 houillir which from the loss of the termination loses also the 
 final He in the singular of the present indicative. 
 
 Three cases of consonant alteration in the stem must be 
 noted apart, as single instances. Sachant is formed regularly 
 from sapientem.^ the i becoming j, and pj being regularly re- 
 presented by French eh. The same consonantizing of the i 
 takes place in the subj. present sapiam and gave rise to the form 
 je sache still used parallel with je sais for the present indi- 
 cative; but in sapimus., sapitis, sapiunt the endings are assi- 
 milated as in all French verbs to ons ^ ez ^ ent and the 
 not strengthened by j becomes regularly v. — The forms pre~ 
 nant, prenons etc. seem to have arisen from the mistaken ana- 
 logy of verbs like ceindre , where the d does not belong to 
 the root. — The s in Us eclosent etc. did not occur in old 
 French and seems to have arisen from a mistake, probably 
 taken from the s of the perfect and passive participles. 
 
 3. When the stem is not followed by a full-sounding 
 syllable so that the accent falls on the stem, as in the three 
 persons singular and 3*^ plural of the present indicative and 
 subjunctive, and in the imperative singular the vowel of the 
 stem is liable to diphthongization. In old French this was 
 also the case with regular verbs of the conjugation, in 
 which at present the diphthongization is either extended to 
 the whole verb as in aimer (0. F. amer., but aim, aimes 
 etc.) or is rejected as in trouver (0. F. trouver.^ but trueve 
 etc.). In the unassimilated verbs we have of stem-vowels so 
 affected, e becoming ie (as of venant etc.) ; e becoming oi (as 
 of devant etc.); u becoming oi (as of huvant)\ ou, = Latin o, 
 becoming eu (as of mmirant etc.). — The a of je sais seems 
 due to the i of the 2*^ syllable of sapio., as in ai from Jiaheo, 
 and to have extended itself to the other persons. — The form 
 puisse 0. F. poisse may similarly come from a form poteam. 
 
Notes to Part I, Chapt. XXI. 
 
 337 
 
 B. The unassimilated verbs differ from the regular verbs 
 in the inflection 1. in the infinitive mood, 2. in the per- 
 fect, 3. in the passive participle. 
 
 1. In the infinitive mood besides the ending %r from 
 Latin -ire, they have also retained oir from -ere and -re 
 from -ere, but the Latin conjugation to vrhich a verb belongs 
 gives no certainty as to the termination of the French infini- 
 tive; of the 14 verbs which still exist with infinitive ending 
 -oir, seven are of the Latin 2^, seven of the Latin 3^ con- 
 jugation; of the 60 verbs with infinitive ending -ro, nine are 
 of the Latin 2^ conjugation. In several instances the in- 
 finitive form from which a verb forms its future is not the 
 same as that which is used as infinitive, the future giving 
 the older form. With change of conjugation we have the 
 futures courrai from inf. corre, acquerrai from inf. acquerre. 
 Gueillerai is quite exceptional, and as the form cueiller is 
 no-where found, it seems probable that the form of the pre- 
 sent singular influenced the form of the future. The vowel 
 of the infinitive ending is regularly omitted in verbs with in- 
 finitive in -oir (devrai etc.), sometimes in those with infini- 
 tive in -ir {tenir^ venir^ mourir)^ and in one infinitive in -or, 
 {envoyer). This caused other changes, as the vocalization of I 
 (faudra etc.), the insertion of d {viendrai)^ and when the 
 stem ended in a vowel the doubling of r, so cherrai^ verrai^ 
 enverra% pourrai, from the old French infinitives cheoir, veoir^ 
 enveer, pooir. In ferai the e seems to arise from the weak- 
 ened sound of the stem vowel, when no longer accented, as 
 faisons is pronounced fesons; ou the other hand tenir, venir 
 and seoir extend the diphthongization to the future. Serai 
 is derived regularly from the infinitive essere^ irai from the 
 Latin infinitive ire. 
 
 2. The perfect shows greater confusion than any other 
 
 part of the verb. For not only are the Latin perfect forms, 
 themselves very arbitrary, changed about from verb to verb, 
 but the form in which in old French had spread to many 
 verbs forming their perfect otherwise in Latin, has been given 
 up in modern French, whenever it did not result in the ter- 
 mination and so resemble perfects from Latin -ivi to 
 
 which the inorganic s has been added. In modern French 
 the Latin final i has been dropt in the 1®^ person of all per- 
 
338 
 
 Appendix IL 
 
 fects, and an s added, wherever the form did not end in that 
 letter. With the exception of the perfects of venir and tenir, 
 all perfects have one or other of two terminations is and us^ 
 but the modes by which this uniformity has been produced 
 are very various. Vins seems to come direct from the Latin 
 veni, and tins to have conformed itself to it; the form tenui 
 only rarely occurring in the sermons of St. -Bernard. 
 
 Of perfects ending in -is, we have a. is added to the 
 stem answering to the Latin perfect in -ivi -j- an inorganic S- 
 This perfect is found in all verbs of the 2^ class of the 2^ 
 conjugation {dormir^ mentir etc.), in verbs, whose stem ends 
 in ng {craindre^ feindre etc.) or nis {conduire^ instruire etc.) 
 or a labiodental + r {offrir^ ouvrir etc.) and in ecrire, suivre 
 and naUre. /?. -is from Latin perfects formed by lengthening 
 the stem vowel, in which either the final consonant being s (c) 
 is preserved, as in fis, or the final consonant being d is dropt 
 and s added, as in vis and sis (assis). y. -is from Latin 
 perfects in -si^ or from old French perfects in -si, when the 
 vowel of the perfect stem was i, as: mis, dis, ris {misi, dixi, 
 risi), pris, quis {acquis), cis (circoncis), (0. F. prins, quis, 
 cis tocisi). 
 
 Of perfects ending in -us, we have a, us added to 
 the stem, when the final consonant is a liquid, courus, fallut, 
 moidus, mourns, parus (from the form paroir, Lat. parere), 
 vdlus and voulus, formed from Latin perfects in -ui, in which 
 the misplacement of the accent was probably due to the in- 
 fluence of the 2^ persons singular and plural. US from 
 
 Latin -ui by the rejection of the final consonant and the con- 
 traction of the stem-vowel with the u of the termination, as 
 eus, dus, plus, pus, sus, tus and like them crus {credidi), 
 chus {cecidi), lus (legi), 7 . us from Latin -vi, the v being 
 vocalized and contracting with the vowel of the stem, mus, 
 crus, connus, pus (repus). S. us from Latin perfects, when 
 the stem is either the same as the present stem, or with the 
 vowel lengthened ius, regus, the i {p) changing to v, which 
 vocalized to u contracts with the vowel of the stem. US 
 from u of the Latin perfect stem, the s being the s of the 
 Latin termination -si in conclus and inorganic in fus. 
 
 3. The passive participles in some cases are derived direct- 
 
Notes to Part I, Chap. XXI. 
 
 339 
 
 ly from the Latin supines, in others are more or less affected 
 by the form, which the Latin verb has taken in French. 
 
 Of those which have preserved the Latin t are ct. The 
 participles of verbs with stems ending in ng , in which the 
 guttural is dropt and the nasal preserved, while in Latin the 
 guttural was kept, the nasal sometimes dropt, as feint (fic~ 
 turn), plaint (planctum) ; to these craint (fremitum) conforms^^ 
 as in the rest of the verb. /9. Those formed from Latin 
 supines in which c preceded the supine ending, the c becom-' 
 ing i in French, such are cuit, dit, conduit^ fait^ (confit^ 
 suffi), construit and traits the i has a similar origin in nu% 
 lui^ but the t is dropt. y. Those formed from Latin su-^ 
 pines in which r preceded Latin ~tum^ as convert^ ouverty 
 and as if from Latin fertum^ offert and souffert, S. £cri( 
 from Latin scripUiS, and mort from mortuus. 
 
 Direct from Latin supines with rejection of final sum 
 we have mis, sis (assis), ri and conclu\ while in resous 
 from a form solsus 5 has been retained, as also in pris whera 
 the n has been rejected. 
 
 Direct from Latin supines with rejection of final turn, ne^ 
 quis (acquis), plu, resolu, cousu, battu, and the verbs of 
 the 2^ class of the 2 conjugation. Suivi has conformed ta 
 the analogy of the last. 
 
 All other verbs form their participle in u, which answers 
 to the perfect in us. They presume a form in utum, which 
 is not uncommon in low Latin; Diez quotes among others 
 vendutus, reddutus. We have therefore of participles in u,. 
 a. Those in which is a termination added to the stem. This 
 is the case when it ends in two consonants rompu, vHu 
 (vest-us) etc. or in a liquid couru, voulu etc. /?. Those in which 
 is a termination, which after the rejection of the final con- 
 sonants of the stem contracts with the stem-vowel , as chu 
 (dechu), mu, pu, vu, cru, cm, lu, connu, pu (repu), plu,, 
 tu, y. Those in which the u is the final consonant of the' 
 stem vocalized and which has contracted with the stem-vowel^ 
 as : mu, hu, regu, du, eu, and su. 
 
S40 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 d .o 
 ca s» 
 
 Ti A 
 
 ^ a 
 
 ^ (sT 
 o 
 
 ^ e 3 
 
 le la 
 
 § 
 
 » o5“ 
 
 -fs 
 
 ei ea 
 
 rS 
 
 d d 
 o o 
 
 ri= ,0 
 
 d d 
 o o 
 
 
 
 d d 
 o o 
 
 r£= 
 
 
 2 0,^ 
 O-S ^ 
 ^ .V .5 
 
 -?.= 
 
 B o 
 
 d ► 
 O N 
 
 d S 
 
 ’B 
 
 d S 
 o o 
 o 
 
 § S 
 1 
 
 § ^ 
 
 § § 
 o o 
 
 ,00 oo 
 
 ,00 ,C0 
 
 II 
 
 § g 
 O O 
 o <;> 
 
 
 ^ "5 
 
 05 
 
 <» ^ 
 ^ O 
 
 1“1- 
 O <=) 
 U OJ 
 
 ea « 
 d S 
 
 5 §: 
 ® 5? 
 
 « I 
 
 s s 
 
 •si 
 § § 
 g g 
 g g 
 o o 
 
 OJ 
 
 o o 
 0 :) « 
 
 bT .$ 
 ^ § 
 
 d g 
 O O 
 
 g g 
 '?3g3 
 g g 
 c> o 
 
 ? g* 
 « o 
 w c> 
 
 i s 
 
 g g 
 o o 
 
 ^ g 
 
 O .50 
 
 w 
 
 5 
 
 S s 
 
 e g 
 
 r 
 
 .11 
 
 5,g 
 
 JO ^ 
 
 « <v 
 
 %'Z 
 
 £ •£ 
 a> 'i^ 
 t»D 
 
 S= - 
 
 lu 
 
 <x> 
 
 • £ d 
 5 <D .2 
 
 ns : 
 
 O § ^ 
 
 -e « 5 
 
 
 £ 
 
 '•§1 
 ^ o 
 
 ■gs 'bI 
 
 "to <0 
 
 o « Xi 
 
 ^ -.2 S 
 
 .5 
 
 M O <D <£ 
 
 ^ >-1 ro « 
 >-' ® ® ^ 
 o 5 j !S 
 > Jto p* g, 
 
 
 nd ? CQ 
 
 ® ^ <f-( d rrt 
 
 ■2 ® ® £P d 
 d § ft 
 
 I 
 
 2 bo^ ea u 
 
 "till 
 
 Jto d‘ 
 
 g 
 
 '^.J 
 
 g 
 
 1’^ 
 
 S £| 2 
 
 r£ ^ C! ^ ^ 
 
 a 5^ 
 
Irregular Verbs, 
 
 341 
 
 • 
 
 > 
 
 1)3 
 
 N 
 
 © 
 
 9 
 
 ® 
 
 ® 
 
 t3 
 
 o 
 
 OB 
 
 ® 
 
 N 
 
 ® 
 
 ® 
 
 N 
 
 ® 
 
 
 
 ’■*9 
 
 
 
 
 
 r/T 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 1 
 
 
 bo 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 9 
 
 Pt 
 
 a 
 
 couas 
 
 cousons, 
 
 crois 
 
 croyons, 
 
 crois 
 
 croissom 
 
 cours 
 
 courons. 
 
 cueiiie 
 
 cueilloni 
 
 eo 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 p i 
 
 © CJ) r 
 
 aois 
 
 devons. 
 
 ais 
 
 disons. 
 
 Qors 
 
 dormong 
 
 ecris 
 
 ecrivont 
 
 envoie 
 
 envoyoE 
 
 2 
 
 2 ?Si • 
 © © . 
 OB SO ' 
 
 03 ' 
 
 s . 
 © , 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "p 
 
 
 
 
 «> 
 
 0 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 OQ 
 
 P 
 
 9 
 
 OQ 
 
 9 
 
 U 
 
 I 
 
 OB 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 OB § 
 
 s s 
 
 “1 
 eo OB 
 
 S S 
 
 oie, croies, croie, 
 oyions, croyiez, croient 
 
 oisse, croisseSf croisse, 
 oissions, croissiez, croissi 
 
 >ure, coures, coure, 
 nirions, couriez, courent 
 
 aeille, cueilles, cueille 
 aeillions, cueilliez, cueillei 
 
 *1 
 
 OS 
 
 OB 
 
 § »*} 
 
 I'i 
 
 g g- 
 
 .00 'o5 
 
 i i 
 
 Dive, doives, doive, 
 evions, deviez, doivent 
 
 *2 
 
 © 
 
 .OB 
 
 ' 
 
 © 
 
 13 
 
 OS .. ' 
 
 ©-•s 
 
 <30 .OB 
 
 orme, dormes, dorme, 
 ormions, dormiez, dormen 
 
 zrive, ecrives, ecrive, 
 crivions, ecriviez, ecrivent 
 
 nvoie, envoies, envoie, 
 nvoyions, envoy iez, envoie 
 
 "s 
 
 © 
 
 ^ ^ ' 
 
 *= 5sb 
 
 X © 
 
 OB 03 
 
 © © 
 
 dsse, fosses, fasse, 
 dssions, fassiez, f assent 
 
 wanting 
 
 
 o o 
 
 tH 
 
 « o 
 
 h. i- 
 w © 
 
 © © 
 
 © © 
 
 © © 
 
 r0 rcS 
 
 
 >73 13 
 
 
 ® ® 
 
 OB 03 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‘p 
 
 
 
 
 
 •,» 
 
 U 
 
 n 
 
 p 
 
 coudrai 
 
 croirai 
 
 croitra 
 
 courra 
 
 i>>o 
 
 i 
 
 cuirai 
 
 devrai 
 
 dirai 
 
 J-* 
 
 © 
 
 13 
 
 ecrirai 
 
 *» 
 
 © 
 
 serai 
 
 ferai 
 
 'S, 
 
 •P'S? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p -S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ■+a 
 
 ® & 
 S S’ 
 
 £ s 
 
 **• »-5 
 
 cousis 
 
 cousisse 
 
 crus 
 
 crusse 
 
 crus 
 
 crusse 
 
 courus 
 
 courusse 
 
 cueillis 
 
 cueillisse 
 
 cuisis 
 
 cuisisse 
 
 dus 
 
 dusses 
 
 dis 
 
 disse 
 
 dormis 
 
 dormisse 
 
 ecrivis 
 
 ecrivisse 
 
 envoyai 
 
 envoyass 
 
 fus 
 
 fusses 
 
 OD 
 
 faillis 
 
 faillisse 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 -** 
 
 
 
 
 
 HO 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 d, 
 
 consent 
 
 1 
 
 ’© 
 
 S 
 
 Is 
 
 t>r 
 
 rt, 
 
 sourent 
 
 ® 
 
 >» 
 
 '® 
 
 i:- 
 
 cuisent 
 
 •40> 
 
 P 
 
 ® 
 
 > 
 
 2 
 
 © 
 
 p 
 
 ® 
 
 g 
 
 © 
 
 13 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 '© 
 
 H3 ^ 
 
 envoie, 
 
 3z, envoie 
 
 *2 
 
 
 t 
 
 faillent 
 
 P 
 
 9 
 
 OQ 
 
 ® 
 
 p , 
 © bT 
 o « 
 
 OB 
 
 .§ 1 
 
 is, croit 
 3royez, ( 
 
 11 
 ^2 
 <2 'I 
 
 0 
 
 S § 
 
 OS P 
 
 oo-J 
 '* r73 
 ® 
 
 |S 
 
 ^ © 
 p .2 
 
 ^ i 
 
 ofT ^ 
 
 ’© 
 
 ’© N 
 
 T- ® 
 
 .00 
 
 .T 
 
 s, dort, 
 dormez 
 
 ris, ecri 
 ecrivez 
 
 -1* 
 .2 ^ 
 o § 
 
 p ► 
 
 © 
 
 OB 
 
 OB 
 
 Ho to 
 OB 
 
 © '<» 
 
 3, fait, 
 
 faites, 
 
 8g 
 
 « ',p 
 
 U 
 
 Ph 
 
 couds, coi 
 cousons, 
 
 crois, cro: 
 croyons, < 
 
 p OS 
 
 « 1 
 CO .'O 
 
 'o p 
 © « 
 
 cours, coi 
 courons, ( 
 
 cueille, c 
 cueillons. 
 
 "p 03 
 « § 
 ^ © 
 
 OS .OB 
 
 ’p i 
 © © 
 
 dois, dois 
 devons, d 
 
 OS .. 
 
 ^ «o 
 rc! g 
 » © 
 to 
 
 dors, dor 
 dormons, 
 
 ecris, ec: 
 ecrivons, 
 
 envoie, e 
 envoyons 
 
 OB eo 
 
 © S 
 
 03 03 
 
 fais, fan 
 faisons, 
 
 ia 
 
 ,■2.4 
 
 OQ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 *s 
 
 « 
 
 P4 
 
 cousant 
 
 cousu 
 
 croyant 
 
 cru 
 
 croissant 
 
 cru 
 
 courant 
 
 couru 
 
 cueillant 
 
 cueilli 
 
 cuisant 
 
 cuit 
 
 devant 
 
 dti 
 
 disant 
 
 dit 
 
 dormant 
 
 dormi 
 
 ecrivant 
 
 ecrit 
 
 envoyan 
 
 envoye' 
 
 e'tant 
 
 ete 
 
 f ais ant 
 fait 
 
 faillant 
 
 failli 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ® 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ■ti 
 
 P 
 
 consuere 
 
 credere 
 
 crescere 
 
 currere 
 
 colligere 
 
 CD 
 
 S-4 
 
 1 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 debere 
 
 dicere 
 
 dormire 
 
 scribere 
 
 indeviar 
 
 essere 
 
 stare 
 
 facere 
 
 fallere 
 
 «D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 (p 
 
 p 
 
 M 
 
 coudre 
 
 croire 
 
 croitre 
 
 courir 
 
 cueillir 
 
 cuire 
 
 devoir 
 
 dire 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 © 
 
 13 
 
 ecrire 
 
 envoye 
 
 etre 
 
 faire 
 
 .M 
 
 1) Like dormir are conjugated mmtir (mentiri), paHir (partiri) se repentir (poenitere), smtir (sentire), sentr (serrire) and 
 .ortir (sortiri).^^,^^,^ conjugated regularly as a verb of the 2d conjugation = to become bankrupt. The forms given for the present 
 
 an4 future are almost obsolete, 
 
342 
 
 Appendix II. 
 
 'S 
 
 h A 
 
 
 ► o 
 
 
 .«0 hi*' 
 * .'» 
 
 — ^ 
 
 =3 ^ 
 
 ;a s 
 
 CO .00 
 
 ^ § 
 
 o3 « 
 
 I -2 
 
 
 .S ^ 
 
 «hJ ft 
 
 3 
 
 IT^ 
 
 3 3 
 
 § 0 ^ 
 
 
 "S ■© 
 
 a a 
 
 a s g s 
 
 g 00 
 
 >73 ITS 
 
 3 3 
 £« se 
 
 a a 
 
 
 •S « 
 ns i 
 3 ^ 
 cS Co 
 
 a ^ 
 
 w <2, 
 
 » 05 
 
 "?3'« 
 § § 
 ?3 !S 
 
 i § 
 
 00 flo 
 
 1 1 
 
 a 
 
 ■t^ 
 
 ® 
 
 S; 
 
 CO g 
 
 3 * 
 
 a 0° 
 
 ” 3 
 ^-.2 
 "S "S 
 
 a a 
 
 a i 
 
 § a 
 
 i a 
 
 « o 
 
 ns § 
 
 a cT 
 
 i a 
 
 s a 
 
 .05 05 
 
 i.'l. 
 
 a ^ 
 
 » ?3 
 
 O 
 
 It 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 ^53 
 
 i3^ 
 o ^ 
 
 
 "^2 -3 
 
 3 
 
 II .2 
 
 I 
 
 ® §. 
 s ® ® 
 
 S '3 > 
 
 ^ a ^ 
 
 g 3 
 -r ft 
 
 •is ^ 
 
 ®^*HH 
 
 3 ^ ~ 
 
 O 3 S ^ 
 
 ^ s 
 
 ft ^ « . ® 
 
 -'gtfi 
 
 ® o § QQ ® 
 
 (> a i; . 
 
 ^ sii ftcj4 
 
 *3 2 v;, ® ^ 
 
 crt ^ 
 
 3 »t. 5 a s 
 ■2 I »" S 
 
 l~“-|''S 
 
 ® s 
 
 .5 ®^ i^ 
 
 3 _ . 2 
 
 3 3 «*-• *nT 
 
 ® «M *1 
 
 *2 3 3 Cm- 
 
 — ::|a 
 
 i., '» ^3 
 
 ®4s ^ 
 
 -►3 ^ 3 CO , 
 
 3 si *3 ® 
 
 3 'see '3 ^ 
 
 3^.^ a § 
 
 M 2 2r3 .. 
 
 3 ®.a H'::^ 
 ns 3 ® 'S tj 
 
 2 o 2 ^ ^.® 
 
 *?> s 3 ' 
 
 iS ^ I "" 
 
 S ® k 
 
 t “III, 
 
 •s -i: 1-^ 
 
 3 S'^ 3 3 
 w ® 5 'J? o 
 
 •^^33® 
 3 ® o 
 
 ^ o ® 
 ® 3 ® ^ 
 
 ,3 eo s” 
 
 -S ns ^ V 
 
 ifl § -2 i£ 
 
 a-s, 
 
 3 ® 
 
 3 ® ^ ® ® 
 
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Irregular Verbs. 
 
 343 
 
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 -2 ,2 M'S 
 
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 S & 
 
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 w © w ^ 
 
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 ^ -s 
 
 
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 ^2. cs 
 
 
 ® 02 52 
 
 .Sg ® 
 
 ftw ^ 
 
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 a S 
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 :S .S 
 
 a ® -’ 
 
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 a 43 CCS ^ 
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 TO ^ .2 
 
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844 
 
 Appendix II; Irregular Verbs. 
 
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 Oo M 
 
 C S3 
 
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 CC S 
 
 -IJ 
 
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 s 2 
 
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345 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 page 
 
 a with inf. 176ff. 
 
 apparent subject . . . 165 
 
 apparent object . . . 172 
 
 with aimer 168 
 
 a with subst. term . . 219 if. 
 
 limiting verbs .... 222 
 I limiting adjectives . . 224 
 
 ' limiting substantives . 225 
 
 with names of countries 95, 220 
 of possession 112, 225, 233 
 
 — dative 223 
 
 d — dans 220 
 
 d, = en — dans . . 223 
 
 d — de 225 
 
 d — avec 242 
 
 d — pour 245 
 
 d travers 252 
 
 absolute construction 101, 196, 
 
 1 200, 218, 251, 280 
 
 ! ahsoudre 55 
 
 abuser (const.) .... 230 
 
 accents 1 
 
 acute .... 1, 38, 61 
 
 I circumflex 1, 20, 30, 33, 56 
 
 I . grave 1, 38 
 
 s^accorder (inf.) . . 177, 186 
 
 accusative 209 
 
 acheter 38 (const.) . . . 211 
 
 I acquerir 50, 338 
 
 I adjectives .... 6 If., 100 ff. 
 
 comparison ... 8, 104 
 as adverbs . . . .61, 260 
 
 as partitives 104, 122, 232 
 
 Armitage, French grammar. 
 
 page 
 
 adjectival clause 
 subjunctive in . . . . 151 
 
 negatived hy ne . . . 271 
 
 adverbs 61 
 
 of quantity ... 62, 254 ff. 
 
 of affirmation . . 62, 262 
 
 of place 253 
 
 for personal pronoun 13, 107, 
 254 
 
 for possessive .... 112 
 
 for relative 13, 18, 118, 284 
 as attribute .... 259 
 as predicate .... 260 
 agent (de) 229 (par) . . 244 
 
 aider (inf.) 172, (const.) . 212 
 
 aimer (inf.) . .167, 168, 173 
 
 aller 45 
 
 auxiliary of tense . . 142 
 
 and gerund .... 195 
 
 amour (gender) . . 321, 327 
 
 apercevoir (inf.) . . 170, 204 
 
 s’ — (const.) . . . 185, 230 
 
 applaudir (const.) . . . 212 
 
 apposition . . 96, 216, 234 
 
 appositive complement . 216 
 apprendre (inf.) . . . . 172 
 
 apres 190, 249 
 
 arr acker (const.) . 211, 224 
 
 article deWte . . 3, 326 
 
 inclusive use .... 89 
 
 demonstrative use . . 93 
 
 with partitives ... 90 
 
 omitted . . 91, 92, 95, 98 
 23 
 
846 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 page 
 
 for possessive •. . . 112 
 
 article indefinite . . 3, 96 
 
 omitted 10, 96, 97, 98 
 
 assailUr 49 
 
 assez . . . 189, 192, 254 
 
 asservir 32 
 
 astreindre 56 
 
 atteindre 57, (const.) . . 223 
 
 s^attendre (inf.) . . . . 178 
 
 aucun 126, 265, 267, 268, 330 
 aucunement . . . 265, 266 
 
 au-dessus, au-dessous . . 239 
 
 aussi 258 
 
 autant 256, 258 
 
 autre 127, 269 
 
 autrui 127 
 
 avant 191, 249 
 
 avant que (subj.) 154, (ne) 274 
 
 avec 229, 242 
 
 s^aviser (const.) .... 230 
 avoir a (inf.) . . . 173, 203 
 
 avoir beau (inf.) . . . 175 
 
 avoir Vair 101 
 
 balancer (inf.) . . 178, 186 
 
 battre 37 
 
 beaucoup .... 255, 257 
 
 benir 30 
 
 bien ♦ . . . 255, 257, 282 
 
 boire ... 55, 336, 338 
 
 bouger (ne) . . . . . 270 
 
 bouillir . . . . 31, 32, 336 
 
 brake 58 
 
 brin 264 
 
 bruire 59 
 
 e softened by cedilla . . 38 
 
 cardinals ..... 9, 11 
 
 cases 12, 206 
 
 cause, by de 185, 188, 230, 232 
 by par 245, by pour 191 
 causal clause . 149, 186, 282 
 
 ce adjectival . . . . 16, 17 
 
 substantival . . 114, 115 
 
 grammat. subject 116, 130, 165 
 with clause in apposition 280 
 
 c^est d (inf.) 165 
 
 ce la — cela . . . . 16, 114 
 
 cedilla 1, 38 
 
 ceindre 57 
 
 celer 38 
 
 cent inflected .... 9, 10 
 
 page 
 
 cesser (ne) 270 
 
 chaque, chacun .... 125 
 
 changer (const.) .... 230 
 chercher (inf.) .... 172 
 
 chez 243 
 
 choir 53 
 
 ci 16, 254 
 
 collectif general, partitif . 130 
 
 clore 59 
 
 cognate accusative . 216, 229 
 
 combien .... 256, 258 
 
 comme 258, 279 
 
 coynmander (const.) . . . 213 
 
 commencer (inf.) . . . . 172 
 
 comment . . . . 121, 258 
 
 comparison 8, 104 (de) . 228 
 
 comparison, clause of 274, 283 
 complement case 13, 110, 209 
 complement appositive 96, 216 
 compound substantives . 4 
 
 adjectives . . 102 
 
 compter (inf.) . . . 167, 168 
 
 concessive clause 152, 154, 183, 
 284 
 
 en and gerund, in place of 194 
 
 conclure 55, 328 
 
 conditionals 134 
 
 in apodosis .... 137 
 
 in protasis with quand 138 
 in oratio obliqua . . 139 
 
 conditional clause, see hypo- 
 thetical. 
 
 conduire 57, 339 
 
 confire 58 
 
 conjugation . . . 333, 335 
 
 conjunctions: coordinative 277 
 subordinative .... 278 ff. 
 with subjunctive ... 62 
 
 conjunctive pronouns . . 12 
 
 connaitre .... 
 
 . 55, 338 
 
 consecutive clause 139, 
 
 151, 153 
 
 182, 188, 
 
 271, 282 
 
 replaced by pour and inf. 192 
 
 consentir (inf.) . . 
 
 177, 186 
 
 construire .... 
 
 58, 339 
 
 continuer (inf.) . . 
 
 . . 172 
 
 contraindre 56, (inf.) 
 
 178, 186 
 
 contre 
 
 . . 243 
 
 convier (inf.) . . . 
 
 . . 178 
 
 coudre 
 
 , 37, 335 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 page 
 
 eourir 49, 338 
 
 couter (const.) . . 201, 218 
 
 couvrir 49 
 
 craindre .... 56, 335 
 
 croire . . 55, 338, const. 222 
 
 meillir 49, 336 
 
 cuire 58, 339 
 
 dans 95, 220, 223, 232, 236 ff., 
 240 
 
 dative case 110, 210 ff., 223 
 
 davantage . . . 
 
 256, 257 
 
 d^apres 
 
 . . 250 
 
 de with inf. . . . 
 
 . . 184 ff. 
 
 for finite verb 
 
 . . 162 
 
 subject . . 
 
 . . 164 
 
 object . . . 
 
 168, 170 
 
 with substantival term 227 ff. 
 in independant partitives 90 
 with names of countries 95 
 object of negatived verb 233 
 
 pleonastic . . . 
 
 . . 123 
 
 of time .... 
 
 228, 269 
 
 de — avec . . . 
 
 . . 242 
 
 de — d — par . 
 
 . . 244 
 
 d^entre 
 
 . . 248 
 
 degd 
 
 . . 252 
 
 dechoir 
 
 . . 53 
 
 decider (inf.) . . . 
 
 169, 178 
 
 declension, Old Fr. 
 
 . 2, 326 
 
 decollet er .... 
 
 . . 38 
 
 dedans 
 
 252, 254 
 
 defaillir .... 
 
 . . 32 
 
 defier (inf.) 1 78, se d. (const.) 230 
 
 dehors 
 
 252, 254 
 
 demi 
 
 11, 100 
 
 deld 
 
 
 demander (inf.) . . 
 
 . . 173 
 
 dependant verbs . . 
 
 . . 145 ff. 
 
 dependre (const.) 
 
 . . 228 
 
 des — depuis . . 
 
 . . 250 
 
 depuis que . . . . 
 
 . 274 
 
 dei'riere — apres 
 
 . . 249 
 
 desapprendre (inf.) . 
 
 . . 172 
 
 dessous — dessus 239, 
 
 252, 254 
 
 determinative pronouns 
 
 19, 127 
 
 dUer miner (inf.) . . 
 
 169, 178 
 
 deuxibne — second 
 
 . . 10 
 
 devant — avant 
 
 . . 249 
 
 devoir .... 33, 
 
 335, 336 
 
 auxiliary of tense 
 
 . . 142 
 
 dire 
 
 page 
 
 58, 338, 339 
 
 on dir ait (const.) 
 
 ... 234 
 
 discontinuer (inf.) 
 
 ... 172 
 
 dissoudre . . 
 
 ... 55 
 
 distribution 90, 
 
 125, 221, 245 
 
 distributive pronouns .13, 125 
 
 dont 
 
 18, 117, 118 
 
 dormir . . . . 
 
 ... 31 
 
 doubt (dependant clause) . 273 
 
 se douter (const.) 
 
 . . . 230 
 
 du, due . . . 
 
 
 durant — pendant . . 250 
 
 du tout . . . 
 
 ... 265 
 
 ecarteler . . . 
 
 ... 38 
 
 echapper (const.) 
 
 ... 224 
 
 echoir .... 
 
 ... 53 
 
 eclore . . . . 
 
 59, 336 
 
 ecouter (inf.) . . 
 
 ... 170 
 
 *ecrire . . . . 
 
 . . 58, 335 
 
 s^efforcer (inf.) 
 
 . 177, 186 
 
 elision . . . . 
 
 . . 2, 10 
 
 emouvoir . . . 
 
 ... 52 
 
 emotion, verbs of 
 
 . 146, 149 
 
 s’emparer (const.) 
 
 ... 230 
 
 s’empresser (inf.) 
 
 . 177, 186 
 
 emprunter (const.) 
 
 . 211, 224 
 
 en preposition 
 
 95, 194, 236 ff. 
 
 en — comme . . 
 
 ... 238 
 
 en adverb 107, 
 
 112, 202, 254 
 
 enfreindre . . . 
 
 ... 57 
 
 enlever (const.) 
 
 . 211, 224 
 
 enseigner (inf.) 
 
 ... 172 
 
 entendre (inf.) 
 
 . 170, 204 
 
 entre — par mi 
 
 ... 247 
 
 entre (inf.) . . . 
 
 ... 192 
 
 envers — vers . . 
 
 ... 248 
 
 envoyer .... 
 
 
 essay er {mi.) 172, 
 
 (const.) 233 
 
 eteindre . . . 
 
 ... 57 
 
 ethical dative 
 
 ... 211 
 
 etre auxil. of neuter verbs 43,199 
 
 (inf.) .... 
 
 . 175, 179 
 
 excepts . . . . 
 
 . 101, 251 
 
 exclusive pronouns 
 
 ; . 19, 126 
 
 exclusive words . 
 
 ... 263 ff. 
 
 with ne . . . 
 
 . 264, 265 
 
 without ne . . 
 
 . . . 267 ff. 
 
 exhorter (inf.) 
 
 . 178, 186 
 
 faillir 31, 32, (inf.) 174, 175, 178 
 faire ... 58, 335, 338, 339 
 
 23 * 
 
348 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 page 
 
 (inf.) 170, 203 
 
 impersonal 201 
 
 il fait beau, bon (inf.) . 164 
 
 falloir 52, 338, (inf.) 164, 174 
 
 faute 252 
 
 fearing, verbs of . . . 272 
 
 feindre 57, 339 
 
 ferir *32 
 
 feu 101 
 
 final clause, see purpose. 
 
 fleurir 30 
 
 forcer (inf.) . . . 178, 186 
 
 fractional numbers ... 11 
 
 frire 59 
 
 fuir 31, 32 
 
 future tenses 134 ff. 
 
 in objective clause with si 136 
 in oratio obliqua . . 139 
 
 g softened by e . . . . 38 
 
 hardened \)ju... 7 
 
 garde {prendre) . . 187, 272 
 
 {n^ avoir) . . . . 270 
 
 geler 38 
 
 gender of subs. . . . 5, 327 
 
 gerund 193, 194 
 
 ghir 51 
 
 gouter (const.) . . 223, 233 
 
 goutte . . . . . 264, 269 
 
 guere . 263 n. 266, 267, 268 
 
 h mute, aspirated ... 2 
 
 hair 30 
 
 harceler 38 
 
 Msiter (inf.) . . . 178, 186 
 
 heriter (const.) .... 230 
 
 hindering, verbs of . 187, 272 
 
 hoping, verbs of ... 149 
 
 liormis^ hors 251 
 
 hypothetical clause 136 if. 278 
 with quand . . . 138, 278 
 
 with que and subj. 154, 279 
 
 in oratio obliqua . . 141 
 
 subjunctive pluperf. in . 143 
 
 negatived 271 
 
 i elided 2 
 
 i and y interchanged . . 38 
 
 id 253 
 
 il gram, subject . . 130, 164 
 
 imperative .... 332, 333 
 
 pronouns with . 108, 109 
 
 as interjection . . . 142 
 
 page 
 
 imperfect 132, formation . 332 
 
 in hypothetical clause 135, 136 
 for conditional . . . 139 
 
 impersonal verbs . . 
 
 . 201 
 
 inclusive {tout) . . 
 
 19, 125 
 
 independant pronouns 
 
 12, 106 
 
 independant partitives 
 
 90, 233 
 
 infinitive .... 
 
 . . 155 ff. 
 
 for finite verb . , 
 
 . . 162 
 
 as subject 
 
 157, 164 
 
 as object . . 
 
 157, 166 ff. 
 
 as case of reference 
 
 160, 174 
 
 adverbial . . 
 
 160, 176 ff. 
 
 infinitive without preposition 
 
 as subject 
 
 . . 164 
 
 as object . . 
 
 167, 170 ff. 
 
 as case of reference 
 
 . 174 
 
 {il semble, il faut) 
 infinitive with d 
 
 . . 164 
 
 apparent subject . 165 
 
 apparent object 
 
 . 172 
 
 adverbial . . 
 
 . . 176 ff. 
 
 {quitte, sauf) . . 
 
 . . 181 
 
 infinitive with de 
 
 
 for finite verb 
 
 . . 162 * 
 
 as subject 
 
 . . 164 
 
 as object 
 
 168, 170 ff. 
 
 adverbial 
 
 . . 184 ff. 
 
 infinitive simple, with d or de 
 
 168, 171, 173, 175, 178 
 — simple or with de 168 
 with a or de 165, 169, 
 172, 177, 178, 179, 182, 
 185, 186 
 
 instrument de 229, avec 242, 
 par 244 
 
 insult er (const.) . . . . 213 
 
 interrogation oblique 123, 150, 
 
 163 
 
 inviter (inf.) 178 
 
 jamais . . 263 n., 265, 268 
 
 joindre 57 
 
 jouer (const.) 229 
 
 juger (inf.) . . . 167, 168 
 
 jurer (inf.) . . . 167, 168 
 
 jusque 243 
 
 I doubled in verbs ... 38 
 
 Id 253 
 
 laisser (inf.) . 170, 173, 204 
 
 se lasser (inf.) .... 185 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 lire 
 
 lors 
 
 page 
 
 55, 338 
 
 252 
 
 58 
 
 Vim V autre .... 128 
 
 mais 265, 266 
 
 malgre 251 
 
 manner a 221, 231, en, 
 
 dans 238, avec 242, jpar 244 
 clause of manner . . . 154 
 
 manque 252 
 
 manquer (inf.) 175, 178, 
 
 (const.) 213, 230 
 matter, de 229, 231, avec 242 
 
 maudire 58 
 
 means, de 230, avec 242, far 244 
 measure, simple subst. 217, 
 
 meme . . . 
 
 de 231, 232 
 . . 128, 259 
 
 mentir . . . 
 
 .... 31 
 
 mettre . . . 
 
 ... 58, 338 
 
 mie .... 
 
 .... 264 
 
 mil, mille . . 
 
 .... 10 
 
 moins . . . , 
 
 .... 256 
 
 d moins de 
 
 .... 190 
 
 d moins que . 
 
 . . 271, 281 
 
 montrer (inf.) . 
 
 .... 172 
 
 mot .... 
 
 . . 264, 269 
 
 motion to, simple subst. 217, d 
 
 49, 
 
 95, 219, de 228, en, dans 95, 236 
 55, 338 
 336, 338 
 51, 338 
 . 243 
 58, 335 
 . 262 ff. 
 269, 270 ff. 
 265 
 
 moudre 
 mourir . 
 mouvoir 
 moyennant 
 naitre . 
 
 ne with exclusive . 
 
 without exclusive 
 ne pas^ point (inf.) . 
 nearness to, de 228, without 
 
 de 251 
 
 neuters Lat. = 
 
 fern. French 
 
 327 
 
 neuter verbs . 
 
 . 
 
 43, 
 
 199 
 
 ni — ni . . 
 
 266, 
 
 268, 
 
 277 
 
 non .... 
 
 
 
 262 
 
 non plus . . 
 
 266, 
 
 267, 
 
 268 
 
 nonohstant 
 
 
 . 
 
 251 
 
 nu uninflected 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 nuire . . . 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 nul .... 
 
 126, 
 
 265, 
 
 268 
 
 nullement . . 
 
 
 265, 
 
 268 
 
 object, pronoun 
 
 *109, 
 
 202, 
 
 209 
 
 substantive . . . 
 
 infinitive .... 
 ohliger (inf.) ... 178, 
 
 oblique oration, future in 
 hypothetical clause of . 
 interrogation in 123, 150, 
 
 subj. or ind 
 
 observer (inf.) .... 
 offrir .... 49, 336, 
 old French, (declens.) 2, 
 
 (plural) 
 
 on 129, 
 
 orgue gender . . . 322, 
 
 oser [ne] 
 
 oter (const.) . . . 211, 
 
 oil 253, for relative 18, 
 
 in temporal clause . . 
 
 ou — ou . 
 ouir 32, (inf.) . . 170, 
 
 outre . . 
 
 ouvrir 49, 
 
 pattre 55, 
 
 par .... 192, 229, 
 
 par trop . . 
 
 parattre . . 
 
 il parait (ind.) 
 parmi — e'ntre 
 participer (const.) 
 participle present 
 participle passive 
 
 partir 
 
 partitives independant 90, 
 
 dependant . . 
 
 adjectives used as 
 122, 
 
 pas . . . 
 
 55, 335, 
 
 193, ff. 
 198 ff. 
 
 pas un 
 
 . 126, 265, 
 
 ... 57, 
 
 pendant — durant . . . 
 
 penser (inf.) . 168, 174, 
 
 (const.) .... 
 perfect, . . 333, 337, 
 
 indefinite . . . 
 
 definite .... 
 anterior .... 
 personne 104, 126, 265, 
 peu .... 255, 257, 
 
 le peu .... 130, 
 
 plaindre . . 56, 335, 
 
 plein uninflected . . . 
 
 page 
 216 
 166 ff. 
 186 
 139 
 141 
 163 
 
 147 
 170 
 339 
 326, 
 
 327 
 330 
 
 328 
 270 
 224 
 118 
 284 
 278 
 
 204 
 
 246 
 336 
 338 
 
 244 ff. 
 
 245 
 338 
 
 148 
 
 247 
 233 
 332 
 
 334 
 31 
 
 233 
 
 232 
 
 104 
 
 232 
 
 264 
 
 268 
 
 335 
 250 
 175 
 222 
 
 338 
 
 131 
 
 132 
 
 133 
 267 
 267 
 
 205 
 
 339 
 101 
 
350 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 page 
 
 pluperfect 133 
 
 subj. in hypoth. clause 143 
 
 la plupart 130 
 
 plural subst. 3, 4, 320, adj. 8 
 plus 8, 256, exclus. 263, n. 265, 
 266 
 
 point 264 
 
 possession, d 112, 222, 225, 
 
 de 233 
 
 pour . . 245, (inf.) 175, 191 
 
 pourvoir 52 
 
 pouvoir 52, 336, 338, (ne) 270 
 prendre 58, 336, 338, (const ) 
 211, 224 
 
 preparer (inf.) .... 173 
 
 pres 251, 254 
 
 present ind. 332, 333, use 131 
 
 subj 333 
 
 pretendre (inf.) . . 167, 168 
 
 prevaloir 52 
 
 prevoir 53 
 
 price, simple subst. 218, d 221, 
 pour 246 
 
 proche 251 
 
 proynouvoir 52 
 
 pronouns 328, cases 12, 13, 209, 
 personal . . 105 ff. 107, 209 
 
 possessive . . . 15, 112ff. 
 
 demonstrative . . 16, 114ff. 
 
 relative ... 18, 121, 167 
 interrogative . . . 18, 121 
 
 pronominal verbs . 41, 199 
 
 purpose, a 222, 225, pour 245, 
 
 inf. of 158, 170, 175, 177, 181 
 183, 187, 189, 191 
 clause of 150, 153, 272, 283 
 qualifier (const.) .... 234 
 
 quand 278, with condit. . 138 
 
 que relative . . 17, 119, 210 
 
 interrogative 18, 122, 269 
 que adverb. . . . 257, 258 
 
 exclusive . . 266, 267 
 
 que conjunction = Lat, quod219 If. 
 “ Lat. quam . 283 
 
 = Lat. g;^f^^w^l39, 274 
 284 
 
 que si 279 
 
 quel interrog. 18, 121, quel 127 
 
 quel que 124 
 
 quelque prou. 330, adv. . 259 
 
 page 
 
 quelque que adj. 124, 330, 
 
 adv. 259 
 
 quelque chose, quelqu’un 104, 128, 
 
 268 
 
 queleonque . . . 125, 269 
 
 querir 32 
 
 qui que ee soil . . 124, 269 
 
 quint 11 
 
 quitte (inf.) 181 
 
 recoinmencer (inf.) . . . 172 
 
 redouhler (const.) . . . 230 
 
 refuser (inf.) 169 
 
 reflexive pronoun 106, 110, 171 
 200, 214 
 
 regarder (inf.) 170, (const.) 222 
 relever (const.) . . . .228 
 
 remedier (const.) . . . 224 
 
 repattre ...... 56 
 
 repartir 32 
 
 se repentir . . * . . 32 
 
 resolving, verbs of . . . 150 
 
 resoudre 55, 339,' (inf.) . 109 
 
 se resoudre (inf.) . 177, 186 
 
 respect d 221, de 230, 231, 
 
 pour 245 
 
 ressortir 32 
 
 rest in a place, simple 
 subst. 217, d 219, de 226, 
 
 en, dans 237 
 
 il reste (inf.) 165 
 
 rever (const.) ..... 222 
 
 rien 104, 126, 265, 266, 267 
 
 rire 58 
 
 rompre 37 
 
 s added to imp. 2^ sing. 39, 45 
 s of plural in subst. . . 2 
 
 sache {je ne) . . . 143, 336 
 
 saillir 49, 336 
 
 sans 246, (inf.) . . . . 192 
 
 sans que 271 
 
 sauf 251, (inf.) . . . .181 
 
 savoir 52, 336, 338, (ne) 270 
 second — deuxihne ... 10 
 
 selon — suivant . . . 250 
 
 il semble (ind. subj. 148, (inf.) 165 
 sentir . . 31 (inf.) 170, 204 
 
 seoir 53 
 
 servir . 32, (const.) 213, 234 
 
 seul 128 
 
 si adv. . . . 262, 282, 258 
 
INDEX. 
 
 351 
 
 si conjunc. 136, 143, 258, 
 
 si bien que 
 
 soi . . 
 
 soit — soit 
 
 solliciler (inf.) . . 178, 
 
 songer (const.) .... 
 
 sortir 
 
 souffrir 49^ 
 
 sourdre 
 
 sous ........ 
 
 souscrire (const.) . . . 
 
 se souvenir (const.) . . 
 
 stem-vowel changes . 38, 
 stem-consonant .... 
 
 subject, position . . 108, 
 
 Subjunctive . . • 143, 
 
 in oblique enuntiation 146, 
 in oblique interrogation 
 in clause of purpose 147, 
 152, 
 
 in consecutive clause 147, 
 
 in concessive clause 125, 
 152, 
 
 in temporal clause 147, 
 in hypothetical clause 143, 
 in clause of manner 147, 
 substantives plural 3, 327, 
 320, 
 
 gender 5, 321, 
 without preposition 
 substantival clause . . . 
 
 (subj. in) 148 ff. (ne) . 
 with ellipse of principal 
 clause .... 262, 
 
 mffire 
 
 suivant 
 
 suivre 
 
 superlatives (subj. after) . 
 sur — au-dessus . . . 
 
 surseoir 
 
 t doubled in verbs . . . 
 
 between verb and pronoun 
 tdcher (inf.) . . . 177, 
 taire 55, 56, 
 
 page 
 
 tant 256, 258 
 
 tarder (inf.) . . . 178, 186 
 
 teindre 57 
 
 tel 127 
 
 temporal clause 127, 139, 154, 
 273, 284 
 
 gerund in place of . . 194 
 
 tenir 50, 336, 338, (const.) 223, 
 233 
 
 time (when) simple subst. 217, 
 d 220, de 228, en, dans 237, 
 
 sur 240, vers . . . 248 
 
 time (how long) simple subst. 217, 
 de 228, 269, en, dans . 238 
 
 toucher (const.) .... 223 
 
 tout ...... 125, 258 
 
 traire 58, 339 
 
 Waiter (const.) .... 234 
 trancher (const.) .... 233 
 
 trema 1, 6, 30 
 
 tressaillir 49 
 
 triompher (const.) . . . 230 
 
 trop .... 189, 192, 254 
 
 trouver (inf.) 173 
 
 universal relatives . . 19, 124 
 
 user (const.) 230 
 
 vaincre 37 
 
 valoir 52, 335, 338, (const.) 201 
 il vaut autant (inf.) . . 164 
 
 venir 50, 336, 338, (inf.) 175 
 venir de .... 142, 185 
 
 verbs 20, 33 Iff. 
 
 agreement with subject 129 
 vers — envers .... 248 
 
 vetir 32 
 
 vingt 9 
 
 vis-d-vis 251 
 
 vivre 55 
 
 vouloir 52, 335, 338, (const.) 233 
 auxiliary of tense . . 142 
 
 voir . 53, 388, (inf.) 170, 204 
 
 wishing, verbs of . 158, 168 
 
 y 107, 254 
 
 y and i interchanged . . 38 
 
 y avoir (inf.) 173, (const.) 201 
 
 page 
 
 278 
 
 282 
 
 107 
 
 278 
 
 186 
 
 222 
 
 32 
 
 339 
 
 59 
 
 239 
 
 223 
 
 230 
 
 336 
 
 335 ff. 
 
 216 
 
 146 ff. 
 
 148 
 
 150 
 
 151, 
 
 153 
 
 151 
 
 153 
 
 147, 
 
 154 
 
 154 
 
 154 
 
 154 
 
 330, 
 
 321 
 
 322 
 
 216 ff. 
 
 280 
 
 270 
 
 281 
 
 58 
 
 250 
 
 58 
 
 152 
 
 239 
 
 53 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 186 
 
 338