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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/changingroleofpo92172smun 
 
Faculty Working Paper 92-0172 
 
 The Changing Role of POM 
 (Production and Operations Management) 
 
 Faculty 
 
 The Library of the 
 
 my <l oic 
 
 University of Illinois 
 of Urtana-Champatgr; 
 
 Timothy Smunt Howard Thomas 
 
 Department of Business Administration Dean of College of Commerce and 
 
 University of Illinois fames R. Towey Professor of 
 
 Strategic Management of Policy 
 University of Illinois 
 
 Bureau of Economic and Business Research 
 
 College of Commerce and Business Administration 
 
 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 
 
BEBR 
 
 FACULTY WORKING PAPER NO. 92-0172 
 
 College of Commerce and Business Administration 
 
 University of Illinois at Grbana-Champaign 
 
 October 1992 
 
 The Changing Role of POM 
 
 (Production and Operations Management) 
 
 Faculty 
 
 Timothy Smunt 
 Howard Thomas 
 
 College of Commerce and Business Administration 
 
The Changing Role of POM 
 (Production and Operations Management) 
 
 Faculty 
 
 Timothy Smunt* 
 
 and 
 Howard Thomas* 
 
 presented by Howard Thomas, Dean of the College of Commerce and Business Administration, 
 
 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 
 
 at the 1992 Production and Operations Management Society Meeting 
 
 Orlando, Honda 
 October 19, 1992 
 
 * The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 
 
 College of Commerce and Business Administration 
 
 1 206 South Sixth Street 
 
 Champaign, IL 61820 
 
The Changing Role of POM 
 (Production and Operations Management) 
 
 Faculty 
 
 Timothy Smunt 
 
 and 
 Howard Thomas 
 
 Ourl 
 
 ine 
 
 1.0 History of POM Faculty Roles 
 
 1.1 In The U.S. 
 
 1 .2 At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 
 
 2.0 Industry Competitive Needs 
 
 2.1 The Market Niche of POM Faculty in Business Schools 
 
 3.0 Changing Roles of Business Schools 
 
 3.1 Executive Development Programs 
 
 3.2 Industry Interaction in Research 
 
 3.21 Need for Data 
 
 3.22 Broader Research Methodologies 
 
 3.3 Joint Programs with Engineering Schools 
 
 4.0 Impact On POM Faculty Skills 
 
 4.1 Development of Current POM Faculty 
 
 4.2 Updating Ph.D. Curriculums 
 
 5.0 Implementing the Change 
 
The Changing Role of POM 
 (Production and Operations Management) 
 
 Faculty 
 
 1.0 History of POM Faculty Roles 
 
 Prolonged periods of scarce resources cause reflection on the purpose and criticality of the 
 various parts of an organization. At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, we are 
 reevaluating our organizational composition in light of university-wide budget reductions and our 
 desire (like some others) to be ranked among the best business schools in the U.S.. One of the 
 outcomes of this reevaluation is the belief that POM is an important element in business education 
 and research. About five years ago, we decided to reemphasize the teaching and research of POM 
 in our business school (which we call "The College of Commerce and Business Administration"), 
 and we plan to go forward in further developing this area. Our vision of the future, however, 
 requires that we rethink the ways we teach POM, interact with industry, and join forces with our 
 engineering colleagues. The main theme of this paper concerns the future for POM faculty in 
 business schools and their roles in fostering world class business education into the 21st century. 
 First, however, we will take a brief look at the history of POM in academia in order to provide an 
 argument for needed change. 
 
 1.1 In The U.S. 
 
 Prior to World War II, POM was taught and researched from a (mostly) descriptive 
 perspective. Indeed, any good textbook on "Management" combined Production, Labor Relations, 
 Cost Accounting, and Manufacturing/Industrial Engineering concepts. Industry interacted with 
 academics in research - with most research classified as field studies. Other research was more 
 
 1 
 
prescriptive. For example, Frederick Taylor proposed time studies and methods analysis to 
 determine the best way to get a job done. Even his research was done jointly with industry. 
 
 World War II ended, and a host of well-trained operations research analysts became 
 available. At about the same time, the Carnegie and Ford Foundations widely publicized critical 
 reports on the lack of science in business schools. The use of Operations Research (OR) 
 methodology in solving manufacturing problems infused the science which was lacking in this 
 business research. Indeed, OR methods widely contributed to manufacturing (hence, the reason it 
 was called operations research), as well as to finance and marketing. More contributions are still 
 forthcoming. Many business school POM faculty with this training and research capability will 
 continue to solve the varied and complex problems in manufacturing and service operations. 
 Indeed, the current set of POM faculty skills in U.S. business schools varies widely on a 
 continuum of OR to field/case study methodology. The question we would like to address is 
 "how will the mix of these skills need to be changed in the future to meet the challenges of 
 tomorrow's academic and business environment. 1 '". We should note at this time that we believe 
 research skills are needed across this continuum, and not all POM researchers or POM faculty 
 groups can reasonably acquire the full range of these skills. Rather, we see a need for changing 
 the overall mix of skills within the POM community in order to adapt to current and future 
 management education and research demands. 
 
 Faculty in other parts of the university smdy and teach topics related to POM, albeit from 
 different perspectives. Industrial Engineering departments sometimes overlap with the work done 
 
in business schools. Here, we tend to see a good amount of applied OR work. Mechanical 
 Engineering deals with new process technologies, focusing more on the development of the 
 technology itself rather than its management. Business school linkages with engineering 
 departments can provide for leading edge research which otherwise would be unobtainable in 
 isolation. However, duplication o( the (faculty) resources typically found in engineering 
 departments may be a luxury that business schools will not be able to afford in the future 
 competitive academic environment. 
 
 1.2 At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) 
 
 In a redesign of our MBA program four years ago, we instituted a required core course in 
 POM and started recruitment of POM faculty. With 3 new POM faculty, we offer 2 - 3 MBA 
 electives beyond the required core course. We are again redesigning our MBA program. We plan 
 to reduce the number of core courses by 3 (or so) so that students can specialize in 2 - 3 areas, if 
 they choose. POM will remain one of the core courses, but more important, we will be able to 
 offer a richer set of electives in POM, thus providing comprehensive specializations in 
 manufacturing and service operations. Plant tours and outside speakers, organized by the POM 
 club of MBA students, supplements their education. 
 
 In addition to the MBA courses, we also offer two (of four) POM doctoral seminars each 
 year. Even though we plan consolidation and downsizing of our Ph.D. programs, POM is one of 
 the areas that will continue to receive support for this endeavor. We have recently decided to 
 require a course in POM for all business undergraduates. (For a number of years we required a 
 
separate course in Operations Research (Quantitative Methods) at both the BS and MBA levels. 
 Our staff in the Quantitative Methods area currently consists of 6 faculty.) However, to 
 accommodate the projected teaching load in POM, we will need to hire at least 3 new POM 
 faculty members, with a minimum of 2 required to staff the new POM undergraduate course. 
 Unfortunately, budget constraints have kept us from doing so the past two years. We hope to find 
 funding soon so we can fortify our POM faculty. 
 
 We believe that POM will become an increasingly larger proportion of the business school 
 faculty for several reasons, one of which is the fact that a business school's customer base is 
 demanding a more managerial-oriented product. Faculty in the POM area fit this product 
 description better than those in methodological areas and, therefore, we may see the number of 
 POM faculty increase over time while the number of quantitative methods faculty decreases. 
 
 2.0 Industry Competitive Needs 
 
 Why do we want to strengthen our POM program? It would be foolish not to do so. 
 Clearly, manufacturing and service effectiveness (productivity) is a major element of improving the 
 economy of any country. World class manufacturers from Japan and West Germany (and other 
 countries) dominate market share in key industries in the U.S. by using manufacturing as a 
 competitive weapon. As the world makes the transition to a truly global economy, manufacturing 
 strategy and tactics will need to change. Managers will ask these questions more often: 
 
 • Should I build an "offshore" facility (or produce in Mexico) to take advantage of lower 
 
labor rates? Will the increase in lead times caused by a more complex distribution system 
 reduce my competitiveness ? Which firms/industries would gain by moving manufacturing 
 to low labor rate countries.' 
 
 • When should I convert my labor-intensive process to an automated one? If I automate, 
 should I pay more for flexible automation. 7 What is the effect on my marketing strategy? 
 Will the elimination of labor hours through automation outweigh the reduced labor rates 
 of "offshore" production? 
 
 • How much does it cost to introduce a new product in my manufacturing facilities and how 
 can I drive that cost down? What is the nature of marginal manufacturing costs as related 
 to product-mix? 
 
 • How can I improve the quality of my products and the system which makes them? What 
 is operation's role in the new focus of quality? 
 
 • What are the effects of a Just-In-Time (JIT) production philosophy on my marketing 
 strategy? Can cellular manufactunng be used to achieve some of the benefits typically 
 associated with JIT approaches? Can I use cellular manufacturing techniques to reduce the 
 need to automate? 
 
 Of course these are only a few of the issues facing industry. Few firms need convincing of the fact 
 
that more efforts are needed in the POM area. Decision-making in today's complex and rapidly 
 changing business environment, however, requires a broader set of skills and intellectual training 
 to deal with these important operations issues. 
 
 2.1 The Market Niche of POM Faculty in Business Schools 
 
 Should POM faculty in business schools address these issues differendy than those in 
 engineering departments or in Operations Research groups? As in all academic fields, there is and 
 will be some overlap in research and teaching between POM and other groups. Our focus, as a 
 business school, should be to investigate and help to solve management problems. The faculty 
 consists of experts in various disciplines, such as strategy, operations, marketing, finance, 
 accounting, business law and organizational behavior. This brings a potential for cross-functional 
 management research that would be difficult to achieve in an engineering department. POM 
 faculty (and other business school functions) should use this collection of talents when developing 
 courses and formulating research hypotheses. Deans should encourage joint work with other 
 business disciplines since it can result in path-breaking results. Management research is clearly 
 headed in this direction. At the University of Illinois, we intend to foster research through a set of 
 cross-disciplinary research centers - a subject we will return to later. In any case, POM faculty 
 need to always ask the question, "To what degree does this research or course advance the 
 frontiers of management thought?" If it does not, then their work may appear more appropriate in 
 engineering, and this appearance can hinder the acceptance of their work by business school peers 
 and by managers. 
 
Operations research methodology is still the dominant research tool of POM faculty, but it 
 should become less so in the near future. As with any business function, many methodologies can 
 be used to address POM problems. Meredith, et al. in a 1989 JOM paper [4] comprehensively 
 outlines the types of research methodologies that are congruent with POM research. As evidence 
 of maturity of the POM research area, a recent issue of JOM [1] was dedicated to empirical 
 research studies. Therefore, it seems obvious that OR will not stay synonymous with. OM or 
 POM. OR's applicability is much wider than just POM. POM, like accounting, finance, and 
 marketing, will see a variety of research approaches used in the future. Operations Management, 
 which reflects managerial, process issues as well as analytical, content issues, will become 
 increasingly important as business schools, including Illinois, work to mold the study of operations 
 into an integrated approach to business management. 
 
 3.0 Changing Roles of Business Schools 
 
 The business school of the 90's and of the 21st century will look much different than that 
 we became comfortable with in the 70's and 80's. Demographic changes, the evolution of 
 technology for delivering education, and the move to a global economy will motivate major 
 changes in our approach to education and research. 
 
 Undergraduate applications to business programs are (generally) down. This trend reflects 
 a decline with the number of 1 8 year olds and the percentage of those who chose to study 
 business. We at the University of Illinois are somewhat fortunate in this regard since, as the 
 major state university, we will continue to get the cream of the undergraduate students in our state. 
 
 7 
 
We are continuing to strengthen our undergraduate program based on this fact, with the overall 
 goal of bringing our undergraduate program's quality to one of the top three programs of its kind 
 in the country. As part of this endeavor, we expect to offer an undergraduate track in the POM 
 area, perhaps with participation from the engineering school and human resources area. 
 
 There is fierce competition for the best MBA students, and it is clear that "standard" MBA 
 programs will probably not grow considerably during the next 10 years. However, at the 
 University of Illinois we will be emphasizing master's education that allows students to specialize in 
 various cross-functional areas. Technology management, for instance, has a strong POM element, 
 yet it also draws strongly from other functional fields. POM faculty will play a critical role in such 
 a new program. 
 
 Technology will also change the role of POM faculty. On one hand, we will see the use of 
 computer and video technology enhance and, in some cases, replace the human instructor. We 
 are not suggesting that we eliminate faculty by replacing him or her with a VCR, but the basic, 
 approach to course design must be reevaluated as this new technology, including the new multi- 
 media techniques, becomes easier to use and more effective. Perhaps, multi-media techniques can 
 be used as the basis for video-based cases - providing students with not only a text of a case, but 
 also with a video tour of the plant and interviews with the managers who were involved in the 
 case study. On the other hand, we need increased faculty involvement in project-based courses 
 that provide our students with more "hands-on" experience in firms on real problems. Another 
 way to provide "hands-on" experience is through simulation-based courses that require students to 
 
 8 
 
make management decisions and compete against other "companies" in a controlled environment. 
 Simulation- and project-based courses can consume a good deal of faculty time, but may be more 
 easily offered as we find ways of using technology to remove us (at least partially) from the 
 traditional lecture environment. 
 
 The move toward a global economy will require business school faculty to become more 
 aware and educated in international business issues. To do so may require investment in overseas 
 travel for the faculty - something that can become quite expensive. Without an international 
 orientation and exposure, however, it is not clear that faculty can reasonably address international 
 issues in their classroom. 
 
 3.1 Executive Development Programs 
 
 The demand for continuing education for managers is growing. We need to develop this 
 market and are currently reviewing our efforts in this regard. We view the Executive MBA 
 program as an important element in our educational offerings. Ours was recently ranked 12th 
 best in the nation by Business Week [2]. Beyond the EMBA program, we see the need for 
 continuing education for managers. In order for managers to remain competitive and useful in a 
 dynamic business climate, business schools will need to form a "continuous learning" environment 
 that augments the traditional BS and MBA programs. POM faculty can play an important role in 
 such management development programs. A host of seminars could be offered in this area. We, 
 
 The Economist (March 1991) [3] estimates that the shorter, executive courses for older managers 
 brings in over $3 billion a year which is more than what traditional MBA programs generate. 
 
for example, are launching 4 new 2-day executive development seminars in POM - one on 
 Operations Strategy, one on Total Quality Management, one on Operations Planning and Control, 
 and one on Investing in New Manufacturing Technology. Others are possible. These programs 
 may bring additional revenue but, more important, they are great ways to build links with industry. 
 Through interaction with practitioners, our faculty also gain a breadth o( experience that can be 
 brought back to the "traditional" classroom and can be used to help develop broader research 
 programs. 
 
 3.2 Industry Interaction in Research 
 
 One of the major problems associated with empirical research in POM is a lack of real 
 data. Industry interest and interaction may provide data that will help answer research questions 
 that were not possible to address in the past. Further, this interaction promises to provide 
 additional funding for research projects that has otherwise been unavailable to business school 
 faculty. Perhaps most significant is the potential that interaction with industry offers in regards to 
 better identifying important research issues and the variety o( constraints that managers face when 
 dealing with complex problems. Identifying meaningful management research issues can be 
 difficult when cloistered in one's office. 
 
 3.21 Need for Data 
 
 Government collected data (for example, from SEC filings or from the Census 
 Bureau) has limited usefulness in POM research. One reason for this is the 
 (seemingly) lack of correlation between reported financial data and operations 
 
 10 
 
effectiveness. (Perhaps this can be a study in its own.) We all know that most 
 firms work with more than one set of accounting numbers. The government does 
 not require that the cost information at the more detailed level be reported to the 
 public, so it often becomes proprietary data. Getting a look at such data and 
 publishing research results associated with it can be difficult. If a firm or set of 
 firms is actively participating in a research project, fears of lost confidentiality can be 
 reduced, and, thus, more data may become available. Unfortunately, standard 
 accounting practices do not necessarily exist for manufacturing data, so working 
 with data from a cross-sectional perspective may be perplexing. 
 
 Another way to collect data from manufacturing firms is through survey 
 mechanisms. Indeed, it appears that much of the empirical work in POM has used 
 this approach. While any one researcher can collect data specific to a narrowly 
 defined research question, it would be much better if data collection (through this 
 method) could be centralized via a research center or consortium. 
 
 3.22 Broader Research Methodologies 
 
 As was earlier mentioned, Meredith et al. thoroughly discuss the types of research 
 methods that are available to POM researchers. Interaction with industry will, in 
 many cases, foster the use of a variety of research methods. As die problem 
 definition becomes fuzzier (as can be expected when looking at real-world 
 problems), the research methodology must be of a more robust nature - albeit at 
 
 11 
 
the expense of elegant, closed form solutions. POM faculty and business school 
 deans must become comfortable with such changes in research approaches in order 
 for industry interaction to occur on a more regular basis. 
 
 3.3 Toint Programs with Engineering Schools 
 
 Overlaps with engineering schools should be pursued for a variety of reasons. The POM 
 function is probably the most comfortable with research and education in engineering schools, 
 since many current POM faculty in business schools had early training in engineenng and because 
 manufacturing departments in firms are typically run by engineers. Familiarity with POM often 
 means familiarity with engineering, especially the industrial and mechanical engineering areas. 
 
 We at UIUC are currently developing joint curriculum with our engineering school in the 
 area of technology management. The overlap here is not hard to see. We have one of the world's 
 best engineering schools and our interaction with it will provide numerous benefits to students 
 and faculty in both business and engineering. The POM faculty will play a vital role in this joint 
 educational program as they are our major link to engineering and have a sense of how to 
 translate the engineering orientation into a business context, and vice versa. 
 
 In the area of research, the development of joint or, in some way connected, research 
 centers again appears to be beneficial to both parties. 
 
 12 
 
4.0 Impact On POM Faculty Skills 
 
 Most POM facility were trained in operations research/management science disciplines. 
 While this seems most appropriate considering the types of problems traditionally addressed by 
 such faculty, the future should bring a wider collection of research skills to the table. Further, 
 understanding o( global issues in both manufacturing and service operations is becoming a 
 requirement for educating business school students. Additionally, the ability to teach in executive 
 development programs will become crucial as business schools evolve during the next 10 to 20 
 years, as evidenced by the growing interest o( firms in continuing education for their employees. 
 
 4.1 Development of Current POM Faculty 
 
 How do current POM faculty keep pace with these changes? First, the need to understand 
 international dimensions and to interact with practitioners is not unique to POM faculty - we need 
 to develop all business school faculty in this regard. Sometimes the development takes place 
 through an international education program, for example, like the one we have developed with 
 the University of Warsaw, Poland. For two years, four of our faculty (each from a different area - 
 POM is one of these) will teach a course in their brand new MBA program. Not only will we be 
 providing input into their curriculum, we will be receiving an up-close experience of a transitioning 
 Eastern Bloc economy. Since it is likely that the U.S. and other Western nations will be doing 
 increasing business with Eastern European and former Soviet Union countries as we approach the 
 21st century, such an experience for a core set of our faculty can be invaluable. An understanding 
 of the problems that managers in these countries face can better prepare our students (when they 
 become managers) to interact with firms in these countries. 
 
 13 
 
Internationalization of our teaching and research is of central importance and the Warsaw 
 effort is only one example. We continue to build relationships with selected high quality academic 
 institutions around die world. We already have more than 1 5 such relationships, in the form of 
 exchange programs, but plan to increase the quality and depth of our ties rather than increase the 
 number. We expect that this network of 1 2-1 5 foreign business schools will become an integral 
 and coordinated part of our activities. POM faculty involvement in this network will also foster 
 understanding of international issues. Another way to provide international experience is to fund 
 faculty travel overseas to attend conferences or to visit firms. Many o( these activities will be 
 organized on a boundary spanning basis, such as under the umbrella of "technology management" 
 research and education. 
 
 Teaching at the executive level is not easy, as many of us have found out. Managers tend 
 to be demanding students and come to us with knowledge that we may not already possess. To 
 the extent that faculty can interact with practitioners on a more frequent basis, the vocabulary 
 becomes consistent and both parties will become more comfortable with each other. Joint research 
 with industry can be an excellent source of interaction, and future recruitment o( business school 
 faculty may need to weigh the amount o{ industry experience/interaction that a faculty candidate 
 possesses. 
 
 Developing research skills, in addition to the OR skills already at hand, may prove to be 
 the most difficult dimension of POM faculty development. Not all POM faculty need to work 
 outside the OR discipline to continue to provide significant contributions to the field. However, it 
 
 14 
 
seems that for die POM area to mature and maintain credibility from the rest of their business 
 school colleagues, a wider set of research skills within a POM faculty group will become necessary. 
 Some faculty will retrain themselves - perhaps in field research methods or data collection 
 instruments. Others may do so with specific motivation from their dean. How this motivation 
 should be provided is a difficult question to answer. In some ways, the market itself will provide 
 sufficient motivation. When major journals in the operations area solicit research papers from a 
 "non-traditional" approach (as they have - for example see [1]), some POM researchers will take 
 the steps on their own to re-tool in a research methods area that seems promising to him or her. 
 On the other hand, the institution must have the flexibility to reward non-traditional research. 
 Choice of outside reviewers for tenure and value judgements of journals must be made carefully 
 for the junior faculty member who is taking on such risks. 
 
 4.2 Updating Ph.D. curriculums 
 
 An easier way to insure that POM faculty meet the competitive needs of the future is to 
 encourage the evolution of Ph.D. curriculums. A requirement or strong motivation for doctoral 
 students to interact with industry on a research project during their studies is one way to 
 accomplish this. Another is to allow a minor course o( study to be taken in a non-traditional 
 research discipline (for example, in OB or Psychology). Our business school strategy at Illinois 
 identifies POM as one of the 6 areas of doctoral study in our business school for the foreseeable 
 future. Even as we streamline our wide array of doctoral programs, we believe that operations 
 management is a critical area of study that fits our mission well. 
 
 15 
 
5.0 Implementing the Change 
 
 Implementing the variety of changes that we have outlined may be difficult. Paradigms 
 tend to be difficult to change. At the University of Illinois, our strategic plan suggests various 
 avenues to accomplish this change. First, we plan to develop research centers that cut across 
 department disciplines to both highlight and strengthen our focus on research. A newly created 
 position of Associate Dean of Research will oversee these research centers and assist in promoting 
 their use to meet the objectives of the business school. We expect that the research produced in 
 the centers will be incorporated into existing courses and will be the basis for new courses. We 
 also foresee that this research will foster expanded interaction with the business community. 
 Research centers can organize the collection of company data, interact with practitioners through 
 symposia, and allocate resources for research. 
 
 What we want to provide are creative linkages among the research, teaching, and service 
 components of the faculty's job. By simultaneously creating these linkages and providing reward 
 systems that encourage faculty to cross functional boundaries to accomplish meaningful research 
 and teaching, we hope that paradigms can be changed for the better. Indeed, POM faculty have 
 already provided a good deal of boundary-spanning research and have incorporated these new ideas 
 into their teaching. Explicit mechanisms to reinforce and promote new work of this type should 
 prove beneficial, if carefully implemented. 
 
 POM faculty need to change as the competitive nature of business changes and the role of 
 business schools evolve. Those who do so will become valuable members of the business school 
 
 16 
 
organization. Indeed, the way any POM faculty member or POM group in a business school 
 chooses to focus their research skills should consider how they can best contribute to POM 
 education and to helping solve the variety of current and future POM problems. No one can 
 become an expert in all methodological areas. Business schools may want to determine their 
 relative strengths and build a POM group with this in mind. Most important is the ability to look 
 ahead and determine the way the in which the mix of skills in POM should change in the near 
 future and beyond. 
 
 POM, as an area, can flourish and become an even more critical component of business 
 schools if it aggressively meets the challenges and opportunities currently presented to it. We 
 believe that POM faculty have the chance to play a decisive role in turning around the current 
 economic environment of this country and the world through the education of future managers 
 and through meaningful research to improve quality and productivity. 
 
 17 
 
Refere 
 
 nces 
 
 1. Berry, W.L, T.J. Hill, J.E. Klompmaker and C.P. McLaughlin, "Linking Strategy 
 Formulation in Marketing and Operations: Empirical Research," journal of Operations 
 Management . Vol. 10, No. 3, 1991, pp. 294-303. 
 
 2. Byrne, J.A., "Back To School: The B-Schools That Are Best In Executive Education," 
 Business Week . October 28, 1991, pp. 102-107. 
 
 3. The Economist , "Management Education: Passport To Prosperity," March 2, 1991, pp. 3- 
 26. 
 
 4. Meredith, J., A Raturi, K. Amoako-Gyampah, and B. Kaplan, "Alternative Research 
 Paradigms in Operations," Journal of Operations Management , Vol. 8, No. 4, 1989, pp. 
 297-326. 
 
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