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THE EFFECT OF OIL FUEL ON FIRE-CLAY 
 
 REFRACTORIES 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER ALLOS KOEHLER 
 
 B.S. University of Wisconsin, 1919 
 Ch.E. University of Wisconsin, 1920 
 
 THESIS 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
 FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CHEMISTRY 
 IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS, 1922 
 
 URBANA, ILLINOIS 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/detaiis/effectofoilfueioOOkoeh 
 

 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 31» -IQ2-2 
 
 I HEREBY RECO^L\lEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY 
 
 SUPERVISION BY 
 
 Wa 1 ter Alio s Ko ehler 
 
 ENTITLED THE EFFECT OF OIL FUEL OH FIFE -CLAY REFRACTORIES 
 
 BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 
 FHE DEGREE OF .JjajB teiL_Q£_Scl.enQ^ Jji Cheinl s try 
 
 
 Charge of Thesis 
 
 Head of Department 
 
 Recommendation concurred in* 
 
 Committee 
 
 on 
 
 Final Examination* 
 
 ^Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Pa 
 
 I. SCOPE OF THE THESIS 
 
 II. HISTORY OF FUEL OIL 2 
 
 III. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVMTAGES OF FUEL OIL 3 
 
 IV. SOURCES OF OILS AITD THEIR COLIPOSITIONS --4 
 
 V. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 5 
 
 1. Possible causes of Deterioration of 
 
 refractories used with oil fuel 5 
 
 2. Preliminary Investigations 6 
 
 3 . Method of Investigation Adopted 9 
 
 VI. FIRE-CLAY REFRACTORIES INVESTIGATED 10 
 
 VII. TESTS AND RESULTS 11 
 
 VIII. SUMMARY OF FIRST EIGHT RUNS Ip 
 
 IX. SUiatARY OF RUNS NINE AND TEN 24 
 
 X. CONCLUSIONS 2p 
 
 XI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 2? 
 
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I. SCOPE OF ^ THESIS . 
 
 The use of oil as fuel has had a phenomenal grov/th within 
 the last few years. The recent y/orld war had made the use of 
 liquid fuel imperative where excessive cost would otherwise have 
 made its use prohibitive. The Industry, once realizing the ad- 
 vantages of oil fuel, is in many cases continuing its use, and 
 extending it to new fields. The extensive use of oil fuel, how- 
 ever, has brought up a new refractory problem. W.H. Grants calls 
 attention to the following general observations on refractories 
 used with oil fuel: 
 
 1. Side wall bricks spall and drop out of place, thus weak- 
 ening the wall. 
 
 2. Bricks in the direct path of the flame become lifeless, 
 disintegrate and fall to pieces after being in service but a short 
 time . 
 
 3 . Something in the oil flame or in the atmosphere of the 
 combustion chamber glazes over the outer surfaces of the bricks 
 in some places and permeates the brick in others, causing dis- 
 coloration and probably some disintegration. 
 
 4. Some bricks are badly eroded and flame cut in the direct 
 path of the flame while others of approximately the same refrac- 
 toriness are not affected. 
 
 iJour. of the Amer. Cer. Soc. 4:390-2. (May 1921). 
 

 
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He further adds that no satisfactory refractory for oil 
 fired furnaces has been developed. It is not known what proper- 
 ties a brick must have to make it suitable for oil fired furnaces. 
 
 Ships making trips from New York to SanFrancisco have to 
 reline their boilers at the end of each one-way trip if they burn 
 fuel oil, while those using coal can make repeated trips without 
 relining their boilers'. Likewise, one of the leading railroad 
 companies of the West finds it advantageous to import fire bricks 
 from England for their oil burning locomotives, but it is not 
 known why these bricks give better service than American bricks 
 do. 
 
 It is the purpose of this thesis to set forth the results 
 obtained in studying the causes of the disintegration of refrac- 
 tory materials used in oil burning furnaces, together with pos- 
 sible remedies. 
 
 n. HISTORY OF 0^ FUEL . 
 
 There appears to be no record of the exact date that oil 
 as fuel first found industrial applications. Kov/ever, among the 
 first installations v/as one in Los Angeles, Cal., where oil fuel 
 v/as applied to boilers in a power station for an electric rail- 
 v;ays . The first installations v/ere crude and in many cases un- 
 satisfactory, and the method of burning the oil v/as uppermost in 
 the minds of engineers long before the refractory problem became 
 
 'A. F.G-reaves-V/alker , Discussion at the Refractories Division 
 Amer. Cer. Soc., St. Louis, Feb. 27 - ^ar. 3, 1922. 
 
 sw.N.Best; The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel, 1 (1915) • 
 

 
 
 
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 vital. As methods of burning became more perfectly understood, 
 oil as fuel found extensive use, until nov/ it is used in station- 
 ary boiler plants, locomotives, steam ships; for heating build- 
 ings, furnaces of all kinds, as forge, muffle, and melting; in 
 the glass, sugar, metallurgical, and ceramic industries. 
 
 III . ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 0 ^ 0 ^ FUEL . 
 
 The extensive application of oil fuel is due to its numer- 
 ous advantages over coali. Oil has a 50 per cent higher calor- 
 ific value per pound than coal has, and the efficiency of the 
 furnace is I5 per cent higher v/ith oil fuel. The boilers can be 
 pushed beyond their normal rating for short periods of time more 
 economically, the steam can be held just below the blow-off pres- 
 sure more easily, and the stack loss is less on account of the 
 smaller amount of air necessary for combustion. The cost of hand- 
 ling the fuel is reduced; fires can be started and stopped in- 
 stantly; the furnace can be regulated more closely and with prop- 
 er combustion there is no smoke. 
 
 Among the disadv 8 .ntages may be mentioned the increased 
 fire risk, the danger of the formation of explosive mixtures of 
 the oil vapors with the air, the tendency of valves and pipe 
 joints to leak, and the necessity for auxiliary apparatus for 
 starting an oil fire, and at times for maintaining it. 
 
 However, the advantages of oil over coal are so great, 
 that v/ere it not for the steadily increasing prices, and the 
 
 iThe only advantage of oil over gas is in its relative cheap- 
 
 ness . 
 

 
 
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 fields. In fact, the advantages of oil fuel are so great in cer- 
 
 I tain fielo-s^ and the supply is so limited^ that some who have made 
 a study of the matter are of the opinion that the use of oil fuel 
 should be limited to those industries v/here it is most needed. 
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 the Navy and Merchant Marine^ . 
 
 IV, SOURCES OF OILS AND TKEIR COMPOSITIONS . 
 
 The oil fields of the United States may be roughly divided 
 into four fields: (1) the eastern, (2) the central, (3) the west- 
 
 ern, (4) and the mid-western. The oils from the various fields 
 have different properties and compositions. In general, the east- 
 ern oils are high in paraffin base and low in asphalt, while the 
 California oils are high in asphalt and contain no paraffin. 
 
 Table I, shov/s in a general way the type of oil furnished by each 
 region, while Fig. 1 shows the distribution of the important oil- 
 pools of the United States. Roughly speaking, the United States 
 and Alaska contain one-sixth of the world's supply of petroleum*^. 
 
 lAs in annealing furnaces where close regulation is necessary. 
 
 ®The estimated unmined petroleum in the United States is about 
 
 II billion barrels, while the present consumption is about half a 
 billion barrels annually. (Pogue: The Economics of Petroleum, 18). 
 
 ^W.N.Best: American Drop Forger, Aug. 1920, "Burning of Liquid 
 Fuel." and A. F.G-reaves -Walker, Discussion at the Refractories Div- 
 ision, Amer. Cer. Soc., St. Louis, Feb. 27 - Mar. 3, 1922. 
 
 ‘^Pogue: Economics of Petroleum, 23 (1921). 
 

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 TABLE li. 
 
 State 
 
 Sp . Gr . 
 
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 ^Paraffin 
 
 % Asphalt 
 
 /o' Sulphur 
 
 • Color 
 
 Penn. 
 
 0.792 
 
 23 
 
 2.8 
 
 • • • • 
 
 0.15 
 
 Greenish 
 
 browT!.. 
 
 Col. 
 
 0.830 
 
 96 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.3 
 
 Dark brown. 
 
 La. 
 
 0.890 
 
 152 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.33 
 
 Dark brown. 
 
 Cal. 
 
 0.940 
 
 139 
 
 1.48 
 
 14.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 Black and 
 viscous . 
 
 Naturally, oil from each field presente its peculiar prob- 
 lems to the user, and that from one field may be suited for a par- 
 ticular purpose, v/hile oil from another field is unsatisfactory. 
 
 V. NETEOD OF INTESTIG-ATIOM . 
 
 1. Possible Causes of Deterioration of Refractories used 
 With Oil Fu.el . In the few references in the literature on the 
 subject of the causes of the disintegration of refractories used 
 with oil fuel, and in personal communications to Prfessor Parmelee 
 and to the writer, the following causes have been suggested: 
 
 (1) Fine droplets of oil impinging on the brick, enter the 
 pores and are there ignited. This sudden ignition in the pores 
 causes the formation of large volumes of gases, similar to minute 
 explosions, which disrupt the brick. 
 
 (2) The actual temperature of the flame impinging on the 
 Drick is above the fusion point of the brick. 
 
 (3) The oil has a catalytic action on the brick, causing 
 it to disintegrate. 
 
 IE. Butler: Oil Fuel, 28 (1914). 
 
(4) Ingredients in the oil, such as sulphur and sodium have 
 ■a decided fluxing action on the brick. 
 
 (5) The sudden thermal shock which the bricks encounter 
 v/hen a furnace is started and v/hen it is shut dovai, especially 
 when the oil is turned off and the air is allowed to remain turned 
 on, causes the bricks to spall. 
 
 2. Preliminary Investigations . A search of the literature 
 reveals very little on the matter of refractories especially/ suit- 
 ed for use v/ith oil fuels. A number of v/riters call attention to 
 to the need for investigation and others point out some observa- 
 tions made in connection with refractories used with oil fuel, but 
 it appears that no systematic investigation of the matter has been 
 attempted heretofore. 
 
 It \va.s therefore necessary to devise a test tha.t would in 
 the short time available for this investigation give satisfactory 
 results, and a large part of the tine available was devoted to the 
 problem of devising such a test. It may, however, be added tha^t 
 the method finally adopted is not entirely satisfactory in cases 
 where tests must be made in relatively short perioo.s of time, that 
 certain supplementary tests would aid in the investigation, and 
 that some of the methods tried and abandoned may possibly be de- 
 veloped into satisfactory methods. These earlier methods v/ill be 
 briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. 
 
 It v/as first proposed to build a testing furnace in v/hich 
 standajrd nine-inch bricks could be tested in the oil flame. Such 
 a furnace would simultate commercial burning conditions, and 
 would permit the laying up of a wall in the furnace of the bricks 
 to be tested. It v/as hoped that in testing various types of 
 

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7 
 
 bricks, that it would be possible to determine v/hat kind of bricks 
 stand up best and from them determine what properties a good resist- 
 ing brick should have. It v/as however, found that such a furnace 
 would be unsatisfactorily large, that it would take considerable 
 time to construct, and that on account of its size it v;ould take 
 a long time to get up the required temperature, and as a result I 
 t-his method was abandoned. ' I 
 
 It is reported that in the carburetors in gas plants, that I 
 
 those bricks on which the oil impinges at high temperatures (1000° I 
 — 1100°C,) disintegrate v/ith use similarly to those used with oil as I 
 fuel. It v/as decided to investigate the resistance of bricks to I 
 disintegration by applying this method. A wire wouhd (Nicbjrome) I 
 resistance furnace was constructed which would accomodate small I 
 pieces of bricks. The furnace v/as heated to its maximum sa-fe tem- I 
 perature and oil v/as dropped on the brick specimens at the bottom I 
 of the furnace. The maximum temperature was about 1050°C. which I 
 
 was found to be too low to get noticeable results. Also, the fur- l| 
 nace atmosphere was strongly reducing due to lack of air, so that || 
 the specimens soon became coated with a protecting coating of I 
 
 carbon. It was considered that this method did not siraultate in- I 
 dus trial conditions and a new method was devised. An oil burning I 
 furnace was constructed as shown in Fig. 2. The furnace was laid I 
 up of standard fire-clay bricks and was lined with fire-cle.y mor- I 
 tar on the inside. Bricks A and B on the roof were removable for I 
 the purpose of loading and unloading the furnace, and for taking I 
 
 temperature readings, which was done with a Leeds and Northrup I 
 
 optical pyrometer. Exhaust gases were allowed to escape out a I 
 flue C on the side and to the rear of the furnace. As soon as the I 
 

 
 
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a 
 
 furnace was up to reel heat the flue was closed by placing a brick 
 loosely against it, which caused the exhaust gases to escape 
 through various cracks in the rear, which distributed the flame 
 quite uniformly throughout the furnace. The atmosphere of the fur- 
 nace could be made oxidizing or reducing at v/ill by regulating the 
 air supply. 
 
 The air pressure was taken from the main air line and was 
 reduced to ten pounds per square inch. The oil pressure was equal 
 to a head of about eight feet, plus four inches of mercury. This 
 combination gave very satisfactory results. The oil used vms a 
 gas oil which is a distillate fuel oil obtained from the Urbana 
 Heat, Power, and Light Co. The burner used was a "Dolecam" donated 
 by The Macleod Co., Cincinnati, 0. 
 
 In the first tests in the furnace, specimens were cut from 
 bricks, to a size approximating a cylinder one inch in diameter and 
 four inches long. This size was taken so that its porosity and 
 volume could be obtained in a Washburn-Bunting Porosimeter. The 
 specimens were dried over night at 105 °C. and then carefully v/eigh- 
 ed, and the volume and porosity determined. The specimens were 
 placed in the furnace and heated for 12 hours, the maximum temper- 
 ature of 1250*^C. being obtained in five hours. Y/hen cool, the 
 specimens v/ere again weighed and the volume and porosity were again 
 determined. The results of one such run on "Electric Btirnace" 
 fire-clay bricks is given in Table II. 
 
 The slight change in v/eight was probably due to deposited 
 carbon, for the specimens appeared distinctly darker than they were 
 before firing, but no carbon particles could be detected microscop- 
 ically. The change in volume was likewise probably due to carbon 
 
9 
 
 on the exterior. The large decrease in porosity has not been ex- 
 plained but is characteristic of many specimens. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Weight of specimen 
 Volume of specimen 
 Porosity of specimen 
 
 Before firing 
 102 gr. 
 45.5 cc. 
 19.65 > 
 
 After flrlnp: 
 
 102.9 gr. 
 
 45.7 cc. 
 14.4 i 
 
 % change 
 + 0.8 
 +0.44 
 -26.7 
 
 However, some of the specimens to be tested were not coherent 
 masses and particles would drop off and be lost in handling, so that 
 the change in volume and weight could not be relied upon as an index, 
 and the porosity change alone v/as considered insufficient as a cri- 
 terion to determine v/hich specimens withstood the oil flame best. 
 
 As a result, the method was still further modified, and in this mod- 
 ified form v/as adopted for the tests. 
 
 3 . Method of Investigation Adopted . In the test adopted, the 
 the furnace was used as described above, but the specimens were pre- 
 
 1 
 
 pared differently. It was found that in order to note any consider- | 
 
 I 
 
 able change in the brick specimens after the brief firing, that 
 
 microscopic investigations would have to be adopted along v;ith the 
 other tests. Small specimens of brick were prepared with one smooth 
 face which was polished on a lap v/heel. The specimen w’as then fired 
 and after firing was examined microscopically and compared with the 
 other specimens. A magnification of 40 and 50 diameters was used 
 v/hich showed the relative fusion on the specimen surface very read- 
 ily, when examination v/ith the unaided eye or v/ith a magnifying 
 glass of 9 diameters would show no action at all. 
 
Sif-' ..V. 
 
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10 
 
 Yl- fire-clay refractories iwestioated . 
 
 The fire-clay refractories investigated were donated by var- 
 ious manufacturers for the purpose. A silicon carbide brick was 
 tested along v/ith the fire-clay specimens for the sake of compar- 
 ison. The brand of bricks together with the manufacturers' names 
 are given below. In recording the tests, the bricks are referred 
 to by number as given in the list. 
 
 1. "Hearth and Bosh." Karbinson- Walker Refractories Co. 
 
 2. "Checker Brick." Parker-Russel Mining and Manufactur- 
 
 ing Co. 
 
 3 . "Three Star." Parker-Russel. 
 
 4 . "Acme". Evans & Hovmrd Fire Brick Co. 
 
 5 . "Electric Furnace." Chicago Fire Brick Co. 
 
 6 . "Laclede-St. Louis. " Laclede-Christy . 
 
 7 . "Ajax." Chicago Retort & Fire Brick Co. 
 
 8 . "Munro." Harbinson-Walker . 
 
 9 . "Carbofrax." (Silicon Carbide) The Caroorundum Co. 
 
 10. "Woodland." Harbinson-Walker. 
 
 11. "10-21-S". Harbinson-Walker. 
 

 
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11 
 
 VII . TESTS MD RESULTS . 
 
 In the following seven rune the same kind of "brick specimens 
 were fired under very nearly the same temperature conditions. Smal] 
 pieces of bricks 1 to 7 inclusive, polished on one face, were used 
 throughout the tests. The specimens were placed in the furnace 
 about 12" from the burner, arranged so that the flame Impinged di- 
 rectly on the polished faces, and so that all the specimens were 
 subjected to the flame as evenly as possible. The specimens were 
 placed in the cold furnace and the temperature was raised as rap- 
 idly as possible. It was not possible to control the rate of heat- 
 ing and the final temperature absolutely in each case, but the fol- 
 lowing table shov/8 the approximation: 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 A 3 
 
 L E III. 
 
 
 
 
 Hours : 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 Deg. C: 20 
 
 400 
 
 700 
 
 900 
 
 1020 
 
 1120 
 
 1200 
 
 1250 
 
 1250 
 
 t furnace was 
 
 shut 
 
 down at 
 
 the 
 
 end of 
 
 twelve 
 
 hours 
 
 and 
 
 after : 
 
 had cooled the specimens were removed and compared with each other 
 and with the unburned sample. 
 
 The oil used was the same as mentioned under the preliminary 
 runs. The oil was not analyzed, but analysis by tne chemical en- 
 gineering department on oil from the sarnie source shov/ed that the 
 sulphur and sodium in the oil is negligibly small. 
 

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12 
 
 RUN 1. 
 
 , In this run the specimens were run under normal burning con- 
 
 ditions with oil as received. 3y "normal" burning conditions are 
 meant those which give maximum heat from a given amount of oil, 
 v/hich would mean theoretically neither an excess nor deficiency of 
 air. This, hov/ever, could be approximated only. 
 
 All specimens shov/ed slight fusion under the microscope. 
 
 This could be detected by rounded edges and glazed appearance. 
 
 There was little variation among the various samples, except that 
 No. 5 shovfed slightly more fusion than the others. All specimens 
 became darker in color but no deposit of carbon could be detected 
 microscopically. 
 
 RUN No. 2. 
 
 Practically all mineral oils on the market, unless specially 
 purified, contain varying amounts of sulphur as shov/n in Table I . , 
 the amount of sulphur varying considerably, running to above six 
 per cent in some cases. A run was therefore made to determine the 
 effect of sulphur in oil on the refractories used. Carbon bisul- 
 phide was added to the oil, equivalent to a sulphur content of one- 
 half per cent, the run being otherwise the same as No. 1. 
 
 On examining the specimens, it was found tnat all except 
 Nos. 2 and 5 showed fusion action more than in the runs without 
 sulphur. This tends to show that sulphur in oil has a fluxing 
 
 action on the bricks. 
 

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13 
 
 RUN 
 
 This run was made to determine the effect of an increased 
 amount of sulphur in oil. The carbon bishlphide content was in- 
 creased corresponding to a sulphur content of 1-1/2 per cent. The 
 specimens shov/ed little change compared with those of Run No. 2, 
 except that specimens No. 1 and 2 showed a little more fusion. 
 
 However, the specimens in Runs No. 2 and 3 showed a decrease 
 in toughness over the unfired samples, the decrease becoming more 
 noticeable in Run No. 3 than in No. 2. The decrease was also 
 noticeable in Run No. 1, The unfired samples broke in most cases 
 with sharp clean fractures, while the fired samples showed numerous 
 fine cracks throughout when broken with a hammer, the grog sepa- 
 rating from the bonding material. In the unfired samples (except- 
 ing Nos. 3 and 4) the bond held the grog materials quite firmly to- 
 gether. In ground and polished sections that had not been broken 
 by impact, these cracks were not noticeable. The firing had appar- 
 ently produced a brittleness v/hich caused numerous cracks when the 
 specimen was subjected to mechanical shock. 
 
 RUN 4. 
 
 The specimens in this run were fired similarly to those in 
 Run No. 3 (1-1/2 io sulphur) but were fired under strongly oxidizing 
 conditions, by having a large supply of excess air in the combus- 
 tion. The specimens were all of a lighter color after firing than 
 were those of the previous runs, but shov/ed more fusion than those 
 in Run. No. 1 to but a slight extent. 
 

 
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14 
 
 RUN 5 
 
 This run v/as similar to Run No. 3 hut the specimens were fired 
 under strongly reducing conditions. All specimens became consider- 
 ably darker than those in previous runs, and specimens No. 2 and 7 
 showed more fusion than they did in Runs No. 1 and 4. 
 
 RUN No. 6. 
 
 In this run the specimens were fired under alternating oxid- 
 izing and reducing conditions, one hour each, the oil as in the 
 previous run containing 1-1/2 per cent sulphur. All specimens ex- 
 cept No. 6 showed shov/ed considerable fusion, more so than in any 
 previous run. 
 
 RUN 7. 
 
 In this run the sulphur content of the oil was increased to 
 5 per cent, the specimens being burned under normal burning con- 
 ditions. There was no noticeable increase in fusion over the 1-1/2 
 per cent sulphur content under normal burning conditions, except 
 that No. 7 showed slightly more fusion. 
 
 RUN 8. 
 
 Some fuel oils, especially those from the Oklahoma region, 
 contain sodium salts and a run was made with oil containing sodium. 
 The sodium was introduced as sodium benzoate, an amount being added 
 equivalent to O.O5 gr. NagS04 per 100 gr. oil. The specimens were 
 fired under normal burning conditions. All specimens showed 
 fusion on the surface, more so in general than in any of the pre- 
 

 
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15 
 
 vious runs, showing that sodium does have a decided fluxing action 
 on the bricks. 
 
 Specimen Ho. 9 was included in Runs No. 5 , 6 , 7, and 8 , and 
 showed practically no fusion or other change in any of the runs, ex- 
 cept that in this last run there was a slight glazing action on the 
 surface. 
 
 VIII SUMMARY . 
 
 Before recording the remaining runs, which were conducted in 
 a somewhat different manner, and in which different data were obtained 
 a summary of Runs 1 to 8 will be given. 
 
 1 . All specimens fired in the oil flame with oil as received, 
 showed fusion action on the polished surfaces. 
 
 2. Oil containing one-half of one per cent sulphur produced 
 a greater fusing action than oil containing practically no sulphur. 
 
 3 . Oil containing 1-1/2 to 5 per cent sulphur showed no great- 
 er fusing action on the specimens than did the oil containing one- 
 half per cent sulphur. 
 
 4. Specimens burned under oxidizing conditions showed no 
 greater fusion than those burned under normal burning conditions. 
 
 5 . Specimens burned under reducing conditions shov/ed no 
 greater fusing action than those burned under normal burning con- 
 ditions. 
 
 6 . Speciiaens burned alternately under oxidizing and reducing 
 conditions showed more fusing action than those burned under entirel 
 oxidizing or entirely reducing conditions. 
 
 7 . Oil containing sodium showed more fusion action than oil 
 containing sulphur. 
 
 

 
 
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 <^‘ « 
 
 i , a<j 
 
 
 to. J. 
 
 ' J. '.t 'i. *. ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ., • I „v ' -t *-=.“. •'*• ' 0 ;.' 
 
 r 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 
 *.M.i i:.'.4Vi. 
 
 r fy. 
 
 •i/.iC i 
 
 s 
 
 
 . < r 
 
 : :.,0 
 
 < ir.j; •;t'vr'- 
 
 : XU 
 
 
 'r'i'.j<j ^^ ‘‘hr irwoirl <.:• j 
 
 
 
 
 .fw 6 . 
 
16 
 
 8. All oil fired bricks became friable and would crack easily 
 under impact as compared with the unburned samples, the amount of 
 friability apparently increasing with the sulphur content. 
 
 RUN 9. 
 
 In the preceding runs a series of tests was made on various 
 specimens by burning them under varying conditions. Run No. 9 was 
 made specifically for the purpose of getting better comparative re- 
 sults among the various specimens. The length of firing was increas- 
 ed to 48 hours, the temperature was increased to 1300*^0 and specimens 
 1 to 11 were included in the test. 
 
 The specimens were cut from bricks to a size approximating 
 cylinders one inch in diameter and four inches long. One end of each 
 cylinder was polished. The specimens were laid in the furnace ’ ’ ^ 
 with the polished ends toward the flame as shovm in Fig. 2, where D 
 represents the specimens. The run was made with oil as received 
 under normal burning conditions. 
 
 All specimens were v/eighed and their volumes and porosities 
 were determined before and after the run. 
 
 A. Fusion . The follov/ing observations were made in regard to 
 the fusing action on the specimens. The numbers refer to the brick 
 specimens as recorded on page 10. 
 
 1. The surface shov^ed considerable fusion microscopically al- 
 though when examined with the unaided eye there was no apparent 
 fusion. Red blotches indicated the fluxing action of iron particles 
 which were not noticeable before firing. The interior of the spec- 
 imen did not show the the same color change but showed a denser struc 
 ture’ ■' than the surface exposed to the combustion atmosphere. 
 

 ,. ,.^\ ^ ■ ■''' ..y j;.^ ' ;,i , _ i^V, •:'"" ' ' J : . ;r... ‘4^J 
 
 F4W ' *1 
 
 
 . ,a»‘ ■■ ■ ’-^L: -»-. ■ .« ’ '^'•/ /’'KiJiStl./ ’ r.' 
 
 ,’ ;,JT ;^; /'i : V|f 
 
 y!b-^t m^u 
 
 '""j ' ' ** *' *' " ' f "4 ' ' ;' ^ ^ '■ ' , , ' 
 
 •*4''fe/' 
 
 ’1,1 
 
 V 
 
 i" 
 
 iiM 4 , 
 
 "■j’-ciry: 
 
 w^v .' ■ ».■' ‘ i*' ''ji^ ^■^''■^.' .^'s ■' 
 
 Ki‘.-A ♦ ,’ ;Vf.\ F^K, .fiiirit’ >fi^’' 
 
 ^ " 'f’fi 'ff '■ L, ™'"' 'I ■ ' i'.' / (<’■'' ' • ' % mM 
 
 ^ ^ y ^ ‘.i fi ' *^'^'- j . ' : ^IL 
 
 * ^ A * >>ifS la ''vf'**' , -i. 
 
 'C 
 
 
 *• '^^^/,S'U*i;^rV»o*ffri/ ' 4i^iX*it'’; ; i»Oi«V4*'a •^'’X # 
 
 Ik ' •' ^ ' • V'l • . • 1 ^ 
 
 K F 
 
 lsf.4^;-.rrc‘ii Pv i h^yttooia ^ 
 
 ' .-,,^v, • :•!: ■ ; "‘ ' ’ , '.: '.''' . ^ 
 
 8..1^-,,';swi»i4V-‘^i ait;2^ ^ it 1:^^' \m^:m-i'€u tfo 
 
 myy 
 
 ^ . . , 'i. ■ ; , -^ • . ■> - .w: ‘ 
 
 b ii J’XtrT '<h.'wittD sff ,/' 
 
 •/W 0<f J kfOilJi 
 
 
 
17 
 
 2. This specimen showed more fusion than did No. 1, and a 
 clear glassy surface could be detected on the polished surface. The 
 interior of the specimen did not shov/ the same extent of fusion and 
 as a result the pores on the interior seemed to have remained more 
 open. 
 
 3. The change over the unfired specimen was not as noticeable 
 as it was in Nos. 1 and 2, but the interior showed considerable den- 
 sification. 
 
 4. The change in this specimen v/as very much like that in No. 3 
 except that it became very much darker in color. 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 being of an open coarse structure did not show 
 the change during firing very well for it was impossible to polish 
 any surfaces and any fusing action could not be readily detected. 
 
 5. This specimen showed considerable fusion on the surface 
 and shov/ed a decided darkening of color. There appeared to be no 
 great densif ication in the interior. 
 
 6. The specimen showed very much fusion on the surface and a 
 great deal of densif ication on the interior. The original sample 
 was quite granular and would not take a polish, but after firing, 
 the specimen became firm and took a very high polish. 
 
 7. This specimen also showed a great deal of fusion on the 
 surface and densif ication in the interior and was in general like 
 No. 6. 
 
 8. This specimen showed less fusion than the others and little 
 densif ication in the interior. The original sample v/as of a light 
 cream color, but the fired sample was very dark, more so than any of 
 the others . 
 
 9. This specimen showed fusion on the surface to a small ex- 
 

 
 n 3 
 
 • <‘, ,^l 
 ^ ^ .V 
 
 . ;'* ' 4 i ' ■’^'3 
 
 r . 
 
 o, W . "iUl 
 
 ' 4 \ '' ■'*■•■■?* r VI 
 
 ".V>. 
 
 ii 
 
 ‘-^ifi- -i' ' ' , , ^ , 
 
 
 
 
 1 i. '• . ftf» , tf, «iW «a l<j-'.'’^ji$W'-i^ 
 
 ■ ' .'•.v.^u-^o- .‘! 7 i :®liL'i 
 
 I • f '♦•'•' "AiiMihffck '* nV*,n»^i^ r.ili»i, ■• *■/. JJL’rt 
 
 \PX 
 
 
 .o 
 
 T‘i' 
 
 ■ • ’ i'.oq ‘ 4 JiJ r.-«itltic<ifc*'‘w 4 H 
 
 ‘ « I . ^ ' ’ k' . ' - »^f * \j#X i 
 
 . r <■ ' ■' ' t "''* 0 |' 't,' 
 
 If 
 
 v;: -’HJi ’ 
 
 ! ■' -c ^ -^: ‘ 'r 42 ii.ivaTX/,.f^Jt^^yi<^ . 7 ;'^,i:t ,.j &-■ ^ 4 ' 
 
 ^•. ^'■T-iW'W * ' £niJl 
 
 ■ .K " 
 
 ' s: 
 
 jfoW^ r; «li[i‘rtt‘/i4fi'. •»/(^' f a^- lv;'9/orl’» >. 
 
 r • > 
 
 «> .s*l 
 
 io‘ yjy r.M-jit‘‘ yV ‘■•:r. *3.*ivY i‘,r. :.,ir.ri 
 
 if 
 
 'lit 
 
 
 ' ,Cr 7 ^a^< 
 
 
18 
 
 tent but no change was detected in the interior. 
 
 10 and 11. These specimens being made of a coarse grog bond- 
 ed together but loosely, it was difficult to detect noticeable fus- 
 ion on account of the lack of a polished surface. 
 
 B. Volume Changes. The volumes of the specimens v;ere deter- 
 mined before and after firing by means of the Washburn-Bunting por- 
 osimeter. The values given are correct to 0.1 cc. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 % Change 
 
 1 
 
 32.8 
 
 31.8 
 
 -3.05 
 
 2 
 
 27.4 
 
 27.3 
 
 VO 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 33.8 
 
 31.1 
 
 -8.0 
 
 4 
 
 30.2 
 
 29.3 
 
 -3.0 
 
 5 
 
 40.5 
 
 37.5 
 
 -7.4 
 
 6 . 
 
 34.4 
 
 31.9 
 
 -7.3 
 
 7 
 
 33.7 
 
 31.5 
 
 -6.5 
 
 8 
 
 33.5 
 
 34.9 
 
 +3.9 
 
 9 
 
 58.0 
 
 57.9 
 
 (-0.17) 
 
 10 
 
 40.6 
 
 38.6 
 
 -4.9 
 
 11 
 
 28.0 
 
 27.8 
 
 -0.7 
 
 = Volume in cc . 
 
 before 
 
 firing. 
 
 
 = Volume in cc. 
 
 after 
 
 firing. 
 
 
 The values in parenthesis show variations within experimental 
 error and may be considered as zero. 
 
19 
 
 Weight Cha.nges . The v/eight changes were very small in all 
 cases, and as the weights were taken to an accuracy of 0.1 gr., the 
 per cent changes are not very significant but the values as obtained 
 are given below. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 /o Change 
 
 1 
 
 67\ 4 
 
 670 
 
 - 0.15 
 
 2 
 
 61.2 
 
 61.2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 67.8 
 
 67.6 
 
 - 0.5 
 
 4 
 
 64.7 
 
 64 . 65 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 85 . 65 
 
 85.48 
 
 -0.2 
 
 6 
 
 68.6 
 
 68.4 
 
 - 0.5 
 
 7 
 
 70.5 
 
 70.35 
 
 -0.2 
 
 8 
 
 73.2 
 
 73.05 
 
 -0.2 
 
 9 
 
 125.2 
 
 126.5 
 
 + 1.0 
 
 10 
 
 76.55 
 
 76.2 
 
 - 0.5 
 
 11 
 
 52.55 
 
 52.2 
 
 -0.67 
 
 A = Weight in grams before firing. 
 
 B = Weight in grams after firing. 
 
 It can be assumed in general that in all cases there was 
 practically no weight change, but that the tendency, if any, was 
 
 downward . 
 
20 
 
 Porosity Chanf^es . The porosity chanses show the greatest var- 
 iation. The values were obtained v/ith a Washburn-Bunting porosiraeter 
 and include surface porosity. The values are accurate to within 
 about 0.5 per cent, and give the porosities in percent of the total 
 volume. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 '/o Change 
 
 1 
 
 16.51 
 
 14.63 
 
 -11.35 
 
 2 
 
 17.5 
 
 7.77 
 
 -55.5 
 
 3 
 
 26.55 
 
 12.3 
 
 -54.4 
 
 4 
 
 23.92 
 
 17.2 
 
 -35.5 
 
 5 
 
 21.2 
 
 13.1 
 
 -38.2 
 
 6 
 
 26.0 
 
 13.75 
 
 1 
 
 o^ 
 
 • 
 
 7 
 
 21.0 
 
 13.55 
 
 -35.5 
 
 8 
 
 19.72 
 
 14.86 
 
 -24.7 
 
 9 
 
 11.55 
 
 10.76 
 
 - 6.75 
 
 10 
 
 24.85 
 
 19.4 
 
 -22 . 0 
 
 11 
 
 27.5 
 
 22.3 
 
 -18.9 
 
 A = per cent porosity before firing. 
 B = per cent porosity after firing. 
 
For purposes of correlation, the last column of each of the 
 
 preceding tables is given in Table VII 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 No. Volume Change 7/eight Change 
 
 • 
 
 Porosity Change 
 
 1 
 
 - 3 . 05 ^ 
 
 
 
 -11.35;^ 
 
 o 
 
 f V 
 
 -0.36 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 -55.5 
 
 3 
 
 -8.0 
 
 
 - 0.3 
 
 - 54.4 
 
 4 
 
 - 3.0 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 - 35.6 
 
 5 
 
 -7.4 
 
 
 - 0.2 
 
 -38.2 
 
 6 
 
 -7.3 
 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -46.2 
 
 7 
 
 - 6.5 
 
 
 -0.2 
 
 - 35.5 
 
 8 
 
 + 3.9 
 
 
 -0.2 
 
 -24.7 
 
 9 
 
 - 0.17 
 
 
 +1.0 
 
 - 6.7 
 
 10 
 
 -4.9 
 
 
 - 0.5 
 
 -22.0 
 
 11 
 
 - 0.7 
 
 
 -0.67 
 
 -18.9 
 
 R U N No. 10. 
 
 Some of the specimens in Run 9, showed exceptionally large de- 
 creases in porosity and it was decided to make another with ga-s for 
 comparison to cover some of these specimens. The specimens were 
 fired in a gas kiln, but under the same temperature conditions as 
 were the specimens in Run 9, a-s far as it was possible to dupliCc^te 
 them. In general, the temperature in the gas kiln T;as forty degrees 
 lower (1260‘^C. instead of 13500'^G.) but during the last four hours 
 the temperature v/as about 1320 *^ 0 . 
 
 After firing, the specimens appeared noticeably different 
 from the oil fired ones. There was very little fusing action on tne 
 
a*-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 j-;'-.r».;J’;:^<9^ v r./ •.■ ci 
 
 ^yht 
 
 ■ • r ' ■; •“ 
 
 
 ’• • *' }• \ *1, 
 
 j- ' ' 
 
 f •*’' 
 
 l^U 
 
 ■V,.' 
 
 r - 
 
 
 , ■-la 
 
 7 & 
 
 ■ ^ 'V. 
 
 
 
 
 •’=^1 
 
 I ^!i 
 
 ii’ 
 
 ':tc 
 
 
 k'tf'*: fi ' 
 
 
 
 
 nt 
 
 ‘i.’f' .ji -■ 
 
 
 
 ■ - • . ' ■ ’■- ,,< T. 
 
 - > . V 
 
 y ', 
 
 
 , * iVJ 1 - . •' '■^ i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 ' -' *• 
 
 
 
 
 
 ijwiiS 
 
 
 
 c . 
 
 ■-rai^sBa^ 
 
22 
 
 surface of the specimens and the internal densif Ication appeared 
 very much less. In general, the specimens appeared to have DeeiT; sub- 
 jected to a much less severe heat treatment than were the correspond- 
 ing specimens of any of the other runs. The v/eight, volume and por- 
 osities were also noticibly different in most Instances. These val- 
 ues are recorded in the following tables. 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 voluivIe; 
 
 CHANGES 
 
 DURING FIRING. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 39.4 gr 
 
 38.4 gr 
 
 -2.5^ 
 
 3 
 
 46.0 
 
 33.9 
 
 -26.3 
 
 6 
 
 45.3 
 
 34.9 
 
 - 23.0 
 
 7 
 
 42.4 
 
 30.6 
 
 - 27.8 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 VEIG-KT CEANG-ES DURING- FIRING. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 95.6 gr 
 
 89.6 gr 
 
 - 6 . 3 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 77.7 
 
 72.2 
 
 -7.1 
 
 6 
 
 72.2 
 
 71.6 
 
 -0.85 
 
 7 
 
 68.2 
 
 67.8 
 
 - 0.56 
 
 TABLE X. 
 
 POROSITY 
 
 CHANGES 
 
 DURING FIRING. 
 
 No. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 2 
 
 16.75 
 
 9.85>« 
 
 -41. 0> 
 
 > 
 
 26.35 
 
 16.05 
 
 -39.7 
 
 6 
 
 26.0 
 
 20.6 
 
 -20.8 
 
 7 
 
 21.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 - 29.5 
 
 Volume, weight, 
 
 and porosity before firing. 
 
 V o lume , v/e i gh t , 
 
 and porosity after firing. 
 
 C = Volume, v/eight, and porosity changes during firing. 
 

 
 r ' - ■*' ■' ■: ■■ V ;r ^4^ -., ',v '>t^ ^11 ' ' 
 
 ^ ^ 'Vi ^ . 
 
 a ' -Sf' -'.^’' V -'? 
 
 •«,iss 
 
 s's: i i 
 
 , ,i<. '. ^ Jail B^'' ■'•ti 
 
 * " '*'' ’'i^i ■'-" '' '\ " * ' ■ 
 
 tf.” 
 
 n. '■ '^^.“’^4i!!i‘* ,~-'f 'S ■ 
 
 'i.i’iti'. .. ./■ f .‘^♦^4’ ' ' ■ <* 
 
 ' ’‘V. /> V.'SJfi . *L^ aMtii®'.' ']*:'».■< 
 
 I r 7 > ’ -2 
 
 *Vi >■»,• 
 
 '’ i'ij 
 
 /' 
 
 a?® ipa', 4.5f3^Af i 1 
 
 ’' 'js ' ’*■■■.»' ■> ' V'a'' ' V;js^*; " ■ '?^ 
 
 
 
 
 4 , 
 
 . . 
 
 • 3 a. c- ' ■ .■^'rt'UV' )■ : ■-;.»?• S-'f4‘^ ' 
 
 ” . *JC ' "^ . ' ,t i51 -►• ■ 
 
 >'3 •^' #^V'i 
 
 - 
 
 jSi 
 
 ,,' ' '•'-/ V',' /.';'> /;i,'->f' ' - '’■'.■fc 4l 
 
 ‘St' ,' ''•>■ ■. -'VAi ^ .** 
 
 14^ .» ^ ’■' '^.' "■ " ’*A ' '^' ^ -: 
 
 '>li . , ■_■■>;„;■■, , •■ -«y. ,M-_.: 
 
 w.’ ’* ' ' MR: 2-.f;5^il.. ' •■ " ~‘ M‘' 
 
 ^ o... -*■ 
 
 
 TV f" 
 
 T'*' ^ ;. '■• 
 
 L 
 
 . V 
 
 ■ 4 ' • W * • M 
 
 .‘v(, ^ 0-. ^r,,.. o , •!|;'^v . 
 
 I !='■ .A ''• .- ' ^-^'j'.'*’' 
 
 <% . *1 »;><■ ' ■ ^ ■ ' ■ 
 
 •I ' > 
 
 '.. .. "> 
 
 
 . : ' ■ K%f. iuy.o<i r 1 '.' , . :> f;’H_ 
 
 <■ ' •' JB * ' '• "V * *^v WW 
 
 * t * _«. \' i- ' • . ' ^ . 
 
 ' ;"!■ la ■VJ ’ ? i” <• <g i» .4JUg4l I |-W .y y - ' ■ -'gy « 
 
 H' I.* ’ 
 
In ord-BP to conips.pe the volume, v/eight, and porosity changes 
 of the oil fired specimens with the gas fired ones, these values ex- 
 pressed in per cent change are grouped in Table XI. 
 
 TABLE XI. 
 
 No. 
 
 Volume 
 
 Chanf^e 
 
 Weight Change 
 
 Porosity 
 
 Change 
 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 -0.56>' 
 
 -2.5% 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 
 -e.yj. 
 
 -55.5;^ 
 
 -41.0^' 
 
 3 
 
 ‘8.0 
 
 -26.3 
 
 -0,3 
 
 -7.1 
 
 -54.4 
 
 -37.7 
 
 6 
 
 -7.3 
 
 -23 . 0 
 
 -0.3 
 
 -0.85 
 
 -46.2 
 
 -20.8 
 
 7 
 
 -6.5 
 
 -27.8 
 
 -0.2 
 
 -0.56 
 
 -35.5 
 
 -29.5 
 
 0 = Changes during oil firing. 
 G- = Changes during gas firing. 
 
 Specific Gravity Changes . True specific gravities were de- 
 termined of specimens 2, 3, 6, and 7: as received, after oil firing 
 
 (Run 9), and after firing in the gas kiln (Run 10). The specimens 
 were ground in a diamond-steel mortar to pass a sixty-mesh sieve, 
 weighed in a 25 cc. specific gravity bottle, whose volume had first 
 been accurately determined by v/eighing full of boiled distilled 
 water. The ground specimen in the bottle v/as covered with air-free 
 distilled water and exhausted under a bell jar to almost v/ithin the 
 vapor pressure of v/ater (20 mm.). This removed practically all the 
 adsorbed air and allov^ed the v/ater to fill the voids between the 
 particles. The bottle v/as then removed from under the bell jar, 
 filled with water according to the usual method and weighed. 
 
 The values obtained are given in Table XII. There seem to 
 be no systematic variations, and the variations do not correspond 
 to any of the other data observed, and no conclusions are drawn from 
 
 them . 
 

 ii’iilifii'fly# ''■ ~ 
 
 
 ' ri 
 
 ^ J 
 
 . •,■ ^ • 
 
 Ouf;«r3 
 
 .pSr « ««i.^ 
 
 ,‘^.- 
 
 'ja'; 
 
 '.•V 
 
 i.v;.': 
 
 ■'^'i.K: 
 
 4*"' ij 
 
 
 v^. 
 
 A 
 
 tZ ti,> 
 
 • • f?- ’ , , 
 
 ,'i' -. . . 
 
 4<t« W 
 
 ^.<4 
 
 ;.'K'a- 
 
 -• W 
 
 3 -:r. •: 
 
 V., 
 
 
 
 
 rv '■•’i'*. 
 
 
 SWi. 
 
 1 1 •> . -. 
 
 3‘ >:'*J 
 
 : •V.'W 
 
 
 i.i ..'-r ! '-f'-'.; .a ' .." 
 
 : ‘j <• ' -■'T 
 
 :’.!'’tC’i’; J vSJ' - •• ’ "icvn':. a ^ t ', 
 
 
 
 
 » ■’ ' ■ r.' 
 
 
 ■ • "■-' 
 
 .■ ■ V. . ■ ; i 
 
 ."»iir • ; 
 
 ■ . 4 
 
 ,'^ a :^. d.yioL'tf' 
 
 
 1 ^ ^ r"' n 
 
 
 
 ♦ ” j , 
 
 1 , . 
 
 l)Mcai 
 
 V f . ^cf:- 
 
 ■ if I*? 
 
 
 M 
 
 
24 
 
 TABLE 
 
 XII. TRUE 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 
 
 No . 
 
 A 
 
 0 G 
 
 2 
 
 2.660 
 
 2.627 2.685 
 
 3 
 
 2.675 
 
 2.641 2.636 
 
 6 
 
 2.643 
 
 2.650 2.652 
 
 7 
 
 2.646 
 
 2.630 2.641 
 
 A = Specific gravity of specimen as received. 
 
 0 = Specific gravity of specimen after oil firing. 
 
 G = Specific gravity of specimen after gas firing. 
 
 IX. SUI^^^ARY OF RUNS NO. 9 aM 10 . 
 
 1. All specimens showed a decrease in the porosity during 
 firing. Those specimens having an open porous structure shov/ed the 
 greatest change in porosity. 
 
 2. All specimens except one_, showed a decrease in the volume 
 during firing, out the change in volume does not appear to he con- 
 nected directly with the porosity change. 
 
 3 . The weight change in the oil fired specimens was practic- 
 ally nil. 
 
 4. The gas fired specimens showed a smaller decrease in por- 
 osity than the corresponding oil fired ones. 
 
 5 . The gas fired specimens showed less fusion than the oil 
 
 fired ones . 
 

 
 -a 
 
 ■ ::^ti! ‘‘ If!**' 
 
 
 
 
 ■^R '. ' v'" :g> ^ f’v', ' *f *.j^.-^|^- ,: ■^ i r-" fe 
 
 ' </ 
 
 k>'' 
 
 n „ ' 
 
 - P mIIIi i ru ip^^^ ® 
 
 :##■' ”■ -s .’ ■^# vi.^ 
 
 
 : :l 
 
 W:1 
 
 f'S 
 
 I '4"-^ '"'- r.- ’’ ji •Vl.E " 
 
 ' M . ■ > ‘ i^>.t^!■■?vS,v '■' '■' y'" y y- 
 
 HI ^ - . ■; * k 4 -s' . to ^ 
 
 
 
 7 /^ ■» '. ‘ i.' 
 
 v;'^,> r; M • .' ^ ■:'■ -C' 
 
 
 
 
 PM?: ^ 
 
 v^S*;* 
 
 Td<1>^. iJV^JlrViih '»?••» .-^4 
 
 If,, ei|2 4*-i '-»'u;‘<rk-kH^ « ^ 
 
 Ti- •-• -a: 0 ,rf .TJWvM?. * 
 
 i^; ^ab •& >ii- 
 
 ^Si 8 ‘' 5 t*'' ’ * 
 
 I 'i ^ ' jh-i^ * d ~4 
 
 f 1 . *•■ • , ' • ?■ * ■’•. ./' '.ft 
 
 ;: vA-fn ■< ’•.-.« »i,.Ov,-^ • iX»-',.t'i - X.iic ' ? 
 
 .Jj'J 
 
 f -1 ■ V 
 
 t ‘« tv’ 
 
 ir 
 
 ‘ v_-:’ * V' ■ ' vt. '.'.Si ' ',.7 - "■* 
 
 I' to tiU\ y.miit .r.0XHw> * f>>i*a 6 i<|ajUtd<{n .>4*-U'-- /ir,;> '»i’ i' -C; 
 
 , A -V t 
 
 »• A i r*' ■’••■ ' V ». ♦ 4 ,'t ■• 
 
 ■ 6 i' ' ' ' 4 :\ ' ♦■' <: ‘“i- f' fVv' 
 
 ^ i7-x ■ - ^UtL).'’jSS!uJaUUbTj 
 
 i . ' j -'...' , 
 
 -‘, ■ , ') 
 
 tT- . 
 
 I; . “ ' ' 
 
 +J . . . ^ 
 
 • i W 
 
 * V * ,. 
 
 k* 
 
 ^ i 
 
X. CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 25 
 
 Considering the relatively short time that has been avail- 
 able for this investigation and the great scope of the work, it can 
 readily be seen that far reaching conclusions cannot safely be 
 drawn. It must also be remembered that this investigation is pio- 
 neer work and that considerable time has been taken up in develop- 
 ing a method of investigation. However, the data obtained seem to 
 give some indications of the manner in which oil fuel attacks the 
 bricks, and v/hat type of bricks best withstand the action of the 
 flame. 
 
 Any large decrease in the volume of a brick on firing, is a 
 decided disadvantage, for it opens up spaces between the bricks, 
 breaking up the smooth v/all so much desired in furnace linings, and 
 exposing edges of the bricks which are much more readily attacl^ed 
 by the flames. A zero volume change is the ideal, and this was 
 approached in specimens S, 9, and 11. Tv/o and 11 are not ver^^ 
 dense bricks, contain considerable coarse grog, but are fairly well 
 bonded together. It may be concluded that from the point of least 
 volume change, coarse grog is desirable. 
 
 A fusing action on the brick may not be undesirable, provid- 
 ed it is a surface action only. However, Run 9 shov/ed that in most 
 cases where surface fusion was greatest, the internal densif ication 
 was also greatest. A brick that v/ill soften throughout, will give 
 a sagging and bulging v/all and give unsatisfactory service. The 
 relative fusing action on the bricks could not be determined vfith 
 as great precision as some of the other data, and there seems to oe 
 

 hi v <- 
 
 L ■ t ' 
 
26 
 
 no uniformity with the texture of the bricks and relative fusing 
 action. 
 
 The fusing action was, however, closely linked up with the 
 change in porosity which could be determined much more accurately. 
 
 All specimens showed a decrease in porosity during the firing, and 
 Runs 9 and 10 show that the oil does have a greater effect in this 
 respect than does gas. This shows that change in porosity is not 
 merely due to temperature alone. The greatest decreases in poros- 
 ities are shown in specimens 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 . Nos. 2, 4, and 
 to some extent 5, contained considerable coarse grog, but No. 6 and 
 especially No. 7 contained much fine grog, which indicates that por- 
 osity changes are not dependent on grog sizes. Least porosity 
 changes are shown in specimens No. 1 and 9. No. 1 contains a con- 
 siderable amount of coarse grog, but is firmly pressed, leaving few 
 pores. No. 9 is a dense silicon carbid.e brick. The specimens show- 
 ing the least porosity decrease are those which had the lowest por- 
 osities before firing. A well pressed brick of dense structure seems 
 desirable in reducing the porosity change. 
 
 It was noticed in several specimens that the bricks became 
 friable and "dead” . This v/a.s especla.lly noticeable in those having 
 a high porosity, that is, those with the greater amount of open 
 structure. The pores give the oil droplets an opportunity to enter 
 into the inner structure of the bricks, where their sudden combus- 
 tion, probably akin to minute explosions, tend to break up the bond- 
 ing material of the bricks. A dense firm brick seems to be highly 
 desirable as a refractory to be used v/ith oil fuel. 
 
 Sulphur in the oil, even in small amounts, causes considerable 
 fusion and seems to increase the friability. It appears that 1/2 
 

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27 
 
 per cent sulphur is as harmful as higher amounts as far as the fus- 
 ing action is concerned, but higher amounts seem to increase the fri- 
 ability. For oil to be used as fuel, the sulphur content should be 
 kept negligibly small. 
 
 Sodium increases the fluxing action on the bricks consider- 
 ably, but appearstto have no other effect, but the fusing action of 
 a very small amount of sodium is very noticeable. Sodium salts 
 should be eliminated from fuel oil as completely as possible. 
 
 Oxidizing or reducing conditions in the furnace appear to have 
 no effect different from normal burning conditions, but alter- 
 
 nating oxidizing and reducing conditions seem to disintegrate the 
 specimens more rapidly. This shows the importance of having the oil 
 and air supply regulated very closely, and especially of having their 
 pressures constant throughout the operation of the furnace. 
 
 AGKN0\7LEDGIi[ENTS . 
 
 This thesis v/as conducted under the direction of Professor 
 C . V/.Parmelee and it is due to his extensive acquaintance with the 
 refractory problems and the cooperation that he obtained v/ith vs.rious 
 manufacturers and others acquainted with the problem that this work 
 v/as made possible. 
 
 Specific acknowledgment is also due to the manufacturers who 
 supplied bricks for the tests. The names of the manufacturers and 
 brands of bricks supplied is given on page 10. The follov/ing man- 
 ufacturers loaned or donated oil burners for use in the tests; 
 
 The Hacleod Company, Cincinnati, 0. 
 
 Joseph Reid Gas Engine Co., Oil City, Pa. 
 
 John Forest & Sons, Bayonne, N.J. 
 
I