THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the colleotion of ^Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918. 3S5 KGSSs CO Frontispiece. THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS. OPERATION OF TRAINS. Conditions, Principles, Methods and Peculiarities of the Train Service of Railways— Organization of the Force —Utility of the Service and Effective Handling OF the Equipment— The Economical Use of Sup- plies — Detailed Rules and Regulations Governing the Movement of Trains ON American Roads— Practices OF Other Countries. WITH illustrations OF the Inception, Growth and Evolution of PRINIITIVE TRANSPORTATION. MARSHALL M. KIEKMAN. IN TWELVE VOLUMES — VOL, III, CHICAGO : The World Railway Publishing Company. 1894. cnrrmiGHT bt Tkb Would Rjoxwat PcBusmxe Cojctastt. AUri^htM V. 3 CONTENTS CHAFTKB. PAGE I. Origin and diversity of transportation— Carriage among the ancients, . 11 / II. Social and economic aspects of railways, ... 35 III. Characteristics of the service and its needs, . . 41 IV. The train force — Its members — Their duties, quali- fications and characteristics, 65 V. How to secure effective use of cars — Car inspec- tion — Hygienic regulations, etc., 95 VI. How the number and movement of trains are regu- lated—The schedule, 103 VII. How to secure the most effective movement of trains — The train dispatcher and his methods, . 115 VIII. Incidents and appliances connected with the move- ment of trains — The locomotive and its devel- opment, possibilities and limitations — Speed — Lubrication — Brakes — Marshalling trains — Switching by gravitation, etc., 135 IX. Railway accidents and their prevention (Part one) 165 X. Railway accidents and their prevention (Part two) 181 XI. Color blindness — Its dangers, degrees, manifesta- tions, sensations and peculiarities — How it may be detected, 197 XII. Signals — Their origin and evolution — Value and use — Limitations — Value of uniformity (Part one), 221 XIII. Signals and other devices for protecting trains (Part two), 347 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTKB. PAOB XIV. Origin, diversity, evolution and value of train rules and regulations, 259 XV. Dictionary of train terms and phrases, .... 275 XVI . Plan observed in compiling the rules and regula- tions in this book, 295 XVII. Rules and regulations appertaining to the move- ment of trains (Part one), 299 XVIII. Rules and regulations appertaining to the move- ment of trains (Part two), 358 XIX. Rules and regulations appertaining to the move- ment of trains (Part three), 387 XX. Administration of the train service on English roads, 392 Appendixes : Appendix A — Diagram used in making railway time tables, 413 Appendix B — Forms of train orders, .... 414 Appendix C — Hand and lamp signals. Illustrated^ . 423 Appendix D — Some American and English rail- way synonyms, 424 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. Frontispiece — Transportation in India. Ancient Egyptian Carrier, Carriage in Palestine, Carriage in Ancient Egypt, . Carriage in Ancient Egypt, Chariot of Xirthus, Carriage in Ancient Egypt, Carriage in Ancient Assyria, Ancient Battle Wagon, Carriage in England, 16th Century, Indian Carrier of Mexico, Primitive Indian Form of Carriage, Primitive Indian Form of Carriage, Primitive Indian Form of Carriage, Primitive Indian Form of Carriage, Primitive Indian Form of Carriage, Hindoo Carrier, Dutch Carrier, Russian Carrier, Carriage in Africa, Carriage in Jamaica, Japanese Carrier, Chinese Carrier, Carrier of India, Mexican Carrier, Brazilian Carriers, Japanese Carriers, Carriers, Canary Islan* Is, Carriage in India, Indian Carriers, Madagascar Carrier, . Peruvian Carrier, . .(5) 12 15 18 24 28 31 34 38 40 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 54 57 59 63 64 67 71 73 78 80 83 86 90 97 99 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, PAOB Carrier of Arabia, . , . . . . . 102 Carriage in India, 106 Carriage in Aden, 109 Carriage in Khiva, 112 Moorish Carrier, 114 Carriage in Caucasia, . . . . . . 117 Carriage in India, 120 Carriage in Burmah, 124 Carriage in India, 126 Il^ubian Carriers, » 132 Carriage in India, . 134 Caucasian Carrier, 139 Carriage in Buenos Ayres, 142 Carriage in Madeira, 145 Carrier of Japan, 148 Carriage in Cashgar, 151 Carriage in Pekin, China, 154 Carriage in Rustchuk, Turkey, .... 156 Carriage in St. Petersburg, 160 Carriage in Russia, 166 Carriage in Spain, . . . . . . . 170 Carriage in Jersey, 173 Carriage in South Africa, 177 Carriage in England, A. D. 1808, .... 180 Carriage in Ireland, 182 Carriage in Gwalior, 185 Carriage in Jowaki, ^Northwestern India, . . 189 Carriage in Central Asia, 191 Carriage in Egypt, . 196 Carriage in Arabia, 199 African Carrier, 202 Carriage in Spain, 205 Carriage in Palestine, 207 Carriage in Chinese Turkestan, .... 211 Carriage in Andalusia, 215 Carriage in Lapland, 220 Carriage on the Banks of the Danube, . . . 223 Russian Carrier, 226 Bulgarian Form of Carriage, 229 Car of Juggernath, 233 LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS. Form of Carriage in Madras, Form of Carriage in India, . Carriage on the Tigris, Bicycle Carriage, .... Carriage in Transcaspia, . Carriage in Mesopotamia, Carriage on the Upper Mississippi, Primitive Form of Carriage, . Carriage in Scandinavia, Ninth Century Carriage in Ancient Venice, . Carriage in Africa, ... Carriage in Japan, . ^ . Mexican Carrier, Sixteenth Century, Carriage in Japan, Carriage in India, Javanese Carrier, Carriage on the Hooghly, Holland Carrier, .... Carriage on the Thames, Boynton's Voyage on the Thames, Carriage on the Scheldt, . The First Steamship ("Charlotte Dundas*'), First Railway Coach, Primitive Iron Railway and Truck, A. D. 1800, Y Track, Bridge Guard, .... Automatic Safety Switch Stand, Car Gas Burner, " Pintsch," . Signal Lamp, A. D. 1861, . Semaphore, ..... Automatic Signal, A. D. 1894, . ElectricHeadlight, A. D.1894, . Signal Torch, .... Torpedo Signal, ... Signal Lamp, .... Station Signal, Hero's Engine, 250 B. C, Discovery of the Means of L^filizing Steam by quis of Worcester in the Tower of London, 1653, A.D 1801. Mar- A. D. PAGE 236 239 242 245 246 248 250 254 257 260 264 266 268 271 276 280 283 288 290 293 294 297 300 306 311 314 316 323 325 329 333 336 344 348 352 356 360 363 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LoeomotiTe. A. D. 1769 (Cugnors), .... 366 LowMDOtive, -Puffing Billy," A. D. 1813. . . 369 IjOOomotiTe (Stevenson's). A. D. 181a, . , . 372 Steam Boad Carriage, A. D. 183t. .... 377 Locomotive, * The Bocket.- A. D. 1829, . . .380 English LoeomotiTe. A. D. 1838, .... 383 Headlight, A. D. 1830. 386 English Express Train with Mail Signals, A. D. 1844^ 388 English Signal, A. D. 1844. 391 English Signals. A. D. 1844. .... 394 English Signals, A. D. 1844. . . . . .397 Steam Boad Carriage. A. D. 1860, .... 400 Tmxford's Traction Engine, A. D. 1862, . . .403 Duplex LoeomotiTe, A. D. 1862. .... 406 LoeomotiTe, A. D. 1894^ ...... 408 Boiler Attadmients of a LoeomotiTe. . . 410 Diagram Used in Making Bailway Time Tables, . 413 Hand and Lamp Signals. 423 Hand and Lamp Signals. 433 Hand and Lamp Signals, ..... 4S3 Hand and Lamp Signals, ...*.. 4S3 ACKlSrOWLEDGMENT. I wish to express here the great obligations I am under to many people for information and aid in compiling this and the accompanying vol- umes. While my opportunities for acquiring knowledge of railways have been exceptionally great during nearly forty years of active service as an employe and executive oflBcer of one of the great railroads of the world, the affairs of a rail- way are so extended and complex that no man can ever hope alone to master all their details. It is only by long and favorable service, coupled with contact with men of every grade in every branch of the business, that general knowledge can be obtained. Not much, unfortunately, is to be gathered from the literature on the subject, as very little has been written, because the subject is so new; however, so far as it goes, I have availed myself of it to the utmost. For the illustrations of primitive carriage con- tained in this and the accompanying volumes, I am indebted to friends in every quarter of the world. I am under marked obligations for kind- nesses at the hands of Mr. Frederick H. Hild, Li- brarian, Chicago Public Library, also to Dr. Wil- es) 10 ACKNOWLEDGMENT. liam F. Poole, Librarian, Newberry Library, Chi- cago. Many of the illnstrations I have found in old books of travel. My object has also been greatly facilitated by information gathered from the periodicals of London, Dresden, Berlin, Vienna and Paris. Many of the illnstrations of primitive forms of carriage are from drawings of my own. The others it has been necessary to resketch or readapt, in the majority of cases, in order to make them conform to my purposes. Thirty years have been occupied in making the collection, but I must still apologize for its not being more perfect, more artistic, more varied. CHAPTEK I. ORIGIN AND DIVERSITY OF TRANSPORTATION — CAR- RIAGE AMONG THE ANCIENTS. The creation of roads, like most useful things, was not premeditated. Successive footsteps formed the first path. While these were acci- dental, they followed the most convenient route, adapting themselves naturally to the peculiari- ties of the ground with a view to the saving of time and labor. They were directed toward the hunting or grazing grounds of the clan or the rude huts of neighboring villages. These paths became in after time the highways of civilized peoples. The discovery and perfection of ancient forms of carriage are lost in the darkness of the prehis- toric age. We can only imagine them. Their origin was probably quite as accidental as that of the rude paths of the savage. When man threw the first burden off his own shoulders on to those of the ox or cow, the secret of carriage was evolved. The transfer was final. Countless ages, however, must have preceded this. Afterward rude vehicles were invented. The devices of different people were never exactly the same. Rude poles tied to a horse or ox on either side and trailing on the ground in the rear was one form of carriage. Another was a flat log drawn (11) 12 OBIGIN AND DIVEBSITY on the ground; this it was, perhaps, that sug- gested the sled; then to facilitate its progress, rollers were placed underneath. They, it may be, suggested the wheel. At first the wheel and axle were made of one piece of wood and revolved together; then wheels of solid wood were made, apart, and fastened to the axle with a linch pin; then followed the spoke, felloe, tire, and so on.* It is probable that transporta- tion among the ancients was not noticeably different from primi- tive carriage among the savages and semi-barbarians of the pres- ent time. The multitude of illus- trations that this and the ac- companing volumes contain, of primitive forms of transporta- tion, (some ancient, some mod- ern), picture the progressive steps from the human beast of burden to the steam locomotive of the They not only depict the succes- sive stages of evolution, but the multudinous devices invented by widely separated people in their efforts to perfect their methods of trans- portation. In every country there are in use primitive methods and quaint devices that repre- sent the carriage of the past. It is from these Ancient Egyptian Carrier. present day. * This phase of the evolution of carriage among the ancients I have elaborated more fully in a chapter devoted to '* Primitive and Prehistoric Carriers,'' in another volume. OF TBANSPOBTATION. 18 illustrations and the practices of primitive peo- ples of the present day that my selections are largely made. The evolution of primitive carriage among the ancients occupied vast cycles of time. Savages and semi-barbarians do not reason by analogy and deduction as we do. They lack suggestion, method, appliances and inclination. Their thoughts and devices are those of children. At the dawn of history many successive steps had been traversed by the ancients. The cart had been invented and was used both for pur- poses of peace and war. Among nomadic peo- ples it was also a house; this composite struc- ture, drawn by oxen, was composed of wood and covered with bark, grasses, or undressed skins. It could be lifted on or off the vehicle, and varied in size according to the needs of the owner. Illus- trations of these rude structures will be found elsewhere. The cart was adapted by the ancients to many uses which we do not recognize. The Assyrians and other warlike people of remote antiquity at- tached scythes or knives to the wheels, axle and box of their war chariots. In Rome the cart was used as an instrument of punishment, the prac- tice of crushing men on the wheel being a favor- ite means of torture and execution. The ancients believed that vehicles were also used by the gods. Jupiter, Minerva and the great deities of the Romans were supposed to be trans- ported in chariots drawn by horses; Neptune^s 14 OBIGIN AND D/TEBSITT car of shell was drawn by beings half fish, half horse. Similar superstitions existed among the Greeks. The Hindoos assigned different methods of transportation to different gods, Brahma employed a swan, other deities an eagle, bull, rat, peacock, elephant, fish, parrot, ram, lion, tiger, or horse, as the case might be. The most ancient superstition of this kind, perhaps, is that of Ea, the Chaldean's Spirit of Earth and Water, who, it was believed, protected the world by going round and round it in a great ship. The Egyptians used a four wheeled vehicle for the carriage of one of their deities, but seem not to have used such a vehicle for any other pur- pose. Primordial man did not go away from home and knew nothing about commerce. Prior to our era, trade was feeble and travel infrequent. A few favored nations carried on a predatory commerce — so beset was it with dangers — by land and sea. But their efforts were spasmodical and restricted. The world was peopled by savages. Outside a restricted ray of light all was darkness. The innumerable hordes that in- habited this unknown region never ventured be- yond their own confines except in organized bands for purposes of rapine and murder. But the principle of carriage, including its funda- mental methods, had been evolved. Man has oc- cupied himself since that time in perfecting it. He has built on old models. Thus, while vessels have been greatly improved since the fall of OF TBANSPOBTATION. 15 Carthage (140 B. C, the ciose of the old era),orig- inal outlines are still preserved. This is also true of land carriage. With better roads, the rude carts and chariots of the ancients have been perfected. But every important appliance is of primitive origin. The introduction of railroads, steamboats and the telegraph changed our methods in important particulars. New forces were called into being; new motors, new appli- ances. These so accelerate, cheapen and general- ize that the ideas we have today of inter-com- Carriage in Palestine. munication, distant travel, diffused knowledge and vast research, render us incapable of realiz- ing the lethargy and isolation of the ancients; we can not comprehend their state nor imagine the details of their lives. The Common Carrier is as old as the disposi- tion of man to travel or look abroad for a market. Wherever, in any age, industry characterized a people, and protection was accorded, there, under one guise or another, he plied his vocation. In the first instance his field did not extend beyond 16 OBIGIN AND DrVEBSITY the carriage of an occasional traveler between neighboring and friendly villages or across some great river or branch of the sea. Men lived apart; property was precarious. With the lapse of time the art of constructing vessels was evolved, and as man progressed in methods and needs we catch glimpses of him here and there in his diminutive ships plying back and forth along the Persian Gulf or in and out among the islands of the Mediterranean.* Of the facilities of the ancients for trans- porting travelers historians tell us very little. Even Herodotus, that most voluble, curious and amiable of gossips, is silent. He describes his journeys, the people he visited and heard about, but says nothing as to how he traveled from place to place. And this notwithstanding his voyages necessitated the most varied transporta- tion; that peculiar to sea and river, desert and highway, mountain and valley. He tells us, with a relish that time can never dull, of the habits of the people he saw and heard about; their idiosyncracies, foibles and weaknesses — especially their weaknesses — but not a word about his means of transportation. Herodotus penetrated the weaknesses of man- kind with the prescience of a surgeon, but with the kindliness of a man of the world. He took delight in recounting his experiences. His voice *It is supposed that floating driftwood first suggested the idea of water craft ; then a raft ; afterward a canoe, rudely hoj- low^ out of ft log with fire or with stone implements. OF TBANSPOBTATION. 17 is soft and ductile as he describes what he saw and heard. He dwells with evident pleasure upon the salacious practices of ancient Baby- lonia, the scenes in and around the sacred temple of Mylitta, the dower-earning women of Lydia, the unclad virgins of Lacedoemon, the Nasa- moian marriage rites, the anklet wearing women of Lybia, the incense burners of Persia, the loves of the Scythian nomads, peeping Gyges, and the unhappy Candaules; his narrative loses nothing in interest in reciting the legend of the blind king Pheron, the amatory habits of birds, the concupisence of animals, the propagating quali- ties of hares, the virility of vipers and the amorous propensities of cats; but not a word has he to say about how he traversed Syria and Asia Minor, how he journeyed from Halicarnassus to Ancient Thebes, how travelers lived en route, and the time it took to go from place to place. Such things he evidently esteemed of no importance, but how interesting they would be to us! In our meagre accounts of antiquity we have reference to the voyages of other travelers before Herodotus, notably those of Lycurgus and Solon. But while we are favored with information in re- gard to the objects of their journey ings, details of carriage are lacking. We derive much inter- esting information of sea voyaging from Homer's account of the wanderings of Ulysses, but the incidents of his journey ings are so outside the ordinary course of events that we gain little insight into the methods of practical travel. The 18 ORIGIN AND DIVERSITY OF TBANSPOBTATION. 19 Argonauts were among the most ancient of voyagers of whom we have details, whether fabulous or otherwise. Their journey, occupying months in its execution and beset by dangers, might today be traversed by a child safely and with little cost either of time or money. Such is the progress that has been made. But this prog- ress has neither been certain nor steady. There have been long periods in which no advance was made, while the labors of centuries have fre- quently been lost by the mishaps of an hour. In the phraseology of travel, land carriage has, curiously enough, adopted much of the nomen- clature of nautical life. This would seem to show, though perhaps not truly, that the latter antedated the other. For many centuries after the denizens of Shumir and the Eastern Mediter- ranean were accustomed to make long and suc- cessful voyages by water, it was still unsafe to travel by land except in strong detachments. The illustrations of primitive carriage con- tained in these volumes show the various ani- mals that have been utilized for purposes of transportation. Man, or, more probable, woman, was the first carrier. This was before the domes- tication of the wild animals that have since proven serviceable. In some countries the load was carried upon the head, in others upon the shoulders, in others strapped upon the back. Herodotus says that the men of Egypt carried their loads on their heads, while the women car- ried them upon their shoulders. The use of the 20 OBIGIN AND DIVEBSITY chariot dates from very ancient times. Sharru- kin, of Agade, in the records he has left of his campaign to the sea of the setting sun, fifty- seven hundred years ago, speaks exultingly of having ridden in myriads of bronze chariots. But this very reference to the means of travel would seem to indicate that it was something new — something to boast of. In the accounts we have of the accourtre- ments of war in ancient times, and of the spoils captured from enemies overthrown, the chariot occupies in every instance a conspicuous place. In the invasion of Syria by the Egyptians thirty- five hundred years ago, many chariots of bronze and gold, history tells us, were captured at a great battle fought at Megiddo. Tiglath Pileser, who reigned twelve hundred years before Christ, recounts that he captured one hundred and twenty chariots in one of his campaigns in the Nairi country, a mountainous district to the north of Assyria. Afterward he tells how he constructed many of these vehicles for his own people, thus showing them to be a common medium of conveyance. Homer, in his Iliad, refers again and again to the chariots in use at the time of the siege of Troy. He speaks of them admiringly as being decorated " With solid beauty . . . bright with the mingled blaze of tin and gold. The yoke of box embossed with costly pains, Hung with ringlets to receive the reins, Nine cubits long the traces swept the ground, These to the chariot's polished pole theybound." OF TBANSPOBTATION. 21 Six hundred and fifty years before Christ the Assyrian monarch, Asshurbanipal, recounts ex- ultingly how he was hauled to the temple in a chariot drawn by captive kings. The chariots of antiquity were in many instances of exquisite workmanship, profusedly inlaid with gold, silver and precious stones. The pictures left of them show a high state of perfection, both in the vehicle and the accourtrements of the horses. The chariot offered a most effective vantage ground in battle, and its use was so general that the ancients were in the habit of resorting in time of war to particular places with a view to its effective use in battle. The great plain of Esdraelon was one of these spots. The chariot was the sole vehicle for land carriage in primi- tive times. The reason was simple. It was easily constructed, strong, accessible, and capable of withstanding the hard usage to which it was subjected in that rugged age. Xerxes, in his invasion of Greece, is said to have had a carriage, which he used in common with his chariot. This is about the first men- tion we have of such a vehicle. Indeed, its use would not have been possible at a much earlier period. Until the time of Darius (five hundred and twenty years before Christ) highways were little known throughout western Asia. This monarch, who, above all Persians, best deserves the title of " Great," conceived the idea of con- necting the widely separated districts of his em- pire by public roads systematically laid out and 22 OBIGIX AND D/VERSITT maintained. These rendered the general use of vehicles possible. Darius was, so far as we know, the first to establish regular post routes, with rela} s of horses and riders. They served to con- nect his capital with the various parts of his em- pire. One of the emblems of the United States PostoflBce Department, a man on horseback, answers equally well for the mail carrier of Darius. The embassy sent by the Persian Mega- bazus to Amyntas, king of Macedonia in the time of Darius, was said to have traveled with car- riages and all kinds of baggage. This was the embassy destroyed with all its retinue, by the young Macedonian prince, Alexander. Cyrus and other Persian kings are said to have carried their drinking water with them from Susa in car- riages. The reference to the use of carriages by the ancients is misleading. The vehicles they used were simply rude wagons or trucks. Many centuries passed with little or no im- provement in the rude vehicles of the ancients. With safety in travel and better highways, pro- gress was made. Covered carriages were first known in historic times in Europe in the begin- ning of the sixteenth century; but they were used only by women of the first rank, men deem- ing it disgraceful to ride in them. Their use for women was for a long time forbidden. The old- est carriages used by ladies in England were called "Whirlicotes." Coaches were first let for hire in London about 1625, at which date there were only twenty; these plied at the principal OF TBANSPOBTATION', 23 inns. Ten years afterward, however, they be- came so numerous that Charles I issued an order limiting their number. The covered coach was at first very unpopular. A writer in 1605 speaks thus of it: "The coach is a close hypocrite; for it hath cover for knavery and curtains to vaile and shadow any wickedness. . . It is a dan- gerous kinde of carriage for the commonwealth." Of the chariots of the ancients, the best types were of bronze. This was the metal in common use. Of it shields, swords, daggers, knives and other implements were made. Iron was un- known, or, if known, sparingly used. Thirty- five hundred years after Sharrukin's time the skill of an ingenious Greek, an inhabitant of Chios, who practiced the art of inlaying gold and silver vessels with iron, was, because of his art, thought of sufficient renown to be singled out for personal mention by Herodotus. At the time of Herodotus travel within the limits of the civilized world, while not general, was more or less common. It is not, therefore, surprising that he does not tell us how he traveled from place to place. On the Tigris rafts buoyed by inflated skins were the common form of carriage. They are still in use there today. This simple device seems to have been one of the first that suggested itself to man for water transportation. It consisted of a raft made of cane or willow, buoyed upon inflated skins. These skins were filled with air by the lungs, just as we see children inflate toy balloons in our 24 OBIGIN AND DIVERSITY day. The buoys were fastened to the rafts with strips of skin or osier twigs. These frail struc- tures served for crossing streams, and upon them the great blocks of stone used in the palaces of Nineveh and other Assyrian cities were floated down from the Zagros mountains. When one of these transports reached its destination it was taken apart, the wood sold, the skins cleaned and oiled, and sent back to be used again. The boats employed on the Euphrates, in the time of Herod- CarriAge in Ancient Egn)*t> otus, he tells us were round, like a wash basin; two or more men, according to the size of the vessel, accompanied it and directed its course. They used for this purpose long poles, with pad- dles made of bamboo strips attached to one end, very much like our oar, only not so convenient or strong. Each vessel, according to its size, transported one or more donkeys to reconvey the skins covering the bottom of the boat back to the starting point, for here, as in Assyria, the OF TRANSPOUTATION. 26 vessel was broken up and sold for firewood when it reached its destination. The voyages of these craft' frequently extended from the mountains of Armenia to the Persian Gulf, many hundreds of miles. These vessels represent the second stage of constructive talent in boat building among the Chaldeans. Frail, rude, and difficult to manage, they were, nevertheless, a great im- provement over preceding methods. It is prob- able that the vessels were owned by those who managed them. These latter were to all intents and purposes common carriers, the precursors of the Lloyds, Vanderbilts and Cunards of our day. At the time these clumsy craft were used on the Euphrates, the Egyptians were much further ad- vanced. Herodotus refers to three different kinds of transportation used on the Nile, namely, rafts, barges and sailing vessels. Vessels were floated down the Nile and towed from the shore when going up stream if there was not sufficient wind to fill the sails.* While the vessels I have described sufficed for inland navigation, they were not adapted to the * It is in connection with water transportation that we find early reference to governmental control of carriage. Beckman, a writer of a century ago, says : ''The floating of wood seems, like many other useful establishments, to have been invented or first undertaken by private persons at their own risk and expense, with the consent of governments or at least without any opposi- tion. But as soon as it was brought to be useful and profitable, it came to be considered as a right or prerogative of the ruler." The ruler, being the stronger, filched from his industrious and progressive subjects; that is too often the idea underlying gov- ernment supervision. 26 OBlGIiV AXD DIVERSITY sea, and it is to the sea-faring people of antiquity that we are indebted for the form of boat we use today, — at once convenient, swift and strong. The art of perfecting sea-going vessels is due to the ingenuity of the Phoenicians. The Greeks, however, afterward excelled them in skill. The Romans took up the construction of ships (copy- ing from the Carthaginians), not because of love for the sea or commerce, but that they might overcome Carthage, with whom they were at enmity. For purpose of commerce, a strong, slow going vessel was designed, but for war something swifter and easier to manage was required; the trireme was the result, a galley with three rows of oarsmen; afterward followed the quadrireme, a galley with four rows of oarsmen; this was succeeded by the quinquereme, a galley with five rows of oarsmen. These vessels were also used for pleasure crafts and for the transportation of persons and goods when the traflBc was such as to warrant it. They were models of strength and swiftness. In contemplating the prehistoric age we can not but believe that Egypt, at least, with its great river, its generally peaceful pursuits, its immense transportation needs, its vast popula- tion and varied industries, had common carriers — men who devoted themselves to the transpor- tation of persons and property on the Nile, fur- nishing every necessary appliance and favoring all alike. No ancient country, except possibly OF tbanspobtation: 27 Chaldea, so strongly suggests the probable pres- ence of the common carrier. The agricultural habits of the Egyptians and the freedom from intrusion they enjoyed rendered this division of labor not only possible but extremely likely. Many references, in Egyptian inscriptions and manuscripts, are found to primitive methods of carriage. From them we learn that in the time of the fourth dynasty (about 3000 B. C.) the ass was the only animal used as a beast of burden.* A simple car or platform laid across the backs of two asses and strapped thereto served as a seat for the traveler. Chariots and horses made their appearance a thousand years later, in the reign of Amenophis III. The framework of the chariot was of wood, strengthened and orna- mented with metal. The bottom was a frame interlaced with thongs in the form of a net, which also answered in some degree the purpose of springs. The chariot had two wheels. They were strengthened at the joints of the felloes with bronze or brass bands and bound with hoops of metal. The wheels of the war chariots had six spokes; those of curricles, or private cars, four. The wheel was fixed to the axle by a linch pin secured by a thong passed through the lower end. The pole was fashioned with the axe. It was of wood and curved. It rested on a yoke * If this date is at all accurate, it indicates that the Egyptians were much later in perfecting land carriage than the Chaldeans. As a matter of fact this is probable. The Egyptians depended upon the N'ile and such simple devices as were necessary for handling goods in close proximity to it. 88 OBIGIX AND DIVEBSITT which was fastened to a small padded saddle on the withers of the horse. The horses were har- nessed to the vehicle by a single trace on the inner side and were controlled by lines attached to a bit or snaffle. Blinkers were not nsed. The chariot had no seat. When nsed in military operations it was drawn by horses; for traveling purposes oxen were used. Chariots occupied by CliaiiotoffKixti»i& women of rank had an umbrella overhead, held by a rod rising from the center of the car. The handle of the whip was of smooth, round wood, and had a single or double thong; in some cases a lash of leather twisted or plaits. The chariot of the Egyptians was highly ornamented with trappings and hangings; for these leather was principally used, adorned with metal edges and studs and dved in different colors. OF TBANSPORTATION. 29 The construction of the chariot required diver- sified skill and in its different parts particular craftsmen were employed: for the wood work a carpenter; for the bindings, saddle and coverings a currier. The importance of the Nile in the economy of Egypt, traversing as it does the whole length of the empire, early led to the construction and use of different forms of water craft. It is claimed that the first sea voyage of which there is any authentic knowledge was made by the Egyptians to the coast of Greece. It is probable, however, that the art of navigation was practiced on the Erythrean Sea, or Persian Gulf, quite as early, as the peoples who bordered its shores vied with the Egyptians in antiquity and culture. The inscrip- tions of Egypt refer to the use of boats as early as the fourth dynasty. A statue of that date of a naval constructor is extant. He is represented as seated on a stool, holding an adze in his left hand. The inscriptions of the fourth dynasty record the building of a boat ninety feet long and thirty-five feet broad in seventeen days, to be used in the transportation of stone. The Egyp- tians early learned to utilize the mast and sail. At first the former was double, but this was abandoned as unnecessarily cumbersome. There seems to have been three classes of Egyptian boats: those of wood, of basket work and of in- flated skins. The last named were "round, in the form of a shield, without head or stern; the hollow part of the center was filled with straw. 80 ORIGIN AND DIVERSITT They were of all sizes, the largest being able to carry five thousand talents weight."* The wicker boats were used principally for fishing, and were made of water plants or osiers bound together with bands made of the stalks of the papyrus or cyperus.t They were light and could be carried from place to place, past rapids, cataracts, etc. It was in such a boat that Moses was exposed. The more pretentious boats of the Egyptians were of wooden planks with ribs and keel. They had a mast, keel, prow, hold, lower and upper decks, a scuttle hole, sails, halyards, pumps and rudders. They were used for heavy transportation and for war. Though not generally large, we have refer- ences to some that equal our modem ships in size. Diodorus mentions one of cedar wood, dedi- cated by Sesostris to the god of Thebes, as being four hundred and twenty feet long. Another is mentioned that carried four hundred sailors, four thousand rowers and three thousand soldiers; this vessel was four hundred and twenty feet long and seventy-two feet high from keel to top of poop. Athenoeus describes it as having forty benches and four rudders; the longest oars were fifty-seven feet long, and were poised with lead at the handles to make them manageable. In the manipulation of their boats the Egyp- tians sometimes used four rudders. The rudder consisted of a long, broad blade and handle. The oar was a roimd wooden shaft to which a flat * 468 J50 pounds. t Not the same plant as that from which paper was made. OF TRANSPOBTATION. 81 board of oval or circular form was fastened; it turned on the thole pins or in rings fastened to the gunwale of the boat. The rowers sat on benches or low seats, or stood or knelt to the oar, sometimes pushing, but more often pulling. The Egyptians manufactured their sails and ropes from the rind of the papyrus. The sails were often colored a brilliant hue. The vessels were fur- nished with cabins, built of wood and painted in- side and out, and fully protected the occupants Carriage in Ancient Egypt. from the elements. They were in many cases richly decorated and furnished. Entrance was sought by a door at the front or side. The Egyptians were an exclusive, self contained people. Throughout the virile period of their his- tory they looked upon mankind as unworthy of association or recognition and adopted every pos- sible means of excluding them. The Phoenicians, however, because of their near proximity and aggressive character, always maintained more or less intimate relations with them. It is probable 82 OBIQIN AND DIVEBSITY that many of the devices which the Phoenicians employed and which the world copied from them, they in turn owed to the Egyptians. Phoenicia occupied a narrow strip of land on the extreme eastern border of the Mediterranean. Its people were typical business men, in many respects the most remarkable of antiquity.* Their thoughts were occupied wholly with gain. They cared nothing for fame. To them wealth was the be- ginning and the end of life. This is why we have no account of their experience as traders and voy- agers, extending over thousands of years, except as we catch furtive glimpses of them from the literature of other countries. Because of their neglect to record their acts, their personal achieve- ments are lost as completely as the secret of their cosmetics and incomparable dyes. They were the Common Carriers of their time. But whether they operated in the earlier ages directly for the profit to be derived from the handling of men and freight, or made this only an incident of their voyages, we can not tell. In later times it is likely they had well established transportation lines. This, it is probable, is why Herodotus did not think it worth while to mention them. History was too precious to him to be made the medium of well known facts. But it is not probable that carriers were licensed; were accorded a right to exact a particular sum for a particular service, no more, no less, with the obligation attached of insuring * See chapter on " The Carriers of Phoenicia and Babylon,'' in the volume " Freight Business." OF TRANSPORTATION. 8a what they carried against the accidents of imper- fect service. These details came later, with im- proved appliances, better protection and higher organization. But wherever men have been free to act they have, it is probable, from the earliest times, sought profit from the carriage of men and goods. However, from the time of Cyrus to that of Victoria, little progress was made in the art of transportation, when, in a moment, it passed from the rude methods of the ancients to the luxurious devices of our day. Carriage in Ancient Assyria. CHAPTEE II. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RAILWAYS. Differences of nationality are the outgrowth of a^es of isolation and consequent ignorance and prejudice. They exist only in men's minds; thus, the descendants of a German family moving into France hate the mother country with all the in- tensity of an original Gaul. National lines will fade away when those who live on either side of them know each other familiarly. Steam and electricity make a Common Family possible. Social evolution and trade progress in the same ratio as intercommunication. The present rate of progress, compared to the past, is as the present rate of speed is to that of the stage coach, canal boat and sailing vessel of an earlier age. It is the province of railroads to overcome dis- tance; to bring peoples together; to make mar- kets accessible. The more cheaply, rapidly and safely trains run, the greater the traffic, the greater the intercommunication. Every train is, therefore, a factor in the evolution of mankind; has a direct effect on the relations of peoples and the growth of commerce. Its government and operation is thus a matter of especial interest; of universal concern. (35) 86 SCmXCE OF BAIL WATS; The fundamental conditions governing the ser- vice are that trains must be ample, regolar in their movements, adapted to the traflSc they han- dle, and safe. The business of railroads is governed by the divergent interests of those who use their prod- uct; by producers and consumers. Their action is based on economic laws, because they accommo- date traffic regulated by such laws. It is, there- fore, self adjustive. The natural laws governing it harmonize with surrounding interests. They are such as to protect and foster the community, be- j cause the community has a voice in making them. Trade is based on natural laws and is the result of mutual concessions, of reciprocal action, of careful apportionment of cost, of a minute divis- ion of profits. On the other hand, statutory laws such as those regulating rates, speed of trains and kindred details, are not self responsive and in so far as this is the case, bear oppre^ively upon all concerned, and, while they may for the moment seem to benefit the community, in the end crip- ple it. The physical life of a railway is too great to be comprehended in its entirety by any man. But a comprehensive knowledge of the laws that regu- late it is essential to every student of the subject and to every railroad man who is either promi- nent or hopes to become so. Many men connected with our railroads, eager to acquire this informa- tion, do not possess the facilities. This book (with OPEBATIOX OF TBAINS. 87 its attendant volumes) is intended to be of assist- ance to such. It treats of the organization, duties and responsibility of the train force, employment of equipment, methods for moving trains, rules and regulations, accidents incident to railway operations, signals, and so on. It is devoted particularly to the physical opera- tions of trains and the rules and regulations that may profitably be used in that particular field. It is not exhaustive. A full understanding of the subject requires that collateral branches of the service should be studied. The boundaries of the departments and bureaus of railways are always faint. They have no well defined lines of demar- kation, but merge insensibly at many points. The operating and traffic departments, for instance, will at times include within their purview the self same things. Hence it is necessary to refer to other branches of the subject in describing any particular one.* I have written several books on the train ser- vice of railroads. The first one was published about sixteen years ago. There, for the first time, was pointed out the incongruities of the service, among others the confiicting rules and signals in force on different roads, and their absurdity and * Some of these branches are described, albeit imperfectly, in the comf>anion books on " Organization and Forces ;" " Financing, Building and Maintaining;"' "The Economical Purchase, Care and Use of Material ;*' "Passenger Business;'' " Freight Business ;" "Baggage, Express and Mail Business," and so on. All of these books treat of subjects connected with the operation of railway trains. 88 SCmWCE OF BAILWATS; danger. In that book a complete code of train roles was first compiled; therein was first sug- gested the necessity of concerted and harmonious action. Every important suggestion it contained has since been carried out. Of all the forces which have helped to acceler- ate development the railway has been the great- est. But its prepress has been so rapid, its achieve- ments so great, that calm and dispassionate study Andent Battle Wagoo. of the economic laws governing it has been im- possible. We are only just beginning to under- stand them.* In tbe operation of trains, comparisons are im- possible between different railroads, because con- ditions are never alike. They are, therefore, not attempted herein. The train service of American railroads may be said to be as nearly perfect as possible at the present time. Managers, never- *ln the author's book '^Economy of Bate& PriTste rer;»M» GoTemment C--~> — . Lodiaun Caxrier e- cause the vicissitudes attending its operations can not be anticipated, and occa- sions frequently arise when those in charge must exercise their judgment. Whether men filling responsible positions in Hindoo Canier. OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 51 the train service possess the qualities essential to their occupation is to be determined by long con- tinued observation and minute examination. The latter is necessary in every case. By it par- ticular needs, such as knowledge of reading and writing, good hearing and eyesight, may be defi- nitely ascertained.* Such examinations may not always be agreeable, but are necessary and their usefulness is now generally recognized. They may be the means of protecting the life of the person examined; without them defects would, in the majority of cases, remain unknown till revealed by some grave disaster. While such ex- aminations are desirable, it is also true that they may be carried to an absurd length. All that is required is that the employe should be experi- enced, know the rules, be able to read and write, have good hearing, perfect eyesight, reasonably stable health, and a courageous spirit. It is important in the handling of the train force that its members and accessory branches of the service should not be worked to the point of exhaustion. Due time for rest, sleep and recrea- tion must be accorded. To deny this is to invite carelessness, inattention and indifference; to court disaster. Train men are not, as a rule, overworked. Instances to the contrary are ex- ceptional. But there should be no exceptions. * The prevalence of color blindness is well known and, accord- ing to Dr. Kobert Barclay, a railway surgeon of experience, "pro- found deafness among railway employes is by no means rare. It is usually developed insidiously and is unrecognized unless brought to notice through aggravation.'' SS"" w»«» 52 SCmXCE OF BAIL WA TS; Here the rule should be inviolable. The l^isla- tion that has been enacted on the subject is not uniform as to the maximum number of hours that men may work without rest.* It has become, in recent years, the practice for railroads to require trainmen to wear uniforms. It was objected to at first by employes on the grounds of cost, conspicuity, the necessity of frequent changes of garments not alike in text- ure or warmth, and for other reasons. However, upon examination these objections proved to be more imaginary than real, and uniforms were ultimately found acceptable to those who wear them. The innovation was a good one. The train service requires the discipline of military life; it should be governed with like justice, punctuality and mercy. The train employe must be equal to the soldier in courage and presence of mind. The unavoidable mishaps that attend his life enlist everyone's sympathy and suggest permanent provision for him so far as possible. Among the divergent practices that character- ize the train service of different companies may be mentioned the handling of the crews of freight trains. Ui)on many lines the system ♦Thus, in Switzerland sixteen hours is prescribed: in the state of Ohio, twenty-four hours. In both caees it is directed that ranployes ^lall be accorded eight hours of continuous rest. It is probable that the masdmum specified in both cases is too great. Men may. in emergencies, work for twenty-four hours continuously without injury when not ^igaged in responsible duties, but it would not be a safe course to follow with those who have charge of or are responsible for the movement of trains. OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 68 known as " first in, first out " is observed. Upon other roads crews are assigned to particular trains, with which they become identified. The former practice stands high in the favor of train men because it equalizes their pay and prevents favoritism. Operating officials favor it for the same reason. It relieves them of complaints and enables them to secure certain safeguards and comparisons which would otherwise be impossible. An objection to this method, however, is that it breaks up the habits of train men; prevents their eating, drinking and sleeping in an orderly way like the rest of mankind. Moreover, it is urged that it robs the service of an incentive to progress by treating all alike without reference to capacity, length of service or faithfulness. Where there is no prospect of promotion, where there is not something to strive for continually, it is said men lose interest; competition is as valuable here as elsewhere. The methods and principles depended upon in improving the service of corporations generally, may be also depended upon to improve the train service of railways. The requirements of this particular field are implicit obedience to rules, watchfulness, energetic prosecution of work, careful economy in time and judicious use of material. These objects may be approximately attained by the- exercise of prudence and fore- thought; by the careful selection of members of the train force; by necessary discipline; by wise government; by teaching the force to consider ^ Dutch Carrier. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 65 its interests and the interests of the company as identical. This last may be accomplished by making the community of interest actual; by considering the present and future interests of the employe; by making the employe regard the Permanent prosperity of the company and not its ability to pay him his wages for the current month only; by rewarding him according te the interest and intelligence he displays. This may be done in many ways. One of the means of doing it, where time or material may be saved by the exercise of superior care and intelligence, is by the payment of bounties in recognition of re- sults attained. In the operation of railroads rewards may, perhaps, be profitably granted, but the only pun- ishment should be suspension or dismissal. Bounties may be granted, but fines should be avoided; encourage with praise, but avoid threats; promote the worthy, but do not degrade the un- worthy; reward unremitting vigilance, but over- look mistakes not the result of carelessness or indifference; deal leniently with errors of judg- ment, but punish with dismissal all unfaithfulness or disloyalty. A service governed by such prin- ciples must, in the end, be animated by a high respect for itself and a clear conception of its duty to its employer. Those who look after the bridges and track of railways and the physical appliances at stations and shops as well, should be similarly governed. Deficiencies here, as in the train service, are fatal to the proprietor and 56 SCIENCE OF B AIL WAYS; add to other injurious effects the element of danger, loss of prestige and destruction of prop- erty. There is nothing new in the practice of giving rewards for superior efficiency.* It is as old as the details of business, as the disposition of one man to interest another in his affairs. Thus, in the case of railroads they give those who per- form the greatest amount of work with the mini- mum amount of fuel or oil some tangible recog- nition of the superior value of their services; awards or premiums are also granted men for work which in other respects shows the greatest skill and interest upon the part of the person performing it. The giving of premiums has been found valuable in improving the train service. Thus, a record is kept of the acts of trainmen, the number of cars moved, whether trains were on time or not, accidents, complaints against employes, errors of the latter, deportment, dress, the condition and cleanliness of the cars, and so on. This record is made the basis for awarding * A belief in them is not, however, general. I know person- ally many great properties that are operated efficiently where premiums are not paid or other extraneous influences brought to bear to secure satisfactory relations between employe and em- ployer except justness and manliness on the part of the manage- ment. But I am inclined to think that while the efficiency of this method can not be questioned or its great value to a prop- erty overestimated, yet is it not dependent upon the life of the individual who practices it? Is it not merely an incident in the life of a corporation, which is eternal ; which sooner or later will be subjected to the vicissitudes of eommonplaoe, even inadequate, management? OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 67 a sum of money in addition to the regular pay and for making promotions; a passenger con- ductor presenting the best personal appearance, who is least complained of, and whose train con- forms most closely to its schedule and meets with the fewest accidents, receives a sum in addition to Russian Carrier. his pay; proportionate sums are paid his brake- man and baggageman also. So with the freight train crew whose train hauls the greatest num- ber of cars and averages the best time, about whom the least number of complaints is made, and which displays generally the best man- agement. The engineer, also, who, all things 58 SCIENCE OF It AIL WAYS; considered, makes the best record for the month, receives a premium. These records, in addition to furnishing the data upon which prizes are awarded, are also made the basis of promotion, a bad record being looked upon as a mark of inferiority^ while a good one indicates the re- verse. A company thus encouraging its train force is benefited in many ways: in increased number of cars hauled; in accelerated movement of trains; in fewer accidents; in lessened com- plaints; in decreased payments for overtime; in quickened interest and heightened desire to achieve results. The premiums are of little con- sequence to the employer, but of great import- ance to the employe, not only as an evidence of recognition but because of their intrinsic value. Where men are scattered over a wide expanse of territory and un watched faithfulness is the meas- ure of service, incentives such as these can not but be beneficial. To secure the best results, recog- nition of high merit must be general and prompt. To be effective, premiums must be the spon- taneous act of the employer. They then indicate a lofty appreciation of the value of faithful ser- vice; they dispel the idea that everyone should be treated alike, without reference to capability or merit. Their effect can not but be to make men plan and strive to achieve high aims. Here- in, it is claimed, railways are deficient, especially in connection with their train service. The continued improvement in railway appli- ances demands increased intelligence upon the OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 59 part of those who use them ; increased study and application upon the part of employes; greater care in the selection of men; encouragement to men to study, to familiarize themselves with their position and collateral duties. The engi- neer of today must be more skillful than his pre- decessor twenty years ago, because the appliances Carriage in Africa. he uses are more complicated, require greater in- telligence to understand, greater experience and skill to manipulate. This is also true of other classes of employes connected with the tt-ain service. In order to build up a train force to the highest standard, those who are admitted to it should be 60 SCIEXCE OF BAIL WA TS; chosen with the care and foresight that character- ize the selection of the force of a hank. Two purposes should be kept in view, namely, present and future uses, — ability to do the work in hand, and capacity to fulfill duties of a higher char- gicter when required. This particular feature of the service has not, because of circumstances that could not be overcome, been considered hereto- fore with the care it should have been. But this criticism can not be made exclusively of the train service. It is the accompaniment of the comparative newness and inexperience of the railway service generally. It is not likely that any department of railway service has been considered with reference to this feature as care- fully as it will be hereafter. Men have often- times, necessarily, been chosen haphazard; their antecedents have not been carefully scrutinized; nor, after installation, has effort been put forth to lead them to study and otherwise fit themselves for promotion. Applicants seeking to enter the railway service should be passed upon by men who are good judges of human nature and otherwise inter- ested in building up and ennobling the service. To be connected with the train service of a rail- way should be in itself an evidence of high intel- ligence and especial fitness. Each year shows improvement in this respect. Each year develops higher aspirations in the force and greater skill in the x)erfomiance of duties. In connection with the question of how the OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 61 most desirable results are to be attained in the organization of the operating force of railways, an official of considerable experience says:* ** The maintenance of proper discipline is as necessary to the proper operation of railroads as it is difficult of application and distasteful to the superintendent called on to exercise it. So long as the necessity exists for the employment of the *• personal equa- tion,' as it is called, in the service of railroads, laws must he framed for its government, and punishment must follow their vio- lation. The problem is to measure the degree of punishment suitable to the offence: to correct the violation of law without doing greater harm to the system. Personal government with- out fixed rules for guidance will tend either to unusual severity or to harmful leniency. To the superintendent busied and inter- ested in the daily solution of the ever changing problems of the hour, the rude shocks to which he is ever liable by the error or omissions of his men, leading to accidents or disasters, are trials of temper, and so disturbing in their effects upon the nervous system as to quite unfit him, oftentimes, for the exercise of the functions of judge. When contemplating the results of the vio- lation of established laws, which violations often defeat all the provisions which wise foresight had taken for security of life and property, a person of the most equable temper is apt to lose self control and resort to measures which would be unjustifiable un- der the most aggravated instances of disobedience. Improve- ments in physical structures should and do enlist eager inter- est, and commend themselves to judicious minds; but the ethics of railway management, the maturing and systematizing of a code of laws for classification and punishment of offenders, so aimed and adjusted as to correct the errors and mistakes of em- ployes without unnecessary friction, is a subject of equal if not paramount interest and importance. The theory on which is based the code of discipline presented below is to clearly state the regulations, which are to be enforced by a penalty, and the na- ture and extent of the penalty : also to place such regulations before those expected to obey them ; to follow up every viola- tion promptly, inflicting a penalty for the violation and not for the consequences of the violation, but only after a fair hearing of the case ; and to surround the train rules with greater sanctity than others by treating their violation with greater severity. Further, by increment in the measure of punishment growing with the repetition of offences, to draw attention to the fact that the offender is gradually but surely working out his dismissal from the service without any agency outside of himself.'* * J. S. Gadsden, President Association of American Railway Superintendents. 62 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS: Mr. Gadsden's regime is: For violation of rules or neglect of duty, first, fines; in the next instance suspension from duty without pay for a definite period; and finally, dismissal from the service. In regard to details, he says: ** The first fine imposed upon an employe in any calendar year will be one dollar and each sncceeding fine during the same year will be increased by one dollar. ** The fifth fine in any calendar year will be accompanied by gospension from duty one week without pay. ** Any employe who has been fined five times in any calendar year will, for the sixth ofl'ence, be dismissed from the service. ** Any fine for violation or neglect of train rules will be accom- panied by one week's suspension from duty without jMiy. ~ An employe whose carelessness or neglect results" in injury to property must, at the discretion of the superintendent, make good such injury at his expense: except that any amount de- ducted from pay under this rule shall not, in any month, exceed one-fiftli of his average monthly pay. and such deductions for any one offence shall not continue for a longer period than twelve months. ** All fines, deductions, suspensions and dismissals under this rule must be authorized by the superintendent and duly entered on the pay roll. Such entries must state the order or rule that has been violated or neglected. ** A record of these p»enalties will be kept in the superintend- ent's office and checked by a monthly report from the jwiymaster of the penalties entered on' the pay rolls. " All fines, except to make good injuries to property, will be donated to the Employes' Mutual Relief Association. " These rules do not limit the power of the heads of depart- ments or other authorized i)ersons to dismiss an employe for in- competency or because his services are not required.*^ I have not believed the enforcement of fines to be desirable. That is, however, merely an opin- ion. Others are much better qualified to judge of such matters than I. Great railway com- panies have tried the experiment and found it to work successfully. There must, therefore, be some merit in it. How much its success has resulted from merit and how much from the OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 68 tact and wisdom of the officials in charge, I do not know. But in regard to the necessity of carriers having definite rules for employes, and enforcing those rules, there can be no question. They are necessary alike to the employe, the Carriage in Jamaica. employer and the public. In many cases the courts have saved carriers harmless for dam- ages inflicted because of the rules which they had endeavored earnestly to have carried out by employes and which, if obeyed, would have pre- vented harm. Japanese Caniex. CHAPTEE IV. THE TRAIN FORCE — ITS MEMBERS — THEIR DUTIES, QUALIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS.* Passing from the general, though limited, con- sideration of the train force attempted in the preceding chapter, a more accurate appreciation of its character and duties may be secured by a brief description of its individual members. And first — THE ENGINEER. This highly trusted employe is sometimes called an Engineman; in England he is called a Driver. While it is not necessary that he should be a machinist, it is essential that he should under- stand the care and use of tools, especially those constituting the engine outfit. He must understand also how to take a locomotive apart; how to put it together. Hence it is necessary that he shall have grown up in the business. He must also have thoroughly familiarized himself with the working of his machine, with its multi- farious forms, with the varied uses and weak- nesses of its every part. The acquisition of this ♦For a generalization of the duties of the employes of rail- roads, the reader is referred to the volume "Organizatio and Forces." (66) 66 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; knowledge requires practical experience and observation, many years of laborious work. Each locomotive has its peculiarities. No two ^re alike. There may be no difference in them so far as the eye can discern, but their steam making power, their inherent force, their be- havior, is different in every case. The engineer is required to fathom the secrets of the locomo- tive he runs, to understand its weakness and strength, how to use its forces, how to overcome its inherent defects. The extent of his ability to do this, coupled with ability to supervise and direct the energies of his fireman, is the principal meas- ure of his capacity. The necessity that those who run engines should be men wedded to their oflSce, should pursue it steadily as a business, is too apparent to need argument. Amateurs, or those who desire to go on the road for a time only, have neither the knowledge nor the conservative instincts that an engineer should possess. He, above all men, must be practical, conservative, possessed of an appre- hensive mind, anticipating always what is before him. He must not only be alive to his own duty but alert to that of others. There must be nothing of the braggadocio about him, noth- ing of the pyrotechnical or spectacular. He must be a conscientious man, taking the safe course not because the rules tell him so but because it is his nature. Such is the true engineer. That such a man will be temperate in what he eats and drinks goes mthout saying. He should OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 67 have vigorous health. His life is such as to pre- serve this vigor to him for the allotted span of existence. The hardships and exposures of his Chinese Carrier. occupation are not such as to break him down if he is temperate. Over against the harassment of his duties there are counterbalancing conditions 68 SCmNGE OF BAIL WA T8; SO that he is not subjected to a greater nervons strain than others. Directly the contrary. More- over, the necessity of his being able to always act with judgment compels him to preserve his mental equilibrium. And what is said of the engineer in this respect applies also to the fire- man, the engineer in expectancy. It is said of Stephenson that he sought educa- ted men for engineers, but that Brunei preferred those who were ignorant, on the theory that they should not know anything outside of their duties. It is hardly necessary to say that the methods of the former proved superior. Education forms a basis, and a general knowledge of the multitudi- nous affairs of a raUroad involved in the duties of engineer require a good foundation on which to build. Those who Would seek to climb higher must explore still wider avenues of information, must read, observe, question, experiment, digest, practice. The possession of these qualities makes good agents, whether engineers, conductors or officers. Those who seek to fill any office acceptably must learn the steps precedent thereto and its surrouncLings as well. It is not necessary that an engineer should first be a fireman, but it is neces- sary that he should be familiar, by long expe- rience, with the practical workings of a locomo- tive. The position of a fireman affords this opportunity and at the same time enables the per- son thus situated to utilize the intervening period with advantage to himself and his employer. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS 69 The effectiveness of a locomotive is largely de- pendent upon the skill of the engineer. One who seeks to become an engineer should lose no opportunity to add to his experience by actual work and observation in a machine shop; in learning how an engine is constructed; how put together; how taken apart; its details, their re- lation to each other and general unity. Such experience, coupled with long and intelligent service as a fireman, makes a good engineer. Quite a number of valuable books have been written on the locomotive and its surroundings.* One of these should be secured and carefully studied. They contain a valuable fund of in- formatioQ, the result of years of experience, observation and study. One of these writersf says: " The locomotive engine which reaches nearest perfection is one which performs the greatest amount of work at the least cost for fuel, lubri- cants, wear and tear of machinery and track. The nearest approach to perfection in an engineer is the man who can work an engine so as to develop its best capabilities at the least cost. . . . Capa- bility of handling an engine can be acquired by a few months' practice; opening the throttle, and moving the reverse lever, require but scanty skill; there is no great accomplishment in being able to pack a gland, or tighten up a loose nut; but the magazine of practical knowledge, which en- ables an engineer to meet every emergency with * By Forney, Sinclair et at. t Mr. Sinclair. 70 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; calmness and promptitude, is obtained only by years of experience on the footboard, and by assiduous observation while there. ... To accomplish results, a thorough acquaintance with all details of the engine is essential, so that the entire machine may be operated as a har- monious unit, without jar or pound; the various methods of economizing heat must be intimately understood, and the laws which govern com- bustion should be well known so far as they apply to the management of the fire. . . . Every advance in brake improvement increases the duties of the enginemen, and upon them will soon devolve the entire management and control of trains while in motion. . . . The daily wages paid to an engineer is a trifling sum com- pared to the amount he can save or waste by good or bad management of his engine. Fuel wasted, lubricants thrown away, supplies de- stroyed, and machinery abused, leading to ex- travagant running repairs, make up a long bill when enginemen are incompetent." The position of engineer, it is apparent, grows more important with each advance in railway operations. The more complicated the machine, the more varied its requirements, the greater necessity there is for ability and experience upon the part of the person handling it. The position of engineer is the immediate stepping stone to that of master mechanic. To be sure everyone can not become a master mechanic, but that does not matter. The position carries this honorable aspiration. Nor does promotion necessarily end there. No other place affords better opportuni- OPEUATION OF TBAIN8. 71 ties for acquiring knowledge; for becoming famil- iar with the physical operations of a railroad. Every superior office is thus open to the en- gineer if he possesses capacity and adaptability. Here, as everywhere else, knowledge is power. The engineer, above all members of the train force, must be familiar with the rules and regula- tions and the signals governing the movement of Carrier of India. trains. The vicissitudes of his life teach him to be prudent; to be otherwise is to invite disaster. The modern practice of keeping engines con- tinuously employed has changed early customs in many respects. Thus, amongst other things, it has suggested the employment of inspectors whose duty it is to make a critical examination of engines at particular places, in addition to the inspection made by the engineer. In practice 72 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; and theory every precaution is adopted to escape mishap. Erevention is the essence of safety in the opera- tion of ti-ains. It is attained by constant watch- fulness. The engineer quickly becomes imbued with this spirit. Nothing escapes his searching scrutiny. He examines his machine when it comes from the shop to see that no omission or mistake has been made; he watches it unceas- ingly afterward to see that it is maintained at the highest state of eflBciency. Every detail, every bolt, nut, screw, link, key, rod, guide, spring, oil box is scrutinized by him with the same unflag- ging industry that the more important parts of the machine are watched. He realizes that the operation of his engine is dependent upon its every part being in order, and that perfection is the result of constant watchfulness and effort, not of chance. In regard to the specific duties of the engineer, the author already quoted says: "The engineer should reach his engine in good season, so that he will not be hurried in getting it ready for the road; he should see that the necessary supplies and tools are on the engine, that the locomotive is properly sup- plied with coal, that the tank is full of water, and the sand box full of sand: he should see that his engine is kept clean and in good order; he should make systematic inspections of his engine while it is standing over the pit between trips, and should frequently examine the out- side running gear, and should also examine OPEBA TION OF TBAIN8. 73 the boiler for leaks and see to the condition of the grates; he should be careful in oiling to pay attention to the oil cups, and see that the oil boxes are properly packed; he should consider the load to be hauled, the capacity of the engine, and the nature of the track; he should adjust the oil cups so that they will not feed faster than is needed; he should lose no opportunity to exam- ine his engine for defects in machinery. When he leaves the round house he should watch the Mexican Carrier. workings of the various parts of the engine, try the brakes and pumps, and ascertain by the gauge cocks if the water level as shown by the glass water gauge is correct; he should compare his time with that of the conductor before starting; he should approach all stopping places cautiously; he should study his engine in order to obtain results at the least expense for fuel, oil and wear and tear of machinery; he should instruct his fireman in all matters relating to the duties of the latter; he should at all times keep a vigilant 74 SCIEXCE OF RAILWAYS; lookout for signals, switches and obstructions on the ti-ack, and should give the prescribed notice of his approach to crossings, stations, etc.: he should watch his train to see that it is intact. At the end of a trip, fire should be regulated so that a head of steam will be retained sufficient to take the engine into the house after the fire is drawn; he should call the attention of the proper official to any needed repairs to his engine on arriving at the end of his trip; he should use every pre- caution to guard against damaga by fire from his engine; he should report promptly to the proper officer any injurj' to persons, live stock, or prop- erty by his engine." I wish to reiterate here the desirability of en- gineers supplying themselves with such works as those of Messrs. Sinclair and Forney. They broaden the view and increase the understand- ing of the most capable. THE FIREMAN. As the boy is father to the man and indicates unmistakably the character the latter will pos- sess, so the fireman is father to the engineer. It follows, therefore, that in order to possess good engineers, a wise selection must be made of fire- men. The fireman is a factor of enonnous importance fi-om an economical standpoint in the train ser- vice. The fuel that under his manipulation is burned in the fire box of the engine, or blown through its smoke stack unconsumed, amounts in the aggregate to a large percentage of the gross sum expended by railways in their operation. If OPERATION OF TRAINS. 75 he is skillful and conscientious in the perform- ance of his duty, his company is fortunate; if he is not, it is unfortunate. Much has been said and written as to how his duties should be performed. Experts have been hired to personally instruct him. Manuals have been written for his benefit. Perfection, how- ever, if attained in particular instances, is not universal, as the vast volumes of black smoke emitted by locomotives, oftentimes the result of poor firing, evince. Firemen are born, not made. Some possess the art instinctively. But practical experience is necessary to everyone. Thus alone can men be fitted to perform their duties prop- erly. This experience, in the case of the fire- man, must be carried on under the eye and direc- tion of some one skilled in a knowledge of the principles of combustion, especially as applied on the locomotive. Now while essays on the subject of firing may be valuable only as sug- gestions, it is possible to lay down formulas as the basis of the art of firing. These formulas are not difficult to learn. An instructor in this particular field of industry * explains graphically that combustion of coal is: "A chemical union of the atoms of the coal with the atoms of the oxygen of the air, to effect which union it is necessary that the atoms of the two named substances meet at a high temperature (called the temperature of ignition), which for coal and coal gas is that of bright red hot iron, or about ♦George H. Baker. 76 SCmXCE OF BAILWATS; 1800 degrees. At this temperature the attractions of the atoms of coal and oxygen become so great ^hat they clash together, and light and heat are the result of their collision. . . . The first thing that happens when coal is put on a fire is that the coal absorbs a great amount of heat, and the work the latter performs is to expel the gaseous matter of the coal, the constituents of which are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of carbon, called carbureted hydrogen. Now, if the temperature is suflBciently high, as explained, the attractions existing between the oxygen and gas are so intensified that they clash together, and light and heat result, and they are burned, the products of their combustion being vapor of water and carbonic acid gas. At the igniting temperature the hydrogen separates itself from its fellow constituent, the carbon, and combines with the oxygen present, forming vapor of water. This is because the oxygen has a stronger at- traction for the hydrogen than it has for the car- bon, and not until the h^^drogen meets and com- bines with its equivalent of oxygen does the car- bon take its turn. The carbon vapor jrields up one of its atoms to two atoms of oxygen and in that proportion combines Avith oxygen and is burned, forming carbonic acid. In this manner the gaseous portion of the coal is expelled and consumed, leaving the. most of the carbon yet upon the grates in a solid, incandescent state. A proper supply of oxygen alone will enable it to perfectly bum and yield up its greatest heat." The same writer also enters with considerable particularity into the practical duties of the fire- man; they are, he says, to see that the grates and appurtenances of his engine are in proper order OPERA TIOX OF TRAINS. 11 and that the full complement of tools is on hand before starting; that the flue sheets are cleaned of clinkers before his engine is fired up and that the fire is evenly placed over the entire grate surface; that a bed of fire covers the forward portion of the grate next the flue sheets before the blower is used; that the blower be used as lightly as possible; that there is sufficient fuel on the fire before starting the locomotive to hold it and keep up steam while the engine is getting under way; that opening the fire door while the exhaust is strong shall be avoided as much as pos- sible; that coal is broken into pieces as near e^g size as possible; that in firing the coal is scattered over the surface of the fire as evenly as possible, giving the sides and corners the preference.* He further directs that coal is not to be thrown in heaps on any part of the fire ; that it is to be put on lightly and frequently; that the door is to be closed between each shovelful when the engine is working; that the grates are to be shaken lightly every thirty miles in the case of passenger trains and every twenty miles in the case of freight trains; that if clinkers accumulate in the firebox they are to be removed at the first opportunity; that the steam pressure is to be kept within * This is known as the " spreading sj^stem." There is, how- ever, another system of firing practieerl known as the " banking system." Where the later is employed the coal is piled up at the back part of the fire box, sloping down towards the front, where the layer of coal being thin is naturally in a high state of incan- descence. When the heap of coal at the back of the fire box is thoroughly coked it i's pushed forward and a fresh supply of fuel pvit in its place to undergo the same process. The spreading sys- tem is more generally practiced, especially in the western states, although the banking system has been used upon some roads with good results. 78 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; prescribed limits and not permitted to change rapidly either way; that the blower is to be nsed ^-while the injector is working so as to prevent change of temperature of the boiler; that, to prevent or stop the engine blowing off, the sup- ply of water is to be increased or the damper dripped; that, if necessary to open the door of the fire box while the engine is working, it is to be done slightly or swung open and shut; that so for as practicable the smoMng or drumming of the engine while at stations or when attached to or in the vicinity of a passenger train is to be Biazflian C^jriera. prevented; that ash pans and fires are not to be cleaned near a bridge, culvert, depot or building, or on a fn^ or switch, and that the fire is to be thoroughly extinguished with water before leav- ing it; and finally, that at the close of a run, when the fire has been removed, the dampers and fire doors are to be kept closed while the engine is being handled." The item of fuel is one of the largest in the operation of railways. It is probable that in time some substitute will be found for coal, but until OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 79 that time arrives, it should be utilized in the most effective manner by the scientihc construction of engines and fire boxes, and skillful firing, so as to effect such saving as circumstances v^dll permit. Much study has been given the subject, and so far as firemen are concerned, considerable pains taken to instruct them in their duties where they need instruction. Mr. Sinclair in his admirable book says: " To comprehend what causes fire to burn, we must understand something about the laws of nature as they are explained by chemistry. Prac- tical men are generally very easily repelled by the strange names they meet with in reading anything where chemical terms are used. An engineer or fireman who is ambitious to learn the principles of his business ought to attack the hard words with courage and perseverance, when it will be found that the difficulties of un- derstanding them vanish. A man may become a good fireman without knowing anything about these laws. This frequently happens. If he be- comes skillful in making an engine steam freely, while using the least possible supply of fuel, he has learned by practice to put in the coal and to regulate the admission of air in a scientific man- ner. That is, he puts in the exact quantity of fuel to suit the amount of air that is passing the fire box, and in the shape that will cause it to produce the greatest amount of heat. When this degree of skill is attained by men ignorant of nature's laws, it is attained by groping in the dark. A man who has acquired his skill in this manner is not, however, perfectly master of the art of firing, for any change of furnace arrange- 80 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; ment is likely to bewilder him, and he has to find out by repeated trying what method of firing suits best. He is also liable to waste fuel, or to cause delay by w^ant of steam when anything un- usual happens. A knowledge of the laws of com- bustion teaches a man to go straight to the correct method, and the information possessed enables him to deal intelligently with the numerous difficulties which are constantly arising owing to inferior fuel, obstructed draft due to various causes, and to viciously designed fire boxes and Japanese Carriersl smoke boxes. . . . The nature of fuel, the composition of the air that fans the fire, and the character of the gases formed by the burning fuel, and the proper proportion of air to fuel for producing the greatest degree of heat, are the principal things to be learned in the study of laws relating to combustion. . . . The ele- ments which perform the most important func- tions in the act of combustion are oxygen and carbon. Carbon is the fuel, and oxygen is the supporter of combustion. Combustion results from a strong natural tendency that oxygen and OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 81 carbon have for each other, but they can not unite freely till they reach a certam high tem- perature, when they combine very rapidly with violent evolution of light and heat. . . . Having mentioned the leading elements that take part in keeping a fire burning we will now apply the operation to the work done in the fire box of a locomotive. . . . When air, drawn violently through the grates by the suction of the exhaust, strikes the glowing fuel, the oxygen in the air separates from the nitro- gen and combines with the carbon of the coal. In some cases elements combine in different pro- portions to form different kinds of products. If the supply of air is so liberal that there is abundance of oxygen for the burning fuel, the carbon will unite in the proportion of twelve parts by weight (one atom) with thirty-two parts by weight of oxygen (two atoms). This produces carbonic acid, an intensely hot gas, and therefore of great value in steam making. If, however, the supply of air is restricted and the oxygen scarce, the atom of carbon is contented to grasp one atom of oxygen, and the combination is made at the rate of twelve parts by weight of carbon to sixteen parts by weight of oxygen, producing car- bonic oxide gas, which is not nearly so hot as carbonic acid gas. It makes a very important difference in the economical use of fuel which of these two gases is formed in the fire. . . . Where combustion is rapid the fuel must be sat- urated with the air that contains the oxygen, bathed in it, as it were, otherwise a large portion of the furnace gases will pass away uncombined with the element that gives them any heat- ing value. . . . There are several practical 82 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; objections to the air blowing through the grates like a hurricane. The high speed of the gases lifts the smaller particles of the fuel and starts them toward the entrance of the flues, helping to begin the action of spark throwing. Where they find a thin or dead part of the fire, the gases pass in below the igniting temperature, or tend in spots to reduce the heat below the igniting point, and go away unconsumed, at the same time mak- ing a cold streak in the fire box, chilling the flues or other surface touched, and starting leaks and cracks. Then the great volume of air has, under ordinary circumstances, to be heated up to the temperature of the fire box, and a considerable part of the heat produced from the coal has to be used up doing this before any of it can be util- ized in steam making. When a large volume of gas is employed it must be passed through the furnace and tubes at a high velocity, the result being that there is not sufiicient time for the heat to be imparted to the water; consequently the gases pass into the stack at a higher temperature than would be the case if the movement of the gases were slower. One can get a good personal illustration of this by passing his hand through the flame of a gas burner. . . . Good fire- men keep sufficient fire on the grates to suit the way the engine is working, and enough to prevent loss from air passing up so freely as to reduce the temperature of the fire box. They keep up the fire by throwing in a shovelful or two of coal at short intervals, and the result is that the greater portion of the hydrocarbon gases is burned, and very little smoke is seen issuing from the stack. When the engine is stopped at a sta- tion or any other place, the fireman has planned OPERATION OF TRAINS. 83 ahead to have a fire in ready for the start. When the train is pulling out he is not found tum- bling in the coal as fast as his scoop can transfer it from the tender. He is quietly looking out for signals and switches, and when the engineer hooks up the links and the pull of the exhaust begins to get light, he begins to replenish the fire. . . . Although he replenishes and keeps up his fire at stations and stopping places, this fireman does not make his engine a nuis- ance to the people by pouring out a cloud of black smoke. He prevents this by never putting Carriers, Canary Islands. in a heavy charge of coal at one time. This en- ables him to maintain a flame on top of the fire, which consumes the gases that would make smoke. When it is necessary to put in consider- able coal while standing at a station, he closes the dampers, opens the fire door slightly, and starts the blower lightly. By this exercise of care and intelligence he makes his locomotive a light consumer of coal and a perfect consumer of smoke." It is as true of the fireman's duties as it is of the engineer's that each year's experience in the 84 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA Y8; operation of locomotives teaches some new thing, adds something to his knowledge by which he is able to make his work more effective. While the fireman has not, perhaps, become a scientist, he has become better acquainted with the most effective means of generating steam at the low- est cost. While he does not understand scientific formulas, he fires according to scientific princi- ples. He adds fuel to the fire in quantities best adapted to the preservation of uniform temper- ature and perfect combustion. He is governed in his work by the load to be hauled, the speed to be attained, the peculiarities of the engine, the kind of coal, the weather, the character of the road, and so on. The fireman's physical attributes must be of the highest type. He must be of robust consti- tution, because the work is laborious, arduous and perplexing. This is especially true at first. With time, however, these peculiarities become less apparent. Although the fireman's duty, as the title indi- cates, is primarily to look after the fire, he inci- dentally attends to replenishing the tender with water, ringing the bell, cleaning the ash pan, shaking the grates, filling the oil cans, attending to the lights and keeping the engine clean. ''He notes how the boiler is fed; and, upon his knowl- edge of the engineer's practice in this respect, much of his firing is regulated. The different methods of using steam by engineers, so that trains can be taken over the road with the least OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 86 expenditure of coal, are engraven upon his memory. ... As his experience widens, his fire management is regulated to accord with the kind of coal on hand, the steaming properties of the engine, the weight of the train, the character of the road and of the weather. Firing, with all the details connected with it, is the central figure of his work, the object of preeminent concern." The fireman, according to the customs of rail- ways, is an engineer in embryo. He is frequently called upon to act for the engineer and is, there- fore, in many respects, his deputy. In case of accident befalling the engineer while on duty, the fireman must be able to supply his place until another engineer is forthcoming. His office, therefore, is something more than that of a fire- man. It is dual in character. A good fireman will make a good engineer because he possesses intelligence, industry and sobriety, careful habits and an observing mind. He necessarily receives a thorough practical training. By the side of the engineer he learns his duties. Famil- iarity with the performance of his engine by day and night, in all kinds of weather, on every conceivable kind of track, enables him to tell with almost mathematical accuracy the speed the machine is making. This know^ledge can not be acquired in any other way. Exactly how he is able to determine this, he himself can not tell; it is an intuition — the sound of the revolving wheels, the motion of the locomotive, the fleeting 86 SCIENCE OF BA IL WA Y8; objects by the wayside, aiding him in his con- clusions. Only by long familiarity with the workings of a locomotive are men able to detect instantly anything w^rong in its working, to distinguish normal from abnormal conditions. " It requires an experienced ear to detect the false note which indicates that something is wrong. Amidst the mingled sounds produced by an engine and train hammering over a track, the novice hears nothing Carriage in India. but a medley of confused noises, strange and meaningless as are the harmonies of an opera to an untutored savage. But the trained ear of an engineer can distinguish a strange sound amidst all the tumult of thundering exhaust, screaming steam and clashing steel as readily as an ac- complished musician can detect a false note in a many voiced chorus. Upon this ability to detect growing defects which pave the way to disaster, depends much of an engineer's chances of suc- cess in his calling. This kind of skill is not ob- OPERATION OF TBAINS. 87 tained by a few weeks' industry ; it is the gradual accumulation of months and years of patient labor." Long experience is necessary to enable a person to handle a locomotive with ease and smoothness, to preserve uniformity of motion in all the varying circumstances of starting and stopping. All these various acquirements come with observation and practice ; by what is seen in the shops, by watching, by thought, by asking questions. The fireman learns little by little. In the course of time he is able to pass the necessary examina- tion preparatory to assuming the more responsi- ble office of engineer. These examinations are not general, but each year are more and more practiced by railroads. There is nothing about them to be dreaded by a person competent to run an engine, as they have reference to hourly duties only. They are confined to practical things and do not deal with the philosophy of the subject. The duties of the fireman, like those of the engineer, are too many to be described in detail. Only the more apparent can be enumerated. Among the latter these may be mentioned: He must be at his post before starting on a trip in ample time to wet the coal, when coal is used; to see that the oil cans are filled and ready for use; that the fire is properly made; that the engine is clean. He must see that all supplies necessary for the trip are in their places; that the flags, lanterns and other signals are on hand; that the lamps are trimmed; that the ash pan is clean; 88 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; that the necessary tools are on hand for handling fuel or attending to the fire; he must see that the water tank and sand box are full; that he is ready at the proper time to take in wat^r with the least delay; he must clean the cindei*s and clinkers from the grates, and the ashes from the ash pan, when stops are made at coaling stations; that the fire he maintains is equal to the work the engine has to perform, and that the fuel is applied in such a way as to secure the greatest possible vol- ume of steam. He must, moreover, keep a sharp lookout for signals and report from time to time to the engineer anything he discovers necessary for the latter to know. The list of duties might be greatly extended. The foregoing section is, however, such as to call attention to them and indicate their importance. I do not seek to do more here. THE CONDUCTOR. The duties of the conductor are multifarious. He collects more or less of the i-ailroad's reve- nue, is the custodian of much of its propei-ty, and looks after the safety of all that is trans- ported while in his charge.. He is the trusted representative of his company, and a semi-public oflBcial. In his former capacity he inspects the cai-s in his train to see, so far as a superficial examination can accomplish this, that they are in good order and answer the requirements of the service. He represents the company in all its dealings with passengers aboard his train. He is in immediate charge and it is his duty to see that OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 89 the train force is attentive and properly regardful of the property and the conveniences and preju- dices of the traveling public. He is also the conservator of order and quiet, and compels the observance of the decencies of life by all upon his train. Each year lessens the responsibilities and duties of conductors in some directions and adds to them in others.* The better systemization of the ser- vice and the introduction of new and approved appliances make the work of the conductor, in some directions, less than formerly. On the other hand, increased business and more complicated methods of ticketing passengers add to his duties and responsibilities. The old time canal boat captain and stage driver did very well for con- ductors in their day, but at the present time greater affability and more polished manners are required. The duties of the conductor require that he shall have the utmost tact. The demands upon his patience and forbearance are constant. He must be discriminating, and must be wise in order to discriminate properly. To illustrate: His rules require him to collect a ticket, or in the absence of a ticket a fare, but there will be ex - ceptions to the rule, such as the cases of men * In speaking of cpnductors I refer more particularly to those on American railways, or those operated on the American plan. The responsibilities and duties of conductors or "guards" in England and on the continent of Europe are very much less com- paratively. 90 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; well known to him who are traveling constantly, suburban passengers, and the like. In such cases he must know when to enforce the rule, when to make an exception. According to the judgment he exercises in such matters will de- pend, in a measure, the good name and earnings power of his company. The conductor's duties are onerous. His train and its passengers require his constant attention. Indian Camera. So far as possible he scans, as his trip progresses, each person entering the train. Afterward he must be able to locate and identify those from whom he has collected a ticket so as not to con- tinually disturb them with impoi*tunities. To the casual obser^ er the conductor often appeai-s to wander carelessly back and forth through his train. In reality his mind is employed every moment. When traveling his moments of leis- ure are rare. He is constantly called upon to OPERA TION OF TBAIKS, 91 interest himself in the affairs of the nervous, or inquisitively inclined, among his passengers. The rattle of a loose brake rod or the occurrence of anything unusual throv^s the former into a spasm of fear, and precipitates a deluge of ques- tions from the latter. In a fiduciary way he is beset with annoyances. His virtues, even if like those of Oaesar's wife, are oftentimes the subject of question. This is the unutterably sore spot in his life. If trust- worthy as a fiscal agent, he is still liable to mis- representation; if unfaithful, to detection. That he is sometimes called upon to suffer unjustly, there can be no doubt. A remedy for this un- fortunate situation is exceedingly difficult.* The difference in the degree of excellence that conductors attain in their ability to satisfy the just and unjust requirements of passengers, without sacrificing the company's interests or prestige, is remarkable. It covers all degrees of adaptability, tact and talent. Thus, with one conductor an accident or detention will be made to appear natural and excusable; with another avoidable and inexcusable. THE BRAKEMAN. The trustworthiness of brakemen on our pas- senger trains is proof against temptation; as stable as that of a bank clerk. It is also without ostentation. Every traveler has observed some- *I have taken up this particular phase of the subject in my books on fiscal affairs. 92 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; time in his life acts of honesty upon the part of these members of the service worthy of praise; acts performed in a matter-of-fact way that char- acterizes only those inherently honest. Yet a " tip " in such cases is gratefully received, for the brakeman is not proud to the extent of refusing favors of this kind. The brakeman is the lieutenant of the con- ductor. His nervous system, like that of his comrades, the conductor and engineer, is so finely attuned to his business that the slightest break or disarrangement of the machinery of the train instantly attracts his attention. He is a man of averages. He soon finds it im- possible to please everybody. He therefore en- deavors to please the greatest number and to soothe the others. He can not keep the car heated to the temperature some would like; he therefore endeavors to strike the happy mean, — a moderate heat likely to prevent the full blooded from fainting and the thin blooded from freezing. But when importuned he will open a window, or close it, if the request is not too glaringly incon- sistent with the comfort of others. His amia- bility leads him to please all. The brakeman's life is beset by annoyances. He is harassed constantly by freaks and cranks; to them the car is too hot or too cold ; is dirty from neglect, or damp with cleanliness; is mouldy with age, or smelling too rankly of fresh varnish. He bears his burdens with patient fortitude, find- ing compensation in the wages he gets. His OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 93 intercourse is largely with extremists. Not that he cultivates such; far from it. He can not avoid them. He is not eccentric himself and does not like eccentric people. But in his pere- grinations through the cars they lie in wait for him. He can not escape; he can only dally. The disposition of the brakeman is accommo- dating. As he stands at the steps of the car as- sisting passengers to enter or alight, he is full of kindness and benignity, — a man of information and precedents. His position is apparently a sinecure; prosy, monotonous, dull. This is its normal condition. There are emergencies — cases of accident or detention — however, when he is called upon to act in the face of danger, — when he must decide quickly and bravely.* There are times when his patience and courage are tried to the utmost by unruly or vicious passengers, and while he always seeks to avoid a conflict he has no fear and, if necessary, will attack a mob with a coolness and matter of fact courage that chills the blood of mere lookers-on. He fears neither pitols, bludgeons or knives. He seizes the unruly passenger as he would a bag of feathers and hurrying him to the platform ejects him with re- sistless dexterity. The system more or less in vogue in the United States and elsewhere of making the brakeman the guardian of the rear of the train in case of ♦This is also true of the Baggageman ; his duties and character- istics are described in the volume on "Baggage, Express and Mail Business." 94 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS. detention on the main track and elsewhere, makes him a tremendous factor in the safe oper- ation of railways. Consequently it is of the ut- most importance that he should be possessed of good judgment, should be energetic, conscien- tious and quick in the discharge of his duties, hence the necessity that his selection and ap- pointment should be made with care and judg- ment. Upon his fidelity to the trust reposed in him will oftentimes depend the safety of life and property. CHAPTER V. HOW TO SECURE EFFECTIVE USE OF CARS — CAR IN- SPECTION — HYGIENIC REGULATIONS, ETC. Upon the active employment of their equip- ment and the expeditious handling of their traffic, passenger as well as freight, depend largely the profits of carriers. The earnings of a car may be quickly frittered away in the cost attendant upon delays at yards, stations, bridges and sidings. To be profitable, the progress of traffic must be easy and continuous. Moreover, whatever adds to the usefulness of a car, lessens the outlay for construction by reducing the num- ber of cars; it also lessens relatively the cost of maintenance per unit of service. It enables a company, moreover, to do business that would be impossible otherwise, for the reason that no traffic can be carried which does not pay cost of carriage and the wear and tear it engenders. It is, consequently, of the highest importance that the equipment of a company should be fully utilized; should be kept constantly earning something. Cars that lie idle and exposed on sidings, or in the yards of shippers, earn nothing, but the cost of maintenance goes on without ces- sation. (95) ^ 96 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; A means of preventing idleness of cars is to be found in the exercise of vigilance; in systematic- ally looking after each car. An effective method of accelerating the moveipent of cars is to make a charge against shippers for cars allowed to lie idle while waiting to be loaded or unloaded. A means of enforcing this is found in the United States in the appointment of a common agent to act for all the railroads at points where a number of lines converge. This concentration prevents jeal- ousies and secures unity of action among carriers, without which a charge can not be systematically or effectively enforced.* Shippers do not always acquiesce in the right of carriers to enforce a demurrage charge, and seek relief in the courts. What the outcome of these suits will be it is impossible now to tell, but the equities of the case seem to be clearly with the carrier. American railways have many standard rules in connection with the systematic use of equip- ment.! Further investigation and experience will add to the number. The general trend of these rules is that the distribution, movement of, and accounting for, cars shall be placed under a single head in the transportation department; that such head shall make full returns daily of empty and loaded cars to the division superin- tendent, who shall have charge of the distribu- *The reader will find the subject of car service further elabo- rated in the book " Freight Business.'' fThese largely emanate from the American Railway Association. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 97 tion of cars on his division; that a summary of the returns shall be sent to the chief operating oflBcer; that a record shall be kept of cars delivered con- Madagascar Carrier. necting lines and a return of such cars shall be rendered daily by the local junction agent; that companies using the cars of other lines shall send ^ 98 SCIENCE OF RAIL WA YS; to such lines an accurate statement of the mile- age of such cars; that in the interchange of cars between carriers a uniform charge shall be made for the various classes of cars; and finally, that a uniform charge shall be made for the tempo- rary use of tracks and other facilities in the case of washouts or other emergencies.* It is also recommended that a charge of one dollar per day be made against the patrons of carriers for delay in loading and unloading cars after the expira- tion of forty-eight hours from the time of deliv- ery of cars; also that a form of organization be effected for the car service agencies for enforcing the dollar charge at junctions, specifying the rules to be observed and forms to be used and so on. While the equipment of a railway should be kept constantly earning something for its owner, it must also be watched with the closest scrutiny, must be carefully and systematically inspected. This duty is very carefully attended to in the case of passenger cars, but is not always attended to with equal care in the case of freight equipment. While it might be too much to say that loss of life has been occasioned by such neglect, there can be no doubt it has caused the loss of property. Many wrecks attributed to defects in the track *It is also thought that in addition to the rate per mile a com- pany should pay the owner of a car a certain rate per diem. It is also thought that railways should have joint agents at com- mon centers to weigh freight in car lots to prevent under billing, giving. of false weights, etc. OPERATION OF TBAINS. 99 have been due to defects of equipment, and there is reason to believe that derailment of cars attrib- uted to the breaking of rails is often due to de- fective equipment. Many accidents attributed to the track should really be charged to overloaded cars, sprung axles, defective wheels, weak arch bracket truck bars, arch bars of unequal length, the placing of light cars between heavy ones, and Peruvian Carrier. similar reasons. They are worthy of mention here because they emphasize the necessity of cars being inspected systematically and at frequent intervals. To insure proper knowledge of cars used in interline traffic they must be inspected at all junction points; this is necessary to ascertain the fitness of vehicles for service and their con- 100 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; dition with a view to determining liability for re- pairs and so on. There will be points at which it will not be practicable to have joint inspection of cars at transfer points, but the practice should be general. Its proper consummation is a mere matter of detail, that will in time be fully per- fected. With the advance in knowledge of sanitary laws and the realization of the importance of their observance, the equipment and property of railways have fallen more or less within their purview until the hygienic department of a rail- way has become one of its important adjuncts. The comfort of patrons and their protection from noxious and infectious diseases is greatly en- hanced thereby. The subject merits continued attention and well defined rules and regulations. The health and strength of employes will also be greatly enhanced by such a course. The ends to be attained are cleanliness, prevention of water pollution, disinfection of articles and places likely to breed or disseminate disease. Stations, oflBces, shops, buildings, water closets, outhouses, yards and tracks are to be kept clean, and ac- cumulations of decaying matter systematically removed or rendered harmless; water closets, privies, drains and sewers especially are to be periodically cleansed and disinfected; cars are to be heated, ventilated, cleansed and disinfected under well defined rules; drinking water is to be guarded from contamination; clothing, linen and upholstery is to be cleaned, aired and, when OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 101 necessary, disinfected; passengers afflicted with contagious diseases are to be properly guarded and other steps taken to prevent the spread of disease. These hygienic questions receive more and more the earnest attention of railway man- agers, and some companies think the matter of sufficient importance to maintain a bureau whose duty it is to attend exclusively to such matters. The labor is a growing one. Each day sees some advance of method and appliance. Thus, the primitive way of ventilating cars by opening windows and transoms is rapidly giving place to scientific contrivances, the dangerous and expen- sive car stove is giving way to steam or hot water, the oil lamp is giving way to gas or electricity, and so on. The service in these respects is in a transition state; the appliances of today are supplanted by something better tomorrow; the aim of managers here as elsewhere is perfection, so far as the revenue of their lines renders this possible. (nrn ffifT fi^ AT^ I flf^l CHAPTEE VI. HOW THE NUMBER AND MOVEMENT OF TRAINS ARE REGULATED — THE SCHEDULE. The manipulation of trains is ever a subject of wonder and speculation, even to railroad men. The secrets enveloping the construction of the schedule under which trains are moved are to many profound and impenetrable. How officials control the labyrinthian movement of trains, how watch them as they wind in and out, how adjust so nicely the time of their arrival at meeting and passing points, how keep them all in motion, regulate their speed and give to each the exact consideration its importance merits, are ques- tions many can never understand. They know that somewhere there is a mysterious chart, whereon at intervals the superintendent works; that upon this he fixes the character, speed and stopping places of trains, notes their meeting and passing points, the time they shall start and the hour they shall reach their destination. Some of them have had surreptitious glimpses of this wonderful chart through partly closed doors, but their view has been obstructed and their faculties of observation numbed by the presence of the superintendent, who paced the room with meas- ured stride, or bent over his work, pencil in hand. 104 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; with absent air and corrugated brow, like one who sought in vain the solution of some diflBcult problem. They have noted w^ith awe the hiero- glyphics, pregnant with meaning, that covered the broad white surface of the mysterious chart; the stations printed in big black letters of vary- ing size and type and evidently deriving a fictitious importance from that fact; the broad lines of dif- ferent color that traversed its face. Nor have they failed to note the faint, irregular lines drawn by a tremulous hand here and there, apparently without method or object, beginning and ending in space, feeble, inconsequential, indefinite, like disconnected dreams or half completed thoughts. While they know or surmise that these faint, irregular, half obliterated lines forecast moving trains, that they represent organized, harmonious action, that each line is a completed idea, they do not know how these ideas, clothed in the sym- bolical language in which they see them spread upon the chart, are to be subsequently arranged and grouped, how condensed into the simple form they present in the printed schedule.* * Sometimes twine or thread of different colors is used on the chart instead of pencil marks. In such cases one color will stand for a passenger train, another color for a freight train, and so on. If the track is used by trains belonging to different companies, still other colors are used. In preparing the time chart a large sheet of drawing paper is stretched on a smooth surface and mounted. The chart is ruled with horizontal lines, each line rep- resenting a station or siding, the name of the station or siding being i^rinted at the end of the line. Heavy perpendicular lines represent the hours, the number of the hours being printed at the top of the line. Thus, 12 midnight will be marked at the top of OPERATION OF TBAINS. 105 While any of us may without much labor be- come acquainted with the charts that the super- intendent uses in constructing his table of trains, we can not without study, and long association with his duties and responsibilities, understand the nice distinctions that govern him in his work. Each schedule, however, presents many features that seldom change ; thus, certain passenger trains are like the staple articles the grocer is compelled to keep, whether profitable or not; their aban- donment is not contemplated, and the most trivial changes in their organization or time pre- cipitates upon the management the indignation of the community; its outraged feelings find utter- ance in long petitions, sarcastic newspaper arti- the first perpendicular line, and the twenty-four hours following, until the next midnight. Between the hour lines ten minute in- tervals will be indicated by lighter lines, and between these again five minute, two minute or one minute intervals, as may be de- sired, by still lighter lines. A passenger train with a running time of, say, thirty miles an hour, leaves one terminus of the road, Chicago for example, at 9 a. m. ; a red thread represents the train, and is attached to a pin which is inserted in the horizontal line for Chicago at the 9 a. m. time mark. If the train runs without stopping for fifteen miles another pin is inserted in the line repre- senting the station at which the first stop is made, and at the place where it is crossed by the line representing 9 :30 a. m., and the red thread stretched to and wrapped around this pin. If the train stops at this station ten minutes another pin is inserted in the same station line at the crossing of the line representing 9 :40 a. m., and the thread stretched along the station line to this and again fastened, and stretched to the next stopping place, and so on. The other regular trains are indicated in a similar manner, until the time chart when finished looks like some new kind of fancy lace work. All that remains to be done is to copy the sta- tions and time on a blank schedule for the printer. 106 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; cles, mass meetings, waiting committees and other devices intended to awaken the sensibilities of the officials in the most lively manner. Aside from this feature, the amount of business, its source, and the direction it will take, are care- fully considered in constructing the schedule. These calculations, which are considered anew as Carriage in India. new schedules are constructed, have reference more particularly, however, to freight traffic, and the number of trains required to do the business with expedition and economy. But the growing passenger traffic of many lines necessi- tates similar calculations in regard to this de- partment of the service.* * The life of a schedule varies from a day to six months; it is the creature of circumstances. OPEBA TION OF TBAIN8. 107 The number of passenger trains is seldom re- duced. New trains are added as business in- creases. The standard passenger trains run year after year, with the monotony of an ever swing- ing pendulum^ until each train in time comes to have a name and character along the route, and people speak of it as they do of the sun or moon or the recurring crops. Many freight trains also are to be classed as staple; a certain number is necessary to do busi- ness. In common with passenger trains they will at certain seasons of the year oftentimes present a beggarly appearance, but they are so necessary to the convenience of the community that they escape the reductions that overtake un- productiveness elsewhere. Many other things are to be provided for in constructing the schedule. Thus close connec- tions at junctions with other roads are to be made, and this phase of the subject oftentimes tries the patience and ingenuity of the officials to the utmost. All of us, perhaps, feel grateful for being able to make easy and swift connection at the junctions on our route, but few of us stop to realize that this happy conjunction of circum- stances is the result of many.compromises among the companies in interest, of many long and angry communications, much bitterness of feel- ing, much contention, closed finally by satisfac- tory agreements and counter agreements. Often- times the connections with other lines have to be made only at one end of the road. It thus 108 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; becomes of the greatest importance that trains going in that direction should reach their desti- nation at a particular hour. But when these trains shall start upon their return journey is a purely local question, to be considered only in relation to other local questions. The economical management of railways re- quires that the schedule should provide only for the minimum number of trains. It specifies the precise minute each schedule train shall start, the time it shall leave the various stations and sidings, and the hour it shall reach its destination. In the appendix hereto will be found a diagram used in making up the schedule (time card) for a single track road. A reference to it will explain more clearly than words how it is used. The diagonal lines represent trains, the dotted lines a special train, i. e.^ one not provided for on the regular time table. The stations where the lines intersect each other represent meeting points. The diagram also shows the time trains stop at the different stations when such stops exceed five minutes. The heavy vertical lines divide the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight into hours. The lighter vertical lines subdivide the hours into periods of five minutes each. The zigzag line shown on the diagram, it is evident, represents a way freight, the time being slow and the number of stops frequent, seven hours being occupied in running ninety-five miles. Irregular trains, supplementing those not pro- vided for on a time card, are oftentimes run as OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 109 sections of regular trains — either preceding or following the latter and having the same rights. When not practicable to run extra trains in this manner, their movement is outlined on the dia- gram by an additional line and they are operated under special orders, telegraphic or otherwise.* Trains provided for in the schedule are called regular trains; each has its number; those going in one direction bear odd numbers, those moving Carriage in Aden. in a contrary direction are given even numbers. Thus to know the number of a train is to know its direction. The American Railway Associa- tion suggests in reference to the designation of through trains: "That on lines where trains, either in part ,or in whole, run over different sys- tems, such trains be designated with the same numbers, as far as practicable, from the initial to * Appendix A. 110 , SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; the terminal station on the same route, however extended, and that snch record be kept by some one designated by the management of snch lines, and a detailed statement made monthly, showing the time of snch trains leaving initial and arriv- ing at terminal points; time lost, time gained en route, cause of lost time, and such reports sub- mitted to the general manager and others of the lines interested." The relative importance of trains is indicated by the grade given them, as first, second, third and so on. The number of grades is unrestricted. The schedule fixes the grade of each train. The rules and regulations forming a part of the schedule accurately define the rights possessed by each grade. Thus they will provide that pas- senger trains northward bound will only be re- quired to wait five minutes at meeting points in the event trains of the same grade moving in an opposite direction are delayed ; after that they will proceed on their way, keeping five minutes behind their schedule time, until the belated trains are met; but in the event a north bound passenger train is delayed, the train going south will be compelled to wait thirty minutes at the meeting point before proceeding; after that it may re- sume its journey, keeping, however, thirty min- utes behind its time until it meets the delayed train. Trains of an inferior grade are required to keep out of the way of those of a sux)erior grade. Thus i^ at a meeting point two trains of OP EB AT ION OF TBAINS. Ill dissimilar grade, the train of superior rank is late, the train of inferior grade must wait indefi- nitely. The length of time a train must be be- hind time before it loses its rights as a regular train varies with different roads from eight to twenty-four hours. After a certain time it is not recognized at all and can only proceed under special orders, or in company with some other train. If a train is operated under special instruc- tions, {i. e., pursuing its way from point to point as ordered, without reference to the time in- dicated in the schedule), it is called a special train.* The special trains in motion upon a line are sometimes greatly in excess of the number of regular trains provided for by the schedule. When the business of a road necessitates a temporary increase in the number of its trains, or when delay or accident overtakes those in motion, in America the telegraph is brought into use to accelerate their movements. This phase of the subject I take occasion to refer to else- where. The clerical work involved in the preparation of a new time table or schedule is quite laborious and requires the utmost clearness and exactness. The work is not difficult when once understood, but a proper understanding requires experience and study. The practices of railways in different countries are very much alike in respect to the preparation of their schedules; the usage of ♦ At one time such trains were called " Wild." 112 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; one is the usage of all. An English writer* thus describes how a time table is made: '' The time tables of the London & North- West- ern are printed at Newton-le- Willows. To that town, within a few days of the train alterations having been decided upon by the oflScers' confer- ence, there repairs a clerk from each of the ten districts, and with these ten clerks comes an official from the office of the superintendent to supervise their labors and assist them with his experience. Taking the minutes of the officers' Carriage in Khiva. conference as their guide, the clerks proceed to revise the time table, each working out the time for his own section of the line, but all comparing notes as they proceed so as to ensure harmony. As they progress the results of their labors are placed in the hands of the printers, on the spot, and the proof sheets are afterward revised and corrected by the clerks who have prepared them. No one who has ever glanced with an intelligent eye at the time table of a great railway will be ♦Colonel Findlay, "The Working and Management of an Eng- lish Railway." OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 113 surprised to learn that this operation is one of the most complicated nature, involving great labor and considerable skill. This will be appar- ent if it be borne in mind that, supposing, for instance, a train running from London to Scot- land is altered in its timing ever so slightly, it involves the necessity of altering all the trains running on branch lines in connection with it, and many other trains which are affected by it. A train service is, in fact, like a house of cards; if the bottom card be interfered with, the whole edifice is disarranged, and has to be built up afresh." The mechanical skill required in constructing a time table will, in common with many other like duties, it is probable, be taught in our public schools in the course of time, just as they now teach many less interesting and instructive things. Moorish Carrier. CHAPTBE VII. HOW TO SECURE THE MOST EFFECTIVE MOVEMENT OF TRAINS — THE TRAIN DISPATCHER AND HIS METHODS. The experience and skill required to move trains with economy and safety upon a single track is much greater than upon two or more tracks. Indeed, the ability required may be said to be in the inverse ratio to the number of tracks used. Upon a double track meeting places need not be provided; where there is but one track this is of the greatest consequence. Sidings are oftentimes of sufficient length to enable passen- ger trains to meet and pass, but not adequate for freight trains. Hence the nicest calculations must be made to arrange the meeting or passing places of such trains at points where the accom- modations are sufficient. When there are three tracks the provision re- quired to be made upon double track lines for passing trains moving in the same direction is less- ened, if not obviated. When a train is to pass another upon a three track road, the forward train pursues its way at reduced speed upon the third track, while the train following overtakes and passes it on the main track. However, it sometimes happens that the third track is re- (115) 116 SCmXCE OF BAIL WATS; quired simultaneously by slow trains moving in opposite directions; when this is so one of the * opposing trains must of course wait. When four tracks are available, the manipu- lation of trains is very simple. It is still, how- ever, a matter of calculation, affording abundant scope for the exercise of experience and good judgment. Where there are four tracks, trains of the same class, or of equal or approximate gi*ade, follow each other, and only local trains are required, at infrequent inten^als, to give way to faster trains. Four tracks reduce the danger to life and property to the minimum, while facil- ity of movement and economy of operation reach the maximum. When separate tracks are provided for trains moving in opposite directions, it would seem as if life and property were surrounded with every possible safeguard. Disaster, however, perpet- ually menaces trains following each other, even at moderate rates of speed. "Anyone who has examined our reports of train accidents will have observed that about one-fifth of all those reported are rear collisions."* This statement will surprise everyone who has not given the subject thought, but there can be no doubt of its truthfulness. The danger of rear collisions is constant and menac- ing, and one of the most harassing questions that railway men have to contend with In order to secure satisfactory movement of trains, it is desirable that they start at the time ♦••Railroad Gazette.'- OPERATION OF TBAINS. 117 specified by the schedule.* When this is impos- sible the schedule should be changed so that patrons may have so much more leeway. Those who manage trains are apt to reason that lost time will be made up before the destination is reached and so concern themselves less about the matter than they otherwise would. While this may be true of through trains and no one may be finally inconvenienced, it is not so in Carriage in Caucasia. regard to suburban and local trains; they can not and do not make up the lost time, and thus not only are passengers compelled to lose time, but they and their families are annoyed and put to inconvenience. It is easy to attain * In the departure of seventeen trains between the hours of six and seven-thirty o'clock in the evenin*^ at a station of a Phila- delphia road, it was found that they were all from three to eight minutes late in starting. 118 SCmJ^CE OF RAILWAYS; eflBciency and promptness in the movement of trains if skill and intelligence are displayed in the preparation of the schedule and in other de- tails incident to their movement. Regularity in the movement of passenger trains at least may be said to be a si tie qua non of the service; an absolute essential. However, the prompt and uninterrupted movement of all trains is impor- tant. It reduces to the minimum the number of locomotives, cars, sidings and employes, and also lessens the cost of construction and the expense of operating. One of the most valuable agencies that may be employed to facilitate the movement of trains is the telegraph. It constitues an important auxil- iary arm of the service when trains are delayed or their movements are interfered with. The practice of directing the movement of trains by telegraph from a central office is a distinct feat- ure of American railway practice. It is both effective and economical. It has been found safe and superior to all other methods of accomplish- ing results when trains are delayed. Each year adds to its utility and emphasizes its usefulness. Under its operation a single track may become as useful as a double track under a less facile sys- tem. When, for any reason, a train is delayed, the train at the scheduled meeting point does not wait for the belated train, but proceeds on its way without sensible pause, new arrangements having been made by telegraph to meet the cir- cumstances of the case. The telegraph is also OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. llO effectively used in getting special trains safely and expeditiously over a road. In the movement of trains by telegraph there are two methods in vogue, known as the " single order" and the "duplicate order" systems. The latter is generally deemed superior. Under the duplicate order system, as its name implies, the order given to a train is an exact copy of the one given to the other train concerned. This being so, the order may be sent to all trains affected simultaneously. Under the single order system this can not be done, as the orders to different trains read differently. Mistakes are, therefore, liable to be made under the latter, as, for in- stance, a meeting place may be differently stated in the orders to the respective trains. Under the duplicate order system this could not occur, be- cause the dispatcher transmits the order to both trains simultaneously and in the same words. The duplicate order system it is claimed mini- mizes the telegraphic service and otherwise ex- pedites the movement of trains. Moreover, by reason of the orders to different trains being alike the mental strain on the dispatcher is less than under the other system. In moving trains under telegraphic directions great importance attaches to the order. It needs to conform to certain well defined requirements. It should be explicit. It should not be en- cumbered with extraneous matter, but should relate solely to the movement directed. It should be brief, clean cut and simple. It should Carriage in India. OPEBATION OF TBA1N8. 121 be expressed in certain formulated and well understood expressions, free from ambiguity. It should relate to one transaction only. The re- cipient of an order can not construe it as author- izing him to do something not specifically stated. Nor can he be allowed to apply its directions to any other trains than those specified. Details connected with train orders are equally important. It is necessary that they be legibly written; that they be numbered consecutively to permit of their identification; that each order be written on a separate paper; that the engi- neer be furnished with a place for posting his orders, so that they may be before his eyes while he is attending to his duties; that duplicates shall be made by some mechanical or manifolding process so that no possibility of variance shall occur. Each step taken in the issuance of an order should be noted on the original by the dis- patcher. The document will thus record on its face all its salient features, such as the name of the person who issued it, the names of the opera- tors concerned, the time each step was taken, to whom the order was addressed, and so on. It is also important that the greatest care should be exercised in receiving and delivering orders to the persons interested. Every station should be provided with a device or signal by which the operator can stop trains for which he holds orders. This device should be of a distinctive character, so arranged that it can be worked by the operator without leaving his instrument. 122 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; Special care must be taken to avoid giving orders to one pei-son that are intended for another; to facilitate this receptacles should be provided, so arranged that they will prevent orders becoming mixed. Finally, every person receiving a train order should be required to sign a receipt therefor. The following are the steps to be taken in transmitting train orders: The order is written down as received. It is then repeated back to the dispatcher. The dispatcher responds, saying whether it is correct or not. If wrong he cor- rects it. The receiWng operator acknowledges this response of the dispatcher. The order is compared (if it is not copied in manifold) by the person to whom addressed with the operator's copy. The person receiving it then signs his name. This signature is telegi-aphed to the dis- patcher. The dispatcher then replies, acknowl- edging the signature, and directs that the order be delivered. This authorization is endorsed on the order. The order is then delivered to the persons to whom addressed.* The telegraph is an auxiliary merely, not the principal factor in the movement of trains. Care is taken to avoid the necessity of using it except in emergencies. The time table is the chief re- liance; but circumstances constantly intei-^ene to render it, by itself, inadequate; accidents hap- ♦ When a young man, I acted as train dispatcher and thus be- came practically familiar with the movement of trains by tele- graph. I am also indebted to J. A. Anderson's book ''The Train Wire.*^ M. M. K. OPERATION OF TBAIN8. 123 pen, unforeseen delays occur, the road becomes blocked, special and extra trains require to be run, — a thousand circumstances occur to render it necessary to supplement the schedule with the use of the telegraph. It is desirable on economical grounds, if no other, that trains should, so far as possible, have a place assigned them in the schedule and that the number of special trains should be reduced to the minimum. The practice of starting trains without regard to the time table and moving them from station to station on telegraphic or- ders results in more or less confusion and loss of time. This adds to the cost. Trains operated under special orders can not be allowed to follow each other too closely; nor can the margin of time for opposing trains to meet and pass be too greatly circumscribed. Time is lost in other ways. So that while the telegraphic movement of trains is valuable in emergencies, it is not so economical as the operation of trains by printed schedules. While the telegraphic movement of trains has been of great utility to railroads and has added enormously to the convenience, comfort and profit of the public, it has its drawback in the fact that it is attended with more danger than the slower and more methodical government of trains by printed schedules. The risk has, how- ever, never been such as to excite attention or to offset the advantages that the system affords. Carriage in Burmah. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 125 In England, where the block system is in gen- eral use, train dispatching is unknown. The tele- graph is, however, utilized, but in a different way. A writer on the subject says:* *' By means of the telegraph trains are started from stations and conducted safely from point to point throughout their journey; the signal- men who regulate their passage are placed in an unbroken chain of communication one with the other; the nature of the train and its des- tination, and the fact of its punctual running or otherwise, are flashed ahead from signal cabin to signal cabin as \t speeds on its journey; while the faithful telegraph warns the signal- man if his signals are not acting freely or if his lamps are not burning brightly. By tele- graph the marshalling of goods wagons, the loading of trains, and the movements of empty wagons are intelligently controlled, and the whole business of the railway is carried on with a promptitude and despatch that could not other- wise be attained. To insure the principal station masters and inspectors being kept well posted as to the working of the line and the movement of the trains, a most elaborate system is in force for telegraphing the progress of the trains from point to point. For instance, the telegraph clerk at Stafford will telegraph the time of departure of all trains from Stafford, to Crewe, to Chester, to Wolverhampton, to Tamworth, to Warrington and to any other stations at which the informa- tion is useful, and this is continually going on all over the line, and from almost every station and signal cabin." * Colonel George Findlay. 126 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS: In the United States train dispatching by means of the telegraph is a necessary adjunct to the operation of trains upon the great bulk of our Carriage in India. roads. Moreover, it has reached a state of devel- opment in this particular field that has rendered it an art so intricate that years of experience are OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 127 required for its mastery. As in other branches of the service, perfection can not be said to have been reached. Added experience and improved appliances each day suggest some advance. The use of the telegraph enables the official in charge to view, as in a mirror, the whole traffic of a line and issue such orders for its better government as the exigences of the moment require. This officer is known as THE TRAIN DISPATCHER.* This officer is governed in his methods by cer- tain well understood regulations that do not ad- mit of variability of interpretation. Thus he must be sure that his orders reach those they are intended to govern and that the latter advise him of their interpretation of them. The force must also have absolute confidence in his skill. Upon his efficiency depends the good repute of the company, the safety of life and prop- erty, the expeditious and economical discharge of business. The work of the train dispatcher requires his undivided attention; he has no other duties. His office is purposely isolated. He is usually an oper- ator, acquainted with the road, its cuts, curves, gradients, sidings, business, etc. He knows accu- rately the capacity of the equipment with which ♦The duties of the train dispatcher and superintendent are always closely allied; in many cases both offices are filled by the same incumbent. For a full description of the superintendent and his duties, the reader is referred to the volume " Organiza- tion and Forces." 128 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; he works, and is a man of good judgment and habits. He is assisted when necessary by com- petent operators. These assistants are especially adapted to their work, and, in fact, possess the same genei*al characteristics as their chief, whose place they in the coui*se of time will fill. The duties of the train dispatcher are greatly lessened with the double tracking of a road, the disciplining of its forces and the perfecting of its equipment and track. The train dispatcher is the creature of emergencies. He is the doctor that is called in when his patients (the trains) become in-egular; when the digestive or respiratory or- gans become clogged. He watches the trains as they creep along the road very much as a spider watches the flies that buzz about his web. The moment anything irregular occurs he seizes them, and tells each conductor and engineer what to do. These latter go to the station to receive their orders and obey implicitly what he says. The telegraph is his amanuensis. He is imperturb- able; nothing disturbs the equanimity of his tem- per. His head is clear, his mind comprehensive, his action prompt. Familiar with every detail, he takes advantage of every circumstance. He knows every rule and regulation by heart, and the ex- perience, talents and characteristics of the men are as an open book to him. It is the especial duty of the train dispatcher to designate the meeting and passing places of trains opei'ated by telegraphic directions. Trains are thus kept in motion that would otherwise OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 129 have to lie inactive awaiting other trains. The convenience that this affords the traveling public and shippers of freight no one but those versed in railway matters appreciate. It is exceedingly difficult for a number of trains of varying weight and power, advancing from op- posite directions upon a single track, to move with the regularity necessary to enable them to meet and pass each other at places designated in advance on the schedule. Many things conspire to accelerate or retard the progress of particular trains, such as the number and weight of cars, the eflBciency of engines, the skill of drivers, the state of the track, the character of the grades, the direction of the wind, the density of the atmos- phere, the activity of the station force, and the efficiency and industry of conductors and their assistants. The train that moves forward with- out difficulty at the rate of fifteen miles an hour today may be barely able to make ten miles an hour tomorrow. All these irregularities and in- equalities are recognized and provided for by the train dispatcher. He advances trains from one point to another without reference to the sched- ule, when advantage is to be gained thereby. Thus, trains are moved ahead until slower trains are met, the meeting place depending upon the exigencies of the hour. When regular trains are moved by telegraph, they do not necessarily lose the rights awarded them by the schedule, except so far as they may be specially affected. The moment a special lao scmscE of RAILWATS; order is fulfilled, or ceases to operate, the train it concerns resumes the fixed rights it possesses as specified in the schedule; if a regnlar tiain, it conforms to that instrument; if a special train, it awaits further instructions from the dispatcher before proceeding, or seeks the protection of a r^ular train. Special orders are rarely if ever issued that af- fect passenger trains, except when they are be- hind time, in which case the telegraph is brought into requisition for the purpose of expediting their moTements, and at the same time keeping other trains in motion. When there are a great number of freight trains in motion, in excess of those provided for by the schedule, or when they are for any reason delayed, they are moved by the dispatcher on special orders, without much, if any, reference to the time table. Like the pieces on a chessboard, they move in harmony with his will and are ultimately brought safely to their destinations. He constructs in his mind's eye a schedule adapted to the exigencies of each occasion and executes it with clearness, expedition and safe- ty. Of course there are degrees of excellence here as elsewhere; the mind of one dispatcher wiQ be clear, quick to apprehend and execute; the mind of another slow, heavy witted, fatty. The duty requires a good memory and the exer- cise of the nicest judgment. Where there is more than one track the problems are greatly simplified. OPEBA TION OF TBAIN8. 181 The capacity of a single track road may be doubled and quadrupled by a skillful use of the telegraph in the movement of trains. The statement appended below of the perform- ance of trains for fourteen consecutive days upon a single track road one hundred and eight miles in length, shoves apparently how much business may be done by the skillful use of the telegraph. The bulk of the trains were thus moved. No accident or mishap of any kind attended their manipulation. The results indicate an expert dispatcher and an eflBcient organization. They demonstrate the possibilities of a single track line.* The more the question of the movement of trains by telegraph is studied, the simpler it be- comes. This is the secret of its popularity and success. Through its aid managers are able to make meagre resources accomplish great results. It is worthy of study and practice therefore in every country. The so-called staff system is a favorite means of protecting trains on single track roads in England. It may thus be described: The road * Total number passenger trains west bound, 56 " east " 56 " '' freight " west " 308 east '• 301 721 Freight cars in west bound trains, - - - - 7,701 Freight cars in east bound trains, - - . 7,272 14,073 Average number of cars per train, - . _ . 24.59 " '• trains per day of twenty-four hours, 61,50 J 182 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; is divided into sections. On starting out, the engineer is given a staff marked with the boundaries of the section it covers. This indi- cates that he has the right of way on the section in question and that the track is clear. A second train can not be started before the staff is re- turned. On arriving at the end of the section, the engineer hands the staff to a designated per- son and receives another for the next section, and so on to the end of his run. The staff he leaves is used by the next train going in an opposite direction. Tablets or tickets supple- ment the staff when two or more trains are to follow one another in the same direction: all OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 183 except the last train are given a tablet or ticket; the last train carries the staff. Some roads use tablets or tickets exclusively. Some of the drawbacks to the staff system are the time required to return the staff to the start- ing point and consequent delay of following trains; delivery of the staff by an engineer with- out being sure that he has the whole of his train ; difficulty of delivering the staff to the engineer without slacking speed; liability of dropping or losing the staff en route, etc. The value of the staff system has been enhanced by the use of electricity. Thus, a number of staffs are pro- vided at the place of distribution; they are placed in receptacles controlled by electrical and mechanical devices so that only one staff can be withdrawn at a time, and until the staff thus withdrawn is deposited in its receptacle at the other end of the block another staff can not be reached or used. By this means the necessity of awaiting the return of the staff may be avoided. In the end of the staff a key is placed for un- locking the switches on the block to which it belongs, the lock being so arranged that the key can not be withdrawn until the switch is reset for the main track and locked. A device similar to that used in America for taking up mail bags without stopping is sometimes used for taking a staff or tablet without slacking speed. J Carriage in India. CHAPTEE yill. INCIDENTS AND APPLIANCES CONNECTED WITH THE MOVEMENT OF TRAINS — THE LOCOMOTIVE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT, POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITA- TIONS — SPEED — LUBRICATION — BRAKES — MAR- SHALLING TRAINS — SWITCHING" BY GRAVITA- TION, ETC. In considering the movement of trains, the motive power and other important mechanical appliances can not be ignored. To consider the subject in its entirety, however, is neither de- sirable nor practicable in a work of this kind. Such elucidation would involve an essay on the varied devices used; a treatise on mechanics, in fact. The locomotive has a great deal of work to perform besides overcoming the inertia, the dead load, of the train it hauls. It has to overcome the resistance of the air; the back pressure of steam on the pistons; the friction of the working parts of the machine, the axles in their boxes, the wheels on the rails, including that of the flanges when passing over curves; the resistance caused by the oscillation of the train, also that of- fered by its own weight. In ascending a grade it must lift the train, including its own weight, a distance equal to the height of the ascent. 186 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA T8; The resistance of the atmosphere has been found by experiments to be a very important factor with high speed trains, amounting some- times to more than one-half the total resistance, the greater portion of which applies directly to the locomotive. This was proved by two engines of which the resistance was measured separately and found to be 19.8 pounds per ton at thirty- seven miles an hour. Being coupled together and again tried, the resistance fell to 14.3 pounds per ton, the second engine being masked by the first. It is thought, therefore, that by a suitable contrivance at the front of a locomotive a saving of from eight to ten per cent, of the effective power might be made, and that by shielding the intermediate spaces between the coaches, a fur- ther and very material reduction of atmospheric resistance might be effected. '' The resistance of the atmosphere to the passage of a train is pro- portionate to the square of the velocity of the train. It has been found that the increase in ocean going steamers from eleven to twelve and a half knots involved an additional expenditure of forty-seven and a half per cent, for steam. '^ * The resistance to trains has been the siibject of much experiment; more so in Europe than in America. The result of these experiments indi- cates that it requires a force of from four to six pounds per ton of two thousand pounds to move a car slowly on a level and straight track after it has been started. As the speed is increased so * J. S.Jeans. OPEBATION OF TliAlNS. 187 also is the resistance. It is claimed that the latter increases with the square of the velocity, i. e., it is four times as great at a speed of fifty miles per hour as at a speed of twenty-five miles per hour. On the other hand, up to a certain point the moving power is increased as the speed increases. From experiments made in 1890 on the state railways of France it was found that the maximum power of a passenger locomotive of a certain class was developed at a speed of twenty-one and three-quarter miles per hour, but beyond that the power decreased as the speed increased. The curves of a railroad afford another element of resistance, but the different degrees do not appear to be known. European authorities estimate that, with their cars, which, as a rule, have long and rigid wheel bases, the resistance is increased about one per cent, for each degree of curvature. In America, where the double truck is generally used on cars, the resistance would be less. The ability of an engine to haul a load in- creases with its adhesive power, that is, with the weight on its driving wheels, and the size of its boiler. So that, except for the injury to the track and driving wheels of the locomotive, oc- casioned by enlarging the machine, there would be, practically, no limit to the load that might be hauled. But while this is true, it is also true that to overcome the destructive power occa- sioned by the increased weight, all the various parts of the machine must be made proportion- 138 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; ately strong. This obstacle will, therefore, it is apparent, forever limit the weight of the ma- chine and, consequently, the load it may haul. The speed with which a locomotive may haul a train will also always be limited, because the re- tarding force of the train increases greater, rela- tively, than the speed. The hauling power of a machine is increased by adding to the number of driving wheels, pro- vided the weight thereon is increased proportion- ately. In the case of switching engines, the whole weight of the machine is thus placed. Surprising progress has been made in the con- struction of locomotives, untU we have engines especially adapted to the particular uses to which they are to be put.* * Among tfaem may be enumerated these : Ugtit four wheeled switching engines for yards and aTenge service. Medium four wheeled switching engines for yards and aTerage service. Light wheeled pa^enger engines for the various dasees of trains on the main line and branches. Medium wheeled passenger engines for the various elates of trains on the main line and branches. Heavy wheeled passenger engines for the various classes of trains on the main line and branches. Heavy six wheeled switching «ig^es for work in the larger terminal yards. Medium wheeled freight «igines for ordinary branch and main line service. Heavy wheeled freight engines for ordinary branch and main line service. Consolidation en^nes for heavy slow freights. Mogul engines for heavy fast frei^t and passenger. Trai wheeled engines for heavy fast freight and passenger. Decapods for the heaviest woiiL on long grades. OPERA TIOK OF TRAIKS. 189 In the calculation of forces that govern a locomotive it is estimated that the force required to make its wheels slip, under normal conditions, is equal to about one-fourth the weight thereon. Forne5% in his valuable catechism of the locomo- tive, saj^s: " The proportion of the adhesion to the weight on the driving wheels is about as follows: On dry sanded rails it is equal to one-third ; on perfectly dry rails, without sand, it is one-fourth; Caucasian Carrier. under ordinary conditions, without sand, or on wet sanded rails, one-fifth; on wet or frosty rails, one-sixth." The locomotive is the ideal feature in railway life; the complete train its fullest fruition. The evolution in the constituent pai-ts of a train since the first one was operated has been great. Gradually the form and utility of the locomotive and car have adjusted themselves to actual conditions of business. At first the latter 140 SCIENCE OF UAILWATS; was merely a duplicate of the old fashioned stage coach. The locomotive differed little from the stationary engine. The utilization of steam was the one thing new. In the pictures still extant of the first car that ran we see a duplicate of the stage coaches then iu use. There has been less departure from the original model in England than in America. In England passengers are still required to enter at the side as in olden times, whDe we, consolidating three or more coaches into one, enter upon platforms designed for the purpose at the ends of the consolidated coach. The earliest reference to steam engines is said to be made by Hero of Alexandria aBout 130 B. C. He describes two devices operated by steam, one of which was used for opening and closing the doors of a temple. No great progress seems to have been made in the utilization of this force till the seventeenth century. In the middle of the eighteenth century came Watt and after him Tre- vithick and Stephenson, who adapted Watt's dis- covery to locomotives. The first machine manu- factured by Stephenson possessed little to recom- mend it except the idea it illustrated. The im- provements that have since been made have been so numerous and important that about all we can credit to Stephenson is the utilization of steam. The development of the locomotive has been like the growth of a tree. The machinery required to construct its intricate parts has had to be in- vented. Ability to utilize a discovery, therefore. OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 141 has in every case been dependent upon another discovery or invention. Happily these have gone hand in hand. Thus inventors and manufac- turers have advanced until the extent and nature of their efforts surpass our ability to describe. In the early history of railroads an American company offered a prize of four thousand dollars for the best locomotive, the weight of which was not to exceed three and one-half tons; it was to be able to draw fifteen tons and possess a maxi- mum speed of fifteen miles per hour. Today locomotives weigh seventy-five tons and are capable of hauling three thousand tons. The latest phase in the evolution of the loco- motive is the utilization of the compound prin- ciple, by which the steam acts upon two or more cylinders and pistons in succession instead of one. It is claimed by its advocates that a large per- centage of fuel is saved by this means because of the greater degree of steam expansion utilized. This method of economizing force has long been utilized with marine and other engines. Those, however, who do not favor its adaptation to the locomotive claim that the compound engine is not suitable for a variable class of service; is more difficult to keep in condition; is not so regular in performance; costs more for lubricants, and needs more repairs than the ordinary machine. Many of the locomotives now being constructed can attain a speed of eighty miles an hour. It is impossible to say what rate may be reached here- after. 142 SdEWCE OF RAILWAYS; The attamment of an average speed of one hundred miles per honr is not visionary. Already trains have been run for considerable distances at an even greater rate. The attendant conditions, however, mean mnch besides the construction of the machine. They mean that the road bed must be scientifically constructed of the best material and maintained in perfect condition; that bridges must be of commensurate strength; that grade crossings must be carefully guarded, or abolished Aym. altogether; that curves and gradients should be reduced to the minimum; that rails should be of the heaviest type and of the best metal; that equipment should be strongly constructed; that brakes should be eflficacious; that switches should be proof from accidental misplacement; that drawbridges should be made secure beyond per- adventure; that methods of signaling and opera- ting should be of the m(^ approved character; that employes should be capable, vigilant and trustworthy, and governed by a discipline that OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 148 will develop their highest capabilities and obe- dience.* The speed of trains is an element of enormous economic importance at all times, but especially so in a country where trade centers are widely separated. Carriers may expand or contract these distances at pleasure. Speed is an element of especial importance in suburban travel of rail- roads, a saving of ten or fifteen minutes being sufficient to enormously increase a traffic. The speed of trains varies greatly in different countries, according to the character of the road and the traffic hauled. The speed of trains of all * '• The real danger in increasing the speed of expresses driven by steam does not lie in incidental risks. It is not denied that a modern locomotive might be built which could run up to ninety or possibly one hundred miles an hour, if the lines were straight. It is the curves of the existing lines which render any such speeds impossible, unless the weight of the engines and trains were also increased far beyond what the bridges and permanent way would bear. At the first sharp curve the one hundred mile ex- press would fly off the rails. The necessary relation of these curves to speed is accurately known, and it is that, and not the want of power or novel dangers from wind pressure or boiler explosions, which sets the limit to modern train speed. As the force tending to throw off the line a train running at the speed of one hundred and fifty miles an hour would be about six and a half times greater than that which a steam express train resists at a curve when running at sixty miles an hour, it is plain that the present lines could not be used for the ' lightning express,' even though the electro-motor were substituted for the steam engine. The line must not only be stronger, but straighter than would be possible by any modification of their present form." — The Spec- tator. It is probable" that the writer has particular reference to English roads and machinery, especially the latter. The adjust- able character of American equipment he probably knows noth- ing about. 144 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; kinds has heretofore averaged higher in England than in America. In England the speed of freight trains is probably double that of similar trains in America, while the average speed of passenger trains is perhaps a third greater. The reason is, the vehicles are lighter and the road bed more carefully constructed. This last obstacle is, how- ever, being rapidly overcome in America. For many years the American companies were poor and the traflSc light. Railroads were required to be cheaply built in order to be built at all. Economical management was also a neces- sity. Neither of these things was conducive to fast trains. Both have, however, been over- come in many, perhaps the majority of in- stances, so that a speed of sixty miles an hour is not a matter of rare occurrence at the present time. With growth of business and improvement in construction, railroads will still further increase their speed. Ultimately they will carry three loads where they have carried one. The world is too busy, facilities of carriers too limited and time too valuable to be wasted in getting from place to place. A carrier that can perform in thirty minutes what has before taken an hour and a half, will save so much; his patrons too will be saved, and the commerce of the world accelerated correspondingly. The carriers' prof- its will be greatly enhanced in the future from increased utilization of his equipment, property and force by increased speed and economy of time. OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 145 The added protection that faster trains will need is a detail merely. Trains earn money only while in motion. The quicker a train reaches its destination, all things considered, the greater the economy. To lessen the speed of a train unnecessarily, or detain it at a switch, station or water tank, adds to the cost of operating and reduces the earnings capacity, not only of the train, but of the property as a whole. The time will come in the operation of railways when nothing but the loading and un- loading of traffic will be allowed to impede the the progress of a train. Carriage in Madeira. In conclusion it may be said that the more nearly a train can be moved at a uniform rate of speed, wherever the character of the road is sim- ilar, the better. How to secure this uniformity occupies the thought of those concerned in such matters. One means is the use of automatic rec- ords indicating the speed of the train at every point thoroughout its course. After the trip is over these records are forwarded to the person whose duty it is to look after the matter. Any loitering or undue haste he discovers. It follows from this that those who operate trains most 10 146 SCIENCE OF -RAILWAYS; favorably receive credit therefor, while those who are inefficient do not escape detection. Two things of especial importance are secured, avoid- ance of undue wear and tear of property by reckless running, and waste of time by idleness and inefficiency. The movement of trains each year becomes more orderly, more regular. Improvement will go on, it is probable, so long as railways are oper- ated. A perfect train service is not attainable, any more than perfection in anything else. How- ever, it may approximate perfection. One of the means to this end is more perfect appliances. Among others may be mentioned a journal box that will not heat. Those versed in such matters ascribe hot boxes to defects in design, poor quality of metal and the use of inferior oil or waste. They are also caused by insufficient lu- bricants and by allowing the waste next the journal to become foul through imperfect pro- tection from dust or long use. In the latter case the lubricant can not percolate through the waste to reach the journal, a gummy surface forming on the waste preventing perfect lubrication. Hot boxes are also caused by fibres of waste working between the bearing and the journal; also by use of new waste and heavy and continued ap- plication of brakes. To prevent hot boxes, frequent and careful ex- amination must be made and defects remedied. The difficulty may be avoided by frequent appli- cation of small quantities of good oil and so OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 147 constructing the boxes as to prevent the entrance of dust. These measures, while diffi- cult of fulfillment, are not impossible. Great advancement has been made in the eco- nomical use of lubricants; by tests; by compar- ison of results; by more careful and scientific methods of preparation and use; by mixing dif- ferent qualities and grades for different uses; by the application of devices whereby the parts are fed with oil drop by drop as needed. It is ap- parent, however, that methods and devices are still exceedingly crude and that great advances are likely to be made in this branch of the ser- vice in the near future. There is great room for improvement in the quality of the lubricants used and in devices for applying them automat- ically and otherwise. In the practical applica- tion of oils only enough oil should be applied to create a film between the journal and the bear- ing, — a drop. How different is this from early practices. A system of comparisons of records of oil used on different engines has had a bene- ficial effect in creating interest in the subject. Similar comparisons of car mileage with given quantities of different oils and appliances have also led to valuable results. The brake is another important device in the movement of trains. Its requirements are, how- ever, not much better known, generally, today than fifty years ago. Great improvements have, however, been made. But what we esteem per- fect today is far from satisfactory tomorrow. So 148 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; far as we are able to judge, at this time, a perfect bi-ake is one that perfectly controls the train under every circumstance as regards speed, weather, load and grade. It must be automatic and self applied in case of the separation of a train or other accident. It must work uniformly in stopping and release its hold quickly and surely when its application is no longer needed. It must be simple, quickly and easily repaired, and reasonably economical as regards construc- tion and maintenance. In the use of brakes, especially those operated by steam or air, the brake shoe becomes a thing of great importance; the action of the brake on the wheel is directly affected by its quality. These shoes are made of cast or wrought iron, cast steel, combinations of iron and steel, wood, leather, and even paper. It is desirable, in order to secure uniform applica- tion, that the material of which the brake OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 149 shoe is made should be uniform. A writer on this subject says:* " The same air pressure throughout a train of cars on which shoes of different hardness are used, will apply a widely different friction on the wheels of the different cars. It is then impos- sible to obtain the maximum braki|ig power for hard shoes without sliding those wheels to which soft shoes are applied. It is desirable to fix upon a standard mixture for foundrymen making cast iron brake shoes. Brake shoes are made for three kinds of service: on chilled wheels, on steel tired driver wheels, and on steel tired coach wheels. Those designed for the first mentioned service are made of cast iron, or cast iron with wrought iron pieces in the face, or cast iron with chilled sections. . . . When cast iron is used a strong, tough metal soft enough to grip the wheels is economical, although its first cost is greater than a burnt grate bar scrap mixture. A mixture of number two foundry car wheels and heavy cast scrap has given good results. The combination cast and wrought iron shoe is much more durable than the plain shoe, and more desirable in re- spect to uniformity, because the same amount of wrought iron, forming one half the surface of each shoe, will be nearly of the same hardness. . . When tw^o surfaces rub together the harder will abrade the softer and the latter wear away quicker, but we are limited in the hardness of the shoes by the co-efRcient of friction neces- sary. They must be hard enough to press the tire, without the case hardening of spots which will score it, but soft enough to afford the fric- ♦ George M. Sargent. 150 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; tion necessary to make stops. It is evident that for the different classes of engines different kinds of shoes will be required. The suburban passen- ger engine, making frequent stops, should be equipped with shoes less hard than applied on a through passenger engine. The combination cast iron and steel shoe has the advantage that the proportion of each metal may be varied to suit the requirements of the service. Brake shoes for steel tired coach wheels are applied under entirely different conditions. They are made either plain or flanged. The plain cast shoe should be soft and tough. Whatever kind of metal is used in the flange coach shoe, care should be taken that the shoe is a good fit to the tire and so hung that the flange grooves in the shoes are directly opposite to the wheel flange, and above all that the brake beam be free to move laterally as the wheel and axle move. Experi- ments have proved that a brake beam hung rig- idly from the truck, in combination with the flange bi*ake shoes, forms a grinding machine capable of turning a V shaped flange, and that even with the plain shoe, lateral motion is of decided advantage in protecting the flange." Another important problem involved in the movement of trains is the marshalling of freight cars into trains. This is largely done at junc- tions and centei*s w^here the business handled is large. In order to insure economical movement of traffic it is necessary that trains shall run uninterruptedly and with full loads between im- portant points and that the traffic of interme- diate stations should be cared for by way trains, which will also collect the through business and OPEBA TlOy OF TBAINS. 151 152 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; carry it to the junctions where it may be classi- fied and marshalled into trains that will take it through to its destination. Many plans for the expeditious making up of trains are in vogue, including unique sidings and turntables of vari- ous devices and degrees of utility. I do not know that I can close this chapter more profita- bly than by describing the system of switching and marshalling of trains by gravitation as prac- ticed on an English road. The arrangement is thus described by the manager of the line:* "The sidings for outward traffic consist of : (1) Six upper reception lines at the summit of the incline holding two hundred and ninety-four wagons; (2) the sorting sidings, twenty-four in number and holding one thousand and sixty-five wagons, into which the wagons, when separated, first run, each siding receiving the wagons for a particular train; (3) two groups of marshalling sidings (called 'gridirons'), through which the wagons of each train are filtered so as to make them take their proper order in the train, and (4) four lower reception lines which receive the trains in their complete state and where the en- gines are attached to take them away. On the arrival of a set of wagons in the upper reception lines, the rear brakes are put on, the engine is detached, and then on each wagon is chalked the number of the sorting siding it has to enter. One man carefully inspects the brake of each wagon and calls out the chalked number to a * Colonel Findlay. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 168 second man, standing below him, who has to regulate the speed of the descending wagons. This second man passes the number on by hand signal to the shunter lower down, who has charge of the switches, and who, by moving a lever, turns the wagon into its proper siding/^ In order to recover wagons or cars that run away or get beyond the control of those moving them, an apparatus is provided, called a chain drag. It " consists of a heavy iron chain cable placed in a wrought iron tank between the rails and below their level; a steel hook attached to the cable is fixed in a loose socket at the height of a wagon axle and is worked by a lever which also works a signal. When a train is intended to pass, the hook is lowered by the lever; but if it is desired to stop a wagon, the hook is raised by the lever and catches the axle of the wagon, and the heavy cable attached to the hook being drawn out of its tank by its weight, when dragged over the ballast, soon stops the runaway." The system of switching thus described grew out of the pecul- iarities of the ground and the impossibility of selecting any other. The emergency suggested the method of switching described. Its more general use in the future is likely to grow ort of the experiment. CHAPTEE IX. RAILWAY ACCIDENTS AND THEIR PREVENTION — (PART ONE.) The occurrence of accidents is rightly esteemed to be inseparable from travel. This will be the case so long as man is fallible and his devices fall short of absolute perfection. Accidents are the penalty we pay for abandoning primitive methods of travel; for emancipation from hum- drum conditions. Each day's experience, each new device, however, makes them more rare upon railroads. That they ever can be wholly avoided is not probable. But such catastrophes as the collision of two trains; trains running into open draw bridges; mishaps at switches, and so on, will, it is probable, be in time wholly avoided by the use of automatic appliances and other devices. Railway accidents have, from the first, been the lurid theme of impassioned writers and speakers. It is a favorite metaphor with them that thousands are annually doomed to death because of the cupidity and carelessness of rail- way companies'. This is not true even in part. These carriers employ such safeguards as come within their knowledge and means. When a man is run over by a truck on the street, or (155) 166 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; meets with other disaster in the turmoil of busi- ness, we recognize it as unavoidable, and pass on. More or less philosophy of this kind is required to be exercised in contemplating railway acci- dents. It is, for instance, just as reasonable to require that trucks and omnibuses shall not fre- quent the streets we walk upon as it is that pas- sengers shall be absolutely excluded from the track of a railway. Such safeguards as are rea- sonable, and within the ability of the carrier to Carriage in Rustchuk, Turkey. provide, should be provided. The matter is one to be regulated by good sense and the pecuniary interests of the carrier and those he serves. Marked interest is evinced by railways in all safety appliances, and, stimulated thereby, in- ventors have been and are making surprising progress in such matters. Railways are interested in adopting appliances that afford the greatest protection; this on humanitarian grounds and on grounds of self- OP EB AT ION OF TBAINS. 157 interest. If they sometimes appear dilatory, it is because their means are circumscribed or the devices are unknown to them or untried. In the multiplicity of devices offered, it is difficult even for experts to separate those that are valu- able from those that are worthless. The clamor of inventors and promoters only heightens the doubt and confusion. In this connection it will be instructive and interesting to review briefly some of the devices that have been tested and found useful. And first the interlocking switch. This device is worked from a central point, or tower. It is especially valuable in yards, at railroad crossings and draw bridges. It is a contrivance by which a track upon which a train is proceeding is closed to all others. Thus, if the switchman in the tower at a point where two or more railways cross each other opens the switch to a train on one road, he at the same time and by the same movement reverses the switches on the other roads, so that the trains of the latter are de- railed or diverted in the event they attempt to cross. Aside from the safety that the interlocking switch affords at railroad crossings, the fact that trains may cross without stopping when the track is clear adds enormously to the value of the device. The interlocking switch, as a safety device and means of facilitating business, is also of value at draw bridges. In the latter case, the draw in opening, by a mechanical device, dis- 158 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; xjonnects the track approaches to the bridge, so that an engine or train that does not stop (i. e.^ disregards the signal) is diverted or derailed. The fact that this prevents absolutely any train ronning into an open draw renders it unneces- sary, as a precautionary measure, for trains to stop that approach such bridges when the draw is closed. The split switch is another mechanical device (not dependent upon man's carefulness) by which an open switch in front of a train is closed me- chanically by the action of the wheels of the locomotive. The automatic brake is another device, so ar- ranged that if disabled to the extent that the train can no longer l>e controlled through it, the brake is applied automatically and the train stopped; or, to state it differently, the brake stops the train when the brake is no longer to be de- pended upon to perform such action at the pleas- ure of the engineer. Thus the engineer is always assured of his ability to control the movements of his train.* ♦Of all safety appliances, the air brake is probably tbe most important. It has reduced the distance in which a train can be stopped to one-fifth of the distance in which It could be stopped by hand brakes, or perhaps even less; that is, it has been shown in actual trials that a train of fifty cars running at forty miles an hour can not be stopjied on a dry and IctcI track in less than three thousand feet by hand brakes fully manned; but under the same conditions and on the same track the same train can be stopi>ed in six hundred feet with the air brake. Indeed, a fast express train with the aid of the air brake api>aratus in good condition ought to be stopped from a speed of forty mDes an hour within its own OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 169 The block system is a contrivance to prevent accidents. If the principle upon which it is based is enforced, tv^o trains or engines can not be upon a block or section of track at the same time; thus, if two trains are going south, the first must have passed from a section before the other can enter it. But the block system will not pre- vent accidents where its working depends upon man's care or intelligence. Accidents under such circumstances have been both numerous and disastrous. Thus, through oversight a section will be reported clear by the signalman when it is not; it may be occupied by a train, or by a switching engine or a detached car. The signal- man is not more infallible than ordinary mortals; indeed, where low priced men are employed, as is frequently the case, they are exceedingly falli- ble. Opportunities for omissions and mistakes are numerous and aggravating. This system, while affording considerable security, is far from infallible. The devices that are being introduced every day for operating the block system automatically length. But the most remarkable fact about the air brake is the automatic feature. It is this feature which stops a train if broken in two, or if the hose is burst. It also enables the train to be stopped instantly from any car without the loss of time neces- sary to communicate with the engineer. But what is of still greater importance in the automatic feature is that it makes the air brake quick acting by storing the air under each car, and it is the quick action of the brake that makes it possible to use it on any freight train, and that will make it possible to run long and heavy passenger trains at speeds that are now seldom reached.*' — Arthur W. Soper, 160 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; OPEBA TlOJSr OF TBAINS. 161 are both numerous and interesting, and indicate that railway trains will sooner or later be pro- tected absolutely in this way. The cost is so great, however, that the expense can not be borne except where the business of a road is large and remunerative. The automatic systems that just at this time are attracting more attention than any others may be described as follows: Under one system when a train enters a section the signals protecting it indicate danger, and remain so until the train leaves the section; but should a car break loose from a moving train, nothing would indicate the fact. On the contrary, so far as the signals indi- cated, the track would be clear when the train referred to left the station. Under another automatic device, by which the track is protected as indicated above, the signals would remain at danger if a car should be de- tached en route, or if there should be even a pair of trucks left on the section; the electrical de- vice governing the signals is connected and dis- connected by the passing of a current through the wheels and axles of the vehicles on the sec- tion, so that one axle and set of wheels are as valuable for this purpose as a whole train and would keep the signals at danger until removed. It is claimed for both these systems that, in the event the apparatus is out of order in any way, the effect is instantly to place the signals protecting the section at danger. Both these automatic devices are great advances over any- 162 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; thing previously known, though of course the last described is much more perfect than the first. But until these systems, and all others, are supplemented by another device that will divert automatically any engine or vehicle from a sec- tion that is occupied (until, in fact, the efficacy of the system is not in any way dependent upon the watchfulness of the engineer or fireman), we shall be very far from what is needed to protect trains on the main track. As already explained, the expense of any of the block systems described is much too great to be warranted on railroads generally, but upon nearly every railroad there is some portion of the line that would warrant such a system, where, in fact, the needs of business justify its introduction. Various devices are in more or less use as substitutes for the dangerous car stove and lamp. Gas and electricity are replacing the oil lamps, while steam promises to supplant the stove. The automatic coupler is another device in- tended to facilitate work and prevent accidents. Its use renders it unnecessary for trainmen to go between the vehicles to couple or uncouple them, thus one of the most prolific causes of accident to employes is surmounted, while work is greatly simplified and accelerated. Automatic couplers are no longer confined to the cars of passenger trains, but are rapidly coming into use on all kinds of cars. A recent order of the Interstate Commerce Commissio-n of the United States OPEBATIOK OF TBAINS. 168 specifying the standard height of drawbars will further accelerate this.* Uniformity of height of drawbar is necessary to secure proper utilization of the project to adopt a, uniform automatic car coupler. And in regard to this latter, it is probable that no appli- ance ever conceived approaches it in value as a safety device for employes. The accidents to employes that have occurred in coupling and un- coupling cars since railroads have first been in- troduced have been very great in number and frequency. Referring to this subject, Mr. Arthur W. Soper, an authority on such matters, says: "The meeting of the master car builders at Minneapolis will ever be remembered as accom- plishing one of the greatest works in the history of our railroads in deciding upon a uniform draw- bar. For many years this subject has been be- fore them. There never was a session at which it was not discussed, and it had finally reduced ♦The order is as follows: "It is ordered, that notice be at once given to all common carriers, owners, or lessees en- gaged in interstate commerce in the United States, that the standard height of drawbars for freight cars, measured perpen- dicular from the level of the tops of the rails to the centers of the drawbars, has been designated and determined by the Amer- ican Railway Association, mentioned in the Act of Congress, approved March 2d, 1893, as to be thirty-four and one-half inches for standard gauge railroads in the United States, and twenty- six inches for narrow gauge railroads in the United States; that the maximum variation from such standard height to be allowed between the drawbars.of empty and loaded cars, both for stand- ard and narrow gauge railroads in the United States, has been fixed and determined by said Association at three inches; and that such determination has been duly certified by said Associ- ation to the Interstate Commerce.Commission," 164 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA Y8; itself down to where there were six links and pins and six vertical hooks recommended by this association, none of which would couple with the other; and there the matter rested for years, un- til this decisive step was taken that threw them all out and settled upon a single type requiring that every drawbar should couple with the other. In the history of our railroads no question has been solved more important than this. All these years there has hardly been a railroad shop that has not produced its many inventive geniuses who were devoting much time and money to their own particular safety couplers, and not alone was it confined to railroad employes. So much interest centered in the question that men of almost every occupation enlisted in it until there were more than three thousand such appli- ances connected with car coupling in the patent office of this country, many of them in operation on the railroads, and hardly any of them that would couple with one another. Taking the many years past there is no doubt but that more time has been spent by oflBcers of railroad in the exam- ination of the different devices, and more thought given to the subject, than to any other, and it must be a relief to all their minds to know that the question is finally settled." Another device is that by which two or more vehicles are thrown into one by means of the so- called vestibule, by which people are prevented from falling from the platforms while the train is in motion. Its effect also is to steady the train and greatly mitigate the effects of collisions. The "Miller" platform and automatic coupler (by which the ends of connecting cars are brought OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 165 together, on a line with the sills of the vehicles) are extremely useful inventions. The latter pre- vents accidents in coupling and uncoupling, while the former prevents passengers from falling be- tween the cars while in motion; it also reduces the liability of vehicles being telescoped. Insertion of blocks of wood or other material in the space between the rails at frogs is another safety device of especial value to railway men. Little progress has been made in strengthening passenger cars. It is not too much to say that the maximum security that may be thus attained is not too much to ask. Where the resources of a company are limited, comfort may here be meas- urably sacrificed to safety. Too much thought can not be given the subject. Humanity and business interests alike suggest it. This fact both manufacturers and carriers appreciate more and more every day. While freight cars have been greatly strength- ened and their carrying capacity doubled, and in some cases trebled, very little progress has been made in passenger cars. They are not much, if any, stronger than formerly, while the proportion that the dead load bears to the paying load is greater now than ever before. The tendency is in the direction of more elaborate and costly decorations, fixtures and furniture. The tendency is to make passenger cars more costly to build, more expensive to maintain, but without adding to their seating capacity. In some of the pas- senger day cars exhibited in Chicago the amount 166 SCIEMCE OF MAILWATS; OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 167 of dead weight per passenger equalled one thou- sand two hundred and sixty pounds; it did not formerly exceed eight hundred pounds. In ad- ding to the weight of passenger cars they are not more able to resist the effects of derailment or collision than formerly. When they come together they still continue to telescope, not- withstanding the protestations of the car builder that they will not; and when they turn on their side, collapse as quickly as in earlier days. It is probable that with increased experience greater care will be taken to protect the ends and sides of cars and less attention will be paid to ostenta- tious decorations and costly woods. In considering the subject of railway accidents it should not be forgotten that passengers' must be protected from themselves, from their own ignorance and carelessness. The erection of fences between the tracks at stations so as to pre- vent passengers from getting off the cars in front of moving trains has this purpose in view. Ulti- mately, it is probable, the practice will become more general. In the absence of fences, closed gates on the platforms of cars, compelling pas- sengers to alight on the right side of the train, are sometimes used. As a rule English and con- tinental railways use fences and overhead bridges at stations to prevent access to the tracks; in the ^.bsence of such devices through trains must stop at, or pass slowly, stations where other trains are loading or unloading passengers. One of the chief recommendations of the com- 168 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; partment car is that it compels people to enter from the station platform and to alight thereon. Safety appliances, to be of the greatest value, must be mechanical in their action; must not depend for their efficacy upon the care of em- ployes. The time will undoubtedly come in rail- way practice when every train will be protected by automatic devices. Roads will be divided throughout into sections and the operation of the block system so perfected that it will be physi- cally impossible for a train to enter a section while occupied by another train. Both head and rear collisions will thus be avoided. The prob- lem does not offer insurmountable or impracti- cable difficulties. Expense is the deterring ele- ment. Wherever railways can afford it, man's ingenuity will quickly find the way. A melancholy feature of railway operations is the accidents to employes. They are partly un- avoidable, partly the result of imperfect appli- ances, partly the result of indifference (often- times contemptuous) of those immediately con- cerned. Everyone connected with the m ovement of trains is familiar with the risks incurred. While sometimes unavoidable, they may be min- imized by the use of safety appliances and the exercise of care and intelligence. That progress is being made is evinced by the fact that acci- dents grow fewer, relatively, each year. Efforts in this direction are co-operative; trains are handled more scientifically; train men are more careful, more experienced, more efficient; yard OPEEA TION OF TBAINS. 169 men are more skillful; the yards themselves are safer, have better appliances, are better arranged and better lighted at night; automatic couplers and other fixtures for handling cars w^ith safety are becoming more and more general; the road bed and its appurtenances are each year ren- dered safer. Information in regard to train accidents is ex- ceedingly meagre; thus we do not know how many accidents occur from neglect to protect trains standing upon the main track from rear collisions; how many- other accidents are the result of carelessness, of incompetency, of inex- perience, of excusable mistakes and omissions, of defective appliances, of imperfect rules and regulations. Of all the dangers that menace trains, those from rear collisions are, perhaps, the most immi- nent. The block system provides the best safe- guard against collisions of this nature now in general use. To the extent, however, that its operations are dependent upon the care or watchfulness of man, it is defective. Upon the majority of roads the protection of the rear of trains is left to the brakeman. That he fulfills his duty with reasonable intelligence and faith- fulness there can be no doubt. The trustworthi- ness of many such employes has, however, never been tried. Wh-ether they will perform their work faithfully is, consequently, always an open question. That the difficulties of the situation tempt them in many instances to slight their 170 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA T8; duty there can be no doubt; the weather may be inclement, the time unpropitious, the distance they must walk if left behind, or the time they must wait if left to be taken up by another train, tempt them oftentimes to omit needed pre- cautions. Many things render the brakeman unwilling, to go back any further than he is com- pelled to in flagging his train. The sufficiency of the service is, therefore, always doubtful, oftentimes questionable. His discretion, how- ever, is fortunately shared with the conductor Carriage in Spain. and engineer. It has been suggested that the responsibility of protecting the rear of the train might better be vested wholly in the latter. One difficulty of the service is the necessity oftentimes of employing unskilled and untried men. Any sudden increase in the traffic of a railroad necessitates the employment of new men; of placing upon the directing and oper- ating force burdens to which they have not been accustomed. Thus, there is less danger of a col- lision on a road running fifty trains a day regu- larly than on one which, having been accustomed OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 171 to run only twenty trains, suddenly increases the number to forty. Taking the accidents of railways as a whole, undoubtedly the larger proportion is the result of causes beyond reasonable control. The attempt of carriers to improve their service is constant, even where the means are crude. A comparison of the methods of railroads in different countries shows that they are constantly borrowing of each other. Each will be bene- fitted by familiarity with the practices of the other. The experiences of each are peculiar; thus, the English roads have had much greater experience than those in America in the con- duct of heavy traffic through a densely popu- lated country. This experience American com- panies may utilize to advantage in many ways; the problems that such a traffic engender press upon them more and more each year. In all matters affecting the movement of trains the ounce of prevention is worth the ton of cure. A frequent cause of train accidents upon cheaply built and equipped roads is the attempt to make excessive speed with freight trains. When appliances are not adequate these trains should be run at a very moderate rate of speed, and the rules of every road contemplate this — in theory. As a matter of fact freight trains are more often than otherwise run at a much liigher rate of speed than the rules allow. In many cases the traffic demands it. 172 SCIENCE OF BAILWAY8; Wherever changes in the service are frequent or laxity of discipline prevails, accidents will be frequent. Those familiar with the details of the service often have occasion to notice that things forbidden under the rules are really mat- ters of every day, perhaps hourly, occurrence. So long as an accident does not follow, the infringe- ment is allowed to pass unnoticed. In partial explanation of this, it is claimed, and truly, that the business done on many lines could not be performed if the rules were literally enforced. But the result of this conflict between theory and practice is to greatly weaken the discipline of the force; to make it disregard essentials as well as non-essentials. The result finally is disastrous. Eules, however necessary, will not enforce themselves; they must be intelligently, uni- formly and consistently administered. The occa- sional discharge of an offender because a prac- tice which he and his associates have for a long time indulged in has at last resulted in disaster, carries little or no weight. The person discharged has no difficulty in securing employment with some other company, where the offence is quite likely repeated. Reliance on the fear of dismissal as a means of discipline is unworthy an enlight- ened management. But, on the other hand, the strictness and refinement of military rule can not at present be attained in the railway service, nor would such discipline apparently conduce to the benefit of carriers in a business way in deal- ing with a commercial community. OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 178 The dealings of railroads with employes as well as with patrons are based on business prin- ciples. In this way the temper, ambition and affection of men, as well as the economic law of supply and demand, are not lost sight of. Not only is it necessary that men who have to do with the movement of trains, and who are responsible for their safety, should be carefully chosen, but they must be made to feel that methods and results are intelligently scanned; that the rules framed for their government are Carriage in Jersey. reasonable and necessary and that faithful com- pliance with the same will result to their advan- tage. In judicial notices of railway accidents, the in- clination of judges and juries to place a charitable construction on the acts of those concerned, is observable. They remember that it is human to err; that perfection is a divine attribute. There is, however, a growing disposition to hold railway employes to a more strict account for acts whereby persons are inj ured or killed. This has 174 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA Y8; gone so far, in some cases, as to lead to imprison- ment. It may go still fui-ther. Such punish- ment, however, is to be regarded as impersonal, as disciplinar}^ merely; as evidencing a determi- nation, where life is intrusted to men, to com- pel them to meet all requirements of the emer- gency without reference to their fallibility. This disposition is to be deplored. But, while deplor- ing it, we can not but recognize it as a progress- ive step; one that, while likely to be frought' with more or less injustice to individuals, will in its results redound finally to the good of em- ployes quite as much as to the public. The equities of the case should, however, be observed by public prosecutors. Discrimination should not be practiced; want of care and observance of necessary precautions upon the part of the com- munity itself is noticeable. To these are attribu- table a large percentage of the fatalities and injuries that occur. Our laws are exceedingly remiss in this respect, and such as we have are not enforced. Thus, men get on and off the cars while in motion, trespass upon the track of rail- roads, contrary to the laws, and when accident or death ovei-takes them the press and the public do not condemn the individual but the carrier; if the latter ventui*es to aiTest a person for get- ting on or off a moving train, or who is found trespassing upon the property of the company, the magistrate releases him in every case. When judges and juries are found who will send men to jail or fine them for trespassing upon the prop- OPEBA TION OF TBAINS, 176 erty of railroads, the offence will cease, but not until then. But few people are killed or injured in Germany at road crossings, although crossings at grade are as frequent as in America. The reason is that the laws made to protect the pub- lic in such cases are enforced. Anyone there who should attempt to cross a track when the signal man has warned him back would be fined or imprisoned. In America the carrier would be blamed and the victim acquitted. Because of the newness of the country and the poverty of carriers the American railroads are far behind those of Europe in providing station precautions. Those in Germany are much more ample. Fewer people are killed and in- jured by the railroads, relatively, in England than anywhere else. There, however, carriers have gone to the extreme in precautionary measures, with the result that untold sums of money have been sunk in safety appliances, which should have been used to secure lower rates and greater station and train facilities. Vast expenditures have been made by the Eng- lish railroads for tunnels, overhead bridges, and in the introduction and enforcement of the block system that might better have been expended for equipment and sidings. The comforts and necessities of a people as a whole are more im- portant than an isolated life that requires for its preservation the constant watchfulness of police- men and the presence of superabundant and costly appliances. The English craze for safety 176 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; appliances sets half the world watching the other half to keep it from being run over. Every dollar wasted in this way is so much withdrawn from the ability of raih-oads to make low rates; so much added to the cost of living; so much added to the cost of the necessaries of life. A happy mean should l^e observed here as else- where. It is to be found in the calm, dispas- sionate co-operation of the state and the carrier. If this can not be secured, then the matter should l^e left absolutely to the carrier. He will not abuse the trust and is not likely to sacrifice the material interests of the community in vain efforts to attain theoretical ends.* It is said that a man may travel in America fifty millions of miles without being killed, or twelve million miles without being injured. This risk, small as it is, is greater than in England or Germany. But it is still much less than the risk incuned in traversing the streets of cities and the highways of a country. While the precau- tions that railways adopt to prevent accidents are each year more complete, the most effective preventive after all is the growing knowledge, intelligence and experience of the community. The easy approach to railway tracks in America and the indisposition of the courts to enforce necessary regulations, greatly increase * The legal and medical aspect of the question of the settle- ment of claims on account of persons killed and injured by rail- roads is referred to in connection with the dutfeg of the attprney in the vplume ""Organizatioii and Forces.'' OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. Ill Carriage in South Africa. 12 178 SCmXCE OF RAILWAYS^ the number of casualties from moving trains. The absence of proper precautions in some cases by carriers has not arisen so much from lack of appreciation as from absence of neces- sary means. When roads do not render any re- turn upon the investment, or at best an inade- quate one, owners can not be expected to pro- vide precautions against ordinary casualties from their personal means. In the operations of railroads complete freedom from danger, it may be said generally, can only be secured by prodigious expenditure. It re- quires, among other things, that access to tracks shall be prohibited; that there shall be no grade crossings; that at stations access to the track shall be prevented; that trains shall run at low rates of speed. The statistics of railroads show that the mis- haps of trespassers greatly exceed those of em- ployes or passengers.* The occasion of acci- dents at grade crossings have been thus enum- erated by a writer on the subject: {a) The num- ber of tracks; {h) the speed at which trains are run; (c) the number of trains; {d) the character * Wiitiiig on tliis aadiject; in tlieir annnal report for 1891 the MaiffiBciniiBetts Board of Railway Commisdoners state : ^Abont a year ago a member of Uie board, in coming from Beverly to Boston wn to this board, of a color blind man who could distin- guish red from green in clear w^eather and who has mistaken red for green in foggy weather." The conclusions of the board are as follows : " That the existence of color blindness, total and partial, is a well established fact, and that there are men who, by reason of such defect, are un- fit for positions on railroads requiring ability to distinguish color signals; that the extent of dan- gerous colorblindness (?. e,, such color blindness as unfits persons for railroad employment) has been greatly exaggerated; that examination may be properly made by persons not medical experts, and that such examination will certainly be sufficient if doubtful cases are referred to such experts; the board recommends that every railroad company shall have an annual examination of every em- ploye whose duties require or may require capac- 218 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; , ity to distinguish form or color signals, and that no one shall be so employed who has not been thus examined; the examination should refer to color blindness and to other defects in vision ; it should include all who are in any way con- nected with the movements of trains." Afterward the legislature of Massachusetts passed a law requiring all railroad employes whose duties required them to distinguish form and color signals to be examined at least once in two years for color blindness and other defective sight. American practices are not nearly so searching in regard to color blindness among railway em- ployes as those of Europe. The subject is, how- ever, receiving more and more attention from American managers. As a rule, however, tests have been confined to the signals actually in use. A letter of inquiry was addressed to the superin- tendents of American railroads for information on the subject, some time since, by a railway paper.* While responses were not general, those returned concurred in saying that in no known instance had accident been occasioned by color blindness. The majority did not think examina- tions desirable. They believed that signals might be arranged so that the color blind could distin- guish them without difficulty. It is noteworthy that not a single accident on an American railroad has been definitely traced to color blindness. But this fact is not at all " The Railway Age and Northwestern Railroader. OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 219 conclusive that such accidents may not have oc- curred. Cases have been knov^n of collisions of vessels because of color blindness of pilots. But it is probable that accident would be more likely to occur at sea from this cause than upon a rail- road. The engineer of a railroad can stop his train in the event of doubt, while this would in many instances be impossible in the case of a vessel. Carriage in Lapland. CHAPTER XII. SIGNALS — THEIR ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION — VALUE AND USE — LIMITATIONS — VALUE OF UNIFORM- ITY — (part one). The efforts of railway companies to insure safety of life and property are constant and in- telligent. A glance at the track of a railroad displays the forethought they exercise. However, wherever disaster is to be apprehended, there signals supplement other devices. At night these signals are confined mainly to lights of differ- ent colors. During the day greater latitude is possible, symbols supplementing the use of colors and explosives. No branch of the railway service has been char- acterized by greater progress than the signal ser- vice. This is natural. Upon it depends largely the safety of passengers and operatives, the easy operation of trains and the preservation of prop- erty. From the start the endeavor has been to obtain the most perfect appliances. But, like all other matters of a business nature, economic con- ditions have had to be considered. Everything involving the safety of human life, every meas- ure of protection, appeals to our warmest in- stincts. But expenditures here as elsewhere must be prudently made, lest a worse evil follow. In (221) 222 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; one or two great countries the extravagance of carriers, coupled with legislative interference, has resulted in such lavish outla^^ for safety appli- ances as to greatly cripple business and seriously enhance the price of necessaries of life.* At the commencement each railroad company sought to be original; to have signals different from its neighbor. This spirit still obtains to a certain extent, although experience is fast convincing those interested of its shoi-tsighted- ness. One of the first signals of a railroad was a lighted candle, placed in the station window as a notice to trains to stop. This was succeeded, in the course of time, by stationary lights and objects, until it is no longer possible to classify or enumerate the devices used. The evolution is still going on. Under ordinary circumstances nothing is more to be commended in men than well defined indi- viduality. It indicates native vigor and a higher ideal. A company whose managers do not pos- sess it soon loses its progressive character. But how far this individuality may be carried in adopting, changing and annulling train rules and regulations without reference to the prac- tices of other railroads, is a question. Inter- communication of railroads has been carried so far that it becomes more and more desirable every day that, so far as practicable, train sig- * This phase of the question has, however, received considera- tion in the second chapter herein on Railway Accidents. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 223 nals and methods should be the same every- where.* The safety of the lives of passengers and others depends continually upon the intelligence with which signals are manipulated; upon the em- ployment of the right signal at the right mo- ment, and its instantaneous interpretation. Hence, it is apparent that their use should be stripped of all ambiguity and reduced to the minimum in number. Carriage on the Banks of the Danube. A correct understanding of the subject of rail- way signals and the diversity of practice that exists requires that we should remember that the men responsible for the safety of trains are not wedded to the service of a particular line. They are cosmopolitan, constantly changing. These changes are accelerated or retarded by * But in enforcing uniform practices provision must be made here as elsewhere to secure still further advances; committees and associations of railroads must keep the regulations agreed upon always before them with a view to securing something better. Unless this precaution is observed uniformity will pre- vent further progress. 224 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; various causes. The increase of the business of a company, a strike among its employes, political disturbances along its line, may render it nec- essary to employ untried men. These men may understand generally their duties but be unac- quainted with the peculiar methods of their new employer. At different periods of their lives they may have served upon many different lines. This varied service will have familiarized them with many systems and signals. Herein lies the danger of diversity. In a matter requiring definiteness, singleness of purpose, precision, a knowledge of many systems may possess a sinis- ter meaning — may be pregnant with disaster. The traveler remarks that upon one road a green light is a signal of safety, a signal to trains to go ahead; that all is well. But upon another it is a signal of danger; its warning is imperative, abso- lute; it says. Stop: not at some indefinite point, but there, where the lamp burns. Death lies be- yond. But suppose the engineer has but recently entered the service of the last mentioned com- pany after many years of service with the former. Enginemen are always making changes of this description, and this one, a skillful mechanic, and noted for his watchfulness and fidelity to duty, is a valuable acquisition, and so, after a month or two, he is given the night ex- press. This train is heavily loaded. It makes no stops, and keeps pace with the flying clouds. As it advances through the darkness the engi- neer observes a green light shining upon the OPEBA TION OF TEAINS. 225 track before him. He has seen it under similar circumstances many times before. Its reflection gladdens his heart like the face of an old friend. It relieves the monotony of the dark night. It tells him that everything is right. As the train plunges by he leans lazily out of his w^indow^, but the signalman, wild with rage and fright, hurls his lamp full at the cab, and it is smashed into a thousand pieces. In an instant the truth flashes upon the engineer. Upon this line green is a signal of danger. A chill of hor- ror seizes him. He is running at sixty miles an hour; he reverses his engine, the whistle sounds, the brakes are applied. The engine trembles with the tremendous strain put upon it, but it is too late. And so in the stillness of the night, in the far off country, the great black engine with its load of cars filled with sleeping passengers, plunges to its destruction. This is what a di- versity of signals means to the tired and nervous traveler. How far are his fears justifiable? Could the case we have supposed actually occur? Probably not. Yet it is true that the signal that correctly interpreted on one line says to the engine driver, "all right; go ahead; the track is clear," means something entirely different upon a neighboring road. More or less, not many, acci- dents occur upon railways that are inexplicable. The occasion of them is enveloped in mys- tery. The religious frequently attribute them to God. Are any of these disasters occasioned by a misunderstanding of signals, or by con^ 15 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS: founding the rules and regulations of different companies? An investigation of train regulations elicits manj^ curious things. Upon one line two green lights in front of an engine is a notice to trains it meets that the track is clear; no trains following; go ahead. Upon another line Russian Carrier. these lights indicate that a train is following and that all other trains must keep out of the way. Thus a trainman, acting upon the signal first mentioned while in the employ of the last named company, would bring his train in col- lision with another, unless some fortuitous cir- cumstance prevented. OP EB AT ION OF TBAINS. 221 The lamp raised and lowered upon one road is the signal to ''back up;" upon a parallel line, not ten feet away, perhaps, it means "go ahead." Differences like these are suggestive. In con- sidering the dangers resulting from diversity of practice, the question arises, how far is uni- formity practicable?* In the early history of railroads signals were unknown. As already mentioned, a candle placed in the station window was a signal for trains to stop; if absent from the window, the engineer proceeded. Upon one line the use of red lanterns was restricted to the higher officers of the company, and was intended as a badge of ♦While organizations of many other classes of railway offi- cers and employes, formed for th^i purpose of reconciling differ- ences and obtaining uniformity of practice in matters of joint concern, have been in existence in this country for a long time, it is only in later years that an association was formed among the officials in charge of the train service. Quite naturally one of the first subjects considered by this association was that of signals with a view to uniformity of practice ; the rules adopted by it, with others, are embodied herein. Great progress has been, made toward the adoption of uniform signals. There are, how- ever, many roads still using devices of their own. So that only partial success has been attained. But even if uniformity should be secured on the railways of the United States as a whole, the reform would still be incomplete for the reason that those con- nected with its train service go elsewhere. We find them today in Canada, tomorrow in Mexico. I first took up the subject of train regulations, including signals, in 1877. No attempt to se- cure uniformity among American railroads had then been made. I took the regulations of all the principal companies in America and from them drew a code. This code was, in the main, the basis of that adopted shortly afterward by associations designed to facilitate train service. It is practically the code today, so far as uniformity has been attempted. M. m. k. 228 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; authority. The idea of using them as a signal had not been thought of. Appliances of every kind were crude. Flagmen were required in some instances to provide themselves with a long flagstaff, having a white flag three feet square attached to one end of it, and a red flag of the same size to the other. In some cases no flags at all were specified or provided. A chapter might be filled with a description of the quaint signal devices of early carriers. The men in charge of trains had no experience. Somg had been sailors, others military men; solhe had been connected with the fire departments of cities. Men flocked to the service who had been em- ployed by the stage companies. So far as they had any previous knowledge of signals they naturally endeavored to make them apply to their new calling. In those days traffic was light and the need of signals not greatly apparent. Bailroads were widely separated and opportuni- ties for consultation between officials few. Sig- nals were invented and applied as needed, with- out regard to the usages of other companies. Some of them were ill adapted to the purpose they were intended for, but so long as no serious mishaps followed, the difficulty of changing, and the disinclination of the persons who introduced them to change, caused their retention. With growth of business, however, roads were brought each day closer together and lack of uniformity became more embarrassing. The hamlet that was proud of a single railway became a great OPERA TION OF TBAIN8. 229 and prosperous city, the center of a vast net- work of lines, each line operating its trains under a code of signals largely its own. In some cases the trains used common tracks, stations and yards, so that the force was called upon continu- ally to observe daily two entirely different sets of signals. The danger arising from such a condi- tion of affairs, while perhaps more apparent than real, nevertheless invited remedy. But how could it be brought about ? Not by legislative action. That had been tried and failed. Nor could it be done by taking the signal code of a Bulgarian Form of Carriage. particular road. That would excite jealousy. And in considering this subject the difficulty and danger of making any change at all was not forgotten. The purposes for which signals are required are many. But the means are few; the latter consist of standards or structures of particular form and position; of stationary colored lamps and signs; of colored hand lamps and flags; manipulation of the hands and arms; strokes of the engine bell and gong; the whistle, torpedoes, fusees, and so on. 280 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; Considerable variety is possible in the form and appearance of permanent signals. Many im- proved devices have been invented. Old forms in use, however, can not be easily or quickly changed. This has been a deterring force. As a rule per- manent signals are used to indicate the position of switches, or whether the track is clear or not. The semaphore is largely used for the latter pur- pose. It consists of an upright post with an arm hinged at or near its top so that it may be dropped on a line with the post or raised at any angle to it. The arm is most prominent when at right angles with the post. This position is there- fore generally used as the position to indicate "danger" or "line blocked." The arm dropped on a line with the post indicates "all right" or " line clear." The arm is so weighted that, in the event of breakage or derangement of machinery, it will rise of itself to the position of "danger." Some authorities, however, insist that "all right" should be given by a positive signal, and not by the absence of a danger signal; they would use for that purpose a position of the arm prominent enough to attract attention, but sufficiently dis- tinct from that used for danger as not to be con- founded with it. Others advocate the use of a position of the arm intermediate between that for safety and that for danger to indicate cau- tion. Still others are opposed to the use of a caution signal at all; they say that if the line beyond the signal is not entirely clear no train should be allowed to enter upon it until it is so, OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 281 at least not without coming to a full stop and learning definitely the nature of the obstruction and receiving permission to proceed. The same principles apply to the use of other permanent signals. These differences of opinion afford partial explanation of the differences of practice that exist. Night signals are confined mainly to red and green lights. White and yellow might be mis- taken for other lights in general use near the track. Especially is this the case in cities where tracks are numerous or crooked and dwellings abut closely upon them. Moreover, the breaking of the glass in a lamp or semaphore would create a white light,where some other color w^as intended.* The objection to blue and violet is that they can only be distinguished at a short distance. By day- light a greater variety of color may safely be al- lowed. It is generally recognized, however, that the signals used by night and by day should be closely related. It is not generally attempted to vary the colors used by day and by night, though w^hite is sometimes substituted by day for green. Red is the color generally used to indicate dan- ger, but this signification does not attach to it universally; it is sometimes used to indicate merely possible danger, or caution. Green is ♦Nevertheless, white is largely used in America to si^ify safety: it has also been generally used in England satisfactoril}^ but it has l^een remarked that signal lights in that country are displayed from taller posts than is the custom in America, hence there is less danger of confusion with other lights. 232 SCIENCE OF BA IL WA Y8; commonly used to indicate caution. Sometimes, however, one red light indicates ''caution," and two "danger;" a lamp outside the rails means one thing, between the rails another. In all these matters, so far as practicable, it is desirable that there should be uniformity of practice among railroads. The number of flags or lanterns which can be used effectively for a particular signal is very limited. Moreover, signals must be displayed in definite and prominent positions, such as the front or rear of a train, or on the station plat- form or at a considerable height above it. In- termediate positions are objectionable. The movements of the arms and hands, also of lamps or flags that may be made available, are, the motions up and down, across the track, over the head, and in a circle. The number of strokes of the engine gong or blasts of the whistle are also much restricted, though considerable lati- tude is possible in the case of the whistle by the ability to make long and short sounds or com- binations of each. But where reliance is placed on the difference between short and long blasts, the distinction must be plainly made. To make the fullest use of the limited mate- rials at hand for signal purposes requires practical knowledge of the needs and workings of the service and great ingenuity. The best possible code, when framed, will not have a single signal to which some objection can not be made. With many the real objection will be that it is not OPERA TION OF TBAINS, 233 Car of Jdggernath. 284 SCIENCE OF B AIL WATS; what they have been accustomed to. There will, however, be honest differences. One will say that the best system of signals should be the simplest; that on this account all visual signals should be generally similar; that as the sema- phore signal to stop is the arm extended at right angles to the post, so the hand signal to stop should be the arm of the man in a similar posi- tion; by night the same position of the arm should be indicated by repeatedly raising the lamp to a level with the shoulder and dropping it the full length of the arm; similarly, as the signal of caution by the semaphore is generally the arm placed at a position midway between those of danger and safety, so the same signal should be given by the hand by day, by dropping from the position of danger for a short distance, repeating the operation as may be necessary. The motion slowly given would be interpreted "go slow;" the same inference would be indi- cated by a similar gentle motion of the lamp at night. The signal for "all right, go ahead" would be given by the semaphore arm being dropped nearly or quite on a line with the post; the same might be given by dropping the arm of the man, but moving it on a level from side to side to make the order positive; a horizontal motion of the lamp by night would mean the same thing. The signal to back up is seldom, if ever, given by the semaphore. If desired, it might be done by raising the arm nearly perpendicularly above the post; the natural sequence would be the hand of OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 285 a man oy day or a lamp by night swung above the head to indicate the same order. These would be the methods of one party. Other authorities would not attempt to har- monize permanent and hand signals, but might adhere to the principle that hand and lantern signals should be the same. That both should be simple, and while each should be distinct from the other, the transitions from one to the other should be easy and natural; that gentle motions of the hands should indicate gentle motions of trains, and thus swinging motions, horizontal and over the head, should be used for forward and back, both of course being easy at first; that as perpendicular motions are naturally energetic and imperative and also distinct, they should therefore be used for stop — the most important order and the one which must be most quickly obeyed. Other authorities would urge that each signal should be the one best adapted to the particular purpose, without reference to other signals, ex- cept that it must not conflict with them. Thus the signal to stop by night would be a light swung across the track, as being the most natural thing to do in case of danger and one that an outsider, knowing nothing of signals, would be most likely to adopt; moreover, it can be done without danger of putting out the light and covers a wider range of vision than any other, and therefore is most likely to attract at- tention. For "go ahead" they would favor the SCIENCE OF B AIL WATS; lamp swung over the head, because it is the natural motion for all right, is easily seen and involves no danger of extinguishing the light; to back they would use the motion up and down as being plain, easily seen and giving, if neces- sary, an idea of the distance required. Form of Carriage in Madras. All authorities will agree, generally, as to the desirability of uniformity, but will not agree as to what is best. Compromise is, however, possible. The signals to the engineer by strokes of the gong w^ere adapted, it is said, from those in use upon steam vessels; one for "go ahead" or "stop;" OPEEATION OF TBAIN8, 237 two for "back." This arrangement is still in more or less use. In practice, however, it was found that in the event a train parted, the strain of the cord would cause one stroke of the gong. If then the train were stopped suddenly the de- tached portion was likely to come into collision with it. Consequently, many roads prescribe two strokes as the signal for stop. As an illustration of the diversity of whistle signals that is possible, the only whistle signal practically uniform at one time was that of the engineer that he was about to back — three short blasts. Upon a large majority of the roads the signal to apply brakes or stop was one short blast, while the signal to release brakes was two blasts. Many roads prefer two blasts for "stop" and one for "let go," and give good reasons for their preference, some claiming, for instance, that the two blasts for "stop" is more distinct and likely to attract attention than one, and that the interval between the blasts may be made to intimate whether the train is to be stopped quickly or easily. Noticeable diversity also exists in the signals used by engineers for highway crossings; some companies prescribing one long blast; others two long blasts followed by two short ones, and so on. A great diversity is noticeable in other signals beside those governing the movement and safety of trains. Many of these do not in any way affect the safety of persons or property, their use SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; being merely a matter of convenience or the saving of time. Uniformity in snch cases is not important. It would, however, be valuable in a disciplinary way. On some roads a certain combination or num- ber of strokes of the gong or blasts of the whistle means one thing when the train is standing; another when running. This principle is valu- able in framing a code of signals for general use. In the use of whistle signals it should not be forgotten that frequent use of the whistle greatly impairs its value as a warning of danger. Both the bell and whistle are necessary as signals, but nuisances of the most pronounced kind other- wise. While we recognize their necessity, we deprecate their use. No one ever can become habituated to them. From afar off they are not unpleasant^ and carry us back to the time when, as children, everything about a railway was beheld by us with wonder and delight. The uses of the whistle and beU may be briefly summarized: They should not be used except when absolutely necessary; they should not be used an instant longer than safety requires; they should be moderated as much as possible, the former being no louder than needed and the lat- ter no harsher than the service requires ; managers, moreover, should know that rules and regulations governing their use are carried out, in quiet vil- lages as well as in great cities; neither deputa- tions of citizens nor ordinances should be neces- sary to keep them advised. Undue use of the OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 289 whistle and bell grows out of the desire of train men to make sure that everyone hears the warn- ing; to be so definite that no one can say he did not hear. This feeling, while laudable, assumes in time the dogged persistence of a craze. Men may become monomaniacs on the subject. As a rule, the service will be benefited by restricting, rather than enlarging, the general use of the bell and whistle. Form of Carriage in India. The necessity for signals depends very much upon the frequency and speed of trains. But whatever the system, however limited, it should be comprehensive and intelligent and faithfully carried out. Signals adapted to the nature of a country must be used. Thus, on a straight road in a level country, where the atmosphere is clear, the minimum plant will answer, while in countries like England where fogs are dense and frequent, a more elaborate system, including the use of torpedoes and fusees, is necessary. 240 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; Signals have two values: one positive, one neg- ative. An objective point with every signal is to supplement the intelligence and care of opera- tives; to correct their mistakes; to call attention to oversights and omissions; to prevent men from doing what they might otherwise do thoughtlessly, to warn. To attain all the objects the signals of a railroad ought to conserve, man's ingenuity has been ex- ercised to the utmost; all known influences and forces have been brought into play.* *The following classification will indicate, though imper- fectly, the means and agencies employed : Classification According to Man^^er of Indication. Visible, audible, visible and audible. Classification According to Means of Operation. Mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical. Combination of two or more of the above by manual, automatic, or partly manual and partly automatic means. Automatic — operated entirely by moving trains or by switches. Automatic — depending for indication upon the condition of track. Automatic — operated by trains in connection with natural forces, as gravitation or pressure. Different Ways in Which Signai^ May Be Classified. Time signals, the normal condition of which is *' all clear " and which are set to danger on the passage of a train, remain- ing displayed for a certain definite time and then returning to their former condition, whatever be the position of the train. Space signals, which are set to danger by the passage of a train and remain so till the train has arrived at a certain place, however long it takes to reach there. Classification of Automatic Signals According to Princi- ples OF Operation. Electro-mechanical, pneumatic, electric, atmospheric. Classification of Automatic Signals According to Use. Special signals, line block signals — absolute and permis- sive, etc. The above is adapted from a classification by G, W, Blodgett OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 241 Any system of signals that depends for its efficiency at any place or time upon man is defect- ive, and those interested in such matters will never cease their efforts until they have devised something that eliminates him as a factor alto- gether; until they have introduced devices by which, if signalmen make mistakes or omis- sions, or men fail to observe a signal, an inter- mediary force, not dependent upon either, will correct the oversight or make it so strikingly ap- parent that further neglect can only arise from willfulness. The safety devices that accomplish this are very few at this time. In considering generally the subject of signals it is not too much to expect of carriers that they shall use the best that come within their means. This requires that they shall keep themselves advised of what is best, and conform thereto as nearly as possible. Ultimately signals adaptable to the wants of roads of different grades will be evolved. The supply will follow the demand. Carriers may not at once be able to adopt new devices because better than something they have, but in the natural order of renewal and substitu- tion they will. Color as a means of signaling is at best an im- perfect and crude device; the inheritance of an earlier period; a prolific source of accident. All visual signals involve the risk of obscurity, omis- sions, color blindness, and so on. The sounding of a whistle or the ringing of a bell are also never to be depended upon in themselves. The reasons le 242 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; are too obvious to require enumeration. But all may be made useful as adjuncts to other signals and precautions. The French, in some cases, use a detonator in connection with their home sig- nals; the detonator lying on the rail when the signal is at danger, and being mechanically with- drawn when the track is clear. It has been suggested that locomotives should be supplied with an audible signal which would in every instance be sounded on passing a danger sig- Carriage on the Tigris. nal. It would oe especially valuable in the case of tunnels and similar obscure places. Many acci- dents that have occurred emphasize the necessity of some mechanical device for warning the en- gineer when passing a danger signal. It is one of the great needs of the service. It would be especially valuable in tunnels, where great ob- stacles have to be overcome, such as obscurity of view arising from darkness, fog and smoke, limited space and the confusion and noise that OPEBA TION OF TBAIN8. 248 attend the movement of trains under such cir- cumstances. Both visual and audible signals are necessary in such cases, the one supplementing the other, and, so far as possible, acting auto- matically. In the operation of trains the additional dan- gers to be met v^ith at crossings, drawbridges, tunnels, curves and obscure places receive special attention in every instance.* Of all the devices for signaling introduced up to this time, the semaphore (the extended arm or blade) is perhaps the most simple and, so far as visual signals are concerned, the most effect- ive. It is a "sentinel that never tires, never sleeps, never forgets; that acts automatically, saying to the engineer one of tw^o things, and so clearly that he can never confound the one with the other by night or by day: 'The track is clear; go ahead/ or *the track is blocked; stop.' "f It is especially valuable as a day signal, and the illu- mination of the surface of the blade, it has been pointed out by an expert, will make it equally desirable by night.J ♦When gates are used at highway crossings, the gatehouse for signaling is usually elevated when there is more than one track, so that the operator may have an uninterrupted view of trains in all directions. fC. A. Hammond. • X Its provisions are : " Horizontal and red — Danger ; stop. Horizontal and green — ( 'aution ; prepare to stop. Inclined and white— Safety ; proceed."" The parabolic semaphore, invented by Professor Koyr, ren- ders the display of colors possible at night as well as by day. 8i4 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; An absolute requisite with every signal is that it should never indicate safety except through some premeditated act; that without the con- summation of such act it should always indicate danger. Signals must^ moreover, be simple and effective, and not easily disarranged, not requir- ing too much attention nor too many repairs. " The . foundation principles of signaling and interlocking ought to be both few and simple, and there should be no attempt at too great a refinement and consequent perplexity in what should be the broad and essential principle. Thus there will be room for individual variation in the non-essentials, as the requirements of each locality and the difficulties of each particular case may call for." * The perfect protection of trains, whether mov- ing or stationary, it may be said in conclusion, is in process of solution. Each day adds some- thing to our knowledge of the subject. This knowledge is used in perfecting old and in intro- ducing new methods. While the block systems and other methods of early days are being im- proved, other and better systems are being intro- duced. Primitive methods depended entirely upon, signals operated by man. Modem prac- tice requires that devices shall be self acting, so that trains will be automatically guarded; shall be safe whether men sleep or wake, whether they are stupid, inexi)erienced or neglectful How far such appliances can be perfected time only *C. A- Hammond. OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 245 will tell. The disposition, however, is as mani- fest to introduce self acting machinery into the operations of trains as it is in the operations of manufacturers. The success attained by the lat- ter justifies the belief that the principle of auto- matic action will, in time, be perfectly attained by railroads. CHAPTER XIII. SIGNALS AND OTHER DEVICES FOR PROTECTING TRAINS — (part TWO.) For a long time the most perfect method of protecting trains from collision was that known as the block system. It was first introduced in Europe and grew in favor in America. It is de- signed for use upon roads having two or more tracks. But its advocates claim that it may be used effectively on a single track road by placing signals on both sides of the road just as if there were two tracks and making the blocks, or sec- tions, extend from one side track to another. Many different methods are in course of perfec- tion for protecting trains from front and rear col- lisions. Several of them I have already referred to. The highest types contemplate automatic action. The old fashioned block system is operated by signalmen. A road is divided into short sections or "blocks," — hence the name block system. At each end of a section there is a signal station and attendant. When a train passes onto a section the track is closed by means of a signal to all following trains until the attendant at the next signal station reports it as having left the station. It contemplates two methods: one absolute, one permissive. (247) 248 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA T8; Under the former, one train only is allowed upon a block at a time; consequently a collision is im- possible if every precaution is attended to. Under the other, two or more trains may be upon a block at the same time (under certain circum- stances), but provision is made for notifying each train that enters a block whether it is occupied or not. When a train leaves a block, the fact is noted by the operator (signalman) and tele- graphed back to the signalman at the other end; the latter then signals that the track is free for Carriage in Mesopotamia. the use of following trains; but until the receipt by the signalman of the notice that the block is vacant no train is permitted to enter it (unless the train disregards the danger signal) under the "absolute" system. Under the "permissive" sys- tem certain trains are allowed to enter after having been notified that the block is occupied. The block system I am describing was the first one invented; it contemplates keeping the train force advised whether the track is free or ob- structed. Notwithstanding its great cost and the OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 249 expenses attending its workings, such companies as were able hastened to adopt it upon sections where it was necessary. It is relatively more valuable on a road with two tracks than with four. The latter permits of a classification of trains and their assignment to tracks according to speed and character. However, in event of misunderstanding or omission, or if a car be- comes detached, the danger is as great upon one as upon the other. The block system properly systematized is de- signed to take cognizance of every attending cir- cumstance; thus, if a train should break in two, and the forward part continues on its way, the loss should be observed by the operator and the block kept closed to succeeding trains until the obstruction can be removed. In theory the block system is perfect. As a matter of fact, it is effi- cient only according to the intelligence and care of the men in charge. The frightful disasters that have occurred under its operation prove it to be very defective. It is better than nothing, but falls far short of what is needed, namely, something not dependent upon the intelligence or watchfulness of signalmen or trainmen; some- thing that protects trains automatically. An obstacle to the general adoption of the orig- inal block system by American railways was the great cost. It entails an immense outlay for special telegraph wires and apparatus, and the numerous signals and towers it contemplates. Afterward it involves a large and continuous 250 SCIENCE OF n AIL WATS; OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 251 outlay for maintenance and operatives. It was this latter partly that set ingenious inventors to work to produce something that would work au- tomatically; that would warn trainmen of ob- structions without the intervention of signal- men. Electricity and pneumatic pressure are the agents generally used in seeking this end. Some of the devices utilize the track rail as the conductor of the electric current. Others use wires connecting with signaling devices that are governed by the passage of trains. Others again are combinations of the two. One requirement generally recognized as essential is that in case of any derangement of the apparatus, the sig- nals shall automatically assume the position of danger. And here another obstacle intervenes. If the apparatus is so complicated or delicate as to be subject to continual derangement (and thus give the danger signal frequently when no danger exists), it loses in value because of the delay and uncertainty it entails. It must, to be desirable, be simple, effective and easily maintained. At the present time study and experiment are con- fined almost wholly to the discovery and per- fection of automatic devices, — devices not at all dependent upon the presence of mind of em- ployes in emergencies or the care and watchful- ness of trainmen. They are, however, costly, complicated and liable to get out of order; nor, so far, are they in- fallible. However, it is probable that all these objections will be overcome except the first. 252 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; Mr. C. A. Hammond has been at considerable pains to classify and explain the limitations and jurisdiction of signals. He says: "Signals may be divided into two classes; those meant to be seen at a distance, or far enough away for the fastest train to receive seasonable notice of the condition of the track before it; and those intended to indicate near at hand the particular track which the train should take. In the first class are distant and home signals, mast- head signals, block signals, drawbridge signals, and right of way signals, giving one train the preference over others on the same road or over any train of another road crossing it, or giving the right to pass yard limits or to enter a station, or to pass from the main line to branch or other line. In the second class are yard signals, indi- cators, switch targets, etc. It is, of course, im- portant that the subordinate signals should be in harmony with the distant signals, and so there was naturally evolved the idea of interlocking an entire system of signals at a given point. "Every section of track constituting a block should have a special block signal at each end, whatever other signals the exigencies of any particular case may require. These block sig- nals should be interlocked if they are to control opposite movements or trains on the same track. "All conflicting signals should be interlocked. "Each divergent route should have its own ad- vance signal. "Semaphore arms, which give signals to an en- gin when facing or running towards them, should for righthanded and single track roads be seen OPEBATION OF TBAINS, 263 on the right hand side of the signal post, and for left handed roads on the left hand side of the signal post; those seen by the engineman point- ing in the opposite direction having no mean- ing for him; and on double track roads the main line signal posts should be located on the out- side of the track run on, and not between the tracks. "Where- several semaphore blades are placed on the same post, they should indicate the track beyond them in regular order, beginning from left to right, as circumstances may require, main line signals being always at the top; but what- ever system is adopted, it should be uniform for the entire road. "No engine or train should pass the danger signal (horizontal red) or approach within a pre- scribed limit of the same. "No engine or train should be allowed to pass a caution signal (horizontal green) unless under full control, so that it can be safely brought to a quick stop within the distance say of three train lengths. "No engine or train should be allowed to pass any semaphore signal at schedule speed unless a distinct and unmistakable 'all clear' or safety signal (inclined white) is seen at the proper dis- tance "In foggy weather, or when for any cause not clearly visible at the proper distance, all sema- phore signals, except distant signals, should be regarded as danger signals until known to be otherwise. "No locomotive engineer should be allowed to take the word of the conductor or any other em- ploye as to the position of the semaphore signal, 254 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; but should see for himself whether it is right or wrong before moving his engine. "Exceptions: Where the block limit overlaps its entrance signal, for the purpose of allowing the engineman to see safety signal change to danger for the protection of his train against a following train, the role forbidding an engine or train to pass the danger signal or approach with in a prescribed limit of the same will not, of course, apply, provided the engineman sees the change made while he is within the lap distance. When, through known failure of apparatus, sig- nals remain at danger, trains may proceed upon PnmitiTe Form erators should pass an examination in the rules and regulations before being set to work. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 801 Such notice should be taken of disobedience of orders, neg- lect of duty, or inefficiency, as tlie interests of the company require. Each person in the employ of the company should devote himself exclusively to its service, and may not engage in any other business, except on permission from a duly authorized official. Employes who are liable to be called upon for duty at any time should keep the proper officer advised of their place of residence. All employes are expected to be on the alert to protect the interests of the company in all things, and to this end should report at once anything coming under their notice detrimental to its best interests. Full particulars, in writing, should be made of all cases of damage to persons or property. Persons whose pay is garnished should, in the discretion of officials in charge, be subject to such deductions of pay as may be necessary to reimburse the company for expenses incurred. The use of intoxicating liquors on the part of employes can not be allowed. An employe discharged from one department can not be re- employed by another without permission being first obtained. Minors can not be employed in the train service except under special arrangements. All communications concerning the safety of trains, track or buildings should, when possible, be made in writing. An employe can not become familiar with bis duties except by acquiring knowledge of the duties of others. This knowl- edge can not be acquired without studying all rules and regula- tions; he will find something that interests him under all the headings and sub-headings: it is impossible to accurately classify under diff'erent headings the duties of the various employes without endless reiteration. All rules and regulations pertaining to the service should therefore be studied. One of the tests of an employe's fitness is the extent and accuracy of his information as to train and station service; this is particularly the case with train and station officials. Each train official should be especially familiar with the duties of the various servants of the company connected with the train ser- vice, so that in the event of accident he may be prepared to per- form their functions. The same rule holds good in regard to employes at stations. 302 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; Employes should be sober, temperate men ; * they should not accept gratuities;! they should attend diligently to their duties during prescribed hours and should reside wherever the inter- ests of the company require. J All property they may find or which may come into their possession should be turned over to the authorized officer of the company. II Employes should obey promptly InstructiQns received from persons placed in authority over them. Disobedience, negligence, incompetency or immorality ren- ders a person unfit for retention in the service, and is sufiicient cause for immediate dismissal; but suspension from duty may be substituted a-t the discretion of the proper officer.§ * ''Smoking while on duty is forbidden, and the use of intoxi- cating liquors as a beverage will be considered just cause of dis- missal from the service of the company.*' — A Western Boad. '' The proprietors of refreshment rooms are forbidden to supply spirits to any engineman, fireman, guard, or other servant of the company while on duty.'' — Great Northern Baihcay, E7igland. "No instance of intoxication while on duty will be overlooked." — 1854. t " No person is allowed to receive any gratuity from the pub- lic, on pain of dismissal, and the compensation paid will cover all risks incurred, or liability to accident from any cause on the road.'*— 1854. I "Each officer and man shall devote himself to the company's service, and he must serve when and wherever he is required, in- cluding Sunday if necessary, he being allowed for any extra work at his usual daily rate of compensation. If a guard or other servant should have two residences, he must make them both known at each station from whence he works." — English Boad. II "All property which may be found on the line or premises of the company, by any man in their employ, shall be immediately handed to his superior officer, and by him to the agent at Blank street station, and entered by him in a book kept for that pur- pose. But should it be known that the property found had fallen from any particular train, it should be forwarded by the next train, or as soon thereafter as possible, to the station to which the train was proceeding, and notice thereof sent to the office at Blank street. Any man known to keep any property so found will be severely punished." — 1854. " All property found by any servant of the company on any of the premises must be immedi- ately taken to the clerk in charge, in order that a proper entry may be made of the article in case of enquiry." — Great Northern Baihcay, England. § " Persons who disapprove of the regulations adopted, or are DOt disposed to aid in their enforcement, are requested not to OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 803 Employes should not absent tliemselvcs from duty without consent of the proper ofticer. Permission to be absent should be asked through intermediate heads, when such employes are not directlj' responsible to the chief ollicer of the department.* All orders and instructions should be filed for future refer- ence. Employes should exercise a wise discretion and economy in the use of the company's material intrusted to their care.f Employes intrusted with keys to switches or cars should re- ceipt for them, and not let them go out of their possession. Employes should be held responsible for injuries to persons or property occasioned by their negligence or misconduct, also for all moneys that may come into their possession. The com- pany reserves the right to reimburse itself for any expense it may be put to in consequence of the negligence, misconduct or improper action of an employe, by withholding the pay of the person in fault.| Employes of the company are forbidden, while upon duty, from entering into altercation with other persons, no matter what the provocation. remain in the emploj'ment of the company.*' — 1854. "And they will enquire into and punish instances of immoral or loose con- duct on the part of any of their servants." — English Road. *" Men absenting themselves without leave, and prevailing on others to supply their places, will subject themselves and all par- ties concerned to a heavy fine. Any man absenting himself with- out havinga proper 'leaveof absence ticket* will be fined $1.25 as though he were absent without leave. In case of extra busi- ness, of sickness, or unavoidable cause of absence of any servants (excepting clerks), the clerk in charge is immediately to provide for the proper performance of the duty by appointing some temporary substitutes, but he is responsible for selecting men of good character, sober. honest and intelligent, and capable of un- dertaking the office. With a view to such temporary appoint- ments, it is desirable that the character and eligibility of some proper persons from time to time be previously ascertained." — Great Northern Railway, England. tThe duties of employes in connection with the use of a com- pany's supplies and the rules and regulations governing the same will be found in the volume "Economical Purchase, Care and Use of Material."' J" In the event of any misconduct or suspicion of irregu- larity of the servants, it is competent to the district agents or clerks in charge to suspend them, reporting the circumstances 304 ' SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; The pay of employes absent from duty will be stopped, unless otherwise directed by the proper officer.* When instructions are not understood, or when the course to be pursued admits of doubt, employes should so act as not to compromise the safety of property or endanger the lives of pas- sengers or others, seeking of the proper officer, on the first opportunity, the explanations they require. Employes connected with the train service should have in their possession a copy of the schedule. STANDARD TIME. Observatory standard time is the only recognized standard, and will be transmitted from Observatory to the designated offices. The standard time will be telegraphed to all points from the designated offices at 4 p. m., Central time, daily. [Note— In order to detect possible errors at junction points and to secure uniformity, the committee recommend that the time be disseminated to all points at the same hour. They consider it of great importance that the time be obtained from some observatory of recognized standing.] immediately. The pay of all clerks, guards, policemen, porters and others will be stopped from the moment of their being sus- pended ; and the pay will not be allowed except in the event of entire acquittal of the charge for which the man was suspended. The company reserves the right to deduct from pay any line im- posed for neglect of duty, or otherwise, which (in the event of pecuniary loss to the company not being entailed thereby) will be appropriated to a benevolent fund.'' — Great Northern Bailway^ England. *" A clerk, in case of continued absence on account of illness, is not entitled to pay for more than a fortnight during sifch ab- sence, except under the special sanction of the board, to whom application must be made through the superintendent of the line, who will decide whether the case be one he can properly recommend for consideration ; but as a sick fund is now estab- lished to which all persons in the service are eligible, and which, for a small weekly payment, provides medical attendance for the contributors, their wives and families, a weekly allowance in sickness, and funeral allowance in case of death, clerks are recom- mended to subscribe to it, and thus render themselves, in a much greater degree, independent in case of sickness or other unavoid- able calamity befalling themselves or their wives or families. Every guard, policeman and porter is required to become a member of the sick fund established by the company, and to pay his subscriptions regularly out of the wages he receives by deduction from the pay bill, or otherwise." — Great Northern Bait- way, England, OPERATION OF TBAINS. 806 Certain clocks will be designated on each division as stand- ard clocks. Where station clocks are provided, station agents must see they show correct time; but trainmen and enginemen must not take time from such clocks unless they are also designated as standard clocks. Each conductor and engineman* must have a reliable watch which has been examined and certified to on the form attached hereto, by a responsible watchmaker, and must file such certifi- cate with the proper designated officer before he is allowed to take charge of a train or engine. Watches must be examined and certificates renewed every six months.f (Form of Certificate.) watchmaker's certificate. This is to certify that on , 189 . . the watch of * employed as on the R has been examined and found to be a reliable and accurate time- piece, and in such repair as will, in my judgment, with proper usage, enable it to run within a variation not to exceed thirty seconds per week. Name of Maker Brand Number of Movement Gold or Silver Open or Hunting ( 'ase Stem or Key Winding (Signed) Watchmaker. Address [Note— Where this system of examining watches has been adopted the result of the examination has developed the fact that a large percentage of the watches previously in use were unlit to run trains by.] Each conductor and engineman must regulate his watch by the designated standard clock before starting on each trip, and register his name and the time at which he regulated his watch on a blank form (or in a book) provided for that purpose. Conductors and enginemen whose duties prevent them from having access to a standard clock must compare daily with, and regulate their watches by, those of conductors and enginemen who have standard time', and have registered their names as above provided. * The term " Engineman " embraces locomotive engineers and firemen. tSonie companies require this examination to be made at more frequent periods. ao 306 . SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; The minimum standard of excellence for watches should be of a grade equal to what is generally known among American movements as the " fifteen jeweled patent regulator, adjusted to heat and cold." All watches should be duly protected from magnetism and electric influence.* When a watch examined does not fill the required standard, it should be replaced by one that will. A watch rejected by one examiner can not be passed upon by another, except the chief examiner. When watches need cleaning or repairing they should be left with the company's examiner for that purpose. But if an em- ploye prefers to take his watch to his own watchmaker he Kri>. Primitive Iron Railway and Truck, A. D. 1800. Should be at liberty to do so. The watch he carries during the time his own is being cleaned or repaired, however, must be ex- amined by the company's examiner, and for this examination the employe should pay the necessary fee. When watches are left with the company's examiner to be cleaned or repaired, a watch should be lent the employe to be used by him during the time his watch is undergoing repairs, free of charge. * This last requirement is considered by experts to be of more importance than adjustment, as railway employes are so continu- ally coming in contact with magnetism and electricity that any employe is in danger of having his watch ruined or rendered un- reljable by its becoming magnetized. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 807 Any variations in watches, as compared with the standard time of the road, should be noted on a bhink provided for that purpose at least once a week, and oftener if necessary. TIME TABLE. A time table is the general law governing the arriving and leaving time of all regular trains at all stations. Time tables will be issued from time to time, as may be necessary. The times given for each train on the time table is the schedule of such train. Each time table, from the moment it takes effect, supersedes the preceding time table, and all special instructions relating thereto ; and trains shall be run as directed thereby, subject to the rules. All regular trains on the road running according to the preceding time table shall, unless otherwise directed^ assume the times and rights of trains of corresponding numbers on the new time tablfc. Upon the time table not more than two sets of figures are shown for a train at any point. VV hen two times are shown, the earlier is the arriving and the later the leaving time. When one time is shown it is the leaving time unless otherwise indi- cated. Regular meeting or passing points are indicated on the time table by figures in full faced type. Both the arriving and leaving time of a train are in full faced type when both are meeting or passing times, or when one or more other trains are to meet or pass it between those times. Where there are more trains than one to meet or pass a train at any point, attention is called to it by . f Note.— The committee recommend that each company adopt such method as it may prefer in filling the above blank as to the manner of call- ing attention to such meeting or passing points.] In all cases trains are required to clear and follow as pro- vided. On the employes' time table the words "daily,*' "daily, ex- cept Sunday," etc., printed at the head and foot in connection with a train, indicate how it shall be run. The figures given at intermediate stations shall not be taken as indicating that a train will stop unless the rules require it. The following signs placed before the figures indicate : "s" — regular stop (or the same may be designated by the dif- ferent styles of type used) ; "f — stop on signal to receive or discharge passengers or freight ; "t" — stop for meals. Trains are designated by numbers and their class indicated on the time tables. [Note.— The committee recommend that odd numbers shall be given to west or south bound trains, and even numbers to east or north bound trains.] 808 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; SIGNAL RULES. SIGNALS. Condnctors. eng:memen. firemen, brakemen. station agents, telegraph operators, switchmen, switch tenders, track foremen, road and bridge watchmen, and all other employes whose duties may require them to give signals, must provide themselves with the' proper appliances, and keep them in good order and always ready for immediate use. If in any emergency the proper signals are not at hand, warning should be given by the best means at command. Flags of the proper color must be used by day, and lamps of the proper color by night or whenever froni fog or other cause the day signals can not be clearly seen. Ked signifies danger, and is a'signal to stop. Green signifies caution, and is a signal to go slowly. White signifies safehf. and is a signal to go on.* Green and white is a signal to be used to stop trains at flag stations for passengers or freight.t Blue is a signal to be used by car inspectors. An explosive cap or torpedo, placed on the top of the rail, is a signal to be used in addition to the regular signaU, The explosion of one torpedo is a signal to stop immediately; the explosion of tico torpedoes is a signal to reduce speed imme- diately- and look out for a danger signal. A fusee is an extra danger signal, to be lighted and placed on the track at night, in cases of accident or emergency. A train finding a fusee burning upon the track must come to a stop, and not proceed until it is burned out, A flag or lamp swung across the track, a hat or any object waved violently by any person on the track, signifies danger, and is a signal to stop'. Those giving signals should locate themselves so as to be plainly seen, and should make them in such a manner as to be readily understood. The utmost care should be exercised by * At some large stations, where there are lamps showing white lights for other purposes than signaling, which come in the line of the signals, a green light is substituted for a white light on the gigoal post; but in all such cases trains are to approach and jnss through such stations with caution.~ — Great Western Bail- way. England. fWhen a train does not stop at a station, unless signaled, such station becomes a signal station, so far as that particular train is concerned, but generally speaking, we understand a signal station to mean a small and unimportant place where trains do not stop unless signaled. OPEEATION OF TBAINS. 809 trainmen to avoid taking the wrong signal, when two or more trains are passing each other at stations or in yards. Unless both the conductor and engineer are positive that the signal given is for them, they should not move their trains until com- munication is made by word of mouth. Engineers, conductors and brakemen of all trains, also sta- tion, track, bridge, signal and switchmen, should carefully ob- serve all passing trains by day and night to see if they flag fol- lowing trains, and in case signals are shown on any engine should govern themselves accordingly. ''Every guard, signalman, enginedriver, gateman, foreman of work, and ganger of plate layers, will be provided with packets of detonators, which they are always to have ready for use while on duty, and every person in charge of a station must keep a supply of these signals in a suitable place, known by, and easy of access at all times to, every person connected with the station. All the persons above named will be held responsi- ble for keeping up the proper supply of detonators. These sig- nals must be placed on the rail (label upwards) by bending the clasp around the upper flange of the rail to prevent their falling off". When an engine passes over a detonator it explodes with a loud report, and the engine driver must instantly shut off steam, and bring his engine to a stand, and then proceed cau- tiously to the place of obstruction, or until he receives an ' all right' signal. Detonators must be carefully handled, as they are liable to explode if roughly treated. It is necessary to keep them well protected from the damp. At intervals of not more than two months, one from each person's stock must be tested, to insure that they are in good condition." * Should a third torpedo be exploded at the regulation dis- tance (600 yards) from the first two, the train should be stopped at once.t ♦English Standard. t Exposure to rain or wet for thirty minutes destrx)y8 or im- pairs the explosive qualities of torpedoes, and, in such cases, too much reliance should not be placed upon them. "When in snowy weather there is any probability of the dotonators ])eing swept from the rails by the brooms attached to the guard irons of the engines, these signals must not be depended on alone. The guard must not rejoin his train, even though it may be able to proceed, unless some qualified servant of the company can be found." — Great Northern Bailway, England. 310 SCIENCE OF BAILWAT8; TRAIN SIGNALS. Each train, while rnnning. must display two green flags hy day and two green lights by night, one on each side of the rear of the train, as markers, to indicate the rear of the train. Yard engines will not display markers.* Each train running after sunset, or when obscured by fog or other cause, must display the headlight in front, and' two or more re suggest any combination of signals, sufficiently distinct from oilier signals, tliey do not recommend the carrying of any signal denoting an irregular train following, and have therefore omitted the signal from the rules.] Two green and two white flags (one of each kind on each side) by day and two green and two white lights by night indi- Y Track. cate that the engine or train carrying the same is followed by another which is irregular and will keep out of the way of all regular trains. A yellow flag or lantern carried in front of an engine denotes that the telegraph line is out of order, and the track men of the various sections of road over which the signal is carried should at once examine the telegraph lines, for the whole length of their several sections, carefully and promptly repairing any defects they may discover. When signals are carried on the front of an engine, two flags by day or two lights by night should be invariably used; if from any cause but one should appear, it will be taken to have the same meaning as two. WHISTLE SIGNALS. One long blast of the whistle is the signal for approaching stations, railroad crossings and junctions (thus, ). 312 SCIENCE OF SAIL WATS; One short blast of the whistle is the signal to apply the brakes — stop (thus.-). Two long blasts of the whistle is the signal to throw off the brakes (thus. ). Two short blasts of the whistle is an answer to any signal, except " train parted " (thus — ). Three lo?ig blasts of the whistle (to be repeated until answered, as provided) is a signal that the train has parted (thus. ). Three short blasts of the whistle, when the train is standing (to be repeated until answered, as provided), is a signal that the train will back (thus. ). Four long blasts of the whistle (thus, ) is the signal to call in a flagman from the west or south. Four long followed by one short blast of the whistle (thus, ) is the signal to call in a flagman from the east or north. Four short blasts of the whistle is the engineman's call for sig- nals from swit<"h tenders, watchmen, trainmen and others (thus, Five short blasts of the whistle is a signal to the flagman to go back and protect the rear of the train (thus, ). One lojig followed by two short blasts of the whistle is a sig- nal to be given by trains on single track, when displaying sig- nals for a following train, to call the attention of trains of the same or inferior class to the signals displayed (thus. ). [Note.— In order to avoid duplicating signals the committee have recom- mended that the above named signal be substituted for the thrte short blasts now used, with which much dissatisfaction has been expressed. In the opinion of some of the committee this rule is unnecessary.] Two long, followed by two short, blasts of the whistle is the signal for approaching road crossing at grade (thus, A succession of short blasts of the whistle is an alarm for per- sons or cattle on the track, and calls the attention of trainmen to danger ahead. The whistle should not be used as a stopping signal, except in case of danger, if it can be avoided. It should never be used as a signal for starting a passenger train. BELL CORD SIGNALS. One tap of the signal bell, when the train is standing, is the signal to start. Two taps of the signal bell, when the train is running, is the signal to stop at once.* * '"Every guard, when traveling, must keep a good look out and should he see any reason to apprehend danger, he must use OPERATION OF TBAINS. 818 Two taps of the signal bell, when the train is standing, is the signal to call in the flagman. Three taps of the signal bell, when the train is running, is the signal to stop at the next station. Three taps of the signal bell, when the train is standing, is the signal to back the train. Four taps of the signal bell, when the train is running, is the signal to reduce speed. AVhen one tap of the signal bell is heard while a train is run- ning, the engineman must inmiediately ascertain if the train has parted and if so be governed accordingly. Signals of the same number of sounds shall have the same significance when given by other appliances than bell cords and signal bells. LAMP SIGNALS. A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop.* A lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal to move ahead. A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the track, when the train is standing, is the signal to move back. A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's length across the track, when the train is running, is a signal that the train has parted. A flag, or the hand, moved in any of the directions given above, will indicate the same signal as given by a lamp. Signal lamps should be lighted as soon as dusk commences, and during the interval between daylight and dark, both day and night signals should be used.f Hand lamps and flags, when used as signals, should be held in the hand, unless otherwise directed. his best endeavors to give notice thereof to the engine driver. Should a guard wish to attract the attention of the engine driver, he must, in addition to using the comnnmication, where such exists, apply his brake, sharply, and release it suddenly. This operation repeated several times is almost certain, from the check it occasions, to attract the notice of the engine driver, to whom the necessary ' caution' or 'danger' signal, as the case may require, must be exhibited." — Englislt Standard. *"The danger signal 'to stop' is shown by a red flag, or, in the absence of the flag, by both arms held up. '('aution,' 'to slacken,' is shown ... by one arm being held up. 'All right' is shown ... by holding the right arm in a horizontal posi- tion pointing across the line of tslUs.-"— Great N^orthe7'n liaihcay, England. t English Clearing House Standard. 314 SCIENCE OF n AIL WAYS: FIXED SIGNALS. Fixed signals are placed at junctions, railroad crossings, sta- tions and other points that require special protection. Special instructions will be issued indicating their position and use. A semaphore arm extended in horizontal position by day, or a red light by night, signifies danger,* and trains should come to a stop, and not proceed until the signal indicates that all is right. When the line is clear the arm will not be seen by day,t and by night a white light will indicate that all is right. During storms and foggy weather, great caution should be observed. If sema- phore arms or signal lights can not be plainly seen, trains should be brought to a stop, and not be allowed to proceed until all is known to be right. Switch signals should be arranged so as to show white| when the switch is set for the main track, and red when set for a siding, crossing or junction. nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn n- n n o mmmm 'J u u u u u u u u u UUUUUlIUUlJU Lr5^^=a^^lilii44 Bridge Guard. RULES GOVERNING THE USE OF SIGNALS. A signal imperfectly displayed, or the absence of a signal at a place where a signal is usually shown, must be regarded as a danger signal, and the fact reported to the superintendent. The unnecessary use of the whistle is prohibited ; when neces- sary in shifting at stations and in yards the engine bell should be rung, and the whistle used only when required by rule or law, or when necessary to prevent accident. *"The danger signal is shown by the arm on the left hand side of the semaphore post standing out from the post." — Great Western Bailway^ England. f'The 'all right" signal is shown by the arm hanging down to the side of the post." — Great Western Failway, England. X Green may be used if thought more desirable. OP EBATION OF TRAINS. 816 The whistle must not be sounded while passing a passenger train, except in oases of emergeney or danger, or when required by the rules. When a danger signal (except a fixed signal) is displayed to stop a train, it must be acknowledged as provided. The engine bell must be rung before starting a train, and when running through tunnels and the streets of towns or cities. The engine bell must be rung for a quarter of a mile before reaching every road crossing at grade, and until it is passed; and the whistle must be sounded at all whistling posts. When two or more engines are coupled to the head of a train, the leading engine only shall display the signals as provided. One flag or light displayed as a classification signal will be regarded the same as if two were displayed ; but conductors and enginemen will be held responsible for the proper display of all train signals. When a train is being pushed by an engine (except when shifting and making up trains in yards) a white light must be displayed on the front of the leading car at night, or when the train is obscured by fog or other cause. When a train turns out to meet or pass another train the red lights must be removed and green displayed as soon as the track is clear; but the red must again be displayed before returning to its own track. Headlights on engines when on side tracks must be covered as soon as the track is clear and the train has stopped, and also when standing at the end of double track. The combined green and white signal is to be used to stop a train only at the flag stations designated by the schedule of that train. When it is necessary to stop a train at a point that is not a flag station for that train, a red signal must be used. White signals must be used by watchmen at public road and street crossings to prevent persons and teams from crossing when trains are approaching. Danger signals must be used only when necessary to stop trains. Torpedoes must not be placed near stations or road crossings where persons are liable to be injured by them. All signals must be used strictly in accordance with the rules, and trainmen and enginemen must keep a constant lookout for signals. [Note.— In connection with the subject of signals the committee recom- mend that no cross arms or telegraph poles placed along the lines shall be p>ermitted to be painted red or green.] A red lantern should be kept lighted, ready for use at night or in foggy weather, in.the rear car of trains, also upon engines. Should an engineman observe a train or engine at a stand, on the opposite line to that on which he is traveling, obscured by steam or smoke, he should sound his whistle and approach very cautiously, so as to be able to stop if necessary. 816 SCLSXCE OF BAIL WATS; The cylinder cocks of engines should be closed when trains are waiting on turnouts, clear of the main track. When upon duty each trainman should carry three torpedoes in his pocket. Trains should also be provided with fusees Xo new signal should be brought into use, nor alteration made in the position of use or any signal, without the authority of the proper officer. Aatomatic Safety Switch Stand. TRAIN RULES. CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINS. All trains are designated as regular or extra. Regular trains are those represented on the time table, and may consist of one or more sections. All sections of a train, except the last, must display signals as provided. Extra trains are those not repre- sented on the time table. An engine without cars, in service on the road, shall be considered a train. All regular trains are classified on the time table with regard to their priority of right to the track ; trains of the first class be- OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 317 ing superior to those of the second and all succeeding classes, and trains of the second class being superior to those of the third and all succeeding classes, and so on indefinitely. The terms passen- ger, freight, or mixed are descriptive and do not refer to class. Extra trains may be distinguished as: — Passenger extra, or special; Freight extra; Work train extra. All extra trains are of inferior class to all regular trains of whatever class. MOVEMENT OF TRAINS. A train of inferior class must in all cases keep out of the way of a train of superior class. On single track, all trains in one direction, specified in time table, have the absolute right of track over trains of the same class running in the opposite direction. [Note.— It being represented to the committee that some of the roads represented in the convention will be unable, on account of limited telegraph facilities and other local causes, to carry out this rule in its literal meaning and full scope, it is suggested by the committee that such roads may issue regulations to arrange this matter in some other way. The committee believe, however, that a test of the rule, as approved by the committee, and its literal enforcement, will result to the entire satis- faction of those using it.] When trains of the same class meet on single track, the train not having right of track must take the siding and be clear of the main track before the leaving time of the opposing train ; but such train must not pass the switch to back in on a siding, until after the arrival of the opposing train, unless otherwise directed by special instructions. When necessary to back in on the siding, before passing the switch, a flagman must be sent out in the direction of the opposing train. [See note under following rule.] When a train of inferior class meets a train of superior class on single track, the train of inferior class must take the siding and clear the train of superior class Jive minutes. A train of inferior class must keep Jive minutes off the time of a train of superior class following it. [Note.— The committee recommend in case grades or other conditions are such that on any line or parts of line greater protection is necessary, the second preceding rule should require a clearance of five minutes, and the preceding rule ten minutes.] A train must not leave a station to follow a passenger train until Jive minutes after, the departure of such passenger train, unless some form of block signal is used. Passenger trains running in the same direction must keep not less than Jive minutes apart, unless some form of block signal is used. 318 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; Freivbt train? f ollowiiig each otlier must keep not le^ than jSee minutes apart (except in closing ap at stations or at meeting and pa&sing i>ointe) unless :^me form of block ^^al is uisecl. [See note under next rule.] Xo train must leave a station expecting to meet or to be passed at the next station by a train having the light of tracks miless it has fnU schedule time to make the meeting or passing point, or unless it has tbe full time allowed between stations (which may be shown on the margin of tbe time table) to make the meeting or passing point, and dear the track bj the times required by the rules. [Note.— The eonunittee reoHiunend, in case grades or other eonditiassed in going on the siding. When the expected train of the same class is not foimd at the schedule meeting or passing [loint^ the train having right of track must approach all sidings prepared to stop, imtil the ex- pected train is met or passed. All trains must approach the end of double track, junctions, railroad crossings at grade, and drawbridges prepared to stop, and must not proceed until the switdies or signals are seen to be right or the track is plainly seen to be dear. Where required by law, all trains must stop. Xo train must leave a junction, a terminal, or other starting point, or pas» from double to single track, until it is ascertained that all trains due. which have the right of track against it, have arrived. When a passenger train is detained at any of its usual stops more than minutes, the flagman must go back with danger dgnals and protect his train as provided; but if it stops at any unusual jioint, the flagman must immediately go back far enough to be seen from a train moving in the same direction when it is at least from the rear of his own train, and if the stop is over minutes he must be governed by the rule relating to trains stopped by acddent or OPERATION OF TRAINS. 819 obstruction. When it is necessary to protect the front of the train, the same precautions must be observed by the fireman. If the fireman is unable to leave the engine, the front brakeman must be sent in his place. [Note.— The committee, on account of the existing great diversities of grades, amount of traffic and other local circumstances, have left blanks in this rule for each company to fill out, aft«r determining what times, if any, are necessary, either for its road as a whole or for each division.] When a freight train is detained at any of its usual stops more than = minutes, where the rear of the train can be plainly seen from a train moving in the same direction at a distance of at least , the flagman must go back with danger signals not less than , and as much farther as may Ikj ne.cessary to protect his train; but if the rear of his train can not Ije plainly seen at a distance of at least , or if it stops at any point that is not its usual stopping place, the flagman must go back not less than , and if his train should be detained until within ten minutes of the time of a passenger train moving in the same di- rection, he must be governed by the rule relating to trains stopped by accident or obstruction.* * This rule seems unnecessary except upon a double track road where freight trains move without much, if any, reference to the rights of other trains under the schedule. It is impossible that signals should in all cases be sent out as directed at the various regular stopping places of freight trains. To do so would re- quire an enormous train or station force, and besides, if the freight train is not trespassing upon the rights of other trains, such precautions are unnecessary. If it is in the way of trains having the right to the track, then the precaution provided by this rule is necessary, otherwise it is not. The regulations require that officials in charge of extra or wild trains, or delayed trains of inferior grade, must approach stations carefully, expecting to find other trains at such stations. If trains of an inferior grade trespass upon the rights of trains of a superior grade, then they should be protected in the manner provided. Upon a double track road it would not of course be necessary to send the signals in advance, as provided in the rule, unless the opposite track was obstructed, I find the following rule, in the regu- lations of a prominent road, worthy of incorporation here: " Should it be necessary for a first class train to occupy the main track at a station or turnout, in the time of any train of the same class, which by the time table should either stop or pass any first class train at such station or turnout, no signal shall be given to such approaching train, but it must be distinctly under- stood that when any train occupies the main track at any station or turnout, in the time of any other train of the'same class, which by the time table does not stop at such station or turnout, the proper signal must be sent out to prevent accident," 320 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; When it is necessary to protect the front of the train, the same precautions must be observed by the fireman. If the fireman is unable to leave the engine, the front brakeman must be sent in his place. [NoTB.— The committee finding that the distances and times necessary for flagmen to go back differ so much on account oC grades, amount of trafli'c and other local circumstances, have left blanks for each company to deter- mine what distance and time is necessary, either for its road as a whole, or for each division.] When it is necessary for the flagman to go back to protect the rear of his train, the next brakeman must immediately take the flag- man's position on the train and remain there until relieved by the flagman; and on passenger trains the baggagemaster must take the place of the front brakeman whenever necessary. When a train is stopped by an accident or obstruction, the flagman must Immediately go back with danger signals to stop any train moving in the same direction. At a point from the rear of his train he must place one torpedo on the rail ; he must then continue to go back at least from the rear of his train and place two torpedoes on the rail, ten yards apart (one rail length), when he may return to a point from the rear of his" train, and he must remain there until recalled by the whistle of his engine; but if a passenger train is due within ten minutes, he must remain until it arrives. When he comes in, he will remove the torpedo nearest to the train, but the two torpedoes must be left on the rail as a caution signal to any following train. If the accident or obstruction occurs upon single track, and it becomes necessary to protect the front of the train, or if any other track is obstructed, the fireman must go for- ward and use the same precautions. If the fireman is unable to leave the engine the front brakeman must be sent in his place. [See note under third preceding rule.] Freight trains having work to do on any other track may cross over if no passenger train is due, provided no approach- ing freight train is in sight; and also provided that a flagman has been sent with danger signals, as provided, not less than in the direction of the expected train. [See note under fourth preceding rule.] When a freight train on double track turns out onto the op- posite track to allow a passenger train running in the same direction to pass, and, while waiting, a passenger train from the opposite direction arrives, the freight train may cross back an d allow it to pass, provided the other passenger train is not in sight; and also provided that a flagman has been sent with danger signals, as provided, not less than in the direction of the expected train. [See note under fifth preceding rule.] When it is necessary for a freight train on double track to turn out onto the opposite track to allow a passenger train run- OPERATION OF TRAINS, 821 ning in the same direction to pass, and a passenger train running in the opposite direction is due, a flagman must be sent back with danger signals, as provided, not less than in the direction of the following train, and the freight train must not cross over until one of the passenger trains arrive. Should the following passenger train arrive first, a flagman must be sent for- ward on the opposite track with danger signals, as provided, not less than in the direction of the overdue passenger train before crossing over. Great caution must be used, and good judgment is required, to prevent detention to either passenger train. The preference should always be given to the passenger train of superior class. [See note under sixth preceding rule.] [Note.— In regard to backing trains upon the main track or crossing over on double track to move in the wrong direction to avoid obstructions, the committee believe that owing to the different conditions of the train service, etc., on the various roads, it is impossible to formulate a rule which can be generally adopted, and therefore recommend that each company issue such special instructions to cover this case as its circumstances may require.] If a train should part while in motion, trainmen must use great care to prevent the detached parts from coming into collision. Enginemen must give the signal as provided, and keep the front part of the train in motion until the de- tached portion is stopped. The front portion will have the right to go back, regardless of all trains, to recover the detached portion, first sending a flagman with danger sig- nals in the direction in which the train is to be backed, and running with great caution, at a speed not exceeding four miles per hour. On single track all the precautions re- quired by the rules must also be taken to protect the train against opposing trains. The detached portion must not be moved or passed around until the front portion cames back. This rule applies to trains of every class. An exception will only be made to the above when it is known that the detached por- tion has been stopped, and when the whole occurrence is in plain view, no curves or other obstructions intervening, so that signals can be seen from both portions of the train. In that event the conductor and engineman may arrange for the re- coupling, using the greatest caution. [See note under seventh preceding rule.] If the engineman of a train can not make sure that the rear portion of his train has stopped, he should proceed to the first siding, where he should leave his train, and after waiting ten minutes, signal his engine back to the rear portion of his train, presuming that it is stHl in motion, taking great care not to col- lide with it. If a train breaks into more than two parts, the rear part should be stopped first, then the part next forward of it, and so til 822 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; on, iisin^ great care not to stop any part so as to permit of col- lision with it. When stopped, each portion should be protected by signals.* When a train is being pushed by an engine (except when shifting and making u^ trains in yards) a flagman must be sta- tioned in a conspicuous position on the front of the leading car, so as to perceive the first sign of danger and immediately signal the engineman. A train starting from a station, or leaving a junction when a train of the same class running in the same clirection is overdue, will proceed on its own time and rights, and the overdue train will run as provided. A train which is delaj'ed, and falls back on the time of an- other train of the same class, does not lose its rights. Kegular trains twelve hours or more behind their schedule time lose all their rights.f A train overtaking another train of the same or superior class, disabled so that it can not move, will run around it. assuming the rights and taking the orders of the disabled train, to the next telegraph office which is open, where it will report to the super- intendent. The disabled train will assume the rights of the last train passing it, till the next telegraph oflice which is open is reached. * " Should any part of the train become detached when in motion, care must be taken not to stop the front part of the train before the rear portion has either been stopped or is run- ning slowly, and the rear guard must promptly apply his* brake to prevent a collision with the front portion. There may be cases requiring the train to be stopped, owing to the failure of, or accident to, some part of it, when the prompt exercise of judgment and skill is necessary to decide whether to stop quickly, or otherwise. If the engine be defective, the sooner the train can be stopped the better. If any of the vehicles be off the rails, the brakes in the rear must be instantly applied, in order that by keeping the couplings tight, the disabled vehicle may be kept up and out of the way of the vehicles behind, until the force of the latter is exhausted, it being desirable in such cases that the front portion of the train should be brought slowly to a stand. The application of the front brakes might, in such cases, result in further damage, and they should only be applied when the disabled vehicles are in the rear of the train. In all cases the application of brakes behind a disabled vehicle will be attended with advantage." — English Standard. t Until, therefore, a regular train is twelve hours or more late it is only necessary for it. as it proceeds, to keep off the time of regular trains, of the same or superior grade, until the expiration of the time stated ; extra or special trains must keep out of its way. OPEBATION OF TRAINS, 828 All messages or orders respecting the movement of trains or the condition of tracks or bridges must be in writing. Passenger trains must not display signals for a following train without an order from the superintendent; nor freight trains without an order from the yardmaster. Extra trains must not be run on single track without an order from the superintendent. When signals displayed for a following train on single track are taken down at any point before the following train arrives, the conductor must inform the superintendent promptly by tele- graph, and also the operator or switch tender ; and the latter, un- less there is some other provision for the purpose, must notify all opposing trains of the same or inferior class leaving that point before the train arrives for which signals were displayed. Car Gas Burner, "Pintsch" (Equal 44 CandlesV If signals are taken down at a point where there is no opera- tor, switchtender, or other provision for the purpose, the con- ductor must notify all opposing trains of the same or inferior class until he reaches the next telegraph office, when he must inform the superintendent; and the operator, unless there is some other provision for the purpose, must notify all opposing trains of the same or inferior class until directed otherwise by the superintendent. If the train for which signals were displayed leaves the main line at a point where there is no operator, switchtender, or other provision for the purpose, a flagman must be left to notify oppos- ing trains that it has arrived. Work trains will be run as extras under special orders, ard will be assigned working limits. Great care must be exercised by the trainmen of a train approaching a station where any train is receiving or discharg- ing passengers. 324 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; Enginemen must observe trains on the opposite track, and if they are running too closely together call attention to the fact. No person will be permitted to ride on an engine except the engineman, fireman and other designated employes in the dis- charge of their duties, without a written order from the proi)er authority. Conductors will beheld responsible for the proper adjustment of the switches used by them and their trainmen, except where switchtenders are stationed. Whoever opens a switch shall remain at it until it is closed, unless relieved by some other competent employe.. When there is more than one train to use a switch it must not be left open unless one of the trainmen of the following train is at the switch and takes charge of it. Accidents, detention of trains, failure in the supply of water or fuel, or defects in the track or bridges, must be promptly re- ported by telegraph to the superintendent. No train shall leave a station without a signal from its con- ductor. Conductors and enginemen will be held equally responsible for the violation of any of the rules governing the safety of their trains, and they must take every precaution for the protection of their trains^ even if not provided for by the rules. In all cases of doubt or uncertainty^ take the safe course and run no risks. Should a train having the right to the road be directed not to leave a station until a specified time, unless another train has arrived, the train so held should wait five minutes, to allow for possible variation of watches, before proceeding, if the train does not arrive by the time specified. When a train has orders to run regardless of a specified train, the train under such orders has no rights over any other train. In the event fusees are used in addition to torpedoes ^o pro- tect trains, the signalman should place a fusee from the train. The fusee should not be lighted until the signalman is recalled.* Where a mixed gauge is used, torpedoes should be placed on each rail, both for broad and narrow gauge trains, or on the rail which is used for both. When, from any cause, a train is unable to proceed at a greater speed than four miles an hour, the rear brakeman should go back twelve hundred yards, and follow the train at that distance. * This distance will vary according to the topography of the road, condition of business, etc. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 825 using the proper danger signals to stop any following train, until assistance arrives or the train is sidetraclced. When a train is stopped upon tlie main track in consequence of the signals referred to in the preceding rule, the conductor should in turn protect his train with signals, in the manner de- scribed, from any train that may be following him, thus relieving the signalman previously upon duty * Should anything occur to detain an engine, not attached to a train, upon the main track, it should be protected by signals in the manner described,! In the event of any obstruction or accident to the line, not expressly provided for in the rules, signals should be placed in both directions to warn approaching trains. These signals should be placed in the manner described. Ill Signal Lamp, A. D. 1861. In the event of any obstruction or accident to the track, notice of the same should at once be sent to the proper officer from the next telegraph station; also to the nearest agents or * "He (the signalman that is relieved) must tell the guard of such train as he stops, what has happened, and ride on the engine, so as to point out to the driver where he left his own train, and tell him the particulars under which he had been obliged to stop the following train." — Great Northern Railway^ England. t While the instructions contained herein provide specifically for trains^ they are also, in many cases, intended to cover engines running without trains; in many instances the rules are so wordecf as to cover both trains and engines; but whether both are mentioned or not. those cases where both are intended will 1^ obvious to the reader. When it is desired to apply a rule to engines that refers, herein, only to trains, but may be made to apply to both trains and engines, the word conductor, wherever used, should give place to engineman (unless there is a conductor in charge), and engine should be substituted for train. 826 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; flagmen in each direction from the accident; but the first duty of employes is to protect approaching trains from any possibility of disaster.* In the event any accident occasion the obstruction of, or be dangerously near to, any track used by trains moving in the opposite direction, signals should be placed upon such line, and it should otherwise be protected in the manner contemplated by this rule. Should a train or engine stop at any unusual point on the road (?. e., at any point that is not a regular stopping place for such train or engine), it should be protected as provided. If inferior trains are, at any time, contrary to rules, obliged to keep the main track in passing superior trains, signals should be sent twelve hundred yards, in the direction of the expected train, to give suitable warning for it to approach carefully; the conductor of the inferior train should see that switches are right for the passage of the approaching train. Those in charge of switching engines are required to exercise great care to prevent accident occurring from the obstruction of the main track.f Engines or cars should not be permitted to stand upon the main track, except when switching within the * "When an accident or obstruction of any kind occurs on any part of the line, it must be immediately reported by telegraph, or by the most expeditious means, to the next station or signal box on each side of the place where the accident has occurred, so that notice may be given to the engine drivers and guards of approaching trains; also to the heads of departments, to the locomotive station where the breakdown vans for the district are kept; to the district superintendent and the traffic inspector for the district, and to the inspector of permanent way. It must also be reported by telegraph to those stations where the starting of other trains is liable to be aff"ected by the delay caused by the obstruction. In conveying intelligence of, or in summoning assistance to, any accident or failure, a platelayer (section man) must be sent as quickly as possible to the next gang in each direction, from which a platelayer must in like manner be sent to the next more distant gang, until information of the accident has by this means reached the nearest station in each direction, and the necessary assistance has been obtained, the platelayers of each gang proceeding without loss of time to the place at which their services are required." — English Standard. t "When any train or engine is shunting from one line to another after sunset and in foggy weather, the head and side lights of the engine must be reversed so as to show red against any other train or engine traveling on the line of rails obstructed OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 827 limits of the various yards. When it is necessary to use the main track at any other point, signals should be placed for the protection of approaching trains as required by this rule.* Should any vehicle in a train be on fire, the train should be stopped, and protected in the following manner: The brakeman or fireman should detach the cars in the rear of those on fire, and the burning cars should be drawn forward to a distance of fifty yards at least, and then be uncoupled, and left until the fire can be extinguished, to efi'ect which every eff'ort must be made. In the event of accident to trains, the i^ersons in charge thereof have the right to call upon sectionmeu and others for such assistance as they may require. t When it is necessary to leave a car or portion of a train on a grade upon the main track or elsewhere, the brakes should be set and the wheels securely blocked. t by the train or engine so shunting. Shunting engines employed exclusively in station yards and sidings must, after sunset and in foggy weather, carry both head and tail lamps showing a red light." — English Standard. * "No train may shunt on the main line unless absolutely nec- essary; and a train must be detained at a station where there is a long siding, so as to allow the following train to pass, rather than send it on with a chance of having to shunt on the main line." — Great Northern Railway^ England. "Guards performing shunting operations at sidings must, in all cases, take care that the vehicles are left clear of the main line, and within the safety points and scotchblocks, and that the points fall properly, and the scotchblocks are replaced across the rails after the operation is completed." — English Standard. t " In cases of accidents or emergencies requiring such exer- cise of authority, the conductor or engineer is empowered to summon any person or persons in the employ of the company, by night or day, to render assistance to a disabled train or en- gine, and any person neglecting or refusing to obey such sum- mons will be discharged." — Regulations New York Road, 2854. X " When, from any cause, a goods train has been brought to a stand on the main line, where the line is not level, and it is necessary for the engine to be detached from the train, for the purpose of attaching or detaching wagons, the guard must. Ije- fore the engine is uncoupled, satisfy himself tbat the van brakes have been put on securely, and as an additional precaution, must pin down a suttlcient number of wagon brakes, and place one or more sprags in the wheels of the wagons next to the rear brake in the case of an ascending gradient, and of the foremost wagons in the case of a descending gradient, so as to prevent the possi- 828 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; When it is necessary to back a train {i. e., when it is neces- sary to move it in a contrary direction upon the line) danger signals should be sent not less than one mile in advance of the mov- ing train. A train should only be backed to the first siding; while it is in motion the whistle should be sounded at short in- tervals. The speed of the train should not exceed four miles per hour, so that the signalman may be able to keep the required distance in advance. In the movement of trains, trainmen should take into con- sideration the state of the weather, the condition of the track, and the weight of the train. Trains should run with great care during and after severe rains, and at reduced speed when the track is in bad order, or when crossing long bridges or trestle works. Trains should carefully approach places or yards where en- gines use the main track in switching. Stations and switches should also be approached with care. Upon a single track road when an order is given a train to proceed with caution, keeping a careful lookout for a particular train, it is the duty of the conductor in such cases to send sig- nals in advance as the train approaches curves and obscure places in the track. Upon arriving at a place where a particular train is to be met, care should be taken by trainmen to identify such train ; in other words they should not proceed until the right train has arrived. When a train is not required to stop at a meeting or passing point it must, at night or in foggy weather, approach such point with caution, and at reduced speed, being kept under con- trol until the opposing train is clear of the main track, and the switches are properly set. The conductor of a slow train should report to the proper authority immediately on arrival at a station, where, by the schedule, he should be overtaken by a faster train of the same class, in the event the latter does not arrive on time. The con- ductor of the slow train should not proceed until the faster train has passed, without special orders. When a train is overtaken and passed by a train carrying signals for other trains (having the same rights as the train bility of the wagons moving away. The number of sprags must be regulated by the steepness of the gradient, the number of wagons, their loads, and the state of the weather and rails.'' — Eng- lish Standard. OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 829 carrying the signals), it should wait until all the sections of such train have passed, unless otherwise directed by special order * Trains of an inferior grade should be governed by this rule in starting from terminal stations, and in the application of this rule, terminal stations are considered the same as other stations on the road. If an inferior train falls behind its time, as fixed in the schedule, it will not yield the road to a following train of the same class with which it has no designated passing point, until overtaken by it; but the first named .train should be protected Semaphore. by signals from all chance of rear collision, and yield the road at the first station after the following train has overtaken it. Trains should approach stations and yards where switching engines are located with extreme caution. When approaching stations and sidings, enginemen should observe whether the switches are set right, and should always be on the lookout for signals. An engineer approaching a station where signals should be shown and failing to observe them, should stop the train and the * Or, in other words, it must not proceed until all the extra trains have passed. 880 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; conductor should go at once to the office and learn the cause of the failure. Absence of signals where they should be shown indicates danger. All omissions of this kind should be promptly reported hy conductors to the proper officer.* Enginemen of delayed trains, or trains moved by special order, and of all extra or special trains, should approach stations with extreme caution upon the supposition that another train will be overtaken or met; or that the main track will be ob- structed or occupied. Enginemen should carefully approach stations at which they ought to meet or pass trains. Trains approaching stations where a passenger train is receiving or discharging passengers should be stopped before reaching such passenger train, and not go forward until it moves ahead or signal is given to the first mentioned train to move on.f Any train following another train or engine should proceed with caution, keeping at least one mile in rear of it, and should approach all stations and fuel places with care, expecting to find * Should a guard find any signal exhibited which ought not to be, or observe any irregularity in the working of signals, or should he see any cattle or any other obstruction on the line or any defect in the signals, works, permanent way or telegraph, he must report the same at the first station at which the train stops and also on his journal.'" — English Standard. t Permanent danger signals are erected in both directions from stations, by many roads in this country. They are in com- mon use in Europe. These signals are displayed when a train is at a station receiving or discharging passengers, or whenever the track is for any reason obstructed, or the switches are turned. When these signals are displayed, enginemen of approaching trains are required to advance cautiously until otherwise ordered. For the purpose of protecting a train from trains that may be following it, these station signals (or semaphore arms or lights) are not lowered until a specified time after the departure of the train. The wisdom of protecting trains with permanent or stationary signals, where the business of a line warrants it or its receipts will permit of it, can not be too highly commended. "Should a train be approaching, stopping at, or leaving a station, on the opposite line, or should shunting operations be going on, he must, on approaching and whilst passing, sound the engine whistle. The whistle must also be sounded on entering a tunnel." —English Standard. It should be remembered whenever refer- ence is made to the engine whistle in the regulations of the English roads quoted herein, that it is a very small affair com- pared with that on the American locomotive. OPEBA TION OF TltAINS, 881 the preceding train taking fuel or water at such station, whether it may be a stopping place for that train or not.* When one or more trains are followed, such train or trains should never be stopped between stations where the view from the rear of the train is not clear for a distance sufficiently great to stop a train after it has come in sight. When following other trains a sharp lookout should be kept for the train immediately preceding, especially when running around curves and approaching stations. In the event one or more trains are united and run as one train, notice of the fact should be given agents, also conduct- ors and enginemen of trains that are met or passed. The proper officer should be advised at the first telegraph station of the con- solidation of the trains. A train of an inferior grade, running ahead of a train of a superior grade, should keep ten minutes off the time of such superior train. Except when otherwise specially provided^, extra trains should keep ten minutes off the time of all trains. Upon a single track road, in the event a train or engine is de- layed between stations and loses its right to the road, the con- ductor of such train (or in his absence, the engineman) should, when the train or engine is ready to move, send danger signals not less than one mile in advance in the direction in which the train or engine is to be moved. The delayed train or engine should only run to the next siding, and while in motion the en- gineman should frequently sound the whistle, and not exceed a speed of four miles per hour, to enable the signalman to keep the required distance in advance.! In the event a train is delayed between stations, and another train having the right to the road approaches (no matter which way it may be going), and the- train having the right to the road can not pass the delayed train, then the latter should proceed to the * This is in a certain sense supplementary to the rules direct- ing how many minutes shall elapse between trains of various grades moving in the same direction. fin the event a delayed regular train has time to reach the first telegraph station ahead without trespassing upon the time of another regular train, then, in that case, it has not lost its right (unless it is twelve hours late). and it may proceed directly to such telegraph station without being signaled, as directed above. 882 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; first siding in advance, carrying signals for the following train. At the first siding it should allow the train having the right to the road to go ahead, after which time both the trains should be governed in all respects as in other cases where one train is met or passed by another. In extreme cases, in which enginemen find it impossible to make their time in running to stations at which they should by schedule meet another train, they may disconnect their engine, leaving the train under proper danger signals, as required by rule, and run to the next station and notify the aproaching train, and then return for their own train.* But before proceeding to carry out this rule the engineman should have the authority of the conductor to detach the engine and proceed as directed. When a train is delayed agents and switchmen should report the facts to trains that may be following when the latter stop at their stations. When a train is more than fifteen minutes late, the conductor should report the cause of the detention to the proper officer at the first telegraph station. A train following a regular train and properly signaled by it, should always be taken and considered to be a part of and to have all the rights of the regular train and no more. An engine of a regular train should not carry a signal for any train, excepting of its own grade, unless in such cases as are specifically provided for. When it becomes necessary for a train of an inferior grade to follow a train of a superior grade, under signals, then such following train should for that time be taken to be of the same grade with the preceding train. When a train is ordered to carry signals for an extra or fol- lowing train, the conductor and enginemen of each of the trains affected by the order should be notified. It is the duty of con- ductors of trains carrying signals to notify conductors whom they meet or pass of the fact. They should also notify agents and switchmen at places where they stop. Trainmen and others should carefully observe whether signals are carried by passing engines. * This rule is provided for those extreme cases where, from some sudden and wholly unexpected cause, a train becomes stalled or is unable to make the meeting point, or back up to the station that it has left. OPERATION OF TRAINS. 883 It is the duty of conductors to assure themselves that signals for extra trains are properly placed and secured. When a train is following another train under signal, it should be kept near the train ahead on ai>proaching a station where a train is to be met, in order that the opposite train may have as little detention as is consistent with safety ; in all other cases the distance between the two trains should never be less than one mile.* When two or more trains of the same grade are running in company, upon the time of one train, and the forward train can not make time, it should run upon a side track, and let the fol- Automatic Signal, A. D. 1894. (When at danger the while disc is replaced by a colored onc.7 lowing train go ahead. The conductors and enginemen should, in such cases, see that the train which takes precedence carries the proper signals, and all special orders affecting the move- ment or safety of either train nmst be exchanged. Conductors should report the occurrence to the proper officer at the first telegraph station and also notify all trainmen they may meet and the agents at stations as well. No engine or train should carry signals for an extra engine or train without orders from the proper oflicer, except as provided * The distance apart will not be the same for every road. 384 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; in the following rule : Should a train be held by another between telegraph stations, the conductor of the train thus detained may- require the first regular train passing him, bound in the same direction, to carry signals for him to the next telegraph station, on his arrival at which he should report to the proper officer for orders; but the conductor of a freight train should not have the right to have signals carried by a passenger train, in case at the next telegraph station or at some intervening place, said passenger train should pass a train of its own class, nor in any case unless the freight train is in readiness to follow immediately. A train signaled by another, in accordance with the fore- going rule, possesses exactly the same rights as the second sec- tion of a train already described. When a train is held between telegraph stations and can not proceed, except under the protection of some other train, and there is no train passing (without great delay), by which it may be signaled, except a wild train, the train held may proceed imme- diately in advance of such wild train to the first telegraph station, at which place it must get out of the way. But those in charge of the delayed train should notify agents and signal men, also the trainmen they meet, that they are running irregularly in advance of a wild train.* Whenever it is necessary to send an extra engine over the road, it should in all cases precede and run on the time of some regular train ; it will be entitled to all the rights thereof, and carry proper signals therefor. In such cases the regular train should run five minutes behind its schedule time.f CONSTRUCTION AND FUEL TRAINS. When a construction train is going to or coming from work it should proceed with the utmost caution ;t it should never be on the road within ten minutes of the running time of other trains. When permission is given by the proper officer, the conductor may keep at work in respect to freight trains only, until the * Old rule. fAV^hen it is desired that the engine running over the road should assist the accompanying train (assuming it to be a freight train) at the various grades, it can be instructed to follow rather than precede. But an engine should never be allowed to follow a passenger train. X They should know before starting that all trains that are duQ have arrived. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 385 arrival of such trains, but he should in all cases station the proper signals, twelve hundred yards in each direction when upon a sin- gle track, or in the rear only when upon a double track, unless the same is obstructed. The signal man of the construction train should continue on the watch until the freight train arrives. On the arrival of the expected train, the construction train should immediately proceed to the siding in advance of such train. Conductors and enginemen of fuel trains should be governed by the rules given for construction trains. When freight trains are thirty minutes late, construction and fuel trains may occupy the main track, but should keep signals not less than twelve hundred yards in the direction of the ex- pected train. Upon the arrival of the expected train, the con- struction or fuel train should at once proceed to the siding. No construction train should be allowed to run bej'ond its given limits without orders, except in cases of great emergency. Under such circumstances, a construction train or engine may run beyond its limits; but such train or engine should not only keep oft' the time of regular trains, but conductors and engine- men should signal all curves carefully, and look out for special or extra trains. They should also report the fact of being off their limits, and the reason therefor at the first telegraph station, or if there is no telegraph station, a report should be sent to a tele- graph oflice by the first train, or by special messenger if there is no train. Two construction trains should not be allowed to run or work within the same limits except in cases of great emergency; in such cases special orders should be given by the proper officer. A special order allowing two construction trains to occupy the same limits does not relieve the conductor and engineman of either train from the responsibility of signaling all curves care- fully while running, and otherwise protecting their trains prop- erly while at work on the main track. Before leaving stations for the day's work, conductors of fuel and construction trains should report to the proper officer the exact location where they intend to work, and they should not leave the station until they have received a permit from him. Conductors of construction and fuel trains should leave with the station agent at the starting point a memorandum stating where their trains will be operating for the day ; this memorandum should be entered in a book kept for that and similar purposes. This book should at all times be open to the inspection of trainmen. 836 SCIENCFs OF BAIL WATS; OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 887 Conductors and enginemen of construction trains sliould stop at all telegraph stations and register time of arrival and depart- ure and direction of their trains, and ascertain if any extra or special engines or trains are on the road ; also the limits of other construction trains that may be at work on the same division. Conductors of construction trains should keep themselves in- formed as to where fuel trains are at work. In the same way con- ductors of fuel trains should keep themselves advised of the loca- tion of construction trains. When a limit is given a construction train, it should only embrace stated hours, and the train should not occupy the main track within its limits before or after the hours specified.* Upon a single track road, signals, as provided by rule, should always be placed at a distance of not less than twelve hundred yards on either side of the place where construction or fuel trains are at work, and a man should remain with such signals. Upon double track roads, signals need only be placed in the direction from which trains naturally arrive. In the case of a double track road, if the opposite track is ob- structed, then signals should be placed in both directions. Conductors and enginemen of construction and fuel trains should be held responsible for the observance of rules governing signals, and they should be expected to use every additional pre- caution which may be necessary. Fuel or construction trains should not have signals carried for them by regular trains, nor should they carry signals for other trains; but if circumstances arise compelling them to follow a regular train carrying signals for another train, they should carry signals for the train following. Conductors of trains unloading ballast or material of any kind along the line, should see that it is so arranged as to be out of the way of passing trains before leaving it. This should be attended to as each car is unloaded. THIRD TRACK OR MIDDLE SIDINGS.f The middle sidings, or third track, should be used by trains (in either direction) whenever it is necessary to turn out to * "Ballast trains must not work on the main line in a fog. except when authorized under special circumstances."— ^7i(/?is/i Standard. t These regulations express generally the practices of one of our greatest as well as one of our most carefullv managed roads. M. 31. K. 22 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; allow trains of a superior class running in the same direction to pass them. A half-way post is placed in the center of each middle siding; trains in either direction may run to the half-way post at a speed not exceeding six miles per hour, but may not run beyond it. except under the protection of danger signals. When trains pass the half-way post, they should run at a speed not exceeding four miles per hour, to enable the signal- man to keep not less than six hundred yards in advance of the train. When two trains meet on a middle siding, the train nearest the switch should be backed, keeping a flagman not less than six hundred yards in advance; but when there are crossing switches in the center of a middle siding, they should be used in all cases when the backing of either train from the siding onto the main track can be avoided. All trains should use middle sidings with great care; they should invariably run expecting to meet an opposing train, whether opposing trains are due or not. MISCELLANEOUS ORDERS RELATIVE TO TRAINS. When trains are delayed, the lost time should, so far as pos- sible, be made up by shortening the stops at stations. Xo risk must be incurred for the purpose of making up lost time.* Mail trains should not be run at such speed as to prevent the mails being exchanged at places provided. A speed of fifteen miles per hour will pass, approximately, seven telegraph poles per minute.f If an obstruction or accident makes it necessary to move an engine or train in the wrong direction on a double track road, or to cross over to the opposite track to pass around such obstruc- * "When passenger trains are behind time, the engineer is at liberty to make it up. in whole or in part, with the consent of the conductor, when he can do so with safety." — 18G3. "Their trains should be so run as to leave at stations only the neces- sary time for doing the business of the train, that as much time may be used in running and as little in stops as possible. They will, after attending to their passengers, see that what re- mains to be done to enable them to leave the station is done in the shortest possible time."— 1853. t U. S. Road. The number will not be uniform. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 889 tion. obstructed trains or engines may do so, but the utmost caution should be used. The conductor of the obstructed train (or, in his absence, the engineman), before the train is moved, should send danger signals not less than one mile in advance, in the direction in which the train is to be moved. The train or engine thus moved should only be backed or run to the next crossing, and, while moving, the engineman should frequently sound the whistle, and not exceed a speed of four miles per hour, to enable the signalman to keep the required distance in advance. Upon a double track road, a train that is delayed and falls back on the time of another train of the same grade, does not lose its rights, and should not take the time or assume the rights of another train, except as provided for by rule, without orders from the proper officer. Upon a double track road, no conductor should assume the rights or take the time of any other train without special orders except as provided by rule. Should a train, which has been telegraphed as having entered a tunnel, not emerge therefrom within a reasonable interval of time, the signalman toward whom the train is approaching should pre- vent any train in the opposite direction entering the tunnel, through which there is a double line of rails, until he has ascertained that the line on which it has to run through the tunnel is clear. Should an engineman observe anything wrong on the line of rails opposite to that on which his train is running, he should sound the whistle and exhibit a danger signal to any train or engine he may meet, stopping if necessary to signal the train or engine. He should also stop at the first station and report to the l^erson in charge what he has observed. Upon a double track road, when a portion of a train is left upon the main line, the engineman should not return for it on the same line except by written instructions from the conductor, but should go on the proper line and cross at the nearest point behind the part left (unless there is a crossing in its immediate front), wliich he should push before him till convenient to go in front again with the engine. If the engineman finds it necessary to return to the rear portion of his train on the same line, he should, before starting with the front portion, send his fireman back to the conductor to obtain written instructions authorizing him ; if he gives such instructions, the conductor should con- tinue to protect his train in the rear and prevent a following 340 SCmXCE OF RAIL WA Y8; train pushing it ahead, except upon inclines worked under special rules.* Trains should not pass a junction of two lines nor pass from a double track line to a single track line until the officials in charge of the train have examined the register, kept at such place, for the purpose of ascertaining whether trains due or past due have arrived, except in those cases where they have a special, order from the proper officer to proceed without stopping. Kegular trains should be run in accordance with the schedule except when otherwise ordered by the proper officer. Xo passenger train should be stopi)ed at a station where it is not timed to call, for the purpose of taking up or setting down passengers, without special authority.! * "In the event of an accident occurring, whereby one of the main lines is obstructed, the traffic in both directions must be carried on by the other line ; but this must not be done until the following rule is rigidly put in force : A pilot engine must at once l^e procured, and in the event of there not being a pilot at hand, the engine of a goods or coal train must be taken tem- porarily for the purpose, and written orders having been given, at both ends of the single line, by the chief officer on the spot, that no engine or train be allowed to go onto it without the pilot engine is at the end from which the train is about to start, the district agent, clerk in charge of the principal station near which the obstruction has taken place, or other officer, will pro- ceed to pass the traffic on one line, accompanying the pilot engine backward and forward, and directing the arrangements at both ends of the single line. If no pilot engine can be procured, one man, whose name must be given to the person in charge of such contiguous stations or crossings, must be appointed, in writing, to act as pilotman, and he must ride on every train or engine in both directions, and no train or engine must move from the said stations or crossings unless this man is riding with it ; and this one man must continue riding to and fro Ijetween the aforesaid places until relieved, and a successor named in writing, at the two ends of the single line then being worked." — Great Northern Baihcatjj England, "In case of accident blocking or breaking one track and requiring a train to pass along the wrong track, the utmost caution must be exercised, and no train or engine must be permitted to proceed on the wrong line without a memorandum in writing from the person in authority at the spot where the accident had happened, and station agents must be satisfied that such orders have been given and received, that all trains have been stopped until the arrival of the one they dispatched on the wrong track." — Xew York Boad. 2854. t "All passenger trains are to stop at the stations mentioned on the time bills, whether there be passengers to alight from the carriages or not,~ — Great Northern Bailwayj 'England. OPEBATION OF TBAIN8. 841 Trains should be run uniformly and steadily between sta- tions, and delayed as little as possible for fuel, water, and the transaction of station business. Passenger trains should be drawn, not pushed, except in case of accident or other emergency, and in case trains are pushed the speed should not exceed ten miles per liour.* When express or freight cars are hauled in a passenger train they should be placed next to the engine. No train should start without a signal from its conductor, and conductors should not give the signal until they know that the cars, including the air brake hose, are properly coupled. At junctions and other j^oints where registers are kept, or where train boards or indicators are located, it is the dutj'^ of those in charge to see tliat the arrival and departure of trains are accurately and promptly noted thereon, the grade of the train being given in each instance; and it is the duty of train- men to carefully examine the same before proceeding. Pieces of wood or coal should not be thrown from an en- gine or train when in motion, lest sectionmen or others be in- jured thereby. Flying switches should not be made, except at places or by persons authorized by the proper officer. In the absence of such authority a switch rope must be used.f No person should be permitted to ride on an engine or tender without an order from the proper officer, except employes in the discharge of their duties upon their respective divisions, and trainmen, in case of accident, or whenever necessary. Employes should be under the authority and conform to the orders of the superintendent of the division upon which they work. * "No engine must be allowed to push a train of carriages or wagons on the main lines, unless within station limits, but must in all cases draw it, except under special regulations when assisting up inclines, or when required to start a train from a station. In case of an engine being disabled on the road, the succeeding engine may push the train slowly to the next sid- ing, or crossover road, at which place the pushing engine must take the lead." — English Standard. t "Double shunting is strictly prohibited. except when done by engines specially used for the purpose of shunting, and attended by experienced shunters. Fly shunting of emi)ty vehicles against loaded passenger trains, and of vehicles contnining passengers or live stock, is strictly prohibited." — English Standard. 842 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; In order to insure uniform time being kept at all the stations on the line, to which time is not telegraphed, the following regu- lations should be strictly observed : Each conductor should, before starting on his journey, satisfy himself that his watch is correct with the standard clock, and again compare it. and regulate it. if necessary, at the end of his journey, before commencing his return trip. The conductor in charge of the first passenger train stopping at all stations on the portion of the main line, or branch over which it nms. should, on his arrival at each station at which there is no telegraph office, give the person in charge the precise time, in order that the station clock may be regulated accord- ingly : in the event the time given by the conductor differs from that of the station clock, the latter must be corrected. ^igents should be held responsible for keeping their clocks properly regulated in accordance with this order, and should at once report to the proper officer any serious defects that may occur in their working, in order that the necessary steps may be taken for their immediate repair. Conductors of trains running at night, upon a single track road, should report in person to the operator at every night tele- graph office at which they stop. At night the conductors of freight trains should make and sign duplicate statements (.memorandum cards) of the time of leaving each station, and give such statements to the telegraph operator, or. in case there is no operator, to the watchman. When the next train going in the same direction arrives, the operator or watchman should hand the copy to the engineman of such train. Enginemen should be on the lookout to receive such notices as they pass stations. At stations where train registers are kept for the information of trainmen, this rule need not be observed. All accidents, detention of trains, failure in any way of en- gines, or defects in the road or bridges, should be reported to the proper officer by telegraph from the next station. When making repairs that obstruct the track, or jeopardize the safety of passing trains, sectionmen should place danger signals ux)on the track, as required by rule.* * "When repairing, lifting the line, or performing any oper- ation so as to make it necessary for a train to proceed cautiously, the foreman or ganger must send a man back at least half a mile, and as much farther as the circumstances of the case render nec- essary, who must exhibit the * caution* signal so as to be plainly visible to the engine driver of the approaching train. Each OP EB AT J ON OF TBAIN8. 843 If the track is in bad order, or if. for anj' other reason, it is desired tliat trains should run slowly, proper signals should be displayed.* In case of accident to trains the nearest section foreman should at once take his whole force to the assistance of the train, even if it is not on his own section. In case of a wreck, foremen should at once appoint necessary watchmen to prevent property from being stolen. On receiving notice of a wreck or accident roadmasters should at once proceed to the place and take full charge and con- trol of all tiaciv loice,-' Jind construction trains; put the track in condition for tl.e sale pf'ssage of trains; and remove the wreck with the quid est possible dispatch. No notice is given trackmen of the passage of trains, and they should therefore govern themselves accordingly.f Section foremen should report to the proper officer any neglect upon the part of trainmen to properly regard danger or caution signals. gang of platelayers or laborers must be supplied by the inspector of permanent way for the district with two sets of day signals, two hand signal lamps, if working after dark, and a proper number of detonators. Each ganger will be held responsible for having his signals constantly in proper order and ready for use." — English Standard. * '"A green flag, or a green light, exhibited by platelayers, in- dicates that trains and engines must reduce speed tolifteen miles an hour over the portion of line protected by such grt^n signal. The 'caution' signal must always be exhibited at a distance of at least half a mile from the point where it is required that the speed of trains and engines should be reduced and as much farther as the circumstances of the case render necessary." — English Standard. t "On no occasion, except in cases of emergency or of acci- dent, and never at night, or in a fog, or when a train is due, must a trolley be run in the wrong direction, and in such cases the trolley must be preceded at a distance of not less than a mile by a man with a red flag and detonators. In tunnels a red light must always be used." — Great Wpst^rn Bailicay. England. "Jn the case of a single line, the trolley must ])e so protected in both directions. Xo trolley must, in any case, be placed on the line, except by the platelayers and with the knowledge of the ganger, who is responsible for seeing it properly protected and used. Xo trolley must, under any circumstances, be attached to a train, and all trolleys when not in use must be taken off" the rails, placed well clear of the line, and tlie wlieels secured with chain and padlock." — English Standard. 344 SCIENCE OF BAILWATS; Signal IVwch. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 845 " Whenever a crane is in use whereby the jib, or any other portion of it, obstructs or fouls any line of rails in use for traf- fic purposes, or whenever, by any possibility, during the loading of round timber, long timber, angle iron, or other articles of great length, the main line may be obstructed, it is incumbent on the person in charge of the loading to place danger signals, as required by rule.'** RULES FOR THE MOVEMENT OF TRAINS BY TELE- GRAPHIC ORDERS.! Special orders, directing movements varying from or addi- tional to the time table, will be issued by the authority and over the signature of the superintendent. They are not to be used for movements that can be provided for by rule or time table. They must not contain information or instructions not essen- tially a part of them. They must be brief and clear, and the prescribed forms must be used when applicable and there must be no erasures, alterations or interlineations. [Note.— On roads whose organization provides that any other officer than the superintendent shall direct train movements, the official title of such officer may be substituted in the above rule. The committee consider it essential, however, that but one person's signature should be used in di- recting train movements on any dispatching division.] Each order must be given in the same words to all persons or trains directly affected by it, so that each shall have a duplicate of what is given to the others. Preferably an order should include but one specified movement. . Orders will be numbered consecutively for each day as issued, beginning with No. 1 at midnight. Orders must be addressed to those who are to execute them, naming the place at which each is to receive his copy. Those for a train must be addressed to the conductor and engineman, * English road. t In connection with this subject it is interesting to remem- ber that the idea that a train could be moved by telegraphic orders from station to station against an opposing, but delayed, train, first occurred to (Jharles Minot, superintendent of the Erie Railway, in 1850. The practice had but a narrow applica- tion at first, but has widened greatly since until it has become the prevailing custom upon every American railroad when busi- ness can be accelerated thereby, as it can be in nearly every instance where trains are delayed. I acted as a train dispatcher in 1860-61, at which period the method of moving trains by tele- graphic order had reached quite as high a state of perfection as at the present time. M. M. K. 846 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; and also to a person acting as pilot.* A copy for each person addressed must be supplied by the operator. Each order must be written in full in a book provided for the purpose at the superintendent's office ; and with it must be recorded the names of trainmen and others who have signed for the order; the time and signals, showing when and from what offices the order and responses were transmitted: and the train dispatchers initials. These records must be made at once on the original copy, and not afterward, from memory or memoranda. [See note under fifth preceding rule.] The terms "superior right" and "inferior right" in these rules refer to the rights of trains under the time table and train rules, and not to rights under special orders. AVhen an order is to be transmitted, the signal " 31 " (as pro- vided), or the signal "19" (as provided), meaning "Train Order,*' will be given to each office addressed, followed by the word "copy" and a figure indicating the number of copies to be made, if more or less than three — thus, "31 copj^ 5," or "19 copy 5." An order to be sent to two or more offices must be transmitted simultaneously to as many as practicable. The several addresses must be in the order of superiority of rights of trains, and each office will take only its proper address. When not sent simulta- neously to all. the order must be sent first for the train having the superior right of track. [Note. — On roads which desire the operator at a meeting point to have copies of the order, the several addresses will be, first, the operator at whose station the trains are to meet and next in the order of superiority of the rights of trains.] Operators receiving orders must write them out in manifold during transmission and make the requisite number of copies at one writing, or trace others from one of the copies first made. When an order has been transmitted, preceded by the signal "SI,*' operators receiving it must (unless otherwise directed) repeat it back at once from the manifold copy, and in the suc- cession in which their several offices have been addressed. Each operator repeating must observe whether the others repeat cor- rectly. After the order has l>een repeated correctly by the operators required at the time to repeat it. the response "O K,'' authorized by the train dispatcher, will be sent, simultaneously, to as many as practicable, naming each office. Each operator must write this on the order with the time, and then reply "i i O K," with his office signal. Those to whom the order is addressed, except enginemen, must then sign their names to the copy of the order to be re- * When an engine is run over the road without a train or con- ductor the engineman acts as conductor, and one copy of the order is of course sufficient for him in both capacities. OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 847 tained by the operator, and he will send their signatures to the superintendent. The response "complete," with the superin- tendent's initials, will then be given, when authorized by the train dispatcher. Each operator receiving this response will then write on each copy the word "complete,'* the time, and his last name in full, and will then deliver a copy to each person included in the address, except enginemen, and each must read his copy aloud to the operator. The copy for each engineman must be delivered to him personally by , and the engine- man must read it aloud and understand it before acting upon it. [Notes.— The blank in the above rule may be filled foreach road to suit its own requirements. On roads where the signature of the engineman is desired, the words "except enginemen" and the last sentence may be omitted. See also note under first rule in this section.] [Individual operator's signals may be used when desired in addition to office signals, as here and elsewhere provided for.] For an order preceded by the signal "31," ''complete" must not be given to the order for delivery to a train of inferior right initil "O K" has been given to and acknowledged by the operator who receives the order for the train of superior right. When- ever practicable, the signature of the conductor of the train of superior right must be taken to the order and "complete" given before the train of inferior right is allowed to act on it. After "O K" has been given and acknowledged, and before "com- plete " has been given, the order must be treated as a hold- ing order for the train addressed, but must not be otherwise acted on until "complete" has been given. If the line fails before an office has received and acknowledged "OK" to an order preceded by the signal " 31 " the order at that oflice is of no effect, and must be there treated as if it had not been sent. I Note.— On roads where the signature of the engineman and pilot is de- sired, the words "engineman and pilot" may be added after the word " con- ductor" in the second preceding paragraph.] When an order has been transmitted, preceded by the signal "19," operators receiving it must (unless otherwise (lirected) re- peat it back at once from the manifold copy, and in the succession in which the several offices have been addressed. Each operator repeating must observe whether the others repeat correctly. After the order has been repeated correctly, the response "com- plete," with the superintendent's initials, will be given, when authorized by the train dispatcher. Each operator receiving this response must write on each copy the word "complete," the time, and his last hame in full, and reply "i i complete" with his office signal, and will personally deliver the order to the persons addressed without taking their signatures. [Note.- On roads where it is desired the signatures of the conductors for conductors, enginemen and pilots) mav be taken ])y the operator on the de- livery of the order. See also jiote under the first rule in this section. The committee has recommended two forms of train orders -the " 31 " order and the " lU " order," leaving it discretionary with the roads to adopt one or both of these forms.] 848 SCIEXCE OF BAILWAYS; For an order preceded by the si^al ~19." "'complete'' must be given and acknowledged for the train of superior right before it is given for the train of inferior right. If the line fails before an office has received and acknowledged the "complete" to an order, preceded by the signal "19." the order at that oflSce is of no effect, and must be treated as if it had not been sent. The order, the ^'O K." and the "complete" must each, in transmitting, be preceded by "31** or "19.** as the case may be, and the nimiber of the order, thus, "31, No. 10." or ^ 19, No. 10.*^ In transmitting the signature of a conductor it must be preceded by *'31.'' the number of the order, and the train number, thus. "^31, No. 10. Train Xo. 5." After each transmission and response the sending operator must give his office signal. The operator who receives and delivers an order must pre- serve the lowest copy. On this must appear the signatures of Torpedo SignaL those who sign for the order, and on it he must record the time when he receives it : the resi)onses : the time when they are re- ceived; his own name: the date, and the train number, for which places are provided in the blanks. These copies must be sent to the superintendent. [See note under first rule in this section.] Orders used by conductors must be sent by them daily to the superintendent. Enginemen will place their orders in the clip before them until executed. For orders delivered at the superintendent's office the requirements as to record and deliverywill.be the same as at other points. [See note under first rule in this section.] Orders to j)ersons in charge of work requiring the use of track in yards or at other points, authorizing such use when OPERATION OF TBAINS. 849 trains are late, must be delivered in the same way as to con- ductors of trains. An order to be delivered to a train at a point not a telegraph station, or while the office is closed, must be addressed to '"C and E., No. (at )care of ," and forwarded and delivered by the conductor or other person in whose care it is addressed. '"Complete"" will be given upon the signature of the person by whom the order is to be delivered, who must be supplied with copies for the conductor and engineman addressed, and a copy upon which he shall take their signatures. This copy he must deliver to the first operator accessible, who must pre- serve it, and at once advise the train dispatcher of its having been received. Orders so delivered to a train must be compared by those receiving them with the copy held by the person deliver- ing and acted on as if "complete" had been given in the ordinary way. Orders must not be sent in the manner herein provided, to trains the rights of wnich are thereby restricted. [See uotes under the twelfth preceding rule.] When a train is named in an order, all its sections are in- cluded unless particular sections are specified, and each section included must have copies addressed and delivered to it. Meeting orders must not be sent for delivery to trains at the meeting point if it can be avoided. When it can not be avoided, special precautions must be taken by the train dispatchers and operators to insure safet3\ There should be. if possible, at least one telegraph office between those at which opposing trains receive meeting orders. Orders should not be sent an unneces- sarilj"^ long time before delivery, or to points unnecessarily distant from where they are to be executed. Xo orders (except those affecting the train at that point) should be delivered to a freight train at a station where it has much work, until after the work is done. A train, or any section of a train, must be governed strictly by the terms of orders addressed to it, and must not assume rights not conferred by such orders. In all other respects it must])e governed by the train rules and time table. Orders once in effect continue so vmtil fulfilled, superseded or annulled. Orders held by or issued for a regular train which has lost its rights, as provided by . rule, are annulled and other trains will be governed accordingly. A fixed signal must be used at each train order office, which shall display red at all times when there is an operator on duty, except when changed to white to allow a train to pass after getting orders, or for which there are no orders. When red is displayed, all trains must come to a full stop and not proceed as long as red is displayed. The signal must be returned to red as soon as a train has passed. It must only be fastened at white when no operator is on dutj'. This signal must also display red to hold trains runninjg in the same direction the 860 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; required time apart. Operators must be prepared witli other signals to use promptly if the fixed signal should fail to work properly. If a signal is not displayed at a night office, trains which have not been previously notified must stop and inquire the cause, and report the facts to the superintendent from the next open telegraph office. When a semaphore is used, the arm means red when horizontal and white when in an inclined posi- tion. A fixed signal must be used at each train order office, which shall display red when trains are to be stopped for orders. When there are no orders the signal must display white. When an opera- tor receives the signal "81,"' or ''19,*' he must immediately display red, and then reply ''red displayed." The signal must not be changed to white until the object for which red is displayed is accomplished. While red is displayed, all trains must come to a full stop, and any train thus stopped must not proceed without receiving an order addressed to such train, or a clearance card on a specified form stating over the operator's signature that he has no orders for it. Operators must be prepared with other signals to use promptly if the fixed signal should fail to work properly. If a signal is not displayed at a night office, trains which have not been previously notified must stop and inquire the cause, and report the facts to the superintendent from the next open telegraph office. When a semaphore is used, the arm means red when horizontal and white when in an inclined position. [Note.— The committee have recommended twolormsof the above rule, leaving it discretionary with the roads to adopt one or both of these forms according to the circumstances of their traflic] Operators will promptly record and report to the super- intendent the time of departure of all trains and the direction in which extra trains are moving. They will record the time of arrival of trains and report it when so directed. [See note under first rule in this section.] Regular trains will be designated in orders by their schedule numbers, as "No. 10," or "2d No. 10," adding engine numbers if desired; extra trains by engine numbers, as "Extra 798;" and all other nvimbers by figures. The direction of the movement of extras will be added when necessary, as "East" or "West." Time will be stated in figures only. [Note. — In case any roads desire to state time in words as well as figures, the committee see no objection to their doing so.] The following signs and abbreviations may be used : Initials for superintendent's signature. Such office and other signals as are arranged by the superin- tendent. [See note undei- first rule in this section.] C & E —for conductor and engineman. O K — as provided in these rules. Min — for minutes. June — for junction. .^^ OPERA riON OF TBAINS. 861 Frt — for freight. No — for iiiiniber. Eng — for engine. Sec — for section. Opr-for operator. 9 — to clear tlie line for train orders, and for operators to ask for train orders. 31 or 19 — for train order as provided in the rules. The usual abbreviations for the names of the months and stations. When a train is abandoned the order directing its abandon- ment should be sent by telegraph to all agents, conductors and enginenien upon the division, and no train should leave a sta- tion to run upon the time of an abandoned train, which, by the regulations would have the right of road, unless the conductor and engineman of such train possess a copy of the order of abandonment, properly signed and certified. Orders for the abandonment of trains should be repeated and approved by the dispatcher. Before an order is given by telegraph for two or more trains to meet at a station other than that directed by the time table, the order to hold both trains should first be given to the operator at such meeting point, and until this is done no order should be sent to either train.* When a meeting or passing point is to be made by two or more trains, the order should be made definite and conclusive and be first sent to the conductor having the right to the road. * This regulation requiring that the operator at the station where the trains are to meet shall be notified, is not deemed necessary by many experts in such matters. Indeed, many dis- patchers only send the order to the train that would not otherwise move. Thus, if a dispatcher desires a train moving under special directions to meet a regular train at a time and place where such regular train is due by the schedule, he would only send the order to the special, being particular simply to see that abun- dance of time was given such train to be at the meeting point. This method reduces the labor and expense of the telegraphic service to the minimum, but it has always seemed to me that where two or more trains are to meet at a specific point not desig- nated as their meeting point in the time table, both trains should be notified. I do not know that it is imperative that the operator at the meeting point should be notified; it is an additional pre- caution, however. Its observance would, of course, require that only telegraphic stations should be selected as meeting points, and this is desirable as far as possible, but is not alwavs prac- ticable. M.M.K, 85S SCmWCE OF B AIL WATS; If it is dedred to giTe a train the right to mn against a pas- senger train, the order should first be sent to the condnetor of the latter, and no order be giT^i the opposing train until the receipt of a satisfaetorj reply from the i-ondnetor of the paaeoi- ger train. In the same way. before giving a passenger tndn tlie right to the road over a train pos^esdng such ri^t, the order ^onld first be sent to the train having the right to the road; when a satisfactory reply has been reoeiTed from the ecmdoclor of sach trun the order maT be transmitted to the other train. Sgnal LuBipL A train of an inferior grade should not be directed to more ahead of a regular train of a superior grade (when such regnlar train is ortant they should be observing the movement of passengers sretting aboard their trains, and per- forming other duties iucident to their position M. M. K. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 857 When trains are running upon special orders each should approach with great care every station where another train may possibly be. expecting that the main track may be occupied at such station. This, however, does not relieve any train from compliance with other rules and regulations governing such cases. Special orders should only be used by the trains to which they are addressed. They should be used only against such trains as are expressly named therein. An order to run on the time of any particular train should not be taken to run on the time of any other train. All other trains should be treated according to the time table rules and regulations. When an order is sent to a train which may be carrying a signal for a train, such order will not, unless expressly so stated, cover the train that may be following, and in no case should the train for which the signal is carried avail itself of any special orders which the train bearing the signal may receive without a written order to that effect. When orders are du- plicated to following trains the understanding of each con- ductor should be separately signed and be responded to by the dispatcher. In no case should signals be removed by opera- tors until all trains have passed for which the order is intended. Under the system of moving trains by telegraphic orders, trains may be expected upon any part of the road at any time. This fact should be kept constantly in mind by employes. In the event it is impossible or undesirable at any time to move trains by telegraphic orders, then trainmen should conform to the schedule and the rules and reguliitions governing the movement of trains incident thereto. If conductors or enginemen change off before the completion of their trips, they should exchange all orders they may have, and each should know that these are perfectly understood by the other. No change of this kind should be allowed without the consent of the proper officer.* * Forms of train orders, for the movement of trains, will be found in Appendix B. CHAPTER XVIII. BULES AND REGULATIONS APPERTAINING TO THE MOVEMENT OF TRAINS. (PART TWO.) GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO CONDUCTORS. The general direction and government of a train from the time it is made up until its arrival at its destination is vested in the conductor: he is held responsible for its safety and proper care; it is his duty to see that all rules and regulations and orders affecting it are carried out.* Conductors are resi)onsible for the conduct of men employed upon the trains,t and for the signals, lamps, tools and other prop- erty entrusted to their care. They should report any defect in brakes, specifying the number of the car or engine on which it occurs; they should invariably require the brakes to be tested, and also have the engine signal bell rung from the rear car be- fore leaving a terminal station. They should be provided with a reliable watch, which they should keep regulated by the standard clock of the company. *~The duty of passenger, goods, cattle, mineral, and other guards consists in the general charge and management of the trains when they are moving on the line. They have general control over the" enginemen. ordering them when to stop or to proceed at a different speed, as they may deem right, or to shunt or move wagons or other vehicles.*" — Great Korthem Baihccnf, England. t" When there are two guards with a train, the under guard must obey the orders of the head guard. Each train is under the control of the head guard, who must instruct the engine driver as to the stopping, starting, and general working of the train. Whilst trains are within station limits, the guards are under the orders of the stationmaster or person in charge.^ — English Standard. (358) OPEBA TION OF TBAIKS. 859 They should compare time with the engineer before starting,* and know that he is provided with a schedule and a complete set of signals and tools. They are required to see that their trains are supplied with a full set of signals, and, when upon the road, they should see that such signals are used in accordance with the rules. Should a vehicle be attached to, or detached from, the rear of a train at an intermediate station, the conductor should see that the signals are removed to their proper places on the train. Each train should be supplied with not less than six fusees, twenty-four torpedoes.f and such signal lanterns and flags as the rules and regulations require in the operation of trains, also with switch rope, axes, saws, crowbars, chains, spare links and pins, buckets, oil, and such other tools and supplies as may be neces- sary for daily use, or in the event of accident or delay to the train. If compelled by accident or other cause to move at unusually slow speed, or stop their train on the main track, thej^ should take immediate action to signal any trains that may be approach- ing in either direction, as required by the rules. They should keep in mind the fact that nothing justifies a collision, and that the prompt use of signals in the manner directed will, under all ordinary circumstances, prevent it. Conductors and brakemen when meeting or passing other trains, or when approaching or passing a station, should be on the lookout for signals, and be prepared to do anything which the expedition of business or the safety of their train requires. Conductors should give personal attention to switches used by their engines or trains, and they are held responsible for the proper adjustment of the switches used, except where regular switchmen are stationed. When more than one train uses a switch, conductors should not leave the switch open for the following train unless the conductor of such train is at the switch to take charge of it. Conductors should see that road crossings are not obstructed by their trains. They should be particular when at junctions to see that no part of their train is allowed to stand on the crossings of other railways. *"The guards are provided with timepieces. It is their duty to inform the enginemen of the hour at every chief station or junction.*' — Great Northern liailway, England. fThe earlier regulations governing the protection of trains have no reference to the use of torpedoes. 860 SCIENCE OF BAILWAYS; In the event a train is fifteen minutes or more late at any point, the fact should be telegraphed by the conductor to the proper officer from the first telegraph station.* Conductors should visit the telegraph office before leaving terminal stations t to see if orders await them. J Conductors of freight trains should at the same time rei)ort to the proper officer the number of the engine and the number of empty and loaded cars in their trains. A similar report should be made by them upon their arrival at their destination. t12SUx;5TS'= Hero's Engine, 250 B. C. * Where operators report the passage of all trains immediately upon their arrival or departure, this rule is unnecessary. t A terminal station is a station where a train is made up ; upon a long line there will be several terminal stations; they are usually at the end of divisions or subdivisions. X " Every guard, before starting with his train, must examine the notices to see whether there is anything requiring his special attention on those parts of the line over which he has to work, and he must, before going oft' duty, ascertain from the notices posted for his guidance, the time at which he is required to be on duty the following day." — English Standard. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 861 Conductors should call the attention of the repairer of cars, or of the agent in his absence, to any damage which may have been done to cars, or to any defects which may come to their knowledge, so that the same may be repaired. Should complaint be made of the running of any car, the con- ductor should report it to the first car repairer, and enter the particulars on his report, giving the number and class of car ; but if the conductor have reason to apprehend danger from such car before it can be inspected, he should have it detached. Conductors should report to the proper officer any neglect of car repairers to inspect each car that may pass such car re- pairers' stations ; any neglect to examine the running gear and brake fixtures of cars, or make such repairs as may be re- quired; any neglect to give special attention to passenger, baggage, mail and express cars. Repairers should not permit cars to leave their stations that are not in good running order ; it is also their duty to see that passenger cars are properly washed, and that interior fixtures are kept clean and in good repair.* When the wheel of a car or engine breaks, the conductor in charge should ascertain, by personal examination, the name of the manufacturer, and the date and number of the wheel. This information should be forwarded to the proper officer, and noted in the train report. In the event trainmen discover any defect or break in the telegraph, they should report the fact to the operator at the next station. Conductors should advise the proper officer of any dilator- iness or lack of attention upon the part of agents or others whose duties require their co-operation in the movement of trains. Conductors, or their subordinates, should not, under any cir- cumstances, undertake to carry or take charge of valuable pack- ages, or make collections for individuals, unless authorized to do so by the proper officer.! * "All plated reflectors in lamps are to be wiped with clean wash leathers, kept solely for that purpose, and not rubbed with powder; when, however, they are much tarnished, they are to be cleaned with a little whitening." — Great Northern Bailuoay^ England. t " Conductors will hot be concerned in any freight or express matter over the road by the passenger train, and will permit none to be taken by any person, except the agent of the express having contracts with the road, and will see that the express 862 SCIENCE OF B AIL WATS; ■ They should report, at the end of each trip, the number of each car in their train ; its initials ; the point from which taken ; the place where left ; whether loaded or empty ; and its class. It is important that letters, way bills and dispatches should be delivered promptly. When a trainman or other employe is returning to the sta- tion at which he resides, by a train other than that he is ap- pointed to work, he should render all assistance in his power in the working of the train by which he travels, and obey any in- structions received from the conductor of such train.* PASSENGER CONDUCTORS.f Passenger conductors should make themselves acquainted with the duties of enginemen, baggagemen, % brakemen, express agents confine themselves strictly within the limits of their con- tract.-' — 1854. "Guards are forbidden to carry any description of package either for themselves, their friends, or the public, without proper authority in writing for the free transit thereof, or unless such package be properly entered on the way bill." — English Standard. * " The guard must see that platelayers and other workmen of the company holding third class passes are kept as separate as possible from the passengers. When a large number of work- men travel by the same train, carriages must be specially pro- vided for their use, and they must ride in these carriages only.*' — English Standard. ''All guards are to enter their time in the time book every Friday or Saturday night at King's Cross ; if this be not done, they will be liable each to a fine of twenty- five cents, and no money will be paid till the following week." — Great Northern Bailway, England. t"When there are more conductors than the number of trains running, those in waiting at either end of the road will be at the depots on the arrival and departure of all trains, as far as practicable, to aid in making up the departing trains, or dis- charging those arriving. They w ill see that extra cars are kept at the proper places upon the line for use in case of accident or other necessity. They will consider themselves to be, and act as, brakemen, when necessary.'* — 1853. '^'When on duty, con- ductors must be respectably dressed. Everyman on passenger trains and at stations must appear on duty clean and neat." — 1854. '• Every passenger guard must have with him his watch, whistle and carriage key, and take in his van a red. a green and a white flag, a box of detonators (not less than twelve), and a hand signal lamp." — Great Western Bailway, England. t " They [baggagemen] will consider themselves to be, and act as, brakemen when their train is in motion." — 1853. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 863 iStJ^^^n^' Diacovery of the means of utilizing steam by Marquis of Worcester, in the Tower of Ix)n(lon, A. D. 1653. 864 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; messengers, mail agents, sleeping car conductors, porters and news agents, and rigidly enforce the rules and regulations aj)- plicable to them upon their trains, reporting to the proper officer any insubordination, neglect of duty, or misconduct upon the part of such men. "When a deficiency of room occurs in a train while on a jour- ney, guards (conductors) must telegraph to the next station where carriages are kept, to have one or more in readiness to attach, on the arrival of the train."* Conductors should not permit drunken or disorderly persons to get upon their trains. They should see that the doors of cars are properly closed, and in case of any unusual stoppage on the road, request pas- sengers to keep their seats, except when necessary to alight.f Smoking in cars, except in those specially set apart for that purpose, should be strictly forbidden. Conductors should not permit beggars, peddlers or gamblers to pursue their vocations upon the trains. Immediately after leaving a station they should cause the brakemen to announce in each car the name of the next stopping place. This announcement should be repeated immediately before the stoppage at the place thus announced. | * English Standard. t " In all cases of detention or stoppage, it is the duty of the guards to explain to passengers the cause thereof, and if there is no danger to them, to satisfy them of that fact, and endeavor to pacify those that may be annoyed. When a train overshoots a station, the guard is to order the engineman to put back to the platform, and not to allow the passengers to get out until the train has been stopped at the platform.'" — Great North- ern Hallway, England. " The guard must not allow any person to ride outside the carriages, nor must he permit any unauthorized person to ride in his van, or in any compartment or vehicle in which parcels or luggage may be placed. Ko carriage door must be opened to allow a passenger to alight from, or enter, a train before it has come to a stand, or after it has started.'' — English Standard. I '• The policeman, porter or other person on duty at a station must, on the arrival of a train, walk the length of the train, and call out in a clear and audible voice the name of that station when opposite the window of each carriage, so as to make every passenger in the train aware of the name of the station; and par- ticular care must be taken by the clerk in charge, policemen and porters to observe the indication of any passengers that they desire to alight, by their knocking at the windows, or otherwise." — Great Northern Eailway^ England. OPERATION OF TBAINS. 365 They should not signal their trains to start while passen- gers are getting on or oft' the train.* When the signal is made, the conductor should stand near the front end of the forward passenger car.f Conductors should report every instance of agents failing to give passengers an opportunity to procure tickets, report- ing any neglect of an agent to open the ticket office of his station before the arrival of trains, when the rules require it. They should know that the cars in their trains have been inspected at terminal and other stations, as required. J They should wear the prescribed uniform, and never appear on duty without it. Upon the arrival of a train at its destination, the cars in which passengers have ridden should be searched by the conduc- tor,§ any articles found should be delivered to the agent at the terminal station. The articles should be sent by such agent to the proper officer, if not called for within forty-eight hours. FREIGHT COXDUCTORS.il "The guard in charge of the train must satisfy himself be- fore starting, and during the journey, that the train is prop- * " They will always bring their train to a dead stop to take up or leave passengers."' — 1853. t " The signal for starting the train must be given by the guard blowing his whistle and showing a hand signal." — Eiujlish Standard. " The guards and other servants of the company must take their seats in the trains before they are in motion, so as to avoid the dangerous practice of jumping on the steps, or getting into the carriages after the trains leave the platform.'* — Great Northern Railway^ England. X " They will also report all the interior defects of their cars, like the rattling of doors, windows, etc.'* — 1864. § " Every first class carriage is to be searched at the end of each journey by the head guard, and every second and third class carriage by the second guard.*' — Great Northern Railway , England. II " Every head goods guard must have with him his watch and whistle, a red, a green, and a white flag, a box of detonators (not less than twelve), a hand signal lamp, a full set of tail and side lamps, two or more spare coupling chains, a brake stick, two sprags.and two hand scotches.'* — Great Western Railway. England. "They will at all times render all the service in their power to forward the private business of the company (as well as its business for the public), in the hauling of wood and materials for use upon the road, and in bringing to the repair shops cars and parts thereof which may be out of order and left upon any part of the line." — 1853. SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; erly loaaed, marshaled, coupled, lamped and greased ; that the brakes are in good working order; and that the train is in a state of efficiency for traveling, and has the proper signahi attached to it* The guard must see that the chains on timber trucks and on boDer wagons are secured in order to prevent their getting loose whilst traveling. Foremen, guards, and shunters must take care that no timber truck or boiler wagon is allowed to leave a station or siding without the chains being first care- fully examined and made i)erfectly secure and safe, and guards will be held responsible for seeing that they remain so during the journey. Before starting from a station, the guard must see that the wagons are properly greased, the coupling chains and doors securely fastened, and carefully examine the loading and sheeting of the wagons, seeing that the goods are pro- tected from rain and sparks from the engine ; also that no load is too high or wide, or in any way unsafe to travel. It is not LooomotiTe, A. D. 1769. (Cngnot^) sufficient for the guard, on conmiencing his journey, to see that all the wagons and their loads in his train are in a secure state for transit, but he must see that all these conditions are continued throughout the journey, especially with wagons that are taken on at intermediate stations, and those loaded with timber, cotton, wool, castings, machinery, and articles of great length and bulky construction.'^* Freight conductors should make themselves generally ac- quainted with the duti^ of enginemen and brakemen, and en- force the rules and regulations applicable to them upon their trains, and report to the proper officer any insubordination, neglect of duty, or misconduct. They should see that the couplings, wheels, journals and brakes of the cars in their train are in good order before start- ing, and inspect them, when their duties permit, or as often as * FngijKh Standard. OPEIiA TION OF TRAINS. ' 367 the train stops to take fwel or water or arrives at a meeting or passing point.* Tiiey should station the brakemen at their postsf on the train and see that they keep their positions and use the brakes with discretion and good judgment — partieulary when descending heavy grades.^ Conductors and brakemen of freight trains approaching sta- tions should be out on their trains at least one mile from every station, and remain out until all switches are passed, looking for signals, and be prepared to do anything required for safety or expedition. At all times when freight trains are in motion, the conductor, or one brakeman, should be on the engine, or on top of the cars in the forward part of the train. * " They will frequently examine the cars of their trains to see that all nuts and screws are up to their bearings and the cars in order; that they are properly oiled — not oiling them at random, but when needed ; and for this purpose will see that their trains are supplied with such tools as may be wanted, as well as oil for the bearings. They will not allow repairers to attach their repair cars to their trains, unless it shall be necessary in order to forward some very urgent piece of work." — 1853. " They must examine carefully and minutely every wagon, whether loaded or not, and its covering, the axle boxes, the fastenings of its doors and side flaps, etc., and the way in which the goods are placed in the trucks, so that large loads may not overhang, or be too high ; they must compare the road bills with the wagons ; see that they are placed in the proper position in the train; that they are entered correctly, and properly labeled." — Great Northern Railway^ England. t " No goods, cattle or coal train may start without one brake van at the least, which must be placed behind the train ; and, in case of two brake vans in one train, one of the guards must ride in each, so as to work both the brakes."' — Great Northern Bail- way., England. In England the style of the car used prevents brakemen from traveling backwards and forwards upon the top of the train, as in this country. *' The freight conductors must ride on the tender facing train, or else on the rear car." — 1854. "The guard must ride in his brake van, and not upon the engine or in any part of the train ; he is forbidden to pass over the tops of the carriages [passenger cars] when in motion." — English Standard. X "A rear brakeman, by leaving his post for a short time to have a friendly chat with his next brakeman, has been the im- mediate cause of such mischief" {i. e. the cause of a collision).— Trainmaster's Assistant, p. 124. 368 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA TS; A conductor or brakeman shoald, in all cases, be stationed on the rear of every train, and the brakes of that car should be as- certained to be in good order before starting. Freight conductors should know that the cars in their train reported empty are so in fact. They should see that cars are locked, except when loading or unloading freight They should also see that the windows of cai^ are fastened. They should take loaded cars from all stations when they can haul them, although their train may be behind time.* They should treat those in charge of live stock politely, and render them every assistance possible in taking proper care of their property. In leaving loaded cars at a station, they should leave them at the most convenient place for unloading, and in cases of this kind they should act in harmony with the agent. They should deliver way freight on the platform at the freight house, or at such other place as the agent may designate. In delivering way freight the train should not be delayed unnecessarily .t Freight trains should stop at the places specified in the sched- ule, unless on approaching a station or siding, a signal is given by the agent or signalman that it is unnecessary. When this is done, the train may run past the station or siding without stopping, unless there are cars or goods to leave, when the engineman will have instructions from the conductor to stop. In the case of a train timed to stop at a station or * ** The object of running freight trains being to do the business of the road, and not altogether to make time." — Western Road. " In passing over the road, they will attach to their trains all the loaded cars which may be ready for them, in the order in which they come, whether at regular stations or side tracks, tUl they have'a full train : but a loaded car is not deemed ready for thetrain until the agent has the doors locked and fastened.and a way bill ready ; and the conductor will call for a way bill in ail cases, that he may be sure of the proper distribution of all the cars or freight in his train. They will take all empty cars from side tracks where they are not wanted, and draw them where thev are required, if in the direction in which they are running." — 1S53. t**They with the brakemen, will render aU aid in their power, on the arrival of their train at a station, to enable them to leave in the shortest space of time ; that as much time may be used in running and as little in stops as possible.'- — 1853. OPERA TION OF TEAINS. siding " when required " the engineman of the train should stop at such station or siding unless he receives a signal to proceed.* Freight conductors should not permit persons not duly- authorized to enter cars or handle freight on their train. They should report any confusion or want of method upon the part of agents in loading freight. When waiting upon sidings, and at other times, they should exercise watchfulness to prevent cars from being broken open and the contents thereof stolen or damaged. Conductors when at stations doing business should attend personally to the switching. They should not absent themselves from duty without per- mission from the proper ofiicer.f Locomotive, "Puffing Billy," A. D. 1813. While waiting at stations, they should do such switching as may be reasonably required by the agent, and perform * " In order to prevent the unnecessary stoppage of the train if the engine has a full load and can not take more w^agons on, and has nothing to leave at the station, the guard must give a green signal, to indicate to the clerk in charge that he has his full load, and can not take more. And it will be the duty of the clerk in charge to count the wagons in the train sig- naled as fully loaded, in order that inquiry may be made, in case of any improper refusal to stop on the part of the engine- man." — Great Northern' Bailway^ England. t " Goods guards must not leave their trains until they have been delivered over to the foreman, yardman or shunter." — English Standard. 24 370 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; snch other datles in connection with their trains as may be necessary to the expedition of business.* They should be sure that no cars have become detached from their train and left on the main track, and when cars are left on a siding they should see that the brakes are securely applied, and the wheels carefully blocked, if necessary, to prevent such cars from being moved, or interfering with trains or cars upon other tracks. They should make immediate and complete reports to the proper officer of all unusual detentions to their trains, and in case of accident to cars, resulting in damage or loss of property, should at once telegraph or write all the facts to the proper officer. They should enter upon their reports the number of cars taken from and left at each station, as described, and make such other r^ular returns as may be required of them. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO BRAKEMEN. While on duty, brakemen are under the direction of the con- ductor.f They are charged with the management of the brakes, the dis- play and use of signals, and the lights, stoves, water, gas : nd other fixtures of trains. They should be furnished with a full set of train signals, which they should keep in good order, and at hand, ready for immediate use. - The rear car of every train should be a brake car. A man should always be on the rear car of trains; provided, however, that when stopping a train he may set the brakes upon forward cars after having set the brake on rear car. In the absence of automatic or steam brakes they are required to stop their trains at stations, and control them when descend- ing heavy grades without the whistle signal of the engineman.+ * ** They, with the brakeman, when not otherwise employed, will render what aid they can in wooding and watering, to shorten their stops." — ^1853. t"At stations it is their duty to assist in taking on wood and water, and. when not on running duty, must assist at the station in whatever work may be required of them.*^ — 1853. + "^ They are not allowed to slip the wheels except in cases of danger, and never upon the ordinary occasion of stopping at a station ; observing strictly when the engineman shuts off steam OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 371 In damp or frosty weather the brakes should be applied sooner than usual to prevent running past the station. Brakemen should obey the order to apply brakes instantly, without waiting to ascertain the occasion of 1 he signal. The post of the rear brakeraan is on the last car in the train; he should not leave his post while the train is in motion except to protect it, or to apply the brakes, if necessary, on adjoining cars; he should be provided with the necessary signals, and see that they are displayed at the rear, in accordance with the rules; in case of detention or accident to the train, he should immediately go back, as directed in such rules, for the protection of trains ; he should do this promptly and without waiting for a signal from the engineman or instructions from the conductor. The front brakeman is charged with the duty of protecting the train with signals when, from any cause, the fireman is un- able to perform this duty. In case the train parts on the road, the rear brakeman should immediately apply the brakes and stop the cars, and then send forward the most reliable person he can command to make dan- ger signals, while he protects the detached portion until the en- gine or front part of the train returns. When an assisting engine is attached to the rear of a train, it should be considered as a part of the train, and in case of acci- dent or detention, the brakeman should go back as in other cases. Brakemen should examine the running gear of cars at stop- ping places, reporting to the conductor any defects noticed. They should be held responsible for the brakes and the condi- tion of the coupling apparatus. It is their duty to see that these are in good order before trains start. It is the duty of an employe who opens a switch upon the main track to see personally that it is afterwards closed and locked. on approaching a station that it is a signal, without waiting for the sound of the whistle to apply the brakes, using judgment in order to stop at the proper place at the station, without allow- ing the train to press hard upon the tender or engine, allowing the engineman to stop the engine and tender without causing them to draw or press upon the train." — 1853. "In travel- ing down steep inclines, guards must, in order to steady the trains and assist^ the engine driver, apply the rear brake, care being taken not to skid the wheels except when a train is approaching at too great speed a station at which it is timed to stop, or when the brakes are specially whistled for by the engine drivers.*" — English Standard. 372 SCmXCE OF BAILWAYS; PASSENGER BRAKEMEN.* Passenger brakemen should report for duty at the time ap- pointed, open the doors of the cars, and assist conductors in the proper disposition of passengers, and aid them in all things re- quisite to the prompt and safe movement of the trains, and the comfort and convenience of passengers. At all stopping places they should twice distinctly announce the name of the station, and the length of the time the train wDl stop, when such stoppage exceeds two minutes. Immediately after leaving a station, they should announce the name of the next stopping place. Locomotive (Stephenson's), A. D. 1815. They should assist the conductor in preserving order, and not permit passengers to stand upon the platforms while the train is in motion, nor in any way to violate the rules of the company. They should be respectful to passengers, and give jwlite at- tention to their wishes, avoiding, however, any unnecessary con- versation. When it is necessary to pass through sleeping cars, they should do so quietly, so as to avoid disturbing passengers. When not otherwise engaged, they should stand at the door of the car, ready to respond to the signal of the engineman, and they should occupy this position whether the train is equipped with automatic brakes or not. * " Brakemen on passenger trains will be required to wear coats or overalls when on duty." — 1854. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 878 They are required to see that the water closets of cars are kept in a cleanly condition.* FREIGHT BRAKEMEN. Freight brakemen should report for duty at the time ap- pointed, and assist the conductor in the switching and making up of trains. They should not leave their posts while the train is in motion, nor take any other position on the train than that assigned to them by the conductor. They should assist in loading and unloading freight. They are required to stop their trains at stations, and control them when descending heavy grades, without the signal of the engineman. The brakes should not be applied so as to slip the wheels, and on heavy grades the brakes should be changed fre- quently from car to car so as to avoid heating the wheels. TRAIN AND STATION BAGGAGEMEN. The duties and responsibilities of these officials are explained in a separate volume in connection with the conduct of the bag- gage department and the traffic incident to it.f ENGINEERS. When passing over the road without a conductor, engineers will be held responsible for the faithful and intelligent use of all * " There is no water closet in the train, no passage through the cars, and no means of communicating with the conductors. Robberies, have often been committed in the carriages. Each compartment is lighted at night by a lamp in the roof and warmed in winter by flat tubes of metal filled with hot water and placed under the feet of the passengers on the floor." — Pri- vate letter from Hon. Geo. P. Marsh describing passenger cars in Italy. '•The guards must immediately open the door of any carriage from which passengers may require to alight for the purposes of nature, etc., particularly at those stations where the engines take in water. The guards must, on all occasions, represent to pas- sengers the necessity for their resuming their seats quickly for the prevention of delay, and they must avoid all loss of time on the journey." — Begulations English Jload. '' Guards, porters, policemen, etc., are forbidden to use the water closets provided for the public, and will be fined for so doing."" — Great Northern liailinay, England. t " Baggage, Express and Mail Business.'' 874 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA T8; the precautions required by the rules and regulations governing the movement of trains. They should, therefore, familiarize themselves with such rules and regulations, including those for the government of trainmen. They are intrusted with the lives of passengers and the prop- erty of the company and its patrons. It is important, therefore, that they should not only attend promptly to the signals given them, but that they should be vigilant and cautious, not trusting blindly to the signals they receive, nor the rules and regulations provided for their safety. The engineer, before commencing his day's work, should ex- amine the notices posted for his guidance, in order to ascertain if there is anjrthing requiring his special attention. " The engineer must keep a good lookout all the time the en- gine is in motion, and the fireman must also do so, when he is not necessarily otherwise engaged.'*'* It is the duty of engineers and firemen at all times to keep a sharp lookout to see that no portion of the train becomes de- tached without their instantly observing it.f Engineers are under the direction of conductors when upon the road, in all things not in conflict with established rules. Engineers should observe the orders of inspectors and master mechanics in regard to the working of their engines and the proper use of fuel and stores. They should obey the orders of the yard master or i>erson in charge in regard to switching and making up trains.! They should not start their trains till directed by the con- ductor, nor till the bell of the engine has been rung. They should start with care, and see, before they get beyond the limits of the station, that no portion of their train is detached.§ * English Standard. t " With the firemen, they will often alternately look around to see that aU is right with the train while passing over the road, or standing with their train at stations, and to attend to signals from the conductor, for starting forward or backward.'' — 1853. X " ITie engine driver must afford such assistance with his engine as may be required for the formation, arrangement and dispatch of his train." — English Standard, § ** AVhen a passenger train is about to start from the station or ticket platform, the signal to start given by the guard merely indicates that the station duty or the collection of tickets is com- pleted ; and previous to starting the train, the engine driver OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 876 They should start and stop the train slowly, othervnse the couplings and chains are liable to be broken. In stopping their trains they should pay attention to the state of the weather and the condition of the rails, as well as to the length of the train. These circumstances should have due weight in determining when to shut off the steam. Terminal stations should be entered with special care. They should be careful not to shut oif steam suddenly (except in case of danger), so as to cause a concussion of the cars, by which trainmen and others may be injured. Engineers of stock trains are required to be particularly careful in starting and stopping their trains. Engineers should know exactly what time is allotted them in the schedule, and they should not start from a station, even though they receive a signal from the conductor, unless they can reach the next station without encroaching upon the rights of other trains. They should have their engines in good working order, suj)- plied with the necessary signals, stores, tools, fuel and water, and the steam up ready to attach to the train at least thirty minutes before the schedule time for starting, and as much earlier as directed by the proper official. Each engine should be supplied with twelve torpedoes, four fusees and the necessary signal lamps and flags ; also with a pair of screw jacks, extra spring hangers, and such other tools as may be necessary to operate the engine or provide for accidents or delays. Engineers should see before leaving the engine house that the spark arrester and wire netting over the smoke pipe, and the ash pan of the engine as well, are all in good condition.* must satisfy himself that the line before him is clear, either by observation, or by obtaining, by means of his whistle, the ex- hibition of the necessary signal, as the circumstances of the case may require, and, when starting, the fireman must look back on the platform side until the last vehicle has drawn clear of the platform, to see that the whole of the train is following in a safe and proper manner, and to receive any signal from the station master or guard that may be necessary.'* — English Standard. * " They will be particular to see that the chimney is kept in order, so as not to throw fire. They will not empty their sparks between the extreme switches at any station, unless a proper place be provided for them. Where no place is provided, select the most suitable beyond the switches, putting them down an embankment, if possible, so as not to disfigure the line." — 1853. 876 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; In running passenger trains, engineers should observe great care in the manner of working the automatic brake. It should be applied when the engine is first attached to the train, before starting from the station, to make sure that it is in working order; in making regular stops, it should be applied in such manner as to avoid injury to the brakes or discomfort to the passengers. Especial care should be taken with short trains to apply the brake suflBciently early to obviate this difficulty.* The brakes should not be relied upon when approaching rail- road crossings or other hazardous points, but steam should be shut off, and the train, whether passenger or freight, held under such control as to prevent running past the objective point before stopping. Engineers are required to see that the bell cord is not ob- structed by fuel or otherwise. It should not be unfastened until the end of the trip, and when more than one engine is attached to the train the bell cord should be attached to the leading engine.! Cars should not be switched into sidings, nor to other cars .upon the main lines, without remaining attached to the en- gine, unless the cars are attended by a brakeman or other per- son prepared to apply the brakes or blocks, as the case may be, so as to prevent their coming into violent contact with other * " Should a passenger train, in stopping at a station, over- run or stop short of the platform, the engine driver must not move the train back or draw it forward until he receives in- structions from the guard in charge to do so. Stationmasters, guards and others must at once take steps to preven.t passengers leaving the carriages that are not at the platform; and as soon as the guard in charge has satisfied himself that all carriage doors are closed, and that no passengers are entering or leaving the train, he must instruct the engine driver to put back or draw up to the platrorm, as may be required. The engine driver must sound his whistle before moving his tr din.''— English Standard. t " When two engines are employed in drawing the same train, the engine driver and fireman of the leading engine are responsible for the observance of signals; the engine driver of the second engine must watch for, and take his signals from, the engine driver of the leading engine, but the engine driver of the second engine is not relieved from the due observance of all signals regulating the safe working of the line. Great caution must be used in starting such a train to prevent the breaking of couplings." — English Standard. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 877 cars or vehicles, or obstructing other lines. When cars require to te switched into incline sidings, the cars to be moved at one switching should be limited to such a number as the en- gine can push without going at a violent or excessive speed. Engineers should promptly obey all signals given, even though they may think such signals unnecessary. When in doubt as to the meaning of a signal, they should stop and as- certain the cause, and if a wrong signal is shown it is their duty to report the fact to the proper officer.* They should notice whether watchmen and flagmen are at their posts, and report to the proper officer any neglect of duty they may observe. They should report the absence of lights at switches, where such lights should be shown.f ..Jb. steam Road Carriage, A. D. 1832. They should approach and pass stations where their trains do not stop, with caution. When trains are running over the road in heavy storms, or immediately after such storms, engineers should run cau- tiously without regard to making schedule time. They should run slowly and cautiously in approaching curves and places where the track is likely to be washed away. ♦ "The engine driver and the fireman must pay immediate at- tention to and obey all signals, whether the cause of the signal being shown is known to them or not. The engine driver must not, however, trust entirely to signals, but on all occasions be vigilant and cautious. He must also obey the instructions of the officers in charge of stations." — English Standard. t " The absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordi- narily shown, or a signal imperfectly exhibited, must be consid- ered a danger signal, and treated accordingly, and the fact re- ported to the signalman or stationmaster.'' — Great Western Bailway, England. 378 SCIENCE OF HAILW AYS; Great care should be taken to prevent the killing of live stock, and engines should come to a full stop, if necessary, to avoid killing or injuring stock.* Conductors and engineers should report to the proper officer in writing, giving full par- ticulars whenever stock is killed or injured by their engines or trains. "■ Engine drivers, after taking water from tanks or water col- umns, must be careful to leave the hose or water crane clear of the main line and properly secured."! Engineers should not permit burning cotton, waste or hot cinders to be thrown from the engine or tender while in motion, and should use every precaution when passing bridges, culverts, buildings and fuel piles, to prevent the same from taking fire from their engines. The dampers of ash pans should be closed when passing over wooden bridges or culverts.it They should not clean or empty their ash pans on the main track, except at points designated by the proper officer. They should not leave their engine during the trip, except in cases of necessity, or when required by the regulations, and when absent from it, they should leave the fireman or other competent person in charge. When a conductor is disabled, the engineer will have full charge of, and be held responsible for the safety of, the train until an authorized person assumes charge of it. Engineers should never leave their engine when steam is up without shutting the regulator, throwing the engine out of gear, and applying the tender brakes. They should report the condition of their engines to the in- spector or master mechanic at the end of each trip. Engines should never stand unemployed on the main track. Engineers should at all times keep the headlights of their engines in good order. Headlights should be lighted when run- ning after dark, or when storms, fogs, or other causes render it necessary. When trains are waiting on the side tracks, clear of the main track, or on the end of double track, the headlights of engines should be covered. In case of trains running as sec- * " Pass all roads cautiously; be careful not to frighten horses, and at Blank take extra care." — 1853. t English Standard. J "Pass all important bridges carefully and at a reduced speed, with the ash pan closed.'' — 1853. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 379 tions of a regular train, the engineer of each section should comply with this rule regardless of the position of other sections. Engineers should not refuse to take the assigned number of cars in their trains, but use their best efforts to haul them. Should engineers think the capacity of their engines is over- estimated, they should report the matter to the proper oflicial for such action as he may think necessary. None, except the roadmaster, foremen of bridge and road re- pairers on their own sections, or the conductor and brakeman of a train, should be allowed to ride on an engine without permis- sion from the proper official. In taking coal, engineers should not take more than will ride on their tanks without falling off and wasting along the track. Reports of live stock killed or injured should be forwarded promptly to the proper officer. In all cases of doubt whether animals were injured, a report should be made and the facts fully stated. VVhen animals are injured by running between cars, or in any way connected with the train, the engineer should report the facts in the same manner as if the damage had been done by the engine, and, where the facts are not within his per- sonal knowledge, he should give the name of the person from whom the information was obtained. As all claims for stock killed are held in abeyance until a report has been received from the engi- neer, it is important that careful attention be given this matter. Personal injury reports should be made by the engineer in accordance with the instructions printed on the blank form, when a person is injured by or on a locomotive. Engineers should see that their engines are provided with all tools necessary to meet casualties, and they should examine these tools frequently and know that they are in proper condition for immediate use. Engineers, when applying air brakes, should not use the full pressure of the air, except in cases of emergency. For ordinary stops the brakes should be applied slowly and at a sufficient dis- tance from the stopping place to enable them to stop the train without discomfort to the passengers, sliding the wheels, or injury to the machinery of the trains. Engineers should, at all times, assist, when called upon, in making any repairs' to their engine that may be necessary. When required to work in the shops, they will be subject to shop rules and regulations.* * " When not on running duty, they will assist in the machine shop, and conform to its rules." — 1853. 380 SCmWCE OF RAILWAYS; FIREMEN. Firemen, when on duty upon the road, are under the direc- tion of the engineer.* They should ohey the orders of the maMer mechanic or in- spectors of engines in regard to the use of fnel and the proper manner of firing. They should be on their engines at least thirty minutes be- fore time of starting, and conform to any directions they may receiTe from the engLneman.t LooomotlTe, " The Rocket," A. D. ia«a. They should supply the engine regularly with fuel and water, at the discretion of the enginemen. They should ring the bell * " They will act under the direction of the engineman. and will aid in the small dailT repairs and cleaning of the machine.'" —1853. t ** They must see that the boDers are properly filled before firing up: that the fires are kindled in proper time, and that all the working joints of the engine are kept well oiled, together with such other duty as the engineman may require of them.~ — 1854. ** They are strictly forbidden to throw fire or sticks of wood upon the road, as also to interfere in any manner with the run^ ning of the machine." — ^1853. OPERA TION OF TBAINS. 881 when required, and assist in oiling, and apply the tender brake, in accordance with the orders and signals of tlie enginemen.* They should assist in keeping a constant lookout upon the track, and give the enginemen prompt notice of any obstruction they may perceive. They should make themselves familiar with train rules, in- cluding those that apply to the protection of trains, and should understand the use of signals, and be prepared to use them or respond to them promptly and discreetly. They should so arrange their fires as to avoid any unnecessary emission of smoke from their engines while standing at or pass- ing stations. They should take charge of the engine, should the engineman at any time be absent, and not leave it until his return, nor sufi'er any unauthorized person to be upon it. They should not attempt to run an engine in the absence of the engineman without x^ermission from the master mechanic, unless they are directed to do so by the conductor or other authorized officer. They should keep their engines clean.f and assist, when not otherwise engaged, in making such repairs as may be required. When at work in shops, they will be subject to the rules and regulations governing shop -labor. INSPECTORS OF ENGINES. Inspectors of engines are required to ride upon the engines and instruct enginemen and firemen in regard to the proper working and firing of engines, so as to obtain the best results in the consumption of fuel and stores. They should study the capacity of the various engines. It is their duty to see that the regulation pressure of steam is not exceeded, and that the boilers are washed as often as necessary. They should see that engines are equipped with signals, tools and articles necessary to their efficient working, and that inject- ors, pumps, brakes and other fixtures are in good working order. ♦Before arriving at the station where thej' are to take wood, they will pile up their remaining wood in the front part of the tender, that the wood from the station may be taken in with the greatest dispatch. t" During the passage, whenever they have an opportunity, they will wipe the connecting rods and most exposed parts of their machine, keeping it as clean and neat as possible." — 1853. 382 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA T8; They should adTise the proper officer of the nnmher of cars to he allotted to each class of engines, and report to him when engines of throagh freight trains are not given cars to their fall capacity, or when an engine is overloaded. They should consult with the shop foreman in regard to the daily condition and requirements of the engines running upon their divisions. They should report to the proper officer the qualifications of englnemen and firemen, and any violation of rules or neglect of duty which may come to their knowledge, and keep them advised of all matters relating to the economical and efficient working of the engines and their crews. YARDMASTEBS. Yardmasters have charge of the yard and sidings at stations where trains are formed, the movements of trains in connection therewith, and of the yard forces employed thereat. When the business is not sufficient to require a yardmaster, the duties of the office, generally, are performed by the agent. Yardmasters are responsible for the dispatch of trains, the prompt movement of cars within the limits of the yard, and the proper position of switches. They should carry out the orders of their superior officer in regard to the distribution of cars, the making up of trains, and assigning motive power therefore.* They should give directions for switching and placing cars in proper position in trains, and see that such trains leave on time. They should see that the train force is ready for duty at the time required, and that both enginemen and conductors are sup- plied with schedules, signals, lamps, tools and such fixtures as are required for the safety and good management of trains. *"At any terminus, or large station where carriages are kept, the station inspectors are to see that they are always in good order, and. before being formed into a train, that every carriage or other vehicle has its proi)er supply of roof lamps trimmed ; that it is cleaned inside and out, and the glasses and handles made bright. They are also to see to the screwing up of the connections, and that the buffers of the several carriages forming the train press against each other, and recede about an inch when screwed up, and also to take care the doors on the off side of all carriages are locked." — Great NoHhem Baihoaif, Engkmd. OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 383 They should not permit a train to start with an engineman, conductor or brakeman who is unlit for duty, nor fail to report such an occurrence to the proper officer. They should see that the yard is kept in good order, and that cars requiring serious rejiairs are sent to the sliop. It is their duty to see that car repairmen perform their duties of oiling, cleaning, inspecting and repairing cars in a thorough and efficient manner. Any neglect they may observe should be reported to the proj^er officer.* They should see that a record is kept of the number of each car, the date it arrived and departed, and that daily returns of the same are made. English Locomotive, A. D. 1838. COUPLING CARS. Care should be exercised by persons when coupling cars. The coupling apparatus of cars or engines is not always uni- form in style, size or strength, and is liable to be broken. *" At stations where carriage examiners are kept, the station master, or person in charge, must, before starting the train, satisfy himself that the examination of it has been completed, and that, so far as the carriage examiner is concerned, the train is all right and fit to proceed. At stations where examiners are not kept, steps must be taken to remedy any defect that may be observed in the running of the vehicles, by supplying oil or grease to the axle boxes of any that may require it, or removing the defective vehicles from the train, as inay be found necessary." -^English Standard. 884 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; It is therefore dangerous to expose the hands, arms or per- sons of those engaged in this work. Employes should therefore be directed to examine, so as to know beforehand, the kind and condition of the drawhead, drawbar, link and coupling apparatus, and be prohibited from placing in the trains any car with a defective coupling. Suffi- cient time should be allowed and may be taken by employes to make the examination required. Coupling by hand should be prohibited in all cases where a stick can be used to guide the link or shackle; and each switch- man, brakeman or other employe who may be expected to couple cars should be required to provide himself with a stick for that purpose. Uncoupling cars while in motion should be avoided. DIRECTIONS TO AGENTS IN REFERENCE TO SWITCHES. Agents have charge of switchmen at stations, and are held responsible for the position of switches; they should keep in mind the fact that a train may arrive at any moment, and be prepared accordingly.* They should see that switchmen properly signal all approach- ing trains. The greatest care should be exercised in the cleaning, trim- ming and lighting of signal lamps, and agents are held responsi- ble for this work being efficiently performed. When day and night switchmen are employed, they should not be allowed to leave their posts until relieved, and the one going off duty should inform the one coming on of trains that are due but have not arrived.f Lamps of switches should be kept trimmed and in order, and never be allowed to go out at night. * " They [flagmen and switchmen] must be provided with a crowbar, shovel, sledge, spiking mauls, spikes, red and white lan- terns, and with a flag staff eight feet long, and have a white flag three feet square at one end and a red flag of the same size at the other end.'" — 1854. t " When any one beat or post is covered for twenty-four hours by a day and night man, who relieve each other, the day will usually comprise thirteen hours, and the night eleven hours." — Great Western Bailway^ England. OPERATION OF TRAINS. 886 Agents should see that switches are kept free from snow and other obstructions.* Switches should be set for the main track, and kept locked, except while being used. DIRECTIONS TO AGENTS IN REFERENCE TO TRAINS AND CARS. All vehicles switched off at stations as empties should be carefully searched. The windows of all empty passenger cars should be closed when they are standing on sidings at the sta- tions.! Agents are responsible for cars remaining at their stations ; they should see that the brakes are applied, and the wheels se- curely blocked so that they can not be moved by unauthorized persons, or blown by the wind, so as in any way to interfere with the safety of trains.l * " He must satisfy himself that the signalmen at or attached to his station perform their duties in a proper manner by night as well as by day. and in order to maintain a proper supervision over the men in this respect, it will be necessary for him fre- quently to visit the signal boxes." — English Standard. t " The windows of all empty compartments must be closed, not only while the carriages are standing at the stations, but also when the trains are running, immediately upon the compart- ment becoming vacant. The ventilators must be kept open." — English Standard. X " The station master must see that all fixed scotch blocks at his station are kept across the rail; that all safety points are closed against the mai line, when it is not necessary that they should be open for the purpose of shunting, and that all vehicles are placed within such scotch blocks or safety points. Facing points not worked from a locking frame must, in all cases, be securely fastened or held for the passage of trains." " The station master, or person in charge, must take care that, while shunting wagons or other vehicles at stations or other places situated on inclines, in addition to screwing the van brakes tightly down, a sufficient number of wagon brakes are pinned down, and sprags or hand scotches used when necessary, to pre- vent the possibility of the train or any of the vehicles running down the incline. At such stations and other places a supply of sprags and hand scotches must be kept for the purpose. When wagons require to be shunted into incline sidings the trucks to be moved at one shunt must be limited to such a number as the engine can push up without going at a violent or excessive speed." — English Standard. 25 886 SCmWCE OF BAILWATS. Agents shonld see tlialt tracks are kept clear and nnobetmcted, and not aOow an j train or en^ne to approach their station nn- le^ they can do so without danger. They should promptly re- port defective frogs or switches to the proper officer.* They should report accidents occurring to trains at or near their stations; all damaged cars or goods brought to or left at their stations, destined elsewhere, also the amount of the damage, and how caused. HcAdligfat, A. D. * When a horse is used on the railway.a man must, in all cases, hare hold of its head, whether the horse is drawing Tehicles or otherwise.'' t * ""Tliey will know perscmally, at least ten minutes before any r^ular train is due, and before leaving their stations at nighty that the switches upon the main track are properly secured and locked, and that tiie cars upon their ^de tracks, nearest the switches, have their brakes sets or their wheels well blocked,'' — 1S63. t English Boad. CHAPTEE XIX. RULES AND REGULATIONS APPERTAINING TO THE MOVEMENT OF TRAINS. — (PART THREE.) TELEGRAPH OPERATORS. Telegraph operators at stations should observe the wishes of agents, when such observance does not interfere with their duties. They should be on duty without intermission during busi- ness hours, and should not leave their offices without permission. They should not leave their post until relieved. The oper- ator going off duty should advise the operator coming on in regard to unfinished business and the position and character of trains upon the line. Where two or more day or night operators are employed, they should not all be absent at meals at the same time. Operators at way stations should be in their offices on Sun- days twenty minutes before each train is due, and remain in the office until the train is reported as having passed the next tele- graph station. Operators should not leave their offices while a train is at the station unless the business of such train requires it. They should be courteous in their intercourse with each other and with all persons transacting business at their offices. Night operators should report to the home office every half hour during prescribed hours. At one minute before eight o'clock a. m. each day, excepting Sundays, all business should be suspended, for the purpose of enabling the home office to report the exact time, and operators and others on the Fine should forthwith regulate their time- pieces to correspond with such report. At nine o'clock in the morning of each day except Sunday, all business should be suspended, for the purpose of sending car (387) 388 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; reports to the home office. In sending these reports, care should be taken to punctuate them properly. All orders and instructions should be carefully preserved and filed for purposes of reference. When there is a delay of more than fifteen minutes in send- ing a message, the particulars of the delay should be noted on the back of such message. When practicable messages received for transmission should be read aloud before being sent, either by or in the presence of the sender. English Express Tnin with Mail Signals, A. D. 1814. Operators should be held responsible for the prompt delivery of messages at their stations. They should exert themselves to obtain answers to messages promptly when answers are required. In case persons to whom messages are addressed can not be found, the office at which the message originated should at once be notified. When answers are required to messages and are not forth- coming, the reason should be explained as soon as practicable. Operators should retain copies of all messages sent and re- ceived, also copi^ of reports of trains. OPERATION OF TRAINS. 889 Operators should consider telegraphic messages as confiden- tial, and not permit them to be read, except by those to whom they are addressed, nor should they make them the subject of conversation or remark. Passes received by telegraph should be written with ink, and contain the name of the office where received, the date and time of receipt, and the signature of the operator. In transmitting messages, the circuit should be firmly con- nected, the writing should be plain and legible, and care should be exercised to punctuate the communication properly. In case of interruption or trouble to the line, operators should make diligent inquiry as to its location. The facts should at once be communicated by signal or otherwise to repairers or to trackmen, diligent efforts being made by the operators them- selves to remedy the break. Care should be exercised to protect instruments from being injured by atmospheric electricity. Instruments should not be taken apart, but carefully pre- served in good order, and none should be kept on hand that is not in use. Instruments or fixtures not in use or in a damaged condition should be returned to the home office. The telegraph should not be used for the transmission of communications which may be sent through other channels. Operators should promptly report the departure of each train to the proper officer ; the arrival of trains should also be reported at terminal stations. Conductors should report to the proper officer when they are fifteen minutes late, except in cases where the departure of all trains is promptly reported by operators; in the event they neglect to do this, operators should inquire as to the cause of the delay, and forthwith transmit to the proper officer the result of these inquiries, the name of the conductor and the number of his train. If the delay was caused by a hot journal, the number of the car or engine upon which it was located should also be reported. Operators should keep themselves supplied with proper sig- nals for stopping trains, and have them convenient and in order for immediate use when occasion requires. They should see that their signal lamps are properly filled and trimmed before dark each day. They should observe the rear of all trains passing their sta- tions, and if red signals are not displayed at once report the omission to the proper officer. 390 SCIEA^CE OF BAILWATS; Aurticiilu' attmtioii shoidd be giren to the adjustiiient of re- lajs wben trains aie behind time, or when the current is weak. Operators shoold not undertake to teach stadents how to teie- gra]^ without perml^on front the proper officer. C^onTersatlon of a pei^mial nature between operators should not be aUowed to intermpt boMne^. Improper language or profimity should not be indulged in on the line. Quarreling and oontenti<»i aoKMigst operators for the use of the cirvnit Is reprefaenMble. Should the current be interrupted while an operator is u^ng the circuit, he should stop and ascer- tain the cause ; should the interruption be occaslloyes in connection with the various branches of the trattic and accounting "departments, and the rules and regulations that should be observed, are set forth with particularity in other volumes, to which the reader is referred.] CHAPTEK XX. ADMINISTRATION OF THE TRAIN SERVICE ON ENG- LISH ROADS. The great English roads are all operated un- der the block system, or what may be termed a modification of such system. Each line is thickly dotted with signal houses and their attendant appliances. The great bulk of the rules and reg- ulations under which our trains are operated have, therefore, no relevance with them. While they provide schedules as we do, yet the trains are constantly guarded and protected by the multitude of signalmen scattered along the line. These men are ubiquitous; trains move or re- main stationary as they direct; they approach or remain away from stations at their beck or nod, and when a train has reached a station it departs or not as the signals indicate. So that while trains may be behind time, or may not be recognized by the schedule, they still pursue their way with undiminished speed so long as the signals in their front indicate the track to be clear.* * A full description of the workings of the block system is embraced elsewhere herein. OPERATION OF TBAINS. 893 The trains manipulated under the eyes of the signalmen of course require double tracks upon which to move. Upon single track roads in Great Britain the great utility of the telegraph in connection with the movement of trains is practically unknown, and in that respect our system of management is immeasurably superior to theirs. The duties of the conductor abroad are ex- ceedingly diverse. He may be said to be the creature of innumerable circumstances. Fre- quently without an assistant on board the train, he is expected to protect it and its occupants; to perform the duties of a brakeman, act as ex- press messenger, baggage master and attendant. Nominally in control of the train when upon the line, his authority vanishes upon its arrival at a station. He assists passengers in entering and leaving the cars, but their fares are collected by another.* The elabor'^te force which mans our passenger trains is unknown in England. There the force consists of a guard (conductor), as intimated above. He does not always have an assistant. The head guard has charge of the train, and its passengers, baggage and express matter. The assistant guard has a box in one of the cars or van s; he signals the train in case of * " Should a guard have reason to suppose any person is with- out a ticket, or not in the rif^ht carria|?e, he is to request the party to show him his ticket, not with a view to receivintr it from him, but to satisfy himself that every passenger has a proper one. He is under no circumstances to receive money on account of the company." — Regulations English Roads. 894 SCIENCE OF RAIL WATS; danger, attends to the brake, and performs such other duties as he may be able. In lieu of these men we usually have a con- ductor, express messenger, baggageman, and two brakemen. Our station service is, however, con- ducted with a much less force than theirs.. Their apparent extravagance in this respect is explained in part by the fact that the rules requiring pas- sengers to purchase tickets before entering the cars are rigidly enforced by them. The outlay 'All Clear. ' Slacken Speed.'* " Caution." English Signals, A. D. 1844. Caution.' is, therefore, not an extravagance. In connection with this subject of passenger fares and their payment, the regulation of the Austrian roads, that permits and directs the officials of a com- pany to impose a fine upon passengers who neglect to purchase tickets, or claim that they did not have time to purchase them, is inter- esting and instructive. The laws of England governing the time and manner of paying pas- senger fares are also exceedingly strict. OPERATION OF TRAINS. 896 RULES OF ENGLISH ROADS. Every person employed by the company must devote himself exclusively to their service, residing at whatever place may be appointed, attending at such hours as may be required, paying prompt obedience to all persons placed in authority over him, and conforming to all the rules and regulations of the company. Although the rules and regulations given under different heads are made specially for the observance of the servants employed in doing the work required by such rules and regulations, yet every such person must make himself thoroughly acquainted with them, and will be held responsible for a knowledge of and a compliance with the whole of them. Every servant is required to assist in carrying out the rules and regulations, and must immediately report to his superior officer any infringement thereof, or any occurrence affecting the safe and proper working of the traflSc which may come under his notice. The address of each person employed in the working of the railway must be registered at the station to which he is attached, or at which he is paid, and must be posted in the station master's office, so that, if required in cases of emergency, the men may be readily found. Any change of address must be notified to the station master, in order that the record may be kept perfect. No servant is allowed, under any circumstances, to absent himself from duty, or alter his appointed hours of attendance, or exchange duty with any other servant, without the special per- mission of his superior officer. In case of illness, he must im- mediately report the circumstance to his superior officer. Every person receiving a uniform is to appear in it, when on duty, clean and neat, with the number and badge perfect, and if any article provided by the company shall be damaged by im- proper use, he will be required to make it good. No servant is allowed to convert to his own use any article the property of the company, and if guilty of such misconduct he will be severely punished. The conduct of all servants must be prompt, civil and obliging. They must at all times afford every proper facility for the business to be performed, be careful to give cor- rect information, and, when asked, give their names without hesitation. All officers, clerks, and persons holding situations of trust, will be required to find security for their faithful services, the 896 SOUENCE OF RAILWAYS; amount and conditions of which security will be stated upon appointment. No officer or servant of the company is allowed to travel on the railway, unless provided with a proper ticket, or free pass; nor is he allowed to ride on the engine, or in the brake van, or in any vehicle in which luggage or parcels are conveyed, unless in the execution of his duty, without written permission from the properly authorized officer of the company. N^o guard, engine driver, fireman, signalman, policeman, por- ter, or other servant of the company, while on duty, is allowed to enter a station refreshment room, except by permission of the station master or person in charge of the station. No money or gratuity in the shape of fee, reward or remun- eration is allowed to be taken from passengers, or other per- sons, by any servant of the company, under any pretense what- ever, even although the regular hours of duty shall have expired. No servant of the company is allowed to trade, either directly or indirectly, for himself or others. The company reserve the right to punish any servant, by immediate dismissal, fine, or sus- pension from duty, for intoxication, disobedience of orders, neg- ligence, misconduct, or absence from duty without leave, and to deduct from the pay of their servants and retain the sums which may be imposed as fines, and also their wages during the time of their suspension, or absence from duty from any cause. No servant is allowed to quit the company's service without giving the month's notice required by the terms of his engage- ment. When a man leaves the service, he must immediately deliver up his uniform and all other articles belonging to the company, and no money due for wages to any man leaving the service will be paid until his clothing, book of rules, lamps, flags, tools, deto- nators, and all other articles, the property of the company, which may have been supplied to him shall have been delivered up in accordance with the company's regulations. If not de- livered up, or if any article be missing, or be damaged by im- proper use, the cost of such articles or of the repair of such dam- age shall be a debt due from the man to the company, and may be deducted from any pay then due, or, if such pay be found in- sufficient to meet the claim, it will become a debt recoverable at law. All testimonials and letters of recomrtiendation will^ if re- quired, be returned by the company at the time the person OPERATION OF TRAINS. 897 whom they concern leaves the service; except such as are addressed to the company or their officers. All servants must exercise proper care in getting between ve- hicles for the purpose of coupling or uncoupling them. No trespassing upon the railway must be allowed, and no per- son must be permitted to walk on the line, unless provided with written or printed j)ermission to do so, signed by a properly authorized officer of the company. In the event of any person trespassing, and refusing to quit when requested to do so, the name and address of such person must be obtained, and the cir- cumstances reported to the nearest station master. Special trains or engines have frequently to be run without pre- vious notice of any kind ; it is therefore necessary for the stafl' along the line to be at ail times prepared for extra trains or engines. 'All Right. "Caution." English Signals, A. D. 1&44. Stop. The safety of the public must, under all circumstances, be the chief care of the servants of the company. Wherever the term '* Main Line*' is used, it means the running line of any railway, or branch. Whenever the word " Train"' is used, it must be understood to include "Light Engine," i. e., en- Wherever the words " Goods Train" are used, they must be understood to include ''Goods, ^lineral. Cattle, and Ballast Trains." CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH PERSONS ARE ADMITTED TO THE SERVICE— SECURITY— PRIVILEGES — COMPENSATION— ETC.* A candidate as an experienced clerk must possess railway ex- perience, or experience in other traffic equivalent thereto. * Great Northern Railway, England. 398 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; The salary, not exceeding $400* per annum, is fixed on ap- pointment. A candidate as a Junior clerk must have attained eighteen and must not exceed twenty-three years of age. The salary on appointment and For the 1st year, is - - - f 5 25 per week. "2d " - - - - 5 50 "3d " - - - . 5 75 " 4th " - - - - 6 00 " 5th " and until promoted, 6 25 " If employed in London, but during such employment only, $1.00 a week is allowed in addition to the salary. A junior clerk is eligible for promotion only on a vacancy occurring, and upon the head of the department in which he has been employed and the general manager recommending him as qualified to fill the same. A candidate as a lad clerk must have attained fifteen and must not exceed eighteen years of age. The salary on appointment and For the 1st year is - - - $2 50 per week. 2d " - - - - 2 75 " " 3d " - _ _ - 3 25 " 4th " and until promoted, 4 00 A lad clerk is ineligible for promotion to be a junior clerk until he is eighteen years of age, and then only upon a vacancy occurring, and upon the head of the department in which he has been employed and the general manager recommending him as qualified to fill the same. All clerks, without reference to their standing in the ser- vice, are allowed $1.00 a week in addition to their pay, when em- ployed wholly on night duty. Written application at the end of each year of service must be made to the directors through the medium of the superintendent of the line, or chief of the department in which the clerk is en- gaged for the authorized increase of salary, and failing such application at the proper time, increased pay will be allowed only from the date at which it is eventually made. This rule applies also to the police and porters. * I have taken the liberty here, as I have elsewhere herein, when I thought proper, of reducing the foreign currency to the American standard. The rates inserted are not arbitrary, but change from time to time according to places and circumstances. M. M. K. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 899 A candidate as a clerk will undergo a strict examination as to his qualifications in proportion to his age; he will be required to show a good handwriting, suited for accounts and corre- spondence, and that he has a competent knowledge of mercantile arithmetic ; and lie must be in a good state of health. The candidate must, on attending at the secretary's oflSce to be examined, produce testimonials of character. In the case of an experienced clerk, and of a junior clerk who has been before employed, first, from his last employer; second, one from each of two householders of undoubted re- spectability. In the case of a lad clerk, and of a junior clerk who has not been before employed, first, from the head master of the school in which he has been educated ; second, one from each of two householders of undoubjted respectability. The nomination, with the particulars of the examination and the testimonials, will be submitted to the directors on the candi- date appearing before them, and who will decide whether he be qualified and a proper person to be appointed. The name of a clerk, on appointment, will be added to a list, from which he will be summoned in turn for duty as a vacancy occurs, provided he has in the meantime given security; but should he, on being summoned, refuse or neglect to join, his name will be struck out of the list, and he can not afterwards be readmitted to the service. A clerk must, immediately on appointment, give security to the amount of two years' salary, or in not less than $500, through the medium of one of the undermentioned guarantee societies, and he can not subsequently, under any pretense whatever, be allowed to change from the society first selected. (Here follows a list of the guarantee companies.) The railway company pays the premium in the case of a clerk whose salary does not exceed $5.25 per week or $6.25 per week without allowances. A candidate as a porter must be five feet seven inches in height, without his shoes. He must not be less than twenty-one and must not exceed thirty-five years of age. He must be able to read and write, and be generally intelligent; free from any bodily complaint, and of a strong constitution, according to the judg- ment of the surgeon by whom he will be examined, who will re- port whether he is " fit " or '' unfit." The police are selected from this class. 400 SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; The candidate must produce testimonials of character from his last employer, and one from each of two householders of vat- doubted respectabilitr, and if he has been in any poblic service also a certificate of good conduct during such employment; these, with the nomination, will be submitted to the directors on the candidate appearing before them, and who will decide ^diether he be a proper person to be appointed. The pay of a porter is, on entering, and In London. In Country. For 1st year, - - - $4 25 per week. $4 00 per week, •'ad^- - - -450** * 425*^ * 3d "^ anduntil promoted, 4 75 " * 4 50 * * Steun BcMd Caznage, A. D. 1960. prOTided a fine be not incurred in the interim, in which case' in- creased i>ay is aDowed only after twelve months^ service from the date of such fine. A candidate as a lad porter must not be le^ than fourteen or exceed seventeen years of age. He must be able to read and write, and be generally intelligent, free from any bodily com- plaint, and of strong constitution, according to the judgment of the surgeon by whom he will be examined, who will report whether he is '^f or *"tmfit.^ The candidate must produce testimonials of character from the school at which he has been educated, and one front each of two householders of undoubted respectability. These, with the nomination, will be submitted to tbe directors on the candidate OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 401 appearing before them, and who will decide whether he be a proper person to be appointed. The pay of a lad porter is, on entering, and For the 1st year, - - - - $1 75 per week. '* 2d " 2 00 " 3d " - - - - 2 25 " 4th " 2 50 " 5th " ... - 2 75 " 6th " 3 00 " 7th " and until promoted, 3 50 A lad porter on attaining twenty-one years of age, and not before, is eligible for promotion to be a porter, but he can then become a porter only after being passed by the surgeon and direct- ors, as in the case of a new appointment, want of height (under five feet seven inches) not being, however, a disqualification. All appointments are made on the distinct understanding that the parties hold themselves in readiness to proceed to duty im- mediately on being summoned, their pay being allowed from the date of employment, that they reside wherever required, and that they will join and become members, on being so required, of any provident or benevolent society established or to be es- tablished in connection with the company, and abide by all the rules and regulations ... or otherwise given them for their guidance. The rules of the Sick and Funeral Allowance Fund are fur- nished to every porter on appointment. Station inspectors. $6.25 and $7.50 per week according to the class of station, with house, or an allowance of $1.25 per week in lieu. Pass. Guards [con.] Ist class, Chief Guard $7 50 per week. 1st " Under Guard 6 87 2d " Chief Guard 6 75 2d " Under Guard 6 25 Goods and Cattle Guards, Chief Guard 7 50 " Under Guard 6 87 Mineral Guards, ----- 5 75 " All guards, when required to sleep away from home, receive twenty-five cents per night additional. Police — Ordinary, - - - - $4 25 per week. ** Signalmen at Junctions and ) f^ m " Pointsmen in London, f In the Country, - - - 4 75 " Gatemen at level street crossings, 4 75 " Gatemen at level road station crossings, 4 25 " 26 402 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; Gatemen provided with a house by the company are to have coals free, and to pay sixty-two cents a week rent, but if they open the gates by night in addition to the day work they are to have the house rent free as an equivalent for the night work. Porters in London, - - - - $4 25 per week. " in the Country, - - - - 4 00 ^ Foremen Porters in London, - - 5 25 " '^ in the Country, - - 5 00 Mineral Foremen Porters in the Country, 5 25 " Shunters in Louden, - - - - 4 75 " in the Country, - - - 4 50 Luggage Stowers and Loaders, - - 4 75 " Police and porters are to receive an advance of twenty-five cents per week each year for two years, beginning on the day when they shall have completed a year's service, if not punished in the interval. Foremen porters, signalmen or pointsmen, gatemen at level street crossings, shunters and loaders are to be advanced under the same rule, twenty-five cents per week each year for two years, from which their only increase will be by promotion to a superior foremanship at $6.25, which is a fixed rate of wages, or to the situation of guard or inspector. In case of promotion, men who have been advanced under above rule are to carry with them and continue to enjoy their advance, unless the promotion is to a grade paid at a fixed rate of wages, when it will cease. Signalmen, at the expiration of every half year of good ser- vice, without punishment, will receive a premium of $12.50. As soon as any fine or punishment for misconduct shall be registered against any servant of the company, the previous period of the current year's service for increase of pay or pre- mium becomes forfeited, and the year can only be reckoned from the date on which he was punished. THE UNIFORMS REQUIRED AND THE REGULATIONS INCIDENT THERETO.* All servants of the company to whom uniform is allowed, are required to wear it while on duty. The uniform of servants clothed by the company is as follows, for twelve months: For station inspectors and guards, a great coat, a frock coat, waistcoat, two pairs of trousers, two red neckerchiefs, and hat or * Great Northern Railway, England. OPEBA TION OF TRAINS. 408 cap; for policemen, a great coat, a dress coat, two pairs of trous- ers, cape and hat ; for porters, a jacket, waistcoat, two pairs of trousers, two red neckerchiefs, and cap. Foremen, porters and shunters have a cape in addition. Autlior- ized laborers receive two blue " slops," and red neckerchiefs. Uniforms will be issued as follows: To the inspectors and guards, a top coat once a year, and a frock coat once a year. When a second of either garment is issued the first may be re- tained, but when a third is served out the first issued is to be given back ; when the fourth is issued the second is to be given back, and thus two of each garment will remain in their posses- sion. The trousers and hats or caps may remain in the posses- Truxford's Traction Engine, A. D. 1862. sion of the men, except that, when they leave the service, two pairs of trousers must be given up, with all other clothing and appointments. To the police, a great coat and cape everj' two years ; on re- ceipt of new ones, the old ones must be given up. The dress coats in use when the second coats are supplied are allowed to remain in the possession of the policemen until a third is issued ; they are then required to give up No. 1, keeping Xos. 2 and 3; when No. 4 is issued No. 2 is to be given up, and so on, two dress coats remaining in j)ossession of the men. Hats and trousers remain in possession of the men, except that when they leave tlie service, they are required to give up two pairs of trousers, with all the other clothing and appointments. 404 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS; Porters are subject to the police regulations as to their jack- ets and waistcoats. When the second jackets and waistcoats are issued, the first are retained by the men; when the third are issued the first are given back, and so on. The trousers remain in possession of the men, except that, when leaving the service, they are required to give up two pairs of trousers and all the other appointments of clothing. The capes are issued once in two years, the caps and neckerchiefs yearly ; on receipt of a sec- ond cap or cape the first is to be given up. GENERAL REGULATIONS FOR WORKING THE ABSOLUTE BLOCK SYSTEM ON A DOUBLE TRACK ROAD.* The signaling of trains on the block telegraph system does not in any way dispense with the use of home, distant, starting, hand or fog signals, whenever and wherever such signals may be requisite to protect obstructions on the railway. The object of the system of electric train signaling is to prevent more than one train or engine being between any two signal stations on the same line at the same time. This is accomplished by not allowing any train or engine to leave a signal station till the pre- vious train or engine has been signaled as having arrived at or left the signal station next in advance. The block signal instruments and bells are exclusively for the signaling of trains, and must not under any circumstances be used for conversing, nor for any other purpose than block working, in strict accordance with the company's regulations, and they must only be used by the signalman, or other person specially appointed for the duty. The signal boxes at which the block telegraph working is in operation are furnished with instruments to signal for each line of rails, and the system under which these instruments are to be worked, and the mode of indicating the description of approach- ing trains, will be laid down in the code of regulations supplied to signalmen or exhibited in the signal boxes for the guidance of the persons in charge. On those portions of the line worked on the absolute block system, a second train or engine must not be allowed to enter a section until the preceding train or engine has been signaled as having passed out of the section, except under the circumstances * Engine Clearing House Standard. OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 406 specified in rules "A" aud "B." further on, to meet cases of train or telegraph failure. The danger signal must be exhibited at both the home and distant signals * to protect trains or engines standing at stations or intermediate signal boxes, and when any train or engine has gone forward into the onward section, the starting and advanced starting signals (where such are provided) which control the entrance of trains and engines into such sec- tions must also be put to and kept at " danger*' until telegraphic information has been received from the signal box in advance that the preceding train or engine has passed out of the section. So long as the starting signals stand at " danger," the home and distant signals must also be kept at " danger,'' except on the near approach of a train which has to stop at the station, when, after the speed of the train has been reduced so as to admit of its stop- page at the platform, the home signal may be taken off to admit the train, but the starting signal must be kept at " danger " until the line is clear to the next signal station ahead. Unless special instructions are given to the contrary the line must be considered clear," and the signal "line clear" be given immediately the last vehicle (with tail lamp attached) has passed the home signal post, except during foggy weather or snow storms, when the signal "line clear'' must not be sent to the station in the rear until the train or engine that has stopped at the sta- tion has passed the home signal and is proceeding on its journey, or has been shunted into a siding clear of the main line. Should it become necessary to block a section, in consequence of a brakedown obstructing the line, or other circumstances taking place rendering it imperative that any approaching train should be stopped, the signalman at the station where the ob- struction takes place must use the means authorized by his regu- lations for preventing any train leaving the post in tlie rear. Should there be reason to suppose that both lines are fouled, the signalman must, without any delay, block the lines in both directions. No obstruction must be allowed outside the home signal until the signalman on duty has carried out the prescribed regulations to prevent any train leaving the signal station in the rear. ♦The "home" signal or semaphore is located in the immediate vicinity of the station; the "distant'' signal is, however, located farther away. It is usually worked (by means of a chain run- ning along the ground) by the person who operates the " home" signal. M. M. K. 406 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS; If a signalman observe anything unusual in a train during its passage, such as signals of alarm by a passenger, tail lamp miss- ing or out, goods falling off, a vehicle on fire, a hot axle box, or other mishap, he must give the station in advance the signal to '•stop and examine train,'' and the signalman at the station in advance must acknowledge such cignal, and instantly put on the danger signals to stop the approaching train. "Where practica- ble, the signalman must also telegraph the station in advance the cause of sending the "stop and examine train'' signal. Should the signalman receiving the signal have reason to sup- pose that there is any danger to a train traveling in the oppo- site direction, he must also stop that train, and Inform the Duplex Locomotive, A. D. 1862. engine driver of the circumstances, instructing him to proceed cautiously. Should a train pass a signal station without a tail lamp on the last vehicle, the signalman must not telegraph ''line clear' to the station in the rear, but must call the attention of such station in the authorized manner, and on gaining attention, must give the "train passed without a tail lamp'" signal. This signal having been acknowledged, the signalman at the rear sta- tion will, thereupon, stop any train following, and verbally in- struct the engine. driver to proceed cautiously toward the station in advance, informing him why it is necessary that he should do so. As soon as the train, the engine driver of which has been cautioned, has passed the signal station from whence the "train passed without a tail lamp" signal was received, the signalman there will recommence signaling in the ordinary manner. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 407 Should any vehicle or portion of a train be running back in the wrong direction, the signalman must call the attention of the signalman at the next signal box toward which the vehicle or portion of the train may be running, by giving the prescribed signal indicating that vehicles are running back on wrong line. The signalman who has received this signal must stop any train about to proceed on the same line, and take such protective measures as may be necessary, such as turning the runaway train across to the other line or into a siding, as may be most expedient under the circumstances. If any vehicle or portion of a train has escaped, and is run- ning away in the proper direction on the right line,* the station in advance must be advised of the fact by giving on the bell or gong the signal "vehicles running away on proper line." The signalman receiving this signal must, if necessary, send the sig- nal forward, and take such other measures as he may consider most expedient under the circumstances. When a train has become divided and is running on a falling gradient, the front portion must not, when the line is clear for it to proceed beyond the signals, be stopped so as to risk its being overtaken by the second portion, but when such train is running on a rising gradient, or where the line is level, the first portion must be stopped and shunted into a siding as expeditiously as circumstances will permit. "A." In the event of any failure of the instruments or bells, so that the necessary signals can not be forwarded and received, no train must, under any circumstances, be allowed to pass a sig- nal station into that section of the line where the failure exists, without having been previously brought to a stand, and the en- gine driver and guard advised of the circumstances. When this has been done, the engine driver must be instructed to proceed cautiously to the post in advance, so as to be able to stop short of any obstruction there may be on the line. No train must be allowed to follow another within five minutes; nor when a tun- nel intervenes in a block section , within ten minutes, unless the signalman on duty can satisfy himself that the tunnel is clear.f ♦ Not the right hand track.— M. M. K. t^'The engine driyer must protect his engine in accordance with the regulations, without reference to any telegraphic com- munications that may exist between stations or signal boxes, and he is not in any way relieved from this duty by the existence of block or other telegraphic working.'' — English Standard. 408 SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; Steps must immediatety be taken to have the telegraphic apparatus put into working order again. "B." To prevent delays to breakdown van trails* when proceeding to clear the line, they must in all cases be signaled as "passenger trains," the signal "shunt for fast train" being given whenever the sections in advance are occupied by trains which the breakdown gang must pass to reach the scene of accident. The same course is to be adopted in the case of an engine proceeding to take the place of one that has failed, or of an engine with or without a train, when sent forward to render assistance in cases of failure or accident to preceding trains. Should any obstructions occur necessitating the working of a single line, the person in charge, who gives the necessary instructions for so doing, must at the same time give written ^wwmSTz Locomotive, A. D. 1894. instructions for suspending the working of the line by block telegraph, "except on inclines or through tunnels, where the block telegraph working may not be suspended on special in- structions being given." f On the working of the double line being resumed the order suspending the working of the line by block telegraph is to be canceled by a written notice in the same manner, and at the same time, as the order for working the single line is canceled. Where the block system is in operation, goods, mineral, cat- tle and ballast trains must be shunted out of the way of passen- ger trains, and mineral, slow goods and ballast trains must also be shunted out of the way of fast goods and fish trains at sta- tions or sidings where there are fixed signals,! in sufficient time * Wrecking trains. — M. M. K. t Great Western Railway, England. X i. e.. Semaphore signals, etc. — M. M. K. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 409 to prevent the passenger train, fast goods or fish trains, respect- ively, being delayed by the signals either at the station where the train is being shunted or at the block station in the rear. Where the block system is in operation, and it is necessary to foul* or occupy any portion of the line outside the home signal, the line must first be blocked back by telegraph to the signal box in rear before such obstruction is permitted, and during a fog or snow storm, or where, in consequence of the station being approached upon a falling gradient, special instructions for working are issued, no obstructions must be allowed at the station inside the home signal, until the line is so blocked back to the signal box in rear. * Obstruct.— M. M. K. " 1 «'; "7 V JO o 10 o € 1 o ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^ OOpOOC ^"^^^V ■m.^-^ ^M^ 8=4f APPENDIXES, (4U) APPENDIX A, \E 3 c* p ^ <=^ "^ H < t? C W **J tdM o < M. o«» H- o a P » 3 3 3- S Q O M ¥ Diagram used in Making Hallway Time Tables. (413) APPENDIX B. FOKMS OF TRAIX ORDERS. FORM A.— FEXIXG MEETING PODTT FOB OPPOSING TRAINS. and will meet at . EXAMPLES. No. 1 and No. 2 will meet at Bombay. No. 3 and 2d No. 4 will meet at Siam: No. 5 and Extra 95 will meet at Hong Kong. Extra 652 North and Extra 231 South will meet at Yokohama. Trains receiving this order will, with respect to each other, nm to the desi^atecl point, and having arrived there will pass in the manner provided by the rales. FORM B. — AUTHORIZING A TRAIN TO RUN AHEAD OF OR PASS ANOTHER TRAIN RUNNING IN THE SAME DIRECTION. (1.) will pass at . (2.) will run ahead of , from to . EXAMPLES. (1.)— iVb. 1 will pass No. 3 at Khartoum. (2.) — No. 4 will run ahead of No. 6 from Bengal to Madras. When under this order a train is to pass another, both trains will run according to rule to the designated point and there ar- range for the rear train to i)ass promptly. FORM C. — GIVING A TRAIN OF INFERIOR RIGHT THE RIGHT OF TRACK AGAINST AN OPPOSING TRAIN OF SUPERIOR RIGHT. [NOTK. — ^This form of order most not be used when Form A can be nsed.] has right of track against to . EXAMPLES. (1.) — No. 2 has right of track against No. 1 Mecca to Mirbat. (2.) — Extra 37 has right of track against No. 3 Natal to Batlam. [NoTK.— The terms • superior right " and " inferior right," here and else- where in these rules, refer to the rights of trains under the time table and train roles, and not to rights under special orders.] (414) APPENDIX B. 415 This order gives a train of inferior right the right of track against one of superior right, to a designated point. If the trains meet at the designated point, the train of in- ferior right must take the siding, unless the rules or orders otherwise indicate. Under this order, as illustrated by example (1), if the train of superior riglit reaches the designated point before the other arrives it may proceed, provided it keeps clear of the schedule time of the train of inferior right as many minutes as the in- ferior train was before required by the train rules to keep clear of the superior train. If the train of superior right, before meeting, reaches a point beyond that named in the order, the conductor must stop the other train where it is met and inform it of his arrival. Under example (2) the train of superior right can not go be- yond the designated point until the extra train arrives. When the train of inferior right has reached the designated point, the order is fulfilled, and the train must then be governed by time table and train rules or further orders. The following modification of this form of order will be ap- plicable for giving a work train the right of track over all other trains, in case of a wreck or break in the track. EXAMPLE. Work Train Extra 275 has right of track over all trains be- tween Stockholm and Edinburgh from 7 P. M. . This gives the work train the exclusive right of the track be- tween the points designated. FORM D.— GIVING ALL REGULAR TRAINS THE RIGHT OF TRACK OVER A GIVEN TRAIN. All regular trains have right of track against between and . EXAMPLE. All regular trains have right of track against No. 1 between Moscow and Berlin. This order gives to any regular train of inferior right re- ceiving it the right of track over the train named in the order, and the latter must clear the schedule times of all regular trains, the same as if it were an extra. FORM E.— TIME ORDERS. [Note.— This form of order must not be used when Form A can be used.] (1.) will run late from to . (2.) will wait at until for . 416 APPEXDIX B. EXAMPLES. (1.) No\ 1 will rwa 20 min, late from Joppa to Maim. (2.) No. 1 will wait at Muscat taUil 16 a. m.for No. 2. Form (1 ) makes the schedule time of the train named, between the points mentioned, as much later as Uie time stat^ in the order, and any other train receiving the order is required to run with respect to this later time, the same as before required to run with respect to the regular schedule time. The time in the order should be such as can be easily added to the schedule time. Under form (2) the train of superior right must not pass the designated point before the time given, unless the other train has arrived. The train of inferior right is required to run with respect to the time specified, the same as before required to run with respect to the regular schedule time of the train of superior right. FOBM F.— FOR SECTIOXS OF REGULAR TRAINS. will carry signals to for . EXAMPLES. No. 1 will carry sigrials Astrakhan to Cabnl for Eng. 85. Second No. 1 will carry signals London to Dover for Eng. 90. This may be modified as f oUows : Engines 70, 85 and 90 will run as 1st, 2d and 3d sections of No. 1 London to Dover, For annulling a section : Eng. 85 is annulled as second section of No. 1 from Dover. If there are other sections foUowing add: Following sections will change numbers accordingbf. The character of train for which signals are carried may be stated. Each section aflfected by the order must have copies, and must arrange signals accordingly. FORM G.— FOR ARRANGING A SCHEDULE FOR A SPECIAL TRADT. CI.) Eng. will run as a special train, leaving on on the following schedule, and will have the right of track over all trains : Leave . Arrive . EXAMPLE. (1.) Eng. 77 will run as special passenger train^ leaving Tkrin on Thursday. Feb. UtK on the following schedule, md will have the right of trade over all trains: Leave Turin 11:30 P. M. Pekin 12:25 A. M. Canton 1:47 A.M. Arrive Borne 2:22 A. M. APPENDIX B. ill Example (1) may be varied by specifying particular trains over which the special shall or shall not have right of track, and any train over which the special train is thus given the right of track must clear its time as many minutes as such train is required to clear the schedule time of a first class train. (2.) Eng. will run as special train, leaving on with the rights of a class train, , on the follow- ing schedule, which is a supplement to time table No. . Leave . Arrive . EXAMPLE. (2.) Eng. 75 will run as special passenger train, leaving Geneva, Thursday., Feb. 17tK with the rights of a first class train east, on the following schedule, which is a supplement to time table No. 10: Leave Geneva 10 A. M. Pekin 10:30 A. M., passing No. 12. Canton 11 A. M., meeting No. 7. Arrive Athens 11:30 A. M. Example (2) creates a regular train and the specified meeting and passing points are to be regarded as if designated in the same manner as on the time table. Such trains wiU be governed by all rules which afl'ect regular trains. FORM H.— EXTRA TRAINS. will run extra from to . EXAMPLE. (a.) Eng. 99 will run extra from Berber to Gaza. A train receiving an order to run extra is not required to guard against opposing extras, unless directed by order to do so, but must keep clear of all regular trains as required by rule. A "work train" is an extra, for which the above form will be used for a direct run in one direction. The authority to occupy a specified portion of the track, as an extra while working, will be given in the following form : (6.) Eng. 292 will work as an extra from 7 A. M. until 6 P. M. between Berne and Turin. The working limits should be as short as practicable, to l)e changed as the progress of the work may require. The above may be combined thus : (c.) Eng. 292 will run extra from Berne to Turin and work as an extra from 7 A. M. until 6 P. M. between Turin and Rome. When an order has been given to '"work" between designated points, no other extra must be authorized to run over that part of the track without provision for passing the work train. When it is anticipated that a work train may be where it can not be reached for meeting or passing orders, it may be directed 27 418 APPENDIX B. to report for orders at a given time and place, or an order may be given that it shall clear the track for a designated extra, in the following form : (d) Work train 292 will keep clear of extra 223, south, be- tween Antwerp and Brussels after 2:10 P. M. In this case, extra 223 must not pass either of the points named before 2 :10 p. m., at which time the work train must be out of the w^ay between those points. When the movement of an extra train over the working lim- its can not be anticipated by these or other orders to the work train an order must be given to such extra, to protect itself against the work train, in the following form : (e.) Extra 76 imll protect itself against work train extra 95 be- tween Lyons and Paris. This may be added to the order to run extra. A work train when met or overtaken by an extra must allow it to pass without unnecessary detention. \Yhen the conditions are such that it may be considered desir- able to require that work trains shall at all times protect them- selves while on working limits, this may be done under the fol- lowing arrangements. To example {b) add the following words: (/.) protecting itself against all trains. A train receiving this order must, whether standing or mov- ing, protect itself within the working limits (and in both direc- tions on single track) against all trains, in the manner provided by rule. When an extra receives orders to run over working limits it must be advised that the work train is within these limits by adding to example {a) the words; (gr.) Eng. 292 is working as an extra between Berne and Turin. A train receiving this order must run expecting to find the work train within the limits named. [Note. — The committee have recommended two forms of orders for work train extras, leaving it discretionary with the roads to adopt one or both of the forms, according to the circumstances of the traffic on the diflFerent roads or different divisions of the same road.l FORM J.— HOLDING ORDERS. Hold . EXAMPLES. (2.) Hold JVo. 2. (2.) Hold all trains east. As any order for which "OK" has been given and acknowl- edged operates as a holding order for the train to which it is addressed, this form will only be used in special cases, to hold trains until orders can be given or for some other emergency. The reason for holding may be added, as " for orders." APPENDIX B. 419 This order is not to be used for holding a train, while orders are given to other trains against it, which are not at the same time given to it in duplicate. It must be respected by conduct- ors and enginemen of trains thereby directed to be held as if addressed to them. Conductors when informed of the order must sign for it, and their signatures must be sent and " com- plete" obtained. When a train has been so held it must not go until the order to hold is annulled, or an order is given in the form: " limy go" This must be addressed to the person or persons to whom the order to hold was addressed, and must be delivered in the same manner. FORM K.— ANNULLING A SCHEDULE TRAIN. of is annulled. EXAMPLES. (i.) No. 1 of Feb. 29th is annulled. (2.) No. 3 due to leave Naples Saturday., Feb. 29th, is annulled. Adding ''/rowi Alaska,'''' or ''''between Alaska and Halifax,'''' when appropriate. This order takes away all rights of the train annulled and authorizes any train or person receiving it to use the track as if the train annulled were not on the time table. If a train is annulled to a point named, its rights beyond that point remain unaftected. The train dispatcher may direct any operator to omit repeat- ing back an order annulling a train, until he has occasion to deliver it. When a train has been annulled it must not be again restored under its original number by special order. FORM L.~ANNULLING OR SUPERSEDING AN ORDER. Order No. is annulled. This will be numbered, transmitted and signed for as other orders. If an order which is to be annulled has not been delivered to a train, the annulling order will be addressed to the operator, who will destroy all copies of the order annulled but his own, and write on that : Annulled by order No. . An order superseding another may be given, adding "Mi's supersedes order No. ," or adding "instead of ." 420 APPENDIX B. EXLOTPLE. No. 1 and No. 2 will meet at Sparta, instead of at TTiebes. An order which inchides more than one specified movement must not be superseded. An order that has been annulled or superseded must not be again restored by special order under its original number. In the address of an order annulling or superseding another order, the train first named must be that to which rights were given by the order annulled or superseded, and when the order is not transmitted simultaneously to all concerned, it must be sent to the point at which that train is to receive it and the re- quired response first given, before the order is sent for other trains. ^BRfORATlO UHfc LONDON AND PARIS RAIT, WAY COMPANY. TELECRAPHrC TRAIN ORDER No. . Superintendent 8 Offce, —- - 188^ ACj\ For — to- «^.. of 19 •PCOnCATJOMS FOR TRAIM ORDER FOR* AND BOOKS FOR OPERATORS. Form as here shown. BIsnIc space for order («• Incites wlih no nneai. The mode of ftUina t)»* blanks i» Indicated by smiUI type. Names of Divisions and office to be vartad>o •ult each Division. Form. inches betow parfonted lln» Book (6M X III inches. <300> leaves. Stitched. Bound at top. Paper* wKmr on Ittem and top. Very, stiff bade on k>wer '•Me. Paper opwiue. green, slxetf.antf^of suoh tNfek- nes» as to admit of making i7» good, copies »rttl». LINK. AIL ORD e. LONDON AND PARIS R TELEGRAPHIC TRAIN Superintendent's Offic WAY COMPAQ ER No ^Y. 3j; For _ to <.. 0/ 31 •PtCinCATIOkS FOR TRAIM OROtR FORM AND BOOICS FOR OPERATORS. Form as here shown. Blank space for order (41 Inches with no lines. 1 ha mode of filling th* blanks Is Indicated by small typo Names of Divisions and office to be varied to •ult each Division. 1 Form. (6« x lOi Inches below perforated tin*. Book ack on lower •Ide. Paper opaque, white, sized, and of such thick- ness as to admit of making (7) «ood copies with (No. 4 Faber pencil.) To be used with Carbon Papw.(eM)MO) Inohea. and a etlff tin. aame size, oomere rounded. CONDUCTOR AND ENGINEMAN MUST EACH HAVE A COPY OP THIS ORDER. Time received . « . JIf. o . given at • « » M. ooin)«7cio» xmanatAM TXAn xAsa AX aacaivD) bt ,__ a~« „ Oantm %m , ^ ( Omit thi» Endneman (•not rMiulred to ..^. ) 422 APPENBTX B. APPENDIX C. HAND AND LAIVEP SIGNALS. " Go Ahead." " Stop." (A motion up and down.) ( A motion crosswise with the track.) " Back Up." ( A motion in a vertical circle.) "Train Parted." (A motion in a vertirnl circle at arm's lengtli across the track, priven continuously until answered by the engiucniau.) (423) appe:n^dix d SOME AMERICAN AND ENGLISH RAILWAY SYNONYMS. American. Ticket Office. Station agent. Baggage room. Car. Baggage car. Mail car. Conductor. Engineer. Fireman. Freight car. Section foreman. Sectionmen. English. Booking office. Station clerk. Cloak room. Carriage. Lnggage van. Post van. Guard. Driver. Stoker. Croods van. Ganger. Plate layers. 1^4) INDEX. Abbreviations, Use of —in Telegraphic Orders 350, 351 Absolute Block System 247, 248 Accidents 155, 169, 181, 327 " Assistance at 343 Caused by Color Blindness 218, 219 " Causes of 171 " Due to Defective Equipment 99 " Enactments of Different Countries Relating to. . . 190 " Inevitableness of 258 " Inexplicable 225 *' Judicial Notice of 173 " Relation of Discipline to 172 " "" Speed to 171 " Remissness of Laws Relating to 174 Reporting 324, 342 to Employes 168 Acknowledgment by Author 9 Aden, Carriage in — Illustration 109 Africa, Carriage in — Illustrations 59, 264 " South — Carriage in — Illustration 177 African Carrier — Illustration 202 Agents, Directions to — in Reference to Switclies 384 " Trains and Cars 385 Station— Use of Signals by 308 Ahead of Time, Meaning of Term 278 Air, Resistance of 135, 136, 137 Amenophis III 27 America, Speed of Trains in 144 American Railway Association 96, 279, 299 Amyntas 22 Ancient Battle Wagon— Illustration 38 Ancients, Carriage xVmong 11, 12 Andalusia, Carriage in — Illustration 215 Appendix A — Diagram Used in flaking Time Tables 413 "■ B — Forms of Train Orders 414 ** C — Hand and Lamp ^\^i\^\^— Illustrations 423 '* *D — Some American and English Railway Syn- onyms 424 (425) 426 IIWEX. PAGE Appliances, Automatic — ^Future Effect of 155 " Connected with Movement of Trains 135 " Improvement in — Effect of 58 " N^ew — Effect of — on Conductors 89 Safety— Adoption of 185, 186, 187, 190 —in England 175, 176 " ** —Government Interference with. 191, 193, 194 ** " — Interest of Railways in 156 " —Power of State to Enforce 191 ** " — Requirements of 168 Signal 221 Arabia, Carriage in — Illustration 199 " Carrier of— Illustration 102 Argonauts, The 19 Arms, Use of — for Signals 232 Asia, Central — Carriage in — Illustration 191 Ass, Ancient — Use of —as Carrier 27 Asshurbanipal 21 Assyria, Ancient — Carriage in— Illustration 34 Astigmatism 197 Athenoeus 30 Atmosphere, Resistance of — to Trains 136, 137 Audible Signals, Desirability of 242 Automatic Appliances, Future Effect of 155 "" Safety Switchstand — Illustration 316 Signal, A. D. ISQ^— Illustration 333 Badges. Wearing 300 Baggagemen. Duties and Responsibilities of 373 Baker, Geo. H 75 Barclay, Dr. Robert 51 Beckm'an .,^.... . .^.^. 25 Beginners, Value of Rules to 264 Behind Time, Meaning of Term. 278 Bell. Engine— Use of 238, 314, 315 Bicvcle Carriage — Illustration 245 Blasts. Whistle 311, 312 Blinkers. Xot Used in Ancient Times 28 Block Svstem 159, 161, 162, 169, 247 " Cost of— to English Railwavs 194, 195 " Effect of— on English Traffic 194 " English 392 ** " English Rules Governing the 404 "" Meaning of Term 278 Blodgett,G.W 240 Blue, Objection to, for Kight Signal 231 ** Signification of. 308 Boats, Different Classes of— Egvptian .29, 30 " Early Use of 1 29 Booking Office, Explanation of Term ; . . 277 INDEX. 427 PAGB Books, The Author's 37 Boxes, Hot 146 Boyuton's Voyage on the Thames — Illustration 293 Brahma 14 Brakeman, The 91, 1G9 Brake, Meaning of Term 278 Brakemen, Freight — Rules Governing 373 " General Instructions to 370 ** Passenger — Rules Governing 372 " Use of Signals by 308 Brakes 147, 148, 149, 150, 327 " Automatic 158 " Management of 370 " Working Automatic 376 Brazilian Carriers — Illustration 78 Breakdown Van Train, Definition of 291 Bridge Guard — Illustration 314 Bridges, Precautions Against Fire on 378 Bronze, Use of, in Ancient Times 23 Brunei 68 Buenos Ayres, Carriage in — Illustration 142 Buildings, Precautions Against Fire in 378 Bulgarian Form of Carriage — Illustration 229 Burmah, Carriage in — Illustration 124 Cabins, Ancient 31 Canary Islands, Carriers of — Illustration 83 Candle, Lighted, The First Signal 222 Carriage, A. D. 1860, Steam Road — Illustration 400 " Ancient Forms of 11 " Evolution of 13 " Form of, in India — Illustration 239 " Form of, in Madras — Illustration 236 " in Aden — Ilhistration 109 " in Africa — Illustrations 59, 264 " in Ancient Assyria — Illustration 34 " in Ancient Bgypt— Illustrations 18, 24, 31 " in Ancient Venice —Illustration 260 " in Andalusia — Illustration 215 " in Arabia — Illustration 199 " in Buenos A jres— Illustration 142 in Bulgaria — Illustration 229 " in Burmah — Illustration 124 " in Cashgar — Illustration 151 " in Caucasia — Illustration 117 " in Central Asia — Illustration 191 " in Chinese Turkestan — Illustration 211 " in Egypt— 27^Msfra«ion 196 " in England, 16th Century — Illustration 40 in England, A. D. l^m—hlustration 180 " in Gwalior — Illustration 185 438 mDEX. Carriage in Indift—illMsfrafftms 86,106,130,196,134^189, ^6 * in Ireland— /HiisiraftiMi 188 '^ inJamaica — Hhairatiom 63 «* in Japan— iHMstratioiu 266, 271 * in Jersey— illHstration 173 * in KMT*—IUMstraium 112 * in Lapland— illKslrafiom ^0 ** in Madeira: — lUmsinaSmM 145 '^ in Mesopotamia — IBmstratiom 218 inVaks^doR—HhiMnaiom 267 * VkBe^ixt—mMstratiom IM ** in fioi^a— lll««fra«£»i» 166, 226 in S1L F^eisbnig— ilbisCrafMm 160 "^ in ScandinaTia, 90i Centnrv- iIlK«lrrifi'»it ^!7 •* in Soath Africa— ilb»frfil»9« 177 ** In S>paht—iaMstniaif GER BUSINESS. 5. FREIGHT BUSINESS. 6. BAGGAGE, EXPRESS AXD MAIL- BUSINESS. 7. ECONOMICAL PURCHASE. CARE AND USE OF MATERIAU- 8. ECONOMY OF RATES. PRIVATE W€r»MS GOVERNMENT CONTROL. 9. FISCAL AFFAIRS. DISBURSEMENTS. 10. FISCAL AFFAIRS. COLLEcmON OF REVENUE, AND THE PRINCIPLES GOVERNING IT. 11. GENERAL FISCAL AFFAIRS. 12. FISCAL DL^IES OF AGENTS AND CONDUCTORS. GENERAL INDEX. 5«ld Mriy in Sets. Price of Twelve Vohiacs, S30.M. The World Railway Publishing Company, 353 Ti» 357 Deabbok3( STB£Ear. CHICAGO, ILL 44 SUPPLEMENT TO The Science of Railways." To Subscribers to " The Science of Railways " ; The Publishers have the honor to send you herewith the accompanying Supplement to Volume III of "The Science of Railways/' subscribed for by you. This supplement forms a part of the edition of the work now in press. Much of the matter is new and all of it is exceed- ingly interesting. The demand for " The Science OF Railways " demonstrates that the ranks of the railroad service in America contain a large pro- portion of studious and ambitious men desirous of availing themselves of every opportunity to master the details of their great profession. To such the Publishers believe the accompany- ing Supplement will be of special interest, and they beg that subscribers will accept it with their respectful compliments. C. G. PHILLIPS, President, The World Railway Publishing Company, Chicago, Ills. ' Copyrighted by Thk World Railway Publishing Co., New York and Chicago. 1896. All rights reserved. 148 SCIENCE OF BAIL WATS: CAR BRAKE— BVOLmOX OP THE BRAKE. One d-tbe most important deTices in eoniwcfcild wh»i the iMtake is no longra- needed. It is also highly desirable that it should be dur- able and reasonably economical as regards features, like Early Lever Brake. England, 16301. 966 of a brake in to its origin and evolution is interesting, it was exceedingly simple in the first in- stance. Its discovery grew out of the need for it. So far as we know, the lever l»ake, manipulated by tiie hand or foot, was the first formal device of this nature. Applied originally to road wagMK, it was af to- wards found equally adaptable to Ute xe- hicles of railroads^ Another almost equally simple form of brake was that used at New Castle^n-Tyne in the sevoiteenth cen- tury. However, there have been many forms of primitive brake quite as archaic as either of these. Some of them are illustrated herewith. last others and deaiiable in connec- tieed can be stopped quickly without undue strain on the machinery or wear and tear on the track. Formerly they were compelled to slow up gradually, thus losing The "Le Caan" Brake, England, 1796. A Primitiye Device, known as the "Sprag" Brake.- 160 SCIEH'CE OF BAIL WATS; much time and. in manj DOW Jhappilj free from. The< ntion of the imHwsy btake^ that laOwajsarc IMitiaU J fflnstiated, is J Hb ptoftesain the cpeor tkm u£ lailToarta at leaat has leacfaed a of great otH^Ii- as w^ as of Bdency. llie sum total of nulvay machinoy at the tame the llist laaboad was opened, from Liver- po(d to MandieBla; in 1839, was not greabs; probablj, than thema- dun»7 of the lya te at Oie present day. The sdentifie f eatnres of thefixstloeoinoCtTe wNe exceedingly simple, while the ma- chineiy - 16^ lectin its woiking and omitnd O^V>- _ txain, with crrtinderB foramiifing the tame beneath the ally Bopi^ied the iHess- ure. A aexiDas obgec- __^ tion to tte hjdianlie ^^:' brake is the sosenid- bililyof the liquid to theeidd. This is an objection also to omted t^the steam freeses and ~ IneoU the aimBea tion of power Iqreloggins nake moe or bj obsfcnictinK the appa- ratus itadC. In addi- tion to this fatal objec- tion, steam is also ob- jeetifMiable f<»^ ii8er takes air from entire train j^pe and the Tarious dm- ^and indoins sets the brakes throui^hont ttie train. Ab air is re-adndtted to tiie idpes the brakes are released.* Tanous farms of the Tacuum brake hem iuTttited. brake enjoys faror beeanse of ;ais true r'requMit. oneteivated mads, wliexe tiie 1 Tfte w ee uum brakehasi flius it may be opnated BO as to (mly paitiallj rdi. ftequent and rapid ai^dication of Oie brake does not r Die braking power. Whoi long and heaTT trains are usee ^om brakes do not fully meet the demands of the serrice. This it pilscipauy owing •Sufficient air is taken out to produce the result desired. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 160c to the necessity of having abnormally large apparatus (pistons, levers, etc.) in order to get sufficient resisting power upon the wheels, and also because it is in such cases slow to act. The first form of air brake successfully used was what is technically known as the straight air brake.* The compressed air that was usjd was stored in a reservoir under the engine. In order to set the brake the engineer's valve was so turned as to allow air to go back through the pipe and fill the cylinders under the car, forcing out the pistons, thus bringing the brake shoes against the wheels. To release the brakes, the supply of air from the drum was cutoff and the air in the pipe and cylinders allowed to escape through ingenious devices into the atmosphere. Diaphragm of Vacuum Brake. The diaphragm (semi-oval device 8ho^w■u above) consists of a kettle shaped iron casting -with a loose disc of heavy rubbered duck fastened over its mouth (where the two half sections come together in the center) bv means of a ring and cap- screw^s; the center of the disc, or diaphragm, being provided with washers and an eye-bolt for attachment to the brake lever. WTien the air IS exhausted from the diaphragm, the pressure of the atmosphere from without forces the rubber disc into the iron shell emd thvis sets the brakes. The first successful inventor of an airbrake is said to have been George Westinghouse, Jr. This was in 1869. Although an improvement over the con- tinuous chain brake and other inventions of early days, it was still too slow in releasing, as all the air in the pipe and cylinders had to escape through the engine valve, and the longer the train the slower its operation. Another fault was if a hose or pipe burst, the brake was rendered useless. Moreover, if a train became parted, the brake had no eflfect whatever ujx)n the rear section. These objections rendered it apparent that a wholly satisfactory brake required that the force Cair) for applying it should be stored on each car, and so arranged that it could be used (i. e., the brake set) by those in the car inde- pendent of the engineer. Also that it should be automatic in its action (i. c, that any breakage or defect of the apparatus would set the brake). The most primitive conception of this idea was a design in which the operative force was a spring, so arranged as to be held under compression by the air in the pipe, and brought into action when the air escaped. The first necessity this involved was a reservoir auxiliary to the engine for storing the power on the cars; the next was to provide a way by which the stored pressure in the ♦The air brake must not be confounded with the old fashioned steam brake. In the latter case steam was forced through the pipes and used as the power, while in the case of airbrakes air is used, steam being employed merely to furnish the power for handling the air. 1 50d science of bail WA YS; reservoir might be automatically admitted to the brake cylinder whenever the pressure in the train pipe escaped. These improvements were covered by a patent issued by Mr. Westinghouse in 1872. Thedevice employed is known as the "triple valve." Like nearly all inven- tions of a mechanical nature, the first design was incomplete and passed through several stages before reaching a point where it was of simple and practical use. The valve in question (which is of a complicated nature) is located in conjunction with the auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder beneath the car. Upon the reduction of the pressure in the train pipe (through which the compressed air is supplied the auxiliary reservoir from the engine) this valve allows the compressed air in the auxiliary reservoir to pass into the brake cylinder, thus applying the brakes. Upon the pressure in the train pipe being restored the valve allows the air in the brake cylinder to escape to the atmosphere, thus releasing the brake, and opens the p>orts for the passage of air from the train pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, recharging the latter. The perfection of the hose coupling between the cars also plays an important part in the development of the stored air brake. Men have tried and are still trying to perfect a satisfactory automatic coupler. An air pump was patented by Westinghouse in 1870. An objec- tion to it was its complicated valve motion. One diflB- Hose coupling between the cars, through which the air cully was in keep- jmsses in order to operate the brakes on the cars. ing ' the square piston rod prop- erly packed in order to prevent friction and wear. Many of the changes m devices had relation to the reversing valve mechanism, but up to the year 1875 no satisfactory result had been accomplished. First a horizontal rotary valve was used, then a double poppet valve, then a vertical rotary valve, and finally a simple slide valve, the latter jtroving by far the most effective. Many of the objects sought as necessary iu a satisfactory pump were finally covered by Mr. Westinghouse in his device of 1875. After the introduction of the automatic brake it was discovered that to secure satisfactory results some plan for maintaining a uniform pressure of air without attention from the engineer was needed. The outgrowth of this was the pump governor, which automatically closes the steam pipe leading to the pump when the desired maximum air pressure is attained, opening it again when the pressure has been reduced. Thus we see, in connection with the brake, every requirement met as it arises by man's subtle ingenuity. The first form of engineer's brake valve used in connection with an air brake was composed of three openings, controlled by a conical shaped rotary plug. The general principle by which this valve worked was retained in the engineer's valve of later designs. The engineer's valve, manipulated by the engineer, opens commnnication between the main reservoir and the train pipe, closing the connection and opening the pipe to the atmosphere when the brakes are applied. The equalizing discharge feature of this valve is a device brought out prominently in 1886, being made necessary by the application of automatic brakes to long trains of cars. This device automatically regulates the discharge of the air from the train pipe in setting the brakes, and also gradually closes the exhaust openings, thereby equalizing the pressure remain- ing in the train pipe, thus overcoming the difficulty experienced with the earliest forms of valves arising from the sudden opening and closing of the exhaust openings, which produced a violent recoil of the air in the train pipe, thus releasing some of the brakes on the forward cars.* An important feature in connection with the subject of brakes is what is known as the quick action brake. While the so-called plain automatic brake is sufficient on short trains, it does not answer the purpose on freight or other long trains. The head brakes being set some time before those in the rear are *Mr. Paul Synnestvedt has written a very interesting brochure on the "Evolution of the Air Brake," which I have read with pleasure and instruction. OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 160k 160f science of RAILWAYS; affected, a severe shock occurs to the rear of the train. The first remedy for this was a device with a local vent for quickening the discharge from the long pipe. The "automatic relief valve" and the "cut off and relief valve" are other inventions designed to hasten the application (effective force) of the brake. Many valuable improvements and new forms of quick action brakes have been invented from time to time. One of the most ingenious, carefully constructed and effective of these is referred to in Appendix E of this volume. By reference to this the relation of the brake to the locomotive, tender and cars, both freight and passenger, may be studied more intelligently and effect- ively from the diagrams that are given than would be possible in a description aside from such illustrations. An important consideration, it may be said, in connection with the brake IB that part of the apparatus commonly called the shoe, or device that is applied directly to the wheel, and against which the friction is produced that retards the latter. It is manifest that the tenacity of the shoe depends not only on the force with which it is applied, but also upon the kind and quality of the material of which it is made. Another thing of great importance iii connection with the shoe is the durability of the material used. The power with which this apparatus is applied and the tremendous friction consequent thereon must, it is apparent, quickly destroy the device unless the material is of the most durable character. One of the devices in the early history of the brake, by which it was made more effective, was to cover that portion of it which touched the wheel— the sole, in fact— with several thicknesses of strong leather. This material may be said to have been used generally before the days of railroads. With the latter highways came heavier loads, moving at a higher speed. This required more effective application of the brakes. The heat resultant from this required not only that the shoe should be of metal but also the parts connected therewith. Many different kinds of material have been used in connection with the brake shoe, according to the needs of the service and the skill of manufact- urers. In the case of railroads the brake shoe is usually made of east or wrought iron; sometimes of cast steel, or combinations of iron and steel, wood, leather, even paper. It is very desirable, in order to secure proper application, that the material, whatever it is, should be uniform. An expert on the subject of brake shoes for railroads, a man of high intelligence and a successful manufacturer, writing on this subject, says: "The same air pressure throughout a train of cars on which shoes of different hard- ness are used, will apply a widely different friction on the wheels of the different cars. It is then impossible to obtain the maximum braking power for hard shoes without sliding those wheels to which soft shoes are applied. It is desirable to fix upon a standard mixture for foundrymen making cast iron brake shoes. Brake shoes are made for three kinds of service: on chilled wheels, on steel tired driver wheels, and on steel tired coach wheels. Those designed for the first mentioned service are made of cast iron, or cast iron with wrought iron pieces in the face, or cast iron with ehUled sections. . . . When cast iron is used a strong, tough metal soft enough to grip the wheels is economical, although its first cost is greater than a burnt grate bar scrap mixture. A mixture of number two foundry car wheels and heavy cast scrap has given good results. The combination cast and wrought iron shoe is much more durable than the plain shoe, and more desirable in respect to uniformity, because the same amount of wrought iron, forming one-half the surface of each shoe, will be nearly of the same hardness. . . . When two surfaces rub together the harder will abrade the softer and the latter wear away quicker, but we are limited in the hardness of the shoes by the co-efficient of friction necessary. They must be of a uniform hardness, sufficient to grip the tire with- out scoring it, and afford friction necessary to make the stops. It is evident that for the different classes of engines different kinds of shoes will be re- quired. The suburban passenger engine^ making frequent stops, should be equipped with shoes less hard than applied on a through passenger engine. The combination cast iron and steel shoe has the advantage that the propor- OPEBATION OF TBAINS. 150o tion of each metal may be varied to suit tlie requirements of the service. Brake €hoes for steel tired coach wheels are applied under entirely different condi- tions. They are made either plain or flanged. The plain cast shoe should be -soft and tough. Whatever kind of metal is used in the flange coach shoe, «are should be taken that the shoe is a good fit to the tire, and so hung that the flange grooves in the shoes are directly opposite to the wheel flange, and above all that the brake beam be free to move later- ally as the wheel and axle move. Experiments have proved that a brake beam hung rigidly from the truck, in combination with the flange brake shoes, forms a grinding machine capable of turning a V-shaped flange, and that even with the plain shoe, lateral motion is of decided ad- vantage in protecting the flange." In connection with the use of the brake shoe, it may be said that its application to the flange of the wheel was not discovered until long after it had been ap- plied to tne tread. This applica- tion was a new departure and a valuable one in many directions, as it added, it is manifest, greatly to the power of the brake. Its importance ^vill grow with In- creased use and ability to handle it. The application of the flanged brake shoe to the drivers of loco- motives is general. This because the flanged brake shoe tends to keep both tread and flange in the original form and by reason of the additional grip over the flange. One objection that has beertmade to the use of the flanged brake shoe on cars is that its use in connection with the tread creates a pressure so great that the wheel is inclined to slip. This, it is apparent, is not so much an objection to the brake as a lack of proper adjustment of the power that manipulates it. It is claimed by manufacturers of flanged brake shoes that where the device is not used the tread wears away, while the flange of the wheel remains the same, thus creating a dangerous (disparity.* Illustration of the Brake Shoe and its application to the driver. CAR WHEELS— EVOLUTION OF THE WHEEL. In what I have to say in regard to car wheels, I shall not seek to exhaust the subject. The particulars of their construction and the details of their application are all the time undergoing change ; that which represents the highest degree of excellence to-day may be obsolete or greatly modified to-morrow. What I have to say, therefore, is in the order of seauence merely: explaining what has b6en done without seeking to point out what yet may be accomplished. And as men are better able to understand what they see by knowing what others have seen, I shall trace briefiy the evolution of the wheel. To know the origin and histon' of a thing is to make us in sympathy with it, and more likely to comprehend its peculiarities than if we know it only in its perfected state. This is the excuse I have to make for the habit I oftentimes ♦Further reference to the brake shoe will be found elsewhere, under the iiead of " Car Wheels—Evolution of the Wheel." ISQa SCIENCE OF BAIL WA Y8; indulge in of sketching a subject from the beginning: getting its prospectus, so to speak. But I do not seek so much to go to the very root of the thing as to excite interest in it This is the more necessary in the case of subjects that belong to the commonplace. Thus, the wheel of a vehicle, whether of a rail- way car or a wagon, is a very commonplace thing. But when we trace its history, follow in our minds the ages of evolution it represents and the struggles of men through all their history to perfect it we find the subject is not so dull nor commonplace as we at first thought Syctalffi of the Time of Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. The wheel, above all other things, is the key to the vehicle and. therefore, next to power, the central idea of the art of carriage. In tracing its evolution for the last five thousand years we discover that from its' first conception its dev^opment has kept pace with the needs of men and the highways they have con- structed upon which to use it. 1 ^ The excellence of the highways of a country, it may be said, de- pends upon' its settled and peace- able condition : upon the need of roads, in fact Improved vehicles follow good highways, never pre- cede them. The axle and wheel of the ancient Grecian syctaJse represents, it is prob- able, the first conception of man. Thus, there can be no doubt but what tiie wheel and axle of the first cart that was ever constructed were one and revolved together. Aftei^ ward, as time passed, the axle was cut down more and more so as to leave the surface of the wheel as narrow as possible in order to reduce the friction. This form of wheel and axle, amplified in detail, is still to be found in use in out of the way placesonthe frontier of new oonntries and in the forests and mines of the world where great btirdens are to be borne for short distances. It was, however, for many ages the only device known. The Aryans, as we learn from philological sources, had acquired the art of separating the wheel from the axle before they were scattered, many centuries before the historic period. For a long time after the wheel and axle were made a part, the wheel itself was nothing more than a solid piece of wood with a hole in the center throngn which the axle, or hub, protruded. But this represented a great advance, a far reaching step. Later, but sdll in primitive times, as much diversity existed in the construction of wheels as in the present period . Progress in our day seems to be centered In the wheels of cars and locomotives. In other fields, while there are widely different degrees of elegance and strength, new methods of construction are scarcely noticeable. We have the same hub, spoke, felloe and tire as our fathers. But in olden times, when the wheel was in process of incubation, constant evolution A T>-i™,»wo, Tir>.,vn.i ^as the rule. After the wheel and axle had A iTimitive Wheel. ^^^^^ separated, a rude linchpin run tbrou^ the axle outside the wheel held the latter in its place. Then the wheel (up to this time simply a section of a log) was strengthened with a cross bar, then with two, and so on. The First Form of Axle and WheeL OPERATION- OF TRAINS. 15(k It is a curious fact that with the advent of the railway, the highest form of carriage known, the axle and wheel should again be made to revolve in unison, as in the very dawn of intelligence among men, when the axle and wheel were but a solid piece of wood. The ingenius manner in which the bodj- of the railway car is borne on the journals that rest on the axles (outside the wheels) is one of the greatest, as well as most curious, achievements In the science of railways. Upon the first inception of railroads the wheel was, in some instances, made to revolve on the axle exactly as our common road cart does. But so much greater advantages were to be secured by the revolution of the axle and wheels together that the latter plan has, as a matter of fact, superseded the The wheels of the war chariots of the ancients Wheel of an Ancient were at first solid; oftentimes made of bronze. The KomanCart. conception of a division of the wheel, substantially on the lines of to-day, for road carriages and wagons, was a tremendous stride, the work of many centuries. In the beginning the tires, felloes, spokes and hubs were exceed- ingly rude, as shown by the illustrations we have of wheels in ancient times. At first the tire did not consist of metal, but of the tough- ened skins of animals, after- ward of fibrous wood. Later, when mankind had learned to work in metals, bronze, hardened copper and iron were used in con- structing the wheels of char- iots and carts. Ornamentation was a noticeable feature in con- nection with the wheels of the ancients. The earliest form of wheel used by the Assyrians, who were the most progressive In this direction of any of the nations of extreme antiquity, had four spokes; afterward six. Every device was adopted to strengthen the wheel so as to enable it to with- stand the rugged uses to which it was put in battle and in the hunting excur- sions of the king and his nobility. Long before mankind had learned to strengthen the wheel by the free use of metal it was necessarily made very heavy and thick in order to afford the requisite strength. Thus the old driveway from Naples to Pompeii, still visible, indicates that the tread of the wheel even at that comparatively late day (40 B. C), on the relatively good roads of Italy, was three inches wide. A distinctive feature of the wheels of ancient Chinese vehicles, and even those of a later period, Is the heavy felloes. While the evolution of the wheel was slow, it was constant. As men acquired knowledge of vehicles they took great pains in constructing the wheel, upon the strength and proper working of which the security, oftentimes the life, of the occupant of the vehicle depended. In the shock of battle and in the wild retreat that oftentimes -followed the lives of the occupants of the vehicles depended upon the strength of the wheel to withstand the rough usage to which it was put. It was the most important part of the war chariots of the ancients, and on the tombs of old E^'pt we find pictures of skilled workmen of that remote age busily constructing the different parts of the wheel and fitting them together. And, while their work was exceedingly rude, yet the tremendous strain to which the vehicles were put shows that they were strong and durable, and every way adapted to the needs of the times. One of these Ancient Pour Spoked Chariot Wheel of the Egyptians. Assyrian Chariot Wheel, 600 B.C. Ancient Wheel. 150j SCIENCE OF B AIL WAYS; wheels shows a tire of wood, strapped to the rude, yet strong, felloe with bands of leather, the whole securely fastened to the hub by six spokes. The felloe of the wheel in olden times, instead of connecting sharply as to-day, lapped over, the parts being riveted together. Among the ancients the chariot was the great vantage ground of battle. Victory, as a rule, depended upon the number of such vehicles in action, the skill ^vith which they were handled, and the coumge of the occupants. In order to msike them more terrible, long, sharp scythes and knives were attached to the wheels and axle'trees of the chariots. The vehicle thus became not only a point of vant- age but in it- Ancient Egyptian self a destruct- WheeL ive machine of war. Some very interesting discoveries h&ve been made of wheels used in Germany and central Europe in pre- historic times. The more primitive of these seem to have been made lighter by cutting out the interior of the wheel, without materially weak- ening the stru cture. This form is ex- ceedingly primitive, and suggests the inexperience and rude appliances of a far distant age. Another exceedingly interesting discovery of pre-historic times made in the same locality is that of the axle on which thr^ wheels are at- tached. The wheels and the axles were of bronze and revolved together. Exactly how this contrivance was ntilized is somewhat a matter of conjecture. It is probable, however, that the structure formed the support of a war chariot, from which, perhaps, two or even more men may have fought from the bed of the vehicle, on either side of the center wheel. ' Primitive Wheel from Germany. Ancient Bronze Wheeis. OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 160k The illustrations we have of the war chariots of the Assyrians, the great warriors 800 years before the Christian era, show that high skill had been attained in the construction of the wheels of their vehicles. When we re- member that, with the exception of a few great highways, scarcely to be termed thoroughfares, there were no roads whatever, and that the chariot was brought into requisition in traversing the rough country and making the war incursions into the mountain districts, which were of yearly occurrence, we may form some estimate of the strength and durability of the wheel and the vehicle it supported. Amon^ primitive wheels devised on the lines of those in use at present was one discovered in Cyprus. The spokes in this instance, instead of stand- ing at right angles with the hub, projected outward, thus very much weaken- ing their supporting power. Exactly what purpose was served by this form, or whether it represents a certain phase of evolution from the solid wheel to the spoke, it is impossible to tell. The lonely island where this wheel was found, lying fifty miles off the coast of the eastern Mediterranean, represents in its history greater vicissi- tudes of fortune, perhaps, than any other spot on earth. At one moment enriched, the center of a high civilization; at the next, its fortunes wrecked, the prey of one of the savage nations that surrounds it. Thus its fortunes have alternated many times. A few years ago it was dominated by the Mohammedan; to-day it is, for the moment, under the beneficent rule of Great Britain, To-morrow it may be a province of Russia. Who can foretell its future or would wish to share its fortunes? Here many rude appli- ances of earlier ages have been discovered. In the early history of the Assyrian Empire, and before it contem- plated the conquests that at once aggrandized and ruined . It, we have an account of an Assyrian king who, visiting , ^^/u °t i ^ * the Mediterranean (they called it the Sea of the Setting rrom the Island of Sun, because it was to the west and supposed to be the end Cyprus, of the world), made an excursion to Cyprus; afterward the island passed under the dominion of his descendants. In Bulgaria an exceedingly primitive form of wheel is still to be found in use. The felloe, instead of forming a continuous ring, is disconnected, thus constituting a sort of octagon, as shown in the illustration. As it was in this locality that the wheel was first invented, greater advance might have been expected. Under normal conditions this would doubtless have been the case, as the people are highly intel- ligent and progressive. But for all time it has been the battlefield of southeastern Eu- rope and ihe scene of constant strife. Thus little progress has been made. Of all the primitive forms we have this wheel of an- cient Thrace is one of the most interesting and apparently constructed on the least in- telligent principles. Its comparatively un- even surfaces and disconnected sections are elements of weakness, and afford anything but an easy means of conveyance. The spoke, felloe and tire represent the third great stage in the evolution of the wheel. With these i)erfected, we seem to have come to a standstill, but only, doubt- less, to make some further great advance. At present we are seeking to perfect the discoveries that lie back of each of these devices. In the casting of the solid car wheel of to-day the principle that underlies the original discovery is still observed. The car wheel, however, differs much from any wheel ever used on road vehicles ; among other things, by the flanges with which it is kept on the track, and its conical tread fordimiuishing the resistance on curves. The axle bearings are outside of the hubs. This facilitates lubrication of the journals and the 11 Vol. 3. Bulgarian Wheel. 160l SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS, Cast Iron Freight Car Wheel. easy exchange of the bearings as the latter wear out or are rendered no longer fit for use. One reason why the wheel is placed under the body of the car instead of at the side is that the width of the vehicle may not be limited by the gauge of the track. The form of car wheels in use in different countries is not the same, but it has in a measure adapted itself to the weight of the vehicle. But preconceived notions have been a governing force in shaping its form. The wheel in America is heavier than in England ; we load our vehicles much heavier. Great business talent and experience are valuable in the making of car wheels; as much so as in the manufac- ture of any other article. Upon the skill of the manu- facturer depends the quality of the goods. This is shown, not so much in the contour of the wheel (because those made by a hundred different manufacturers are very much the same), but in the constit- uent parts of the wheel; in its ability to withstand wear and tear and breakage; in the property of perpetuitv it possesses, in fact. Car wheels were at first very much like the ordinary wheels of a wagon. They were guided by flanges on the rails instead of flanges on the wheel as at present. The rail had a raised lip on the outside edge; this kept the wheel on the track. Flanges on the wheel were a later device and were first used in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Various kinds of car wheels have been devised; many kinds are in use ; all are ingenious. One form is com- posed of a cast iron center surrounded by a steel tire. It is made by heating the tire to a white heat and pouring the melted iron into the center of it, thus uniting the two metals. These wheels are sometimes made with hub and spokes, sometimes with hub and disk. Wood, paper, oakum and other pliable substances are often placed between the center of a wheel and its rim, Locomotive Tender Wheel — Cast Iron. as a packing to diminish the jar. A common form of wheel is that made of chilled iron. It does not have a separate tire. There are different patterns according to the manufacturer's ingenuity. It is described more fully elsewhere. A wheel made of a' mixture of cast steel and cast iron is claimed by those who manufacture it to have greater strength than other wheels. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 150m Bearing. A cast steel wheel is manufactured somewhat similar to the chilled wheel. It has no tire. This wheel, to use the manufacturer's phrase, may be "turned up" when the tread is worn and thus be made to do further service. Steel tired wheels are similarly treated. Car wheels were formerly keyed on the axle. A later plan is to make the hole in the center of the wheel a little smaller than the axle, into which the latter is thrust under pressure. The keyed wheel will become loose with use; the other will not. The bearings of locomotive wheels, it will be noticed, are on the inside, while those of cars, locomotive tenders, etc., are on the outside.* The severe strain and rough usage to which car wheels are subjected necessitate hardness of tread (that part which comes in contact with the track) as well as great strength otherwise. A material which is claimed to very fully meet these requirements, and yet withal economical, is chilled cast iron. It is claimed that such wheels are more econom- ical than any others. Instances are given where they have traversed a 'distance of two hundred thousand miles with- out being rendered unfit for use. Paper has been used in the manufacture of passenger car wheels with suc- cess. A compressed mass of the substance is placed between the iron hub and steel tire, enclosed between sheet iron disks. The paper is first made into sections about half an inch thick; these are subjected to a heavy pressure and then quickly dried in hot air. The sections are then pasted to- gether until the re- quired thickness is produced. The cast iron chilled car wheel is claimed to be an American dis- covery, and while not universally adopted by other countries for railroads, it has been generally used for street cars. It has con- tributed greatly to the economical operation of American railways. It is claimed that it can be pro- duced cheaper, relatively, than any other wheel, and when worn out the scrap represents a larger per cent, of first cost than that of its competitors. An expert in such matters, and a highly successful manufacturer, thus describes the process of manufacture: "When certain kinds of gray cast iron are melted and poured against a metallic mold, that portion of the iron next to the mold becomes hard, white, crystalline and brittle, while the interior portion remains gray and more <5r less tough and fibrous. This conversion of the iron that comes in contact with the metallic mold into the hard, white variety, is Locomotive Truck Wheel Made of Paper, with Cast Steel Center and Steel Tire. Sectional View of Paper Truck Wheel. ♦ The bearing is the device that rests on the journal; a journal is that part of the axle that projects through (outside) the wheel. The journal box is the covering for the journal and bearing and contains the oil and waste for lubri- cating the journal and bearing. 160n SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; called ' chilling. ' and it is upon this principle that the manufacture of chilled car wheels depends. This property of chilling, which certain irons possess, must have been known to iron founders at au early day, for we have evidence of the fact that parts of plows, faces of forge hammers, punches for punching holes in wagon tires, rolls for rolling metal, and various other implements, were chilled, long before the manufacture of car wheels." Some kinds of iron do not possess the property of chilling. Again other kinds which may be chilled lack qualities which are essential in a car wheel. The early methfwJ of smelting iron ore was with charcoal, and it is probable that chilled castings and chilled car wheels were originally made from charcoal irons exclusively. Under certain conditions coke or anthracite irons have been found to possess the property of chilling, but they do not produce equally good results. Gen- erally speaking, the process of chilling is attained in this way : A mold is formed, the bed of which is of sand, the rim of metal. Into this mold the molten iron is poured. That which comes in contact with the metal is in the process of cool- ing chilled, or hardened, while the other simply coagulates. The center of the wheel is thus left comparatively soft, while the finest tempered file will not affect the tread. It is supposed the chemical effect produced in the latter is that of . changing the free or graphitic carbon to com- ^, f^,"^ , ,^^"^2?^ rprm ot bined carbon in the tread of the wheel, so rapidly Chilled Iron Wheel for Pas- cooled by coming in contact with the metallic senger Cars, mold. A method at one time practiced was to remove the wheel from the mold as soon as the iron was set, and to then cover it up in hot sand or ashes, where Portraying the condition of the wheel after the metal has cooled. The white portion along the upper margin represents the chilled or hardened part of the tread and flange that strikes the rail. it remained several davs until nearly cold. Another plan was to lay the wheel on the floor and build a fire around the tread to bring its temperature up to that of the center of the wheel; the whole was then allowed to cool slowly. The contracting chill is constructed as follows : The ring constituting the chill is divided into ninety-six sections, or blocks, held in position by an out- side hollow retaining ring'which may be expanded or contracted. Before the metal is poured into the mold, steam is turned on through the outer ring, the expansion of which causes an increase in the diameter of the chilling surface. When the manufacturer commences to pour the molten metal, the steam is turned off and in its stead a current of cold water is passed through the ring, the contraction of which decreases the diameter of the chilling surface. OPERATIONS OF TBAINS. I6O0 The gentleman already quoted, and to whom I am greatly indebted, thus describes how the ordinary chilled wheel is made: "The iron first being properly mixed and melted must be delivered to the mold at a proper temper- ature; next, the iron should be so introduced into the mold that the flow of the metal must be uniform and rapid, otherwise irregularities in the formation of the chilled metal will occur which will make a defective and dangerous casting. The sand which forms the other portion of the mold must be moist enough so as not to wash before the molten iron, and yet not too moist, other- wise It will have a chilling effect upon the iron in the plates and hubs, thereby causing them to be hard and creating danger from the weakness which would follow. These and other things have a bearing on the production of a car wheel, and even though all the conditions up to this point have been properly observed, its good qualities are still in a precarious condition and are dependent upon further treatment. Thus the wheel must be removed from the mold or flask before it becomes too cold, and yet not before it is sufficiently cooled. The wheel is then put into the annealing pit, which must be carefully closed, and the wheel allowed to cool.* It generally takes the wheel from four to five days to cool. The cooling is not hastened by artificial means. The necessity of annealing arises from the fact that when the wheel is cast the outer rim or chilled portion (on account of its greater density and hardness) shrinks relatively more than the center (or plates) and is moreover cooler. When the wheel is put into the annealing pit the heat throughout becomes equalized, after which all parts are cooled at the same time. This reduces the possibility of an unequal strain or contraction, which latter would be a fatal defect even if the wheel were of the best pattern and manufactured with the greatest care otherwise. From the foregoing it will be seen that the metal from which the car wheel is made forms but an item, a defect in any item being fatal to all others. When the wheel has passed through the con- ditions described and has emerged from the annealing pit (if not taken out too hot), it is in a condition not to be affected by anything so far as the maker isconcerned. It may be said in conclusion that because no artificial heat is added while the wheel is in the pit the temperature never rises high enough to affect the chilled portion of the wheel. "t Serious injury to the chilled iron wheel is caused bv undue application of the brake. Great heat destroys the life of the chill, and if from any cause its temperature reaches the red hot point the effect is to transform the crytalline structure back into the semi-fibrous. Sliding of awheel, from undue use of the brake, results in expanding the tread and cracking the plates (body of the wheel), oftentimes, in fact, ruining the wheel. Careful regulation of the brake is, it may be said, at all times necessary to the full usefulness and dura- bility of a wheel. While so far as outward appearance is concerned cast iron wheels are all alike, the resemblance is oftentimes more apparent than real. No two wheels are exactly alike. Certainly the wheels of different manufacturers are dis- similar. But beyond this, the wheel must be adapted to its use. Thus, those ♦The "annealing pit" referred to is oftentimes made of boiler plate iron, lined with fire brick and having an air tight lid, into which the wheels are placed while red hot and allowed to remain several days, after which they are taken out and further cooled before being cleaned, inspected and tested. t Another intelligent writer, describing the process of making chilled wheels, says: "The latest and probably the best plan is to place the wheels, as soon as they can be removed from the molds, in tight pits lined with fire- brick or some other substance that will stand the heat, ten or more in each pit. The equilibrium of heat between the tread and plates and hub, which has been destroyed by the rapid cooling of the tread by reason of the chilling process, is then restored, either by the development of latent heat, which occurs when so many hot wheels are confined in tight pits, to an extent suflS- cient to equalize the temperature of the different parts of the wheel; or by passing a current of cold air through the hubs of the wheels, which rapidly reduces the temperature of the center of the wheel until it approximates that of the tread ; or by having the pits heated before the wheels are placed there- in, and then bv the application of additional heat rapidly raising the tempera- ture of the tread luitil it approximates that of the plates and hub. The wheels are allowed to remain in tne pits several days and are not removed until all tendencv to fracture from strain has been removed." 150p SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS; suitable for a level country are not suitable for heavy grades requiring undue and prolonged application of the brakes. Under such a ^.train the chill of the wheel is softened while its other parts remain unaffected. This change in the integral structure results oftentimes in destroying the usefulness of the wheel, but in every event in undue wear and tear.*' Single Plate WheeL Double Plate Wheel. The first chilled iron wheels were of the spoke pattern with a split hub, held together with a wrought iron band. Afterward new forms were introduced, among others the single plate, double plate, hollow spoke and solid spoke wheel, as shown by the illustrations. The double plate is claimed to have an advantage over the single plate wheel in this, that should one of the plates break or crack the other has sufficient strength to hold the wheel until the defect is discov- ered. Solid Spoke Wheel. Locomotive Cast Iron Driving Wheel with Steel Tire. *" The conditions of service on roads having heavy grades in contradis- tinction to those which are comparatively level have developed the necessity of a difference in construction to correspond to the different degrees of service. A well chilled wheel, weighing six hundred pounds, which is per- fectly safe on a comparatively level road is very apt to crack or break when operated under the extraordinary conditions developed by heavy grades. To overcome this, wheels for mountain service must be either made softer or with a less chill, or made with correspondingly heavier plates to stand the greater strain. The first remedy would be too expensive on account of the fact that it would not be economical to reduce so large a mileage; for, after all, the mileage made by a wheel is what governs its value; and a compara- tively light reduction iii the chill or softness of the wheel would reduce the mileage service twenty-five per cent Therefore it has generally been con- ceded that it is better and cheaper to make the wheels for mountain service at least ten per cent, heavier in weight than those for level service. The additional cost is reduced by the fact that the railroad company has ten per cent, of increased return scrap; so that the additional expense is nominal; at the same time the high chill may be maintained without risk of breakage and thus greater mileage obtained."— T. A. GRirriN. OPEBA TION OF TBAINS 160q Section of Steel Tired Cast Iron Wheel. The weight of car wheels varies, but that of the standard thirty-three-inch chilled wheel is from 500 to 650 pounds. Steel tired wheels were at one time esteemed to be necessary to the pas- senger service of railroads; safer, in fact, than the chilled wheel. The latter has, however, been steadily coming into favor, with increased weight and im- provement in manufacture, till it has reached a point where it is believed to compare favorably with the steel tired wheel. Excessive cost is an objection to the latter. In its manufacture the making of a proper connection between the cast iron center and the steel tire has been a difficult problem to solve. Ketaining rings have been used in this connection success- fully, but they have added to the cost. Steel tired wheels are some- times made in this way : The tire is manufactured in advance, the mold for the center of the wheel is arranged, and a space left for plncing the tire in the mold, so it will form a part thereof; the mold is opened, and the tire, heated red hot, is placed within it; the mold is then closed aud the metal for the center of the wheel poured in. In this manner the two metals are perfectly welded, the flared form of the tire carrying off the gases as the cast iron is poured in and comes in contact with the steel. Scrap iron is also used for wheels with a wrought forged center. In preparing the scrap iron for this use the pieces are piled in such a way that the grain In the finished wheel has no uniform direction. This prevents a crack extending any distance should one start. These wheels also have steel tires. The thickness of tire of a steel tired wheel varies; generally speaking it is from two to three and one-half inches thick. When worn to the thickness of an inch it may be said to be no longer fit for use. The wrought iron wheel of French de- sign is made as follows : The rim is first cut and bent to a proper radius and the ends welded together while the rim is heated. It is divided into as many sections as there are to be spokes in the wheel, into which grooves are cut ready to receive the spokes. The hub is formed of two rectangular iron bars rolled around a conical mandrel under a hammer operated by steam. Recesses are then stamped therein, when heated, for plac- ing the spokes. When the wheel is set up it is placed in a furnace, so constructed that the flame does not come in direct contact with any part of the wheel. The maximum heat is applied to the center and transmitted gradually to the other parts of the wheel, which, after reach ing'a welding heat, is placed in a die under a steam hammer and given a few blows, and again heated and hammered in order to insure perfect welding in all parts. The wheel is then cleaned and passed to the turning and boring mills, from which it comes out ready for use. The French driving wheel is manufactured in the same way substantially. Some- times the wheel is heated and hammered a third time before it is finished. Usage has demonstrated that greater durability is insured by allowing a Cast Iron Car Wheel with Steel Tire. 150r science of bail WA Y8; wheel periods of rest. The molecules of iron disintegrate, aad are finally destroyed by continuous vibration. Engines have more frequent periods of rest than passenger coaches, with the result that the wheels of the former are found to be in better condition after like service. This holds true also of passenger cars that make short trips, compared with express cars which make long and continuous journeys. The heating of the journal has been an obstacle to overcome in the use of car wheels. Experiments have demonstrated that large journals have less tendency to become heated than small ones. Another important feature is the cost of lubricants. DiflFerent stj'les of axle boxes, ingenious in the high- est degree, have been constructed, with a view to minimize the embarrassment arising from hot boxes and reduce the cost of lubricants as much as possible. In the operation of railroads the flange of the wheel is of the utmost importance, as may naturally be imagined: upon its strength depends the safety of the train. It is the flange that keeps the train on the track; this is especially imperiled at curves and cross-overs Its efticacy, however, in a measure depends upon its relation to the wheel gauge and track gauge. To secure the maximum safety they must be uniform. This uniformity requires co-operative effort between the machinery and track departments. In the evolution of the track and car wheel differences in this respect have caused many disasters. Moreover, both wheels and track wear out much quicker if uniformity is not observed. Each day, however, lessens embarrassments such as I have referred to. In the case of locomotives with three driving wheels on each side, the flange is usually omitted from the front or middle driver: with this exception, all wheels used on railways have flanges. Referring to the action of car wheels on the rails, an expert on such sub- jects* has this to say: " The form of car wheels exerts a much greater agency in the motion of trains than is generally supposed. Car wheels are controlled hf two opposing forces which manifest themselves whenever the two asso- ciate wheels have unequal distances to travel, as on curves, or for other causes. On leaving a tangent unequal conditions are imposed by the relative change in the direction and length of track, causing a disturbance; whichever wheel of the pair is at the moment carrying the greater load is proportionately retarded by the greater traction, while the opposite one is impelled forward by the momentum of the train; the two, as will be readily observed, exerting a compound twist upon the axle. This is an unnatural condition, as the axle is supposed to be a neutral member, favoring and supporting each wheel alike. This condition may also result from the wheels being of unequal size. Efforts have been made to obviate this first named cause by coning the tread of wheels, which device never had anything to recommend it. either in practice or philosophy. A train when traversing a curve at slow speed, the outer rail being somewhat elevated, the wheel running upon the lower rail or shorter curve, bears against the rail at its largest diameter, or next to the flange, while the other one runs toward the smaller diameter, or in the direction of the apex of the cone ; while with the train traversing the same curve at a high speed exactly opposite conditions exist; the wheel on the longer curve or outer rail runs on its greater diameter, and the other on the shorter curve on its smaller diameter. It is easily determined how much the outer rail, at cer- tain degrees of curvature, should be elevated providing for a certain speed j>er hour. But in an undulating and mountainous country it is difficult or impos- sible to obtain this condition and then maintain it. The effect of this is often observable and has many times come under the writer's observation on curves where every scientific rule and requirement had been, apparently, complied with, and where comparatively regular hi^h speed and unmixed trains were used, the inside of rail of shortest curve being smooth, bright and much worn away, while the other, or longer one, was dull in color, showing no evidence of unusual contact with flange of wheel. In many places rails made of the best material, iron or steel, put down in the best possible manner, on a good roadbed, and kept in good condition, present a bright, polished surface with every evidence of wearing away rapidly. The crown does not present a con- tinuous plane of polished surface (although exceptional cases do occur), but generally in a succession of short planes or scallop in the direction of length of the rail, very materially depending upon the hardness of the rail." The practice of attaching the car wheels to the opposite ends of the axle ♦Mr. E. L. Taylor. OPEBATION OF TRAINS. 150b makes the two wheels practically one, so far as movement is concerned, neither being able to move without the other. For this reason the two wheels must be alike in every detail of construction and application. One of the problems in the manufacture of car wheels has been the difficulty of making accurate allowance for shrinkage. Thus, wheels made side by side and exactly alike, seemingly, in every particular, oftentimes show a great difference in this respect. The weight of wheels depends, measurably, on the grade, the load to be carried and the speed attained. Thus, the wheels of hand cars are lighter than those used on other cars. A method of manufacturing the former is thus described: The tire is pressed out of one piece of wrought steel curved over on the inner edge to make the flange, and the outer edge turned down to pro- vide for attaching it to the wheel plate. The tires are pressed, then reheated and rolled until perfectly smooth and cylindrical, the surface of which by this process is polished. Two disks of sheet steel form the center of the wheel, the outer edges of which are separated by a felloe of wood and bolted to the tire. The hub is cast in three pieces, one forming a distance piece between the disks, the others forming the wheel seat and flanges for holding the center of the wheel together. These are also fastened by bolts. The manufacturers of this wheel claim it cannot shrink, warp, shake to pieces or collapse, and that climatic influences have no effect upon it. In another style of hand car wheel the tread, flange, plate and web are all in one piece. This wheel is made by what is known as the drawing and spin- ning process. It is claimed that the spinning leaves every wheel perfectly round and true, and that its shape will still be retained after the tread has worn through. Still another steel wheel used on hand cars, railway veloci- pedes, etc., is made of a single plate of steel about a quarter of an inch thick, the flange of which is corrugated so that the high points on its sides stand in planes at a distance apart equal to the usual thickness of a flange. The hub of this wheel is of solid forged steel. Englishmen are surprised when told that Amer- ican manufacturers use paper quite extensively )n making passenger car wheels. Similarly, it seems strange to us when we are told that in England teak wood is extensively used in the manufacture of passenger car wheels. In some instances the entire center of the wheel between the tire and hub is made of this material. It is held in place by side plates and retaining rings. The tire is made of steel. In the more common form of wheel the hub consists of two wrought iron rings bolted together and fast- ened to the wooden center. In another form of wheel blocks of wood are forced into pockets in the centerof the wheel, as shown in the illustration. In this wheel the blocks come in direct contact with the tire, which latter has an internal flange by which itis bolted to the center of the wheel through the radial arms forming the pocktts. The oval part, around English Car Wheel. the hub of the wheel, is hollow, thus lightening and cheapening without weakening the structure. In examining the question of car wheels and accessories thereto I have become interested in the views of Mr. Samuel Porcher. They are authorita- tive to the extent that he is an assistant engineer of motive power of the Pennsylvania railroad company. Starting out with the general proposition that cast iron is not as good as wrought iron or steel, that the tendency of a rotating wheel to burst is directly proportional to its diameter, and that the difficulty of making a perfect casting increases with the diameter thereof, he points out (what is probably the case) that cast iron would receive no atten- tion whatever for use in the manufacture of car wheels except for its great cheapness as compared with wrought iron or steel. This cheapness, coupled with its utility, makes it very desirable for freight service and is the cause more or less of its use in the passenger trafiBc. "Steel, on the other hand, not withstanding its great cost, is coming more and more into favor, and has the great recommendations of strength and safety. It is also of such a nature that wheels tired with it run much longer before being unfit for further service than those made of cast iron, and consequently renewals are less frequent." 160t science of bail WA YS; Pe believes that a combination of steel and cast iron would be very desirable If it were not for the weakness involved in the manner of joining the two kinds of material together and the excessive cost thereof. Referring to the diameter of wheels, he goes on to say that, "allowing that on the score of economy cast iron must be used for wheels in freight service, we are led to reflect that here heavy loads are carried, and there is a growing tendency to Increase them by letting the floor of the car down to a level with the draft timbers. All this makes it desirable to have the wheels strong and small to avoid bent axles and broken flanges. The truck must also be strong and the dead weight of the car reduced to a minimum. I should say that no wheel larger than thirty-three inches in diameter should be used under freight cars." In regard to the passenger service, however, he does "not believe we can recommend one diameter for ail wheels, although such a state would be most desirable. For instance, in a sandy country, where competition is active, and consequently speed is high and maintained for a length of time without inter- ruption, I would scarcely hesitate to recommend the use of cast iron for car wheels, because steel will wear out so rapidly in such a place that its use will be unsatisfactory. If then cast iron is used we will find that we can not make with It as large a wheel as we may determine is desirable when steel is used. And, just to follow this line out to its close, I will state here that we find that thirty-six inches seems to be the maximum diameter for cast iron wheels. A thirty-six inch wheel rides well and gives immunity from hot boxes, a most fruitful source of annoyance in sandy districts. It is also easily applicable where all modern appliances under the car are found, including good brake rigging. In all passenger service, then, I would recommend thirty-six inches as the best diameter for cast iron wheels." Referring to steel wheels he says that, "allowing that the method of manufacture does not limit the diameter of a steel wheel as it does a cast iron one, the claim that the largest diameter is the best is open to debate at least. It is claimed that increasing the diameter of awheel increases its total mileage in proportion, or even more. Whether this be so or not, there are two very objectionable features that come with an increase in diameter— thus the wheel is more costly and weighs more, and without giving, in all cases, proportionate return : we have to do more work in starting and stopping a large wheel, and in lifting it over the hills; when the diameter exceeds a certain figure we have also to pay more per thousand miles run. I am very firmly convinced that the matter of dead weight should receive more attention than it does, with a view to reducing it." With the greater speed of trains he believes that railway companies must more fully avail themselves of the braking power of each car. Heretofore this has not been the case. He argues that, as the height of the car or the length of the truck can not well be increased, it is necessary to keep the size of the wheels within the limit that will permit efficient brakes being placed on all those that carry any weight. "A large wheel increases the liability to bent axles in curving on account of greater leverage, unless the size and strength of the axle are increased to correspond. The wheel itself must be made stronger. A four or six wheel truck will not retain its squareness and dependent good riding qualities so well with forty-two inch wheels as with thirty-three inch ones. Besides the brakes, the pipes for air and steam under the cars interfere with large wheels. As a consequence, forty-two inch wheels have been replaced by thirty-three inch wheels to some extent. On one road in particular so strong is the inclination away from large wheels that thirty inches is advocated as the proper size for passenger cars. On the other hand, there is no doubt a car wheel may be too small, for the tires of small wheels probably do not get as much working up under the rolls, and, therefore, are not as tough or homogeneous. Small wheels are most destructive to frogs and rail joints. They revolve faster at a given speed, and when below a certain size increase the liability to hot journals, speed alone, I am not willing to admit, is the most prolific source of hot t)oxes. The weight per square inch upon the bearing is a very important factor. I have found by careful exam- ination in a great many cases that the number of hot boxes bears a close relation to the weight per square inch on the journal and the character of lubrication. We find, furthermore, that while a three and three-eighths inch journal on a thirty-three inch wheel is apt to heat under our passenger coaches, a three and three-fourths inch (or when worn three and five-eighths inch) Journal on a thirty-six inch wheel runs uniformly cool. In 1890 on one divis- on I noticed about one hundred and eighty hot boxes (with the small wheel). 162 OPERATION OF TRAINS, against twenty-nine with the larger one, with a preponderance of the latter in service, the weight of the cars being the same. 1 do not know that there is any more tendency for a large wheel to slide than a small one under the action of the brakes, but large wheels wear out more brake shoes than small ones, if there is any difference in this particular." The cast iron wheel, so common in America, is hardly known in Europe, where wheels are steel tired. The latter are generally similar to the steel tired spoke wheel manufactured in America, described elsewhere. The great- est possible rivalry exists between manufacturers of various kinds of wheels. This is one of the concomitants of trade and good results grow out of it, as it puts each on his metal. While those who manufacture steel tired wheels profess to see nothing that is good in those made of cast iron, manufacturers of the latter, ou the other hand, make light of all claims to superior excel- lence upon the part of their rivals. They point to the fact, among other things, that the million, approximately, of freight cars in the United States are, in the main, equipped throughout with chilled iron wheels, while a large j)er- centage of the wheels under locomotives and tenders are also made of this material. This, it needs no argument to prove, speaks well for their general excellence. The proof of the pudding is in the eating, as it does not stand to reason that the owners and managers of American railways could be inveigled into using an article of such vital importance that did not have great and inherent qualities to recommend it. In saying this, it is not sought to disparage the steel tired wheel. Far from it. The great use made of each wheel is indisputable evidence that each has, in its way, commanding merits. Statistics in reference to the breakage of different forms of wheels are, unfortunately, not as full or accurate as could be desired. In Germany, however, where seven different kinds of steel have been used in the manufacture of tires for wheels, the breakage is reported to be about thirty-four one hundredths of one per cent, per year. This is much greater than the percentage of breakage for chilled iron. On the other hand, manufacturers of steel tired wheels claim that the percentage is greatly increased by the fact that the German govern- ment was experimenting with all kinds of steel— good, bad and indifferent; whereas, in case of tires made of open hearth steel the percentage of breakage is only one-third the average given above for all kinds. Rivalry m Germany as between the various kinds of steel seems, on the whole, to incline to the open hearth tire, the number in use having grown from fifty-three thousand in 1884 to two hundred and eighty-four thousand in 1889; and, while the number is still much less than tires made of Bessemer steel, which amount to five hun- dred and ten thousand, the first named shows an increase in the number used of two hundred and thirty-one thousand in the six years, while the Bessemer only shows an increase of one hundred and thirty thousand. The axles of cars, which form so important an auxiliary of the wheel, require, like the wheel, that the utmost care should be exercised in manu- facturing. It is not too much to say that both must be, of their kind, perfect. The axle is, in the main, manufactured from wrought iron scrap. The f>rocess of manufacture, however, varies in detail. But, generally speaking, t may be said that the scrap is made up into packages or small piles and placed in a furnace and heated to a welding heat and then hammered by a steam hammer into a slab.* This slab is cut nearly in two, then doubled over and returned to the furnace for a second heat: it is then hammered into slabs about five inches wide by two inches thick. Three of these slabs are again heated to a welding heat and hammered into a single slab, one-half of which is finished into axle shape and the other half (on account of not being hot enough to finish) is again reheated and hammered. After being allowed to cool the metal is made the required length by a cutting off machine. The weight of a car axle varies from four hundred and twenty-five to four hundred and seventy-five pounds. Driving axles are manufactured in much the same way, with the exception that they are given more heatings and ham- merings in order to more thoroughly remove impurities from the iron. Steel ♦Before putting the scrap into the furnace it is placed on a board. The width and length of the board vary, say, from eight to eight and one-half inches in width and from eighteen to' twenty inches in length. The weight of ths scrap placed thereon also varies, say, from one hundred and twenty-five to two hundred and twenty-five pounds. The piles are placed in the ftunax^ by means of the charging peel suspended from a swinging crane. OPERATION OF TRAINS. 168 axles are made from billets, arranged in piles of different sizes, according to the kind of axle to be manufactured. The billets are heated and hammered in the same way as iron axles. Taking up again the subject of the movement of trains, in which this volume is particularly concerned, an important problem is the marshalling of cars involved in the making up of trains. This work, as is known, is largelv performed at junctions and other centers where the business handled is large". The work requires great systemization, as, in order to secure economical movement of trafl&c,it is necessary that through trains shall not be interrupted in their progress between important points. This necessitates the handling of traffic at intermediate places by way trains that collect the through business andcarry it to the junctions, where it may be classified and marshalled into trains that will take it through to its destination. Many plans for the expedi- tious making up of trains are in vogue, including unique sidings and turn- tables of various devices and degrees of utility. I do not know that I can close this chapter more profitably than by describing the system of switching and marshalling of trains by graritation as practiced on an English road. The arrangement is thus described by the manager of the line:* "The sidings for outward traffic consist of : (1) Six upper reception lines at the summit of the incline holding two hundred and ninety-four wagons ; (2) the sorting sidings, twenty-four in number and holding one thousand and sixty-five wagons, into which the wagons, when separated, first run, each siding receiving the wagons for a particular train; (3) two groups of marshalling sidings (called 'grid- irons'), through which the wagons of each train are filtered so as to make them take their proper order in the train, and (4) four lower reception lines which receive the trains in their complete state and where the engines are attached to take them away. On the arrival of a set of wagons in the upper reception lines, the rear brakes are put on, the engine is detached, and then on each wagon is chalked the number of the sorting siding it has to enter. One man carefully inspects the brake of each wagon and calls out the chalked number to a second man, standing below him, who has to regulate the speed of the descending wagons. This second man passes the number on by hand signal to the shunter lower down, who has charge of the switches, and who, by moving a lever, turns the wagon into its proper siding." In order to recover wagons or cars that run awav or get beyond the control of those moving them, an apparatus is provided", called a chain drag. It "consists of a heavy iron chain cable placed in a wrought iron tank between the rails and below their level ; a steel hook attached to the cable is fixed in a loose socket at the height of a wagon axle and is worked by a lever which also works a signal. When a train is intended to pass, the hook is lowered by the lever: but if it is desired to stop a wagon, the hook is raised by the lever and catches the axle of the wagon, and the heavy cable attached to the hook being drawn out of its tank by its weight, when dragged over the ballast, soon stops the runaway." The system of switching thus described grew out of the peculiar- ities of the ground and the impossibility of selecting anv other. The emer- gency suggested the method of switching described. Its "more general use in the future is likely to grow out of the experiment. * Colonel Findlay. 162 SCIENCE OF BAIL WA Y8; HEATING CARS— ITS EVOLUTION. It is not probable that there ever existed a time when mankind did not possess a knowledge of artiticial heat. Fire had its origin, so far as the uses of man are concerned, in the blazing volcano and the lightning of heaven. For ages it tilled him with wonder and superstitious awe. When he had become somewhat civilized his curiosity led him to investigate and experiment, but it is only in comparatively recent times that he has been able to create fire at will, by heat generated by friction or concentration of the sun's ravs. All primitive people, it is probable, have at one time or another believed fire to be a sacred thing. The native Australian carries with her everywhere a burning brand. To protect and foster this is one of the objects of her exist- ence. The fire of the Samoan nobleman is never allowed to go out. The happiness of the Coreau family is dependent upon the preservation of the ancestral flame. The ancients kept a tire constantly burning in their public buildings. In Egypt a fire was kept alive in every temple, and among the Greeks, Latins and Persians in every town and village. In some countries national fires were kept lighted upon some great promontory or temple. The temple of Vesta, the Roman goddess of fire, stood near a fountain, thus affording the people convenient means for pro- curing both fire and water. When from any cause the tire in the tem- ple of Vetta became extin- guished, all public and private business ceased. The people believed that the connection between heaven and earth had been broken and that be- fore aiiything further could be jjrudently done it must be restored, either by lightning from the clouds or new tire created by the priests rubbing to- gether pieces of wood, or through concentration of the rays of the sun. The armies of Rome and Greece carried with them everywhere an altar on which the sacred tire was kept constantly burning. Grecian colonists carried live coals with them from the altar of Hestia with which to kindle the sacred tire in their new home. It has been claimed that the buildings erected for the protection of the sacred tires of the ancients were the beginning of architecture, suggest- ing, as they did, to man a similar abode for himself. The Romans believed the sun radiated life as well as heat. It was the seat of their household gods, the dwelling of deceased persons, and a place where a supply of souls was kept ready to be sent into existence by new births. They took great care to keep the flame of their hearth tire pure, and fed it with certain kinds of wood which had been stripped of bark and dried. In case the family tire went out, a new tire was produced by friction of two piecesof wood, as the borrowing of tire from a neighboring family was con- sidered an improper mingling of the blood of the two families. The opinions of primitive peoples regarding the nature of tire as it appeared on the hearth, they also applied to the sun; the one gave life to the family, the other to the universe lioth were portions of the same substance. The poet Ovid, of the Augustan age, asserted that the goddess Hestia was identical with the earth. He believed tire was the soul of nature, the pre- dominant quality of everything that had shape; in fact, the giver of shape. Everything in nature, great or small, was supposed to owe its existence to this element. The Aztecs regarded fire as the " father and mother of all gods." OPEBA TION OF TBAINS. 162a Among the hardy progenitors of the human race fire as an agent of warmth was unknown or despised. No such purile use attached to it. It was an object of worship solely. The people of that period, who were to us what children are to men of mature years, believed fire to possess the same per- ceptions and sensibilities as themselves, except that it was of a purer and more exalted nature. To them all things were sentiment. The trees which looked down upon them, the rocks that slumbered on the sides of the moun- tains, the babbling brooks, the floating clouds, the swiftly running rivers, the broad seas, the denizens of the deep, the birds floating in the air, the animals that traversed the forests and plains, had the same thoughts, reason- ing powers, feelings and passions as mankind; thus they were believed to revenge themselves on those who displeased them, smile on those they liked— love, hate, reason and suffer in all respects the same as men and women. But fire, because of its brightness, vivacity and potency, they believed to be of heavenly origin. Thus, it did not merely represent the goddess Vesta in her home or temple in Rome, it was the goddess herself. Those who sat before a fire as it burned on the hearth believed they were in the very presence of the goddess. Nothing unclean was allowed to be thrown into the hearth fire, and It was sacrilege to commit an indecent action before it. Indeed, to extin- guish a light with the breath was thought to deflle the flame and, therefore, to be an offense. Man's superiority is a thing of recent occurrence. In his earlier stages he was completely dominated by the wild beasts of the forest and the natural laws of the universe. The former he could not overcome and the latter he did not understand. The practical uses to which we put fire were not recognized in the early history of the world. In the first instance men did not cook their food. This effeminacy came long after, when man had emerged from savagery. When men first began to use fire for purposes of warmth and cooking it was lighted on an open hearth in the center of the great living room of the house where all slept, ate and rested in common. The family with its re- tainers and dependents clustered about this cen- tral spot. The smoke from the burning wood found its way out through the roof or opening and closing doors. The fireplace with its attendant chimney to carry off the smoke came later; it was a great advance. The stove was a still more important invention. The uses made of hot air and steam for heating purposes are comparatively lecent. The steps by which we have reached our present eminence nave been progressive, but widely separated as regards time, places and peoples. In the evolution of man many different uses have been made of fire. It has been both a religious and a superstitious symbol; an object of worship; religion itself. Then again, the badge of leadership and sovereignty. Its highest use among the ancients was that of a diety or protecting genius of the domestic health. It is only in modern times that its greatest good to men has been utilized, It is only within a short period that it has been used for cooking, to give warmth, to afford power. In employing it for heating purposes we use it, directly and indirectly: to warm us by its rays, or, indirectly, to furnish steam, heated water or hot air. It is in connection with its uses for purposes of heating the passenger cars of railways that we have to consider it here. The problem has been a difficult one from the start. While apparently simple, it is really exceedingly complicated. The subject has exercised the ingenuity and.thought of inventors and railway managers from the start. It is not a question simply of warming the car. 'Danger of fire in cases of acci- dent and questions of ventilation also intervene. 162b SCIENCE OF BAIL WAYS; With the introduction of the system of heating by steam from the engine the difficulties of the situation were sensibly lessened. Indeed, so great has been the progress in this direction that it seems as if perfection had been reached. But here, as in every other depart- ment of affairs we shall quickly discover how crude are our designs; how much they may be bettered and cheapened. We know this to be so because with each stage of man's progress his inventive genius expands. This is partly be- cause his needs are greater. His intelligence is sharpened by the demands made upon it. With each step he also grows more exacting. His complaints are louder, his etfeminacy more pro- nounced. It is not enough that he must be warmed, he must be coddled. The very demand for artificial heat is an evidence of his enfeebled state. In the question of heating cars it is mani- fest that climate has much to do with the method employed. Thus, in Great Britain receptacles containing live coals or heated water are con- sidered quite sufticient. A cylinder containing hot water is a means generally employed ; it is placed in the bottom of the compartment and upon this the passengers rest their feet. It Is not claimed to be adequate, for it is not, but with the aid of warm rugs the robust inhabitants of that sturdy island keep from freezing. The warmth of a good fire is quite as much needed in Great Britain as elsewhere, but because the people are robust and in little danger of suc- cumbing to the cold the subject is passed over lightly. In many southern countries no provis- ion whatever for heating cars or affording warmth of any kind is necessary. In the northern States of America careful {)rovision is made. Generally speaking, it is not an exaggeration to say that n no other country have railway managers given the subject the careful attention they have in America. Their progress- ive steps evince this and the perfected methods they employ to-day testify to the generous provision of the carrier and the skill of those who have devoted their minds to the sub- ject. In the days of stage coaches no attempt was made by the proprietors to warm their vehicles except, perhaps, by heated bricks or bottles of hot water, or sheet iron recep- tacles filled with live coals. Similarly railway cars were at first left un- provided with stoves, and passengers made the besf provision they could to {>rotect themselves. But n America at an early day large stoves were introduced. These were placed in the middle or at the ends of the cars. Sheet iron stoves In which wood was burned were first used. Later heavy cast iron stoves, in a measure, took their place. In these both coal and wood were burned. Afterward stoves especially intended to burn coal were provided, and these were very generally OPERA TION OF TRAINS. 162o used except in districts remote from supply.* These methods, while much superior to those that merely contemplated warming the feet of passengers, were still inadequate. Those who sat near the stoves were often too warm, while those more remote suffered greatly from the cold. However, matters were in a measure equalized by frequent ex- changes of place. But with all the dis- comforts of travelers, which were great, the danger from fire from the intensely heated stoves was never for a moment absent, not only menacing the property of the railway, but the lives of those it carried.t No practicable substitute for the stove presented itself to carriers for many years. Every device for heating a car contemplated furnishing the heat from the vehicle itself. Ingenious and highly valuable methods grew up by which cars were heated by hot water and air, but always from within, and always with the dangers that at- tend such sys- tems. Among the best of these was that known as the Baker \^ system. i In the F^ B a k e r heater a <; hard coal fire was kept in each ,/j^^ car. The fire was '^'O, inclosed in a jointless cylin- der of cast iron; this was incased in another cylinder of wrought iron, and the latter, in turn, was covered by a cylinder of sheet iron, a space Modern Coal Stove for of four inches being allowed between the cylinders Heating Passen- for the circulation of the air. A radiating pipe was ger Cars, coiled within the fire; this pipe also run up to and * In localities where crude oil is abundant and cheaper than wood or coal, and facilities have not been provided for heating cars from the locomotive by steam, it may be, and indeed is, used more or less for heating purposes in stoves especially adapted therefor. t The practice of heating a passenger car with one or two great stoves, so general in America, has never been practicable in those countries where the cars are divided up into compartments, as in Europe and the far east. In such cases simple devices like those adopted in England for heating the feet of passengers, and thus keeping up the circulation, have been as a general thing the rule. All this will be changed as the higher knowledge we have acquired, of heating directly from the engine by steam or hot air, or both, is generally diffused. A stove can not very well be introduced into every compartment, but every compartment can be heated by steam from the engine as simply as the rooms in a hotel may be heated from a boiler in the basement. X I speak of it in the past tense on the presumption that, in the main, all cars will finally be heated from the engine or other extraneous source ; that fire will not, in fact, be allowed in or about a car in which passengers travel. This will be a long time, doubtless, as many carriers can not afford the expense at once. 162d SCIENCE OF B AIL W ATS; down from a drum on top of the car and then extended the entire length of both sides of the car about six inches from the floor. The iron drum ou the roof was an air and water reservoir; the lower half contained five or six gallons of water, the upper half affording a chamber for the air escaping from the hot water. The air confined in this chamber acted as a cushion, or elastic head, which was compressed as the water was expanded by the heat. The radiating pipe was also filled with water and, when necessary, the supply was replenished from the drum. A gauge and supply cock fastened to the side of the drum at high water line indicated the height of the water; this also acted as a funnel through which water might be added when necessary. It may be remarked, however, that the waste of water caused by use was very slight. A safety vent attached to the top of the drum afforded an opening thro«igh which the confined air and part of the water in the drum might The So-Called Baker Heating System. escape in case the pressure exceeded a certain limit. The condition of the fire was ascertained by an Indicator attached to one of the perpendicular pipes in the car. The danger arising from freezing was prevented by the use of salt in the water. For this purpose a fine dry salt was used and as much put into the water as it would hold, but care was required to be exercised to see that no undissolved salt was put in. If desired, the heat of the fire in the Baker healer may be replaced by the heat of steam drawn from the locomotive. The steam is conducted from the locomotive by means of a train pipe to the car, being carried and introduced into jackets which surround the radiating pipes in three different places. The result is a more uniform heat than that produced by the Baker heater proper. An increase of the avei:age temperature of the pipes 'throughout the car is also obtained and in a much shorter time. Steam generated in and applied from the locomotive is recognized as among the best forms of heating. It is at once easily regulated, occasions an agreeable temperature, and frees the passenger from the danger of fire. In the earlier experiments steam from the locomotive boiler was admitted directly to the pipes within the car by means of a train pipe. This is known OPERATION OF THAINS. 162e as the direct system of steam heating and has decided merits, especially in the case of cars used in suburban service, which are detached certain portions of the day and require to be heated from the engine when taken up. The radiators consist of two two-inch pipes secured to the sides of the car. Steam is conducted to each side independentb^ from a cross in the train pipe, which conveys steam from the engine. In case the two pipes do not give sufficient radiation, larger radiators may also be placed in each end of the car. A regulating cock allows the steam to enter into both radiating pipes when desired, or it may be shut off from the upper pipe. When no heat is required the steam may be shut off entirely. The condensed water in the radiating pipes is controlled and discharged through a drip valve placed under one of the seats of t^e car. Great difficulty has been experienced in controlling the heat in methods of direct steam heating, but with the introduction of the regulator described above this obstacle was measurably overcome. At stations where suburban cars are detached for a portion of the time, it is becoming more and more the practice to establish local heating plants for the purpose of warming the cars before attaching them to the train.' Thus, whSh the passenger enters the car he finds it as cozy as a drawing room. Another method of heating was known as the hot water circulating sys- tem, by which the cars received their heat from steam carried through a train pipe. Dry steam was taken from the locomotive boiler and the heat conveyed to the water circulation within the car by induction or through metallic sur- faces. In other cases steam was injected directly into the body of water to be circulated. The circulation was aided by the action of the steam causing a motion of the water. Rapid circulation caused the transmission of heat more evenly through the pipes. The vacuum system of heating has been used with very satisfactory success. Two pipes extend the entire length of the train — one for supply, the other for ex- haust. Tljey are coupled by hose between the cars. A vacuum pump on the tank of the engine is altached to the exhaust pipe. The exhaust steam from the engine IS admitted to the supply pipe, and in ordinary weather is found sufficient to heat the train. When insufficient, live Radiating ripe. steam from the engine may be admitted to the supply pipe. The so-called low pressure system of heating has been found to work very successfully under certain circumscances. The heater consists of two cylinders, one inside of the other. The inner one is made of brass and is filled with small copper tubes. The outer is constructed of wrought iron and is connected to the neating pipes of the car by pipe. The inner cylinder is connected with the pipe which carries live steam directly from the locomotive in manner similar to that in the direct heating systems. The outer cylinder is partly filled with water; the heat from the steam in the inner cylinder con- verts a portion of this into steam, which circulates through the pipes that heat the car. The steam which condenses by coming in contact with the cold pipes flows back to the cylinder, where it is again converted into steam and again circulated through the pipes. Three gallons of water are said to be enough to heat one car under tnis method. It is claimed a car may be heated in five minutes after the steam valve connecting with the locomotive has been opened. No water ever remains in the pipes, the incline being so arranged that it is immediately carried back into the cylinder. A method of heating cars with hot water from the engine and known as the multiple circuit system has its advocates. A heating drum made of wrought iron is placed beneath each car, near the center. Within this drum are four corrugated copper pipes attached to a cast iron head. These are arranged in two separate steam circuits. A train pipe extends the entire length of the train, and connections are made between it and the corrugated tubes within the drum by means of a cast iron head, a port being provided for that purpose. A second lower port is also provided for carrying off the water produced by condensation. The drum is connected to the heater pipes of the 162f science of rail WA TS; car, the latter being so placed as to make four complete circuits on each side, extending from the center to the end of the car, where they connect with the return pipe or inflow to the heating drum. A two-inch pipe leads from the outflow end of the drum to each side of the car, entering a distributing casting which has leading into it the two upper pipes. The water flows out through these two pipes to both ends of the car and returns to the Center through two lower pipes. It is returned to the inflow end of the heating drum by a pipe. In this Avay the water in each of the circuits is brought into contact with the steam heated corrugated surface while it flows the entire length of the heating drum. When a water heater is used in this connection, the hot water is carried from the heater into the drum beneath the car, from which it is dis- tributed to the car In a manner similar to that employed when steam heat is used. Users of this system claim that all parts of the car receive heat from the circuit in the same degree at the same time, as a difference of temperature between the outgoing and incoming pipes of but a few degrees will cause the circulated water to return to the heating drum and again rapidly circulate through the car. A hot air system of heating cars consists of an air reservoir and a coil of pipe placed inside the front (extension) end of the locomotive. The reservoir extends back to the exhaust pipe. The coil of pipe is placed direct'.y in front of the boiler flues, where it receives the direct force of the heat which goes through them. The air is forced by an air compressor fastened to the side of the locomotive boiler. This draws air from the atmosphere and forces it into the reservoir, from whence it passes through the heating coil and is carried to the cars b5^ means of pipes provided for that purpose. Coils placed under the seats, passing down one side of the train and back the other, carry the hot air through the cars. After making the circuit the air is discharged to the atmos- Ehere through a valve on the tender. Connections between the cars are made y hose and couplings. Safety and cleanliness are especial advantages attributed to this system of heating. In France the experiment of heating cars by steam and compressed air combined has been tried successfully. The effect of air added to steam is the constantmovement of the water as it condenses and its elimination from the pipes, thus preventing danger from freezing. The difference of temperature resulting from the addition of air is said not to be sufficient to modify the calorific (heating) effects to an appreciable extent. The mixed air and steam is carried through a pipe from the engine, running through the entire train and terminating in an automatic blow-off cock, which retains the steam but allows the condensed water and chilled air to escape. Heating tubes branch off from the main pipe, passing through the car and reuniting again in one blow-off cock. Admission cocks allow the steam to pass into the tubes. The coupling tubes are made of rubber, similar to brake tubes. One pump is as a rule not found sufficient to manipulate the brakes and also provide steam for heating purposes. Two pumps are, therefore, provided. The steam of the boiler by its expansion compresses the air, which is afterward brought into requisition for heating. The appliances on the engine consist of a steam valve on the boiler, a safety valve and a steam gauge. The so-called storage system of heatingconsistsof a four-inch pipe extend- ing on each side of the car, inclosed in a wooden box having frequent openings fitted with registers. These pipes are partially filled with ocean pebbles, a small section at the bottom being separated from the rest of the pipe by a per- forated copper plate extending horizontally. In this section the steam nas free circulation. The live steam is applied to the train only at stations and the heat retaining quality of the pebbles causes them to give off the heat so slowly that the car is kept warm. . The danger of fire from open stoves has led the governments of many countries to prescribe rules for heating cars. In some instances stoves are forbidden, heating from the engine being prescribed. The trend is in that direction. As to tne quantity of heat that shall be fuYnished, governments are generally and discreetly silent. They wisely trust to self-interest to regu- late the matter. The Swiss government, however, among its provisions directs that all passenger cars shall be heated from the first of October until the end of April in the event the outside temperature falls below forty-one degrees. During the months of December, January and February the heating must be maintained without regard to the outside temperature. If, however, during three days and nights successively the temperature remains above the OPERATION OF TRAINS. 162a point stated it may be temporarily discontinued. The average temperature required to be maintained in the cars is sixty degrees — enough lo keep passengers from freezing to death — and they must be heated long enough before being used to insure a temperature at the starting point of at least fifty degrees Thermometers were required to be provided for each car. One of the difl&eulties attending the heating of cars has been measurably overcome by the introduction of an automatic regulator, by which the tem- perature of the car may be kept within a certain degree of heat. The impor- tance of adequate provision of this nature can not be overestimated, as its effect is to escape the unavoidable negligence of individuals when their duties r€Kiuire them to look after matters of this kind. Provisions of this nature, like safety appliances, to be effective under all circumstances must be mechanical and self-acting. How far it will be practicable to use electricity for heating purposes is unknown. It is, however, applied on lines operated by electrical power. Although expensive, its advantages are so manifest as compared with stcwes that the added cost is fully compensated for in this class of service. The current is turned on and off in the same manner as the electric lamps. The practicability of electrical heating has not, up to this time, recommended itself generally iu the case of railroads operated by steam. Such are some of the methods, primitive and otherwise, employed in heat- ing passenger cars. The description is not intended to be exhaustive, but suggestive. To those who desire to study the subject technically it will be merely an introduction. They will require to pursue their investigations in the shops of manufacturers and on the trains of railways, where the merits and demerits of different methods of heating may be practically studied. My object has been merely to familiarize the reader generally with the matter. Only a very few railway people know anything about the subject, while it is important that it should be understood 'in its wider aspect by every one con- nected with railroads. As safe and scientific methods of heating cars come to be better understood and the financial means of railway companies permit such forms to be introduced they will be everywhere adopted. It is a question of means. Such forms of heating are luxuries and, like other luxuries, only those who are well-to-do can afford them. The poorer companies will con- tinue to employ primitive methods. LIGHTING CARS-ITS EVOLUTION. It is, perhaps, not too much to say that there is no question connected with the comfort of the railway traveler which he esteems of greater importance than the agreeableness and adequacy of the method of lighting the coach in which he rides. And in no direction are railways more freely, and often- times unjustly, criticised than in this respect. But it is a mistake here, as it is so often elsewhere, to suppose that when those who serve the public fail to adopt what are thought to be the best methods. the neglect arises from careless- ness or indifference. Such is rarely the case. Men are ever loth to make changes. It involves risk, not only directlv but collat- erally. Oftentimes what seems to be desirable is only seeming. Conservative men wUl not aban- don what they know to be prac- ticable and within their means until after long and careful observation something else is demonstrated to be more desir- able. Cost • ftentimes precludes or delays changes that corpora- tions would like to make. It is never safe to say that they are 162h SCIENCE OF B AIL WAYS; indifferent. The espHt de corps which leads ever>' professional man to desire to excel, also animates the owners of railroads and leads them constantly to seek to better their property and make it more popular with the public. This is so, at least, where railroads are owned and operated by private indi- viduals. I am not prepared to assert that it is always the case where rail- roads are operated by governments. Individualism is there lacking; so is competition. The demand for a method of lighting that shall be safe, brilliant and unobjectionable, is the outgrowth of a high and exacting civilization; of ever multiplying needs. Our fore- fathers were content with candles and rude oil lamps. "But the esthetic taste of our time demands something inoffensive and that shall, moreover, corre- spond as nearly as possible to the light of day. Thus we progress. Primitive-man had little or no use for artificial light. The sun by day and the moon and solemn stars by night were quite sufficient for his needs. He did not read; and if he traveled, his journeys were short and his con- veyance and its appliances of the rudest kind. When the social instincts of men began to assert themselves and they commenced to form themselves into small communities, the blazing torch of common wood or resinous pine afforded them all the light they had except so far as they derived it from the fire that blazed on the hearth or in the open air. With the discovery of the properties of oil, it quickly passed into general use so far as men's tastes were cultivated and they were able to afford so considerable a luxury. From these crude beginnings the / genius of man has evolved the clear, steady, brilliant light of our ^ time. Among other devices, the tallow candle marked a great - stride in the progress towards something better. It will always be highly esteemed. At first it was formed by dipping the wick repeatedly in melted tallow. Aft- erward molds were substituted. The torch of Agamemnon's time was succeeded in Greece by the oil lamp, which was used at arf early day where permanent lights were kept. It came into domestic use in Greece about four hundred years before the Chris- tian era. The lamp was made of terra cotta with a spout or nozzle for the wick and an orifice for re- ceiving the oil. The ancients were ignorant of the fact that i)ure light contained heat. They supposed they were enabled to see objects by means of something projecting from the eye. Aris- totle is said to have been the first to question why he could not see in the dark as well as in the daylight if such were the case. Modem lighting is looked upon from two points of view, from that of the OPERA TION- OF TBAINS. 162i denizen of the city where gas and electricity are employed, and from that of the denizen of the interior who knows only the oil lamp or candle. To the j latter the primitive methods employed by railroads in their early his- tory do not by any means appear obsolete. He is accustomed to them and they appear, because of this, of the highest possible utility. But to the resident of the city, where early methods have long been aban- doned, illustrations portraying them appear attractive, even pi<^turesque, because of their quaintness and re- moteness from his every-day life. It is because of this, as well as partly to )rtray the evolution of means of lighting, that I embody pictures of primitive methods here. However, these methods are still more or less in use in lighting cars inremote districts. In the early history of railroads and, indeed, to a certain extent, at the present time, all sorts of quaint methods were employed for lighting cars. Tj pon one road an old-fashioned lantern hung from the ceiling; on another, candles in primitive hold- ers cast a faint glimmer from the sides of the car. Oil lamps, however, were more generally used than any other method. The light was better and the lamps more easily looked after. Besides they were more satisfactory to travelers. An objection Avas the supposed danger that attended their use. If through accident or otherwise the light was upset, it might serve not only to start a fire but afford it food. Thus lives would be sacrificed and property destroved. To be sure, disasters in this direction might have been avoided by the use of a good oil. But proprietors were not then aware of deficiencies in material of this kind. Deception was common, and in some cases the extreme poverty of the carrier was a strong temptation to him to use poor oil because of its apparent cheapness. There are more systems of lighting cars than would be supposed.* The use of candles for lighting cars is perhaps the most primitive. They are still used more or less in those parts of the world where mankind are slow-going or the purse of the carrier ex- tremely diminutive. The can- dle is placed in a holder fast- ened to the side of the car. A slide in the candlestick is pro- vided for raising the candle as required; this is manipulated by the train men or passengers — frequently the latter. Another form of candlestick has a spring which is pressed down into the socket by the candle. A cap with a hole in the top through which the wick projects is screwed down over the candle, the latter being forced up by the spring under it as fast as it is consumed. Sperm candles are also used, with a glass globe to shield the flame. In some cases ventilators are placed in the top of the car to enable the odor and smoke to escape. However economical and in a certain sense esthetic, the candle, it is apparent, does not fulfill the requirements of a high grade of railway service. Vegetable oils are used in cases where refined petro- leum is difficult to obtain. Rape seed oil, it is probable, has been put to this use more often than any other. Colza, * By candles, vegetable oils, mineral or petroleum oils, ordinary coal gas, carbureted coal gas, " rich " or oil gas, carbureted air, electricity, and so on. 162j SCIENCE OF BAIL WA YS, oil derived from a variety of cabbage, has also been used for lighting cars iu some instances. The common form of mineral oil lamp in general use consists of a reser- voir of oil from which a wick passes out through a tube. The oil is drawn by capillary attraction through the wick to the top, where it is lighted. The flame is brightened and kept from smoking by a current of air against its surface. Metal deflecting surfaces are placed adja- cent to the flame and a draft produced by means of a glass chimney. An improvement of the ordinary lamp is the invention of the central draft burner, which contains a flame separator for deflecting the upward air current through a central tube against the surface of the flame. In some cases a current is also directed against the outside of the flame by corrugation of the chimney or by means of a brass deflector. Ameri- can railways have found the use of mineral oil l{| very advantageous for ,: lighting cars and it is in [I general favor in all parts of the world. Ordinary coal gas for lighting cars is said to have been first used iu England, It was stored ill weighted rubber bags I'iaced on the roofs of ;he cars. This primitive plan proved unsatisfac- tory, however, and was abandoned. In Belgium and other European countries carbureted coal gas has been found prac- ticable for lighting trains. The gas is enriched and its illuminating qualities increased by passing it through vessels containing gasoline or naphthaline. A device known as the pintsch light is favorably thought of in America. It is a representative of what is known as the oil gas system of lighting, crude petroleum being used in its manufacture. The gas is generated by vaporizing the oil at a high temperature in cast iron re- torts. It is com- pressed into receivers from which it Is piped to cylin- drical steel tanks attached to the car. The appliances on the car for using the gas may be easily studied in the accompanying illustration. Pintsch Gas Lamp. Lamp for Candle. OPEBA TION OF TBAIN8. 162k rt.® » 2 ® CD ST CD a P b» b'3 =g& 2=^S •r) ^ ^ ?t 3 i-< i-( 2 S « !-r<'^ < _ 5 S ^ 2 c^-3 c o-a ^^ p ^ O •^ p ^ 3 - -l°'&PB'^2siS.®>S:'^==^ .3g 3* «r >» _ o S. w. J^v B B P*" « 3 h' •O CD CD W 3'(J]e^of soliratnde; tihedanyrariseainereiy : from the risk of exploaon oeeasiiMied fa^ the use en. It is said that ctmsidevslile tremble is experi- enced with this tana of lighting in e(dd weather, because at such a time chilled gaaoUne does not v^mrize readily. It is daimed not to have been dononstarated that the carbureter furnishes eitho- a better or a cheaper light than is obtained from aiO^F. fire teat urtenaaees ni. cars is lower for this i^siem than any other because it is more slm^e. n>wevn'this may be. It is ai^iarent that it can not be veiy great. The (Mmuaentid reflecting pacts are subject to the greatest depreciation, it is apparent, be cousidaaUe dci»eciatk» however, it is apparent, be cousidaaUe dci»eciatk» the ea;se of tlie ^ant ui«d to produce the gas. The gas system requires but a small outlay off the car,_a metal shed for storing tiie gasoline being about all that is needed. The cost of fixtures and appurtraianees pw car is estimated at about five hundred d«ri]aza. The depreciation is said to be less than f KMT to f^SuOO percar. tThe cost of the oil gas fixtures and a ppurt enances cmnidete few acai; with per cylinder The air is delivered to the Main Reservoir. The Ptmip Governor closes the steam pipe leading to the pomp when the desired maximum air pressure is attained, and opens the steam pipe again when the air pressure has been slightly reduced, so that no attention is needed £rom the engineer. The Engineer's Brake Valve is manipulated by the engineer as desired to open communication between the main reservoir and the train pipe, or to close this opening and open the train pipe to the atmosphere when the brakes are to be applied. The Triple Valve contains a piston engaging by a stem with a slide valve for opening and closing ports. The outer side of this piston is exposed to the train pipe pressure and the side towards the slide valve is exposed to auxiliary reservoir pressure ; it is moved one way or the other by a slight pr e pon derance of pressure on either side. When train pipe pressure is greater the piston and slide val\ e are moved so as to open a small port £tx)m the train pipe to the auxiliary reservoir for charging the latter, and a larger port from brake cylinder to atmosphere to release the brakes. When auxiliary reservoir pressure is greater, the piston and slide valve are mo\ed in the opposite direction so as to dose both the open- ings above mentioned, and then to open a passage from the auxil- iary reservoir to the brake cylinder to apply the brakes. The normal condition when rtmning, is with the main reser- voir, train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs charged with compressed air and the brakes ofiE. A reduction of pressure in the train pipe by escape to the atmosphere at engineer's valve, or at the conduc- tor's valve, or by the bursting of a hose or other breaking of train pipe, applies the brakes. A restoration of pressure in the train pipe fix>m the main reservoir by proper moving of the engineer's valve, releases the brakes and recharges the auxiliary reservoirs for further use. The Cut-Out Cock in the branch pipe and the Rdease Valve on auxiliary reservoir are for tise only when the brake on any car is out of order and mtist be cut out of service. The Release Valve is for releasing the brake on that car in such case by bleeding the auxiliary reservoir. The Pressure Retaining Valve is connected by a pipe to the exhaust port from the brake cylinder. It is left wide open for free esca^ of air ordinarily, but is set by hand before descending long. Heavy grades, so as to retain ten potmds pressure in the brake cylinder, and thus keep the brake slightly applied while recharg- ing the train. 424b APPENDIX E. ci.S N «J o> SoBbc <5 S u & u O ij i* * Q ,9 WeSTINGHOUSE /IuTOMj^T/C BrAHE, LoCOMOT/VE £Qa/PMENr. APPjamzKx. 4840 9 ai« u MtsrmGMOusr AuTomjtnc BtiAit£, PASse^eeR C^n Eou/pnteMt: i24D APPENDIX E. TT^rr-TV rC u ^ 's V .2 .2 '2 oJ '3 04 '^ % s a ^ .2 4; £ cS cS n ^ pq bo .S ^" P^ :^^ i^ u ^ a; 4; > CA '3 to *i4 a; > g a U ^3 S V 4; .>3 *3 •^ V t < u U^ ^" «i5 i _ P^ Oi oJ S a bfl £ ^n a '5 1 1 > CO a s bo & "^ 2 .2 1 la '3 a > (ii 5 2 1 3 Tj i> jj u c^ (^ s ^" S" 2 .2 2 {-1 i -6 ^ '^ ^ ^' A I 2 PQ a; '3 > WeS TINGHOUSE A /TOM/IT/ C BrAHE, FIRE/ GH T C/IR £qU/PM£NT.