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 THE 
 
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 COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 AND 
 
 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 OF 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 1918 
 
 Prepared by , ^ , 
 
 STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION ^ 
 
 And iMued by 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF FREE SCHOOLS 
 M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent 
 Charleston 
 
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 A MANUAL r:ov 7 i9;s 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 I 
 
 The Graded Course of Study 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 Including Grades 1-6 
 
 AND FOR THE 
 
 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 Including 7th, 8th and 9th Grapes 
 
 STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 EDITION OF 1918 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 And issued by 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF FREE S/JHOOLS 
 M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent 
 Charleston 
 
 1 Jr 1 
 
 STATE BOARD OF EDUCvfTION: 
 
 I 
 
 M. P. Shawkey, President, Charleston. 
 J. N. Deahl, Morgantown. / 
 
 Walter Barnes, Fairmont. I 
 C. L. Wright, Huntington. | 
 
 Thos. W. Haught, Buckhannon. 
 Wilford McCutcheon, Matoaka. 
 
 J. F. Marsh, Secretary, Charleston. 
 
TRIBUNE PRINTINQ CO., CHARLESTON, W. VA. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
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 In 1908”the State Legislature passed an act creating a State Board of Educa¬ 
 tion. One of the duties of this Board is to prepare and publish a State Course of 
 Study for Elementary and High Schools. In compliance with this statute the 
 Board prepared and issued in 1909 a Manual of the courses of study for both 
 elementary and high schools in a single volume. In 1912 the Board revised the 
 courses of study for both elementary and high schools, but issued separate manuals 
 for these two kinds of schools.Another revised edition was issued in 1914; a brief 
 revised manual in 1917; and, this will be known as the edition of 1918. 
 
 For the sake of convenience of references this manual is divided into three 
 sections. Section I contains several special articles written by individual mem¬ 
 bers of the Board and the Daily Program of Studies. Section II contains an 
 Outline of Studies by grades, indicating the text-book to be used, and the amount 
 of each to be completed each year, or half-year. Section III contains a detailed 
 outline of studies by subjects. For immediate reference Sibction II will be suffi¬ 
 cient; but questions as to how to teach any given subject, and just what to 
 teach, will be answered in Section III. Throughout Section II references are 
 frequently made to Section III. Teachers are urged to study Section III as a 
 text on pedagogy; for in this section most of the questions that confront the 
 teacher in her daily class work are answered. Many of the examination questions 
 for renewal of teachers’ certificates and some of the questions on Theory and Art 
 in the State Uniform Examinations will be taken from this manual. 
 
 I 
 
 In preparing this manual, the State Board of Education purposely departed 
 from the usual practice by basing the material on what is known as the Six-three- 
 three Plan which is fully explained in a special article (p 7). Teachers should 
 welcome an opportunity to give an honest trial to a new method of organizing 
 school work based upon child nature and social needs, and successfully tested in 
 some of the best schools of the country. 
 
 In applying the new scheme of organization and the recommendations con¬ 
 cerning supervised study (p. 8), and in following the detail suggestions which 
 have been brought up to date, teachers will find an opportunity to advance 
 the professional standing of themselves and our schools. 
 
SECTION 1 
 
 Special Articles and Daily Program of 
 
 Studies 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2018 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 
 
 https://archive.org/details/manualcontaining00west_3 
 
THE SIX-THREE-THREE PLAN. 
 
 For several years students of our educational system have been convinced that 
 the present organization of our schools is faulty in one or two very important 
 respects. It has become increasingly evident that the elementary school, con¬ 
 sisting of eight grades, was failing to fit in well.with the high school, consisting 
 of two, three or four years above the elementary school. Pupils were leaving 
 the upper grades of the elementary school in large numbers; and even if they 
 completed the lower school, they often did not care to enter the high school. 
 Investigations proved that this was usually because the pupils were not inter¬ 
 ested in the work of the upper grades and because the organization and discipline 
 of the upper grades did not accord with the nature and temperament of the 
 pupils. 
 
 In the endeavor to find a remedy for this unsatisfactory situation, educators 
 conceived and planned a re-organization of the parts of the school system. The 
 new plan is to have an elementary school of only six years instead of eight, a 
 junior high school of three years, and a senior high school of three years. This 
 is known as the “six-three-three” plan. It has been in operation in some states 
 for a number of years, it has been tried out in many cities in West Virginia, and 
 it has demonstrated its superiority to the older plan. 
 
 The State Board of Education of West Virginia has thought it highly desirable 
 to introduce this new organization, modified to meet our needs, into the schools 
 of the state. It is not proposed to alter, suddenly and completely, the present 
 system, but to modify it gradually and allow it to introduce itself and justify 
 itself. Certain weaknesses and lacks in adjustment are sure to result in chang¬ 
 ing from the present plan to the new one, and these must work themselves out 
 gradually with as little friction and inconveniences as possible. These faults 
 will disappear if teachers will reserve judgment and will work patiently to fit the 
 new system in with the old. 
 
 One-room schools will find it most difficult to adopt the new system. The 
 Board of Education recommends that one-room schools adopt the six-year 
 elementary course and at least the first two years of the junior high school course. 
 This will not entail any more work than is done at present. For the present 
 diplomas will be awarded to pupils finishing this amount of work. Whenever it 
 is possible, however, even the one-room school should add the last year of the 
 junior high school. This can be done where the pupils are few and some of the 
 lower and intermediate grades unrepresented. Of course, this will involve ad¬ 
 vanced study on the part of the teacher, but most teachers will be willing to work 
 hard to equip themselves for teaching the new subjects. 
 
 Schools of two or more rooms are expected to start in the new plan as soon 
 as possible, and, whenever it is desirable one-room schools should be consolidated 
 that the new plan may be inaugurated. Village and town schools which already 
 have a high school will have no difficulty in reorganizing their system to conform 
 to the six-three-three plan. 
 
 According to the new plan, the elementary schools will aim to complete in 
 six years the fundamental elementary subject matter. By the end of this period 
 the pupils should have gained possession of the tools of knowledge, such as ability 
 
8 
 
 to read well, to do necessary arithmetical calculations, to wTite, spell, speak; 
 and such fundamental knowledge as the essentials in Geography, History and 
 Hygiene. This means that all non-essentials must be eliminated from the course 
 of study, and that by economical methods of teaching, the ground-work of a 
 schooling shall-be laid down. 
 
 The junior high school will not at present introduce any new subjects except 
 whenever possible Domestic Science and Manual Training, and whenever possible 
 such subjects as are usually included in the first year of the high school as at 
 present organized. The discipline of the junior high school should be freer than 
 that in the elementary school and pupils should be encouraged to test themselves 
 out in different subjects to discover what their talents and capacities are. The 
 senior high school ^^ill not differ materially from the last three years of the high 
 school as at present organized. The three departments of the school should be 
 kept as distinct as possible. 
 
 SUPERVISED STUDY. 
 
 Most teachers accept the theory that “telling” is a very poor general method of 
 teaching, and that much time is wasted by having pupils report, in the ordinary 
 recitation, what they already know. Furthermore, most teachers readily agree 
 that sound learning is secured at the most satisfactory rate by pupils at interesting 
 study or work. Supervised study is intended to help the pupil avoid waste in 
 time and effort by pointing out the way to interesting, profitable schoolroom 
 work, and to aid them to do the work so that a maximum of learning is accom¬ 
 plished by each student during the school day. The following paragraphs are 
 intended to show how such a result may be obtained through what is called 
 “Supeivdsed Study.” 
 
 A teacher of a small one-room school has set aside twenty minutes for the 
 upper grade arithmetic class consisting of five pupils. She calls the class and 
 by questioning learns that the problems assigned have been solved. She may 
 spend about eight minutes in having each student tell clearly how one of the 
 problems should be solved in order to test the pupil’s understanding and method, 
 or may use that time in having one student under the direction and inspection 
 of the others solve a problem that has an important principle or difficult point. 
 This eight minutes may be considered the recitation or testing part of the 
 class period. Then the assignment of the next lesson should be made in a way 
 to arouse the interest of the class and to show them how to go about mastering 
 the lesson. This assignment which should insure profitable study of the lesson 
 may require about four minutes. At this point the class may remain in recita¬ 
 tion seats, go to the blackboard, or return to their own seats for eight minutes 
 of intensive study under the direction of the teacher. The teacher will offer 
 help on request of a member of the class and go quietly from pupil to pupil, not 
 depriving them of work by unnecessary help, but giving suggestions that will aid 
 the pupils in working out the lesson assigned. One or more backward pupils in 
 this subject may need much special assistance. After eight minutes of this inten¬ 
 sive supervised study the recitation period will close. 
 
 Now, we may think of a high school class in history consisting of twenty-five 
 pupils in a standard recitation room with a special teacher in charge. The recita¬ 
 tion period, instead of being forty or forty-five minutes in length has been ex¬ 
 tended to sixty or sixty-five minutes. By expanding the process explained in the 
 last paragraph the teacher may use about twenty minutes in testing the pupil’s 
 
9 
 
 preparation of the lesson. Many of the testing questions should require the 
 pupil to apply his knowledge of the lesson to situations differing from the routine 
 of the textbook. Oftentimes the testing may be in the form of extended oral 
 reports. Then, the next or new lesson will be taken up by giving five to eight 
 minutes for the assignment which, as stated above, will include reference to 
 its relation to the lessons completed and the directing of attention to new facts 
 or principles it contains with suggestions as to how the difficult parts can be 
 mastered most easily. It will now be seen that about thirty minutes of the period 
 remains for the study of the new lesson under the direction of the teacher. During 
 this silent study-period, “it will be necessary for the teacher to go among the 
 pupils, directing those who need further explanations and noting the acumen of 
 each pupil. In this way the pupil’s progress can be measured just as well as 
 during the customary recitation period.” If the new lesson is not well learned at 
 the end of this period, the pupils should, at least, be well on the way to com¬ 
 pleting the work assigned. 
 
 In a well organized high school with a sufficient number of trained teachers, 
 the class-period may be lengthened to eighty or ninety minutes and the time 
 given to “supervised study” lengthened accordingly. Under this plan the school 
 day should be lengthened and home study reduced to the minimum. 
 
 Alfred L. Hall-Quest who has made a thorough study of this subject, sets forth 
 the following cautions for those introducing supervised study: 
 
 1. Before undertaking this form of school organization and procedure, study 
 carefully the meaning and the typical methods of supervised study. Consider 
 fully the changes and their probable effects upon the pupils, the teachers, and 
 patrons. 
 
 2. Experiment first with one or two subjects. Adapt the new plan to local 
 conditions. 
 
 3. Plan to lengthen the school day and to reduce the amount of home study. 
 
 4. Principals and teachers undertaking this work should know the psychology 
 and the underlying principles of method as applied to each subject to be taught 
 by the supervised study plan. (Psychology of High School Subjects by 
 C. H. Judd, Ginn & Co., Chicago, and the Psychology of the Common 
 Branches by F. N. Freeman, are recommended for such study.) 
 
 The State Board of Education recommends the introduction of Supervised 
 Study in the junior high schools and regular high schools for the following reasons: 
 
 1. It will require teachers to make a thorough study of the best methods of 
 teaching their special subjects. At present many high school teachers are drearily 
 following very poor methods of college and university teachers. 
 
 2. The plan will do away with the study-hall plan that requires teachers to 
 spend much time in “bossing” a room full and to attempt to give help in many 
 subjects about which they are poorly informed. 
 
 3. It affords help to the pupils when they are helping themselves, and assists 
 them to overcome obstacles at once that might otherwise cause much delay in 
 their progress. 
 
 4. Supervised study should lengthen the school day and thus afford added 
 opportunity for the school to aid and require pupils to complete the school course 
 in a thorough way. 
 
 5. It will reduce the number of failures, make the teacher a co-operator with 
 pupils and not a lecturer and dictator, and tend to make the school a social group 
 working hard and effectively upon worth-while and definitely stated questions 
 and problems. 
 
10 
 
 The books listed below are recommended to those interested in this subject; 
 
 Supervised Study—^Hall-Quest, Macmillan Co., New York, 
 
 The Art of Study—Hinsdale, The American Book Co., New York. 
 
 How to Study—McMurry, Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 
 
 Teaching Children to Study—Earhart, Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 
 
 How to Study Effectively—^Whipple. 
 
 How to Train Pupils to Study—^Wilson. 
 
 MEASURING SCHOOL PRODUCTS. 
 
 In recent years the improvement in school education has been considerable. 
 Much of this improvement, if not most of it, has been due to what is called 
 measuring school products by teachers, principals, superintendents and others 
 who are studying the school problems. This measuring the quantity and quality 
 of the learning done by pupils consists in making use of the scientific method 
 of procedure instead of mere opinion as a guide. Experiment takes the place of 
 guessing at the progress and attainments of pupils. 
 
 Teachers who have the courage and the industry to try experimental measur¬ 
 ing of their pupils’ work will find it one of the most effective ways to improve 
 themselves as well as their schools. It has had this effect where it has been tried. 
 
 There are at least two books on the market that give in simple manner the 
 tests that have been worked out and some directions for using them. Tests have 
 not yet been prepared for all subjects, but most of the elementary subjects have 
 been quite well done. These two books are: 
 
 Starch—Educational Measurements. Macmillan Co., $1.25. 
 
 Chapman and Rush—Scientific Measurements of Schoolroom Products. 
 Silver Burdett & Co. 
 
 RURAL SCHOOL EQUIPMENT. 
 
 We are familiar with the multiplication of man’s powers through the aids of 
 machinery; also, with the special advantages added through high grade machinery 
 or tools. While the cases are not entirely similar, the school equipment to the 
 teacher is much as the tools to the worker. Communities should gladly furnish 
 proper equipment so as to get the most service from the teachers employed, 
 but, if the equipment is not furnished, the teacher should try to secure it in 
 order to insure her own full success which means her own full happiness. 
 
 School house and out-buildings in good repair, provision for pure drinking 
 water, suitable desks for pupils, a desk and chair for the teacher, a good stove 
 and plenty of fuel, brooms, chalk, and erasers, clean floor and walls—these 
 conditions and materials should be found at every school house at the opening 
 of school. If any of these minimum essentials are lacking, the teacher should 
 courteously and insistently urge the trustees or board of education to make good 
 the deficiency. 
 
 The library should be a part of every school’s equipment. At first, it should 
 consist of the most usable books—handy volumes of good literature used as 
 supplementary readers, books of historical and geographical references, a dic¬ 
 tionary, and at least one book of general information, even if it cannot be more 
 than the World Almanac. Later, books of more general reading can be added. 
 A standard one-room school should have at least 100 volumes in its library. 
 
11 
 
 A lot of money has been wasted by teachers who did not know what books to 
 buy. If teachers will follow suggestions in the Library Day Annual, prepared 
 by the Department of Schools, they will save money and secure better books. 
 Boards of education may use public money to assist in the purchase of library 
 books that are chosen from the official state list. It is of small worth to buy 
 books unless they can be kept in a case. This case need not be expensive. In 
 nearly every school may be found one or more boys who will gladly make a 
 library case, or a neighborhood carpenter who will make a case at small cost. 
 Teachers are urged to keep the library in first class condition, and to make care¬ 
 ful record of all books taken out. The proper care and use of a library are better 
 tests of a teacher than is the securing of the books. 
 
 There should be several wall maps, a globe and a primary reading chart (ap¬ 
 proved by good authority). Boards of education can easily be persuaded to 
 supply these and help supply a library if the matter is brought to their attention 
 in the right way. 
 
 Much valuable equipment can be made or furnished by the teacher, pupils, 
 and patrons. Any school ought to be able to make a neat, strong box, say 4 ft. 
 by 23 ^ ft., 4 in. deep, and fill it with clean sand. That is a sand table to make 
 happy the little folks, and to aid in the teaching of geography, nature study, 
 agriculture, history and reading. A dictionary stand, a table for papers and 
 magazines, wall holders for lamps, dividers for making circles and parallel lines 
 on blackboard, necessary shelves, pointers, rulers, and much simple busy work 
 material can be made by the school or by persons who are glad to help a tactful 
 teacher. 
 
 These are but a few suggestions that might be made. The finer work of the 
 school can be done by means of equipment not usually furnished by boards of 
 education. It will all depend upon the ingenuity and skill of the teacher. Visit 
 some good local book or school supply store or secure a catalogue of one of our 
 leading state book stores for suggestions. The catalogue of A. Flanagan Com¬ 
 pany, Chicago; Milton Bradley Co., Philadelphia; Dodson Evans Co., Colum¬ 
 bus, O.; Virginia School Supply Co., Richmond, Va., and others will be suggestive 
 to teachers, since they make a specialty of such equipment. Any good book on 
 methods of teaching will aid the teacher. The time has come when merely assign¬ 
 ing lessons and hearing recitations out of books will not do. Such methods have 
 never done well. The modern school room should be somewhat like a well ordered 
 shop or laboratory. 
 
 BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOL. 
 
 Any good observer can testify that “adaptation to environment” is the great 
 law of nature. Plants and animals in many ways suit themselves to the food, the 
 climate, and even the color of their environment. The child, too, will carry 
 through life the impress of its surroundings. The silent influences of school 
 surroundings pouring in upon the receptive natures of pupils during their 5,000 
 to 8,000 hours of school room life may out-teach the teachers for good or for 
 evil. The well understood importance of proper school environment should spur 
 every good teacher to determined efforts to make school property as nearly ideal 
 as possible. 
 
 The Walls. An uncoated, plastered wall is not only an ugly and unattractive 
 thing to look at, but it is also an actual source of injury to the eye. Practically 
 nowhere in nature, do we find such an environment facing us. Physicians are 
 
12 
 
 of the opinion that a strong glare on the eye for a long time is a source of serious 
 eye strain, with accompanying nervousness and restlessness. In our homes we 
 usually strive to cover the plastered wall with some appropriate color. 
 
 Teachers should know how to select colors for a schoolroom wall so as to be 
 able to advise boards of education or to select paints purchased by the efforts of 
 the school. For the plastered wall tinted preparations of the nature of the one in 
 common use, called Alabastine, are not expensive, are quite durable, and come in 
 an excellent range and variety of shades. For the wood it is better to use some of 
 the so-called “flat” interior paints, that is, paints with a dull rather than a gloss 
 surface. These are more expensive than the washes, such as the Alabastine, but 
 they have the advantage that when they become soiled they can be sponged off 
 and cleansed. We should avoid such colors as yellow, orange and red. The 
 greens, of which there is a wonderful range of tints, are both artistic, and soothing 
 to the eye. Through countless ages our eyes have been getting accustomed to 
 the various shades of green in the vegetation that surrounds us out of doors. 
 Some buffs and light browns and some light shades of blue may do for certain 
 rooms. Suggestions for color schemes will be found in the cards and other adver¬ 
 tising matter issued by paint manufacturers, but where the teacher, with what¬ 
 ever assistance can be secured, undertakes to put on a coat of paint or other 
 coating a single tint properly selected will do very well. 
 
 Miscellaneous Decorations. 
 
 While pictures will make up the chief decoration of a school-room, teachers 
 should note the possibilities of other materials that help to determine the appear¬ 
 ance of the school-room. 
 
 Curtains and Blinds. Under the leadership of a wide-awake teacher, 
 especially a lady teacher, the women of the neighborhood or the older school 
 girls will make neat, light curtains for the lower part of the windows. These 
 should be pushed back on dark days. Once secured, the curtains must be kept 
 clean and in order or they add dirt and ugliness. The blinds of many school¬ 
 rooms are half torn from the rollers. Why will teachers not show their thriftiness 
 and good taste by fixing these? 
 
 Flags and Banners. A bright, clean flag or banner of medium size, well 
 displayed, adds an attractive touch to a school-room. Good housekeeping and 
 proper respect for the flag should cause all old, dusty flags, banners, and bunting 
 to be removed. As a rule it is best to use flags, not as permanent decoration, 
 but for special occasions. 
 
 Casts. Schools well enough developed to be ambitious to add special signs of 
 art appreciation and culture, should try to secure some casts—copies of famous 
 sculptures or busts of persons of historical or literary fame. P. P. Caproni & 
 Bro., Boston, Mass., and The G. Hennecke Co., Milwaukee, Wis., issue catalogues 
 giving full particulars about casts for schools. 
 
 Flowers. The great variety of flowers, evergreens, decorative berries, and 
 autumn leaves makes it possible for a teacher to add, at all seasons, a bit of cheer 
 by the artistic use of some of these. Flowers speak a fine message to a school. 
 
 Pictures. The first step in decoration will often be the removal of cheap, 
 gaudy, unframed pictures put up with unsightly tacks or nails, and odd calendars, 
 shoe and coffin advertisements, dirty bunting or banners, cobwebs, and plain dirt. 
 
 A Few Good Pictures. It does not require many pictures to decorate a 
 schoolroom, one good one being better than a dozen very cheap ones. However, 
 
13 
 
 any school ought to be able to secure three or four good-sized, well-framed pic¬ 
 tures. In addition to the few permanent, larger pictures here referred to, groups 
 of small pictures can be placed, from time to time, in appropriate wall space. 
 Do not show bad taste by “sticking up ” in your schoolroom every “pretty 
 picture” that you find. Interesting pictures from papers and magazines can be 
 placed on the school bulletin board for pupils to examine or as a basis of some 
 school work. 
 
 Picture Frames. A picture frame should be a modest, harmonizing, durable 
 border to help show the picture to best advantage. A gaudy frame or one not in 
 harmony with the color scheme of the picture advertises itself and the poor taste 
 of the teacher and detracts from the picture itself. Skillful teachers can frame 
 pictures of medium size with black or green passepartout which can be 
 secured for a few cents at a drug store or school supply store. If pictures the size 
 of small window panes are purchased, the glass problem becomes simple. A 
 school of several rooms where a work shop is maintained can well afford a mitre 
 machine for making joints for picture frames and other manual training projects. 
 Some schools have paid for such a machine ($10.00 or $12.00) by framing pictures 
 for patrons. 
 
 Proper Arrangement of Pictures. Give a picture a chance by placing it 
 where it will be seen to best advantage—a large picture in a large space, a narrow 
 picture in a narrow space between windows, or at the side and a little above or 
 below a similar picture to fill a larger space, small pictures in groups that can be 
 changed. Make hangings—^wire, strings, nails, tacks—as inconspicuous as 
 possible. Send for a few cents worth of special tacks for suspending pictures. 
 Do not place pictures very high on the walls or in a straight row around the 
 rooms. Seek to give the schoolroom a cozy, homelike appearance. 
 
 Selection of Pictures. Too many teachers make their first choices for school¬ 
 room pictures from the presidents, vice presidents, and candidates. It is well to 
 hold up a high ideal through good pictures of Washington and Lincoln, but 
 it is not best to have too many faces looking down upon children day after day 
 when there is a hunger and a need for a variety of scenes that make special ap¬ 
 peals to children. Choose pictures from the masters. Remember pupils of 
 different grades and interests. (See list below). Ask questions to bring out the 
 pupils’ notions of the picture and let them hold to some of their own impressions. 
 Tell the story of the picture and the artist. The list which follows is intended as 
 a suggestion, and should not be followed rigidly. Some teachers allow pupils 
 to express preferences from catalogues. Any wide-awake teacher teaching 
 any place in West Virginia can secure some good pictures for the schoolroom. 
 The suggestive list follows: 
 
 First Grade. 
 
 Baby Stuart.Van Dyck 
 
 Can’t You Talk.Holmes 
 
 Mother and Child.'Toulmache 
 
 Feeding Her Birds.Millet 
 
 Learning A, B, C.Defregger 
 
 A Fair Wind...Raupp 
 
 Madonna of the Chair.Raphael 
 
 Hiawatha.Norris 
 
 A Helping Hand.Renouf 
 
 Second Grade. 
 
 Brittany Sheep.Bonheur 
 
 Age of Innocence.Reynolds 
 
 Friends or Foes.Barber 
 
 Which Do You Like.Holmes 
 
 Children’s Hour.Taylor 
 
 Mother and Daughter.Douglas 
 
 Mother and Child.LeBrun 
 
 Christ Blessing Little Children, Hoffman & Plockhorst 
 The First Steps.Millet 
 
V. 
 
 14 
 
 Third Grade 
 
 Three Members of a Temperance Society.Herring 
 
 The Little Scholar.Bonguereau 
 
 The Child Christ.Murillo 
 
 The Horse Fair.Bonheur 
 
 The Old Monarch.Bonheur 
 
 The Watering Place.Gainsborough 
 
 The Minute Man.French 
 
 Fourth Grade. 
 
 Washington, Portrait... . Rembrandt, Peale and Stuart 
 
 The Gleaners.Millet 
 
 Horse Fair.Bonheur 
 
 Call to the Ferryman. .Knight 
 
 Haying Time.Dupre 
 
 Distinguished Member of Humane Society.. .Landseer 
 
 Return to the Farm.Troyou 
 
 The Boy Shepherd.Murillo 
 
 Playmates.Merle 
 
 Fifth Grade. 
 
 Jesus in the Temple.Hoffman 
 
 At the Watering Trough.Dagnan-Bonveret 
 
 Spring.Mauve 
 
 Children of the Sea.Israels 
 
 Whittier’s Portrait. 
 
 Pilgrims Going to Church...Boughton 
 
 Holy Night.Le Rolle 
 
 Sistine Madonna.Raphael 
 
 The Windmill.. 
 Concord Bridge 
 Sir Ga(ahad.... 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 The Coliseum. 
 
 Reading from Homer 
 
 Hope. 
 
 Lincoln, Portrait. 
 
 The Haymaker. 
 
 Sixth Grade. 
 
 Van Ruysdael 
 .Watts 
 
 The Aurora. 
 
 The Sower. 
 
 The Avenue of Trees 
 
 Seventh and Eighth Grades. 
 
 Mauve 
 
 Alma-Tadema 
 . .Burne-Jones 
 
 Adan 
 
 The Shepherdess. 
 
 Angelas. 
 
 Breaking Home Ties. 
 Washington, Portrait 
 Song of the Lark. 
 
 .Reni 
 
 ... Millet 
 Gobbema 
 
 ....Millet 
 ....Millet 
 Hovenden 
 ,...Stuart 
 .. .Breton 
 
 SANITATION. 
 
 Fight the Germs. Sanitation is no longer a fad. Science and experience 
 have demonstrated that diseases can be prevented, that the bad effects of disease 
 can be much reduced, and that the health of children can be greatly improved 
 through teaching, and strict compliance with well-known laws of health. It 
 seems appropriate here to quote two paragraphs from the former State Manual: 
 
 “These things are not an idle dream; they are practical scientific 
 possibilities. The adopted textbooks in hygiene, sanitation and physiol¬ 
 ogy give a fine lot of information that should be used to this end; but 
 physiological knowledge is one of the most useless kinds of knowledge, 
 merely as knowledge, just as it is one of the most valuable kinds of 
 knowledge when applied. The teacher should have a burning enthusiasm 
 for knowledge of this sort, should seek it and acquire it from all possible 
 sources, and in all cases should be in her school and in her community 
 a tireless missionary of the great gospel of good health. 
 
 “The teacher should above all things else try to control the health con¬ 
 ditions of her schoolroom. The room should be clean and every known 
 sanitary principle within her power should be applied. For instance, 
 the best air there is is that out of doors, and the one general prin¬ 
 ciple of ventilation is to bring this air in as freely as is possible. Every 
 dust mote may be the aeroplane of a jolly party of germs, ambitious 
 to make explorations and settlements in some child’s nose or mouth 
 or lungs. Therefore, the dust mote should reach the ground outside 
 otherwise than by flight through the air. Blackboards should be 
 cleaned outside of school hours in order to reduce the danger from 
 
15 
 
 chalk dust. A dozen kinds of germs are lurking in the common drinking 
 cup, and the weakest, the strongest, or the dearest child of the school 
 ' may be the next object of attack by a colony of the most deadly germs.” 
 
 It is as much the duty of the teacher to fight the enemies of the pupils’ health 
 as it is for our soldiers to fight the enemies of our country. 
 
 Enforce the Law. Senate Bill No. 129 passed by the Legislature of 1915 
 gives the Public Health Council power to make regulations concerning sanita¬ 
 tion. The following regulations are quoted from a bulletin issued by the Public 
 Health Council and have the full force and effect of law. Violators of any of these 
 regulations including teachers shall upon conviction be punished as provided 
 by law. 
 
 Water for Washing. Water and soap for hand washing shall be provided, 
 but no common towel shall be used in any public school in the State. Paper 
 towels are recommended, but pupils may be permitted to use their own private 
 towels. 
 
 Drinking Water. Boards of education or other school officers in charge shall 
 see that their schools are provided with, or have access to, an abundant supply 
 of pure drinking water. Buckets and all other open water receptacles are for¬ 
 bidden, and also the use of the common drinking cup. Sanitary drinking foun¬ 
 tains or individual drinking cups shall be used exclusively in all schools. Where 
 it is necessary to use a water receptacle, a closed jar, tank or coolor with faucet 
 shall be provided, which shall be kept clean and which shall have its contents 
 renewed at least every morning. 
 
 I Sweeping of Rooms. No class room shall be swept except after all school 
 exercises for the given day have been concluded, and no floor of a school room 
 shall be swept without first having been covered with damp sawdust or other 
 suitable preparation for this purpose. All sweepings or waste shall be removed 
 from each school room daily. The seats, desks and other furniture shall be 
 wiped down with an oiled or paraffined cloth every day after the dust has settled, 
 and the woodwork or finishing of every schoolroom and of every hallway or 
 corridor shall be wiped down in the same way at least once a week. 
 
 Sanitation of School Buildings and Grounds. The Public Health Coun¬ 
 cil shall, whenever it deems necessary or advisable, cause an investigation of 
 the sanitary condition of any school house, building or ground used for school 
 purposes. If they shall find that such school house, building or ground is in any 
 respect a menace, or likely to become a menace, to the health or physical welfare 
 of the pupils or teachers, they shall call the attention of the local Board of Health 
 to the fact; and if, after a reasonable length of time the complaint has not been 
 attended to in a satisfactory way, they shall either order such changes as in their 
 judgment will make the building and grounds safe and sanitary for school pur¬ 
 poses, or condemn the same and forbid their further use. 
 
 It shall be the duty of the School Board of the district forthwith on notifica¬ 
 tion to make the changes ordered, and the cost of the same shall be a charge upon 
 the district. 
 
 Diseases. Pupils actually infected with the following named diseases shall be 
 excluded from school during the existence of the disease, and shall be readmitted 
 only upon presenting a certificate from a licensed physician attesting to their 
 recovery; Tonsilitis, trachoma, scabies (itch), pediculosis capitis (head lice), 
 pediculosis corporis (body lice), tinea circinata (ringworm), impetigo contagiosa, 
 favus. The teacher or principal shall exclude from school any child suspected 
 
16 
 
 to be suffering from any communicable disease, pending examination and report 
 from a licensed physician. 
 
 No child who has suffered and recovered from a communicable disease, shall 
 be permitted to enter any school except upon certificate of a competent licensed 
 physician, setting forth that all rules and regulations have been complied with, 
 and that the child presents no evidence of disease and is incapable of conveying 
 infection. 
 
 No person suffering from any communicable disease shall be employed as 
 teacher or janitor, or in any capacity which brings him or her in contact with 
 children in any public school in the State. 
 
 No person, either as teacher or pupil, afflicted or suspected to be afflicted with 
 trachoma shall be allowed to attend any public, parochial or private school in 
 the State, and no person excluded from school for this cause shall be readmitted 
 except after having been treated and relieved of any contagious disease of the 
 eyes. 
 
 No person shall be entered as a teacher, employee or pupil in any school in 
 the State without having first presented to the principal in charge or the proper 
 authority a certificate from a competent licensed physician of this State, cer¬ 
 tifying that the said teacher, employee or pupil has been successfully vaccinated 
 against smallpox; or in lieu of a certificate of successful vaccination, a certificate 
 certifying that a recent vaccination has been done in a proper manner, or proof 
 of immunity by reason of having had the smallpox. 
 
 Teachers boarding or residing in a family in which any disease subject to 
 quarantine is known or suspected to exist, shall immediately move to premises 
 not so infected, and provided they have not been actually exposed to infection, 
 may be allowed to continue their attendance at school, provided, that in the 
 case of smallpox such teachers shall have been successfully vaccinated within 
 five years; and in case of diphtheria that bacteriological examination of the 
 discharges from the nose and throat proves negative, they may be permitted to 
 resume their school duties. 
 
 GRADING AND PROMOTIONS IN RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties in carrying out instructions in this course of study 
 will be the grading of the pupils. And yet it is a rather simple matter as a general 
 proposition. Its difficulty is found in applying the general principle to particular 
 pupils. 
 
 Suppose you have a school that has never been graded, or at least has been only 
 very poorly graded. The first thing to do is to determine what pupils should 
 be in the first grade. Of course, all who are just starting to school for the first 
 time will be in that grade. Normally we would expect them to be six years of 
 age. But some of them may be seven or eight years of age. 
 
 Furthermore, there will likely be some who have been in school one or two 
 years, but, because of irregular attendance, poor teaching or dullness on their 
 part, have not learned enough of the first grade work to do the work of the second 
 grade. These will also be in the first grade. Once it is determined what pupils 
 will do the work of the first year, you have your first grade organized. Then 
 you go to the course of study and find just what work these pupils will do. Simi¬ 
 larly the teacher will organize the pupils into classes of the second grade, third 
 grade, and so on up through the eight grades, if all the grades are represented. 
 
17 
 
 And by referring to the course of study the teacher can tell just what work each 
 grade will do and what books they will study. 
 
 It is to be hoped that no teacher in the state will hereafter disregard the course 
 of study and go on in the old way of trying to teach each pupil in a class by him¬ 
 self. Even during the past year teachers have been found with as many as a 
 dozen classes in arithmetic, each pupil working by himself and going as far each 
 day as he could work the examples or solve the problems. Such individual 
 teaching might not be very bad if properly done, but no teacher has time to do 
 this. Some of the pupils will be neglected and the neglect usually comes to the 
 smaller ones who really need most attention. 
 
 Once the school is graded the matter of promoting next claims attention. 
 Normally the first grade would be promoted to the second grade at the end of the 
 year, the second to the third and so on up to the eighth grade, who would receive 
 their diplomas. But it does not always work out so in actual practice. Some 
 pupils will do better than others. The test for promotion should always be 
 ability of the pupil to do the work of the next higher grade. If at any time a pupil 
 can do the work of the next higher grade, he should be promoted. It is not right 
 for a teacher to depend upon formal examinations and tests as bases for pro¬ 
 motions. Thorough investigations show that such tests are unreliable. Class 
 records, try-outs, and scientific measurements (p. 10) should be used when 
 possible. This situation will not often arise unless there be pupils whose age 
 would normally place them in a higher grade. In such cases the pupils should ’ 
 be given a trial in the grade of their age, or the grade next above the one in which 
 they have been placed. It may be that a teacher will misjudge a pupil’s ability 
 to do the work of a given grade and place him in a grade too high. This mis- 
 judgment is all the more likely where poor records of the pupil’s work have been 
 kept, the teacher being compelled to rely on the pupil’s statement or a brief oral 
 examination. In such case the pupil should, after a fair trial, be placed in the 
 next lower grade. 
 
 The classification of pupils by grades is a means of economizing the time and 
 energy'’ of the teacher. The chief reason why grading is important in a rural 
 school is that a teacher can in fifteen minutes teach a half dozen pupils more 
 and better in a class than if she gives each of them 2 minutes separately. And 
 since the rural teacher has from six to eight grades, it is the only way she can 
 distribute her time so as to get the best results in the short time at her disposal. 
 Furthermore, there is something to be gained by the association of pupils in a 
 class. They learn from one another and have a means of measuring their attain¬ 
 ments with those of their fellows. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND THE FREE SCHOOL DIPLOMA. 
 
 There should be no written examinations for promotion below the fourth or 
 fifth grade. There may be written exercises of the nature of examinations. 
 Even then and thereafter promotion should not be determined wholly by the 
 results of the examinations. The teacher should keep in mind always that the 
 true test for promotion is ability to do the work of the next higher grade. The 
 examination, therefore, should be only one means of determining this ability. 
 The examination should be a fair test of the pupil’s knowledge of the work he 
 has been doing, and at the same time should be a test of the pupil’s ability to 
 generalize from this knowledge and apply it to new situations. 
 
18 
 
 The final examination for the free school diploma will be prepared by the 
 State Superintendent. This examination will aim to test the pupil’s knowledge 
 of the elementary subjects. It will determine first, whether or not the pupil 
 has received all from the elementary grades that it is worth while to get, and 
 second, whether or not he is prepared to do the work of the first year in high 
 school. Teachers should fully co-operate with county superintendents in an 
 effort to safeguard the issuance of common school diplomas, so that this impor¬ 
 tant credential will retain its proper value. 
 
 The free school diploma is serving as a fine incentive for pupils to complete 
 the elementary grades, especially where a high school is within reach of the 
 pupils. Teachers will be rendering a great service not only to their pupils but 
 also to the state by acquainting the boys and girls with the value of finishing the 
 course and receiving the diploma. To develop the habit of finishing a task once 
 begun is an essential step toward success in life. Winning promotions year by 
 year and finally this diploma will be a valuable contribution toward fixing such 
 a habit. 
 
 LITERARY AND SOCIAL CENTER EXERCISES. 
 
 Every school ought to make some provision for so-called “literary or social 
 center exercises.” It is perhaps best for certain reasons to have this done in 
 the school under the supervision of the teacher, but if there is sufficient interest 
 among the patrons to maintain a good literary society or social center meeting 
 in the school house at night, it is well to organize it. The literary exercises of 
 the school cannot assume that breadth of scope which the literary society for 
 the whole community does. 
 
 The school should, in a measure at least, become a social center for the dis¬ 
 trict. The regular meetings of a literarv^ society furnish the opportunity and 
 occasion for the patrons of the school to meet and discuss the subjects that are 
 of interest to them. It affords the teacher also an opportunity to meet the 
 patrons, to become acquainted with them, to explain the work of the school, to 
 interest them in its work, and to enlist their co-operation. 
 
 There will always be in ever>' community those whose ability and informa¬ 
 tion fit them to discuss the larger questions of the day. They bring to these 
 discussions the results of their own experience and knowledge of affairs, and 
 the younger members of the society profit greatly by hearing them. In this 
 way such an organization renders both an intellectual and a social service. 
 
 Teachers must not lo.se sight of the impressionable nature of young folks— 
 of their inquisitiveness, dreamings, ambitions, and habits of imitation. The 
 public meetings, if well planned and managed, will make good use of such possi¬ 
 bilities of giving information, stirring desire to be and do, and of making proper 
 ideals of public welfare and organized procedure. Such meetings should be con¬ 
 ducted so as to give pupils instructions and practice in presiding, making motions, 
 keeping minutes, making short organized talks and arguments, etc. 
 
 The work, so far as it is under the direction of the teacher, should be carefully 
 supervised. Pupils left to themselves are apt to select readings, recitations, etc., 
 with reference to some vein of humor which is apt to be coarse. The literarj^ 
 work should aid in the appreciation of good literature. To this end the teacher 
 should help the pupil to select his material from writers of known ability and 
 reputation. The fact that material of this kind can be used in the literary work 
 furnishes a stronger motive for the careful memorizing of select poems and other 
 selections from literature. 
 
19 
 
 The exercises of most value to the pupil, however, are those which call upon him 
 to work up in his own way the material which he may have accumulated on any 
 subject. This is original work. Theme writing is to literature and reading what 
 the laboratory is to scientific study. It is the means of working up into usable 
 form the materials which one collects. Hence the essay, oration, or written debate 
 is valuable in developing the original power of the pupil and teaches him to arrange 
 his ideas and express them in the most forcible way. 
 
 Those in charge of the schools should not be content to keep on holding such 
 meetings in the same routine fashion without any show of definite purposes or 
 originality. Let the teacher enlist the best talent of the community for such 
 projects and programs as are suggested below: 
 
 1. How Can We Improve Our School Property? 
 
 2. How Can We Make Our Community More Sanitary? 
 
 3. How Can We Make our Community More Beautiful? 
 
 4. How Can We Produce More In Our Community? 
 
 5. Local History. 
 
 6 . Special Days. 
 
 (State and National bulletins, journals, magazines, and papers are full 
 of suggestions for such programs.) 
 
 7. Athletic and Play Days. 
 
 8 . Parades and Exhibitions, including Floats, Demonstrations and Pan¬ 
 tomimes. 
 
 9. Fairs and Exhibits. 
 
 (The Extension Department of The College of Agriculture, Morgantown, 
 can help much with these.) 
 
 10. Community Singing and Special Music. 
 
 11. Evenings With the Poets and Artists. 
 
 The State Department of Schools will be pleased to give suggestions and 
 material for such programs to teachers who make inquiry. 
 
 READING CIRCLE WORK. 
 
 First. The value of the Reading Circle work to the teacher lies first in this, 
 that it selects his professional books for him. The texts recommended for study 
 from year to year are selected with especial care, both as to their treatment of 
 the subject and as to their adaptation to the needs of the teachers of the state. 
 They can be depended upon as being sound in their teaching, and they are se¬ 
 lected with reference to the particular needs of our own state. Many books are 
 examined before a selection is made. With the great multiplicity of books on 
 educational subjects now coming from the press, the matter of proper selection 
 of one’s professional reading is of great importance to the teacher. 
 
 Second. Every teacher, whether he has had‘a normal course or not, must 
 read some educational books in order to grow professionally. No teacher can 
 long continue to do successful work who is not keeping up with the progress in 
 his profession. 
 
 This progress has been so rapid in recent years that it requires the teacher 
 to be on the alert all the time. Ten years has seen almost a complete change 
 in the view of the purpose of the school and of the methods of attaining that 
 purpose. These changes are reflected in the more recent books and literature and, 
 therefore, they are the sources to which teachers must go for their own knowl- 
 
20 
 
 edge of the progress and current tendencies in education. Constant reading 
 of the literature of the profession is necessar^^ to one’s professional growth. 
 
 Third. The aim in the Reading Circle work is to select books from year 
 to year so as to present difTerent phases of education or different fields of study. 
 The history of education, psychology, method and the general principles of teach¬ 
 ing, all, by this means, receive their proper consideration and the teacher’s pro¬ 
 fessional reading maintains a balance and proportion which it otherwise might 
 not have. * 
 
 Fourth. By the purchase from year to year of the books recommended 
 for reading, one soon accumulates a library of well-selected professional books 
 with which he is thoroughly familiar. Frequent reading and study of these 
 works help, at least, to furnish clearer ideas of the purposes of the public school 
 and of the processes of educating the child. The more clearly these purposes 
 and processes are seen the more direct become the efforts of the teacher and the 
 better are the results of his teaching. In other words, careful study of the books 
 prescribed in the Reading Circle will tend to more efficient work by the teacher. 
 
 Fifth. An actual, immediate money value may attach to Reading Circle 
 work. Teachers passing a uniform examination on two prescribed Reading Circle 
 books in any year with grades of 85% or more, can secure a Coupon of Credit, 
 which has a cash value of one dollar per month additional salary for the time 
 taught in that year.' The same kind of coupon may be secured by doing credit 
 home-class study in the Reading Circle books offered by some of the state normal 
 schools. 
 
 PLAY. 
 
 All normal children like to play. If a child shows no interest in games, that child 
 should give the teacher concern similar to that felt for a sick child. The wise 
 teacher will turn to good account the universal play instinct. Through its 
 proper exercise and guidance children can be developed physically; relieved of 
 over-timidity in the company of others; taught the important rules of give- 
 and-take and unselfish co-operation for the common good of the team and group; 
 impressed with the importance and dignity of fair play; and brought into good 
 relationship with fellow pupils and teacher. While the foregoing results should 
 be obtained through games, they must not interfere with joyous, free play for 
 the sake of fun which, after all, is necessary to secure the objects enumerated. 
 
 We do not have enough variety in our games and do not always organize our 
 contests so as to bring out the most zest. Since play is such an important element 
 in the school program, teachers should feel responsible for knowing the subjects 
 as they do arithmetic or grammar. Make a study of some of the material listed 
 in the paragraph below. 
 
 In schools large enough, contests between rooms, and classes should be staged. 
 On some special occasions, athletic contests, especially field meets including 
 contests for all sizes of children, should be held. Leaders of such contests should 
 be familiar with the rules and see that the events are conducted in the best 
 form. 
 
 For further study of games it is recommended that the teacher procure a 
 copy of “Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium,” by Jessie 
 H. Bancroft, published by the Macmillan Company, New York. It names and 
 describes a large number of games suitable for each grade in the elementary school. 
 Another book of games costing less is Johnston’s “What to Do at Recess;” 
 Ginn & Co., New York, price 25 cents. 
 
21 
 
 CHARACTER AND HABITS. 
 
 Proper behavior should be one of the major aims of education. Knowledge 
 finds its proper use through behavior determined by sound character. An in¬ 
 dividual’s character is the working sum total of that individual’s habits, and it is 
 the high privilege of the teacher and the school to have much to do with form¬ 
 ing the permanent habits of young folks. 
 
 There are two distinct periods in character building that the teacher must 
 recognize if the most desirable results are to be obtained. The period of child¬ 
 hood from si.x to about twelve or thirteen and the period of youth from twelve 
 or thirteen to about twenty years or later must be clearly distinguished. In 
 childhood the instincts are individualistic, mostly for self. The appeal must 
 be made only in so far as the child can see a personal benefit to be derived. The 
 important thing in childhood is to have the child act out ever>^ moral idea and 
 precept that is to be learned. A properly organized school furnishes very excel¬ 
 lent situations for the child to do whatls to be learned. With the child even more 
 than with the youth the doing is the learning. 
 
 As soon as the child attains to the age of youth a very different manner of 
 treatment must be accorded him. His social instincts now make it possible for 
 him to become morally whatever his environment will produce in him. He now 
 has a natural disposition to do and to live for other people. The teacher should 
 not only recognize this new sense, but he must also recognize that the youth has 
 a keen sense of the respect, reverence, and confidence that he is worthy of. He 
 should be treated now as one whose opinions and behavior are of real worth to 
 other people. 
 
 Some of the things that the child should learn are cleanliness, neatness, prompt¬ 
 ness, regularity and obedience. It is also well that the child should learn that it 
 should pay for a benefit before it enjoys. Teach by incidents, illustrations, 
 and stories well told to impress the idea and to secure the proper response in 
 conduct. Show that kindness, honesty and truthfulness have their sure reward. 
 Teach that industry, politeness, and respect for other people are desirable virtues 
 and that idleness, rudeness and irreverence are vices to be avoided. 
 
 Teach the youth to see clearly the need and value of institutions, of govern¬ 
 ment and of society. Use biography, history, and literature to show how civiliza¬ 
 tion depends upon the co-operation of human beings of all classes and ranks of 
 life. Give the youth large opportunity to act out his moral ideas and place 
 responsibility upon him for which he is to account in a reasonable length of 
 time. Keep in mind in dealing with both children and youth that prevention and 
 not reformation is the school’s function. The time to act on the part of the 
 teacher is before the impulse and instinct have resulted in undesirable behavior. 
 
 THE DAILY PROGRAM. 
 
 The arranging of a daily program is always a difficult thing to do in a rural 
 school of eight grades. And yet the success of the school depends largely on how 
 well this program of daily work is arranged. The tendency among teachers is 
 to provide for too many classes. Some teachers have been found trying to do 
 the impossible task of teaching from 30 to 40 classes a day. There should not 
 be more than 20 to 25. 
 
 How to avoid having too many classes is a problem that confronts every 
 rural teacher of a one-room school of seven or eight grades. The problem can 
 be solved only by alternation and correlation of studies. 
 
22 
 
 Alternation is the systematic and regular union of two grades of pupils, both 
 grades doing the work of one year in one class, while the other year’s work is 
 omitted. The next year the work omitted is taken up and the first year’s work 
 dropped. In this way each pupil does all the work of the course, but not all in 
 the same order, and the number of classes is greatly diminished, the recitation 
 periods lengthened and more efficient work done. 
 
 Alternation of classes may begin in the fifth and sixth grades. It is a very 
 simple matter to teach the fifth grade work in geography to the fifth and sixth 
 grade pupils in 1918-19 and in 1919-20 to teach the sixth grade geography to 
 fifth and sixth grade pupils, and so on, alternating each succeeding year. 
 
 In a similar manner fifth grade reading and sixth grade histor>% fifth and sixth 
 grade arithmetic and fifth and sixth grade language work may be alternated. 
 In the seventh and eighth grades all the work may be alternated where it is not 
 more economical to correlate with other subjects. Correlation is here used to 
 mean the teaching of one subject, as spelling, while teaching composition. 
 
 TYPE DAILY PROGRAM OF RECITATION AND STUDY. 
 
 Suggestions. 
 
 1. Note that this program is but a type program. It is meant merely to be 
 suggestive. The number of pupils and the number of grades will determine the 
 daily program of your school. 
 
 2. Study this type daily program diligently until you have mastered the 
 general plan of recitation and study periods. To do so will enable you to work 
 out a daily program for your school. 
 
 3. Note that it is important for children io have regular times for studying 
 
 the different subjects as well as for reciting. 
 
 4. Note what classes are alternated and correlated in this type program. 
 It may be that you can extend these methods of saving time. 
 
 The home economics may be alternated with civics or with seventh and eighth 
 grade arithmetic. In like manner the industrial arts may alternate with one 
 or the other of these subjects. If the class in seventh and eighth grades is small, 
 the teacher could supervise both the home economics and the industrial arts 
 at the same period. WTien this can be done, civics and seventh and eighth grade 
 arithmetic should alternate and a daily period of 20 minutes be used for home 
 economics and industrial arts. 
 
DAILY PROGRAM OF RECITATION AND STUDY. 
 
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SECTION II 
 
 Outline of Studies by Grades 
 
 Grades I-VI 
 
OUTLINE OF STUDIES BY GRADES. 
 
 (Grades I-VI.) 
 
 First Grade. 
 
 Reading —^Text: Wheeler’s Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Supplementary: Riverside Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Child’s World Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Primer and First Reader. 
 Elson’s Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Art Literature Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Language —^No textbook in first grade. See Language and Composition, Sec¬ 
 tion III. 
 
 Writing —Text: Ec®nomy Method of Writing—Primary. 
 
 Nature Study —No textbook. See Nature Study, Section III. 
 
 Second Grade. 
 
 Reading —Text: Wheeler’s Second Reader. 
 
 Supplementary: Riverside Second Reader. 
 
 Child’s World Second Reader. 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Second Reader. 
 
 Elson’s Second Reader. 
 
 Art-Literature Second Reader. 
 
 Language —^No textbook in second grade. See Language and Grammar, Section 
 
 III. 
 
 Writing —Text: Economy Method of Writing—Primary. 
 
 Nature Study —^No textbook. See Nature Study, Section III. 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 Reading —Text: Wheeler’s Third Reader. 
 
 Supplementary: Riverside Third Reader. 
 
 Child’s World Third Reader. 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Third Reader. 
 
 Elson’s Third Reader. 
 
 Art-Literature Third Reader. 
 
 Language —^No textbook. See Language and Composition, Section III. 
 Writing —Text: Economy Method of Writing—Intermediate. 
 
 Spelling —Mastery of Words, Book I, pages 1-50. 
 
 Ajrithmetig —Text: Hamilton’s Elementary Arithmetic, to page 107. 
 
 Nature Study —^No textbook. See Nature Study, Section III. 
 
 Drawing —Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books. 
 
 Music—Text: Congdon’s or Dann’s Music Readers. 
 
Fourth Grade. 
 
 Rel\ding —Text: Wheeler’s Fourth Reader. m 
 
 Supplementary-: Riverside Fourth Reader. j 
 
 Child’s World Fourth Reader. ^ 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Fourth Reader. i 
 
 Elson’s Fourth Reader. 
 
 Art-Literature Fourth Reader. [ 
 
 Language —^Text: Kimball’s Elementary English, Book I, Part 1. 1*^ 
 
 Writing —Text: Economy Method of Writing—Intermediate. 
 
 Spelling —^Text: Mastery- of Words, Book I, pages 51-90. 
 
 Arithmetic —Text: Hamilton’s Elementary^ Arithmetic, to page 186. 
 
 Natctre Study .\nd Geography —No textbook first half-year. See Geography 
 Section III. Second half-year, text: Fry-e’s First Course in Geography. 
 History —Text: Mace’s Beginner’s History-, to page 202. 
 
 Drawing —^Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books. 
 
 Music —^Text: Dann’s Music Course. 
 
 Fifth Grade. 
 
 Literatltre —^Text: Elson’s Grammar School Reader, Book I and Wheeler’s- 
 Fifth Reader. 
 
 Supplementary-: Riverside Fifth Reader. 
 
 Child’s World Fifth Reader. 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Fifth Reader. 
 Art-Literature Fifth Reader. 
 
 Language —Text: Kimball’s Elementary- English, Book I, Part II. 
 
 Writing —^Text: Economy Method of Writing—Intermediate. 
 
 Spelling —Text: Mastery of Words. Book I, pages 91-134. 
 
 Arithmetic —^Text: Hamilton’s Elementary Arithmetic, to page 288. 
 Geography- —^Text: First half-year, Frye’s First Course in Geography. Second 
 half-y-ear, Fry-e’s Higher Geography. 
 
 Ph\-siology and Hygiene —^Text: Ritchie-Caldwell Primer of Hygiene. 
 History —Text: Mace’s Beginner’s History, pages 202-389. 
 
 Dr.\wing —Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books. 
 
 Music —^Text Darm’s Music Course. 
 
 Sixth Grade. 
 
 Literature —^Text: Elson’s Grammar School Reader, Book II. 
 
 Supplementary: Riverside Sixth Reader. 
 
 Language .and Composition —Text: Kimball’s Elementary English, Book I,. 
 Part III. 
 
 Writing —^Text: Economy Method of Writing—^Advanced. 
 
 Spelllng — ^Text: Mastery of Words, Book II, pages 1-41. 
 
 Arithmetic —Text: Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic, Part 1. 
 
 Geography —^Text: Frye’s Higher Geography. 
 
 U. S. History —^Text: Mace-Tanner’s Old Europe and Young America. 
 Physiology and Hygiene —^Text: Primer of Sanitation. 
 
 Drawing —Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books. 
 
 Music—^Text: Dann’s Music Course. 
 
 (See Junior High School Section for outline for seventh, eighth and ninth 
 grades.) 
 
SECTION III 
 
 Outline of Studies by Subjects 
 
 Grades I-VI 
 
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READING AND LITERATURE. 
 
 GENERAL DISCUSSION. 
 
 Reading is the most important study in the curriculum. It is the most im¬ 
 portant study because nearly all the other subjects depend upon it. Arithmetic, 
 geography, history and other branches are studied in large part through books 
 which the pupil must read. It is important, moreover, because reading is one of 
 the most convenient means that children—particularly country children—have, 
 after they leave school, of informing themselves and of amusing themselves, 
 Reading, then, is the key that unlocks the great store house of knowledge and 
 wisdom, art and culture. 
 
 One of the fundamental aims of the school, therefore, is to teach children to 
 read well, which is to read with ease, pleasure, rapidity, and intelligence. In 
 fact, aside from nature study, geography, agriculture, hygiene, and handicraft 
 work, the curriculum may be said to exist, in part, for the purpose of teaching the 
 child to read well in different subjects; and even the branches mentioned above 
 are supplemented largely by reading. The teacher who can teach reading, in 
 the broad sense in which it is here used, is a good teacher. 
 
 Method of Teaching Primary Reading. 
 
 It follows, then, that the method of teaching beginners to read is very im¬ 
 portant. Reading is the art of getting the meaning from print and writing. 
 Any series of exercises that enables the child to learn this art is a method of 
 teaching reading. But some series of exercises are better than others, easier, more 
 economical of time and energy, and lead more directly into the art of getting ideas 
 from print and script. What is the best method? 
 
 If we examine the way in which the child learns to get the meaning from what 
 he hears, perhaps we shall see how we should set about training him to get the 
 meaning from what he sees on the printed page. The infant sees a certain animal 
 with four legs, a body of a certain shape, ears and eyes and tail. He can recognize 
 the animal when he sees it; but as yet, he does not know any name to apply to 
 it. But he wants to know. His mother tells him it is a pig, and she has him 
 say the word until he can pronounce it. After some days of forgetting and being 
 told, he succeeds in remembering that the sound pig is the sign of that animal. 
 Now, the name given to that animal might have been gip, and the child would 
 have been just as well satisfied. That is, the name is an artificial sign of the 
 idea. No amount of observing the animal would have told him what its name is. 
 That is something he has to learn as a separate bit of knowledge. Likewise he 
 learns that I is a sound used by a person to represent himself when he is speaking 
 and writing; that see is a sound used to stand for the act of looking, of using the 
 eyes to observe. Finally if the sentence I see a pig is spoken, the child recognizes 
 the sounds as representing ideas, and he learns how to express his own ideas by 
 using these artificial sounds. In other words, he has learned that certain sounds 
 stand for certain ideas, and he can articulate these sounds with the understanding 
 that he is expressing ideas. 
 
30 
 
 Observ'e five facts in this process: (1) The child has but learned the sound- 
 signs of ideas that are already familiar to him. He has learned only how to call 
 the things that he knew. He has mastered the artificial symbols of previously 
 learned ideas; he has not acquired new ideas. (2) He has learned these names 
 ns wholes, not as parts; that is, he has not learned the sound pig by learning sepa¬ 
 rately the three sounds in the word, or by learning the three letters p-i-g; he 
 has learned the group of sounds as a unit. (3) He has learned that each object 
 and idea has its sound-sign, and by practice has developed some power of learn¬ 
 ing new sound-signs. (4) He has learned to understand sounds by hearing them 
 often, and has learned to utter the sounds by imitation and practice. (5) He 
 takes pleasure in the process, because he feels the desirability of knowing the 
 names for the different objects and ideas. 
 
 Learning to read is a similar process. Instead of learning sound-signs, the 
 child is now to learn print-signs. The idea is now expressed by means of printed 
 or written letters combined in w^ords and sentences, instead of by means of spoken 
 sounds, combined in w^ords and sentences. The child has now a double task. 
 He must not only learn the print-signs of ideas; he must identify the print- 
 signs with the sound-signs. The spoken word pig is a sign of the animal; the 
 printed word pig is another sign of the animal; while the written word pig is a 
 variety of the printed sign. However, this double task is not very difficult, since 
 the child has already learned the sound-name; and as soon as he learns the print- 
 name for the same idea, he associates the two names. 
 
 Just here one of the fundamental mistakes of teaching reading is often made: 
 the teacher thinks the child’s sole task is to directly associate the two names. 
 As a matter of fact, the child’s first task is to associate the print-sign with the 
 idea; after he has done that, he readily associates the two names. That is, the 
 child should be taught to get ideas from the printed symbols, not merely to 
 pronounce the corresponding spoken symbols. There is danger that the child in 
 reading his lesson may only associate the print-sign with the sound-sign; may only 
 pronounce words, instead of getting ideas. 
 
 Naturally, then, the teacher must make sure that the child understand and 
 express the meaning; and in order to make sure, the teacher will have to perform 
 a process similar to that of the mother when she taught the child the sound-names 
 of ideas. 
 
 I. The teacher must teach the print-signs of those ideas that are already 
 familiar to the child. After she has selected the ideas that are familiar to the 
 children and found some reading material that deals with these ideas, she must 
 call up the idea into the child’s mind. She can do this in four ways. 
 
 First, she may have the objects themselves brought into the school room, or 
 may take the child out to the objects, then have the child get reacquainted with 
 them. If she wishes to teach the word ball, she can have the child handle the 
 ball. When she is sure the child has the idea of ball in his mind, she shows 
 him that the idea is represented by a certain sign; then she writes the word on 
 the board and points it out in the primer. She repeats the word and the child 
 repeats it after her. Other words she teaches in the same way, reviewing and 
 repeating from time to time, just as the mother has done. 
 
 Second, if the idea is an action-idea, the teacher has the child perform the 
 action, then teaches him the written and printed word that names the action. 
 Thus she teaches toss, catch, drop, etc., by having the child perform the actions; 
 then associates the action with the word written on the board, and pointed out 
 in the chart or primer. 
 
31 
 
 Third, if it is not convenient to have the object before the child, a picture is 
 often used. This is one reason so many pictures are found in primers and first 
 readers. 
 
 Fourth, often the teacher can bring the idea back into the child’s mind by 
 asking questions and starting conversations about the idea. This is not so good a 
 way as the others, but it will serve. 
 
 The teacher may use any or all of these devices, but she must make sure 
 that the children have the idea clearly in mind before the print-sign of the idea 
 is presented; otherwise the child is likely to merely pronounce the word without 
 associating it with the idea. The new words must always be taught in this way 
 until the child has gained the power of learning new words for himself. And, 
 whenever the reading lesson contains an unfamiliar idea, the teacher must first 
 make the idea clear before she tries to teach the word. 
 
 II. The words should be taught as wholes, not as parts. The mother taught 
 the sound-sign of pig by enunciating the entire combination of sounds, not by 
 uttering the three sounds one by one. The teacher should teach the print- 
 sign of ideas by presenting the entire combination of letters and sounds. In 
 other words, neither a-b-c’s nor phonics should be taught first. The whole 
 words represents an idea, but no part of it represents an idea; therefore, it should 
 not be taught by parts. 
 
 As soon as possible the child should be taught to read whole sentences. As 
 a matter of fact, a word rarely expresses a complete idea, while a sentence does. 
 And, as reading consists in getting ideas from print or writing, the child should 
 be taught to read whole sentences as units of ideas. This he can do almost from 
 the beginning. As new words are taught, they are combined with old words in 
 sentences. For example; When the child has read the sentence, “I see a pig,” 
 he can read sentences like “ I see a dog,” “ I see a cat,” etc., as rapidly as he learns 
 the new words. If the child acquires the habit of reading sentences as wholes, 
 and is taught to study a sentence through before he begins to read aloud, he will 
 not form the habit, so fatal to good reading, of reading in the following fashion: 
 “I” (pause) “see” (pause) “a” (pause) “pig,” laboriously putting word to word 
 and failing to perceive and express the meaning of the sentence. 
 
 III. The pupil has learned that each idea has its print-sign, just as previously 
 he has learned from his mother that each idea has its sound-sign; and he has 
 developed some power of learning new print-signs. Now it is evident that this 
 power must be increased, so that he may learn for himself print-signs of familiar 
 ideas. How is he to increase this power? 
 
 First, by being shown that many words are alike in appearance and sound, 
 .and that he can learn a new word by its resemblance to a word he knows. Here 
 comes in the teaching of phonics. The pupil knows the appearance and sound 
 ■of certain words—the word pig, for example. Other w'ords resemble this: big, 
 dig, fig, jig, wig, etc. With a little instruction, the child learns that ig has a 
 certain sound. In the same way he learns that other letters and combinations of 
 letters have certain sounds, until finally he can discover the pronunciation of new 
 words by their resemblance to ones already learned. This process of comparing 
 a new word with old ones will come quite naturally and sometimes unconsciously; 
 •but the teacher must give a good deal of assistance. Very often a word is not 
 phonetic; (that is, is not pronounced as it is spelled) but in most cases it has 
 enough resemblance to a word already taught to help the child, with a little 
 prompting, discover the pronunciation. Then, if the child has already formed 
 the habit of associating the sight and sound of a word with the idea, he learns 
 
32 
 
 to discover the idea represented by this new word. In general, the exercises ii> 
 phonics need not be complex, and they should arise out of the reading lessons. 
 
 Second, by inferring the meaning of a new word. For instance, suppose the 
 child sees this sentence: “The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.” If 
 he knows the meaning of all the words except “west,” he may be able to infer the 
 meaning of that word. Pictures assist materially in this process of inference. 
 This inference—guessing, as we call it—goes on constantly and is one of the un¬ 
 conscious ways in which the child learns new print-signs. 
 
 IV. The teacher must read for the pupils, so that they may learn through 
 imitation; and must drill them until they recognize the word readily wherever 
 they see it. As to the drill, the best possible way is to supply plenty of supple¬ 
 mentary reading material, in order that the child may learn the new words in 
 fresh combinations, and that his interest may be kept intense. Many teachers 
 err in assuming that a child will master a word by learning it once; as a matter of 
 fact, dozens of repetitions are necessary to fix some words in his mind. Drill is 
 an absolute essential in teaching primar\’ reading, but it is best to make this drill 
 as interesting as possible by varying the material used. 
 
 V. The teacher must do her best to make the pupil feel the desirability of 
 learning to read. The child learns to recognize the words he hears and to speak 
 these words because he feels that it is desirable. Usually the. child feels a desire 
 to learn to read also, but often his desire becomes weak and must be strength¬ 
 ened. There are several ways of doing this. 
 
 First, the teacher may read poems and read or tell interesting stories to the 
 children, and emphasize the fact that if they learn to read they may find and 
 enjoy such stories for themselves.* The teacher must be such a good oral reader,, 
 that she wall at once set a good model for imitation and start a longing in the 
 pupils to read as well as she does. In the country school the child’s desire to- 
 learn to read is often strengthened by hearing the older pupils read; and of course 
 the fact that the child’s parents and older brothers and sisters can read is another 
 stimulus. 
 
 Second, the children should have supplementary- readers, so that they may 
 continually be getting acquainted with fresh, interesting material. A child soon 
 loses interest if he is forced to read the same book over and over. A number of 
 suitable books should be at the child’s disposal in the school library. 
 
 Third, the teacher should introduce the lesson in such a way as to create in 
 the children a desire to learn to read it. A few pointed, suggestive questions and 
 remarks bearing on the coming lesson and hinting at what is to be found, will 
 often stimulate a desire to become acquainted with it. 
 
 Fourth, the teacher should clear away the difficulties that are too great for 
 the children to conquer. When the lesson is being assigned, she should lead the 
 children to understand the unfamiliar ideas and the difficult words, and should 
 plant within their minds the suggestions that will enable them to read with ease 
 and pleasure. 
 
 Fifth, the teacher should be patient with the children, remembering that 
 learning to read is a complex and difficult mental act; and that harshness, or 
 even impatience, often crushes the desire to learn. 
 
 Summary of Method. 
 
 Let as summarize the method of teaching primary reading. (1) The pupils 
 should be taught sentences and words as wholes. (2) The words taught should 
 
33 
 
 represent familiar ideas, and the ideas should be brought up into the child’s 
 mind before the print-signs are presented. (3) The new words should be taught 
 in groups, so that the child will learn the separate sounds as soon as possible; 
 and the teacher must help him form the habit of discovering new words through 
 their resemblance to the old. (4) Constant imitation and repetition are neces¬ 
 sary to fix the words in the child’s mind. (.5) The teacher should strengthen the 
 child’s desire to learn to read and should make the process as pleasant and inter¬ 
 esting as possib’e. (These are the essentials of the method. It may be said, 
 however, that many variations of the method must be employed to fit different 
 children.) 
 
 The Alphabet. 
 
 Incidentally the alphabet is easily learned. The teacher must remember that 
 the names of the letters of the alphabet are decidedly different from the sounds 
 of the letters, and they have to be taught as separate bits of information. More¬ 
 over, they have little or no connection with learning to read. Suppose the child 
 learns the letters in the word dog. If he spells them out, he pronounces deeogee, 
 which is certainly not the way to pronounce the word and gives little clue to the 
 pronunciation. But after the child learns to read, he feels some curiosity about 
 these different characters and wilhngly learns their names. Of course, he must 
 know the alphabet names before he can spell orally; but this need not come before 
 the second half of the first year. He need not know the letters in their order 
 (a, b, c, d, etc.) until it is time for him to consult a dictionary; though, of course, 
 he will usually learn them much sooner. The names and order of the letters are 
 often taught by means of an alphabet song. 
 
 Reading Versus Literature. 
 
 The child should have a basal primer, a reader and at least two or three supple¬ 
 mentary readers in the first grade; and in each of the grades above the first, he 
 should have at least one supplementary reader. These readers will consist of 
 two kinds of material: informational reading matter and literature. The differ¬ 
 ence is implied in the names. The informational reading matter consists of lessons 
 designed to give the child knowledge of various kinds. The literature consists of 
 poems, stories, etc., designed to arouse his emotions, and increase his enjoyment 
 and his love of beauty. Of course, these two overlap: informational reading 
 matter often has some of the qualities of literature, and literature often gives the 
 child information and knowledge; but the two should be distinct in the teacher’s 
 mind, since they should be taught in different ways. 
 
 The literature should predominate all through the grades, since the pupil 
 has access to much informational reading matter in his various textbooks; and 
 after the fifth grade, reading ceases entirely as a study, in the remaining grades 
 literature taking all the time previously given over to both literature and reading. 
 A good many teachers think that literature is not as important as informational 
 reading, since it does not teach the children facts. On the contrary, the arousing 
 of good, pure, strong feelings is about the most important act a teacher can per¬ 
 form, since it is feelings that urge to good or evil and that make or mar these boys 
 and girls who are the future citizens of the republic. Time spent upon the reading 
 of good literature is time very well spent. 
 
34 
 
 The informational reading matter is the material upon which the mechanics 
 of reading should be based. The teacher should always introduce the lessons, 
 of course; and, in the first year, she will have to assist the children with new 
 words and unfamiliar ideas and to read aloud to furnish them a model. But, 
 after that, since the reading is usually direct and straightforward prose and 
 presents few mental difficulties, she should shift the burden of work upon the 
 pupils. They do the reading—much of it aloud,—and the teacher takes advan¬ 
 tage of the situation to teach proper position, the best way of holding the book, 
 new words, spelling, pronunciation, enunciation, inflection, and quality of voice 
 —in short, all that which we call the “mechanics” of reading. 
 
 In the teaching of literature in the lower grades, the teacher’s work is more 
 difficult. She must present the lessons in such a way as to arouse the pupils’ 
 interest, and to give them hints that will assist them to enjoy the selection; 
 and in the conduct of the lesson, she must help the children get into the spirit 
 of the selection, fill in the details of the scene, become intensely interested in the 
 contents and saturated with the emotions. Then she must read aloud, naturally, 
 pleasingly; and must have the children read after her. The purpose of the lesson 
 in literature is not to teach the mechanics of reading, but to start healthy emotions 
 and train the children in the appreciation of literature, so that they will like to 
 read it after they leave school. The teacher should, therefore, not emphasize 
 the mechanics of reading, but the spirit of the selection—though, of course, the 
 work in literature will do much incidentally toward making the children better 
 oral readers. 
 
 Oral Reading. 
 
 As the children advance in the grades the teacher should drop more and more 
 into the background. Instead of reading first, she will now have the children 
 read first, so that by the time they have finished the eighth grade they can read 
 expressively and intelligently, without the teacher’s assistance. The teacher 
 should not make definite and binding rules for reading aloud; she should train 
 the children to express themselves according to the natural spirit of the selection 
 or passage, reading gayly or sadly, loudly or softly, rapidly or slowly, as the 
 emotion sugge.sts. She should not make rules as to how long to pause after a 
 punctuation mark: that depends entirely upon the meaning and emphasis. The 
 teacher should be extremely careful not to let poetry be read in a sing-song 
 manner. Poetry is measured off into accented and unaccented syllables; and 
 there is a tendency, when one gets into the strong swing of the meter, to keep 
 this meter strictly regular. Sometimes this spoils the meaning and interferes 
 with the musical qualities of the. poetry. The children should be taught to read 
 for the meaning and emotion and to disregard the metrical accent whenever it 
 conflicts with the natural accent. Some kinds of selections are not thoroughly 
 enjoyed until they are read aloud; humorous selections, or passages, sections 
 in which the feeling runs high, passages of great beauty or fine phrasing, etc. 
 
 Silent Reading. 
 
 The teacher should train the children in silent reading, since most of their 
 reading in later life will be silent. They should nearly always read silently before 
 they read orally; and often the teacher should merely examine them as to the 
 content of the informational reading matter without asking them to read aloud. 
 (The literature, especially the poetry, should be read aloud; and in the upper 
 
35 
 
 grades the children should take their books home and read aloud in preparation 
 for the recitation.) There should be many suitable books in the library that 
 the child may read silently in school or at home, and the teacher should en¬ 
 courage rapid but intelligent silent reading in these books. Often she should ask 
 questions to make sure that the children have mastered the subject matter. 
 The teacher should urge the children to read much, and should train them in the 
 power to enjoy and appreciate books, to the end that they may form good reading 
 habits which will remain fixed after the children leave school. Schoo s generally 
 have ignored too much the fundamental importance of silent reading, both in 
 school and out. 
 
 Dramatization. 
 
 The teacher and the children should occasionally dramatize a literature lesson 
 —that is, make a play out of it. In a story in which there are several characters, 
 let the children take the place of the different characters and play out the story, 
 making up the conversation as they go along. They do not need a stage or cos¬ 
 tumes or elaborate stage furniture or objects; they can do very well with what 
 they find in the school room. Occasionally they may give a public performance, 
 with home-made costumes, bramatizing is not difficult, and it is one of the best 
 possible ways of realizing and appreciating a story. After the children have 
 dramatized plays for some time, they will begin to see more clearly the dramatic 
 qualities in what they read, and will read with more understanding and enjoy¬ 
 ment. Not every kind of selection is suitable for dramatization; in general, 
 stories with a great deal of action based on a very simple plot and not involving 
 complex characters, are best. If the dramatization of a selection would not 
 emphasize and supplement the literary values of the selection, it should not be 
 dramatized. 
 
 Correlation. 
 
 The teacher should constantly correlate the reading and literature with the 
 other branches. If, in the history class, for example, you are studying the Civil 
 War period, it would be well to have the children study Whitman’s poem, “My 
 Captain,’’ and Lincoln’s Gettysburg Speech, and any other selections that fit 
 in well with the history. If you do not happen to be at those particular lessons, 
 turn to them anyway. It is of little importance whether or not you study the 
 lessons in order, and it is of great importance that you study the lessons at the 
 time when they will have the most significance. 
 
 The teacher should also teach reading in connection with the other studies. 
 The pupils should be taught to read the arithmetic problems as intelligently 
 as they read their reading lesson, for often they fail to solve the problems because 
 they have not really read them. They should be taught to get the ideas out of 
 their geography and history lessons in the same manner as they do out of their 
 reading lessons. 
 
 The Librarj. 
 
 A library of at least a hundred well-selected books should be in the school 
 library, and the teacher should encourage the children to read them in their 
 leisure time, at school or home. Occasionally give the reading and literature 
 period up to discussion of the books the children have been reading and have 
 each pupil read aloud an interesting incident from the book he has been reading. 
 
36 
 
 General Outline of Work. 
 
 In the first four years. Wheeler’s Readers are used as basal readers. Supple¬ 
 mentary readers are suggested under each grade. In the fifth and sixth years, 
 Elson’s Grammar School Literature Readers are used, with supplementary work 
 as suggested in the following pages. 
 
 The mechanical elements in learning to read should be largely mastered by the 
 end of the fourth year; that is, by the end of this time, the children should be 
 able to master the subject matter of the lessons with ease and rapidity, and 
 should be able to express the meaning intelligently and clearly. The reading 
 process by this time should be largely unconscious; the child should not have to 
 work consciously and laboriously at his reading lesson any more than he has to 
 labor hard to do his speaking. Of course, if a child has not acquired skill in the 
 mechanics by the end of the fourth grade, this work must be carried over into the 
 fifth grade. Through the remaining years of the course the emphasis should be 
 placed upon the literary" phases of reading: development of imagination, stimu¬ 
 lation of emotions and love of beauty, ability to fill in the details of the story; 
 and the power to express the meaning and spirit of the selection naturally and 
 pleasingly. 
 
 The following books deal with the teaching of reading. It would be well for 
 the teacher to purchase at least two or three of these books: Arnold’s “Reading 
 and How to Teach It,’’ (Silver, Burdett & Go., New York); Briggs and Coff¬ 
 man’s “Reading in the Public Schools’’ (Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago); Klap- 
 per’s “Teaching Children to Read,” (D. Appleton & Co., Chicago); McMurry’s 
 “Special Method in Primary Reading” (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston); Clark’s 
 “How to Teach Reading in the Public School” (Scott, Foresman & Co., New 
 York). 
 
 First Grade. 
 
 The best authorities agree that we have hitherto given too much time to 
 primary' reading, to the exclusion of other subjects more important to children 
 of this age. The first year of school life should be given to the child’s “own 
 experiences,” to use Prof. Huey’s expression. Nature study, hand-work, story- 
 telhng, memorizing poetry, conversation about the child’s home interests, and 
 group games are the most important means of leading the child from home life 
 to the larger, more organized life of the school. Reading in the first year should 
 be subordinated to real life. For example, directious for hand-w'ork and for play¬ 
 ing games may be written on the blackboard instead of being given orally. In 
 this way children learn that reading is a meaus of communicating thought, since 
 they cannot do the desired thing unless they can read the directions. This 
 habit of connecting action with reading should begin with the first school year. 
 
 Children should learn in the first year the printed forms of from three to five 
 hundred words used in their daily speef'h. Their ears and vocal organs should be 
 trained to recognize separate sounds recurring in familiar words, for example: 
 d in “dog,” “dark,” “do,” and “down,” should be recognized as the same sound 
 occurring in different words. 
 
 Begin reading in the first grade by reading to children, telling stories, and 
 having them memorize some verses. All these activities prepare the way for 
 reading. The first reading by children must be based on the children’s own 
 activities and interests. Begin with action words and the names of familiar 
 objects in the room. In every ca.se connect the written symbol with the action 
 
37 
 
 or object it represents. The teacher calls Frank to her and whispers to him 
 “run.” She then says, “This tells the secret I told Frank. I said to him ‘Run’ 
 And she writes the word on the board. Other devices for connecting the word 
 with the action will suggest themselves to the teacher. To teach the names of 
 objects she may write the name of “Sand,” “Book,” “Ball,” “Window,” etc., 
 and pin the name on the object it represents, so that these words will be learned 
 by association. 
 
 For the first week or two children’s reading may well be limited to the inter¬ 
 pretation of action words and names of objects. It is not necessary at this time 
 for children to do much oral reading. Silent reading must precede oral in every 
 case. Much bad reading is caused by insisting on oral reading from the first. 
 
 After children have learned to act in response to written symbols (for example, 
 “Throw the ball,” “Catch Tom,” “Close the door”) continue reading by using 
 the rhymes children have memorized. Write on the board a rhyme that does not 
 contain unusual words. Suppose this rhyme is selected: 
 
 “This little pig went to market. 
 
 This little pig staid at home. 
 
 This little pig had roast meat. 
 
 This little pig had none. 
 
 This little pig cried ‘wee, wee, wee, 
 
 I can’t find my way home.’ ” 
 
 Let the children say the rhyme over, counting their fingers for the pigs as 
 they say it. Then tell one child to “read” the first line as you write it on the 
 board. Call on another child to read the next line, and so on. The children are 
 thus really reading, although they do not know the separate words. The ap¬ 
 proach to reading is easy and natural, not painful and artificial as it often is when 
 words are built up from their sounds or letters. 
 
 Have words from the rhyme written on cards. Select only the words children 
 will be apt to use again, as “this,” “little,” “pig,” “went,” “staid,” “home,” 
 “cried,” “me.” Hold up the card for “this” and ask the children to find a word 
 like it on the board. Ask what the word says. Do the same with the other 
 cards. WTien a child hesitates, ask him to say over the rhyme until he comes to 
 that word. He thus learns to rely on himself. Play a game to see who can find 
 and call most words. Continue work of this kind with memorized rhymes until 
 children have built up a word list they can recognize at sight. Be careful to vary 
 the work enough to keep up interest in it. It is a mistake to stay long on one 
 rhyme. Begin daily word drills in the form of games, as varied in character as 
 possible. Have these drills at a different time from the reading lesson. 
 
 As the children learn words, combine these words with others to make sen¬ 
 tences about familiar things. Write a sentence on the board and ask the children 
 to read it. Let children whisper sentences to the teacher, who will then write 
 “a secret” on the board for children to guess. There is a real motive for reading 
 in this kind of work. For example, the teacher will say, “Who will tell something 
 he saw on the way to school?” “ Come and whisper it to me.” Billy comes up 
 and whispers, “ I saw a horse.” The teacher says, “See if you can tell what Billy 
 saw.” She writes the sentence on the board, and tells the children any new 
 word that they have not had before—“horse,” for instance. Now she asks other 
 children to read the sentence and tell what Billy saw. Skill must be used to avoid 
 too wide a range of words. 
 
38 
 
 Blackboard work and word drills should be continued for some time—one or 
 two months—before taking up a book. There is really a saving of time in post¬ 
 poning the use of a book. When the book is first used, the children should be 
 taught how to hold it and to turn the pages. Do not allow them to hold the 
 book closer than fifteen inches from the eyes, because a large amount of eye- 
 strain is the result of close reading. From the beginning children should learn 
 to read to the class, not exclusively to the teacher. They should share their 
 thought with their audience, and to do this the book must not be held between 
 the child and the audience. 
 
 Phonics: Rhymes make a good introduction to phonics. Through them 
 children notice similar sounds in words, and learn to build up “families” of words. 
 “Jill,” “hill;” “down,” “crown,” may easily lead to other words of similar 
 sound. The phonic work of the first year should be informal, and should consist 
 of games. For example, pronounce “dog,” “did,” “Dot,” and ask children to 
 tell you other words that begin in the same way. Then write “d” on the board, 
 giving the sound and asking children to give the sound also. (Be careful to give 
 the correct sound—not “duh.”) Take up all the initial consonants in this way. 
 This phonic drill or play should come with the word-drill, not with the reading 
 lesson. Little more than this should be attempted in phonics the first year. 
 Indeed, many authorities think phonics should not be begun until later, because 
 it holds the child to an analysis that taxes him too much. However, if the work 
 is. taken up as play rather than as uninteresting drill, this objection would be 
 overcome. 
 
 Children should know the alphabet by the end of the year. Teach it by rhymes, 
 pictures, and songs. 
 
 Complete Wheeler’s Primer and First Reader and two or three of the following 
 supplementary readers in this grade: 
 
 Riverside Primer and First Reader. 
 
 The Child’s World Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Free and Treadwell’s Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Elson’s Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Art-Literature Primer and First Reader. 
 
 Second Grade. 
 
 Complete Wheeler’s Second Reader during this year. In addition have the 
 children read three or four Second Readers in the series listed under first grade 
 work. Lucia’s “Peter and Polly in Summer” (American Book Co., Cincinnati) 
 is a series of excellent stories for this grade; it is especially good for rural schools. 
 Perrault’s “Tales of Mother Goose” (D. C. Heath & Co., New York) furnishes 
 nursery tales for this and the third grade. 
 
 Do not feel obliged to teach the lessons in the order in which they come in the 
 book, but rearrange them to suit circumstances. For example, teach the lesson 
 on page 70 just after the pussy willows have appeared in the spring. Teach 
 the lesson on page 91 at Christmas time. Teach the lesson on page 174 at a time 
 when the children need to apply this lesson to their own life. 
 
 In general, it is well not to read in one book until it is finished, but to change 
 from one book to another, selecting the lessons that will fit best with the seasons, 
 the interests of the children, their other work, etc. 
 
 Emphasize this year work in phonics, acquiring of new words, ability to read 
 rapidly, to read aloud intelligently and expressively. Care must be taken in 
 
39 
 
 assigning lessons, so that the pupils may have their interest aroused in the sub¬ 
 jects and may be put on the hunt for the ideas. For instance, in assigning the 
 lesson on page 37 it would be well to begin by asking the children if they have 
 ever seen their shadow. Ask them what makes the shadow, where it stays at 
 night, why it is taller at some times than at others, and other questions that 
 will touch on the details of the poem. Finally you tell the children that you are 
 going to read to them a poem that tells what a child said about his shadow. 
 Always take some time in assigning a lesson, and always prepare your assignment 
 at least a day in advance, so that you may know just how you are going to intro¬ 
 duce the selections. 
 
 In the recitation it is best not to ask the child to read one paragraph or one 
 sentence, because perhaps that is not a natural stopping place. You had better 
 study the lesson with the children and divide it up into sections, then ask each 
 child to read a section. 
 
 Dramatize some of the lessons. The story on page 59 serves well for this 
 work. Have the lesson studied first, then have the story retold orally. Now ask 
 for five pupils to take the part of Red Riding Hood, her mother, grandmother, 
 the wolf, the hunter. Have Red Riding Hood’s mother send the little girl to her 
 grandmother’s—^which is over in the corner of the room,—have the wolf meet 
 her on the way, let the characters talk as they would in a real story. Play the 
 whole story this way. 
 
 The teacher should tell and read many good stories to the children in this 
 grade. This provides interest and entertainment, gives good material for language 
 conversations, and inspires a desire to read. 
 
 Have the children commit many poems to memor^^ They should be asked to 
 commit only those poems which they have studied and understand fairly well. 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 Read Wheeler’s Third Reader in this grade. Read also three or four Third 
 Readers in the series listed under first grade work. Have these supplementary 
 books bought’ near the beginning of the year, and change from one to the other, 
 as you think best. 
 
 Continue phonic work. The common diacritical marks should be learned in 
 connection with the reading and spelling. 
 
 Give persistent practice in reading aloud. Insist on distinct enunciation. 
 Break up habits of reading too fast or too slow, too loud or too low. Do not let 
 any reading pass that does not express the meaning. This implies that before a 
 pupil is called upon to read aloud, the teacher must have satisfied himself, by 
 questioning, that he understands what he is trying to express. If the pupil has 
 formed the habit of reading only one word at a time, ask him to read each sen¬ 
 tence through silently before he reads aloud. All unfamiliar and difficult ideas 
 must be learned before the oral reading begins. 
 
 Very often the story in the lesson will not tell all the details, but will leave them 
 to be inferred. This is especially true in poetry. The teacher must be sure that 
 these details are understood. 
 
 Continue dramatization. Ask the children to reproduce orally some of the 
 stories read, but do not have this done too frequently. (See Language and 
 Composition, Third Grade, page 47.) 
 
 Teach the spelling of all the useful new words. It is not necessary to require 
 the children to learn the spelling of all the proper nouns or the unusual words. 
 
40 
 
 Keep in mind the difference between informational reading matter and litera¬ 
 ture. (See page 33.) The teacher should study each lesson before she assigns it, 
 that she may know whether she is going to present it as literature or as reading 
 matter. 
 
 Occasionally have a “sight” lesson. In this you introduce the subject as 
 usual; but instead of assigning the subject for the next day, you take it up at 
 once. The children read silently through the lesson as fast as possible. Then 
 the teacher asks questions until she is sure the pupils understand the thought. 
 They then read aloud. This plan encourages rapid reading, and reading for the 
 main outline. 
 
 Have the children learn some poems by heart. 
 
 Fourth Grade. 
 
 Read Wheeler’s Fourth Reader in this grade. Read also three or four Fourth 
 Readers in the series listed under First Grade work. Farm Life Readers, Book 
 Four (Silver, Burdett & Co., N. Y.,) is especially good for rural children. “Robin¬ 
 son Crusoe” (Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass.) is an excellent book to read 
 in class. 
 
 Use care in assigning the reading lesson. Train in rapid silent reading. To 
 do this have much sight-reading, limit the time for the preparation of lessons, 
 and encourage much home reading of library books. Occasionally do not have 
 the lesson read but merely retold. Let the children see that silent reading is 
 very important, since it is more rapid than oral reading, and since they will be 
 expected to read silently more than orally when they are out of school. Teach 
 the children not to move their lips when they read silently. 
 
 The pupils should be thoroughly trained in dividing a lesson into sections. 
 This is done by having the child state the substance of each paragraph before or 
 after he reads, or make an outline of the story, or reproduce orally the essentials. 
 In the lesson on page 74, for example, the story naturally divides itself into the 
 following parts: First five paragraphs, the father’s journey; next six paragraphs, 
 the mirror; next two paragraphs, passage of time; next four paragraphs, death 
 of the mother; remaining paragraphs, the daughter and the mirror. Every 
 lesson has its outline, and the lessons are not well learned until the main points 
 in the outline are discovered. Correlate this study with the making of out¬ 
 lines in the composition work. (See page 49.) 
 
 The pupils should be led to see that some lessons are to be read rapidly and for 
 the story, while others are to be read slowly and for other points. For example, 
 the poem on page 270 must first be read through for the complete thought, then 
 must be re-examined more carefully, while the lesson on page 252 should be 
 read quite rapidly. 
 
 Connect the lessons with the work in other branches. The lesson on page 257, 
 for example, \^41l go well with a history lesson. Be sure also that the selection 
 fits in well with the season of the year. For instance, the poem on page 218 should 
 be taught in late Autumn. Of course, the lesson may be chosen occasionally 
 because it affords a contrast to the season or situation. 
 
 Continue memorizing. Many teachers have the idea that only those selections 
 which contain moral truths or practical precepts should be committed to memory. 
 As a matter of fact, beautiful poetry should be memorized, whether it has any 
 direct moral lesson or not. The selection on page 283, wath its animation and 
 
41 
 
 optimism, and its appeal to the imagination, should be stored away in the mind 
 as well as the selection on page 288, with its definite moral message. 
 
 Watch the children in their reading in all their textbooks. For instance, in the 
 arithmetic lessons, have the examples read intelligently before the solution Ls 
 attempted. 
 
 Dramatize a story ever>^ week or two. Be careful to select stories that lend 
 themselves to dramatic effects. 
 
 It is well to read in the fourth grade, and in each grade beyond, one long story 
 in the class each year. “Robinson Crusoe” is good for this grade. Assign two 
 or three chapters at a time; then in the recitation have the story in these chapters 
 told orally, and a few paragraphs read orally. Remember that the emphasis in 
 the last part of this year and in all the work in reading to follow, should be placed 
 upon literature rather than upon mechanical reading. 
 
 Fifth Grade. 
 
 Texts: Elson’s Grammar School Reader, Book I, and Wheeler’s Fifth Reader. 
 Read also the Riverside Fifth Reader and Free and Treadwell’s Fifth Reader. 
 Farm Life Reader, Book V (Silver, Burdett & Co., New York) is especially good 
 for country children. 
 
 Many of the selections in this book are difficult—so difficult that the teacher 
 must be constantly on her guard lest her pupils miss the point of some splendid 
 story or poem. You can usually tell whether the pupils understand by the way 
 they read. If they have failed to perceive the meaning, you should question them 
 until they do perceive it; then, have them read again. 
 
 When the children read poetry, insist that they bring out the thought, regard¬ 
 less of the rhythm. There is a natural tendency to make a pause at the end of 
 a line. Sometimes this spoils the sense. 
 
 After the children have learned to appreciate a selection, it is well to call their 
 attention to the author and the other selections of his that the children have 
 read. It might be well occasionally to read all the selections of one author in 
 succession. Refer the children to library books by the same authors. 
 
 Sixth Grade. 
 
 Complete “Elson’s Grammar School Literature,” Book Two. Read also the 
 Riverside Sixth Reader. Some good long stories are: “Some Merry Adventures 
 of Robin Hood” (CharlesScribner’s Sons,New York); “Wood Folk at School” 
 (Ginn & Co., New York); “Pinnocchio” (Ginn & Go., New York). 
 
 Elson’s books are full of most excellent literature. The teacher should remem¬ 
 ber that literature does not exist primarily for the purpose of imparting informa¬ 
 tion, but of arousing and guiding the emotions; and she should be dissatisfied 
 with any literature lesson that does not accomplish this. Of course, there is 
 often decided intellectual value in the selection, but that should come after the 
 feelings have been stirred. 
 
 It is difficult to give brief, specific directions for teaching a literature lesson. 
 (The teacher should show the children how to use the lesson helps in the readers. 
 These are very valuable as they direct the children’s attention to the important 
 phases of the study. Every teacher should have the manual that goes with the 
 readers.) The usual method of procedure is as follows: 
 
42 
 
 First, assignment. In the assignment the teacher should ask questions de¬ 
 signed to connect what the pupil already knows with that which the lesson has 
 to give. . 
 
 Second, preparation of the lesson by pupils, (a) The pupils should be 
 trained to read silently through the whole selection rather rapidly in order to 
 understand the principal thought, the predominant emotion, and the different 
 sections, (b) Then they should silently study the selection more carefully 
 sentence by sentence, trying to appreciate the meaning and force of the words, 
 to see the pictures, and fill in details intentionally omitted by the author, to 
 understand the figurative language, etc. If the words are familiar but evidently 
 have unusual meanings to the pupil, try to infer the meaning from the context. 
 If the words are entirely unfamiliar or the pupil cannot get the meaning from 
 the study of the whole sentences, he should look up the word in the dictionary, 
 (c) The pupil should then read aloud, trying to bring out the main thought, 
 the significance of the details, and the spirit or mood of the selection, in a natural, 
 intelligent and musical manner. 
 
 Third, recitation, (a) The teacher asks questions bearing on the main 
 thought and the details, designed to show the pupils’ knowledge and apprecia¬ 
 tion, to see if the pupil has filled in the outlines, understands the figurative 
 language and unusual words, etc. She covers the same ground that the pupils 
 have gone over in their preparation, though, of course, she will bring up points 
 the children had not thought of, and will give suggestions that will lead to new 
 ideas, (b) After a frank and free discussion, the poem should be read aloud. 
 Sometimes the teacher reads first, sometimes the pupils; but the teacher should 
 always read at least a part of the lesson. The oral reading should show apprecia¬ 
 tion and understanding, and should be natural and expressive. Special attention 
 should be given to the oral reading. Do not encourage “elocutionary” reading; 
 insist rather on simple, natural, appreciative and pleasing expression of the 
 thoughts and emotions, and remember that the oral reading, if it is to be really 
 expressive, must come after intelligent study; the children cannot express the 
 meaning until they know the meaning to express. 
 
 Fourth, application. The selection should not be allowed to sink out of sight 
 in the children’s minds. It should be used in some way. (a) It may be memo¬ 
 rized. (b) It may be assigned for composition or language work, (c) It 
 may be used to illustrate or explain a lesson in some other subject, (d) It may 
 be applied to some incident of the school or home life, (e) It may be referred 
 to later in studying other literature. 
 
 A slightly different method must be followed in the teaching and studying 
 of selections that are too long to be finished in one recitation. In this case, 
 the teacher should assign a chapter or two at a time, in order to get through 
 the selection as rapidly as possible. The preparation and recitation should be 
 concerned with questions and discussions as to the story, what may be expected 
 to happen next, the characters, and how they develop and react on each other, 
 the connection and significance of incidents, the mystery and suspense, etc. 
 Then when the selection is finished, it should be reviewed rapidly to get the entire 
 story, the general theme and aim, the outline of the plot, the lesson, the general 
 characteristics, the characters, etc. The pupils should be encouraged to read 
 many library books, and to pursue the same plan in this reading that they do in 
 class study. 
 
 If the children have kept up the dramatization, they should be able to give 
 quite ambitious plays in the sixth grade. The girls can make the costumes 
 
43 
 
 and the boys can provide the “properties”—that is, the objects needed in the 
 play. Invite the parents in occasionally. Some work of this sort will help the 
 children to study and appreciate the characters and action in all that they read. 
 
 Some magazines, such as the Youth’s Companion (Perry Mason Co., Boston) 
 and “Saint Nicholas” (The Century Co., New York) should be in the school 
 room. Perhaps some subscriber in the neighborhood will lend them to the school, 
 after they have been read. Encourage the children to read these silently, and 
 occasionally have children read aloud interesting stories, or articles or poems. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 GENERAL DISCUSSION. 
 
 Aims of the Course. 
 
 The aims of the course in language and composition are: 
 
 1. To train the child to examine subjects within his comprehension; to choose, 
 reject, and organize his material on these subjects; to present in speech and 
 writing his thoughts on these subjects in an orderly, pleasing, and effective 
 manner. 
 
 2: To train the child in desirable language habits. Some of these habits are: 
 
 (a) The habit of speaking and writing with ease and pleasure and with 
 clearness and correctness. 
 
 (b'> The habit of using vigorous, idiomatic, expressive words arranged 
 in free, natural sentences, which, in turn, are arranged in compact, unified 
 paragraphs. 
 
 (c) The habit of taking care that his language be effective and of taking 
 pride in his linguistic power. 
 
 • (d) The habit of using mechanically the various formal elements of 
 
 speaking and writing; such as correct pronunciation, distinct enunciation, 
 spelling, paragraphing, punctuating, etc. 
 
 General Outline.* 
 
 It is obvious that since the child is using the language from the time he enters 
 school, training in language must be started at once. During the first two years, 
 however, the language work should not be given a special period on the daily 
 program, but should be connected with the other work of the school, especially 
 with reading and literature. Throughout the entire course, language should 
 be taught in connection with the other work of the school. It is a serious mistake 
 to give the pupils the impression that the language work is completed when the 
 language period is over. Encourage free, vigorous conversation in connection 
 with all the branches. Teach the children in all their school work to organize 
 their thoughts and insist upon their using clear, definite, and correct words. 
 This incidental language work is often the most educative, since it connects the 
 language more closely with the child’s life. In the third year a separate period 
 should be’ given to language, though the pupils should not use a text. From 
 the fourth year on the pupils use the text and have a definite period. 
 
 In the lower grades composition work is largely oral and should be combined 
 with the regular language work. From the third grade on some of the language 
 periods should be used for composition work. 
 
 No text in composition work should be used until the seventh grade. In this 
 and the eighth grade the pupil should use the section on composition writing in 
 part two of the second book of Kimball’s “Elementary English.” 
 
 •A definite outline is given in connection with the work of each school year. 
 
45 
 
 Since the work of the first three years does not provide for a text book, the 
 teacher must suggest the material and direct the -work. In order to do this she 
 should have two or three language books from which to get suggestions, ideas, 
 plans, and exercises. These books will be valuable also for work above the third 
 grade, since they will provide material for supplementary work. The following 
 language books are suggested: 
 
 Live Language Lessons. Two books. University Publishing Co., Chicago. 
 (Especially good for country and village teachers.) 
 
 Primary Language Lessons. One book. American Book Company, Cin¬ 
 cinnati, 
 
 Studies in English, The Language Book. Row, Peterson & Co.. Chicago. 
 
 Guide Books to English, Two books. Silver, Burdette and Company, New 
 York. 
 
 The teacher should have and study two or three good books on the teaching of 
 language and composition. Teaching in these subjects is so important and so 
 difficult that the teacher needs all the assistance she can secure. The following 
 are suggested: 
 
 Barnes—English in the Country Schools. Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago. 
 
 McMurry—Special Method in Language. Macmillan Co., New York. 
 
 Klapper—The Teaching of English. D. Appleton & Co,, New York. 
 
 First Grade. 
 
 The language and composition work of this year should be almost entirely oral. 
 All the writing that should be done is the copying of words and sentences, memo¬ 
 rized selections, etc., marks of punctuation being copied without explanation. 
 Spelling may be copied, and occasionally a sentence may be dictated by the 
 teacher and written by the pupils. Do not expect any original composition this 
 year. 
 
 The basis of this year’s work should be infonnal conversation. Nature study, 
 pictures, literature read, stories told by the teacher, the interests and experiences 
 of daily school and home life, the seasons and holidays will furnish sufficient 
 material. The teacher should try to get the children to talk freely, easily, naturally 
 and correctly on the topics brought up. 
 
 Attention should be given to such sentences as: “John and me want to play.” 
 “Us boys will go.” “There is two birds Qn the tree.” “ I ain’t got my lesson,” 
 “He has went.” Correct these and similar blunders without explanation, but 
 always give the correct form and have the child repeat it. Enlarge the child’s 
 vocabulary by suggesting a better word instead of the one he has used. Make 
 these conversations informal and pleasant. Always base them on topics interest¬ 
 ing to the children. 
 
 Some reproduction work can be done. The teacher tells or reads an interesting 
 nursery tale, such as “The Three Bears.” The children ask and answer questions 
 about the story until it is well understood. Then they tell the story as effectively 
 and dramatically as possible. Very little criticism of the language should be 
 allowed, since the pupils should be encouraged to reproduce with confidence and 
 pleasure. Mistakes in accuracy of reproduction and the most serious errors in 
 language should be pointed out after the story has been retold. 
 
 Some of the simpler stories told or read should be dramatized. Some of the 
 Mother Goose Jingles and some fables furnish good material. 
 
46 
 
 Second Grade. 
 
 Oral English should be the basis of this year’s work. Continue the conversa¬ 
 tions as in first year, based on literature, pictures, nature study, field excursions, 
 games, activities, etc. Ask questions that involve several related sentences in the 
 answer, such as, “How do you make a paw-paw whistle?” “How do you sweep 
 a room?” “How do you play prisoner’s base?” Train the children in sticking to 
 the story, in proper position while standing, in speaking directly to the other 
 children instead of the teacher, in distinct enunciation and easy conversational 
 tone. Incidentally correct such errors as “ I can write good,” “Mother learned 
 me my lessons,” “John don’t know how to play,” “I taken my slate home.” 
 Train in the use of “shall” and “will,” “may” and “can,” the common irregular 
 verbs, etc., but without attempting to explain the finer points or the grammatical 
 rules involved. 
 
 Watch closely the children’s enunciation and pronunciation. Such words as 
 “git,” “ketch,” “probly” need especial care, since the children often hear the 
 incorrect forms more frequently than the right forms. 
 
 Try to enlarge the pupils’ vocabulary. Teach them to distinguish between 
 easy synonyms. 
 
 Continue oral reproduction of stories. Encourage the children to retell stories 
 they have learned at home. Train the children to make up and tell simple stories 
 based on pictures. Train them to tell the essentials of stories they read, leaving 
 out details. 
 
 Dramatize, as in the first grade. 
 
 Study a number of fables with the children, and encourage them to make up 
 simple fables of their own and tell them orally. Here is a fable told by a second 
 grade pupil: “Once a rabbit was running away from some dogs and he wanted 
 to get into a hole in some rocks. But some dirt had got into the hole. He got 
 into another hole and got away from the dogs. Then he said, ‘Tomorrow I will 
 go and dig that dirt out, so I can get in the next time.’ But the next day he forgot 
 all about it. A few days after, the dogs got after him and were close behind him. 
 He ran up to the hole and could not get in, and the dogs caught him before he 
 could run into another hole. It served him right for being so careless.” 
 
 The written work should be very simple in this grade. Copying, writing from 
 easy dictation, writing of spelling lists and of memory selections is recommended. 
 Some simple class exercises in original composing should be worked out. For 
 example, the teacher asks the children to make up sentences about a cow. The 
 pupils present such sentences as: “The cow gives milk;” “The cow has horns;” 
 “The cow is red;” “The cow eats grass.” The teacher writes these on the board 
 one by one. Then she and the class rearrange the sentences in their natural 
 order; finally the pupils copy the revised work, writing all the sentences in one 
 paragraph. 
 
 Pupils should be taught the use of capital letters at beginning of sentences and 
 lines of poetry; in the pronoun I; in proper nouns, days of week, names of 
 months. The following marks of punctuation should be taught: period and 
 question mark at ends of sentences; period after initials and common abbrevia¬ 
 tions; apostrophe in possessive case. Observe the use of these marks in the 
 readers. 
 
 Have the children start a composition book in which they copy their finished 
 work. Provide plenty of seat work in writing, basing it all on interesting subjects. 
 
47 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 A definite language period should now be assigned, but the incidental work in 
 language should be continued. The teacher should outline her work for this 
 class at least a week ahead, for she must direct the children orally and keep 
 them working steadUy at some definite aim. 
 
 The work should still be largely oral. Continue the reproduction of stories, 
 poems, etc. Children should be asked to tell the other children about books they 
 have read, sketching the story and giving brief character descriptions at the 
 suggestion of the teacher. 
 
 So called “oral composition” work should be started in this grade. The 
 teacher should assign easy subjects to the pupils such as: “How to plant corn;” 
 “What I saw in the blacksmith’s shop;” “A fishing trip”—subjects drawn, in 
 general, from the actual experience of the pupils, and should assist the children 
 in getting their thoughts together. The pupils prepare talks of two minutes or 
 more on these topics, then speak to the class. Teacher and class criticize sympa¬ 
 thetically on whether the subject was clearly presented, whether the points were 
 arranged in the best order, whether the pupil spoke distinctly and used correct 
 English. 
 
 Original stories based on pictures should be told. Occasionally part of the story 
 may be told by the teacher and the pupils be asked to complete it. Pupils in this 
 grade should be taught in their literature lesson to study the arrangement of 
 incidents in such a way as to lead up to the important point, and should be en¬ 
 couraged to use this method in their own stories. Imaginative stories, such as 
 fairy stories, Santa Glaus stories, etc., stories in which the children impersonate 
 some animal or object are good for this grade. Dramatization should be con¬ 
 tinued. 
 
 In all this oral work the teacher should try to build up the children’s vocabu¬ 
 lary and power to discriminate between words, and should break up slovenly 
 habits of speech and enunciation. Care must be taken also that the children do 
 not form the habit of using too many short, disconnected sentences, or long sen¬ 
 tences the clauses of which are joined by “and.” However, the teacher must 
 take heedTest she destroy the pupils’ naturalness and expressiveness and make 
 them too conscious. Close watch should be kept on the children’s language, and 
 kindly, patient criticisms given whenever needed. 
 
 The written work of this year should be of two kinds: paragraphs and 
 letters. 
 
 Toward the beginning of the year pupils should be taught to write brief para¬ 
 graphs on simple topics, such as those assigned for oral compositions. The teacher 
 should assign the topics and discuss them with the pupils, showing them definitely 
 how to plan and arrange their material. Pupils should write their paragraphs 
 in school with pencil and the next day should read their paragraphs. Teacher 
 and class should discuss the clearness and correctness, the expressiveness and 
 naturalness, the unity and coherence of the composition. As much time as 
 possible should be spent in this discussion. Pupils should then copy the para¬ 
 graphs with pen and ink in their permanent composition book. Continue this 
 work throughout the year. The teacher must always assist in the preparation 
 and discussion of the paragraphs, but should gradually put the work more and 
 more upon the pupils. The topics should be stories and explanations, with an 
 occasional description, and should always be drawn from the children’s life or 
 
48 
 
 reading. Study the paragraphs in reading and literature lessons, to see how 
 authors construct paragraphs. 
 
 Letter writing should be studied this year. Have the children write letters 
 of one paragraph to friends and relatives, telling them of happenings of current 
 interest. Whenever possible, have these letters copied after discussion and 
 mailed to the persons addressed. Insist on neatness, legibility, naturalness, etc. 
 Occasionally read a model letter, that the children may learn to catch the spirit 
 of the letter. (An excellent book for this purpose is “Letters to Children Written 
 by Famous People.” Hinds & Noble, New York. This book can be used in the 
 third, fourth and fifth grades.) 
 
 The following letter is poor. It lacks unity because it takes up too many 
 subjects; and it lacks coherence because the sentences are disconnected. 
 
 “Dear Grandpa: We played in the snow yesterday. Papa took me to town 
 Saturday. We get lots of milk now. I like to go to school. Our telephone waa 
 broken down, but it is fixed up now. How is grandma? We are all well. This- 
 is my first letter. 
 
 Your loving, 
 
 Susie.” 
 
 The following letter is much better: 
 
 “Dear Grandpa: We have been having good times this week. There w^as a 
 big snow and we all played games like fox and geese, snow ball, and building 
 snow men. Papa brought us to school yesterday on our sled. I tell you old 
 Frank and Jerry had to pull hard up Greek Hill, for the snow was awful deep. 
 Don’t you think this is a good letter for the first one? 
 
 Your grandson, 
 
 William.” 
 
 In learning to write paragraphs children must learn certain forms. They must 
 learn: to indent the first line of the paragraph and close the paragraph wherever 
 the last line happens to fall; to divide the word between syllables at the end 
 of the line; to leave a wide margin at the left of the sheet. In writing letters the 
 pupils should be taught the conventional usages; where to place the address 
 of the writer and the date, how to address the correspondent, how and where ta 
 write the complimentary close and the signature, how to address the envelope. 
 
 In all the written work insist on correct spelling and correct grammatical 
 usage. Teach punctuation: simple uses of the comma, the dash, hyphen, 
 apostrophe, quotation marks. Teach simple abbreviations: “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” 
 “Rev.,” “W. Va.,” “St,,” “P. S.” Teach simple contractions: “don’t,” 
 “doesn’t,” “isn’t,” “wasn’t,” “hasn’t,” “can’t,” “it’s,” “I’m,” etc. 
 
 Have some writing every day during this year. Occasionally assign written 
 work in connection with nature study, arithmetic, literature; and insist that all 
 written work be done neatly, accurately and legibly. 
 
 Fourth Grade. 
 
 This year for the first time the pupils use a text. Book One of Kimball’s- 
 “Elementary English” is divided into three parts. The fourth grade work 
 should complete Part One. Do not attempt to take the lessons in their order. 
 So arrange them that the oral and the written work will be mingled in the proper 
 proportions. “A little writing every day and not too much any day,” is the ideal. 
 
49 
 
 Pupils that have been trained according to the directions given for the first 
 three years will find much of the te*xt-book work of the fourth year a good review 
 of facts already learned. Such pupils should be given much supplementary work. 
 In fact, the teacher must consider the language book merely as a guide and must 
 constantly bring into the language lesson work from other subjects, and from 
 the interests and activities of the children. Language cannot be taught from any 
 'book; and the teacher that confines herself to the exercises in the book will fail 
 to give adequate and interesting training in language. 
 
 The untrained teacher should not omit many of the lessons from the book, 
 though she may omit many of the exercises. Even though the lessons seem 
 disconnected with language work, they are excellent to start discussions and 
 get the children to thinking and talking; and that is the basis of language work. 
 The teacher should be very careful, however, to make the lessons alive with 
 interest. She should never assign a lesson by saying merely: “Take the next 
 lesson.” She must introduce the topic in such a way that the pupils will be able 
 to see the point in the lesson, to know what they are expected to do. 
 
 The lessons contain directions for the children; but they cannot follow these 
 directions without assistance. The teacher must not confine herself to the di¬ 
 rections and questions provided in the book; she must add suggestions of her 
 own based on her knowledge of the pupils’ experience. Do not let the lessons 
 be merely book study. It is a good plan to assign the lessons without reference 
 to the book. For example, in lesson 86 (page 61) the teacher can start the con¬ 
 versation and discussion about cows without asking the questions in the book. 
 
 Whether the suggestions are drawn from the book or not, the oral composition 
 work of the third grade should be continued. The pupils may now make notes 
 from which to speak. The topics should be practical, definite and vital. Have 
 children repeat stories and make oral reports on the books read. 
 
 At least once a week the pupils should be required to write a composition of 
 two or more paragraphs on some interesting topic. Most of these should be 
 taken from life, such as: “A Trip to the Fair,” “How to Make a Sled,” “My 
 Grandfather’s Home.” Some of them may be imaginative subjects, such as “The 
 Autobiography of a Penny,” “A Trip to the Moon,” “Wdiat the School Bell 
 Saw.” If the teacher can secure inexpensive pictures, it is a good plan to have 
 the children paste them in their composition books and write descriptions and 
 stories about them. 
 
 During this year the children should be taught to construct simple outlines 
 before they begin to write. The text provides excellent directions for outlining; 
 see lessons 7, 9, 11, 32, etc. Each division of the outline should represent one 
 paragraph in the composition. If the pupils do not make an outline before they 
 begin to write, they will not plan the work logically and definitely, will leave 
 out important points and bring in unimportant ones. In criticizing this work 
 the teacher should be judicious and sympathetic, calling attention to the grossest 
 errors, but at the same time encouraging the children to express themselves 
 easily and freely. It is a good plan to criticize only one type of error in each 
 group of compositions. Show the children how to criticize their own work. 
 
 Continue the work in the writing of single paragraphs. These have much of 
 the educative value of the long composition and are more convenient as units of 
 writing. In this grade begin to train the pupils in the use of the “ topic sentence;” 
 the sentence placed near the beginning of the paragraph, which tells or suggests 
 the substance of the whole paragraph. 
 
50 
 
 Pupils should be encouraged to consult the dictionary to look up the spelling, 
 pronunciation and meaning of words. The teacher must show the children how 
 to find words, to interpret the abbreviations, etc. It would be well to have 
 the children purchase a small dictionary for their own use. Webster’s Common 
 School Dictionary (American Book Co., Cincinnati) is perhaps the best for grade 
 work. 
 
 Insist on correct spelling in all written work. Review the rules of punctuation 
 already given, and teach the simple rules for use of comma, semicolon, colon, 
 exclamation mark, etc. 
 
 Take advantage of every opportunity in every lesson to teach spoken and 
 written English. In the arithmetic lesson, for example, teach neatness of writing 
 and arrangement, clearness and correctness of language, etc. In literature, study 
 the use of words and help the pupils to add words to their speaking and writing 
 vocabulary; study the construction of sentences and point out that John’s sen¬ 
 tences are too long and Henry’s too short as compared vdth what they are reading; 
 study the paragraphing to see how authors organize and unify their paragraphs 
 and connect them with each other. Encourage informal arguments concerning 
 lessons in literature, history', etc. 
 
 Fifth Grade. 
 
 During this grade part two of Book I should be completed. 
 
 Supplement the book study with much additional work. In assigning and 
 studying the lessons in the book be sure to arouse thought and intelligent ex¬ 
 pression. (See suggestions in fourth grade.) 
 
 Continue oral and written compositions. Encourage the children to introduce 
 fun and humor into their stories. Continue the work in writing single paragraphs 
 with topic sentences, and longer compositions of three or more paragraphs, with 
 outlines, written once a week. Have pupils criticize each others’ language. Em¬ 
 phasize the simple grammatical rules in the book and show the pupils that they 
 must follow these rules in speaking and writing. 
 
 Stress the letter, both the business letter and the social letter. The text con¬ 
 tains helpful suggestions on this subject. These letters should be based upon real 
 life, however, and not on the text-book lessons. 
 
 In this grade children may start keeping diaries. The teacher should help 
 them for a week or two and show them what'they should record each day, then 
 should encourage them to continue the work. From time to time the teacher 
 should ask about the diaries and give suggestions. 
 
 Occasionally the pupils should be asked to take notes on something the teacher 
 reads, or on the talks given by visitors. The teacher and class should criticize 
 these notes from the standpoint of fullness, clearness, accuracy, etc. Some days 
 after the notes have been taken, let the pupils expand them and reproduce the 
 original. 
 
 Simple and informal debating should now be introduced. The questions should 
 arise naturally from the lessons; in agriculture, “Is this community best adapted 
 to fruit raising or cattle raising?” in history “Did Washington do more for his 
 country than Lincoln?” in literature, “Should the Pied Piper have taken the 
 children out of Hamelin?” Questions arising in school may be debated. For 
 example, “Should you snow-ball a boy that does not want to snow-ball?” Have 
 these debates in connection with the recitations in the different subjects. Let 
 each pupil choose one side or the other and set forth his opinions briefly and 
 
51 
 
 f 
 
 \ 
 
 forcibly. The teacher should preside and should insist on pupils sticking to the 
 subject, showing courtesy to an opponent, and obeying parliamentary laws; and 
 she should occasionally throw in a thought-producing question. 
 
 Continue the dictionary work. However, do not send the children to the dic¬ 
 tionary unless it is necessary. In the literature lesson, for example, it is much 
 better to discover the meaning of the word, whenever possible, by examining 
 the whole sentence and seeing the significance of the word in the sentence. The 
 teacher should not insist on the pupil’s being able to give a dictionary definition; 
 if they know what the word means, can give a synonym for it, or can use it in an 
 intelligent sentence, they know the word well enough. 
 
 Encourage pupils to enlarge and enrich their speaking and writing vocabularies 
 by observing and using good words they meet in their reading. But the teacher 
 must be sensible in this matter. She should not urge the pupils to acquire book¬ 
 ish, unusual words, but colloquial, suggestive, usable words. To preserve the 
 child’s naturalness and vigor and at the same time refine, correct, and enrich 
 his language is difficult; but the teacher must undertake no less a task. 
 
 All the children’s written compositions should be read aloud in class. No one 
 gets any pleasure in writing if he knows it is not going to be read or heard by 
 anyone else. 
 
 Sixth Grade. 
 
 Complete Part Three of the first book in this year. Rearrange the exercises 
 and lessons whenever necessary, so that the oral and written work alternate 
 and combine well. Spend some time in assigning each lesson, in order that the 
 pupils may save some time in studying. 
 
 Continue the work in letters, paragraph-writing, and oral and written com¬ 
 positions. In all written work, except friendly letters, outlines should be re¬ 
 quired. These outlines should not be very complex but they should be definite. 
 It is a good plan to assign and discuss the topic one day, have the outline written 
 and discussed the next day, and the composition written the following day. 
 Insist that the pupils plan all written work carefully before beginning to write. 
 They should know the number of paragraphs, the order in which they are to come, 
 and the subject matter of each, before they start writing. After they have pre¬ 
 pared the outline, encourage them to write or talk freely and naturally. When¬ 
 ever absolutely necessary, they may change the outline as they are writing their 
 composition, but they should always be called upon to give the reason for the 
 change. Make much of the oral composition. 
 
 Continue the writing of letters. Arrange a correspondence between the pupils 
 of your school and those of a school in some other part of the state. Have ima¬ 
 ginary letters written by travelers in foreign lands, or by famous persons in 
 history to their families, or by a dog to its absent master. In case the school is 
 ordering any books or supplies, or any pupil has occasion to write a business 
 letter, make it a class exercise and send the best letter written. 
 
 In this grade the teacher should begin to criticize the written work more closely. 
 Mistakes should be indicated by symbols (“Sp” for misspelled word; “Cap” 
 for using a small letter instead of a capital letter; “SI” for using a capital letter 
 instead of a small letter, etc.) Criticisms may be made in red ink. In order 
 to make sure that the pupils study the criticisms, use the following plan: have 
 the children write on only one side of the page in their composition books, leaving 
 a wide margin at the left of the page. Make your criticisms in this margin. Then 
 when you hand the book back, have the children write the correct forms just 
 
52 
 
 opposite the incorrect forms, not rewriting the entire sentences, but only that 
 part involved in the error. It is not a good plan to have the children rewrite the 
 whole composition, except in case of extreme carelessness. 
 
 During this year the children should write brief newspaper articles on the 
 school activities. If, for example, you have had an entertainment in the room 
 or school, conduct afterwards a class exercise in which the teacher and the class 
 discuss what should be written, number of paragraphs, etc.; then have each 
 child write an account of the entertainment. Let them vote on the best article 
 as another class exercise, indicating its good points and suggesting improvements. 
 Then have the writer copy his article and send it to a local or county newspaper. 
 
 Continue work in dramatization. Study a story or poem in the literature class; 
 then have the children write out the dramatization, supplying stage directions 
 and conversation. Then have the story acted according to the best dramati¬ 
 zation. 
 
 Continue the work in debating. Assign questions that lie within the experience 
 and reading of the children. Have the pupils make outlines of what they are 
 going to say and speak from these outlines. Do this in connection with the subject 
 out of which the question arises. 
 
 Encourage the children to take pride in their spoken and written language. 
 Encourage them to criticize each other sympathetically and with the desire to 
 help improve each other. Teach language all the time. 
 
WRITING. 
 
 But little attention is given to the subject of writing in our schools and yet it is 
 a subject to which the teacher can and should devote more time than is generally 
 allotted to it. 
 
 We pride ourselves on being able to communicate our ideas to our fellow- 
 men in a clear, forceful and convincing language, without stopping to think how 
 painful it must be to them to get our thoughts if, perchance, they have been 
 conveyed through the medium of the pen. Teachers, in presenting this subject 
 to your pupils, be sincere and conscientious, and let your aim be to teach your 
 pupils to write a legible, uniform and beautiful handwriting. Let your motto be, 
 “Better today than yesterday.” 
 
 Essentials. 
 
 The essentials POSITION, MOVEMENT, SPEED, and FORM must be 
 taught, and in doing so, the teacher will have to exercise a great deal of patience, 
 for no two pupils will progress with the same degree of rapidity. 
 
 (Note)—Slight variations to suit individuals are allowable, but the following 
 are accepted as general standards. 
 
 Position: See that the desks are properly adjusted to the pupils’ needs. In 
 teaching position, always consider health and efficiency. An erect, healthful 
 position in writing usually leads to efficient work. All through the year pupils 
 should be trained in the essentials of good position; such training is far more 
 important than immediately apparent results. One of the aims of each lesson 
 in which the pupils do any writing should be the establishing of a good position 
 habit. Right kind of training will lead to a good quality of work. 
 
 The body should face the desk in a square front position and inclined slightly 
 forward from the hips, allowing a space of about two inches between the body 
 and the desk. The distance of the eyes from the paper should be twelve or 
 more inches, according to the size of the pupil. The feet should be placed apart 
 and squarely on the floor. 
 
 Place both arms upon the desk, forming approximately right angles at the • 
 elbows. Keep both elbows near the front of the desk. The left hand, placed 
 just above the writing line, holds and adjusts the paper. The right arm rests 
 only on its own weight on the muscles in front of the elbow. The only other 
 point of contact of the right arm with the desk should be the nails of the third 
 and fourth fingers bent under the hand, forming the “gliding rest.” 
 
 The pen or pencil should be held loosely between the thumb, forefinger, and 
 second finger. The distance between the end of the forefinger and point of pen 
 should be about one inch. The other end of the pen should point to the right 
 shoulder. 
 
 The paper should be placed so that it will be easy to swing the arm to the right 
 or left along the writing line. The rule is sometimes given to place it so that a line 
 drawn from the upper right hand corner to the louver left hand corner would 
 point toward the center of the body. It should be moved by the left hand accord¬ 
 ing to convenience. Care must be taken that the paper be moved upward and 
 not the right hand downward as the writing progresses down the page. 
 
54 
 
 Movement: The muscular movement is the one by the use of which the 
 essentials of practical penmanship can be acquired,—legibility, rapidity, ease 
 and endurance. This movement is produced by the large muscles of the upper 
 arm and shoulder, causing the arm to roll on the muscular cushion of the fore¬ 
 arm located just in front of the elbow where it rests upon the desk with the nails 
 of the third and fourth fingers gliding on the paper. The nails of these fingers 
 should describe every movement that the pen makes. The pen, held motionless 
 in the hand, should be governed by the arm with the forearm, hand and fingers 
 acting together as a unit. Insist on correct movement in all written work. 
 
 Movement Exercises. 
 
 /yyyyyyy jjjjjjjy 
 
55 
 
 Practice the “push and pull” movement, direct compact or spiral oval, the 
 direct retracing oval. Two space practice, then the one space. Practice m, u, 
 1, j and 0 exercises—^m and n, 1 and inverted 1—first one space and. as freedom and 
 control are gained, reduce in size till the m, n, u and o are reduced to half space. 
 
 The teacher should make use of any other movement exercises which may be 
 deemed helpful in development of good movement. 
 
 Note: For further movement drill see Manual prepared by Laurel Book 
 Company, Chicago. (Free for the asking.) 
 
 Speed: Speed is of much importance in developing light and uniform motion. 
 Counting serves to restrain a tendency on the part of some to scribble, and is a 
 spur to habitually slow pupils. In the principal movement drills in the upper 
 grade there should be from 150 to 180 down strokes per minute. Such drills 
 are for the purpose of establishing the rate of speed to be used in writing. How¬ 
 ever, in letter and word formation, the speed is slower on account of stops and 
 changes in motion. In general, it may be stated that movement work should be 
 just rapid enough for real use in writing. 
 
 Count for each down or right connecting stroke in the movement exercises 
 given above. Example, down. This word has nine counts. The rate of speed 
 in this tase should be about 20 words per minute. 
 
 Form: As correct habits of position and movement are being formed and a 
 fair degree of speed being secured the emphasis should be shifted gradually to 
 correct letter and word formation. Pupils should compare, frequently, their 
 owm work with their copies. 
 
 The slant should be natural and individual. Most pupils are largely imitative 
 and for this reason they will imitate the slant shown in the copies, but within 
 reasonable limits each one should be allowed to develop his own slant, provided 
 it is uniform in all his writing. 
 
 Practice: We learn to do things by doing them. Without regular practice 
 we cannot hope to attain to any degree of perfection. The movement drills 
 are means to an end, not the end. Begin applying movement to writing of letters 
 and words in the first grade. Aimless practice accomplishes nothing. The 
 writing lesson should be planned the same as any other lesson. A good plan is 
 to practice the exercise first, then the letter, then the letter in the word, then the 
 word in the sentence—giving about the same length of time to each. Encourage 
 muscular movement in all written work and accept nothing but the pupil’s best. 
 Exhibit pages of movement drill and written work. 
 
 Materials for All Grades. 
 
 It is essential that ail materials be selected with care, as good work cannot be 
 done with poor tools. Economy in the use of materials care in regard to details, 
 neatness and a pleasing orderly arrangement of work, should become habits with 
 each individual member of the class. 
 
 Paper: Large sheets, preferably unruled, are best for beginners. During the 
 latter half of the first or the beginning of the second year, ruled paper may be 
 introduced. Paper for the first and second years need not be of a good quality, 
 but when pen and ink are introduced in third grade and above, a standard qual¬ 
 ity paper should be used. 
 
 Writing Book: The state adopted series prepared by the Laurel Book G)m- 
 pany, Chicago, Ill. 
 
56 
 
 Pencils and Pens: Large, soft pencils and wax crayons should be used in 
 first and second grades. For the third and succeeding grades a standard size 
 may be used. 
 
 The pens, at least for the third and fourth grades, should be fitted with rather 
 large, smooth round points. In the follomng grades a finer point is preferable. 
 The pen holder should be made of wood, cork or rubber, but never of metal, 
 and should be about 3 -8 of an inch in diameter at the bottom. 
 
 Work should be done frequently with crayon at the blackboard for the develop¬ 
 ment of movement. 
 
 Teaching Points. 
 
 1. Insist on neatness and orderly arrangement in all written work. No lesson 
 should be given until the desks are clear and order prevails. 
 
 2. There should be a daily writing lesson of not less than ten minutes. No 
 writing lesson should immediately follow an intermission. 
 
 3. At the beginning of the year, a specimen of each pupil’s writing, including 
 the name, date and time required should be taken. At frequent intervals through¬ 
 out the year others should be selected to show improvement. This method of 
 grading will furnish the child an effective stimulus and motive. 
 
 See “Ayres” scale for grading hand writing. A copy may be secured from 
 the Russell Sage Foundation, 130 E. 2nd St., New York City, for 5 cents. See 
 also scale w'orked out by Dr. Thorndike, a copy of which is found in “Teaching 
 the Common Branches,” by Charters. 
 
 4. No shading should be allow'ed in any exercise. 
 
 5. General instruction as a whole is all right. But however well this is done, 
 it is much more effective to give individual attention. Criticize judiciously and 
 commend whenever possible. Pupils will usually do as poorly as the teacher will 
 permit and as well as he demands. 
 
 6. There must be muscular relaxation in order to have good movement. 
 This may be secured in various ways. One method is by dropping the arms by the 
 sides of the seats and shaking them vigorously for an instant. Another w^ay is 
 by executing rapidly some easy exercise while looking away at some object on 
 a level with the eyes. This takes the mind aw^ay from the arm, thus securing a 
 greater relaxation of muscle. Again, have the class stand, raise arms over head, 
 relax fingers, wrists, elbows, and shoulders. Repeat, arms raised even with 
 shoulders, drop as if lifeless to side. Repeat, relax fingers and wrists'with arms 
 at sides. Counting from one to ten in the above exercises helps the work. 
 
 7. Plan each lesson with the special needs of the class in mind. The most 
 effective way to show how a drill is made is by making it in the presence .of the 
 pupils. One sometimes teaches most effectively when he is learning along with 
 the pupils. 
 
 8. Lead pupils to see their faults by questioning them on specific points, and 
 by comparing their work with the models shown. Do not fail to commend for 
 work well done. 
 
 First Grade. 
 
 The first essential in this grade is to train the pupils to sit and write in hygienic 
 postures with particular reference to body, arms and head. Teachers should 
 exercise much care and patience in seeing that this is carried out. 
 
57 
 
 S^Place much emphasis upon movement. Writing is controlled movement. 
 Hence the necessity of stressing this fundamental. It is very advisable at first 
 to give movement exercises in the air. 
 
 Much of the first year’s work should be done at the blackboard. The teacher 
 should make the movement drills and have the children watch. Then at the 
 word of command have the children write. The work should be quick and en¬ 
 thusiastic. From the beginning, teach position, light touch, neatness and ar¬ 
 rangement. No writing lesson should be carried to the point of fatigue. There 
 should be no assigned “busy work” writing in the primary grades. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance that all writing in the first grade be carefully 
 supervised. A very grave mistake is made when the child is allowed to form 
 wrong habits which must be corrected later. And such will be formed except 
 under the most careful supervision. 
 
 First grade children at the close of the year should know the proper position, 
 have well formed notions of movement and paper holding, and should be able 
 to write the alphabet of small letters in order or from dictation, their own names, 
 town and school, figures to 100, a few simple sentences, and capitals necessary 
 for the language work required of them. 
 
 It is much better that children should learn letters in comparative heights . 
 than between lines. 
 
 Second Grade. 
 
 The first few weeks of school the lessons of this grade should be at the board 
 only, after which practice should be done on paper, with frequent drills on the 
 board throughout the year on letters, figures, words, pupil’s names, and easy 
 sentences. 
 
 Place emphasis on correct position, freedom, and proper movement. Endeavor 
 to establish good form. Carefully supervise all work. Don’t accept careless or 
 slovenly work. Drill in word and sentence writing. Look for good points and 
 keep specimens posted. 
 
 At the end of the year the pupil should occupy proper position at desk or 
 board, have well fixed habits of pencil and paper holding, a fair degree of uni¬ 
 formity in work, good movement, and should show decided improvement in 
 general on first year’s work in forming letters, words and in sentence writing. 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 Continue to emphasize correct position and correct movement. Give much 
 instruction in movement for making letters and figures. Continue word and 
 sentence writing. Work for the development of speed. Make a detail study of 
 the letters and teach difficult letters and combination of small letters, such as 
 X, c, k, z, or ch, wr and os. Give particular attention to form. 
 
 Introduce and teach proper use of pen and ink. Dwell on the essentials of 
 position and movement as though they had never been explained before—keep 
 specimens posted. 
 
 At the end of the year’s work the pupil should have acquired the following: 
 
 (a) A very fair use of muscular movement. 
 
 (b) Ability to compare letter forms and make difficult combinations. 
 
 (c) A more definite idea as to form and size of script. 
 
 (d) A fair rate of speed. 
 
58 
 
 (e) Good, well formed habits of penmanship. 
 
 (f) Ability to write all capitals. 
 
 Fourth Grade 
 
 Emphasize correct position, correct drill movements, and apphcation of all 
 fundamental principles. Give instruction in controlled letter drills. See that 
 all work of the preceding grades is strengthened. Systematic drills to increase 
 speed should be given for two or three minutes at the close of each writing lesson. 
 First drills for speed should be wTiting an easy letter or word over and over, 
 increasing speed without sacrificing form. 
 
 Counting is a means of gmng uniformity to movement and keeps the class 
 working harmoniously. Such work directed by a live teacher always creates 
 enthusiasm on the part of the class. In giving counts use such expressions as 
 “Heads up,” “Feet flat,” “Light lines,” “Wrists free,” “Pen loose,” etc. 
 This will impress upon the pupils, habits to be acquired. 
 
 Occasional board practice should be done to correct individual faults and 
 secure better desk practice. 
 
 Fifth and Sixth Grades. 
 
 In addition to the work to be emphasized in grade IV, place much emphasis 
 on controlled letters and word drills, uniformity of slant, height, and spacing 
 in all writing. Apply standard tests or measuring scales frequently. Give 
 various drills for improving and controlling movement. Drill on letters of diffi¬ 
 cult combination. Make all written work, in so far as it is possible, serve as 
 lessons in penmansliip. Give spelling lessons as writing lessons. See that all 
 work is carefully done, and keep specimens of this work posted. 
 
rr- 
 
 'V ; 
 
 
 p 
 
 t 
 
 E 
 
 t 
 
 s. - 
 
 
 ' I 
 
 
 
 ’''^Tf>'' 
 
 I * 
 
 *■ 
 
 (* 
 
 A 
 
 '" ■■4 
 
 7 
 
 *’ h 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 -i 
 
 4 
 
 \ • 
 
MEASURING SCALE FOR ABILITY IN SPELLING 
 
 tbo 
 
 ID 
 
 80 
 
 00 
 
 now 
 
 mao 
 
 ten 
 
 bud 
 
 ‘top 
 
 D 
 
 94 
 
 99 
 
 ho 
 
 you 
 
 will 
 
 my 
 
 up 
 
 luat 
 
 not 
 
 am 
 
 aico 
 
 old 
 
 bad 
 
 red 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 92 88 
 
 98 96 
 
 FOURTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 100 
 
 of 
 
 bo 
 
 but 
 
 tliie 
 
 alt 
 
 your 
 
 out 
 
 time 
 
 may 
 
 into 
 
 bim 
 
 today 
 
 look 
 
 did 
 
 like 
 
 •is 
 
 boy 
 
 book 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 0 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 SECOND 
 
 GRADE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 73 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 THIRD 
 
 GRADE 
 
 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 73 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 FOURTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 
 FIFTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 73 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 SIXTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 
 SEVENTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EIGHTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 94 
 
 92 
 
 88 
 
 by 
 
 
 nine 
 
 seven 
 
 became 
 
 catch 
 
 trust 
 
 except 
 
 eight 
 
 spend 
 
 sometimes 
 
 forenoon 
 
 often 
 
 f 
 
 gUQSS 
 
 cat 
 
 tace 
 
 brget 
 
 irotber 
 
 >lBOk 
 
 extra 
 
 aunt 
 
 afraid 
 
 enjoy 
 
 declare 
 
 lose 
 
 stopped 
 
 orculivr 
 
 
 
 miss 
 
 lappy 
 
 rain 
 
 warm 
 
 drees 
 
 lapture 
 
 uncle 
 
 awful 
 
 engage 
 
 combination 
 
 motion 
 
 arninont 
 
 
 
 
 loun 
 
 ccep 
 
 unless 
 
 beside 
 
 wrote 
 
 rather 
 
 usual 
 
 Puial 
 
 avenue 
 
 tbea tor 
 
 volumo 
 
 
 box 
 
 tree 
 
 think 
 
 start 
 
 clothing 
 
 Leach 
 
 else 
 
 comfort 
 
 complaint 
 
 terrible 
 
 neighbor 
 
 improvement 
 
 organise 
 
 
 
 sick 
 
 sister 
 
 mail 
 
 ^egan 
 
 happen 
 
 bridge 
 
 elect 
 
 auto 
 
 surprise 
 
 weigh 
 
 century 
 
 summon 
 
 
 
 
 cast 
 
 eye 
 
 able 
 
 begun 
 
 >flcr 
 
 aboard 
 
 vacation 
 
 period 
 
 wear 
 
 total 
 
 □lliciiil 
 
 
 
 
 card 
 
 glass 
 
 gone 
 
 collect 
 
 sufler 
 
 jail 
 
 beautiful 
 
 addition 
 
 entertain 
 
 mention 
 
 victim 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 white 
 
 south 
 
 party 
 
 suit 
 
 flle 
 
 built 
 
 shed 
 
 flight 
 
 employ 
 
 salary 
 
 arrive 
 
 Gstiiuato 
 
 
 
 
 deep 
 
 upon 
 
 Lrack 
 
 provide 
 
 center 
 
 retire 
 
 travel 
 
 property 
 
 visitor 
 
 supply 
 
 accident 
 
 
 
 
 inside 
 
 two 
 
 watch 
 
 
 :roDt 
 
 refuse 
 
 rapid 
 
 select 
 
 publicalion 
 
 assist 
 
 invitation 
 
 
 
 blow 
 
 Liluo 
 
 they 
 
 dash 
 
 stood 
 
 rule 
 
 district 
 
 repair 
 
 conneotion 
 
 machine 
 
 difference 
 
 accopt 
 
 
 bring 
 
 block 
 
 poet 
 
 would 
 
 fell 
 
 6x 
 
 carry 
 
 restrain 
 
 trouble 
 
 firm 
 
 toward 
 
 oxami nation 
 
 poesiblo 
 
 
 tell 
 
 spring 
 
 town 
 
 any 
 
 hght 
 
 born 
 
 chain 
 
 royal 
 
 eatrance 
 
 region 
 
 succosa 
 
 particular 
 
 CQQCorn 
 
 kill 
 
 
 stay 
 
 could 
 
 buy 
 
 goes 
 
 death 
 
 objection 
 
 importance 
 
 convict 
 
 drown 
 
 affair 
 
 oBsooiato 
 
 
 ball 
 
 
 grand 
 
 should 
 
 stop 
 
 bold 
 
 learn 
 
 pleasure 
 
 carried 
 
 private 
 
 adopt 
 
 course 
 
 automuhilo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 walk 
 
 drill 
 
 woader 
 
 navy 
 
 loss 
 
 command 
 
 secure 
 
 neither 
 
 various 
 
 
 aak 
 
 
 dark 
 
 only 
 
 grant 
 
 army 
 
 tire 
 
 fourth 
 
 fortune 
 
 debate 
 
 honor 
 
 local 
 
 decide 
 
 
 
 winter 
 
 band 
 
 where 
 
 soap 
 
 pretty 
 
 pair 
 
 population 
 
 empire 
 
 crowd 
 
 promise 
 
 marriage 
 
 onlitio 
 
 
 way 
 
 Btone 
 
 game 
 
 week 
 
 news 
 
 stole 
 
 check 
 
 proper 
 
 mayor 
 
 factory 
 
 wreck 
 
 further 
 
 political 
 
 
 
 
 boat 
 
 first 
 
 small 
 
 income 
 
 prove 
 
 ludge 
 
 wait 
 
 pubbsn 
 
 prepare 
 
 serious 
 
 national 
 
 
 
 
 
 BOUt 
 
 war 
 
 bought 
 
 beard 
 
 weather 
 
 beg 
 
 represent 
 
 vessel 
 
 doubt 
 
 recent 
 
 
 much 
 
 
 east 
 
 mile 
 
 summer 
 
 paid 
 
 inspect 
 
 worth 
 
 degree 
 
 term 
 
 busy 
 
 ooiidition 
 
 business 
 
 
 
 
 
 seem 
 
 above 
 
 enter 
 
 itself 
 
 contain 
 
 prison 
 
 section 
 
 prefer 
 
 government 
 
 refw 
 
 child 
 
 
 
 help 
 
 even 
 
 express 
 
 railroad 
 
 always 
 
 figure 
 
 engine 
 
 relative 
 
 illustrate 
 
 opinion 
 
 minute 
 
 
 
 fall 
 
 hard 
 
 without 
 
 turn 
 
 unable 
 
 something 
 
 sudden 
 
 visit 
 
 progress 
 
 differant 
 
 believe 
 
 ought 
 
 
 
 
 
 afternoon 
 
 leaeoD 
 
 ticket 
 
 write 
 
 forty 
 
 ^est 
 
 department 
 
 entire 
 
 object 
 
 system 
 
 absence 
 
 
 
 
 cover 
 
 Friday 
 
 half 
 
 account 
 
 expect 
 
 inst^ 
 
 president 
 
 piovisioo 
 
 possible 
 
 collier on cfi 
 
 
 
 
 fire 
 
 hour 
 
 father 
 
 driven 
 
 need 
 
 throw 
 
 obtain 
 
 measure 
 
 according 
 
 piece 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 
 
 
 
 wife 
 
 anything 
 
 real 
 
 thus 
 
 personal 
 
 faimly 
 
 famous 
 
 already 
 
 certain 
 
 reeily 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 state 
 
 table 
 
 recover 
 
 woman 
 
 every thing 
 
 favor 
 
 serve 
 
 attention 
 
 witUCBS 
 
 ccicbrotioo 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 high 
 
 mountain 
 
 young 
 
 rate 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 estate 
 
 education 
 
 investigate 
 
 folks 
 
 
 
 
 hne 
 
 bead 
 
 steamer 
 
 fair 
 
 chief 
 
 husband 
 
 remember 
 
 director 
 
 therefore 
 
 
 
 one 
 
 
 cannot 
 
 story 
 
 June 
 
 speak 
 
 dollar 
 
 perfect 
 
 amount 
 
 either 
 
 purpose 
 
 too 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 open 
 
 right 
 
 past 
 
 evening 
 
 second 
 
 human 
 
 effort 
 
 common 
 
 pleasant 
 
 
 
 
 
 line 
 
 abort 
 
 date 
 
 might 
 
 plan 
 
 slide 
 
 view 
 
 important 
 
 Esmond 
 
 
 
 
 if 
 
 
 left 
 
 lady 
 
 road 
 
 begin 
 
 broke 
 
 farther 
 
 election 
 
 due 
 
 together 
 
 
 
 
 bow 
 
 Monday 
 
 ship 
 
 reach 
 
 March 
 
 contract 
 
 feel 
 
 duty 
 
 clerk 
 
 include 
 
 convention 
 
 
 
 
 her 
 
 yet 
 
 tram 
 
 lietter 
 
 next 
 
 deal 
 
 sure 
 
 intend 
 
 though 
 
 o'clock 
 
 running 
 
 increase 
 
 
 
 
 them 
 
 find 
 
 taw 
 
 water 
 
 indeed 
 
 aimoat 
 
 least 
 
 company 
 
 allow 
 
 manner 
 
 
 
 
 other 
 
 
 
 round 
 
 four 
 
 brought 
 
 sorry 
 
 quite 
 
 support 
 
 position 
 
 feature 
 
 
 
 
 baby 
 
 new 
 
 
 cost 
 
 herself 
 
 less 
 
 press 
 
 none 
 
 does 
 
 field 
 
 article 
 
 
 
 
 well 
 
 letter 
 
 Dear 
 
 price 
 
 power 
 
 event 
 
 God 
 
 knew 
 
 regard 
 
 ledge 
 
 service 
 
 
 
 
 about 
 
 take 
 
 down 
 
 become 
 
 wish 
 
 off 
 
 teacher 
 
 remain 
 
 escape 
 
 claim 
 
 injure 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mr. 
 
 
 
 because 
 
 true 
 
 November 
 
 direct 
 
 since 
 
 primary 
 
 effect 
 
 
 
 
 for 
 
 after 
 
 bill 
 
 horse 
 
 world 
 
 took 
 
 subject 
 
 appear 
 
 which 
 
 result 
 
 distribute 
 
 
 
 
 ran 
 
 thing 
 
 waat 
 
 care 
 
 aiuutry 
 
 again 
 
 April 
 
 liberty 
 
 length 
 
 Saturday 
 
 general 
 
 
 
 
 was 
 
 what 
 
 
 try 
 
 meet 
 
 inform 
 
 history 
 
 enough 
 
 destroy 
 
 apDoint 
 
 imormation 
 
 tomorrow 
 
 
 
 
 that 
 
 than 
 
 part 
 
 move 
 
 another 
 
 both 
 
 cause 
 
 fact 
 
 newspaper 
 
 consider 
 
 
 
 
 hia 
 
 iU 
 
 still 
 
 delay 
 
 trip 
 
 heart 
 
 study 
 
 board 
 
 daugnter 
 
 whom 
 
 against 
 
 
 
 
 led 
 
 
 place 
 
 pound 
 
 behind 
 
 list 
 
 month 
 
 himself 
 
 September 
 
 answer 
 
 arrest 
 
 complete 
 
 
 
 
 (lay 
 
 or 
 
 report 
 
 people 
 
 children 
 
 matter 
 
 station 
 
 reply 
 
 themselves 
 
 search 
 
 
 
 
 thank 
 
 never 
 
 
 ever 
 
 build 
 
 use 
 
 attend 
 
 oblige 
 
 special 
 
 treasure 
 
 
 
 
 
 dear 
 
 found 
 
 burn 
 
 held 
 
 understand 
 
 thought 
 
 between 
 
 sail 
 
 women 
 
 popular 
 
 
 
 
 
 weet 
 
 side 
 
 camp 
 
 church 
 
 follow 
 
 person 
 
 public 
 
 cities 
 
 present 
 
 Clirintmas 
 
 
 
 
 
 sold 
 
 kind 
 
 bear 
 
 once 
 
 charge 
 
 nor 
 
 friend 
 
 known 
 
 action 
 
 nterest 
 
 
 
 
 
 told 
 
 life 
 
 clear 
 
 own 
 
 says 
 
 January 
 
 during 
 
 several 
 
 justice 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 beat 
 
 here 
 
 clean 
 
 before 
 
 uit-mber 
 
 mean 
 
 through 
 
 desire 
 
 gentleman 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 form 
 
 car 
 
 spell 
 
 know 
 
 case 
 
 vote 
 
 police 
 
 nearly 
 
 enclose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 far 
 
 gave 
 
 w.ird 
 
 every 
 
 poor 
 
 nnish 
 
 II 
 
 w 1 lie 
 
 
 until 
 
 ms'lam 
 
 
 await 
 
 snpposr 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 tHke 
 
 add 
 
 moat 
 
 maybe 
 
 early 
 
 those 
 
 been 
 
 whole 
 
 
 direction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 made 
 
 across 
 
 close 
 
 office 
 
 yerterday 
 
 address 
 
 
 forward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 said 
 
 toni^t 
 
 tenth 
 
 flower 
 
 great 
 
 among 
 
 request 
 
 
 although 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work 
 
 nothing 
 
 Miss 
 
 Question 
 
 raise 
 
 
 prompt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 our 
 
 sir 
 
 pound 
 
 who 
 
 doctor 
 
 August 
 
 
 attempt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 more 
 
 these 
 
 lead 
 
 died 
 
 hear 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 
 whose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 such 
 
 change 
 
 site 
 
 struck 
 
 
 statement 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from 
 
 seen 
 
 maoy 
 
 wire 
 
 Dtoember 
 
 getting 
 
 
 perhaps 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ftind 
 
 felt 
 
 morning 
 
 few 
 
 doren 
 
 don t 
 
 
 their 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 print 
 
 fuU 
 
 however 
 
 please 
 
 there 
 
 Thursday 
 
 
 imprison 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 air 
 
 fail 
 
 mind 
 
 picture 
 
 tax 
 
 
 
 written 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hll 
 
 set 
 
 shall 
 
 money 
 
 number 
 
 
 
 arrange 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 along 
 
 stamp 
 
 alone 
 
 ready 
 
 October 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lost 
 
 light 
 
 order 
 
 omit 
 
 reason 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 name 
 
 coming 
 
 third 
 
 anyway 
 
 fifth 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 cent 
 
 push 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hope 
 
 night 
 
 point 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 same 
 
 pass 
 
 within 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 shut 
 
 done 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 with 
 
 easy 
 
 body 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imioe 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 vv 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 Z 
 
 FIFTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 SIXTH 
 
 OnADE 
 
 75 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 SEVENTH 
 
 QRADE 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 lOfiant 
 
 oarlioat 
 
 tt'iotlior 
 
 (Laliuuuiah 
 
 ouuudaratiun 
 
 cfilnnio* 
 
 nicutu 
 
 pHief 
 
 <iccupy 
 
 f 'lnhniily 
 Qcuiuti 
 aapuiiHO 
 rca jimiaililu 
 
 liaaimimK 
 
 nppliuitiun 
 
 (riiTiculty 
 
 Hn:ni> 
 
 fioally 
 
 dovclop 
 
 rircuniBtiiDPA 
 
 iiiuo 
 
 material 
 
 Huuacat 
 
 mcro 
 
 Bi4iato 
 
 reeeivu 
 
 rrnprcffully 
 
 niirccnicnt 
 
 uiifortiiiiule 
 
 tnaiurity 
 
 cliiburaie 
 
 citizen 
 
 nuccsoary 
 
 divide 
 
 pruicipul 
 
 tttsUmuny 
 
 ducviMiou 
 
 nrrftiiui'tiu'nt 
 
 roforiMn'e 
 
 eviduiire 
 
 ('xprricnoo 
 
 ai'Hniim 
 
 M’OTPtnry 
 
 aasucialiun 
 
 curticr 
 
 height 
 
 ortinmantinu 
 
 nnervoni'y 
 
 HiiK-eroly 
 
 Htliletio 
 
 I'llreme 
 
 practicnl 
 
 lirorei-d 
 
 rnrdiiilly 
 
 I'lmrnctor 
 
 auparnte 
 
 Fabruary 
 
 'inmedinto 
 
 Ditnvuiiioiit 
 
 rm-ii't 
 
 iiri'iiiiiiiiary 
 
 iliHupPoint 
 
 I'aix'rlally 
 
 niiimnl 
 
 cotiiiiiiltoo 
 
 (Iroiaion 
 
 liriuoipls 
 
 jinUmcnt 
 
 rpriitunioiid 
 
 ullogo 
 
 RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW VORK CITY 
 DIVISION Of EDUCATION 
 LEONARD P. AYRES. DIRECTOR 
 
 The date of thia aoale are computed from an aiotrcuate of 1,400.000 
 epellingf by 70,000 children in 84 citiee througbout the country. The 
 vrorda are J.OOO in numlicr end the liat ia the product of comlnnjng 
 different etudice with the object of identifying the 1,000 comraonMt 
 worda in English writing. Copica of this scale may be ob^ned for nva 
 cents apiece. Copies of the monograph deacrii»ing the inveatigatJOM 
 which produce*! it may be obtained tor 30 <xnta each Addrm the 
 ItuBaell 8ege Fouudatiuu. Diviaion of Education, 130 East 22d Street, 
 New York City. 
 
 1- 
 
 EIGHTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
SPELLING. 
 
 General Discussion. 
 
 The principal aims of teaching spelling are to train the children to spell cor¬ 
 rectly the words they use in their writing in school, to impress upon them the 
 desirability of spelling correctly the words they write, and before they leave 
 school to equip them with the skill and inspire them with the wish to learn the 
 spelling of new words they are called upon to spell in writing after they have 
 left school. 
 
 These aims necessitate three kinds of work, which are distinct in theory, 
 though not inseparable in practice: 
 
 1. Training pupils to spell, automatically, mechanically, without stopping 
 to think, all the words in common use in writing. 
 
 2. Emphasizing correct spelling, making it important, pointing out frequently 
 how necessary correct spelling is in real life, how severely a person is criticized 
 for misspelling. 
 
 3. Teaching a few important spelling rules and training children in the art 
 of consulting the dictionary. 
 
 These three kinds of work are here considered, one at a time. 
 
 I. Learning to Spell the Most Common Words. 
 
 What are the most common words? By an accurate and elaborate cal¬ 
 culation, the Russell Sage Foundation of New York City, found the one thousand 
 words most frequently used. The Foundation then listed these one thousand 
 words by grades, so that teachers may test their pupils’ spelling ability. (See 
 insert.) 
 
 Before the children leave the elementary school, they should all, if possible, 
 be able to make one hundred percent in spelling these words. And their . 
 ability to spell should be further measured by the correct spelling of these words 
 in their writing: if they spell a word right in the formal spelling lesson, but 
 spell it wrong in their language or composition work, they have not yet mastered 
 the word. 
 
 Other lists of words most frequently used are found in “The Child and His 
 Spelling” by Cook and O’Shea, published by the Bobbs-Merrill Company, 
 Indianapolis, Indiana. 
 
 It is almost a certainty that the vast majority of the children will need to spell 
 these words in writing. In addition to these one thousand words, there are, per¬ 
 haps, about five hundred other words used frequently enough by the majority 
 of the children to justify their being taught and emphasized. Certain proper 
 names (family names and “given” names, counties, cities and towns, etc.), 
 often used in writing in any community should be taught in that community. 
 In country schools a number of words peculiar to rural life should be taught; 
 in industrial centers the words used in industries should be taught. Moreover, 
 the observant teacher will discover, by studying the children’s written work, 
 that a number of children use (and perhaps misspell) certain words not given 
 in the list above or even in the spelling books. All such words should be taught 
 in class. 
 
60 
 
 Even’ teacher knows that nearly all children will spell most words correctly. 
 As soon as it becomes evident, by testing and experience, what these words are, 
 they should be eliminated as a part of class work; and as words that are difficult 
 for most pupils are discovered, special emphasis should be thrown on these 
 words. If only one or two children misspell certain words, the teacher should 
 give these children individual attention until they have mastered the words. 
 
 Undoubtedly, most teachers attempt to teach too many words. The average 
 person will not use more than some fifteen hundred words in his writing, and of 
 those words he will spell perhaps fourteen hundred correctly without any special 
 teaching. It is impossible to attain to one hundred percent efficiency in spelling 
 the most common words as long as we try to teach the spelling of eight or ten 
 thousand words—most of which will never be used in writing. It is necessary, 
 therefore, to isolate the most difficult of the common words and drill on these 
 in class, then give individual attention to the poor spellers. 
 
 Causes of Misspelling. At this point it is desirable that the causes of mis¬ 
 spelling be considered. 
 
 There are two classes of misspelling: first misspelling because one is ignorant; 
 second, misspelling because one is careless. Let us take up only the former 
 class. Carelessness in spelling is to be cured usually by the same methods by 
 which we cure carelessness in anything else. 
 
 The English language is an unphonetic language—that is, the sound of spoken 
 words does not always indicate the appearance of the written words, and vice 
 versa. Take the ough sound, as illustration. In through, ough has the sound 
 of oo; in though, it has the sound of o; in plough, it has the sound of ow; 
 in tough, it has the sound of uff; in cough, it has the sound of off. Many 
 vowels and consonants and consonant combinations have varying sounds in 
 different words. If ie always represented the same sound, and ei a different 
 sound, we would have little difficulty in spelling them. This is the most fruitful 
 cause of misspelling. 
 
 In addition to the unphonetic nature of our language, many of us are lazy and 
 careless in our enunciation, and fail to give in our speech the exact sounds, which 
 would indicate the correct spelling. We say “probly” for “probably,” there¬ 
 fore we are likely to write the word probly; we say “seperate” instead of “sep¬ 
 arate,” therefore we are likely to write the word seperate. 
 
 In the third place, many persons have some physical or mental defects which 
 cause them to misspell. One’s vision may be indistinct, so that he cannot see 
 a word clearly; one’s hearing may be so poor that he cannot hear a word dis¬ 
 tinctly, or, because of physical or mental defects, one may never have a clear- 
 cut image of how the word looks; he cannot “shut his eyes and see the word.” 
 
 Finally, a child may misspell because he has learned the wrong spelling and has 
 it established as a habit. 
 
 These conditions make it imperative that we know why each child mis- 
 spe Is and that we teach spelling. Most teachers do not really teach spelling; 
 they merely assign the spelling lesson, then test to see if the children have learned. 
 By simple tests we can tell why a certain child misspells a certain word. But 
 the teaching of spelling is more difficult. Let us, then, consider 
 
61 
 
 How to Teach Spelling. 
 
 First, through spelling lessons. 
 
 1. Have a definite period for teaching spelling in all the grades after the second 
 year. The teacher should assign from the spelling book or from his own lists 
 of misspelled words, not more than five new words a day—fewer than that, in 
 the lower grades. Test the children on the easy, common words; assign for 
 study only the difficult common words; pay no attention at all in class to the 
 uncommon words. 
 
 2. When assigning the words for study, make sure that the children under¬ 
 stand the meaning of the words. They need not define the words, but they 
 should be able to give synonyms or use the words in sentences. 
 
 3. Pronounce the words being assigned and have the children pronounce 
 them; write them on the board and have the children write them. 
 
 4. Clearly indicate the difficulties in the words. If, for example, the word 
 “describe” is one of the words assigned, show the children that they are likely 
 to misspell the de; underscore this part of the word, or write it on the board 
 with colored crayon. Focus the children’s attention on this section of the word. 
 
 5. Direct the children how to master the words. Some persons are “eye- 
 minded;” they will learn best by looking steadily at a word till it makes a picture 
 on the mind. (But the word being studied should be in script symbols rather 
 than in print symbols since the mages of the two are somewhat different, and it is 
 the script that we wish the children to image.) Some persons are “ear-minded;” 
 they will learn best by spelling the word orally and hearing it. Others are “muscu¬ 
 lar-minded;” they will learn best by writing the word. Most persons will learn 
 best by using all three methods, thus impressing the word upon their minds in 
 different ways. 
 
 6. Ability to spell the words assigned may be tested either orally or in writing. 
 One of the best ways is by having the children write sentences (e'ther original 
 or dictated by the teacher) in which the assigned words are used. But the only 
 final and absolute test of spelling ability is power to spell the word in actual 
 written expression when the pupil is intent upon the content and not the form. 
 
 7. Reviews of the difficult words are absolutely necessary. It is permanent 
 mastery we are trying to achieve, not a temporary ownership that soon is given up. 
 
 Second, through language and composition work. The teacher who expects 
 to make her pupils good spellers must have them write a good deal and she must 
 examine their writing. This is important for three reasons. First: It reveals 
 what new words the children are misspelling, so that the teacher may test them 
 and make lessons of them. Second, it is the best means of testing the ability of 
 children to spell the words already taught. Third, it is the only way of training 
 the children in spelling correctly through habit under the conditions in which 
 they will be expected to spell in life. The teacher, therefore, should never ignore 
 misspelling in the written work of the pupils; it is always significant. 
 
 Third, through other school subjects. When difficult common words are 
 found in other subjects, such as History, Geography, Literature, etc., the chil¬ 
 dren’s attention should be called to these words. But it is only the common 
 words that should be given attention. It is a waste of time to require the children 
 to learn the spelling of difficult words or proper names in Geography or History 
 or any subject, unless there is a strong probabihty that the children will some 
 time have occasion to use these words. The work in spelling should aim to 
 
62 
 
 give children master^" over the words they use or will use in writing, not to enlarge 
 their vocabulary. 
 
 We have been considering the means of teaching children to spell the more 
 common words. Let us now take up the second kind of spelling work. 
 
 II. Taking Pride in Spelling Correctly. 
 
 It is difficult to bring children to an appreciation of the importance of accurate 
 spelling. Correct spelling is almost entirely a matter of form—and matters of 
 form are hard to make vital. Not very often does the wrong spelling of a word 
 obscure the meaning: Separate with an e in the second syllable is clearly under¬ 
 stood as separate, not something else. 
 
 The only ways in which we can bring home to children the importance of 
 spelling, are: First, by making it clear, by repetition and by numerous ex¬ 
 amples, that when they are out of school and are writing letters or anything 
 else that is to be read, they will be looked upon as illiterate if they misspell words; 
 Second, by placing a great deal of earnest emphasis upon the spelling process in 
 school: by urging them to correct their spelhng faults, by paying attention to 
 spelling in their written work, by reminding them that words are not theirs 
 till they can spell them, by spelling matches—by every legitimate means we can 
 adopt. Children must develop a spelling conscience, must be brought to the 
 point where they feel guilty if they spell incorrectly. If we cannot do this, at¬ 
 tempting to teach children to spell is almost hopeless. 
 
 III. Learning Rules and Acquiring the Dictionary Habit. 
 
 But it is not enough that we teach children to spell all the common words they 
 wish to use and to feel a sense of pride in spelling these words. We must also 
 equip them for conquering new words which they will learn later on and wiU 
 wish td* spell. The child, who, when he leaves the elementary school is not 
 provided with the ability to learn the spelling of new words, learn them rapidly 
 and easily, is untutored in one of the fundamental aspects of spelling. Two of 
 the tools in the use of which the child should attain skill while he is in school, 
 are spelling rules, and the dictionary. 
 
 Spelling Rules. There are just a few spelling rules that are worth teaching, 
 but these few are well worth it. Here are two that should be taught: A mono¬ 
 syllable or polysyllable with the accent on the last syllable ending in a single con¬ 
 sonant preceded by a single vowel doubles that final consonant before a suffix 
 beginning with a vowel. Examples: Hop, hopping; bag, baggage; omit, 
 omitting; acquit, acquittal. This rule is almost invariable. 2. Most words 
 ending in silent e, drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel. Examples: 
 Write, writing; excite, exciting. There are some common exceptions to this rule. 
 
 Any person who knows these and a few other useful rules, and has learned to 
 apply them can solve many of the spelling difficulties as they come up in life. 
 If he does not know them, he must learn hundreds of different forms—he must 
 learn not only hop, but hopped, not only write but writing as separate forms. 
 Surely it is more economical of time and energy to teach the rules and train the 
 children to apply them. 
 
 Using the dictionary. Before they leave school, children should be made 
 thoroughly acquainted with the dictionary and trained in its use. When, for 
 example, he wishes to use a certain word in a composition and realizes that he 
 
63 
 
 does not know how to spell it, or if he has spelled the word incorrectly, the teacher 
 should direct him to the dictionary, and should show him how to use it. Most 
 children cannot find their way about in the dictionary; the teacher must go 
 with him as a guide. Every pupil in the upper grades should be in the habit of 
 consulting the dictionary to ascertain or to verify the spelling of words. In 
 no other wa^'" can a child attain master^' over one of the most important tools of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Ehminating all but the useful words and concentrating on these useful words, 
 really teaching them, and making the children automatically and habitually 
 correct in the spelling of these words; requiring the children to write much, that 
 they may learn the words in natural settings; inspiring a pride in correct spelling 
 and a shame for incorrect spelling; and giving children command of the spelling 
 implements by which they may at any time learn the spelling of new words— 
 these are the most important parts of the method in spelling. 
 
 Outline by Grades. 
 
 Teachers will find excellent suggestions for teaching spelling in the prefaces 
 and appendixes to the texts. The texts contain many more words than children 
 need to know how to spell. Teachers, therefore, should omit any words not 
 commonly used by the average person in his writing, and should teach the spelling 
 of all words used in the children’s writing even though they are not found in the 
 spelling textbooks. No book should be used the first and second years. 
 
 Third year—^Mastery of Words, Book I, pages 1-50. 
 
 Fourth year—^Mastery of Words, Book I, pages 51-90. 
 
 Fifth year—Mastery of Words, Book I, pages 91-134. 
 
 Sixth year—^Mastery of Words, Book II, pages 1-41. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Scope of Arithmetic. Arithmetic should be taught throughout the 
 third, fourth, fifth and sixth grades. No formal study of the subject should be 
 encouraged or allowed in the first and second grades. A limited amount of 
 number work may be accomplished in the first two grades, but it should all be 
 oral and incidental; that is, it should grow out of other lessons and activities, 
 both in and out of school, in which the child takes part. 
 
 The regular, required work beginning in the third grade should be varied to 
 suit the needs of the children at each age. It should be made practical and closely 
 related to the child’s surroundings and to what the child already knows. 
 
 2. Definite aim by the teacher. The teacher should plan each lesson 
 carefully, keeping in mind the principle that facts learned in arithmetic are 
 valuable in proportion to the amount of use they have or will have for the pupils. 
 Each lessons or connected series of lessons should have a specific aim. The work 
 of the class period must all center around this aim. All work of the pupils should 
 be accurate, neat, and done rapidly. Accuracy and speed must be gained at the 
 same time. “Accuracy first and speed afterwards” is bad in that it leaves the 
 child with many bad habits to overcome. 
 
 3. Motivation. There are two ways of motivating,—that is, of developing 
 in the pupil a lively interest in—school work in arithmetic, (a) One may appeal 
 to the child’s instincts such as the joy of mastery, or to the spirit of emulation, 
 always present in classes, (b) One may impress upon the pupil his present or 
 his future need of the work. All work should be motivated if the child is to make 
 rapid progress. 
 
 4. Drill. There should be short drill periods nearly every day so that the 
 child will not forget what he has learned. This should not be given in the same 
 way each day, but should be varied. Drill work that grows out of the regular 
 lesson is more fruitful and lasting than set periods for drill, but the latter are 
 necessary at times. Each fundamental learned should be recalled by some method 
 until it is firmly fixed. 
 
 5. Thought work. The child should be taught in analyze problems before 
 attempting their solution. He should be trained to see what is given, what is 
 desired, the particular type of problem, and the process required in its solution. 
 
 6. Importance of fundamentals. The importance of the four funda¬ 
 mentals should be realized since they are the foundation of all future work. If 
 they are poorly taught, the pupil will always have trouble. Adding, subtracting, 
 multiplying, and dividing are not simple, single operations, but are more or less 
 complex. Hence it is very important that the teacher sees that they are thor¬ 
 oughly understood. 
 
 7. Method of developing a new process. New processes should be devel¬ 
 oped first objectively and concretely. The child should not be told that he is 
 taking up something new, but should be led up to it through othe work and 
 before he realizes it, have him grasp the new process. 
 
 8. Waste in the teaching of arithmetic. The waste which frequently 
 occurs in the teaching of arithmetic usually results from the following: 
 
 (a) Teaching subject matter that lacks practical value. 
 
65 
 
 (b) Teaching Mvithout clear aims and without having the work well 
 planned. 
 
 (c) Teaching what the pupil already knows. 
 
 ,d) Teaching without training in how to make the best use of one’s time 
 in study. 
 
 (e) Drudgery in teaching and study, such as drilling in a subject after 
 pupils have learned it sufficiently well, teaching or studying non-essen¬ 
 tials, etc. 
 
 (f) Unsystematic drill. 
 
 (g) Waste of time in such operations as roll call, passing papers, etc. 
 
 (h) Giving assignments not bearing on the main point. 
 
 (i) Teaching without systematic check upon deficiencies and attainments, 
 
 (j) Doing too much for the pupil. 
 
 (k) Doing too little for the pupil. 
 
 9. Assignments. The teacher should be careful to make proper assign¬ 
 ments. A part of the recitation period should be taken up in going over the next 
 lesson in order to see that the class clearly understands what is to be done. This 
 is to be accomplished not by merely telling the children what to do and how to 
 do it, but by making the aSvSignment an exercise in which the children take a 
 lively part and a keen interest. Discussion in which the children take part will 
 reveal the points which need to be made clear and will enable the teacher to 
 avoid dwelling on the points which they already understand. The lesson after 
 such an assignment will not be drudgery to the child, but a pleasurable task. 
 
 10. Preliminary work. No regular work in arithmetic should be given in 
 the first and second grades; but incidentally and in connection with the recita¬ 
 tions in other subjects much may be done to prepare the way for the work in 
 arithmetic to be taken up regularly in the third grade. Such words as large, 
 small, less, more, wide, narrow, and the like will occur in class w^ork. The 
 difference in these terms should be shown with objects. 
 
 The numbered pages in the children’ primers, the number of windows in the 
 school room, the number of desks in a row’ and in the room, the number of children 
 in the class, the number of houses in a certain block or along a certain stretch 
 of roadway, the number of fields on a certain farm and the number of domestic 
 animals of any certain kind on a farm and a hundred other things offer oppor¬ 
 tunity to the wide-awake teacher to develop in the children the idea of number. 
 
 In the same way, if the actual measures are at hand, such terms as pint, quart, 
 gallon, inch, foot, yard, ounce, pound, etc., may be taught. While the face of 
 a clock, either actual or carefully drawn on the blackboard or a card, can be 
 used to teach a few of the Roman numerals. It is not unlikely that opportunities 
 will arise to teach a few’ simple fractions. The teacher should, how’ever, keep in 
 mind that he is not to teach numbe'’ in these grades except as the w’ork grows 
 naturally out of the children’s other activities. 
 
 Third Grade. 
 
 Beginning with this year it is necessary that the pupils have a textbook and 
 that a regular period be set aside for work in arithmetic. The teacher should 
 be careful, however, that the w’ork does not become formal with the introduction 
 of the text. The use of objects to teach number facts should be freely resorted to. 
 
 1. Notation and Numeration. The pupils should learn to read and write 
 numbers through 1000, and Roman numerals to L. They should also learn to read 
 
66 
 
 and write numbers involving dollars and cents. They should learn to begin 
 at any digit and count by 2’s and 3’s to 100, to count to 100 by 6’s and 8’s. 
 
 2. Addition. The pupils should learn to add rapidly and accurately in 
 columns of eight to ten figures. The most emphasis should be placed on two 
 and three place numbers. The addition should be both oral and written. Teach 
 the term “sum,” but not the term “addend.” 
 
 3. Subtraction. Emphasize speed and accuracy. Illustrate freely by the 
 use of objects and drawings. Teach such terms as difference and remainder, 
 but not such terms as “minuend” and “subtrahend.” 
 
 4. Multiplication. Teach multiplication by one figure numbers. Teach 
 the multiplication tables to 9 x 10. 
 
 5. Division. Teach division by one figure numbers. 
 
 6. Denominate numbers. Teach and illustrate objectively such terms 
 as pint, quart, gallon; quart, peck, bushel; ounce, pound; inch, foot, yard; 
 square inch, square foot, square yard; introduce the use of the ruler, and other 
 units of measure. Do not tell the children that two pints make a quart, but 
 have them find out for themselves. Problems should never involve more than 
 one step. 
 
 7. Fractions. Teach objectively the use of half, third, and fourth. Children 
 in this grade should learn to add and subtract easy problems involving halves, 
 third and fourths, but it must be done with the use of objects or drawings. 
 
 8. Textbook. Complete Part II of Hamilton’s Elementary Arithmetic. 
 Page 106. The teacher should have two or three other good books for this grade. 
 
 Fourth Grade. 
 
 This grade has not very much new work. The teacher of this grade should 
 study the third grade work and aim to extend the processes. Considerable review 
 and drill should be given in this year. It is very important that the teacher 
 use good judgment to see that this does not become drudgery. 
 
 1. Notation and Numeration. The pupils should learn to read and 
 wri .e numbers to 10,000. Roman numerals should be learned to C. 
 
 2. Addition. Give much drill in addition. The difficult combinations 
 as 9+7, 8+5, 8+7, 7+4, should be emphasized. Pupils must learn to recognize 
 at sight the sum of groups of two and three figures. Numbers of three and 
 four figures and six to eight figures in a column may be added in this year. Have 
 the pupils check their addition by adding a second time in reverse order. 
 
 3. Subtraction. Teach accurate and rapid subtraction of three, four 
 and five place numbers. Teach the business way of making change—by adding 
 to the price of the article what is needed to complete the amount of money given 
 in payment. 
 
 4. Multiplication., Teach multiplication of three and four place numbers 
 by two place numbers. Insist on speed and accuracy. Teach the terms mul¬ 
 tiplier, multiplicand, and product. 
 
 5. Division. Teach the division of three and four place numbers by two 
 place numbers. Insist on speed and accuracy. Teach the use of the terms 
 divisor, dividend, and quotient. 
 
 6. Denominate Numbers. Teach the measurement of time, weight, 
 length, and surface. Have measures in the school room and have the pupils 
 get an understanding of the terms objectively. Tables have no value unless 
 there is a definite meaning of the terms. Teach only units of measurement 
 
67 
 
 that are used in everyday life. Introduce many practical measurements in 
 connection with the tables. The pupils should learn to formulate their own 
 problems and then the teacher can be sure they have an understanding of them. 
 For example, they may be asked to state a problem for finding the cost of fenc¬ 
 ing a field at a given cost per rod. The dimensions may be assumed, or if con¬ 
 venient, they should be gotten by actual measurement. They should make 
 actual measurements in and about the school room and formulate and solve 
 under the teacher’s supervision problems about the cost of plastering at an 
 assumed cost per square yard, the cost of the flooring at an assumed cost per 
 thousand square feet. Similarly, weight and time may be introduced into many 
 practical problems. Facts in problems should be true to business, or actual 
 conditions. 
 
 7. Fractions. Teach the add tion and subtraction of halves, fourths, 
 eighths, thirds, sixths, and ninths. Use objects such as the diagrams of c rcles, 
 splints, apples, potatoes, paper cutting, etc., to teach the addition and sub¬ 
 traction of fractions. 
 
 8. Textbook. Complete Part III of Flamilton’s Elementary Arithmetic. 
 Page 107-185. Supplement this with outside practical problems and other 
 {exts. 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 1. Notation and Numeration. Teach the reading and writing of numerals 
 through 1,000,000; the reading and writing of common fractions with small 
 denominators; the reading and writing of decimals through three places; the 
 reading and writing of mixed numbers, using “and” in reading mixed numbers 
 only between the whole number and the fraction; the reading and writing of 
 Roman numerals through G, and the numerals D and M. 
 
 2. Four Fundamentals. Test the pupils in addition, subtraction, multi¬ 
 plication, and division. If they fall below the standard, give them drill worK 
 until the desired proficiency in speed and accuracy has been secured. 
 
 3. Denominate Numbers. Teach the tables for liquid measure, dry 
 measure, avoirdupois weight, time measure, and linear measure. Problems 
 should never involve more than-two steps, in reduction. 
 
 4. Practical Measurements. Have the pupils formulate many problems 
 in lengths, surfaces and solids and solve. They should do considerable measur¬ 
 ing in order to get data for their problems. After the measurements have been 
 secured have them make drawing^ to scale. 
 
 5. Fractions Teach the reduction of common fractions to higher and 
 lower terms. Addition and subtraction of fractions should'be taught object¬ 
 ively by the use of paper cutting, diagram of circles, rectangles, and lines. Use 
 small denominators in teaching fractions objectively. Do not continue the 
 use of the objects after their purpose has been realized, or the pupils will form 
 the bad habit of depending upon them. The terms numerator, denominator, 
 common denominator should be taught. No denominator larger than 100 
 should ever be used and rarely ever one above 32, hence it is possible to find 
 the common denominator in most case by inspection. Teach the reduction 
 of improper fractions to mixed numbers, of mixed numbers to improper frac¬ 
 tions. Teach the reduction of common fractions to decimals and the reduc¬ 
 tion of decimals to common fractions when the denominator will be less than 
 100. Teach thoroughly the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division 
 
68 
 
 of common fractions and decimals. Make much use of cancellation. Connect 
 the use of decimals with problems in United States Money. 
 
 6. Bills and Receipts. One period a week should be spent in making out 
 common accounts, bills, and receipts. It is much better to spread this work over 
 the entire year than to concentrate it in three or four lessons. It will become 
 fixed in the pupils’ minds better and be more lasting, and vdll give an opportunity 
 to use wider experience. 
 
 7. Percentage. Devote some time to easy problems in percentage. This 
 work should be closely related to the work in common and decimal fractions. 
 Show" the pupils that it contains nothing new except notation. 
 
 8. Interest. Out of the work in fractions and percentage should grow 
 som^ simple problems in interest. It should here be made clear that interest 
 contains no new principles. 
 
 9. Textbook. Complete Part IV in Hamilton’s Elementaiy Arithmetic. 
 Supplement this with practical problems. 
 
 Sixth Grade. 
 
 In this year the pupils should finish all fhe mathematics that is used in the 
 common business of the w'orld. It wall of course be necessary that their mathe¬ 
 matical experience be very limited. The chief purpose is to develop skill and 
 accuracy in he fundamental operations, in order that a future advance may 
 be secured. All cases of “arre ted development”—such as counting while 
 adding, adding instead of using the multiplication combinations, and writing 
 dowm numbers to be added to the next higher order in multiplication—should 
 be corrected. 
 
 1 Notat on and Numeration. Review and teach all forms and varieties 
 of notation and numeration. 
 
 2. Four Fundamentals. Test the pupils in addition, subtraction, mul¬ 
 tiplication and division. If they fall below the standard, give them drill work 
 until the desired proficiency in speed and accuracy have been secured. 
 
 3. Denominate Numbers. Teach the reduction, addition, subtraction, 
 multiplication and division of linear, square an3 cube measure. Review the 
 work of the previous grades. 
 
 4. Practical Measurements. Give the pupils considerable practice in 
 measuring lengths, surfaces, and solids. Have them formulate their own prob¬ 
 lems from the measurements. The problems should all be practical. Have pupils 
 find area of school lot, dimensions of school room, total area of walls and ceiling, 
 the window" space, blackboard space. Have them bring many practical prob¬ 
 lems from home. 
 
 5. Fractions. Give drills in all the fundamental operations. Change 
 common fractions to decimals and decimals to common fractions Teach the 
 reading of decimals to six places, but in the solution of practical problems have 
 the pupils use only three places or less. Introduce many business applications 
 of decimals. 
 
 6. Simple Accounts. There should be at least one period a w'eek devoted 
 to the keeping of simple accounts. If the children have money to spend, they 
 should make a record of their income and expenses. If the pupils wish to use 
 tneir family grocery bill, this will furnish excellent data. 
 
Sample Paje of Account Book. 
 
 1918 
 
 
 Receipts 
 
 
 1918 
 
 Payments 
 
 
 March 
 
 2 
 
 On hand. 
 
 . .32.34 
 
 March 4 
 
 Book. 
 
 . 30.50 
 
 
 9 
 
 Selling papers.... 
 
 .40 
 
 8 
 
 Car fare. 
 
 .25 
 
 
 16 
 
 Errands. 
 
 . 15 
 
 “ 14 
 
 Pencil. 
 
 .05 
 
 
 23 
 
 Selling papers.... 
 
 . • .20 
 
 “ 31 
 
 On hand. 
 
 . 2.39 
 
 
 30 
 
 Errands. 
 
 .10 
 
 
 
 
 S3.19 33.19 
 
 7. Percentage. Make many simple applications of decimal and common 
 fractions to percentage. Show the pupils that the only new thing in percentage 
 is the notation. Make little use of the terms base, rate, and percentage as these 
 are seldom used outside of the school room. Use the tenns percent, interest, 
 rate of interest, as these are used in real life. Only two kinds of problems involv¬ 
 ing percent should be used. The following examples illustrate these—find 25 
 percent of 624; 25 is what percent of 625? Have pupils learn the percent equiv¬ 
 alents for 1/2, 1/5, 1/6, 1/8, 1/10, 1/12, 2/3, 3/4, 3/8, 5/8, 7/8, 
 1 /20. These percent equivalents should be made as automatic as the mul¬ 
 tiplication tables. 
 
 8. Interest. Teach thoroughly simple problems in interest. Do not teach 
 several methods, but teach one thoroughly. The simple form of computing 
 interest for one year and then multiplying by the number of years is most satis- 
 factor\^ 
 
 9. Textbook. Complete Part I in Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic. This 
 should be well supplemented with practical problems. 
 
 Helpful Books on the Teaching of Arithmetic. 
 
 Teachers wishing to make further study of the teaching of arithmetic are 
 referred to the following books: 
 
 The Teaching of Mathematics—J. W. A. Young, Longmans, Green & Co., 
 New York. 
 
 How to Teach Arithmetic—Brown and Coffman. Row Peterson Sc Co., 
 Chicago. 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic—David Eugene Smith. Ginn and Co., New 
 York. 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic—^A. W. Stamper. American Book Co., Cincinnati. 
 
 Special Method in Arithmetic—^McMurry. Macmillan Company, New York. 
 
 The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic—^Henry Suzzalo. Houghton Mifflin 
 Company, New York. 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic—Paul Klapper. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 Number by Development—John G. Gray. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 
 
NATURE STUDY. 
 
 General Statement. 
 
 Even,- teacher, or even.- school in which nature study is taught, should be a 
 subscriber to the Nature Study Re\-iew, Ithaca, N. Y. The teacher or school 
 should have a copy of Bailey’s Nature Study Idea, Doubleday, Page & Co., 
 New York Cit\-; Bigelow’s How Nature Study Should be Taught, Hinds Noble 
 & Co., New York City; and Coalter and Patterson’s Practical Nature Study 
 and Elementary Agriculture, D. Appleton & Co., New York City. 
 
 This journal and these books are for the teacher. They w-ill aid in planning 
 and organizing the work, and help in finding, and directing the pupils to find 
 material for study. 
 
 Nature study is an objective study. The pupils should have no books; it is 
 not reading. The child needs a rich, concrete background for the study of geog¬ 
 raphy, agriculture, hygiene and sanitation Nature study properly taught wUl 
 furnish this background, and give the child an intelligent outlook on the world. 
 The teacher must get the spirit and point of view of nature study. 
 
 Nature Study deals with common objects and processes as they directly affect 
 human life and interests. 
 
 Both the material and method must be for the child rather than for the adult. 
 
 Guide for the teacher in selecting lesson material: 
 
 1. Is it suitable material? 
 
 2. Can it be seen, handled, etc.? 
 
 3. Is it a common thing? 
 
 4. Does it have many common interests? Example—The house-fly. 
 
 The main purpose is to get the child to sense, image, and think for himself. 
 A study of nature enables the child to grasp the forces about him and to turn 
 them to his advantage. 
 
 The aim should be to awaken an interest in nature and to give a general ac¬ 
 quaintance with it, as it lies nearest to the children. 
 
 The children should be brought into actual contact with the object of study, 
 whenever possible, either in or out of the school room. Nature study is a study 
 rnatural forces and natural objects in their natural setting. 
 
 Emphasis should be placed at all times on plants and animals as living things, 
 and their mutual dependence upon each other. 
 
 In the lower four grades, nature study, geography and hygiene should 
 be taught through the year as one subject and in one way or another 
 appear on every day’s program. 
 
 The lessons may afford additional material for language and composition 
 work. 
 
 In rural schools all the children in Grades I-II should be grouped together 
 for this work. 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 Fall. 
 
 First-Grade pupils are eager to watch things move and act—hence they Like 
 to study birds, chickens, rabbits, cats, dogs, etc.; w^atch a rapidly grov^dng plant, 
 or note the effect of the wind on smoke, on weather-vanes, etc. 
 
71 
 
 Birlds, animals, trees, flowers, insects, pets, earth and sky should be the general 
 topics. 
 
 ■ Teach only the facts which are easily within the child’s comprehension. 
 
 Birds: Recognition and name of some of the common birds of the locality, 
 their food and feeding habits. Encourage the children to feed the birds and to 
 build bird houses. Some kinds of birds leave us in the fall. Why? Note the 
 time when they go. Note when they return. 
 
 Trees: Recognition of trees by leaf, fruit, bark. Winter buds, their color 
 and protection. Study the kinds of fruit grown in the neighborhood. 
 
 Field Trip. 
 
 Purpose: To identify the forest tree of the locality, and collect specimens 
 of leaves, bark, and, if possible, the fruit. 
 
 Note to Teacher: Unless the trip is carefully planned and both the object 
 to be attained and the method of procedure are definitely fixed in mind the trip 
 will degenerate into a mere picnic excursion without object or destination. 
 
 Things to Observe: Note the two great classes of trees, evergreen (like the 
 pine or cedar) and deciduous (like the oak). 
 
 Observe the bark and leaf of some of the common trees, but do not attempt 
 too many at one trip. It will lead to confusion of ideas. 
 
 Collect bark and leaves and fruit when possible. This material may serve 
 for language and drawing lessons. 
 
 Note the rings on the end of a log that has been sawed squarely across. If a 
 log cannot be found have one or more of the boys to bring to school blocks sawed 
 off so that the annual growth of the tree may be seen. 
 
 Look for diseased trees. How are they injured? 
 
 Try to find a place where trees have prevented excessive washing of hillside. 
 Look for beautiful trees suitable for shade. 
 
 School Room Work Based on Field Trip. 
 
 Oral story of trip by the pupils. 
 
 Have pupils who can write make a list of trees studied. 
 
 A written composition may be required of the older pupils. 
 
 Have pupils draw and paint leaves. 
 
 The teacher may think of other ways of using the material and ideas gained 
 by the trip. 
 
 Flowers: Learn the names and means of recognizing some of the fall flowers^ 
 as the goldenrod, aster, geranium, and chrysanthemum. 
 
 A field trip migh be made to study the fall weeds and fall flowers. 
 
 Have children save flower seeds and plant in the spring. 
 
 Plant peach pits and apple seeds, after preparing a place for them on the 
 school grounds. 
 
 School Calendar. 
 
 Have a school calendar on the blackboard or on a large piece of cardboard. 
 Have children observe weather conditions and fill in the calendar daily so that 
 at the end of each month there is a complete record of wind, rain, sunshine, 
 t emperature, etc. 
 
72 
 
 See model for home geography under discussion of that subject. 
 
 Place a weather vane on the school building. Have the children associate 
 the state of the weather with the direction of the wind, 
 
 Giet Climatological Data—U. S. Weather Bureau, Parkersburg, W. Va 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Birds: Name birds hat have gone since 'all began. Name those which 
 remain. 
 
 How to make friends with the birds. Read or tell bird stories. 
 
 Insects Where have the^^ gon '? How will they get here again in the spring? 
 
 Compare the winter life of the squirrel and the rabbit. 
 
 Plants Where are the wild flowers nowi' 
 
 Call attention to the house plants and the care that is given them. 
 
 Can you notice any difference in the buds of the trees as winter goes away? 
 Look closely for changes. 
 
 Study the winter coats of buds, especially of the yellow linden trees and the 
 hickory. 
 
 Compare length of day and night in fall and winter. What effects produced? 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Birds: Find out the names of the newcomers. Notice w'hat they are doing 
 and tell only w hat you see. 
 
 Watch at least a pair of birds during the spring and summer and tell the com¬ 
 plete story of wiiat you see them do. 
 
 Trees: Note changes in the buds, leaves, etc. 
 
 What trees leaf first? 
 
 Can you gather and preseiwe the seeds of the elm, the willow, the maple, the 
 poplar? 
 
 W'atch for the aiipearance of the apple and peach seedlings, and care for them. 
 
 Plant seeds of maple, elm, willowy and poplar in the school garden, and care 
 for them. Note the kinds of soil these trees grow^ in and make your garden 
 soil like it. 
 
 Seeds: Sprouting of seeds observed; the differen. ways the seeds come 
 out of the ground; parts of seedlings (roots, stems, leaves); uses of parts of 
 plants. 
 
 Plant seeds of the Lima bean and the nasturtium, and learn how' to care for 
 the young plants. Try to raise enough seeds for the children to pbnt next year, 
 as well as to plant in the home garden. 
 
 Arrange to ca^e for the garden during vacation. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 Fall. 
 
 Second-grade pupils add to this general interest in action in the first grade a 
 personal attitude and so want their own pets, flowers, discoveries, etc,, discussed. 
 Individual gardens are here a joy. 
 
 Birds: Recognition and names, homes, food and feeding habits, sounds or 
 calls; enemies. 
 
73 
 
 WTiat new names can you add to the list of birds you saw since last Spring? 
 Can you tell anything new' about the habits of any bird you have previously 
 observed? 
 
 Will you find out all you can about the partridge? 
 
 Organize a “Bird Club” in your school. Purpose to save the birds. 
 
 Insects: Recognition and name of cabbage butterfly, potato beetle, rose 
 bug, cricket, grasshopper. 
 
 Can you find some eggs of the butterfly and w'atch them develop? 
 
 Can you collect some caterpillars and w'atch them feed and develop? 
 
 Can you collect and keep some cocoons through the winter? 
 
 Plants: Can you add some new' fall flowers to your list made a year ago? 
 Examine the flow'ers of the pumpkin, the red clover, the sunflower, the morning 
 glory, the aster, and tell how' they differ from the flow'ers of the Lima bean. 
 Will you tr\' to draw' them? 
 
 Trees: Can you tell the names of some other trees you have learned to know' 
 since last year? 
 
 We will tr\' to learn to know' the trees by means of their buds, outline, and 
 bark after the leaves are gone. 
 
 Seeds: Tell some w'ays seeds get out into the w'orld. 
 
 Can you name some seeds that use wings? Some that steal rides? 
 
 Work to Do. Save seeds of pumpkin, morning gloiy', sunflower and sweet 
 pea to plant next spring. 
 
 Plant acorns and chestnuts and w'atch development in the Spring. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Daily observ^ations of weather recorded in class calendar. 
 
 Locate north by noonday shadow, east and west by rising and setting of sun. 
 Difference in length of day and night at different seasons of the year. 
 
 Illustrate freezing, melting, evaporation. 
 
 The sky: WTiat it is; its color; its shape. 
 
 Preparation of the garden for Spring. 
 
 Feeding and protecting the birds. 
 
 Lessons on kindness to animals. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Birds: Migratory birds; ducks and geese, phoebe, swallow, robin, bluebird, 
 'blackbird, catbird, humming-bird, scarlet tanager, oriole. 
 
 Special study of one kind of bird. 
 
 Protection of birds. Birds are the farmer’s friends. 
 
 Made a study of the hen, as to breed, color, size, uses and care. 
 
 Plants: Watch for the spring flowers and try to name them as they appear. 
 A love of flowers should be cultivated. 
 
 Development of Bulbs: Onion, hyacinth, tulip, crocus. 
 
 Bulbs placed in moist saw'-dust, soil or water; observ'ation of the development 
 -of roots, stems and leaves. 
 
 Animals: Frog or toad; development from egg. Its use to man. Its pro- 
 •tection. Continue the observation of any other animal previously observed in 
 'Which the children are interested* as the horse or cow. 
 
74 
 
 The Soil: Observe the effects of freezing on the soil. Running water. Where 
 the best soil is found and why. 
 
 The need of good soil may be shown by cultivation of seedlings or plants 
 in saw-dust, in sand, and in rich loam. 
 
 Climate: Note the effects of the length of the day on the temperature. 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 Fall. 
 
 Third-grade pupils add imagination to that of first and second-grade pupils, 
 and enjoy personification of objects in nature, loving best those which can be 
 played with or which have stories—pansy faces, sweet-pea bonnets, Greek, Norse, 
 and Indian interpretations of nature. 
 
 Birds: Continue the study as time permits. 
 
 Recognition and name of the resident birds—woodpecker, owl, blue-jay, crow, 
 wild canary, cardinal, nuthatch, etc. 
 
 Plants: Study how to shape the plant by the selection of the seed. 
 
 How seeds are protected while ripening; adaptation for dispersal by wind, 
 water, birds, hairy animals. 
 
 Collection of dry fruits to show form and method of seed dispersal. 
 
 Field Trip. 
 
 Purpose: To observe, study and collect specimens of weeds and dry fruits. 
 
 Note: Take also the larger pupils, and have them keep a record of the weeds' 
 examined. 
 
 Things to Observe Where the greatest variety of weeds are found, near 
 buildings and roads or in the open fields? Why? Notice the variety of ways in> 
 which weeds bear their seeds. 
 
 Special arrangement of plants for dispersal of seeds. How many seeds does 
 one weed produce? 
 
 Will weeds of a certain kind be more plentiful in a field where crops have been 
 grown year after year? 
 
 Have upper grade pupils classify weeds according to their length of life. 
 
 1. Annuals are those wh ch spring from seeds, blossom, fruit, produce- 
 seeds and die down the first season (as the ragweed). 
 
 2. Biennials grow the first season without blossoming, usually storing 
 up food in their roots, blossom and seed the following season and then die down 
 completely (as the burdock and wild carrot, etc). 
 
 3. Perennials live and blossom year after year (as the dandelion, plantain, 
 etc.). 
 
 Note: Write the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for Farmer’s 
 Bulletin, No. 28, “Weeds and How to Kill Them;” No. 86, “Thirty Poisonous 
 Plants;” No. 195, “Annual Flowering Plants.” Write to College of Agriculture, 
 Morgantown, West Virginia. 
 
 Classify weeds according to ways of spreading or planting their seeds; that 
 is, by means of the wind, water, animals, mechanical contrivances or artificial 
 means. 
 
 The Weather: Note the changes that take place about us with the coming of 
 winter. The ways that we prepare for winter. Make a record of the thermometer 
 readings. Continue the weather calendar. 
 
75 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Study of vegetables in the store. Know what is in the home markets and what 
 is not produced at home. 
 
 Transportation of products and disposition of them. 
 
 Kinds of soil—clay, sand. 
 
 A study of trees for building materials. 
 
 Study land surfaces, and the effects of weathering. 
 
 Record of weather observations. 
 
 Life and habits of common wild animals in winter, fox, squirrel, etc. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Natural Phenomena: The sun, effects of heat and cold on water and soil,, 
 and on plant and animal life; changes of seasons. 
 
 Cultivation of Plants: The needs of plants. Propagation of plants by seed, 
 by slips, by runners; gro\slh of roots of slip in water. 
 
 Demonstration: When does sap ooze through stem and leaves? Why do- 
 leaves wilt? How do leaves move with reference to light? 
 
 Recognition and name of trees, plants and flowers. 
 
 Plant for special study; Corn. 
 
 Lesson Plans. 
 
 The great fault of formal nature study has been indefiniteness, no plan. 
 
 A lesson plan should have a definite aim all the way through it. 
 
 Three questions to ask in preparing a lesson plan. 
 
 1. Is this material suitable? 
 
 2. How is this plant or animal to take care of itself? 
 
 3. How does it affect human life and how can we help it do its work? 
 
 4. Any interesting point not brought out by the other three. 
 
 Below are given some lesson plans which it is hoped will aid the teacher by 
 their suggestions. 
 
 The Dog (Second Grade). 
 
 Aim: To teach sympathetic interest in the dog. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 1. Introductory talks about each child’s dog. Kinds of dogs. How can you; 
 tell? Name other dogs. 
 
 2. What have you seen the dog do? How does he make his living? How does 
 he help us? How can we help him? 
 
 3. Harm some dogs do. 
 
 4. How tell a sick dog from a well dog? 
 
 5. Tell or read some good dog story. 
 
 The Common Toad. 
 
 Aim: To see the toad and learn of its usefulness to man. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 With the toad before the class, either in a screened box, or in a tumbler 
 covered with netting—the cage filled with insects of all sorts, talk with the- 
 children about as follows: 
 
 How does a toad drink? 
 
76 
 
 Do we like animals that help or harm us? What things eat our garden vege¬ 
 tables? 
 
 Wouldn’t a pet be fine that would eat these pests? 
 
 Here is one. Let me introduce him to you. 
 
 What do you think of his appearance? 
 
 Look at his eye. Teach children that toads do not make warts. 
 
 Speak of his value. Observe the number of things he eats. 
 
 How can we m ke greater use of toads in tlie garden? 
 
 Build a toad house in the garden. 
 
 Window Gardens. 
 
 Aim: To teach how to make and to find pleasure in window gardens. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 1. The boys should make a box to fit the window sill. Place it upon blocks 
 and have oil-cloth under it to prevent water from damaging the wood. 
 
 2. Place small stones, sand and moss in the bottom to about the depth 
 of the box. b'ill the box with rich, sandy loam. 
 
 3. Plant flower seeds, bulbs, cuttings, etc. 
 
 4. Water every day and keep the surface loose. 
 
 Brook Studies (Third and Fourth Grades). 
 
 Aim: To learn the nature and life along the streams. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 Several excursions may be made to a stream, each time with one or more of the 
 following aims: 
 
 1. Make exact measurements of length and width. 
 
 2. List the trees, shrubs, plants, etc., by and in the stream. 
 
 3. Record the animal life seen in or near. 
 
 4. Make a map of a section of the stream and land near. 
 
 5. What farms or home grounds touch it? 
 
 6. Changes which occur in its course from time to time. 
 
 7. Land it drains, its source, mouth, tributaries. 
 
 8. Soi's along its course. 
 
 9. Condition of water for fish and use of man. 
 
 The Robin (Third and Fourth Grades). 
 
 Aim: To see and to learn the habits and value of the robin. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 1. Go out with the class near a robin’s nest. Sit down and watch. 
 
 2. Recognize the robin by song and^appearance. 
 
 3. Where does the robin like to be? Why? 
 
 4. WTiat have you seen the robin do? 
 
 5. When does it sing most? Try to imitate the song. 
 
 6. Where does it nest? Out of what is the nest made? Number and color 
 of its eggs. 
 
 7. What does the robin eat? Is it our friend? Why? 
 
 8. Can the robin be tamed? How can we help the robin? 
 
 9. What are the robin’s enemies? How can we protect it? 
 
77 
 
 10. The legend of the “Red-Breast.” 
 
 11. Refer to Readers for robin stories. 
 
 The Coddling Moth (Fourth Grade). 
 
 Aim: To become acquainted with the moth and to learn of its injurious' 
 work. 
 
 Subject Matter and Method: 
 
 1. Have some knotty apples for the class and show the worms in these apples. 
 Cause the children to understand that these apples would be perfect if the worms 
 had not got into them. 
 
 2. Tell the life histor>’^ of the moth. Ask the children to look behind the loose 
 bark of the apple trees to find the silken pod in which the larva stays during 
 the winter. 
 
 Lead the children to see that it would be well to scrape off thi> loose bark in 
 winter and whitewash the t-unk of the tree. 
 
 3. How many have seen woodpeckers picking into the bark of the apple tree? 
 
 4. Tell of the work of spraying. 
 
 Leaves of Common Trees (Second, Third and Fourth Grades). 
 
 Aim: To learn the names of five common trees as distinguished by leaves, 
 and learn what leaves are for. 
 
 Subject Matte~ and Method: 
 
 1. Have each child bring leaves from five different trees or go with the children 
 to gather them. 
 
 2. Have children fasten the leaves on a sheet of paper or cardboard and write 
 the names of the leaves below. Classify them as to shape, size, color, and margins. 
 
 3. Let each child stand before the class and name his leaves and tell where 
 he got them. 
 
 4. After becoming familiar with the five leaves ask: 
 
 “What docs the leaf do?” 
 
 “What are the leaves good for?” 
 
 “What becomes of them?” 
 
 5. Read some simple poems about leaves. 
 
 6. Drawing lesson on leaves may follow. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 Fall. 
 
 Fourth-grade children become somewhat more literal-minded and want 
 facts, enjoy noting general relationships, as, for example, that gourds, cante- 
 loupes, pumpkins, watermelons, etc., belong to one family; that clouds, rain, 
 snow, hail, frost, dew, and condensed water on the outside of a cold pitcher, 
 are related; or that the domestic cat is worth studying as a representative of a 
 large family of animals possessed of similar characteristics. 
 
 Note: Nature Study and Home Geography should be the same course in 
 the fourth grade. Both should consist of obser\^ations. 
 
 Plants: Woody plants; industries dependent on forests; plants without 
 wood; u!r,eful plant products; protection of trees. 
 
78 
 
 Trees: Uses to tree, of bark, of wood, and of pith; annual rings and medullary 
 rays. (Study cross and long sections of piece of wood); uses of heart wood 
 and sap wood to plants and to man; movements of sap (maple); blossoming 
 and fruit, formation of fruit and shade trees; uses of wood in building and in 
 furniture (collections); use of trees in producing rainfall. Emphasize the pro¬ 
 tection and planting of trees. 
 
 Forms of Stems: Erect, prostrate, climbing by tendrils, twining by stems 
 or petiole; why plants seek erect position; underground stems (potato) and 
 bulbs (onion); uses of stored nourishment to plants. 
 
 Plant products useful to man. 
 
 Vegetables classified as roots, stems, leaves, bulbs or fruits. 
 
 Fruits classified as fleshy, stone, and dry. 
 
 Medicines and spices; bark, leaves, sap, extracts. 
 
 Clothing; cotton, linen. 
 
 Woods; those used for building, or furniture; characteristics which fit them 
 for such. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Animals useful to man; birds, bats, toads, frogs, fish, turtles, lady-bugs, 
 beetles, dragon-flies, bees, sheep, cow, goat, ox, house, donkey, mule, etc. Par¬ 
 ticular emphasis should be placed on their value to man; 
 
 1. As destroyers of injurious insects. 
 
 2. As the source of supply of useful materials, including materials for cloth¬ 
 ing, food, furniture, and ornaments. 
 
 3. As beasts of burden. 
 
 Animals Harmful to Man. 
 
 Cut-worm, potato beetle, cabbage worm, leaf rollers, plant lice, gypsy moth, 
 coddling moth, beetles, tent caterpillars, canker worms, cloth moths, cock¬ 
 roach, flies, bedbugs, ants, mosquitoes, snails, slugs, rats, mice, etc. Particular 
 emphasis should be placed upon their injuries to man; harmful stages; exter¬ 
 mination ; work of the government in destroying pests. 
 
 Field Trip. 
 
 Purpose: To study how soil is made. 
 
 State to the pupils that it is the intention to take a field excursion for the 
 purpose of studying how soils are made, and that the field trip will be along the 
 bed of a little stream or creek, starting in the lower valley and following the 
 stream towards its source on higher ground. 
 
 Have pupils take tablet or note book and copy the following as it is written 
 on the blackboard. 
 
 Things to Observe. 
 
 Where (near the source or toward the mouth) do you find the bed of the stream 
 covered mostly with sand? Where mostly with rounded rocks or gravel? Where 
 mostly with large flat, jagged rocks? 
 
 Notice holes or grooves worn in rocks. 
 
 Try to find rocks which have been split open by freezing and thawing. 
 
79 
 
 Look for roots of trees which have grown n rock crevices and have split them 
 open. Find stones that are covered with mosses and lichens. Have the pupils 
 scrape off the lichens from the rock and note the dissolving effect which the 
 roots have had upon the rock’s surface. 
 
 Notice places where roots or sods have kept the soil from washing away. 
 
 Have some of the boys collect samples il) of the rounded-off stones or gravel; 
 (2) a sample of sand; (3) sample of the extremely fine sand mixed with decay¬ 
 ing leaves, etc., or ordinary mud; (4) samples of the different soils found on 
 the trip. 
 
 Keep the pupils near you on the trip and when the stream is reached proceed 
 rather slowly up stream in order to observe closely 
 
 By judicious questioning draw attention to the points which are to be observed, 
 always giving opportunity for the pupils to make the discoveries themselves 
 if possible. 
 
 As each point is noted have the pupils check it off on their list of things to be 
 observed. 
 
 The following questions may be asked as the walk proceeds or may be saved 
 until the following day: 
 
 1. What means do farmers employ to prevent their hillside fields from being 
 washed? 
 
 2. Do tree and grass-covered hills wash as badly as bare cultivated hill? 
 Why? 
 
 3. Name all the ways in which nature has broken the rocks down into fine 
 sand. 
 
 4. Does very fine sand make good soil? What must be mixed with it before 
 it is good soil? 
 
 5. What must be mixed with clay soil to make a loam soil? 
 
 Upon returning to the school house the specimens may be labeled and placed 
 upon the specimen shelf. 
 
 The language lesson for the following day may consist of compositions on 
 either “Our Walk Along the Stream,” or “How Soil is Formed,” and the various 
 points observed during the trip must be spoken of in the composition. The 
 compositions may be made into booklet form with attractive covers and perhaps 
 illustrated with pasted clippings from papers or magazines. When so prepared 
 they make very attractive exhibit material. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 The Home and School Garden: The school garden is the laboratory of 
 nature study. In it almost every phase of nature study can find a place. It 
 may be made a source of delight to the pupils. 
 
 The next best thing is to have the home garden. It is possible in every school 
 if the school lasts till April. Have the children go home and make the same 
 kind of garden as at school. It may be on a larger scale. 
 
 The teacher should go to the homes and see them. 
 
80 
 
 Reward those who have the best gardens. 
 
 Many idle children might be kept busy and happy at home in the garden. 
 
 Children should be taught to garden. When grown they will have the garden 
 habit. 
 
 There can be no objection made to the garden from the standpoint of health, 
 finance, harmony, or pleasure. 
 
 Organize corn and tomato clubs, and prepare to have the work carried out 
 among the boys and girls during the summer. 
 
 Prepare for a garden exhibit at the beginning of school next fall. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Geography is the study of the earth as the home of man. From it we learn 
 how man adjusts himself to his environment; the manner in which he use the 
 resources which nature offers him for the purpose of gaining a livelihood; the 
 intelligence which he uses in order to use these advantages most effectively 
 for the good of himself and those dependent upon him; the interdependence of 
 men, increasing steadily with the advance of civilization, and the laws which 
 control these processes. 
 
 Geography is also a gateway to the sciences, such as agriculture, geology, 
 botany, chemistry and astronomy. Through its study, we are led out into 
 that vast field of resources upon which these subjects are based, and a knowledge 
 of which so vitally affects the habits and industries and, to a very large extent, 
 determines the trend of thought of the races of men. 
 
 By giving students a knowledge of location of places of common interest, 
 directions, distances, and maps. Geography acts as a key of understanding for 
 much of our daily reading and intercourse. This important contribution of 
 the subject should not be under-estimated. 
 
 Teachers should therefore especially emphasize the value of this subject, and 
 be not content in presenting it to the pupils unless it is done thoroughly and well. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline (First Half Year). 
 
 Method: No book is to be used. The knowledge in this grade is to be gained 
 from actual observations in the region of the home. 
 
 Purpose: To furnish the child through observation and experience with 
 such fundamental ideas as will help him to form correct notions of the countries 
 or regions which he has not seen. 
 
 Seasons. 
 
 Observations: Beginning in September with the autumnal equinox, a series 
 of weeldy or monthly observations should be started and carried on through the 
 year with the purpose of determining: (1) Time of sunrise and sunset, with 
 varying lengths of day and night. (2) The altitude of the sun at mid-day, 
 or angle of sun’s rays as shown by the length of shadow by a vertical post. 
 
 A record should be kept of these observations. Special care should be taken 
 to make accurate observations on the vernal and autumnal equinoxes (March 
 21st and September 22nd), and the winter and summer solstices (December 
 21st and June 22nd). 
 
 While making these observations, the directions, north, south, east and west 
 should be taught. The expressions “up” for north and “down” for south 
 
82 
 
 should never be used. As the observ^ations proceed, the pupil will see that 
 the sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west only at the time of 
 the equinoxes. He should learn to think of north as the direction in which the 
 shadow of a vertical post falls at noon. On many occasions and from many 
 places about the school premises pupils should be asked to point to directions. 
 
 At the end of the school year these observations should be summarized and a 
 conclusion reached as to the cause of the change of seasons. The pupil should be 
 able to see that summer is warmer than winter because the days are longer, the 
 nights shorter, and the sun’s rays nearer vertical, and that change of seasons is 
 due to the changing length ^'f day and night and the changing angle of the sun’s 
 rays. That vertical rays heat more than slanting rays will usually be demon¬ 
 strated by a single day’s observ'ation of the difference in temperature between 
 sunrise and noon. The above explanation of seasons is the only one that can be 
 made in the child’s experience and the only one that should be attempted in 
 this grade. 
 
 Weather Observations. 
 
 Parallel with the above observations, a simple record of weather obser\^ations 
 should be kept. This should include the condition of the sky, temperature, 
 precipitation, direction of wind, etc., for each day in the school year. 
 
 Remarks: Under remarks a record of many interesting phenomena may be 
 kept, such as first snow, first robin, wild geese flying north, first violet, etc. 
 
 Aim to associate wind directions with condition of the sky, temperature, moist¬ 
 ure and rainfall, and to determine what winds give us clearest skies and coolest 
 weather; or warmer temperature, cloudy skies and rain, or our heavy snow 
 storms. 
 
 The Surface of Land. 
 
 These are to be studied through field trips and excursions, each trip or excur¬ 
 sion being carefully planned in advance by the teacher. 
 
 Study the slopes between the school house and the pupils’ homes. Have the 
 children decide which is easiest to travel over. Hence the relation of slopes 
 to roads. 
 
 Study the vi .w to be seen from the school house windows, or in the nearest 
 playground or field. Emphasize irregularity of surface. 
 
 Learn the names of the local features. Give terms like hill, plain, valley, 
 gully, gorge or canyon, divide, alluvial fan, after the form has been studied. 
 
 Show as fully as possible how people depend upon slopes. Study the loca¬ 
 tion of towns with reference to slopes. Select certain buildings and study their 
 location, as the church on a hill, a store where roads meet. 
 
 Study distribution of trees and note the relation of occupations to slopes in 
 local landscapes. 
 
 As far as possible, give illustrations of variety of forms from your home state 
 by means of photographs to be found in railroad time tables and folders. Show 
 views from other illustrations to bring out the point that similar forms are found 
 in other distant regions. 
 
 Have the children summarize the local landscape features by means of defini¬ 
 tions made by themselves. 
 
83 
 
 The Water on the Surface of the Land. 
 
 Note the necessity of water for plants, animals and people. Tell how drinking 
 water is obtained in your home locality. Explain wells, or springs, or city water 
 : upply. 
 
 Study the water of a stream and note the sediment contained. Discuss the 
 origin of sediment. 
 
 Follow changes of surface form due to running water; study a local valley as 
 to width, depth, quality of slope; study the rapidity of flow on different slopes 
 1 nd note falls, rapids, and lakes, if any are to be seen in the neighborhood. 
 
 Study parts of a stream and develop definitions associated with local water 
 courses and valleys. 
 
 Study uses of water in commerce, manufacturing, and irrigation. 
 
 The Soils. 
 
 Observe the weathering of rocks, the crumbling banks, the rusting of tools 
 to show how rocks decay and form soil. 
 
 Have a box of soil in the room and study its fineness, color, feeling, and the 
 way it takes up water. 
 
 Test the different kinds of soil by having the children plant seeds and compare 
 results. 
 
 If possible, study a soil section out of doors. Notice the layers of soil and sub¬ 
 soil in excavations and railway cuts. 
 
 Show how soil is necessary to plants and study effects of running water on 
 soils. 
 
 Discuss means of retaining the soil on slopes. 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Find out the leading industries of the locality, their location and importance. 
 
 Study the need of the division of labor in families and communities. Have 
 the pupils work out the number of different occupations that contribute to their 
 needs. 
 
 Illustrate agriculture by window gardening or school plots. Make a study 
 of the various crops raised in the neighborhood, the soil upon which they grow, 
 the manner of harv^esting these crops and the uses made of them. 
 
 Illustrate grazing by observ^ation of cattle, sheep or horses. Determine what 
 lands are suitable for grazing and what grasses are best. 
 
 Study manufacturing in any factory to be found in the neighborhood. The 
 grist mill, saw mill, creamer>% brick yard, and foundry, are typical in that the 
 manufacturing plant is stationary and the raw material must be transported 
 to the power or the factory. 
 
 Lead the pupils to see that the conditions necessary' for manufacturing are: 
 ■(1) Power, such as water power, steam, gasoline and electricity. (2) Raw material. 
 (3) Food supply for employees. (4) Labor. (5) Commercial facilities, wagons, 
 freight cars or vessels which bring raw material to the factory and take away 
 the manufactured product. 
 
 Bring out the advantage of money as representing wealth and as an aid to 
 commerce. 
 
84 
 
 Transportation and Commerce. 
 
 Study local trade. Lead the pupils to see that commerce grows out of diversity 
 of needs which in turn grows largely out of diversity of occupations. 
 
 Show how transportation involves distance and direction. Have the pupils 
 to prepare lists of raw materials and manufactured articles exported from and 
 imported into the neighborhood. 
 
 Have the pupils find out the kind of plows, buggies, binders, sewing machines, 
 apd other articles of farm and household use, and where* they are made. In this 
 way the connection may be made between the home section and distant sections. 
 
 Study means of transportation and the effect of good roads as an aid to com¬ 
 merce and happier living. • 
 
 Products of the World Brought to us Through Commerce. 
 
 Have the children make lists of products used by them that come from a 
 distance. 
 
 Tell the children stories about some of the distant regions of the earth that 
 supply them with necessities, such as coffee from Brazil, tea from China and 
 Japan, and rubber from the Amazon valley. 
 
 Rice, bananas, coffee, cocoa, valuable woods, rubber, and quinine will show the 
 relation of home locality to southern North America and northern South America. 
 
 H des and meat products will illustrate our relation to southern South America; 
 furs, the colder parts of North America and Eurasia; olives, olive oil, cheese, 
 embroidery, and linen from Europe; silk, spices, pepper, tea, and rugs from 
 Asia; ivory and diamonds from Africa; and wool from Australia will show 
 the relations to these countries. 
 
 Select the product the children have seen or heard about. Make a brief study 
 of the lives of the people, of climate and of plant and animal life in each region 
 considered. Compare with home locality. 
 
 The pupils have found that the home region is dependent upon, and con¬ 
 tributes to, many other regions in furnishing man with food, clothing, shelter, 
 and the other necessities of life. It is because of this mutual dependence 
 that these distant regions should be known. 
 
 Maps and Mapping. 
 
 The ability to read and use a map is of permanent value to the pupil. A map 
 is not a picture. The features presented on it are represented by means of sym¬ 
 bols which often have no resemblance to the features themselves. The map 
 work in this grade should make the child familiar with; (1) The things and 
 geographical features themselves. (2) The use of symbols by which these features 
 are represented upon maps. The pupil should not be required to use a symbol 
 in mapping until he has become familiar through observation, experience or 
 pictures, with the things symbolized. 
 
 The first maps made by the child should be of things and places so familiar 
 to him that neither time nor attention need be spent upon the things them¬ 
 selves but upon the idea of representing them by symbols. A map or plan of 
 the school room or school yard should first be drawn. From the first let the 
 maps be drawn to a scale—a half or quarter of an inch on the paper representing 
 a foot, yard, or rod on the region mapped. As the observation work is extended 
 
85 
 
 so as to include streams, valleys, hills, alluvial fans, etc., the mapping of these 
 various features should be extended until the child is familiar not only with 
 the region and its map, but with the general idea of mapping. The idea of direc¬ 
 tion should be introduced early. Maps drawn in this grade should alw^ays contain 
 some symbol to indicate directions, such as an arrow which points north, or 
 some other symbol. It is not necessary to have pupils make maps with north at 
 the top, but it is necessary that north be indicated by some symbol, so that the 
 pupil may early acquire the habit of looking for the direction symbols on every 
 map. When desirable use colors to distinguish features on the map. 
 
 (Second Half Year.) 
 
 I. Globe study, three weeks. 
 
 II. Transition from globe to map. 
 
 III. Elementary textbook taken up and completed to page 98. 
 
 IV. Regional study of North America and the United States. 
 
 I. Globe study. 
 
 (1) Form and size of the earth. 
 
 By enlarging the conception given by the globe, try to give some idea of the 
 immense ball on which we live, how it is composed of rock, mantled over with 
 loose material and soil of varying depth; that immense depressions are filled 
 with water forming oceans and separating the larger land masses or continents. 
 Instead of having diameter and circumference committed to memory as such, 
 have the pupils u e as data for simple problems, such as “How long would it 
 take a man to travel around the earth on the equator, traveling at an average 
 rate of ten miles an hour?” At best the globe must stand as a symbol for ideas 
 and facts too large for the understanding of the child. 
 
 (2) Motions of the earth. 
 
 (a) Revolution around Ihe sun. Little can be done to make this 
 motion mean much to the child because he cannot experience it. He 
 may learn that it is the time required to make one such revolution that 
 determines the length of one year. This revolution is only one of 
 four or five factors which, combined, produce seasons. Review the 
 observations on seasons made in the first half year and the conclusions 
 thus reached. 
 
 (b) Rotation and some of its consequences. 
 
 (c) Succession of day and night. 
 
 (d) Directions north, south, east and west, are due to rotation. 
 North is toward the north pole. The north pole is one end of the axis, 
 and the axis is due to ro ation. 
 
 e) Show how directions are indicated on the globe by meridians 
 and parallels; the former run north and south, the latter run east 
 and west. Give much drill in using these direction symbols. 
 
 (f) Locations of places on the earth. Show how meridians are 
 numbered east and west from a given prime meridian, and the parallels, 
 nor h and sourth from the equator, and how from numbers on the 
 lines which intersect at a given place it is possible to tell the location 
 of places on the globe. Give much drill in thus locating places until 
 the child can readily tell the approximate latitude and longitude of 
 any point on the globe. 
 
86 
 
 (3) Distribution of land and water, continents and oceans. 
 
 (a) Position of continents on the globe, their direction from each 
 other, and the bounding and interv^ening oceans. Explain these great 
 land and water bodies to the child before introducing their symbols. 
 The idea should always come before its symbol. 
 
 (b) General shape and form of continents, with a few of the most 
 important capes, peninsulas, islands, seas, gulfs and bays. 
 
 (c) Relative size of continents as estimated from the globe. 
 
 (4) Climatic conditions of the earth. 
 
 Review what the pupil has learned in the First Half Year as to the relation of 
 high sun and low sun to the warm temperatures of summer and the cold ones 
 of winter. Let the teacher go in imagination with the class to the equator and 
 tell them where the sun rises and sets and where it is at noon at various times 
 during the year, emphasizing the steep rays which always fall at that parallel 
 so that the pupils from their own experience with steep rays and a high sun 
 ought to infer the hot temperature of this region. Then go with them to the 
 “Land of the Midnight Sun,” with its slanting'rays and low sun and let them 
 infer the conditions of temperature there. Locate the doldrum belt near the 
 equator wath its hot, moist climate, wath its daily rains. Contrast the rainy 
 belt with the hot, dr>' regions on either side, over wTich the trade wands blow 
 making sujh deserts as the Sahara of Africa and the Kalahara of Asia. Now- 
 contrast wath the uniformly hot, dry climate of the deserts or the uniformly 
 hot and moist climate of the doldrum belt, the variable weather of the temper¬ 
 ate zone as it has been observed by the child. 
 
 II. Transition from globe to map. 
 
 The pupil should have become so familiar wath the globe that they are able 
 
 (a) To locate any place in approximately its correct latitude and 
 longitude. 
 
 (b) To tell directions on the globe. 
 
 (c) To know at a glance the various continents from their shape and 
 outline. 
 
 It now' becomes necessarv' to represent various features of surface and drain¬ 
 age, etc., with greater detail than < an be done on the globe, so that the map 
 must be introduced. In order that the pupils do not form w'rong conceptions, 
 ow'ing to the flat surface upon which the map is made, the use of the sand table 
 is recommended. Here the relief form may be represented and the concept 
 transferred to the map. Wh:n the pupil know'S the meaning of all the various 
 symbols, can tell directions on the map, locate places when their latitude and 
 longitude are given, and know-s how to use the scale, he is then prepared to 
 read and study the map. This should be done under the ver^^ careful direction 
 of the teacher. || 
 
 III. Regional Geography. (See IV above.) 
 
 Outline for Continental Study of North America. 
 
 1. Position. Consult and locate on globe. 
 
 (1) In zones, pp. 24, 25. 
 
 (2) In hemispheres, p. 25. 
 
 (3) In relation to bordering w'aters, p. 41. 
 
 (4) In relation to other continents, p. 20. 
 
87 
 
 II. Form. 
 
 (1) General: roughly triangular, pp. 40, 41. 
 
 (2) Actual, determined by: 
 
 (a) Its more important indentations, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 (b) Its more important prolongations, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 III. Size. 
 
 (1) As compared \\’ith other continents. This should be done only 
 approximately. No area in square miles is to be given. 
 
 (2) As shown by the fact that North America stretches entirely across 
 the temperate zone and reaches into the frigid zone of the north and the 
 torrid zone of the south. 
 
 (3) How long would it take to journey in various directions across 
 it at different rates? Give problems to be solved. 
 
 IV. Relief. (Data to be secured largely from maps.) 
 
 (1) Highlands. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Highlands, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 Appalachian Highlands, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 (2) Lowlands. 
 
 Plains. 
 
 Great Central Plain, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 Atlantic Coastal Plain, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 Gulf Coastal Plain, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 V. Drainage. 
 
 Gulf drainage, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 Atlantic drainage, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 Pacific drainage, pp. 40, 41, 43. 
 
 VI. Distribution of people. ’WHiere dense, where sparse, as determinea oy 
 the occupations of the people and the food producing capacities of the various 
 sections. Supplement text. 
 
 VII. Political division, p. 43. 
 
 (1) United States and Alaska. 
 
 (2) Dominion of Canada. 
 
 (3) Mexico. 
 
 (4) Central America. 
 
 The order of topics in the study of North America is followed in the study 
 of the United States as a whole. 
 
 VIII. Relief. 
 
 This includes a study of the differences in character, elevations and extent 
 between the two great highland masses. In this connection the chief ranges 
 should be named, located and characterized. 
 
 IX. Drainage. 
 
 Chief drainage lines* and their relation to relief forms. Drill most upon the 
 streams which are commercially important. 
 
 X. Climate. 
 
 Show the position of the United States on the globe. It will be seen that the 
 northern part is near the frigid zone. Locate the home state and a city or village 
 nearest to the school. Have the children recall the usual weather conditions 
 during the summer and winter in their own home region. Show pictures of 
 southern scenes and let the children tell how the northern and southern seasons 
 diffm. The children, through their nature study should be familiar with the 
 process of evaporation and condensation of moisture. 
 
88 
 
 Explain how moisture evaporates over the sea and is borne int© the interior 
 to be condensed and fall as rain over the land. Show upon maps the distribu¬ 
 tion of rainfall in the United States. Have pupils locate on wall maps regions of 
 
 (1) x\bundant rainfall. 
 
 (^a) Where the rain is well distributed and where the temperature 
 is warm enough to produce abundant vegetation. 
 
 fb) Where the rain is abundant in amount and in a warm region, 
 but where not well distributed, resulting in arid or semi-arid wastes. 
 
 (c) Where the rain is abundant, but in cold regions, resulting in 
 snow. 
 
 (2) Medium rainfall, enough so that crops will grow. 
 
 1.3) Slight rainfall, result, deserts. 
 
 XI. Possibilities of occupation. 
 
 As a result of the relief, temperature and rainfall, it will be found that certain 
 parts of the United States are suited to certain industries, so that it is possible 
 to divide the s’ates into groups in which the same industries are carried on. 
 In this way locate: 
 
 (1) The chief agricultu al and grazing sections and their chief pro¬ 
 ductions. 
 
 (2) The mining regions and the most important minerals. 
 
 (3) The lumbering regions and the most important trees. 
 
 (4) The manufacturing regions. 
 
 (5) The fishing grounds and the chief catches. 
 
 XII. States. 
 
 Give the pupils an idea of what is meant by a state. Point out physical regions 
 and state groups and have them identify these groups by their leading industries. 
 
 Only a few of the leading industrial and commercial cities should be studied 
 and these should be closely identified with the industrial region in which they 
 are situated and with their leading productions. 
 
 Alaska should be considered with the United States. 
 
 Merrill’s Geographic Readers, adopted for supplementary use, will be useful 
 in the fourth and fifth grades. The series includes four books as follows: Book 
 I, Home Geography; Book II, Our Occupations; Book III, Industries of Man; 
 Book IV, Our Country. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Outline (First Half Year). 
 
 The first half of the year should be spent upon the following countries: 
 
 South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia. Give much attention to 
 South America. 
 
 The chief points to be covered are (1) Position, (2) Form, (3) Size, (4) Relief, 
 (5) Drainage, (6) Climate, (7) Occupations and industrial regions, (8) Centers 
 of population and chief cities. 
 
 Simplify the work. Confine it to the study of geog aphy. Do not go into too 
 many details. 
 
 Outline (Second Half Year.) 
 
 West Virginia and the first sixty pages of Frye’s Higher Geography. 
 
 The study of the state should be thorough. It is more easily comprehended, 
 both physically and industrially, than more distant countries; even more so 
 than distant parts of the United States. 
 
89 
 
 Outline for West Virginia. 
 
 I. Position. 
 
 II. Form. 
 
 III. Size as indicated by (1) Latitude, (2) Distance by scale of miles east 
 and west, north and south, (3) Area as compared with other states. 
 
 IV. Relief. 
 
 (1) The Allegheny Mountains. 
 
 (2) The plateau section. 
 
 (3) The rounded hills. 
 
 V. Drainage. The sources of rivers, their courses and directions. 
 
 (1) Potomac System. 
 
 (2) Ohio System. 
 
 VI. Chmate. 
 
 VII. Soils, uplands and flood plains. 
 
 VI II. Vegetation. 
 
 (1) The forests and the lumber and paper industries. 
 
 (2) The general diversified agriculture of the state. 
 
 (3) The grazing regions and the cattle industry. 
 
 (4) The market gardening and truck raising regions. 
 
 IX. Animal life. 
 
 X. Mineral wealth and mining industries. 
 
 XI. Manufacturing. 
 
 XII. Distribution of population. 
 
 XIII. Transportation and trade routes. 
 
 First sixty pages of Frye’s H gher Geography. If the work has been well 
 done in the fourth grade this work can be quickly covered. It will be mostly 
 a review with more intensive work on seasons, winds and rainfall, landforms, and 
 physical conditions. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 South America, Europe, North America, the United States and West Virginia, 
 should have been studied in the order mentioned, with special reference to their 
 great industries and the physical and social conditions influencing them. 
 
 Colonies, no matter where located, if important enough to be noted, 
 are to be studied in connection with the mother country. The com¬ 
 mercial relations existing between the home countries and their several colonies 
 are to be emphasized. 
 
 Begin text on page 137. After the study of South Amer ca and Europe as in¬ 
 dicated above, return to page 61 and make an intensive study of the United 
 States and West Virginia. 
 
 General Outline. 
 
 I. Position. 
 
 (1) Relative. 
 
 (2) Absolute. 
 
 II. Form. 
 
 (1) Relative. 
 
90 
 
 (2) Actual. 
 
 (a) As shown by map. 
 
 (b) Indentations. 
 
 (c) Prolongations. 
 
 (3) Continental shelf. 
 
 III. Size. 
 
 (1) Relative. 
 
 (a) Compared with other continents. 
 
 (b) In relation to oceans. 
 
 (c) What part of the whole earth. 
 
 (2) Actual. 
 
 (a) Extreme breadth and length of time it takes to make the 
 journey. 
 
 (b) Number of square miles. 
 
 IV. Relief. 'Data secured largely from map.) 
 
 (1) Highlands including plateaus. 
 
 (a) Position. 
 
 (b) Extent. 
 
 (c) Elevation. 
 
 (d) General character. 
 
 . (e) Arrangement. 
 
 (2) Relations of the highlands to the great continental slopes, great 
 drainage systems, interior bas'ns and the nature of coast lines. 
 
 (3) Lowlands. 
 
 (a) Position. 
 
 (b) Extent. 
 
 (c) Structure. 
 
 (d) Kinds. 
 
 V. Climate. 
 
 (1) As indicated by angle of sun’s rays or latitude. 
 
 (2) As modified by elevation. 
 
 (3) As influenced by winds from ocean. 
 
 (4) As shown by isothermal map. 
 
 VI. Rainfall. 
 
 (1) Region of modern and heavy rainfall. 
 
 (2) Influence of highlands upon winds and rainfall. 
 
 (3) Location of rainless areas and reason therefor. 
 
 VII. Drainage. 
 
 (1) Chief rivers and their relation to the landforms which they have 
 been instrumental in creating. 
 
 (2) Lakes. 
 
 (a) Fresh water lakes. 
 
 (b) Salt water lakes. 
 
 VIII. Soil. 
 
 (1) Residual. 
 
 (2) Transported. 
 
 IX. Zones of vegetation as dependent upon 
 
 (1) Temperature as determined by latitude, altitude, proximity to water, 
 and influence of ocean currents. 
 
 (2) Rainfall. 
 
 (3) Character of the soil. 
 
91 
 
 X. Zones of waste as dependent upon 
 
 (1) Lack of moisture. 
 
 (2) Altitude. 
 
 (3) Latitude. 
 
 (4) Too much moisture. 
 
 (a) Swamp. 
 
 (b) Jungle. 
 
 (c) Bad lands, j 
 
 (5) Poor soil. 
 
 XL Distribution of animal life. 
 
 XII. Distribution of mineral resources. 
 
 XIII. Distribution of population as dependent upon possibilities of occupa¬ 
 tion, resources, supply and demand, and commercial advantages. 
 
 XIV. Development and location of centers of population as showing the 
 needs of the people for commercial centers, manufacturing centers, and govern¬ 
 ment centers. 
 
 XV. Development of commercial and trade routes, resulting from the effort 
 to obtain the products and the patronage of the other people of the world. Har¬ 
 bors, river systems, and railways. 
 
 XVL Political divisions and government. 
 
 Special Topics. 
 
 The following list of topics is suitable for development and comparison with 
 like conditions in other lands and should lead to general truths. They will 
 furnish material for reviews of other places on the globe and should be studied 
 in connection with the geography of the United States. 
 
 1. Northeastern Section and North Central Section. 
 
 (1) In a cotton factory at Lowell, Mass. 
 
 (2) The arsenal and gun facton/ at Springfield. 
 
 (3) The woolen factories at Fall River. 
 
 (4) Watches and watch makers at Waltham. 
 
 (5) In a shoe factory at Lynn. 
 
 (6) Granite quarries of New Hampshire. 
 
 (7) Slate quarries of Bangor. 
 
 (8) Among the light houses along the coast. 
 
 (9) New York Harbor and Ellis Island; landing of immigrants. 
 
 (10) Garden farming in New Jersey. 
 
 (11) In a West Virginia coal mine. 
 
 (12) A blast furnace at Pittsburgh. 
 
 (13) The oil fields of West Virginia and Pennsylvania. 
 
 (14) Orchards of West Virginia, Maryland and Delaware. 
 
 (15) Oyster beds of the Chesapeake. 
 
 (16) Fisheries of the Atlantic coast. 
 
 (17) Tobacco culture of Virginia and Kentucky. 
 
 (18) Lumber industries of Maine and Michigan. 
 
 (19) Prairies of Illinois. 
 
 (20) Chicago as a trade center. 
 
 (21) Copper mines of Michigan and lead mines of Wisconsin. 
 
 (22) The wheat fields of Minnesota and the Dakotas. 
 
 (23) The flouring mills of Minneapolis. 
 
(24) Corn and live stock of Indiana and Iowa. 
 
 (25) Natural gas and its uses. 
 
 (26) Rubber manufacturing in Akron, Ohio. 
 
 (27) Automobile industry o Detroit. 
 
 II. Southern Section. 
 
 (1) The rice fields of the Carolinas. 
 
 (2) Fruit growing in Florida. 
 
 (3' Cotton culture in Georgia and Mississippi. 
 
 (4) Sugar plantation in Louisiana. 
 
 (5) A cattle ranch in Texas. 
 
 (6) Iron smelting in Birmingham. 
 
 Til Plateau Section. 
 
 (1) Farming by irrigation. 
 
 (2) Mining camp in Colorado. 
 
 (3) Gold and silver smelting at Denver. 
 
 (4) A trip to Yellowstone Park. 
 
 (5) Fruits and flowers of California. 
 
 (6) Salmon fishing on the Columbia river. 
 
 (7) The lumber industry of the northwest. 
 
 Note: (The above list of topics is not all-inclusive by any means. It should 
 suggest to the live teacher many others, both at home and abroad, which will 
 prove very valuable to the pupils in giving them better ideas of the great manu¬ 
 facturing, agricultural, mining and commercial industries of the world.) 
 
 The school library should contain several of Carpenter’s Geographical Readers 
 and some interesting books of travel. These books and the government and 
 commercial bulletins that may be obtained free should be used in the intensive 
 study of special topics. 
 
HISTORY AND CIVICS. 
 
 One of the chief duties of the public schools, possibly the chief duty, is the 
 production of an intelligent, right-hearted, stalwart, and active citizenship. The 
 present posture of affairs is emphasizing this. It becomes increasingly evident 
 that the value of a civilization is measured not only by its material wealth and 
 industrial and scientific efficiency, but also by its ideals and the institutions and 
 processes that embody them. Our democracy maintains schools in order that 
 democracy herself and democracy’s blessings may be maintained. The work of 
 producing this citizenship for a democracy should be carried out through all 
 subjects taught in the schools. But it is chiefly through the social sciences, which 
 in elementary schools are represented by history and civics and geography, that 
 this training is most directly given. 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 With this main purpose in mind, the aim of the course in history will be to 
 enable the boys and girls to acquire a sympathetic understanding and appreciation 
 of American ideals and institutions, and thus to understand better the community 
 of which they are members, and to appreciate their relations to this community. 
 
 Care should therefore be taken not to treat history as if a knowledge of the 
 events recorded were the end to be reached. These events should constantly be 
 made to show their relations to the present. The value of history for our students 
 is not that it “trains the memory” or “increases our information”, but that it 
 gives a proper perspective and helps to explain the present. 
 
 In grades one to three there will be no text in the hands of the pupils and no 
 separate classes in history. In fact, the work should be he: e presented in correlation 
 with reading, story-telling and language work. It should be the aim of the work 
 of these grades to form a background for the later study. This can best be ac¬ 
 complished by stories which deal vdth peoples and conditions in primitive or early 
 life. These stories will tell in a simple way of the lives of the Eskimo, the Indian, 
 etc. They will tell how these peoples get their food and clothing and how they 
 house themselves. These stories of the hunt and chase, of herding and primitive 
 agriculture and of theJater trade and travel and discovery can be made intensely 
 interesting. Especially is this true, if the stories deal with the lives of the children 
 of these peoples. There is a wealth of material published for this purpose which 
 can be used as well for supplementary reading. The following may be consulted 
 for hsts of stories: Talkington’s “How to Teach History and Civics in the 
 Grades”; McMurry’s “Special Method in History”; “Report of Committee of 
 Eight”, etc. 
 
 National holidays, celebrations, and the like will furnish occasions for the intro¬ 
 duction, in simple form, of the stories of their origin and meaning. Because of the 
 relationship of our history to that of other lands and times, it is well to introduce 
 as early as the third grade stories of such world characters as Joseph, Moses, 
 David, Ulysses, Alexander, Horatius, William Tell, Roland, Canute, Alfred the 
 Great, Robert Bruce, Joan of Arc, etc. 
 
94 
 
 Fourth Grade 
 
 The story of our country is presented in this grade through the biographies of 
 many of the prominent men of our country. These biographies are classified under 
 different heads so that the children can understand the part played by each man. 
 The story element here predominates over the cause and effect idea of history. 
 The principal facts in the history of a period are grouped about the life of some 
 prominent men of the time. It is the concrete and dramatic that takes hold of the 
 interest of the child. The children will appreciate and approximate in their own 
 lives the qualities they admire in others. Have them note the strong traits of 
 character in these men. Train the pupils in topical recitations both oral and 
 written, being careful that the stories are told in good language of the pupil’s own 
 choosing. 
 
 Encourage inquiry into local history,—naming of districts, settlements, the 
 local railroad, the town and any other things that may be of interest. 
 
 Textbook: Mace’s Beginners’ History, pp.1-202. 
 
 Supplementary: Makers of American History and Story of Our Country, 
 Book 1. , 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 The work of this year follows the directions of that of the Fourth grade, wdth a 
 bit wider and deeper view of the meaning of the events to which the biography is 
 related. The battle of the hero against the conditions which hinder him and his 
 final victor^^ bring out the moral qualities and dramatic elements in the hero’s life. 
 In these qualities, which we Msh to arouse in the pupil, we find the real justifica¬ 
 tion of elementary history in the schools and the reason that it is made biographical. 
 
 Textbook: Mace’s Beginners’ History, pp. 202-389. 
 
 Supplementary: Makers of American History and Story of Our Country, 
 Book II. 
 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 The purpose of introducing the pupils to European history is to give them in 
 simple story form those things in the history of early Europe which have come to 
 America and out of which, in part, America is built. There should be a genuine 
 study of the way the people of old Europe lived and what they did. These ways 
 they carried to Spain, France, Holland and England and in turn the people of these 
 countries carried them to America. This story of the growth of our civilization 
 when told in simple way and without attempt to burden the story with unpro¬ 
 nounceable names, is full of romance and consequent interest to the boys and 
 girls. It helps to explain, also, the struggles of the nations for the control of 
 America, and the life and institutions which they built here. 
 
 Textbook: Mace-Tanner’s Old Europe and Young America. I^tudy the entire 
 book in this grade. 
 
 Supplementary: Story of the Old World. 
 
 CIVICS 
 
 If, as stated above, one of the chief tasks of the public schools is the production 
 of a good American citizenship, then it is incumbent upon the teacher to work 
 
96 
 
 directly toward this end. The specific aims should be: (1) to impress upon the 
 children that they are members of several social groups and therefore responsible 
 in a measure for what these groups are; (2) to cultivate habits of cleanliness, order, 
 co-operation, service, and obedience to law; (3) to emphasize the close and double 
 relation between the welfare of the individual and the welfare of home and society; 
 (4) to inculcate habits of thrift and industry; and (5) to develop political intelli¬ 
 gence and its exercise. This can be accomplished partly by giving information to 
 the boys and girls, but chiefly by bringing them into a sympathetic understanding 
 of the everyday work and civic relations of the members of the community and by 
 giving to them opportunities for developing the habit of mutual helpfulness and 
 co-operation. The formation of Thrift Clubs, .Junior Red Cross societies, and like 
 organizations should be encouraged not only for the primary benefit to the causes 
 represented by them, but for the resultant civic training of the children. The 
 socialized recitation, debating club, the corn club, canning club, social center meet¬ 
 ings, the general discipline of school, the pla^^ground are but a few of the many 
 agencies that furnish fertile opportunities for this work. 
 
 Thus, it is not the purpose to make Civics a separate subject of intruction, or to 
 adopt a textbook for the elementary grades, but rather to correlate it with all 
 subjects, emphasizing their civic side, and by taking advantage of the numberless 
 opportunities that arise to drive home the lessons. In that way each teacher can 
 do her bit in a way that possibly cannot be done so well by anyone else. 
 
 In a general way the work should have the following scope. 
 
 First Grade 
 
 The family—what parents do for children. How children may show gratitude. 
 Care of furniture, toys, clothing. Respect for age. 
 
 Second Grade 
 
 The home and the community—how each serves the other. Community ser¬ 
 vants of the home—the milkman, the postman, the garbage man. What these 
 servants do, the importance of their work. Who sends them? Why? How we 
 can help them. How the home serves the community—care of premises, conduct 
 toward neighbors, conduct in stores and public places. 
 
 Third Grade 
 
 The home and the school. Habits that apply to each—obedience, service, etc. 
 Care of property—'furniture, school supplies. Appearance of home and school— 
 yard, street, alley, etc. The home-and-school community—co-operation for 
 beauty and protection. Care of lawns, trees, fences, public property. Courtesy to 
 strangers. 
 
 Fourth Grade 
 
 Stories of the growth of the following and how each serves the community; 
 public schools, library, postofTice, street railways, hospitals, parks, fire and police 
 departments, city hall, court house, state house. Your city an industrial center— 
 what made it so? Sources of raw material, destination of manufactured products. 
 Sources of food and clothing. Means of transportation. 
 
96 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 Waste, saving, and wise expenditure in the home—foods, clothing, furniture, 
 light, fuel, Christmas gifts, etc. Keep in repair—fences, buildings, doors, gates, 
 etc. Saving of doctor’s bills by care of health. Discuss—Does it pay to buy cheap 
 goods? To have cheap workmen? Cultivation of gardens for economy’s sake. 
 Advantage of home ownership. 
 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 Ordinances and laws—On removal of garbage, crossing of streets, providing for 
 pure water and pure foods, school attendance and working certificates. Individual 
 responsibility—to self, to the weak and needy, to the home, class, school, city, 
 state, country. Civic growdh of city—water supply, lighting and heating, im¬ 
 proved streets and boulevards, parks, public buildings. How your city, your 
 state, and your country protect you—your character, your rights, your property 
 and your life and the obligation you owe as a result. The supreme lesson: to be a 
 good citizen—a lady or a gentleman—at all times and at all places. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 FIRST, SECOND, THIRD AND FOURTH GRADES 
 
 Time: Fifteen minutes once a week at the nature study period. 
 
 Course: Simple facts concerning the body, its growth and care, divided into 
 topics as follows: 
 
 Note: Teachers wishing information on these topics will find at the end of each 
 topic the chapter or page designated in Hygiene and Sanitation—the adopted text. 
 
 The Body 
 
 Composed of flesh, nerves, and bones. Location, name and use of the chief parts 
 and organs—head, brain, trunk, heart, lungs, stomach, etc. 
 
 Principal uses are motion, respiration, nutrition, excretion and sensations, or to 
 enable us to move, breathe, eat in order to grow, to cast off impurities, and to hear, 
 see, feel and think. Chapter II Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 The Growth of the Body 
 
 In order that the body may grow it needs good food, pure air, pure water, 
 exercise and rest. 
 
 Develop these in the order given and contrast good and bad foods, etc., so as to 
 make clear to the child the necessity of each. Chapter III Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 General Note to the Teacher 
 
 Though the work is here definitely outlined it does not preclude the teacher’s 
 giving hygienic instruction when the opportunity presents itself. 
 
 Examples: Headache caused by late hours. A sick stomach caused by over¬ 
 eating. 
 
 Should a pupil come to school with wet feet, the teacher should not only see that 
 this condition is removed, but show the bad effects of same. Or, 
 
 Should a pupil accidentally cut or tear his flesh, the teacher should not only be 
 able to dress the wound properly, but make this an occasion for an object lesson 
 for the school. 
 
 Food and Its Uses to the Body 
 
 Talk about the necessity of food for growth and repair; cause of hunger; digestion, 
 absorption and assimilation of food; how to aid digestion; importance of such 
 foods as milk, eggs, bread and butter, meat, fruits, vegetables, salads, oils and 
 nuts; dangers of tea, coffee and alcoholic drinks; unsanitary soda fountain and 
 drinks. 
 
 Hygiene; need of eating slowly and chewing thoroughly; why we should not 
 over-eat, especially of such foods as pie, cake, candy, pickles, etc., of green or 
 decayed fruit, of tainted and adulterated foods; regularity of eating, sleeping. 
 
98 
 
 studying, movement of the intestines to get rid of waste matter, negleet ol' which 
 may cause appendicitis and other intestinal trouble. Chapter III and VIII, 
 Primer of Plygiene. 
 
 Care and Preparation of Food 
 
 « 
 
 The Care of Milk: Why milk delivered in bottles is cleaner than milk delivered 
 in cans; why it should be cooled and kept cool; need for cleanliness at the dairy; 
 how to keep it clean and pure at home; how eggs, butter, meat, bread, berries and 
 fruits should be handled and kept; why food is cooked; why fried foods are not 
 the best; why simply prepared foods are best. Chapter V and VII, Primer of 
 Hygiene. 
 
 Our Meals and When to Eat 
 
 Breakfast: Fresh fruit (apple, orange, bananas), some cereal with milk or cream, 
 eggs, toast and a glass of milk; bread and coffee are not sufficient, the latter being 
 injurious to children. 
 
 Noon Meal: Lettuce, egg or meat sandwiches, fruits, nuts, milk, chocolate or 
 cheese make an appetizing and nutritious lunch; a lunch containing much pie, 
 cake, pickles, etc., is not a good one. 
 
 Evening Meal: Soup, meat or fish, bread, vegetables, fruit, with ices or light 
 pudding for dessert, make an excellent dinner. 
 
 Strong, healthy and beautiful bodies depend largely upon the right choice of 
 food at daily meals. 
 
 Do not eat betw'een meals to keep from getting hungry. Wait until you are 
 hungry. 
 
 Necessity for clean face and hands w'hen eating. 
 
 How to care for the dishes; proper method of washing dishes. Chapters V and 
 VIII, Primer of Hygiene, and chapter XXX Primer of Sanitation. 
 
 Pure Air and Its Use to the Body 
 
 Why we need a constant supply of air; out-door air the best; ways of ventilating 
 occupied rooms to secure pur air; why the air in an unventilated room is not pure; 
 the need of a thermometer; why the heated room should be kept at from 65 to 70 
 degrees; why air should not be allowed to become too di^'". 
 
 The need of keeping the windows of one’s sleeping room open at night. Pure 
 ' cool air is a great aid in keeping good health and good appearance. 
 
 Breathing 
 
 Correct position best for breathing and for good appearance as well; why 
 breathe through the nose and keep both nostrils open; the value of exercise to 
 improve posture and increase lung capacity; harm from tight clothing; why over¬ 
 exertion, such as long runs, and violent exercise is not good for the growing child. 
 Chapters X and XI, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Water and Its Use to the Body 
 
 Necessity for pure water; w’hy the body needs plenty of water; when drinking 
 water should be boiled; why drinking much at meals is not advisable; why it is 
 
F 
 
 99 
 
 needful to bathe and when; use of soap; hot water bottle and its use in relieving 
 pain; necessity for individual drinking cups. Chapter XX, Primer of Sanitation. 
 
 Care of the Body 
 
 Uses of the skin, hair and finger nails and care of each. Chapter XV, Primer of 
 Hygiene. 
 
 Teeth: Value in preparing food for digestion; causes and cure of irregular 
 teeth; causes of decay; when and how to clean the teeth; necessity for taking care 
 of the temporary teeth; the first permanent teeth; why the teeth should be ex¬ 
 amined by the dentist and filling done at least twice a year. Chapter IX, 
 Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Eyes; Ways of protecting the eyes; evidences of the need of glasses; why 
 spectacles are preferable to glasses; care of glasses; examine for trachoma. 
 Chapter XXIV, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Ears: Care of, common injuries to; signs of defective hearing; why consult a 
 physician when symptoms are recognized. Chapter XXV, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Clothing: Kinds and advantages of each; differences for cold and warm 
 weather; need for underclothing; kinds and advantages; need for rubbers in wet 
 weather, should not be kept on while indoors; importance of keeping the body 
 dry and free from colds. Chapter XVI, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Cleanliness: Necessity for clean homes, clean yards, clean streets; why rugs 
 are better than carpets; advantages of vacuum cleaner and moist cloth for dust¬ 
 ing; vigorous health the best preventive of any disease; how the house-fly spreads 
 disease and how to combat it; dangers in handling the dirty cat or dirty dog. 
 Chapter XXIX, Primer of Sanitation. 
 
 Accidents: What to do in case of cuts, bruises, burns; why cuts should be 
 cleansed and covered; danger of scratching off scab with finger nails; necessity 
 for using clean cloths; possible danger froin rusty nails; what to do if clothing 
 catches fire; why boys and girls should learn to swim; dangers from electric wires; 
 danger from dog bites. Chapter XXVI, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 I 
 
 Accidents and Emergencies 
 
 In every schoolhouse there should be the following emergency outfit and every 
 teacher should know how to use its contents. The remedies should be placed 
 beyond the reach of anxious children. 
 
 4 oz. bottle of camphor. 
 
 4 oz. bottle of arnica. 
 
 4 oz. bottle of witch hazel. 
 
 1 oz. bottle of collodion. 
 
 1 pair of sharp scissors. 
 
 Package of absorbent cotton. 
 
 Roll of clean linen or soft cotton for bandages. 
 
 Sheet of surgeon’s rubber adhesive plaster. 
 
 Needle and thread. 
 
 An antiseptic plaster or dressing for a wound may be made as follows: After 
 cleansing the wound thoroughly with cold water, put enough of the absorbent 
 cotton over the wound to cover it completely. Drop collodion on the cotton until 
 it is saturated. With the fingers press the cotton gently but firmly upon the 
 wound and let it dry there. This is one of the most satisfactory of antiseptic 
 
100 
 
 plasters. A clean linen or cotton bandage may be wrapped about the wound if it 
 is severe. 
 
 Exercise, Rest and Sleep 
 
 Exercise: Why needed, kinds and advantages of out-of-door exercise. 
 
 Rest and Sleep: Why needed; illness often avoided by taking regular and 
 proper amount of sleep; best time to sleep; amount of sleep; why students should 
 not keep late hours. Chapter XX, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 The joy of health and strength, happiness and satisfaction, ability to look, do, 
 and be our best. 
 
 Health and strength the natural result of the wise use of food, air, water, exercise 
 and rest; individual responsibility of clean, pure, healthy bodies. Chapter 
 XXXII, Primer of Sanitation. 
 
 Suggestions on Exercise 
 
 It is impossible to outline a course on physical exercise within the space allotted 
 here, but it is suggested that the teacher make a special effort to enter into and 
 direct the play of her pupils. Especially should the teacher be prepared to direct 
 the play on rainy and bad days when the pupils must stay within doors. The 
 teacher also needs the exercise. She can do better work together with her pupils 
 after participating in a game that calls into use the muscles of the body. 
 
 There are many indoor games which are full of action. See to it that the children 
 get some vigorous play at the recesses and at such other times as the teacher thinks 
 best. 
 
 For a complete list of indoor as well as outdoor games with complete instructions 
 for playing, see “Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium,” 
 by Jesse H. Bancroft. Price $1.50. The Macmillan Company, New York. Or, 
 Johnson’s “What to Do at Recess.” Price 25 cents. Ginn & Co., Boston. 
 
 As a rule the calisthenics given in the school room is not enjoyed by the pupils 
 and is of very little benefit to them. Play is the natural exercise for the child. 
 Chapters XVII, XVIII and XXVII, Primer of Hygiene. 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 The Primer of Hygiene should be used in the fifth year. Pupils should have the 
 text book in this and the following grade. 
 
 One lesson per week at the period assigned to nature study. 
 
 Whenever references are made to parts of the body, or other things which the 
 child may not understand, the teacher should make careful explanations. 
 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 Primer of Sanitation is the text. First half year, pp. 1-100, second half year, pp. 
 100-194. One lesson each week. 
 
 Care should be taken here, as before, that pupils have an opportunity to see 
 pictures, drawings, diagrams, etc., that will help to make clear the subject matter. 
 When possible bring in objects illustrating the lesson or take the pupils out to 
 observe sanitary or unsanitary conditions. Have the pupils make observ’ations 
 and investigations and make written reports. 
 
 The aim is to get the pupil to apply the principles learned so that his health and 
 that of his associates at home and elsewhere will show improvement. Stimulate 
 the desire of the pupil to be well, to apply hygienic principles to his owm living, 
 so that it w'ill result in fixed habits of right living. 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 The teaching of art in the schools should have two results for the children: (1) 
 the development of a love of the beautiful, and (2) the ability of self-expression. 
 It should teach the child to appreciate the masterpiece, and train him to desire 
 more pleasant surroundings and to do his work more tastefully. Incidentally, it 
 should also train his eye and hand. 
 
 The subject should constantly be thought of not as isolated, but as closely cor¬ 
 related with all other subjects in the course of study. It should be supplemented 
 by picture-study. 
 
 The course includes: (1) Representation, (2) Construction, and (3) Design. 
 The following suggestions are outlined with the purpose of assisting the teacher in 
 her mission of helping the child to help himself. 
 
 (The numbers given refer to pages in the “Applied Arts Drawing Books”.) 
 
 First Grade 
 
 Representation: In plant life observe the simpler types of trees, such as the 
 maple, apple, cedar, poplar. Compare their shapes and proportions; also form 
 and proportion of leaves; and form and color of fruit and vegetables. 
 
 Animal drawing should include the general characteristics of animals: shape 
 of body, head, feet, tail, ears, nose. 
 
 In drawing the human figure begin with the manikin, or “stick man.” In this, 
 proportion of the body and action are represented. Follow with poses illustrating 
 actions, walking, running, jumping. Illustrate games and stories with these 
 illustrations. 
 
 Construction: The problems in this grade should involve measuring to the 
 inch. The subjects should be simple articles for the playhouse, to be done in paper 
 folding, without pasting. 
 
 Booklets may be tied together and mats woven and folded into hair receivers, 
 handkerchief cases, etc. 
 
 The Progressive Drawing Books are rich in material and directions for this work. 
 
 Decorative Design: Measure inch spaces for borders by folding or ruler. 
 
 References: Nature work, pp. 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 44; Design, pp. 19, 40: 
 Construction, pp. 21, 23, 46. 
 
 Object drawing: (Pages 28, 30, 32). Pose and animal drawing: (Pages 34, 
 36,38). Color: (Pages 50,51). 
 
 Second Grade 
 
 Representation: This should be a continuation of first grade. Lead the child 
 to more accurate representation of objects. 
 
 Construction: This work may be the same as the first year, with the addition 
 of half inch measurement. An evelope or folder for drawings may be made for an 
 early problem. 
 
 Design: Continue borders; using simple units in “repeat” patterns, giving 
 attention to orderly arrangement, freedom from crowding, and proportion. 
 
 One of the primary colors or any one of the standard colors (red, yellow, green, 
 
102 
 
 blue violet) may be used with a gray (not too dark or too light) of harmonious 
 tone. 
 
 Nursery rhymes furnish good material for borders in this grade. 
 
 References: Nature Work: (Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 46). Design: (Pages 
 15, 17, 19, 48). Construction: (Pages 23, 25, 40, 42, 44). Object Drawing: 
 (Pages 28, 30, 32). Pose and Animal Drawing: (Pages 34, 36, 38). Color: 
 (Pages 50, 51). 
 
 Third Grade 
 
 Representation: In plant life study characteristics of growth and the relative 
 size of parts, tones. Show dark stem and leaves with lighter flower. The same 
 subjects should be used as in first and second grades, but varying with the interests 
 of the class. 
 
 Construction: Tfeach accurate measuring to the half inch. A booklet with the 
 cover to extend beyond the pages one-half inch, or a box for pencils with one-half 
 inch lap to be pasted at corners. ‘ 
 
 Design: The problem for decoration in grade three should be a surface pattern 
 for the box and book cover. Select a material of soft gray color or a neutral. Decide 
 upon the space to be decorated and mark the entire space with dots one-half inch 
 apart. Place the unit in alternating squares, or upon each alternating spot. Use 
 only one color with gray or two tones of one color. 
 
 References: Nature Work: (Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 46, 48). Design: 
 (Pages 15, 17; 23). Construction: (Pages 21, 40, 42, 44); Pose and Animal 
 Drawing: (Pages 34, 36, 38); Object Drawing: (Pages 28, 30, 32). 
 
 Fourth Grade 
 
 Representation: Study plant life for the appearance of form. Draw in large 
 masses plants showing turned leaves and flowers representing them just as they 
 appear. 
 
 Type solids and similar objects may be drawn for form and proportion in two 
 dimensions only, pleasing shapes of bowles and vases may be used, showing light 
 and dark against a background of a third tone. 
 
 Tones in landscape may be studied. Draw sky light, ground middle tone with 
 dark trees. « 
 
 Construction: Measure to one-fourth inch and the foot, using rooms and 
 articles of furniture. Drill in measuring accurately with the eye. t ^ 
 
 A good problem for this grade is construction of frames for weaving. These 
 should be of card board, with notched end or holes punched, or of wooden frame 
 with tacks at each end. The article to be woven will determine size and proportion 
 
 Design: The design in each grade is to be closely related to representation and 
 construction. If the class is interested in weaving, the problem may be matching 
 colors to be used, and border ends for rugs or mats; bags for books or change. 
 Again use a grayish color for the body and brighter colors for the stripes. 
 
 References: Nature Work: (Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 46, 48); Design: 
 (Pages 15, 17, 19, 23, 40); Construction: (Pages 21, 42, 44); Object Drawing: 
 (Pages 28, 30, 32); Pose and Animal Drawing: (Pages 34, 36, 38); Color: 
 (Pages 50, 51). 
 
 I 
 
103 
 
 Fifth Grade 
 
 Representation: In plant and tree life continue the observation of form pro¬ 
 portion, relative size of parts, showing individual character. 
 
 Object drawing should involve the study of the circle at different elevations and 
 positions by use of familiar objects without handles, spouts, etc. 
 
 Construction: Make a working drawing for an object of two dimensions; a 
 calendar or book cover, blotter pad, portfolio. 
 
 Design: This work may be a continuation of grade four with some comple¬ 
 mentary colors introduced. 
 
 References: Nature Work: (Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 44, 48, 50); Design: 
 (Pages 19, 21, 23, 30, 32, 46, 52); Object Drawing: (Pages 34, 36, 38); Pose, 
 Animal and Bird Drawing: (Pages 25, 27, 40, 42); Color: (Pages 54, 55). 
 
 Sixth Grade 
 
 Representation: Continue plant life from the fifth grade, introducing “accent.” 
 Work for quality of line in pencil, keeping the lines in gray tones, accenting where 
 the shadows appear. Shade the leaves and flowers. 
 
 In object drawing, look for shadow on the object, also the cast shadow on the 
 table by its side. Remember it is foreshadowed as well as the circle, and always 
 represent it with a horizontal stroke. 
 
 Construction: Measure to one-eighth inch. Draw to scale. Continue the 
 work of grade five, insisting on more and more accurate drawing. 
 
 Plan a box or bird house and make a drawing of each side on a small scale. A 
 portfolio or book cover could be planned and drawn to scale. 
 
 Design: Continue the work in decorative arrangement to be applied to the 
 special interest of this grade. Excellent directions for formal decorations for 
 corners by paper cutting are given in the Prang Books. 
 
 References: Nature Work: (Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 46, 48); Design: 
 (Pages 17, 27, 34, 36, 38, 40); Pose and Animal Drawing: (Pages 42,44); Color: 
 (Pages 54, 55). 
 
 0 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 “I hear America singing”, sang Walt Whitman, the bard of Democracy. And 
 the “varied carols” which the “good, grey poet” heard were the songs which give a 
 soul to work and which minister to the enjoyment of leisure hours. This indicates, 
 it would seem, the true purpose of music in the people’s life. And consequently 
 the primary aim of the teaching of music in the public schools should be the 
 enjoyment of good music and its proper appreciation. Its object is not to produce 
 great singers. Except for a limited few, and only incidentally for them, there will 
 be no vocational value in the study. But the study can result for all in a knowledge 
 of at least some of the melodies that form the musical inheritance'of the race, in 
 the power to appreciate them, and in some degree in the ability to participate in 
 the singing of them. 
 
 In a general way, it may be said that the fundamental problem in the teaching 
 of music is “how to cultivate an affection for the subject and at the same time 
 accomplish the drill necessary for skill”. The nature of children, as well as the na¬ 
 ture of the problem, indicates that there are two natural divisions in the elementary 
 schools, in the first of which, from grades One to Three, the procedure is from song 
 to notation, while in the second, from grades Four to Six, it is from notation to 
 song. 
 
 The specific aims during the period from grades One to Three should be: (1) 
 the awakening of musical interest; (2) the memorizing of desirable songs; (3) 
 learning to use the voice expressively through song; (4) developing musical dis¬ 
 crimination; and (5) learning notation. And the first step toward the accomplish¬ 
 ment of these aims, is the proper selection of songs. The teacher is not bound to 
 use the childish for children’s singing. The child’s natural characteristic of imifa- 
 tiveness and his consequent power to sing by rote makes it possible to teach to 
 youngest school children even the most beautiful melodies. It is these songs that 
 have stood the test of time and so proved their attractiveness, that will best arouse 
 the interest of children in music. These songs should be memorized and repeatedly 
 used, year after year, not with the idea of technical mastery, but with the purpose 
 of bringing about enjoyment, and the power to use the voice expressively in song. 
 As the interest in singing is aroused, it becomes natural and easy to lead the 
 children into a better understanding of music and an increase of discrimination and 
 skill through the learning of notation. The ability to read music is thus a 
 necessary accomplishment in learning music, but it is only a means toward the 
 end of knowirtg music, singing it, and enjoying it. 
 
 In grades Four to Six, because of the ages of the children, drill work can most 
 effectively be accomplished. Here the procedure is from notation to song. If the 
 children of these grades will not sing as expressively as the younger children or 
 with the spontaneity of the younger ones, they can be interested in competitive 
 trials of skill and in the problems of note-reading. Speed in notation work and 
 music reading by phrases should here be emphasized. 
 
 The wise teacher will not limit the music of her school to chorus singing by her 
 classes, but will endeavor to provide means for training her children in the proper 
 appreciation of masterpieces which may be beyond the ability of children to render. 
 For this purpose, graphophones such as the Edison, the Victrola, the Pathephone, 
 
etc., are generally used. There is a wealth of material available for this purpose, 
 and most manufactifrers or dealers in instruments of this kind have carefully 
 graded selections for school use. 
 
 It is eminently worth while from many standpoints for the teacher to encourage 
 the formation of a school orchestra if possible. This can meet outside of school 
 hours, if necessary; and in various community meetings can do much for the en¬ 
 tertainment of the people and for the building up of a good school spirit. Especi¬ 
 ally, too, will the wise teacher promote community singing, in which not only her 
 pupUs but the adults of the community as well may take part. There is now a 
 peculiar timehnessin such an enterprise; and it undoubtedly will do much toward 
 making the school the real center of its community. 
 
 Texts: Qjngdon Music Readers and Dann’s Music Course. 
 
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SECTION IV. 
 
 Junior High School, Including 7th, 8th, and 9th Grades. 
 
 OUTLINE OF STUDIES BY YEARS. 
 
 Note—^The work of the first and second year of the Junior High School 
 (7th and 8th grades) is outlined so as to provide for the subjects that our law 
 requires to be taught in the common schools. These outlines added to the 
 elementary section will make a complete Manual for the ordinary one-room 
 school or other school that is not prepared to organize a Junior High School. 
 
 For the third year (9th grade) several subjects are listed that may be taught 
 in an elementary way to seventh or eighth grade pupils in schools with well 
 organized Junior High Schools. In such a school classes of students with special 
 needs and work adapted to those needs may be organized. 
 
 Seventh Grade (1st Year Junior High School). 
 
 Literature —^Text: Bison’s Grammar School Literature, Book Two. 
 
 Supplementary Reading: See recommendations in the discussion 
 of the subject. 
 
 Language, Composition and Grammar —^Text: Kimball’s Elementary Engljish 
 
 Book Two. 
 
 Geography —Re-study important parts of Frye’s FJigher Geography and use 
 
 Geographical Readers and Bulletins. 
 
 Arithmetic —Text: Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic, pp. 116 to 226. • 
 Agriculture —Text: Benson and Betts’ Agriculture. See outline as to 
 
 use of text and material. 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene —^Text: Davison’s Health Lessons, Book II. 
 
 U. S. History —Text: Mace’s School History, pp. 1-295. 
 
 Drawing —Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books No. 47. 
 
 Music —^Text: Congdon Music Readers and Dann’s Music Course. 
 
 Eighth Grade (2nd Year Junior High School). 
 
 Literature —Text: Bison’s Grammar School Literature, Books Three and 
 
 Four. 
 
 Language, Composition and Grammar —^Text: Kimball’s Elementary Eng- 
 
 lisj|, Book Two. 
 
 Arithmetic —^Text: Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic, pp. 227-344. 
 Agriculture —Text: Benson and Betts’ Agriculture, and State and Federal 
 
 Bulletins. 
 
 U. S. History —Text: Mace’s School History, pp. 295-477. 
 
 Civics —Text: Dunn’s—The Community and the Citizen with West Vir¬ 
 ginia Supplement. 
 
 Drawing —Text: Applied Arts Drawing Books, No. 48. 
 
 Music —^Text: Congdon Music Readers and Dann’s Music Course. 
 
 Ninth Grade (3rd Year Junior High School). 
 
 Note—^From the subjects listed below a year’s work suited to the students 
 can be organized. 
 
i 
 
 108 
 
 % 
 
 Literature —See outline for selections to be used. 
 
 Texts: A History of English Literature—^Hinchman. 
 
 American Literature—^Metcalf. 
 
 Macmillan Pocket Classics. 
 
 Composition and Grammar —See outline for work to be done. 
 
 Text: English Composition—^Brooks, Book I, II. 
 
 Algebra —^Text: Slaught and Lennes. 
 
 Household Arts —^Texts: Kinne and Cooley: 
 
 The Home and the Family. 
 
 Foods and Household Management. 
 
 Shelter £fnd Clothing. 
 
 Fuher—Constructive Sewing, Books I, IV. 
 
 (See outline for other books and suggestions.) 
 
 Industrial Arts or Manual Training —^Bench Work Tablet No. 9—Burton. 
 
 The National Individual Lesson Series in Bench Work. 
 (See list of books recommended in outline of Industrial Arts.) 
 
 Agriculture —^Text: Water’s Essentials in Agriculture. 
 
 Use many bulletins and outlines for farm projects. College of Agriculture, Morgantown, can furnish details 
 of work in this subject for ninth grade. No outline is given in this Manual. 
 
 Modern European History —Text: West’s Modem World. 
 
 (No outline given in this Manual. The State Board will give suggestions on inquiry.) 
 
 General Science —^Texts: A Year in Science—^Weckel and Thalman. 
 
 Manual for A Year in Science—Weckel and Thalman. 
 
 (No outline given in this Manual. ^The State Board will give suggestions on inquiry.) 
 
 Music and Drawing. 
 
 (These subjects may be offered in this year when strong teachers can be secured. The State Board of Education 
 will furnish suggestions about the courses for ninth year on application.) 
 
 Application of Some Common Branches in Upper Grades. 
 
 Care in Writing—While no formal lessons are to be given, teachers should 
 require good, neat writing in the usual school work. Carelessness of teachers 
 and pupils in the upper grades and high school may make useless all of the teach¬ 
 ing of wTiting in the lower grades. 
 
 Attention to Spelling—^By the end of the 6th grade a pupil should know 
 how to spell all the words he is likely to use in wnting, and it should not be 
 necessary to organize a spelling class and have a separate period for it in the 
 Junior High School. Flowever, teachers should not allow pupils to complete 
 the 7th and 8th grades without proficiency in this subject. SpelUng can be 
 taught and tested through written work in other,.subjects, and through the 
 dictionary habit. The text books can be used as a guide for the teacher. Omit 
 any words not commonly used by the average person in his writing. 
 
 Seventh year—^Mastery of Words, Book II, pages 42-77. 
 
 Eighth year—Mastery of Words, Book II, pages 78-117. 
 
 Geography Broadened, Enriched and Reviewed (7th Grade)—In the 
 seventh grade geography will be studied for the most part, in connection with 
 other subjects, such as history, civics, and agriculture, the textbook being used 
 for reference. All the important topics in the history work should have their 
 geographical settings carefully studied and the influences of geographic condi¬ 
 tions should be thoroughly discussed. The making of maps illustrating his¬ 
 torical matter should be encouraged. In the study of agriculture various crop 
 regions should be studied and comparisons made with similar regions in other 
 
1G9 
 
 countries. By the end of the seventh grade the student should have acquired 
 a good knowledge of: 
 
 The general conditions which determine the distribution of life form—plant 
 and animal. 
 
 The races of men and the civilization developed under the conditions of their 
 environment. 
 
 The chief lines of human industry—agriculture, grazing, lumbering, fishing 
 mining, manufacturing, commerce. 
 
 The world that will aid in interpreting literature and current events. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 Complete the second book of “Elson’s Grammar School Literature Readers.” 
 Supplementary reading should be in the longer prose and poetic classics. The 
 year’s work might consist of reproductive selections from Irving, Poe, Haw¬ 
 thorne, Longfelllow and Clemens. Incidentally some instruction may be given 
 concerning the lives of these authors, but this should be brief and informal 
 One of Cooper’s stories might be studied, partly in class and partly in home 
 readings. “The Last of the Mohicans” is particularly good. 
 
 Suggestions for teaching literature have been given under the outline for 
 sixth grade. (See page 41.) Make the work more mature, as befits the age 
 of the pupils and the nature of the literature. Give elementary but definite 
 instruction about the fundamental laws of artistic writing: unity, coherence, 
 proportion, development of plot, grouping of characters, use of descriptive 
 passages; and give some instruction in meters; kinds of poetic feet, principles 
 of rhythm and rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. 
 
 Have the children memorize and recite literary selections in the literary society. 
 In case the child does not memorize easily, allow him to read a well-prepared 
 selection from the book. 
 
 * 
 
 Encourage much reading of library books. The teacher should be familiar 
 with the books in the library, and should often refer her pupils to them. The 
 course in reading and literature that does not succeed in getting the children 
 into the reading habit has failed in one of its important functions. Show the 
 children how to “get the heart out of a book;” how to perceive the central 
 idea and purpose, the leading characteristics, how the book differs from other 
 books. Remember that the boys and the girls often want and need different 
 kinds of books. The ideal is: Read much, read rapidly, read with intelligence 
 and appreciation. Let the children take the books home with them or read 
 in the school room when they have leisure. 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 Read Boolis Three and Four in the Elson Grammar School Literature Readers. 
 In case the children cannot buy both books, have them get Book Four rather 
 than Book Three. Supplementary’’ reading should be in the longer classics. If 
 American authors have been studied in the seventh grade, British authors might 
 be taken up in this year. Scott’s “Ivanhoe,” Stevenson’s “Treasure Island, 
 
 # 
 
110 
 
 and poems of Wordsworth, Scott, Tennyson, Macaulay, and Kipling, are valuable 
 for this grade. 
 
 Continue the study as suggested in the sixth and seventh years. The children 
 should learn to understand and appreciate the splendid characters in the books 
 they read, should know them as familiar friends, should allude to them in their 
 conversation, should admire and imitate their virtues. They should discuss and 
 debate the various points that arise in the action, just as they do in real life. 
 
 Continue dramatization. Continue the reading of literature in literary society. 
 Continue the reading of books in school and home libraries. Encourage children 
 to start a small library of their own. Teach them how to discriminate between 
 choice books and the trashy ones they sometimes find. Try to persuade each 
 child in the eighth grade to read one book a month during the year. 
 
 Ninth Grade (Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 t 
 
 (Two Periods a Week.) 
 
 The literature for this year consists of classic and legendary narrative prose 
 arid a few simple narrative poems. It is best to alternate prose and poetry. 
 
 The prose for class study is as follow^s: 
 
 Stories from the Old Testament. Use the Bible itself or some such edition as 
 the Riverside Literature Series No. 46, 15c. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 Stories from Arabian Nights. A good collection is that found in Riverside 
 Literature Series Nos. 117-118, 40c. 
 
 The Odyssey. Riverside Literature Series No. 43, 75c. 
 
 Other Greek Stories. Kingsley’s Greek Heroes, E. P. Dutton, N. Y., 35c. 
 
 Stories of King Arthur. Use one of the following versions: Lanier’s The 
 Boy’s King Arthur, Chas. Scribner’s Sons, N. Y., 81.20; Pyle’s Story of King 
 Arthur and His Knights, Scribner, $2.50; Stevens and Allen’s King Arthur Stories, 
 Riverside Literature Series No. 179, 40c. 
 
 The poems for class study are as follow's: 
 
 Some of Longfellow’s Tales of a Wayside Inn, Riverside Literature Series, 
 Nos. 33, 34 and 35, in one volume, 50c. 
 
 Drake’s The Culprit Fay, Orvdlle Brewer Co.f Chicago, 10c. 
 
 Some of Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome, Riverside Literature Series, No. 
 45. 
 
 Whittier’s Snow Bound, Riverside Literature Series, No. 4, 15c 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 Textbook: Kimball’s Elementary English; Book II. 
 
 Omit all of Part One (the first section of the book, which contains nothing 
 but technical grammar, most of which is unnecessary for children and far too 
 difficult for them), referring to this part of the book as you see occasion. In 
 Part Two complete chapter one (pages 151-187), chapter four (pages 216-229) 
 chapter two (pages 188-194), and chapter five (pages 230-242), in the order 
 indicated. 
 
 The teacher should test all grammatical material by examining it to see if 
 it assists in training pupils in practical, intelligent speaking and writing; any 
 material that does not meet this test should be rigidly excluded. In some places 
 the teacher will have to bridge the gap left by the omitted lessons, but this can 
 easily be done. Leave out all the elaborate and complex machinery of grammar 
 and teach only the barest essentials. Teach these plainly and follow them up 
 in the language of the pupils. 
 
 Continue the oral work and writing of the previous grades. Emphasize dur¬ 
 ing this year the construction of sentences. They should be neither too long nor 
 too short; an average of from fifteen to thirty words is desirable, though some 
 sentences will be longer and others somewhat shorter. Train in mixing declara¬ 
 tive, interrogative, exclamatory, and imperative sentences. Train in writing 
 complex sentences; children usually express themselves too frequently in simple 
 and compound sentences. See to it that the sentences have clearness, force, 
 unity, coherence, and variety. Work of this kind must be done patiently and 
 prudently, so that the children may retain their naturalness while attaining 
 other desirable qualities. Study sentences in the literature lesson and help 
 the pupils to model their sentences after the easy-flowing, well constructed 
 sentences they find in the prose of good authors. 
 
 Review and apply constantly the facts and rules of punctuation. Continue 
 the dictionary work. The pupils should now consult the large dictionary and 
 should be trained to look not only for the meaning and spelling but for the way 
 in which the word is used, synonyms, etc. Send the pupils to the dictionary 
 to settle practical questions of language. For example, a child has used this 
 sentence: “We attended the social.” Raise the question as to whether “social” 
 is the correct word and ask the pupils to find out. If you can get a child to consult 
 the dictionary once a day, you have put him on the road to a good education. 
 
 If the diary work started in the fifth grade has not been kept up, it may be 
 started again this year. Pupils should always be encouraged to keep account 
 books of the money received and spent by them. Continue the writing of articles 
 for newspapers. In country schools, send a weekly letter to a county paper. 
 Have the children gather the items and write them out and arrange them as a 
 class exercise. 
 
 Continue close, but kindly criticism of language, both spoken and written. 
 Encourage the pupils to help each other. It is a good plan to group students 
 in pairs, the two to work together in preparation, writing, and revision of com- 
 
112 
 
 positions. Occasionally, keep a composition a week or two, then hand it back 
 to the writer for his own criticisms. 
 
 A literary society should be organized this year for seventh and eighth grade 
 pupils. Meetings should be held in the evening, if possible; and the children 
 should elect their own officers. The teacher should serve as critic. The program 
 should consist of music, the reading of good literature, reproductions of inter¬ 
 esting stories and an occasional dramatization, articles on the various activities 
 of the school, a school paper of jokes, news items, and, whenever possible, a 
 debate. Nothing will give more encouragement to English work than a literary 
 society. 
 
 If a society cannot be organized, the school should at least issue a weekly 
 paper. It should be made up of the best composition work of the week, of special 
 articles, of jokes, items, advertisements, etc. Perhaps some pupil will copy the 
 paper on his typewTiter, or perhaps a mimeograph copy can be made. 
 
 It is well to have a bulletin board upon which to post notices, programs, etc. 
 The teacher should carefully watch the language used and criticize it as occasion 
 offers. 
 
 A verse-making class may interest some of the pupils. It may be held at noon 
 or after school. It is best not to take any of the regular time of the school for 
 this work. 
 
 During this year assign much written and oral work that gives the pupils an 
 audience or interested readers. 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 Omit all of Part One except as directed under seventh grade work. In Part 
 Two complete chapter three (pages 195-215) and chapter six (pages 243-258). 
 In addition to the textbook work (which should not take more than two days a 
 week), have much oral and written composition work based on what the children 
 are doing, what they have seen and read, what they are interested in. Teach 
 language all the time. 
 
 Continue the oral composition work and the writing of paragraphs and com¬ 
 positions. Train the pupils to consult encyclopedias and reference books to 
 get material. Train them to organize material, make notes and outlines, and 
 speak and write clearly, confidently^ and intelligently. Assign subjects that 
 lead to thinking but that are within the children’s ability. 
 
 Continue the literary society work and everything else that leads the children 
 to express themselves before an audience or for readers. Continue letter writing. 
 Remember that after they leave school, about the only writing the children 
 are called upon to do is the ™ting of letters; therefore, make sure that before 
 they leave school they can write chatty, interesting, friendly letters, and straight¬ 
 forward, clear, accurate business letters. 
 
 Review and practice all the formal elements: punctuation, spelling, para¬ 
 graphing, etc. In all the classes and throughout the day keep watch on the 
 children’s language, endeavoring to break up all bad habit of speech and espe¬ 
 cially to arouse in the children a desire to speak well. Teach the children to 
 imitate intelligently ^e good qualities in the literature they read. You do not 
 want to make authors of your children, but-you should train them to borrow 
 from the writing of authors those-qualities that will make their own work better. 
 
 / 
 
Ninth Grade (.Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 I • I • ’ • • 
 
 Composition, two periods a week. 
 
 Grammar, one period a week. 
 
 Literature, two periods a week. 
 
 Composition (Two Periods a Week). 
 
 The composition work of the first year consists of the following: 
 
 First. Oral compositions, chiefly narrative. These are both reproductive 
 (oral re-telling of stories read or told in class or read outside or stories suggested 
 by the reading) and original. The original stories are based upon experience or 
 observation and upon imagination. There is more original work than repro¬ 
 ductive, and the two are alternated and mingled. An occasional oral exposition 
 on some simple, familiar subject is assigned. 
 
 By the end of the year the students should have developed considerable power 
 in telling a straight-forward, well-balanced story, with a point, in easy, familiar, 
 natural English. 
 
 Second. Written compositions, chiefly short narratives, and social letters. 
 
 a. For the first half of the year the written stories consist of single 
 paragraphs. Fables, jokes, little incidents and situations based largely 
 on experience, accounts of games, vacations, trips, school events, etc.j 
 supply the materials out of which these paragraphs are constructed. In 
 the last half of the year the writing of longer stories, of two, three, or four* 
 paragraphs, is practiced. The subject matter of these stories is similar to 
 that of the single paragraphs. 
 
 b. Throughout the year the students write social letters at least once 
 a month—if possible, every two or three Weeks; these are letters to real 
 correspondents, relatives or friends; news-letters, gossipy, chatty letters,- 
 about all those subjects which the writer and his correspondent find inter¬ 
 esting. The students are encouraged to write idiomatically and colloquiall^y' 
 with animation and humor. These letters should be, in the strictest sense, 
 self-expression, and the teacher should not be satisfied until his students 
 have learned to express themselves easily and naturally, in this form of 
 writing. Incidentally, instruction and training is given in penmanship, 
 the appearance of the letter, paragraphing, punctuation, spelling, etc. 
 All this, however, important as it is, is subordinated to the content of the 
 letter. 
 
 By the end of the year the student should have attained some proficiency in 
 writing brief, simple, well-planned stories of their own experience and obser¬ 
 vation and in writing easy, natural social letters. They should have gained some 
 power over such details as sentence structure, paragraphing, capitalization, 
 preparation of manuscript, and easy punctuation—especially the period, the 
 dash, the colon, and the comma. 
 
 No text in composition is used by the class. So far as is possible, all written 
 and oral work is based on the interests and activities of the students. There are 
 hundreds of subjects to be found, if the teacher will but keep his ears and eyes 
 open. If he wishes to have some books to Suggest subjects and guide him in 
 his work, he will find the following helpful: 
 
114 
 
 Smith & Maxwell, “Writing in English,” American Book Go., Cincinnati; 
 Scott & Denny, “Elementary’’ English Composition,” Allyn & Bacon, Chicago 
 LeMs, “First Manual of Composition,” Henry Holt & Go., New York; Thomas, 
 “Study of the Paragraph,” American Book Go., Cincinnati. 
 
 4 
 
 Grammar (One Period a Week). 
 
 Grammar can be best taught in connection with literature and compo¬ 
 sition work. Very often a student fails to get the meaning from a sentence 
 he is reading because he does not perceive the grammatical construction of 
 certain words; that is the time to teach that grammatical construction. Very 
 often a student makes a grammatical blunder in his speech or writing; that is 
 the time to teach that grammatical fact. The teacher should never fail to teach 
 practical grammar on these occasions or other occasions that may arise—though, 
 of course, this must be incidental to the literature and composition work. This 
 is the best kind of grammar teaching, since it comes at the moment when the 
 student sees the value and the application of the grammatical fact or principle. 
 
 It is desirable, however, to take one period a week for definite, systematic 
 instruction in English grammar. And the most logical time for this seems to 
 be the first year in High School, inasmuch as a great deal of grammatical knowledge 
 is needed in the advanced years of the course. One period a week is sufficient, 
 after the language and grammar study in the grades, to teach all the necessary 
 and important grammar facts and principles. It is not sufficient to train in 
 the use of grammatically good language; that training must be given in the 
 literature and language and composition work of the course and in all the activities 
 and subjects of the school. 
 
 It may be set down as a general principle that no detail of grammar should 
 be taught that does not have direct relation to the students’ reading, speaking, 
 and writing. Grammar should not be taught for mental discipline. Grammar 
 should not be taught to prepare for foreign language. Grammar should be 
 taught only as a practical aid in the arts of language expression and of inter¬ 
 preting the language expression of others. 
 
 No text is used by the students. The teacher develops all grammatical facts 
 and principles inductively. The dictionary should be used to look up irregular 
 plurals, parts of verbs, etc. A good book for the teacher to use as guide and 
 reference is Buehler’s “Modern English Grammar,” Newson & Co., New York. 
 It employs the terms recommended by the Joint Commission on Grammatical 
 Nomenclature. The book contains much more than is to be taught the students. 
 
 During the year therefore, the following is to be taught, though not 
 necessarily in the following order; 
 
 I. Sentences. 
 
 A. Classification as to form and use. 
 
 B. Whole and simple subject and predicate. 
 
 a. Natural and inverted order. 
 
 b. Relation of subject and predicate. 
 
 C. Complements. 
 
 a. Object of verb and preposition. 
 
 b. Subject complement (1). 
 
 c. Objective complement (2). 
 
115 
 
 D. Modifiers. 
 
 a. Words (3). 
 
 b. Phrases. 
 
 c. Clauses. 
 
 E. Oral sentence analysis (4). 
 
 II. Parts of Speech. , 
 
 A. Nouns. 
 
 a. General functions. 
 
 b. Kinds: common, proper, collective (5) 
 
 c. Properties. 
 
 1. Gender (6). 
 
 2. Number (7). 
 
 3. Case (8). 
 
 d. Other substantives. 
 
 B. Pronouns. 
 
 a. General functions. 
 
 b. Relation to antecedent. 
 
 c. Kinds. 
 
 1. Personal. 
 
 a. Gender (9). 
 
 b. Person (10). 
 
 c. Number. 
 
 d. Case (11). 
 
 2. Interrogative, 
 
 a. Case. 
 
 3. Relative. 
 
 a. Gender. 
 
 b. Case (11). 
 
 C. Adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 a. General functions. 
 
 b. Distinction between. 
 
 c. Comparison (12). 
 
 D. Verbs. 
 
 a. General functions. 
 
 b. Classification, 
 
 1. As to form: regular and irregular (13). 
 
 2. As to use: transitive, intransitive, auxiliary. 
 
 c. Properties. 
 
 1. Voice (9). 
 
 2. Mode (14). 
 
 3. Tense (15). 
 
 4. Person and number (16). 
 
 d. Participles and infinitives. 
 
 1. General functions. 
 
 e. Synopsis of verbs (17). ’ 
 
 E. Conjunctions. 
 
 a. General functions. 
 
 • b. Distinction between co-ordinating and sub-ordinating. 
 
 F. Interjections. 
 
 G. Prepositions. 
 
116 
 
 • ’2 
 
 (1) Emphasize pronounds as subject complements. 
 
 (2) Give this only brief treatment. 
 
 (3) Treat only briefly here, more fully under parts of speech. • 
 
 (4) Informal and simple. 
 
 (5) Omit all other kinds. 
 
 (6) Should not be emphasized. 
 
 (7) Emphasize regular formation of plural. 
 
 (8) Emphasize possessive case. 
 
 (9) Need not be emphasized. 
 
 (10) Omit the “thou-thee” forms. 
 
 (11) Emphasize. 
 
 (12) Emphasize irregular forms. 
 
 (13) Emphasize common irregular forms often misused. 
 
 (14) Emphasize subjunctive forms of “to be.” Omit imperative. 
 
 (15) Emphasize difference between regular and irregular forms. Emphasize 
 auxiliaries in mode functions. Emphasize “shall” and “will” in future 
 tense. 
 
 (16) Emphasize agreement of verb with subject. 
 
 (17) Do not insist on complete conjugation of verbs. Make sure that all the 
 students know principal parts of common irregular verbs and can outline 
 a verb from these principal parts. Emphasize “to be.” 
 
 
ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic, pp. 116 to 226. 
 
 Practical Measurements, p. 116. Have the pupils take measurements, 
 formulate and solve many practical problems. Give pupils exercises in judging 
 moderate distances and areas, testing their own judgment by actual measurements. 
 
 The more important items in the table of square or surface measure should 
 be learned. 
 
 Units and definitions should be taught objectively until pupils have a clear 
 knowledge of them. 
 
 Solve as many of the practical problems given in the text as the needs of the 
 pupils seem to indicate. 
 
 Analysis, p. 155. Teach the equation and its properties as set forth in the 
 text, taking care that the pupils really understand, not merely commit to memory. 
 
 Percentage, p. 161. Teach definitions and terms carefully, illustrating the 
 meaning and use of each term such as percentage, rate, base, etc. 
 
 See that the rules for finding base, rate and amount are understood, not 
 merely committed to memory. 
 
 In Gain and Loss, Commission and Brokerage, Insurance, Commer¬ 
 cial Discount, Local and State Taxes and Duties or Customs, illustrate 
 the use of all terms whose definitions are to be learned. 
 
 Solve many practical problems. Have the pupils formulate and solve prac¬ 
 tical problems. 
 
 Interest. Teach new terms the same way as in percentage. Pupils should 
 be required to learn thoroughly one way of computing interest, and to acquire 
 facility in the use of it. 
 
 Annual and exact interest may be omitted at the discretion of the teacher. 
 
 Teach compound interest with special application to savings accounts. 
 
 Teach promissory notes. Pupils should be able to prepare a promissory note 
 without omitting any essential detail. Teach the terms, maker, payee, indorse, 
 negotiable, and maturity as applied to promissory notes. Teach partial pay¬ 
 ments including the solution of problems. 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 Hamilton’s Practical Arithmetic, pp. 227-344. 
 
 The following subjects may be omitted if all the subjects outlined in the text 
 cannot be covered in the time given,—Exchange, Longitude and Time, 
 Powers and Roots, Specific Gravity, The Metric System until its use in the 
 community economic life is established either by law or custom. Optional 
 subjects, pp. 345-356. 
 
 Banks and Banking.* Teach all new terms with the same care as in the 
 seventh grade. Solve illustrative problems. 
 
 Stocks and Bonds. Teach definitions and terms, form of stock certificate, 
 coupon. Solve many problems. 
 
118 
 
 Ratio and Proportion. Teach definitions and terms, simple proportion, 
 partition proportion and partnership. Solve problems. 
 
 Solve problems for oral and written analysis. 
 
 Government Land Measures. Teach definitions and terms. Solve prob¬ 
 lems. 
 
 Mensuration. Teach definitions and terms carefully according to direc¬ 
 tions already given. Teach finding areas of surfaces and volumes of solids. 
 Solve many problems. 
 
 Agricultural Problems—^Teach definitions and terms and solve all problems. 
 
 Test Problems, p. 324. Solve all or as many as the needs of the pupils seem 
 to indicate. 
 
 General Review, p. 330. Solve all or as many as the needs of the pupils 
 seem to indicate. 
 
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. 
 
 Ninth Grade (Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 First Half: 
 
 1. Introduction—use of letters to represent numbers. 
 
 2. Simple equations and problems. 
 
 3. Positive and negative numbers—addition, subtraction, multiplication 
 and division of algebraic numbers. 
 
 4. Simple equations involving these processes. 
 
 5. Factoring. 
 
 6. Equations solved by factoring. 
 
 7. Common factors and multiples. 
 
 8. Fractions—Reduction to lowest terms; addition, subtraction, multipli¬ 
 cation and division of fractions. 
 
 Second Half; 
 
 1. Factoring reviewed. 
 
 2. Complex fractions. 
 
 3. Equations involving fractions. 
 
 4. Simultaneous equations of the first degree with two or three unknowns. 
 
 5. Powers and roots. 
 
 6. Equations involving radicals. 
 
 7. Quadratic equations solved by completing the square and by formula. 
 
 8. Quadratic equations vith two unknowns. 
 
 9. Literal equations. 
 
 10. Ratio and Proportion. 
 
 11. General review and solution of many problems. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 GENERAL DISCUSSION. 
 
 Agriculture in the seventh and eighth grades should be based upon the funda¬ 
 mental principles of farm science and practice. The work of these years forms 
 a transition period, bridging the way from the nature-study of the preceding 
 grades to the scientific agriculture of the high school. The pupil at this age is 
 beginning to enquire into the “whys” and “wherefores” of agriculture and, 
 while not abandoning the nature-study viev^Doint, a new economic viewpoint is 
 introduced. 
 
 Textbook. 
 
 The adopted textbook—Benson and Betts’ “Agriculture”—should be used as 
 a guide. Teachers should read carefully the authors’ preface and the chapter 
 “To the Teacher” at the end of the book to understand their point of view. 
 The guiding principles there laid down should be kept clearly in mind through¬ 
 out the course. 
 
 Supplementary Literature. 
 
 There is no other subject in the curriculum on which so much helpful litera¬ 
 ture may be secured as upon agriculture. All State Agricultural Colleges, Experi¬ 
 ment Stations, and Extension Departments (addresses on p. 520, textbook) 
 publish free bulletins and circulars covering practically every phase of farming 
 and farm life. The United States Department of Agriculture has likewise pub¬ 
 lished many special bulletins suitable for class use in the public school. Every 
 teacher should have at hand a set of West Virginia Agricultural Experiment 
 Station bulletins and “Farmers’ Bulletins” (p. XI, textbook). Several good 
 farm papers should be placed on the reading desk of every small school and 
 the pupils should be encouraged to read them regularly. 
 
 Home Projects. 
 
 The study of agriculture in the grades should give to country-minded boys 
 and girls—those who have a taste for farming and for country life—an oppor¬ 
 tunity to do real constructive work,—^work which will enable them to create 
 things by the use of their own hands and brains. This is, therefore, an ideal 
 time for practical school and home projects, in the rearing of farm animals and 
 the production of farm crops. School-directed home gardens in village and 
 town schools, and summer projects in the country school, should be made an 
 important part of the course. Project record forms, instruction leaflets and 
 other helps may be secured from the Agricultural Extension Department, Mor¬ 
 gantown, W. Va. 
 
 This is, also the time when club and contest ideas can be utilized to the best 
 advantage. Instructions telling how to organize a club may be obtained from 
 the State Agent in Charge of Boys’ and Girls’ Club work, Morgantown, W. Va. 
 
120 
 
 Teachers should make the most of the “play contests” suggested at the end of 
 each chapter in the textbook. 
 
 Seasonal Sequence. 
 
 The sequence of topics and subject matter in agriculture should be arranged 
 according to seasons in so far as the school term will permit. A subject can be 
 taught more elYectively at the time when it engages the attention of practically 
 everyone in the community than at other seasons For example, studying the 
 stand of corn in the field, corn insects and diseases, effects of proper and im¬ 
 proper cultivation, making silage, and selecting and storing seed corn, are fall 
 subjects; while testing seed corn, methods of preparing the soil, planting and 
 cultivating are early spring sulrjects. Certain phases of soil study, the care 
 of farm animals, the care and repair of harness, tools and farm implements, and 
 practice in farm carpentry, can be taught in mid-winter—the rest period in 
 plant and animal life. 
 
 Surveys. 
 
 Agriculture in the grades is a local study and should be l)ased upon local 
 materials, practices and results, 'fo obtain this necessary information relative 
 to the farm interests and activities in the community—a survey similar to that 
 suggested in U. S. Dept, of Agriculture Bulletin Xo. 461, p. 5, should be made 
 by the class in connection with its study of each crop and class of farm animals. 
 Instructions on how to make and use the farm survey may be oljtained from 
 the Agricultural Extension Department, Morgantown, W. Va. 
 
 Outline. 
 
 Xo attempt is made to outline the course in detail. The textbook indicates 
 clearly the scope and character of work that may i^e done in the grades, and 
 the following suggestions are intended primarily to aid the teacher in the use 
 of supplementary materials and exercises. The course covers two years. By 
 combining the seventh and eighth grade pupils in one class and alternating the 
 lir.ft and second years there will be l)ut one class in agriculture each year. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE (FIRST YEAR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL). 
 
 Part I. Farm Crops. 
 
 Chapter 8. The Potato. Several lessons should be given during the first 
 week of school on the improvement of potatoes through seed selection and on 
 harx^esting and storing the crop (pages 124-129). The class should be shown 
 how to make hill selections of seed potatoes in the field 
 
 Chapter 1. Corn Culture. A corn survey will show that corn is grown on 
 practically everx^ farm. This fact alone will help the pupil to appreciate the 
 importance of the corn crop not alone in West Virginia but in the entire United 
 States. The characteristics of a good plant, seed selection, methods of harvesting 
 the crop, kinds of silos and how silage is made, should be taught through direct 
 field obserx^ations. “Topics for Investigation,” pp. 21-22, suggests splendid 
 
1^1 
 
 material for correlation with arithmetic. The seed test, study of soil prepara 
 tion, planting, the corn planter, cultivation, and corn enemies should be deferred 
 until February. (See Farmers’ Bulletin No. 617, “School Lessons on Corn’ 
 for practical exercises and suggestions on how to correlate the study of corn with 
 other subjects in the curriculum.) Have you a set of Instruction Leaflets on the 
 One Acre Corn project? 
 
 Chapter 5. Wheat. For obvious reasons special attention should be given 
 to the study of wheat. Pupils should consult their geography and make an 
 outline map of the United States hnd of the principal nations of the world show¬ 
 ing the important wheat growing areas. State Farm Tests show that Fulcaster 
 and Gypsy (bearded), and China and Poole (smooth) are good varieties for West 
 Virginia conditions. A special school exhibit showing wheat products, with 
 booklets explaining every step in the manufacture of flour and its by-products, 
 may be secured by writing the Washburn-Crosby Co., or The Pillsbury Co., 
 both of Minneapolis, Minn. (See also Farmers’ Bulletin 640.) 
 
 Chapter 6. Oats. An oats survey and a map showing the distribution of 
 the crop, as suggested for corn and wheat, should be made in connection with 
 the oats study. Oats is profitable in West Virginia because of its place in the 
 crop rotation, not because of its large yields. “Crop Rotation and Fertility,” 
 pp. 327-330, should be studied as part of these lessons on oats. 
 
 Chapter 8. The Potato. In communities where Potato Club work is 
 being carried out siiccessfully the record books of the best projects may be used 
 as a basis for class discussion. Pupils should bring half-peck samples of potatoes 
 to the school house for a study of grades and varieties. They should learn to 
 identify Irish Cobbler, Carman No. 3, Early Rose, Rural New V^orker, and 
 other common varieties in the community. 
 
 Note—First of November is a good time to hold a school agricultural exhibit. 
 Instructions on school and agricultural club exhibits may be obtained from the 
 Director of Extension, Morgantown, W. Va. (See also Farmers’ Bulletin No. 
 •870, “The Community Fair.”) 
 
 Chapters 11-14. Forage Crops, Clovers, Alfalfa, and other Legumes. 
 
 When is a crop a forage crop and when is it not? Forage crops are essential in 
 feeding all classes of live stock. Pupils should be able to explain the difference 
 between forage crops and grain crops as feeds, and to distinguish between legumin¬ 
 ous crops and non-leguminous crops. They should learn to identify the common 
 forage crops by their leaves, blossoms and seed. Legumes are of special import¬ 
 ance because of their relation to nitrogen. Cultures of bacteria for a demon¬ 
 stration of soil inoculation may be obtained through the County Agricultural 
 Agent. With few exceptions our cultivated legumes are very sensitive to sour 
 soil conditions and practically all West Virginia soils require liming before these 
 crops grow satisfactorily. Over ninety-five per cent of the soils analyzed by 
 the West Virginia Experiment Station are acid (see pages 325-326, “The Use of 
 Lime on Soils”). If soybeans or cowpeas are grown in the community the county 
 agricultural agent should be asked to explain to the class their relative merits 
 and why the Agricultural Experiment Station recommends Wilson soybeans for 
 our state. 
 
 Chapter 15. Meadows and Pastures. To emphasize the local importance 
 of the study of meadow and pasture special attention should be given to the 
 “Topics for Investigation” suggested by the authors. This important phase 
 of West Virginia farming does not receive the attention which it merits. The 
 
122 
 
 requirements for meadows should be compared with requirements for pastures, 
 special attention being given to seeding and re-seeding. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 § 
 
 Chapter XVI. The Vegetable Garden. The vegetable garden offers the 
 best opportunity for putting into practice the things studied in the class room. 
 Every pupil in the seventh and eighth grades who is not carrying out some other 
 Qub project should be required to plant and cultivate a garden as a part of his 
 course. Circular No. 117, Agricultural Extension Department, Morgantown, 
 W. Va., and Farmers’ Bulletin No. 936, should supplement the material in this 
 chapter. 
 
 Chapter XVII. Fruits and Nuts. Only those fruits which are grown in 
 West Virginia should be studied. Our climatic, soil and market conditions 
 are especially favorable to the production of pome, stone and small. Special 
 attention should be called to the splendid local market for fruits and berries in 
 our mining and manufacturing communities. No other crop grown in West 
 Virginia yields larger returns from a small area well tilled than does the straw- 
 berr>\ The Nursery Inspection Law and the Apple Packing Law are good sub¬ 
 jects fot special reports by pupils. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. The Tomato. Interest in tomato study may be stimu¬ 
 lated by a discussion of Tomato Club work in the district and throughout the 
 state, also by showing the class how to make cream of tomato soup for the school 
 lunch. Suggestions for making a district survey of tomatoes, peppers,and egg¬ 
 plants; organizing a tomato club; holding community exhibits, and other 
 valuable supplementary material for this chapter are given in U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture Bulletin No. 392, Club Instruction Leaflets and Extension Depart¬ 
 ment Circular 136, “Canning Tomatoes,” may be assigned to pupils for special 
 reports. 
 
 Chapter XIX. Garden and Orchard Sprays. Actual practice in the 
 preparation and application of Bordeaux ^Mixture, Lime Sulphur and Kerosene 
 Emulsion, should be made the basis of class work. Pupils should prepare a list 
 of the plant diseases and insect pests common in the community, indicating 
 in each case the principal method of control. 
 
 Chapter XX. Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables. Full utiliza¬ 
 tion and conserv^ation of food is just as important as large food production. 
 Every can of fruits and vegetables put up at home not only saves the cost of 
 transportation but leaves that much more of the commercial supply of canned 
 goods for use overseas. Pupils should be shown how to make a simple home 
 canner. 
 
 Note. Many kinds of fruits and vegetables may be preserved by drying. 
 Instructions for making drying racks and full directions for drying fruits and 
 vegetables may be obtained from the Agricultural Extension Department, 
 Morgantown, W. Va. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Chapter XXL Nature of Soil. A mud ball exposed to a freezing tempera¬ 
 ture illustrates what is mean by “rock weathering.” A plowed field on a cold, 
 frosty morning is another example. West Virginia soils as a rule are lacking in 
 humus. Soil survey maps have been prepared and distributed by the U. S. 
 
Bureau of Soils. May be secured by writing the Senator or Congressman from 
 the district for which they are desired. 
 
 Chapter XXII. Soil Fertility and Plant Growth. A comparison of 
 good with poor farms in the community focuses the pupils’ attention upon 
 the factors which determine yield. Further interest is aroused by letting the 
 class handle samples of commercial fertilizers which may be secured from the 
 nearest dealer or through the County Agent. The chief source of loss of soil 
 fertility should be considered and special emphasis given to conservation of plant 
 food through proper handling of stable manures. Legumes have a special value 
 as green manure crops. If there is a lime kiln in the community this should be 
 visited by the class. References, Farmers’ Bulletin 257. 
 
 Chapter XXIII. Soil Moisture. To get an intelligent idea of the relation 
 of texture to the movement of water in the soil the simple exercise described on 
 p. 333 (capillarity) should be set up by the class. Samples of different kinds of 
 soil may be taken direct from the field and dried on the stove to show the differ¬ 
 ence in water holding capacity. Similar soils taken from different fields may be 
 dried to show the effect of cultivation on soil moisture. 
 
 Chapter I. Com. (pp. 9-18). Seed germination tests and the study of 
 soil preparation and cultivation should be made in early spring. In some schools 
 all the seed corn planted in the district is tested by the agriculture class. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 (Only swine and poultry should be studied the first year.) 
 
 Chapter XXVII. Swine. Although West Virginia is well adapted to hog 
 raising we produce only one-half the pork consumed in this state. A district 
 survey, records of Pig Qub work, and Pig Club Instructions leaflets should be 
 made the basis of this study in the first year. 
 
 Chapter XXIX. Poultry. The district survey. Club records and Poultry 
 Club instruction leaflets should be used as directed for the study of poultry. 
 Special topics for the first year are hatching, brooding, and feeding chicks; 
 handling eggs; making an egg candler and keeping an egg record; poultry dis¬ 
 eases, and two or three of the most common breeds found in the community; 
 leaving the general study of types and breeds, management of the flock, marketing 
 poultry and eggs, and poultry houses until the second year. Bulletin 144, of the 
 West Virginia Experiment Station, shows the average farm value of poultry by 
 counties. Pupils should compare their county with other Counties. 
 
 Note. A report on the seed corn tested by the class should be made at a 
 community meeting or through the county paper. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE (SECOND YEAR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL). 
 
 Part IV and V. 
 
 Agriculture in the second year should be correlated with and based upon actual 
 farm problems which at this time or at some previous time have engaged the 
 pupils’ earnest attention and in which he has a strong personal interest. The 
 home project provides such a problem. It requires individual effort and thought 
 and affords the best means of forming in the pupils’ life the habit of doing rather 
 than talking about doing things on the farm. 
 
 One or more definite projects in agriculture should therefore be required as a 
 
124 
 
 % 
 
 part of the second years’ work. These projects should be selected on the basis 
 of dominant agricultural interests in the community and may be in either crop 
 or animal production, or both, thus tying the practical work up closely with 
 either the first or second years’ class room instruction. 
 
 Any of the first year projects used by members of Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural 
 Clubs in this state—growing an acre of corn, one-eighth acre of potatoes, hatching 
 three settings of eggs and raising the chicks, raising a pig or lamb—are suitable 
 projects for seventh and eighth grade pupils. Full instructions for carrying 
 out these projects, record forms and directions for making an agricultural booklet 
 may be secured from the Agricultural Extension Department at Morgantown. 
 
 Simple exercises in farm handicraft, adapted to rural schools with little more 
 than a saw, square, hammer and a home-made bench as mechanical equip¬ 
 ment, to supplement both project and class-room work, are fully outlined in 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 527. Exercises in cooking pro¬ 
 ducts from the pupils’ project may be obtained from the Agricultural Extension 
 Department. 
 
 After a brief review of timely phases of the first years’ work in agriculture, 
 including especially the lessons on the selection and storing of seed, during which 
 the class makes field selections of seed for the project work next season, the 
 class-work may follow the order of Chapters W and V of the textbook. As 
 in the previous year special attention should be given to the suggestions under 
 the title “Topics for Investigation.’’ This is a device employed by the authors 
 primarily as a means of getting local applications of the methods and principles 
 set forth in the text. 
 
 It is desirable that pupils become familiar with the sources of the Stale and 
 Federal publications designed to help the farmer and with the work of both 
 State and Federal institutions established and maintained for the promotion of 
 agriculture. Several lessons should be dwoted to each of the following subjects: 
 
 The U. S. Department of Agriculture. The United States Department of 
 Agriculture is divided into many bureaus and department. 
 
 It may be best for the children to think of the Secretary of Agriculture as the 
 head. Requests addressed to him will generally secure any publications needed. 
 It is best when requesting a bulletin to state whether it is a “Farmers’ Bulletin’’ 
 or “U. S. Dept.’’ Bulletin and giv'c the number. A little leaflet known as the 
 “Monthly List of Publication.^’’ should come to your school. A postal card 
 will get it. 
 
 The College of Agriculture. It is the chief business of the Agricultural 
 Experiment Station to discover new truths about agriculture. 
 
 The Agricultural Extension Department distributes these truths among the 
 farm folks. The College of Agriculture, of which the Experiment Station and 
 Extension Department are a part, teaches the science of agriculture. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 The textbook for this year, Davison’s Health Lessons, Book H, contains 
 many suggestions for outside reading and special exercises that should be carried 
 out by the teacher. It is very desirable that the teacher be familiar with some 
 more comprehensive texts on the subject. IVIuch use should be made of Health 
 Bulletins that may be secured from The State Department of Health, Charleston, 
 and The Health Division of the U. S. Government, and from many other sources. 
 
 Exercises requiring attention and alertness besides strength and endurance 
 should be used. 
 
 1. Boys—^Wrestling, boxing, fencing, baseball, football, etc. Exercises to 
 develop manly courage and daring, concentration of attention, and the spirit 
 of co-operation. Some gymnastics and apparatus work. Since, psychologically, 
 boys are ready for strenuous effort before they are strong enough for it, teachers 
 must see that physical exercise is not overdone. 
 
 2. Girls—Gymnastics, light apparatus work, volley-ball, indoor baseball, 
 basket-ball and folk games. Exercises to develop fairness, self-confidence, co¬ 
 operation and womanliness. Both sexes should have acquired habits of “safety 
 first” and knowledge of simple first aids to the injured by end of year. 
 
 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 We now come to a new way of looking at our history. We have been fixing 
 our attention upon the great men as the center and have looked upon events 
 as swinging around them. But now we change our viewpoint, and events, not 
 the actors, are the center of study. It is “the story of the event” and not merely 
 the story of the man. When the event is important the pupil should strive to 
 make a “word picture” of it, so that it will ap‘peal to the imagination. The 
 pupil who does not picture the event he studies does hot get it. The teacher 
 should strive to set much of the material of history before the pupils as problems. 
 Questions such as those found in the Appendix, and which the teacher can easily 
 supplement as the occasion arises in her class, will help to present such problems. 
 
 Textbook: Mace’s School History, pp. 1-295, including the periods of Dis¬ 
 covery and Expansion, Colonization, Revolution and National Growth. 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 The work follows in the same direction as that of the seventh grade. The 
 teacher should use more the problem method and search for causes and effects. 
 As the pupils get forward in the subject more and more, they should be taught 
 to go back and pick up the threads of the subject and trace them to the point 
 reached in the lesson. In this way the pupil is reviewing by constantly getting 
 a new view of the subject. 
 
 Textbook: Mace’s School History, pp. 295-477, including the periods of 
 Sectional Dispute and War, and the Consolidation and Expansion. 
 
CIVICS. 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 Both the subject matter and the method of teaching civics have changed. 
 There is less of text-book study of the machinery of government, and more of 
 the civic duties of children and of youth, in the community life. This may be 
 seen in the table of contents of Dunn’s Community and the Citizen; there are 
 nineteen chapters given to civics, and bnt six chapters to civil government. 
 
 The teacher should study the Introduction for Teachers in the text, with 
 care. The point of view and the method are well presented in the introduction. 
 The aim to develop in the pupil knowledge that will result in interest, motive, 
 co-operation, good judgment, and civic initiative, is well stated and illustrated 
 in this part of the text. The six questions on page XII should be kept in mind, 
 and direct the year’s work. 
 
 In chapters 1-4, have the pupils get clear notions of the growth and develop¬ 
 ment of a community. Use the questions and suggestions at the end of each 
 chapter for investigations. Do not ask for definitions, but for descriptions, 
 illustrations, causes, growth in community. Have pupils study, bring to class, 
 and discuss their own community growth. Start right the first day. These four 
 chapters will require about four lessons. 
 
 Two lessons on chapters five and six will furnish you a fine opportunity to 
 interest the home in the school and to correlate two fundamental institutions 
 of society. 
 
 Chapters seven and eight will require four or five lessons. Have some of 
 the references read and discussed in class. Debate in class one or more of the 
 questions on page 46. The land is our best and richest heritage. Have the 
 pupils see and appreciate their dependance upon the land. Its equitable dis¬ 
 tribution among the people, and its proper use and care determine local and 
 national welfare. 
 
 Chapters nine to eighteen will require 25 to 30 lessons, or more. If the sub¬ 
 jects are well developed by community study and reference reading, the whole 
 community may be aroused to a newer sense of civic duty and civic pride. Make 
 the study of these chapters result in the improvement of the families, school, 
 churches, society of your locality; failure to accomplish these things in your 
 community is evidence of failure on the part of the teacher in charge of the 
 class. 
 
 These ten chapters are typical of the difference between civics and civil gov¬ 
 ernment. Each chapter topic may be studied without a textbook. The pupils 
 may study topics at first hand in their locality and the knowledge acquired put 
 to use. These are the tests of the education value of a subject. Gan the sub¬ 
 ject be studied at first hand, not simply read about, and can the knowledge 
 developed be used by the pupils while in school? Education is life. 
 
 For example, chapter 15 on education, furnishes an opportunity to study the 
 school the pupils are attending, to develop a proper school spirit, to secure better 
 school government, to stimulate more work, and to correlate again the home, 
 community and school. In this chapter, as in other chapters, make large and 
 intelligent use of the questions, topics and references at the end. Secure some 
 
127 
 
 of the reference material for yourself, and loan it to the pupils to read and use 
 in class. 
 
 The remaining chapters of the text, 19 to 25, should have 20 to 25 or more 
 lessons. Take time to illustrate and explain the purpose of ^government. Every 
 opportunity should be used to get the pupils to see and appreciate the advan¬ 
 tages of free government. Have them understand that government is a human 
 institution de\’ised to provide for human welfare. 
 
 A human institution does not reach perfection; conditions change; the human 
 race comes to have more knowledge. These things call for changes in govern¬ 
 ment as well as in farming, manufacturing, etc. Have the pupils see that change 
 in government is in the direction of the expressed will of the governed. 
 
 Study the local government in reference to the school, the streets, the roads; 
 in like manner study the general government at every point, where the pupils 
 come in contact with it, as postal system, taxation, etc. 
 
 The Constitution may be used as reading material. Pupils should not be 
 required to memorize it. Read it and study it in class with the books open. 
 There should probably be no assigned work on it in the elementary school. 
 
 Civics as a regular subject should be taught in eighth grade. 
 
 Textbook: Dunn’s—^The Community and the Citizen with West Virginia 
 Supplement. 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 Seventh Grade (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 Representation: Continue practice in outline drawing, strengthening the 
 work with accented lines where necessary-. Form and proportion must be con¬ 
 tinually kept in mind. 
 
 Construction: Without tools, objects of the same construction as in grade 
 six, or articles involving the circle, such as lamp and candle shades, may be 
 made. These may be constructed of hea\'y paper, or card board with the deccn 
 ration cut out and lined with thin material or oiled paper. 
 
 The introduction of tools, the compass, tee-square, and triangles should be 
 made here, and the lines of the working drawing well understood. 
 
 Designs: Make a neutral scale with about nine steps from black to white. 
 These will be named white, high-light, light, low-light, middle-tone, high-dark, 
 dark, low-dark, black. In making your decorations, select harmonious tones 
 from this scale. Use both neutral washes and monochrome. 
 
 Make flower composition in silhouette. Make studies of vases and bowls 
 arranged in circular or rectangular frame and painted in flat washes of gray, 
 or monochrome. These arrangements can be adapted in panels and borders 
 to the candle shades. 
 
 References: Nature Work—(Pages2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 32, 46, 50); Design— 
 (Pages 17, 21, 23, 25, 30, 48, 52); Object Drawing—(Pages 34, 36, 38, 40, 42); 
 Pose Drawing—(Page 44); Color—(Pages 54, 55). 
 
 Eighth Grade (Second Year Junior High School). 
 
 Representation: If the pupils in this grade have had suflicient experience 
 in the principles planned for the lower grades, they may be given more free¬ 
 dom and variety. Plants may be studied for their beauty of line and form, 
 with close observ’ation and rendering of color and texture. 
 
 Construction: Continue the work of sixth and seventh grades. Become 
 more familiar with tools and more accurate in execution. Forms for potter>" 
 and basketr>' or anything to be made in the manual training shop are good. 
 
 The book-end and paper knife offer an opportunity for individuality. 
 
 Interior decoration in connection with design may be studied with much 
 profit, in the eighth grade. 
 
 References: Nature Work—(Pages 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 48); Design—(Pages 
 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 30, .32, 50, 52); Geometric and Perspective Drawing— 
 (Pages .34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44); Pose—(Page 46); Color—(Pages 27, 30, 54, 55). 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Grades (Junior High School). 
 
 The teaching staff and other local conditions will determine the time to be 
 given to the important subject of Music in the Junior High School. The fol¬ 
 lowing brief discussion gives the aim and spirit of music work in these grades. 
 
 The purpose of a course in music is “to cultivate a love and appreciation of 
 music, to develop ability to listen intelligently, and to educate the musical 
 sense which exists in eveiy child,” to develop the power to read music readily 
 at sight, to sing with feeling and expression, and to acquire a knowledge of good 
 music by the best composers. In scope it should include “chorus work, song 
 interpretation and a working knowledge of the subject.” Whenever it is possible 
 music appreciation should be cultivated through the use of victrolas or similar 
 instruments. Several manufacturers of such instruments have carefully pre¬ 
 pared well selected records designed to be used in this way. An acquaintance 
 with forms of music otherwise not easily available, and an appreciation of them, 
 can thus be cultivated. 
 
 Music cannot reach its proper efficiency in the school unless the children 
 learn to read it. In fact, “sight singing is the technique of public school music.” 
 Children should be taught to read music as skillfully as they read language. 
 The development of such ability tends to render the pupil independent of the 
 teacher and thus facilitates rather than retards his musical development. It 
 is true that the child’s music sense is first developed by the singing of songs 
 learned by imitation, but where symbols are introduced there should be no 
 doubt left in the child’s mind of their significance. Music reading is not, indeed, 
 the ultimate aim of school music, but it is a means of hastening the accomplish¬ 
 ment of that aim. The teaching of music reading holds the same relation to 
 music education as the teaching of language holds to general education. 
 
 In teaching children to read music, the practice of singing songs directly from 
 the notation is the best kind of drill for both ear and eye that can be given. 
 In school singing, the child’s first musical experience should be with the song, 
 His study of music should be based on the song, the song should be the object 
 of his musical training. While “special” cultivation of the voice is not the 
 aim of public school music, care should be taken to preserve the child’s voice 
 and stimulate its growth naturally. Loud, harsh, coarse tones; strained throat 
 muscles; low pitch in primary grades; careless assignment of parts in grammar 
 grades should never exist.” 
 
 At the beginning of the music period it is well to have a brief breathing exer¬ 
 cise or some physical exercise with plenty of fresh air. 
 
 The adopted texts are the Congdon Music Readers and the Dann Music 
 Readers. Both or either will furnish an abundance of excellent song material. 
 
 Strive in your school room for the joy that comes with the love of music- 
 
 Textbook: Congdon Music Readers and Dann’s Music Course. 
 
HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL. 
 
 Note: In this discussion, suggestions and outlines are given for seventh, 
 eighth and ninth years. Local conditions may require some changes and adapta¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Household arts may be defined as a study of food, clothing, and shelter; their 
 relation to the individual as expressed in the diet, the clothing, the furnishing 
 and the administration of the home; the relation of the individual to the family 
 and society as expressed in personal and public hygiene, by means of sanitation. 
 
 In the public school the aim is to select from the vast body of rather loosely 
 organized subject matter those principles which are essential to enable the stu¬ 
 dent to know how to select, make, and care for the clothing; how to arrange, 
 keep clean and in order the kitchen, the dining room, and bed room, how to 
 select, prepare and ser\'e food, and how to keep well and strong. 
 
 These principles should be of sufficient thought content to have a place in the 
 curriculum, and their value should be judged by the need of the girls in terms 
 of their home conditions. The purpose should be to enable the pupils to acquire 
 a small mass of knowledge capable of immediate application, i. e., to establish 
 a few principles by a large number of illustrations rather than a mass of abstract 
 classification to be stored away for some future use. 
 
 No attempt should be made to subdivide the main topics of food and clothing, 
 into such subjects as laundering, marketing, cleaning, textiles and household 
 management. Laundering should be taught when the dish towels need wash¬ 
 ing, when the table-linen is to be used, when the article made in sewing is fin¬ 
 ished. Table service and etiquette should be taught when the dish is ready to 
 be eaten, or when a meal is to be serv'ed, marketing when the food is to be cooked. 
 The pupil should be taught how to clean the table, the drawer, or refrigerator, 
 when they need it. A study of textiles should be made when the material needs 
 to be selected. For example, how to tell linen toweling should be taught when 
 hemming a dish towel, and the difference between cotton and linen buck, when 
 making a guest towel. 
 
 Credit. 
 
 The same amount of credit should be given to cooking and sewing as to any 
 other grade or high school subject. A unit of credit means in these subjects the 
 same as in a science subject. 
 
 Textbooks. 
 
 (See adopted textbooks in “Outline of Subjects by Grades.”) 
 
 While there is no entirely satisfactory text on the market a text should be 
 in the hands of the pupils during the study period to learn methods of manu¬ 
 facture, table service, and manufacture of textiles. 
 
 Under present war conditions the pupils should make their own recipe books 
 from recipes given by teacher rather than to try to modify recipes in the text. 
 For this reason the school text should be the property of the school. 
 
13,1 
 
 List of Reference Books in Sewing For Public Schools. 
 
 EEEMENTARY. 
 
 1. Constructive Sewing—Fuller.Industrial Book & Equipment Co., Indianapo lis, Ind, 
 
 2. Food and Clothing—Osborne.Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago, Ill. 
 
 3. Clothing and Health—Kinne & Cooley.Macmillan Company, New York, N. Y. 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL. 
 
 A. Shelter and Clothing—Kinne & Cooley.Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 
 
 B. The Home and the Family—Kinne & Cooley.Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 
 
 C. A Sewing Course—Wooknan. 
 
 List of Reference Books For Cooking in the Public Schools. 
 
 ELEMENTARY. 
 
 1. Austin’s Domestic Science Book, Books I and II.Lyons and Carnahan, New York City, N. Y. 
 
 2. Food and Clothing—Lena Osborne.Row Peterson and Co., Chicago, Ill. 
 
 3. Basic Principles of Domestic Science.Industrial Book and Equipment Co., Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL. 
 
 1. Domestic Science Principles and Application—Bailey.Webb Publishing Co., St. Paul, Min n. 
 
 2. The Textbook of Cookery—Greer.Allyn and Bacon, New York, N.Y. 
 
 FOOD COURSES. 
 
 The study of foods in public schools should include knowledge of what is 
 needed to learn how to select what to cook; how to cook it; how to combine it 
 with other foods in a meal; and how to serve the meal with the least expenditure 
 of time, energy, labor, and money. 
 
 The laboratory work should precede or parallel that of the classroom. Those 
 principles should be taught which the pupil needs in order to understand why 
 certain processes are essential in the preparation of the dish—that is, abstract 
 classification belongs to the college and not the public school. On the other 
 hand, a study of foods which has as its aim mere mechanical skill, learning how 
 to make a good tasting dish by following the directions of the recipe, has no 
 place in an educational system. 
 
 The outlines presented include the types of dishes necessary to illustrate 
 the principles of cooking the different foods. In order to establish these prin¬ 
 ciples, it is necessary to cook more than one dish as an illustration. That is, 
 in teaching the principles of cooking cereal, it is necessary to teach how to cook 
 a raw cereal and a partly cooked cereal, but the principle of the cooking starch 
 is not established until the pupil has cooked starchy vegetables and starchy 
 powders. 
 
 Since the dominant idea is the meal there should be short recurring sequences 
 rather than to teach one after the other all dishes necessary to establish a type. 
 The time of year and locality will influence the dishes chosen. For instance, 
 the type “flavor vegetables” cannot be established until fall, winter and early 
 summer vegetables have been cooked. 
 
 The work should be gradually increased in complexity of manipulation and 
 thought content as pupils develop skill. 
 
 The work of the second year involves the same principles as that of the first. 
 The types established in the first year are reviewed by using more complicated 
 processes. In the first year, fruits were cooked, in the second year, they should 
 be canned. Plain vegetables are cooked in the first year, and in the second 
 year, they should be combined with other food material. 
 
SEWING COURSES. 
 
 The study of clothing includes a knowledge of what is needed learn how to 
 select clothing; how to make clothing, how to keep it in repair; how to launder 
 clothing. 
 
 In learning to sew the first article should be one which can be finished in a 
 short time so that the pupil does not grow discouraged and lose interest. 
 
 The material to be used for each article should be studied before purchase 
 to be sure that it is appropriate for the purpose as to weave, finish and color, 
 that it has good wearing qualities, will launder well and not muss easily. 
 
 There is no place for making of models in the sewing courses. The stitch may 
 be practiced a few times on a piece of cloth but skill is acquired in making the 
 article. 
 
 The note book is of value to record samples of textiles studied and stitches 
 and finishes used for specific purposes. 
 
 Pupils should learn to darn stockings and repair the clothing. "^1 
 
 Under present conditions as little new material as possible should be bought. 
 No bit of cloth should be thrown away. 
 
 The finishes for the underclothing should be neat, simple and easily laundered. 
 The use of lace and elaborate trimming should be discouraged. The material 
 for the dress should be chosen from cloth with a firm weave and smooth finish 
 so that it will not ravel easily, or sag. If the teacher plans the work to suit 
 the inexperience of the pupil and gives clear directions, there is little need for 
 ripping. Since this is the time when the pupil is forming her notions of what 
 is good in dress the design should be simple so that it can be finished in a neat 
 manner. The mistake is too often made of permitting the pupil to undertake a 
 very complicated problem such as a tailored suit or lingerie dress which is beyond 
 her skill and so establishes careless habits in sewing with shoddy finishes. 
 
 The Red Cross work forms a part of the years’ work but in the majority of 
 programs it should not exceed one-third of the years’ work. It should form a 
 part of the course in the development of the uses for the different stitches and 
 finishes on different rhaterials. 
 
DIVISION OF TIME. 
 
 The course as outlined is planned to give first year sewing in the seventh 
 grade and first year cooking in the eighth grade. It is possible, however, and 
 under some conditions it may be desirable to give a semester of sewing and then 
 a semester of cooking in the one year. 
 
 Seventh Grade Sewing (First Year Junior High School). 
 
 First Semester. 
 
 Towel for the cooking outfit—; 
 
 Holder 
 
 Sewing apron 
 
 Christmas article 
 
 Pincushion 
 
 Red Cross work 
 
 Binders 
 
 Hem diapers. 
 
 Second Semester. 
 
 Bag 
 
 Cooking apron 
 Red Cross work 
 Booties 
 
 Knitting. (Wash clothes and 
 
 about 2 
 about 2 
 about 5 
 about 2 
 about 2 
 
 about 4 
 about 7 
 
 blanket 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 lessons. 
 
 squares.) 
 
 Ninth Grade Sewing (Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 First Semester. 
 
 Machine lessons about 3 lessons. 
 
 Nightgown about 6 lessons. 
 
 Teddy bear about 8 lessons. 
 
 Red Cross work 
 Coats, dresses, waists, knitting. 
 
 Second Semester. 
 
 Petticoat about 15 lessons. 
 
 Graduating dress about 30 lessons. 
 
 Red Cross work 
 Shirts, blanket, cape with hood. 
 
 / 
 
 
134 
 
 Seventh Grade Sewing (First Year Junior High School). 
 (One Period a Week Throughout the Year.) 
 
 Article Materul Purpose 
 
 Towel, 
 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Holder. 
 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Sewing Apron, 
 (5 lessons) 
 
 Bag, 
 
 (4 lessons) 
 
 Pincushion, 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Apron, (Cooking) 
 (7 lessons) 
 
 % yds. toweling, colored floss, cost, 
 15 cents. 
 
 14 yd- doubled face flannelette. 
 
 14 yd. of muslin, or longcloth, flannel, 
 etc., or scraps of material from home. 
 1 yd. of}4 inch white cotton twill tape. 
 1 bolt of white bias binding, ^ inch 
 wide. 
 
 % yd. barred dimity. 
 
 1 skein colored floss. 
 
 1 snap fastener. 
 
 Approximate cost, 25 cents. 
 
 )4 yd. linen crash, denim, chambray, 
 etc. 
 
 2 yds. cord. 
 
 1 skein colored floss. 
 
 Approximate cost, 25 cents. 
 
 Scraps of material brought from home. 
 Two pieces 3H x 3^ inches for lining. 
 
 2 pieces of 3^x3)^ inches for cover. 
 Sawdust for filling. 
 
 yds. calico, percale or linen. 
 
 1 bolt of rick-rack or colored scalloped 
 edging. 
 
 (5 or 6 yds. in bolt) 
 
 To straighten ends of materials by 
 drawing threads. 
 
 a. Turn narrow hem. 
 
 b. Use of gauge. 
 
 c. Accuracy of measurements. 
 
 d. Correct method of pinning. 
 
 e. Basting stitch. 
 
 f. Hemming stitch. 
 
 g. Chain stitch. 
 
 To bind edges of circle. 
 
 To te^h running stitch and method 
 of joining tape. 
 
 To make apron to be used in sewing. 
 If made of heavy material, apron 
 may be used as a traveler’s aid, or 
 if bound with tape, a clothes pin bag. 
 To teach: 
 
 a. Turning of hem. 
 
 b. Feather stitching or some simple 
 decorative stitch. 
 
 c. Running stitch and stroling. 
 
 d. Putting on a gathered band. 
 
 e. Back stitching. 
 
 f. Sewing on snap fastener. 
 
 To learn to make a sewing bag to 
 hold sewing, tools and materials. 
 Different uses of bag. 
 
 To make a pincushion to be used in 
 sewing. 
 
 Suggest uses of different kinds of 
 material and modifications in 
 design of pincushion. 
 
 1. To make a kitchen apron to be 
 used in cooking class. 
 
 2. To teach: 
 
 a. Laying a curved hem. 
 
 b. Use of and sewing on of rick 
 rack, and scalloped edging. 
 
 Ninth Grade Sewing (Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 One unitjto be done either in five periods a week for one year or three periods 
 for two years. 
 
 Machine Lesson, 
 (3 lessons) 
 
 Nightgown, 
 (6 lessons) 
 
 Teddy Bear, 
 (8 lessons) 
 
 3 yds. muslin. 
 
 1 bolt scalloped edging. 
 Cost approximate, S0.75. 
 
 Longcloth. 
 
 Amount: twice length from shoulder 
 to knee plus 4 inches. 
 
 Face eding for neck and armholes. 
 
 1 bolt of inch bias binding. 
 
 Buttons. 
 
 Cost, approximate, $0.75. 
 
 To teach care and use of sewing 
 machine. 
 
 Things To Be Taught: 
 
 a. Relation of parts of machine. 
 
 b. Cleaning and oiling. 
 
 c. Plain stitching. Use of guides 
 in straight stitching. 
 
 To draft nightgown pattern. 
 
 To teach: 
 
 a. Making of French seams. 
 
 b. Laying a hem that curves up at 
 sides. 
 
 c. Putting in of gussets. 
 
 d. Neck and arm finish. 
 
 To teach good taste in selecting ma¬ 
 terials and design for underwear. 
 Use and modification of commercial 
 pattern. 
 
135 
 
 Article 
 
 Material 
 
 Purpose 
 
 Petticoat, 
 
 (15 lessons) 
 
 3^ yds. 36 inch muslin or longcloth. 
 
 For ruffle % yd. extra material. 
 Embroidery ruffle, 3 yards, 1 spool 
 No. 70 thread. 
 
 1. Use and modification of com 
 mercial pattern, 
 
 2. Review hemming, making French 
 seams. 
 
 3. Making a placket. 
 
 Dress, 
 
 (30 lessons) 
 
 (jalatea, poplin or Devonshire cloth. 
 Cost, not over $5.00. 
 
 To make graduation dress. 
 
 Selection of suitable design and 
 material. 
 
 Use of commercial patterns and modi 
 fications. 
 
 OUTLINE FOR COOKING COURSES. 
 
 It is not desirable to divide the work into the semester as so much depends 
 upon local conditions and the season as to the time that the different dishes illus¬ 
 trating the types should be taught. At the end of the year the teacher should 
 check her work according to the outline given for types to be certain that she 
 has omitted none and that she does not over emphasize one that does not play 
 an important part in the diet. 
 
 The following outlines should be suggestive in planning the parts of the lesson 
 so that by the end of the course all of these points have been taught. 
 
 Table Service—First Year. 
 
 Tea or a fruit drink to pupils and teacher (no guests). 
 
 Party either as a part of the social activities of the school for holidays or to 
 the mothers. 
 
 Service for individual cover at the desk. 
 
 One course at the table—one dish with little manipulation (second cereal 
 lesson). 
 
 One course at table—two dishes—one a drink. 
 
 A meal with two courses, breakfast or supper. 
 
 Second Year Cooking. 
 
 Breakfast, dinner, supper, picnic lunch, lunch basket. 
 
 Outline for Housekeeping. 
 
 Cleaning, kitchen knives, silver, glassware, tinware, aluminum, crockery, sink, 
 refrigerator, stove, garbage can, furniture in dining room, floor in kitchen and 
 dining room, woodwork. 
 
 Outline for Laundry. 
 
 Removal of stains, kitchen apron, kitchen towel, table linen. Launder the 
 kitchen and dining room linen at the time that it is needed. Launder sewing 
 articles as finished. 
 
136 
 
 Eighth Grade Cookery (Second Year Junior High School). 
 (One period a week throughout the year.) 
 
 Text for pupil: 
 
 Type 
 
 Purpose 
 
 Dish 
 
 Fruit 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Stewed fruit. 
 
 Baked fruit. 
 
 Apple sauce. 
 
 Baked apple. 
 
 Cereal, 
 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Partly cooked. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Use of left over. 
 
 Flaked hominy or rolled oats. 
 Cornmeal. 
 
 Sauted mush 
 
 Flavor Vegetables, 
 
 (3 lessons) 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Mild. 
 
 Cabbage plain or 
 
 Onions creamed or scalloped. 
 Tomatoes, scalloped. 
 
 Stareh Vegetable, 
 
 (4 lessons) 
 
 Baked and Sauted. 
 
 Boiled and creamed or mashed. 
 Steamed. 
 
 Scalloped. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Rice with Cheese. 
 
 Eggs. 
 
 (3 lessons) 
 
 Effect heat. 
 
 Thickening Agent (Baked). 
 Lightening. 
 
 Scrambled. 
 
 Custard. 
 
 Sponge cake (may omit). 
 
 Fish, 
 
 (1 lesson) 
 
 Canned—with starch food. 
 
 Salmon loaf. 
 
 Soup, 
 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 
 Tomato Cream Soup. 
 
 Potato Cream Soup. 
 
 Bread, 
 
 (4 lessons) 
 
 Quick. 
 
 Griddle Cakes—1 (sour milk). 
 MufiBns—2. 
 
 Eggless (Cornmeal). 
 
 Egg (Barley flour). 
 
 Baking Powder Biscuit. 
 
 Yeast Breads, 
 
 
 Sandwiches 
 
 Desserts, 
 
 (2 lessons) 
 
 Starchy. 
 
 Starch and milk. 
 
 Cornstarch Pudding. 
 
 Milk and Eggs. (See eggs.) 
 
 Batter Series, 
 
 (1 lesson) 
 
 
 Gingerbread. 
 
 Cakes and Cookies, 
 
 
 Cheap cake. 
 
 Cookies, drop. 
 
 Candy, 
 
 (1 lesson) 
 
 
 Peanut Brittle. 
 
 Popcorn Balls. 
 
 Beverages, 
 
 
 Cocoa and sundries. 
 
 (1 lesson) 
 
 Total, 28 lessons 
 
 There should be some form of a review every six weeks—also some in Table 
 Service. 
 
137 
 
 Ninth Grade Cookery (Third Year Junior High School). 
 
 One unit to be done either in five periods a week for one year or three periods 
 a week for two years. 
 
 Type Purpose Dish 
 
 Fruit, 
 
 Canning 
 
 Tomatoes. 
 
 (3 weeks) 
 
 
 Peaches. 
 
 Berries. 
 
 
 Fresh—Baked. 
 
 Rhubarb. 
 
 Seasonal fruit cooked in syrup. 
 
 
 Dried 
 
 Jelly. 
 
 Jam. 
 
 Stewed Apricots or Prunes or Apples 
 
 
 Relish. 
 
 Scallop Apple. 
 
 
 Drying. 
 
 Fruit Whip. 
 
 Cereals, 
 
 
 Breakfast food. 
 
 (1 week) 
 
 
 A fine meal served with fruit. 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Rice or Sauted Hominy. 
 
 
 Dessert. 
 
 Molded rice with fruit. 
 
 Oatmeal pudding. 
 
 
 Left over. 
 
 Rice or oatmeal muflSns. 
 
 Flavor Vegetables, 
 
 Strong. 
 
 Cabbage scalloped. 
 
 (2 weeks) 
 
 
 Carrots creamed with peas. 
 
 Turnips creamed and mashed. 
 
 
 Mild. 
 
 Greens, plain. 
 
 Asparagus, buttered or on toast. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 String beans (with meat). 
 
 
 
 Tomatoes sauted. 
 
 Stuffed onions. 
 
 Beets or sour sauce. 
 
 Scalloped corn. 
 
 Starchy Vegetables, 
 
 
 Potato. 
 
 (3 weeks) 
 
 Boiled and sauted. 
 
 Sweet potato.* 
 
 
 Baked and mashed. 
 
 Sweet potato. 
 
 
 Sauted. 
 
 Parsnip. 
 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Rice—with flavor vegetable (tomato 
 or pepper) 
 
 
 
 Croouettes. 
 
 
 Dessert. 
 
 Rice pudding with milk. 
 
 
 Left over. 
 
 In muffins or griddle cakes. 
 
 
 Meat substitute. 
 
 Rice with cheese and egg with creamed 
 meat with rice border or cooked 
 with small amount meat. 
 
 Eggs. 
 
 Effect heat. 
 
 Poached on toast. 
 
 (1 week) 
 
 
 Soft boiled. 
 
 Hard cooked (a la Goldenrod). 
 
 
 Thickening 
 
 Boiled custard. 
 
 
 Lightening. 
 
 Omelet. 
 
 Souffle. 
 
 Fish, 
 
 Fresh (if in locality) 
 
 Sauted fish. 
 
 (Fish, Legumes, Cheese) 
 
 Boiled and baked fish. 
 
 (3 weeks) 
 
 Dried. 
 
 Creamed codfish, with starchy food. 
 Turbin of fish (with potato). 
 
 Fish balls (with potato). 
 
 
 Canned. 
 
 Fish chowder. 
 
 Legumes 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Green lima beans. 
 
 
 Meat substitute. 
 
 Souffle. 
 
 Cream soup. 
 
 Baked. 
 
 Cheese, 
 
 Meat substitute. 
 
 Rarebit. 
 
 Fondue. 
 
 Cheese and rice or macaroni. 
 
 Nuts, 
 
 
 , Cottage cheese. 
 
 Meat substitute. 
 
 Nut loaf. 
 
138 
 
 Type 
 
 Meats and Soups, 
 (3 weeks) Meat 
 
 Soup, 
 
 Bread, 
 
 (3 weeks) 
 
 Yeast Bread, 
 (1 week) 
 
 Desserts, 
 
 (3 weeks) 
 
 Cakes or Cookies, 
 (1 week) 
 
 Candy, 
 
 (1 week) 
 
 Beverages, 
 
 Sandwiches and lunch box. 
 
 Purpose 
 
 Dish 
 
 Tender cuts. 
 Tough cuts. 
 
 Poultry. 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Quick. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Starch and milk. 
 Starch and fruit. 
 Starch and eggs, milk. 
 Milk and eggs. 
 
 Egg and fruit. 
 
 Batter. 
 
 Pies (one crust and use wheat sub¬ 
 stitute). 
 
 Gelatine. 
 
 Fruit. 
 
 Frozen dish. 
 
 Prime rib roast. 
 
 Steak (demonstration). 
 
 Meat loaf or hamburg. 
 
 Swiss steak. 
 
 Stew. 
 
 Pork chops. 
 
 Pot roast. 
 
 Meat extenders: 
 
 With rice. 
 
 With cornmeal (Tamule Pie). 
 
 With potato. 
 
 t 
 
 Vegetable. 
 
 Cream soups. 
 
 Bean. 
 
 Celery. 
 
 Cream toast. 
 
 Griddle cakes. 
 
 (Bread crumbs, yeast, buckwheat) 
 Waffles (corn flour). 
 
 Spoon corn bread. 
 
 Muffins (3 to 4). 
 
 Eggless (Barley). 
 
 Egg—corn flour, 
 rolled oats. 
 
 Loaf (wheatless using sour milk or 
 sweet milk, rolled oats and barley ) 
 Boston brown bread. 
 
 Cornmeal. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 See cereal. 
 
 Rice pudding. 
 
 Apple tapioca. 
 
 Tapioca or rice pudding. 
 
 See eggs. 
 
 Prune souffle or apple whip. 
 
 Cottage pudding. 
 
 Short cake. 
 
 Stewed pudding. 
 
 Fruit. 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Custard. ^ 
 
 Lemon. z' 
 
 Cream or chocolate. 
 
 Fruit—lemon. 
 
 With egg—lemon snow. 
 
 With egg, milk and cream—Bavarian 
 cream. 
 
 Fresh in season—fruit. 
 
 Fruit ice or sherbet. 
 
 Ice cream. 
 
 Sponge cake (cheap). 
 
 Yellow cake. 
 
 White cake. 
 
 Spice cake. 
 
 Chocolate cake. 
 
 Cookies. 
 
 Marshmallow. 
 
 Taffy. 
 
 Caramel. 
 
 Wartime Sweets. 
 
 Reception cocoa. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Total 26 weeks. 
 
INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 
 
 The Problem of Industrial Education. 
 
 During the past ten years, much interest has been manifested in vocational 
 education, and great advances have been made in the way of detailed working- 
 out of programs, organization, and procedure. 
 
 At the present time, there is a much keener appreciation than ever before of 
 the value of vocational education, as it is seen that both the present and future 
 existence of this country is, to a large extent, dependent upon its industrial workers. 
 
 When one considers the education of future industrial workers, it is necessary 
 for him to seek information concerning: 
 
 1. The various types of vocational intelligence. 
 
 2. The time when boys and girls may be expected to give evidence of voca¬ 
 tional intelligence. 
 
 3. The discovery and fostering of natural aptitudes. 
 
 4. The classification of industries on the basis of the mental and physical 
 abilities required. 
 
 5. The kind of industries for which vocational education may be given. 
 
 6. The cost of the various forms of vocational education. 
 
 Among the movements in education, which seem to give great promise of 
 assistance in the solution of these problems, is that of the junior high school, 
 which, recognizing that large numbers of boys and girls are destined to enter 
 industrial occupations, assumes three obligations with reference to them: 
 
 1. To lay the foundations, in so far as it is possible, of that knowledge and 
 appreciation of human achievement which will enrich their present and adult 
 lives. 
 
 2. To assist the boys and girls in the making of a choice of the life work 
 in which they will be most content, and most efficient. 
 
 3. To train for citizenship, by developing a sense of social obligation. 
 
 It is of the second of these obligations, which the junior high school has as¬ 
 sumed, that this program will chiefly treat, namely the obligation “To assist 
 the boys and girls in the making of a choice of the life work in which they will 
 be most content, and most efficient.” 
 
 The industrial opportunities of the average community are such that an 
 acquaintance with the industries will be a promising form of vocational assistance 
 to be offered these pupils about to enter gainful occupations. 
 
 How the Problem May Be Attacked. 
 
 .The problem may be attacked by readjusting the present manual training 
 courses in such ways as to give more varied industrial knowledge and industrial 
 experience. 
 
 In the selection of the industries for study and investigation, five considerations 
 which bear upon this choice may be noted in order of importance. 
 
 1. General importance and extent of the industry. 
 
 2. Local importance. 
 
 3. Dependence upon a distinct and comparatively high type of ability. 
 
140 
 
 4. Desirability as an occupation. 
 
 5. Practicability of reproducing processes in school. 
 
 The relative importance of the local industries may be ascertained from the 
 United States Census Report, which shows for each city and state, the number 
 of persons employed in various lines of work. 
 
 Upon the basis of the five considerations already mentioned, each of the 
 following groups are entitled to a place in the program, and in the order named, 
 barring special local conditions. 
 
 1. Building T rades: 
 
 Carpentry", 
 
 Woodworking, 
 
 Masonry, stonework, and concrete construction, 
 
 Painting and glazing. 
 
 Plumbing and pipe-fitting. 
 
 2. Metal and Machine Trades: 
 
 Structural ironwork. 
 
 Foundry work. 
 
 Machine shop work, 
 
 Blacksmithing, 
 
 Engineers and firemen. 
 
 3. Machine Operating Trades: 
 
 Weaving of textiles. 
 
 Clothing manufacture. 
 
 Shoemaking and leather work. 
 
 Other metal work. 
 
 4. Electrical work. 
 
 5. Printing. 
 
 6. Agriculture. 
 
 7. Mining (of high rank numerically, but highly localized). 
 
 Methods of Approach to the Study of the Industries. 
 
 The methods of approach to the study of the industries represented in the 
 program should include the following: 
 
 1. A knowledge of the facts relative to the materials used. 
 
 2. Sources and preparation of materials. 
 
 3. Technical processes involved in the manufacturing of the materials into 
 useful products. 
 
 4. The performance by the pupils of work of interest to them, from which 
 they will obtain a knowledge of industrial processes. 
 
 5. A study of the workers, including wages, hours of labor, apprenticeship, 
 the position of the industry in society, etc. 
 
 Experience has shown that pupils derive great benefit from industrial work 
 which is conducted upon the project basis. 
 
 A project has been defined as “A job, for all of which the pupil is held respdn- 
 sible, and in the doing of which he receives training, not only in the manipula¬ 
 tion of tools and machines, but in the application of such subjects as arithmetic, 
 drawing, science and English, in so far as they may be necessary to the proper 
 completion of his task.” 
 
 Among the projects suitable for school work may be mentioned the following: 
 bookbinding, repacking faucets, scraping and finishing school room desks and 
 
141 
 
 tables; setting glass; cleaning, oiling and sharpening lawn mowers; repairing 
 broken furniture; reseating chairs; oiling floors; painting woodwork and iron¬ 
 work; grading; building concrete walls and walks; the making of school equip¬ 
 ment, such as wooden cases, looms, cupboards, tables—playground apparatus,, 
 hurdles, jumping stands, etc.; printing school report cards, programs, envelopes, 
 garden inspection cards, etc.; work in sheet metal; machine shop work; photo¬ 
 graphic work, and electrical work. 
 
 The projects, mentioned above, are to be considered as suggestions as to what 
 can be done profitably by boys. 
 
 Such projects are to be assigned to a pupil, or group of co-operating pupils, 
 by the instructor, the pupils being permitted, in so far as it is possible, to elect 
 the kind of work which they wish to do. 
 
 Pupils may also be permitted to undertake projects of their own, after these 
 projects have been submitted to the instructor and received his approval. 
 
 All pupils are expected to complete the projects undertaken by them. 
 
 Equipment of the School Shop. 
 
 In the work of the various projects, hand tools of all kinds, lathes, drilling 
 machine, planer, grindstone, gas-engine, printing press, cameras, forges, anvils, 
 electrical supplies, concrete, benches, etc., will be required. 
 
 In addition, these should be accessible for use, samples of work obtained from 
 commercial channels, technical books and magazines, trade papers, catalogs 
 and advertising matter devoted to the arts and crafts, as well as books and 
 magazines describing modern progress in the fields of invention, manufacturing 
 and engineering. 
 
 From these models, books and papers, the pupils will obtain inspiration, 
 suggestions, and working directions. With regard to the experience and manner 
 of equipping such a shop and the conduct of the work the following is offered. 
 
 How Equipment May Be Obtained. 
 
 At the present time, every’ school which has offered courses in manual train¬ 
 ing has an equipment of wood-working tools, and in some schools, metal working 
 and other tools will be found. 
 
 Other equipment, such as tools, books, magazines, machines, and supplies, 
 can be secured from the local community by gift, loan, and purchase. 
 
 Factories, farms, offices, and homes, frequently discard equipment which 
 can be overhauled, repaired, and rendered serviceable for school use. Second¬ 
 hand tools, machines, books, and supplies of various kinds may be purchased. 
 
 As the pupils become skillful in the use of tools and machines, much of the 
 equipment may be made and kept in repair by them. 
 
 Advantages Gained from a Good Equipment. 
 
 Boards of Education should bear in mind, however, that while second-hand 
 tools, machines, and material may serve the needs of the classes of the junior 
 high school, a shop equipped with modern tools and machinery would not only 
 serve such needs but the needs of the senior classes of the school and of evening 
 
142 
 
 and continuation school classes, thus giving to the community large returns 
 upon the investment. 
 
 While it is recognized that appropriations of money will be required to sup¬ 
 port this work, such appropriations need not be greatly in excess of these now 
 used for the work in manual training. 
 
 Furthermore, if it can be shown that through shops of this type, school build¬ 
 ings are kept in repair, a variety of equipment made and repaired, buildings and 
 rooms painted, tools sharpened, forms and leaflets printed, a part of the cost at 
 least will be offset. 
 
 Qualifications of Teachers. 
 
 Any manual training teacher with some encouragement, special training, and 
 possessed of the following qualifications can organize and conduct this work. 
 
 1. He should be a “handy man,” a man, who can through observation, read¬ 
 ing, and study acquire the knowledge and the skill which will enable him to do 
 a variety of mechanical and semi-technical work. 
 
 2. He should possess a thorough knowledge of at least one of the trades 
 which he is to teach, and a working knowledge of several of the other trades 
 taught in the room. For example, a skilled carpenter might possess some knowl¬ 
 edge of sheet metal work, forge work, and machine shop work. 
 
 3. He should possess an ability to handle boys, and without antagonizing 
 them, secure a maximum amount of output on their part with a minimum amount 
 of effort on his part. 
 
 Such a man will be a leader as well as a teacher. 
 
 4. As the instruction will be given to individuals or to small groups, the 
 teacher should possess sufficient organizing ability to enable him to supervise 
 the various kinds of work which are being done at the same time, and to assign 
 some of the teaching or supervisory w'ork to the more highly skilled boys in the 
 class. 
 
 Methods of Teaching. 
 
 In the outline of the methods to be used for the conduct of the work, let us 
 assume for the purposes of our discussion a class of 30 boys who have met on the 
 first day of the school term in a room containing the following equipment: 12 
 manual training benches, wood-working tools, drawing boards and instruments, 
 2 wood-turning lathes, 2 metal turning lathes, 2 forges and anvils with tools, 
 a drilling machine, a grindstone, a drill grinder, a power driven saw, a printing 
 press and equipment, tools for sheet metal work, place and tools for concrete 
 work, tools and machines for bookbinding, and tools and supplies for electrical 
 work. 
 
 The teacher addresses the class, describing to them the nature and character 
 of the work which may be done in the shop with a brief outline of work which is 
 to be done immediately. 
 
 A description of the equipment already in the room and the care and precau¬ 
 tions necessary to be observed in its use should also be given, and a desire ex¬ 
 pressed on the part of the instructor that the boys help to secure additional 
 tools and material. 
 
 The boys are to be impressed with the fact that the shop is to be conducted 
 
143 
 
 like a regular shop, and the systems of tool checks, and tool room, time cards, 
 job requisition cards, job record cards explained to them. 
 
 It would be unwise at this time to mention the question of order and dis¬ 
 cipline because the boys in this shop are to be kept so busy that they will have 
 no inclination or desire to get into mischief. 
 
 If breaches of discipline occur they should be handled quietly but effectively. 
 
 At the close of this class period the boys should be told that one of the pur¬ 
 poses of the shop is to enable them to make things of interest to themselves, 
 and they are to have ready for the next lesson a description of some article which 
 they wish to make. 
 
 When the class meets on the second day, instructions should be given to them 
 in the making of mechanical drawings which may consist of copying on a reduced 
 scale large drawings of details of a project in woodwork, previously made by 
 the instructor, and all of the boys with the exception of four be set at work mak¬ 
 ing drawings. 
 
 These four boys are to receive instructions in the elements of wood turning, 
 the instructor explaining to them the mechanism of the lathes, and of a good 
 textbook which should be placed in the hands of the boys. 
 
 Some demonstration work on the part of the instructor, is to be done and the 
 boys given an opportunity under the supervision of the teacher of operating 
 the lathe. 
 
 Blue prints of certain parts of the wood-working project which are to be made 
 upon the lathe should be furnished the boys and such explanations as seem neces¬ 
 sary given to them. 
 
 The boys are then to be given some waste wood and instructed to use it for 
 practice purposes in the making of parts assigned to them. 
 
 A group of eight boys should next be taken from those at work in the draw¬ 
 ing department and given instructions in getting out and preparing some of the 
 material necessary for the woodworking project. 
 
 The instructor should proceed in this manner until all members of the class 
 are engaged in some form of industrial activity connected with the making.of 
 the project in woodwork which might be the making of low tables or benches 
 for the kindergarten department. 
 
 As fast as a boy completes in a satisfactory manner the work to which he 
 has been assigned he is to be reassigned to another group where as an observer 
 he learns from the other boys how the work is to be done and after some prac¬ 
 tice, is given a portion of the work to do. 
 
 Those boys who show particular skill in a given operation can be used as 
 assistant instructors as the needs may arise, thus enabling the teacher to devote 
 his attention to boys who need his instruction. 
 
 Cards are to be used to record the kind of work upon which a boy has been 
 engaged thus affording a means of grading him and ensuring that he has a variety 
 of experiences in industrial work. 
 
 As the boys become proficient in the use of the tools, machines, and equip¬ 
 ment of the room, repair work and a variety of projects may be undertaken. 
 
 Books giving information about the processes involved are to be accessible 
 to the boys and they are to be left as much as possible to themselves in the working 
 out of their problems, the teacher acting in the capacity of shop foreman, namely, 
 as adviser, inspector, and controller of the outfit. 
 
 It will be recognized that there must be a large amount of flexibility in the 
 development and conduct of this work. Such problems, as may arise, how- 
 
144 
 
 ever, have to do, largely with matters of detail, and the methods required for 
 their solution depend in a large measure upon the conditions which produced 
 the problems. 
 
 Any person desiring further information or assistance should write to Professor 
 Benjamin T. Leland, Morgantown, W. Va. 
 
 Industrial Arts Reference Books. 
 
 Cockerell Douglas. Book-binding and the Care of Books—Appleton. $1.20 
 
 Jack, G. T., Wood-carving—Appleton . 1.40 
 
 Crawshaw, F. D., Problems in Wood-Turning—Am. Bk. Co..90 
 
 Sleffel, C. C., Work in Metals—Doubleday, Page & Company. :. 
 
 Lewis, M. H. & A. H., Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete Users—Henley. 2.50 
 
 Anthony, G. C., Elements of Mechanical Drawing—Heath. 1.50 
 
 Weber, W. E., Electrical Construction Elementary Course—Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 
 
 N 0 . 91. Operation of the Lathe, Part 1... 
 
 No. 92. Operation of the Lathe, Part 2. 
 
 Thatcher, Simple Soldering—Spon and Chamberlain.50 
 
 Bailey, R. C., The Complete Photographer—Doubleday, Page & Co. 3.00 
 
 McClellan, G. E., Practical Typography—Manual Arts Press. 1.50 
 
 Brownlee, R. B., Chemistry of Common Things—Allyn. 1,50 
 
 Popular Mechanics Company, Chicago, Ill. The Boy.Mechanic. 
 
 Goss, W. F., Bench Work in Wood—Ginn. ! . .70 
 
 King, C. A., Constructive Carpentry—Am. Bk, Co. :..80 
 
 Gowin & Wheatley, Occupations—Ginn & Co... 
 
 Manual Training and Vocational Education—Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 2.00 
 
 Industrial Arts Magazine.