CHAPTER III. EDUCATION IN BELGIUM, [For previous articles see System of Public Education in Belgium, Report for 1892-93, vol. 1, pp. 157- 201. Public Education in Belgium, Report for 1894-95, vol. 1, pp. 313-319.] Belgium: Constitutional monarchy. — Area, 11,373 square miles; population (census of 1890), 6,069,321.— The executive aDd legislative powers vested in hereditary King, Senate, and Chamber of Representatives. Senators of two classes: First class, in number equal to half the number of repre- sentatives, elected directly by the voters ; second class, elected by provincial councils, their number being proportioned to the population of the respective provinces. Representatives elected directly by the voters, number proportioned to the population, but may not exceed 1 for every 40,000 inhab- itants. The divisions of the Kingdom for local government are provinces (9) and communes (2,596, census of 1890), both of which enjoy a large measure of autonomy. The affairs of the former are adminis- tered by a governor appointed by the King, a provincial council (elected), and a permanent deputa- tion, consisting of the governor and six members of the council chosen by that body. Three distinct authorities participate also in the administration of the commune: an elected coun- cil, a burgomaster appointed by the King from the members of the council, and a body of aldermen (college 6chevinal), consisting of the burgomaster and from two to five members of the council chosen by that body. The council, which represents the people directly, is the principal source of authority in communal affairs (law regulating provincial and communal organization, March 30, 1836, and modi- fying laws, 1838, 1842, 1848, 1860, 1865; alco Les ministres dans les principaux pays d’Europe et d’Amerique, par L. Dupriez, tome 1, pp. 262-268). The provinces are also divided into arrondissements and these again into cantons. These divisions are intended to facilitate the control of tho central authority, and are not strictly speaking divisions for local government. In three provinces lying along the border of France — i. e., Hainault, Luxembourg, and Namur, and also in Libge, a central province — French or Walloon is the prevailing language. In Antwerp, Bra- bant, East and West Flanders, and Limbourg, the Flemish or Dutch. The population of Belgium, as shown by tho census of 1890, was 6,069.321, comprised in an area of 11,373 square miles. Further analysis gives 2,894,694 as tho population of communes of 5,000 inhab- itants or more and 3,174,627 for communes of less than 5,000 inhabitants. The census, by sex, gives men, 3,026,954; women, 3,042,367. It appears, moreover, that about 36 per cent of the males (1,079,035) and 40 cent of the females (1,204,647), or 38 per cent of the entire popula- tion, are unable to read and write. In 1866 illiterates formed 53 per cent and in 1880 42 per cent of the entire population. Belgium is preeminently a Catholic country. Protestants number only about 10,000 and Jews 4,000. The census of 1890 gives 30,098— men 4,775, women 25,323— members of religious orders in the King- dom, of whom 24,585 are native Belgians. The executive affairs of the Government are administered through seven departments. The educa- tional interests are intrusted to the minister of the interior and of public instruction. 1 Topical Outline. — Brief conspectus of the system of public education — Summa- rized statistics — Comparative view of school population and school attendance 1846-1890 — Effects of successive school laws — Expenditure on primary schools — City of Brussels: Inquiry into the living conditions of children attending the public schools. Secondary schools: Recent changes in curriculum — Technical and industrial schools of Belgium — The Antwerp Congress on commercial education. BRIEF CONSPECTUS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. The system of public education in Belgium has changed but little in general form since its organization under the law of 1842. It comprises three departments, primary, secondary, and superior, under the direc- tion of the minister of the interior, who is also minister of public instruction. The present incumbent ia M. Schcllaert. p 8988 89 90 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. The principal officers of education "below the minister are two general directors, one in charge of the primary department the other of the secondary and superior departments. Institutions of all grades receive State appropriations, which cover about 38 per cent of the cost of primary schools, about 65 per' cent of that of secondary schools, and nearly the entire cost of the State universities. The balance of expenditure is borne by the provinces and communes or by private managers (usually clerical), pri- vate schools being also subsidized by the State. All schools maintained or aided by the State are subject to State inspection. For this service there are three inspectors appointed for secondary instruction (enseigne- ment moyen), namely, one general inspector and two ordinary inspectors, one for the humanities the other for mathematics and the sciences ; for primary instruction there are principal inspectors, one or more in each of the nine provinces and subordinate- cantonal inspectors. The minister exercises his authority in advice with the deliberative councils (con- seils de perfectionnement). These are three in number, corresponding to the three scholastic departments. They are formed by appointment from the teaching bodies and the officers of education, and deliberate upon the questions submitted by the minister. The principal secondary schools, Royal Athdiffies, for boys only, are controlled directly by the minister. He appoints their professors and, in advice with the coun- cil, determines their curriculum. Their enrollment, 5,852 students in 1895, is about 20 per cent of the enrollment in all the public secondary schools. In the inferior secondary schools, managed and supported by the communes with some aid from the State, there were enrolled the same year 24,007 pupils, of whom 6,937 were in schools for girls. The minister also appoints the professors in the State universities and regulates the university programmes. The students in the two State universities, Ghent and Liege, numbered 1,918 in 1895. The attendance in the two private universities, Brussels and Louvain, raised the total number of university students to 5,004. The control of elementary schools rests largely with the communes. In every commune there must be at least one elementary school. Under the existing law, passed in 1895, this school may be a communal school, supported entirely by public funds, an adopted school, a subsidized private school, or a private school fulfilling the conditions of adoption. The communal council appoints the teacher and arranges the school programme, subject only to the requirement of the school lav as to the obligatory branches. The enrollment in all classes of State-aided primary schools in 1895 was 720,191. There was also 142,384 children in infant schools (€coles gardiennes) under public inspection. The detailed statistics of these several classes of schools at the beginning and close of the half decade 1890-1895 were as follows : EDUCATION IN BELGIUM, 91 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 1890. \ Classes of institutions. Pupils or students. Teachers or professors. Curront ex- Male. Female. Total. Male. Femalo. Total. penditures. Infant schools (ecoles gardien- 164, 540 Primary schools (ages, 6 to 14 years) : 291, 798 183, 360 175, 860 675, 158 276, 904 6, 008 1,687 3, 586 3, 746 9, 594 5, 433 $6, 663, 705 101, 040 Total 392, 838 359, 224 752, 062 7, 695 7, 332 15, 027 Primary normal schools : 337 290 627 929 1,440 2, 369 Total 1,266 1,730 2, 996 Schools for adults : Public 1 69, 270 Subsidized private Total - 69, 270 Secondary schools : "Rnyfi I A tlipnAp.s 5,852 17, 070 5, 852 24, 207 314, 722 State and communal sec- ondary 6, 937 Total 22, 922 6, 937 29, 859 ) .... Secondary normal schools 53 85 138 Superior instruction : State universities— Ghent (Gand) 665 Li6ge 1,253 1,419 1, 669 Private universities — Brussels T.on vain Total 5,144 The following tables show the movement of population as indicated by successive censuses, aud also of school population for the same or approximately the same periods: Movement of school population — ages 6 to 14. School population. Year. Total population. Boys. Girls. Total. Percent- age to total popu- lation. 1S4.fi 4, 337,196 4, 529, 560 4, 827, 833 5, 520, 009 6, 069, 321 6, 495, 886 363, 170 353, 366 379, 416 466, 769 514, 915 341, 284 346, 944 376, 507 460, 019 704, 454 700, 310 755, 923 926, 788 1, 024, 836 16. 47 1856 ......................................... 15. 46 1806 15. 65 1880 16. 78 1890 509, 921 16. 88 1896 EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 93 Movement of school population — ages G to 14 — Continued. 3845. 1857 . 1889. 1881. 1885. 1890. 1894. 1895. 1896. Enrollment. Ratio of enroll- ment in jmblic and subsidized private schools to — Com- munal schools. Subsi- dized private schools. Total. 218, 054 108, 559 326, 613 302, 743 96, 885 399, 628 424, 349 69, 036 493, 385 839, 317 801 340, 118 345, 687 325 346, 012 440, 646 175, 445 616,091 465, 814 229, 397 695, 211 476, 191 244, 000 720, 191 475, 158 276, 904 752, 062 Private schools not sub- sidized. Popula- tion 6 to 14. Total popula* tion. Per cent. Per cent. 99, 772 45.71 7. 53 99, 707 57. 06 8. 82 85, 339 65. 27 10. 21 36. 69 6. 16 (a) (a) 60. 11 10. 15 (a) (a) (a) (a) 11.57 a No census. CHANGES EFFECTED BY SUCCESSIVE LAWS. The statistics of enrollment in the several classes of primary schools, as shown above, indicate the general progress in school attendance for a period of fifty years, and also in a measure the peculiar disturbances caused by successive laws which, emanating from parties bitterly opposed to each other, have been framed from a political rather than from an educational point of view. The changes effected by these laws have turned ostensibly upon the question of religious instruction, although their deeper purpose has been that of enlarging or restraining clerical influence in the manage- ment of the schools. The latest law, that of 1895, is more extreme in : respect to religious instruction than any previous law.. Its bearings ' will be best understood by a brief rehearsal of the main provisions of the successive laws. The first general law respecting popular education was passed in 1842, twelve years after the separation of Belgium from the Nether- lands. The law followed in many essentials Guizot’s law of 1833, which i forms the basis of the elementary school system of France. It provided that in each commune one primary school at least should be established in an accessible place. The commune was not, however, obliged to • establish a public school if its educational needs were fully met by private schools. A commune might also adopt one or more private schools if the provincial authorities so approved. For all indigent children instruction was to be gratuitous. The commune appointed the teacher and had control of the communal schools, excepting in the matter of religious and moral instruction ; this ■was reserved to the clergy. It was required that a teacher should be paid an annual salary of not less than 200 francs ($40) ; increased after- wards to 850 francs ($170). The teacher was also to be provided with a house or money equivalent for the same. 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. State appropriations for the schools were available only when the commune had raised a certain sum and the province had duplicated the amount. A double system of inspection was established — lay and ecclesiastical. The former was exercised by cantonal and provincial inspectors appointed by the Government ; the latter was confided to the bishops. Two State normal schools (increased in time to six) were established for the training of primary teachers, and church normal schools were also recognized. The law made religious instruction obligatory, and placed it under the direction of the minister of the denomination to which the majority of the pupils in the school should belong. The children, whose parents so desired, were to be excused from the religious exercise. In like manner religions instruction in each normal school was confided to a clergyman attached to the staff and supervised by church authorities. This law remained in force thirty-seven years. In 1879, the Liberal party having come into power, anew law, almost revolutionary in its requirements, was passed. The particulars in which it departed radically from the previous law were as follows: Every commune was obliged to maintain at least one public school, the actual number to be determined in each case by the Government. (As under the previous law, however, two or more com- munes might be authorized to unite together for the maintenance of a single school.) Moreover, the State could oblige the commune to establish also an infant school and a school for adults (evening school). For cantonal inspectors appointed by the Government, under advice of the provincial authorities and serving without salary, the law of 1879 substituted two classes of inspectors — provincial inspectors, appointed by the King, ajid subordinate inspectors, appointed by the central authority. All salaried officials were made responsible directly to the minister or to his representative. Although the right of the communes to control their own schools was respected by the new law, it deter- mined the manner in which this control should be exercised. Moreover, it created a special agency, school committees (comites scolaires), to keep watch over the schools. The members of these bodies were to be appointed by the communal council, excepting where several com- munes had united to maintain a school, when the appointment went to the minister of public instruction. The minimum salary of teachers was raised to 1,000 francs ($200). The number of State normal schools was raised from 6 to 12. The law required that teachers should be native Belgians and fur- nished either with the diploma of a teacher or of a professor in the lower order of secondary schools. It forbade the employment of members of a religious order as teachers, and abolished the ecclesiastical inspec- tion of schools. The programme of obligatory subjects was greatly extended, and religious instruction was excluded. This was to be left to the care of EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 95 tlie family and the churches, excepting that ministers might be allowed the use of a room in the school building, before or after the school ses- sion, to give religious instruction to the children of their respective communions attending the school. It was also provided that if no clergyman came to give instruction in the school the teacher should be entitled to hear the “ repetitions ” which were “necessary to engrave on the memory of the child the form of religious instruction prescribed by the communion to which the child belonged.” All books used in the schools were to be approved by the Government. The law also withdrew State recognition from private normal schools and the clergyman from the staff of the State normal schools, “assuring to each student complete liberty to perform the religious duties prescribed by the faith to which he belonged.” The law of 1879 was bitterly opposed by the Catholic party, and within eighteen months of its passage the church had opened primary schools in 1,936 communes, which, on December 15, 1880, contained about 450,000 pupils. These efforts continued during the five years of the law’s operation, in which period the number of pupils in the com- munal schools fell from 510,588 to 324,656, a loss of 36 per cent. In 1884 the Catholic party, having gained a majority in the legisla- ture, a new school law was passed. This provided for the adoption of private schools, restored religious instruction to the programmes as an optional branch, opened the teaching service to naturalized foreigners, and in general gave a large measure of independence to the communes with respect to the conduct of the schools. The articles respecting these fundamental conditions were as follows: Every commune must have at least one communal school situated in an accessible place. The commune may adopt one or more private schools. In this case the King, upon the advice of the “permanent committee,” may exempt the commune from the obli- gation to maintain a communal school. This dispensation can not be accorded if twenty heads of families having children of school age demand the creation or the maintenance of a school for the instruction of their children and the “permanent committee” concurs in this demand. In case of necessity two or more communes, upon authority from the King, may unite to found and maintain a school. (Art. 1.) Communal primary schools shall be directed by the communes. The number of the schools and of the teachers shall be determined by the com- munal council according to the needs of the locality. The council also controls every- thing relating to the establishment and organization of infant schools (<5coles gar- .diennes) and of schools for adults. (Art. 2.) The children of poor parents shall receive gratuitous instruction. The communes must see that all those who do not attend uninspected private schools are provided j with instruction either in a communal or adopted school. (Art. 3.) I Primary instruction comprises as obligatory branches reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, the legal system of weights and measures, the elements of the French language, of the Flemish, or the German, according to local requirements, geogra- ' phy, history of Belgium, elements of drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Moreover, it comprises needlework for girls, and foi* boys in the rural districts notions of agriculture. 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. Communes have the riglit to extend the programme as may he possible or desira- ble. The communes may inscribe religious and moral instruction at the head of the curriculum of all or some of their elementary schools. This instruction must be given at the commencement or at the end of the school hours. Children whose parents so request shall be excused from attending such instruction. (а) In the case of a commune in which twenty heads of families having children of school age ask that their children shall be exempted from assisting at religious instruction, the King can, at the request of the parents, oblige such commune to organize for the use of these children one or more special classes. (б) If, in spite of the request of twenty heads of families having children of school age, the commune refuse to inscribe the teaching of their religion in the school cur- riculum, or hinder such instruction being given by the ministers of their religion, or by persons approved of by these latter, the Government can, at the request of the parents, adopt one or more private schools, as may be requisite, provided they meet the conditions prescribed for adoption by the commune. (Art. 4.) * * * * * *■ * The communes bear the expenses of primary instruction in the communal schools; the provinces also contribute not less than the product of 2 centimes on the amount of the direct tax. ^ A commune can not obtain subsidies from the State or province for primary instruc- tion unless it contributes at least 4 centimes additional to the direct tax and carries out the present law in all points. (Art. 6.) Certain provisions of tlie law with respect to teachers favored church, at the expense of secular teachers, or at least they gave authority in respect to the suspension of teachers, which was eventually used to replace the latter class by the former. Article 7, regulating the appointment, tenure, and salary of teachers, is as follows : The communal council has the right of appointing, of suspending, of placing en disponibilite (out of active service but drawing pay), and of revoking the appoint- ments of teachers. At the same time the teacher’s appointment can not be canceled without the approval of the permanent deputation. The council and the teacher may appeal to the King. The same rules apply to all suspension for more than a month and to all suspension with stoppage of pay or upon reduced pay. Suspension once decreed by the communal council can not be renewed by it on the same facts, nor shall it exceed six months’ duration. The King, in accord with the advice of the permanent deputation, both the teacher and the com- munal council being heard, may suspend or revoke a teacher’s appointment. Sub- ject to the same advice, he may place a teacher en disponibilite. The salary of an unattached teacher is paid by the commune if the order depriv- ing him of service is issued by the communal council; by the State, if the order is issued by the King. No place may remain more than a month without a teacher. The College ^ chevinal (board of aldermen) designates the substitute. The council fixes the minimum of teachers’ salaries. The salary can not be less than 1,000 francs ($200) for assistant teachers, and 1,200 francs ($240) forprincipal teachers. The teacher has besides this the right to be lodged or to receive an allowance for house rent. The communal council can place a teacher on the unattached list, and so keep him from active employment, in which case he will receive waiting pay, under conditions which will be determined by royal decree. The amount can not be less than half his salary nor less than 750 francs. This pay will bo furnished by the State, the province, and the commune in the proportions fixed by law. Article 8, opening the service to foreigners, was as follows : The communal schoolmasters are chosen from among those Belgians, either by birth or naturalization, who have gained the diploma of an elementary teacher after EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 97 being trained in a public normal school, or who have passed an examination after having attended lectures during at least two years, or who have gained a diploma for secondary teaching (enseignement moyen) of the second degree. They can also be selected from among those persons who have successfully passed the teachers’ exami- nation before a jury appointed by the Government. With respect to adopted private schools, it was further provided that — (1) The school must be established in a suitable building. (2) At least half the number of teachers must have received a diploma or have passed the examination for the male or female teachers; but the minister is at lib- erty to dispense with this condition during the two years following the promulga- tion of this law. Those who have had charge of communal schools prior to the present Law are exempt from examination. (3) Should religious instruction form a part of the curriculum, such instruction shall be given at the beginning or at the end of the school hours. Children, on the application of their parents, shall bo exempted from attending religious instruction. (4) The curriculum shall comprise the subjects mentioned in section 1 of article 4 of the law. (5) The adopted school must accept State inspection. (6) It must admit poor children without requiring other payment than that pre- scribed in article 3 of the law. (7) The number of hours of school attendance shall not be less than twenty per week, without including the time devoted to teaching of religion and morals; after deducting the time employed on needlework, this number shall not be less than six- teen. (Art. 9.) Communal and adopted private schools were subject to State inspection, but this was not to be extended to religious and moral instruction. Private normal schools were recognized under the law, and might receive State aid if they submitted to State inspection. It was further provided that persons who obtained the diploma of primary teacher from a private normal school between the adoption and the repeal of the law of July 1, 1879, might receive the appointment of communal teacher on condition of obtaining a confirmation of such diploma from a board organized in accordance with the law. Within three years from the passage of the law 802 communal schools and 492 teachers’ places were suppressed and many teachers were placed “en disponibilite.” The law proved unsatisfactory, however, to extremists of both parties, and was bitterly opposed by the State teachers. The Catholic party, which was strengthened by the violent demands of the Socialists, complained that the law did not put religious teaching into the right hands. “Practically,” they said, “there can be no religious instruction in schools without the help of the clergy.” They urged, further, “that in many important towns religious teaching had been added to the curriculum, not from a disinterested desire to provide it, but in order to prevent the Government from stepping in to adopt private schools, and that in such cases the character of the religious instruction left much to be desired; that those who in their anxiety to secure religious instruction between 1879-1884 had founded ED 99 7 98 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. private scliools which were still continued, but were not as yet subsi- dized by the State, were paying for education twice, viz, in the schools of their choice and in the communal schools, to which they contributed through central and local taxation.” To meet some of the complaints of those who subscribed to private elementary schools, the Belgian Government provided in 1894 a sum of 3,000,000 francs to be spent in aid of private schools. This encouraged proposals for further expenditure in the same direction, which were eagerly demanded by one party and violently opposed by the other. The whole country became excited over the subject, and finally, in the summer of 1895, the Belgian ministry introduced a new law, whieh was designed to satisfy the dominant party and to improve the condition of teachers. It provided that religious instruction should be made obligatory and confided to the clergy; that subsidies to private elementary schools should be increased, and it regulated both the sal- ary and tenure of teachers. The general provisions as to the establish- ment or adoption of schools, free tuition for poor children, and the per- sons eligible for appointment as teachers, remained as under the law of 1884. The principal change effected by the law relates to religious instruc- tion. This is made a compulsory subject, to be placed at the head of all primary school programmes. Instruction in the same is confided to the clergy, who must have free access to the schools, either to give or to supervise the religious lessons, as they may decide. The require- ment extends to normal schools also. The articles referring to religious instruction are as follows: Primary instruction comprises, as obligatory branches, instruction in religion and morals, reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, the legal system of weights and measures, the elements of the French language, of the Flemish or the German, accordiug to local requirements, geography, history of Belgium, elements of draw- ing, singing, and gymnastics. Moreover, it comprises needlework for girls, and for boys in the rural districts notions of agriculture. Communes have the right to extend the programme as may be possible or desira- ble. In the primary schools to which the law is applicable, the ministers of the several denominations shall be asked to give the instruction in religion and morals, or to cause it to be given under their supervision, either by the teacher, if he con- sents to do so, or by a person approved by the communal council. The first hour or the last half hour of the morning or of the afternoon session shall be given each day to this instruction. Children whose parents make the request in the following form may be exempt from the religious instruction : The undersigned, in pursuance of the right conferred upon him by article 4 of the law relating to primary instruction, requests that his child be exempt from attending the instruc- tion in religion and morals. (Art. 4.) The inspection of the instruction in religion and morals shall be exercised by persons delegated by the “ chiefs of the confessions.” The delegates discharge their duties according to conditions specified in a royal arrete. The chiefs of the several confessions notify the minister of the interior and of pub- lic instruction of the appointment of their delegates, who, after sanctioning the same, transmits the necessary instructions to the provincial and communal officials, as well as to the inspectors of primary instruction. M EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 99 Every year, in the month of October, each of the “chiefs of religion” addresses to the minister of the interior and of public instruction a detailed report upon the manner in which the instruction in religion and morals is given in the schools controlled by the law. (Art. 5.) Teachers must show an equal solicitude for the education and instruction of the children under their charge. They are to neglect no opportunity to inspire in their pupils the sentiments of duty, love of country, respect for national institu- tions, aud attachment to constitutional liberty. They must abstain from any attack upon the religious beliefs of the families whose children are intrusted to them. (Art. 6.) Witli regard to the support of elementary schools, the law of 1895 provides, as heretofore, that this shall be at the charge of communes, the provinces, and the State. The commune must take the initiative in establishing the school, whether communal or adopted, providing the building and equipments, and, in order to share in either the State or the provincial appropriation, Must contribute a sum equal to the product of 4 centimes additional to the direct tax, and must execute the law respecting primary instruction in all particulars. The province must contribute for school purposes an amount not less than the product of 12 centimes additional to the direct tax. The funds at the disposal of the commune for primary instruction can not be used for another purpose. (Art. 7.) Article 8 provides for an annual grant from the legislature for ele- mentary education, to be divided among communal schools, adopted schools, and private schools. The conditions for apportionment are the same for all classes of schools. They must submit to inspection and conform to the general regulations as to curriculum, staff, and posi- tion, but private schools will not be under the management of any local authority. It is explained in an official circular addressed to the gov- ernors of provinces that it is not necessary for a f>rivate school to include religious instruction in its programme in order to receive Government aid. • The advocates of the law defend the appropriation for private schools on the ground that if the State and communes had been required to establish and maintain all the elementary schools, public and private, which are now in existence in Belgium, the annual cost would have been 0,500,000 francs ($1,300,000) greater than the present outlay from central, provincial, and communal funds. As under the previous law, the right of appointing and suspending teachers and of revoking their appointments rests with the communal council, appeal to the u permanent deputation ” (provincial committee), and finally to the King, being possible in each case. There is also the same provision for dispensing with the services of public teachers as under the law of 1884. The new law further provides that no teacher’s salary shall be reduced during his tenure of office in any one commune. The posi- tion with respect to salaries is slightly improved. As against a mini- mum annual salary of $200 for assistant teachers and $240 for princi- 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. pals under the previous law, the present law fixes the following* classes and rates : Principals. Assistants. Men. Women. Men. Women. Fifth class, communes of 1,500 inhabitants or less Fourth class, communes of 1,501 to 10,000 inhabitants Third class, communes of 10,001 to 40,000 inhabitants Second class, communes of 40,001 to 100,000 inhabitants First class, communes of more than 100,000 inhabitants $240 280 320 360 480 $240 2G0 280 320 440 $200 220 240 200 280 $200 220 220 240 240 The teacher must also be provided with a residence or indemnity for the same ranging from $40 to $160. (Art, 13.) An increment of $20 is allowed for every four years of good service until the total increment amounts to $120. (Art. 15.) It was earnestly contended by the advocates of the bill that the spread of socialistic doctrines was due to the purely secular character of the teaching in the public schools, and that in order to insure sound public opinion religious instruction must be made compulsory. The socialists urged on the other hand that the law violates the principles of the constitution by requiring parents to make a declaration of their religious faith and by recognizing an official religion. They also main- tained that it interfered with communal rights and gave teachers no real security in their positions. M. Beernaert, the former minister of the interior, expressed the views of the moderate opponents of the law — among whom were many Catho- lics — in a speech delivered while the bill was pending. He held that the proposed measure gave too much power to the State in respect to determining the character of religious instruction, and that if it became law it might easily be used by a reactionary party for the destruction of all religious teaching in the schools. He foresaw, as a result, constant change in the educational policy of the country, which would entail great discomfort upon the teachers and greatly weaken the influence of the schools. He desired some more stable settlement (4 the problem. The moderate party in the legislature, under the lead of M. Beernaert, urged a measure less stringent than the law of 1879 and giving greater independence to the communes than the proposed law. They submitted proposals as follows : (1) That the State should, where necessary, subsidize denominational schools not under private manage- ment, and that each commune should be free to give religious instruc- tion or not in its own or in adopted schools as it might prefer. (2) That the communes should not be compelled to make religion an obligatory subject in the programme of the communal schools, and to submit to ecclesiastical authority in all matters pertaining to religious instruc- tion. The efforts of the moderates were so far successful that it was pro- posed in the lower chamber to divide the Government bill into two parts, EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 101 treating’ separately the clauses touching the salaries and position of teachers, upon which all parties seemed agreed. The proposal was, however, lost by a vote of 73 to 61. EXPENDITURE ON PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The expenditure for primary instruction in Belgium reached the sum of $6,663,705 (33,318,527 francs) in 1896, equivalent to $1.02 per capita of population and to $8.85 per capita of enrollment. Of the entire sum the State provided 41.6 per cent; the communes, 46.2 per cent; the provinces, 5 per cent; school fees, 4 per cent, and subscriptions, legacies, etc., 3.2 per cent. The direct maintenance of the infant schools (ecoles gardiennes), 1,769 in number, and the primary schools, either public or subsidized, num- bering in all 6,546, absorbed 74 per cent of the entire expenditure. As compared with 1894 this expenditure showed an increase of $620,408, of which the State contributed $225,083. This has gone really to the support of subsidized, private, or, in other words, paro- chial schools. CITY OF BRUSSELS — INQUIRY INTO THE CHARACTER OF THE CLOTH- ING, NOURISHMENT, AND LODGING ACCOMMODATIONS OF THE PUPILS OF THE COMMUNAL SCHOOLS — REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO THE CHIEF MAGISTRATE, ALDERMEN, AND COMMON COUNCIL OF BRUSSELS. The schools of Brussels, which attained a very high degree of effi- ciency during the supremacy of the Liberal party, have suffered less than those of other communes from the political vicissitudes. The city has long been noted also for efforts in behalf of destitute and neglected children. An investigation was recently made under the order of the municipal council into the living conditions of the children attending public schools. The report of. this investigation, which is valuable both as a model and for its valuable results, is here summarized: In 1888 the Progress Club was authorized by the college dchevinal to provide soup for the needy children of the primary schools on their leaving school at noon. The distribution of soup was at first made in the rooms of the cooperative society called “Les Ateliers Reunis,” but after a while, in order to avoid the crowding of the rooms of the society, the distribution took place in the schools themselves, the society con- tinuing in charge of the preparation of the soup, the city furnishing the tables, the Progress Club providing the dishes, while the school servants washed the dishes and cleaned up the rooms. This arrangement was extended to the kindergartens, and the city having placed certain drays at the disposal of the Progress, together with the necessary men, the soup could be carried rapidly and with the necessary regu- larity, while the considerable expense of transportation was saved the club by this means. It was upon this rock of the expense of transportation to the different schools that the attempt of 1880 was wrecked. At that time a society for feeding the poor children in the communal schools was founded, under the presidency of M. Buis, alderman in charge of public instruction, by the financial assistance of the late M. Bischoffsheim, whose generosity was never appealed to in vain. It was compelled 102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. to abandon its distribution of food because tbe expense of transportation absorbed the greater part of its resources. However, that difficulty being overcome, the “ Progress Club ” was able to continue its distribution, its work became popular, and sufficient resources from collections, entertainments, and subscriptions even permitted the club to extend its operation. But other objects soon solicited the generosity of the public, the receipts of the club began to diminish, while new extensions were demanded, and then it was decided to ask for pecuniary assistance from the city. At the session of the communal council of the 24th of December, 1891, M. Lemon- niers proposed to grant a subsidy of 5,000 francs to the “ Progress” Club. The “ College tichevinal,” acting in accord with the section of public instruction, which had deliberated upon this subject in the session of the 9th of December, had como to a conclusion unfavorable to the grant. While acknowledging the philan- thropic sentiment which dictated the request and the zeal of the promoters of the work, the college saw in the grant the beginning of a constantly increasing expendi- ture which would, before long, result in an enormous charge for the eity. Moreover, notwithstanding the explanations and circumspection with which the vote for the subsidy was surrounded, it was a question of principle whether the feed- ing of poor children was really an obligation incumbent upon the commune, and whether it was .a duty of the city to maintain or develop works of private philanthropy. Nevertheless the council voted a subsidy of 5,000 francs, specifying that this sub- sidy was only granted for one year, but the apprehension expressed in the meeting of December 24, 1891, was speedily realized. The official intervention of the city gradually led to the withdrawal of private assistance. The proceeds of collections, gifts, etc., continued to diminish, and public feeling, attracted by other nonsubsi- dized benevolent undertakings, was diverted from that which official snpport seemed to guarantee against any unfortunate eventuality. In the session of December 18, 1893, Councilman Richald proposed to raise the subsidy for the “ Progress” Club from 5,000 francs to 10,000 francs for the school soup, and to allot a supplementary subsidy of 5,000 francs for clothing. The college restricted its action to repeating the arguments of 1891, and, after dis- cussion, the communal council adopted unanimously the following motion, that a commission be appointed to consist of members of the council and to be elected by it, to examine into the condition of the children who attend communal schools, in regard to their food, lodging, and clothing. Its duty also was to examine into the financial outlay for furnishing soup and clothing for the school children. This proposition having been submitted to the section of public charities, educa- tion, and finances, this section, on January 15, 1894, decided that the following method should be followed in carrying out the investigation proposed by the council : (u) A schedule should be forwarded to the principals of the schools, who, with the assistance of the teachers, should make returns upon the character of the clothing, usual quality of food, cleanliness, and attendance of the scholars. (5) The city physicians should be required to report upon the health and the suf- ficiency or insufficiency of the usual food. (c) The police should report upon the character of the lodgings. Under (&) the physicians were required to classify their answers: 1, as to health, under the heads “good,” “medium,” “bad” ; and, 2, as to nourishment, under the heads “sufficient,” “insufficient.” As to lodgings, the following schedule was adopted : What is the number of children sleeping in one bed; having no bed; sleeping in the same room with their parents; sleeping in the same bed with their parents; sleeping with brothers or sisters; brothers sleeping with sisters; sisters sleeping with brothers; sleeping in the kitchen; sleeping in the cellar or basement. The inquiry extended to 11,904 pupils of the primary schools, and 2,543 pupils of the kindergarten, 14,447 in all. It was found that 2,442 children, or 16.89 per cent, had EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 103 insufficient foot wear; 3 ; 620, or 25.04 per cent, were ill-clothed, and 3,6G3, or 25.35 per cent, were insufficiently fed. The expense necessary to provide for the wants indicated was estimated at 389,000 francs ($77,800) a year. On November 24, 1894, the results of this inquiry were submitted to the sections, and Alderman Andr6 showed not only the magnitude of the obligation which would be imposed upon the city — an obligation out of all proportion to its resources — but also the insufficiency of its resources. Experience shows, unfortunately, that any charitable distribution immediately gives rise to crowds of petitioners whose demands it is impossible to avoid and whose ingenious combinations it is equally impossible to baffle. He also objected to the transformation and extension of the school soup supply, the fear that parents would become by its means indifferent to their child- ren, and that it would conduce to destroying the family sentiments. The real sub- ject for discussion, according to him, was whether the commune ought to be a substitute for parents in clothing and feeding their children. Another member, M. Furnemont, .after expressing his opinion that the figures of the report should be verified, requested that an inquiry should be made into similar organizations in Belgium and abroad. After much discussion the question was adjourned until fur- ther study of the matter, especially abroad, could be made. (The schedule of questions sent to foreign countries is given later on in the report.) We have coordinated the returns, although the differences between the political or charitable organizations of different countries do not allow an absolutely exact comparison. Some general principles, however, are deduced from the inquiry. These are: First. That nowhere is the right to assistance in food and clothing recognized for all pupils. Second. That except in France the organization of assist- ance for poor pupils is everywhere left to private initiative. At Ghent and Li6ge the communal distributions are confined to kindergartens. It is difficult to draw auy conclusions as far as Brussels is concerned, as may be seen by consulting the column where the expense for each city in proportion to the population is shown. But this is explained by the circumstance that there is no resemblance in the organi- zations of different cities, each having its own. The inquiry, nevertheless, contains some very interesting information. It shows particularly what private initiative can do when the efforts are concentrated, when the attention and the sympathy of the public are kept constantly awakened, and its generosity is exercised in favor of well organized works whose benefits are tangible, evident, and publicly known, and directed to those natural objects of charitable sympathy— children. While in other countries philanthropic associations follow one aim and adhere to it, endeavoring to establish a settled system of charitable work and gather for it and about it the needed resources in order to secure its continued existence and prosperity ; our own people dissipate their activity and revenues upon a multiplicity of charities which are not related to one another and are successively taken up and abandoned. We exhaust our resources in building up hastily devised organizations which are ill-sus- tained, and when the critical moment comes, when the obligations exceed the receipts, and the public, assailed and solicited on all sides, turns away and forgets us, then we endeavor to make the public authorities undertake the burden which we had rashly assumed. Perhaps we might derive a useful lesson from the practice of other countries in this matter. The examination of the situation, which the inquiry has revealed, has not altered the opinion of the college as to the principle involved of the commune assuming the obligation of supplying food and clothing to the children attending the public schools. We wish to express our appreciation of the generous ideas which have prompted the charity of school soup and clothing, nor shall we make difficulties in giving them our individual support and, within certain limits, the aid of the city, but there is a great step from this to transforming what is the part of private initiative into a public service of general obligation. The reason is simple. Where a private individual finds a person who has met with 104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. misfortune, lie helps him to the extent of his power without stopping to inquire whether his intervention may not have moral consequences which will he unfor- tunate for the assisted one. He follows the impulse of his heart and is otherwise free from responsibility. His charity may he well or ill directed, hut he is master of his property and may do what he likes with it. But the mission of public authority is different, and when it is proposed to create through it, in perpetuity, a vast organi- zation of charities, it is its duty to inquire whether the remedy is not worse than the disease, whether the moral consequences of the project, which are inevitable, will not he disastrous, and, in short, whether the result will not he diametrically opposite to what the advocates of the new ideas expected. We. no longer believe in the simple formulas which the French revolution applied as a remedy to social miseries. A long and sad experience has taught us that the evangelical command, “Feed those who are hungry and clothe those who are naked,” is not a solution. When we come to discuss the evil effects of official benevolence, which is inspired by the simple principle we have pointed out, we come to the unanimous conclusion that, aside from cases of accidental distress, gratuitous assistance always ends in the moral deterioration of the assisted. It is the extension and revival, under a modern form, of the distribution of food which the religious orders used to make every day in former times, and which resulted in the mainte- nance of whole communities in poverty and idleness. In regard to the children whose condition was found to be precarious, the question wa3 whether their parents were to blame for their poverty or not. It was found that most of the children were the victims of the idleness, debauchery, and improvi- dence of their parents, or sometimes of the ignorance of housewifery on the part of the mothers. As far as unmerited poverty is concerned, in the case of the children of widows or of persons temporarily in distress in consequence of stoppage of work or of sick- ness, it is not only the children who need assistance from the public, but the entire family, which must be aided either by providing work for the father or in supplying the urgent needs of the family during the critical period. The child can receive food and clothing at school, as a case of urgency, but aside from such cases, school aid will find sufficient resources in private initiative and the charities it has ingeni- ously created and maintained. But there is a further consideration. It is expected that all the children who shall need or seem to need assistance will be permanent beneficiaries. Is it not obvious that this is the surest waj r to increase largely the number of these children who are practically orphans, although they have parents? So that with a charitable object in A r iew, and acting from sentiment rather than reason, people would sever the last tie that unites parents to their children, that makes them sensible of the obligations they have undertaken, and that removes the last consideration which prevents them from yielding irrevocably to that base and egotistic conception of life which leads to idleness or drunkenness. This condition has been described by a French econo- mist as one in which the poor are put at their casein their poverty instead of being urged to free themselves from it, and it would be accentuated by the method above recommended. Whence comes the obligation upon the public to take the place of parents and replace with the public funds those which have been perverted to debauchery or idleness? It is useless to urge that this obligation is the same as that of public instruction. Instruction is a great social interest and something which every citizen can not provide for hi3 children, aud therefore it is the duty of the public to organize schools and facilitate access to them. But to provide food and clothing is not a part of the public service, and it can not be seen that there is any obligation to provide for evident but purely personal needs unless it can be shown that parents are absolutely unable to give their children the necessaries of life. On the contrary, we should strive to awaken the sense of dignity in the man afflicted by poverty, urge him to earn the assistance which is given him, rouse him from the demoralizing acquiescence in the continuance of this assistance, and make him EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 105 feel the spur of necessity. Efforts should he directed to avoiding the contingencies of unmerited poverty by developing the spirit of providence, order, and economy, and facilitating the practice of these virtues. As to those who remain refractory to all efforts to rouse them and remain dead to all moralizing influences, what is gained by aiding them? The money that would be thus retained from the maintenance of their children would be paid out for drink, and thus the evils which charity, whether public or private, engenders about us, in spite of all precautions, would be extended. It should not be concluded from the foregoing that nothing should be or has been done, for this would be to forget the outburst of philanthropy which provides warm clothing for poor school children every winter. The ladies of the school associations, benevolent societies, and the young ladies of our paying schools also make contri- butions. In the primary schools the clothing charities make frequent and abundant distributions of clothing, and the members of the teaching force in certain schools have devoted the profits of certain emoluments to the use of the poor children. The administration of charities has helped us greatly by providing clothing for 1,435 children since the 1st of January. Finally the communal council allotted 10,440 francs for the purchase of supplies for the course of manual training in girls’ schools, and the clothing thus made is distributed to the othe:: needy school children. Nor should we leave out of account the sanitary inspection of the communal schools which has been initiated by a number of cities both in Belgium and abroad. Six- teen physicians have charge of the schools, each of whom has to visit a certain num- ber of them at least once in ten days. The health office has a check upon these visits through the thermometric bulletins which the physicians are obliged to sign at each visit. Children in poor health take every day a dose of cod-liver oil or of zootrophic powder, which is supplied by the public charities. These medicines are adminis- tered by the teachers. Each child has a glass, which is washed every day. Once a month the school physician witnesses the distribution. A dentist visits the schools every week and attends to the teeth of the children. In 1894-95, 3,676 children were subjected to preventive treatment and at the end of the year a considerable improvement was observed in 3,409 cases, or 92.7 per cent, and 1,292 were treated by the dentist. This shows services of inestimable value for the people, which could not, however, take the form of charity, and notwithstand- ing the expense, which may be put at 10,000 or 11,000 francs a year, the city did not hesitate to organize and extend them. As to food, the “ Progress” Club organized, with the help of the city, a service for supplying a plate of hot soup, with bread, to the children designated by the teachers. This organization, wherein private initia- tive plays the leading part, has the great advantage, resulting from the very limita- tion of its resources, that its extension beyond what is strictly useful is forbidden, whereby abuses are prevented. We believe that this organization will continue, aided by the city, to exercise its charitable functions, possibly with some improve- ments in the details of its management. The annual expense of distributing clothing aud food to all the school children who need them would amount to about 389,000 francs ($77,800), without including certain expenses of administration, superintendence, and installation. In the session of November 26, 1894, Councilor Richald, on the strength of figures supplied by the president of the “ Progress” Club, estimated that 51,000 francs ($10,200) would be sufficient for all needs. There is evidently here some misunderstanding. There is no doubt that if it is only a question of prolonging the service, as at present organ- ized, throughout the year, 51,000 francs would be sufficient. But the members of the council who are in favor of the organization of school canteens and wardrobes wish to go much further and, from their point of view, they are doubtless right. The allotment of 51,000 francs on the advice of the “ Progress” Club is, perhaps, a con- cession to public sensibility, but it is only a partial solution. In fact, while the soup does the poor children good by warming their stomachs, it can hardly be called food. The stew which is given them from time to time is more substantial, but even 106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. that does not realize tlie fall idea of nourishment, and no physician -would say that it does. On the other hand, there are parents who use these distributions as a pre- text for not giving their children anything to eat at noon. Physicians declare that every child who does not eat meat or eggs four times a week is insufficiently nourished. The discussion as to school nourishment has been carried to high ground, so as to cover the future of the nation and the conservation of the species. Now if we start upon this ground, it is no longer soup alone which must be furnished, but a nourishment sufficient to make up for the insufficiency of the family food, in which case 389,000 francs would doubtless be needed to defray all expenses on that score. This expenditure does not include bedding, which is a more difficult question. Poor people crowd together, and the want of bedding is very often not due to their poverty so much as the want of space. It would be useless to give them beds and mattresses since they would have no place to put them. No estimate can be made upon this point. Questions of the kind before us should be examined dispassionately, avoiding as much as possible all appeal to the sensibilities. The inquiry requested by the coun- cil has been carried out as loyally and completely as possible, and it has now been informed upon the different points raised in the interrogatory which was sent out. It knows the needs and the cost. It should not be forgotten that the inquiry was limited to children attending the communal schools, and thatthe reasons for providing school canteens and wardrobes for these children apply as well to those who attend other schools and those who do not go to school at all. The number of children of school age is about 27,000, or nearly double the number of those attending the com- munal schools. Taking the same proportion, we should have an expenditure of nearly 800,000 francs ($160,000) if the remaining children were to receive the benefit of the food and clothing distribution. We have already answered the question whether the city ought to bear this expense, and an examination of the budget will show that it can not bear it. It is, of course, desirable to relieve or suppress the mis- eries of poor children, but where could the city get the funds for such an object ? There are many good purposes for which money is wanting, and there are no means of getting it. The financial conditions of the administration of large cities is becom- ing more and more complex and difficult, while the demands upon the duties of the commune are augmenting every day. But the public energetically resists every contribution which is asked from it in exchange for the service it recei ves, and the communal resources are based, in fact, upon special services which are essentially uncertain in their nature. It therefore seems preferable to continue to provide for the most pressing needs with the assist- ance of public charity and that of benevolent individuals. To propose to create vast services of charity and not be able to carry them out for want of funds is to arousb hopes which can not be realized and make the poor feel still more keenly the extent of their poverty. Besides, we repeat, this course favors improvidence, vice, and idleness, and encourages the unworthy to amass themselves around those who are temporarily and unmeritedly in want. As a general rule no gifts should be gratuitous, but all assistance should be paid for by work when the man is well. Every other form of charity degrades a man and perpetuates lii3 poverty and that of his children. The necessity of working for their children is with many the last guaranty of the preservation of personal dignity and the highest prompting of conscience toward work and sobriety. It does not do to cheapen this condition of mind, and on this point we can repeat the words of M. Paulian in his work on poverty, “ A benefit wrongly bestowed is a wrong.” EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 107 The summary of the results of the investigation for communal schools is as follows : Total number of pupils attending the primary schools 11, 904 Number wearing wooden shoes 2, 347 Number wearing leather shoes 8, 536 Number wearing slippers 187 Number wearing other footwear 834 With insufficient footwear 1, 910 Number whose shoes are satisfactory 9, 994 Number who are habitually neatly and cleanly clothed 10, 438 Number of those whose clothing is habitually dirty and untidy 1, 466 Number of those who receive clothing from charitable sources 2, 187 Number who should receive such on account of their habitual condition 2, 783 Children who habitually come to school dirty (face, hair, hands, neck) 876 Number who are bathed all over at least ten times a year 5, 577 Number who take foot baths at least once a week 9, 086 Number who wash the entire body once a week 8, 234 Number who have no pocket handkerchief 1, 924 Number who take the noon soup provided for the school 3, 109 Number who appear to be insufficiently fed 2, 120 KINDERGARTENS. Total number of pupils 2, 543 Number with wooden shoes 392 Number with leather shoes 1, 925 Number with slippers 51 Number who have other kinds of shoes 175 Number who are ill furnished 532 Number who are sufficiently furnished 2, 011 Number whose clothing is habitually clean and neat 2, 090 Number whose clothing is dirty and slovenly 453 Number who receive clothing from a charity 1, 215 Number who ought to receive it from charity 837 Number who come to school habitually dirty (face, hair, hands, neck) 212 Number who take baths at least ten times a year 1, 204 Number who take foot baths at least once a week . 1, 898 Number who take baths every week 2, 009 Number who have no pocket handkerchief 492 Number who take the noon soup provided for the schools 860 Number who appear to be insufficiently fed 354 LODGING, PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Children sleeping alone 10, 543 Having no bed 538 Sleeping in the same room -with their jiarents 5, 635 Sleeping in the same bed with their parents •. z 590 Brothers sleeping with sisters 578 Sleeping in the kitchen 2, 608 Sleeping in a cellar or basement 99 KINDERGARTENS. Sleeping alone 2, 031 Without bod 146 Sleeping in the same room with parents 1, 526 Sleeping in the same bed with parents 165 Sleeping with brothers 688 Sleeping with sisters 649 Sleeping in the kitchen 686 Sleeping in the basement or cellar 11 108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. NOURISHMENT, MEDICAL INQUIRY. Primary schools. Kinder- gartens. Number of pupils whose health i3 habitually — Good 8,410 2, 231 963 1, 801 522 202 Medium Bad Total 11, 604 9, 042 2, 513 2, 525 1.862 663 "With sufficient nourishment . "With insufficient nourishment _ Total........ 11, 555 2, 525 The physicians state that these statistics are not of the highest value in the case of the kindergartens, on account of the difficulty in obtaining reliable information as to the nourishment either from the children themselves or the teachers. As to health, they depended on absences for sickness, the nature of the maladies, and the constitutional condition of the children. As to nourishment, they deemed a child insufficiently fed who did not have meat or eggs at least four times a week. Distribution of school soup in Brussels. Period of distribu- tion. (Nov. to Mar. 1.) Number of distribu- tions. Total expense. Hem arks. 1888-89 110,661 185, 640 299, 359 274, 328 289, 363 248, 666 253, 090 $811. 83 2. 188. 86 3, 120. 05 2, 898. 28 3, 963. 54 2,711. 56 2, 618. 79 Ordinary soup of the cooperative society. Special soup prepared for the children. Stew twice a week. From 1892 each child receives one ration of bread. 1889-90 1890- 91 1891- 92 1892 93 1893-94 1894-95 In 1890-91 the soup was distributed during seventeen weeks at an average cost of $189.40 per week. In 1891-92, seventeen weeks, average $190.40 per week. In 1892-93, fifteen weeks, at $264.20 per week. In 1893-91, thirteen weeks, at $206 per week. The bread rations amounted to 4,725 pounds in all. In 1894-95, sixteeu weeks, averaging $165.60 per week; bread 4,902 pounds. The Progress Club receives annually — First. From the city $1, 000 Second. From the committee on markets 600 The balance of the cost is paid by members of the club. Wants for tvliich provision should be made. 1,910> 2,442 children with bad shoes who ought to have one pair of galoches each in winter, 532/ at 40 cents $976. 80 2,T83i 3,620 children poorly clothed, each of whom should have one suit a year, at $2 - 7, 240. 00 2,513a 3,176 children insufficiently fed 1 69, 554.40 77, 771. 20 The report continues with tables showing the number of distributions of food and clothing to pupils of the primary schools and kindergartens in various other cities in Belgium, France, Holland, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, giving the source of the assistance, whether public or private, and the cost. 1 If only one meal is given at noon, the expense would be one-half this sum, or $34,777.20. EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 109 Table of sums distributed for food and clothing of poor children in the primary schools and kindergartens indifferent cities. Cities. Population. School popula- tion. Number of pupils aided. Total amount expended. Mean per inhabit- ant. Mean per pupil. Cities tvhere aid is given to necedy pupils without their request. Ghent 155, 746 14, 446 1, 9C0 $2, 280 $0. 017 $0. 158 Bordeaux 252, 102 18. 000 3, 600 6, 000 .024 .333 Rotterdam 272, 042 13, 900 3, 500 3, 440 .013 .247 Berlin 1, 820, 340 183, 633/ 3, 500 7, 500 2, 051\ 25, 051/ .015 .158 Dresden 320, GOO 30, 000 300 750 .002 .025 Vienna 1, 495, 764 162, 786 13, 097 71, 404 .048 .439 Cities where aid is given to needy chil- dren at the request of parents. Antwerp 256, 000 «18, 244 550 3, 200 .012 .175 Paris 2, 424, 000 143, 554 17, 263 161,000 .066 1. 120 Lyons 438, 077 21, 500 8, 000 12, 000 .027 .558 Lille 200, 325 17, 300 11,000 11,800 .057 .658 Ronbaix 115, 390 12, 983 10, 125 13, 533 .115 1.671 Marseilles 406, 919 25, 605 3, 400 600 4, 753 .011 .185 Barmen 128, 129 22, 656 3, 750 .029 .165 Geneva 80, 111 a 3, 664 330 1, 650 .021 .445 Zurich 126, 497 a 10, 171 161 292 .002 .028 City where assistance is given partly to all pupils and where needy children alone receive the other part. Liege 160, 841 16,040 6, 891 6, 720 [ .042 .41 a Primary schools only. The report gives the following information, concerning the organizations of the charities for poor school children of the official schools in the various cities mentioned : 1. Cities where assistance is given to needy children only , without their request. BELGIUM. Ghent. — Children attending the dcoles gardiennes, whose parents request it, may- stay at the school all day and receive one ration of soup at noon. The number of such children diminishes in proportion as the schools multiply and are nearer the homes of the children. FRANCE. Bordeaux. — Food and clothing arc supplied by socidtds de patronage. Some schools only receive food. For the dcoles maternelles there are ladies’ committees, who make the clothing. HOLLAND. Botterdam. — Food was first supplied to school children in 1885 by a private individ- ual, M. Koenc, who boro all the expenses of this charity until 1891. The number of children increasing from year to year and M. Koene no longer being able to supply all the wants, two friends of his joined him in the work, the value of which is now recognized, and it receives donations from all sides. The city provides the rooms. M. Koene and his friends also distributed clothing to needy children; but a society having been formed in 1893 for the distribution of clothing, the first company only attends to the food. GERMANY. Berlin. — The Yerein fiir Kindervolksldichen, which is not subsidized by the city, furnished 500,000 complete meals in 1894, the first year of its existence. If we suppose that the distribution only took place in the winter months, or for 125 days, and that the cost per meal was 5 cents, this society must have fed 4,000 children and paid out 110 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. $25,000. The money for this purpose is derived from interest of endowments admin- istered by the city, subscriptions from charitable clubs, and appropriations made by the city. AUSTRIA. Vienna . — The distribution of food is carried out by a society which has its office at the Hotel de Ville, and is administered by a commission of 30 members, 8 of whom are delegates from the communal council. Its bank deposit is supplied by an annual subsidy of $10,000 from the city, by legacies, gifts, and assessments upon its members. The receipts from these last three sources amounted to $6,906 in 1893-94, of which $2,681 was added to the reserve fund, which amounts to $54,875, producing an annual revenue of $2,655. The expense of the distribution for 1893-94 was $14,623.50. The society appoints a local committee in each quarter, whose duty is to make inquiries and superintend the distributions. In Vienna there are creches, £coles gardiennes, and kindergartens. The first two are attended only by children of the ’working classes, while the kindergartens have pupils from the well to do. In the creches and in certain dcoles gardiennes all the pupils are fed free of expense. In the other £coles gardiennes food is only supplied gratis to those pupils who do not go home at noon. The same is true in certain official kindergartens. The city grants an appropriation for these schools. All indigent children can participate in the gratuitous distribution of clothing without the necessity of going to school for that purpose. Orphans or abandoned children committed by the city to foster fathers get their clothing from them. If they can not furnish it, they can obtain it from the commit- tee on charities, on proper representation, the funds coming from legacies, orphans’ banks, subscriptions, etc. Funds for supplying clothing in winter through local com- mittees come from similar sources and from appropriations to each committee by the communal administration. This appropriation amounts to $8,000. 2. Cities where indigent children receive aid at the request of their parents. BELGIUM. Antwerp . — All children in the kindergartens participate in the distribution of soup, and pay at the rate of 1 cent per plate when the cost is l-£ cents. In 1893 the total expense for kindergartens was $8,400, while the children paid $7,000. The expense is borne by the bureau of charities. Clothing is supplied by private societies. FRANCE. Paris . — The law of 1882 affecting public instruction made it obligatory upon the communes to establish one or more school banks, whose funds are supplied by the city, the department, and the State, together with private gifts. Their object is to furnish assistance of all kinds to indigent children — clothing, shoes, food, school books, financial aid, school colonies. The school banks of Paris possess a large reserve fund. In 1892 their receipts proper amounted to $232,553, besides grants from the conseil general, the municipality, and the Government. Their expenses during the same period were $379,216, only a very small portion of which was devoted to food. In 1893 the contribution of the school banks to the school canteens amounted to only $1,500. The food is distributed by the school canteens, and is free for poor children. Chil- dren who are able to pay can get a complete meal for 2 or 3 cents, the net cost being 5 or 6 cents. The school canteens are administered by the commission of school banks. Lyons . — Food is furnished by the school canteens, which are under the direction of the municipal authorities. These canteens furnish meals for tickets, which are sup- plied gratis to needy children and sold at 3 cents each to those who can afford to pay for them. EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. Ill Lille . — The city only subsidizes the school bank. Some societies have organized canteens for primary schools. Rouhaix . — The distribution of food and clothing is made by the school bank. The pupils of the primary schools receive no food yet, but will soon participate in the distribution. Alarseilles . — The food is distributed in the school canteens, which also sell it at a low price to nonindigent children. Clothing is distributed by the school bank. GERMANY. Barmen . — Most of the money for food and clothing for poor children comes from private sources. SWITZERLAND. Geneva . — There is no central committee. The first kitchens were established in 1887 by a private society, which superintended the distribution. Owing to the inconven- ience of attending to this work — which often required going some distance — and the increase in the work itself, it was finally turned over to independent local committees. 3. Cities where aid is given in part to all the pupils, the indigent alone receiving the other part. BELGIUM. Liege . — Gratuitous distribution of food to the children of kindergartens has been going on for more than forty years. All children of these schools can participate in it. Clothing is only given to the needy children who are designated by the head teachers. The city lends the poor children cloaks for the winter, which must bo returned at the close of the season. There is besides a distribution of clothing by a society, “Le vestiaire liberal,” which distributed 3,558 articles (shoes, trousers, shirts, etc.) in 1893-94 at a cost of $1,900. In all the preceding cases the distribution requires some formality, such as request, authorization by the committees, etc. SECONDARY SCHOOLS — RECENT CHANGES IN THE CURRICULUM. In bis report for the triennial period 1891-1893 the minister of public instruction considers the effect of the changes introduced into the public secondary schools of Belgium by a decree of 1888. The matter is an interesting contribution to the general discussions of secondary educa- tion now going on in all the leading countries of Europe. This portion of the minister’s report is here cited : ROYAL ATHfiNEES (SECONDARY SCHOOLS). During the triennial period 1891-1893 the organization, established by royal decree of the 30th of August, 1888, taking the place of that of the 30tli of June, 1881, was applied successively to the fourth, third, and second classes, so that at the end of that period only pupils in ancient and modern humanities of the class of rhetoric were still under the regime of the decree of 1881.' 1 By this order the ath^ndes are now organized in three sections : Section of ancient humanities, including both Greek and Latin; section including Latin only; and the section of modern humanities, having neither Latin nor Greek. There are seven classes in each section, the seventh or lowest being in a sense preparatory; the highest class is the first or rhetoric. The section of modern humanities divides after the fourth class, and has two divisions in each of the following classes — the scien- tific and the commercial. 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. The vote on the law of superior instruction, and the decree issued in conformity with the advice of the u Council for the improvement of superior instruction,” making Greek compulsory upon students who are destined for medicine, prohibits the division of the Latin section into a scientific section, and a section of natural sciences in any class above the third. The Latin section includes only students pursuing the mathematical studies neces- sary for entering special schools. It has not been possible to allow students pre- paring for medicine to pursue the course of chemistry, which would, however, much facilitate their studies for candidacy in natural sciences. Condition of studies . — In a general report to tho Government the supervisor of intermediate instruction describes the situation as to the progress of studies as follows : “Although it will not be possible before the close of the school year 1893-94 to estimate the results obtained in the class of rhetoric under tho new programme, and to decide if it was well to substitute it for that of 1881, yet it may bo said that experience during the last six years justifies favorable expectations. “ If tho programme of 1888 does not realize perfection (and what part of the pro- gramme of studies may not be criticised with more or less reason?), it has made improvements in several respects, namely : Diminution of the number of obligatory modern languages; change in the number of hours assigned to different studies; branches distributed .through a greater number of years; the humanities better divided; Flemish made as important as French; the study of Greek made more serious and connected with only one division of humanities; separation reestab- lished and made more radical between secondary instruction of the higher degree and that of the lower degree (enseignement moyen de degre superieur et l’enseignement moyen de degrd inferieur).” Improvement resulting from these different changes is now quite manifest. Latin . — Although Latin is taught at present for seven years, when it might be learned in five years under the regime of the law of 1881, it is given fewer hours than before — fifty- three instead of fifty-six. Tho highest maximum for Latin is eight hours a week; in the sixth class it has seven hours, and in the seventh class six hours. It was found that the twelve hours for Latin which might be assigned to poetry and rhetoric were too many; that it was very difficult for professors to vary exer- cises sufficiently to hold the students’ attention so long. The time and the pro- gramme as now existing are more favorable to the study of Latin; however, the results of the “concours” (competitive examination) do not yet allow us to say how great a change has been produced. Yet there is no need of haste in judging the new programme, whose working has been attended by certain difficulties; in effect, without sensibly increasing tho personnel, it lias been necessary to create two new classes — the seventh and sixth of the ancient humanities. In the athenees where the seventh and sixth classes were doubled one of the sec- tions has become the section of Latin and the other that of modern humanities. In tho other athenees one of the two professors of the seventh and the sixth has been assigned for the instruction in Latin in both classes, the other to French. This arrangement presents the inconvenience of joining, for instruction in French, two classes of different preparation, for whom the course in French should be differently taught. The change in the duties of professors has also proved unfortunate; a professor assigned to a new course necessarily needs time to ascertain how to make bis instruction profitable. Furthermore, from the fact that students of the class of rhetoric do not appear to have a more thorough acquaintance with Latin than their schoolmates of the lower classes, it would be rash to conclude that tho new pro- gramme does not contribute to increase the force of studies. The last “concours” (competitive examination) showed sensible progress in EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. m translating, yet there is mucli to gain; the Latin theme (translation into Latin) in the superior class of the ath6n£e is still defective. * * * Greek . — Before 1888 Greek was taught four years, and its study began in the fourth Latin. Six hours a week were given to Latin and Greek humanities; in Latin humanities, for students who aspired to special schools and a doctorate in physical and mathematical sciences, the study of Greek was obligatory in the fourth and optional in the three higher classes. In Latin humanities, for students destined for natural sciences and medicine,. Greek was obligatory in the fourth and fifth classes and optional in the two higher. Under the programme of 1888 Greek is taught only in Greek-Latin humanities. The study commences in the fifth class and continues five years at the rate of five> hours a week, thus making twenty-five hours instead of twenty-four. The new programme is more favorable to Greek than the old, because the subject is distributed over five years instead of four, and begins two years after Latin. In the study of Greek and Latin there has been a question of making trial of the» inductive method; but before coming to a decision the Government ordered an examination of the inductive method of Halle in the monthly conferences of the- atlienees. Opinions were divided, but the unfavorable were the most numerous. Nevertheless, a professor of the athfnde has been charged to make trial of that method for two years, with Greek in the fifth and fourth classes. Results in Greek vary much with different professors. In the athdn^es, where- professors of rhetoric seek to enable studeifts to translate at sight certain authors more or less easy, the result is far from being uniform, and it is to be remarked that if under the old system good professors receiving in the class of rhetoric scholars already well prepared, did not expound to them a complete oration of Demosthenes,, nor the Crito of Plato, nor an entire tragedy of Euripides, nevertheless, by numer- ous extracts, by happy choice of dictated passages for translation, they succeeded in imparting to young men incipient acquaintance with the principal examples of Greek literature. . French . — The programme of 1881 assigned to French twenty-six hours; that of 1888, twenty-eight, distributed as follows : Seven hours in the seventh class, six hours in the- sixth, and three in each of the five higher classes, which before that had only two- hours a week; this was too little. The authors of the programme supposed that- exercise in translation would contribute to the study of French, but that exercise, though done with greatest care, could not do so, nor even serve to impart acquaint- ance with the principles of literature, and time was lacking for reading and com- menting upon authors. The study of French, therefore, has been reenforced in raising from two to three= the hours per week assigned to it in the higher classes. Before 1888 literary branches were rather neglected, and the useful were in too much favor. There was a sort of apathy in the matter of literature. It was easy to recommend reading at home, but few pupils had the time for that. To-day the programme is less crowded and literary taste is perceptibly rising. However, it is well to avoid going to an extreme by confining the lower classes? exclusively to the literary analysis of French authors. The study of grammar in these classes is of highest importance, but it is a mis- take to make the exercise of reading simply the occasion for grammatical theories. Only the explanations are desirable which serve to elucidate the text. * * * History and geography . — Under this head the report says that the former programme, being found fully satisfactory, has been continued. The following brief paragraphs are interesting: A sensible difference has been shown between results in the two rhetorics. Pupils in that of modern humanities are quite superior to their fellows in ancient. This can be attributed to nothing else than the importance attached to history and geog- raphy in examinations for the military schools. ED 9!) 8 114 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. Tli© jury charged with the correction of examinations in history have found that answers made in Flemish were much more correct than those made in French. In many of the latter the precise word is often wanting. That difference arises from the fact that a goodly number of Flemish pupils render their answers in French, when tli© course has been given in Flemish. . * * * Germanic, language . — The programme of 1881 imposed too many languages. Pupils in the fifth class had five, those in the fourth, six. It was too much to exact of children of thirteen and fourteen years, who, with very rare exceptions, can derive but little benefit from such superabundance of school work. All these languages continue to figure in the programme of 1888, but they have ceased to be compulsory. It might be supposed that the majority of pupils would content themselves with studying obligatory languages, leaving the best endowed to follow optional courses; there has been nothing of this, and the majority would prefer to continue the study of all languages, notwithstanding the futility of their efforts. In order to prevent mediocre students from wasting their time in such work it has been decided that only those who have obtained 0.6 of the total points allowed for compulsory languages should be permitted to study the optional languages. In the scientific section the courses of modern languages have an importance which is quite different from that accorded to them in examinations for admission into special schools. The student who presents French needs to have studied but one more language — Flemish, German, English, or Latin; while in the scientific sec- tion of the athen^es, to be in regular standing, he must have studied two of these languages, and the passage from one class to another is not allowed unless progress in the two other languages besides French is satisfactory. German . — The general “ concours ” (examination) justifies the statement that in the athen<$es instruction in modern language is A ery thorough. The results have been satisfactory in the two rhetorics, and especially so in the classes under the programme of 1888. These results will be further emphasized hereafter if greater importance is attached to grammar. At the request of the ath<5n<5e d’Arion there has been organized a special “ con- cours ” for German. Work presented by contestants has been weak, below that of the ordinary “ concours ” in that language. The distinctions were nearly all won by German students not belonging to the German region of the country. English . — Results in the English language have been inferior to those in German. Mathematics . — In the preceding report the Government put forth some rather important changes in the programme of mathematics, so as to render the study more simple and attractive, especially for students in Greek-Latin humanities, and dimin- ished the number, entirely too large, of those Avho finish their studies without knowing, so to speak, anything about mathematics, or having only too incomplete acquaintance to derive any benefit from it hereafter. Important progress has been made in the study of algebra. Instead of devoting numerous lessons to algebraic operations which discourage pupils by their difficul- ties, professors require students to solve and discuss problems, an exercise particu- larly Avell adapted to awaken the intelligence of pupils and stimulate their endeavors. The change of method met with some opposition, but results obtained by those who unhesitatingly adopted the new methods have led others to leave off old errors and recognize that, for students in the Greco-Latin sections, the study of mathe- matics is only a means of developing their understanding and li$s not the purpose of imparting determinate knowledge. Pupils on leaving the first scientific class continue to succeed in examinations for admission into special schools; the success obtained by them subsequently proves the advantage of an education complete, and of studies reasonably conducted without being limited to matters required for the entrance examination. Physics and chemistry . — A change has been wrought in the programme of physics with intent to lessen its tension ^n the third class of modern humanities and in the EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 115 second of ancient humanities. That part of light relative to refraction has been carried back to the programme of the second class in the section of modern humani- ties and to the class of rhetoric in that of ancient humanities. The requirement for future doctors of medicine, that they should present certifi- cates of studies showing that they have pursued the course in Greek, has obliged these students to stop the study of chemistry, despite the important advantages offered by it for their university studies. The course of chemistry, not being pursued except by students, always few, of the second and first commercial classes, lost much oi its importance at the very time when laboratories were thoroughly organized in the majority of the secondary schools. Commercial sciences . — The programme of bookkeeping in the fourth class has been divided. One part is now given in the fifth class, occupying one hour a we^k, the rest in the fourth, with two hours a week. The time devoted to that study remains the same. The division was made in the hope that pupils destined for scientific studies would continue in the fourth class the study of accounts begun in the fifth, so that thus the professor of commerce might not see his course neglected by students. That hope does not seem to have been realized. In the fifth class all the students follow regularly the course in commerce, which is important for their passage into the fourth ; it is not the same in the fourth. Those who are to go into the scientific section know that results obtained in commerce have no influence upon their passage into the third class, where they are to pursue it no further. It would be of importance, however, to future engineers and directors of work- shops to have thorough knowledge of accounting. This would enable them to verify their own books and render them more exact in the management of their business. Drawing . — Results in the course in drawing vary considerably in different athenees. They depend less on the artistic accomplishment of the professor than upon his pedagogical aptitude and especially the order and discipline which he maintains. In fine, to obtain regular and continued work on the part of students prizes are bestowed upon the oasis of all the marks obtained during the year. At the end of each trimester the professor sends to the prefect the work of the students with his marks. For students in the scientific section it has been recommended to attach much importance to linear drawing. Examinations in descriptive geograj)hy, held during the lessons in drawing, are much more careful than formerly. The correctors of the general examination notice that improvement. Gymnastics . — Instruction iu gymnastics during the triennial period, 1891-1895, remained as it was in the preceding period. Courses are organized in all the estab- lishments of intermediate instruction, and in the majority of them half-hour lessons are given conformably to ministerial instructions. Nevertheless in several athenees and in a certain number of intermediate schools each lesson lasts a full hour. How- ever, the number of institutions wherein this obtains diminishes from year to year. The lessons, more often than otherwise, are given after class hours; that is to say, at 11 or half past 11, sometimes at noon, or at 4 o’clock. The consequence is that students who reside at considerable distances from school generally leave without participating in the exercises. The material required for this exercise, good, or reasonably so, in some establish- ments, is quite inferior in others. In some of the schools there is no equipment for this work, communal authorities almost always refusing to make expenditures, without which the course can not be given to any advantage. Such conditions dis- courage both professors and students, and are the cause of much weakness and irregularity. 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-89. TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BELGIUM. The system of technical and industrial training for which Belgium is somewhat noted is not as a whole under the charge of the minister of public instruction. Three grades or degrees of this instruction are recognized : To the Qlementaiy degree pertain the “ ecoles profession- nelles ; 77 to the intermediate grade, the industrial schools; both of these classes are under the minister of industry and labor. The superior degree of technical instruction is comprised in the engineering depart- ments of the universities, which are under the charge of the minister of education. It is not always possible to distinguish between the first two classes of schools, i. b., the “ecoles profession!] elles 77 and the industrial schools; indeed, a few schools have both characters. In a report presented before the International Congress on Technical Educa- tion (London, 1897), M. Edouard Seve describes these schools as follows: In general, it may be said that the industrial schools are in session in the evening and on Sunday, and the students are workmen or employees occupied in workshops during the day. The “ professional” schools are open every week day and have their own shops, where the pupils are trained in manual work. As regards their direction and support, the schools of either of the two classes may be public (communal) schools or private (libre). The former are administered by a commission in which communal delegates must form a majority, the latter — that is, the private schools — are administered by representatives of industries affected, or by syndicates formed by the workmen. The expenses of the schools, both the “ pro- fessional 77 and the industrial, are borne by the State, the province, the commune, and by private persons. Generally the State bears one- third of the expense (exclusive of rents and the receipts from day pupils) for the industrial schools and two thirds for the “ professional, 77 whose expenses are the heavier. The programmes of the schools vary according to the locality, but they all have a common base, which comprises drawing, mathematics, geometry, elements of x>hysics and of mechanics, hygiene, and industrial economics. Each school has its special practical course appropriate to the industry of the locality. In this course drawing plays an impor- tant part, developing according to the demands of the technical arts. Further particulars respecting the professional schools (ecoles profes- sionnelles) are comprised in a paper on technical instruction and private initiative in Belgium, presented before the same congress by Oscar Pyfferoen, doctor of laws and doctor of political and administrative science and professor at the University of Ghent. JUcolcs professionnelles . — The expression professional applied to schools which give instruction in special manual arts is misleading # iu its Eng- lish form, because the term has so long been applied to schools of a very different character. Its meaning as applied to technical schools EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 117 in Belgium and also in France is made clear by Professor Pyfferoen by the enumeration of the special trades for which their training prepares. These are tailoring, shoemaking, painting, carpentering, upholstering, etc. In England such schools are classed indiscriminately as technical and as trade schools. Professor Pyfferoen notes at the outset that in Belgium the State took the initiative in the establishment of these schools, and he contrasts this with the course pursued in England and in Germany. In Germany corporations generally take the initiative in this work. After the value and utility of the schools are assured, the State may come to their aid with small subsidies. In England the polytechnics and higher technical schools have been established almost entirely through the efforts of private individuals and with the aid of funds subscribed by public-spirited citizens. In Belgium the tendency has been to depend upon the State for provision of this kind. As a con- sequence the number of schools has not multiplied heretofore in pro- portion to the local requirements, the difficulties in this respect being greater than are experienced in countries where local effort is the main dependence. Thus for a long time Belgium had only one or two tech- nical (professional) schools for workers in wood and in iron, notably those at Ghent and at Tournay, a few technical courses in industrial schools, a few workshops in the country for workers in textiles, and in Hainaut workshops for apprentices in stonecutting. The reluctance of artisans and manufacturers to establish schools pertaining to their respective industries is explained by their failing to comprehend the value of the training and their unwillingness to bear the initial expense, which is considerable. Those who best understand the importance of the training are themselves too old to profit by it and show little disposition to make provision for others. Development of private initiative . — Within a few years the tendency in this respect has changed somewhat. The Government itself, and especially M. Nyssens, the minister of industry and labor, encourages private initiative and strives to excite it by holding out the hope of State aid. As a consequence of these efforts technical schools have multiplied within a few years, and the State subsidies for these have been increased, reaching in 1898 the sum of $170,000, most of which was applied to schools started by private effort. Private initiative is exercised in three or four forms : (1) In many districts groups of artisans or workmen form syndicates or associations for the purpose of establishing trade schools (ecoles de metiers) and solicit subsidies from the State, the communes, or the provinces. They themselves bear a very small part of the financial charge. Such was the origin of the schools for tailors at Brussels and Liege, schools for tapestry workers, clockmakers, jewelers, aud hair dressers at Brussels ; of armorers at Liege, and the schools for brewers at Ghent. 118 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. By the manner of their origin these various schools are entirely separate from each other. Nowhere in Belgium are found polytechnics like those of England, where all this instruction is concentrated under one direction. As a rule these technical or trade schools of Belgium are day schools equipped with workshops, and have a systematized course extending over two or three years. They are intended to take the actual place of apprenticeship and to turn out complete workmen. From these conditions also it becomes necessary to pay the pupils for coming to the schools, otherwise the parents refuse to send their sons for training, preferring to put them at once into the shop of an employer. Even with the plan of paying pupils for attending, the remuneration is so small that many parents will not sacrifice the chance of higher wages and allow their sons to take the time for training. The men also who make their living by working at the small trades oppose the day trade schools, which being free from commercial compe- tition can sell their products at such prices as they may command. Professor Pyfferoen suggests as a remedy for these apparent evils that the sessions of the schools should be held in the evening, which would enable those who are working to have the benefit of the training while the} 7 are earning wages, and also that the workshops of the schools should be used simply to supplement the theoretic teaching and not to make goods for the market. The advantages of this plan are seen from the school for printers at Brussels, which is an evening school open only to those who are already working at the trade. On the other hand, a serious crisis was provoked by the opening of a day school of metal- lurgy. The young apprentices from this school, passing forth into the workshops, crowded out experienced workmen and excited the jealousy of their fellow laborers. The consequence was a strike, which had a disastrous effect on the industry. (2) Another type of technical schools due to private initiative, and one for which Belgium is specially noted, is found in schools established by the religious orders. The most important schools of this class are the academies of drawing and the St. Luke Technical Schools (ecoles pro- fessionelles St. Luc), directed by the Christian Brothers. The major- ity of the St. Luke schools confine themselves to the trades, for which a knowledge of drawing is the chief requisite; some of them, however, go farther and include workshop practice. Until recently these schools have had no aid from the State. The schools of St. Luke are for day pupils exclusively. But there are numerous orphanages and boarding schools maintained by other religious orders in which technical training finds a place. Such are the schools of the Salesian priests at Liege and of the Brothers of Our Lady of Lourdes at Oostacker and Maltebrugge, which have technical depart- ments, to which day scholars as well as boarders are admitted. The Brothers in charge of the schools take orders for work, but the pupils receive no money for their work. They are, however, lodged, fed, and EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 119 clothed at tlie expense of the establishment. The period of apprentice- ship is from five to six years. According to Professor Pyfferoen the principal objections to the sys- tem of these schools is the length of the period of training under conditions unlike those actually affecting the trades for which the pupils are preparing and the absence of effective stimulus in their daily routine. Complaint is also made that these establishments compete unfairly with private industries. This is not a legitimate objection to the training itself, but simply to the work as managed by the religious orders. Corresponding to the schools for boys maintained by the Brothers are the u ouvroirs” for young girls. These are schools main- tained generally by religious sisterhoods, but in some cases by private individuals, where young women are trained for the manual arts which are open to them, such as the cutting and making of garments, plain sewing, and embroidery. In the same category as regards their pur- pose are the schools of domestic art and economy, which exist in all the cities and many of the rural communes of Belgium. They are attached generally to the elementary school, whether public or private, and are often under the patronage of women of noble rank, and in some cases even of members of the Royal family. (3) The demand for commercial education has given rise to a third form of private initiative in the establishment of technical schools. The Commercial School of Antwerp (Institut Superieur de Commerce d’ Anvers), which has existed for a long time, is a State school. Recently several similar schools have been founded by private effort. These have been established either by church authorities or private associa- tions. An example of the former is found at Louviere. Here a church college has annexed a section of commercial studies which bids fair to surpass even the school at Antwerp. The work of associations is illus- trated by the Cercle Polyglotte of Liege. It comprises 500 members, who pay each a small annual fee. The fund thus secured enables the society to maintain evening schools, where, for a small tuition fee, young men may fit themselves for commercial business. It seldom happens in Belgium that the great manufacturers show the disposition to pro- mote technical training by such princely gifts as are freely subscribed by English manufacturers for the foundation of technical schools. In this respect, France also greatly surpasses Belgium. At Roubaix and at Tourcoing notable schools of spinning, weaving, and dyeing are maintained without public subventions from any source. The only example of this sort in Belgium is that of Yerviers, where subscriptions running up into the hundred thousand francs have been secured for technical schools. In concluding his survey, Professor Pyfferoen says: If in Belgium private initiative has varied developments, it is because of the lib- eral character of our institutions and the assistance afforded by the public authorities. As yet, there is no settled legislation respecting technical instruction in its three 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. degrees. So far the experiments have heen empirical in their character. It seems that it would be desirable to apply to this department the principles adopted for primary instruction, namely, public subsidies for private schools and at the same time the maintenance of public schools at the cost of the State, the provinces, and the communes, which should serve as models to the private establishments or fill the gaps left by private efforts. The hope is also expressed by the author that the policy of giving civil personality to private technical schools may soon be adopted, so that the schools may have the right to receive, to part with, and to manage their own property. Until they have such legal recognition, their existence and future are insecure. The example of England is quoted where the administration of such schools by trust committees has proved eminently successful. Superior technical school . — What has been called the superior or higher degree of technical instruction in Belgium is comprised in schools annexed to the universities, namely, schools of art and manufactures, mining schools, and schools of civil engineering. Two of the four universities — the University of Liege and the University of Ghent — are State universities; the other two — Brussels and Louvain — are private foundations. Each of these universities comprises the four faculties of philosophy and letters, law, science, and medicine. The University of Louvain possesses also a faculty of theology under the surveillance of the Catholic Episcopate of Belgium. A number of technical schools have been grouped around the univer- sities as adjuncts of the faculties of science. All the universities possess schools of engineering and of architecture, but only those belonging to the two State universities have the privi- lege of preparing engineers for the service of the State. The engineer- ing school of Liege recruits the mining service, and that of Ghent prepares engineers for the construction of public roads and bridges. The technical school of the University of Liege, founded in 1825, comprises four sections — the school of mines, the school of arts and manufactures, the section of mechanics, and the section of electricity. These four sections lead respectively to the diploma of honorary engi- neer or of civil engineer of mines ; of civil engineer of arts and manu- factures; of mechanical engineer (d’ingenieur civil mecanicien); of electrical engineer. ^The institution is admirably equipped with appa- ratus, laboratories, etc.; it has an ample teaching force, and the instruction is supplemented by expeditions to the mines and the man- ufactories in which the province of Liege abounds. The special school of civil engineering attached to the University of Ghent comprises an inferior section for the training of assistant engi- neers and a superior division for the training of engineers. This uni- versity possesses also a school of arts and manufactures for young men who seek the diploma of industrial engineer. The school comprises in its programme the branches necessary for the application of the sciences to the general processes of industry and to particular manufactures. It EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 121 consists of a preparatory division having a two years 7 course, and a division for practical work called the special school of arts and manu- factures, in which the course is also two years. This division is open to students from all countries. The Polytechnic School of the University of Brussels, founded in 1873, is intended to teach the application of the sciences to the arts and to industry. It comprises the following sections: Mining, civil, and mechanical engineering, metallurgy, industrial chemistry, and archi- tecture. The University of Louvain has also annexed to it a special school of arts and manufactures, of civil and mining engineering, and a superior school of agriculture. The importance of this provision for higher technical training is indicated by the large proportion of students availing themselves of the same. The official statistics for 1895 show the following distribution of university students for that year : University. Total nmn iter of students. Number in the special schools. Engi- neering. Arts and manu- factures. filifint, 640 1, 248 1,636 1, 311 145 a ‘l 71 122 Liege Louvain 433 139 Brussels a By tlie law of June 30, 1893, the technical schools of Li6ge are grouped together under the title of technical faculty. The total number of students in the four universities was 4,835. Of these 937 were enrolled in the faculties of science and 1,010 were in the technical faculty of Liege and the special schools of the remaining universities. Auxiliary institutions . — The development of this special training in the industrial arts is promoted also by the Boyal Academy of Science, of Letters, and of Fine Arts, which has its seat at Brussels, and is under the immediate patronage of the King. The discussion of questions bearing upon technical instruction is encouraged by prizes from the funds of this academy. Besides the universities with their special schools, there are several other establishments in Belgium which are included among those of higher grade and which give combined theoretic and practical training. Among these are included the Schools of Art and Music. The princi- pal institution of the former class is the Boyal Academy of Fine Arts founded at Antwerp in 1G63. It is administered by the Government and the city council and consists of two divisions, the Superior Institute and the Academy proper ; the former is designed to give complete train- ing in the graphic and plastic arts. The courses of the latter include elementary training in drawing and its applications, and the preparatory stages of the graphic and plastic arts. The Boyal Academy of Fine 122 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. Arts and School of Decorative Arts of Brussels is similar in scope to the Antwerp school. In the same category are included the conservatories of music for which Belgium is noted. The enrollment in the royal conservatories was as follows at the date of the latest report : Conservatory. X umbo dents Men. r of stu- , 1895. Women. % Brussels 436 829 498 238 Ghent 278 280 There are also about 225 schools of music, of which 50 are communal establishments receiving subsidies from the State. These had at the date of the last report 11,507 pupils, of whom 6,042 were men and 4,025 women. The Government and local authorities stimulate the culture of national taste and artistic skill by grants in aid of the schools and the organi- zation of musical festivals and expositions of fine arts, for which liberal appropriations are made. The State gives also great encouragement to instruction in agricul- ture and commerce. The State Agricultural Institute at Gembloux, in the province of Namur, was founded by the Government in 1805. It includes an experi- mental station and a finely equipped laboratory. The diploma of agri- cultural engineer is bestowed upon the students who successfully pass examination before a State board. Those who pass with special dis- tinction receive subsidies to enable them to continue their studies and researches in foreign countries. The Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp completes the list of special schools endowed by the State. By a law of 1883 the diploma of this institute is placed on an equality with the university diplomas. The following tables summarize the principal statistics of the several classes of special schools here considered : ' EDUCATION IN BELGIUM 123 SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Table showing the number of subsidized institutions, number of professors, number of j pupils, number of diplomas delivered, and subsidies given in 1895-96. i ( |Name of institution. 1 f 1885-86. 1895-96. Subsidies for 1895-96. Number subsidized by the State. m u © . « £ © O £.© -I © ft 2 g S £ © TJ 03 ft o © r= g s ft N umber of diplomas delivered. Number subsidized by the State. N um her of directors and professors. Number of students. Number of diplomas delivered. From the State. From the provinces. From the communes. Other sources. | Total. Higher Commercial In- stitute of Commerce * of Antwerp 1 16 137 37 1 16 230 57 $8, 655 $2, 885 $10, 279 $21,819 Provincial School of In- dustry and of Mines of Hainaut (at Mons) . 1 13 58 15 1 17 215 30 4, 263 $6, 902 2, 041 2, 600 15, 771 Superior Textile School ; ( Vorviera) 1 9 17 School for brewers (rue de Bruger, Ghent) 1 12 57 26 1, 165 150 200 4, 852 6, 368 School for brewers (In- 1 stitute St. Lievin, Ghent) ...* 1 6 19 6 500 950 1,450 School for brewers (In- stitut St. Joseph, La 1 Louvi&re) ............. 1 6 17 6 500 760 1, 260 1 Total i i 2 29 195 52 6 66 555 125 15, 083 7, 052 5, 126 19,441 46,668 _ INDUSTRIAL, TECHNICAL, AND HOUSEWIFERY SCHOOLS. Table showing the number of subsidized institutions, number of teachers, number of pupils, and amount of subsidies accorded in 1895-96. 1885-86. 1895-96. Subsidies for 1895-96. Name of institution. Number subsidized by the State. Number of directors and professors. Number of students. Number subsidized by the State. Number of directors and teachers. Number of students. From the State. From the provinces. From the communes. Other sources. * Total. Technical instruction for young girls 65 886 26 242 2, 004 $20, 060 $3, 832 $23,551 $26, 613 $74, 058 Apprenticeship schools for young girls and for boys 46 47 926 55 60 1, 158 8,066 2, 574 3, 711 3, 727 18, 078 Technical schools for boys 7 33 459 23 144 3,301 555 10, 616 2,440 7, 397 14, 645 35, 099 Special schools 2 29 195 6 66 15, 047 7, 052 5, 126 19, 442 46, 669 Industrial schools 32 329 9, 478 40 466 13,015 50, 116 24, 860 48, 485 8; 091 131, 553 Housewifery 2 4 90 225 450 9, 539 18, 427 5, 214 11,801 14, 730 50, 173 Total j.. 92 507 12, 014 375 1,428 29, 572 122, 332 45, 972 100, 071 87, 248 j 355, 630