I V } •VJ « « * . * A REVIEW OF THE PEAT QUESTION; ITS POSITION AND PROSPECTS , IN FOUR PAPERS UPON PEAT: WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROMOTION AND EXTENSION OF TURF INDUSTRY. BY J. M C C. MEADOWS, M.E., Ml . MEMBER OF IRISH PEAT-FUEL COMMISSION. ' DUBLIN: M C GLASHAN AND GILL, UPPER SACKVILLE-STREET. 1873- DUBLIN : PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, TtL4^> in OQ ii ■% d \0 >> n = 3100 lbs. coal from Bohemia. *= 3230 lbs. of coal from Zwickau. = 3945 lbs. of coal from Miesbach. ( 41 ) Taking the mean of the above four varieties of coal, we arrive at this result in tons, that, at least for locomotive purposes, one ton of turf, whether uncompressed or com¬ pressed, has been found equal to slightly more than six-tenths of a ton of average coal. The turf here referred to must however, be taken on the whole as of a light fibrous nature, such as would be obtained from the upper portion of an ave¬ rage Irish red bog at a few feet from the surface. These particulars are also of importance, as evidencing the fact that in any given weight of compressed turf, there is not any greater quantity of heat than in the same weight of ordinary uncompressed turf, other conditions being the same in both. The advantage is, that as in turf which is com¬ pressed the quantity of heat is contained in a smaller bulk or space than in turf which is not compressed, so its effective heat¬ ing power, in like manner, becomes more concentrated and intense. To this advantage we have also to add the in¬ creased facilities for carriage and storage that compressed or dense turf possesses over ordinary light fibrous turf. In support of the views already put forward by the writer, he thinks he is entitled to rely upon these results, as sufficiently demonstrating the fact that mechanical systems have, on the whole, little value for peat, which in its natural condition will give a fairly dense turf when cut in the usual manner with the slane; and as warranting him in saying that in the end we shall find more substantial benefits to result from increased attention to the utilisation of peat that needs little or no mechanical treatment, than we are likely to have for a very long time to come from any mechanical systems whatever. The foregoing system of compression may be looked upon as the only one in which a practical success has attended efforts made for giving density to peat by mechanical pressure. There have been attempts by some persons at im- ( 42 ) provements or modifications upon this principle, but as they have not given any practical results equal to those of Exter, it is unnecessary to refer more particularly to them here. The systems which next call for notice all belong to one class, and they comprise the different methods employed for giving the desired density to turf, by the mixing, pulping, or tearing up of raw peat. Upon this principle every system for the production of dense turf, as distinguished from com¬ pressed turf, is more or less based. In compressed turf, properly so called, the density is given, as we have seen, by the direct application of mechanical force, whereas in dense turf, the density arises from the natural shrinkage and aggregation of parts that takes place to a remarkable ex¬ tent in peat, if in the first instance it be subjected to any process by which in the wet condition its fibrous structure is broken up, and the whole is reduced to a mortar or pulp¬ like state. In addition to the density which ensues from this mode of treating peat, it is found that, in drying, the contained water is more speedily parted with than it is from turf which is not subjected to this treatment,—in itself an important feature in the making of dense turf. Upon a small scale we find this principle carried out in the method of making hand turf in some parts of Ireland, and upon a very large scale in the kneading and mixing by the feet, to which the peat extracted from under water in the Netherlands is subjected for its preparation as fuel. The earliest attempt, however, for making dense turf by mechanical arrangements appears to have been that of Challeton in France. In the year 1860 , the works at which the system adopted by Challeton was carried out were ex¬ amined and reported upon by Dr. Dullo, in the course of his investigations in reference to the methods of working turf then in operation in Europe, and from his Report I shall ( 43 ) take the liberty of giving the following descriptive particulars of this system. “ The works at which the Challeton system was carried out in the year 1860 , were those of M. Challeton himself, at Montauger near Paris,, and those of M. Roy, at St. Jean, near the Neufchatel Lake. Both of these concerns did not leave an impression on me that this description of turf work¬ ing could be carried out with profit, although the method itself can produce a material equal to what it claims. Both con¬ cerns work as follows The turf cut from the bog is brought to the works by tramway or canal, and the raw peat is then passed into a tearing apparatus, which consists of an arrange¬ ment of iron rollers or cylinders, about four feet long, by one and a half foot in diameter, and fitted all over their surfaces with knives or cutters four inches long. In this apparatus the peat has much water added to it, so that it becomes a thin pulp, which is raised to an upper floor by a chain pump, and there it runs over fine sieves in order to be freed from all coarse fibres. This fine peat pulp is then conveyed into drying basins. These latter are pits of different sizes, at the least forty feet square, by one or two feet deep. The bot¬ toms of these pits are covered with rushes or reeds, which serve as a porous bed to allow the surplus water to drain away from the peat pulp. By degrees this pulp becomes sufficiently firm to admit of being cut into pieces. These are laid to dry in drying sheds, and they are subsequently more fully dried in artificially heated chambers. “ Peat treated thus accquires a very considerable density, but it is not, however, altogether correct to judge of the goodness of dense peat only according to its density, which if carried too far, is not advantageous. “This very dense peat burns with little or no flame, and upon reaching complete ignition, it falls to pieces, as it has ( 44 ) been entirely deprived of the binding or cohesive effect of the fibres. “ This system labours under the defect of being entirely dependent upon the weather, and of having but poor capa¬ bilities for large production. In wet summers it will take some weeks before the thin peat pulp in the filter beds becomes sufficiently shrunk together to admit of its being cut into pieces, and the subsequent air-drying will take an almost equally long time, so that in this system one is just as de¬ pendent upon the weather as in the usual method of cutting ordinary turf, and with the disadvantage that only a very trifling production is practicable, even if the number of these peat pulp pits be very considerably increased. “ Keeping under consideration the cost of the erection of such a concern, the conviction follows, that it and the cost of production are not so low as to give this system any superiority. “ It is not possible to obtain from the proprietors a sufficient account of the costs of production of dense turf by this process; but it may nevertheless be tolerably safely assumed that 100 lbs. weight, in marketable condition, cannot cost less than about seven pence, equivalent to about thirteen shillings sterling per ton. “ Looking to the small production, the working cost is too high, and the system is one that cannot be recommended for adoption.” More recently some improvements have been attempted in France upon this system of Challeton. Writing in support of it, Ernest Bose, in 1870 , states the cost of production as being then about nine shillings per ton. As from its being re-produced in a modern method, some interest attaches to this system of diluting peat with water, I have thought it useful to enter into these details of the original undertaking, as they were carried out in practice by ( 45 ) Challeton. It is possible that improved arrangements and more powerful mechanism may admit of the production of dense turf of this class at a cheaper rate than its original cost of thirteen shillings per ton, at Challeton’s works ; but it remains yet to be seen whether in the quality of the turf to be made, and in capability and costs of production, this system can claim any advantages over those which merely subject the peat to a tearing or mixing process without the addition of water. At an early stage in the discussion of the peat question, the writer disputed the grounds upon which advantages were claimed for Challeton’s method; but as steps have been since taken for its practical testing upon a com¬ mercial scale, upon the basis of a sufficiently large working in this country for the purpose, the writer considers that he should now leave to results the decision of the question. He wishes that no difficulties shall be placed in the way of the practical testing of that system with the modern mechanical arrange¬ ments claimed for it by Mr. Box, to whom is now due its re- introduction as one of the methods proposed to the public for the making of improved turf fuel upon a large scale and at a cheap rate. About the time of Challeton’s efforts in France, the making of dense turf was undertaken by the simple mechani¬ cal tearing up and mixing of the raw peat, by Weber at Staltach in Bavaria, and this may be looked upon as the parent system of all those that tear and mix together the peat without the addition of any large quantity of water. The arrangement employed by Weber consisted of a vertical vessel of the pug-mill type, in which an iron shaft re¬ volved, fitted with cutting blades; in the interior of the vessel, at the sides, other blades were attached, between which those on the shaft passed as it revolved upon its axis. The peat was raised to the mouth of this tearing and cutting apparatus by an elevator, and by the action of the knives or blades it ( 46 ) became cut and torn, and issued from an orifice in the bottom in a mixed condition, as a mass of pulp. It was then shaped in moulds and dried for use. The mechanical arrangements employed by Weber became the subject of subsequent improvements, of which the most important were those introduced by Mr. C. Schlickeysen, a manufacturer of brick-making machines in Berlin. This gentleman has become so identified with the making of his turf machines (“ Torfpressen ”) that the system which originated with Weber is now more usually known as “ Schlickeysen’s,” and it is that which has received most attention from those interested in the peat question abroad. The arrangement invariably consists of two parts; first, the press or vessel in which the peat is torn and mixed to¬ gether; and next, the motive power for the purpose, propor¬ tioned to the work to be done,—usually a portable steam en¬ gine varying from four to ten or twelve-horse power. The press or machine of Mr. Schlickeysen is a cast iron vertical vessel, similar in shape and size to an ordinary clay pug-mill. In it a central iron shaft revolves, fitted with strong blades or arms for tearing and mixing the peat, and they are so shaped and arranged upon the shaft as to operate with a downward screwing or forcing motion upon the peat at the same time that they tear it asunder. By this means the disin¬ tegrated mass of peat is forced downwards and outwards, late¬ rally, through a mouth-piece near the bottom of the machine. In this mouth-piece there are apertures, usually three in num¬ ber, each about three inches and a half square, through which the peat is forced by the action of the machine. As it issues, it is cut off in pieces by hand, each about ten inches long. These pieces are placed on boards about three feet long by twelve inches wide, and on these boards they are carried by barrows to the spreading and drying ground where they are laid out for drying, and the boards are brought back again to the machine to be filled in their turn. ( 47 ) From the surface of the bog an inclined plane of timber is in some cases laid, which reaches to a staging at the mouth of the machine, and on it the peat is wheeled up in barrows; in other cases it is raised to the machine by an elevator. On the staging or platform one workman is constantly employed to keep the machine fed with the peat, and as far as possible to remove any pieces of roots or other unsuitable substances that might otherwise enter into the machine with the peat. Peat treated in this manner dries freely in the open air in averagely favourable weather ; after a few days it is in a con¬ dition to be but little affected by rain, and generally it is found to be sufficiently dry for heaping finally together in from four to six weeks. The smallness of the pieces, coupled with the effects of the mixing process, contributes largely to this result. In the wet condition the average sizes of the pieces of peat,' as they are cut off on issuing from the Schlickeysen turf press are about ten inches long, by three and a half inches square, and in the air-dried condition they become reduced to sizes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the original bulk or volume of the peat, the differences in shrinkage being due to different varieties of peat. Near Brandenburg in Prussia, one of these turf presses, of small size, was examined at work in the autumn of the past year, and its capability of production was found to be about 10,000 pieces of peat daily, which in the air-dried condition gave about four and a half tons of dense turf. This machine was one of the smallest size made for steam power, and the portable engine was about four-horse power. The pieces of peat in air-dried condition were here on the average about seven inches long, by two inches square, and in size less than one-fourth of their original bulk as they came from the machine. The peat was of inferior quality, and was obtained from a grassy moor or bottom; in order to procure ( 48 ) it, an excellent surface pasturage had to be removed. This dense turf was made by the owners of some brickworks for their own use in burning bricks, in combination with ordinary turf, in a Hoffman kiln. The bricks thus burned were examined, and were found to be of excellent quality. A turf press of the largest size of those now made by Mr. Schlickeysen was examined at work at Herzfelde in Prussia. This machine was provided with two mouth-pieces, each at opposite sides, and the portable engine for working it was about eight-horse power. The capability of produc¬ tion of this machine was found to be about 35,000 pieces of peat in twelve working hours, equivalent to about fifteen tons of air-dried dense turf. The persons employed here for this amount of work, from the raising of the peat to the spreading of it in pieces on the drying ground, and including the engine-man, numbered twenty-two, of whom six were women. From observations made on the spot, and from the data then obtained in reference to the costs of production by both machines, it was estimated that the labour cost might be taken at six shillings and sixpence per ton of dense turf, made in the foregoing manner. In the two machines now described, we have examples of the smallest and of the largest machines now made for steam power by Mr. Schlickeysen. At an early period in this industry some turf presses with much greater capabilities of production were produced, but they were not found to be as desirable, or as successful in actual practice, as those of smaller size; and accordingly, Mr. Schlickeysen now prefers to make machines of four sizes for steam power within the limits of those that have been described. As the average weekly pro¬ duction of the largest size is, under favourable circumstances, scarcely more than ninety tons of dense turf, it is obvious that a large production can be effected by this system only by ( 49 ) the multiplying of the number of turf presses. In actual prac¬ tice, however, one week with another, it would not be safe to count upon more than from sixty to seventy tons. On the other hand, this or any like system presents the advantage that where only moderate quantities of dense turf are required, as for in¬ stance for some special uses, they can be produced by a very simple plant and a moderate outlay, and without requiring any erections, except some shedding for the more perfect drying and storage of the dense turf. This shedding is not, however, indispensable, although it is undoubtedly a desirable portion of any arrangements for the production of turf in Ireland. No sheddings were used for the drying or storage of the turf at the works which have been now described. The pieces of peat were simply dried in the open air, and then put together in heaps for use. A modification in some respects of the mechanical ar¬ rangements of Schlickeysen has been made at works of some importance, which are carried on by Prince Schwarzenberg, near Gratzen in Bohemia. In this arrangement the tearing of the peat and the forcing of it from the mouth-pieces of the machines are effected by separate portions of the mechanism. In the system of Schlickeysen, both operations are effected by the revolution of the shaft, owing to the shape and disposition upon it of the blades with which it is provided. In the arrangement at Gratzen, the operation of tearing and mixing the peat is effected by a pair of horizontal rollers, with short blades fitted all over them, and these rollers are placed in the upper part of the machine. In the lower part there are horizontal screws or spirals which receive the torn peat, as it passes through the rollers, and it is then forced forward by the screw-like action of these spirals to the mouth-piece of the machine. Here there is a further divergence from the system of Schlickeysen. Instead of issuing in shape through E ( 50 ) apertures, and ready for removal in pieces to the drying ground, the peat comes out as a continuous and shapeless mass. This mass of pulp is then removed in barrows to a spreading and drying ground, previously levelled and pre¬ pared for the purpose, and it is there deposited and made into an uniform stratum of peat, by workmen who knead and tread it with short boards attached to their feet. In this respect the course adopted is the same as that employed by the turf-workers of the Netherlands in their treatment of the peat raised from under water in the low peat beds there. The thin bed of pulped peat when thus formed is marked with lines, and then cut and dried in the open air. In the dry condition the pieces are about seven inches long by three inches wide, but in thickness not more than an inch and a half. This diminution of the thickness is particularly noteworthy, as conducive to the speedier drying of the peat. At these works there were, in the year 1872, nine machines, worked by as many portable engines, and the total quantity of dense turf made there in the season was stated to be aboul; 7,000 tons, at a total cost for production of about six shillings and nine pence per ton. The ex¬ perience of the manager of these works was more favourable to the distribution of the peat in a stratum on the drying ground as was practised there, than to the obtaining of the pieces in a finished and shaped condition from the mouth¬ piece of a machine, as in the system of Schlickeysen. The peat is raised to the machines at Gratzen by elevators, and the portable engines and machines are moved forward on the bog upon temporary timber framings provided with rails, according as the excavation of the peat is proceeded with. The dense turf produced here was chiefly used for sugar- works which are carried on by members of the Schwarzen- berg family at some distance from Gratzen, and to which works it is conveyed by railway. In the treatment of this peat in its passage through the tearing rollers, some water was added, ( 51 ) to facilitate the operation, but the quantity was not consider¬ able. Assuming seven of these machines to have been con¬ stantly at work for the turf-making months, extending here from April to August, we may average the working capa¬ bility of each machine at about seventy tons per week, or one thousand tons for the season. These figures agree pretty nearly with the observed results of the Schlickeysen machines, as well as with those which will be next mentioned. Upon the same principle—but with some other modifica¬ tions in the mechanical arrangements—works for the making of dense turf are carried on in the province of Drenthe, in the Netherlands, by Mr. Rahder. The points of difference, although trifling, are yet worth notice ; and with them before him, and the descriptive accounts already given, the reader will have a fair idea of what has been effected up to a very recent date by different minds upon the continent, for the solution of the problem of improved turf manufacture, upon the principle of tearing and mixing the raw peat. In Mr. Rahder’s system the tearing mill or vessel is a vertical one, made of wrought iron plates, and is about six feet in height, and three feet in diameter. In it a vertical iron shaft revolves, fitted with arms for tearing the peat; this shaft does not descend to the bottom of the vessel, but is supported at a point about eighteen inches above the bottom, by a strong iron cross piece in which the foot of the shaft revolves. The bottom portion, which is unoccupied by the shaft, communicates at one side with a pipe which terminates in a mouth-piece, and in it a horizontal screw or spiral from two to three feet long, and from twelve to thirteen inches in diameter, revolves, by which the peat as it descends from the mill is forcibly squeezed outwards through three orifices in the mouth-piece, and as it issues is cut off in pieces about one foot long by three or four inches square, which are then dried in the open air. ( 52 ) This machine is constructed upon a frame-work of iron which is extended to a short distance at each side to give a steady base, and it is mounted upon wheels to the same gauge as those of the portable engines. Temporary rails are laid upon the bog beside the face of work from which the peat is to be excavated, and the machine and portable engine travel onwards as the work proceeds. The portable engines are each about ten-horse power, and the production of each machine was about 20,000 pieces of peat, equal to about fourteen tons of dry dense turf, daily, during the working season. The total number of persons employed for this production was twenty, and the dense turf was sold at these works at a rate equal to about ten shillings and sixpence sterling per ton. The total production of dense turf at Mr. Bahder’s works, for the turf-making season of 1872, was about 5,500 tons, which represents the working capability of five machines and five portable engines. The writer had the benefit of an interview with Mr. Kahder, and was informed by that gentleman that he had arrived at the arrangement described, after a careful exami- nanion of other existing systems ; and Mr. Rahder stated, as the result of his experience, that fixed erections for peat works are not desirable, and that a system which can conveniently follow its work is the one of all others most likely to be successful. With this conviction he had his mill constructed as described, so that it was in all respects as port¬ able as his engines were, upon the temporary lines of railway upon the bog. In addition to the making of dense turf, Mr. Rahder also carried on extensively the cutting of ordinary turf for sale, and the combined industries gave employment to about three hundred persons during the turf-making season, which ( 53 ) in Drenthe extends from the latter part of April until September. Upon his visit to Mr. Rahder, the writer had an oppor¬ tunity of vividly realizing all round him, in this portion of the province of Drenthe, the descriptions already given of the changed aspect of the country from its original condition, of moor and bog, into luxuriant plains and cultivated fields, interspersed with timber, orchards, and gardens, and crowned with houses of taste, and not unfrequently of elegance. But for all these things, the people toil assiduously. The hum¬ blest labor is here honorable, and all who toil are cleanly, and well clad, and apparently content. Industry has evidently marked out these northern people for her own. On referring to the rates at which turf was sold at the Hague in the Autumn of the past year, we find that the machine-made dense turf of Mr. Rahder did not brin£ a higher price there than was obtained for the best qualities of turf from the low peat beds of the Haarlem district, which were made by the kneading and treading process, as described in the last Paper, the weights being in both cases much the same. We may here terminate our descriptions of the systems in use in the countries mentioned, for the making of dense turf, upon Weber’s principle of tearing and mixing the raw peat; and for purposes of continuity and comparison, we shall next draw attention to the machine lately introduced in England, by Messrs. Clayton, Son, and Howlett, of London. How far it may be superior to those which have been described, or essentially different from them, and to what extent it is likely in point of capability of production to help us to an improved solution of the peat question, are matters upon which, from the particulars which shall be now given, the reader will be able to form a competent judgment for himself. We have been told by some who have described this machine that it has ( M ) been successful, and we shall therefore examine it, in con¬ nexion with those already noticed. The Messrs. Clayton state that the objects aimed at by them, in their patented process, are firstly to get rid of as much water as possible by drainage and squeezing, and then to thoroughly cut up the fibrous portion, so as to release the water which was previously held in the fibre, and to reduce the whole to an uniform state of pulp. To accomplish the squeezing out of some of the loose or free water of the peat as it comes from the bog, these makers fill the raw peat into “ squeezing-trucks,” and by a pressure then applied to the peat they seek to deprive it of a portion of its water, on its way from the bog to the machine. With respect to this portion of the process we need not make much investigation, as experience has more or less shown, that where any ordinary peat is to be subjected to any mixing or pug-mill process, it is not usually desirable to deprive it of water before it passes into or through the machine. Any gain effected in that manner would be, perhaps, more than neutralized by the greater friction of the -peat in the machine. We have noticed that, at Gratzen, water was added to facilitate the tearing and mixing operation, and it is not easy to see how the system of squeezing-trucks in Messrs. Claytons’ system can be looked upon as of much utility or importance for the manufacture. For reducing the peat to a state of pulp, it is received in a vertical mill or vessel of the usual type, furnished with an internal shaft with blades or arms.. It passes thence to the lower part of the machine, in which there is an arrange¬ ment upon the principle of a screw or spiral, with revolving cutters and fixed knives, whereby it is subjected to cutting, coupled with some amount of pressure, and it is ultimately forced through a mouth-piece, where the arrangements for ( 55 ) receiving and cutting it into pieces are, on the whole, similar to those used in most brick-making machines. The special object aimed at by the cutting action of this machine, being the reduction of the peat to a finer state of pulp, than is effected by any of foregoing systems of the pug- mill class, we are led to inquire if such a very minute division of the peat is necessary or desirable. To this inquiry the best answer that can be made is, to refer to dense peat made by any of the former systems, by the rough tearing and mix¬ ing of the raw material, and to ask ourselves if the results are sufficiently satisfactory for all general purposes ; and to this we think the answer must be in the affirmative. As noticed by Dr. Dullo, the results of the comminution of peat, if the pulping be carried too far, are not advantageous. As in the first of these Papers reference was made to the machine of Messrs. Clayton, in reference to its capability of production, we need not here enter into any further details ; it only remains for us now to observe, that in this respect it does not appear to have any advantages over the mechanical ar¬ rangements of the same class, that have been already described; at the same time that there appears to be, in the arrangement of the Messrs. Clayton, a greater amount of elaboration in the mechanism than is desirable for peat work, for which simplicity coupled with effectiveness should be at all times the best recommendation. The peat question is not altogether an Old World one; it extended itself to America, and we have now to notice the principal systems adopted there for its solution. In the United States, the mechanical arrangement of Leavitt is that which has attracted most attention. It is essentially the same in principle as those already noticed; the only differences consist in the constructive details of the machine, of which we take the following description from Leavitt’s work, entitled “Facts About Peat.” ( 56 ) “ The machinery consists of a strong tank or cistern, three feet in diameter and six feet high, supported on a stout frame¬ work, about four feet above the floor of a suitable building.” “ Within the tank, and firmly fixed to its sides, are numerous projections of a variety of forms, adapted to the treatment of the material in its several stages as it progresses through the mill, which is divided into three apartments: through the centre of the tank revolves an upright shaft, to which are attached knives and arms varying in form and structure, to correspond with the stationary projections in each apartment; below the tank is a receiver or hopper ; and under this is a moulding or forming machine two feet in width and twelve feet long, which receives the condensed material from the hopper, and delivers it in pieces of any desired form and size. The whole is adapted to be driven by an engine, from six to ten-horse power respectively for the two sizes of machines, of the capacity of fifty and one hundred tons each, of crude peat per day of ten hours.” This capacity, under average circumstances, may be taken to represent at best not more than from eight to fourteen tons daily of ordinary air-dried dense turf, and the cost of production was stated by Mr. Leavitt, in 1867 , to be then two dollars per ton. In Canada the system of Mr. Hodges has been carried out, and it is the one sometimes referred to in this country as the Canadian Peat Company’s system. While the principle is the usual one of the mixing and pulping of the peat, the arrangements for the whole process of manufacture are en¬ tirely different from anything that has been yet described. It is, however, an indispensable condition for working upon this system, that the bog should yield or be supplied with water sufficient for floating the entire mechanism; in other words, that the bog as excavated shall become a pond or lake. ( 57 ) For the purpose of working on this system, upon a bog capable of supplying the necessary water, a barge or scow about eighty feet long, by sixteen feet beam and six feet deep, is constructed at one end of the bog and launched into a dock made to receive it. This barge contains the engine and all the machinery for the excavating, pulping and distribut¬ ing of the peat. The excavating of the peat is effected by a pair of large iron screws, eleven feet in diameter, placed in the front of the barge, which are driven by the steam engine, and in this manner not only is the peat obtained but the necessary water-way or canal is formed for the progress of this floating peat factory. The peat thus raised is subjected to a tearing and mixing process, by which it is reduced to a pulp having the consistence of well tempered mortar. From one side of the barge or scow, and at some distance over the surface of the adjoining bog, a long spout or distri¬ butor extends, for a distance of ninety feet, by which, as the barge proceeds, the peat pulp is distributed in a continuous stratum about nine inches in thickness and nearly ninety feet in width. This layer of peat is subsequently divided into pieces, and dried in the open air for use. The levelling and preparation of the spreading ground for the width of ninety feet along the intended line of working, are portions of the work that require and receive much attention, and shallow drains are formed to favour as far as possible the drying of the stratum of peat pulp. Useful results have attended this systdm in Canada, but as has been stated, the conditions for its application are special. From some returns that have been given, the costs of production appear to be less than two dollars per ton, and the capability of production of one of these floating works may be equal to about three thousand tons of dry dense turf for • the season. The cost of one barge or scow with all neces- F ( • 58 ) sary machinery for the manufacture, was in the year 1866 estimated as then costing about ten thousand dollars. If in addition to those now mentioned, we include the system of Mr. Box already referred to, the reader will have before him a compendium of such systems for the production of improved fuel from peat, as are now before the public, and they include in principle, all from which as far as inven¬ tion has as yet progressed, any practically useful results can be expected. It remains only to say a few words in reference to Mr. Box’s system. In principle it is essentially the same as that of Challeton, already described, but Mr. Box states that he expects by an adaptation of the machine known as “ Carr’s Patent Disintegrator, 1 ’ coupled with improved filtering beds, and cutting tools, to obtain results in the commercial produc¬ tion of dense turf which were not realised by Challeton. As commercial success is the end to which all efforts in the peat question should tend, and as Mr. Box’s system has been adopted for commercial test in this country, upon a scale sufficient to ascertain its capabilities and value, any further discussion of it, than what has already taken place in the press, would be out of place, until the results themselves shall be laid before the public. In a concluding number, the writer will refer, as far as may be useful, to some of the principal treatises that have of late years appeared upon the subject of peat, which may be consulted by any who are desirous of investigating the subject more in detail; and he trusts that with the issue of that Paper his readers will then have before them, such a review of the portion and prospects of the peat question up to the latest period, as may tend to render more precise, the probabilities of the extent to which we are limited at present for the solution of that question upon a large scale, by means of mechanical systems. TURF INDUSTRY. No. IV. Jf we summarize the several mechanical systems at present of any importance for peat-fuel manufacture, and of which the principal modern arrangements have been noticed in the last Paper, we arrive at the following conclusions :— 1. That the main object sought to be attained in all the systems, taken as a whole, consists in increasing the density of the peat, so as to present in a smaller space, and consequently in a more effective condition, the quantity of heat already possessed by any given weight of peat. But there is not any increase made to the original quantity of heat, inasmuch as there is neither any addition made to the peat itself, nor any element unfavourable to the development or generation of heat withdrawn from it, in the process of manufacture. 2 . That the value of all such systems is therefore propor¬ tionate to the need that exists for effecting density, and that this value is variable, according as peat in the natural condition is capable of yielding a more or less dense fuel, without requiring any mechanical treatment for the purpose. In other words, that while it would be desirable to subject peat, in which the fibrous structure exists to an extent unfavour- G ( 60 ) able to density, to one or other of those mechanical processes, for its improvement, any such treatment would be practically of little or no use for peat, which when cut in the usual way will give a fairly dense turf, without the aid of mechanical systems. 3. That the several systems of manufacture resolve them¬ selves into two classes, as follows :— Compressed Turf,— in which the desired density is given to the peat, when in the condition of a fine dry turf mould, by the direct action of mechanical force, or pressure,—as was done at Derry lea, near Monasterevan, upon the system known as “ Exter’s —and, Dense Turf, —in which the density is obtained by tearing, and mixing the raw peat in its wet condition, so as to break up the fibrous structure and reduce the whole to a mass of pulp. In this state, peat offers itself under the most favourable conditions for becoming dense, with the additional advan¬ tage of drying more speedily than it would if simply cut as ordinary turf. Upon the principle of compression, the only mechanical system that has been carried into practical effect is that of Exter, already noticed. Its attendant circumstances, how¬ ever,—involving as they do, large outlays, and considerable liabilities, together with a high cost of production,—have confined its adoption to a few early undertakings, some of which are still found at work upon the Continent. The principle of making dense turf, however, by tearing and mixing the peat as raised from the bog, has given rise, as we have seen, to a variety of systems, all designed for the same purpose, but differing more or less in their constructive ( 61 ) details and arrangements. In almost every instance, how¬ ever, the capability of production of each machine is limited to a moderate quantity, and for large supplies it is necessary to increase proportionately the number of machines. With these particulars, and what has been already stated, the reader has now before him the sum and substance of our present capabilities and resources for the solution of the peat question by mechanical systems. It would be unwise to conceal from ourselves that any such solution cannot for a long time be otherwise than of such a partial nature as to be practically of little or no moment for increasing our supplies of turf-fuel for general purposes, and that under such circumstances our plain duty is to look to the capa¬ bilities that are to be found in the production of ordinary turf, if that plain industry be only encouraged and promoted in this country, as it has been elsewhere. Combined with it, the making of dense turf by mechanical arrangements may, from small beginnings, grow into an industry of importance, and it may be said that the very surest hopes for its progress lie in the extended production, and use of ordinary turf, in the first instance. Although for all useful purposes, the writer might limit his illustrations of mechanical systems of treating peat to what has been already detailed, yet to render these Papers more complete, the following particulars are added, of methods in use in France for making dense turf there. The manufacture in France, is chiefly confined to that variety of peat which is known as marsh peat, and which for the most part lies completely under water, without any natural capabilities for drainage. It may be said to corres¬ pond to the low peat-beds of Holland, and previously to being worked its surface is often covered with a grassy vege¬ tation, and the usual growths of humid soils. As water is found within a very short distance from the surface, this G 2 ( 62 ) marsh peat can be raised only by certain special modes of working. In some cases dredging is resorted to at some stages of the work, but in general the peat is raised by implements which are designed specially for the purpose. Of these, there are two kinds; one for direct use by a workman, and the other a mechanical arrangement for raising larger quanti¬ ties than can be got by hand-labour. The implement for direct use by hand is called the “ grand louchet,” and it consists of a box-shaped tool, made of thin wrought-iron bars, or of sheet-iron pierced with holes and attached to a light iron frame, in length about four feet three inches, open at the top, and bottom, and also in front, and in width and depth from four and a half to five inches square. In other words, a long and comparatively narrow and shallow two-sided box, open at the ends, and at the front. At one end, this implement is provided with a socket well riveted to the under part, by which it is securely attached to a round wooden handle, which is usually from twenty to twenty-five feet long, and sometimes longer, to admit of working at considerable depths. With this tool, held as nearly perpendicular as practicable, the workman severs the peat from the mass lying under water, and raises it without any great difficulty, as the specific gravities of the water and of the peat do not very materially differ. According as each prism-shaped piece is raised, it is either divided into portions of about equal length, to be dried for use as ordinary sods of turf, or the entire is subjected to a mixing operation, with shovels and wooden rakes, and afterwards moulded by hand in wooden moulds. These moulds are made of light timber, and each usually contains four divisions, by which four “ briquettes ” or pieces of peat are formed at a time, each about thirteen inches long, and from three to three and a-half inches across in width and ( 63 ) thickness. When dry, these “briquettes” of dense turf are usually found to have become reduced to about one-fifth or one-sixth of their original size. The mechanical arrangement is known as the “ louchet mecanique,” and is upon a much larger scale than the “grand louchet; ” it is mounted upon a wooden frame-work, and fitted with a rack and wheel movement for the up and down motion of the cutting box, which latter is provided with a pair of hinged valves in the bottom, opening upwards, which close and retain the piece of peat when it is being raised. As al¬ ready mentioned, the labour of raising the peat in this system is very trifling, as the peat moves in water of about the same weight with itself, and according as the continuous upward motion of the machine brings the peat over the water, it is cut out of the “ louchet ” by a workman who usually stands in a flat-bottomed boat in front of the implement, and the mass of peat thus obtained is then carried to the working floors, and moulded into “briquettes ” of dense turf. This machine has an onward motion upon the frame-work on which it is erected, which is so regulated, that after the making of each cut, it is advanced forward by exactly the width of a cut, and thus uniformly raises the peat in prism¬ like pieces, one after the other, without causing irregularity or waste in the cutting. In some instances the peat thus obtained is subjected to a mechanical tearing and mixing process, which is usually effected by cylinders or rollers fitted with short blades upon their surfaces, and driven by moderate steam power. The pulp thus obtained is, in some cases, very expeditiously and effectively distributed in pieces upon the drying ground by a mechanical moulding and spreading machine, which is drawn by one workman, while another, walking beside the machine, gives motion to its internal arrangements for delivering the peat in the moulded condition as it travels over the ground. ( 64 ) At the peat works of M. Bocquet, near Mareuil-Sur- l’Ourcq (Oise), two workmen with this machine could effect the moulding and distribution upon the drying ground of from forty to fifty thousand pieces of peat in a full working day. At these works the costs of producing the dense turf, in¬ cluding its extraction with the “ louchet mecanique,” as also the mechanical tearing and mixing, the moulding and the dry¬ ing, may be taken to vary from six to seven or eight shillings per ton. At the works of M. Colart, at Fontaine-Sur-Somme (Somme), where the peat raised with both descriptions of “louchet” was mixed and moulded by hand, the costs of production were, in the year 1872 , at about the same rate per ton. These systems of mixing and moulding are essentially simple, and are worth the attention of any persons who possess peat in such a wet condition, from imperfect drainage, as to be unfit for cutting in the ordinary way. It will be obvious that the useful applicability of these French implements—the “louchets”—is directed to the ex¬ traction of peat in situations where it lies under water. In some instances the larger implement—the “ louchet mecanique ”—has been of late improved by the substitution of steam power for hand labour, with increased capabilities of production; but its application is also directed to the rais¬ ing of submerged peat. It may be said to effect perpendicu¬ larly from the edge of a bog with an accompanying waste of water, what the floating scow or barge of Hodges in Canada effects horizontally with its great augurs in front that bore out the peat—but for both water is essential. In comparison with the Hodges system, the extraction by the “ louchet” is, however, much to be preferred, as by it the peat can be won and raised from a depth of fifteen or twenty feet, while in the Hodges arrangement at most only about six feet in depth of the upper portion of the peat ( 65 ) marsh can be extracted, and all beneath that, is left not only waste, but with such a supernatant pond or lake of water over it as to be available hereafter only by natural or artificial drainage. And yet the question is sometimes asked in this country, “ Why not adopt the system of Hodges, as is done in Canada ?” The French implement for cutting turf in the ordinary manner, where the bog is freed of water by drainage, is called the “ louchet ordinaire,” or “ petit louchet,” to distinguish it from those already mentioned. It is simply the French turf- cutter’s slane, with blade from twelve to thirteen inches long by three and a half inches wide, and provided with the usual wing. The labour costs of production of ordinary turf in France, including the stacking and thatching upon the bog, appears to be at the rate of from three shillings and sixpence to four shillings per ton. It is worth notice that in France, wherever the peat is of such a description as to make it desirable to subject it to a tearing and mixing process, that work is usually done either by manual labour, or by treading under foot, as is done in Holland, or by a simple arrangement of tearing cylinders, requiring only very moderate steam-power, and that the moulding is invariably done by hand, or by a hand-machine, without any application of the pug-mill system with mouth¬ pieces for the formation of the peat, as in the systems of Schlickeysen, Rahder, and Clayton. It is obvious that there are advantages in this system of mixing and moulding by hand, where the condition of the peat approximates from excess of water to that of a marsh peat or turf mud deposit, such as are sometimes turned to account for making “ hand turf” in this country. Most of the dense turf produced in France is converted into charcoal for domestic and other uses. When produced from turf made by any system of mixing and moulding peat, ( 66 ) the charcoal is of a firm character, and suited for a variety of useful purposes. In the Autumn of the year 1872 , the char¬ coal made from dense turf of the Ourcq Valley was sold by retail in Paris at about six shillings per cwt. The price of coal from the Charleroy and Mons districts was at the same time in Paris about £2 10 s. per ton. From three to four tons of dense turf are usually required to make one ton of round marketable charcoal: any fine portions made in the charring or transport are used, in combination with fine wood charcoal and powdered coke, and some tar, for the manufacture of the small artificial fuel known as “ Charbon de Paris,” and the whole is thus turned to valuable account. The Drying. To the air, wind, and sun we must continue to look to get rid of the water which is so largely contained in all peat; and we shall not look in vain if we only commence the cutting of the turf early in the year, not later than the middle or end of March in this country, and avail ourselves of all favourable weather for the drying, up to the termination of the turf-cutting season. There is hardly any industry which can hope for success without being attended with some special laws of its own. It may be inconvenient for us that we cannot postpone the sowing and harvesting of our crops to times that would suit our own purposes better; but we all know only too well that our allotted tasks and duties neces¬ sitate our acceptance of the conditions of seasons and of times, and the adaptation of ourselves and of our work to them. Neglect in this respect, however, lies at the root and source of the observation often made amongst us, that our climate is unfavourable to the drying of turf. But it would be much nearer to the truth if we said that our own remissness is unfavourable to our obtaining from our climate the benefits which it brings with it. Either the production of turf is' worth ( 67 ) following as an industry, or it is not. If it be, then it should conform to the opportunities of season from the earliest practi¬ cable portion of the year, without being left to take its chance of suitable weather, when most of our agricultural works are over. Although few who have had experience in turf-cutting in this country will dispute these conclusions, I shall never¬ theless give some particulars of an established industry of this kind in Ireland, with reference to the results that can be effected by its being followed as a special business. Nearly fifty years ago, an extensive tract of undrained bog upon the Shannon, at seven or eight miles distance from Limerick, became the scene of busy labour. From its near¬ ness to the river, and as it did not lie much above the water, it may be said at that time to have had more the character of a marsh than of a firm bog, but this circumstance did not discourage enterprise. A substantial pier for boats was built, and from the Shannon a canal was cut into the morass, and branches were extended through it for drainage and transport. These preliminary works were not executed without meeting with some difficulties, but a day very soon came when they bore fruit, and from two to three hundred persons might after¬ wards be seen there every season, all employed in the cutting and saving of turf. This undertaking was originated and carried on by the proprietors of a distillery in Limerick, and from it all the fuel they required for their works was obtained and conveyed by water to that city. The turf-cutting work was systematically carried on, and joined with it was the gradual reclamation of the bog itself. About the year 1842 the distillery works were discon¬ tinued by the proprietors, and the bog property passed into the hands of the late Mr. James Macnab, who from the first had conducted its management, and from the year 1 842 up to the present the raising of turf for sale to the public, coupled with the reclamation of the bog, has been followed ( 68 ) there as a special business. The cutting commences usually in the month of March, and is continued until August, and the quantity made and disposed of in the condition of ordi¬ nary cut turf is of late years about five thousand tons annually. The writer examined these works, and he has been assured by their present proprietor, Mr. Alexander A. Macnab, that in no year has unfavourable weather prevented the safe harvesting of the turf; in evidence of which he referred to the fact that, notwithstanding the wetness of the summer and autumn of the year 1872, the quantity of turf cut by him, about five thousand tons, was all saved in good condition, and disposed of to the public a month or two before the end of the year. A tract of about fifty statute acres of the cut-away bog has been reclaimed into excellent pasturage for cattle, and now realizes a rent of £85 annually, and a further quantity of very nearly forty statute acres is in progress of reclamation. Around the house and offices there are about eighty acres under grass and tillage, with fences interspersed with shrubs and hedge-row trees; and as an illustration in Ireland of the spirit which elsewhere upon a large scale converts morasses into money, and in their place instals the harvest, Mona Lodge,—for so that once old waste by the Shannon is now called,—may be referred to, as well with credit to its ener¬ getic owner, as with advantage to all who can take a lesson from such useful industry. The turf is here for the most part cut and saved at con¬ tract prices with the workmen, and it was sold last season at rates equal to about six shillings and sixpence per ton. As this amount included the proprietor’s profit and return from the work, we may assume that wherever ordinary turf is pro¬ duced at present in Ireland, it can be sold with some advantage at the place of production at that rate per ton. With the ex¬ ample of this turf industry on the Shannon before us, let us hope that henceforth many such may be undertaken in this ( 69 ) country, and that in future we may hear, in reference to turf, less about our climate, and something more about our own economy and prudence. With a view to the more complete drying of turf for use in special works, efforts have of late years been made to effect the drying by artificial heat, but up to the present time they do not appear to have been attended with results that arc hopeful for any considerable extension of that principle of drying peat. In its ordinary air-dried condition we have usually in turf from twenty-five to thirty per cent, of water in the state of diffused moisture, and by artificial drying this quantity may be reduced to ten per cent. But if not then or very soon afterwards used, peat thus dried, when exposed to the air, will re-absorb moisture until it contains upon an average from eighteen to twenty per cent, of water, which may be looked upon as the lowest point in respect of water, and the highest point in respect of dryness, to which either dense turf or ordinary turf, in their best air-dried condition, are capable of being brought in the open air, but which in practice is not always attained. It is unnecessary to observe that the effective heating power of all turf must depend largely upon its state of dry¬ ness, but I may be allowed to refer to it as an element in the comparative tests of turf which is not always attended to. It sometimes happens that an evaporative power is claimed for manufactured turf, greater than that of ordinary turf, weight for weight, but the essential conditions of their being both not only of the same quality of peat, but both in the same state of dryness, are not always stated. But it has been ascertained that a difference of fifteen per cent, of moisture will affect the heating results to the extent of nearly one- half. That a given weight of dense turf as made by manu¬ facture will, in a smaller space evaporate water more rapidly than the other, may be conceded as the natural result of its ( 70 ) density : but we should expect the same weight of ordinary turf of the same quality and in the same state of dryness, although less dense than the former, to evaporate an equal quantity of water under the same conditions, although not in the same space of time. If this be not so, then we have to ask ourselves by what means has the mere increase of density become, in itself a source of additional actual heat, in addition to the quantity already contained in the fuel, the weights and all other conditions, except that of density alone, being the same in both. Let me trust to the reader’s indulgence for thus dwelling upon the comparative values of manufactured and unmanu¬ factured turf; but I do so, believing that, of all others, a full and plain conception of this part of the subject, free from technicalities, is essential to a satisfactory comprehension of the peat question in connexion with improved peat-fuel manufacture. It will therefore be obvious that the special value of every such system of manufacture is more for industries requiring intensity of heat, than for general domestic purposes. For the former, that value is a high and an all-important one, where the peat itself is not naturally of a sufficiently dense description; but for all ordinary purposes we may in this country be content to look largely to plain cut turf, if we only make efforts for its increased production and better harvesting, until by degrees improved systems, moderately and judiciously introduced at first, shall add their results to already existing resources. Technical Works. In the year i860, a movement was set on foot in Prussia for the investigation of the peat question for public objects, and the late Dr. Dullo was appointed Commissioner for the carry¬ ing out of these investigations in the fullest manner, at the ( n ) expense of the State. He extended his travels beyond Ger¬ many, and in the course of his inquiries, visited Switzerland, France, and Holland, as also Great Britain and Ireland. The results of his examination of the subject were presented in a Report to the Prussian Ministerial Department for Agriculture, and a copy was published in Berlin in the year 1861, by Gustav Bosselmann. This work is entitled “ Torf- Yerwerthungen In Europa,” and it may be said to be the most practical and complete publication upon the treatment of peat, for its improved utilization, that ever came from the press. The whole subject is treated of under the follow¬ ing heads :—The production of turf by machinery,—the production of oils and paraffin from turf,—the employment of turf for iron-making processes ; and lastly, the reclamation and cultivation of peat-bogs into arable land in east and west Friesland. No English translation of this Report appears to have been published, which is to be regretted, as it may be said to summarize, in the most efficient manner, the entire subject up to that date, with a treatment of principles and details of much value for practical purposes. And indeed, when we mention the methods examined and reported on by Dr. Dullo, we shall find that the progress has been very little from the year i 860 up to the present time. The work con¬ sists of 113 pages, of which the first 64 pages are devoted to the examination of the systems of Challeton, in France, and of Weber and Exter in Bavaria, together with some others of minor importance ; and practically at the present day all that we have before us in the shape of principles of peat fuel systems are comprised in the three now mentioned. The only progress has been in mechanical improvements and modifications,—but in principles of manufacture, none what¬ ever of any practical value. To the course adopted in Prussia, and to the labours of ( 72 )• Dr. Dullo, the writer takes this opportunity of acknowledging his indebtedness for the public suggestions and recommenda¬ tions which were made by him in the course of the past year, for the investigation of the modern position of the peat question in other countries, as the first step to be taken before venturing upon patent schemes in peat in Ireland, so as to avoid disasters at the hands of theorists and speculators. In addition to the attention and investigation of the subject of peat-fuel manufac¬ ture, both as to values and capabilities, that have since been elicited, the inquiries that were made may be of some service in defining the present position of the peat question for those who may hereafter attempt the improvement of turf manu¬ facture in this country or elsewhere. In the year 1861 a treatise was published by Challeton, (Paris, E. Lacroix) entitled, “De La Tourbe,” in appear¬ ance a volume of considerable pretension, but of little practi¬ cal value. Although extending to 480 pages, the descriptive details of Challeton’s own system are exceedingly meagre, while there is much in its unqualified praise. We notice it here merely as the author represents a system; but the nationalities of France and Prussia are not more diverse in character than are the works of Challeton and of Dullo for practical purposes. The importance of the subject for America, in connexion with the increasing prices of coal and wood, soon led to the introduction of some mechanical systems for turf making in the United States ; and as a hand-book upon the subject for the use of those who might embark in peat, Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, in the year 1866 issued a very useful volume, entitled, “Peat and Its Uses” (New York, 0 . Judd and Company), the objects and value of which may be gathered with advantage from his introductory remarks, some of which are significant enough for ourselves to warrant their being introduced here. (' 73 ) After referring to the adventurous character of American enterprise, as favourable to the development and improvement of machinery for peat, Professor Johnson writes:—“As has always been the case, we shall waste a vast deal of time and money in contriving machines that violate every principle of mechanism and of economy; but the results of European invention furnish a safe basis from which to set out, and we have amongst us the genius and patience that shall work out the perfect method. “ It may well be urged that a good degree of caution is advisable in entering upon the peat enterprise. In this country (America) we have exhaustless mines of the best coal, which can be afforded at a very low rate, with which other fuel must compete. In Germany, where the best methods of working peat have originated, fuel is more costly than here; and a universal and intense economy there pre¬ vails, of which we, as a people, have no conception. “If, as the Germans themselves admit, the peat question there is still a nice one as regards the test of dollars and cents, it is obvious that, for a time, we must 4 hasten slowly/ It is ciroumstances that make peat, and gold as well, remune¬ rative or otherwise; and these must be well considered in each individual case. Peat is the name for a material that varies extremely in its quality, and this quality should be investigated carefully before going to work upon general deductions.” This work consists of three parts; the first deals with the origin, varieties, and chemical characters of peat; the second is devoted to its uses in agriculture, and the third treats of peat as fuel. This latter portion of the work comprises about 7 6 pages, and is a careful compilation, from the best sources at the author’s command, of the several systems then in use in Europe, and of some American mechanism at that time designed for making dense turf. For a general review H ( 74 ) of the subject up to the year 1866, as collected by the author from various sources, but without the advantage of personal examination, this work may be usefully referred to; and in addition it contains much information from the author's own professional study and analysis of the question; from amongst which we take the following extracts, which will be found useful: — “ It is asserted by some, that, because peat can be con¬ densed so as to approach anthracite coal in specific gravity, it must, in the same ratio, approach the latter in heating power. Its effective heating power is, indeed, considerably augmented by condensation, but no mechanical treatment can increase its percentage of carbon, or otherwise alter its chemical composition; hence it must for ever remain inferior to anthracite.” In support of this position the author gives the following comparative analysis of hard wood, dense turf (called by the author condensed peat), and anthracite coal, which are sub¬ joined for the benefit of those who may not have Professor Johnson’s work at hand for reference. In 100 parts. Carbon. Hydro¬ gen. Oxygen & Nitrogen. Ash. Water. Specific Gravity. Hard "Wood, 39 - 6 4. 8 34*8 0. 8 20.0 0-75 Condensed Peat, 47.2 4.9 22.9 5-o 20.0 1.20 Anthracite Coal, 9 r * 3 2.9 2. 8 3-0 r.40 “ In combustion in ordinary fires, the water of the fuel is a source of waste, since it consumes heat in acquiring the state of vapour. This is well seen in the comparison of the same kind of peat in different states of dryness. Thus Weber’s condensed peat (artificially dried), containing 10 per cent, of moisture surpasses in heating effect that containing 25 per cent, of moisture by nearly one-half,” or as 1.48 to 1.0. ( 75 ) “ The oxygen is a source of waste, for heat as developed from fuel is chiefly a result of the chemical union of atmo¬ spheric or free oxygen, with the carbon and hydrogen of the combustible. The oxygen of the fuel being already combined with carbon and hydrogen, not only cannot itself contribute to the generation of heat, but it neutralizes the heating effect of those portions of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with which it remains in combination. “ Nitrogen and ash are practically indifferent in the burning process, and simply impair the heating value of fuel in as far as they occupy space in it, and make a portion of its weight, to the exclusion of combustible matter. “ Again, as regards density, peat is, in general, consider¬ ably inferior to anthracite. The best uncondensed peat has a specific gravity of 0.90 ; condensed peat usually does not ex¬ ceed 1.1.” The objects attained by the condensation of peat are very plainly given in a few words by Professor Johnson, as “ the bringing of more fuel into a given space, thus making it capable of giving out an intenser heat; at the same time in¬ creasing its hardness and toughness, and rendering it easier and more economical of transportation.” This work has the advantage of being illustrated with en¬ gravings of some of the principal machines referred to, and the chapters on the agricultural uses of peat form an additional source of useful interest; in all respects, as far as it extends, an honest and useful text-book on peat. In the year 1867 Mr. T. H. Leavitt of Boston, United States, issued a volume entitled “Facts About Peat” (Boston : Lee and Shepard). The author is known as the inventor of a machine for making dense turf, of which a general description is given in this work. Although extending to 285 pages, the information contained is of a very diffuse and general nature, and without much directly practical value. We could heartily H 2 ( 76 ) wish, however, to find the following statement by Mr. Leavitt more fully verified amongst us. In reference to Ireland, we read: “Not only is peat the common fuel of the poor in the interior—and indeed of all classes in some districts—but it is transported in barges, in immense quantities , by canal, to Dublin, and there consumed by the wealthier classes of the people.” Let us hope that when the next edition of Mr. Leavitt’s u Facts About Peat” shall be published, we may find the con¬ sumption of turf in Ireland and in Dublin more in harmony with the views which that gentleman has taken of it^ than, un¬ fortunately, can be pretended to at present. To M. Ernest Bose we are indebted for one of the latest treatises upon peat, entitled “ Traite Complet De La Tourbe” (Paris, Libraire Polytechnique de J. Baudry, 1870). This work is useful as serving to show the present condition of turf industry in France. Its special object, however, appears to be to demonstrate the value of producing moulded peat upon Challeton’s principle, but with some improvements in the mechanical arrangements. As any modification of the system of Challeton is of some interest at present, from its connexion with the method of Mr. Box, I shall offer the following de¬ tailed particulars from this work of M. Bose :— “ In the works at Montauger, near Corbeil, M. Challeton has introduced the same system as that which we are now about to describe, but with some improvements made to it. “ The peat, extracted by dredging, is conveyed to the works by canals that run through the bog. It comes in boats to a large collecting basin, the bottom of which slopes towards the centre, which admits of the more convenient raising of the peat by an elevator. This elevator lifts the peat to the upper part of an apparatus composed of a system of cylinders, four feet three inches in length, armed with knives. These cylinders have different diameters ; they are ( 77 ) worked by steam power and revolve at a high speed. They tear up the peat, after which it is ground in a conical-shaped mill. Into this mill there flows a quantity of water sufficient to largely dilute the peat. Between the cylinders and the mill a sieve collects the larger fibres (les filaments grossiers) and they are swept aside by a brush upon a wheel, which keeps the sieve clean. The peat, reduced to a very fine fluid pulp (reduite en bouillie tres-fine), flows off into collecting basins in which a shaft provided with arms stirs and mixes the liquid. Heavy matters settle to the bottom, and the thin pulp is by means of an elevator raised and run into a main u conduit” which distributes it into numerous filtering basins, of great superficial extent, but not more than two feet deep, so that the deposit after drying has only about the thickness of a brick. The filters of these basins are made of osier hurdles with mats laid over them. From time to. time the bottoms of the basins are cleaned up, so as to get rid of the earthy sediment that collects there. At the end of five or six days, after most of the water contained in the basin has drained away, there is left a residue of pulp (un produit feutre) sufficiently firm for cutting. A cutting tool then divides it into fifty bricks at a time. These bricks are dried on the ground in the ordinary manner without any compres¬ sion, and they are put together when a little underdried (un peu en vert).’* It will hardly escape notice that one of the objects aimed at from the first in the Challeton system, as well as in the arrangement of it now described, is an attempt to effect the separation, as far as practicable, of earthy substances from peat in which they are found to exist. But it is obvious that no necessity exists for any such manipulation in peat which is practically free from such admixture. In marsh peats eaithy and sandy substances more or less abound, a condition natural to their sedimentary deposition and accumulation; ( 78 ) but nothing of the kind, to any thing like the same extent, characterizes our high or red bogs, which do not appear to have been subjected to inundations from time to time, bring¬ ing with them more or less alluvial deposits, such as are found in the low marsh peats of France. The lessons to be derived from the varying characters and natures of peat deposits—and the field of difference is a wide one—are unfortunately not always studied to advantage. In France this process of freeing marsh peat from its sedi¬ mentary impurities is termed “ epuration,” but it is, plainly, one which is not called for in Ireland. The writer saw marsh peat extracted in France by the “ louchet mecanique,” in the middle part of which, as it emerged from the water, some portions were so foul, from intermixture of sand and earthy deposits, that for a thickness of three feet or more they were cut out from the “ louchet” as worthless, and thrown back into the water. M. Bose describes the preparation of moulded turf, not subjected to the mechanical system described for its purifi¬ cation—“ moulee non epuree,”—and he states that from the 15th of April to the beginning of September a working party, called “ une bricolle” can make from one million to a million and a half of moulded turf bricks. The working party consists of one man to raise the peat, two persons to mix and work it into pulp, and four persons to mould it by hand, in all seven labourers. “ The turf, according to temperature, is more or less long in the drying, but upon an average twelve days are required before it can be handled; after twelve days more it is ranged in little piles of ten bricks laid crossways over one another. In fifteen days afterwards these small piles are unmade, in order to be re-made, with the upper pieces placed below, and the lower ones upon top ; and in some days afterwards, they are placed together, and covered with reeds or straw.” ( 79 ) The cost of this moulded turf is stated, by M. Bose, to be as follows, per pile of 20,000 bricks. Extraction, mixing and moulding of 20,000 turf bricks, at contract rate of 15. 8 d. per 1000, . . £113 4 Heaping into pile,.026 Cover or thatch,.034 General expenses, &c., 0134 £212 6 The weight of each pile is stated to be about six tons. According to the figures given we find the cost of this moulded turf to be from eight to nine shillings per ton. In addition to the practical matters shortly treated of in this volume, there are some chapters of introductory writing, and some on the making of charcoal from turf, &c. As it is to Germany that we owe most of the efforts that have been made of late years for improved turf manufacture, its history and progress since the year i860 will be best found in several occasional articles—many of them essentially practical and by able hands—in German serial technical pub¬ lications, of which the contributions and selections in some of the parts or volumes of “ Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal,” and in the pages of the “ Polytechnisches Centralblaat” may be consulted with most advantage. For an interesting and detailed account of the system of Hodges in Canada, the reader is referred to three articles upon the subject, illustrated with engravings, in Nos. 342, 344 and 347 of ‘‘Engineering” for the year 1872 ; and for some particulars as to the French implements, the “ louchets,” to a report by Professor O’Reilly, of the College of Science, Dublin, published also in 1872. ( 80 ) Since the foregoing pages were written, a communication appeared in the columns of “Engineering” for the 18th of April, 1873, from Mr. F. Hahn Danchell, in reference to the claims from time to time made on behalf of mechanical systems for the solution of the peat question. Mr. Danchell’s length¬ ened practice and experience in peat are so well known, as to render it unnecessary for the writer to offer