977.801 Adl7p , cop. 3 ^ PHASE I ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF 3,000 ACRES AT FORT LEONARD WOOD MISSOURI by Brian Adams Public Service Archaeology Program Research Report No. 33 ~M U. OF I. LIBRARY AT URBANA/ CHAMPAIGN BOOKSTACKS REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 fuoi'C reporting ouraen lor tnu collection of «ntormation \\ numjifo to average ' nour per 'tioonu. -nciuaing the nmr tor rfv'twinq instruction!. iearcn>ng rutting data touirrt. gathering and maintaining the data needed, jnd comoietmq j™ reviewing the ■.onrmon ol mlormation Send comment! regarding thu burden etlimate or any other atoen ot trin collection ot information, including tuggettiont lor reducing \h>\ ouroen. to wainmqton Heaoauarten Service*. Directorate tor information Operation* and neponv WO Jertenon Oavit Highway. Suite 120*. Arlington. v/4 22102-*30}. and to the Office of Management and 6uoqet. Paperwork Reduction Protect (070*-O ill). Wathmgton. OC }0S0 3 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) A. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 2. REPORT OATE M^r-oV, 1QQ7 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED Final Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri 6. AUTHOR(S) Brian Adams j. funoing numb:3s DACA88-94-D-0008 Delivery No. 16 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) Public Service Archaeology Program Dept. of Anthropology 109 Davenport Hall TTnivprciiry g£. n Hn»j nflrhana . T1 61801 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER Research Report No. 33 9. SPONSORING /MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories Champaign, II. 61826-9005 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 12a. DISTRIBUTION /AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE 13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words) This report documents the results of a Phase I archaeological survey of 3,000 acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, Th" L | "j" ! j «, / ii/1 — -A^ MILLER t Western jErairiej%gjprU- -J M V i VERNON ; L i ; — 1 I JASPER [ NEWTON j j | CAMDEN v — , 1 [-■ CRAWFORD' J H T R U-^Ozarl; Highland I Regi#r NGT(W i 7 -', (, PULASKI j ' [_ r- j Inline \^£ IRON ! s ! LACLEDE ST \ . FRANCOIS\>>C PERRY "M iron i — . f ^y_ ;• j MADISON { "Reynolds S j ! SHANNON S^ J ^^ V /A ~j CHRISTIAN i DOUGLAS j McOONALO jSoJUth^iT^^ [ OREGON J L scon VJV Southeast ; \ STODDARD f^'^'S fifflS - / V / ', NW ft J D ('V' •<-, 5 MAORID /' V ) j PEMISCOT^ Figure 3. Physiographic Provinces of Missouri and the Location of Fort Leonard Wood (adapted from Chapman 1975). Although it overlies a structural lowland, the Salem Plateau is a topographic upland (Marbut 1896). Local relief on the upland surface is commonly less than 30 m but can be up to 150 m along major streams (Thornbury 1965). Present-day drainage in the Ozarks probably initiated no later than the Tertiary (Allen et al. 1975; Thornbury 1965). The Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek, which are north-flowing tributaries of the Gasconade River, itself a north-flowing tributary of the Missouri River, display a radial drainage pattern reflective of the underlying domal structure (Marbut 1896). A Tertiary age for valley incision implies that the uplands overlooking Roubidoux Creek and Big Piney River are also pre-Pleistocene in age (Madole et al. 1991). Upland divides on the Salem Plateau are commonly wide and flat or gently undulating in areas away from major river valleys. However, they can be almost absent near the larger streams (Marbut 1896). According to Krusekopf (1958) broad, rolling upland divides characterize surfaces that are relatively gravel-free. Although nearly all Ozark soils on the uplands possess some chert gravels, either throughout the entire profile or in the subsoil and substrate, Krusekopf (1942) believes the distribution Figure 4. General Topographic Characteristics of Fort Leonard Wood. Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri of surficial chert gravels is a function of microclimate. South-facing slopes tend to have stony soils whereas north- facing slopes do not. Krusekopf (1942) asserts that the drier conditions associated with the south-facing slopes decrease the rate of chert decomposition (hydrolysis), resulting in an increase in the number of stones at the surface. In contrast, the wetter conditions on the north-facing slopes cause greater weathering of the chert, resulting in fewer (to no) rock fragments at the surface and the development of a silica-rich hardpan (indurated horizon) below the B horizon. Areas of karst topography occur most frequently in the Gasconade (Albertson et al. 1995) and Roubidoux (Albertson et al. 1995; Allen et al. 1975) formations. Sinkholes (Allen et al. 1975) and rockshelters (Paul Albertson, personal communication 1996) are typical of the Roubidoux Formation, whereas caves and springs are common in the Gasconade Dolomite (Albertson et al. 1995). The Roubidoux dolomites and sandstones are relatively permeable rocks, and the residuum formed in them also tends to be highly permeable. Streams in these areas tend to be diverted to subsurface conduits, resulting in low surface runoff (Williams and Maxwell 1975) and in reduced potential for erosion (Thornbury 1965). More specifically, Fort Leonard Wood occupies part of the broad dissected uplands between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek (Figure 4), which form parts of the eastern and western boundaries of the installation, respectively. Both streams flow northward and are tributaries of the Gasconade River, which is part of the Missouri River drainage. Most of the installation is within the upland interfluve between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek. This zone is not as deeply dissected as the areas along the major watercourses and has distinctive geologic, soil, and biotic characteristics. Soils Soils on the Ozark Plateau range in age from Tertiary to Holocene. Tertiary residuum, which is preserved throughout the Salem Plateau, can exceed 45 m in thickness (Albertson et al. 1995; Krusekopf 1958); it is thickest on level divides and moderate slopes and thinnest on steep slopes (Madole et al. 1991). The residuum on the Ozark Plateau is typically a reddish, stony (cherty) clay (Williams and Maxwell 1975) similar to the red clay soil, or terra rossa, that is characteristic of landscapes underlain by carbonate rocks in other parts of the world. Although terra rossa soils traditionally have been associated with Mediterranean- type climates, they are not restricted to such zones; they are known to occur in the midcontinental United States (Frolking et al. 1983; Olson et al. 1980), in the Middle East (Barshad et al. 1956), in eastern Europe (Ciric and Senic 1985; Glazovskaya and Parfenova 1974) and in western Europe (Sevink and Verstraten 1979; Verstraten and Sevink 1979). Terra rossa soils are characteristically high in kaolinite clays whereas the underlying unweathered limestone or dolomite is not (Barshad et al. 1956); Ozark carbonate rocks are high in illite (Scrivner 1975). In spite of the mineralogical differences, which are attributed to neoformation and/or alteration of clay minerals due to weathering (Madole et al. 1991), terra rossa soils are thought to have formed in place in the underlying carbonate rock. According to Duchaufour (1977), terra rossa soils form by decalcification of indurated carbonate rocks under alternating wet and dry seasons. During the wet season, iron in the bedrock parent material is released upon weathering (decarbonation) but precipitates out in the weathered profile (where it binds to clay-sized particles) during the dry season. Duchaufour found that residuum formed in iron-poor rocks will not rubify (redden). Rubification, according to Glazovskaya and Parfenova (1974), does Chapter 2: Environmental Setting not occur because of the presence of primary red-colored minerals, but instead is the result of biochemical weathering. The iron oxides and clays that make up the terra rossa are predominantly insoluble residue left after the carbonates have been removed, although some insoluble minerals may have been added by eolian deposition (Ciric and Senic 1985). The preservation of primary bedrock structures in the residuum suggests an in situ origin and volume-for-volume replacement of dissolved carbonate rock by clays (Frolking et al. 1983; Madole et al. 1991; Williams and Maxwell 1975). It is generally accepted that formation of terra rossa on limestone and dolomite is a slow process. Therefore, the soil is considered to be fairly old where it is thick. Ciric and Senic (1985) estimate that 1 .5-2.5 million years of weathering is required to produce a 20-cm thick terra rossa developed in a limestone with .3 percent insoluble material. Thickness of residuum in the Ozarks varies, depending upon parent material properties. Generally, thicker residuum, averaging 4.5 m, is developed in the Gasconade and Roubidoux dolomites, which have a higher percentage of insolubles (in the form of quartz sand and chert) than does the Jefferson City dolomite where the residuum averages only 2.4 m thick (Madole et al. 1991). Much thinner residuum (less than 1 m thick) is developed in sandstone where the amount of carbonates is low and the amount of insolubles high (Madole et al. 1991). Residuum formed in easily weathered Jefferson City dolomite is typically a gravelly red clay with low plasticity; in thicker beds that are more resistant, the residuum is a relatively stone-free, thin plastic clay of low permeability (Williams and Maxwell 1975). The low permeability of these soils inhibits karst formation, and streams tend to maintain a surface flow (Williams and Maxwell 1975). Residuum derived from the permeable Roubidoux Formation sandstones and dolomites is relatively thick and gravelly and highly permeable (Allen et al. 1975). Gravel content often exceeds 50 percent (Williams and Maxwell 1975). The high permeability of these soils promotes development of karst topography wherein there is a loss of surface water to groundwater flow (Williams and Maxwell 1975). Residual soils formed in the Gasconade dolomite are commonly a gravelly, yellow brown plastic clay or a gravelly, red clay with low plasticity (Allen etal. 1975). Tertiary residuum in the Ozark Plateaus is buried beneath variably thick Pleistocene loess. Loesses in Missouri were derived from the Missouri and Mississippi river valleys, and their thicknesses decrease with increased distance from the source valley. Consequently, loess ranges from about 30 m thick along the rivers to less than 1 m thick in southern Missouri (Davis 1973; Madole et al. 1991). Illinoian Loveland Loess is preserved along the Missouri River (Bayne et al. 1971a), but it is rarely preserved on the uplands in south- central Missouri (Allen et al. 1975; Madole et al. 1991). In Laclede County, immediately west of Fort Leonard Wood, less than 1 m of Loveland Loess is preserved in a sink, and none is preserved on the surrounding uplands, suggesting a period of widespread erosion between the Illinoian and late Wisconsinan (Allen et al. 1975). However, as Bayne et al. (1971b) point out, the inability to identify Loveland Loess on the uplands may be due to its complete pedogenic assimilation into the Tertiary- Sangamon soil and not to erosion. At least 4.9 m of middle Wisconsinan Roxana Silt may occur along the Missouri River (Bayne et al. 1971a, 1971b). Late Wisconsinan Peoria Loess is the most widespread and recognizable loess in the area (Allen et al. 1975; Krusekopf 1958; Madole et al. 1991; Scrivner 1975). At Fort Leonard Wood, 45-75 cm of loess is found on the more stable parts of the uplands (Albertson et al. 1995). Johnson et al. (1981) found over 2 m of Peoria Loess preserved locally on the flat uplands near the Pomme de Terre river valley, northwest of Fort Leonard Wood, and Allen et al. (1975) note less than 1 .2 m on uplands in Laclede County. Peoria Loess at Fort Leonard Wood is differentiated from the underlying residuum by its less weathered Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri appearance, its high silt content (greater than 75 percent) (Balek, unpublished data), and a general lack of particles greater than 2 mm in diameter. Peoria Loess deposition occurred between 25,000 and 13,000 years ago in southwestern Illinois (McKay 1979) while in the Osage Plains physiographic section (i.e., eastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, and west-central Texas) Peoria Loess deposition ceased about 10,500 to 10,000 years ago (Madole et al. 1991). A Holocene (post-9,000 years ago) loess, the Bignell Loess, occurs in parts of the Osage Plains along the Platte and Missouri rivers (Bayne et al. 1971b), but none has been reported in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Where the Tertiary residuum is completely buried by relatively thick Peoria Loess, the surface soil is developed in the loess and is essentially Holocene in age (i.e., post- 13,000 years). Where thin Peoria Loess has been incorporated pedogenically into the residuum such that it is not recognizable as a distinct loessial unit, the surface soil may be Tertiary through Holocene in age and can be considered a relict soil. Relict soils, as defined by Nettleton et al. (1989:59), are "ancient, pedogenic soils that have persisted on land surfaces of Pleistocene or greater age [and] may have been thickened by gradual deposition after the land surface stabilized, but never thickened by deposition so rapid or great that the soil is now a buried paleosol." Wolf (1989) identifies four soil associations within Fort Leonard Wood that also correlate closely with major physiographic zones. In the uplands between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek is the Lebanon-Plato association. The Lebanon-Plato association consists of silty soils formed in loess deposits that have variable drainage characteristics. The dissected upland interfluve and the summits and shoulders of larger ridges near major streams are covered by Viraton-Clarksville-Doniphan association soils that were found in all three tracts investigated during this project. These soils are characterized as deep, well-drained and silty to cherty. They formed in thin loess deposits overlying the cherty Jefferson City/Cotter dolomite residuum. Steep side valleys and bluffs in the major streams are covered by the Clarksville-Gepp association soils that also were found in all survey tracts investigated during this project. These soils are thinner, well- to excessively drained and cherty to very cherty. These two soil associations are found only in the Cookville Tract. Major stream valleys and some minor valleys are covered by Nolin-Huntington-Kickapoo association soils. This soil association is present in the South Roubidoux Creek and Big Piney Quarry tracts that were surveyed during this project in addition to the Clarksville-Gepp and Viraton-Clarksville-Doniphan associations. These soils are deep, nearly level to gently sloping silty and loamy soils on floodplains and adjacent terraces. Roubidoux Creek terraces within this tract are of variable age, ranging from essentially modern to 55,000 years old (Albertson et al. 1995). The soil associations are further divided into several soil series (Wolf 1989) which exhibit distinctive and consistent texture, structure, and drainage characteristics. The soil series for each site are described in the individual site discussions. Climate and Climatic Change The climate of the Fort Leonard Wood area is midcontinental, with warm summers and cool winters (Wolf 1989). Average annual rainfall is about 100 cm, distributed relatively evenly throughout the year. The driest months tend to be during the late fall through early winter while the wettest are during spring and early summer, although rainfall tends to be rather evenly distributed (Wolf 1989:Table 1). Research has indicated that this pattern has not been stable through the Holocene; the early Holocene climate was cooler and wetter than present. This climate regime then shifted during the middle Holocene to warmer and drier conditions (Bryson et al. 1968; Deevey and Flint 1957; Wendland 1978). This period, known as the 10 Chapter 2: Environmental Setting Hypsithennal Interval, took place between 8,500 and 5,000 years ago. The effect of this climate change on human populations remains poorly understood and somewhat controversial at present. Minimally, by 5,000 years ago, the climate and vegetation patterns characteristic of the Fort Leonard Wood area began to stabilize in their modern forms. Floral and Faunal Communities Flora Braun (1950) has classified the flora in the Fort Leonard Wood area as part of the Southern Division of the Oak Hickory Forest. This division is characterized by southern oak species with pine present locally. Within the oak-hickory forest species composition differs with slope aspect, orientation, drainage, and soil characteristics. Cedar is often present on the most xerophytic slopes. The oak-hickory forest is interrupted by occasional prairie openings. But within this classification, the Ozark Highlands also exhibit a wide diversity of plant communities corresponding with topographic, geologic, and hydrologic variability within the region (Steyermark 1963). Additional distinctive plant communities are found on rolling uplands, poorly drained uplands, steep slopes, bottomland terraces, floodplains, near springs and sinkholes, and in ravine bottoms (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992:9). Recently, the United States Forest Service identified over 40 plant communities found in the adjacent Mark Twain National Forest (Miller 1981). The present vegetation differs from the prehistoric and early historic vegetation patterns. Schoolcraft (1853) traveled across the Ozarks in 1818 and noted that large tracts in the Ozarks were either unforested or had stunted tree vegetation. This vegetation pattern may have been either culturally promoted by Native Americans setting fires to improve hunting conditions (Chapman 1946) or due to the development of nearly impermeable fragipan soils that inhibit root growth on flat and poorly drained uplands (Rafferty 1980). In other areas, large tracts of pine forest covered the well-drained uplands, prairies were found on flat uplands, oak-hickory stands were present in high elevations, and cane thickets were abundant in bottomland settings (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992). A detailed list of species present at Fort Leonard Wood has been presented by Niquette et al. (1983). The present vegetation is dominated by oak forests on uplands and side slopes, with white, post, black, and blackjack oaks most common. The valleys support a greater variety of trees, with sycamore, ash, cottonwood, sugar maple, walnut, butternut, hackberry, red oak, willow, and pecan present. Fauna Niquette et al. (1983) provide a detailed listing of fauna present in the Fort Leonard Wood area. The faunal species include those usually encountered in the North American midcontinent. The most common large mammal in the region is the white-tailed deer, and a variety of medium-sized mammals (raccoon, squirrel, mink, muskrat, beaver, red fox, gray fox, skunk, opossum, cottontail rabbit, and coyote) is also present (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992:10). Jones and Birney (1988) identify most of the mammalian species present at Fort Leonard Wood as being associated with the Eastern and Prairie/Grassland zoogeographic units. Terrestrial bird species that were also of potential economic importance include wild turkey, bobwhite quail, and prairie chicken. As Fort Leonard Wood is not within a major migratory route, 11 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri seasonal fluctuations of ducks, geese, and swans are minimal (Bellrose 1976). Lastly, the rivers and streams of the Fort Leonard Wood area have been noted to contain numerous sunfish, catfish, sucker, and gar species (Pflieger 1975). Cultural Study Units Based on the physiographic characteristics of the Fort Leonard Wood region, the installation has been incorporated into a number of different cultural study unit models. The philosophy behind the creation of the cultural study unit models is that particular characteristics of the landscape, including geology, hydrology, soils, flora, fauna, and climate, affect the pattern of human occupation within a region. Chapman (1948a, 1975, 1980) used the natural divisions of Missouri (see Figure 2) to define environmentally based units with which to compare the development of cultural traditions. Chapman (1975) included the Fort Leonard Wood area in the Ozark Highland archaeological-physiographic region, with Pulaski County divided between the Lower Osage and Gasconade localities. Elaborating on the concept of combined cultural and natural areas within Missouri, Weston and Weichman (1987) employ drainages as the basis for cultural divisions. In this model, Fort Leonard Wood is in the Gasconade Study Unit. At a finer scale, Edging (1992) has defined a series of cultural resource zones for Fort Leonard Wood (Figure 5). This model originally was designed as a cultural resource management tool, although it is also useful in providing an initial basis of comparison regarding human use of the base. Drainage, physiographic, and soil series characteristics divide Fort Leonard Wood into five broad zones. The Cantonment zone is located on the northern end of the base and consists of uplands between the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek. This zone includes military facilities and is viewed as having low potential for containing intact prehistoric cultural resources because of construction activities. The Interior Uplands resource zone covers the remainder of the uplands south of the cantonment. The potential for prehistoric and historic sites is generally low because of distance to permanent water sources. The Lower Roubidoux resource zone includes the Roubidoux Creek valley and adjacent terraces and uplands in the northwest corner of the installation. The Upper Roubidoux resource zone consists of an area similar to the Lower Roubidoux zone but in the southwest portion of the installation. Finally, the Big Piney resource zone includes the Big Piney River valley and adjacent terraces and bluffs in the northeast corner of the installation. Prehistoric site density is highest in these latter three zones. 12 Figure 5. Cultural Resource Zones Within Fort Leonard Wood. 13 CHAPTER 3. CULTURAL OVERVIEW AND REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK This section presents a general outline of prehistoric and historic cultural development in the southern Midwest area and Ozark region and is based on earlier reports (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler and McDowell 1993; Kreisa 1995; Kreisa, Walz et al. 1996; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; McGowan 1996; McGowan et al. 1996) and regional archaeological syntheses, especially Chapman (1975, 1980), Douthit et al. (1979), Wright (1987), the prehistoric overview presented in Harland Bartholomew and Associates (1992), and an historical overview of Fort Leonard Wood (Smith 1993). Information specific to the Gasconade drainage has been derived from syntheses by McMillan (1965) and Reeder (1988). This overview provides an interpretive framework for evaluating archaeological resources at Fort Leonard Wood. Cultural Overview The cultural-historical sequence for Missouri is divided into six major periods (Figure 6), a number of which are subdivided into early, middle, and late subperiods (Chapman 1975, 1980). The prehistory of the area appears to have experienced a number of developments similar to those identified in other areas of eastern North America, including population increase, focalization on locally abundant and seasonal foodstuffs, the eventual adoption of cultivated plant foods, and increasing social and political complexity. Expressions of these developments differ across the state, though, since it encompasses a number of different regions, including the Midwest, the Great Plains, the Southeast, and the Ozarks. Paleoindian Period (14,000 to 10,500 years ago) It was during the Paleoindian period that the earliest occupation of the New World took place, when people migrating from northern Asia crossed an exposed land mass that is now covered by the Bering Strait. This period is well-documented in portions of the United States where a series of distinct lanceolate hafted bifaces is associated with regional traditions. These bifaces have long, narrow flakes removed from the base, forming a characteristic channel or flute to facilitate hafting onto bone or wood handles. Many of the more refined specimens, made from high-quality nonlocal chert, indicate a high degree of mobility and participation in exchange networks. Paleoindian groups were small, highly mobile, and integrated into egalitarian bands. Settlement systems apparently were based on residential mobility. Subsistence was generalized, exploiting locally available megafauna and a variety of smaller terrestrial mammal species as well. Patterns of plant use for Paleoindian groups are poorly documented. No major Paleoindian sites are reported for the Gasconade drainage, and no sites of this time period are reported from Fort Leonard Wood or the adjacent Houston-Rolla District of the Mark Twain National Forest. A few isolated surface finds of Paleoindian points are reported in Chapman (1975) for the Gasconade drainage, although none are from Pulaski County. Dalton Period (10,500 to 9,800 years ago) The transition from the late Pleistocene to Holocene environment brought about extinctions of megafauna across North America and the development of modern biotic regimes. Archaeologically, this 15 YEARS B.P. PERIOD SUB PERIOD HORIZON - PHASE HISTORIC 500 - MISSISSIPPIAN Late Maramec Spring Phase mnn 1UUU 1,600 - Late Early Maramec Spring Phase - WOODLAND Middle Spring Creek Complex 2,500 - i nnn Early J>,UUU Sedalia Phase - Late 5,000 - or James River Complex 8,000 - ARCHAIC Middle • - Early Tick Creek Complex 10,000 PALEOINDIAN Late Dalton Complex Middle 10 nnn Early Figure 6. Chronological Sequence of the Fort Leonard Wood Area. 16 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work transition is associated with the Dalton culture (Goodyear 1982). This manifestation originally was defined in northern Arkansas and southern Missouri (Goodyear 1974; Morse 1973; Morse and Goodyear 1973; Price and Krakker 1975) and is characterized by a chipped-stone tool assemblage that includes the distinctive lanceolate, unfluted Dalton projectile point and its variants, chipped-stone adzes, and spurred end scrapers. Dalton period settlement patterns and systems have been examined in detail in the southern Ozarks and Missouri Bootheel region (Morse 1975, 1977; Schiffer 1975). Settlement includes a variety of site types, consisting of base camps occupied for long periods of time, resource extraction camps, smaller generalized residential camps, and special-purpose cemetery sites (Goodyear 1974), suggesting a logistically organized system oriented toward the exploitation of seasonally abundant aquatic resources by larger population aggregates. Several important Dalton components have been located in Missouri, including stratified deposits at Rodger's Shelter (Kay 1980), Graham Cave (Klippel 1971; Logan 1952), and Arnold-Research Cave (Shippee 1966). Two Dalton sites have been reported from Fort Leonard Wood; 23PU190 (Niquette et al. 1983) and 23PU494 (Ahler and McDowell 1993) are located in the Interior Uplands resource zone. Phase II investigations at Sadie's Cave (23PU235) yielded evidence of a Dalton component at that site as well (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995). Early Archaic Period (9,800 to 7,000 years ago) More common are Early Archaic period sites characterized by a variety of lanceolate (Rice Lanceolate), contracting-stemmed (Hidden Valley), straight-stemmed (Hardin), side-notched (Graham Cave), corner- notched (Thebes, St. Charles, Kirk, Jakie Stemmed), and bifurcate-base (Rice Lobed and LeCroy) hafted bifaces. The Ozark Highland region contains a number of sites, mostly caves/rockshelters, with significant Early Archaic components. These include Jakie Shelter, the Rice site, and Standlee Shelter along the Table Rock Reservoir, Rodger's Shelter in the Pomme de Terre drainage, and Tick Creek Cave in the Gasconade drainage. The hafted bifaces listed above compare favorably with many of the hafted bifaces described by Roberts (1965) and McMillan (1965) in their original description of the Early Archaic Tick Creek Complex. However, Chapman (1975) points out that Middle and Late Archaic materials represented by later point types (Stone Square Stemmed and large sided-notched points) also may have been included in the original Tick Creek Complex assemblage, and Reeder (1988:185) suggests that the complex should be either redefined or abandoned. Based on work in other portions of the Midwest, it is likely that the temporal and functional variability represented by the Tick Creek Complex can be separated into more restricted phases and components through excavation of stratified sites. Early Archaic period sites are usually small sites with relatively few artifacts, suggesting that populations were composed of small, highly mobile residential groups organized into egalitarian bands. Local populations may have coalesced periodically into larger population aggregates to take advantage of seasonally abundant resources, but these were probably episodic events of short duration. Several sites at Fort Leonard Wood and the nearby Houston-Rolla Ranger District have yielded Early Archaic points. These include 23PU229 (an upland lithic scatter), 23PU304 (a floodplain lithic scatter), 23PH231 (a multicomponent upland lithic scatter), and 23PU210 (a disturbed stratified cave in the Upper Roubidoux resource zone). At the Kofahl Tract on the Big Piney River upstream from Fort Leonard Wood, four sites yielded Early Archaic points (Fraser et al. 1981). Seven Early Archaic sites were identified in the 17 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux resource zones through recent surveys by the University of Illinois (Ahler and McDowell 1993; McGowan 1996). Phase II testing recently has been conducted at one of these sites, 23PU482 (Kreisa 1995). Middle Archaic Period (7,000 to 5,000 years ago) In the Midwest this cultural period is marked by a shift in settlement toward major river-valley margins and increased use of aquatic resources by larger population aggregates (Ahler 1984; Brown and Vierra 1983; Jefferies and Butler 1982; Styles 1986). Hafted bifaces characteristic of this period include large and small side-notched points (Godar, Matanzas, Raddatz, and Big Sandy), small corner-notched points (Jakie Stemmed) in the early part of the period and medium to large corner-notched/expanding stem points (Big Creek, Saratoga Cluster, and Table Rock Stemmed) late in the period, and large straight-stem points (Stone Square Stemmed, Smith/Eva, and Karnak). No specific Middle Archaic phase or complex has been defined for the Gasconade drainage, although McMillan (1965) describes several points characteristic of a Middle to Late Archaic complex. New tool types such as the fully grooved axe and ground-stone celt were added to the technological assemblage during this period. Ozark-region sites with major Middle Archaic occupations include Rodger's Shelter, Jakie Shelter, the Rice site, Standlee Shelter, and possibly Tick Creek Cave. Based on the recovery of only moderate numbers of Middle Archaic artifacts from sites in the Gasconade drainage (Tick Creek Cave, Goat Bluff Cave, and Miller Cave [McMillan 1965; Roberts 1965]), Chapman (1975) proposes that the Gasconade drainage was used mainly for hunting during the Middle Archaic by populations with base camps located outside the drainage. This conclusion may be an artifact of sampling, since Middle Archaic sites apparently are fairly numerous at Fort Leonard Wood. At least 23 sites have yielded Middle Archaic materials (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983). Of these, Phase II investigations have been conducted at 23PU251, 23PU368, 23PU235, and 23PU457 (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995; Kreisa 1995). Late Archaic Period (5, 000 to 3, 000 years ago) The Late Archaic period in the Ozarks is marked by continuation in the manufacture of many projectile point styles in use at the end of the Middle Archaic period. While large side-notched types are not part of the assemblage, the medium and large corner-notched/expanding stem points apparently continued into the first half of the Late Archaic period. New hafted biface types were introduced, including a variety of corner- notched (e.g., Afton), stemmed (Burkett, Etley), and lanceolate (Sedalia, Wadlow) types. Distinctive tools include the triangular, unifacial Clear Fork gouge, possibly used as a woodworking tool, and the rectanguloid, bifacial Sedalia Digger, possibly used for grubbing or digging. A greater variety of ground- stone tools, including 3/4-grooved axes, celts, pestles, manos, bannerstones, and plummets, also is present in Late Archaic assemblages. Many of these tools are associated with plant processing. Increased reliance on plants is supported by recovery of some of the earliest domesticated squash and gourd remains in the eastern United States from Late Archaic contexts at Phillips Spring (Chomko 1978; Kay et al. 1980). Chapman (1975, 1980) indicates that the entire Late Archaic adaptive strategy persisted into the Woodland period in the Ozark region. Unfortunately, many of the projectile point types listed above have 18 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work been found in poorly dated or mixed deposits containing both Woodland and Late Archaic cultural materials. The absence of well-dated stratigraphic contexts poses a serious drawback to basic cultural historical interpretations in the Ozarks. Two local Late Archaic cultural manifestations have been defined for areas adjacent to Fort Leonard Wood. The James River complex is based on assemblages from Table Rock Reservoir and includes Afton, Smith Basal Notched, Stone Square Stemmed, and Table Rock point types (Chapman 1960). The Sedalia Complex is centered in the lower Missouri and Osage drainages and includes Etley Stemmed and Sedalia Lanceolate point types (Chapman 1975). A review of previous reports indicates that no Sedalia points, Sedalia Diggers, or Etley points have been recovered from Fort Leonard Wood. Late Archaic sites at Fort Leonard Wood lack the diagnostics associated with the Sedalia complex, while the base's geographic and physiographic position make it less likely to be associated with the James River complex. Late Archaic components are common on the installation, with at least 20 sites having components assigned to this period (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983). Phase II investigations have been conducted at 23PU492, 23PU249, 23PU235, and 23PU457 (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995; Kreisa 1995). Early Woodland Period (3,000 to 2,500 years ago) Traditionally, the beginning of the Woodland period is marked by the appearance of pottery in archaeological assemblages. In many areas, subsistence, settlement, and social organization remain essentially unchanged from Late Archaic patterns (see Chapman 1980; Farnsworth and Emerson 1986). Distinctive projectile point styles are few in number, and a local expression of Early Woodland adaptation has not been defined. Neither have pottery types indicative of the Early Woodland period been identified in the region. Chapman (1980) maintains that Late Archaic adaptations, including many projectile point styles, were maintained in the Ozarks well into the Early and Middle Woodland periods. Niquette et al. (1983) and Niquette (1984) list nine sites that have been assigned to the Early Woodland period at Fort Leonard Wood. However, these assignments are based on recovery of Gary and Langtry points, which have a long history of manufacture that began in the terminal Archaic (3,500 years ago) and continued at least through Middle Woodland times (1,500 years ago). It may be more accurate to assign sites with these sites to a general Woodland affiliation rather than to a more specific time period. Middle Woodland Period (2,500 to 1,600 years ago) As with the Early Woodland period, a local Middle Woodland manifestation has yet to be been defined for the Ozark region. If the distinctive Middle Woodland Hopewell ceramic styles are absent, local Middle Woodland expressions are difficult to identify. Other artifacts that have been used as markers of the Middle Woodland period include Snyders Corner-Notched projectile points and small lamellar blades (Montet- White 1968), neither of which is common in the Gasconade drainage. The lack of evidence for participation in the panregional Hopewell network has been interpreted by Chapman (1980) and McMillan (1965) as evidence for absence of permanent Middle Woodland settlement in the Gasconade drainage or even abandonment of the region. Based on work at the Feeler site, however, 19 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Reeder (1982, 1988) defined the Middle Woodland Spring Creek complex and proposed temporal boundaries of A.D. 1 — 400. This alternative interpretation of Middle Woodland adaptation indicates the presence of a resident population with an essentially aceramic technology identified by Kings and Snyders corner-notched projectile points (Reeder 1988). Thin, grit-tempered pottery similar to Middle Woodland utilitarian wares from other parts of the Midwest has been identified in low frequencies at a few sites in the Gasconade drainage, including at Fort Leonard Wood (23PU152 and 23PU210 [Niquette et al. 1983] and 23PU265). Other sites on base have been assigned to the Middle Woodland period based on identification of Snyders projectile points or lamellar blades. It is unclear whether other Middle Woodland cultural patterns common in the Midwest, such as intensive use of native cultigens, two-level settlement hierarchy, or social differentiation in mortuary practices, are expressed in any local Middle Woodland period manifestation. Phase II investigations have been conducted at 23PU265, 23PU173, 23PU291, and 23PU235, all of which have Middle Woodland or Middle to Late Woodland components (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler, Kreisa, Theler etal. 1995). Late Woodland Period (1,600 to 1,100 years ago) Late Woodland culture is well-expressed in the Gasconade drainage. Locally, Late Woodland sites are associated with the presence of cordmarked or plain limestone/dolomite-tempered ceramics. Diagnostic Late Woodland lithic artifacts include Kings Corner-Notched and Rice Side-Notched in the early part of the period and a variety of small arrow points (e.g., Crisp Ovate, Sequoyah, Scallorn, and Hayes) in the later part of the period. In addition, there appears to be some degree of social differentiation in mortuary programs; some individuals were interred in rock cairns located on upland prominences and others in caves and rockshelters. The local Late Woodland manifestation is the Maramec Spring Focus (Marshall 1958, 1965), which subsequently has been divided into early and late Maramec Spring phases (Reeder 1988). Maramec Spring phase settlement patterns include extensive villages in both valley and upland ridge crest settings, smaller hamlets and extractive camps, and extensive use of caves and rockshelters, probably for specialized activities. The Late Woodland period is the best documented period at Fort Leonard Wood and in the Gasconade drainage in general. Maramec Spring occupations (either early or late) have been identified at more than 35 sites on Fort Leonard Wood (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; McGowan et al. 1996; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983). Phase II investigations have been conducted at 23PU426, 23PU492, 23PU172, 23PU248, 23PU249, and 23PU265 (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995; Kreisa 1995). Mississippian Period (1,100 to 300 years ago) The term Mississippian generally is used to denote both the segment of time following the Late Woodland period and a particular cultural tradition. Culturally, in the major river valleys of the southern Midwest and much of the Southeast, this period is marked by technological changes such as shell-tempered pottery and use of the bow and arrow and changes in social integration, and complexity identified with hierarchical settlement systems, large town-and-mound complexes, elaborate elite burial ceremonialism, and inferred differential access to subsistence resources. The Gasconade drainage apparently does not contain 20 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work a well-developed Mississippian cultural expression. Instead, the Late Woodland Maramec Spring cultural focus continued, with the addition of a few elements indicative of interaction with Mississippian peoples or peripheral participation in Mississippian ceremonial/ideological/exchange systems such as occasional shell- tempered pottery, rare incising and punctation on ceramic vessels, and occasional recovery of exotic marine shell artifacts. No Mississippian local manifestation has been defined clearly for the Fort Leonard Wood area. While Mississippian influences are apparently represented in some of the late Maramec Spring phase ceramic assemblages, the degree of local interaction and participation in the larger Mississippian cultural system has not been defined. Historic Period (300 years ago to present) Smith (1993) provides an excellent summary and developmental context for the historic period in the Ozarks and at Fort Leonard Wood in particular. The following summary is extracted from his report; additional information is found in McGrath and Ray (1987). In the eighteenth century, Pulaski County and the Fort Leonard Wood area were inhabited by the Native American Osage tribe, who used the area mainly for hunting rather than permanent habitation. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the area also came to be populated by small numbers of Kickapoo, Delaware, Shawnee, and Cherokee who had been driven westward by expanding Euroamerican and African- American settlement. All remnants of these tribes had been removed from Missouri by about 1830. The first non-Native American settlers in the region were French explorers and lead miners who began traveling through the Ozarks as early as 1719. French settlement in the Ozarks was sparse, and its effect on the landscape and archaeological record is minimal. American settlement of the area began around 1800 with the occupation of the area by scattered pioneer hunters, subsistence farmers, and lumbermen. Most settlements were located in the larger stream valleys. Gradually, more people arrived in the area, but the rugged topography kept population levels low. Most pioneers in the early nineteenth century bypassed the Ozarks in favor of the more abundant and fertile farm territories along major river valleys such as the Missouri, White, and Arkansas rivers. Pulaski County was organized in 1833, and increasing numbers of permanent settlers arrived from eastern states. The settlement pattern appears to have been one of detached residences or farmsteads and hamlets scattered along rivers and larger creeks. Actual farming was done in small floodplain plots, and houses were located on valley-margin foot slopes or side slopes. Lumbering, hunting, and subsistence farming remained the major occupations. By 1860, population levels were rising, road systems had been constructed, and railroads were helping to develop the lumber industry in the area. Civil War actions in the county resulted in abandonment of many rural farmsteads and general economic decline. Repopulation of the area began after the Civil War, but the landscape and farmsteads had been affected adversely by abandonment. Fueled by construction of a railroad through the county in 1 867, population increased greatly and economic concerns began to focus on rural industries, especially lumbering. Railroads also brought material goods into the area, promoting a change from self-sufficient farming, hunting, and lumbering households to more consumer-oriented households linked to, and more dependent on, outside 21 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri markets and manufactories. Cross-tie production was the major industry for rural upland settlers without access to good river bottom farmland. This occupation was the main rural industry in the county from the 1 870s through World War I. The economic and cultural prosperity of the area reached its peak around 1910. Soon after that, overcutting of lumber resources and soil erosion brought economic decline and depopulation to southern Pulaski County. The area also was affected strongly by the Great Depression. The largely self-sufficient farmers and hunters that dominated the Ozark population of the nineteenth century had given way to larger consumer-and-producer communities with increasingly intimate ties to regional and national economies. Population peaked around 1910 and remained stable until about 1940. Several small crossroads communities located within the boundaries of Fort Leonard Wood had been established in the nineteenth century and continued to flourish during this period. The largest and most economically important was Bloodland; other trading communities included Big Piney, Cookville, Bailey, Moab, Wharton, Wildwood, and Tribune. The 1930s witnessed the increasing emergence of the federal government as an economic and social factor in Pulaski County. Various projects sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) directly affected economics and population in the Fort Leonard Wood area. The CCC had established numerous camps within the Mark Twain National Forest and the present Fort Leonard Wood boundaries. In 1940, the U.S. Army announced the planned purchase of 65,000 acres in southern Pulaski County. This created an immediate massive influx of laborers and support personnel into the area. As many as 30,775 workers camped within a 50-mile radius of the base (Mayes 1941, in Smith 1993). The economic and social transformation of the area has had a lasting effect on local communities. The resident populations of Bloodland and other small communities located within the installation boundaries were displaced, and the former hamlets were razed. Small communities outside the base (Waynesville, St. Robert) witnessed unprecedented economic and population growth. After World War II, population in the area and military use of the base fluctuated greatly until it was given permanent status in 1965. Previous Investigations The following summary has been drawn mainly from earlier reports (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Baumann and Markman 1993; Kreisa 1995; Kreisa, Walz et al. 1996; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; McGowan 1996; McGowan et al. 1996; Markman 1993; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983) and a dissertation (Reeder 1988) of work conducted at Fort Leonard Wood and in adjacent areas. Synopses of these previous investigations are presented below. Previous Work in the Gasconade Drainage The first reference to archaeological sites in the region around Fort Leonard Wood was made early in the nineteenth century by Beck (1975 [1823]), who described the remains of a prehistoric village in Pulaski County. Later, in a history of Missouri, Conant (1879) noted the presence of prehistoric remains in caves, rockshelters, and mounds in the Gasconade area. This work included the first report on an excavation in this 22 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work area, a cave site containing human burials. The Goodspeed Publishing Company (1 974[1 889]) later described mounds also located in Pulaski County. Both Beck and the Goodspeed Publishing Company made reference to stone walls, and the latter noted that some had burials beneath them. Later discussions of mounds, rock cairns, villages, campsites, and caves/rockshelters were made by Bushnell (1904) and Houck (1908). The first scientific investigations in central Missouri were made by Fowke in the early twentieth century (Fowke 1922, 1928). Several of the sites he visited are located on Fort Leonard Wood; namely, Kerr Cave, the Davis caves, and Miller Cave. The latter produced artifacts assignable to the Early Archaic through Late Woodland periods and possibly into the Mississippian period. Fowke, unfortunately, was interested mainly in lithic artifacts and hoped to demonstrate a relationship between early American cultures and the European Paleolithic, ultimately ignoring most other types of artifacts. Later, Fenenga (1938) reported on the ceramics from six caves, including four in Pulaski County. He developed a ceramic classification from the excavated materials, finding two ceramic types: one grit-tempered and one shell-tempered. These were associated with the Woodland and Mississippian cultures, respectively. By the 1940s, little work had been done in the region, and Chapman (1946, 1947, 1948a, 1948b), who was developing a statewide cultural sequence, was faced with a general lack of data. There was little evidence of Paleoindian or Archaic occupation, but he was able to identify a "Late Woodland Highland Aspect" for the area. Beginning in the 1950s, some of the first investigations driven by historic preservation concerns were carried out in the region. Shippee began a survey of the proposed Richland Reservoir in 1957 (Anonymous 1957; McMillan 1965), and Marshall (1963, 1965, 1966) worked on the Meramec River and near the headwaters of the Bourbeuse and Dry Fork rivers. In 1961 McMillan (1963, 1965) conducted a large-area survey of the Gasconade River and its major tributaries. As a result, 160 sites were identified, and test excavations were made at several of them. These sites included villages or campsites, caves/rockshelters, and cairns. It was noted that villages and camps usually were located at the base of bluffs, on second terraces, or near the mouths of hollows and springs. Cairns were most often found on bluff tops over large streams, and major villages were often at the mouth of large tributaries. In addition to these surveys, investigations at individual sites also were made. Descriptions of these can be found in site reports by Delling (1962a, 1962b), McMillan (1962), Price (1964a, 1964b), and Roberts (1965). Roberts, an amateur archaeologist from Waynesville, excavated at Tick Creek Cave, and his work resulted in the first major study of faunal remains from this region (Parmalee 1965). By this time, more documentation of Archaic and Late Woodland sites had been gathered, but still little was known about Middle Woodland or Mississippian occupation of the area. Such a bias was to continue in the 1970s, when the implementation of federal legislation on historic preservation led to an increase in archaeological investigations. In 1975 investigations began along a 20-km corridor in association with a highway project on Route 63. These included the first studies of the smaller tributaries and uplands of the central Gasconade drainage (McGrath 1977). Four of the open-air sites located in this survey were tested by Southwest Missouri State University between 1975 and 1977 (Cooley and Fuller 1977). In 1978 personnel from the University of 23 Phase I Survey of 3, 000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Missouri at Columbia tested an additional eight sites (Reeder and Oman 1979). Smaller surveys also were conducted such as those by Butler (1976), Cooley and Fuller (1975, 1976), and Turner and Helm (1979). Additionally, amateurs examined various caves and rockshelters (Jolly and Roberts 1974a, 1974b; Wessel 1974) and expanded some of the Route 63 excavations (Roberts 1978). These investigations also formed the basis of Reeder' s (1988) dissertation, in which he argued that inhabitants of the Gasconade River basin were not isolated geographically from other groups and that the culture history of the area fits the general Midwestern cultural pattern. Large-scale excavations also were conducted at two Late Woodland sites: the Feeler site, 23MS12 (Reeder 1982, 1988), and the Kimberlin site, 23CR301 (Geier 1975). The former project included the first paleoethnobotanical analysis for this section of the drainage (Voigt 1982) as well as the first soil-geomorphic study (Johnson 1982). Previous Work in the Fort Leonard Wood Area In the 1980s a series of major surveys was undertaken in the Mark Twain National Forest. Surveys were conducted outside the major valleys and, for the most part, identified small lithic scatters without diagnostic artifacts (Fraser et al. 1981; Klinger and Cande 1985; Perttula et al. 1982; Purrington 1985). The American Resources Group surveyed the 243-ha Kofahl Tract in 1981 (Fraser et al. 1981). Seventeen prehistoric sites, both open-air camps and lithic scatters, were identified. The sites are located on floodplain levees, terraces, alluvial fans, terminal ridge spurs, bluff crests, upland ridge crests, and hollow bottoms. Personnel from Southwest Missouri State University (Purrington 1985) surveyed an additional 1,215 ha and identified 15 limited activity areas, 12 "field camps," six cave/rockshelter sites, and one stone cairn. Most of these sites are located near large streams, but some are also present in the uplands. Purrington (1985) suggests that prehistoric site density was highest in the Rolla-Houston area of the forest and that this density is indicative of the real site-distribution pattern and not a result of sample bias. Perttula et al. (1982) also conducted investigations in a series of tracts and found two small prehistoric sites, 23PU194 and 23PU195. Purrington (1983) also located two sites, 23PU198 and 23PU199, in another survey for the National Forest. Klinger and Cande (1985) surveyed 632 ha and located ten small lithic scatters on ridge tops. The 1970s also saw the first scientific investigations at Fort Leonard Wood. Garrison (1976) undertook a survey of a 16-ha tract for an air-to-ground weapons range, but no prehistoric sites were located. Purrington and Turner (1981) carried out a survey of a 34-ha landfill tract in an upland area. Two prehistoric lithic scatters, 23PU167 and 23PU168, were identified. Two surveys also were conducted by Major John Hargis (ca. 1980, ca. 1981) in 1980 and 1981 . The first was located on Roubidoux Creek and the second in the Interior Uplands resource zone. He found 46 prehistoric sites, of which 13 are in the interior uplands. Due to changes in the boundaries of the military reservation, only 42 of these sites are currently located on the installation. The sites include caves/rockshelters, rock cairns, and villages or campsites. In 1981 and 1982, Environment Consultants, Inc. examined scattered tracts across the installation, totaling 2,024 ha (Niquette et al. 1983). Identified and partially evaluated were 53 prehistoric and historic sites. The prehistoric sites include 15 caves or rockshelters, 25 open-air sites (including two with Dalton points), and six rock cairns. The historic sites are three late nineteenth/early twentieth century farms, a 24 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work church from the same time period, and two military facilities (a bridge and generator). Twenty-five prehistoric sites and one historic site were thought to be eligible for listing in the NRHP. Another 68 prehistoric sites were identified but not evaluated, and no formal report on these sites was published. Based on review of the ASM forms for these sites, the Late Woodland period is best represented, but Middle and Late Archaic sites are also identified. Niquette (1984) conducted a survey of an additional 1,035 ha, in which 22 prehistoric and 1 1 historic sites were identified. Again, Late Woodland sites predominated, although Late Archaic sites were also well- represented. In the same year, Niquette (1985) also investigated 243 ha of timber-sale tracts on steeply sloped terrain. This was considered to be an area with low potential for containing archaeological sites and, not surprisingly, only three isolated finds were recovered. In 1988 the American Resources Group studied 46 separate survey areas in Pulaski County, totaling 974 ha (Moffat et al. 1989). They identified 33 archaeological sites, eight of which had been recorded previously. Twenty-seven of the sites are prehistoric, and they are mainly open-air camps and lithic scatters. Also recorded were five rockshelters, a rock cairn, and a cave site. The six historic sites are late nineteenth/early twentieth century residences or farmsteads. Phase II evaluation was recommended for 25 sites. Also identified were 22 isolated finds. The survey results indicate a higher site density on Fort Leonard Wood than in the Mark Twain National Forest as a whole. In 1990 and 1991, the American Resources Group conducted further Phase I investigations of selected timber-sales and military-training areas on Fort Leonard Wood (McNerney 1992; McNerney and Neal 1992). One prehistoric and eight historic sites were documented during survey of 17 timber-sale parcels totaling 684 ha. Two military-ordnance training sites and four historic farmsteads were recommended for additional work (McNerney 1992). An additional 705 ha were surveyed in two timber-sale parcels and three training areas located in the Interior Uplands and Big Piney resource zones, respectively. Eight prehistoric isolated finds, one historic isolated find, nine isolated historic features, one historic farmstead, and two prehistoric sites were located. One prehistoric site and the historic farmstead were recommended for additional Phase II investigation (McNerney and Neal 1992). In 1992, Markman and Associates conducted Phase I inventory of two large contiguous tracts of 972 ha and 1,943 ha. The larger survey documented 25 historic sites, 20 prehistoric sites, and 24 prehistoric isolated finds. Phase II test excavation evaluation was recommended for four prehistoric open-air sites, and avoidance and preservation was recommended for two cairns and four rockshelters. Phase II evaluation was recommended for four historic sites, and one cemetery was recommended for avoidance and preservation (Markman and Baumann 1993). In the smaller survey, 12 historic farmsteads or residences were documented, and two sites were recommended for Phase II NRHP evaluation. No prehistoric sites were recorded (Baumann and Markman 1993). Under a subcontract with this project, Smith (1993) prepared an historic overview and research context for the Fort Leonard wood area to expand on the information provided by Harland Bartholomew and Associates (1992). More recently, the University of Illinois conducted four Phase I survey projects at Fort Leonard Wood. The first project consisted of an inventory of 783 ha in scattered tracts. Forty-three new sites and 21 previously reported sites were documented (60 prehistoric, three historic, and one with both historic and prehistoric components). Phase II evaluation was recommended for 43 prehistoric sites, one historic site, 25 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri and the single site with mixed components. Four cairns were recommended for listing in the NRHP, and Phase II evaluation was recommended for 20 cave/rockshelter sites and 2 1 open-air habitation sites (Ahler and McDowell 1993). The second survey of 1,613 ha was completed in 1995 (McGowan et al. 1996). Areas surveyed include upland tracts adjacent to the Big Piney River, west of Musgrave Hollow, and encompassing Hurd Hollow. A total of 57 prehistoric and historic sites and isolates was located, of which 15 were recommended as potentially eligible for listing in the NRHP. The third project entailed a survey of 1,618 ha in three different tracts. As a result, 21 new sites and four isolated finds were identified. Two prehistoric and two historic sites were recommended for Phase II evaluation (McGowan 1996). The fourth project examined 1,416 ha in three different tracts. The survey documented 39 new sites, 27 revisited sites, and 10 isolated finds. Twenty-six sites were recommended for Phase II evaluation (Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996). Until the 1990's Phase II investigations at Fort Leonard Wood have been few in number. The investigations conducted by Niquette et al. (1983) included test excavations at all reported sites. These excavations usually were limited to excavation of a single test unit, cleaning looter pit profiles and documenting the exposed stratigraphy, or occasional excavation of deep backhoe trenches. These activities were considered to constitute formal Phase II evaluation to assess NRHP eligibility, and NRHP nomination forms were completed for the 14 sites included in the proposed Roubidoux Creek Archaeological District. Another Phase II investigation was conducted in 1992 by Markman (1993). These activities were limited to test excavations and damage assessment of Miller Cave (23PU2). Although the cave has been looted repeatedly, the excavations demonstrated that intact Early Archaic deposits were present and that the site should be nominated to the NRHP. The Miller Cave evaluation was the first Phase II work done at Fort Leonard Wood since the 1982-1983 work conducted by Niquette et al. (1983). Phase II excavations were conducted at 15 sites during 1992 and 1993 (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995). The project was designed to sample different time periods, resource zones, and site types. Sites investigated include both open-air and rockshelters in the Interior Uplands, Big Piney, and Roubidoux resource zones. Most importantly, this project produced a large suite of radiocarbon dates and paleoethnobotanical data. Based on the excavations, 10 of the 15 sites were recommended as eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. During 1994 expanded fieldwork at 23PU235 was conducted as a Legacy project (Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995). While additional work also was conducted at 23PU2 and 23PU255, most of the research effort centered on Sadie's Cave (23PU235). Work included the excavation of a number of test units, systematic coring of the cave area to identify intact deposits, and chemical and physical analyses of soil samples. The research identified intact Middle Archaic through Late Woodland period deposits. In addition, numerous charcoal samples were assayed and detailed faunal, floral, and lithic analyses were conducted. Most recently, National Register evaluations were conducted at seven sites during 1994 and 1995 (Kreisa 1995) and an additional eight sites in 1995 (Kreisa, Walz et al. 1996). As in the previous Phase II testing project, sites investigated during both projects included a number of different time periods, resource zones, and site types. Included were open-air sites and rockshelters in the Big Piney and Upper Roubidoux resource zones. Geomorphological investigations were conducted as part of both projects at terrace, upland, and rockshelter sites. Based on the excavations, five of seven (Kreisa 1995) and six of eight (Kreisa, Walz et al. 1996) sites, respectively, were recommended as eligible for the NRHP. 26 Chapter 3: Cultural Overview and Review of Previous Work Aside from strictly archaeological projects conducted at Fort Leonard Wood, two important ancillary projects have been completed recently: a GIS-based archaeological site predictive model (Ahler 1995) and a geomorphological study (Albertson et al. 1995). Using known site locations and associated physical attributes, Ahler (1995) has produced GIS-based predictive models for cairn, cave/rockshelter, and open-air sites. These models generally predict a high correlation between water sources and the presence of archaeological sites. The geomorphological study (Albertson et al. 1995) concentrated on floodplain settings within Fort Leonard Wood. One product of the project consists of a predictive model of site presence and depth of deposits on the several different terrace formations identified on base. Both studies provide important data on potential archaeological site distributions at Fort Leonard Wood. 27 CHAPTER 4. PROJECT GOALS The Phase I archaeological survey of Fort Leonard Wood described in this report was intended to achieve two separate but interrelated goals. The first goal is the inventory of cultural resources on selected tracts and the evaluation of those resources for potential NRHP eligibility. This goal is clearly specified in federal and Army regulations concerning the identification, protection, and management of cultural resources. The methods used to accomplish this goal are presented in Chapter 5. The second goal is to contribute to the growing archaeological data base that can be used to address more substantive archaeological issues for Northern Ozarks prehistory. This goal is also an important factor in determining NRHP significance and in contributing to archaeological understanding of this region. Research issues are presented in this chapter that take into account past research in the area and the limitations inherent in inventory-level data. The described research issues are not a comprehensive listing of the research potential of sites located at Fort Leonard Wood and cannot be resolved by a single inventory project, but do provide focal points for examining the collected data. It is hoped that, over time, the cumulative data from ongoing inventory and testing projects will result in a significant advancement in our understanding of the Fort Leonard Wood area and Northern Ozarks region. A series of research issues has been defined for Fort Leonard Wood by previous researchers and in the historic preservation plan prepared for the base (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992; Kreisa 1995; Kreisa, Walz et al. 1996; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; Markman and Baumann 1993; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette et al. 1983). These issues can be subsumed under four major topics of investigation: chronology, settlement patterns, subsistence, and technology. Examination of settlement patterns, with an emphasis on environmental parameters of site location, is best suited to archaeological survey data. The suite of physiographic information (i.e., aspect, distance to water, ecotone proximity, elevation, slope, site size) associated with each site location, along with the associated artifact assemblages, provides a foundation from which to compare and contrast sites. The observable patterns provide insight into cultural adaptations to the local environment. Changes in settlement patterns then can provide further insight into human adaptation in the project area. Under this theoretical framework, the data that archaeological survey often produces contribute to a number of wider research topics, albeit in an inferential manner. Conclusions based on survey data then can be used as a baseline model for additional testing and refinement by researchers in the future. A more specific discussion of potential prehistoric and historic period research is presented below. Prehistoric Period Research An underlying assumption of settlement-pattern research is that cultural groups adapt to their physical and social environment and that these adaptations may change through time with changes in environment and technology. In the Midwest, researchers have documented that changes in prehistoric settlement patterns reflect increased sedentism and reliance on cultigens through time. Past research at Fort Leonard Wood has focused on the role that environmental variability has on prehistoric adaptations. Niquette et al. (1983) and Moffat et al. (1989), utilizing survey data, note that prehistoric sites of all types are more frequent within 1.6 km of permanent streams and that specialized sites tend to be further from permanent water sources. Ahler and McDowell (1993) found similar trends, but they refine the analysis by considering the cultural resource zones defined by Edging (1992). They found most sites are within 500 m of a major stream valley and that 29 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri site densities vary between resource zones. Site density is lowest in the Interior Uplands resource zone and highest in the Upper Roubidoux resource zone. More recent surveys indicate that distance to water and site density vary by specific parcel within and across cultural resource zones (e.g., Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; McGowan 1996). Fort Leonard Wood has been divided into five cultural resource zones for the purpose of modeling settlement patterns and human adaptation to different environmental conditions (Figure 5). The cultural resource zones are defined on the basis of contiguous aerial extent of selected subsistence resource zones, distribution of soil series and associations, bedrock geology, and the type and density of previously recorded cultural resources (Edging 1992). Five cultural resource zones have been defined: the Cantonment zone; the Interior Uplands zone; the Big Piney zone; the Upper Roubidoux zone; and the Lower Roubidoux zone. The Cantonment and Interior Uplands cultural resource zones both include only the rolling to flat upland interfluve subsistence resource zone located between the Big Piney and the Roubidoux valleys while the other three cultural resource zones contain portions of stream valley, bluff slope, and dissected upland subsistence resource zones. The cultural resource zones were designed with the assumption that there would be subtle but potentially important differences in the quality and quantity of subsistence resources within defined cultural resource zones. For example, the type and number of aquatic resources available in the Big Piney, upper Roubidoux Creek, and lower Roubidoux Creek valleys are probably different, even though all of these would be included within the stream valley subsistence resource zone. One of the goals of the Fort Leonard Wood research program is to investigate potential differences in settlement and subsistence patterns among the various cultural resource zones. In addition, it is expected that the physical setting at Fort Leonard Wood has not been static through time. Over time physical and cultural forces have operated in a dynamic system to create environmental change. Both major stream valleys, for instance, contain complex terrace systems and abandoned stream channels dating to the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs (Albertson et al. 1995). Geomorphic work at Fort Leonard Wood indicates at least seven superimposed terraces are present in the major stream valleys, and at least two terraces are definable in the minor tributaries valleys. The relationship of archaeological sites to these terraces and the paleolandscape offers a potential wealth of information on the nature of interaction between various cultural groups and their environment. Associated with the geomorphic changes in the environment are differing plant and animal communities, each offering a different resource base for the prehistoric and historic inhabitants and each of which is subject to change over time. One aspect of understanding past cultures is the need to collect both cultural and environmental information in order to obtain a more complete picture of the past. In previous studies (Harland Bartholomew and Associates 1992; Moffat et al. 1989; Niquette 1984; 1985; Niquette et al. 1983), it was observed that locations more than 1 .6 km from permanent streams have much lower site density than areas close to these watercourses. This general observation may hold for composite site distributions, but during time periods characterized by high group mobility (Paleoindian, Dalton, Early Archaic, and Historic), sites may be more equally distributed across the landscape. Specific expectations regarding site distributions and site density among resource zones can be expressed as follows. First, site density in the Interior Uplands zone is expected to be lower than in the other resource zones, located closer to the larger watercourses, regardless of time period. Second, historic period sites will have the greatest site density in the Interior Uplands zone in comparison to all prehistoric time periods. Third, site distribution for Paleoindian, Dalton, and Early Archaic periods is expected to show greater utilization of the Interior Uplands zone in comparison 30 Chapter 4: Project Goals with all other prehistoric periods. Fourth, changes in site distribution along resource zone boundaries are expected to fluctuate based on environmental change, such as the Hypsithermal climatic interval, in comparison to current environmental conditions. And fifth, site distribution for more sedentary groups such as those of the Late Woodland period should be reflected by fewer, but larger sites. A second topic of interest has been the examination of how the steep relief between upland and valley settings has affected settlement patterns and systems. The environment around Fort Leonard Wood is one of sharp contrasts. Deeply incised valleys and karst topography result in numerous microenvironmental changes over relatively short distances. Each culture had to balance its resource needs against risks and the need to expend energy to obtain various resources. The differences between valley sites and adjacent upland sites should characterize how each group balanced its needs. Specific expectations from known cultural differences can be examined. First, because of the importance of water access throughout prehistory, the overall prehistoric site density in major stream valleys should be greater than site density in upland settings. Second, because of a technological ability to obtain water from wells rather than streams, historic sites should demonstrate an equal or greater density in upland over valley settings. Third, the greater reliance on horticulture and aquatic resources in the Woodland period should be reflected in a greater density of Woodland sites in valley settings than in upland settings. And fourth, side valleys, because of their steep sides, tendency to flood and absence of terrace systems, would be expected to have lower site density values than major stream valleys for all time periods. Historic Period Research Settlement-pattern research is not limited to prehistoric sites as historic sites also can be examined through settlement-pattern analysis. As noted in the historic context, settlement in the Fort Leonard Wood area has been highly variable. Historical events such as the Civil War and the placement of railroad lines have strongly affected the location and distribution of historic sites. Smith (1993:116) postulates that inhabitants of the Fort Leonard Wood area followed a dispersed settlement pattern typical of the Upland South cultural tradition, which holds that settlers from the southeast arrived in the region with a unique culture derived from Scottish and Irish folkways that developed in the Appalachians. Both intersite and intrasite attributes of this culture have been summarized by Smith (1993:116-117), drawing from other research (Hart 1977; Jurney and Moir 1987; Newton 1974; Otto and Anderson 1982; Sabo 1990; Smith et al. 1982; Weaver and Doster 1982; Zelinsky 1951). Intersite attributes of this cultural tradition include adaptation to woodland areas with good game resources but marginal agricultural land; placement of roads along ridges in hilly areas and in valleys in mountainous areas; settlement in a dispersed, kin-structured system; dispersed location of central-place or special-purpose facilities; development of a courthouse-town and county system; and placement of houses on high ground next to roads. The intrasite attributes of the Upland South tradition include hilltop farmsteads with seemingly random placement of buildings; separate house and multifunction outbuildings; placement of the house to face normal approach patterns; shade trees around houses; and irregular placement of fields and pastures, often along topographic features. Smith concedes that "[p]erhaps the patterns which are defined as characteristic of the Upland South are actually not linked to the Scotch-Irish and their migration, but rather, are typical of historic period low-income rural people, black, white and Native American" (1993:114-115). Smith (1993:118) also proposes that adaptation in the Fort Leonard Wood region would be influenced by the local landscape. The 31 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Upland South model deserves further historical and archaeological work to evaluate its efficacy. This may be facilitated by comparing the attributes of sites settled by southeasterners in this region with sites of comparable date and ethnicity throughout the Midwest. Another avenue of study may be the comparison of post-Civil War domestic sites located within Fort Leonard Wood that were inhabited by people from the southeast with sites inhabited by people from Illinois, Indiana, or Ohio. It is through archaeology that the hypotheses and models proposed by Smith can be tested. For instance, Smith indicates the earliest local settlements are expected along the river bottoms, with upland settlement increasing after the Civil War. More recent settlements were focused along the upland road system that ran along ridge tops, and prominent landscape locations became the preferred home locations. Smith also notes that the landscape changed significantly during the historic era and that the changes were associated with distinct occupational eras and different types of sites. It is expected that the number and diversity of site types increase from the nineteenth to the twentieth century. It is also expected that the earliest historic sites will be located in the valleys and will have a poor archaeological signature. Conversely, the most recent historic sites will tend to occur in the uplands, be oriented to the existing road system, and have a strong archaeological signature in both the historic records and on the ground surface. Historic sites encountered should be placed within the typology and model not only to support or disprove the hypotheses but to provide a framework from which these cultural resources might be managed. Summary The general goals of the project reported here are to fulfill the cultural resource management needs of Fort Leonard Wood and to build and expand upon the current understanding of the area's past. The research topics outlined above utilize physiographic and temporal variability to investigate the differential use of sites through time. Ultimately, the cumulative data should illustrate how both the prehistoric and historic populations in the Fort Leonard Wood area are similar to, or different than, other groups in the Midwest. Numerous other questions can be formulated and examined, but an exhaustive list is impossible to create. The purpose here is to provide some direction to the analysis that is consistent with what other researchers have found noteworthy in the area (e.g., Ahler and McDowell 1993; Smith 1993). The information generated from these analyses then can be compared and contrasted with information from a wider area of Missouri and the Midwest in general. In summary, the goals of this project are to provide Fort Leonard Wood with cultural resource compliance data and to expand our knowledge of the local historic and prehistoric past. 32 CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY The Phase I archaeological survey of 3,009 acres at Fort Leonard Wood undertaken by the Public Service Archaeology Program of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign consisted of archival research, systematic subsurface investigation of the three survey tracts, and analysis of artifacts and site attributes to determine the identified sites' potential for listing in the NRHP. The primary goal of this project was to inventory and document the location, age, condition, physiographic attributes, and potential significance of all prehistoric and historic cultural resources within the survey tracts and to recover material pertinent to significant regional research issues. This chapter describes the archival, field, laboratory, and analysis methods used in this project and the underlying substantive and theoretical orientation used to evaluate the potential of these sites for addressing questions important to the history and prehistory of the area. Archival Research Standard archival research was undertaken to develop a contextual framework of existing conditions within the survey tracts that would assist in data collection. Three areas were addressed. First, general environmental and cultural contexts were developed. Those contexts are presented as Chapters 2 and 3 of this report. Second, specific soil conditions were evaluated for the selected survey tracts in order to identify appropriate field methods. Existing soil records were examined to develop a model of typical soil profiles in various Fort Leonard Wood survey tract locations. This model provided a comparative profile from which to distinguish normal from atypical soil conditions and to determine the maximal depth needed for each subsurface test. An A-E-B soil horizon sequence, from top to bottom, represents a normal soil profile in upland nondepositional settings (United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service [USDA, SCS] 1975). In depositional environments, where clay and organic matter may be added to and moved through the sediment profile in greater amounts than in upland settings, the soil horizon sequence is more variable. At Fort Leonard Wood, most upland soil profiles showed well-developed B horizons at less than 40 cm below surface, and posthole tests were considered complete at 40 cm or less in depth. Posthole tests in depositional environments often reached 1 .0 m or more in depth, depending on the geomorphic model for the age of the terrace (Albertson et al. 1995). In addition, there are stable terrace settings where deeply buried (greater than 1 m) cultural materials are possible (Albertson et al. 1995). Solid core auger tube samples and screened bucket auger tests provide the basic sampling technique in these settings. Third, available atlas, USGS and plat maps were consulted to evaluate the potential for known historic sites in the survey areas. As part of this project, Fort Leonard Wood and USACERL furnished topographic and installation maps depicting the location of all known sites. Identified structures then were compared with historic documents identified by Smith (1993) in order to infer the type and nature of historic materials likely to be encountered in a survey area. Smith's research (1993: 129) identified four classes and 25 types of sites that may be located within Fort Leonard Wood and their expected date range (Table 1). These background materials were used in the field evaluations of historic sites. Additional investigations were undertaken for all historic sites documented in the survey tracts to determine if site function or previous site ownership could be clearly identified. Located records were used in the evaluation of these historic sites. 33 Table 1. Classes and Types of Historic Archaeological Sites (adapted from Smith 1993: 129). Site Class Site Type Date Range Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Community Service Center Community Service Center Community Service Center Community Service Center Community Service Center Community Service Center Special Activity Special Activity Special Activity Special Activity Special Activity Special Activity Special Activity Transportation Transportation Transportation Transportation Hunter-Squatter Subsistence Pioneer General Specialized Share-Tenant Renter Rural Resident Mill General Store/Post Office School Church Cemetery Hamlet/Village CCC Camp Tie-Hacking/Log Slide Civil War Outlaw Camp Still Portable Sawmill Trash Deposit Bridge Ferry/Ford Road Railroad tunnel 1815-1840 1820-1940 1820-1860 1870-1920+ 1890-1940 1870-1940 1870-1940 1920-1940 1820-1920 1830-1940 1850-1940 1830-1940 1830-1940 1830-1940 1930-1940 1820-1940 1860-1865 1830-1940 1830-1940 1910-1930 1815-1940 1870-1940 1820-1940 1820-1940 1850-1940 34 Chapter 5: Methodology Detailed historic resource evaluations using chain-of-title materials and land-sale records were not undertaken as part of this research project. Field Methods The field methods used during the Phase I archaeological survey at Fort Leonard Wood were based on project goals and the USACERL Statement of Work. Surveyors worked at 20-m intervals across the survey tract. Two survey techniques were used. Upland locations with surface visibility greater than 30 percent were visually examined for cultural remains. If no cultural remains were located, no additional investigations were conducted. Where cultural materials were located, interval spacing was reduced to 5-10 m in order to increase the chances of locating diagnostic artifacts and better assess the condition of the location. In locations with surface visibility less than 30 percent and in all stream valley depositional settings, posthole tests were excavated in a 20-m grid pattern. A modification was made in areas with greater than 15-degree slopes. These areas were examined visually for benches, mounds, cairns, rockshelters, and caves and were not subject to systematic walkover or subsurface testing. All posthole tests were done with a scissors-type posthole digger. Each test was excavated in 10-cm levels, and sediments were screened through 6.35-mm ('/4-inch) mesh hardware cloth. These tests removed a 15- to 20-cm diameter column of soil. Tests were excavated to subsoil or bedrock depending on the location on the landscape. All test locations were backfilled upon completion. Negative tests were counted, but their soil profiles were not recorded. Positive tests were recorded on standard forms that include soil color, soil texture, and depth of cultural materials. Materials recovered from these tests, unless determined to be modern, were collected. Additional tests were placed around positive tests in order to determine probable site limits. The location, spacing and number of additional tests were based on field assessments of conditions. Site boundaries were determined on the basis of surface and subsurface findings and changes in landform. Identification of a site resulted in additional documentation. Upon the discovery of an artifact or surface feature, the location was assigned a temporary field number (AOS, area of scatter). AOS numbers were assigned to all previously unrecorded sites. For newly identified sites, the first task was to define site limits and to record that location on USGS 7.5' quadrangle maps. All subsurface materials and representative surface materials discovered within the AOS were collected in reference to their specific provenience (e.g., surface or posthole test, depth of recovery). A scaled, field sketch map of the site was drawn. Maps include topographic or other natural features, man-made features, approximate site boundaries, and location of the site datum. All sites were marked with a permanent datum marker (a metal pipe) with a plastic cap engraved with "ILLINOIS PSAP DATUM". The field number was written on the cap in waterproof marker. The datum was placed in a location that was easy to reference and relocate within the site. Black-and-white photographs and color slides documenting each site were taken. Finally, field notes were recorded for each site. Specific observations made at each include a general location description, an evaluation of subsurface disturbance, documentation of features, and, if possible, temporal affiliation. Sufficient data was collected to complete ASM site forms and to provide preliminary NRHP evaluations. Previously recorded sites were documented using their state trinomial designation. These sites were assessed to determine if changes had occurred since they were recorded. The same documentation procedures were undertaken as for newly recorded sites. 35 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Laboratory Methods All recovered materials were transported to laboratory facilities at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign where they were washed, labeled, inventoried, analyzed, and prepared for curation. Inventory forms document artifact types, counts, and weights for each provenience. Weight was not calculated for historic artifacts. All recovered materials were classified initially as historic or prehistoric artifacts. More detailed secondary analyses were performed on both historic and prehistoric materials. Historic Artifacts The historic artifacts category from Fort Leonard Wood contains artifacts dating to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Artifacts were initially sorted based on material types (e.g., ceramics, glass, metal, or lithics). Materials then were divided according to the classificatory system developed by South (1977). In this system, historic artifacts are organized at the most general level into artifact groups. South (1977) has defined nine such groups: Kitchen, Architecture, Furniture, Arms, Clothing, Personal, Tobacco Pipe, and Activities. Materials are then divided into artifact classes within the groups. Artifact classes are further subdivided into more specific Material, Ware and Type categories. These category attributes and descriptions generally facilitate identification of site age and function. The Kitchen group includes artifacts typically associated with food preparation and consumption. Within this group South (1977) has defined eight artifact classes: Ceramics, Wine Bottle, Case Bottle, Tumbler, Pharmaceutical Type Bottle, Glassware, Tableware, and Kitchenware. The Architectural group includes those remains associated with construction and demolition of buildings rather than the activities performed in or near such structures. South (1977) defines five artifact classes for this group — Window Glass, Nails, Spikes, Construction Hardware, and Door Lock Parts. A class of Construction Materials has been added to incorporate remains such as concrete, brick, shingles, and mortar which often mark the former locations of historic buildings. The Activities group encompasses a wide range of artifact classes that relate to the variety of activities performed by craft specialists as well as the general population and that are not included in other artifact groups. South (1977) defines 12 such classes: Construction Tools, Farm Tools, Toys, Fishing Gear, Stub- stemmed Pipes, Colono-Indian Pottery, Storage Items, Ethnobotanical, Stable and Barn, Miscellaneous Hardware, Other, and Military Objects. Prehistoric Artifacts All prehistoric material was counted and weighed, with the data entered on a preliminary inventory form (Appendix D). Lithics and ceramics were recovered in this project. The lithics are divided into three broad categories: tools, manufacturing debris, and miscellaneous lithic material. Tools include those made from both chipping techniques (e.g., projectile points and scrapers) and grinding and pecking techniques (e.g., celts and axes). Tools can be of formal manufacture, such as the examples listed above, or of incidental manufacture (e.g., hammerstones and pitted stones). Manufacturing debris usually is composed of the waste materials (e.g., spent cores, flakes, and block shatter) generated from the production of chipped-stone tools. Miscellaneous lithic material includes fire-cracked rock, limestone, unmodified and tested chert chunks and 36 Chapter 5: Methodology nodules, and ocher. Fire-cracked rock is unintentionally produced debris that results from alternating processes of heating and cooling (Taggert 1981; Zurel 1979, 1982). Unmodified or minimally flakes chunks and nodules of chert represent raw material collected and reserved for tool production. Chipped-stone tools, manufacturing debris, and ground-stone tools were recovered from this project. Debitage (flaking debris) categories comprise a majority of all the chipped-stone remains. These categories include block shatter, broken flakes, and whole flakes. The whole flake classification was used for items characterized by the presence of a bulb of percussion on the ventral surface and a striking platform. The whole flakes were further divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary flake types based on the amount of visible cortex present: ^ 50 percent, < 50 percent and > percent, and percent, respectively. Secondary characteristics also were assessed. Primary flakes tend to have a pronounced bulb of percussion, secondary flakes have a less pronounced bulb, and tertiary flakes are generally smaller than the other two flake types and often have a reduced or no bulb of percussion. Broken flakes are debris items that lack a platform or bulb of percussion, or are too small to place accurately within the whole flake category. Block shatter has irregular shapes that lack flake and core characteristics. Bifacial thinning flakes have a distinct lip on their bulb of percussion, an angled striking platform, and distinctive negative flake scars on their dorsal surface. Related to debitage are cores, the parent stones from which flakes are removed. Formally flaked stone tools initially were divided into unifacial and bifacial categories. Unifaces show evidence for retouch only on one surface. Bifaces demonstrate retouch on both their dorsal and ventral surfaces. When possible, each tool is assigned to a more detailed morphological-functional use category. Unifaces are most commonly classified as scrapers; the particular type is determined by the placement of the edge modification. Bifaces can be placed into a number of distinct categories. Among these are such items as projectile points, drills, knives, scrapers, and thick and thin bifaces. The most recognizable of the chipped-stone tools are projectile points. Projectile points are symmetrically thinned bifaces that show evidence of hafting. These items have been examined in detail for comparison with projectile point types known from the Midwest and are particularly important for the placement of sites within a cultural and temporal context (see Bell 1958, 1960; Chapman 1975, 1980; Justice 1987; Kay 1980; McMillan 1965; May 1 982; Morrow 1 984; Perino 1 968, 1 97 1 ). The other tool types are largely descriptive in nature. Perforators are typically small, narrow, often bifacial tools. Knives are larger, thin bifaces with a low edge angle to facilitate cutting while scrapers have a higher edge angle to facilitate scraping. Thick and thin bifaces are not finished tools but represent stages in tool manufacture. A thick biface is one that has been modified, is not a finished implement, and is in need of further modification. Typically, the thick biface can be modified into a number of different tool types (Bradley 1975). Thin bifaces are the result of further modification of thick bifaces. They also are not finished implements, but their morphology indicates that they can be further modified into only a single tool category (Bradley 1975). Thin and thick bifaces were differentiated based on flake morphology. In analyzing the chipped-stone tools and lithic debris, both core-reduction and bipolar models were followed (Collins 1975; see also Bradley 1975; Hayden 1980). Collins (1975) defines five stages of chipped- stone manufacture and use for the core-reduction model. These stages consist of acquisition of raw materials, core preparation-initial reduction, primary trimming, secondary trimming, and use-maintenance- modification. Each of these categories, called activity sets (except for raw material acquisition), is associated with waste by-products and objects that are further used or modified. Core preparation-initial reduction is 37 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri a stage in which the core is shaped and flakes are detached. Suitable flakes may be retained and further used with the core being discarded, or both can be retained for additional modification. End products of this stage are primary flakes, block shatter, discarded cores, and thick bifaces. The next stage, primary trimming, is used to shape the object. Flakes can be retouched into usable tools, or thick bifaces can be flaked into a thin biface. These activities result in the production of secondary flakes, retouched flakes, thin bifaces, and items broken during manufacture. Following primary trimming is the secondary trimming of thin bifaces. This stage produces tertiary flakes, finished tools, and items broken during processing. Finally, the tools are used, maintained, and perhaps modified. Bifacial thinning flakes are the most important waste by-product of tool maintenance activities, although they also could be produced while thinning thick bifaces. Following this model, the following considerations have been made in the analysis of lithics. Cores, primary flakes, and block shatter are classified as evidence of initial- stage reduction activities. Secondary flakes, tertiary flakes, and thick and thin bifaces evidence later-stage reduction activities. Bifacial thinning flakes are indicative of tool-maintenance activities. Since broken flakes can be produced by a number of prehistoric and modern processes, they were not considered when characterizing the lithic tool production activities at the site. Less common at Fort Leonard Wood is the use of a bipolar technique. In this technique, small cobbles are generally not well-suited for use in the direct hammer or core reduction technique described above, although a bipolar technique can be used to manipulate these items. When using a bipolar technique, the cobble is placed on an anvil and struck. This action yields bipolar debris and, eventually, a spent core. The flakes can either be discarded, used as-is, or further modified into tools. The bipolar technique also produces pitting in anvil stones due to the striking force used. The other class of lithic artifacts, ground-stone tools, consists of pecked and ground items generally made from metamorphic or igneous rock. Included in this category are items that are intentionally formed, such as celts and axes, and unintentionally formed, such as hammerstones, grinding stones, and pitted stones. Intentionally formed artifacts consists of items that were modified for a specific use. Unintentionally formed items have areas of pitting, battering, or smoothing that were caused through use. Definitions of the individual artifact categories are based on those used by other research in the Midwest (e.g., Brose 1970; McElrath 1986; McGimsey and Conner 1985). Additional data also were gathered from prehistoric ceramics. Data collected for each rim or body sherd includes temper type, temper density and size, surface treatment, cord twist, decoration, thickness, and vessel portion. For rim sherds, additional collected data include vessel form, rim shape, and lip shape and treatment, following standard definitions for these attributes (Rice 1987; Shepard 1965). Vessel profile definitions and terms following Ozuk (1990) were used in an attempt to standardize terminology. When possible, each sherd is assigned to a ceramic type for chronological purposes that follow previously described Maramec types defined in central Missouri (e.g., Marshall 1958; McMillan 1965). Site Forms After analysis of the materials was completed, ASM site forms were compiled for all newly identified sites. Updated site forms also were compiled for previously reported sites documented during this survey. 38 Chapter 5: Methodology The completed site forms are included in Appendix C. Because site location data are confidential, this appendix is bound and distributed separately from the main report. The site definition established for this project in the Statement of Work is "any loci where human behavior has resulted in the deposition of at least three artifacts within a 20 meter diameter area and is at least fifty (50) years of age. Less than three artifacts within the 20 meter diameter will be considered isolated finds". The specification of site definition is critical to all inventory projects because site definitions are widely variable from one state to another and among researchers. Zeidler (1995:36) has noted that "one of the most fundamental and firmly entrenched concepts in modern archaeological research is that of the 'site,' yet paradoxically it is currently one of the most contentious and variably defined concepts in the discipline." Locations meeting the Fort Leonard Wood minimum criteria are identified as sites; locations below the minimum site threshold are isolated finds. NRHP evaluations are provided for sites and isolated finds. The isolated find designation is not considered a de facto evaluation of NRHP ineligibility. This approach is designed to help protect cultural resources by recognizing that special conditions may exist where the minimum criteria is not achieved, but nonetheless the potential significance is high. Nonetheless, none of the isolated finds identified during this survey has been recommended as potentially eligible for the NRHP. In this project, site boundaries have been defined to include the entire area encompassed by a discrete scatter of artifacts and to take into account topographic features. NRHP Evaluations The collected field, lab, and archival data then were evaluated to determine which sites meet NRHP eligibility criterion d, the ability to yield information important or potentially important to history or prehistory. Perhaps the least subjective measure when evaluating a site is the issue of integrity (Townsend 1995). Phase I field data provide substantive evidence regarding site integrity. Evaluation of known soil data, historical records, surface evidence, and soil stratigraphy provide a basis for determining site integrity. Based on a lack of integrity, sites can be recommended as ineligible for the National Register (National Register Bulletin 1991 :48^49). Additional Phase I-level data that contribute to site evaluation include site size, assemblage diversity, chronological placement, and size of the site assemblage. While these measures alone do not provide justification for a recommendation of ineligibility or potential eligibility, each can support such a recommendation. Specifically, when data are limited or lack stratigraphic integrity, it is less likely that substantive research questions can be addressed (Butler 1987:824-825; National Register Bulletin 1991 :48-49). Limited data and a lack of integrity weigh against NRHP eligibility. Therefore, it is possible to make informed NRHP recommendations solely on the basis of Phase I investigations. To a large degree, the recommendation of ineligibility for sites recorded in this project is based on a lack of subsurface integrity, as seen in posthole tests and in erosional cuts within the site limits, and limited material evidence to document the nature of the cultural occupation. Phase I investigations, however, are generally not adequate to demonstrate NRHP eligibility for sites. Field methods designed to locate sites lack the intensity of data collection needed to document fully the nature of cultural occupation at any given site. Rarely is enough evidence collected to recommend a determination of site eligibility. Instead, the sites are evaluated as indeterminate or potentially eligible for the NRHP, and Phase II investigations are recommended to determine NRHP eligibility (Jameson et al. 1990:6). As part of this recommendation, the data necessary resolve the site's NRHP status are identified. 39 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri The recommended Phase II investigations examine site preservation, site function, chronological placement, and the potential to address significant research issues. Curation All cultural material recovered from this project and all documents relating to the fieldwork and laboratory analysis of these materials are the property of the federal government. University of Illinois personnel have compiled lists of the artifacts recovered from each site (Appendix A). In addition, copies of all photographs, analysis forms, and field forms pertaining to these sites are included in Appendices D and E. Interested researchers should contact USACERL regarding access to the collection and documentation. 40 CHAPTER 6. SITE INVENTORY AND ARTIFACT ANALYSIS Phase I investigations were conducted in three survey tracts located in different parts of the base (Figure 2). The smallest is the Big Piney Quarry Tract, consisting of 613 acres (248 ha). The Cookville/EQR Tract occupies approximately 580 acres (235 ha). The South Roubidoux Tract is the largest at 1,816 acres (735 ha). The Phase I survey identified 59 previously unreported sites and isolated finds, and six of eight previously recorded sites were relocated. This chapter presents the results of the survey including site descriptions, artifact inventories and analyses, and National Register recommendations for each site and isolated find identified in the project area. The site and isolated find descriptions are organized by survey tract. Sites are described first, in order of ASM site number, and are followed by isolated finds. Pertinent information is presented for each identified site and isolated find. Some of this data is presented as a short synopsis, preceding the general discussion of each site. Data presented in this format include site number, the USGS quadrangle on which the site is located, elevation (in meters), site type (following ASM definitions), soil type, temporal component(s), and NRHP recommendations. Following the synopsis is a narrative description of the site's location, the basis for the definition of the site area, surface visibility in the site area, a brief discussion of artifacts and cultural features identified (if present), and the rationale for the NRHP recommendation. Also presented is a sketch map of each site and isolated find. Temporally diagnostic prehistoric artifacts are illustrated as well. Detailed inventories of artifacts, including provenience, count, and weight, are presented in Appendix A. Big Piney Quarry Tract This irregular-shaped tract consists of 613 acres (248 ha) and is located in the northeast part of Fort Leonard Wood (Figure 7). It is bounded on the north by the Big Piney River, on the west by an irregular line defined by ravines and trails, and on the south by an unnamed tributary of the Big Piney and a stretch of bluffs south of the river. The tract is located in sections 31 and 32 of Township 35 North. Range 10 West and sections 25 and 36 of Township 35 North and Range 1 1 West. This area, which falls within the Big Piney cultural resource zone, includes both upland ndges and a large section of the Big Piney floodplain. The floodplain has been quarried for gravel in places, and the bluffs along the south margin of the river valley have been extensively quarried. Two previously recorded sites were relocated in this tract. Ten new sites and one new isolated find were identified during this survey. Site Number: 23PU402 (James Elkins site) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 259 m asl Site Type: Farmstead/Residence Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): 20th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 23PU402 was recorded with the ASM in 1992 by Fort Leonard Wood personnel as an early twentieth century farmstead in extremely good condition with a poured concrete foundation, an intact root cellar, and a portion of a standing chimney. A map of Pulaski County (on file, DEH. Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri) 41 BIG PINEY QUADRANGLE MISSOURI 7.5 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC) MISSOURI KEY Survey Limits QUADRANGLE LOCATION 1 KILOMETER Figure 7. Location of the Big Piney Quarry Tract. 42 ( hapter (>. Site Inventory mid Artifact Analysis dating from 1890-1900 indicates that this site was owned by James Elkins. It is located at the confluence of two small intermittent drainages of the Big Piney River. These drainages join 100 m southwest of a sharp, narrow bend in an unnamed hollow, which farther to the east has been extensively quarried by the military The 1996 revisit to this site, which measures approximately 60-X-90 m. indicated that it is in the same condition as originally described in 1992 (Figure 8). It is situated in an oak-hickory forest and, at the time of the revisit, the large poured concrete foundation was covered with small sumac trees and wildflowers. This foundation measures approximately 12-X-16 m. A section of standing stone wall approximately 1.2 m tall was observed at the northeast corner of the foundation. The remainder of the north wall also appears to be stone with concrete mortar. The standing stone chimney is approximately 2.8 m tall and is located at the north-central end of the foundation. It has a brick lined fire box, and the chimney itself is lined with sections of square ceramic tile. A cistern with a metal cover was observed at the center of the interior of the south foundation wall. Several steel cans, pieces of glass, and bricks were observed around this foundation but not collected. Approximately 4 m west of the northwest corner of the house foundation is a small rectangular foundation of poured concrete. It measures approximately 2-x-4 m. The intact root cellar described in 1992 consists of a rectangular cut-stone foundation with concrete mortar measuring approximately 3-x-3 m. It is located in the embankment of an intermittent stream, approximately 4 m north of the northeast corner of the large house foundation. This cellar has a concrete- lined interior and a poured concrete roof and floor. The roof is intact, and supports have been positioned recently to prevent its collapse. The door and possible window openings in the north wall are carefully finished. Artifacts observed on the floor of the root cellar but not collected include canning jar fragments, canning jar liner fragments, and window glass fragments. Inspection of the area northeast of the foundations and root cellar indicated that additional features and structural remains were present in the area. The area in question is an open, level floodplain formed by the confluence of two unnamed intermittent tributaries of the Big Piney River. In this area, approximately 20 m northeast of the root cellar, there are two surface features which may represent activity areas associated with the residence/farmstead. The first of these is a small pile of fieldstones, approximately 2 m in diameter, located next to a small, shallow pit. Approximately 10 m northeast of this feature is a second pile of fieldstones. also approximately 2 m in diameter, on top of which was a galvanized wash tub. This tub had been intentionally perforated in places and had barbed-wire attached to the rim. as if for suspension. It was not collected. Approximately 25 m east of these features is a poured concrete foundation, measuring approximately 6-x-4 m. This foundation is located against an asphalt and gravel road/dam which appears to be of military origin. This road/dam has been constructed to block the eastward flow of water from the intermittent drainage. The foundation appeared to be older than the road/dam, and may be part of 23PU402. Prior to the construction of the asphalt and gravel feature, the intermittent tributary located north of 23PU402 passed out of the open level floodplain area through a sharp, narrow bend in the ravine. The presence of historic features in the open floodplain area together with the unique geological setting of the site location suggested that the intermittent tributary may have been dammed at one time resulting in the formation of a pond. This site may actually be part of a larger complex of historic structures and features including 23PU680. approximately 200 m to the west and 23PU524, located approximately 100 m to the south. These sites are discussed in detail below. Artifacts, architectural and limited archival information indicate that this site represents a relatively late histonc period occupation. As there is no evidence of extensive disturbance of the site by the military, it is possible that earlier features are preserved at this site. In addition, the presence of a partial standing chimney 43 Figure 8. Sketch Map of 23PU402. 44 ( 'hapter 6 Site Inventory and Artifact Aiuih< and an intact root cellar, both of which are rare at farmstead sites at Fort Leonard Wood, should be examined further and carefully documented. Such documentation should include detailed mapping, photography and illustration of these features. Finally, the occurrence of additional surface features in a unique topographical setting which may represent an artificial pond, suggests that this was a site associated with specialized activities. Based on these findings. Phase II evaluation of 23PU402 is recommended to determine its NRHP eligibility These Phase II investigations should include a detailed records search, excavation to determine site function, temporal placement, and evaluation of the site within the overall context of local history. Site Number: 23PU524 USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 259 m asl Site Type: Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Lebanon silt loam, 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): 19th-20th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 23PU524 is a late nineteenth-early twentieth century farmstead first recorded with the ASM in 1994 by Fort Leonard Wood personnel. It is located near the northeast end of a ridge, approximately 50 m south of an intermittent drainage of the Big Piney River. The site was recorded as a concrete foundation with concrete center supports and a large cistern. A structure inhabited by Joe Null (?) is depicted at this location on a map of Pulaski County dated to the late nineteenth/early twentieth centuries (on file, DEH, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri). Site 23PU524 is present on the 1938 aerial photograph of the area, and is recorded as part of the Opal Frank tract on the 1948 Fort Leonard Wood acquisition map. This site, which measures approximately 15-X-15 m. was revisited in 1996 and appears to be in the same condition as described in 1994 (Figure 9). Close inspection of the foundation, which measures approximately 4-x-10 m. revealed that it is constructed of fieldstones with concrete mortar, and not of concrete as originally reported. The foundation walls are approximately 1 m high. Three square, poured -concrete piers are located inside the foundation, and three more are located outside, along the east wall. The piers outside the foundation have bolts projecting from their tops. The cistern, which still contains water, measures approximately 2-x-2 m and is made of poured concrete. It is located in the northeast corner of the foundation and is situated such that half of the opening falls within the foundation and half outside. The section which is located outside of the north wall consists of a standing wall of fieldstones approximately 1 m high. A small pile of concrete and fieldstones is located near the northwest corner of the foundation. Large artifacts observed on the surface but not collected include a steel drain pipe, a galvanized dram pipe, corroded metal food cans, and a highly corroded metal bucket. Also observed on the surface but not collected were a piece of bottle glass and a 6 fl. oz. machine-made bottle with an '"Owens. Illinois" maker's mark on the base. The artifacts and architectural remains suggest that 23PU524 represents a relatively late historic period occupation. The lack of extensive disturbance of the site suggests that subsurface features may be present. Further. 23PU524 is located approximately 200 m east of 23PU680 and 100 m south of 23PU402, both of which were revisited as part of this survey. The proximity of these three sites to each other, and the possible specialized function of 23PU402, suggests 23PU524 may be part of larger complex of buildings. Based on these findmgs. Phase II evaluation of 23PU524 is recommended to determine its NRHP eligibility. These 45 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri ^^' — 23PU524 KEY Surface Scatter m 20 Concrete Piers Mixed Hardwood Forest Figure 9. Sketch Map of 23 PU5 24. Phase II investigations should include a detailed records search, excavation to determine site function, temporal placement, and evaluation of the site within the overall context of local history. Site Number: 23PU676 (96-16: AOS 1) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 287 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This is a prehistoric site located in a highly disturbed area on the east slope of an upland ridge, immediately east of Training Area 109. It measures approximately 15-X-20 m, and is situated in an area of scrub oaks and cedars with 10-40 percent ground surface visibility (Figure 10). The site was defined on the basis of five positive posthole tests and a low density surface scatter of chert chipping debris. 46 Cltapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis \ o Road ^-~k-J : /l^ I 23PU676 Disturbed KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum Spoil Pile m 10 Figure 10. Sketch Map of 23PU676. A large pit. measuring approximately 30-X-15 m and 2-3 m deep, is located immediately west of the site, and several spoil piles were observed on and around the site. Posthole tests north and south of the site indicate that soils have been disturbed in these areas. Posthole tests excavated within the site, however, suggest that intact soils are still present in this area. A and E horizons appear to be preserved within the site boundaries, with the E horizon extending from approximately 12 cm to more than 35 cm below surface. A biface fragment was recovered from the E horizon of one posthole test. The remainder of the artifacts recovered from this site consists of 18 broken flakes. 13 tertiary flakes, 2 pieces of block shatter, and 1 end scraper. While most of this material (48 percent) could not be equivocally assigned to either the A or E horizons. 26 percent was derived from the A horizon and 26 percent was associated with the E horizon (Table 2). Although there is evidence of disturbance in the vicinity, the posthole data suggest that intact soils exist on the site. Based on the amount of material recovered from the site and the presence of lithic tools in the E horizon, 23PU676 is considered potentially eligible for the NRHP. Phase II excavations should be conducted to determine eligibility, and should include test excavations designed to determine the extent of intact deposits at the site, site function, and temporal placement. 47 Table 2. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU676. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts _ _ _ 10-15 cm 9 = E 13-20 cm 9 AorE — 17 Site Number: 23PU677 (96-16: AOS 2) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 280 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type:: Clarksville-Gepp very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This prehistoric site measures approximately 30-X-70 m and is situated on the east edge of an upland ridge, approximately 70 m north of a dirt access road. It is located in an area of scrub oaks and grass with 10-30 percent surface visibility (Figure 1 1). Seven positive posthole tests were excavated at this site, yielding 79 pieces of lithic debitage from 0-30 cm below surface. The artifacts found at this site consist mainly of chert chippmg debris. This consists of 29 tertiary flakes, 28 broken flakes. 20 pieces of shatter and 1 secondary flake. The remaining artifact is a chert core. Soils at this location are characterized by A horizons from between to 8 cm below surface beneath which an E horizon extends to a depth of approximately 30 cm below surface. Most of the lithic artifacts (72 percent) were found deeper than 10 cm below ground surface, in the E horizon (Table 3). Based on the amount of subsurface material recovered from the site, 23PU677 is considered potentially eligible for the NRHP. Phase II excavations should be conducted to determine eligibility, and should include test excavations designed to determine the integrity of prehistoric cultural deposits at the site, site function, and temporal placement. Site Number: 23PU678 (96-16: AOS 3) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 293 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This site is located near the north end of a ridge spur on moderately sloping terrain. It measures approximately 90-X-65 m and is situated in an oak forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 12). The 48 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Open With Scrubby Trees 23PU677 KEY - - Site Limits o A Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum m 40 Figure 11. Sketch Map of 23PU677. Table 3. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU677. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A E 5-8 cm 15-28 cm 22 57 49 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Foxhole 23PU678 o A KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum m 40 Figure 12. Sketch Map of 23PU678. north edge of the site is bordered by a military road and a disturbed area, and a foxhole has been excavated into the east side of the site. Twelve positive posthole tests were used to define this site. Lithic debitage was recovered from depths of 0-20 cm below surface, from the A and E horizons (Table 4). The E horizon is thick, suggesting a fairly stable surface. In general, soils are thin on the east, becoming progressively thicker to the west and upslope. Thirty-one pieces of chert chipping debris were found at this site. These consist of 18 broken flakes, 11 tertiary flakes, one piece of shatter, and one chert blade. Despite some military activity in the vicinity, the existence of an intact, artifact-bearing E horizon suggests that the site has intact deposits, and is considered potentially eligible for the NRHP. Phase II excavations should be conducted to determine eligibility, and should include test excavations designed to determine the integrity of prehistoric cultural deposits at the site, site function, and temporal placement. 50 Table 4. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU678. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A 10-15 cm 4 E 10-20 cm 4 A or E See Above 4 Uncertain - 15 Site Number: 23PU679 (96-16: AOS 4) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 31 1 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherry silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is a small lithic scatter located 30 m north of a dirt access road on the north slope on an upland ridge. The area contains mixed scrub oaks and cedars and has 10-25 percent surface visibility. The site measures approximately 20-x-lO m and is defined by two positive posthole tests which produced three pieces of chert debitage from between and 10 cm below surface (Figure 13). Two chert blades and one piece of block shatter were found within the A horizon at this site. Soil profiles indicate that the A horizon is approximately 25 cm thick and rests directly on top of the B horizon. A large pit has been excavated approximately 20 m south of the site, and the presence of spoil piles near the north limit of 23PU679 indicates that there has been extensive disturbance in this area. This site is considered ineligible of the NRHP based on the paucity of archaeological material and lack of depositional integrity due to severe soil disturbance at this location. Site Number: 23PU680 (96-16: AOS 5) USGS Quadrangle: Big Piney 7.5' Elevation: 262 m asl Site Type: Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Lebanon silt loam, 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): 1 9th— 2 0th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible Site 23PU680 consists of a concrete foundation and two large sandstone/limestone foundations located in an intermittent drainage of the Big Piney River in an oak/cedar forest. The concrete foundation is located in a low area between two ridges while the sandstone foundations are situated on the south slope of an upland ridge (Figure 14). A large circular feature, measuring approximately 5.0 m in diameter and 2.5 m deep, may 51 O O ^\ O N. Nv O \ ! ~^^~~-~^ ° ° °\ \ ^^\^ Scrub Oak \ \ - ^\ and Cedars SpoilPiles \ \ \ «• •" " ~ ~~ " " — * \ \ ' * \ ! \ I' * 1 \ o Fd o CD □ ^ A 5" a 23PU679 KEY Site Limits Road Disturbed / / Extremely • Positive Posthole Test ^^ ) Disturbed / i o Negative Posthole Test V ^ A Datum T m 20 Figure 13. Sketch Map of 23PU679. I 1 Sandstone/Limestone / Foundations / y\ Slope / n / 1 1 1 1 ^ Pnssihle. / I (Q) Cistern / \^ Sparse Oak/Cedar ^^ Concrete Coffee Block- ^ o 96-16: AOS 11 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test Jeep Trail o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 Not Surveyed Figure 22. Sketch Map of 96- 1 6: AOS The Cookville/EQR Survey Tract This tract is located in the southwest part of Fort Leonard Wood, east of Roubidoux Creek and north of Musgrave Hollow (Figure 23). It consists of 580 acres (235 ha) located in sections 12 and 13 of Township 34 North, Range 12 West and Section 18 of Township 34 North. Range 1 1 West. It falls within the Upper Roubidoux cultural resource zone. Two sites previously had been recorded in this tract and both were relocated. A total of ten new prehistoric sites and five prehistoric isolated finds were identified by this survey. In addition, one historic outbuilding was located which is part of a larger residence/farmstead complex (23PU418) located outside of the project area. Site Number: 23PU418 (96-16: AOS 31) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7 5' Elevation: 335 m asl Site Type: Residence/Farmstead Outbuildings Soil Type: Clarksville-Gepp vers cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Late 19th to mid-20th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 62 BLOODLAND QUADRANGLE MISSOURI 7.5 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC) MISSOURI KEY Survey Limits QUADRANGLE LOCATION 1 1 KILOMETER 3 Figure 23. Location of the Cookville/EQR Survey Tract. 63 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri This structure consists of a poured concrete silo foundation situated on the south end of an upland ridge in a mixed deciduous forest with no surface visibility (Figure 24). It is located 50 m south of a dirt road which marks the northern boundary of the survey tract. The foundation measures approximately 5 m in diameter. Despite intensive inspection of the area surrounding this feature, no additional historic features or artifacts were found. All posthole tests in the area were negative. Subsequent examination of 1938 aerial photographs and ASM site forms indicated that a farmstead was located north of the gravel road that forms the north boundary of the 1996 Cookville/EQR survey tract, approximately 100 m north of the silo foundation (Figure 24). This site was recorded in 1992 by Markman and Associates. Inc. (Baumann and Markman 1993). It consists of a "T"-shaped foundation of cut stone, a possible well, and a short section offence. In 1910 this property was owned by 0. Laughlin. Based on the 1938 aerial photograph, which clearly shows a farmstead/residence complex north of the silo foundation, the latter is considered part of 23PU418. The location of this silo foundation indicates that the limits of 23PU418 extend approximately 60 m south of the original site boundary. This information has been incorporated into an updated ASM site form for 23PU418. Baumann and Markman (1993) recommended that Phase II testing be conducted at 23PU418 to determine if it is eligible for NRHP listing. Site Number: 23PU5 1 1 (Zula Hicks site) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 320 m asl Site Type: Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Claiborne silt loam. 5-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late 19th to early 20th Centuries Recommendation: Not Eligible This is a late nineteenth/early twentieth century farmstead which was first described in 1994 by Fort Leonard Wood personnel who recorded a house foundation and two outbuilding foundations of concrete situated on knoll 400 m north of Roubidoux Creek. Structures are visible on 1938 and 1942 aerial photographs, and archival records identify this as the Zula Hicks residence. This site was revisited and a sketch map prepared as part of the 1996 survey. Careful examination of the site revealed seven features located in a mixed hardwood forest with a dense ground cover of brambles and poison ivy. and scattered patches of day lilies and \ucca plants (Figure 25). There was no surface visibility at the time of the revisit. Site dimensions are approximately 70-X-35 m Site 23PU5 1 1 is situated approximately 35 m east of a gravel road, on the top and south slope of a prominent knoll. The largest feature consists of a poured concrete foundation measuring approximately 8-x-4 m situated on the knoll crest. The northeast corner of the foundation is missing, and there is a pile of concrete rubble in the center of the foundation. The foundation is unusual in that it consists of a larger rectangular section within which is located a smaller wall. The west wall of this smaller interior foundation has angled as opposed to square corners, as if it was designed to support a bay window. Approximately 20 m northeast of the large foundation there is a large concrete pad measuring approximately 5-x-5 m which has collapsed into a central pit. A metal bar. possibly a support element, was observed inside the pit. Four features were observed south of the large foundation. The first two of these are a possible well/cistem-trough complex and are located between 8 to 10 m south of the foundation. The first of these features measures approximately 64 Figure 24. Sketch Map of 23PU41 8 (after Baumann and Markman 1993). 65 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri *& Concrete Slab Old Driveway □ E Half Concrete Half Rubble Cedar & Hickory Trees Cedar , Open Forest and Weeds Concrete Wall L.J Scatter of Concrete Rubble Figure 25. Sketch Map of 23 PU51 1. 2.5-X-2.5 m and consists of a poured concrete foundation with threaded lag bolts embedded in the top and a metal pipe projecting from its south wall. This may be a well or cistern. Immediately south of this foundation is a poured concrete trough measuring approximately l-x-3 m. It is situated such that the metal pipe from the previously described foundation is positioned directly above it. This may have been an animal watering trough. Approximately 1 m south of the well/cistern-trough features is the remnant of a fieldstone foundation measuring approximately 1 -x-3 m. The southeast corner of this foundation is missing, and a recent pit or foxhole has been excavated on the north side of this feature. The area immediately south of this foundation appears to be have been graded. Approximately 30 m south of this foundation is a scatter of concrete rubble measuring approximately 3-x-3 m. Within this scatter of rubble are 2-3 concrete piers that are no longer in their original positions. The final feature observed at this site is a concrete wall approximately 7 m long, located approximately 40 m southeast of the large foundation on the knoll crest. It is oriented in an east by west direction. The only artifacts observed at 23PU5 1 1 were three or four pieces of sheet metal, which were not collected. The site exhibited evidence of recent disturbance in the form of pit or foxhole excavation, feature damage, and surface grading. Given the late temporal affiliation of this site and recent disturbance, it is not considered eligible for the NRHP. 66 ( liaplcr 6 Site Inventory mid Artijacl Analysts Site Number: 23PU5 12 (A.L. Hicks site) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Doniphan vers cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late 19th/Early 20th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 23PU5 12 is a late nineteenth to early twentieth century farmstead originally identified by Fort Leonard Wood personnel in 1994. The site is located approximately 200 m north of Roubidoux Creek. The site appears on the 1982 Bloodland 7.5' quadrangle and in 1938 and 1942 aerial photographs. The 1948 Fort Leonard Wood real estate acquisition maps indicate that this site is located on property owned by A.L. Hicks (on file. Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri). Four structures were identified at this site in 1994 (Figure 26). The first consists of a large concrete house foundation measuring approximately 9-x-8 m with a smaller concrete root cellar measuring approximately 3-x-6 m. attached to the east wall of the house. A well is located approximately 1 m north of this foundation. Approximately 20 m northeast of the house foundation is a concrete outbuilding foundation measuring approximately 5-x-4 m. The fourth structure is located approximately 25 m northeast of the outbuildmg foundation and consists of a stone-lined root cellar measuring approximately 5-x-3 m and surrounded by an earth embankment. Artifacts observed on the surface but not collected include a bucket, glass soda bottles, food cans, and an enamelware kettle. All structures were observed during the 1996 revisit to this site, and all appeared to be in the same condition as originally described in 1994. The available maps and aerial photographs indicate that site 23PU512 was present by 1938. and the concrete foundations suggest a late historic temporal affiliation. However, as the available historic documents preclude a precise temporal assignment, it is possible the site has been occupied since the early historic period of the Fort Leonard Wood area. Based on the equivocal information provided by the currently available historic documents it is not possible to determine when this site was initially occupied. In order to rectify this situation. Phase II investigations are recommended. Such investigations should include detailed site mapping and the excavation of test units. Test units should be excavated to provide additional temporal information on features already identified at the site. Data to be collected by such excavations should include feature construction techniques as well as temporally diagnostic artifacts. Further, the intact cut stone root cellar is in very good condition, and as such intact features are rare at Fort Leonard Wood, additional architectural documentation is recommended. Site Number: 23PU686 (96-16: AOS 20) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 354 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty sill loam Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible 67 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Diamond-Shaped / Air Passage -Brick Concentration Center Wall Concrete Foundation Walls (Width: 15cm; Height: up to 50cm) Root Cellar With Roof (2m Deep) j Window Stairs Window Collapsed Portion of Roof 23PU512 -"-""^^Not Evident During 1996 Revisit) Q-Well Stone-Lined Root Cellar SEE DETAIL J | —House— u Embankment Concrete Outbuilding/Bam Foundation m 10 Figure 26. Sketch Map of 23 PU5 12. This site, situated on the crest and west slope of a narrow upland ridge, consists of a very low density scatter of chert chipping debris. It is located west of a dirt road and measures approximately 5-x-40 m (Figure 27). A low line of spoil from road grading runs parallel to the west border of the road. Vegetation consists of oak forest with no ground surface visibility'. Six chert artifacts, consisting of three broken and three tertiary flakes, were recovered from this site. Four artifacts were found in the dirt road on the ridge crest. One positive posthole test, which yielded two tertiary flakes, was excavated to a depth of 30 cm on the west edge of the scatter. The flakes were derived from the A horizon, beneath which is an E horizon which extended to 30 cm below surface. Dense gravel precluded excavation of the posthole test deeper than 30 cm. West of the this location the ground slopes downward steeply. Vehicle traffic on the road has resulted in a high degree of disturbance at the ridge crest, and together with the steepness of the slope to the west, suggests that the integrity of the site has been compromised. Based on these findings 23PU686 is considered ineligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended at this site. 68 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Figure 27. Sketch Map of 23PU686. Site Number: 23PU687 (96-16: AOS 21) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 354 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late Archaic Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU687, which measures approximately 15-x-lO m, is a scatter of 14 chert artifacts found in a dirt road on a narrow ridge crest. Ground surface visibility was 100 percent in the road and 10 percent in the oak forest along this road (Figure 28). Posthole tests on either side of the road did not produce cultural material. The subsurface tests indicate that the soil cover is thin with a high chert residuum content. A basal fragment from a Late Archaic Ledbetter Cluster projectile point (Justice 1987) was recovered from the site, along with five tertiary flakes, three broken flakes, one secondary flakes, one blade, one piece of shatter, one core, and one biface(Figure 29). This site has been disturbed by vehicle traffic on the dirt road, and together with the thin soil cover in the area, indicates that there is little potential for the presence of intact deposits. Given this, 23PU687 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. 69 Figure 28. Sketch Map of 23PU687. Figure 29. Late Archaic Ledbetter Cluster Projectile Point from 23PU687. 70 Chapter 6 Sac Inventory andArtijactAna^sis Site Number: 23PU688 (96-16: AOS 24) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Caim Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late Woodland Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 23PU688 is stone cairn located approximately 10 m north of a steep bluff face overlooking the Roubidoux Creek valley. The feature, which measures approximately 5-m in diameter, still retains a roughly circular shape with stones scattered and dispersed around the circumference (Figure 30). Aside from these scattered stones, there was no evidence of extensive disturbance or looting of the cairn. The position of this cairn at the edge of a ridge overlooking a major drainage is consistent with the locations of other cairns in this area and at Fort Leonard Wood, such as 23PU212, 23PU215, 23PU219, 23PU221. and 23PU222 (Niquette et al. 1983); 23PU553 (McGowan et al. 1996); and 23PU624 (McGowan 1996). Although no diagnostic artifacts were recovered from this site, is assigned to the Late Woodland period based on its similarity to other cairns in Missouri. This site appears to have experienced minimal disturbance and is recommended for Phase II investigations. Following Kreisa et al. (1996), and as is outlined in Chapter 8, it is suggested that a systematic approach to determining the eligibility' of cairns be developed. This includes the creation of a context to be used for the evaluation of all such sites within the NRHP format of a multiple property listing, the review of previous work at specific cairn sites, and determination of the fieldwork required to complete the needed documentation at specific cairn sites. Minimally, additional documentation at 23PU688 should include the creation of a detailed site plan and topographic map. Once this has been completed, the site should be formally nominated for listing in the NRHP. either as a single site or. preferably, as part of a multiple property listing nomination. Another cairn. 23PU689. which is discussed below, also was documented in this same area. In addition, three more stone piles were observed in this vicinity along the ca. 60 m stretch of bluff edge between 23PU688 and 23PU689 Two of these were disturbed by what appeared to be foxholes, and one is partially covered with rusted metal debris. The latter may be debris associated with the historic farmstead (23PU5 12) located approximately 200 m to the northwest. Given the disturbance and debris associated with these three stone piles, it was not possible to determine if they represent prehistoric features or are the product of more recent military or agricultural activity. These stone piles should be reexamined during Phase II evaluations of 23PU688 and 23PU689 to determine if they are prehistoric or historic features. It is possible that a series of prehistoric cairns once was situated along the bluff edge at this location. Site Number: 23PU689 (96-16: AOS 25) USGS Quadrangle Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Cairn Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late Woodland Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 71 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri KEY Site Limits A Datum Figure 30. Sketch Map of 23PU688. This site is another rock cairn overlooking Roubidoux Creek. It measures approximately 5 m in diameter and is located approximately 60 m east of 23PU688 (Figure 31). There is a tree growing in this feature but no evidence of vandalism could be discerned. A modern Coca-Cola® bottle and two pieces of whiteware were observed but not collected at this location. As with 23PU688, the position of this cairn at the edge of a ridge overlooking a major drainage is consistent with the locations of other cairns in this area and at Fort Leonard Wood, such as 23PU212. 23PU215. 23PU219. 23PU221, and 23PU222 (Niquette et al. 1983); 23PU553(McGowan et al. 1996); and 23PU624 (McGowan 1996). Although no prehistoric diagnostic artifacts were recovered from this site, it is assigned to the Late Woodland period based on its similarity to other cairns in Missouri. As suggested above, a systematic approach to determining the eligibility of cairns should be developed. Minimally, such documentation at 23PU689 should include creation of a detailed site plan and topographic map. Once completed, the site should be formally nominated for the NRHP. either as a single site, or preferably, as part of a multiple property listing. In addition, the three stone piles between this site and 23PU689, discussed above, should be reexamined to determine their temporal affiliation. 72 Cliapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Open Forest Stone Pile w/Historic Debris Cairn °u x C KEY Site Limits A Datum Figure 31. Sketch Map of 23PU689. Site Number: 23PU690 (96-16: AOS 26) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7 5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Cairn Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Late Woodland Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This site consists of a cairn located on the west slope of an upland ridge, approximately 100 m east of unnamed intermittent tributary of Roubidoux Creek and appears undisturbed (Figure 32). It consists of a small pile of stones with diameters of 20 to 50 cm. approximately 10 m southwest of a positive posthole. The cairn measures about 1 m in diameter. Although cairns are usually located close to major stream valleys at Fort Leonard Wood. 23PU690 does fall within the high probability area for such features (Ahler 1995). A single chert flake was found in the posthole test, between and 10 cm in the Ap horizon, and a second flake was found on the ground surface within 1 m of the positive posthole. 73 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test A Datum Figure 32. Sketch Map of 23PU690. The position of this cairn at the edge of a ridge overlooking a drainage is consistent with the locations of other cairns in this area and at Fort Leonard Wood (e.g.. McGowan 1996; McGowan et al. 1996; Niquette et al. 1983). Although no diagnostic artifacts were recovered from this site, it is assigned to the Late Woodland period based on its similarity to other cairns in Missouri. As suggested above, a systematic approach to determining the eligibility of cairns such as 23PU690 should be developed. Minimally, documentation of this cairn should include creation of a detailed site plan and topographic map. Also, as lithic artifacts were recovered outside the cairn, testing should be conducted in the surrounding area. Site Number: 23PU691 (96-16: AOS 27) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 323 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible 74 ( 'hapter 6 Site Inventory and Artifact Analysts Site 23PU691 is a scatter of nine pieces of chert debitage found on the west slope of an upland ridge approximately 100 m north of Roubidoux Creek. The scatter measures approximately lO-x-5 m, and is located in a mixed deciduous forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 33). Inspection of the 1976 Bloodland. Missouri 7.5' orthophotoquad and 1982 Bloodland, Missouri 7.5' topographic map revealed that this site is located in an area which was formerly sparsely forested. This is especially true immediately west of the site where a large T6 Ousley Spring terrace remnant is preserved (Albertson et al. 1995). This formation is low and poorly drained and represents an abandoned cut-off meander of Roubidoux Creek. Soil profile data indicate that there is an Ap horizon here which extends from to 1 cm below surface. Beneath this is an E horizon reaching 20 cm below surface. Five pieces of chert chipping debris, consisting of four broken and one tertiary flakes, were found in the Ap horizon while one bifacial thinning flake, two broken flakes, and one piece of shatter were found in the E horizon. Given the paucity of material from this site, over half of which was recovered from within a former plow zone, this site is considered ineligible for the NRHP. No additional work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU692 (96-16: AOS 28) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 317 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Clarksville-Gepp very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is a small, low density lithic scatter on the west slope of an upland ridge 150 m north of Roubidoux Creek The site area is covered by mixed deciduous forest with no surface visibility. Inspection of the 1976 Bloodland. Missouri 7.5' orthophotoquad and 1982 Bloodland. Missouri 7.5' topographic map revealed that this site is located in an area which was formerly sparsely forested. This is especially true immediately west of the site where a large T6 Ousley Spring terrace remnant is preserved (Albertson et al. 1995). This formation is low and poorly drained and represents an abandoned cut-off meander of Roubidoux Creek. The site measures approximately 5-X-40 m and consists of two positive posthole tests which produced three pieces of debitage (Figure 34). The recovered artifacts consist of two tertiary flakes and one piece of block shatter. Posthole tests indicated that there is an Ap horizon extending from the ground surface to 10 cm below surface, beneath which is an E horizon extending to 25 cm below surface. All cultural material was found in the E horizon. Given the paucity of material at this site it is considered ineligible for the NRHP. No additional work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU693 (96-16: AOS 29) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7 5' Elevation: 334 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 75 *.J „■ — ■■ — ■• — . •**. -..^ ; o / o o 0/0 O / O 0/ /o O O / Mixed Deciduous Forest / ° '' v : \ ° O 23PU691 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test i#A# .00 O O o Negative Posthole Test %„•! A Datum O m 20 OOO O O Figure 33 . Sketch Map of 23PU69 1 . I / 00 / ° ! 1 / Mixed Deciduous Forest / / c '• jjvk !'° / Large Tree -^Slope 23PU692 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 \ Figure 34. Sketch Map of 23PU692. 76 ( 'hapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis This site consists of a scatter of lithic debitage found in a mixed deciduous forest with no surface visibility. The site is approximately 200 m north of Roubidoux Creek. Site 23PU693 measures approximately 95-X-20 m and is located on the west slope of an upland ridge. It is defined by six positive posthole tests which produced 32 pieces of lithic debitage (Figure 35). The artifact assemblage consists of 1 5 broken flakes, 1 1 tertiary flakes, five secondary flakes, and one piece of block shatter. The soil profile consists of an A horizon from to 25 cm below surface, followed by an E horizon from 25 to 35 cm below surface. Lithic debitage was found in both the A and E horizons (Table 7). Based on the abundance of cultural debris and the presence of an intact E horizon, Phase II investigations are recommended to determine NRHP eligibility. Phase II work should include test excavations to assess site integrity, temporal affiliation, and site function. Site Number: 23PU694 (96-16: AOS 30) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 329 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherry silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU694, which measures approximately 5-X-15 m, is a lithic scatter located on the west slope of an upland ridge approximately 550 m northeast of Roubidoux Creek. It was found in a mixed deciduous forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 36). Five pieces of debitage, consisting of three broken flakes, one tertian flake, and one piece of shatter were recovered from four positive posthole tests. All material came from the Ap horizon, and no evidence of an E horizon was observed in any of the posthole tests. As all archaeological material was found in a plow zone context, this site in not considered eligible for the NRHP due to lack of depositional integrity. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU695 (96-16: AOS 32) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 323 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site is an extensive scatter of lithic debitage and tools located in a dirt road along a narrow ridge crest and extending 60 m south of this road. The area to the south is forested area with no surface visibility. The site measures approximately 60-X-200 m and is located approximately 1 km north of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 37). Soils were extremely thin and gravelly at this location, and scattered exposures of bare bedrock were encountered south of the road. 77 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri 23PU693 '"•^fe ^ Mixed Deciduous Forest KEY ■ - - Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 / / # i o. O < a i-i TO *1 O 3 o Figure 35. Sketch Map of 23PU693. Table 7. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU693. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A E A or E 25 cm 5 cm See Above 26 1 78 1 1 o Mixed Deciduous Forest o o o o S\oV e o o o °C • • • •* > >° o ' ' 23PU694 o KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 Figure 36. Sketch Map of 23PU694. — ■ • — ^.Intermittent Drainage_ 23PU695 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test ° Negative Posthole Test A Datum □ Surface Scatter m 40 Figure 37. Sketch Map of 23PU695. 79 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri A total of 2 1 lithic artifacts were found at this site. Retouched tools consist of eight broken bifaces, while debitage consists of 12 broken flakes, six tertiary flakes, one secondary flake, one primary flake and one core. Vehicle traffic has severely disturbed the site area within the road along the ridge crest while shallow soils and exposed bedrock are present exist in the forested area to the south of the road. Based on the high degree of disturbance caused by vehicle traffic on the road and the thin to nonexistent soil cover to the south of the ridge crest, it is doubtful that intact deposits remain at this site. This site is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No additional work is recommended. Site Number: 96-16: AOS 9 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 369 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Nolin silt loam Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Isolate 96- 16: AOS 9 consists of two positive posthole tests located on the west slope of an upland ridge. It was found in an oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 38). The soils at this location are thm, with clay, rock and gravel occurring at 10-15 cm below surface. The Ap horizon varies between 2 and 10 cm thick. An E horizon was observed m one posthole test from 2 to 10 cm below surface, below which the B horizon was recorded. In the other test, the E horizon was observed between 10 and 15 cm below surface, but due to dense rock and gravel it was impossible to determine the lower boundary of this horizon. Two chert tertian flakes were found at this site between 0-10 cm below surface in the Ap and E horizons. Given the paucity of material and the thin soils, this isolate is considered to lack integrity and is therefore not eligible for the NRHP. No additional work is recommended at this location. Site Number: 96-16: AOS 10 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 367 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Lebanon silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is a prehistoric isolate defined on the basis of a single positive posthole test that produced two chert flakes. It is located on the crest of a broad upland ridge in a relatively level area (Figure 39). The vegetation in the site vicinity consists of an oak forest with no surface visibility. An abandoned road is located approximately 25 m east of 96- 16: AOS 10. Two tertiary flakes were found between and 20 cm below surface. Given the paucity of material recovered, this isolate does not appear to be eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. 80 96-16: AOS9 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 Figure 38. Sketch Map of 96-16: AOS 9. \ \ \ o o o o ... \ \ 1 \ \ V X Cl o N -.° \ o o o o • o \ A o Xo % \^ \ % 5oX x^ \ v-i 7s. \ O \ O *^S \ CS \ % o » Vs. \ x % * \ \ ^~^- 96-16: AOS 10 KEY • Positive Posthole Test \ \ \ \ \ o Negative Posthole Test A Datum o \ \ o ° v \\ i m 20 N \ Figure 39. Sketch Map of 96-16: AOS 10. 81 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Site Number: 96-16: AOS 12 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 305 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This isolate consists of a single broken flake found in a posthole test excavated into the west slope of a narrow upland ridge. The area is in an oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 40). The flake was found between and 10 cm below surface in the A horizon. The soils in this area are thin and rocky, and bedrock is exposed throughout the area. Given the thinness of the soil cover and the paucity archeological material, this location is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No additional work is recommended at this isolate. Site Number: 96-16: AOS 22 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 320 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is an isolated, nondiagnostic projectile point fragment found on a narrow ridge crest between two intermittent drainages (Figure 4 1 ). The artifact was found in a posthole test excavated in a mixed deciduous forest with no surface visibility. The soils at this location are very shallow (0-15 cm thick) and gravelly. This isolate is considered ineligible for the NRHP based on the paucity of archeological material and the lack of intact soils. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 96-16: AOS 23 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7 5' Elevation: 326 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherty silt loam. 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This isolate is consists of two broken Hakes recovered from a single posthole test on the east slope of an upland ridge. The isolate is located in a mixed deciduous forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 42). The flakes were found between and 1 cm below ground surface in very gravelly silt loam. Based on the paucity of material and lack of diagnostic artifacts this location in not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. 82 o" ft 96-16: AOS12 KEY • Positive Posthole Test ° Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 10 CO | Q. Figure 40. Sketch Map of 96-16: AOS 12. 96-16: AOS 22 KEY • Positive Posthole Test ° Negative Posthole Test A Datum Figure 41. Sketch Map of 96-16: AOS 22. 83 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri 1 ( /"' ! * * * * * * * * * * * Overgrown Dirt Road • o / o o / ° o * + + Slope ► / o • A o o / \ + + / ° \ \ o o o / / o o / ° o o ■ 96-16: AOS23 KEY • Positive Posthole Test , o Negative Posthole Test o ° A Datum / o / o o / / m 20 / / / Figure 42. Sketch Map of 96-16: AOS 23. The South Roubidoux Creek Survey Tract The South Roubidoux Tract is located in the southwest corner of the base, east of Roubidoux Creek, and south of Musgrave Hollow (Figure 43). It consists primarily of uplands, with limited sections in the Roubidoux Creek floodplain. The southern boundary of this tract is coterminous with the southern limits of the base. On the west it is bounded by Roubidoux Creek and on the north by Musgrave Hollow. The eastern boundary is an irregular north-south line formed by roads and ravines. This survey tract, which falls within the Upper Roubidoux resource zone, covers a total of 1.816 acres (735 ha) in sections 24, 25, 35, and 36 of Township 34 North. Range 12 West and sections 19. 30, and 31 of Township 34 North, Range 11 West. Three previously recorded sites had been recorded in the South Roubidoux tract, two of which were relocated. Newly identified are 18 prehistoric sites, three sites with historic and prehistoric components, and 12 prehistoric isolated finds. 84 Figure 43. Location of the South Roubidoux Creek Survey Tract. 85 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Site Number: 23PU207 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 299 m asl Site Type: Cave Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherry silt loam, 14-35 percent slope Component(s): Middle Archaic/Late Archaic/Late Woodland Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 23PU207 (Deadman Cave) is a small, tunnel-like cave which contained prehistoric artifacts including Middle Archaic and Late Archaic diagnostic projectile points and Late Woodland Maramec Spring phase ceramics. The site is located at the base of a steep bluff, on the east bank of Roubidoux Creek. Archeological investigations were conducted here previously by Niquette (1982), who cleaned and documented two profiles in pothunter's pits (Figure 44). While no test units were excavated, Niquette's profiles indicated that cultural deposits reached a depth of at least 85 cm below surface. Profile 1 was located near the cave mouth along the south side of the chamber while Profile 2 was located deeper inside near the cave's north wall, approximately 20 m from the entrance. Intact stratigraphy was noted in both profiles. Niquette observed that there had been minimal pothunting in the cave, with the most activity along the walls near its mouth. He estimated that approximately 10 percent of the deposits had been disturbed by such activity. Based on the artifact assemblage, it was suggested that several activities were conducted at this site including hunting; general collecting; animal and vegetal processing; wood, leather and bone working; pottery and stone tool manufacture; stone tool maintenance; and storage and cooking. In addition, the presence of freshwater molluscs suggested that the site was occupied during the spring and summer. All diagnostic artifacts were recovered from the cave floor. This site was revisited in July 1996. The possible pothunter disturbances noted by Niquette along the cave walls at the mouth were once again observed. As a result of this activity, there is a ridge of sediment running through the center of the chamber. As no evidence of more recent vandalism was observed, no posthole tests were excavated at the site. Several mollusc shells were observed on the terrace in front of the cave. One potsherd was collected from the terrace, and two additional sherds were collected from the surface at the cave mouth. Two of these are Maramec Cordmarked body sherds (Figure 45, a, b)while the third is a Maramec Plain sherd with folded rim (Figure 45. c). Vessel form of the latter was not determined. Nine pieces of lithic debitage consisting of one bipolar flake, two secondary flakes, three tertiary flakes, one blade, and two pieces of block shatter were collected from the surface at the cave entrance. In addition, one mollusc shell fragment and one white-tailed deer metacarpal bone were collected from the surface. A Public Service Archaeology Program datum was placed at the mouth of the cave. Phase II testing is recommended at this site. Although Niquette's profiles suggest that intact deposits exist at 23PU207. it is recommended that more systematic testing be conducted to determine the effect pothunting has had on the integrity of site stratigraphy and to determine the depth of the cave's deposits. As all of the diagnostic artifacts recovered by Niquette were surface finds, it is not possible determine if an intact cultural sequence exists at this site. Once more precise stratigraphic data have been collected, it will be possible to make a more reliable assessment of NRHP eligibility. Phase II testing should involve test excavations to determine depth of deposits, assess the integrity of cultural deposits, and determine the cultural chronology present at this site. 86 Figure 44. Sketch Map of 23PU207 (after Niquette 1982). 87 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri cm Figure 45. Prehistoric Ceramics from 23PU207: a- b, Maramec Cordmarked sherds; c, Maramec Plain folded rim sherd. Site Number: 23PU245 (Blade's Ford site) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 286 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Kickapoo fme sandy loam, 0-3 percent slope Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Blade's Ford consists of a wide gravel bar extending into Roubidoux Creek, and is located at the base of a steep upland ridge (Figure 46). A gravel road extends northeastward from the ford, to the crest of the ridge. Site 23PU245 was recorded by Environment Consultants, Inc. of Lexington, Kentucky during Phase I and Phase II investigations at Fort Leonard Wood (Niquette 1982). It is one of 68 sites found outside of their prescribed project areas which were not described due to contractual restrictions. The ASM site form for 23PU245 states that two prehistoric artifacts, described only as "chipped stone tools," were collected in the road at Blade's Ford, approximately 10 m from Roubidoux Creek on a T-l terrace. This site was revisited in July 1996. 88 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis 23PU245 m 20 <&&&'' Figure 46. Sketch Map of 23PU245. The gravel bar and the road were inspected for artifacts but aside from one water-rolled cinder block, which was not collected, no cultural material was found. Posthole tests were not excavated along the gravel road due to the steepness of the slope. It is possible that, as the original site form suggests, the artifacts were derived from the ridge to the east and redeposited at the ford. Chert chipping debris was found during subsurface testing at historic site 23PU5 13 approximately 200 m to the east along the top of this ridge. It is possible that the tools recovered by Environment Consultants from 23PU245 originally were associated with these artifacts. Based on the uncertain context of the artifacts previously collected at this location and the failure to locate additional cultural material, this site is considered ineligible for the NRHP. Site Number: 23PU5 13 USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 317 m asl Site Type: Farmstead/Residence Soil Type: Viraton silt loam, 3-9 percent slope Component(s): 1 9th-20th Century Recommendation: Not Eligible 89 Phase I A rchaeological Survey of 3, OOP A cres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri This site is a late nineteenth to early twentieth century farmstead situated on the crest of an upland ridge approximately 300 m east of Roubidoux Creek. It was reported in 1994 by Fort Leonard Wood personnel who reported it as heavily disturbed with no intact structures. Pieces of tin and cut sandstone were observed scattered on the surface. This site appears on 1938 and 1942 aerial photographs. In July 1 996. 23PU5 1 3 was revisited. The site is situated on the crest of an upland ridge, approximately 30 m north of a gravel jeep trail (Figure 47). It is located in a mixed deciduous forest with open areas of grass and weeds. Historic artifacts were scattered over an area measuring approximately 25-X-20 m. Artifacts observed on the surface include approximately ten cut-sandstone blocks, four pieces of corroded corrugated sheet metal, barbed wire fragments, and approximately ten bricks. No foundations or standing structures were observed. A patch of lilies is located at the north end of the scatter. A total of six positive posthole tests were excavated at 23PU513. of which three produced both prehistoric and historic artifacts, two produced only historic material, and one produced only prehistoric material. Twenty historic artifacts recovered were recovered from five of the posthole tests. These artifacts include flat window glass, clear bottle glass with machine made lips, undecorated whiteware sherds, wire-made nails, Bristol-glaze stoneware sherds, an aluminum jar lid with milk glass liner, and brick fragments. All of these artifacts are consistent with a late nineteenth to twentieth century period of occupation. In addition to the historic material, five pieces of prehistoric chert chipping debris consisting of two secondary flakes, two broken flakes, and one tertiary flake were recovered from four posthole tests at this site. Soil profile data from the tests indicate that activity associated with the construction, habitation, and destruction of the historic structure has impacted the original context of the prehistoric material. As is discussed above, it is possible that the two artifacts recovered from the Blade's Ford site (23PU245) originally were derived from this site and redeposited at the base of the ridge at the ford. Based on the apparent high degree of destruction, recent temporal affiliation of the historic component, and the disturbed context of the prehistoric material. 23PU513 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU696 (96-16: AOS 16) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 299 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris and Tool Scatter Soil Type: Hartville silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible Site 23PU696 is an extensive scatter of lithic material located on a terrace remnant in an area with grass, weed and scattered juniper ground cover The site measures approximately 60-X-135 m with no ground surface visibility . It is located approximately 100 m south of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 48). The lack of tree cover in the area suggests that this area may be an abandoned agricultural field or pasture. At the time of the survey, there was pasture on private property immediately south of this area, and an open gate potentially permits access to base property by livestock. 90 A Slope __Q_ C o o * • y. -*- Lily Patch , o x O O O |0 • . • ... • b o o x o . ^■'■Ai — Brick, Cut Sandstone, Open Mixed \ •..-,; .:■.;■, and Metal Hardwood Forest x •. _^„ «• 23PU513 KEY Site Limits o o o^ o o o • Positive Posthole Test y^ o Negative Posthole Test / U Surface Scatter m 20 1 \ Gravel Road On Ridge Crest \ Figure 47. Sketch Map of 23PU5 13. Grass Ro: 1 1 ' o 1 | o / • . // ° / • \ II \ \ O | f • \ II * * VI \ \ \ f II ° XtA o \ ° \ * \ / r '^N\ // '« \V « ° \ A^v£ ■a c D < o m Private < w Property *^Open 23PU696 • KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test \ \\ ^\ Gate e II A Datum m 20 >. \ A ..> 1 ^GV \ Base Boundary ^ \ Figure 48. Sketch Map of 23PU696. 91 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3.000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood. Pulaski County. Missouri Site boundaries were determined by 29 positive posthole tests which produced a total of 81 chert artifacts. Subsurface tests indicate the presence of a 20 cm thick Ap horizon followed by a B horizon. Chert artifacts were recovered from depths of between and 40 cm below surface, with most (78 percent) posthole tests producing cultural material from to 20 cm below surface, or within the Ap horizon (Table 8). Five posthole tests produced chert debitage to depths of 40 cm below the plow zone. The lithic assemblage consists of 35 tertiary flakes. 32 broken flakes, seven pieces of shatter, two broken bifaces. one primary flake, one secondary flake, one blade, one core, and one retouched flake. While most of the archaeological material is associated with the Ap horizon, five posthole tests produced a total of 1 1 (13 percent) lithic artifacts from between 20 and 40 cm below surface, suggestmg that potentially intact cultural deposits exist at the site. Based on the size of this site and the presence of buried artifacts. Phase II testing is recommended to determine NRHP eligibility. This testing should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues that should be addressed include site integrity, temporal affiliation and function. Site Number: 23PU697 (96-16: AOS 17) LSGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 302 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Hartville silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This is a an extensive scatter of lithic material situated on a T-7 terrace remnant 100 m south of Roubidoux Creek. Current vegetation cover consists of approximately 90 percent grass and 10 percent juniper trees, yielding no surface visibility (Figure 49). Limited surface visibility is present in the bed of a jeep trail which runs through the site area. As with 23PU696. this site may be located in an abandoned agricultural field or pasture. This is suggested by the lack of tree cover and the open access to pasture on private propert\ immediately south of this area. The site measures approximately 120-X-190 m and encompasses 29 positive posthole tests as well as surface finds in the jeep trail. A total of 226 lithic artifacts was recovered from this site. Of these. 34 were found on the surface and 192 were recovered from posthole tests Lithic debitage was found from 0-40 cm below surface, with approximately 60 percent of all tests producing material from only 0-20 cm below surface (Table 9). The Ap horizon ranges various!} from to 25 cm in depth, while an E horizon extends from approximately 15-35 cm below surface. The bulk of the artifacts are thus associated with the plow zone. However, approximately 40 percent of the recovered cultural remains were found below the Ap horizon, which suggests that there is a potential for intact subsurface cultural deposits at this site. In addition, there is a dense patch of yucca plants and juniper trees at the northeast end of the site. Such vegetation is often associated with historic sites at Fort Leonard Wood. No evidence of historic structures or debns was observed in this area. A single biface fragment represents the only retouched tool recovered from this site. The remainder of the assemblage consists of 123 broken flakes. 68 tertiary flakes, ten blades, nine pieces of block shatter, six secondary flakes, three cores, two bifacial thinning flakes, one primary flake, and one bipolar flake. In addition, two pieces of fire-cracked rock were found. 92 Table 8 Distribution of .Artifacts Collected from 25PU696. Soil Horizon Depth of Her.. ;: Number ;:'An.:":;:> B Surface 20 cm >20cm 13 Barbed Wire Fence/Base Boundary Private Propem 23PU6Q- KEY Site Limits • Positive Pesthole Te Negative Posthole Ti A Datum Surface Scatter Figure 49. Sketch Map of 23PUt^~ -; Table 9. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU697. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts Ap 15-25 cm 57 E 5-10 cm 20 A/E See Above 6 1 B - 1 E/B - 2 Uncertain - 5 1 Surface - 34 Based on the large amount of cultural material recovered from this site and the presence of prehistoric artifacts in an intact E horizon. Phase II testing is recommended. This testing should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues that should be addressed mclude site integrity, temporal affiliation, and function. In addition, the area of yucca and cedar trees at the northeast edge of the site should be further investigated for historic remains. Site Number: 23PU698 (96-16: AOS 33) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 351 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Viraton silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU698 is defined by four positive posthole tests located in a mixed deciduous forest no surface visibility. It is located on a ridge crest on the north and south sides of a dirt access road and measures approximately 40-X-85 m (Figure 50). Ten pieces of chert debitage were recovered from this site, one of which was in the A horizon and nine were in the E horizon. The artifacts consist of four tertiary flakes, four broken flakes, and two pieces of block shatter. The soils at this site are shallow and rocky, with dense gravel occurring at approximately 15 cm below surface. Given the shallowness of the soil, it is unlikely that extensive intact subsurface cultural remains are preserved at this site. Based on this, the site is considered ineligible for the NRHP 94 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis ■+ Intermittent Drainage Mixed Deciduous Forest o It 23PU698 o A KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum m 20 Figure 50. Sketch Map of 23 PU698. Site Number: 23PU699 (96-16: AOS 34) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 341 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Viraton silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU699 is a scatter of nine pieces of chert debitage located on the crest of an upland ridge. The site measures approximately 65-X-20 m. and was initially identified by the presence of chert flakes in a dirt road along the ridge crest (Figure 51). In addition to the surface finds, lithic debitage was recovered from two posthole tests located north of the road in a mixed deciduous forest with no ground surface visibility. Four pieces of debitage were found in the road bed and an additional five flakes were found in the posthole tests. The artifacts consist of six broken flakes and three tertiary flakes. Soil profile data indicate that there is an Ap horizon from to 15 cm below surface, beneath which is the B horizon. All lithic debitage was found in the plow zone. This site is considered ineligible for the NRHP based on the lack of site integrity. No further work is recommended. 95 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri X X ^^~ — o" o o \ o \ 1 X >C o/«*« i V^x : \ \ * A \ i \ X \ * \ l o o / ° \ v\ \ % / X * X \ \ Tr" / \ x \ * \ ^ / XX* \ •$>.. / \ \'\ ° ' o o \ i / \ \ \ \ $ \ * X . o o X \ X ' X* X K , Lithic Scatter \ \ X \ •■•'■: X A X \ .X/ 1 In Road \ \ Cedar Tree Hfr 1 ^. X o o o \ \ \ A X- :.:;■/- \ \ \ I 23PU699 o o X KEY o \ o \ • - • - - Site Limits Mixed Deciduous Forest \ X \ ! • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test o o \ L i r c )atum o X^ m 20 Figure 51. Sketch Map of 23 PU699. Site Number: 23PU700 (96-16: AOS 35) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 354 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Viraton silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site is a dispersed lithic scatter located on the south side of a mixed oak and pine forest-covered knoll with no surface visibility The site measures approximately 80-X-40 m (Figure 52). Most (n=17) of the lithic material was recovered in two dirt roads which cross the knoll. One positive posthole test was excavated along the north edge of the site A total of 19 artifacts was found at this site including retouched tools and chipping debris. The retouched tools consist of two nondiagnostic biface fragments while the chert debitage includes of ten broken flakes, four tertiary flakes, two pieces of shatter, and one bifacial dunning flake. 96 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Figure 52. Sketch Map of 23PU700. Vehicle traffic has disturbed the western and eastern ends of the site. Soil information derived from posthole tests reveal a B horizon at 10 cm located immediately beneath the A horizon, suggesting that this area has experienced intense soil erosion. Based on the eroded nature of the area and the disturbance resulting from vehicle traffic. 23PU700 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU701 (96-16: AOS 38) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 393 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter Soil Type: Lebanon silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible 23PU701 is an dispersed lithic scatter found in a gravel road on the crest of an upland ndge. It measures approximately lO-x-400 m (Figure 53). Posthole tests excavated in the oak forest on the north side of the scatter, approximately 5 m north of the road, were negative. The area south of the gravel road is outside the project limits, and therefore no posthole tests were excavated in that area. Artifacts are damaged as a result of traffic on the road. A total of 20 lithic artifacts was recovered from this site, consistmg of 1 1 tertiary 97 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri KEY Site Limits o Negative Posthole Test A Datum D Surface Scatter m 100 Figure 53. Sketch Map of 23PU701. flakes, five broken flakes, one primary flake, one core, one rough biface, and one thick biface. This site appears to be confined to the ridge crest and has been impacted by vehicle traffic. Given the lack of intact subsurface deposits, it is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU702 (96-16: AOS 39) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 338 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Clarksville vert cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site consists of three tertiary chert flakes found on the surface at the west end of a narrow upland ridge (Figure 54). The soil is very rocky and in places bedrock is present at the surface. Vegetation cover in this area consists of a patchy oak forest with 0-40 percent surface visibility. Based on the thin to complete 98 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis KEY Site Limits + Surface Artifact o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 _ ~* Intermittent Drainage .._.._.• — Figure 54. Sketch Map of 23 PU 702. lack of soil cover and the paucity of archeological material. 23PU702 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU703 (96-16: AOS 43) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 341 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site is a scatter consists of seven chert artifacts situated in a dirt road on a ridge crest. Surface visibility on the road is 100 percent. The site measures approximately lO-x-5 m and is surrounded by oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 55). Artifacts recovered from this site include four broken flakes, two tertiary flakes, and one thin biface fragment. 99 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Figure 55. Sketch Map of 23PU703. Posthole tests in the forest immediately east and west of the road were negative. The soil cover in the vicinity of the site is very thin with a high density of gravel. Vehicle traffic on the ridge crest has compromised the integrity of this site. It is considered ineligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 22PU704 (96-16: AOS 44) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 359 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Ocie cherty silt loam. 5-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU704, which measures approximately 5-x-15 m, is a lithic scatter in a dirt road situated along the top of a knoll. There is no surface visibility in the surrounding oak forest, but visibility is 100 percent on the road. The road has been severely eroded by water runoff (Figure 56). Six pieces of chert debitage were found at this site, consisting of three broken flakes, two blades, and one tertiary flake. Two positive 100 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Figure 56. Sketch Map of 23 PU704. posthole tests also were excavated at this site. Two flakes were recovered from these posthole tests between and 10 cm below surface. The soils are very thin at this site, with dense gravel occurring at 10 cm below surface. The soil profile data and the condition of the road indicate that the site area has experienced extensive erosion. Given the lack of intact subsurface deposits, 23PU704 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU705 (96-16: AOS 46) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 357 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter and Historic Corner Post Soil Type: Lebanon silt loam, 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric-20th Century Recommendation: Not Eligible The site area contains historic material on the surface and chert chipping debris recovered from two positive posthole tests. It is located in an oak forest with no surface visibility on the south slope of an upland 101 Phase 1 Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri ridge (Figure 57). Soils at this location are thin consisting of a very gravelly silt loam and a B horizon at 10 cm below surface. Two broken and one tertiary chert flakes were recovered from to 10 cm below surface. The historic material consists of a bale of rusty wire fencing material and a '"barrel-like'' object consisting of several upright, rough-hewn wooden planks held together by a metal hoop. Within this structure, which measures approximately 2 m in diameter, is a pile of limestone blocks. No other historic features or artifacts were observed in this area. The presence of old, sawed-off, moss-covered tree stumps in the surrounding forest indicates that it was logged in the past. Inspection of aerial photographs indicated that in 1938 and 1955 this area had no forest cover and appears to have been pasture. One corner of this cleared area corresponds to the approximate location of the historic feature located in the field. Mr. Curt Rankin of Fort Leonard Wood suggested that the historic material at 23PU705 represents an old fence corner post (personal communication 1996). Site 23PU705 is not considered eligible for the NRHP based on the paucity of prehistoric cultural material, the lack of intact subsurface deposits, and the probable recent temporal affiliation of the historic material. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU706 (96-16: AOS 48) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 338 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible Site 23PU706 is a prehistoric lithic scatter defined by five positive posthole tests and surface material. The site, which measures 70-X-50 m. is located on the crest and north slope of a broad, level upland ridge approximately 400 m east of Roubidoux Creek. The area is in an oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 58). A deer salt lick is located in the southeast part of the site, and chert chipping debris was found on the exposed ground surface around the salt lick. Despite evidence of surface disturbance in the site area in the form of spoil piles and bulldozing, an intact E horizon was observed in some of the posthole tests, suggesting that disturbance may be and spatially limited. The posthole tests indicate that the A horizon extends from 0-10 cm below surface, beneath which is an E horizon that reaches depths of 20 to 35 cm below surface. Gravel density increased at approximately 20 cm below surface in some areas, which prohibited further excavation of posthole tests. The B horizon was observed in two tests, at 20 and 35 cm below surface, respectively. A total of 17 artifacts, consisting of one retouched tool and 16 pieces of lithic debitage, was recovered from 23PU706 (Table 10). Twelve lithic artifacts were found on the surface and five more were derived from both the A and E horizons between Oand 20 cm below surface. Of the latter, one piece of debitage was found in the A horizon, two where found in the E horizon, and the remaining two pieces were found in either the A or E horizons. The debitage consists of six broken flakes, four pieces of shatter, three tertiary flakes, two secondary flakes, and one bipolar flake. Retouched tools are represented by a single biface. 102 Oak Forest 23PU705 o A KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum m 20 Jeep Trail "Barrel" with Limestone Blocks » % h \ Figure 57. Sketch Map of 23PU705. I 1 / / ( / o f o o 3ak Forest o O f"»\ ^~"^~-^^^ / * ^ — / X / \ O o / -«*««,_ \ 1 \ /^^^""^^r* - Hunter's Stand ^***»»« >fc ^ o |» • Spoil Piles / ■^t-.^^ ^**-«^^ ^ . A \ o / Scraped. Bare ][ "*^*^* t „^ o* J <-- y / \ 7*~ Salt Lick ^•* o CC^J/ — Spoil Pile o 23PU706 o o o • > A D KEY Site Limits Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test Datum Surface Scatter m 20 Figure 58. Sketch Map of 23PU706. 103 Table 10. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU706. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A 10 cm ~ "1 E 10-20 cm 2 A/E See Above 2 Surface - 12 The presence of an intact E horizon with a diverse artifact assemblage suggests that an undisturbed prehistoric deposit may be preserved at this site. Further, the landform is relatively level for the Fort Leonard Wood area, suggesting that erosion may not have been as severe as on other ridge crests and that intact subsurface material may be preserved. Based on these observations. Phase II testing is recommended for 23PU706 to determine NRHP eligibility. This testing should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues which should be addressed include site integrity, temporal affiliation, and function. Site Number: 23PU707 (96-16: AOS 49) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 335 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Middle Archaic Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This is a scatter of 1 15 prehistoric lithic artifacts located on the west and south edges of the crest of a steep bluff approximately 150 m east of Roubidoux Creek. The site measures approximately 20-X-200 m and is in an oak forest with to 50 percent ground surface visibility (Figure 59). Ground surface visibility progressively decreases away from the bluff edge towards the east. Good surface visibility permitted a pedestrian reconnaissance of the west margin of the bluff while posthole tests were excavated as visibility decreased eastward. Two positive posthole tests were excavated at 23PU707. These indicate that a thick E horizon is preserved at this site, extending from 1 to 45 cm below surface. Artifacts were recovered from between and 40 cm below surface in these posthole tests (Table 1 1 ). Three pieces of debitage were found in the A horizon and three pieces were recovered from E horizon. Seven biface fragments, all from the surface, were recovered from 23PU707, including a basal fragment from a Middle Archaic Raddatz side-notched point (Figure 60). In addition to the single projectile point base and six biface fragments found on the surface at 23PU707, 102 pieces of chipping debris were found. These consist of 29 broken flakes, 26 tertiary flakes. 104 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Figure 59. Sketch Map of 23PU707 and 23PU708. Table 11. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU707. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A E Surface 10 cm 20-35 cm 3 3 109 105 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Figure 60. Middle Archaic Raddatz Side Notched Projectile Point from 23PU707. 22 secondary flakes, 1 1 pieces of block shatter, five bipolar flakes, four primary flakes, three bifacial thinning flakes, one blade, and one core. Based on the density and diversity of cultural material, the recovery of a temporally diagnostic artifact, and the presence of an intact, artifact-bearing E horizon, this site is considered potentially eligible for the NRHP. Phase II investigations are recommended to assess NRHP eligibility. This testing should include site mapping and test unit excavation and should address site integrity and function. Site Number: 23PU708 (96-16: AOS 50) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 320 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherty silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 106 ( liapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Site 23PU708 consists of three positive posthole tests located on the north slope of an upland ridge. It measures approximately 5-x-lO m and is situated in an oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 59). This site is located approximately 50 m east of 23PU707 on the same landform. Nine pieces of debitage were found at this site. These consist of five broken flakes and four tertiary flakes. Posthole tests indicate that the A horizon extends from to 10 cm, beneath which is an E horizon that reaches a depth of between approximately 25 to 45 cm below surface. Lithic chipping debris was recovered from the A and E horizons Based on the presence of an intact E horizon with chert debitage and because of its proximity to a large Middle Archaic site (23PU707), Phase II testing is recommended to determine NRHP eligibility of this site. It is possible that 23PU708 represents an intact prehistoric deposit dating to the same period as 23PU707. Phase II testing should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues that should be addressed include site integrity, temporal affiliation, and site function. Site Number: 23PU709 (96-16: AOS 51) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 308 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter and Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Claiborne silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric/20th Century Recommendation: Not Eligible This site is located near the north end of an upland ridge on the east side of an overgrown jeep trail 150 m south of Musgrave Hollow. It contains both prehistoric and historic material and measures approximately 15-X-20 m. The ridge at this location is broad and relatively level, and a mixed hardwood forest cover alternates with open, isolated weed-covered patches (Figure 61). There is no surface visibility. Historic features consist of a cistern and possible foundation. The cistern measures approximately 2-x-4 m and is made of poured concrete. A fragment of reinforced concrete was observed next to the cistern. A possible foundation is adjacent to and north of the cistern and consists of a scatter of cut sandstone blocks forming a rough square shape and measuring approximately 10-x-lO m. The precise size and shape of this scatter was difficult to ascertain due to a cover of dense weeds and underbrush in the site area. A patch of day lilies was growing at the southwest corner of the cistern/foundation complex. Several historic artifacts were observed on the surface of this site. These include a corroded enamelware basin, fragments of corroded sheet metal, and a broken iron kettle. These artifacts were not collected. Historic artifacts recovered from posthole tests include undecorated whiteware. transfer print whiteware, and wire-drawn nails. All artifacts are consistent with an early twentieth century occupation. Inspection of 1938 and 1942 aerial photographs revealed that a farmstead did exist at this location and that much of the north end of the ridge lacked forest cover. On a 1955 aerial photograph of the site location the structures appear to have been razed. The prehistoric material recovered from this site consists of a single tertiary flake found 10 to 15 cm below surface. Neither the prehistoric nor historic component from this site is eligible for the NRHP. The historic occupation of the site would have severely impacted the remains of any prehistoric occupations while the historic component appears to be relatively recent, most likely dating to the early twentieth century. 107 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Figure 61. Sketch Map of 23PU709. Site Number: 23PU710 (96-16: AOS 52) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7.5' Elevation: 311 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Claiborne silt loam. 2-5 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site was defined on the basis of three positive posthole tests located near the north end of an upland ridge 200 m south of Musgrave Hollow. The site is situated at a point where the ridge slope breaks from very steep to gentle (Figure 62). Vegetation cover consists of approximately 20 percent forest and 80 percent weeds, with no ground surface visibility. Artifacts found at this site consist of four tertiary flakes, one primary flake, and one secondary flake. Soil horizon data derived from the posthole tests indicate that the site area is disturbed, with an 1 1-cm to 15-cm thick plow zone resting on the B horizon. Inspection of aerial photographs from 1938 and 1942 indicate that this area had been cleared of forest cover and was being used for agricultural purposes probably 108 Chapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis ; \\ Woodlands / IS \ o > o o o o o o o o 1 . 1 o ,», o \ 1 o o Weeds o o ^"^"L-u^ 23PU710 KEY Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test Woodlands o Negative Posthole Test o o o o o A Datum m 20 Figure 62. Sketch Map of 23PU7 10. associated with 23PU709. This site is not considered eligible for the NRHP due the paucity of cultural material and a lack of depositional integrity. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU71 1 (96-16: AOS 54) USGS Quadrangle: Bloodland 7 5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Viraton silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible Site 23PU71 1 is a prehistoric site located on the crest of an upland ridge 300 m south of Musgrave Hollow. It is within an oak forest with no ground surface visibility. The site area is based on eight positive posthole tests which produced 15 pieces of chert chipping debris, and measures approximately 65-X-25 m (Figure 63). The lithic debitage recovered from this site consists of six tertiary flakes, six broken flakes, two pieces of shatter, and one secondarv flake. 109 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Oak Forest I Slope 23PU711 KEY ■ - - Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test o Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 Figure 63 . Sketch Map of 23 PU7 ! Soil profiles indicate that the A horizon is 2 to 10 cm thick, beneath which is an E honzon that reaches a maximum depth of 30 cm below surface. The B horizon was reached in all posthole tests at 20 to 30 cm below surface. Artifacts were found in the A. E and B horizons (Table 12). Although there has been minimal disturbance of the area, as indicated by spoil piles and vehicle ruts along the jeep trail south of the site and removal of the A horizon at three posthole locations, an intact artifact-bearing E horizon suggests that the site retains some depositional integrity It is therefore potentially eligible for the NRHP. Phase II investigations are recommended for this site to determine NRHP eligibility, and should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues that should be addressed include site integrity, temporal affiliation, and site function. Site Number: 23PU712 (96-16: AOS 57) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 305 m asl Site Type: Lithic Tool and Debris Scatter and Residence/Farmstead Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherry silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Middle-Late Woodland/20th Century Recommendation: Potentially Eligible 110 Table 12. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU71 1. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A 2-10 cm 1 E 15-25 cm 5 B - 3 A/E See Above 2 E/B See Above 2 Uncertain - 2 This site measures approximately 60-X-130 m and has both historic and prehistoric components. It is located on the crest of a narrow upland ridge 50 m east of Roubidoux Creek. Vegetation cover consists of mixed hardwood forest with no surface visibility. Seventeen positive posthole tests were excavated at this site (Figure 64). Artifacts also were found in a jeep trail on the ridge crest where surface visibility is 100 percent. The prehistoric material is concentrated at the north end of the ridge while the historic component is located at the southern end of the site. The historic component consists of both features and artifacts. The largest feature is a foundation of cut sandstone blocks measuring approximately 10-x-lO m. Several rotting pieces of lumber were scattered across this foundation. A cistern, measuring approximately 2-x-2 m, is located at the northeast corner of the foundation. A sheet metal pipe protrudes from the center of the cistern. Large historic artifacts observed at the site but not collected consist of a corroded enamelware basm with cobalt blue and white splatter decoration and several pieces of corroded sheet metal. Historic artifacts were recovered from six posthole tests and include flat window glass, wire-drawn nails, faceted table glass, melted brown bottle glass, whiteware sherds, a Bristol-glaze stoneware fragment, a decorated metal fitting, an iron fragment, a metal fragment stamped "Willard". and a metal military ration can lid. All of these artifacts suggest that the historic component of 23PU7 12 dates to the early to middle twentieth century. Aerial photographs of this part of Fort Leonard Wood taken in 1938 show at least two, and possibly three, structures at this location, and the complex of buildings is very clearly depicted on the 1942 aerial photograph. The soils at this site are generally shallow and gravelly. Twelve posthole tests could be excavated only to between 10 and 20 cm below surface due to dense gravel or rock concentrations. At the north end of the site, in the vicinity of the densest concentration of prehistoric materials, soil horizon data from posthole tests indicate that the A horizon is between 1 and 20 cm thick. An E horizon was noted in three posthole tests in this same area, extending from 10 to 50 cm below surface. At the south end of the site, in the vicinity of the historic structures, posthole tests could not be excavated below 25 cm due to dense gravel. Ill Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Figure 64. Sketch Map of 23 PU7 12. The prehistoric component consists of 160 pieces of chert chipping debris and tools recovered from 14 posthole tests, the surface of the jeep trail on the crest, and the base of the north end of the ridge. The posthole tests produced a total of 59 chert artifacts while 101 artifacts were collected from the jeep trail. The prehistoric lithic assemblage consists of 152 pieces of debitage and eight retouched tools. The debitage is composed of 105 broken flakes, 36 tertiary flakes, four pieces of shatter, three bifacial thinning flakes, three secondary flakes, and one primary flake. The retouched tools are represented by five thin bifaces, two thick bifaces, and one projectile point fragment which has been identified as Rice Side Notched type, indicating a terminal Middle Woodland to Late Woodland temporal affiliation (Figure 65). Thirty-one artifacts were found in the A horizon, 2 1 in the E horizon, and seven artifacts were of uncertain context (Table 13). Twelve of the posthole tests that yielded prehistoric artifacts were located near the north end of the ridge while the other two were farther south, in the vicinity of the historic component. The Rice Side Notched projectile point was found in one of the latter, near the south edge of the sandstone foundation, The paucity of prehistoric artifacts at the south end of the site is most likely the result of disturbance resulting from construction and habitation of the historic site. Although artifacts from the historic component indicate a twentieth century occupation, Phase II testing is recommended for the prehistoric component which produced one temporally diagnostic artifact, a dense 112 ( 'hapter 6: Site Inventory and Artifact Analysis Figure 65. Middle-Late Woodland Rice Side Notched Projectile Point from 23PU7 12. Table 13. Distribution of Artifacts Collected from 23PU712. Soil Horizon Thickness of Horizon Number of Artifacts A E Uncertain Surface 10-20 cm 5-40 cm 31 21 7 101 113 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri scatter of lithic chipping debris and tools, and an intact E horizon. The presence of artifacts in an intact E horizon suggests that there may be an intact cultural deposit and possible subsurface features preserved at this site. Phase II investigations are recommended for this site to determine NRHP eligibility, and should include site mapping and test unit excavation. Issues that should be addressed include site integrity and site function. Site Number: 23PU713 (96-16: AOS 58) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 296 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Gepp-Bardley-Clarksville very cherty silt loam, 14-35 percent slopes Component(s) Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This site consists of four chert flakes found on the surface of a jeep trail on the crest of subtle ridge approximately 200 m south of Roubidoux Creek. It measures approximately 5-x-20 m and is located in an area of underbrush and weeds approximately 50 m south of the Roubidoux Creek floodplain (Figure 66). There is no surface visibility in the vegetated areas north and south of the jeep trail and 50 percent visibility on the trail. The four artifacts are classified as two broken and two tertiary flakes. Posthole tests indicated that the A horizon is less than 10 cm thick at this location, and is followed by the B horizon. No artifacts were recovered from posthole tests at this location. The proximity of 23PU7 13 to the Roubidoux floodplain and the presence of a thin and fragmentary A horizon suggests that this location has been periodically inundated and eroded by the creek. This, coupled with vehicle traffic on the jeep trail, appears to have resulted in the disturbance of the site. Based on this and the paucity of materials recovered, 23PU713 is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU714 (96-16: AOS 60) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7 5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very cherry silt loam, 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Potentially Eligible This is a prehistoric site defined by five positive posthole tests located at the top of a large knoll approximately 200 m south of Roubidoux Creek. The site measures approximately lO-x-20 m and is situated in a mixed hardwood forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 67). Fourteen pieces of chert debitage were recovered from 23PU714. This material consists often broken flakes, three pieces of block shatter, and one tertiary flake. Data derived from posthole tests indicate that the soil stratigraphy consists of an A horizon from to 10 cm below surface, beneath which is an E horizon extending down to 30 cm below surface. Gravel and rock density increases at about 20 cm below surface. Seven pieces of chert chipping debris were recovered from the A horizon, while six artifacts were found in the E horizon. The remaining chert flake was found on the surface. 114 KEY Site Limits ° Negative Posthole Test A Datum □ Surface Scatter Figure 66. Sketch Map of 23PU7 1 3. Figure 67. Sketch Map of 23PU7 1 4. 115 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fori Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Based on its geographical at the crest of a prominent knoll overlooking Roubidoux Creek, together with the presence of prehistoric artifacts in an intact E horizon, Phase II investigations are recommended for this site to determine NRHP eligibility. Such investigations should include site mapping and test unit excavation to address site integrity, temporal affiliation, and site function. Site Number: 23PU715 (96-16: AOS 62) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 335 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very' cherry silt loam. 3-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is a prehistoric site defined by five positive posthole tests which produced eight pieces of lithic debitage. It is located on the crest of a broad upland ridge 300 m east of Roubidoux Creek in a mixed hardwood forest with no ground surface visibility. The site area measures approximately 25-X-25 m (Figure 68). Eight pieces of lithic debitage were recovered from this site, consisting of four tertiary flakes, two broken flakes, one bifacial thinning flake, and one piece of shatter. Subsurface testing indicates that the A horizon is from to 5 cm below surface, beneath which is an E horizon extending to 20 cm below surface. Below 20 cm beneath ground surface is a B horizon. Chert debitage was found in both the A and E horizons. Based on the paucity of prehistoric cultural material and the shallow soils, this site is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 23PU716 (96-16: AOS 63) USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 332 m asl Site Type: Lithic Debris Scatter Soil Type: Doniphan very chcrty silt loam. 3.-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible Site 23PU716 consists of four pieces of chert debitage recovered from two positive posthole tests situated on the crest of an upland ridge 400 m east of Roubidoux Creek. It measures approximately 5-x-5 m and is located in a mixed hardwood forest with no ground surface visibility (Figure 69). The debitage consists of two broken flakes, one primary flake, and one tertiary flake. Soil profile data from the posthole tests indicate that there is an A horizon from to 5 cm below surface, beneath which is an E horizon extending to 20 cm below surface. Chert chipping debris was found in both the A and E horizons. Based on the paucity of prehistoric cultural material and the shallow soils, this site is not considered eligible for the NRHP No further work is recommended. 116 'K X \ A A \SI \ \ AA - 1 "* \ \ /v 1 ■* / \ \ Ay a o o o r—^ / \ \ AAA / o o „-•* «\o \ ^ \ t / ,' >■ \ ■ \ — \ / ° \ X" \ / o o / • • t\ o \ \ ^\ / 1 ' \ 1 <"* \ / ' * \ \ B- v 1 / \ \ A 1 * Y \ o o o i • yo o o . ■ 23PU715 KEY \ \ ° 0/ o o o Site Limits • Positive Posthole Test Mixed Hardwood Forest ° Negative Posthole Test A Datum o o o m 20 o Figure 68. Sketch Map of 23PU7 15. O O o o N. O \ ° 1 1 \ o ^--^o o o o o o \ \ o o '•l ■ A O !•# o o o \ 23PU716 KEY o 1 < -- Site Limits » Positive Posthole Test - J; ( ^ Negative Posthole Test o o \ ° o o i ^ Datum m 20 1 Figure 69. Sketch Map of 23PU7 1 6. 117 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3 ,000 Acres at Fori Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Site Number: 96-1 6: AOS 14 USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 299 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Kickapoo fine sandy loam, 0-3 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is isolated find was recovered from a single positive posthole test that produced one chert flake at 0-10 cm below surface. It was found in an area of mixed forest cover with no surface visibility. This isolate is on the north end of a terrace remnant approximately 200 m south of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 70). The secondary chert flake does not appear to have been redeposited. As this is an isolated, nondiagnostic artifact it is not considered eligible for the NRHP. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 96-16: AOS 37 USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 341 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Ocie cherty silt loam. 5-9 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible The find consists of a single tertiary chert flake from a posthole test on the south slope of an upland ridge south of a dirt access road. The vegetation cover in the area is pine forest with no surface visibility (Figure 71 ) No additional cultural material was recovered from four bracketing posthole tests. This isolate is not considered eligible for the NRHP based on the paucity of archeological material found. No further work is recommended. Site Number: 96-16 AOS 40 USGS Quadrangle: Roby 7.5' Elevation: 341 m asl Site Type: Isolated Find Soil Type: Clarksville very cherty silt loam. 14-35 percent slopes Component(s): Unknown Prehistoric Recommendation: Not Eligible This is an isolated tertiary chert flake recovered at 0-10 cm below surface. The subsurface test is located on the south side of an upland ridge to the south of a dirt access road. It is in an oak forest with no surface visibility (Figure 72). Soils are very thin in this area, with bedrock occasionally on the surface. Due to lack of intact deposits and paucity of material, this isolated find is considered ineligible for the NRHP No further work is recommended. 118 Roubidoux Floodplain 96-16: AOS14 KEY • Positive Posthole Test Negative Posthole Test A Datum m 20 o o • o \ Open Woodlands/Scrub Vfc ^ ? * I 8 f 8 | § 8 Distance (m) I § I Cf CJ N Figure 86. Relationship Between Site Density and Distance to the Big Piney River in the Big Piney Quarry Tract. 135 Relationship Between Site Size and Distance to Big Piney River 6000 - ■ ■ 5000- 4000 - I 1 E a, 3000- N CO 2000- ■ 1000- ■ ■ ■ ■ i ■ ( ) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Distance (m) 800 900 Relationship Between Artifact Density and Distance to Big Piney River u.ua - ■ 0.08 - ■ 0.07- ^~. F 0.06 -1 o m t to 0.05- ■>, i_ (i) n 0.04 n ■ ra < 0.03 0.02 - 0.01 - 1 - 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 . — ,. — — 1 i i 100 200 300 400 500 Distance (m) 600 700 800 900 Figure 87. Scatter Plots of the Relationship Between Site Size, Artifact Density, and Distance to Big Piney River in the Big Piney Quarry Tract. 136 Chapter 7: Discussion of Results Consistent with earlier findings at Fort Leonard Wood (e.g., Ahler and McDowell 1993), most (55.5 percent) sites in the Cookville/EQR tract are within 500 m of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 88). Of the eight sites or isolates occurring beyond 500 m, three are isolates and one is an historic farmstead. Only two isolated finds were found within 500 m of Roubidoux Creek. No strong pattern between site size and distance from Roubidoux Creek emerged from the data (Figure 89). With the exception of 23PU695, a dispersed surface scatter with no subsurface integrity, all sites are less than 2.000 m 2 in size, a pattern that most likely reflects local physiographic conditions. Although nearby. Roubidoux Creek is at the base of a steep bluff and has a narrow floodplain with limited area for resource exploitation. In terms settlement, it appears that sites tend to be located at the heads of intermittent drainages that allow easy access to the Roubidoux Creek floodplain. In addition, the large abandoned meander of Roubidoux Creek, still poorly drained, may have represented a closer water supply for sites such as 23PU695. A similar pattern is observed for artifact density, which increases slightly with distance from Roubidoux Creek. This pattern probably reflects the establishment of sites near the heads of intermittent streams adjacent to the Roubidoux Creek floodplain rather than along the margin of the steep bluff (Figure 89). In addition, the unique physiographic situation represented by the location of Roubidoux Creek at the bluff base most likely accounts for the presence of cairns on the bluff edge overlooking the stream valley. Such settings are common for caims in this region. In the South Roubidoux Creek tract, 53 percent of all sites are within 500 m of Roubidoux Creek (Figure 90). This distribution changes if two large drainages are included in the calculation. The first, Musgrave Hollow, represents the northern boundary of the survey tract. Five sites (23PU513, 23PU709, 23PU710, 23PU71 1. 96-16: AOS 53) are within 500 m of this drainage. The second is an unnamed perennial stream that flows southeast to northwest in the survey tract. Five sites (23PU698, 23PU700. 23PU701, 96-16: AOS 34, 96-16: AOS 37) are located in closer proximity to this drainage than to Roubidoux Creek. Of these five sites and isolates, four are within 500 m and one is 800 m from the stream. If the remaining sites in the South Roubidoux Creek tract are considered apart from those along the former two drainages. 69 percent are within 500 m of Roubidoux Creek. When all sites in the South Roubidoux Creek tract are considered, there is a weak inverse relationship between site size and distance to the creek (e.g., site size decreases with increased distance from Roubidoux Creek). Artifact density also decreases with increased distance from the stream. The greatest variability in both site size and artifact density is found within 500 m of the creek (Figure 91). In fact, artifact diversity is greatest at sites closest to major streams in all three survey tracts (Figures 92 through 94). This association is strongest in the South Roubidoux Creek tract. To briefly summarize, general trends in site size and location, and artifact density and diversity, are apparent in the three surve\ r tracts. In general, sites are located close to large streams, and the closest sites tend to be larger, both in terms of overall size and artifact density. Artifact diversity also is greater at sites near major streams. Deviations from these trends appear associated with local physiographic conditions or geomorphological processes. These patterns appear related to two causes. First, larger sites with high artifact density and diversity can be attributed to longer periods of occupation, larger populations, and greater diversity of activities at these locales. These sites are interpreted to be base camps. Second, smaller sites located near major streams that also exhibit increased artifact density and diversity suggests their function as field camps. It would appear that field camps were situated near major streams to exploit more, perhaps 137 Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Distance Between Sites and Roubidoux Creek (Cookville/EQR) Distance (m) Figure 88. Relationship Between Site Density' and Distance to Roubidoux Creek in the Cookville/EQR Tract. seasonally, dependable resources than those located away from major streams. Major stream valleys tend to contain a more diverse array and greater quantity of resources. Field camps near major streams would have been more frequently occupied and used to access a greater variety of resources. This would account for sites interpreted as field camps near major streams that have unusually dense concentrations of material and diverse artifact assemblages. Classic examples of such sites at Fort Leonard Wood are rockshelters and caves, which generally have been interpreted as seasonal field camps (Ahler, Kreisa, McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Kreisa 1995; Kreisa, Walz. et al. 1996; see also Brown 1984). While a relatively large amount of data is available of the function of rockshelters and caves, the above data suggest that open-air sites served similar functions in the Fort Leonard Wood area, perhaps being occupied during different seasons to exploit a separate suite of resources. Kreisa. McDowell, et al. (1996) have interpreted the settlement pattern data as indicating a general dichotomy in settlement and site function at Fort Leonard Wood. This pattern can be characterized as valley oriented and uplands oriented patterning. Valley oriented sites occur in dense clusters, termed neighborhoods (e.g., Ahler et al. 1996), that include a wide variety of site types. Uplands oriented sites are more dispersed 138 Relationship Between Site Size and Distance from Roubldoux Creek 12000 - r ■ * 10000 - 8000 - E, 6000- 7 - 6 - ■ M • o o i 4 ' * 1 3- 3 z ■ ■ ■ 2 - -■ 1 i ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 2000 4000 6000 Size (square meters) 8000 10000 12000 800 1000 1200 Distance (meters) Figure 93. Scatter Plots of the Relationship Between Site Size, Artifact Diversity, and Distance to Roubidoux Creek in the Cookville/EQR Tract. 143 Relationship Between Site Size and Artifact Diversity, South Roubidoux Creek Tract 12 10- 6 -■ 2 11 ■ ■+- H 5,000 10,000 15,000 Site Size (square meters) 20,000 25,000 Relationship Between Artifact Diversity and Distance to Roubidoux Creek, South Roubidoux Creek Tract 2000 1800 1600 1400 -■ 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 -■ 10 Number of Artifact Classes Figure 94. Scatter Plots of the Relationship Between Site Size, Artifact Diversity, and Distance to Roubidoux Creek in the South Roubidoux Creek Tract. 144 Chapter 7: Discussion of Results Smaller open-air prehistoric sites are designated as field camps. A portion of these sites are larger, between 400 m 2 and 2,000 nr in size. These sites have fewer artifacts and less artifact diversity than do the proposed base camp sites. Sites are located on upland ridges, side slopes, and terraces. Another class of field camps is smaller, generally less than 400 nr, with low artifact density and diversity. These sites are located on the same landforms as the larger field camps. This dichotomy may be related to length of occupation or a differential in the intensity of exploitation of resources between the two types. Another category of field camps is the caves and rockshelters. A single example, 23PU207, exists in the project area and appears to contain a dense concentration of material with a diverse assemblage. Cave-rockshelter sites often have both Archaic period and Middle Woodland to Late woodland period occupations. These sites are often interpreted as seasonal encampments or field camps, occupied during late fall, winter, and perhaps early spring. If the shelters are fall-winter field camps, then the open-air field camps may represent their analog, spring-summer- early fall resource-extraction locates. A unique complex of such seasonally occupied field camps is found in the South Roubidoux Creek tract, represented by 23PU207 (Deadman Cave) and the open-air site 23PU707, both of which produced Middle Archaic diagnostic artifacts and are within approximately 200 m of each other. Potentially valuable information regarding Middle Archaic subsistence and settlement systems is represented by the two sites. Isolated finds, another site type similar to field camps, may represent single episodes of occupation by one or few individuals. The final site type is one of the survey tracts is the cairn. Cairns are limestone mounds most often located on prominent ridge spurs overlooking a major stream. The sites, dating mainly to the Middle Woodland (or rarely the Late Woodland) period, are mortuary facilities (Chapman 1980; Reeder 1988). Archaic period and Middle Woodland to Late Woodland period burials have been found in caves as well (Ahler, Kreisa, et al. 1995; Kreisa, Walz, et al. 1996). Traditionally, starting with the research at Fort Leonard wood conducted by Niquette (1984, 1985; Niquette et al. 1983) and continued by researchers in the later 1980s and early 1990s (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Baumann and Markman 1993; Moffat et al. 1989). prehistoric settlement structure at Fort Leonard wood has been interpreted in light of Binford's (1980) models of the "collector" hunter-gatherer strategy'. In this model, group base camps are established from which smaller groups periodically depart to obtain needed resources. As resource distribution is well-known, placement of base camps and the periodically occupied field camps is designed to minimize transport costs. Many aspects of the Fort Leonard Wood settlement pattern, especially the neighborhood clustering of sites, appear to conform to this model. Alternatively, settlement may have been characterized by seasonal fragmentation of populations. In such a scenario, prehistoric groups coalesce at base camps during warm weather months, sending smaller parties to field camps on occasion to collect needed raw materials, much like the process described in the Binford ( 1 980) "collector" hunter-gatherer strategy. These macrobands disperse, perhaps into facility groups, during the winter. This slightly different model would account for the often dense middens with high artifact diversity found at the numerous caves and rockshelters of the region. Such a model has been proposed for a number of regions in northern Missouri, eastern Iowa, and southwester Wisconsin along the Mississippi River (Benn 1979; Stoltman 1990; Theler 1987). Similar to the Fort Leonard Wood region, these areas contain large base camps, smaller field camps, and rockshelters that were intensively occupied during cold weather months. Additional Phase II-level data from open-air base camps and field camps, along with caves and rockshelters, can be used to evaluate this alternative settlement model. 145 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Temporal Pattering Temporally diagnostic prehistoric projectile points were recovered at seven locations and span the period from Early Archaic through Late Woodland. By combining this relatively rich collection of diagnostic projectile points recovered during this survey with data derived from previous surveys, it is possible to further investigate prehistoric temporal, cultural, and spatial patterns at Fort Leonard Wood. A sample of 133 diagnostic projectile points recovered during previous Phase I surveys at Fort Leonard Wood, together with those recovered during this survey, is included in the following discussion (Ahler and McDowell 1993; Kreisa, McDowell et al. 1996; McGowan 1996; McGowan et al 1996; Markman 1982, 1983; Moffat 1989; Niquette 1984). For the most part, point type identifications and temporal affiliations were used as reported with the following exceptions. The Earl Woodland period is poorly represented in this region, and is believed to represent a continuation of Late Archaic adaptations. Point types such as Langtry and Gary span this time period, and cannot be associated confidently or exclusively with either period. Following O'Brien et al. (1982) and Reeder (1988), the Late Archaic and Early Woodland periods are collapsed and presented here as a smgle cultural and temporal phenomenon. Only one unequivocal Early Woodland point type, the Dickson/Waubesa (n=2), has been recovered during recent Phase I surveys at the base. The diagnostic projectile point data permit the investigation of settlement patterns through time. As Figure 95 shows, mean elevation of fmd locations decreases with time. The data indicate a relatively sharp drop from the Dalton to early Archaic period, followed by a slight increase in elevation with the Middle Archaic period. After the Middle Archaic, there is a more gradual decrease in mean elevation through the Late Woodland period. Several factors, both cultural and geomorphic, may explain this pattern. First, the elevation values may reflect actual settlement patterns characteristic of each period. Based on Reedefs (1988) findings for the Gasconade Basin, briefly occupied field camps are more abundant during the early prehistoric periods and are the only site type documented for the Dalton period, when the basin appears to have been minimally utilized. Elsewhere in the Ozarks region, evidence suggests that Dalton period settlement patterns mcluded sedentary base camps, resource extraction camps, smaller generalized residential camps, and special purpose cemetery- sites (Goodyear 1974). which may represent a logistically organized system (Kreisa. McDowell et al. 1996). The Dalton fmd locations in Fort Leonard Wood therefore appear to represent the remains of ephemeral, short-term utilization of the uplands, possibly by groups of hunters associated with more sedentary base camps sites located outside of the base and the Gasconade Basin. For the Early Archaic, mean elevation of fmd locations drops approximately 25 m. For this period, sites in the Gasconade Basin are represented by briefly occupied field camps and procurement-processing sites (Reeder 1988). Archaeological data suggest continuity in material culture between the Dalton and Early Archaic periods and a gradual increase in the occupation of the Fort Leonard wood area and the Gasconade Basin. The settlement system during the early Archaic period was characterized by small, highly mobile residential groups. The drop in mean elevation of sites at this time might reflect a more generalized use of the Fort Leonard wood area with sites located in more diverse resource zones than during the preceding Dalton period (Warren 1982). 146 Chapter 7: Discussion of Results Relationship Between Time Period and Elevation 330 250 4 Dalton Early Middle Late Middle Late Archaic Archaic Arch/E Wood Wood Wood Period Figure 95. Relationship Between Mean Elevation of Find Locations and Temporal Affiliation. For the Middle Archaic, a period of intensive occupation in the Gasconade Basin (Reeder 1988), mean elevation of find locations increases by approximately 1 m. For this period, there is evidence of sedentary residential base camps in addition to short-term field and procurement-processing sites in the Gasconade Basm. which suggests that prehistoric groups were becoming increasingly sedentary (Reeder 1988). In the Midwest in general, there is a shift in settlement towards major river valley margins and increased use of aqua5tic resources by larger population aggregates. While Reeder (1988) does document this trend for the Gasconade Basin, his data indicate that over half (53.7 percent) of the sites from this period are located in upland and upland slope settings (Redder 1988:287). This situation differs from the pattern observed in the central Salt River drainage where Warren (1982) notes a sharp decrease in upland sites at this time. He attributes this to the spread of upland praines and the restriction of forests to narrow riverine settings due to warming and drying effects of the middle Holocene Hypsithermal Interval. However, the effects, if any, of this climatic change on human adaptations in central Missouri are poorly understood, and data from Fort Leonard Wood and the Gasconade Basin suggest that there was not a major abandonment of the uplands. Indeed, a large (4,000 nr) Middle Archaic site, 23PU707, was identified in the uplands during this survey. Further, Phase II investigations at Sadie's Cave (23PU235) indicate that although there may have been environmental changes in the Fort Leonard Wood area at this time, human adaptations were stable and were not affected by changing environmental conditions (Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995:288). For the Late Archaic/Earl Woodland period, mean elevation of finds drops again to nearly the same level as the Early Archaic period. In the Gasconade Basin, the trend of increasing sedentism and use of riverine environments continued into this period, where 59 percent of Late Archaic sites occur in floodplain settings (Reeder 1988, 287, 296). Warren (1982:351) reports a similar pattern in the central Salt River drainage, 147 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri despite an apparent climatic amelioration and subsequent expansion of forests into former upland prairies, and concludes that the intensified use of floodplain environments reflects cultural as opposed to environmental factors. Location of sites primarily in floodplain environments continued into the Middle and Late Woodland periods in the Gasconade and central Salt River basins. In the former, the Spring Creek Complex is argued to represent the continuation of indigenous Late Archaic culture (Reeder 1988:202), and 23.5 percent of Middle Woodland sites are classified as sedentary residential bases. Further, 60 percent of all Middle Woodland sites in the Gasconade Basin are located in floodplain settings (Reeder 1988:287) while 70.3 percent of Late Woodland sites are located in floodplains. During the Late Woodland period, 27.6 percent of all sites in the Gasconade Basin are residential bases. While it is possible to account for decreased focus on uplands by a consideration of changing prehistoric subsistence/settlement systems, it is also possible that the observed pattern also reflects the influence of geomorphic processes. In particular, alternating periods of alluviation and scouring in stream valleys has probably distorted the archaeological record such that older sites are under-represented, either due to burial or erosion (Reeder 1988:276; Waters and Kuehn 1996). Albertson (1995) has identified 12 soil-geomorphic units at Fort Leonard Wood in the Big Piney River and Roubidoux Creek valleys. Radiometric dates were secured for five of these units (Tl. T2, T3, T4, T5) while the age of the remainmg units are estimated based on stratigraphy and comparison with other sequences in the Missouri Ozarks. The general paucity of Paleoindian material in the Gasconade Basin, and its complete absence to date at Fort Leonard Wood, suggests that this areas was not intensively occupied at this time. However, based on stratigraphic data, four stream valley soil-geomorphic units on the base (T6, T7, T7 C0 , and AF) have been dated to 10.000 to 130.000 years B.P. and represent potential locations for buried Paleoindian material. These same four soil-geomorphic units dating between 10,000 and 130,000 years B.P. also represent likely contexts for buried Dalton period sites, and the presence of Dalton points at Fort Leonard Wood demonstrates that prehistoric groups were utilizing this area. Although no Dalton material has been recovered at Fort Leonard Wood from stream-valley contexts, current models of Dalton subsistence/settlement patterns in the Ozarks (Morse 1975. 1977; Schiffer 1975) suggest that groups were characterized by a logistical system centered on the utilization of seasonally abundant aquatic resources. Further, sties associated with this system include base camps occupied for long time periods. It is therefore possible that relatively large Dalton period base co\amps once existed in the stream valleys of Fort Leonard Wood and are either deeply buried or have been subsequently destroyed and eroded by fluvial processes. Albertson (1995) suggests that Dalton period material is likely to be found within the upper 50 cm of the T6. T7. T7co, and AF soil-geomorphic units. Likewise. Early Archaic floodplain sites could be buried within the t% formations, and Middle Archaic and Late Archaic/Earl Woodland sites could exist in buried contexts in the T3, T4, and T5 units. This survey located buried archaeological material (23PU683). possibly Late Archaic, on a T4 terrace remnant in the Big Piney floodplain between 1.2 and 1.3 m below surface. In summary, while the data do suggest a steady decrease in the use of uplands through time at Fort Leonard Wood, this trend must be considered with the potential effects of geomorphic processes on the archaeological record. The data from Fort Leonard Wood and elsewhere in the Gasconade Basin do suggest that utilization of the area was minimal during earlier periods of prehistory and may have been restricted to special purpose exploitation of the uplands. Further, an apparent intensified use of aquatic resources beginning in the Middle Archaic period and continuing through the Late Woodland period suggests that the 148 Chapter 7: Discussion of Results data do provide a coarse measure of changing prehistoric settlement patterns at Fort Leonard Wood. Further testing for deeply buried sites is necessary to refine our understanding of this pattern. Ten historic period sites, consisting of nine residences/farmsteads and one special purpose agricultural feature, are located in the three survey tracts investigated during the current project. Based on Smith (1993). the earliest local settlements are expected along the river bottoms with upland settlements increasing after the Civil War. More recent settlements were focused along the upland road system that ran along ridge tops and prominent landscape locations. Six of the nine historic residences/farmsteads conform to the expected distribution pattern of more recent historic settlements and are located in the uplands. The three historic sites located in the Big Piney Quarry tract, however, are situated at lower elevations in the "headwalls" of a small unnamed hollow west of the Big Piney River. Smith (1993:75) states that with the completion of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad in 1867, population increased in the Fort Leonard Wood region and hollows were populated by the immigrating homesteaders. The distribution of the three sites in the Big Piney Quarry tract resembles the fan-shaped settlement pattern characteristic of hollows, which consists of farms established in a semicircle around the headwalls of a hollow and may represent kin-structured settlements (Smith 1993). Results of the revisit to one of these sites (23PU402) suggest that a sharp, narrow bend in the hollow may have been dammed to form a pond. If confirmed, it suggests that 23PU402 may have functioned in part as a mill, which in turn would account for its deviation from the expected late historic site distribution pattern. In this case, residents at the site might be classified as flexible "general agriculturalists" opportunistic cash crop farmers involved in several business ventures (Smith 1993:124). A more detailed analysis of historic documents pertaining to this location will be necessary to resolve this issue. Cultural Chronology Development and refinement of a local Fort Leonard Wood chronology remains a significant research goal (e.g. Ahler, Kreisa. McDowell, and McGowan 1995; Ahler, Kreisa, Theler et al. 1995; Ahler and McDowell 1993; Kreisa et al. 1996; McGowan 1996). The overall development of a local chronology must be viewed as a long-term goal that will be achieved by adding to the local data base. To accomplish this, chronologically sensitive data, typically diagnostic artifacts must be recovered. While chronology building is better addressed through site testing and mitigation projects. Phase I survey results can document the presence of populations in the Fort Leonard Wood area during particular time periods. The current fieldwork has accomplished this task and. together with data recovered from previous surveys, can be incorporated into a bnef analysis of cultural and temporal patterns in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Eight diagnostic prehistoric projectile points were recovered by this survey at seven locations. These artifacts represent the Early Archaic. Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Middle/Late Woodland, and Late Woodland periods. Of these. Late Archaic types are the most common, represented by four projectile points (Big Creek. Table Rock Stemmed, Ledbetter Stemmed, and Saratoga Expanding Stemmed). The remaining points consist of single examples of early Archaic (MacCorkle Stemmed), Middle Archaic (Raddatz Side Notched). Middle/Late Woodland (Rice Side Notched), and Late Woodland (Scallorn Cluster) types. As discussed above, 133 temporally diagnostic projectile points discovered by this and previous Phase I surveys at Fort Leonard Wood can be utilized to examine issues of chronology and general settlement patterns. Temporal shifts in settlement patterns as deduced from the position of diagnostic projectile points have been discussed in the previous section. In addition, the data permit general statements about the local prehistoric chronology at Fort Leonard Wood. As Figure 96 demonstrates, there is a gradual increase m the 149 Phase I Survey of 3, 000 Acres at Fori Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri representations of temporally diagnostic projectile points until a peak is reached at the Late Archaic/Early Woodland interval. After this there is a slight drop in the representation of Middle Woodland types, followed by a subtle increase by the Late Woodland interval. These data indicate that prehistoric occupation of the Fort Leonard Wood area increased gradually over time. A more refined picture of this pattern emerges if the data are weighted by calculating the number of occupations per 100 years, based on the chronological framework presented in Figure 6. When this is done, a pattern emerges similar to those reported by Reeder (1988) for the entire Gasconade Basin, and Warren (1982) for the central Salt River drainage in northeastern Missouri (Figure 96). Paleoindian remains are rare in the entire Gasconade Basin, and Paleoindian projectile point types still have not been recorded at Fort Leonard Wood. The available data indicate that occupation increased gradually from the Dalton period to the end of the Late Archaic/Early Woodland period, after which the rate of occupation increased dramatically. As was discussed in the preceding section, the lack of Paleoindian material and paucity of Dalton remains may in part reflect the effects of erosion and alluviation which have biased the archaeological record at Fort Leonard Wood in favor of more recent occupations. Geomorphological research at the base (Albertson 1995) suggests that sediments dating to the late Pleistocene and early Holocene are present and that deep testing at these locations in the future may assist in refining our knowledge of the earliest occupation of the Fort Leonard Wood area. In addition to the prehistoric material, 10 historic sites, both newly identified and previously recorded, were located within the three survey tracts. Except for a single site, all appear to represent rural residences and farm complexes which fall into either the renter or rural resident site class. The single exception is identified as a special purpose agricultural feature which corresponds to a point visible on aerial photographs demarcating the limits of a large cleared area, possibly a pasture. Examination of the sites and collected artifacts by historic archaeologist David Halpin, together with historic records, suggests that all of these historic sites represent concentrations of late nineteenth to early twentieth century occupations. Instances of unequivocal evidence for pre-Civil war occupations are lacking in the survey tracts, as are sites indicative of the repopulation of the area following the end of hostilities in 1865. One potential explanation for the lack of early post-Civil War components may be the continued use of the locales through time of purchase by the United States government in the 1940's. The long occupation of those locales may have destroyed features associated with early occupations as well as masked earlier artifacts assemblages with the dense concentrations of twentieth century artifacts common at many of these sites. Site Predictive Model Assessment As discussed in Chapter 3. a number of models predicting site densities and locations have been proposed for Fort Leonard Wood (e.g. Ahler and McDowell 1993; McNerney 1992; Moffat et al. 1989). Typically, these models have identified access to permanent sources of water as a primary determinant of both site location and site density. In these models, site locations were predicted to be most common within either .5 km or 1.6 km of a permanent water source. Recently, Ahler (1995) has completed a comprehensive analysis site location based on a number of variables. Using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) analysis of a suite of variables, Ahler (1995) has constructed preliminary models of site location for cairns, open-air sites, and enclosed sites (caves/rockshelters). Each model identifies particular variables that tend to correlate with human use (or non-use) of landforms. A visual model of site location probabilities, ranging from low to high potential, for each of these site types, was produced. GIS models such as this have widespread implications for both cultural resource management and settlement pattern research. 150 Temporal Change in Unweighted Frequencies of Prehistoric Sites, FLW (n-133) 35 30 20 10 Dailon Early Archaic Middle Archaic Late Arch/E Wood Period Middle Wood Late Wood Temporal Change in Weighted Frequencies of Prehistoric Sites Early Archaic Middle Wood Late Wood Figure 96. Temporal Change in Unweighted and Weighted Frequencies of Prehistoric Find Locations at Fort Leonard Wood. 151 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Models, as iterative constructs, are designed to be refined when additional data are available. A formal reevaluation of the prediction models for Fort Leonard Wood is beyond the scope of this project, but can be conducted by personnel with access to databases and GIS map layers from which the original models were created. In a more preliminary manner, the site location data for the newly surveyed tracts documented in this report can be used to evaluate the model of site location predictions constructed by Ahler (1995). All three survey areas are a mosaic of high, medium, and low probability areas for cairns, caves/rockshelters, and open-air prehistoric sites, each has a major waterway that traverses the survey tract: Roubidoux Creek adjacent to the South Roubidoux Creek and Cookville/EQR tracts and the Big Piney adjacent to the Big Piney Quarry tract. The proximity of these waterways yields zones of high to medium probability for all three prehistoric site types. In upland and secondary-tertiary stream settings, each present in the three survey tracts, site potential drops to medium to low. Newly recorded site locations were compared to the site probability maps generated by Ahler (1995). The locations of newly recorded cairns correspond closely to the areas identified as having high potential for this site type. All cairns located by this survey were found in a high probability area in the Cookville/EQR tract on the edge of a steep bluff overlooking a sharp bend in Roubidoux Creek. A much wider range of variability was found for prehistoric open-air sites, including both sites and isolated finds. Of all the newly identified prehistoric find locations identified by this survey, 28 can be associated with either high, medium, or low probability zones presented by Ahler (1995). Of these, 14 are found in areas of high probability, 1 1 in medium probability zones, and three in low probability zones. Collapsing medium and low probability sites into a single category, 50 percent of these locations are found in high probability zones. These figures are close to those reported by the previous Phase I survey of the base (Kreisa. McDowell et al. 1996) When analyzed by survey tract, a wide range of variation can be seen to exist. In the Big Piney Quarry and Cookville/EQR survey tracts, find locations were evenly split between high and medium probability zones. In the South Roubidoux Creek tract, six (50 percent) find locations fall within high probability zones, three (25 percent) in medium probability zones, and three (25 percent) in low probability zones. The southeast section of the South Roubidoux Creek tract falls primarily within a low probability zone, an area where site density dropped sharply. The general agreement between these findings and those reported by Kreisa. McDowell et al. (1996) suggests that the site predictive model presented by Ahler ( 1 995) allows for a relatively accurate prediction of site distributions. Summary The basic survey goals at Fort Leonard Wood are similar to those addressed in most compliance surveys. Survey data are collected to identify locations that were important to people in the past. The locations and the assemblages left behind at these locations provide insight as to why the location was important, what activities were carried out there, and when the activities were carried out. The basic themes fall into research areas of cultural chronology', settlement patterns, and settlement systems. This project has accomplished five goals. First, over 3,000 acres were inventoried, with 59 previously unrecorded sites and isolated finds identified and seven previously recorded sites relocated. Second, the site locational and artifact assemblage data from those sites have been used to characterize settlement patterns within the tracts investigated and to relate those patterns to a wider discussion of prehistoric and historic settlement in the Fort Leonard Wood area. Third, temporal data from the prehistoric and historic sites 152 Chapter 7: Discussion of Results investigated were discussed in terms of local chronology and culture history. Fourth, the newly identified site locations were compared with a GIS site locational model constructed for Fort Leonard Wood. The results suggest that the model is relatively robust for cairn sites, while deviations from the expected occur in some areas for prehistoric open-air sites. Fifth, the data as a whole have been used to provide NRHP recommendations for individual sites. A more detailed discussion of this process follows in Chapter 8. 153 CHAPTER 8. SITE EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The Phase I archaeological survey of 1,214 ha (3,009 acres) at Fort Leonard Wood resulted in documentation of 67 sites and isolated finds. This total includes eight previously recorded sites and 59 newly identified sites and isolated finds. These sites and isolated finds are located in all three of the survey tracts and are situated in different areas of the base. This chapter provides the rationale for the NRHP evaluations of the sites located during this project, a summary of those evaluations and recommendations for future archaeological investigations at these sites. A discussion of project metadata concludes this chapter. Site Evaluation Criteria The primary goal of this project was to locate sites and provide an evaluation of their eligibility for listing in the NRHP. The eligibility criteria for archaeological sites are described in 36CFR60. To be eligible, cultural resources must possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, feeling, and association. Typically, archaeological sites are evaluated under Criterion D, which indicates that to be eligible, a site must have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important to prehistory or history. Sites can be evaluated under this criterion at the local, regional, or national level of significance. Eligible sites, because of their significance, are managed to protect their integrity and preserve their information content for the future. The results of Phase I archaeological surveys most often produce one of two evaluations for particular sites: not eligible or potentially eligible for listing in the NRHP. Seldom is enough information obtained during a Phase I-level survey to yield an evaluation of eligibility for the NRHP, and such was the case during this project. These recommendations are then provided to state and federal historic preservation officials for official determinations of eligibility (Butler 1987). A determination of not eligible indicates the site is not afforded protection under cultural resource laws, and no further work need be done (Butler 1987). An evaluation of potentially eligible indicates that further work is needed, most often in the form of Phase II archaeological testing of the site, and that the site should be protected as though it is eligible. The aim of this additional work is to acquire information to make a determination of whether the site is eligible or ineligible for listing in the NRHP. Key criteria for making NRHP site evaluations are integrity, function, intensity, and rarity. Each criterion focuses on the likelihood of a site to provide information about the past. The greater the information potential, the greater the need for preservation or data recovery. Each site documented by this investigation was evaluated against these criteria, with a special emphasis placed on site integrity. These concepts were operationahzed slightly differently depending on site type. For the prehistoric open-air lithic scatters and cave/rockshelter sites, integrity of deposits, thickness of intact deposits, number of artifacts recovered from intact deposits, and the number of different artifact classes recovered, were all taken into account. In general, sites with intact deposits that yielded fairly sizeable and diverse artifact assemblages were deemed potentially eligible. Sites without intact deposits, with thin intact deposits, or with intact deposits that contained assemblages with few artifacts or low artifact diversity were generally considered not eligible. Prehistoric cairn sites were evaluated differently. These sites, representing loci of prehistoric burial and burial activity, have been heavily looted at Fort Leonard Wood. The extent of looting 155 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri at most cairns indicates that this is an endangered site type. Therefore, all cairns are viewed as potentially eligible, and intact cairns, if any are present on base, should be considered eligible. Aside from one site, only historic farmsteads and farm residences were identified during the present survey. The exception is an unidentified specialized agricultural feature (23PU705) in the South Roubidoux Creek Tract. Phase I evaluation of historic sites differs greatly from prehistoric sites in that other data besides integrity and artifact density and diversity are readily available to researchers. Among these are historic maps and the more specific temporal and functional parameters of artifacts. Taken together, these data provide a better understanding, at a Phase 1-level of investigation, of site function and span of occupation. Regarding the historic farmsteads/residences, site eligibility was determined based on two different sources of data. First, site integrity was necessary. At Fort Leonard Wood, this meant that the site lacked evidence of massive earthmoving and that remnants of structures, such as foundations, wells, cisterns, or structural depressions were present and appeared to be intact, based on surface observation. Subsurface data indicating potential midden or subsurface features also were considered. Second, the site had to date prior to the twentieth century, as based on historic maps or dating of artifact types. This general guideline was operationalized because standing, operational examples of farmsteads dating to early in the twentieth century are still extant in the immediate area surrounding Fort Leonard Wood. These extant examples offer a better opportunity to study a greater range of issues associated with northern Ozarks farmsteads, including the vernacular architecture, oral history, economy, and structural relationships of farms and farmsteads m the area. NRHP Eligibility Recommendations Using the above discussion as a guideline, 67 locations examined during this project have been evaluated for NRHP eligibility (Tables 14. 15, and 16). Twenty-two of the sites are recommended as potentially NRHP eligible, including eight from the Big Piney Quarry Tract (Table 14), six from the Cookville/EQR Tract (Table 15). and eight from the South Roubidoux Creek Tract (Table 16). Overall, this yields a rate of 32.8 percent of the investigated sites being recommended as potentially eligible. Two of the three tracts have approximately the same rate of sites identified as potentially eligible. Sixty-one percent of the Big Piney Quarry Tract sites are recommended as potentially eligible, while 33.3 percent of the sites from the Cookville/EQR Tract and 22.2 percent from the South Roubidoux Creek Tract are recommended as potentially eligible. Not all site types are recommended as potentially eligible at equal rates. All cairns and the single cave located are recommended as potentially eligible. Fifteen of 56 open-air prehistoric sites (26.7 percent) are recommended as potentially eligible. Four historic sites in the survey areas (23PU402, 23PU418, and 23PU512, 23PU524) have been recommended as potentially eligible. The low percentage of historic sites recommended as potentially eligible is due to lack of integrity and the twentieth century occupation of most of these sites. As stated in the site descriptions, extant examples of such sites are present in the Ozarks that can provide better data for questions of local and regional historic interest. While the remainder of the historic sites appear to represent twentieth century occupations it is recommended that additional documentation of well-preserved features at 23PU512 and 23PU402 be conducted. Further, the unique geographical setting and clustering of sites 23PU402, 23PU524 and 23PU680 is unusual for late historic sites 156 Table 14. Summary NRHP Recommendations for Sites and Isolated Finds in the Big Piney Quarry Tract Site Number AOS Number NRHP Evaluation Recommendation 23PU402 Previously Recorded Potentially Eligible Additional Archival Search 23PU524 Previously Recorded Potentially Eligible Additional Archival Search 23PU676 AOS 1 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU677 AOS 2 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU678 AOS 3 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU679 AOS 4 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU680 AOS 5 Potentially Eligible Additional Archival Search 23PU681 AOS 6 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU682 AOS 7 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU683 AOS 8 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU684 AOS 18 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU685 AOS 19 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation Isolate AOS 11 Not Eligible No Further Work Table 15. Summary NRHP Recommendations for Sites and Isolated Finds in the Cookville/EQR Tract. Site Number AOS Number NRHP Evaluation Recommendation 23PU418 Previouslv Recorded Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU511 Previously Recorded Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU512 Previously Recorded Potentially Eligible Additional Documentation 23PU686 AOS 20 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU687 AOS 21 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU688 AOS 24 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU689 AOS 25 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU690 AOS 26 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU691 AOS 27 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU692 AOS 28 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU693 AOS 29 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU694 AOS 30 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU695 AOS 32 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 9 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 10 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 12 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 22 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 23 Not Eligible No Further Work 157 Table 16. Summary NRHP Recommendations for Sites and Isolated Finds in the South Roubidoux Creek Tract. Site Number AOS Number NRHP Evaluation Recommendation 23PU207 Previously Recorded Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU245 Previously Recorded Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU513 Previously Recorded Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU696 AOS 16 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU697 AOS 17 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU698 AOS 33 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU699 AOS 34 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU700 AOS 35 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU701 AOS 38 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU702 AOS 39 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU703 AOS 43 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU704 AOS 44 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU705 AOS 46 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU706 AOS 48 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU707 AOS 49 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU708 AOS 50 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU709 AOS 51 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU710 AOS 52 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU711 AOS 54 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU712 AOS 57 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU713 AOS 58 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU714 AOS 60 Potentially Eligible Phase II Evaluation 23PU715 AOS 62 Not Eligible No Further Work 23PU716 AOS 63 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 14 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 37 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 40 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 41 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 42 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 45 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 47 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 53 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 55 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 56 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 59 Not Eligible No Further Work Isolate AOS 61 Not Eligible No Further Work 158 Chapter H: Site Evaluations ciikJ Recommendations in this area and it is suggested that additional archival research be conducted before a final evaluation of these sites is made. Fieldwork Recommendations All potentially NRHP-eligible sites are recommended for Phase II archaeological testing investigations in order to determine eligibility. Procedures considered critical to the evaluation of these sites include the documentation of topographic and stratigraphic site conditions as well as the collection of environmental, historical, functional, and temporal site data. Operationalizing these procedures would include the defmition of site boundaries, preparation of a site plan and topographic map, and the excavation of test units in an attempt to evaluate site integrity and determine period of occupation. Aside from these basic tasks, opportunities for the collection of unique sets of data exist at the four site types, cairns, caves\rockshelters, open-air prehistoric, and historic sites, located during the present survey and recommended as potentially eligible. As discussed earlier, cairns are a unique and sensitive site type at Fort Leonard Wood. Earlier investigations, along with looting, have established their role as mortuary facilities. Because of this, cairns have been subject to widespread looting, and few, if any, remain completely intact, although previous investigations (Niquette 1984; Niquette et al. 1983) have demonstrated that some structural integrity and human remains are present in some looted cairns. These two factors, association with human remains and impacts from looting, create special difficulties for NRHP evaluation and management of these sites. Phase II excavations of cairns would potentially yield human remains. Excavations would have to be coordinated with the Missouri SHPO and interested Native American tribal authorities. Investigations and artifact disposal would have to conform to Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) regulations. Alternatively, and more preferable, these sites could be determined eligible for the NRHP based on their unique characteristics. In that case. Phase II investigations should be confined to preparing a site plan and topographic map and a review of extant documentation of the site. The most economical method of nominating this site type would be through the Multiple Property Listing format of the NRHP. The cave and rockshelter sites at Fort Leonard Wood often possess unique attributes absent in the open- air prehistoric sites. Previous excavations at these sites have identified stratified deposits with well-preserved botanical and faunal assemblages Radiocarbon assays have been run on charcoal from the deposits, yielding important chronological data. Often. Late Woodland components containing ceramics are present at this site type. Few open-air sites have these attributes. Excavations should be conducted in such a manner to identify and sample potentially intact, stratified deposits. Phase II investigations at these sites should be designed to include the collection and analysis of botanical and faunal remains, and the assay of radiocarbon samples. Data from such excavations can be used to address research questions including assessing the local prehistoric chronology, site function, subsistence, season of occupation, environmental change, and relationships with nearby open-air sites. Open-air prehistoric sites are widely variable in size, density of artifacts, diversity of artifacts, depth of intact deposits, landscape position, and proximity to water, among other attributes. As such, it has been widely viewed that these open-air sites represent a number of different site types, from large base camps to smaller, seasonally occupied field camps to single occupations. As such, no single strategy for investigation can be offered here. Instead, it should be emphasized that a sample of this wide range of variability needs to be gathered in order to collect data on all site types associated with prehistoric settlement systems. Aside 159 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri from reemphasizing the need to conduct those basic tasks discussed above, specific research designs should be formulated based on the unique characteristics of each open-air site to be investigated. Finally, Phase II investigations at historic sites can be oriented towards testing the Upland South model of site location and function proposed by Smith (1993). Phase II investigations should include attempts to determine chronological placement, the nature of the occupation (i.e., whether single or multiple component), and the function of the site in the local settlement system. Prior to any fieldwork, a thorough documentary review should be conducted. This should include a review of available historic maps, aerial photographs, and minimally census and title records. Effort also should be expended to determine whether additional records concerning the occupation of the site are available. Fieldwork should be designed to identify potential subsurface features. This could include the excavation of close-interval shovel probes in a grid pattern or the opportunistic excavation of shovel probes based on the location of above ground structural features. Finally, test units should be placed to investigate subsurface and surface features, if located. Recovery of artifacts from features, in conjunction with historical documentation, will generate Phase II data by which to evaluate the Upland South model proposed by Smith (1993), among other research issues. One factor that must be considered in the recommendations presented here is that all sites recommended as potentially eligible should be treated as though they are eligible until Phase II investigations have been completed. This means that each of these locations must be managed to insure that the integrity of the site is not compromised. Mechanisms need to be established to keep these locations from being impacted by earth-disturbing activities associated with the training mission of Fort Leonard Wood and with illegal looting activities. Overall, the best strategy is to test sites as quickly as possible to clearly identify those sites in need of long-term management. Bias Assessment and Metadata The Federal Government has long been involved in conducting archaeological research to protect and preserve the heritage of the United States. Over time the process of procuring archaeological research services has become more structured with defined expectations on how the research should be done, what kinds of data should be collected, and what the expected outcome of the research will be. However, the variable nature of the archaeological record makes highly rigid contract specifications impractical. Contracts need to provide researchers with flexibility to adjust to variable field conditions in order to adequately address, evaluate, and document the cultural resource base. The need for flexibility and for control of the overall research process has created a paradox of how to identify and manage significant sites in a cost effective manner. To address this question the Department of the Army sponsored a study through the Legacy Resource Management Program with the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratories to examine survey standards and develop improved cost-estimation procedures. One outcome of the study was a set of recommendations directed at standardizing the approach, reporting, and contracting procedures for archaeological surveys (Zeidler 1995). Central to this report was the call for reporting of data about data or metadata. The metadata concept seeks to provide relevant information on physical variables and levels of effort needed to complete the data collection and reporting tasks. These metadata document how the data were obtained. Areas specified as important to Federal Managers mclude the need for explicit site definitions, discussions of methodological biases, the impact of biases on results, and the level of effort needed to accomplish project tasks. The ultimate goal is to provide managers with tools to better evaluate and compare results and to develop future scopes of work. This appendix provides a bias assessment and field metadata for a Phase I archaeological survey at Fort Leonard Wood. 160 Chapter 8: Site Evaluations and Recommendations Project Parameters The research project involved the survey of 3,009 acres in three distinct survey tracts at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. The three survey tracts were the South Roubidoux Creek Survey Tract (1,816 acres), the Big Piney Quarry Survey Tract (613 acres), and the Cookville/EQR Survey Tract (580 acres). Research conducted included archival, field, and laboratory components. The principal research technique was the excavation of screened posthole tests at 20-m intervals across the survey tracts where surface visibility was less than 30 percent or where slopes were less than 20 percent. The objective was to locate and report archaeological sites. The operational definition of a site was locations were three or more artifacts occurred within a 20-m diameter. Locations with cultural material falling below the site threshold criteria were recorded as isolated finds. The project ran for one year between February 1996 and February 1997. Level of Field Effort The Phase I Archaeological Survey of 3,009 acres at Fort Leonard Wood in 1996 included a four step process from project initiation to project conclusion. The first step in the project was to become familiar with the nature of the project and the study areas. This step of the project included a records review and the preparation of a research design. The second step was to conduct the field investigations. Field investigations were conducted between March and September 1996. The third step was to process and analyze the field materials. The final step was to prepare a report of the project findings. The four steps were generally sequential, but some activities were done concurrently by different project personnel. As specified in the Statement of Work for this project, the level of field effort has been tabulated by person-days (P.D.) per unit surveyed. As defined here, a person-day equals eight paid work hours. Field efforts have been compiled for each of the three project survey tracts (Table 1 7). Tabulated field hours include the total number of research hours expended at Fort Leonard Wood. This tabulation includes actual field time and time spent traveling to and from survey locations. Travel time between the University of Illinois and Fort Leonard Wood has not been included. . A number of factors need to be considered when evaluating these data. The amount of time needed to complete each survey tract varies based on field and logistical conditions. Field condition variables that impacted the amount of time needed to complete each acre of survey included surface visibility, slope, type of vegetation cover, past ground disturbance, and depositional history. All three of the survey tracts examined included locations requiring minimal field efforts and those requiring extensive efforts. It is the composite conditions of the entire survey tract that is characterized by these data rather than specific field conditions. Field conditions, for instance, that created a reduced level of effort occurred in the Big Piney Quarry tract where past quarry activities resulted in a large area with minimal documentation needs. Alternatively, added field efforts were required to address buried deposits in both the South Roubidoux and Big Piney Quarry tracts. Similarly, logistical variables that impacted the level of effort included location 161 Table 17. Level of Field Effort Metadata. Survey Tract Area (acres) Hours Person Days Acres/Person Day South Roubidoux Creek 1,816 923 115 15.8 Big Piney Quarry 613 215 27 22.8 Cookville/EQR 580 407 51 11.4 Total 3,009 1.545 193 15.6 of the tract on the base, the condition of roads within the survey tract, and the accessibility of the areas based on safety and military training concerns. Unique logistical conditions that reduced the level of effort in the Big Piney Quarry tract included the presence of excellent roads close to all survey locations. The opposite was true in the South Roubidoux Creek tract, where road access was limited and long hikes to survey locations were needed. The South Roubidoux Creek tract also was particularly time consuming because military training precluded access and prompted several revisits. All three tracts were equally affected by the heavy, thick vegetation present in the survey tracts during the late spring/summer field season and by occasional thunderstorms. It should be noted that the best ratio of acres surveyed per person day occurred in the Big Piney Quarry tract which was surveyed first when the vegetation was least dense. Previous surveys at Fort Leonard Wood have indicated optimal survey conditions occur in the late fall and winter months. The data presented above also supports that contention. One additional factor that can impact the level of effort per unit of survey is the recovery rate of archaeological sites. Each archaeological site and isolated fmd requires more research effort per unit of space than do non-archaeological units of space. The impact of site and isolated find recovery rates are listed in Table 18. The fewest remains were documented in the Big Piney Quarry tract and it also required the least number of personnel hours. The data indicates less time was required to examine areas with the fewest archaeological remains. Interestingly, this relationship also resulted in the highest site recovery rate per person day. However, this result is deceptive. Site recovery rates involve a complex relationship between search techniques employed and the patterning of archaeological resources. These data are insufficient for teasing apart the effects of site density from the effects of physiographic conditions on level of effort expended in each survey tract. Bias Assessment Survey tracts at Fort Leonard Wood generally lack surface visibility conditions that would allow for the effective use of visual pedestrian reconnaissance. Visual techniques were employed for road cuts, bluff edges, steep slopes, and ravines, but these areas represent a small fraction of the total survey area. Despite limited high visibility locations, a number of sites were exclusively documented in road cuts where no subsurface finds were located. The extensive vegetation effectively precluded non-invasive survey techniques to locate sites. The principal survey technique was 20-m interval screened posthole tests. This particular research method is effective at locating archaeological sites and documenting depositional site conditions. The method does have inherent biases. A spacmg interval of 20-m reduces the likelihood that 162 Table 18. Find Location Metadata. Number of Sites Located/ Number of Isolates Located/ Survey Tract Sites Located Person Day Isolates Located Person Day South Roubidoux Creek 24 0.21 12 0.10 Big Piney Quarry 12 0.45 1 0.04 Cookville/EQR 13 0.26 5 0.10 Total/Average 49 0.36 18 0.09 small archaeological sites, those with a diameter of less than 20-m, will be encountered by this technique. Additionally, the reliance on subsurface screened data for site detection favors the discovery of sites with dense material remains spread over a wide area. Sites with low artifact densities or with very patchy areas with high densities are less likely to be detected. The overall site search pattern also favors the detection of sites with above ground features. The 20-m interval spacing is effective at the discovery of above ground anomalies. However, this statement is more accurate during the winter months than it is in the summer months. There are numerous locations at Fort Leonard Wood where surveyors can not see each other at 20-m intervals. It is, therefore, likely that above ground features can be missed as a result of dense vegetation. These particular biases favor the detection of sites with large surface areas, dense material debris, and above ground features. Sites lacking these attributes are also discovered by this technique, but there is an increased likelihood that others were missed. Overall, the systematic methods applied to this investigation is best suited to the recovery of large sites with high density debris scatters. Extremely small sites or very low material densitv sites are less likelv to be discovered. Conclusion This survey documented 67 sites and isolated finds in three survey tracts at Fort Leonard Wood. Twenty-two of these are sites recommended as potentially eligible for the NRHP, and Phase II archaeological evaluation should be conducted for a final determination. Until and upon concurrence by the SHPO that the sites are potentially eligible. Fort Leonard Wood is required to treat these sites as eligible until an NRHP determination is made. Monitoring is needed to prevent adverse impacts to these sites from military training, logging operations and public recreation. Phase II testing of the sites may reduce the number that will need to be managed and protected. Ultimately the data recovered by Phase II testing of these sites will yield information of importance to the understanding of the prehistory and history of the Fort Leonard Wood area. 163 REFERENCES CITED Ahler, Steven R. 1984 Archaic Settlement Strategies in the Modoc Locality, Southwest Illinois. 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United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service 1 975 Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. Handbook No. 436. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Verstraten, J. M., and J. Sevink 1979 Clay Soils on Limestone in South Limburg, the Netherlands, 3. Soil Formation. Geoderma 21:281-295. Voigt, Eric E. 1982 Late Woodland Subsistence at 23MS12: Prehistoric Environment and Agriculture in the Ozark Highland. In The Feeler Site, 23MSJ2: A Multi-Component Site in the Central Gasconade Drainage, vol. 2, edited by Robert L. Reeder, pp. 23-113. American Archaeology Division, University of Missouri, Columbia. Submitted to the Missouri Highway and Transportation Department. Copies available from the American Archaeology Division, University of Missouri, Columbia. 179 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP A cres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Warren, Robert E. 1982 Prehistoric Settlement Patterns. In The Cannon River Human Ecology Project: An Archaeological Study of Cultural Adaptations in the Southern Prairie Peninsula, edited by Michael J. O'Brien, Robert E. Warren and Dennis E. Lewarch, pp. 335-368. Academic Press, New York. Waters, Michael R. and David D. Kuehn 1996 The Geoarchaeology of Place: The Effect of Geological Processes on the Preservation and Interpretation of the Archaeological Record. American Antiquity 61 :483-497 . Weaver, David C, and James F. Doster 1 982 Historical Geography of the Upper Tombigbee Valley. Center for the Study of Southern History and Culture, University of Alabama, University. Submitted to the National Park Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Wendland, Wayne M. 1978 Holocene Man in North America: The Ecological Setting and Climatic Background. Plains Anthropologist 23:273-287. Wessel, Greg 1974 Recent Excavations at Shallow Cave (23PH148): A Preliminary Report. Central States Archaeological Journal 2 1 : 120-126. Weston, Donald E., and Michael S. Weichman (editors) 1987 Master Plan for Archaeological Resource Protection in Missouri. Prepared for Division of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, under the direction of the Historic Kansas City Foundation. Archaeological Associates and Environmental Systems Analysis. Kansas City. Copies available from the State Historic Preservation Office, Jefferson City, Missouri. Whitefield, J. W. 1989 Physiography and Geology. In Soil Survey of Pulaski County, Missouri, by David W. Wolf, pp. 71-72. United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Williams, J. H, and J. C. Maxwell 1975 Classification of Surficial Materials. In Quaternary Paleoenvironmental History of Western Missouri Ozarks, pp. 55-63. Field Guide for the 23rd Annual Meeting Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene. Wolf, David W. 1989 Soil Survey of Pulaski County, Missouri. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC. 180 References ( 'lied Wnght, Christopher A. 1 987 Part C: Cultural Units. In Master Plan for Archaeological Resource Protection in Missouri, edited by Donald E. Weston and Michael S. Weichman. Prepared for Division of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, under the direction of the Historic Kansas City Foundation. Archaeological Associates and Environmental Systems Analysis, Kansas City. Copies available from the State Historic Preservation Office, Jefferson City, Missouri. Zeidler, James A. 1 995 Archaeological Inventory Survey Standards and Cost-Estimation Guidelines for the Department of Defense. Special Report 95/Draft. United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois. Zelinsky, Wilbur 1 95 1 Where the South Begins, The Northern Limits of the Appalachian South in Terms of Settlement Landscapes. Social Forces 30:172-178. Zurel, R. L. 1979 Brief Comments Regarding the Nature of Fire Cracked Rock on Aboriginal Sites in the Great Lakes Area. Working Papers in Archaeology No. 3. Laboratory of Anthropology, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan. 1 982 An Additional Note on the Nature of FCR. Paper presented and distributed at the October 9, 1 982 Conference on Michigan Archaeology. 181 APPENDIX A: ARTIFACT INVENTORY 183 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) 23PV207 Bag# 330, Surface 23PU512 Bag# 229 23PU513 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole2, 0-10cm Posthole 2, 10-20cm Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Posthole 3, 10-20cm Posthole 5, level 1 Posthole 6, 0-1 0cm Posthole 7, 10-20cm 23PU676 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Posthole l,20-30cm Posthole l,30-35cm Posthole NB-2, 10-20cm Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Posthole EB-4, 10-20cm Posthole 5, 0-1 0cm Bipolar Flake Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Blade Block Shatter Prehistoric Ceramic Bone Shell Refined Ceramic Refined Ceramic Historic Glass Historic Glass Secondary Flake Historic Metal Broken Flake Refined Ceramic Historic Glass Refined Ceramic Historic Metal Historic Glass Historic Brick Tertiary Flake Refined Ceramic Secondary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Biface Fragment Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Block Shatter (1) 16.9 2 4.3 3 10.1 1 7.1 2 3.0 3 41.2 1 8.6 1 14.4 4 1 3 1 2 2 3 6 4 3 1 1 1 2 NA NA NA NA 0.2 2.5 1.5 2.0 5.6 NA NA NA NA 0.4 NA 2.9 1.2 1.8 1.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 1.8 9.3 0.6 2.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 1.9 184 Appendix A Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole5, 0-10cm 23PU677 Bag*9, 0-1 Ocm Bag* 10, 10-20cm Bag*ll,0-10cm Bag* 12, 10-20cm Bag* 13, 0-1 Ocm Bag* 14, 10-20cm Bag* 15, 20-3 Ocm Posthole4, 10-20cm Posthole5, 10-20cm Posthole6, 15-20cm Bag* 19 Bag*20, 10-20cm Bag*21,20-30cm 23PU678 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole2, 0-10cm Posthole 3, 10-20cm Posthole 4, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 4, 10-20cm Posthole 5, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 7, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 7, 10-20cm Posthole 8, 10-20cm Unifacial End Scraper Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Bipolar Core Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Broken Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Block Shatter Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake 2.8 1 0.5 1 0.8 1 0.8 6 3.2 1 0.2 4 3.4 1 0.9 3 4.7 2 0.5 1 0.3 4 1.0 3 0.4 3 4.5 3 0.3 7 1.8 3 1.5 1 NA 1 1.1 2 0.4 1 16.2 7 1.6 1 0.1 5 3.1 2 1.4 3 0.4 4 0.7 4 4.3 3 0.5 4 3.9 1 0.2 1 1.9 2 0.7 1 0.2 1 3.7 1 3.1 1 0.4 2 2.2 1 0.3 2 0.4 1 0.7 185 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP A cres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Broken Flake 2.4 Posthole 10, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 0.3 Posthole 11, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 0.4 Posthole 12, 10-20cm Broken Flake 2 0.3 Posthole 12, 20-30cm Tertiary Flake 0.2 Posthole 13, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 1.3 Posthole 13, 10-20cm Broken Flake 4 7.0 Posthole 14, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 0.4 Posthole 14, 10-20cm Blade 1.3 23PU679 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Blade 2.6 Bag#4, 0-1 0cm Blade 2.4 Block Shatter 1.6 23PU681 Surface Tertiary Flake 12 16.3 Broken Flake 9 6.5 Block Shatter 1 19.3 T5 Surface Secondary Flake 1 0.1 23PU682 Bag#43, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.3 Broken Flake 1 1.0 Posthole 2, C )-10cm Broken Flake 1 0.3 Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 1 0.2 23PU683 Surface Piano-Convex Core 2 190.7 Multi-Directional Core 1 51.0 Secondary Flake 1 5.4 Tertiary Flake 8 25.8 Broken Flake 4 5.3 Blade 2 4.0 Block Shatter 1 8.1 T4 Hafted Biface 2 12.3 A.T.I, 120-130cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.5 T4, lm bs Tertiary Flake 1 2.2 23PU684 Surface Tertiary Flake 1 0.1 Block Shatter 1 0.8 Unknown Biface 1 0.4 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 <1 186 Xppendix A Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) 23PU685 Surface Broken Flake 0.6 Unknown Biface 13.9 Posthole l,30-40cm Broken Flake 1.7 Posthole3, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 0.8 Broken Flake 0.2 Posthole 3, 20-30cm Broken Flake 0.2 Posthole 4, 10-20cm Broken Flake 3.8 Block Shatter 7.5 Posthole 5, 10-20cm Broken Flake 3 16.2 23PU686 Surface Tertiary Flake 1 0.5 Broken Flakes 3 4.2 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2 0.2 23PV687 Surface Core 1 18.4 Secondary Flake 1 4.9 Tertiary Flake 5 9.0 Broken Flake 3 33.2 Blade 1 1.1 Block Shatter 1 176.5 Nonhafted Biface 1 145.4 Unknown Biface 1 9.2 23PU690 Surface Tertiary Flake 1 14.6 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 3.5 23PV691 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Broken Flake 2 1.0 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Broken Flake 1 0.5 Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 3.0 Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 1 0.1 Posthole 3, 10-20cm Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 0.4 Broken Flake 1 0.2 Block Shatter 1 13.2 Posthole 4, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 1 0.9 23PU692 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2 0.4 Posthole 2, 10-20cm Block Shatter 1 6.3 187 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) 23PU693 Posthole 1. ,0-1 0cm Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 1. , 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Posthole 1. , 20-3 0cm Tertiary Flake - Broken Flake Posthole 1. 30-40cm Secondary Flake Posthole 2. 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake Posthole 2. 10-20cm Broken Flake Posthole 3. 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Posthole 3, 20-30cm Broken Flake Posthole 4, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake Posthole 4. 10-20cm Broken Flake Posthole 5. 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 6, 0-1 0cm Secondary Flakes 23PU694 Posthole 1, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Block Shatter Posthole 2. 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake Posthole 3, 10-20cm Broken Flake 23PU695 Bag#201, Surface Core Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Unknown Biface Bag* 202, Surface Primary Flake Tertian Flake Broken Flake Nonhafted Biface Unknown Biface Bag# 203, Surface Unknown Biface 23PU696 Posthole 1, 25-30cm Primary Flake Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.1 1 0.4 3 0.4 1 0.1 2 0.3 1 4.5 1 0.2 2 1.5 1 4.4 3 0.4 1 0.4 2 0.3 2 0.5 1 0.2 3 0.4 3 1.2 1 0.1 3 6.4 1 0.4 1 1.9 1 0.2 1 0.9 1 0.1 1 49.5 1 9.2 3 11.5 6 14.1 5 84.5 1 18.2 3 14.6 6 12.2 1 39.6 1 2.9 1 2.8 1 0.9 2 0.8 1 0.2 188 Appendix A: Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Coun t Weight (g) Posthole4, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake \ I 0.4 Posthole5, 0-10cm Tertiary Flake I 0.2 Posthole6, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake '. J 0.8 Posthole7, 0-10cm Tertiary Flake I 0.1 Posthole 8, 20-30cm Core I 18.3 Broken Flake \ I 0.7 Posthole9, 0-10cm Tertiary Flake I 0.2 Posthole 10, 10-20cm Broken Flake I 0.1 Posthole 11, 0-1 0cm Block Shatter I 1.1 Posthole 12, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake \ > 1.1 Posthole 13, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake I 0.3 Posthole 14, 20-3 0cm Tertiary Flake I 0.4 Broken Flake I 0.1 Posthole 15, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake j I 0.1 Blade ] I 0.3 Uniface t 4.0 Posthole 16, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake \ > 3.2 Posthole 16, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake I 0.2 Broken Flake 1 0.2 Posthole 17, 10-20cm Block Shatter I 0.8 Posthole 18, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 I 3.1 Posthole 18, 10-20cm Broken Flake [ 0.3 Posthole 19, 15-20cm Tertiary Flake [ 8.1 Block Shatter t 9.6 Posthole 20, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake [ 0.1 Block Shatter i 1.1 Posthole 21, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 2 ! 0.8 Posthole 21, 10-20cm Secondary Flake 1.6 Broken Flake 0.1 Posthole 22, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 0.1 Broken Flake 0.4 Posthole 22, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2.1 Posthole 23, 0-1 0cm Block Shatter 2.1 Posthole 23, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 0.2 Posthole 24, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake t i 2.5 Broken Flake ] 0.2 Nonhafted Biface ] 27.1 Posthole 24, 20-3 0cm Broken Flake ] 0.2 Posthole 25, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.2 Broken Flake ] 0.6 Posthole 26, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake ] 0.3 Posthole 26, 10-20cm Broken Flake 3 0.5 Posthole 27, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake ] 0.5 Block Shatter ] 4.4 Posthole 27, 10-20cm Broken Flake 1.4 189 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Wei ght fa ) Block Shatter 1 0.6 Posthole 27, 20-30cm Tertiary Flake 1 <1 Broken Flake 2 2.0 Posthole 27, 30-40cm Broken Flake 1 0.1 Posthole 28, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 5 2.5 Posthole 29, 10-20cm Unknown Biface 1 12.2 Bag# 98, Surface Broken Flake 2 0.6 23PU697 Bag# 99, Surface Tertiary Flake 1 0.5 Broken Flake 1 0.3 Bag# 100, Surface Core 1 52.1 Tertiary Flake 12 17.9 Broken Flake 17 23.1 Blade 1 0.1 Bipolar Flake 1 2.7 Posthole l,20-30cm Unknown Biface 1 10.2 Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 1 0.1 Broken Flake 1 0.1 Posthole 3, 20-3 Ocm Broken Flake 2 0.2 Posthole 5, 15 -20cm Tertiary Flake 2 0.7 Broken Flake 2 1.3 Posthole 6, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake 1 0.6 Block Shatter 1 0.3 Posthole 6, 10-20 cm Broken Flakes 3 2.2 Block Shatter 1 0.3 Posthole 7, 0-1 5cm Broken Flake 2 1.6 Posthole 7, 15-25cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.7 Posthole 8, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2 8.8 Posthole 9, 0-1 Ocm Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 1.1 Posthole 9, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 <1.0 Posthole 9, 30-40cm Tertiary Flake 1 2.3 Posthole 10. 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 1 0.2 Broken Flake 3 0.7 Posthole 10, 10-20cm Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 1.0 Posthole 10, 20-30cm Secondary Flake 1 0.5 Broken Flake 2 0.2 Posthole 10, 30-40cm Tertiary Flake 4 0.7 Broken Flake 2 0.1 Posthole 11, 15 -20cm Broken Flake 4 0.3 Block Shatter 1 0.9 Posthole 12, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake 1 0.2 Posthole 12, 10-20cm Broken Flake 2 1.7 Posthole 13, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 1 <1 Posthole 13, 10-20cm Broken Flake 2 0.2 190 Appendix A Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole 14, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 14, 10-20cm Posthole 14, 30-40cm Posthole 14, 40-50cm Posthole 15, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 15, 10-20cm Posthole 16, 10-20cm Posthole 17, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 17, 10-20cm Posthole 17, 20-30cm Posthole 18, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 18, 10-20cm Posthole 19, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 20, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 20, 20-30cm Posthole 20, 30-40cm Posthole 21, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 21, 10-20cm Posthole 21, 20-30cm Posthole 21, 30-40cm Blade Blade Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake Block Shatter Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Fire-cracked Rock Tertiary Flakes Broken Flakes Blades Block Shatter Blades Fire-cracked Rock Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Blade Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Block Shatter Core Secondary Flake Broken Flake Primary Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 9 1 3 5 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 7 2 5 4 1 3 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.1 1.8 0.3 0.7 0.6 2.6 4.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 12.3 1.1 3.4 5.0 5.2 0.7 2.8 0.1 0.7 2.0 7.8 0.2 0.8 1.6 13.4 <1 1.8 0.1 2.6 1.1 0.2 0.3 3.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.5 11.6 1.7 0.5 0.3 0.6 1.5 191 Phase I Survey of 3,000 Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole22, 10-20cm Broken Flake Blade Posthole 22, 20-3 Ocm Core Broken Flake Posthole 22, 30-40cm Broken Flake Posthole 23, 0-1 Ocm Secondary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 23, 10-20cm Broken Flake Posthole 23, 30-40cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 24, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 24, 20-30cm Broken Flake Posthole 25, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Blade Block Shatter Posthole 25, 20-30cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 26, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 26, 20-30cm Broken Flake Posthole 27, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 27, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 28, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 29, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake Posthole 29, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake 23PU698 Posthole 1, 5- 15cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Posthole 2, 5- 10cm Broken Flake Posthole 3, 0-5cm Broken Flake Posthole 4, 5- 10cm Block Shatter 23PU699 Surface Broken Flake Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake Posthole 1, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake Broken Flake 3.5 0.2 1.1 1.9 0.8 8.5 1.6 1.0 0.9 <1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 <1 1.3 1.2 1.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.2 2.7 1.3 0.7 0.4 1.3 2.3 0.1 <1 3.5 2.6 0.1 0.2 5.5 3.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 192 Appendix A: Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) PosthoIe2, 10-20cm Broken Flake 1 0.2 23PU700 Surface Tertiary Flake 3 10.0 Bifacial Thinning Flake 1 5.5 Broken Flake 10 6.9 Block Shatter 1 0.2 Nonhafted Biface 2 11.6 Posthole 1, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 1 0.4 Posthole2, 10-20cm Block Shatter 1 5.4 23PU701 Bag# 216, Surface Core 1 115.6 Primary Flake 1 6.7 Tertiary Flake 11 18.0 Broken Flake 5 3.1 Nonhafted Biface 2 121.6 23PU702 Bag# 217, Surface Tertiary Flake 3 8.0 23PU703 Bag# 221, Surface Tertiary Flake 2 1.7 Broken Flake 4 2.4 Unknown Biface 1 4.2 23PU704 Surface Tertiary Flake 1 1.8 Broken Flake 1 0.3 Blade 2 1.6 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Broken Flake 1 0.2 Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake 1 3.1 23PU705 Posthole 1,2- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 7.6 Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake 2 0.3 23PU706 Surface Secondary Flake 1 1.4 Tertiary Flake 2 5.5 Broken Flake 4 1.6 Block Shatter 4 10.1 Nonhafted Biface 1 3.1 Posthole 1,0- 15cm Broken Flake 1 1.3 Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Bipolar Flake 1 4.5 193 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole 3, 10-20cm Broken Flake 1 0.8 Posthole4, 0-1 2cm Secondary Flake 1 10.0 Posthole 5, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.4 23PU707 Surface Core 1 20.6 Primary Flake 4(1) 27.2 Secondary Flake 22 145.9 - Tertiary Flake 26(1) 44.4 Bifacial Thinning Flake 3 3.7 Broken Flake 29(2) 40.3 Blade 1 3.4 Block Shatter 11 25.3 Hafted Biface 1 5.5 Nonhafted Biface 6 44.2 Bipolar Flake 5 52.4 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.5 Posthole l,30-40cm Broken Flake 2 5.5 Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 1.2 Broken Flake 1 2.4 Posthole 2, 10-25cm Broken Flake 1 0.1 23PU708 Posthole 1, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 2 0.3 Broken Flake 1 0.5 Posthole 1, 10-20cm Broken Flake 1 0.2 Posthole 2, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 1.8 Posthole 2, 20-30cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.1 Broken Flake 1 0.1 Posthole 3, Level 3 Broken Flake 2 4.3 23PU709 Surface Refined Ceramic 1 NA Historic Metal 2 NA Plastic Button 1 NA Posthole 1, 10-20cm Refined Ceramic 2 NA Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Refined Ceramic 1 NA Historic Metal 2 NA Posthole 3, 15 -20cm Refined Ceramic 1 NA Posthole 3, 10-25cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.6 23PU710 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Primary Flake 1 24.8 Posthole 2, 10-20cm Secondary Flake 1 0.2 194 Appendix A Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole3,0-10cm Tertiary Flake 4 0.2 23PU711 Posthole l,0-20cm Broken Flake 0.1 Posthole2, 0-10cm Tertiary Flake 0.2 Posthole 3, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2.2 Posthole 3, 20-30cm Broken Flake 0.4 Posthole 4, 20-30cm Broken Flake 0.3 Posthole 5, 0-1 0cm Secondary Flake 0.3 Posthole 5, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 2 0.3 Posthole 6, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake <1 Posthole 6, 20-25cm Tertiary Flake 0.2 Posthole 7, 10-20cm Broken Flake 0.9 Block Shatter 1.1 Posthole 8, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 0.4 Posthole 8, 10-20cm Broken Flake 0.6 Block Shatter 1.7 23PU712 Surface Primary Flake 1 12.3 Secondary Flake 2 2.2 Tertiary Flake 23 55.5 Bifacial Thinning Flake 3 3.7 Broken Flake 64 102.1 Block Shatter 2 11.5 Nonhafted Biface 6 64.0 Refined Ceramic 2 NA Historic Glass 3 NA Posthole 1,0- 10cm Broken Flake 2 0.7 Posthole 2, 0-1 5cm Broken Flake 1 0.4 Unknown Biface 1 2.4 Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.2 Broken Flake 1 0.1 Posthole 4, 0-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 1.3 Broken Flake 2 0.7 Refined Ceramic 1 NA Posthole 5, 0-1 0cm Tertiary Flake 3 9.9 Broken Flake 1 3.3 Posthole 6, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 3 2.9 Posthole 6, 10-20cm Broken Flake 4 1.1 Posthole 7, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake 2 0.2 Posthole 7, 10-20cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.4 Broken Flake 4 1.8 195 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) Posthole8, 0-10cm Posthole8, 10-20cm Posthole 8, 20-30cm Posthole 8, 30-40cm Posthole 9, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 10, Surface Posthole 10, 10-20cm Posthole 11, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 12, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 12, 10-20cm Posthole 12, 20-30cm Posthole 13, 10-20cm PostJiole 14, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 15, 10-15cm Posthole 16, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 17, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake Block Shatter Historic Metal Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Tertiary Flake Historic Metal Broken Flake Refined Ceramic Tertiary Flake Secondary Flake Broken Flake Refined Ceramic Broken Flake Refined Ceramic Historic Metal Historic Metal Hafted Biface Historic Glass Historic Metal Historic Metal Block Shatter Historic Glass 2.5 2.0 NA 3.1 1.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 1.4 1.2 NA 0.2 NA <1 1.2 1.5 NA 0.2 NA NA NA 7.7 NA NA NA 9.7 4.3 23PU713 Bag# 299, Surface Tertiary Flake Broken Flake 0.6 0.5 23PU714 Surface Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 2, 10-20cm Posthole 3, 10-20cm Posthole 4, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 5, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake Broken Flake Block Shatter Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake 4.9 0.6 6.4 5.4 0.3 1.5 2.0 0.2 1.5 23PU715 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Broken Flake 1.0 196 Appendix A : Artifact Inventory Provenience Artifact Category' Count Weight (g) Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 3, 0-1 0cm Posthole 4, 0-1 Ocm Posthole 4, 10-20cm Posthole 5, 0-10cm Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake Bifacial Thinning Flake Block Shatter Tertiary Flake Broken Flake 1 1 1 1 2 1 23PU716 Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole 1, 10-20cm Posthole 2, 10-20cm Primary Flake Tertiary Flake Broken Flake Broken Flake 1 1 1 1 A OS 9 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole 2, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake Tertiary Flake 1 1 AOS 10 (IF) Posthole l,0-20cm Tertiary Flake 2 AOS 11 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole 2, 10-20cm Broken Flake Tertiary Flake 1 1 AOS 12 (IF) Bag* 55, 0-1 Ocm Broken Flake 1 AOS 14 (IF) Bag* 57, 0-1 Ocm Secondary Flake 1 AOS 22 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Unknown Biface 1 AOS 23 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Broken Flake 2 AOS 37 (IF) Bag* 215, Surface Tertiary Flake 1 AOS 40 (IF) Bag* 218, 0-1 Ocm Tertiary Flake 1 AOS 41 (IF) Bag* 219, Surface Hafted Biface 1 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 1.9 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.5 2.5 5.4 0.8 0.2 0.4 7.0 10.2 0.8 20.0 0.1 12.2 197 Phase I Survey of 3, OOP Acres at Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri Provenience Artifact Category Count Weight (g) AOS42(IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 12.0 AOS45(IF) Bag# 224, Surface Core 1 121.4 AOS47(IF) Bag# 230, Surface Nonhafted Biface 1 9.8 AOS 53 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 0.2 AOS 55 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Tertiary Flake 1 16.6 AOS 56 (IF) Bag# 270, Surface Hafted Biface Unknown Biface 1 9.1. 1 43.1 AOS 59 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Nonhafted Biface 1 40.8 A OS 61 (IF) Posthole 1,0- 10cm Posthole 2, 0-1 0cm Broken Flake Tertiary Flake 1 2.3 1 0.2 198 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 032726124