UNIVLRSil V OF ILLINO'"" ' iBRARY URBANAChAMPAlGN STACKS The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN SEP 0 4 1986 L161— O-1096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/publicschoollatiOOkenn_0 LATIN GRAMMAR. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS BY BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D. Nihil ex grammatica nocuerit nisi quod supervacuum est ; neque enim obstant hae disciplinse per illas euntibus, sed circa illas haerentibus. QuiNTiL. Inst. Orat. lib. i. cap. iv. NINTH IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1900 PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. § I. By an agreement between the Proprietors and Mr. John Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is arranged that the ^Public School Latin Grammar,' with the books akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and, in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known. Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement of these books, as means of public instruction, could not be placed in safer keeping. § 2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in January 187 1, was introduced by the following Preface : — ' The " Public School Latin Grammar is simply a develop- ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those, who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does not appear at all. DO vi Preface. ' Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus- tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students, who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac- tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power; but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin, which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following pages. ^At the present time, when the science of Comparative Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars know far more of the history and organism of the Latin lan- guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians, the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference to the facts and principles of that science, would be a retro- gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is, to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc- tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to observe ; but he may venture to say that he has not strayed from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the most important affinities between Latin and other Aryan languages and dialects ; but only with a view to point the path of future study, not to furnish the student with a sufficient knowledge of the several subjects there noticed.' 3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to the Second Edition, published in 1874 : — ^ Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the same sense as the Primer and other lesson-books of a similar kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any students who are capable of good private reading) masters can use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ; Preface, Vll (2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical examinations conducted on paper as well as orally. ' The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and improve several departments of the Grammar, especially those of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of articulate sound has never entered into liiy plan. Were I competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should hardly deem it suited to a book applying specially to Latin, but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the Prolegomena to Grammar. * On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative Philology, so far as they concern three kindred languages^ — Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. The Sanskrit words iii this Edition are generally cited in their modern form. The term Primitive Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap- pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix. * As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was bound to consult, authorised to attach my name to this Pre- face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the books on Latin Grammar with which I have been occupied. * When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason only. *The chief objection urged agaiiist the Primer was this : that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children beginning Latin. There would have been some weight in this argument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de- scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for Elementary Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com- panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children at home or under private care j and these have since been published. ' It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of the Primer is contained), that they " bristle with nev/, hard, and Preface. uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it. § 4. ' Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar is a science; and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments, there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms. Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax, Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms, whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any attempt to extirpate them w^ould be quixotic. Many, indeed, are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine, Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might at several points have been improved. A few terms, which are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutral ia Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea, Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least, dismissed to some unconspicuous corner. ^This statement affords ample proof that no* disposition existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar " bristling with hard and uninviting terms,'' though it is not unnatural to ask what those " inviting " terms are which, like the " crustula " of the " blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have magic power enough to attract young learners, elementa velint ut discere prima." ' But there is one important truth which many would-be critics either ignore or forget. Grammar is not only a science, but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve- ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino- logy, or some addition to it. Now, in every division of Grammar, — Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, — vast Preface, ix strides have been made in this century through the fruitful labours of scholars, chiefly German, some English ; whom I would gladly recount here, were I not afraid of omitting some name or names from so large a list. Accordingly it will be found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the terminology in each division has been more or less modified, more or less enriched. § 5. * As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in the treatment of Soundlore and Wordlore I claim little origi- nality. If I have compiled judiciously and correctly from the works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I shall be amply satisfied with such credit. Again, in the Prosody of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar needs no praise from me to enhance it ' But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound) which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great extent, the fruit of personal study, personal thought, personal labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness of perfection, in the present Grammar. * I speak from long personal experience when I say that any capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles of those pages (348-500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), will be able, in reading any part of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step, realising, and, if need be, stating the 7'aison d'etre of every constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test) the raison d'etre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb. The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin, will be free from the risk of using any wrong construction. Not that the mastery of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong to the vis divinior^ to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study, combined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student X Preface. cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli- ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound, well-arranged, and lucid Grammar. § 6. * The study of any language with its grammar contains more or less, according to the character of the language chosen, the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages (illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co- ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible. The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retamed in the practice of classical instruction I hold to be this, — that it is a valu- able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead languages, but of the learner's native living language at the same time. § 7. ' A book like the " Public School Latin Grammar " does not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats — subjects on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written — but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and smooths the path of future acquirement. § 8. * I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction. ' The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the treatment of Etymology. ^ The means by which this revolution has been wrought are: (i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of the cor- relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject- Object, with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3) the distinction between Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua, with the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio Obliqua receive. Preface, xi 'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin Syntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote- fends, Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ramshorn, Kiihner, Madvig, Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael Kiihner in the first rank \ and I am much indebted to Grieben's "Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In cur own country the scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold. ' These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin Syntax, besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per- haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve- ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts. § 9. ^ As regards the new terms which my own improvements have suggested, three alone have frequent and important prac- tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great. These are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced first in my " Elementary Grammar " ; (3) Suboblique (clause or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua." ' Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi- cation in Grammar required, for its clear statement, the use of some terminology from which the term predicate itself should be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by Mr. C. P. Mason, (predicative) Complement. * I say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for one of three reasons : that it is superfluous ; or that it is in- adequate ; or because a better term is suggested. As respects myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry which refuses to facihtate and abridge discourse by the use ot suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation) ''Collective Subject" rather than "Nominative Singular of a Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things " : and "Composite Subject" rather than "two or more sLxigular Nominatives agreeing with one plural Verb/' XII Preface, § 10. 'My Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in 1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu- lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years, not a single complaint affecting its terminology was heard either from the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief predecessor, Lilly's Grammar.' § 1 1. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com- pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others. I. The Doctrine of Predication. § 12. This Doctrine is treated (§§ 100-106) in agreement with the principles now received in all Continental Latin Grammars, and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some slight variations in the mode of treatment. Logic and Grammar are akin to one another ; but their spheres are different. Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops ' the laws of thought/ Grammar is the Logic of language : it displays the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation and the Terms Subject- Predicate are necessary to both sciences. But the scope of these terms is not the same in both. If we take a Simple Sentence, such as * beneficium male collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum societati,' we see that the Logical Subject of this proposition is 'beneficium male collocatum,' but the Grammatical Subject of the sentence is ' beneficium,' of which ' male collocatum ' is an adjunct. Again, the Logical Predicate is ' noxium,' the Grammatical Predicate ' nocet ' or ' noxium est,' of which ' hominum socie- tati ' is an adjunct. Hence appears the propriety and necessity (if confusion is a thing proper and necessary to be avoided) of distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar by the epithet ' Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject- Preface, xiii Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the science of Grammar that they cannot be excluded from it, if their exclusion were desirable. See * Predicate * in Index I. The Subject is 'id quod Praedicato subjectum est' : the Predicate is ' id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est/ The com- bination of the two (as Kiihner says : * Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der Lat. Spr.,' Part iii. § i) is rightly called the Predicative Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection, and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, &c.). When I was preparing my * Elementary Latin Grammar ' forty years ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic, I took for my type of simple predication, ' homo est mortalis.' But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo morilur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers : and a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is surely entitled to acceptance. II. Complement (of Predication). § 13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by Mr. C. P. Mason in his ' English Grammar,' to designate that which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is one *of incomplete Predication' (called 'Copulative' in this Grammar, p. 351). In sentences such as 'homo moritur (est mortaHs),' we have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not 'mortalis,' but) 'moritur' or 'est mortalis.' Donaldson's expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary ' predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the rules of Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however necessary to the preamble of Syntax, as the correlative of Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb (or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion is happily avoided by the term ' Complement,' which is wide xiv Preface. enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352. III. Relations in the Simple Sentence. § 14. Mr. Mason, in his ' Engfish Grammar,' following Becker's ^ Organism der Sprache,' treats of the Relations of Words in the Simple Sentence. The ^ Public School Latin Grammar ' does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as * spurious children of Logic and Grammar.' But he has failed to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian can now exclude) the correlations Subject-Predicate and Subject-Object. Two of Mr. Mason's ' Relations,' the Predicative (I.) and the Objective (HI.)? ^^e the same, in title and extent, as those of this Grammar. His ' Attributive ' Relation contains the Qualitative (IL), but is more extensive: his 'Adverbial' Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more extensive. Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with Latin, a largely inflected language. But even in English the Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives might be replaced by Preposition with case (i.e. adverbially) ; still there remain very many examples of each case which cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the * Receptive' (IV.), and the Genitive under the ' Proprietive ' Relation (VI.). Relation VI L, that of ' the Prolative Infinitive,' appeared for the first time in the * Pubhc School Latin Primer.' It com- prises all the instances in which the Infinitive extends (profert) the construction of words capable of being followed in de- pendence by a Copulative InfiniUve with Nominative Com- Preface, XV plement. See § i8o. In the 'Elementary Latin Grammar' the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.) was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c.) Predi- cative (/>. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied: for if, in 'soleo errare/ the Infinitive is Object of ' soleo/ it is an unique Object : and if, in ' videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi- catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character as a ' Complement ' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and from every other instance in p. 352. And how, on the same principle, can we analyse without the most unpleasant confusion such sentences as these? — • Marcus putatur velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle fieri doctiorem. At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun. Madvig's mode of treating this construction is not essentially different in principle. Under one head (§ 180) this Grammar gives what he sets forth in three places (§ 389, § 393, § 400). He treats in one and the same chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV. that of Oratio Obliqua. But when Madvig speaks of the Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs *um den Begriff zu erganzen und die Handlung zu ergeben ' (to complete the idea and supply the action)^ this is exactly what is meant by the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English, with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade- quately called 'auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c. kommen : I will — shall — can — must, &c. come). The con- struction belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic) language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / will come^ I would come, by 'je viendrai, je viendrais,' it falls in with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux — ^je veux — ^je desire — j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by anybody who wishes to do so, as in 'vincere scis, tu sais vaincre/ ' cupis abire, tu desires partir,' &c. The use of the xvl Preface. Verb noun as an Object is recognised in § 179. But the reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the test of * esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly preponderant. If an example be adduced like this in Horace, C, i. 2. 49 : — hie magnos potius triimiphos hie a m e s did pater atque princeps^ and if it be asked whether, as triumphos\% Object of ames, did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is — that Latin v/riters, especially poets, often construct one Verb with dependence of two kinds : so Verg. Aen. iii. 234 : — sociis tunc arma capessanf edico et dira bellum cum genlt gerendum, * Ames,' in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object frtumphos, and then a Prolative Infin. did^ with its comple- nients. The example belongs to that kind of construction which grammarians have called Zeugma. See § 61. Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIII.), is in kind dif- ferent from the other seven. It is really no more than a com- pendious method^ by which a word B is noted as assignable to the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con- venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account for the cases, moods, &c. of words linked to others by various conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579. § 15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the student of language should always bear in mind : — (1) Few Definitions are free from examples which occa- sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may sometimes become an Adjective (rex, regina, raptor, victor, victrix, &c.) : an Adjective or Participle often becomes a Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum, &c.) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun sometimes takes the functions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach V?pon one another ; and so on. (2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions: Preface, xvii and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule, the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended in order to recognise such instances as normal. See § loi. Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement, belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 352, the first six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because thev appear as caseforms, and not in attributive concord. § 16. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri. bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi-. native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The Concords 2, 3, 4, come under II.; the peculiar use of the Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII. Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view, throughout. Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple Sentence does materially help many students to read with more profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed again at the close, will map the subject in their niind3 more lucidly and more enduringly. IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of *Sum.' § 17. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also § 99, Munro on Lucr. ii. i, with the authorities there cited. The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles (Hor. C. i. 37. 25; ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B. ii. 40 : — a xviii Preface, praeterea duo nec tuta mihi valle reperti capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo, bina die siccant ovis ubera; quos tibi servo. Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after *albo/ thus apparently making ' reperti ' finite : but the tenour of the passage indicates that ^capreoli siccant' is the principal predi- cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle. The ellipse of * esse ' in oblique construction, when the par- ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives without * esse,' is not by any means so generally and so well understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to study with care the note on § i8o in this Grammar, and to collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse which are not duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative (Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a few examples. a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt, T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv. b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . . Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hon c. Delectum habendum putant, Delectus habendus putatur. d. Omnes secuturos verisimile est, Omnes secuturi videntur. e. Graeciam collisam narrant, Graecia collisa narratur, Hor. f. Memorant quendam solitum . . . Memoratur quidam soHtus, . . . Hor. g. Credimus Athon velificatum, Creditur Athos velificatus, luv. h. Perunt genetricem adfatam lovem, Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82. In every one of these examples ^ esse ' is to be mentally supplied — its construction being Oblique (§ 194) in each former — Prolative (§ 180) in each latter line. Preface, xlx V. § 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over- looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive Clause. See §§ 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the title Petitio Obliqua, § 197. A disposition is shewn by some writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final) Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance in Narratio Obliqua (§ 230) prove their just rank as one of the three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con- stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In- finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage a sort of rivalry with other constructions of u t, n e, in order to obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique * permission, command, or request.' The examples which Madvig cites in §§ 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions, might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought to be treated. ^ Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem itu7vs atque ibi futuros Helveiios, ubi eos Caesar cpn^ stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae virtutis Plelvetiorum . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . . . nomen caperet.' — Caes. B, G. i. 13. ' Cum vellet, congrederetur ; tntelkcturiiin quid invicti Germani .... virtute possent' — Caes. B. G. i. 36. * Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederct \ illorum esse praedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimannt,^^' — Caes. B. G, v. 34. ' Cicero respondit : " non esse consuetudinem populi Romani accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere velint, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mittant ; sperare^ pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos." ' — Caes. B, G. V. 41. ^ Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita velle ut mea Roma caput or bis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarem colaiit ; sciantque 2l z XX Preface. et ita posteris tradant^ nullas opes humanas armis Romanis resistere posse."' — Liv. i. i6. Exprobrant multitudini : " saginare plebem populares suos, ut iugulentur. hoccine patiendum fiiisse, si ad nutum dictatoris non respondent vir consularis ? fingerent mentitum ante, atque ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo umquam mendacii poenam vincula fidsse ? " ' — Liv. vi. 1 7. * Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas desideria militum ad Caesarem fe7'e?ida,'^ ait ; " neque veteres ab imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab divo Augusto tarn nova petivisse \ et parum in tempore incipientes principis ciii-as onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, ciir contra morem obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim 7neditenhir ? decemerent legatos seque coram mandata dareiitT ' — Tac. An7i. i. 19. * Eo in metu arguere Germanicum omnt^, quod 7ion ad supe- riorem exercitum pergeret^ ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi- lium : " Satis superque missione et pecunia et mollibus consultis peccatum ; vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi- dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis humani iuris violatores haberef^ illos saltem avo et reipublicae reddereV^^ — Tac. Ann. i. 40. See do. do. ii. 15. * post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel toller et omnes.' Hor. Epist, i. 6. 43. Compare Verg. Ae7i, iv. 683 : date volnera lymphis Abluam^ &c. A en, vi. 884 : manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargaTn flores, &c. The true construction, Mate abluam,' g7^a7tt 7?te to wash away^ ' date spargam,' grant me to scatter^ &c., has in each place been recognised fully by no commentator except Ladewig. If commentators v^ho have fallen into error respecting them had been familiar with the principles of * Petitio Obhqua,' they would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on ' date,' like ' colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription to Silvanus found at Aime in France : tu me meosque reduces Romam sistito daofi.^ Itala rura te colamus praeside. — Coll. Orell. 1613. Preface, xxi Had ' sinite ^ been written instead of ^ date ' (and there is no real difference) the mistake would not have been made. VI. § 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division ii. (§§ 61-99), on the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read by those who have already studied Latin Syntax to some extent in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions, Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc- tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig, intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences, Simple and Compound. To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend the adoption of the following order, in studying the laws of Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax. (1) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter VI. , Sections i.-viii. (§§61-89). (2) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter II., Section x. (Numerals, §§ 32-34). (3) Syntax, Chapters I., II., III., IV., Section i. (§§ 100-189). (4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, §§ 90-99). (5) Syntax continued (§§ 190-250). The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused with advantage at the close of such a course. VII. § 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this Grammar. Chapter I. of Part II. (§ 100) sets forth : (1) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound. (2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence : Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio) : Question (interrogatio). (3) The forms which these three severally take when, being subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan- tival Clauses : — Oblique Statement : Oblique Will-speech : ObUque Question. Chapter II. (§§ 101-106) contains : The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rela- xxii Preface, tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed. Chapter III. (§§ 107-188) contains : Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence (Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines). Chapter IV. (§§ 189-240) treats of : The Compound Sentence, in five Sections. Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews: (1) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ; Substantival (§ 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival : (2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds : (3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for Adverbial (see § 204). Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to Oratio Obliqua, actual and virtual, with examples. Section III. contains : Rules and Examples of the construction of the three varieties of Substantival Clauses : (1) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua). (2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obHqua). (3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua). Section IV. contains : Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses stated in connexion with one another. Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of : (1) Consecution of Tenses : (2) Narratio Obliqua : (3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses : (4) Participial Construction. VIII. § 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn forms an edifice of its doctrine, from which no stone can be taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric* * Let me here state my meaning more distinctly. I. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of Construction should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated in Appendix IL to the ' Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1878 &c.). Preface. xxiii Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to deduce principles from them correctly. (1) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties : I. Vales: 2. Vale: 3. Valesne? Can this be denied ? (2) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal change) to a principal Predication ; such junction being a ' Compound Sentence/ the subordinate or dependent member in which we term ^ the Clause.' 1. Audio (constat) te valere, 2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas. 3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasne. Can this be denied ? (3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to the Verb on which it depends. 1. I hear (it is evident) — What? That you ai'C well, 2. I wish (my wish must be) — What ? That you be well, 3. I ask (it is asked) (say) — What? Whether you are well. Can this be denied? (See it even in Madvig, § 208b, 398a.) 2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses when they become subordinate. 3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the rules for the Simple Infinitive, with Gerunds and Supines, should be in- cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of Compound Construction. 4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival, Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the two latter classes 5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan- tival Quod-clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to the Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction. 6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its subordinate use 7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some English grammarians use, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses (§ 100) answers the purpose adecjuately. XXIV Preface. (4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a Substantive, and is justly termed * Substantival.' Can this be denied? (5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the adverbial questions — ho7v^ for what purpose, why^ when, on what condition, &c. — are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con- secutive, Final, &c.). See § 189 B. There can be no just reason to deny this. [All Relative Clauses — formed by qui or a particle expli- cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in this Grammar (§ 189 C, § 204, &c.) the term is applied only to those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc- tive : such as : Quis est t a m i m p i u s qui parentem feriat ? = ut feriat ? — Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur : — Miseret me tui qui tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use is needed here alone to complete the analogy.] This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial, and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram- marians, Kriiger, Kiihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's Syntax. (6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that €ach of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which is itself dii'ect, i.e. independent. This indii'ect speech is called by general consent of grammarians ^ Oratio Obliqua,' and that on which it depends is called ' Oratio Recta' (direct speech). Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly and inadequately, by Madvig, § 403, Obs. i. The chief reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been ' specially called' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose consists mainly of statements. Another reason is, that the indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-speech or will- speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful Preface, XXV study of Oblique Narration, as used by Livy, Sallust, and Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syntaxis Vergiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c. (7) The Hmits of Oratio Obliqua being thus established as coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we therefore call 'Suboblique,' that is, * Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in §§ 190-193, because the constructions resulting from them occur in many of the examples cited in the sections following. The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen- dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent Conjunctive). See Example in § 190 L So also : Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles aitbestiolas quasdam nasci, quae unum diem vivant^ Cic. T. D, i. 39. Perspicuum est, non esse utilia, quae sint turpia, Cic. Off, iii. 32. With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and those in ^Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine is laid down in all Latin grammars. IX. § 22. So also Rule 193, which states that a subjunc- tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc- tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio Obliqua. The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga- rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars are written for those who are willing to learn, and who wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems, therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol- lowing places in Cicero's Treatise * De Officiis ' : (1) Cyrenaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau- dandam, quod efficiens esset voluplatis, iii. 33. (2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens, ii. 22. xxvi Preface. We say that ^ virtutem esse laudandam ' (actually) is Oratio Obliqua, on which ^quod esset' depends, and is therefore Subjunctive, being ^ suboblique.' We say that ' laudat ' (virtually) contains Oratio Obliqua, and that * quod fuerit/ depending on it, is ^ virtually suboblique.' Such is our proposition. Let us consider it. First, as to * quod esset' in sentence (i). ^ Virtutem esse laudandam ' is Oratio Obliqua in its principal form of Accus. with Infin. (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed. Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive * actually subordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (for brevity's sake) * suboblique.' Secondly, as to * quod fuerit,' in Sentence (2). Do we utter * a mystery ' when we say, that a person who is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some- thing ; that * laudat * necessarily contains the meaning * putat esse laudandum ' with the meaning * ait esse laudandum ' ? Enough that it contains the latter. Laudat then contains * virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) * virtually suboblique,' is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises. Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio Obliqu^-.' X. § 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec- tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's understanding and the true logical reason of the Thought- mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the Subject? The answer to this objection has already been suggested in another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi- ness to see that his pupils do learn — do know — the meaning Preface, xxvii and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one) or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark, and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good teacher will be always on his guard against this danger. If he asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is sure the learner understands, he may say ' quite right,' and pass on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance, As to passage (i) : Q. Why is ' esset ' Subjunctive ? A, It is suboblique. Q, How so ? A, It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua * virtutem esse laudandam.' And this Oratio Obliqua itself? A, It is subordinate to the principal sentence 'Cyrenaici censuerunt.' To what then is the Clause ^ quod efficiens esset volup- tatis' referred? A, To the mind of the Subject Cyrenaici. As to passage (2) : Q, Why is ^fuerit' Subjunctive? A, It is virtually suboblique. Q. How so? A, It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in * laudat.* Q, How would you express this Oratio Obliqua? Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent). Q, To what then is the Clause ^ quod fuerit abstinens ' referred ? A, To the mind of the Subject Panaetius. If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re- examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood. If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says : May not this cross-examination be cut short? is not all con- tained in the last question and answer ? No, we reply : for we are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latin construction, xxvlii Preface. Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice. XL § 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all Hhe mystery' of such constructions as (2) by saying that * The Sub- junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an alleged reason or act.' These words we quote from one such writer. ^ ^ Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious reasons) supply the most numerous instances of ' virtually ^ It may be instructive to cite this writer's * ipsissima verba,' as an in- stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says : *The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de- note an alleged reason or act, as * ' Laudat Panaetius Africanum, quod fuerit abstinens," *' Panaetius praises Africanus, because he says that he was self- restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean ** because he actually was self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So **iniuria quae tibi facta est," the injury which has been done you" ; but iniuria quae tibi facta sit," *' the injury which you say has been done you." Cic. i7t Caec. 58.' ( I ) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version is * alleging that he was ' or (better still) * on the ground that he was.^ {2) ' Fuit ' for * fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such a context as ' laudat quod,' that is to say, where the principal verb is one which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no such nature, as in the well-known passage * Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset,' T. D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written *poterat,' if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement. (3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic. in Caec. 18) would perceive at once that it is fallacious; that the context, when supplied, must account for the use of *quae sit facta.' And such is the case. Cicero writes : * Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo. Deinde de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin- dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen- tences later ; * Quid si ne iniiu^iae quidem, quae tihi ab illo facta sit, causa remanet ? ' It would be quite enough to say that for ^ si iniuriam tibi factam quereris ' Cicero might have used the not less frequent ' quereris quod iniuria tibi facta sit,' and that * de iniuria quae tibi facta sit ' is a mere abridgement of Preface. xxix suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been misled by Madvig, who, in his very faulty treatment of Mood, mentions such examples only. But the principle is general, and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive Clauses : as witness the following examples : Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit, Nep. Milt 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nisi eam exerceas^ aut si sis natura tardior, Cic. C 7. Utilitas efflorescit ex amicitia, etiamsi i\x eam minus secutus sis, Cic. Lael. 27. This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv. Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own indepejident right, ' denotes an alleged reason or act.^ If this were so, then the compound sentence ' Laudat Africanum Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens' would be good Latin, and might express * Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self- denying ' : quod absurdum est, as geometricians say. The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only/;/ its relation to the previous predication, which is never to be left out of question. If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the Subjunctive also shares that thought. If the Subjunctive, as in (2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive, or otherwise controlled), its presence denotes that in that principal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied. In other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then to be considered, but the principal predication together with its dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, ' posset ' con- veys to ^ ambulabat ' the accessary notion of a reason given for the act by Themistocles : ^ poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat ' to the statement of Cicero. XII. § 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be more instructive if divided into three classes : * de iniuria, de qua quereris quod tibi facta sit. ' But also * de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua ' neminem . . . vindicem esse ' : and, when * facta sit ' is afterwards used, Cicero merely cites his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con- text. See Example 57, below. XXX Preface, First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal oratio obliqua ' \ but a slight addition or a slight change of form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense. Secondly : Examples where ' oratio obliqua ' is implied in the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed feeling : praise^ b/ame, complaint, accusatio?i, reproach, boasting, giving thanks, promismg, iiidignation, anger, menace, regret, &c. Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be- tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a manifest ' Oratio Obliqua ' ; but we say, on the ground of analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause. Class I. 1. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem, sed ^uia iucunditatis vel plurimum afferat. — Cic. d. Fin, i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make this an example of actual oratio obliqua.) 2. Tefelicemdicis amasque Quod nusquam tibi sit potandum. — Hor. S, ii. 7, 31. {Esse te felicem, ) 3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? nega bit, Quod latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. — Hor. S, ii. 3, 162. {^tg2\A\. recte esse,) 4. Hanc reperiebat causa m, quod apud Germanos ea consuetudo esset ut &c. — Caes. B, G, i. 50. {Causam esse.) 5. Cum contemplor animo, reperio quattuor causas, cur senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus gerendis ; alteram, quod corpus faciat infirmius ; tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quar- tam, quod hand procul absit a morte. — Cic. C, M. 5. {Esse being supplied with ' causas,' ' unam ' &c., oratio obliqua exists throughout.) 6. ~ Ille laborem Excusare Philippo et mercennaria vincla Quod non mane domum venisset, denique quod non Providisset eum, — Hor. Ep. i. 7, 66. (Excusare =///V// in causa esse,) Preface, xxxi 7. Bene maiores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum, quia vitae coniunctionem habe7rt, convivium nomi- narunt. — Cic. C, M, 13. (Nominarunt=m^ ^/jc^rz/;//.) 8. Caesar sua senatusque in Ariovistum beneficia comme- moravit, quod rex appellatus esset a senatu, quod amicus, &c. — Caes. B, G, i. 43. (Commemoravit= multa esse dixit ^ 9. Huic me, quaecumque fuisset, Addixi. — Ytrg.Aeu.iil 652. (Addixi me=^/jt:/ ad- haesurum^ 10. Videor mihi gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eorum iniurias meo labore, inimicitiis, periculo sim persecufus, — Cic. Verr, ii. 6. (Videor m\hx=puto me.) 11. Commodissimum visum est C. Valerium Procillum . . . quod in eo peccandi Germanis causa non esset^ ad eum mittere. — Caes. B. G. i. 47. (Visum tst-=putavit esse.) 12. Mirabile videtur ^//(?^non haruspex cum haru- spicem viderit ; hoc mirabilius quod vos inter vos risum tenere possitis, — Cic. N. D. i. 26. (Mirabile vi- Aetm^mirandum esse putant.) 13. Thucydides libros suos tum scripsisse dicitur, cum a republica remotus atque in exilium pulsus esset. — Cic. d. Or, ii. 15. (Th. scripsisse dicitur = scrip- sisse dicunt.) 14. Quidquid peperisset decreverunt toll ere. — Ter. And. ii. I, 6. {To\[QXQ^-=ut tollerent.) 15. Helvetii constituerunt ea ^^/(7^ ad proficiscendum pej'- tinerent comp Sir siVQ. — Caes. B. G. i. 3, (Comparare= ut compararefit.) Class II. 16. Nemo extulit eum verbis, qui ita dixisset, ut qui adessent intellegerent quid diceret. — Cic. d. Or. \. 14. (Extulit vtxhis-^-laudandum esse dixit ) 17. Athenienses Lacedaemoniorum victorias suae culpae tribuebant, quod Alcibiadem e civitate expulissent, — Nep. Ale. 6. 18. Caesar temeritatem cupiditatemque militum reprehendit, quod sibi ipsi iudicavissent quo procedendum aut quid agendum videretur. — Caes. B, G, vii. 52. xxxii Preface, 19. Nec vero quisquam potest iure reprehendere, quodm?iXQ non transiei'iin, — Cic. Att. viii. 12, 3. 20. Haedui que stum veniebant, quod Harudes, qui nuper in Galliam transportati essent, fines eorum populare7itiu\ — Caes. B, G. i. 37. 21. Saepe illi deplorare solebant, turn qtiod voluptatibus carerent . . . turn qt/od spernerejitiir ab eis, a quibus essent coli soliti. — Cic. 22. Hospitem inclamavit, quods^t^o, absente mihi fidem habere noliiisset. — Plant. Asin, iii. 2.36. 23. Graviter Haeduos a ecu sat quod . . . non sublevetiir ; . . . quod sit dcstitutus^ queritur. — Caes. B. G. i. 16. 24. Theophrastus moriens ac cusasse naturam dicitur, quod hominibus tarn exiguam vitam dcdisset, — Cic. T, D, iii. 28. 25. Vercingetorix proditionis insimulatus est quod castra propius Romanos movisset^ quod cum omni equitatu discessissetj quod sine imperio tantas copias reliquisset, quod eius discessu Romani tanta opportunitate et cele- ritate venissent, — Caes. B, G. vii. 20. 26. Caesar centuriones incusavit, quod aut quarn in partem aut quo consilio ducerentur, sibi quaerendum aut cogi- tandum putafmt. — Caes. B, G. i. 40. 27. Themistocles graviter castigavit Lacedaemonios, quod non virtute sed imbecillitate sociorum potentiam quae- rerent. — lust. ii. 15. 28. Cato obiecit ut probrum M. Nobiliori, ^^/^?^ is in pro- vinciam poetas duxisset. — Cic. T, D. i. 2. ;j9. Litterae ipsae videntur quasi exprobrare quod in ea vita maneam, in qua nihil insit, nisi propagatio miserrimi temporis. — Cic. Fam, vi. i^. 30. Non tam exitu bellorum, quod vincatis, quam principiis, quod non sine causa suscipiatis^ gloriamini. — Liv. xlv. 22. 31. Caesari decima legio per tribunos militum gratias egit, quod de se optimum indicium fecisset. — Caes. (9. i. 41. 32. Themistocles domino navis quis sit aperit, riiulta polli- cens si se conservasset, — Nep. Them, 8. 33. Xerxes ei praemium proposuit, qui invenissei novam voluptatem. — Cic. T. D. v. 7. Preface, Kxxiii 24, Beroen digressa reliqui Aegram, indignantem, tali qu^d sola careret Munere, nec meritos Anchisae inferret honores* — Verg. Aen, V. 650. 35. Augebat iras, quod soli ludaei non cessissent. — Tac. H. V. 10. 36. Atqui voltus erat multa et praeclara minantis^ Si vacuum tepido cepisset villula tecto. — Hor. S. ii. 3^ 9. 37. Aeneas ... minatur Exitium, si quisquam adeat. — Verg. Aeit, xii. 760. See viii. 649. 38. Anpaenitet vo^^quod salvum atque incolumem exer- citum traduxerim% — Caes. C. ii. 32* Class III. 39. Nec fluminibus aggesta terra semper laudabilis, ^2/«z;2^c? senescant sata quaedam aqua. — Plin. N, H. xvii^ 4. (Laudabilis=m quae laudari debeat.) 40. Eo id 1 a u d a b i 1 i u s erat, quod animum eius tanta acer- bitas patria nihil a pietate ave^-tisset. — Liv. vii. 5. (Eo laudabilius erat=<f^? magis laudandum esseplebs putavit,) 41. Lycurgus populo creandi quos vellet magistratus potestatem p e r m i s i t. — lust iii. 3. (Permisit=<7^<zr/ iussit) 42. Conon a colloquio Artaxerxis prohibitus est, quod eum more Persarum adorare nollet — lust. vi. 2. (Conon prohibitus ^^t-=-edictum est ut Conon prohibe^-etur.) 43. Unus ex eis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra iureiurando se exsolvisset — Liv. xxii. 61. (Abiit =^^/r^ licitum esse puiavit.) 44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, ^^/t?^ Car- thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset — lust, xi. 10. (Augebat * . . txtm^\\mi==^ammari se dicebant Didonis exemplo,) 45. Si quis erat dignus describi quod malus aut fur . . ,foret . . . notabant — Hor. i. 4, 3. ( Describi =^2<f/ desert- beretur) 46. Mercatique solum, facti de nomine Byrsam, Taurino quantum possent circumdare tergo. — Verg. Aen. i. 367. (i.e. mercati sunt, pacti tantiim fo7'e quantum^ b xxxiv Preface. &:c. 'Poterant' might have been written, if the mere fact, not the thought of the purchasers were to be expressed.) 47. Pascentes illae tantum prodire volando Quantum acie possent ocuH servare sequentum. — Verg. Aen.v'i. 199. (^xodAx^-=prodire se volebant. Again * poterant ' might have been used of the mere fact. ) 48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio monstrai^it locum quo condi vellet. — Just. vii. 2. (Monstravit imphes the addition cum esse dicens.) 49. Sapiens non dubi tat, j-/ ita melius migrare de vita. — Cic. Fm. i. 19. (Non dubitat m\gx^x^'=^7mgrandum sihi esse decernit.) 50. Tribunos omnes patricios creavit populus contentus eo, quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset — Liv. iv. 6. (Conten- tus eo= satis esse putans.) Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle dese rer e socios, nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum afferre posset. — Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent here: most simply we may say * deserere '=*se deserere,* * minuere se minuere.') 52. lUe nescio qui, qui in scholis nominari solet, mille et octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat. — Cic. Ac. Pr. ii. 25. (i.e. videre dicebatur a nominantibus.) 53. Quonia7n Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posset^ verba pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. — Nep. Milt. 7. {YQC\t=facienda a se putavit ; but the example is a daring one.) 54. Re nuntiata ad suos, quae imperarefitur facer e dixerunt. — Caes. B. G. ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con- densed. At full it is : * the envoys of the Aduatuci, after reporting the matter to their constituents^ came back and said they ivould do what was ordered them. ' * Facere ' is, in fact, oratio obliqua, * suos ' being understood as sub- ject.) 55. Brutus terram osculo con tig it, scilicet quod ea com- munis mater omnium mortalium m<?/. — Liv. i. 56. (Con- iigit^contingendam esse putavit.) Preface. xxxv 56. Alter S u b 1 e g i t quodcimque iacefet inutile, quodque /*^^j<?/ cenantes offendere. — Hor. S. ii. 8, 11. (Sublegit contains the notion, that the slave ^ sublegendum esse vidit,^) 57. Ex his, qui ^xmdi ferre possent ad milia xcii. — Caes. B, i. 29. (In the previous sentence we read : ' in tabulis nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo exisset eorum, qui arma ferre possent^ This reference to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates our general subject here — a Latin author's habit of adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind, but only implied in his text* See note at page xxix.) 58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent — Liv. i. 21* {^diCY2iVi\.-=saerum esse voluit) 59. Non equidem extimui Danaum quod ductor et Areas, Quodque a stirpe fores geminis coniunctus Atridis. — Verg. Aen, viii. 130. (Non extimui =;^^?/^ extimescendum esse putavi.) 60. Foetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquissef, mihi d o n a vi t. — Cic. Att. ii. i. (DonsLvit=^donaresedixif. His words would be : dono tibi libros, quos frater mens re- liquit.) XIII. § 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re- ference to the mind of the subject Foetus is indicated not only by the subjunctive ^ reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re-^ flexive pronoun * suus/ Cicero might have written, *quos frater eius reliquerat,' if he had been satisfied with making the statement his own, as in the sentence ' Themistocles ambula- bat,' &c., he might have written *poterat' for 'posset,' if he had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles. See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see § 231 B. and Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it a modern version of the wo famous epigrams respecting George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry to Oxford, and gave a library to Cambridge. Diver sis Dive^'sa, i. Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas Mox academias invigilante notat, b 2 xxxvi Preface. Cur equitum mitt it tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam? Qiwd tu, docta licet, sis male fida sibi. Idem, Granta, libros mi t tit tibi, praemia iusta, Quod tu fida sibi sis, male docta lamen. Diver sis Diver sa, 2. Cur equitum mitt it tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ? Quod vis regicolis pro ratione valet. Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, quod vis Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est} In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated, being referred to the mind of the king. In the second they are stated as the writer's own observations. XIV. § 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir- tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose, Am. 47, quod viris forti- bus, quorum opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos habitus est, laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person : gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepisti. But, if the writer speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the Subjunctive may follow, as *quod fores' in 59. It must also be remembered that the Exceptions (noticed § 193, and further exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous, especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with * quod' depend- ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if the fact in the Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of feeling which it arouses : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiratis, quod ^ The English originals are : Jacobite Epigram. The king, observing with judicious eyes The state of both his universities, To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why ? That learned body wanted loyalty. To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning How much that loyal body wanted learning. Hanoverian Reply. The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; For Tories own no argument but force. On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent. For Whigs allow no force but argument. Preface. xxxvii rocem mittitisy quod formas hominum habetis^ indignantur. SoCic. Verr, L 47. Utrum reprehendis, ^^/^?^ libertus patro- num iuvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat^ a quo summum benefi- cium acceperat ? To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on pp. 437 II., 459 (foot), where *subobHque ' should be * virtually suboblique ' ; also the examples in the * Public School Latin Primer,' p. 168. The construction of Subjunctives in dependence on formal Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted, and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. It appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound Construction (§ 194, &c.) in this Grammar. XV. § 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation of particular idioms, notices (§ 370), that the Second Person of the Conjunctive is used (like *man' in German, 'on' in French) to express an undefined subject {some one^ any one). Thus often in principal construction : Quem neque gloria nec pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere, Sail. Cat. 58. Canes venaticos diceres, Cic. Ve7T. iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic. Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil relinquitur, Cic. T, D. v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegaSy Sail. lug. 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, tum illud quod praeteriit effluxit ; tan tum remanet, quod virtute et recte factis consecutus sis, Cic. d. Or. iii. 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi tamquam luraini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic. C M. II. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamst tu id non agas^ consequitur, Cic. T. JD. i. 38. Gerundive and other Imper- sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria Jiaf, serviendum est. Cic. Tibi ipsidicendumerit aliquid quod non sentias au t f a c i- endum quod non probes., Cic. Fam, iv. 9. Est enim sapien- tis, quidquid homini accidere possit, id praemeditari ferendum modice esse, si evenerit. Maioris omnino est consilii pro- videre, nequid tale accidat ; animi non minoris fortiter ferre, si evenerit, Cic. FhiL xi. 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias^ non licet; tacere plane licet, Cic. Fain. iv. 9. xxxviii Preface, XVI. § 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua, on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible. I should have been equally content to call it * contained ' or ^ implied/ or * informal ' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one and the same thing. The point at issue is this : Are they right, who like Madvig (§ 357, § 368-9, § 404) put forward first the usage (a) Principal Sentence (Indie.) -f Clause (Subjunct.) and follow this up with (^) Princ. Sent. (Indie.) + O. Obliqua + Clause (Subjunct.) thus making (/?) a corollary or special case of (a) ? Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make (a) a corollary or special case of (fi) ? Having had this question in view for half a century or more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram- matical order is that which appears in this book (§§ 1 90-1 91), from (/?) to (a), not from (a) to (fi) ; that this is the order in which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause (Accus. and Infin.) as its first — most representative — most nor- mal form (§ TOO, § 190, § 194). XVII. § ^o. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages from his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious- ness of that order being the true one. (1) When treating of the Accusative (§ 322) Madvig says : *In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g. hominem currere, that a man runs \ esse dominum, to be lord.^ This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compound Construc- tion. But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second Part. (2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive, in so far as they are out of place and unsystematic — he says (§ 348, Obs. 3) ; * The same holds ' — to our mind the connexion Preface, xxxix he suggests has no real existence — 'of other conditional propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it, which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro- position, so that the co7iditional clause belongs to the oi-atio obliqua^^^ e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis» sent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. ii. 67 — minatur se iis malum daturum nisi — Minatur is stated absolutely without any condi- tion), lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (Sail lug, 25 — ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic. de Div, ii. i, e.g. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse.)' Need I say that in this passage — occurring before he has introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive clause before referred to — Madvig does, in point of fact, though but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been maintaining and exemplifying, — the doctrine of Virtual Oratio Obliqua, exhibited in his three cited examples ? He has, un- happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im- portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards. The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar, in his Latin Grammar (i 201-1204) states first the doctrine of Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on the triple form of simple sentences and dependent Substantival clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the " Oratio Obliqua,^' a verb in a dependent clause may be in the Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or alleged reasons of another.' He then cites the example, Cic. T. Z>. v. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c. and the two following : Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos fugnasset^ Liv. vi. I. Aedem lovi vovit, si eo die hostes fudisset^ Li v. xxxi. 21 : (in which obviously : Fabio dicta dies tsi=Fabius accusatus est^ and vovit contains se dedicaturum). Thus, by saying * without a formal use of the Obliqua Oratio,' Key recognises an informal (or virtual) use of it, as I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat- ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago. xl Preface. It rests upon its own fitness : I can but deprecate, if it exist anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he sa ys Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper. Ep, ii. I, 76. XVIII. § 31. The question, whether the (independent) Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive, stands as follows: The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term tyKkidiq vTroraKTiKYj, modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which they called evKTiKrj, Optative, the other vworaKTLd], Subjunctive. Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the respective orms. The term Optative expresses only one use of the first: — that of praying or wishing, eXdoi, may it come: but it has also a dependent use, on eXdoi, that it was come) and by the convenient accession of the modal particle av it gains an in- dependent or enuntiative power tXdoi av, like the Latin Weni- ret,' // would come. The second form (Xdri was called viroraK- T Ki] because it never did acquire enuntiative power ; the modal av was not extended to it, but only the conjunction ar, if, the conjunctional relative og ay &c,, whosoever, &c., in dependent construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc- cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur., eXdiojjtev, let us come ; and as interrogative, in dubitative sense, — 71 <j>aj, what can I say ? In spite of these two exceptional uses, it is manifest that the term vTroraKTiKy, subjunctive, is, for the Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to say) normal use is dependence, German grammarians, however, call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of analogy But lor calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally. Sub- junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason- able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which, if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr. §§ 427-8): *The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then the Subjunctive Mood seems to signify power^ permission^ duty, Preface. xli wishy purpose, result, allegatio7i, hypothesis \ whereas in fact these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus the phrase " quid faciam " is translated by what should I do or what am I to do ? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ? " what do you wish me to do? (!) ' This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek Subjunctive: supposing 'iojfxey = aye 'iiofxev, and ri <pQ=(rrifArjyov or oifK oUa ri This farfetched caprice of an ellipsis is bad enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself I therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and unjustifiable violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily, they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method ox treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro- pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars. See Uses of the Verb, §§ 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap- pendix ii. to the ' Public School Latin Primer/ and the Preface to my Second Edition of Virgil. XIX. § 32. The small number of terms for which this Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and useful for their several purposes. On such points I have always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from German \\Titers for that class of verbs which join a complement to their object, § 106, § 131) — is bad in etymology. I have there- fore now written Factive : but I feel inclined to prefer the term * Appositive Verbs': i.e. such as append to their object a complement resembling an apposition: populus Numam regent creavit : puto te felicem {philosophum). The point merits further consideratioa xln Preface. XX. § 33. Among the numerous books which in the course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with profit, I desire specially to mention the various writings of Mr. Thring, of Uppingham. His * Elements of Grammar taught in English ' is an admirable companion book to the ' Public School Prmier ^ for early instruction in Latin. Cambridge ; Oct, 5, 1879. B. H. KENNEDY. CONTENTS. f Numerals following § represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without § represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the P'ootnotes."] § 1-5, p. I. ..... . INTRODUCTION. I. Divisions of Grammar ; the Latin Language ; Families of Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches. 2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from Latin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3. Sketch of Latin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4. Abbre- viatiotis in this Gratmnar. % 6-99, p. 5. ... PART I.— ETYMOLOGY. § 6, p. 5. Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots. § 7-12, p. 5. . Division i. — Phonology or Soundlore. 5. i. Alphabet ; Capital and Small Letters ; Vowels ; Consonants. 6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ; iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua- tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ; the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph, rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso- nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels a, i, u. II. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara- tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and long Vowels, x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian Language ; Classical Latin a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken- ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vriddhi ; full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. Ai (ae) and its changes. 13. Oi (oe) and Its changes ; ei and its changes ; au, eu, ou. 14-17- xiii. Vowel- strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv. Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects ; xv. Compensation. 19. xvi. Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel a and its weakenings, A) in Root- and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases and Personal End- ings. 21. xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Selection. 21-24. xliv Contents, XX. Weakening into as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use of 0 and u in final syllables. Formidulosus, ^c. 23. Gerundive forms ondus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into 6 as influenced by Selection. 29-31. xxii. Selection oft. 30. Vincular I. A^ote. 32. Recapitulation. 32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com- pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37. a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; a e into I ; o e into I ; o e into u ; a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplication. 41-44. xxvi. Changes of concurrent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of Consonants. Forniaiiofi of Comparatives and Superlatives. 43. Dis- similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii. Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus, Elision, Contraction and Coalition of Vowels. 54. xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants. 55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Ex- clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar Contractions in Verbs. 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q. 59. Labialism and Dentalism. 60. Sound of ce, ci. 61. The Guttural Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ; the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the Sibilant s. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-co7isonans ; I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. Words which have lost an iyiitial letter. % 13-99. P- 69. . DIVISION II.— Morphology or WoRDLORE. § 13, p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS. § 14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER /.—Words and their Flexion. 69. i. Stem-flexion : Word ; Stem ; Root ; Sufiix. 70. Prefix ; Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi- fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun ; Apposition ; Names, Abstract and Concrete. Common Names. Collective Nouns. Adjectives for Sub- stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb Finite and Infinite; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles; Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speech ; Absence of Articles. § 17-34. P- 73- • • • CHAPTER //.— NoUNS. § 17-21, p. 73 SECTION I. 73. i. Number in Nouns. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony- mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76. Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena. 77-79. Gender shown by meaning. 80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modern lan- guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v. Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions. Contents. xlv § 22, p. 86. . SECTION II.— i. First Declension ; A-Nouns. 86. Nouns contained in First Decl. ii. Table, iii. Cases in First Decl. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl. § 23, p. 89. SECTION III. — i. Second Declension ; O-Nouns. 89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases. 91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi. Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. § 24, p. 94. . SECTION IV.— i. Third Declension, Consonant and I-Nouns. 94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii. Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders. 95-96. A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B. Mute Dental Stems. 99. C. Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-stems. 104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllaba and Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I-nouns with Gender. 104-106. A) Parisyllable I-nouns in \s (er). 104-106. Nature of i. B) Parisyllable I-nouns Fern, in es (!s). 106-107. C) Neuter I-nouns in e, 2.1, S,r. 107-108. D) Clipt I-nouns Im parisyllable. 108-109. vi. Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. varying with form of Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. 110-112. vii. Table of Third Decl. 112-115. viii. Greek Nouns in Third Decl. 114-115. Greek Table. 115-119. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con- sonant Adjectives ; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal. Four Groups. 118-119. Table of these Adjectives. § 25, p. 119. . SECTION v.— i. Fourth Declension ; U-Nouns. 119. ii. Table. 120. iii. Confusion of U- and O-nouns. 121. iii. Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl. § 26, p, 121. SECTION VI.— i. Fifth Declension. E-Nouns, Fem. ii. Table. 122. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies. § 27-28, p. 123. . . SECTION viL— Irregular Nouns. 123. i. Irregularity ; Abundance ; Defect. 123-125. ii. Abundance in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case. Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ; Abundance ; Defect. § 29-30, p. 131. . . SECTION viiL — Comparison. 131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ; ii. Examples; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa- rison. 133-135. V. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs. xlvi Contents. § 31, p. 136 SECTION IX. — Pronouns. 136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; their Persons. 136- 137. ii. Classification of Pronouns : A. Substantival : i. Personal ; 2. Reflexive ; B. 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ; 6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro- nouns ; 7. PronominaLia ; 138-142. iii. Tables of Declension. 142- 143. Observations on certain Pronouns. 143-145. A?tcient Caseforms 0/ Pronouns. 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns. § 32-34, p. 147. . . . SECTION X. — Numerals. 147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these \ iii. Th»; Four Chief Numeral Series — Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Numerals, Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v. Declension of Numerals, i^o-^^'^,. Numeral Table ; Numeral Roots. 153-155. vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compound Numeration. 157-158- viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu* lation of Inheritance. § 35-53. P- 158. . e . CHAPTER Iir.^Tm Verb. § 35-40» P- 158- • . . SECTION I.— i. The Verb Finite and Infinite. ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitive and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. 160. v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods — Indicative, Conjunctive, Im- perative. 161-164. vii. The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenses. 164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic, viii. Number and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ; Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles. § 41-50, p. 166. . . . section ii.— The Conjugation of Verbs. 166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve- rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum' (esse) ; Forms of sum, esse. 160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regular Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169. Quantity of the Vowel Characters. 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 172- 182. Tables of the Four Conjugations — Active, Passive, and Depo- nent. 180. Of lo-Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri- phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb. 183-189. V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185. Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. i88. Eo, queo, nequeo. 189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri- tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio, &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191. Inquam, ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im- personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Verbs Passive. 194. Imper- sonals Gerundive. Contents. xlvli § 51, p. 194. SECTION IV.— The Forms of the Three Stems in Verbs. 194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Affections. 196. Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs in see. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its varieties of formation. 199-202. iii. The Supine Stem and its va- rieties of formation. § 52, p. 202. . . . SECTION V. — Composition of Verbs. 202-203. i. Prepositions compounded with Verbs, separable and inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. Sus, subs. 203. The form obs. 204. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad- verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements. p. 205. SECTION VI. — Syllabus of Stem-formation in Verbs. 205. A) The First Conjugation ; Imitative Verbs ; Frequentative Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; B) Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con- jugation. 206. Desiderative Verbs ; D) Third Conjugation. 206-208. '^iQm'i2ih\QoiA-vexhs\ Compounds ; Deponent A-verbs, 209-214. Stem- table of E-verbs, Compounds. 214-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com' pounds. 216-227. Stem-table of Consonant and U-verbs, Compotmds. zi6-2,ij. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 217-218. With strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in ui, vi. 221-224. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 221-223. Gut- tural Stems. 223. Dental Stems. 224. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid Stems. 224-225. U-verbs. 225-227. Deponent Verbs in Third Con- jugation. 226-227. Inchoative Verbs. 227. Homonymous Verb-forms, § 54-58. p. 228. . CHAPTER Particles. 228. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate connexion. § 55, p. 228. ..... section i.— Adverbs. 228-232. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Number, Manner, Degree, Cause, Quality, &c. Table of Adverbs correspond iiig to these severally. § 56, p. 232. . . . section ii. — Prepositions. 232. Relations expressed by Prepositions. i) Prepositions which take Accusative Case. 233. 2) Prepositions which take Ablative Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case. § 57, p. 233. . . . section hi. — Conjunctions. 233. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions with both uses. List of Coordinative Conjunctions. 234. B. List of Subordinative Conjunctions. § 58, p. 234 section IV.— Interjections. 234. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 235. Inteijectional Nouns ; Verbs ;^ Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections. 1 • • • Contents. § 59, p. 235-253. . CHAPTER F.— Derivation and Composition of Words. p. 235 . . . SECTION I, — Derivation of Nouns. 236. i. Staminal Suffix. ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes. 237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex- amples. 247. Formation of Deminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics. 249. vii. Names of Countries. 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of derived Words according to their meanings ; Examples. 252. Ad- jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names. p. 254, . SECTION II.— Derivation of Verbs. 254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived from Nouns. p. 255-259. SECTION III. — Derivation of Particles. 255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases. 257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v. Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note on some of them. § 60, p. 259-266. section IV.— Composition of Words. 260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ; Parathetic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition, Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn^ thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De- composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded with Prepositions; their various senses, &c. § 61-99, P- 267. . CHAPTER V/.—VsES of Words. § 61, p. 267. section I. — i, FiGURATE CONSTRUCTION. 267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma ; Pleonasm ; Examples ; Attraction ; Synesis. 269-270, lii. Other Variations. 270. iv. Metaphor ; Metonymy. § 62, p. 270. . section II.— Uses of the Substantive. 270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals. 271. ii. Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose and poetry. iii. Plural used to express a ' genus, ' when individuals are implied. iv. Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab- stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El- lipse of Substantives. 63, p. 275. . . section III.— Uses of the Adjective. 275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives used adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes. Contents. xHx iv. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi. Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii.. Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense. § 64-69, p. 281. . SECTION IV.— Uses of Pronouns. sS*!. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 282-285. ii. Demonstra- tive Pronouns h i c, i 1 1 e, i s t e, is, idem. 285-287. iii. The Reflexive Pronouns s e, s u u s. 287-289. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. 289-291. v. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qui, aliquis, aliqui, quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun quis que. 291. vi. The Universal Relatives quis quis, quicum- que, &c. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; alter, uter, &c. ; alius, &c. § 70-72, 293. • SECTION V. — Uses of Prepositions. 293-299; Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case. 299-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304- 306. Examples of Pl^positions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306., Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions. § 73*761 P* 307» SECTION VI. — Correlative Construction. 307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of Manner with ut, &c. 312-313. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un- likeness with at que, ac, &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives,, &c, Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative. § 77-8^, p. 316. . . section vii.— Coordination. 316-320. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 316. Annexive Conjunc- tions. 517. Distributive Association; Ordinative Particles. 318. Disjunctive Particles x Adversative. 320. Causal ; Illative. 320-322. ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms of quod. § ^3-85,, p. 323. . SECTION VIII. — Negative Words. 323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives. 325-326. iii. Ne . . . quidem, nedum, non modo, &c, § 86-89, P- 326. . section IX. — Questions and Answers. I. Questions Single or Disjunctive. 326-327. i. Single Interrogation, without Particle ; ii. withj Particle ; uses of an, nescio an, &c. 328- 329. iii. Disjunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An- swers, i. Affirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers. § 90-99, p. 330. . section X. — Uses of the Verb. 331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela- tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple Future and Future Perfect; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the, c Contents. Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii. The Imperative Mood and its Tenses. 338. iii. The Conjunctive Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ; Potential. 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340. Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive use. 341. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub- junctive ; Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses. 343-344. vii. Particles and Pronouns which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. ix. Ellipses of the Verb. ^ 100-250. p. 348. . . PART II.— SYNTAX. § 100, p. 348. CHAPTER /.— The Doctrine of Sentences. 348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple of Compound. In 0 a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence — Enuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua. Substantival Clauses ; their Three Kinds — Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe- titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua* § 101-106, p. 349. CHAPTER II.— The Simple Sentence. 349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis- sion of Pronoun Subject, ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which do not predicate completely. Sum, esse (complete only when implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement, 351. Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms. 352. What the Complement may be. Examples of Copulative Predica- tion. Phrase, Enthesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and Pre- dicate. II. Qualitative Relation — Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of Substantives. 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation — Epithetic, Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental. III. Objective Relation ; Ob- ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs ; Verbs with two Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. Tra- jective Words. V. Circumstantive Relation ; Adverbs ; Ablative Case, &c. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro- lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative Case. V. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of Active Sentences into Passive form. § 107-188, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.—Constructions of the Simple Sentence. § 107. I. Agreement. II. Case-Construction. III. Verb-Construc- tion. § 108-114, p. 359. . . . SECTION I.— Agreement. 359. Agreement what. i. The Four Concords : I. Verb with Subject ; Examples. II. Adjective with Substantive; III. Substantive with Contents. Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante- cedent ; Examples, ii. Ellipsis of Subject. 361-362. iii. Attraction of Verb. 362. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords ; of Gender ; of Number ; Collective Nouns. 363. v. Composite Subject. 364- 367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective agreeing with Verb-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter Adjectives Substantival. 366. Number and Gender of Apposites. Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vii. Synesis and EUipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot. 369. Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of th& Rules of Agreement. § 115-176, p. 370. . . SECTION II. — Case-Construction. § 115-117, p. 370. . . The Nominative Case. 370. i. The Nominative as Subject : ii. As Complement. 371. iii. With Interjections. § 118-119, p. 371. . . . — The Vocative Case. 371. i. Vocative without or with Interjection : ii. The Nominative for the Vocative. § 120-132, p. 372. . . . C—- The Accusative Case. 372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer Object : Agent and Object : Obj ective Propositions, ii. Accusative of the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373- 374. iii. Contained Object (Cognate Accusative) : its various instances. 374. Part Affected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. v. Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi. Accus. of Place Whither. 376. vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com- pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans- itive Verb its power of becoming Passive, viii. Personal and Im- personal Passives. 378. Preposition of Compound Verb repeated with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio- matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative. 379. X. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379- 380. xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of asking, teaching, &c. 380-381. xii. Obhque double Accusative. 381-383. Examples of Accusative. § 132-142, p. 382. . . . D. — The Dative Case. 382-383. i. Three chief uses of Dative — I. As Remoter Object. II. As Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii. Dative of Remoter Object. Words which govern it. 386-388. Verbs which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with Dative Object. 389-390. iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Corn- modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394. Examples of Dative. In Contents, § 143-161, p. 392. . . . E. — The Ablative Case. 392. i. Uses of Ablative — I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III. Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393--394. Ablative of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Gf Price. 396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla- tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Proper. 403. Ablative of Place Whence : of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-411. Examples of Ablative, ^ § 162-176, p. 407 . . . F.—The Genitive Case. 407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub- jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun, 409. iii. Subjective Genitive; Possessive; Descriptive; Partitive. Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive. 411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genetivus Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Construc- tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae, or Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 420. Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive dependent, 421. on Substantives ; 421-422. on Adjectives ; 422-423. on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive. .§ 177-188, p. 424. . . Section III. — Verb-Construction. 424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive : extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infini- tives. 428. Use of CO epit &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative Infinitive extending Adjectives. ^'2&-a^2.c). Cases of the Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds. 429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend- ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive Construction. 430-431, viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431. The two Supines — Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Note on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines. § 189-240, p. 434. . CHAPTER Compound Construction. § 189, p. 434. . . Section I. — Subordination of Clauses. 434. Clauses of three Kinds — Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival or Relative. § 190-193, p. 435. . . ScTioN II. — Suboblique Construction. 435. i. Oratio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. Sub- oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a Clause dependent on it {i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub- junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub- junctive, v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437. Examples of Suboblique Construction. Contents. liii § 194-203, p. 437. . SECTION III.— Substantival Clauses. 437. I) Enuntiatio Obliqua : has three Forms— Infinitive Clause ; Ut-clause ; Quod-clause. 437-440- i- Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii! Ut-clause. 441-442. Quod-clause. 442. II. Petitio Obliqua: Verbs which introduce it. 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. III. Interrogatio Obli- qua. 448-449. Dependent Constructionswith various Verbs. 444-451. Examples of Substantival Clauses. § 204-227, p. 452. . . . SECTION IV.— Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses. 452. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why called Adjectival ; Particles equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative Clauses, ii. Consecutive Clauses : why so called ; with u t, u t n o n, &c., after Demonstratives or without them. 452-453. Adverbial Con- secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con- secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :Tantumabesseut... 454-457. Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after what Predications, &c. 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456. Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses : what they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with ut, ne, &c. 458. Demonstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458. Examples of Final Clauses, 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial Causal Clauses : of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative usually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, quia, with Indicative, if not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459- 460. v. Idioms of Causal construction; non quod, &c. ; non quin. 461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal Conjunctions. 462-463. When Subjunctive is required in Temporal Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal Clauses. 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when. 465-466. Examples of cum with Indicative and with Subjunctive. 467-479, vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions ; Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha, Sumptio Dati ; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467- 468. Examples of the three Classes^ Distinctions. 470-472. Conjunc- tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples. 472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal Relation of Tenses ; Protasis without si. 473-474. Si in various senses. 474. Si combined with Pronouns and Particles. 474-475, Idiomatic uses of Si. 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con- dition ; Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples. 477-478. Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples. 479. Modo, dum, dum- modo, Conditional ; Examples. ^\.jg. vii. Concessive Sentences ; Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con- cessive Clauses. 480-482. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481- 482. Examples of Concessive Sentences. 482-483. viii. Comparative Sentences ; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences. Jiv Contents, § 229-240, p. 483. . . . SECTION v.— Supplement to Compound Con- STRUCTION. , . I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution of Present Past. 484. Of Historic Present ; of Future with Future ; three varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses ; of Subordinated Conditional Sentences^ 486. Of wight have, ought, must have \ Consecution when Infinitive, &c., intervene. n. 487-489. Narratio Obhqua, how used by Historians ; Examples. 487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Exainples of the Cofiverslon cf O ratio Recta into O ratio Obliqua. III. 489-495. i. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus, in Clauses. 489. Ipse supphes them; se, suus are Subjective ; is, ille, &c. Objective. Pronominal reference to be interpreted by. 't^e Jleason of the Thing.' 490. Se, suus connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490-492. In Substan- tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively; Vari- ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &c. 492. S e, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492- 494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one Subject is referred to. 494-495. Ipse assisting the use of Reflexive Pronouns in two ways. 495. Its Appositive use ;Interipsos;Interse. IV. 495-501. Participial Construction. 495-496. Nature of Parti- ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ; Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absolute. 497. Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbreviates, i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla- tion of English ' without ' and Verb. 498. Final, by Fut. Participle ; Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi, &c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-5QI. Notes on Participial Construction. § 241-250, p. 501. . . CHAPTER V. — Arrangement of Words and Structure and Connexion of Sentences. 501-502, Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. 505-510. The Period in Latin, Simple or Complex. 506-510. Its Style and Rhythm. 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510, Narrative Style ; Qualities of Style. 510-51 1. Distinctions of Prose Style. Styles oj Various Authors. § 251-269, p. 511. . . PAR T III.^LA TIN PROSOD Y. 511. Prosody; Quantity and Rhythm. 512-513. Quantity of Syllables; Position. 512. Syllables long by nature or position. 513-516. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-520. Quantity of Final Syllables. 520-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 521-522. Elision. 523-524. Exceptions to the Law of Ehsion ; Hiatus. 524-525. Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 525-527. Verses : Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet. 527-531. Caesura: Synaphea. 527-528. Technical Terms. 531-532. The Elegiac Distich ; its Rhythm. 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. Catullus, Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres ; Three Lyric Types ; Contents. Iv Asclepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catullus ; Sapphic Stanza m Horace and Catullus. 537-538. The Hendecasyllable of Catullus. The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus. 539-541. Table of Metres: I. Single Verses; Dactylic Rhythms; Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythms. 541- 543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic. 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic Rhythm : Saturnian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha. 544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of the Comic Poets. p. 547. APPENDIX. 547-551. A. Latin Orthography. 551-553. B. "Latin Pronunciation. 554-555. C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law. 556-563. D. Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian Dialect. 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F. Supplement to Figurate Construction (§ 61). 566-572. G. Money ; Weight ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen- dar. 575-576. Siglarium Romanum (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup- plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the Simple Sentence. p. 583 INDICES. I. Index of Subjects 583 II. Latin Index 591 III. Index to Passages in Lajin Writers referred to in this Grammar 600 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR. — ♦ — INTRODUCTION. 1 Grammar has two chief divisions : Divi- sions of (1) Etymology {irvfioXoylay true wordformation), ^ram. the doctrine of Letters and Words. (2) Syntax {avvra^iSy construction), the doctrine of Sentences and Discourse. Prosody (Trpoo-w^m), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended to it. 2 The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- Lan-"" valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- ^""^^^ European or Aryan family. I. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind in their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such kindred languages constitute a Family. Among the families of human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili- sation — the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan. The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic writing) occupied south-western Asia ; comprising the Aramaic (Syriac and Chaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches. The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe, and to Various regions of the Asiatic continent. The European branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic; (2) the Teutonic or German; (3) the Sclavonic; (4; the Lithuanian; (5) the Italic (Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : (i) the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining districts. B Introduction, §3-4 2. The Italic branch, like the Hellenic, was from early times divided into various dialects. The principal of these were the Um- brian in the north-east of Italy, the SabeUian and the Oscai> in the central districts, and the Latin in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian, Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat- tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome, founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C. 754, became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name (nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather than Roman. 3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex- tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour- ing countries. From this source are derived the following modern languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and 0/7), Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance languages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern Europe in the fifth and following centuries. 3 English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con- querors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century, the island, after a brief interval, was overrun by Teutonic hordes (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis- tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the Norman conquest, A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power, and influence. Hence their speech — Norman-French, a Romanic dialect — became that of courtly society and of law; Latin, its mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned intercourse ; whilst English continued to be spoken by the great bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which modern English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor- tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English. It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English has itself a distant kinship to Latin. Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense. 2nce of Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was §5. Introduction. when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com- merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning about 550 B.C. The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to derive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha- bet, as the letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae. 5 Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third Sketch century B.C., Grecian literature supplied most of the forms and Lkera-^" much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions, ture. laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who wrote dramas for the stage B.C. 240. He was succeeded by a crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En- nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The comedies of Plautus (Plant.) ^ and Terentius (Ten), founded on those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re Rustica of the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85 B.C., the date of Cicero's earliest writings. From this time to A.D. 14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most eminent authors are : — Prose. Cicero C. (or Cic.) Caesar Caes. Cornelius N epos... N. (or Nep.) Sallustius Sail. Livius L. (or Liv.) Varro Varr. Vitruvius Vitr. Poetry. Lucretius Lucr. Catullus Cat. Vergilius V. (or Verg.) Horatius IJ* (or Hor.) Tibullus Til>. Propertius Prop. Ovidius Ov. The so-called Silver Age, to a.d. 117, contains among others : Prose Seneca Sen. Quintilianus Qu. Pliniusthe elder... PI. N. H. Plinius the younger Plin. Valerius Maximus V. Max. Velleius Paterculus Veil. Tacitus Tac. Suetonius Suet. Florus ? Fl. Q. Curtius? Curt. Poetry. Manilius Man. Phaedrus Phaed. Seneca Sen. Tr. Lucanus Lucan. Persius Pers. Silius Italicus S. It. Valerius Flaccus V. Fl. Statins St. luvenalis luv. Martialis Mart. * The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this Grammar. B 2 Introduction. §5. The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire, A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come nearest to the classic style during this period, are : — Prose. A. Gellius Gell. lustinus lust. Appuleius App. Eutropius Eutr. Macrobius Macr. In the Iron Age, w^hich succeeded, Boethius may be named as the most successful imitator of classic purity.* Poetry. Ausonius Aus. Claudianus Claud. * Other abbreviations used in this Grammar : Pr. Primitive (Sound or Root). Sk. Sanskrit. Gr. Greek. E. L. Early Latin (before 186 B.C.). R. L. Republican Latin (from 186 to 30 B.C.) I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from 30 B.C. to 170 A.D.). C. L. Classical Latin. L. L. Later Latin. U. Umbrian. O. Oscan. S. SabelHan. F. Faliscan. V. Volscian. M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius. C. Corssen (Aussprache). , Curt. G. Curtius (Gr. Etymologie). Three dots (...) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be included. In Sanskrit words : represents the palatal sound ch (as in * church'): ric' is sounded 'rich.' G. Cur- tius represents it by . s' represents the slightly aspirated sibilant, which often corresponds to Greek k and Latin c, q. Sk. c^as'an, Gr. 6e/ca, L. decem. Sk. «TzV, Gr. deiK-, L. doc-eo, 8lc. G. Curtius represents it by c. rt is a Sanskrit vowel, which may be written ar. See p. 578. y is the Sanskrit letter= English j (Curtius^')* English y-consonant (Curtius j). Ex.— yuj, to yoke (Curt. jug'). PART I. LATIN ETYMOLOGY. Etymology comprises : — Etymo- logy— L Phonology or Soundlore, the doctrine of ^l^^^^^' Sounds. 11. Morphology or Wordlore, the doctrine of Words. ^ By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in^ duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred languages, especially with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu- anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix. DIVISION I. PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE. 7 i. Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of Sound- Letters and Syllables. *°*^^* 1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin same Letters as the English, omitting W. ^^^^* The Letters have two forms : 1) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form.. 2) The Small, or later form, which came into commoa use in the eighth or ninth century: after which the Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial letters of sentences and proper names. 1) ABCDEFGHI(J) KLMNOPQRST 2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst (U) V X Y Z. (v) u X y z. 2. Six of the Letters are VocALESy Vowels (self-sound- ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are ConsonanteSj Con- sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel. ' The terms Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's Vergleichende Grammatik der Jndogermanischert Sprachen. Latin Soimdlore. §8-9. Sylla- bles : Diph- thongs. 8 (^)iian- tit V. 9 Syllaba- 3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids, Spirants, and Double Consonants.* The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j, s, V ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes. Note I. y and z are only used in words borrowed from the Greek. Note 2. l+j and u + v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one ancient letter in double form. See § 12. viii. 4. A Syllable {avWa^r}) consists of one or more letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex. 5. A Diphthong (8/^^0770^) is the combined sound of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae. There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or ae), oe (or oe), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui. ii. Quantity \s thd X.\m^ oi uttering a Syllable. I. Every Syllable is considered Short {J) or Long (") in Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord- ing as it is uttered with a single .or double time (mora) : / Short by nature . . a 6 in . . amor. Long by nature . . e u in . • esu. Short by position before another vowel . . It in . . . pTos. Long by position before two consonants or a L double consonant A Vowel may be •< e o m . au, ae in pernox. caudae. Diphthongs are long .... 2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason of its quantity is other than position. 3. A Syllable is called Doubtful (-) when its Vowel may be short or long : Sidonius. 4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it stands before cr, gr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, cl, pi, or fl : tenebrae, quadrSplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. Id prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenebrae. iii. Syllabation is subject to the following rules: 1. Every syllable must contain a vowel. 2. A word may begin with any vowel but y. 3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con- sonants, 1, m, n, r, s, t, x. A few words end in b, c, d. • Checks are another term for Mutes; Trills for Liquids; Fricatives (as gene- rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max yinWer's Lectures on Langtiage). Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as distin- guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous. Accentuation. 7 4. Priscian's rule is that inner syllables end with a vowel, if a single consonant follows : cla-ma-tur ; or if two or more conso- nants follow, which can begin a word : lu-di-crus, e-sca, ma-gnus, scri-ptus, scri-psi, a-stra. Custom extends this rule to such in- stances as so-mnus, A-bdera, rhy-thmus, etc. But, if the conso- nants cannot begin a word, they are divided between the syllables : gal-lus, punc-tum, of-fen-do, am-plis-simus, ex-per-tus. 5. In compound words a syllable ends with the end of one part : ab-igo, res-publica. 6. The last syllable is called Ultima, the last but one Penul- tima or Penult, the last but two Antepenultimaor Antepenult. An inner syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, close if it ends with a consonant. A word of one syllable is called Mono» syllable; a word of two syllables, Di syllable, etc. vi. Accentuation h^s ihe ioWovjingldcVJsi^ Accent. uation. 1. The tone of a syllable is called Accent. There are two strong accents, the Acute (') or sharp quick stress, and the Cir- cumflex (^) or deep lengthened stress. Syllables without either are sometimes called Baryton (Grave in tone), sometimes Atonic. 2. Monosyllables, with vowel short by nature, have the Acute Accent : 6s, vir, dux; those with Vowel long by nature have the Circumflex : 6s, mo s, lex. 3. Words of several syllables are not accented on the Ultima, but on one of the two preceding syllables. Only, when a word loses a final vowel, if the Penult had an accent, that accent remains on the same syllable : illinc for ilHmce, audin for audisne. 4. Disyllables have the Acute on the Penult, when either both syllables are short by nature, as b6na, or the first is long by posi- tion, or the last long by nature or position, as inter, m6res, amant. 5. Disyllables have the Circumflex on the Penult, when the Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature and not lengthened by position :mater, musa. 6. Words of more than two syllables have the Acute on the Antepenult, when the Penult is short, as hdmines, amph'ssimos. But the accent remains on the Penult in unweakened compounds pf facio, as benef^cis, and in contracted genitives : ingeni. 7. Words of more than two syllables have their Accent on the Penult when long ; namely, the Acute when the Penult is long by position only, clamantur; or when the last syllable also is long, am a rant ; the Circumflex, when the Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature, and not lengthened by position : clamare. 8. Enclitics, que, ne, ve, etc. bring forward the accent of the word to which they are subjoined : homines, homines que; pr6na, prondque. Prepositions are Proclitic, that is, with- out an accent of their own before their cases . circa moenia; but, moenia circa. Note, The Accents are not marked on words, but understood.^ ' Latin Accentuation is a subject too large, intricate and unsettled to be fully discussed in a book like the present. Students who wish to pursue it more minutely are referred to the works of Ritschl and Corssen, and to the Latin Grammars of Kriiger and Kiihner. Only a few general rules are given here. * Corssen allows a second accent, which he calls a Middle Tone (i.e. semiacute), to 8 Latin Sotmdlore, § II-I2 V. PuNCTA, the Signs of Punctuation, or Stops. These are the same in Latin as in Enghsh : Comma (,) ; Semi- colon (;); Colon (:); Full Stop (.) ; Note of Interrogation (?) ; Note of Admiration (!). The mark ( •• ) is placed over e or l when it does not coalesce with a preceding vowel: aer, Teius. But none of these were used anciently except the Full Stop (punctum). vi. The Relations of the Letters may be thus shewn : I. VOWELS. Standard vowel a Sharp medial e o Flat medial Sharp semiconsonant 1 |- u Flat semiconsonant Medial (see vii. ii). II. CONSONANTS. Note. — T e n u e s and Mediae are by some called severally Surds and Sonants. Guttural mutes are also called k-sounds, Dental mutes t- sounds, Labial mutes p- sounds. Mutes i (Momentan- eous) ! >- Nasals Liquids (Continu -^ Spirants ous) ' Double Tenues or Sharp s f Sibilant i) ■«-> rt >-i 'a, < Semivowel Guttural ^oxT\ixo2X- \ sounds . . . C (1^, q) • > • • X Dental, or Teeth- \ sounds . . . i t a n 1 S • • f j V 1 z Labial, or Lip-sounds p b m 1 j N is guttural when it precedes gr, c, or q. The Spirants f, v, if sounded as in English, are labiodental.^ certain words of more than three syllables, when there is an interval between the ac- cented syllables. Such words are — 1) Plurisyllable Compounds, in which the Middle Tone will fall generally on the first syllable, as in versipellis, misericordia, undeviginti, efifrenatus, sublevare, etc. ; sometimes on the second, as in superbiloquentia, repandirostrum : 2) Plurisyllables, in which, by Derivation or Flexion, the accent of the primitive word has been shifted to a suffix. Such a Middle Tone will generally be on the first syllable ; as in Idngitudo, pdpulabundus, servitutem. This theory implies, in rare instances, the possibility of two Middle Tones, as in cdnfidentiloquius. See Corssen, ii. 824. * Sanskrit has two more classes of Consonants : (a) Palatal, a modification of the Gutturals ; (b) Cerebral or Lingual, a modification of the Dentals. Thus, in Sanskrit J is Palatal. Semiconsonants. 9 vii. Memoranda from the History of the Al- History u 4- of Al- pha bet phabet. 1. The Romans modified the form of the third Greek letter from r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as the abbreviation of Gains ; Cn. of Gnaeus. 2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K. for Kaeso; Kal. for Calendae and Calumnia: also Kar. for Kartago. 3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) was kept by the Romans as Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic u or v follows the guttural. 4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob- taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H. 5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al- phabet it has the form 8 ; but the Romans gave it that of the Di- gamma, (f) F. 6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as a semi-vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T. 7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used z (zeta), but afterwards supplied it by s or ss : so that y, z were added at the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v, and are only used in latinized Greek words ; lyra = \vpaj zona 8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in- scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek £ (cs), it took the place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtful points. See Corssen {Ausspr. I. 6). 9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary. 10. The Aspirate sounds x> ^1 0? as foreign to Italian utterance, were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use of ch, th, ph, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words : parochus, thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rh : rhetor. 11. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters : (i) j to represent u-consonant; (2) 3 (antisigma) to represent ^ (ps) ; (3) h to represent a vowel having a middle tone between 1 and u, as in libet — liibet, gradibus — gradubus, maximus — maxumus. They did not remain in use ; but the first and last appear in inscriptions. viii. The Semiconsonants 1 (j) and u (v). I. The consonantal character of 1 (j) is shewn by the two facts, I (J), that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position in verse after words ending with a consonant, and that it makes no hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in Sub loue iam ius est sub, iam are long by position, and -e, -am are not elided before t. 10 Latifi Soimdlore, 1) 1 is a Vowel (l-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when it is a syllable ; ab-i-to. I is a consonant (l-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a vowel ; i e-i u-n o ; its sound being that of English y-consonant ( = German j), a faint protraction of^the vowel-sound 1. 2) In Greek words, however, 161 e, iambus, and in a few Latin words, i-ens, ieram, i-vocalis remains open before a vowel. 3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent l-con- sonans, and most editors do not use it. Its English and French sibilant sounds {John^ Jean) are not classical, but crept in before the Middle Ages. 4) l-consonans is omitted before 1 by the compounds of lacio, ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc. ; though the long quan- tity of the first syllable is kept ; i being =j i. See Munro on Lucr, i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. eice, reice. But re-icere. Plant. 5) Poets sometimes harden l-vocalis into l-consonans : ab-ie-te, ar-ie-te, par-ie-te, for ab-i-ete, etc. Sound ab-yete, ar-yete, etc., trisyll. So Horace has consil-ium ( = consil-yum), Virgil has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisyll. M. Lucr. ii. 991. V (u). 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con- sonant. In a latter age u became the vowel sign, v the consonant sign. If uva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that u-consonans ( = w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel u ; whence the modern name Double-u. 1) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum for favitum, lautum for lavitum, and in auceps for aviceps, nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus. 2) Poets sometimes vocalize u-consonans before a vowel: sil-u- ae : sometimes they harden u-vocaHs into u-consonans : gen-ua for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1157. 3) Parasitic u follows q, ng:, and s : sequor; lingua; suavis. This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, gv, sv : but as the sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds.^ ix. Sound and Quality of the Vowels. Sound I. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but ^aiit various shades of these, in close or open syllables, of ^ ^ (Thus the sound of u varies in the following words : credulus^ Vowels, busy^fiilly use, yune, and in the French words, commiin^ com7nune.) 2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little from those of the vowels in modern Italian. Proceeding from the thinnest and sharpest sound i, to the thickest and flattest u, the following words may represent their general distinction : the first four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Zuloo. Quinine, demesne, papa, promote, Zulu. 3. The three primitive vowels are a, i, u. Sanskrit has e and o only as diphthongs arising from al, au. * In many modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of con- sonant and vowel, and U alone as the Cursive form of both. In this grammar v is retained as a cursive. Phonetic Decay, II 1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the opened mouth : 1 is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the tongue and the lower palate ; u is the thick flat labial, sounded by a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long and short sound, with shades of these. 2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen- ing of 1 and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use two subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and 1, and 6 medial between a and u. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u.^ 3) The strongest short vowel is a, into which none other passes. 4) The weakest is 1 : for which reason it often stands as a vin- cular vowel before suffixes : reg-/-to, fiag-/-to, leg-^-bus : but sometimes e or u takes its place; soci-/-tas, teg-//-mentum. 5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with velim, velle. 6) Though u has various shades of strengh, as in put o, siimus, augur, augurium, declining almost to the weakness of 1, as in optumus (optimus, vii. 11), yet on the average it is not seen to be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re- membered that this u corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o : that us is really a weak syllable, and u, like 1, gives a facility to the rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford. 7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled in time and strength ; X 1 = i, ee = e, etc. 8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; 1, 6 are rarely final ; vl never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry. As final long vowels, i and 0 predominate*: e and a are less frequent ; and u least frequent of all. X. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. Pho- (See Corssen, L 347.) D ^cay I. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off" or assimilate consonants. . 2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma- rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts. 3. Classical Latin (see § 5) may be regarded as in some measure a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto- nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly 1000 years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged from the darkness of those centuries. ^ Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distm- guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-t-mos, raax-w-mos, max-^-mos* max-J-mos, max-a-mos. 12 Latin Soundlore. §12. Vowel- Xi. VOWELCHANGE. 1. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and Composition of words. 2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by Vowelchange. 3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a stronger for a weaker vowel. Thus the tonic syllable in toga is stronger than in teg o. Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. thongs. 1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro- duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus a by strengthening 1 produces e ; a by strengthening ii produces 6 ; and this process is called Guna (distinction). If a strengthens (ai, au), the process is called Vriddhi (augmentation). 2. In Latin (as in Greek) e and 6 are themselves capable of strengthening 1 and u. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is al el ol au eu ou 3. ui is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui, huic, hui, phui. 4. Yi in Greek words for vl is very rare : as Hi thy i a (£A\uQv1a). 5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn by inscriptions : but before the classic age all except au had de- cayed into other long sounds, namely : — ai into ae, rarely passing into e (el) i ol — oe, often — — u (el) i el — e or i eu — u ou — u Note. Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of al, ol, el, has peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the progress of phonetic decay.^ 6. The diphthong al prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai, filiai, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C. 200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form. For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius, is found e : edus, pretor, Cecilius, &c. ; which became more prevalent in later Latin, and in modern language has superseded ae : secular, premium, i) Examples occur of els for Dat. and Abl. Plur. Ending als, which in classical Latin became is : tabuleis publiceis = tabulis publicis. * This history is gained from the careful comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending for about 400 years from B.C. 260 to a.d. 150. In the present chapter and in § 20 such results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which appear in classical authors. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. 13 a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in a-i, dividing it into two syllables, materia-!. Virgil rarely : aula-i, Aen. iii. 354. b) The vowels are divided in Ga-i-us, Ga-T, and in the Greek words Agla-i-a, La-i-us. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Grains, Maia, and in aio, maior, i is i-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma- yor, .,.). 7. The diphthong ol (oe) is of much rarer use than ai (ae). Oi is found as late as the first century B.C. in stem-syllables. But it passed into oe early, as ai into ae, by strengthening i. Also, by weakening o, it passed into (ui, ue = ) u. Thus we find moi- nera, moenera, miinera; loidos, loedus, ludus; Troirrjy poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ; oitier, oetier, iiti. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 1) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into (ee) e : pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more and more usual, and prevails in modern language : penal^ federal^ &c. 2) In Case-endings, ol from old times was liable to pass into ei andl: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i ; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is. a) In proln, proinde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-i-us they remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia I is i-cons. (Tro-ya). 8. Eiis either a diphthong, as in a few old words, deiva, deicere^ leiber ; in the old Italian Dative ending ei, virtutei ; in Dat. Abl. PI. endings eis for ois ; and in Nom. PI. ending ei for oi of Decl. 2 : or it is a middle sound between e and i, as when the form eis represents a compromise between the Acc. Plur. endings is, es, of I-nouns : urbis, urbes, urbeis. i) Ei is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all ages ; e sometimes taking its place, but i prevailing over both. In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-i may coalesce in poetry, or, as some think, e is elided. b) In names in -eius, i is i-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus. c) Greek et appears in Latin generally as i: Tydides for Tvhdhi]^\ but often as e before a vowel ; Alexandrea or Alex- andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia. d) In some Greek words e is open before i (Hiatus) : Teius, Plei'as, Nereides. » 9. Au was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed (by the process ou, 00) into 6 : codex, plostrum, Clodius, Plotius, &c., and (in Italian) oro, toro, iesoro, &c. ; sometimes (by the process ou, uu) into ii : cliido. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 10. Eu in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, u is a vocalised v (neve, seve, ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody. d) In Greek words eu remains : Euripides, Eurus. Note, — Greek au and eu before a vowel are written with vowel or consonant : Agaue or Agave ; Euander or Evander. 11. Ou occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iotiszt, Louceria\ but had decayed into ii before the classical age. (On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B,) 14 Latin Soundlore, Vowel- xiii. VowELSTRENGTHENiNG in Root-syllablcs, onTnT^' Suffixes, and Endings. A) Root-syllables (see Supplemental Note6 after Appendix). d) Primitive or Italian n, strengthened by a (6, e) in the manner of Guna, or by a, (5, e) in the manner of Vriddhi, subsides from a diphthongal sound into u or d ; the series of possible change being u, au, ou, eu, u (d). jug, to yoke kru, hear . kru, be raw lu, wash . plu,^^?7£/ . (pu-s, nur- iiire^ thrive) pu, cleanse pii, stink . ru, bray rudh, be red ruk, give light skii, hide su, sew (u) iu(n)g-ere ... iug-u-m, iug-are (eu) ^fvy- (u) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m. (ii) clu-ere. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (u, o), lu- s-cin-ia, glo-r-ia (a) ru-di-s. (au) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (u) cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta. (u) lii-ere ... lu-tu-m .... (au) lav-ere with v- cons. ... lautus. (ou) \ov-ctr, di-luv-iu-m ... with v-cons. for v-voc. (u, o), l6-tu-s ... pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are .... (ii) plu-it. (ou) pluv-ia ... for E. L. plov-ia ... (u, o), plu-vi ... pl6-r-are .... (u) pu-er ... pii-ella ... pu-s-illu-s ... disci-pu-lu-s, pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (au) ttqIc for ira-vg. (u) pQ-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pii-pa, pu-p- ula, pii-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes. (ii) pu-tu-s, pu-t-are ... am-pii-t-are. (au) pa-eni- t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (ou) po-ena for pov- ina. (ii) pii-ru-s ... pu-n-ire (ii) pu-ter pu-tris .... (au) pa-e-d-or ior pav-i-d-or, (u) pu-s pii-r- ... pu-t-ere .... (ii) ru-d-ere ... ru-d-en-s. (au) rav-u-s ... rau- cu-s .... (u) ru-m-or. (ii) rub-er, rub-ere ... ru-tilu-s ... epvB-pog. (eu) ip£vd-(o, (u, o) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, ruf- u-s .... (u) luc-er-na, \vk-. (ou) E. L. Louc-ina. (eu) XevKog, (vl) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Liic-ina, di-luc-ulu-m .... (u) scu-tu-la ... cu-ti-s. (au) cav-ere, cau-tu-s ... cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (ou) E. L. cou-r-are or coi-r-are for cov-i-r-are. (eu) Kev-6w» (ii) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. cd-r-are, cu- s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. I. 356. (u) su-ere. (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Lith.). (ii)su-t-or, su-bula. § 12. Vowclstrengthening. 15 tu, swell . (u) tu-m-ere, tu-m-idu-s, tu-mu-lu-s. (au in Sk.), tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O. tau-ta. (ou) O. tou-to. (u, 5) t5-tu-s, tu- ber. U. tU'ta, to-ta. These old Italian words mean ^ a cotnmunityy a people,^ (u) dux due- ... educ-are .... (ou) E. L. done- * ere. (u) duc-ere .... (u) flu-ere ... con-flu-g-es. (ou) fluv-idu-s, fliiv- iu-s (from flou-v-). (u) flu-men, flu-t-are. (ii) nu-ere. (eu) vevit), (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ... nu-men. Add the prim, root dyu, shine ( = div), whence (6 for ii) io-cu-s. (ou), O. Diouv-ei, whence the weakened words, E. L. Didv-is, U. Juv-e, I6v-is, iuv-at, .... (u) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s.... ' b) Primitive or Italian 1, strengthened by a (6, e), or by a (o, e), subsides from a diphthongal sound into i or S ; the series being 1, ai, oi, ei, i (e). due-, lead ^n-yjlow nu-, nod dtk, shew. div, shine that k!, lie down smear . spTc( = spak), spy trT, three . fid, to trust lib, to choose (1) dic-are ... dic-io, con-dic-io, dic-is, caussi- dic-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dic-i, dig- i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dig-iu-m ; ... IXk-y) ... . (ei) ^eiK'E.L. deic-ere. (i) dic-ere, dix-i ... (t) re-div-ivu-s, di-u, inter-di-u-s, nu-di-u-s, di-es, di-ur-nu-s, ho-di-er-nu-s, di-es-piter, nun-di- na-e. (e = al) Sk. dev-a-s, a god. (ei) 6£7of, E. L. deivos, deiv-a. (i) div-us, di-us (weak- ened form de-us), Di-a-na, I-anus for Di- anus. In bi-du-um, tri-du-um, &c., du is a weakened form of div. (1) i-t-er, ad-i-tu-s, &c., in-i-t-iu-m. ... (e = ai) Sk. e-7ni. (oi) ol-juL-o-g. (ei) el-fx-ij E. L. ei-re, (i) i-re, I-bo, i-vi. ... (1) i-s, i-b-i, i-dem... . (ei) E. L. ei-eis. (i) T-dem, (1) qui-es, qui-e-sc-ere, qm-e-tus .... (ei) Keijjiaif E. L. cei-vi-s. (i) ci-vi-s. (1) li-n-ere (-ire), li-tu-s, li-tu-ra. (ei) E. L. lei- t-er-a. (i) li-mu-s ... li-m-ax, li-n-ea, li-t- er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleiin^ Engl. sli7Jie.) (i) -spTc-ere -spec-ere ... (ei) E. L. peic-u-s. (i) pic-u-s, su-spic-io ? (G. specht. Engl, wood- pecker ; pie^ (1) tri-bu-s, tri-dens ... ter, tre-centi. (ei) rpelQ. (i) tri-s, tri-ni, trI-du-um. (i) fid-es, fid-eli-s, per-fid-u-s (oi) E. L. Jbid-u-s, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, iriiTOLda. (ei) TTSLdu), E. L./eidus. (i) fid-ere, fld-us .... {%) hb-et. (oi) E. L. loeb-er. (ei) E. L. leib-er. (i) llb-er .... 6 Latin Soundlore. c) Primitive or Italian a, sometimes represented by e, 6, or u, is strengthened into a, which sometimes sinks to e or 6. (i) a (e, 1, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) 6. ak, sharpen ag, drive . bha \throw bha-s flight bhrag, break kar, wa^zt , gan, t^<^^/ . gna, know kal. lab, slip ma, measttre ^diVy fastejt rag, direct . sa, j'^?'Z£/ sna, bathe l) ctfc- ac-u-s, ac-u-ere. (2) ac-er. (4) aKOJKrj, wk-vq, oc-i-or I ) dy- ag-ere . . . ag-i-li-s .... (2) amb-ag-es, ac-tu-s. (3) ^^-h orTpaTTiyog .... (4) paedagog-u-s. i) fe-n-es-tra, fa-t-eri, fa-t-uu-s, infi-ti-a-s, fax fac-, fac-ere ... f ac-ie-s, fa-ber, 0d-oc, 0d-mt. (i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c- und-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m. (3) fe-t-i-aU-s, /e-s-ia-e = {e-r-ia.-e, fe-s-tu-s, ^J//Lte, f^firj, i) fra(n)g-ere ... frag-ili-s, frag-or, nau-frag-us, (2) refrag-ari, suf-frag-iu-m ...fr ac-tu-s. (3) {YQg-'i, Pprjy- .... (4) eppioya. i) car-ere. (2) car-us. i) gen-us ... gen-ui, yep- yov- gen-er, pro-gen- ie-s, gen-iu-s, in-gen-iu-m, indi-gen-a, gen-i- tor, yvvi]. (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io, natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .... (3) yvijaiog, i) no-t-a, no-t-are, c6-gm-t-us .... (2) gna-ru-s, i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s, igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... no-bih-s ... no- men, a-gno-men, i-gno-min-ia ... eynoKa. 1} cle-p-ere (cli-p-eu-s), cel-la, oc-cul-ere, cu-cul- lu-s, -cil-iu-m, c-la-m, kKotttj, (2) cal-ig-o. (3) eel-are. (4) KXojxp, i) lab-are, lab-e-facere. (2) lab-i lab-es. i) tna-nu-s, juerjoeli^, me-tru-m, me-d-imnu-s, me- t-ere, mo-diu-s, mo-d-u-s, mo-d-er-ari, mod- es-tu-s (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu- ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-iri ... me-n- sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-b .... (4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s. i) pac-i-sc-i. pa(n)g-ere, pe-pig-i, Trdy-. (2) pax pac-, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ina, com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, 7r?;y-. i) reg-ere, reg-io, -ngere, rog-u-s. (2). Sk. rdjan. (3) rex reg- ... reg-ula (From regere perhaps rig-ere, rig-i-du-s ... .) i) sa-tu-s, sa-t-io (se-rere) .... (2) Sa-t-ur-nu-s. (3) se-vi, se-men .... f) na-t-are. (2) na-re ... na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nSs- turt-iu-m (nasum torquens), (3) rfjcroc. § 12. Vowelstrcngthening in Root-syllables ^ etc. sta, stand . 17 star, strew . (i) sta-tor, sta-ti-m (but E. L. std-ti-m), sta-ti-o, sta-tu-s, sta-tu-ere, sta-tu-a, sta-bulu-m, sta- bili-s : ste-t-i, super-sti-t- (2) sta-turu-s, sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re, sta-bam .... (3) ori/vai .... (i) ster-(n)ere (f^rop-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s, stra- men ... stla-ta, stla-t-ariu-s, (4) GTpio-wi-vat^ arpw-fxa* d) The following are strengthened from (i) a (e or 1) to (3) e (I). (i) (h)er-us, (h)er-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-ere, hir-und-o, hir- ud-o, E. L. Mr (x^p-) (3) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed- (i) Cer-es, cre-are, cre-sc-ere (3) cre-vi, in-cre- mentu-m .... (i) sed-ere ... as-sid-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed- ulu-s, sid-ere... . (i) ser-ere ... ser-ie-s, ser-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia, Pr. har, seize kar, create sad, sit S3x^join skar, sever stag, cover var I cover val f choose ser-u-s, ser-iu-s. (i) cer-(;^)ere ... cer-tu-s, ... scre-are, (3) cre-vi, dis-cre-tu-s ex-cre-mentu-m, cri-bru-m, cri-men, dis-crl-men .... Kpivu)' (i) (TTEyiOj Tey-ocj teg-ere, teg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-i. (i) val-lu-m, ver-eri, vel-le, val-ere, val-idu-s, (3)' vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax ... • From another root val, implying motion, come (i) vol-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari. e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. a (6) to (4) 0. Pr. sar, de whole svan, sound svap, sleep svar, sun vak, call (i) sal-us sal-u-t-, sal-u-ber, sal-vu-s... , (4) sol-ari, sol-a-c-iu-m. (i) son-u-s, son-are ... (4) per-son-a. (i) s6p-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire. (i) ser-enu-s, (reX-a^, aeX-rivrj, ^eip-Log, (4) sol (Sk. siir-a-s^. (i) voc-are, (4) vox voc-, v6c-ali-s (con-vlc-iu-m ?). /) C. cites also many examples of 1 (e) rising to i and of u rising to u in Latin without diphthongal accretion. Such are (a) liqu-ere ... liqu-or, (^) liqu-i, liqu-or. (a) sec-are ... (/6) sic-a, sic-ar-iu-s. (a) stil-u-s, stim-ulu-s ... instig-are. («) i/y-po-c, ifi) u-v-ere, u-m-or ... * The examples in pp. 14-17 are selected from a large number in Corssen's great work, I- 348-550- The instances cited are the most important of those in which the short as well as the long vowel occurs in words of classical use. Forms from old Italian dialects and from other languages are here given only so far as they illustrate diphthongal strengthening. Other roots of great interest will be found in Corssen's pages ; as Par. ■pnYyJill'. whence plere, plus, plenus, populus, plebs. Mar, glitter ; whence mare, marmor, Mars, Mamers. Mar,ya^/,?: whence marcere, mors, mori. Bhu, be horn : whence fu-, fore, fe-, fetus, femina, fecundus, fenus. C 1 8 Latin Soundlore, * § 12.« B) Vowelstrengthening in Suffixes, Case-endings, and Personal- endings, will appear in the Sections which treat of Declension, Con- jugation, and Derivation : hon-os honor-is, Cer-es, pulv-Is, nub-es, lig-on-is, matri-mon- ium, matr-on-a ; — mens-ar-um, de-or-um ; — am-as, am-a- mus, am-a-ris, fu-e-runt, fu-i. Disyi- xiv. Vowelstrengthening in Perfects. Per- i) Most Verbs with vowel character a, 1, o, and some with e, fects. formed the Perf. in vi, and lengthened the character ; na-vi, ne-vi, no-vi, li-vi. 2) Of u-verbs, C. says that their Present-stem anciently received the strengthenings ou, u, before it was weakened into ii ; and that the Perf passed through the forms -uvi, ul before it was weakened into ul. Thus plouo, pluo became pluo : and pluvi, plui be- came plui. The only exceptions are batuo, -gruo, metuo, ruo, which seem never to have lengthened u before a vowel : and fuo, which in the Perf. became foul (poet, fovi), fui, and ultimately fui. 3) As to the formations caveo cavi faveo favi paveo pavi foveo fovi moveo movi voveo vovi C. thinks that (to avoid the concurrence -vui) ii was thrown out, and the root-vowel then strengthened : cavui, cav-i, cavi. 4) As to the following three — sedeo sedi ; video vidi (E.L. veidi) ; venio veni he assumes the existence of old forms sed-ere, vid-ere, ven-ere, which in the Perfect were strengthened as the following Consonant Verbs : fra(«)g- fregi leg- legi (lexi) ed- edi fod- fodi fu(;/)d- fudi cap- cepi rvi{m)^- rupi scab- scabi em- emi fac- feci iac- ieci li(;/)qu- iTqui \i(n)c- vici ag- egi He brings reasons against the common assumption that in such Perfects the long vowel compensates for a lost reduplication. And, in fact, the practice of vowelstrengthening in Italian Soundlore is so well established, that no such assumption is necessary to explain the quantity. Yet fefici (O.fefdci) is known as an older form than feci, while pegi from pango and tudi from tundo appear as secondary forms for pepigi and tutudi. We may also compare Greek forms, as ayriyov or i^yayop with egi, IPiw^rj with edi, oida with VI di or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin. Com- XV. Compensation. Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, visum. But such com- pensation is not always made: seget-s, sages. i Nasalisaiion, Vowclwcakening. xvi. Strengthening of the Present Stem in Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal. Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem strengthened by Nasalisa tion ; that is, by adding n to the Stem- vowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character : Nasali- sation* frag- lug- ng- hqu- mig- nigu- pag- frango iungo ling- linquo mingo ninguo pango pig- pingo pug- pungo strig- stringo tag- tango VIC- vinco fid- findo fud- fundo scid- lud- pis- cub- lab- rup- scindo tundo pinso cumbo lambo rumpo As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was evidently not so strongly sounded as in modern utterance. Guttural n is called by grammarians nadulterinum. (On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see § 52.) xvii. Vowelweakening. ♦ 1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, a, i, u : but those with a are by far the most numerous. 2. The standard vowel a is weakened into i and u in all Aryan languages : but in those which have e and 6 the weakening of a into 1 passes through e, and the weakening of a into u passes through 6 : Pr. sama E.L. semo-l C.L. simu-1 3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root-syllables, in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person. 4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (fv^uu^/a), the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of speech. 5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed ; also Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the most suitable before a particular consonant. Thus, v has a prefer- ence for o ; 1 and the labials chiefly for u ; r for e ; n and t for i. Grouped consonants often prefer e : liivis volt epopa peptri becomes lovis vult upupa peperi Menerva becomes Minerva aletem — alitem voile — velle faciundus — faciendus Note, E is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither so sharp and thin as i, nor so flat and thick as 6 and ii. Hence it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used when final consonants are cast off: venere for venerunt ; utare forutaris; dictatore for dictatore-d or dictatori-d. Also for 1 final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-. But when Masculine or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon-, homin-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-). c 2 Vowel Weak, ening. 20 Latin Sotmdlore, § t2. Weak- xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings. enings of a. A) In Root and Stem syllables. 1) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have kept Pr. a in the syllable of the root or stem : acus, aqua, traho, daps, labor, pateo, madeo, maneo, ango, pando, amo, sal, valeo, palleo, malus, careo, carmen, hasta, aveo, gravis. 2) He cites about 215 words which have weakened Pr. a to e in the syllable of the root or stem : dScem, neco, equos, sequor, tego, tepeo, febris, peto, edo, senex, fremo, mel, queror, tero, vespa, severus. And others which have passed from a through e to i : digitus, ignis, quinque, pinguis. 3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. a into i o in the syllable of the root or stem : voco, mox, loquor, rogo, opus, 6b, nota, fodio, tono, vomo, mola, orior, voro, post, novem. And others which have passed from a through o to u : nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus, a) Pr. & is weakened to e and 6 in some roots ; nex, neco, noceo ; tego, toga, bene, bonus ; mens, moneo ; pendo, pondus. fero, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; volo, velle, volt (vult). ' preces..., procus, posco; cello, coUis, columen. V) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes S in fatisco, fessus ; gradior, gressus. c) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in apiscor, opus ; scabo, scobs ; pars, portio ; faveo, foveo. d) Pr. long a becomes 5 in some words and many suffixes : donum, vox, mos : -top, -ds, -OP, -mon, -an, and Imperative -to. In Suffixes. It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the vowels e, 1, 6, u, are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a. Exceptions are very few : tl- in such words as menti- parti- potJ-. nl- in such words as igni- pani-. VI- in words like ovt- avi-. tii- (sii-) in Supines and Nouns, as statu-, dictu-, casu-. AH which are in Pr. form. C) In Cases and Personal Endings. Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with vowels e 1, o, u, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms with a. ' See §§ 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich. Gramm. def Indogerm. Spr., § 205. i g 12. Vowehveakening with Selection, 21 xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Se- ^^^^^^ lection. 1. V following has determined Pr. a to become 6 in novem, novus, 1 6 vis, ovis. 2. V preceding has probably done this in voco : while in vol volvo, volnus (vulnus) andvomo, the consonants which follow may also have had influence. E. L. has voco for vaco, voto for veto, vorto, voltur. M. Lucr. i. 20. 3. Pr. sva is changed to so in soror (for svasar, ^sister'), sopor, socer, sonus, sol, sodalis; and has passed to su in su-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. II. 64. 4. It shews a preference for o before it in many words : dolus, solum, solium, tollo, &c. but especially in E. L. suffixes : poC'dl'OMj tab-ol-a, Pseud-ol-us^ po-pol-us, which afterwards changed 6 into u. 5. Inner r often prefers otoii: fore, forem from fii-o; so ancora from Gr. ayKvpa (but generally Greek v was kept before p: pur-pur-a): especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Nom. S. us or ur : corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-. Some keep ur- : fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-ur-, Sulf- ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-ur-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-. (But most Neuters in us are inflected by er-. See p. 25.) 6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently ds or-, then or or-, for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became M.F. meli-or meli-or-, N. meli-us meli-or-. Note p. 42. XX. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- Seiec- lection. 1. C. says :^In Latin root-syllables, suffixes, and flexional end- ings, XL has arisen generally from 6.' a) before s and m final : deus {Qe6q\ genus (ytvov), bellum (bellom), fihum (filiom). d) before inner 1, or a labial : populus, upupa,'columen, Hecuba. c) before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid, Nasal or Sibilant : pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus. 2. About 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally passed into : hut 6 was kept in some instances : a) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con-. 22 Latin Sotmdlore. - ^ 542, /3) after u, v, as late as the Augustan age : equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom. The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the combinations uu, vu, which in Republican times were generally avoided. See C. 11. 97-101. 3. Rustic dialects kept o frequently : hence it returned into use in L. L., and reappears in modern Italian : popdlo^ secolo^ 4. Selection of u appears A) before Labials and 1 : 1) in place of o : hiimanus utrubi consul umerus bubile adulescens nummus bubulcus epistula voliimus bubus exsul quaesumus riibigo titulus sumus iipilio singuli Bovile is another form for bubile. 2) in place of Gr. a, c : humus (xct/^af) scopulus (aKoirtkoq) pessulus (Trao-o-aXoc) Siculus (Si/ce\oc) 3) in place of a, e : a : occupo, aucupor, contubernium ; e : quincuplex. 4) as middle sound, approaching to 1 : clupeus or clipeus : lacruma or lacrima. See xxi. Note I. When 1 or e came before the suffix 616- 61-, 6 was not changed into ii : (1) fili-61u-s, basi-61u-m, Cori-ol-i, vi-61-entus. (2) alve-olu-s, lacte-61u-s, laure-ola, Pute-61-i.^ Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au- gustan age, after which it often became u : parv-61u-s, parv-ulu-s : serv-61u-s, serv-ulu-s. But friv-61u-s was never changed. * As to the dialectic use of O and u in final syllables, C. says : 1) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o. O. and S. as O inclining to U. ' ' U. as a middle tone, or 11 inclining to O. 2) Lat. changed O to U about 300 . . . 200 B.C. F. still earlier. O. about 300 B.C., but before m not till 130 B.C. S. before 200 B.C. V. never. New U. returned from U to O between 300 and 130 B.C. MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul-entus and sanguin-ol-entus, vin-ul-entus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul-entus ii decidedly better than somn-ol-entus. ^12. Vowelweakcning with Selection. 23 , B) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid, Nasal, or Sibilant : I. In place of o. 1) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus, Catullus, Marullus, &c. But before 11, e is more frequent than u. See xxi. D. 6. fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher sulcus Vulcanus ; fulgeo mulgeo..., vulgus ... . culpa . . . , bulbus. adultus ... , cultus multa pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur, vultus, vult : — vulsi. culmen, fulmen, ulmus ; ulna. Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva. Here too ol after v held its ground long : Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus. 2) amurca, furca, urceus, murmur, furnus, eburnus, purpura, Surrentum, ursus, rursus. 3) umbo, nummus, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna, Clitumnus, Vertumnus. 4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis .... The Demin. suffix -unculo- : ranunculus, virguncula. 5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 5 1 ; nundinae. The Personal Ending -unt was anciently onti- ont, as ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con- sentient^ dederont^ &c., on old inscriptions. The classical form of 3d Pers. PI. Perfect -runt for -ront first appears in the Senatusconsult. de Bacc. B.C. 186, consoluerunt; the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere. When u or V came before -ont, o was kept to a later time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per- pluont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso- luont, vivont. The inner suffix -unt- {ovt-) appears in a few words : so euntem ... , chironomunta (Juv.) ; Acherunta (Plaut. Lucr.). The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in bar-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c- undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, furi-b-undus, tremi-b- undus, vaga-b-undus ; and in Gerundive Participles.* * Of the Gerundive forms -ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C. (I. 180) shews that (1) No existing E. L. Inscrr. contain -ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to resume the o of E. L., and in L. L. appear such forms as secondus, verecondus, while Italian also has secondo, rotondoy it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first weakening of Pr. -an-d-ya. (2) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in E. L. and R. L. to the Christian era. So in Plant, Ter. Lucr. ; in the Senatuscons. de Bacc, the Lex lulia. (3) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust likes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy, use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th Conj. : moriundum, partiundus, &c. It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases : rerum repetundarum, iurc dicundo, belli gerundi, agris dividundis. 24 Latin Soundlore. § 12. Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte, dupundius for dupondius. Later language resumed o : ^ It. fronde, fronte, pondo, mondo. 6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumus- culus. aplustre, indu-stria (endo) : also arbustum, onustus, robustus, venustus; which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus, robus, venus. 2. The words in which u appears to represent e are few : as malsum (jjiiXi) ; sepultus from sepel-ire ; urgeo (tjoyo)) .... Note, Long u for Pr. a or its substitute 5 appears in various suffixes : -turo-, -tura, -suro-, -sura, -uno-, -una^ -uco-, -uca, -uceo-, -ucio- : i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una, ^ cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius. compared with prae-tor (anc), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-ox, mer-acus, clo-aca, gallin-aceus. xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selec- tion. It has been shewn that A) e has affinity with r, B) e is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for finai syllables. Also it must be noted that C) e has affinity with the combinations st, ss, U. Z>) e is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication. These causes determine a great number of instances in which e appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings. A) e chosen with r. i) In Decl. I and 2, before the suffix po- pa-, e takes the place of Pr. a or of o, sometimes of u : Examples are- Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout : numeru-s, umeru-s, uteru-s ; camera, littera, tessera ; and the Fern. Adjectives, lacera, libera, misera, tenera, altera. • Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc. Sing. Masc. : gener, puer, socer (Ifcvpoc), vesper, lacer, liber, miser, tener, alter. 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 25 Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and VoCo Sing. Masc, and drop e in all their other forms : ager, aper, faber, magister ; Afer^ ruber, niger, uter. In some of these (as magister and uter) e represents Pr. a, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre- sentant of the dropt 6. In some words with suffix ro- ra- Greek a was kept befoire r : , cantharus, cithara. 2) Similarly, in Decl. 3, e comes before r in many forms : Words in er er-, which keep e throughout : career, cadaver, piper, papaver, tuber : celer, degener, pauper, uber. Words in ter, cer, ber ; which keep e ( = Pr. a) only in Nonu and Voc. Sing. Masc, dropping it in the other cases : frater, mater, pater, venter, imber ; acer, alacer, saluber, puter, Silvester. Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. iis ( = ds), have in the Oblique Cases the suffix er- : fun-er-is, gen-er-is, op-er-is, Ven-er-is, vet-er-is. but some keep 6-r- : corp-6r-is, frig-6r-is, pect-6r-is, a few use er- and or- : pign-iis, pign-er-is and pign-6r-is : fenus, fen-er-is and fen-6r-is ; temperi for tempdri : whence tempero, temperies. Vomer or vomis, Gen. vom-er-is, points to an original form in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be- comes er, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes Is : see xxii. 2. and compare the forms Ceres Cerer-, cinis ciner-, pulvis pulver-, 3) Verbs having er in their root do not weaken e into 1 in compounds : affero, congero, desero, puerpera. for the same reason peperi not (pepiri) ; repperi not (reppiri). similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iero, pe-iero, weakening u into e. When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with p, i is changed into e or e : (E. L. dedi-sont dede-ront) dederuntordedere. (E. L, dedt-so)y dede-ro. 26 ' Latin Soundlore. . - § 12. B) B has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t. 1) In Decl. 3, the Norn. S. -en (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in the Oblique Cases : pecten, agmen, crimen, oscen, tubicen. Gen. pectin-is, agmin-is, crimin-is, oscin-is, tubicln-is. 2) a. Septem (Sk. saptan, Gr. tVm) ; novem (Sk. navan^ Gr. tvvea), decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. Uku). /3. In Decl. 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns : reg-em, virgin-em, passer-em. it prevails in I-nouns against -Im: civ-em, font-em, serpent-em, but -Im is retained by some : bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim, while others use both forms. See § 24, 5. febr-im febr-em, messim messem. Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form : as ad fatim, partim. But saltem or saltim. M 2LS 3, final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed out of use in modern Italian, leaving e final generally : se^/e, nove, &c.; hut unded, doded, ... from undecim, duodecim, ... 3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see § 20, 24. Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -is and es : fel-is fel-es, vall-is vall-es, verr-is verres; but s, like m, disappeared in L.L. and Italian, leaving e final : nude, valle, &c. 4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before it the Perfect character i was sometimes changed into e : at a later time to the middle sound ei : finally in classical times settling into I. Thus are found the various forms : (dede, dedit, dedet, dedeit), dedit. In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and s, disappeared again, leaving final e ; disse^fece, C) S has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of other vowels. 1) In the Voc. S. of 0-nouns it supersedes 5 : domine, lupe, Romule. 2) In the Neut. S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes 1 : mare, rete ; triste, necesse. 3) When final consonants are cast off: q\x\ViC{Mc{Sk. panc'Uy Gr. wivri). §12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 2/ ille, iste, ipse (illus, istus, ipsus). Abl. S. of Decl. 3: quaestore (quaestorid or quaestored). -re for runt in Perf. dedere (dederunt). -rS for -Pis in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris. -ve for vis in neve, sive. mage for magi s; pote for potis. In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for is. By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in- troduced which prevails in modern Italian. D) s has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before grouped and double consonants. 1) JB appears before x ( = cs, grs) in the final syllable of Nouns of Decl. 3 which are inflected with the suffixes ic- ig- ( = ICO- iffo-, as explained by Corssen) : codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex. Gen. codicis, corticis, remigis ; simplicis, suppllcis. 2) S appears before ps, bs in the final syllable of Nouns of Decl. 3, which are inflected with the suffixes ip- (up-) ib- : such are municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps. Gen. municipis, aucupis, caelibis, participis. Compounds of caput, with Nom. -ceps for -cipit-s, have Gen. -cipitis ; praeceps, Gen. praecTpTtis. 3) When a Noun with that suffix ti- (which appears in hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante- penult syllable (ala-ti-, equ6-ti-), the vowel of the penult is weakened usually into 1 (aliti-, equiti-), sometimes into e (abieti- segeti-). The i of the suffix being dropt, the forms then become (alit- equit- seget- abiet-) : and when the Nom. S. is formed by the addition of -s, they become (alit-s equit-s seget-s abiet-s) : but, e being preferred to 1 in a final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After which, by the rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s, and the Nominatives then become ales, eques ; Gen. alit-is, equit-is; seges, Gen. seget-is; teges, Gen. teget-is. but abies, aries, paries. Gen. abietis, arietis, pa- ri etis, on account of i preceding. Note, In this class, the vowels e, 1 generally represent Pr. or Latin a (see above), but in a few % is the root- vowel : comes, comit- (root 1, to go). 28 . Latin Soimdlore, ; - § 12. In pedes pfedtt-, probably also in seges, teges, the vowel is adopted by analogy, forming a suffix i-t- or e-t-. See Footnote, p. 30* 4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from sed- sid-, to sit (Pr. sad) : (obsed-s) obses obsid- ; (praesed-s) praeses, praesJd-; (desed-s) deses desid- ; (resed-s) reses resid-. 5) S before nt appears in the suffix mento- : ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m. and for Greek a in talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum. 6) B is frequent before 11 : cello, pello, vello, velle, and the Demin. forms : puella: but in these i is also used : sigillum. In other groups with 1 the vowel u prevails, see xix. : but e is not excluded : celsus, excelsus. 7) Equester, pedester, for (equet-ter, pedet-tef). 8) (fat-) fessus ; (grad-) gressus. 9) The Neuter suffix (os) us weakens its vowel into e before another suffix beginning with t : fun-US fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tuSc temp-US temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus. The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by mod-es-tus ; mod-er-ari : so the Masc. Noun honos forms hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas : but o becomes u in ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-ua-tus. maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas. C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others poten(t)s (potent- tas) pot-es-tas % he cites Prasrn-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae- no-), meaning * the town on the highest prominence^ 10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is- ter, in L. L. appear with es for Is ; whence \X.2X\2,Ti maestro. In some other words also, as an teste s, L. L. writes est- for 1st-. Modern Italian is not uniform in the choice between e and l. We find fermo^ selva^ segno ^ irenti; but principe, sinistra^ vittoria^ carissimo: E) On the use of e for fi, 6, u in the reduplicated syllable of Per- fects see xxv. g 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 29 xxii. The Selection of i. aonofi. A) The thinnest and sharpest vowel i has a strong affinity with dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also with t and d, E) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem with suffix and suffix with suffix. C) The existence of a middle sound between 1 and u caused the orthography of many words to fluctuate. A) I. Affinity of i with n. I represents Greek a before n in balineum, bucina, fascino, machtna, pattna, trutina, ^ It represents Greek i before n in adamantinus, coccinus, coccineus, crystallinus. It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : * fisclna, fuscina, pagina, sarcina, pampinus, sucmum, fagtnus, fagineus, geminus, myrrhinus. In mino- (Pr. mana) and tino- (Pr. tana) : terminus, femina ; fruimino, amaminor. crastinus, diutinus, pristmus. In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. en, en) before vowels : pect-in-is, sangu-in-is, osc-in-is. In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. on, on) before vowels : ^ hom-in-is, marg-in-is, ord-m-is, virg-in-is, ApoU-in-is. In the suffix min- (Pr. man L. men) before vowels : flu- mm-is, no-mm-is, nu-mln-is. A striking instance of the affinity of 1 with n appears in the fact that it was inserted in the Greek word \i'va^ which so became mina. Similar insertions occur in Daph-i-ne^ luc-i-nus or lych-i-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-i- nasium probably in Catullus. So the affinity of u with m is shewn in the occasional forms drac-u-ma for lpa)^\ir]^ Alc-u-mena, Tec-u-messa, &c., and with 1 in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-u-les. Minerva, anciently Menerva. Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are many instances of it being sharpened into i before n with another consonant : intus, inter, indu- . . . quinque . . . tingo . . . vindico . . . so when n follows another consonant : ignis, pignus, signum, tignum. 2. Affinity of i with s is shewn In the forms cinis (ciner), cucumis (cucumer), pulvTs _ (pul-ver), vomis (vomer), pubis (puber) : also aci- pensis (acipenser). See C. II. 278. * In fact the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no short vowel but i before it. Such words as balanus, cottana, platanus, raphanus, Rhodanus are not native of Italy. 30 Latm Soundlore, ] . §12^ In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as). In the occasional use of l-sc- for e-sc- in Inceptive Verbs : lucisco for lucesco, 3. Affinity of 1 with t is shewn In the adoption of i before many Verb and Noun suffixes beginning with t : ag-i-to, ag-i-te, ag-i-tis, gen-i-tus, gem-i-tus, domi-tum, meri- tum, veti-turus, doli-turus, fru-i-turus, gen-i-tor (but gene- trix), habi-tare, strepi-tare : — laeti-tia, plani-ties, veri-tas, alti-tudo, peni-tus, largi-ter, sempi-ternus. 4. Affinity of 1 with d is shewn In the adoption of 1 before the suffix do- : candi-dus, torp-i-dus, flu-I-dus, viv-I-dus. herbi-dus, gravi-dus, morbi-dus, gell-dus. Note. When an E-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-on- ^'Xn-, the vowel before that suffix is e : albe-do, dulce-do, grave-do : but lib 1- do, by assimilation. B) Use of i as a linking Vowel.^ I. The large use of i before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and its own aptitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before co-, c-un-do-, culo-, cro- ; b-un-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monia. (Verbalia) ali-ca, velli-co, medi-cus, rubi-cundus, cubi-culum, ridi-culus, veh-i-culum, pudi-bundus, fur-i-bundus, pati-bulum, cred-i-bilis, terri-bilis, flexi-bilis, spec-I-men, al-I-mentum, quer- i-monia. (Denominativa) auli-cus, belli-cus, annt-culus, ludi-cer, currT- culus, ani-cula, aegri-monia, caeri-monia. But Verbal a is kept : ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men, sacra-mentum. Sometimes e : vere-cunduSj fle-bilis. * Corssen is right in principle, when he considers this T to be a weakening of the final Towel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in aulT-cus from aula; bellT-cus from belle- ; ridi-culus from ride- ; am-cula from anu-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314 and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the 1 in regimen as weakened *from the original final a of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex- ample, in ped-es, ped-it- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. ttoS-), and in the use of the suffix i-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene- rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a uniform sujffix (einheitliches Suffix) applied, by linguistic analogy (Sprachbewusstsein), to Consonant stems also. This is, in fact, all that is meant when the use of vowels (1, u, e) is cited in this Grammar as * vincular : » and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient. The same convenience recommends the term * Clipt Stem ' to express a vowel-stem without its vowel character. But * mord ' is in fact the root of mord-ere. Hence, to say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-ere, as C. does, and to say that they are formed from the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways of saying one and the same thing ; and the latter is the shorter way» § 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 31 2. A similar adoption of x is frequent in Compound Words at the close of the prior element. (i) terri-gena, silvi-cola, auri-fex, signt-fer, fati-dicus ; corni-ger, arci-tenens, lucti-ficus ; muni-ceps, sorti-legus ; parrl-cida, luc-I-fer, rur-i-cola ; (2) horri-sonus, terri-ficus ; miseri-cors ; (3) undi-que, indi-dem, sici-ne ... hici-ne .... Ante, bene, male vary : anti-cipo, anti-stes ; but ante-cedo, ante-venio ... beni-gnus, beni-volus ; but also bene-volus ... mali-gnus, mali-ficus ; but also male-ficus .... E-verbs compounded with die ere, facere keep e or weaken it to e : valedicere, arefactus, tepefactus. 3. The Suffixes I0-, ro-, cpo-, bro-, bulo-, tro-, tilo-, &c., often change their vowel into 1 before the Nom. ending s ; thus causing Adjectives in us, a, um to pass into the I-declension. gracil-us, gracil-i-s ; hilar-u-s, hilar-i-s. steril-u-s, steril-i-s ; indecor-u-s, indec6r-I-s. seques-ter -tra -trum ; seques-ter -tns -tre. On this preference of 1 the Adjectival forms in li-s, ri-s, cri-s^ bri-s, bili-s, tri-s are founded. By the passing also of 6- ii-s into 1- i-s arises a double form of numerous Adjectives : imberb-u-s, imberb-i-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-i-s decliv-u-s, decliv-i-s ; effren-u-s, effren-i-s. In bicorni-s, u of the stem passes into 1. See § 28. 4. Before the Ending -bus of Dat. Abl. PI. we have 1 for o, in qui -bus, hi- bus (Plant), and other old forms. I in I-nouns, as navi-bus (nave-bos on the Duellian Column). \ vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-i-bus, virgin-i-bus. I foru generally in U-nouns, as canti-bus, corni-bus; except those in -cu-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep il. C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between \ and u, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect- ing chiefly such words as the following : — (i) imo- or iimo- : lacrima lacruma victima victuma aesttmo aestumo existimo existumo legitimus legitumus maritimus maritumus maximus maxumus decimus decumus monimentum monumentum testimonium testumonium. (2) ip- or up-, lb- or iib- : mancipium mancupium recipero recupero libet lubet ritibus ritubus. (3) If- or iif- aurifex aurufex pontifex pontufex manifestus manufestus sacrifico sacrufico 1 32 Latin Soimdlore. Also capi talis or caputalis and a few more words. Inscriptions shew that the forms with u, prevailed in E. L. and R. L., those with i in and after the Augustan age, for which the Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority. V Recapitulation, The principles thus laid down respecting the ad- aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup- ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See Corssen, II. 60-225. These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix vowels more than root vowels ; grave much more than accented vowels. The general results are : A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials. O is appropriate (i) to v, (2) to 1, r. XT is appropriate to 1 and the Labials, z: is appropriate to r. Z is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s. Again : E and u are appropriate to grouped consonants, z: is convenient for final syllables and the end of words. ZS is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs. Z is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and suffixes with each other. IT, e, sometimes take its place. All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in- tended to make utterance less troublesome. Again : The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to u and through e to i, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground, and in modern Italian o very often appears where u stood anciently : often e where Latin had i : motto, mosca^ polvere, sepolcro, fonder romp ere, sono (sum), &c., bevere (bib ere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde (viridis), Assimi- xxiii. Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis- anTDis- similation of Vowels to each other. tion?^' By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same as another, or so as to become more suitable to it. When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this change is called Dissimilation. Every such change has euphony for its object. Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters. It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to change one which follows. I 1 12, Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33 1. Assimilation of Vowels. Assimi- lation of A) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. Vowels, (An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same as its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it.) a. Regressive. i) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots !, gOy qut, can^ and their compounds, 1 before a, o, u is changed into e : earn ... eo, eunt; queam queo, queunt. Z before e in their Participles is used rarely : as Nom. S. iens, qui ens, but in the Oblique Cases usually ie becomes eu : euntis queuntis So iendum ... usually passes into eundutn ... . As ie is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order of change was i-ont" 1-ond-j then e-unt-, e-und-, which remained in this old verb after ent- end- had come in generally. Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio. 2) The Pronoun-root 1 (is), arid its strengthened compound idem, in the same manner change i to e before a, u: hence we get ea, eam, eum, eo, eos ; eadem^ eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem. 3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pn div), is an assimilation of the same nature. In Nom. P. di (dei) are used; in D. Abl. dis (dels) ; but not dii, diis. But Diana is classical : Dean a L. L. 4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiano- O. nausea (j/avc/a) ; cachlea {KoyXiaq)* but 1 remains in pius ... via (veha). Progressive. 1) By the influence of e or of I preceding it, o is prevented from passing into u in the suffix 6I0- ; see p. 22. 2) Substantives in -ia, Decl. i., pass into -ies, Decl. 5 ; avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies.^ 3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. 1-yans, comes -lens (-les) : ^ quot-iens (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies). 4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix la becomes le : (es-ia-m) = siem = sim ; (ama-s -ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem. c a \ T^f, ^;^^^ Declension is a mere offshoot of the First. The ending a, Decl. i . was ongmal y long as aqnila in old Latin poetry. Hence came Je by asiimilation from 4 and, with addition of Nom. S. Ending s, les : luxuria, luxurie-s. D Latin Sound lore. EsquTliae (aesculus) exilium (exulo) facHis (facul) Quids (Cures) B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels. (Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.) 1) u is often assimilated to a subsequent \ : Aemilius (aemulus) consilium (consulo) -cilium (-culere) similis (simul) ^ manlbiae (manubiae) 2) O is assimilated to a subsequent 1 in inquflinus (incolo) | upilio (ploTrokoQ) 3) s is assimilated to a subsequent \ in Duilius (Duel-l-ius, Bellius), Brundisium (Brundesium) , mihi (mehi), tibi (tebi), sibi (sebi) ; nihil (nehil), ntmius {nQ,-m\-\x-s)y2mme astir ed. See C. 11. 366' famtlia {0. fa77tel, whence famul, famulus).* U is assimilated to o in ^ soboles, when written for suboles. O is assimilated to e in bene (bono-) x: is assimilated to u in tiigurium (tegere). And long e to o in socors (secors). DissimU II. Dissimilation of Vowels. Vowels!^ i) It has been shewn that in E* L. and R. L. u, v wefe avoided before u, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servo m, &c., antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. Uv was not so much avoided. We find indeed floviom^ conflovont in E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius. 2) The concurrence li was avoided in E. L. and R. L. by writing i-ei ; as fili-ei * sons ; ' peti-ei^ &c., ieis and eeis ; also adi-e^e in Senatuscons. de Bacc, but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra. In C. L. ii is avoided by writing e for i in anxi-etas, ebri-etas, pi-etas, sati-etas, soci-etas, vari-etas, abi-etis ...,ari-etis pari-etis ... vari-egare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus, lani-ena, and in many Proper Names : Cati^enus, Labi-enus. * Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography, than suspTcio (suspltio)and con vicium(con vTtium), Each'form has good documen- tary evidence in its favour, and perhaps the strongest argument for t is that, while ci often appears in I. L. and L, L. for ti, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen is strongly in favour of suspTcio, as an assimilation of a strengthened form s u s p e c i o, and of c o n vT c i u m, as an assimilated form from convocium. Fleckeisen on the other side assumes suspitio from suspicitio, and con vltiumfrom convocitium. Subiudice lis est. There are strong arguments against each view ; but for the present Corssen's seems the less objectionable. § 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words, 35 It is avoided in the compounds of jacio by casting out one i, and allowing to the other the power of ji. See pp. 10, 38. Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare pi^y * injure In the Pronouns is, idem, the forms li, iis were avoided by writ- ing ei, eis : but li, lis were tolerated in Imperial times. • 3) 0-0 was tolef ated in I. L. But c6-6pia becomes copia ; and coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-optato. M. Lucr. v. 342. ing m Com- pounds. xxiv. Vowelweakening iii the Second Member vowe!- fr^ 1 f T 7 1 weaken Compound Words. Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds. If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro- clitically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se- parated, the compound is loose. Thus Mars-pater is a loose compound ; but becoming Maspiter, it is fast; because the parts are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a state of separation : M. Lucr. i. 452. ob vos sacro (Festus) sub vos placo „ facit are (Lucn) per mihi gratum est per mihi placet obsecro vos supplico vos arefacit pergratum est mihi mihi perplacet Such compounds as satisfacere, circumdare, &c., may be considered loose ; while proficere, tradere, &c. are fast. The fast Compounds hitherto cited, Maspiter, proficere, tra- dere, weaken the root-vowel of the second member. But this weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not weakened. We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second member of the composition. I. d) Numerous words keep their root- vowel a unweakened in the second member of their compounds ; such are most Verbs of Conj. i. : agitare, amare, gravare, vagari; tnatly of Conj. 2. : ardere, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere, valere ; many Nouns : animus, avus, faber, palma, par. Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds, but not all: from mandare, commendo, but demando. Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin which are weakened later : M. Lucr. ii. 951, 11 35. aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ; afterwards aspergere, dispergere. D 2 36 Latifi Soundlore. § 12. b) A is weakened (through o) into u in the second member of some compounds : a. before I : calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco. salsus . . insulsus. saltare . . ex-sulto : de- in-sulto. saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum. Note, Salire anciently was weakened by u, dissuluit (Lucr.); but later it took i by assimilation : de-si lio. /3. Before Labials : cap- . . . occupare : nuncupare : aucup- : mancup-. taberna . contubernium. lavere . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium. y. After qu, by assimilation : quatere. . concutio, de- dis- in* per- suc^cutio -cussi ... quare . . cur (for quor). Before ss : as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis. Note, O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in consul, exsul, praesul, insula, consulo. Long a is weakened into u in the suffix -ugo (-agro) : aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo. c) £l is weakened into 6 in the second member of many com- ■ pounds : tam . . autem, item. -dam . . idem, itidem quidem, tandem apisci . . indepisci. canere . . oscen, corntcen, fidicen accentus .... bacillus. . imbecillus ... gradi . . aggredior ... con- de^ di* e- in- prae- pro* trans- re-gredior : aggressus .... lacere . . illecebrae, illectus, paelex. pacisci . . depecisci (or depac-) : but compacisci. pati . . . perpetior, perpessus. fatigare. . defetigo (or defat-). fatisci . . defetisci, defessus. dare. . . addere, de- e- pro- red- tra-dere ... . (Sk. dhoi) . abdere, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-dere. parare . . (impero ... ; pauper propero, aequipero, vitu- pero ...?) but apparo, com- prae- re- se-paro. pario . . comperio, reperio : (aperio, operio ?) puerpera, vipera .... ager . . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare. arma . . inermis. arcere . . coerceo, exerceo .... ars . . . iners, sollers, quinquertium. agere . . remex. annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennis -ennium aptus . . ineptus ; adeptus. 12. Vowelweakenmg in Compotmd Words, 37 as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis .... barba . . imberbis. candere . accendo, incendo ... succendo .... cantus . . accentus, concentus. capere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps ... . captus , . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus...... caput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps ... .. carpere . . discerpere, con- de- ex-cerpere. castus . . incestus. damnare . condemnare ; indemnatus, indemnis., facere . . artifex, opifex, carnifex. factus , . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus but labefactus ... with many more, fallere , . refello. fassus , . confessus, dif- pro-fessus. farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus* iacere . . obex (for ob-iex). iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus lactare . . delecto, oblecto. mandare . commendo, but demando. pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando). parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit). pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par- titus). partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus). passus . . perpessus. patrare . . impetro, perpetro. raptus . . abreptus, eor- di- sur-reptus. sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Men. Anc). scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo. spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35. stare . . antistes, supers tes (-stit-). tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con- tracto, Lucr.). Note, O (Pr. a) is weakened into e in potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos. Long a is weakened into e in halare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523). d) IL is weakened (through e) to 1 in the second member of many compounds : agere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-Tgo (but circumago, perago, satago), nav-ig-o. Part. P. -actus, apisci . . adipiscor, indipiscor. amicus. . inimicus.... cadere . . accido, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cido decMuus, occiduus, . . . stilicidium. canere . • accmo,concmo,prae-pro- re- suc-cino,vaticTnium,^ luscinia .... caput . . occiput, sinciput, ancipit- praecipit- .... capere . , accipio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-clpio^ ... praeclpuus, princfpium ... . datus . , addltus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-dJtus. 38 Latin Soundlore. Pr. dha . . abdttus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-dttus. facere . . afficio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-Hcio ; cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneficium ...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cpp. difficilis. superficies, inficetus. conf iteor, dif- pro-f iteor, infitiae, inHtior. adhibeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-hibeo; but post-habeo. adicio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-icio. On forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M. Lucr. ii. 951. alllcio, e- il- pel-licio. delttesco. comminus, emlnus. enim, etenim. luppiter, Diespiter, Maspiter. displiceo : but perplaceo. abripio, arrlpio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-ripio. irritus. adsilio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-silio. deslpio, inslpiens ; resTpisco. institor, iustltium, solstltium. constituo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stttuo. destino, obstino, praestino, obstinatus. efifringo, in- con- per- re-fringo. Part. P. -fractus. compingo, impingo. Part. P. -pactus. attingo, con- per-tingo. Part. P. -tactus. praefisclne (i). semis, semisses. Note, o (Pr. a) is weakened to X in potis. . . hospita, sospita, hospttium ... . Long a is weakened into i in the suffix -ig:o (-agro) : fuligo, robigo, uligo, &c. 2. d) s is kept in the second member of many compounds : edo, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego, veho, venio, gen-, ped- ; and those with er, fero, gero, sero, tero. 1: is weakened into i in the second member of several com- pounds : indtgeo, indigus. adtoo, eximo, per- red-imo, (but coemo). coUigo, de- di- e- se-ligo. But intell^go, neglego, sublego. Also perlego, prae- re-lego from legere, to read, dimidius. comprlmo, de- im- op- re- sup-prtoo. ^ arrigo, cor- de- e-rigo. assldeo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sldeo ; asslduus, praesidium, subsidium. ' facilis facies facetus fateri habere iacere lacere latere manus nam . pater placere rapere ratus salire sapere stare statuere (stan-) . frangere pangere tangere . fascinare as, assis egere emere legere medius . premere regere . sedere . § 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words, 39 tenere • . abstlfneo, attineo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-t!neo ; continuus, pertinax, protmus, protinam. dedi . . addidi, &c. steti . . . adstiti, &c. In close syllables compounds resume e : ademptus, coUectus, compressus, directus, consessuSj retentus. Long e is weakened into i in lenire ^ . delinio (also delenio). tela . . . subtilis. c) £ is changed to u in temnere . contumelia (contumax ?) 3. o is kept in the second member of compounds generally: convoco, abrodo. But locus , , ilico. gnotus . . agnitus, cognYtus. 4. IT is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- incubo, eluceo ; except that u is weakened into e in iurare . . de-iero, pe-iero. 5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus; but melts into i in aequus . . inlquus. aestumare . existimo. caedere . , abscldo, accTdo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cido, homicidium, parriclda .... laedere . . allido, col- il-lido. quaerere . acquiro, anquiro, con- dis- in- per- re-quiro, inqui- sitio .... 6. The diphthong oe (ol) sinks to 1 in coenum^ . inquinare, coinquinare. In E. L. it sank to u in ludere, iiti, munus, munio, punio, etc., and their compounds. See xii. 7. The diphthong au is generally kept : inauro, adaugeo: but it sinks to 0 in faux . . . suffocare ; plaudere . explodo, supplodo (but applaudo) ; to u in causa . . acciiso, incuso, recuso ; fraus , . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare : see M. Lucr. vi,.i87^ claudere . concludo, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ; and to oe in audire . . oboedire. Note, The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws of Vowelchange as the Latin. * Obscenus(obscoenus) is usually derived from c o e n u m. This, however, is by no means certain. 40 Latm Soundlore. § 12. Redupii. XXV. Reduplication, cation. Reduplication in language is a practice as old as language itself. The infant from instinct or imitation forms words by repeating the syllables : pa-pa, ma-ma, ta-ta ; often unconsciously weakening the first : pu-pa, me-ma, ti-ta : and the mother or nurse amuses or lulls the infant by similar repetitions : ding-dong, by-bye, &c. Various emotions express themselves in the same manner : aha oho ! &c. See Pott {Die Doppelitng). Thus arose the habit of modifying words A) By doubling a root merely: B) By prefixing to it its first consonant and vowel. After which it came to pass, that the reduplicative syllable might be either strengthened or weakened, and the root itself weakened (rarely strengthened) after reduplication, in consequence of accentual change. A) Reduplication by doubling the Root merely : d) bar-bar-US (bulbul Pers.), cu-cu-lus, la-la-re, Mar-mar, cin- cin-nus, tin-tin-nare, ul-ul-are, cur-cul-io, gur-gul-io, fur- fur, mur-mur, tur-tur. So quisquis, utut, ubiubi, &c. b) The Root is weakened in car-cer, mar-mor. E) Reduplication by prefixing the first two letters of the Root. (This is specially important in Greek and Latin on account of its use in forming the Perfect Tense of Verbs.) d) Without vowelchange : cd-cul-lu-s, {po-pol-ti-s), su-sur-ru-s, and the following Per- fects ; cu-curr-i, d!-dic-i, mo-mord-i, pe-pend-i, p6-posc-i, pu-pug-i (pu-;/-go), scT-cid-i (sci-;/-do), spo-pond-i (spon- deo), te-tend-i, to-tond-i, tii-tud-i. b) Redupl. weakened, Root unchanged ; in occasional forms ce-curr-i, me-mord-i, pe-posc-i, pe-pug-i, spe-pond-i. c) Redupl. unchanged ; Root strengthened. pa-pa-ver, tu-tud-i (rare). d) Redupl. strengthened ; Root weakened. Ma-mers, Ma-mer-cus, Ma-mur-iu-s, pa-pll-io, p5-pul-ug {poplar)y pu-bl-icu-s. e) Redupl. unchanged ; Root weakened^ p6-pul-us {people), /) Redupl. and Root weakened. cT-cind-ela (candela), ci-con-ia ; tl-tu-lu-s ; b!-be-re (po Pr. pd, drink)y gi-gn-ere (Pr. gdn, gen, engender)^ si-ste-re (sta-), se-re-re (for se-se-re. Root sd). The reduplicative syllable is weakened in many Perfects by changing its vowel to 6 (see xxi.) : § 12. Assimilation of Consonants, At de-d-i (da-), ste-t-i (sta-) : fe-fell-i (fallo), pe-per-i (pario), pe-perc-i (parco) : te-tul-i (tol-l-o, Pr. tal) : ce-cid-i (cado), ce-cin-i (cano), pe-pig-i (pa-;/-go), te-tig-i {tdi-n- go) : ce-cid-i (caedo). Obs. A consonant is lost in si-ste-re (for sti-ste-re), sci-cid-i, usually scid-i (for sci-scid-i), sp6-pond-i or spe-pond-i (for spo- spond-i or spe-spond-i), p6-pul-are (for spo-spul-are from spolium). A vowel is lost in de-d-i (for de-de-i) : gi-gn-o (for gi-gen-o). A vowel and consonant are lost in ste-t-i (for ste-ste-i). xxvi. Changes of Concurrent Consonants. (The sign x is used to express ' becomes/) I. Complete Assimilation of Consonants. A) Regressive Assimilation : Assimi- lation of Conson- ants. (dq) X cq (adquiro) acquiro „ (quidque) quicque (dl) X 11 (adludo) alludo (sed-^-la) sella (conloco) coUoco (coron-//-la) corolla (un-^-lus) ullus (perlicio) pellicio (ager-//-lus) agellus (tn) X nn (pet-na) penna (dn) „ „ (adnuo) annuo )9 J7 V (bm) X mm (submoveo) summoveo (sub-mus) summus (flagma) flamma (inmotus) immotus (subripio) surripio (inrideo) irrideo (&m) ,y (nm),, (bp) X )9 rr (as) 3> J> X SS (ts) 3> V yy (merced-narius) mercennarius. (fod-sa) fossa (adsurgo) assurgo (cedsi) cessi (concutsi) concussi The following Assimilations also occur in the Composition of Particles with Verbs : (be) X CO (obcurro) occurro (dc) „ „ (adcedo) accedo (b&) X (obgero) oggero (dgr) „ „ (adgravo) aggravo (dt) X tt (adtendo) attendo (bp) X pp (obpono) oppono (dp) „ „ (adpeto) appeto (bf ) X ff (obfero) oflfero (cf ) „ „ (ecfugio) effugio (df ) „ „ (adficio) afficio (sf) „ „ (disfiteor) diffiteor a) (nd) X nn occurs in Plautus : dispennite for dispendite ; distennite for distendite. So in Oscan ; opsannam = op Gra.n dam, (3) mn, though stable in C. L., often yields to assimilation in modern language : L. column a, It. colonna, Fr. colonne, y) That final m of a proclitic word assimilated itself in utter- ance to a following n, is testified by Cic. Or. 45 and Quint, viii. 3. 45. Thus etiam nunc was sounded etian-nunc.^ ' The sharpening of an inner syllable by doubling a consonant (relligio,reIliquiae, millia, querella, bracchium, luppiter, littera) must not be confounded with Assimilation. See Appendix A. : also C. I. 227. II. 466. 42 Latin Soundlore, B) Progressive Assimilation : (ferse) ferre ; (farsis) farris ; (rvpaig) turris. So C. forms (miser-timus x miser-simus) miserrimus. (is) X 11 ; (vol-se) velle ; (mel-tis x mel-sis) mellis, &c. (facil-timus X facil-simus) facillimus (C.). (st) X ss : (duris-timus) durissimus : where duris is contracted from durius (C.).^ (This assimilation occurs in some Supines, according to C.'s view: fissum, fossum, passum, &c. See xxxi.) II. Partial Assimilation of Consonants (Adaptation). I. The Sonant g becomes c, and the Sonant b becomes p, before s or t : (reg-si) x rexi ( = rec-si) (scrib-si) x scripsi (reg-tum) x rectum (scrib-tum) x scriptum a) But ab, sub, ob, may remain in composition : absens, subter, obtineo (but also apsens, optineo) And bs final may be kept in Nouns : caelebs, plebs, trabs, urbs (but also pleps, urps, &c.). Ods. X = cs = any Guttural with s : any Guttural except c being supposed to become c before and so to form x : ' (dic-si) X dixi (sug-si x suc-si) x suxi (fac-s) X fax (leg-s x lec-s) x lex (coqu-si X coc-si) x coxi (ungu-si x unc-si) x unxi The following Verbs deserve special attention : trah-ere Perf. (trah-si trac-si) traxi (from a lost Pr. tragk f) veh-ere — (veh-si vec-si) vexi : Sk. vah (a lost Pr. vagh f), * The formation of Latin Comparatives and Superlatives may be briefly stated here. I. Comparatives. 1) (Sk. ydnSy yas) Lat. (-ios) X -ior -ius is added to the Ch'pt Stem : (dur-ios) dur-ior, dur-ius ; (ingent-ios) ingent-ior, ingent-ius. (mag-ios, mag-ior, &c.), ma-ior, ma-ius : — magis for mag-ius. (root min- ; min-ior, &c.), min-or, minus, (root pie- =Sk. : ple-ior, ple-ius, plo-ius, pious), plus, plur-, 2) (Sk. tard) Lat. tero- is added to Roots and Stems : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, in-ter : — pari-ter, ali-ter, &c. 3) Both Suffixes are used in mag-is-ter, min-is-ter ;— dex-ter-ior, in-ter-ior, &:c. IL Superlatives. 1) (Sk. ta)X.o-y inquar-tu-s, quin-tu-s, quo-tu-s, &c. 2) (Sk. ma) mo-, in sum-mu-s, i-mu-s, pri-mus, mini-mu-s, pluri-mu-s ; (ex- ter-mu-s)xextre-mu-s ; (pos-ter-mu-s)x postre-mu-s ; (super-mu-s) X supre-mu-s. 3) (Sk. tamo) timo- in ci-timu-s, ul-timu-s, op-timu-s, in-timu-s, ex- timu-s, pos-tumu-s, dex-timu-s, sinis-timu-s. passes into simo- in (pe-d-timo-) pessi-mu-s, (mag-timo-) maxim-us, proximu-s. passes into (simo-) ITmo- in facillimu-s, &c. — — (simo-) rimo- in miserrimu-s, &c. In most Adjectives tlmo- is added to the contracted comparative is (iros) and as- similated : (dur-is-timo-)x durissimu-s. So tristissimus, felicissim,us, &c. g 12. Dissimilation of Conso7iants. 43 viv-ere Perf. (vigv-si vic-si) vixi : Sk. jiv (Pr. gvigv-). flu-ere — (flugv-si, fluc-si) fluxi (from a lost form flug-vere), stru-ere — (stru-ic-si) struxi (probably from 2iiQxmstru4c-ere), Add the nasalized ninguere with its Noun nix, s-now (Pr. snighj Sk. snih^ ' to stick'). Nix (ningv-s) drops v in Nom. Sing, and in the other cases, forming Gen. niv-is, &c. 2. Liquids and Nasals ^ take Sonants before them in preference to Surds : (po-pl-icus) X pu-bl-icus (ili-cn-us) x ili-gn-us (qua-tr-a) x qua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) x cy-gn-us (ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (se-cm-entum) x se-gm-entum Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg- otium. 3. TX becomes m before the Labials m ; but remains be- fore f, V : impleo, imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho. 4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n : (sop-nus) X somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium. 5. iw: often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ; and, if kept, is sounded as n : clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem. So quon-iam for quom-iam. But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam, unumquemque, namque, numquis. In others m is better than n : quamquam, tamquam, cumque, umquam, numquam. 6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes s : (edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum (rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum. In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become s : (fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-tum) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus. III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi- lation of The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place. a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae- rulus. b) Palilia is sometimes written Parilia : Remuria x Lemuria. * The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of g"!! in French -grne final, as cygne. Its sound in Frenchand Italian before interior vowels=n-y ; thus, agneau, agnello (=an-yo, an-yello). 44 LatUi Sotmdlore, § It. Trans- posi- tion. Eu- phonic Inser- tion. 1.055 of Initial Letters. c) The suffixes all- ell- ill- ull- are chosen for Adjectives de- rived from Nouns, if the root contains p : and the suffix -arl is chosen if the root contains l ; austr-ah-s cardin-aH-s liber-ah-s reg-ali-s crud-eU-s puer-iH-s cur-uli-s al-ari-s capill-ari-s coll-ari-s sol-ari-s stell-ari-s tutel-ari-s vulg-ari-s Obs, But in the suffix -ario, p is not changed : ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s. Note I. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for the sake of euphony : pristis for (pistris) I columns for (corulnus) extremus „ (extermus) | Note 2. When m is followed by « or t, p is euphonically inserted to strengthen the syllable : hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum.* The change temfitare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip- tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan, L. ten, whence ten-d-ere, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are. s seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro, &c. (from mon-eo). (On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-t-na, drac-u-ma, &c., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., see xxi.) * The Loss of Letters will next be considered. g xxvii. Loss of Initial Letters {'Acfyaipsaci), lost by lamentum... laus; luscinia ... vapor ... nasci, natus ... noscere, notus ... narrare lac shewn in c-lamare c-luere g-nasci g-natus : Sk. jan Gr. yei/- g-noscere, i-gnotus : Sk. jnd Gr. (g-narigare) from g-narus Gr. ya-Xa/c-r- * The euphonic insertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r, occur in Greek (as /Lte>-i3-Aw<ca, ya/x./S-po'?, ai/-5-po9), but not in classical Latin, except in hi-b-ernus for(hiem-rinus, Gr. x^i\i.^pivQ^\ But they came in later, and exist in numerous modern words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c. ^ Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the forms g nasci, gnoscere^ and knew so little of etymology, that he treats theginignotus, ignavus, ignarus as a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus, cognatus, prognatus, agnomen, cognomen, &c. ?S 12. Loss of Initial and Final Letters. 45 p d St lost by vivere lanx ; latus viginti shewn in luppiter: lanus rosa (radix, rigo) lupus lis, locus torus fallere tegere taurus cutis, cavus, caelum, casa, cavere, causa, cauda, &c. SV,j'iv (Pr. gviv). See p. 43. Gr. 7r-\aK-, tt-Xutvc, for dvi-ginti. In d-vis, d-vellum^ d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis, bellum, bonus. See Cic. Or.45. But duellum in Latin poetry : Eng. duet, M. Lucr. ii. 662. See p. 1 5. Gr. f-pohov, Aeol. fipobov, Sk. v-arka-s, Gr. \vkos. for st-lis (G. strett, Eng. strife) % st-lo-cus (Sk. stha4d). Gr. (T'Top^, Sk. s-tar, ' to strew' Gr. (T-^aXXeii', Sk. s-phal, Sk. s-thagj Gr. (rreyeiv, Sk. S'tMras, ^ strong ' : Eng. steerm Sk. s^ku, to hide. for other instances, see Corssen I.: also pp. 14-17. o) Tuli, fidi, scidi, cast off the syllable of reduplication* (5) Sum, sumus, sim...cast off the initial vowel c. y) When the Verb-form est follows a word ending with a vowel or m or with s after a vowel, it often loses e, and attaches itself enclitically to the preceding word. This occurs chiefly in the Comic poets, but also in later writers both of prose and poetry, and on Inscriptions: itast, ibist, quomst, quidemst, temulentast, nactust for nactus est, culest for qualis est (Plaut.). The Second Person, es, is subject to the same change, but not after m : homos for homo es, meritus for meritus es. xxviiL Loss of Final Letters (KtroKoirrj). A) Final e is dropt : d) By enclitic ne : men for mene, tun for tune, dixtin for dixtine : quin (qui-ne), sin (si-ne). Sometimes the word before ne loses s : ain for aisne, viden for videsne, satin for satisne : b) In ceu, neu, seu (ce-ve, ne-ve, se-ve or sive). c) In the Imperatives die, diic, fac, fer (dice, &:c.) So, in poetry, conger for congere ; inger for ingere. d) Neuter Substantives in ale (ali-), are (ar-i) drop e (i) and shorten a : toral for torale ; calcar for calcare. But they resume a in the increasing Cases : toralis, calcaris. Loss of Final Iietters. 46 Latin Soimdlore. ^ § ^2. e) Many other I-nouns clip 1 in Nom. Sing., some without taking s: (par-i-)xpar; others before they take the »: (stirpi-) X stirp-s, (arci-) x arx. f) Facul for facile. g) Acforatque; necforneque: mage for magis. h) The Pronoun hie, with the Adverbs hic, illic, istic, hinc, illinc, &c., have dropt e. Thus illinc is for illimce. l^ote. — Ab (oLTTo), sub (vtto) have lost a final vowel. B) Final Consonants are sometimes lost : a) Substantives with final on drop n in the Nom. Sing., resuming it in the Obhque Cases : ratio, virgo; Gen. ration-is, virgtn-is. b) A final Consonant has been dropt in Acc. and Nom. S. by the following Neuter Substantives : cor (cord-) Gen. cordis (Gr. Kapdin) far (fars-) — farr-is (for fars-is) fel (felt-) — fellis (Gr. x<^^«c) lac (lact-) — lactis (Gr. ya-Xa/cr-) mel (melt-) — mellis (for meltis, Gr. /xfXt fxiXirog) OS (ost-) — ossis (for ostis, Gr. oartov) c) The Latin Ablative S. cast off final d : (praeda-d) x praeda : (Gnaivo-d) x Gnaeo (dictatore-d) x dictatore : (mari-d) x mari (senatu-d) x senatu Also Adverbs in e and some Prepositions : {facilwne-d) x facillime ; {exstra-d) x extra. d) On -re for -runt and for -ris in Verbs, see xxi. vene-re for vene-runt ; uta-re for uta-ris. e) Particles often drop final letters in composition : amb- am- for ambi ; co- for com- ; di- for dis- ; pro- for prod- ; re- for red- ; se- for sed- ; tra- for trans. So hau for haud or haut : hau-scio for haud scio (Plaut.). Pos- (pos-t) drops s in pomoerium, pomeridianus. The Prepositions a for ab, e for ex, are long by Compensation. C) Consonant and Vowel, or Vowel and Consonant, are dropt. dein, exin, proin for deinde, exinde, proinde, Cic. Or. 45. nihil for nihilum : non for (noenum ne-unum) ; sat for satis, 0-nouns with Nom. er have dropt os (us) : magister for magister-os. famul {O.famel) for famulus, Lucr. iii. 1048. Note. The three consonants often est final are m, s, t. All these fell off frequently in E. L. (Roscio for Roscius and for Ros- cium), again in L. L., and ultimately in modern Italian. See p. 26. Loss of Inner Consonants, A7 Final m, with its vowel, was so weak that poets took no note of it metrically before a word beginning with a Vowel. Thus in Virgil's verse monstr^;;^ horr^ndium informs ingens cui lumen ademptum the letters printed in italics do not count in the metre, and the verse runs thus : monstr orrend inform ingens cui lumen ademptum. Final s, on the other hand, after a short vowel, was neglected by poets as late as Lucretius before words beginning with a consonant, as testified by Cicero in the following passage : ' Ita enim loqueban- tur : Qui est omnibu' princeps, non, omnibus princeps : et, Vita ilia dignu' locoque, non, dignus, Or. 48. He also testifies that this weakness of s had existed in common parlance even when the vowel before it was long : * Sine vocalibus saepe brevitatis causa contrahebant, ut ita dicerent, multi' modis ; vas' argenteis ; palmi' et crinibus ; tecti' fractis,' Or. 45. Final t also was often dropt in ancient Verb-forms : dede for dedit. See p. 26, and C. I. 188. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by concurrence Loss of with other Consonants*^ Conto- When this loss occurs for euphonic reasons, if a syllable pre- viously long by position alone is left short by the removal of one consonant, compensation is often made by lengthening the vowel : (pic-nus) X pinus : but not always ; (lac-nius) x lanius. The sign of length ( — ) will here shew the compensated syllables. A) Exclusion of Guttural Mutes. 1. A Guttural Mute is excluded in Verbal formations when it occurs between a Liquid and one of the letters s, t, m. (farc-si) x farsi /r^l^"^-\ 1 x fulsi ^ ^ (fulg-si) ) (differc-tum) x differtum (fulc-tum) x fultum (sparg-si) X spar si (indulg-si) x indulsi (torqu-tum) x tortum (indulg-tum) x indultum (torqu-mentum) x tormentum (fulg-iiien) x fulmen 2. Occasional instances of Gutturals excluded : c between n and a Dental Mute : quint us (quinc-tus) quindecim (quinc-decim) But quinctus may be kept, as tinctus, sanctus. c before m : lama (lac-) ; temo (refc-) ; lumen (liic-). . c — n : aranea {dpayj-vrj) ; lana (lac-) ; planus (irXaK-) ; rana (rac-) ; vanus (vac-) ; deni (dec-) ; luna (luc-) ; quini (quinc-), in which n before c is also cast out. nants. * Many combinations are troublesome to litter: guttural with labial mute, or labial mute with guttural ; surd with its sonant, or sonant with its surd, and so on. When the addition of a suffix in derivation produces such combinations, they are usually avoided by excluding the first consonant : scalprum for scalp-brum, ful-crum for fulc-crum, &c. 4^ Latin Soimdlore, ^ § 12. c before s : ursus (Sk. arkshas, Gr. dpKTOt:). » IT — j : aio (ag-io) ; maior (mag-ior) ; Maius (Mag-ius) ; puleium (puleg-ium). — 1 : m5les (/^oy-) but molestus ; pila, pillar^ pier (ptg- ? comp. pepigi). % — m : contaminare (tag-) ; examen (ag-) ; flamen (flag-) ; rima (ng-, x\n^\) ; iumentum (iug-, iu;/gere) ; sumen (sug-). — V : mavis, mavult (mag-e-) ; levis (leg- vis) ; brevis (breg- vis), X — d : sedecim (sex-decim). z — n : seni (sex-ni). X — V : seviri or sexviri. X II m - j ^^^^ subtemen (tex-).^ The same principle applies in ala (ax-); mala (max-); palus, pala, (pax-) ; talus (tax-). See Cic. Or. 45. E) Exclusion of Dental Mutes. I. Dental Mutes often fall out before s. i) In the Flexion of Nouns. Dental Mute Stems, including Pres. Participles in ii(t)», are by far the most numerous class in the 3rd Declension : and as all but a few take the Nom. S. ending they drop the dental t or d before the sibilant : (virtut-s) X virtu-s; (comlt-s) x com^-s (custod-s) X custo-s ; (vad-s) x vas (part-i part-s) x pars ; (dent-i- dent-s) x dens. The rule of quantity here is, that long stems remain long, short remain short, in the Nom. S. : excepting (ped-s) pes with its compounds, (vad-s^ vas, abies, aries, paries for (abiet-s, &c.) with a few Greek words which drop n as well as t ; elephas (elephant-s) ; Simois (Simoent-s) See § 24. Syllabus. * Since x=cs or gs, the changes from x to s in Sestius (Sextius), sescenti (sexcenti), tnistus (mixtus), are really instances of the loss of a guttural mute before s ; of c in the first two examples, of g in the third (jxiy-). Again discere (dic-sc-ere), miscere (mig-sc-ete) are similar omissions before sc. This seems to justify the assumption that when x falls out before 1, the c departs first, then the s ; tex-la, tes-la, tela and so in the other instances. That s would fall out before 1 is shewn in qualus (quas-), pTla, mortar (pins-), and in Fr. Bale (Basle). Corssen however (I. 64) confines himself to saying of these instances that X falls out before 1, m, and that c does not fall out before 1. The alternative above stated he does not notice. §12, Loss of Inner Conso7iants, 49 2) In the Flexion of Verbs. ci) A certain number of Verbs throw out d, a few t, before the Perfect Suffix s-i : ardere (ard-si) arsi ludere (lud-si) lusi ridere (rid-si) risi radere (rad-si) rasi sentire (sent-si) sensi flectere (flect-si) flexi Assimilation occurs in cedere (ced-si) cessi and its compounds, decutere (decut-si) d ecus si, with other compouA is of quatio. Compensation occurs in none but dividere (divid-si) divisi- ; mittere (mitt-si) misi. U) In the Supine formation also the Dental is often lost. When- ever t or d is brought before the suffix tum^ that suffix is changed to sum. But whether stem or suffix parts with its dental first, is a disputed point* Corssen's order is t-tum (or d-tum), -s-tum, -sum. However this be, t-ttim (or d-tum) usually becomes -sum, losing the Dental : . (vert-tum) vef sum ; (cud-tum) cusum ; (sent-tum) sensum ; (rad-tum) rasum. But ^ssum by Assimilation in a few Verbs : sM-ere sessiim ced-ere cessum fod-ere fossum f^t'^eri fassum fi(;/)d-ere fissum pat-i passum met-ere messum sci(;^)d-ere scissum grad-i gressum Also mitt-ere, missuttl, which drops t between two Dentals. Cbtnpensation occurs in a few Verbs with their Compounds. Vtd-ere visum ed-ere esum 6d-ere osum Cad-ere casutti fu(/^)d-ere fusum (also ga visum from divid-ere divisum tu(;^)d-ere tusum gaudere = ga-vid-ere) Ohs, I. Observe also that -turn of the Supine becomes -sum after these combinations, 11, rr, re, rg: : fall-ere falsum ; curr-ere cursum ; parc-ere parsum ; sparg-ere sparsum. Ohs, 2. The euphonic rule for Dentals before the suffix -tum in Supines appHes equally to Dentals before Noun-suffixes beginning with t in Derivation : (tond-tor) tonsor ; (vert-tura) versura; (offend-tio) offensio ; (cad-tus) casus. 2. Occasional Exclusion of Dental Mutes. d before c : (hod-ce) x hoc ; (quod-circa) x quocirca. — =~ grn : a-gnoscere, a-gnatus, &c. ' — m : clvC-mentum (caed-) ; ra-mentum (rad-). — — n : fi-nis (fid-). — — V : sua-vis (suad-). £ 50 Latin Soundlore, § 12. C) Exclusion of n. n before c : When the Suffix -cin is added to Nasal stems : . latro-cinium, sermo-cinari. — — grn : i-gnoscere, i-gnavus, &c. co-gnoscere, &c. — — s : -es for -ens in Numeral Adverbs ; quoties, de- cies, milies, (S:c., for quotiens, &c. after the Augustan age : before which time -ens was used. (semen-stris) x semestris ; mostellaria from monstrum ; (formonsus, formossus) x formosus ; (sanguin-suga) x sanguisuga ; ^ (quam si, quan-si) X quasi. Note. US before s was very weak in E. L. and R. L. Inscrr. give the forms co-sol^ ce-sor, castre-sis^ &c. ; even as, es for the endings ans, ens: iN/as, dotes. So Ital. 7nese (mensis) ; Yx. peser (pensare). nt before n : This omission is seen in Numerals when -ceni is written for -centni : viceni. — — s : -cesimus -g-esimus for -cent-simus,-grent-slmus : vice-simus, trige-simus, &c. nd 1 : scala (scand-la). Note. The exclusion of p seems doubtful. Corssen cites a-men- tum, a-mes, as derived from ap-. (Ribbeck has ammentum.) D) Exclusion of r : jr before b : fune-bris (funer-) ; mulie-bris (mulier). In fe-bris (ferv-) rv fall out. — — j • (per-iuro) x pe-iero. — — s : pro-sa for prorsa ; pe-stis for per(d)-stis. — — t : sempl-ternus (semper-). E) Exclusion of s : 8 before d : iu-dex (ius-dicere) ; (is-dem) x idem. — — 1 : corpu-lentus (corpus) ; viru-lentus (virus) ; qua-lus (quas-). — — m : 6-men (os-) ; re-mus (res-, eper-) ; du-mus (dus-); Ca-mena (cas-) ; multi-modis. — — n : ce-na (ces-) ; ahe-neus (ahes-) ; pone (pos-ne) : audin, vin, potin, satin, &c. for audisne, &c. Lossof XXX. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants Inner Vowels. yZvyKOTTT]), a : pal-ma (TraXdfxrj, pal-u-ma) ; cup-ressus {tcvizapLaaoQ, cup- e-rissus) ; nomenc-lator (c-a-lare, c-u-lare). o : p-te for pote : meopte : suffix trino- for (-torino -terino) : doct-rina, pist-rinum. u : i) (man-u-ceps) x man-ceps ; (quat-u-or) x quat-er; (man-u- suesco) X mansuesco. * Probably an T-noun sangui-s (shewn in exsanguis) was a byform of sanguis (sanguen) sanguin-. So anguis, snakCt probably had a byform anguis anguin- shewn in the Demin. a n g u i 1 1 a. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. SI. 2) The suffi-x -culo-, culeo- may exclude u : orac-lum po6t for oraculum ; vinc-lum for vinculum \ nuc-leus for nuculeus : so fig-linus for fic-u-linus. The suffix pulo- loses u in some words : discip-lina, temp-lum^ extemp-lo ; iso amp-lus, dup-lus, &c. 3) All Deminutive words ending in -llus -Ha -Hum have ex- cluded u before the second 1 : and then formed the as- similation 11 : whether Primary Deminutives : agellus (ager-u-lus), olla (aul-u-la)'; villum (vin-u-lum) ; uUus (un-u-lus) ; Stella (ster-u-la) ; hilla (hir-u-^la) ; or iSfecondary : porcellus (porcul-u-lus) ; cistella (cistul-u-la) ; quantillus (quantul-u-lus) ; tantillus (tantul-u-lus). 4) The Verbal suffixes -bam^ -bas, -bo, -bis, &c., have lost . u : being for fu-am, fu-as, fu-o, fu-is, &c. , ' © : l) The Suffixes bero- beri- feero- ceri- tero- terl often ex- clude e in flexion and derivation : creb-ro, celeb-ris, mac-rum, ac-riter, dext-ra, pvit-re. Hence Nouns with suffixes bro- cpo- tro- form Deminu- tives regularly in e-llo- : flab-rum, flabellum ; dolab-ra, Dolabella ; luc-rum lucellum ; plaust-rum, plostellum ; cast-rum castel- lum : (for flaber-u-lum, Dolaber-u-la, &c.)w 2) e is often excluded when d, f, gr, p, come before er : Evand-rus, vaf-re, nig-resco, Ap-rilis, inf-ra. Hence the regular formation of such Deminutives as flagellum from flag-rum (flager-u-lum) capella — cap-ra (caper-u^la). 3) In salictum for salic-etum, carectum for caric- etum, e has been shortened and excluded. 4) The Suffix greno- excludes e in many words : benig-nus, mali-g-nus, privig-nus : so g-nascor. / 5) E-verbs compounded with face re sometimes exclude e : cal-facere, ol-facere. Note, Ferris, 2nd Pers. Pres. Pass, of fero, ferre Infin. (for fer-se), velle (for vol-se) from volo, and es-se (for ed»se), from edo, if formed as classical Verbs in general, would be (fer-e-ris, fer-e-re, vol-e-re, ed-e-re). It cannot be said, however, that they have lost e, but that, like esse, posse (from sum), they never took it. E 2 $2 Latin Soundlore. §12/ 1: i) The words nau-ta, nau-fragus, &c., au-ceps, au- spex, &c., also cau-tum, fau-tum, &c. have excluded i. But navi-ta, navl-fragus are used in poetry : and cav- i-tum, fav-T-tum, &c., are found in old Latin. 2) Fero forms fers, fertur, &c. not (fer-!-s, fer-I-tur, &c.). 3) Edo forms es for ed-I-s, est for ed-I-t, estur for ed-I-tur. 4) Volo forms volt, vult (vol-It), voltis, vultis (vol-I-tis). The formation of* vis is supposed to be (volis, vol-s, vil-s) VIS. 5) The vowel \ is lost by purgare (pur-!g-are), iurgari (iur-Tg-ari) ; audere (av-Id-ere) ; gaudere (gav-Id-ere) : also in the suffix mnp- mna for (mSno-) mlno- mlna : alum-nus, Vertum-nus, colum-na, &c. 6) Corssen derives iuxta from (iug-ista, in nearest juficticn), exta — {tx-\si2i, the most oiitward entratis)4 praesto — {^r2iQ,-isio^ in most forwardness), 7) (ced-i-te) x cette ; (opi-ficina) x officina (bidiv-um, tridiv-um, &c.) x biduum, triduum, &c. : (posi-v-i) X posui : (semi-caput, sim-ciput) x sinciput : (mater-itera, second mother) x matertera : (nasi-torqu-t-iu-m) x nasturtium : see M. Lucr. ii. 401, (nep-i-tis weakened from nep-otis) x neptis. 8) Puer-tia is poetic for puerltia : misertus for mis- erftus : -postus in compounds for-posltus. Rarer poetic omissions of 1 are lam-na, cal-dus, sol-dus, strig-libus, &c. for lamina, &c; Balneum is more usual than baUneum; audacter than audaclter: vaHde and valde are used, but with some difference of meaning. sui. Elision, Contraction and Coalition of Vowels. Hiatus. Hiatus (the open concurrence of Vowels) is avoided within words in three ways. Elision. i) First : Hiatus is avoided by Elision (Sv va\oi0/y), the cutting off of the former vowel : (ne-ullus) X nuUus (ante-ea) x antea (ne-unquam) x nunquam (quinque-unc-s) x quincunx (ne-usquam) x nusquam (semi-uncia) x semuncia In semianimis the i of semi becomes a consonant. §12, Elision, CoTifraction, etc, of Vowels, 53 a) Elision includes the cutting off of m with its vowel within a word as well as at the end of a word in metre. (venum-eo) x veneo; (animum adverto) x animadverto; (septem- unc-s) X septunx. So sept-ennis, dec-ennis, dec-ussis, &c. b) The Preposition com (cum) in composition elides m only before a vowel, leaving the vowel open : co-emo, co-eo. co-haei'Q.o. But com^edo.. Circumr does this before i : as circu-it, circu-itus ; but keeps m before other vowels : circumago circumerro^ 2) Secondly : Hiatus is avoided by Contraction (Svmipceric, Contract. Kpd(7ic) : by which two concurring vowels unite into one long vowel, rarely into a diphthong. If the concurring vowels are the same, the same vowel lengthened results from, their contraction : (c6-opis) X copis (tibi-i-cen) x tibicen (pro-oles) X proles de-eram x deram (dii) X di de-ero x dero fihi X fill (Gen. S.) de-esse x desse b) If the vowels differ^ the former usually absorbs the latter. c6-alescere x colescere (semi-as) x semis (pro-emo) x promo, (de4go) x dego fili-e x fill victu-i X victu si-em x sTm (indu-itiae) x indutiae (ama-im, ame-im) x amem In some instances, the latter absorbs the former : (ama-o) x amo diei x dii as well as die (fu-io) x fio (glacie-alis) x glacialis.,, c) Remarkable contraction of a with parasitic u appears in. cur for (quor) quare ; and culest (Plaut.) for qualis est.^* (On Contraction after exclusion of Spirants, see xxxiv.) 3) Thirdly : Hiatus is avoided in poetry by Coalition ; which Goalk. grammarians called ^vvii^riffiQ, ^ settling together,' or Svj/e/j^wj^r/o-ic, * uttering together ; ' when, without written contraction, vowels were scanned and uttered as forming one syllable : d8n^ proin^. aur^^ omnia, Peleb, pituita, antehac. See Prosody. Note, Deero, deeram, deesse, are sometimes ranked her^ * Still more remarkable are the instances (cited by C.) where T, before a vowel,, re- presents an old i contracted from (like fio ; compare fieri). These are : (i) clTens (cluTens) ; (2) industrius (endostru-Tus) ; and (3) the word noticed by F^stus,, inciens, *propinqua partui ' (incu-iens ; compare Kveiu, eyjcuo?) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews the usually received derivation of the latter word, incincta,incinta (given inDucange's Glossarium in voce) to be quite erroneous. 54 Latin Soimdlore. ^ § \z, Lossof xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants. Vowels Conson- (homi-ni-cida) x homicida ; (lapi-di-cidina) x lapi-cidina ants. (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper (tru-ci-cidare) x trucidare ; (tri-num-nundinum) x trinund]fnum (no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; (prae-vo-co) x praeco (ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae. (vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium. 2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetude ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo; (hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetudo ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus. 3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae- ceps, &c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples. 4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim. 5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of decern, ten^ are often lost in the formation of numeral words: se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi, triginta for tria-de-centa, &c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, &c. 6. (per-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ; sur-pui poet, for sur-ri-pui. 7. possum = potis (pote) sum ; potes = potis (pote) es, &c. malo, &c. for (mage-volo, &c.). vendere for venumdare ^ : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are). (re-ce-cidi) x reccMi or recidi ; (re-pe-peri) x repperi ; (re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli. Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica- tion : dif-fidi, in-cidi, ob-tigi, pro-tendi. 1 Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro : dedidici, expoposci, praecucurri. 8. The syllable si is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the best age '} a) Perf. Act. 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur. dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (due-si-sti) mist i for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti) accestis for (acces-si-stis)» ^ Pluperfect Conj. : exstinxem for (exting-si-sem) vixet for (vic-si-set) e r e p s e m u s for (erep-si-semus). * A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, bu^ many Augustan, are given^ by Corssen, ii. 553. . . .' Shortening of Vowels. 55 \ c) Infin. Perf. : surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; tr axe for (trac-si-se) divisse for (divi-si-se) ; iusse for (ius-si-se). d) Besides, the Verbs which classically form a Perfect-stem with the character s, some other Verbs did this ia old Latin : cap -ere, fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation, of the Perf Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character s was sl-sim, sl-so, such Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in sim, so : fax im for (fac-si-sim) ; fax o for (fac-si-so) clepsit for (clep-si-sit) ; ausint for (au-si-sint). e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by casting out a syllable and then doubling s : negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit) servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassint for (loca-vi-sint). A few such forms are found from E-verbs and I -verbs : prohibessit = prohibuerit ; ambissint = ambiverint. Note, This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present, gave birth to Infinitives in assere, used by Plautus : impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere. Sometimes even to Passive forms ; turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv.. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten- ing of 1. Between the First Punic War (B.C. 260) and the Augustan age (B.C. 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing The extant specimens of old Saturnian Verse. The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets (Ennius, &c.). The Comedies of Plautus and Terence; The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero. The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus. The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.). 2. The Comedies of Plautus (B.C. 180) are a most important stage in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous examples of the shortening process always going on : and among these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets. Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur- rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the study of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in Roman antiquity. 56 Latin Soundlore, 3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age. § 12. Early E. L. Plaut, Aug. a a a a & e e e (s) a a & e e e e I i \ I I I 1 i 1 X w 1 a u U u u u ii u a a & a a & a 0 5 5 5 5 6 5 a a 1. a Nom. Fem. 2. a Neut. PI. . 3. e Abl. Decl. 3. . 4. e Infin. • • • 5. atj et ^rd Pers. S. • • it J 6. is Nom. 7. Pis 2nd Pers. S. Conj. 8. bus Dat. Abl. PI. 9. mus I St Pers. PI. 10. ar in Nouns . • 1 1. ap in Verbs 12. OP in Nouns 13. OP in Verbs 14. al in Nouns Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was adopted to suit metrical convenience: gravia (Verg.) arat (Hon) videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec- toribus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) trahor (Tibull.), &c. 4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of common parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are loci, merT, doH, bono, domo, viro, do ml, fores, pedes, heri, probe, ama, rogS, puta, cave, mane, tace, vale, abl, adi, bibi, dedi, stett, darl, loqu!. Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage (which generally it rejected) in such words as bene, mod 6, nisi, quasi, mihf, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, puta, cave, vale, &c. : and to its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as pal us, polypus in those writings of Horace which he himself calls * sermoni propiora.' ^ Exciu- xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by sion of/^ . rTT 1 conso- Contraction of Vowels. nants with s : dextans for (de-s-extans) =f of the as : nl for n?-s-T. Contrac- tion. 1-consonans : b T g a e for bi-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadrl-i-iigae : cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ayas), b: cors for c6-h-ors ; vemens for ve-h-emens; prendo for pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (ne-h-emo for ne-homo) ; nllum for ne-hilum; nil for ni-h-il; mi for m 1 - h - 1 ; 1 m u s for (i-h-tous for in-f-Imus) ; d e b e o for de-h-Jbeo ; p r a e b e o for prae-h-ibeo. * On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Ritschl's Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Miiller's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius; also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar. g 12. Exclusion of Consonants with Contraction. 57 q : dodrans (for dequadrans), | of the as, is formed by the following process, according to Corssen (dequa x dequo x do quo xdocu- X doc- X do-).^ . ▼ : There are two modes of suppressing v with contraction : and in some words each mode would lead to the same result. , I. The short vowel after v may be excluded, v vocalised (be- coming u), and then contracted with the preceding vowel. ; 2. V may be excluded and contraction ensue. 1. First Mode. . This is shewn where the diphthong au results : a u c e p s (av-i-ceps) ; a u s p e x (av-i-spex) nauta for nav-i-ta; naufragus for nav-I-fragus cautumfor cav-i-tum; fautum for fav-i-tum audeo (av-i-deo) ; gaudeo (gav-i-deo) and may be inferred (as shewn by lotum, liitum for lautum) in most instances where 6, u result (for ov = ou or for uv = uu) : fotum (fov-i-tum) ; fomentum (fov-i-mentum) motum (mov-i-tum) ; momentum (mov-i-mentum) iutum {iuv-i-tum) ; iumentum (iuv-i-mentum) iipilio, opilio (ov-i-pilio) ; prudens for prov-i-dens curia (co-viria) ; decuria (decu-viria) lupiter (lov-I-piter) ; bobus or bubus (bov-!-bus) bruma (brev-I-ma, breuma) nunc (nov-um-ce) ; nuper (nov^i-per) iunior (iuv-e-nior) ; udus (uv-i-dus). In nundlnae (nov-endinae, noundinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun- tio), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of v seems to take place before the exclusion of the vowel. 2. Second Mode. d) (dis, Ter. once) for di-v-es; dltior for di-v-itiorj ditissimus for di-v-itissimus : oblltus (obli-v-itus) ; h o r n u s (ho-v-ernus) : praes (prae-v-i-des, prae-i-des, praeds) : Cloelius (Clo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) : malo, malle, &c. for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c, nolo, nolle, &c., (ne-v-olo, ne-v-olle, &c.) : sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, elides iv. b) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vorsum : horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us -um) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior- sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ; sursum (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us -um for (intro-vors- us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45. ' Bes, or bessis, bes-ses (dvi-esses), two thirds of the as, is another curious ab» breviation ; representing bis trientes, twice one third. 5S Lathi Soundlorc. Contrac- This form of Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect- tion in stem Tcnses of Pure Verbs. Perf. Stem. a. When the Perfect-stem ends in av, ev, 6v, the v may be ex- cluded before is or er (but not before ere), contraction ensuing : amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is- sem ; nosse for nov-isse. amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero; norunt for nov-erunt. \ And in Lucr. at for avlt : inritat, i; 70. These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi, pavi^ fovi, vovi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes occur in poetry : adiiiris for adiuveris ; mostis for movistis ; admo- runt for admoverunt ; summosses for submo- visses. j3. When the Perfect-stem ends in iv, the v is often excluded, and contraction usually follows before is : audi-eram for audiveram.; audi-ero for audiv-ero, audisr^ sem for audivissem. 1 So, in eo and its compounds : ieram, !ero ; issem, isse, &c. S Iris, is used for siveris from sinere, sivi. The contraction of -iit into -it occurs ; obi t for obiit. Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often e»-' hibited as eit in E. L.^ See M. Lucr. iii. 1042. Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs. A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs : Indie. Mood. Fut. i. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram. Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m) si em, sim. Imperf. (esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) e s s e m. Infin. e s - s e. Forms of fuo (shewn in fore=fure, fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs. Indie. Mood. Imperf. (fuam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c. Tenses of a m o (ama-o) : Ind. M. Fut. I. (ama-fuo) amabo. Imp. (ama-fuam) amabam. Perf. (ama-fui) amavi. Fut. 2. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam) amaveram. Conj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) am em. Imp. (ama-esem) amarem. Perf. (amav-esim) a m a v e r i m. Plup. (amav-esem) amavissem. Infin. (ama-se) a mare : (amav-ese) amavisse. / C) Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding sc \^el/)t and making euphonic change : Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ar, &c. D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari; (regese-se) regi-er, regi. The Conj. Pres. endings am, as, at, &c. of the Third Conjugation (regam, regas, &c.) represent the Primitive Conjunctive in d ; and Fut. forms in es, et, &c. (reges, reget, &c.)are contracted from a-ia-Sy &c., as in (esa-ia-'s) eses. See C. II. 729. g'i2. Relations of Consonants^ etc. 59 XXXV. Relations of the Consonants in Latin Reia- and kindred Languages. ^qo^^oL I. The Guttural Surds c, q. cTut- 1) C corresponds to Sk. /, k^d^ to Gr. fc or tt : c, L. Sk. Gr. centum s^ata e-Karop decern da/an dha canis yvan Kvdtp (kvv-) iecur yakart ^irap voco vac^ p€7r(o. 2) Qu sometimes corresponds to Sk. s^v, Gr. ir (k) t: L. Sk. Gr. equos as'vas 'iinrog i/c/cofi (for *IkFo£. More frequently qu corresponds to Sk. c', k, Gr. n, r (k) : L. Sk. Gr. quattuor c'atvdras reVrapec; (for TiTpapeg) Trlavpeg {fd, petard) linquo rid Xitt- sequor sac' Itt- for c-ctt que ka Kai re quis kas rfc (U.//>). Some think that ^2/ should always be assumed as the primitive of qu ; but Corssen maintains that c (k) could develop u after it in Italian language as a transition-step to the labial p : and he thinks that even in Indie kv is developed from k. 3) The Labialism by which tt and p represent Pr. y^, prevailed in Umbrian and Oscan. U. /^///^^^//^^^^y-quadrupedibus ; O. ^///// = quidquid. Hence (from O.petora, four) come the names Petreius, Petronius: and (from O. /^;;^-/-^j' = quinque) Pon- tius (=Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom- pilius.^ 4) In two instances c, qv seem to correspond to Sk. Gr. tt : L. Sk. Gr. coquo pac' TrcV-roi quinque pane' a ireyrej TrifiTTE, Here some think the primitive roots were kak or kvak; kanka kvankva, Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo), quinque for (pinque), by assimilation. 5) In proof that qu could be developed from c, Corssen cites huiusque for huiusce ; inquilinus from incolo ; inquinare fromcoenum; quom = cum; querquetum for quercetum ; Qui- rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus. * Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as lupus {^\i.var-kas, Gr. Avko?) ; popina for coquina ; palumbes = columba : Epona (forEquona) ; spoiium (Gr. aKvKov) : and one or two more doubtful, as pa vo (Gr. raw?). Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa, /S-calpa) : stercus (Gr. o-Koip) ; studeo, studium(Gr. anov^ri). 6o Latin Soundlore. ■ ■ § 12^ 6) Q is found in E. L. for qu, chiefly before u, as peqimia^ qum, qur^ quius : rarely before other letters : as neqidem, qe, 7) To avoid quu, before the Aug. age on was often used : ecus, cocus, anticus, execuntur, secundus. So locutus, secutus. Ne-cubi, si-ciibi, ali-ciabi, &c., take the place of ne-quubi, &c. 8) Qu becomes in Greek fcov, fcv^ kt, sometimes ko : 9) Qu was uttered as in English ; c as k.* Their sounds appear in ' come quicker.^ The assibilation or soft sound of cl, ce did not prevail in Latin before the 7th century of our era. * I. The following facts shew that the assibiUted sound of ce,,ci, wa^ not used in C. L. 1. Greek represented c by k before e, tj, t : as 2. Latin represented Greek k by c before e> i» y : as Cecrops, cerasus, Cilix, Cimon, cithara, Cybelc. 3. Gothic represents c by k before these vowels : as kerker, keller, kirsche. 4. Quintilian cites chenturiones as a way of spelling centui^loiies. An Inscription a.d. 326 gives schenicos for scenicos,. and also sceniconim. Another, a.d. 408, has p ache for pace. 5. Qu could not represent an assibilated c ; therefore such forms on Inscrr. in L. B.. as {on the one hand) h u I u s q u e for huiusce ; r e q u i.e s q u e t for requiescit and (on the other) sic is for siquis ; eintus for quintus. shew that up to their date ce, ci kept the hard guttural sound. 6. In the imitative verbs crocio, glocio, c must have had the hard sound. 7. Finally, no grammarian has told us that c was uttered in one way before e,. i> in another before the remaining vowels. This silence goes to prove that no such difference existed in C. L. In the Umbrian and Volscian dialects there had existed a soft 9, as U. fafid^^ V. j^jzVi;, for facia t. ' And in the late Imperial times such tendency dawns in a few words on Inscrr. : provinsia for provincia; Luziae for Luciae ; Felissiosa for Feliciosa. But it was not until the 7th century a. d. that popular utterance so far relaxed its energy as to adapt generally the guttural consonant to the palatal vowel, and propagate that sibilant sound of ce, ci which, for instance, transmutes the classical Kikero into It. G. Fr. Eng. Chichero Shishero Sisero. II. The assibilation of inner ti before a vowel began earlier. It had existed in dialects : as U. purdinfMst for purdintiust : O. Bansae for Bantiae. The grammarian Pompeius- in the 5th century testifies that Titius, for instance, was sounded Titsius, Consentius says that etiam was pronounced eziam. In the next century we meet with a.K7^io for actio., Constanzo for Constantio : soon after with iustizia, milizia, preparing the way for modern. Italian, which writes Firenze (Florentia), Piacenza (FlAcentisi), /alazza (palatium)^ 1 Relations of Consonants^ etc. 6i IL The Guttural Sonant C. 1) G usually corresponds to Sk. J or gr, Gr. 7 : G, L. Sk. Gr. gen- jan ytv- yov- ag-o aj ay- teg-o sthag oTiy-fa Sometimes to Sk. s\ Gr. k : viginti vins'ati feiKOcru Sometimes to Sk. kk, k, Gr. x^y- unguis nakhas orvj(- li(n)go Izk Xei)(u} ego aham lyw 2) Parasitic u follows gr in anguis, sanguis, unguis, lingua, linquo, stinguo, tinguo, unguo, urgueo. In pinguis (ttq- yyc) u is a suffix. In all these, except urgueo, the guttural n adulterinum strengthens gr, giving it a nasal twang : as in the Verbs cited p. 19. 3) G was guttural in C. L. ; as in Eng. go, gave, give, get, begety begin. Its palatal assibilations before e, i, whether hard, as in Eng. gentle, giant, rage, It. gentil, Ginevra, gioia, ragione, or soft, as in Fr. gentil, geant, gite, rage, began towards the 5th century with the use, as in Italian, of gri ( = Eng. j) before another vowel : Giove, Giulia, giallo, III. The Aspirates : h, f. 4tet It belongs not Only to Indie language but also to Greek to aspirate the medial mutes gr, d, b, as well as the tenues k, t, p. Thus arise the medial aspirates grli, dli, bli ; to which the partially corresponding sounds in Greek are 0> severally. Latin has neither class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose of correspondence are principally h, f, and the medial I. K, when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H. Breathing, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the Greek : Hebe, Homerus, hora, &c. d) In some words li corresponds to Sk. h, Gr. : as L. Sk. Gr. hiemps M^nam X^'M" heri hyas y^ic, veho (via) vah ^X^^ ans-er(for ^ X^>, h-ans-er) - ( = * The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander, gos (Anglo-Sax.), gans (Germ.), com- pared with the Greek xr^v, seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no doubt that Greek x indicates a Prim, gh ia all these words ; and this is also shewn in the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for vegh-si. 62 Latia Soundlore. % 12. U) B represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, harios* lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi. So in Spanish, /^//'^ = filius ; /ladlar = {3,hu\3.r'i. c) H has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is manifest in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena, arena; harundo, arundo; haruspex, aruspex ; have, ave; haedus (aedus) ; ha.Y \ o\u s (arwha) ; Ha- dria {Adria); heres (eres); hcrus, hera, and erus, eia;hedera (edera) ; ho lus (olus) ; Hammon (Ammon) ; Hister (Ister). But the forms humerus, humor ^ &c. for umerus (^/xoy), umor (from uvere), are not good. c) The loss of li was propagated in L. L. Hence in modern Italian it is not sounded, and has generally disappeared as an initial letter. F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian as a very strong rough sound : * 111a quae est sexta nostrarum paene non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina den- tium efflanda est/ xii. lo. This description does not seem to imply that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds, that 0 was different from our f, not, like this, labio-dental, but a pure labial aspirated. T is seldom the inner letter of a root. As an initial it corresponds to Sk. bh^ Gr. (^, chiefly : Sk. dh, Gr. 0, some- times ; Sk. gh^ Gr. rarely. L. Sk. Gr. l) fero bhar (p/pa, fui (fe-, &c.) bhu (f)yu} flag- (fulg-) bhraj 4^\ty(a frigo bhrajj ^puyw fugio bhuj (jifvyto frater bhrdtar (j^paTrip See bhay p. i6. To Pr. bh, C. also refers the f in tnaiiy words : fovere, favilla; favere ... ; famulus (O, /aamay 'house'); fervere furere ... ; fidere ... ; fiber; forare ; furvus; fundus...; frequens: compare also fagus ((/)*?7oc); folium (^uWoj^); frango (ppay-) ; frigus (fplyoQ), 2) foris dvdr Ovpa fumus dhumas Ovog rufus (rudh) epvOpog firmus dhar (da\- deX'Y From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere, ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c. * Lat. -fendo, Gr. detVo) are referred to Sk. Ann. Probably on this account Prof. Monier Williams, in his Lexicon, refers Aau to a Prim. dAau, though so many of its forms indicate an original £Aan. § 12. Relations of Consonants y etc. 63 The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors- sen distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhu L. Sk. Gr. 3) fel (comp. bills) {hari^ ^ greenish yellow ^6Kr) fu(;^)do Ig^^f) x^f^ To Pr. grh C. refers fulvus (helvus), host is (fostis), hario- lus (^inspector of the hira or entratP), haedus (faedus), hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur. IV. The Labial Mutes p, b. I^abials P. B. These were sounded anciently as in modern language. P corresponds generally to Pr. Gr. tt. But see L S corresponds often to Pr. Gr. /3 ; but, as already shewn (L and I XL), it has several other special relations. Thus it is developed not only from dv (as in bis, bellum, bo- nus, see p. 45), but also from gv : L. Sk. Gr. bos, bov- gaus pov$ faba {d/ias, ^ eat ') ^ay* (for fag-va) As an inner Consonant b represents Sk. dk regularly, dk rarely. L. Sk. Gr. nubes nahhas vecj^os uber iidhar ov6ap So b = <3f) (M) in am bo (aficjico), ambi- (dficjit), glaber (yXa^vp- off)) nubo (j/v/Lt<j[)7;), scribo (ypdcfxo), sorbeo (po^eco), umbilicus {ofi(j)aKos) i in the suffixes -bus {-(j^i), -bam, -bo, -bro, -bra, -bulo, -bill, -bi (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -bis (nobis, vobis)^ Again b = ^ (dk) in ruber {ipvO-), plebs (ttX^^os), and in abies, arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c. V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dentals spending to Sk. t, d (or dh\ Gr. r, h (or B), d) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius (Sk. madhyas, Gr. ixea-aos for fxed-yos), vidua (Sk. vidhavd)^ -dere (Sk. dhd^ Gr. In latere {\a6dv\ pati {nadeLv)^ t seems to re- present Pr. dk ; but this is very exceptional. Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (a pud, ad, haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illud, aliud, quod, quid, quid- quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26. c) The assibilation of inner di, as of ti, before a vowel, began in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by zz, as mezzo for medio. 64 Latin Soundlore. g 12, Nasals VI. The Nasals correspond in sound to Pr. n and M. Gr. I/ and yit. ^ tf) w has in Latin a twofold use : 1) As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel : 2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, c, qu. It is weak and slightly uttered before s and ts, especially when these are final See p. 50. b) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which belongs to v in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant : (jiovaay) x musam ; ((xtt^v) x aberam. (jHovttd'iav) X musarum ; (Sd/x(u»^) x domorum. In the First Pers. Plur. of Act Verbs s corresponds t® v : {e 'lIoiiev) X vidimus. In the Third Pers. Plur. nt : {air f\(Tav) x aberant. Liquids Vll. The Liquids and the Sibilant. 1) Though t (littera canina, the growimg letter) is one of the roughest sounds, and 1 one of the softest, they are intimately related to each other, i is a lisped r : compare barbarus with balbus, and nopal with KoKa'i (Aristoph.) Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie, Greek and Latin. Some roots have 1 in all three : laghj lighy iu ; many have r in all : bhar^ inar^ sdrp^ siar^ hard^ &c. 2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of 1 from Pr. r is exemplified in L. Sk. Gr. linquo tic' Xitt- luceo i'uc' \v\iL. cluo ^ru K\vi>» volo i)ar /3ou\- ulna aratni Ci\kvr\ sal sara a\c levis iraghus ^kayiq See the derivatives of svar^ p. 17. Lat r from Sk. /is shewn in rump o from lup (old form rup\ 3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand, lacer (joafcoe), lilium (Xc/piov) : so luscinia (Fr. rossignol) : to the other, grando (xaXa^ct), hirundo (x^Xl^ujv), arx {aXfc-), vermis (eXpc), strigilis (orXeyytc) : with a great number of v^ords in which the letters correspond, especially those with 1 : as leo {\eu)v), levis (Xeioo), oleum (eXaiov), silva (vXrf), 8cc. but also some with r : as aranea (dpaxvrj), rivus (pooc), taurus (ravpoy), &C, Relations of^ Consonants^ etc. 4) Ii\ Latin words the order Mute-Vowel- Liquid often appears where the corresponding Greek forms have Mute-Liquid-Vowel : bardas (Ppadvs), caro (/cp^as), cerno {Kpivco), dulcis (yXvKvs), pulmo (irX^vfiodv), sorbeo (/^o(/)ecD), torqueo (rpeTro)), So tri and ter, trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c. 5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the Dental d : d and 1 : lacrima {bakpv, tear), lingua (E.L. dingua^ * tongue'), levir (Sk. devar, Gr. 6a7;p), olere {obcoba, odor), Ulixes (Obva-a-evs), adeps (aXei^o)). Meditor (/ieX^raoj) is not so certain. d and r : meridies for (medi-dies) ; and ar- for ad in bid compounds: arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso). 6) As to the sound of 1, we leaM from Priscian the opinion of' the elder Pliny : ' 1» triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet t exilem, qiiando geminatur secundo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus ; plenum qxiando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet ante se eadem syllaba consonantem, ut sol, silva^ flavus^ clarus; medium in aliis, ut lectum, lectus,' L 7. 38. 7) The lightness of inner 1 caused it to be often shai*peried by doubling : loquella, querella, &:c. 8) Oh its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goeS so far that U often takes the place of 1, forming diphthongs <^//, eau, eu, ou : «(ad illu) X au ; (ad illos) x aux ; (alter) x autre. ; (cheval-s) x chevaux ; (chevel-s) x cheveux. (bel) X beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol, sol) x fou^ moUy soit^ a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant between vowels into the canihe liquid. Varro mentions it : 'In multis verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant s postea dictum r, ut in carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem, asenam,' vii. 26. In the Carmen Afvale the Lares are called Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L. Papirius Crassus was the first to call himself Papirius (B.C. 336) : before which all his clan were called Papisii. So the Auselli became Aurelii, the Fusii Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii Spurii, the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii ; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria. Hence in roots these changes appear : (asa)xara; (asena, fasena) xharena; (fesiae) xferiae ; (nases) xnares, comp. nasus ; (geso) x gero ; (hausio) xhaurio ; (seso) xsero; (uso)xuro; (hesi)xheri, comp. ^0fg, hester nus. So spes andspero; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires; glis, gliris ; flos, floris, &c. ; nefarius from nefas, &c. F 66 Latin Sotindlore, § 12.' Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as er- op- 6p- ur- from Nominatives in es, is, iis, os (op), us, belong to stems which are really not p-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are found in old Inscrr., being, for instance {aesis, foedesis, pignosis or pignesis, arbosem, Jioses, plushna, maioses)^ &:c. The Case-endings -apum -opum were {-asum^ -osum). The Verb-forms -eram -epo were {-esam -eso), -pis -pe -p1 were (sis -se -si). In the Passive endings -op -up, &c., p represents the pronoun se. Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo. b) The p for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of Greek o" between vowels : (ausosa) x aurora (au-wc, Sk. ushas); (ausis) x auris (oJ-a< ); (visus) X virus {fi-oq^ S^.vishas) \ (nusus) x nurus (rvoc, Sk. snushd) ; (sosor) X soror (o-ap, Sk. s^vasar, * sister'); (genesis) x generis (yfVf-oc); (musis) x mu-ris (^v-6c) ; (deasum) x dearum (^^fo-wr); (esam) x eram (e-^i^), &c. c) R is for s before a consonant in Minerva (Sk. ma7tas,^vomd^) ; verna {^\i,vas, 'dwell') ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi- ernus from dies : And as final in the ending op for 6s : color, honof, labor, &c., for colos, honos, labos, &c. S. na) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub- stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive c at the begin- ning of words. Not so the Italians. Hence Latin iniiial s before a vowel corresponds often to Sk. s, Gf. aspirate : salix (kXiKY]), sex (e^), sedes (t^oc), semi- (rifJ^t-), serpo (tpTrw), si- mul (a/x«, ofiov), sollus (oA.oc), silva {v\r}), se (t), suus (^fog), suavis (//Sue), sub (vTTo), super {virep), sudor (i^ipujc)^ sus (uc), &c. Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek ' spiritus lenis : * si (el), sero {^'f-p^o)^ serum (c'ooc). db) Sc, sp, st initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin, unless s is dropt, as in tego (nrfyw). See p. 45. cc) S initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found. dd) S falls out in Cerealis for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (i-ap for Feaap) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es), in those of dies, die i for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms. Jhe VI I L The soft Labial Spirant V. Spirant V- d) v-consonans has the same relation to f that b has to p : it corresponds to Pr. v, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded : and this sound was probably that of Eng. w.* Corssen thinks its * That Latin v-consonans had the sound of Engli^ w always, is probable for the following reasons : i) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes into y-cons» By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w. §12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 67 initial sound was that of Eng. v, its inner sound that of Eng. L. Sk. Gr. vomo vam r ' rEJJLEb) volvo val r£AV(ji) voco vac' video vid know') Pt^- vestis vasis novus navas ovis avis So vis (F/c), viola {Ptov), vinum (fotvoc), bos bov- (/3ofc /3ovc), navis (vafc, vavq), ver {Frjp), vespera (fecTrepa, kaTripa)^ Vesta {FecrTia, eor/a), radix {Pptici, jo/^a, /3pt^a), &c. As the Greeks lost the use of they represented initial v sometimes by ov, sometimes by /3, Vafro (Ovappcov or Bdppcov), On the vocalization of v see p. 10 5 on its omission, see pp. 57, 58. IX. X-consonans (J). The On the sound and uses of i-consonans (j), see viii. i, and xii. 6. jf^^' It corresponds to Sk. j/, sometimes to Gr. as iugum (Sk. j^uj] Gr. Cvyov). a) A form of 1 taller than the adjoining letters (I), appears in late Republican and Augustan Inscrr. to express 1) long i-voc. : ^ dIvo, eI, stipendIs* 2) i-cons. ; both between vowels and initially : MAlOR, CViVS, EiVS ; IVS, IVLIA. A more corrupt form il is also found : cviivs, coil VOL 3) That which is merely a general fact, has beeii Wrongly set down as a rule of sound : namely, that a vowel before i-cons. is long. Corssen has shewn that in all words which can be traced (for ieiunus is obscure) where a vowel is long before i*cons., it is so by its own nature : a-io, Ga-ius, Ma-ius, pe-ior, pe-iero, &c. 2) Greek ov (as in OveXia for Velia in Dion. Hal. ) expi'esses Gr. digaiftnla and Lat. v ; and this sound cannot be interpreted as Eng. v, but as w. The occasional substitution of P, by Plutarch chiefly, proves nothing to the contrary : but only means that, ov being a clumsy representation of f and v, /3 was taken as the nearest labial instead. 3) A. Gellius cites a grammarian, who says that Deus Vaticanus presided over infancy, and that the two first letters of his name (Va) are that sound which the infant first utters. The sound then is Eng. wa not v3,, which the infant, having no teeth, cannot utter. Corssen's opinion is that Latin initial v may have had that middle sound between w and v, which German w has in some localities ; the upper teeth being brought near to the lower lip, but not pressed upon it. This view we cannot accept. * It was shewn (p. 33) that ei was long used to express T with a leaning to e. Lucilius tried to mark long vowels by writing them twice, as Maarcus for Marcus. This appears on some Inscrr. but did not last long. It was followed in Cicero's time by the Apex or mark over a long vowel, like (') or ('), which frequently appears on a, e, o, u ; not on i. ¥ 2 68 Latin Soundlore. § ,2, Inbi-iugus, quadrt-iugus, tri-iuges, &c., I, being naturally short, remains so. c) Progressive assimilation has changed 1-cons. to i in cello, fallo, pello for (cel-yo, fal-yo, pel-yo), as a\Aoc in Greek for (aA-yoc), (TCpaWu) for (o'<l)aX-yw). On luppiter, luno, lanus, &c. for D-iupiter, &c., see p. 15. This passage from dj to j shews distinctly how the assibi- lation arose by which i-cons., afterwards taking the sign J, became a compound palatal sibilant in English and (with gi for Eng. j) in Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal. So, from Latin diurnus we get Eng. It. Fr. journey giorno journee X. The Double Consonant x. X ( = cs) corresponds to Gr. See vii. 8. RepubUcan as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew xs : deixserit, duxserit, vixsit. In L. L. X passed into ss or and appears as ss in ItaHan ; so disse for dixit.^ * A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters. 1. C. : vapor, vapidus, vappa {kva^ ; vermis ; verrere ; lamentum, laus, luscinia ; ludere {kri^) ; libum ; raudus (c-rudus, * raw ') ; nidor {kvI<t(to). G. : lac (-yaAa/cT-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere. P. : lanx ; latus ; later ; laetus ; livere ; linter. D. : ruere ; runa ; racemus ; belhim . . . bis . . . bonus ; viginti . . ; ; iuvare . . . ; luppiter, luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenis ; iam ; iacere. S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cernere . . . ; cortex ; culter ; carpere ; cilium ; caedere ; clavis, claudere ; cena ; gradi ; -gruere ; parcere ; pannus ; picus ; pituita ; penuria ; pellere ; puis ; palpare ; palpebra ; parra ; pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populare ; fallere ; fides ; fungus ; tofus ; temetum ; tegere ; tundere ; tonare ; taurus ; tueri ; tergefe ; torpere ; turdus ; turba, turbo, turma ; trun- cus ; talpa ; turgere ; trux, trucidare ; macula ; mordere ; memor . . . ; mirus . . . ; mittere ; ninguere ; nex ; nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix ; limus, linere, linea, littera, limax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate. St. : lis, latus, locus. V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus. 2. Observe, on xxix. , that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to the words from which they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla ; offa ofella ; quattuor, quater ; villa, vilicus ; in-loco, Tlico ; stilla, stilicidium ; mille, milia (but millia on the Ancyra monument). See M. Lucr. i. 313, and, on religio, i. 63. §13-14. Flexion of Words, 69 DIVISION 11. MORPHOLOGY, Morphology or Wordlore treats of Words. It is subdivided as follows : — CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general. — II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension. — III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation. — IV. Particles : their Kinds. V. Derivation and Composition of Words. — VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words. 1. Words are called in Grammar the Parts of Speech, Words are either Simple, as flagrare, flam ma, or Compound, as con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer. Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine Meaning. 2. Every Word has Stem and Root, Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu, tkou\ 2i(\\x2,^ water. Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root differs: flamma,^'?^;;^^ : Root, flag-, (^/^5'^. Root and Stem are often the same : ag-ere, to act. Such words are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives. A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it has composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con- flagra-, the two Roots, cum and flag-. 3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a Suffix: thus in flam ma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag- rare -r, -a, -re are Suffixes. Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not elemental : reg-i-bus, quer-i-monia. The final Suffix, which converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag- r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam -ma is not called an Ending, because flam ma is itself a Word. When it forms flamma-s, s is an Ending, and, specially^ a Case-ending. CHAPTER I. WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION. i. Stem-flexion, 14 Flexioo Latin Wordlore. §15. 4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, not being a root-word, is called a Prefix, Thus in te-tend-i, cin- cinnus, -te and cin- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition, asde- se-re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots. 5. The last letter of a P.oot, as gr in flag-, is the Root-character. The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and flamma, is the Stem- character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called the Character of the Word. 6. Flexion, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem, that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suflixing a Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra-re, flamma-rum. Such suffixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, as \ in reg-i-bus; sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-ls for flamma-ls (which is for flamma-bus). Sometimes change in a letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flam m ft from flamma. Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used ; ag-, eg-1. Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : can-, ce-cin-1. 7. How then is a Stem defined ? A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in every change of form, though the character is often liable to be hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter- change. So the character of flamma is hidden in the form flam- m-is ; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the character of dirig- in the form direxi. 8. And how is a Root defined ? A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the word has in comm^on with all other kindred words. Thus, in agito, the Stem is agita-, but the Root is agr-, which it has in common with ^g-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha- racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter- change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root agr- is con- tained in the words actio, exam en, re di go, but obscured in each word by some mutation. Classes Classification of Words. of Words. Words are of three kinds : I. Nouns. II. The Verb. III. Particles. Nouns. I. A Noun (Nomen) is the name of something per- ceived or conceived. Nouns are of three kinds: Substantives; Adjectives; Pronouns. I. A Noun Substantive (Nomen Substantivum) is a name simply denoting something perceived or con- ceived : psittacus, the parrot\ nix, snow \ virtus, valoitVy virtue \ Caesar, Caesar. 1 15. Classification of Words. 71 2. A Noun Adjective (Nomen Adjectivum) is a name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in- herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom- panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute, or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka- tive parrot \ nix alta, the deep snow \ vera virtus, true valour \ Caesar inclutus, the renowned Caesar. In such examples it is also called an Epithet. 3. A P RONOUN (?xorvom^xs)\'5> a relational Substantive or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the, repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an- other as tu, thou or you, A person once mentioned he afterwards names as is or ille, he. He speaks of his own horse as mens equus, my horse ; of his companion's- dog as canis t\x\\?>y your dog, 1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax, the parrot^ a talkative bird, where avis, birdy is an Apposite, or in Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot. 2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract (Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis- tinction to these. Names of things to which such qualities belong are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, siiow ; v\x, a man. 3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria), are such as can only be apphed to single persons, places, or objects : Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, Cerberus. 4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be- long in common to a number of individuals which thus constitute a class : vir, a man, urbs, a city, ager, a field, canis, a dog, arbor, a tree. 5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurahty of things, are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba, crowd, popnlvLS, people, gens, clan, exercitus, army. 6) A quality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice to describe an object. That is. Adjectives may stand as Substan- tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral,Vegetable, Annual, Mammal, express sufficiently the things meant. So in Latin: sapiens, a wise man (vir) ; calida, warm water (aqua) ; natalis, birthday (dies) ; utile, />^^ useful, convey the^ir meaning without Substantives. 7) Numerals (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing Number: unus, one\ duo, two^ &c., centum, a hundred, mi lie, a thousand., &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub- stantives : milia mwlidi, many thousands. The ancients marked them as Pronouns. 72 Latin Word lore, ^ §15, 8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a Noun-term. 9) Nouns have a Flexion called Declension \ and four Acci- dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A Noun inflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined. II. The Verb (Verbum) is the Word which makes Predication, that is, which declares or states something about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : ago, I do ; dicimus, we say: consul triumpavit, the consul tri- umphed, 1. The Verb has two parts : 1) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal; 2) The Verb I nfinit e (Verbum Infinitum), consistingof Verbal Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia), which are a kind of Adjectives. 2, The Verb has a Flexion called Conjugation, It has five Accidents : Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated. III. Particles (Particulae) are the uninflected help- words of discourse ; and are of four kinds : Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 1. An Adverb (Adverbium) is a particle which helps to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tarn bonus civis et vere philosophus; how shamefully zms Socrates put to dcathy so good a citizen and trtily a philosopher. 1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, ^ when, where, whence, whither/ &c., are Pronominal Adverbs : quando ? ubi 1 quo nunc hie illuc 2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question ^how often,' are Numeral Adverbs : - quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens 2. A Preposition (Praepositio) is a particle which, used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to some other Noun: Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi, / stand at the door, you in the apartment. 1) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are, ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, within. 2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the Ablative. ,§ i6-i8. Nouns, Nzimber. Gender, 73 3. A Conjunction (Coniunctio) is a particle which helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen- tences : Oves et aves, sheep and birds \ edimus vivamus, we eat that we may live, 4. An Interjection (Interiectio) is an exclamatory- particle used to express feeling or call attention : O, O ! heu, eheu, alas / en, ecce, lo / The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be 1. Substantive 5. Adverb ^p^^^^* 2. Adjective 6. Preposition 3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction 4. Verb 8. Interjection which are inflected. which are uninflected. Note. — Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is to be rendered in Enghsh, the context and collocation alone shew what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may mean ' a light,^ or ' the light,' or ' light ^ in general, according to the place in which it stands. Parts of CHAPTER IL NOUNS. Section I. i. Number in Nouns. NuJ^. The Substantive is dechned by Number and Case ; the Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in these with the Substantive which it qualifies. The Numbers (Numeri) are two: i. Singular (Singu- laris): mensa, table) 2. Plural (PluraHs): mensae, tables, Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number; of which in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two^ am bo, both, 18 ii. Gender o f N o u n s. Cendei; The Genders (Genera) are two : i. Masculine (Mas- culinum) ; 2. Feminine (Femininum). A Substantive which is neither Masc. nor Fem. is said to be Neuter (Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two. A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fem. is called Common (Commune) of both Genders. Latin Wordlore. (The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &;c. Hence the distinctions of Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic dialects, English alone excepted.) Distinct Generic names. A, The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin in four ways. I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the most familiar relations : homo man mulier woman mas male femina female maritus ) vir ^ husband uxor \ femina f wife pater frater father brother mater soror motJier sister vitricus gener patruus stepfather so7t-in-law J { on father^s \ U7icle 1 J- noverca nurus amita stepmother daughter-in-law aunt avunculus uncle {'^'^^l^f^^''"} matertera aunt senex old man anus old woman verna house slave ancilla maid-servant taurus bull vacca cow aries vervex ram \ wether f ovis ewe catus he-cat fel-es(is) she-cat verres \ maialis J boar scrofa sow haedus kid capella Homo {Jiuman being), though never used with a feminine epithet, may comprehend woman as well as man. Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for <^ mar- ried woman, distinct from vir go. Y QTCiixidi, female [h (j>vov(Ta, genetrix), is applied to all animals, Maritus and uxor are the law-terms for husband and wife, Vir is constantly used for maritus, as Mann in German. Senex (with its comparative senior) is the only word corre- , sponding to Fem. anus. It occurs rarely as a Fem. Adjective. Sub- n. Secondly : Many words, called Substantiva Mobilia, have M^obilia. ^ Masculine and a Feminine form, as in English, lion, lioness, &c. Such are l) avus, 2. nepos, 3. puer, 2. socer, 2. grandsire grandson boy father-in-law avia, I. neptis, 3. puella, I. socrus, 4. grandmother granddaughter- girl mother-in-law So, poeta /<?^/, poetria; aliens client, clienta; rex kingy regina ; caupo vintner^ cop a; ^dAz^Xi, lute-singer, fidlcina; Gender. 75 tibicen flute-player^ tibicma; leo lion^ lea, leaena ; gallus cocky gallTna ; Cres Cretan^ Cressa ; Threx ThraciaUy Thre- issa; Libys Libyan^ Libyssa; Cilix Cilician^ Cilissa; Phoenix, Phoenician^ Phoenissa; Laco Laconian^ Lacaena; Tros Trojan^ Troas : and others. 2) Many Masculines of the Second Declension in -us -er have Feminines of the First Declension in -a -ra : a, de-US a div-us a fili-us a nat-us a marit-us a spons-us a privign-us a domin-us a er-us a serv-us a libert-us a patron-US a /3. agn-us a asin-us a cerv-us a equ-us a iuvenc-us a lup-us a mul-us a porc-us a simi-us a urs-us a vitul-us a arbit-er ra magist-er ra minist-er ra cap-er ra colub-er ra 3) Verbals of the Third Declension in -tor -sor often have Feminines in -trix, as vic-tor, vic-trix. So adiu-tor -trix moni-tor -trix expul-sor expul-trix crea-tor -trix fau-tor -trix ton-sor ton-strix, &c. 4) Patronymica, or Names formed from those of parents or ancestors, have the following Endings : Ending of Patronymic Ending Parent Name Masc. Fern. -US, 2. and some of Decl. 3. . . -ides -is -eus (fvc) .... . -ides -eis -ius, 2. and some of Decl. 3. . . -iades -ias -as, I, and some of Decl. 3. . , -ades Examples : Tantal-ides Tantal-is daughter Thest-iades son V son ^t/" Tantalus. Thes-Ides Thes-eis son daughter V ^ * Thest-ias daughter ^Thestius. Anchis-iades, son ^T/Anchis-es. Aene-ades, son ^t/' Aeneas. ^?/ Theseus. Other Female Patronymic Endings are -ine, one : Neptunine, daughter of Neptunus, Acrisione, daughter of Acrisius. III^ Thirdly: Substantiva Communia, Words Commoil of Sub- stantiva Com- both Genders, are of two classes. I. Appellatives used of both sexes. Such in English are the words parent, child, infant, cousin, companion, guide, guardian^ hostage, witness, &c. These include names of animals, found Masc. or Fem., without change of form : gender being shown either by the epithets applied to them, or by their apposition to other words : bos, s us, &c. munia. 76 Latin Wordlore, . § is. 2. Words having no relation of sex, but varying their gender according to sense or usage : dies, dayy czXW^^ path, I. Appellativa Communia. i) Appellatives of Common Gender should not be grouped in- discriminately : community of gender being in some the rule, in others an exception. When the sexes are included in the Plurals, the gender is Masculine by the rule which gives priority to that sex: 'sacerdotescasti,' chaste priests^ in Virgil, including both sexes. Coniunx, wife^ is usual ; coniunx, husband^ poetic. The following words are freely used of either sex : auctor author municeps burgess civis citizen nemo nobody comes companion parens parent custos guardian sacerdos priest {priestess) dux guide, leader satelles body-guard exul banished one vates seer The following are usually Masculine, but occasionally Feminine : adulescens you7ig pcrso7i hostis enemy antistes presidoit infans infant hospes host {hostess) iuvenis young person Yet the Feminine forms antistita, hospit% are also found. The following, usually Masculine, rarely take Feminine epithets^* affinis akin index judge artifex artist interpres interpreter augur augur miles soldier contubernalis tent-7nate patruelis cousin heres heir testis witness incola inhabitant vindex avenger index informer The following, usually Masculine, are foimd in apposition to females, but not with Feminine epithets : accola dweller-near obses hostage advena new-comer opifex worker auriga charioteer praeses president auspex omen-taker transfuga deserter homo hu7nan being Add to these successor, rector, sponsor. 2) Nomina Animantium. d) an i mans, Masc, a rational being \ Fern, or Neuter, an ani^naL quadrupes (properly Adjective) is usually Fem., but in several places Masc, rarely Neuter, ales, bird (properly Adjective), is generally Fem., yet often Masc. Gender. b) The following are of both genders, preferring that subjoined : anguis anser bos camelus canis damma snake (m.) goose (m.) ox or cow (m.) camel dog deer grus crane (f.) perdix partridge serpens serpent (f.) sus swine (f.) tigris tiger or tigress (f.) c) accipiter, hawk, Masc, is once Fern, in Lucretius, bubo, Masc, is once Fern, in Virgil, elephant us, Masc, is once Fern, in Plautus. lynx, Fern., is once Masc. in Horace, talpa, mole, Fern., is once Masc. in Virgil. 2. For Common Nouns of the second kind see the Declensions. IV. Fourthly : Names of Animals onlyfound in one gender, which Eplcoe- necessarily comprises both sexes, are called Epicoena (eTriKoipa, common to both). Among Masculine Epicoena are : na. crabro cycnus, olor glis mugil, mullus mus papilio hornet swan dormouse mullet mouse butterfly pavo piscis stelio vermis vespertilio vultur peacocit fish lizard worm bat vultute with all not before specified in -us, -ex, -er: corvus, rook^ milvus, kite, turdus, thrush, culex, gnat, passer, sparrow. The reading ' fecundae leporis,' Hon S. ii. 4. 44 cannot be relied on. Lepus, hare, is therefore a Masculine Epicene. Among Feminine : avis bird apis bee anas duck vulpes (is) fox with all not before specified in -a, -ix, -do : aquila, eagle, rsina, frog, cornix, raven, coturnix, guail, hirundo, swallow, &c. If the sex must be expressed, this is done by using the words femina, mas (mascula) : ^femina piscis,' Ovid.: ^vulpis masc u la,' Plin. So in English, he-goat, she-goat, cock-sMrrow, hen-sparrow, ^z, ^ ^ y s y t y B, The Gender of Latin substantives which do not imply sex is Gende»' otten shewn by the meaning or the form of the Word. shewn I. The general correspondence of Gender with Meaning is as fol- Mean- lows : — ing. (i) Masculine Males Months (mensis m.) Winds (ventus m.) Mountains (mons m.) Rivers (fluvius m.) People (populus m.) (2) Feminine Females Plants (planta f.) Countries (terra f.) Islands (insula f.) Cities (urbs f.) (3) Neiiter Indeclinable words. 78 Latin Wordlore. ^ § jg^ Examples Masc. : lulius, Aprilis, Notus, Haemus, Liris, AcTiivL Fern. : Andromache, laurus, Germania, Cyprus, Athenae. Neut. ; fas, instar, alpha, vivere. Exceptions to the Rules of Gender as shewn by Meaning : A) Mountains : Fern. : DecL I. Aetna ; Hybla ; Ida ; Oeta ; Calpe ; Cyllene ; Pholoe ; Pyrene; Rhodope. Decl. 3. Alpis (usually Plur.) ; Carambis. Neut. : Decl. 2. Pelion ; and Plurals implying mountain ranges (iuga) : Gargara ; Ismara ; Maenala jTaygeta ;an(l others. Decl. 3. Soracte. E) Rivers : Fem. : Decl. i. Allia ; AlbulaJ Druentia ; Duria (the Dora) ; Ma- trona ; Lethe. Decl. 3. Styx. AA) Plants : Masc. : Decl. 2. acanthus ; amaracus ; asparagus ; boletus ; ca- lamus ; carduus ; hyacinthus ; intubus ; iuncus ; mus- cus ; narcissus ; oleaster. Neut. : Decl. 2. Nouns in um: apium;ligustrum;lilium;thymum. Decl. 3. acer ; cicer ; papaver ; piper ; robur ; siler ; siser ; suber ; tus. Common : Decl. 2. balaniis ; cytisus ; lotus ; rubus ; spinus Decl. 3. larix ; rumex. BB) Countries : Masc. : Decl. 2. Pontus. Neut. : Decl. 2. Nouns in um : Illyricum ; Latium ; Noricum ; Samnium* CC) Cities : Masc. : Decl. 2. All Plurals in i : Corioli ; Delphi ; Gabii ; Puteoli ; Veii ; Argi (for Argos). , Also, Canopus ; Orchomenus ; Stymphalus. § i8. Gender, 79 Decl. 3. Nouns in as ant- : Acragas; Taras ; es, et : Tunes ; several in o on- : Frusino;Hippo;Narbo (Martius); Sulmo;Vesontio ; some in on- : Brauron; us unt- : Hydrus ; Pessinus. But of this last class most are Fern.: Amathus ; Opusj Myus; Rhamnus, &c. Selinus is common. Martial has *Narbo pulcherrima,' of another Narbo. Croto (also Croton, and Crotona f.), Marathon are common. Neut. : Decl. 2. Nouns in um, on, a (PI.) : Tarentum ; Tusculum ; llion ; Arbela ; Leuctra ; Susa. Decl. 3. Most in e, ur, os : Caere ; Bibracte ; Reate ; Tergeste ; Tibur ; Argos. Also Praeneste, which Virgil and Juvenal have Fern, in Abl. by Synesis. Anxur is Masc. in Mart, with reference to the hill, 'candidus Anxur;' Neut. in Hor. with re- ference to the town; ^impositum saxis late can- dentibus Ahxur.' Amphipolis, Trapezus are Neut. in PHny with re- ference to * oppidum.' Some have double form and gender : Sagunt-usf*-um, n. Note I. Names of precious stones are, some Fern, in reference to gemma, others Masc. in reference to lapis. Fem. : amethystus; sapphirus iaspis; onyx; sardonyx (usually). Masc. : beryllus : — adamas. Common : chtysolithus ; smaragdus, emerald, ^ Note 2. Synesis (agreement with meaning, not with form) some- times gives to a Noun an attribute of a different Gender : ^Eunuchus acta est' (i.e. fabula Eunuchus), Ter. ^ Cen- tauro magna' (i.e. nave Centauro), Verg. 'Alta cre- mata est llion,' Ov. Met. xiv. 466. So, Female names in um of Decl. 2 are Fem.: 'Mea Glycerium,' Ter. ' Mea Silenium,' Plaut. Note 3. Some Fem. and Neut. words imply men without changing their gender : o^exdiQ, workmen', exc\xh\2ie^ night sentinels \ vigiliae, watchmen \ auxilia, auxiliaries : so mancipium n. means a slave, considered as a piece of goods. Similarly, prostibulum, scortum are Neuter words contemp- tuously applied to profligate women. 2. Correspondence of Gender with Form appears in the De- clensions. 8o Latin Wordlore. §19. iii. Case in Nouns. I. The Cases (Casus) in each Number are six: Nominativus, Vocativus, Accusativus, Genetivus, Dati- vus, Ablativus. (On the Locative Case see below, and § 20.) Answers the question Example : 1) Nominative . Who or What? Quisdedit? . . iVir, Who gave? . . S A man. 2) Vocative (Case of one addressed) | ^ 3) Accusative . Whom or what ? Quern video ? . ^ Virum, Whom do I see ?]A man* 4) Genitive • Whose or where- Cuius donum ? ^ Viri, of? Whose gift? . ]A mans* 5) Dative . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . ^ Viro, or what ? To whom given ? \ To a mail, 6) Ablative . • By, with, &c., A quo datum ? ^ A viro, whom or what; ? By whojn given? } By a man. 2. Case (Gr. 7rra)<Ttc) is the form given to a Noun or Pronoun to shew the relation in which it stands to some other word. Gram- marians represented that form which a Noun takes when it is the Subject of a sentence, by an upright hne, and hkened the other forms to hnes falling away from the perpendicular. These they called Cases (cado) : and their series, the declension^ or sloping' down, of the word. Afterwards, the Nominative was called Casus Rectus, the Upright Case, and the others (except the Vocative) Casus Obliqui, Oblique Cases] whereas the Stem is more pro- perly the upright line, and the several Cases, including the Nomi- native and Vocative, are deflections from it. So, from the Stem nuc- {walnut-tree) the Cases are : Nom. V. nuc-s ( = nux), Acc. nuc-em, G nuc-is, D. nuc-1, Ab. nuc^e. 3. The Relations which Cases fail to express are supplied by Prepositions ; and in the languages of modern Europe the use of Prepositions prevails^ and Declension is comparatively rare. Thus the Romanic languages have only one Case-form in each Number for Nouns ; English, two ; but the Possessive in English is of very limited use. Sanskrit has the six Latin Cases and two more, the Instrumental and the Locative. Greek has only five ; but it pre- serves traces of the Instrumental and the Locative. Latin retains many fragments of the Locative Case.^ * The 6rder in which the tases were ranked by ancient Grammarians, imitated, as it has been> by modern writers, is vicious and misleading. The Vocative has been separated from the Nominative, with which it is almost identical, and has thus assumed an im- portance which ought not to be given to it. The Accusative, so often concurring with both, has been separated from both. The Dative and Ablative, so often identical in form, have been thrown apart. The only motive for this misarrangement was the desire to place the Genitive next to the Nominative, because its variations indicate those of Declension. But this is better done by givint^ the Stem and Character, which appear in the Genitive Plural of Nouns : thus homo^, homin-, shewri in homiN-um. § 20. The Five Declensions. 8i iv. The Five Declensions. 20 The There are Five Declensions of Latin Nouns, which ^^l^^""' shew the Character of their Stems by the letter before -mm or -urn in the Genitive Plural. I. A-stems have Character 11. O-stems — III. Consonant-) stems I I-stems — IV. U-stems — V. E- stems — 0 . a Consonant ^ 1 . E . mensA-rum. dominO-rum. virgiN-um. ovi-um. gradU-ur diE-rum. d) The Declensions fall into two groups : namely (I) The A- E- and 0-declensions (i. 5. 2.) (II) The Consonant and Semiconsonant (I, U) declensions (3. 4.) (I) The primary vowel a is appropriate to Fem. words (Decl. i) ; weakened to e, it forms another more limited Fem. Decl. (5) ; weakened to o (which in a later age partly became u), it forms a Masc. Decl. (2) in o-s (u-s), including also Neuters in o-m (u-m). (II) In Consonant Nouns the stem and suffix are often linked by the vowel i : duc-i-bus. Sometimes this happens in the Nom. Sing.: can-i-s, iuven-i-s, which thus appear like I-nouns. Onthe other hand, I-nouns often drop that light vowel in the Nom. Sing, and so wear the appearance of Consonant Nouns : stirp-s, par-s. These causes made it so hard for grammarians to draw the line of distinction accurately between these two classes that they included them in one Decl (3). U-nouns (4), which contract some cases, escape this confusion, but are liable to another ; for the affinity of u and o has caused some of their case-forms to be often mixed up with those of the O-Decl. (2). Obs. Pronouns are peculiar and irregularly declined Nouns, which are with most convenience treated separately. b) I. In Neuter Nouns, the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusa- tive are the same in each Number severally ; and in the Plural they end in a. The A- and E-declensions have no Neuters : the U-declension has very few. 2. The Vocative in words not Greek is the same as the Nomina- tive, except in the Singular of Nouns in -us of Decl. 2, which have Vocative-ending e : domin-e, fili (for fili-e). 3. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. ' The Consonant before -um is the Character in Consonant-nouns. This may be any Mute (except k, q), Nasal, or Liquid ; or the Sibilant represented by r. G Latin Wordlore, Forma- V. ForiTiation of the Cases. tion of the The Cases are generally formed by suffixing an Ending to the La.^es. Stem; a vincular i is sometimes required in Consonant-nouns; while in many instances Letter-change occurs in the formation. See Biicheler \Lat. Declension). Nominative Singular : Primitive ending s. Decl. I. A-nouns, except Greek Masc. names, do not take s : mensa: but Gr. Borea-s, alipte-s. Decl. 2. 0-nouns, not Neuter, take s: dominu-s for domi- no-s. But some stems in -ero- drop o, rejecting s : puer for puero-s, tener for tenero-s. And nouns, in which -ro follows a mute or f, drop o, reject 5, and i nsert e before r : ^"■^^^-^ magist-e-r for magistr-o-s, nig-e-r for nigr-o-s. Decl. 3. Mute Consonant-nouns take s : iudex for iudic-s ; pes for ped-s ; princep-s. Liquid and Nasal nouns do not take s : consul, passer, virgo (virgin-). Hiem-p-s alone takes s, inserting p. In numerous words with Nom. in s, inflected in ^r-, or-, or-, ur, s belongs to the stem and is not a Case-endmg; its place in flexion being taken by r . flos floris for (flosis), aes aeris for (aesis). 1-nouns take s if the vowel is not dropt : avi-s, nube-s^ for (nubi-s), gravi-s : also when the vowel is dropt (which happens in many stems) if the Consonant before the Character is a Mute : audax for (audaci-s), serpen- s for (serpenti-s). If the stem ends in ri- after a Mute, i is dropped, and e inserted before r : imb-e-r for (imbri-s), ac-e-r for acri-s: but the forms in ris are also used by Adjectives. Decl. 4. U-nouns take s : gradu-s. Decl. 5. E-noans take s : die-s. Accusative Singular : Primitive Ending m, Greek i/ or n. All Declensions take the Ending m for Masc. and Fem. Nouns, o passing into u, and i generally into e : Cons.-stems insert e : 1. mensa-m 3. virgin-e-m 4. gradu-m 2. dominu-m for domi- tussi-m 5. die-m no-m nube-m o rbe-m ' Corssen, referring to the Noun pu b- es -is, with its byform puber -eris, also to such Nouns as Cer-es -eris, pulv-is -eris, &c., contends that l-nouns in -es, like nubes, sedes, were originally S-stems. § 20. Formation of the Cases. 83 Obs, In all Neuter Nouns, the Nominative and Accusative have the same form. See iv. b. This, in 0-nouns, is o-m = uni^ bellum for beil-om. In Cons-, and U-nouns it is the Noun-stem : 3. siser, marmor, sinapi ; 4. cornu ; often with vowel-change: genus for (genes), frigus for (frigos) melius for (melios), mare for (mari-) : or dropping i : animal for (animaii-), calcar for (calcari-). Genitive Singular : Primitive Ending generally as. As the Greek, so the old Latin language weakened as into ds ; which was further weakened into is This ending is taken by Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns : 3. virgin-isj tuss-is for tussi^ 4. gradus for gradu-is. That A-nouns anciently had it, argued from familia-s in paterfamilias, &c., and similar forms found in E. L. That it was used in E-nouns is shewn by the form D ie spit er, and rabies (Gen.) in Lucr. iv. 1079. But the endings (a-i) ae, (o-i) i, and e-i were afterwards taken by A-, 0-, and E-nouns severally. A-1 remained long in use, and abounds in Lucretius, as vita-i, and is used in a few words by Virgil. (O-i) is not found in use ; it passed into i at an early time, and is also found as (ei) in R. L. till near the Augustan age. Lucilius proposed to reject Gen. S. (ei) and write Nom. PL (ei) ; but his distinction was not observed. In E-nouns e-i remains. Hence I. mens-ae. 2. domin-i. 5. die-i. Dative Singular : Primitive ending ai. This Ending is only taken by A-, and E-nouns \ I. mensae (anc. mensai) for (mensa-ai) ; 2. domino (anciently dominoi) for (domino-oi) ; 5. diei for (die-ei). In the rest the Locative i has superseded the Dative Ending : 3. virgin-i tuss-i for (tussi-i) 4. gradu-i Locative : Primitive Ending i. The Locative Singular remains in Latin in such forms as militiae, belli, domi, humi, vesperi, ruri, Tiburi, luci; the Adverbial forms ubi, ibi, &c. and in the names of towns, &c., of the A- and 0-declensions : Romae for Roma-i, Tarent-i, Milet-i, &c. The Loc. Plur. is confounded with Dat. and Abl. in is or bus. The Sing. Loc. in Cons.-nouns often passes into the Abl. e ; Car- thagine for Carthagini, Lacedaemone for Lacedaemoni. Vespere also is used for vesperi. Ablative Singular : Primitive ending t. In Oscan and old Latin this ending became d : I. sententia-d 2. poplico-d 3. conventioni-d mari-d 4. senatu-d G 2 84 Latin Wordlore, § 20. This d (often noticeable in Plautus) was dropped after B.C. 186, and the Ablative became the Stem of the word, lengthened in the Vowel-Declensions (though i is often weakened into e : urb-e), and in the Consonant-Declension ending ine: contion-e. Nominative Plural : Primitive ending as. This became -es in the Consonant-, and E-declensions : 3. virgin-es 4. gradijs for (gradu-es) orb-es for (orbi-es) 5. di-es for (die-es) Instances of es in the 0-Decl. occur in E. L. But in the A- and 0-declensions, by dropping s and contracting vowels, as in the Gen. Sing., the endings ae, i, were obtained : I. mensae for (mensa-es). 2. domini for (domino-es). The form (ei) for 1 occurs in Latin as late as the age of Caesar. Accusative Plural : Primitive ending s, added to the Accu- sative Singular in Masc. and Fem. Nouns. The change of m into n before s makes the Latin forms ans, ons, (e)ns, Ins, uns, ens. Hence, by excluding the weak nasal, with compensation, are obtained as, os, es, is, us, es : 1. mens-as 3. virgin-es 4. gradus 2. domin-os orb-Is 5. dies This shews why the Accus. Plural of I-nouns is correctly written -is, though the analogy of the Nom. has led to the use of es (eis). The Primitive ending of Accus. Nom. and Voc. Plural in Neuter Nouns was a, which was weakened into a in Greek and Latin : 2. bell-a. 3. nomin-a, reti-a. 4. cornu-a. Genitive Plural : Primitive endings am, sam. The former of these became -um in Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns ; 3. virgin-um orbi-um 4. gradu-um The latter, as -sum, was adopted in A- O- and E-nouns : 1. mensa-rumfor (mensa-sum) 5. die -rum for (die-sum) 2. domino-rum for (domino-sum) Dative and Ablative Plural : Primitive ending bbyas. This, corrupted into bus (for b-ios), became the ending of these Cases in Consonant- I- U- and E-nouns : 3. virgin-i-bus orbi-bus 4. arcu-bus 5. die-bus and occasionally in the A-nouns : 6. dea-bus, filia-bus, &c. But in most A-nouns, it became (ai8)i8 : i. mensTs. In 0-nouns, (oes, ois)is, usually (eis) before Augustus, after whose time is prevailed ; 2. dominis; belli s. ■We find ii contracted : pecunis (Cic), provincis (Inscr.). §21. Endings of the Declensions. > > O H O in O I H O I o in O I O 03 o tfl II S IH |H IH tf) 10) II « O © 14) « iq) •;j il il M IN IH 1)3 >0 i|d >^ S II 3 a )rt IN IN |I4 . II II >0 >N IN >© |p4 ^ Miz; N •5 II " ■4 ^ 11 Q S II II IN lO lO IN ^ u b )© ^ « a O C/3 s o a ''^ M II 1« H 1« Il >J3 a .fi )NQ il i;3 :z;:z; S,Sq I© I' IN a >5Q ? a il (A II M ^;z; a o iS Q IN lO a o 9 o ^ A ed rce es (J d -M ^ ^ _ CJ (U p3 ^ <^ ^ X o Q < § 8 03 il ICS a S c3 6 o o o <i> u >0 <u bo 0) o V) ^ CO C/1 I .o s 'CO >© >^ • 4-» o _ O ^ .!-< CA D a. 2 O r (/) • i-< o c I— H o <D P 86 Latin Wordlorc. - §22. Section II. i. First Declension: A-Nouns. The First Declension contains Latin and latinized words with the Nominative Singular in a. These are Feminine: Musa, muse, mens a, table \ excepting Male Names and Appellatives: Messalla, Belga, Belgian, s c r i b a, secretary, p o e t a, poet ; also H a d r i a, A driatie- gidf \ which are Masculine. It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names, Proper and Patronymic, in es, as, Masculine : aliptes, a trainer, Aeneas, At rides; in e, a, a, P'eminine : crambc, Agave, Nemea, Iphigenia. [In Tables of Declension nnd Conjugation b\ forms of eqiKjI. authority are placed beside others : an am ; byforms compara- tively rare are added between brackets ; en (am).] • • 11. Table. Singular. I. table, f. 2. secretary, m. 3. goddess, f. 4. son of Atreus, m. Nom. mens-a scrib-a de-a, Atrid-es (a) Voc. mens-a scrib-a de-a Atrid-e a (a) Acc. mens-am scrib-am de-am Atrid-en Gen. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Dat. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Abl. mens-a scrib-a Plural. de-a Atrid-e a Nom. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Voc. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Acc. mens-as scrib-as de-as Atrid-as Gen. mens-Arum scrib-Arum de-Arum Atrid-um Dat. mens-is scrib-is de-abus Atrid-is Abl. mens-is scrib-is de-abus Atrid-is p'em. Adjectives in a, as bona, ten era, nigra, are declined as mensa. iii. Cases in the First Declension. d) The old Gen. S. in as remains in the phrases paterfamilias, materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. pat res (mat res, filii) familias. Familiae is also used with pater, &:c., by Livy always : and familiarum is written with patres, &c.^ b) The old Gen. S. in at appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di- syllable al by Ennius, Plant. Lucr. Verg. (aulai, aurai, aqual, pictai). ' Alcumena-s (Gen. ) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in a-es, found chiefly in late Inscrr. of I. T>. or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. -rj?. § 22. The First Declension, 87 c) The Gen. Plur. is formed in -um rather than -arum (which can however be used), by the following : 1) Patronymic Names in -des, Aenea-des, Aenea-dum. 2) Many Names of Tribes, People, &c., Lapith-ae, Lapith-um. 3) Compounds of col- gen- (in poetry), caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um. 4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach- m-a, when used with Numerals : terna milia amphorum, '^fioo amphors ; milledrach- mum, 1,000 drachms. d) The form in abus of Dat. Abl. PI. might serve to distinguish the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub- stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians to numerous words : filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha, asina, equa, mula, anima : and in some of these, especially filia, nata, liber t a, it often occurs in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words but deabus, duabus, ambabus. » e) The Locative Case in ae (for a-i) is formed in the Sing, by militia, and Names of Towns : militiae, at the wars, Romae, at Rofne, in is by Plural Names of towns : Athenis, at Athens. iv. Greek Nouns in First Declension. Singular. Nom. M. alipt-es . Pers-es a Aeet-es a Aene-as . Marsy-as (a) Y. music-a (e) cramb-e . Helen-e (a) Agav-e . Neme-a . Iphigenl-a Electr-S, . The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mens a. a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings oc, a, first Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. e a en (am) ae ae e (a) e a en am ae ae e a e a en (am) ae ae e (a) a an am ae ae a a a am an ae ae a a (e) am (en) ae (es) ae a (e) e en es ae e e a en am es ae ae e a e en es ae e a an (am) ae ae a a a an am ae ae a i.n am ae ae a Greek Nouns in Decl. X vS8 Latin Wordlore, §22. for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for a, following the prac- tice of the Aeolic dialect : Masc. pirata (TretparZ/c) Fern, aura {av^ix) poeta {TToiTjTJji) epistula (cTrtoroX?;) Such words are : Masc, like scriba : athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c. Fern., like mens a : ancora, apotheca, aula, bibhotheca, comoedia, tragoedia, scaena, &c. d) Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between the Greek and Latin form; and poetic usage in these often differs from that of prose. ^ Thus we find : A) Masc. Greek Nouns : 1) Patronymics, like Atrid-es a : Aeneades, Pelides, Tydides, &c. (a being rare). 2) Appellatives, Hke aliptes : anagnostes, geometres, Olympionlces, sophistes. 3) Gentile Names, like Pers-es a : Scyth-es a, Sauromat-es, Sarmat-a ; with many in ites ita, otes ota : Abderit-es a, Epirot-es a. These sometimes pass to Decl. 3. with Accus. S. em, en. 4) Like Aeet-es ^ : Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a. 5) Like Aeneas : Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c. 6) Like Marsy-as a : Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as Leo- nid-as a, Mid-as a. B) Fem. Greek Nouns : 1) Like music-a e : dialectic-a e, grammatic-a e, physic-a e, rhetoric-a e. 2) Ltke crambe : aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c. 3) Like Helen-e a : Alcumen-a, Erigon-a, Hecat-a, Led-d, Nymph-a, Semel-a; which also take e : Circ-e, Cybel-e, Dirc-e, Europ-e, Eurydic-e, Penelop-e; which also take a. * Cicero, as a rule, prefers Latin forms to Greek, and sometimes introduces the latter with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur'), or with an apology, as £p^. ad Att. vii. 3 : ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non i'iraeeum ; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt * § 23. The Second Declension, 89 Also local names, Aetn-a, Cret-a, Id-a, Ithac-a, Liby-a^ may take e for a in poetry. 4) Like Agave : Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone^ Persephone, Procne, &c. 5) Like Nemea : Malea, Midea. 6) Like Iphigenia : Medea; and the local Names Aegina, Lerna, Ossa, 7) Like Electra : Cassandra. Note, Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First Decl., having the form of Patronymics without really being such, pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -is : Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides. Yet these and many other names, Greek and barbarian, which take Gen. is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in the ending of the Accus. S. (en, em). Such are : Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes, Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates, Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer- xes, &c. Section III. i. Second Declension: 0-Nouns. becona The Second Declension contains 1) Latin and latinised Nouns in tts (for 6s) chiefly Masculine: dom inus, /^?r^; 2) Clipt Masculine Nouns in er (for er-6s, r-6s ; see p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master \ to which add vir (for vir-os), man ; 3) Neuter Nouns in um: bellum, war. 4) Greek Nouns in 6s, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masc. ; in on, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets. ii. Table: SINGULAR. lord, m. boy, m. master, m. war^ n. N om. domin-us puer magister bell-um Voc. domin-e puer magister bell-um Ace. domin-um puer-um magistr-um bell-um Gen. domin-i puer-i magistr-i bell-i Dat. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o Abl. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o Declen? sion. 90 Latin Word/ore. §23. Nom. domin-l Voc. domin-t Acc. domin-os Gen. domin-Orum Dat. domin-is Abl. domin-U PLURAL. puer-1 magistr-i puer-i magistr-i puer-os magistr-os puer-Orum magistr-Opum puer-is magistr-ls puer-i» magistr-i» SINGULAR. son, m. bushel, m. God, m. Nom. fili-us medimn-us de-US Voc. fil-1 medimn-e de-US Acc. fili-um medimn-um de-um Gen. fil-i (ii) medimn-l de-1 Dat. fili-o medimn-o de-o Abl. fili-o medimn-o de-o bell-a bell-a bell-a bell-Orum bell-is bell-is command, n. imperi-um imperi-um imperi-um imper-i (ii) imperi-o imperi-o Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. Vir, And impen-a imperi-a imperi-a PLURAL. fili-i medimn-i di (de-i) * fili-i medimn-i di (de-i) fili-os medimn-os de-os fili-Opum medimn-um de-Orum, de-um imperi-Orum fili-is medimn-is dis (de-i») imperi-ls fili-is medimn-is dis (de-is) ^ imperi-is a man ; Acc. S. virum, &c. ; Gen. PI. virorum or virum. its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c. SINGULAR (no Plural). Irregu- lar Decl. sea, n. N.V.Ac, pelag-us Gen. pelag-i D. Abl. pelag-o venom, n. common-people, n. (m.) vir-us vulg-us vir-i (rare) vulg-i vir-o vulg-o Pelag-e, seas^ occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Accus. vulg-um, m. Pelagus (jrikayoc^ PI. TrfXay-ta, rj) is a Greek Neuter Noun. iii. Cases in the Second Declension. 1) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after V, u, qu, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-os, av om, div-om, mortu-os, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c. 2) The Vocative in e is a weakening of 6 (Pr. a), and resembles English forms in ie, y (Willie, Johnny, &c.). Male names in ius contract this case into i : Claudi, Mercuri, Demetri, Vergili. Pompei (from Pompeius) is further con- tracted by Horace into Pompei. So Vultel, fromVulteius. Filius, son, is the only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others are regular : fluvie, O river \ and Adjectives : Cynthie, O Cyn- thian (Apollo). But me us (for mius), Voc. mi for mi e. * Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as di, dis. The Second Declension, 3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. lus, ium, was contracted into i (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au- gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius and Ovid are the first who wrote ii, which then became the usual form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer i. 4) Humus, ground^ be Hum, war^ vesper, evening, and Sin- gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in i : humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus belli, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus vesperi (vespere), at evening Tarenti, at Tarentum Plural names of towns form the Locative in is : Gabiis, at Gabii ; Veiis, at Veil, 5) The Genitive Plural Ending um is preferred to orum : a) by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures : Gen. PI. from Nom. Sing, nummum . . . nummus, a coin . denarius, ten-as-piece . sestertius, sesterce . talentum, a talent (a sum and weight) . stadium, y^/r/^?//^ . modius, peck . medimnus (also um, n.), bushel d) by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas- gum, &c. from Argivus, &c. c) as a licence, chiefly in poetry, by a great number of words, such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com- pounds, faber, engineer, socius, rt://)/, liberi, children^ &c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : * denum talentum'; ^magnanimum Rutulum'j ^omnige- numque deum monstra.' — Verg. denarium sestertium talentum . stadium . modium . medimnum iv. Clipt Nouns in 6r. Nojins ^ m er. 1) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in ero-, like puer, are gener, son-in-law vesper, evening socer, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus adulter, paramour (lascivious^ Adj.) and Adjectives, asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser^ wretched lacer, torn prosper, prosperous lihQYyfree (whence liberi, children of tener, tender freemen) with the many compounds offero, gero; imgiiex, fruitful, cor- niger, horned. Add satiir, satura, saturum, full^ satiated, Iber (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in er-o- : Iberum, Celtiberum, &c. 92 Latift VVordlore. §23. 2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in ro- after a mute or f, like ma- gister : 2igQY,Jield . cancer, crab faber, architect aper, wild boar caper, he-goat liber, book arbiter, umpire coluber, snake minister, atte^idant auster, south-wind culter, knife With Proper Names, as Ister or Hister, the Danube^ Alex- ander, Euander, Teucer, &c. ; and these Adjectives : aeger, sick macer, lean sacer, sacred Afer, A frican niger, black scaber, rough 2iXtY^ jet-black piger, i-^w simsi&r, on left hand Calaber, Calabrian impiger, active t?iQiQr, foul creber, frequent integer, entire vafer, cunniitg glaber, smooth pulcher, beautiful noster, our ludicer, sportive ruber, red vester, your o) Mulciber, Vulca7i^ and dexter, on the 7'ight hand^ are de- clined with and without e in the other forms : Mulciber-i or Mulcibri (also Mulciberis, Mulcibris 3.) ; dexter, dextera or dextra, dexterum or dextrum. Some Substantives use the form in us as well as that in er : Euander or Euandrus (whence Voc. Euandre) in Virgil; Maeander or Maeandrus : ///^r/^j" (anc). Greetc V. Grcck NouHS ill the Second Declension. Nouns in Singular. Decl. 2. Del-OS, f. Ath-6s, m. Androge-6s (us), m. Peli-6n, n. Voc. Del-e Ath-6s Androge-os Peli-6n Acc. Del-6n um Ath-5n (o) Androge-o on (ona) Peli-on Gen. Del-i Ath-o Androge-o (i) Peh-i D.Abl. Del-o Ath-o (one) Androge-o Peli-o a) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local Names, with a few Appellatives, in 6s, on, Masc. Fem., and on, Neut., are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose : Meleagros ; scorpios ; Cnidos ; Troilon ; Samon ; Ilion, &;c. Virgil has Athon (as from Athos) ; Chaos n. 3., Abl. Chao : and Panthu, Voc. of PanthCis. On Nouns in eus see § 24. /3) The Greek Genitive Plural in on (wv) is found in Latin. Sallust has ^ colonia Theraeon,' ^Philaenon arae,' for The- raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum, from Georgica, the Ge orgies. Gender Gcndcr in the Second Declension. in Decl. 2. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender, as stated in § 18. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this DecL are Fem. They are : § 2^. Adjectives i7i Dec I, IL and L 93 alvus, paunch humus, ground colus, distaff' (See Decl. 4.) vannus, winnowing-fan The following Greek words are Fern. : arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect atomus, atoni^ C. Fin. i. 6. pharus, lighthouse, Stat. S.y. ioi. carbasus, line7i cnrtaiji or sail and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good classical authority for their use. Barbitos, lute, is common. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. Table of Adjec- Adjectives of three Endings, in -us -a -um, -er -era -erum, tives in and -er -ra -rum, follow the Second and First Declensions. cond^' 1 Masc. Fem. Neut. 1 1 like like m e n s a like b e 1 1 u m dominus . bonus bona bonum good [ puer . . . tener * tenera tenerum tender j magister . niger nigra nigrum black and First Declen- sions. SINGULAR. M. F. N. I) N. bon-us bon-a bon-um V. bon-e bon-a bon-um Acc. bon-um bon-am bon-um G. bon-i bon-ae bon-i D. bon-o bon-ae bon-o Abl. bon-o bon-a bon-o PLURAL. N. bon-i bon-ae bon-a V. bon-i bon-ae bon-a Acc. bon-os bon-as bon-a G. bon-orum bon-arum bon-orum D. bon-is bon-is bon-is Abl. bon-is bon-is bon-is SINGULAR. M. F. N. 2) N. tener tener-a tener-um V. tener tener-a tener-um Acc. tener-um tener-am tener-um G. tener-i tener-ae tener-i D. tener-o tener-ae tener-o Abl. tener-o tener-a tener-o 94 Latin Wordlorc. §24. PLURAL. M. F. N. N. tener-i tener-ae tener-a V. tener-i tener-ao tener-a Acc. tener-os tener-as tener-a VT. Lciic I ~oruxu Lciici uruzzi Lciici -oruizi XJ. icnci-is icilcr-is icner-is A hi Ld 'CI IS ICllCi 1!» SINGULAR. N. niger nigr-a nigr-um V. niger nigr-a nigr-um Acc. nierr-um niffr-am nierr-um G. nigr-i nigr-ae nigr-i D. nisrr-o nigr-ae nigr-o Abl. nigr-o nigr-a nigr-o PLURAL. N. nigr-l nigr-ae nigr-a V. nigr-i nigr-ae nigr-a Acc. nigr-os nigr-as nigr-a G. nigr-orum nigr-arum nigr-orum D. nigr-is nigr-is nigr-is Abl. nigr-is nigr-ia nigr-is Section IV. Thp* 1. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns. Third Declen- sion. Xhe Third Declension has two chief Divisions : I. Nouns with Character a Consonant, either Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant. II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis. A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if they were I-nouns ; many I-nouns, as parens, cohors, seem as if they were Consonant-nouns ; and many appear to fluctuate between the two divisions, as civitas, servitus. The cause of this uncertainty hes in the unstable nature of i-vocahs ; which, being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into e, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence. I. CONSONANT STEMS. ii. Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen- sion. i) In thi? Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous ; the chief being s, n, I, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids), of which s, including x (cs), is the prevalent ending. The TJiird Declension. 2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n. Those in c, t, a, e, are Neuter words without final suffix. 3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun- stem and the Nominative: dux due-, fax fac-, &c. Sometimes the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel: index iudic- (true form die-), comes comit- (true form it-). Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews in auspex auspic- (true form spec-) ; obses obsid- (true form sed-;. Sometimes neither of the two: remex remig- (true form is ag-, of which the a is weakened into 1 in the open syllable, to e in the close). So auceps aucup-, princeps princip- (true form in each cap-), nomen nomin- (Primitive iidrnan). ac- ac- -ax -ax iii. Syllabus. In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words. A. Mute Guttural Stems. To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural melts into x, 1 being generally changed into e. i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked Stem. Nom. S. F. fax, torch : "^M. Corax. F. y^2.y.^ peace \ ioxvi^i^^ furnace-, M. Aiax; Climax, snail. "^M. Thrax, Thracian ; Phaeax, Phaeacian, thorax, breastplate. F. nex, death ; (prec-),/r^j/^r,has no Nom. G. Sing. Adj. faenisex, haycutter. (Variant C. ; senex, old person, inflected sen- for senec-. Demin. senec-io.) M. vervex, wether. N. halec, Jish-pickle (also F. halex). M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing- book^ &c. ; cimex, bug ; culex, gitat ; extispex, entr ail-viewer ; frutex, shrub ; latex, liquid\ mu- XQ.^, purple-shell, purple-, podex; pollex, /////;//^ ; \iOXil\{^x, pontiff \ pulex^ffea; pumex, pumice; ra- mex, bloodvessel ; saurex or sorex, shrew-niouse ; vertex or vortex, summit, eddy. F. carex, sedge ; Ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu- bine ; vltex (a shrub). C. cortex, bark ; forfex, shears ; illex, decoy er ; imbrex, tile ; riimex, sorrel ; silex, basalt ; with words applicable^ to either sex ; artifex, auspex, carnifex, index, index, opifex, vindex. See p. 76. ec- ec- Ic- -ex -ex (-ec) -ex Syllabus of Cons. Stems. 96 Latin Word lore. §24. Stem. Nom. S. IC- -ix Ic- -Ix -vJX uc- -ux uc- -ux ^0 ( -PV CA. PP"- -PV -1 V lA. -ex og- -ox ug- -unx ug- -ux M. calix, C7ip ; fornix, arch ; "^Cllix, Cilician. F. appendix ; coxendix, ///}^ ; f ilix, fei^n ; fulix, ^/^// ; natrix, water-snake ; ^^x^^ pitch ; salix, w//- ; struix, heap \ (vIc-is), ^•//<:?;/^^'(noNom. S.) ; *hy strix, porciipme, C. larix, ; varix, swoln vein. F. cervix, ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, raven ; coturnix, quail ; lodix, blanket ; meretrix ; nu- trix, nurse \ radix, r^?^?/ ; vibix, weal ; and many more. "^M. Phoenix, Phoenicia7t (also a name) ; phoenix (a fabulous bird). F. vox, voice. F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-t7'ec. M. tradux, layef (of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide. F. lux, light. M. Pollux. M. gi'ex, herd ; Lelex (one of the Leleges). M. rex, ki7ig ; F. lex, law. Adj. exlex (Acc. exlegem), outlawed. F. strix, screech-owl; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix^ Biturix, &c. (Keltic names). M. remex, rower. M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe). C. coniunx or coiux, wife ; husband, p. 76. F. {{x\xg-)^ fruit, produce : no Nom. S. 2) Greek Guttural Stems. oc- -ox j^C- -yx yc- -yx ych- -yx nc- -nx yg- -yx ng- -nx M. Cappadox, Cappadocian, M. calyx, bi^d, husk ; Eryx. M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx. F. onyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones). F. lynx (M. in Hon). M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian, F. Styx (river in hell). F. phalanx ; syrinx ; Sphinx. B. Mute Dental Stems. The Stem adds s in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex- cluded : aetas for (aetat-s), nox for (noct-s). Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s). Short I may become e : miles for (miht-s). i) Latin, with Greek words.* Stem. Nom. S. at- [ -as F. anas, duck (Cic. N.D. ii. 48, anatum ova : var. r. anitum). at- -as F. aetas, time, age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas, calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens^ city ; cupiditas, desire ; pi etas, piety ; tempestas, §24. The Third Declension, 97 Stenu Nom. S. et- Jt- et- it- -es -es -es at- 6t- ut- ut- ct- nt- rt- ad- ed- ed- aed- id- -is -es -ut -OS -OS -us 'US •C -X •ns -rs •as -es -es -aes -es season^ weather, storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with many other Derivatives. See p. io8. M. Maecenas. M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall. F. dihiQS, fir tree^ M. (indiges), native (no Nom. S.). F. seges, corn-crop ; teges, mat, C. interpres, interpreter, M. ames, pole ; caespes, turf\ codes, one-eyed person ; caeles, celestial ; eques, horseman, on horseback ; pedes, foot-soldier, on foot ; fomes, fuel ; gurges, whirlpool ; limes, boundary ; ^3\.mQS,mne-tendril ; poples, knee\ siv^^s, trunk', termes, bough (cut off) ; trames, cross-path ; veles, skirmisher, F. merges, ^/^^^ C. antistes ; comes ; hospes ; miles ; satelles. See p. 76. Adj. ales, winged (Abl. S. i, e), used as Subst. bird, (Gen. PI. in poetry alituum for alitum); dives, rich ; praepes, fast-flying ; sospes, safe ; superstes, surviving. Also Caeres, of Caere, Mo Dis, Pluto. F. quies, rest ; inquies, restlessness {only Nom. S.) ; requies, repose (also declined as an E-noun, Acc. requiem, Abl. requie). Adj. inquies, restless, *M. lebes, chaldron ; magnes, magnet ; Cres, Cretan; also Names of men which have a second form in es, is : Chremes, DarSs, Thales. Adj. locuples, wealthy, N. caput, head', with its compounds occiput, sin- ciput. See p. 109. 5* Adj. Compounds of caput in -ceps for -cipes (-cipit-s), cipit- ; biceps, triceps, praeceps, &c. M. nepos, grandson ; "^Eros ; *Aegoceros ; "^rhi- noceros. F. dos, dowry, C. sacerdos, priest or priestess. Adj. combos, possessing ; impos, without power, F. iuventus, youth ; senectus, old age ; salus, weal, safety, servitus, slavery, virtiis, virtue, valour, Servitus admits Gen. PI. servitutium. Adj. intercus, under the skin, N. lac, milk. See p. 107. M. Astyatiax. M. Arruns ; Acheruns, Plaut ; Ufens ; Mars, Mavors. M. YdiSy personal surety* M. ipes,foot. F. Its compound (com\)^s), fetter , is Fem. (with reference to catena). C. quadrupes (also N.). Adj. bipes, tripes, alipes. Fo merces, hire, pay. C. heres, heir. Adj. exheres, disinherited. M. praes, bondsman (in money). C. obses, hostage ; praeses, president. Adj. deseSj lazy ; reses, reposing, H 98 Latin Wordlore. §24- Stem. Nom. S. id- -IS 6d- -OS UQ- w 11c ud- -US aud- -aus rd- -r M. lapis, stone, F. cassts, heljnet; cuspTs, pointy promulsis, antepast. Adj. tricuspts. (On Greek words in is, id-, see below.) C. CMStbs, guardian. F. pecus, head of cattle, beast. F. incxas, anvil ; palus, marsh, pool (Livy has Gen. PI. paludium). F. fraus, deceit ; laus, praise, N. cor, heart. Adj. compounds concors, discors, excors, misericors, socors, vecors, are I-nouns. Note. C. vat-es, seer, has the form of an I- noun ; but its root is vat-, Gen. PI. vat-um. 2) Greek Dental Stems. at- ft- eth- ant- ent- ont- unt- nth- ad- id- -a -is -es -as -IS -on \ -o i -us -ns -as -is N. aenigma, riddle ; emblema, mosaic; epigramma, epigram ; poema, poem ; toreuma, embossed-work, &c. Such words are irregularly declined in the Plural : having G. PI. -t-orum or -t-um, D. Abl. -t'is (sometimes -t-ibus), as G. PI. emble- mat-orum, D. PI. emblemat-is. Martial has the Greek Gen PI. epigrammaton. F. Char is, a Grace. M. Parnes, (a mountain). M. adamas, adamant-, elephas, elephant. The Names Atlas, Calchas, Pallas (sonof Mezentiusin the Aeneid), &c. have Voc. a ; Atla, Calcha, Palla. Corybas, Corybantes (PL), (the priests of Cybele). — Acc. S. -antem or -antd, Acc. PI. -an- tes or -antds, M. Simols, (river of Troy in the Iliad). M. chamaeleon ; Anacreon, Charon, Creon, Phae- thon, Xenophon. Attempts were made (Plaut. Ter. Cic.) to latinize this form by writing o for on ; Xenopho, Creo, Antipho, Ctesipho, De- mipho. Terence inflects the three last in 6ni-. Names of towns : F. Opus, Trapezus, &c. M. Pessinus. C. Selinus. Sometimes latinized into 2. n. -untum, -ontum : Hydruntum (Hy- drus), Liv., Sipontum (Sipus), Cic. F. Tiryns. F. lampas, torch (PI. Nom. lampades, Ov.) ; Pallas, Dryas, Maenas, Naias, &c. Acc. S. d (em), Dat. t in poetry. D. Abl. PI. -dst, -asm in poetry, as Troasin, Ov. M. Arcis, Arcadian. PI. Nom. Arcades, Verg. Acc. Arcadas, Cic. This form comprises numerous words. Some are Appellatives ; F. aegis, amystis, aspis, pyramis, tyrannis, &c. The rest are Names : 1) Local : (a) towns : F. Aulis, Chalcis, &c. ; {b) countries : F. Doris, Locris, Persis, &c. (really Adjectives) ; {c) rivers : M. Phasis, Thybris, &:c. 2) Personal : {a) F. Patronymic : Briseis, Chry- §24. Stem. The Third Declension. 99 Norn. S. -US seis, Colchis, Minois, Nereis, Titanis. {b) F. Amaryllis, Bacchis, Chrysis^ Lycoris, Phyllis, Semiramis, Thais, Thetis. Classes (^), {p) take Acc, S. -idem or -ida generally : but some also take im : Alcestin, I sin, Irim. {c) M. Adonis, Alexis, Anubis, Busiris, Daphnis, Osiris, Phalaris, Paris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis. Acc. S. im in ; or idem idd. The Voc. S. of all these stems is in i \ ColchJ, Phylli, Alexi, Osiri. Many fluctuate between the Cons, and I-declen- sion : tigris, tigri- or tigrid- ; Thybris Thybri- or Thybrid-. M. tripus (rpLTTovc), tripod ; Melampus ; Oedipds. The last name is variously declined : (i) as an O-noun, Voc. Acc. Oedipe, Oedipum. (2) as an A-noun, Oedipod-es, Acc. -en^ Abl. -e. (3) as here ; Oedip-ias, Acc. Gen. -odem or ddd^ -odis. F. chlamys, mantle ; pelamys, tunny-fish. M, lapys, PI. lapydes (an Illyrian race). C Mute Labial Stems. The Stem takes s in Nom. S. i) Latin Labial Stems (Greek marked *). Stem. Nom. S. ap- -aps 1 ip* -eps up* dp- -ips -eps -ops F. (daps), banquet (no Nom. S.). M. "^Laelaps (name of a dog in Ovid). C. adeps (also adips),^/ ; and the compounds from capio ; forceps, tongs ; municeps ; parti- ceps ; princeps. See p. 76. F. (stips), a small coin, dole. M. auceps, fowler ; manceps (both from capio). F. (ops), help (no Nom. S.). *M. Pelops ; *Aethiops, Ethiopian. Adj. inops, resourceless^ Abl. S. inopi. 2) Greek Stems. op- yp- ab- yb- -ops -yps -abs-aps -ybs M. hydrops, dropsy ; Cyclops : (Acc. S. PI. as). M. gryps, griffin. M. Arabs (Araps). M. Chalybs. D. Nasal Stems. There is only one m-stem, hiem-p-s ; which takes s in Nom. S., inserting euphonic p, according to the best authorities. IT takes s in one Latin word only, sangui-s for sanguin-s : it remains the Nom. Ending in all Neuter, and many Masc. words : in all Fern, and some Masc. words n is dropt, and the Nom. Ending becomes o ; but in Neuter and some Masc. Nouns la- becomes en. H 2 100 Latin Wordlore. §24. i) Latin Nasal Stems. , Stem. Nom. S. -m-p-s em- in- In- in- -en -IS -o on- -o F. hiemps, winter, M. flamen, priest (of some deity) ; pectert, comb^ and the compounds of canere, fidicen, lutist ; tibicen, flute-player \ liticen, clarion-player \ tubicen, trumpeter ; oscen, ominous (bird). N. gluten, glue^ and numerous Verbal Substan- tives : agmen, carmen, culmen, nomen, numen, regtmen, semen, stamen, tegmen, volumen, &c. M. sanguis, blood \ {^o\Y\s) 7nill-dust^ powder. Other forms are sanguen, pollen : and probably I- stems, sangui- polli-, existed anciently. M. homo, human being (homon- hemon- are old forms) : turbo, whirlwind^ top ; Apollo. C. nemOj nobody, )^ , Many in -do, -go : grando, hail ; harundo, reed ; hirundo, swallow^ hirudo, leech^ testudo, tortoise ; indago, net ; origo, origin ; robigo, 7nil- dew ; virgo, virgin ; Carthago, &c. : and nume* rous abstracts : cupido, libido, fortitudo, mag- nitudo, vicissitudo, &c. Caro, flesh ; earn- (for carTn- or caron-), be- coming an I -noun, Gen. PI. carnium. M. cardo, hi7ige ; ordo, order ; Cupido, the deity Cupid ; C. margo, margin^ M. Concretes in o on- : agaso, groom ; baro^ simpleton ; bibo, toper ; bufo, toad ; carbo, coal ; crabro, hornet ; epulo, banquetter ; latro, robber ; leo, lion ; ligo, spade ; mucro, point (of dagger) ; upilio or opilio, shepherd ; papilio, butterfly ; praedo,//r^z/^ ; ^Vig\o,p07tiard; s^rmo, discourse; stelio, lizard ; tiro, recruit ; vespertilio, bat ; also unio, pearl ; ternio, tre^ senio, sice^ &c., in dice- play : Names; Capito, Cicero, Naso, Pollio, &c., but F. luno. F. Abstracts in io ion : (ci) from Adjectives : com- munio, perduellio, treason^ rebellio ; {b) from Pres. Stem, of Verbs : legio, regio, &c. ; \c) from Supine Stem, a very large class : actio, dictio, lectio, positio, &c. Some take concrete mean- ing : natio, a nation ; oratio, a speech^ &c. Note, C. Can-is, dog, iuven-is, young person^ are really Nasal Stems (Pr. kvan, yuvan) : but take i in Nom. S. Their Gen. PI. is in -um. 2) Greek Nasal Stems. Stem. an- en- Nom. -an -en M. Acarnan, Acarnanian\ Pan; Paean (name of Apollo : hymn to Apollo) ; Titan. M. ren-cs, PI. kidneys, reins, loins (Gen. PI. um, or ium) ; splen, spleen, inilt (for which lien is a Latin form) : attagen (a bird). The river Anio ir. ipflected Anien- from a byform Anien. F. Siren. 24* The Third Declension. lOI Stem, en- in- on- Nom. S. -en -In -Is -on on- -on M. Hymen ; Philopoemen. M. delphin, dolphin (also delphin-us, 2.) F. Eleusis, Salamis. M. Solon, Telamon, Triton, &c. Cithaeron, Heli- con. Names of men were generally latinised by taking Nom. S. o : Hiero, Milo, Plato, Zeno, &c. But Alcon, Cimon, &c. keep n. F. Babylon; Calydon ; Marathon, &c, M. Arion ; Amphion ; lason ; Ixion ; Memnon, &c. F. Amazon ; Gorgon ; sindon,^?;^^ linen. Rarely latinised with Nom. S. in o : M. Macedo, Macedonian. Note, Greek Nasal Nouns have Acc. S. d or em (Pan always Pana) ; PI. as generally. E, Liquid and Sibilant Stems. and r proper do not take s in Nom. S. : as consul, aequor. Sibilant Stems are numerous, many of them retaining their s in Nom. S. and changing it to r in the inflected cases: Venus, Veneris ; flos, floris, &c. Others change s to r in the Nom. S. also: lar, laris; melior, melioris. Vowel-change often occurs inNom. S. : ebur for ebor. i) Latin Stems (Greek*). Stem. Nom. S. al- -al il- -il 61- -61 iil- -ill ell- -el ar- -ar arr- -ar er- -er M. sal, salt (rarely N.) ; Hannibal, Hiempsal, &c. M. pugil, boxer ; vigil, watchman ; mugil (also mugili-s), mullet. Adj. vigil, wakeful y Abl. S. i. M. sol, the sun. M. consul; y^zj^svX^ president C. exul, banished one. "N. felf ^all; me\, honey , 8ic. M. Caesar ;' lar, household-god (anc. PI. Lases). N. par,/^/r ; baccar (a plant) ; iubar, sun-beam \ instar, likeness (only Nom. Acc. S.) : "'f- nectar, nectar. (Adj. par, with compounds, is an I-stem.) N. {"diX^ flour. M. acipens-er oracipensis, sturgeon ; agger, mound; anser, goose ; asser, pole ; career, prison (PL starting place) ; later, brick ; passer, sparrow ; with the Plurals Celeres, the knightly body- guards \ proceres, nobles \ see p. 127. F. mulier, woman. C. tuber (a fruit tree). N. acer, maple ; cadaver, carcase ; cicer, chickpea ; papaver, poppy \ piper, pepper ; siler, withy ; siser, skirret ; siiber, cork ; tiiber, a hump^ a truffle \ uber, a teat\ also iter or (itiner),y^7^r- ney^ Gen. itineris ; PI. iugera, acres ; (verber),, stripe^ Abl. S. verbere,. with full PI. 102 Stem. Latin Wordlore, §24. Nom. S. er- or- -er -or or- -or (anc. -or) or- ur- -ur -ur ur- as- -ur -as aer' er- •aes •es -Is -us The M. form vesper-e, i, seems to be of this Decl., but its other cases (vesper, &c.) are of the 2nd. Plautus uses vesperi (and luci, temperi, mani) with Prep. : ' de vesperi suo,' &c. And Corssen does not consider them to be Locative but true Abl. Cases. Virgil has vespere Abl. : ' vespere ab atro/ Aen. v. 19. Adj. degener, degenerate ; pauper, /^7^?r. N. ver, spri7ig. N. aequor, level surface^ sea ; marmor, marble^ sea ; ador, spelt (whence F. adorea, i.e. donatio, a dole of spelt given to victorious soldiers : hence ' victory^ 'glory has only Nom. Acc. S. M. Archaic words, as Marcipor (Marci puer), slave of Marcus : Lucipor, slave of Lucius, &c. M. olor, swan : with a large number of Verbal Substantives, some formed from root or Pres. stem : amor, love ; ardor, heat ; calor, ivarmth ; dolor, grief pain, &c. ; others, very numerous, from Supine stem : cultor, tiller, worshipper \ domitor, tamer ; victor, conqueror, &c. F. soror, sister ; uxor, wife. Adj. Acc.S. primorem, PI. primores, chiefpersons. ebur, ivory ; femiir, thigh ; iecur, livei' (also iecinor- iocinor- iociner-) ; robur, hard wood, oak (old form probably robus, whence robustus). M. furfur, bran ; (lemur) goblin (chiefly Plur.) ; vultur, vulture ; turtur, turtle-dove ; *Ligur or Ligus, Ligurian ; C. augur. N. guttur, throat ; ixAgxvc, lightning ; murmur; sul- fur, sulphur. — Adj. cicur, tame, M. fur, thief N. vas, vessel (PI. vasa, vasorum, vasis) ; fas, {divine) right ; nefas, wrong, impiety : (both words have only Nom. Acc. S. ; but V. uses fandi, nefandi, as their Gen.). N. aes, copper, brass, bronze, F. Ceres (goddess of corn). Adj. pubes (puberis), of ripe age: impubes (im- puberis), under age. See p. 115. M. cucumis, cucumber (also cucumi-) ; vomis (vo- mer), ploughshare : acipensis. C. cinis, ashy cinder ; pulvis, dust, F. Venus. N. foedus, treaty ; funus, funeral ; genus, race, kind ; glomus, ball (of thread, &c.) ; holus (olus), green stuff ; latus, side ; m\xnMS,gift, office (Nom. Acc. PI. munera or munia) : onus, burden ; pon- dus, weight ; raudus (rudus), bit (of brass, &c.) ; scelus, crime, wickedness ; sidus, constellation ; vtViyx^^fleece \ (viscus, rarely Sing.), ulcus, sore ; vulnus, wound, Secus, sex (only Nom. Acc. S.). This us is for anc. os. § 24. Stem. or- Tke Third Declension, 103 6r- or- Norn. S. -US -OS -or -OS -or (anc. or) or- ur- tr- -03 -US -ter M. lepus, hare, N. corpus, body ; decus, grace, dedeCus, disgrace ; facinus, deed, crime ; fenus, usury, interest (also er-) ; frigus, cold ; lltus, shore ; nemus, forest, grove ; pectus, breast ; pignus, pledge (also er-) ; stercus, dung ; tempus, time; temple (of head) ; tergus (also tergum 2.), ^/z^:^. This us was anc. os. F. arbos or arbor, tree. M. colos, usually color, colour, complexion ; honos or honor, honour, office ; labos or labor, toil ; lepos or lepor, wit, good hmnour. So odor, scent; pavor, alarm ; rumor, report (rarely odos, &c.). See p. 102. M. ^bs, flower ; m5s, custom \ ros, dew, N. OS, 7nouth,face. On comparatives melior, melius (anc. melios), see pp. 21, 42. F. tellus, land, earth, N. crus, leg\ ius, right \ ius, gravy, broth ; pus, foul matter ; rus, country ; tus, frankincense. M. pater, father ; frater, brother ; accipiter, hawk, Y, mater, mother. 2) Greek R-Stems. M. aer, atmosphere (Acc. S. aera or acrem) : aether, sky (Acc. S. aethera). M. crater, 7nixing-bowl. (Acc. S. a, PI. as.) M. rhetor. Castor, Hector, Nestor, &c. (Acc. S. d or em, PL as). This or is latinized from Gr. F, u- and v-Stems. w er- -er er- -er or- -or u- ov- -us C. grus, crane ; sus, swine (Dat. Abl. PI. subus or suibus). M. luppiter I6v-, lupiter. C. bos bov-, ox or <:^>7e' (Gen. PI. boum ; Dat. Abl. b5bus or bubus). G. Greek E- O- and Y- Stems. e- -os N. epos, epic poem ; melos, lyric (Gen. S. -eos^ Nom. Acc. PI. rrele, contracted from melea). So cete, whales ; pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in Thessaly). Chaos belongs here : but Virgil has Abl. Chao, 2. M. heros hero-, hero (Acc. S. heroa, Nom. PI. heroes, Acc. heroas). F. echo (Gen. echus for echo-os ; the other cases in J ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on^, M. Cotys Coty- ; Phorcys Phorcy- ; TiphJ^s Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Acc. S. -a. PI. -as. (A few Adjective and other I -stems are included in the foregoiAg tables, on account of their connexion with other words.) o- o- y- -os -o 104 Latin Wovdlore. §24. iv. I-stem^. Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba ^unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables m the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having the same number of syllables in those Cases. . Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con- sonant Nouns : but many are CHpt I-nouns : especially those which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before s in the Nom. Sing, as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives, all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis, «^enex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c. Adjectives of both kinds in this Decl. are I-nouns except a few,^ V. Grouping of I-nouns. I-nouns come under four chief Heads : A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. I-s (a few er for -ri-) : Fem. Masc. or Common. B) Parisyllabic I-nouns in e-s (i-s) perhaps from original sibilant-stems : chiefly Fem. C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in e, Im- parisyll. in al, ar. D) Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fem. Masc. or Common. A) I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in i or e. I. Acc. S. im : Abl. i, l) F. *cannabys, hemp (Abl. S in Persius) ; tussTs, cough ; sitis, thirst (S. only) ; buris, ploughtail (only Acc. S.) ravis, hoarseness (only Acc. S.) ; * tigris, tiger (also as a Consonant Noun, tigrid-). Names of Towns: HispaHs, Seville; Neapolis, Naples; Amphipolis; Memphis. Yls, force (an S-stem), Acc. S. vim, Abl. vi, casting out s (Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing s into r. Greek I -nouns : p o e s 1 s, poetry ; mathesis, science ; Charybdis: Voc. S. Acc. tn or im ; pooei, poes-in (im). The Greek Gen. in eos is rare : poeseos : and Gen. PI. eon : metamorphoseon. ' Many Latin I-nouns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovis, ars, dos, geiiS, mens, and others. In some i represents Pr. a: axis, foris,imbris, nubes panis, pellis, peiiis» unguis. In others i is a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s iuven-i-s, lov-i-s, vat-i-s: mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, levis, pinguis, suavis, tenuis. In m ensis (Gr. /ityji/), si is suffixal. In a few, as arx, daps, there is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix S. In some of these forms i, not belonging to the original Nom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-nouns it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, especially the great bulk, of Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies. § 24* The Third Declension. 105 Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus- sim, by rule, accurately, ad fatim, affatim, abun- dantly \ from disused nouns amussis, fatis. Hence it is probable that adverbs in tim, sim, partim, sensim,. &c., are similarly cases of lost I-nouns. 2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun cucumer-, like Ceres, pulvis, cinis). Names of Rivers: Albis, Elbe \ Tiberis, Tiber \ Liris,. P has is, &:c. 2. Acc. S. im or em, Abl. i or e. This group is wholly Feminine : F. puppis, /^?^?^ ; i€tyn^, fever ; turris, tower : im (em) ; e^ I. securis, hatchet ; im (em) ; i restis, rope ; im (em) ; e messis, harvest ; em (im) ; e clavis, key ; em (im) ; i e sementrs, seed-time \ em (im) ; navis, ship ; im, em ; 1, 6 i, e pelvis, pan ; im, em ; e 1 3. Acc. S. em ; Abl. € or i. M. axis, axle; 6 (i) ignis, yfr^; I, e F. bilis, bile; cXdiSSis, fleet ; avis, bird; e (i) strigilis, scraper ; i (e) Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt in Nom. S. into supellex. In Abl. S. it has i or e. Finis, originally Fem., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely. d) M. imber imbri- m. shower, Abl. i, 6. The Month-names September, October, November, December ; Abl. i : are used adjectively. ^) Many Adjectives have Substantival use : M. aedilis, edile, e (i) ; aequalis, contemporary, I ; annalis, I (chiefly Plur. annals) ; aqualis, water-can, i ; natalis, birth- day, i (e) ; rivalis, rival, e (i) ; familiaris, intimate friend, i (e) ; molaris, grinder, 1 (chiefly Plur.). F. bipennis, double axe, e i ; novdiWs, fallowed field, e i ; trire- mis, trireme, i e ; volucris, bird, e. C. affinis, kinsperson, e i ; iuvenis, young person, e ; contu- bernalis, tentmate, e i ; patruelis, cousin on father'^s sidCy e, i ; sodalis, companion, i e ; canalis, canal, channel, i. c) Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have Abl. Sing, in e : luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense, Martiale. fustis, cudgel; e, 1 unguis, claw ; e (i) C. amnis, river ; e (i) finis, end ; e {\) civis, citizen ; i (e) anguis, snake ; e (i) io6 Latin Wordlorc. §24. d) In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms of Adjectives in is, is, e, and in er, Is, e : as tristis, is. e; acer, acris, acre. But the Neuter forms triste', acre, belong to Head C). All have Abl. S. i, very rarely 6, 4. Acc. em : Abl. e. M. orbis, circle^ world ; fascis, bundle ; piscis,y£y/^ ; caulis, stalk ; colli s, hill ; follis, bellows \ vermis, worm ; clunis, hind-leg \ crinis, hair\ panis, loaf\ torris, brand \ ensis, sword ; mensis, month ; postis, door-post ; vectis, lever ; uter, leathern bottle ; venter, belly ; with the Plural words casses, nets ; ^XiX.^Sy front vine-rows ; manes. F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,y2?// ; sudis (no Nom. S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con- vallis, hollow valey pellis, hide\ Alpis, Alp ; apis, bee; auris, ear ; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril ; cutis, cuticle ; n^'^^xs, granddaughter \ ptstis, plague ; ratis, r^/?; vestis, garment ; vitis, viiie ; ovis, ewe : with the Plur. words fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, hUestrings (has Abl. S. fide). C. corbis, basket ; callis, path ; funis, rape, cable ; torquis (es), collar ; hostis, ene?ny ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble,^ B) Nom. S. es, Acc. em, Abl. e. All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig, F. aedes, temple (PI. house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed ; cautes, rock ; clades, defeat ; compages, structure ; fames, hunger (Abl. e) ; feles, cat ; indoles, native disposition ; labes, fall, mischief-, lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles, pile ; nubes, cloud ; palumbes, pigeon ; plebes, the com- mons (also plebs : see Decl. 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen. PI. um) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes, hedge-, sedes, ^y^^/; soboles or suboles, sordes, ^/r? (PI. meanness) ; strages, slaughter ; strues, ; tabes, taint, consumption (no PI.) ; valles, vale ; vulpes, and the Plural words \2LCtes,'small entrails ; ambages, evasive language or conduct (has Abl. S. e. Gen. PI. um). Several of these have a byform in is : aedis, caedis, felis, melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more. The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into I-stems by exclusion of staminal s (as puber-is pubes). C) Neuter Nouns : Nom. S. e (for 1-) ; al (for ali-) ; iir (for ari-). Abl. i. Neut. PI. ia. * isolated variations of Case occur in some. See M. Lucr. i. 978. nii. Varro says that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. Nepti is found in Tac. §24. The Third Declension, 107 1} N. mare, sea ; rete, net ; aplustre,_;f^^; conclave, apartment ' m.'SAgXi^, ensign ; praesepe, stall^ crib ; ancile, small shield % bubile, ox-stall \ caprile, goat-house \ cubile, bedchamber^ couch ; equile, stable ; hastile, spear ; mantile, napkin ; monile, necklace \ ovile, sheep f old \ focale, neckwrapper; noY3\Q, fallow ; penetrale^ inner shrine \ cochleare^ spoon ; altaria (PL), high altar \ talaria ankle-rings. Also caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i). Lac, milky IS for lac-te, like rete. Retis c. is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe. Some local names ending in te take Abl. e usually: Bibracte, Reate, Soracte. Abl. mare for marl is in Lucr. Ov. Abl. rete is frequent. 2) N. animal ; cervical, bolster ; minutal, minced meat ; toral, sofa-cover; tribunal; vectigal, toll, revenue. See Bac ca- nal, bidental, capital, Lupercal, Minerval,, puteal in Dictionary. 3) N. calcar, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laquear, ceiling; lupanar ; pulvmar, cushioned seat ; torcular, wine- press. Observe par, pari-, pair. Note. Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have dropt e : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival. D) Clipt I-nouns : Gen. PI. l-um. The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and Cons. -nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I- noun, i before um in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I-noun loses 1 (as in apum, volucrum), if a Cons.-noun takes i (as in civitatium, paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, is ( = es, eis) in Acc. PI. m. f. or ia n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course, therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux, sol, &c.), where no test of an I-noun is ascertained : unless some strong analogy points to an exception. Guttural before i : F. faex faeci-, lees ; (faux) fauci-, jaw ; calx calci-, heel ; falx falci-, pruning-hooky scythe ; lanx lanci-, dish ; arx arci-, citadel ; merx merci-, merchandise. Add nix nivi-, snow, M. Deunx deunci-, quincunx quincunci-, &:c., (parts of as). Labial before i : F. stirps stirpi- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ; trabs (or trab-es) trabi-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbi-, f. city. Nasal before i : F. caro carm- (for carmi-),y7^^^. See Cons.-Nouns. iq8 Latin Wordlore. §24. R (for s) or s before 1 : M. glis gliri-, dormouse ; mus muri-, mouse \ and^by probable analogy, mas man-, male \ as assi-, F. vis N\x\- /force : see p. 104. N. OS 0SS1-, do7ie (but Nom. PI. ossa for oss-ia). Dental before i : These are the most numerous : many being Adjectival. a) M. Gentile words in as atl-, is Itl- (dipt from ati-s, Ttis) : Aquinas, man of Aqtcinum \ Arpinas, man of Arpinum ; Quiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnite, &c. ; (optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.), household gods. Adj. nostras, of our country \ vestras, of your country ; cuias, of what country, b) F. lis liti-, strife. c) Nouns in ans anti<, ens enti-, mostly participial. M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadrans, sextans, triens (parts of as) ; aliens, client ; dens, tooth, and compounds, (but F. bidens, sheep) ; oriens (sol), east ; occidens (sol), west \ xu^tns, cable 'y torrQns,. torrent. F. gens, clan, nation ; lens, lentil; mens, mind, intetiecl, C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76. All words in d) c) not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i in Gen. PI. ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for i»- fantium, parentum for parentium. d) Nouns in ons onti- : M. ions, fountain ; mons, mountain; ^ons, bridge. F. irons, forehead; (s^ons), free choice (only Abl. sponte). e) Nouns in is Iti-, rs rti-, cs (x) cti- : Fem. F. puis, pulse; ars, art; pars, part; cohors, cors, cohort, court ; fors (S.), chance ; mors, death ; sors, lot ; nox, night. f) Nouns in ns ndi- : Fem. F. frons, leaf; glans, acorn ; iuglans, walnut. Notes vi. Notes on the Cases. on the Cases. I. Instances occur of a Gen. PI. in lum from Cons. Nouns in as at-, us ut-, us ud- : more rarely from those in x, ps : civita- tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat- ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium^ forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um in Virgil is a bold license for the sake of metre. ^ * Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as Quid dubitas quin omni' sit haec rationi * potestas ? — Lucr. ii. 53. On the dropping of final m in Acc. S. anciently, see pp. 28, 46. §24. The Third Declension. 109 No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis), cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pi x, praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Canis, iuvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PI. um : also panis, in the opinion of some grammarians: apis, volucris have Gen. PI. um, sometimes ium. Sedum occurs from sedes; mensum (rarely mensuum) from men sis ;^ but also ium. Some Plural words in alia, ilia, aria, especially names of festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum ; vectigali-orum, Suet.; ancili-orum, Hor. ; lacunari-orum, Vitn Vas vas- forms its Plural as Decl. 2. vasa, vasorum, vasis. 2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( = es, eis) is proper to I-nouns, as civis, parentis, and is found side by side with es, eis till the Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres. A Nom. PI. in is or eis occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus and Lucretius ; aedis, auris, familiaris, &c. ; and in old Inscrr. A Gen. S. in us and es is archaic only, as {patrus, Apolones), 3. The Dat. Sing, had an old form in e, retained in some classical phrases : ^ triumviri auro argento aere flando feriundo.' See Cic Fam. vii. 13. ^ lure Romae dicundo,' L. xlii. 28. Virgil has ore for or i, G. i. 430. Another old form is ei. So urbei, uxorei, &c. On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is ' forma virtutei parisuma.' 4» On the Locative case in i, see § 20. Instances are luci, ruri, temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tibure, Abl.), PI. Gadibus. 5. Forms of chpt I-nouns with Abl. S. i are found ; sorti fre- quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut.) ; parti, Plaut. Ter. : some even of Cons.-nouns, capiti (Catull. Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others.^ * It is notable that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^ (ducTs) the great majority take um in Gen. PI. : facum, diicum, crucian, nilcuni, precum, gregum, pedum, apum, oputh, canum, senum, patrum, Larum, bourn, gruum, suum, struum. But of those which have Gen. S. of the form - yj, the great majority take ium in the Gen. PI. : falcium, litium, artium, &c. : exceptions are vocum, legum, regum, and a few others. So Gen. S. - ^ or ,^ gives Gen. PI. in um : supplicum, princTpum, vigTlum. (Compes) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with long penult, gives in most Adjectives Gen. PI. in ium : ferac-ium, felic-ium, &c. ; and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (i d). Comparatives are an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is true of io-n-ium. Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c. * Gender is shewn in the lists. The general results are (not including those settled by- meaning) : F, Mute Latin Cons, stems, and dipt I-stems with mute before i. N-stems in do ; go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellus ; arbor. Parisyll. I-nouns in Ts, es ; pp. 105, 106. See Exceptions below and in lists. M. Most in ex, ic- ; es it- ; ns ; all in unx ; Concreta in o : Nouns in 1 ; er er- ; Ts er- ; Is Tri- ; ter tri- ; or or- ; os or- ; ur : Greek Appellatives, except those in as, is, ys (F.): a, OS, e (N,). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, pes, lapis, sanguTs, turbo, cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtiir, vultur, lepus, mus, as : with the parisyll. I-nouns marked M. in pp. 105, 106. N. Nouns in en in- ; e ; ar ; al ali- ; or or- ; ur or- ; ur tlr- ; us er- ; us or- ; us ur-. Alsa halec, caput, lac, cor, mel, fel, ver, iter, cadaver, uber, verber, papaver, acer, cicer, piper, &c. (see p. loi), aes, far, os (oris), os (ossis), vas (vasis). C These will be found in the lists : and many on p. 76. TIO Latin Word lore. §24. vii. Table: N.V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. judge, c. iudex iudic- iudic- iudic- iudic- N.V.A. iudic- Gen. iudiC- D.Abl. iudic- I. CONSONANT-NOUNS. I. Masculine and Feminine. l) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS. SINGULAR. root, f. voice, f. radix vox radic- voc- radic- voc- radic- voc- radic- voc- PLURAL. radic- radiC- radic- voc- voC- voc- king, rex reg- reg- reg- reg- reg- reG- reg- em IS 1 e es um ibus 2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS. SINGULAR. summer, f. companion, c. virttie, f. foot, m. N.V. aestas comes virtus pes Acc. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- em Gen. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- IS Dat. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- 1 Abl. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- e N.V.A. aestat- Gen. aestaT- D.Abl. aestat- PLURAL. comit- comiT- comit- virtut- virtuT- virtut- ped- peD- ped- es um ibus 3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND V- STEMS. SINGULAR. chief, c. beam, f. lion, m. virgin, f. crane^ c. N.V. princeps trabs leo virgo grus Acc. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- em Gen. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- Is Dat. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- I Abl. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- e PLURAL. N.V.A. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- es Gen. princiP- traB- JeoN- virgiN- grU- um D.Abl. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- Ibus * For Nom. S. Endings, see § 20 and p. 94. §24. The Third Declension, III 4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS. SINGULAR. levCf m. dew, YCL woman, f. cindeTf c. father, m. In. V. amor ros mulier cmis pater Acc. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- Gen. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- Is Dat. amor* ror- mulier- ciner- patr- 1 AbL amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- e PLURAL. N.V.A. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- es Gen. amoR- roR- mulieR- cineR- patR- um D.Abl. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- ibus 2. NEUTER. SINGULAR. 2r if /y/T fZcllCl- name right N.V.A. caDut nomen ius opus corpus Gen. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- IS Dat. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- 1 Abl. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- e PLURAL. N.V.A. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- a Gen. capiT- nomiN- iuR- opeR- corpoR- um D.Abl. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- cough, f. N. V. tUSS-lS Acc. tuss-im Gen. tuss-is Dat. tuss-i Abl. tuss-i II. I-NOUNS. I. Masculine and Feminine. SINGULAR. harvest, f. mess-is shi^, f. nav-is nav-im em mess-em (im) nav-is mess-is nav-i mess-i nav-i e mess-e Jlrey m. ign-is ign-em ign-is ign-i ign-i e shower, m. imb-er imbr-em imbr-is imbr-i imbr-i (e) PLURAL. N. V. tuss-es nav-es Acc. tuss-es Is nav-es is Gen. tuss-Ium nav-lum D.Abl. tuss-ibus nav-ibus mess-es mess-es Is mess-Ium mess-ibus ign-es ign-es is ign-lum ign-ibus imbr-es imbr-es is imbr-lum imbr-ibus 112 Latin Wordlore, §24. SINGULAR. ewe. f. cloiid, f. toothy m. city, f. ntdusey iii. N V \J V lO mus Acc. OV- nub- dent- urb- mur- em Gen. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- IS Dat. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- I Abl. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- PLURAL. N. V. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- es Acc. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- es IS Gen. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- Zum D. Abl. ov- nub- dent- urb- mur- Ibiis The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in MSS. between is and es, the form is prevailing. N. V. A. Gen. Dat. Abl. net ret-e ret-ls ret-1 ret-i (e) N. V. A. ret-ia Gen. ret-lum D. Abl. ret-ibus 2. Neuter, singular. sofa-cover toral toral-is toral-i toral-i PLURAL. toral-ia toral-lum toral-ibus spur calcar calcar-id calcar-l calcar-i calcar-ia calcar-lum calcar-ibus lone OS oss-lg oss-i oss-e oss-a oss-Ium oss-ibus Greek viiL Grcck Nouns in Decl. 3. Nouns. Nominative Sing. The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping the V in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in Apollo Apollin- (Gr. 'A7^oX\w^^-), draco dracon- (Gr. hpaKovr-) : but Nepos retains n in Cimon, Conon, Dion, Timoleon, &c. : and it is usually kept in local names: Babylon, Lacedaemon. Gr. (jjf) becomes or: Hector, rhetor ; Gr. etc becomes is : Simois Simoent- ; Sardis (Plur.). Other endings are kept. Vocative Sing. The Nominatives is, ys, as, eus, es give Vocatives t, y, a, eii, e (es) Pari, Daphm, Thybri, Phylli ; Coty, Tiphy ; Atla, Palla ; Peleu, Theseu ; Chreme (es), Pericle (es), Hercules. §24. The Third Declension, 113 Accusative Singular (Greek a, j'). Prose writers, rarely poets, latinise this Case by using the Latin ending m : Jampadem, tyrannidem, Phrygem, Paridem, Osirim. But the Greek d is used in some words by both : aether a (always), aer a (rarely -em). Cicero writes Pan a, hebdomada: and in poetry names of persons and places in d abound: Aga- memnona, Hectora, Pallada, Phyllida, Babylona, Sala- mTna, &c. ; hkewise appellatives: heroa, C5^clopa, lampada, tyrannida, aegida, &c. Names in is fluctuate between the formations im in and idem idd. Patronymics: Briseis, Nais, Nereis, Aeneis, &c., and many Female names, Amaryllis, Phyllis, &c. have idd : but exceptions occur; Alcestin, Mart.; Isin, Ov. ; Irim, Verg., &c. On Nouns in is im {in) see p. 104. Names in es eti- (or es, 1-) also fluctuate. From Dares Daren^ Dareta (Verg.), Daretem : Chremes, Chremem {en) and Chremetem {a) ; Thales, Thalen and Thaletem {a). Similarly Gen. Sing, etis and is. Many names in es have Acc. S. em {en) : Socratem {eti) ; Xerxem {en) : others em only : Aristotelem^ Cic. Names in cles have em or ea^ rarely en : Pericles, Periclem or Periclea : rarely Periclen. Of Names in eus see the Decl. below. See also the Syllabus of Cons. Nouns. Genitive Singular. Poets often use Gr. -os for Is : Pallados, Thetidos, PeleoS. A Gen. in i is taken by many Names in eus, es. See Table of Declension. Dative Singular. The short i is sometimes found in poetry : Daphnidi, Palladi. Nominative Plural. Poets sometimes use the Greek es \ Arcades, Phryges, Naiades, Erinyes (Verg.). The Neuter Plural words Tempe, cete, mele, pelage (/ for ed) are occasionally found. Accusative Plural. Prose writers sometimes have as \ Arcadas, Cyclopas, Cic. ; Senonas, &c., Caes. ; Macedonas, Liv. Poets often: as he- roas, lampadas, lyncas, Naiadas, Nereidas, Erinyas* Genitive Plural. Catullus has Chalybdn for Chalybum; Curtius Malieon for Maliensium; Martial epigrammaton for epigramma- tum : but Cic. has poematorum, transferring the word to Decl. 2. Dat. Abl. Plural. The Greek ending si {sm) is very rarely used by poets : Troasin^ Dryasin, Charisin, Lemniasin, Ov. Nouns in md are declined in the Plural after Decl. 2 : Cic. uses poematis, aenigmatis, emblematis, &c. I 114 Latin Wordlore, ^ §24. Greek ix. Greek Table. (Greek Endings italic.) Table, I) Consonant Stems. See Syllabus. Sing. Nom. V. — ; Acc. em (a) ; Gen. is {ps) ; D. i Abl. 5. Plur. Nom. V. ; Acc* as (es) ; Gen. um; D. Abl. Ibus (i"? rare). Examples : M. Phryx Phryg-, lebes lebet-, gigas gigant-, aer aer-, heros hero-. So Atlas Atlant-, but with Voc. S. d. See p. 98. F. chlamys chlamyd-, lampas lampad-. C, lynx lync-. On Neuters in via mat-, as poem a, see p» 98* On Neuter E-stems and Fern. O- and Y-stems, see p. 103. II) I-stems. See p. 104. Sing. Nom. is ; Voc. i ; Acc. im zn ; Gen. Is {eds) ; D. Abl. T. Plur. Nom. V. es ; Acc. is es ; Gen. ium {eoft) ; D. AbL ibus. Examples : F. basis, poesis, Charybdis, Nemesis, Lachesis, Syrtis. M. Anubis, Albis, Athesis. Acinaces, m. scimiiar, is declined as nubes : but Names in es are subject to flexional variations. III) Heteroclite or Fluctuating Declension. i) Third Decl. mixed with First and Second. d) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e\ Acc. em {en) ; Gen. Is, i ; D. i ; Abl. e. Examples : M. Aristoteles ; Archimedes; Demosthenes; Euripides; Thucy* dides ; Xerxes. Hercules has Voc. es and Abl. S (Hor.). b) Nom. S. cles ; Voc. cles cle ; Acc. clem {clen), cled ; GeH clis, cli ; Dat. cli ; Abl. cle. Examples : M. Callicles, Damocles, Pericles, Sophocles, Themistocles. £) Nom. S. eus ; Voc. eu ; Acc. eum, ea ; Gen. ei, ei, i {eds) ; D. eo, ©b, el ; Abl. eo, eb. Examples : M. Nereus ; Orpheus ; Peleus ; Perseus ; Theseus ; Tydeiis* Acc, ea, eh occur in poetry : Idomenea, Orphe'a (Verg.). The Greek Gen. eos is confined to poets after the Aug, age. With this Decl. of Perseus compare Perses, p. 87. Livy uses the former for the last Macedonian king : Cicero the latter. d) The two Masculine names Achilles, Ulixes, have a peculiar flexion : Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Acc. exa,m, ea ; Gen. is, eds^ ei, i; D. 5 ; Abl. e e, i. § 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension, 115 2) Consonant Declension mixed with I-declension : d) Nom. S. es; Voc. e\ Acc. em {en)^ etem^ eta\ Gen. is, etis ; D. i, eti ; Abl. e, ete. Examples : M. Chremes, Dares, Laches, Thales. b) Nom. S. IS ; Voc. i\ Acc. im, in\ idem, idd\ Gen. idis i^dds) ; D. idi ; Abl. ide. Plur. Nom. V. es, ides ; Acc. es, is, idds\ Gen. ium, idum; D* Abl. lb us, idibus {si rare). Examples : tigris ; Paris, &c. See p. 98. Fem. names, especially Patronymics, follow chiefly the Cons.- forms : but with much variance. See Neue {Formenlehre, I. 300^ &c.). X. Adjectives in the Third Declension. • Adjec- tives in I. The Declension of Adjectives is distinguished from that of Deci. 3. Substantives only by having Case-endings which represent different Genders. Therefore Consonant Adjectives which have no distinct generic Case-forms are merely declined like corresponding Sub- stantives. They are a very small class, of which the principal are (caeles) caelit- dives divit- sospes sospit- superstes superstit- deses desid- reses resid- compos compot- impos impot- heavenljf rich safe surviving slothful reposing possessing unpossessing particeps particTp- sharing princeps princip- chief caelebs caelib- m. tunnarried pauper pauper- poor pubis ) 1 - r pubes \ P"^*^""- "/^^^ impubis ) • , ^ . r impubes \ mpuber- not vf age An I-noun impubis (ts^ e) is more frequently used. Sospes is once Neuter in luv.: ^Nec umquam depositum tibi sospes erit,^ xiii. 177. Dis (Ter.) contracted from dives, becomes an I-noun, Abl. diti; Neut PI. ditia ; Gen. PL ditium. Table SINGULAR. N. V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. dives divit- divit- divit- divit- pauper pauper- em pauper- is pauper- 1 pauper- e ConSi Adjed' tives* N. A. V. divit- Gen. divit- D. Abl. divit- PLURALi paUper- pauper- pauper- es Ibus I 2 Ii6 Latin Word lore. ^ §^4, I-noun 2. Adjectives and Participles, not purely Consonantal, may be tiver* classed in four groups, shewn in the following Table : — Singular. Norn. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. I. I. M. F. N. e M F ti em e Is 1 1 2. CP p-is p-e p-em P'C P IS p-i P-i II. s(x ns •■) em s(x ns ...) IS I i(e) III. us em us IS I e IV. P, 1, s .. • em — Is I I Plural. Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. M. F. I. es N, ia M. F. N. es IS ia lum Ibus II. es ia es IS la ium Ibus III. es a es Is ^ um ibus IV. es es Is — um ¥bus The Ending of Accusative Plural fluctuates between is (for eis) and es, as in Substantival i-stems. Even Compara- tives have both forms, though with Abl. S. e : Neut. PL a. I) Th-e first group contains 1) A large number of Adjectives declined as I-nouns with Nom. IS m. f.^ e n. : dulcis, sweet \ pinguis, y^z/ ; mitis, vnld\ tristis, sad\ grandis, great \ viridis, ^rtw^ ; turpis, base \ segnis, /(^57 ; sublimis, Lofty \ agilis, ^'Z^r/zV^ ; nobihs, w^/^; aequahs, equal ; fidelis, faithful ; servihs, slavish ; vul- garis, common ; levis, light \ levis, smooth^ &c. Instances of Ablative in e are very rare in this class : ' nobile viro,' Cic. ; ^ caeleste, bimestre, perenne,' Ov. 2) A small number in er, -ris, -re : as acer, acrfs, acre, keen. Celer, celcris, celerc, swifts is the only Adjective of this kind I 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension, i r/ which retains e before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PI. ends in ium when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres. The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r in the Cases, are cele-ber -bris -bre fa7nous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse salu-ber -bris -bre healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy volu-cer -cris -ere swifts winged pu-ter -tris -tre putrid campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land, silves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth. The forms in -bris, -cris, -tris, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -cer, -ter are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common Gender anciently. September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but have no Neuter Cases. The Masc. and Fem. forms of this group are like igniS;, imber (Abl. i) ; the Neuter like rete.. II) This group comprises many Adjectives : 1) Adjectives in ax ac2- ; ox 6ci- ; ix Tci- ; audax, bold^ i^xdiX^ fruitful, &c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift, &c. ; felix, happy, peYnix,feet : including words in ix, Fem. in Sing, but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PI. vic- trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix. Adjectives under i) rarely take Abl. S. e. Like these are declined : a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double \ biceps, twO'headed\ praeceps, headlong, &c. (for -cipes) -cipiti-. b) Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing', discors, dis- agreeing', misericors, merciful', socors or secors, stupid', vecors, insane : -cordi-. c) par pari-, equal-, hebes hebeti-, dull (no Gen. PI.); teres tereti- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded praepes 'px2,^'p^X\-, fast-flying', trux truci-, ^r^^/. But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike, imp SiV, unequal^ take Abl. S. e or i. Gen. PI. um. 2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns nti- rs rti- : ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; ipv3.esens, present; absens, absent; YQcens, fresh ; sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in- nocent ; iners, inactive ; expers, void, &c. In these the Abl. in e, though less frequent than i, is often found., d) So those in as ati- : nostras, vestras, cuias, &c. See p. 108. Ii8 Latin Wordlore. §24, b) Numerals in plex plici- : simplex, duplex, multiplex, &c. c) Derivatives of dens : tridens trident three-pronged; these have no Neut. PI. d) Locuples locupleti-, wealthy ; Abl. S. e (i) ; Gen. PI. um or ium. Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force, take e in Abl. S, : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they usually take Abl. S. i. But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. i used verbally, and of Participles with Abl. e used adjectively. Obs, The Gen. PI. in nti-um, rtl-um, ati-um, eti-um is liable to an occasional loss of i : recentum, sapientum, locupletum, amantum, nostratum, &c. III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in or or- m.f. us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c. Abl. S. e as a rule, rarely i. Vetus veter-, ancient, has the same endings : Abl. 2 (rarely i) -y Neut. PI. a, Gen. PI. um. IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. Abl. S. I, Gen. PI. um. a) Compounds of pes : ahpes, Abl. S. alipedi. As a Neuter Subst. quadrupes has PI. quadrupedia. b) Compounds of color: concolor concolor-, ^ />^^? same colour; discolor dis co\br-y of different colour, Neut. PI. ia (rare). c) ales alit-, winged (Ovid has alite). degener degener-, degenerate uber Mh€r-, fruitful inops inop-, destitute vigil vigil-, wakeful memor memor-, mindful immemor, unmindful d) redux reduc-, returned I Ahl <^ - " supplex supplic-, suppliant f • o. i, e. Obs, The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has Abl. S. plure, Neut. N. V. A. plura, Gen. PI. plurium. Its compound complures has complura or compluria. Adjec Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal : ^ives. SINGULAR. M, F. N. N.V. trist-is trist-e Acc. trist-em trist-e Gen. trist-is Dat. trist-i Abl. trist-i M. F. N. felix felic-em felix felic-is felic-i felic-i M. F. N. ingens ingent-em ingens ingent-is ingent-i ingent-i (e) §25. The Fourth Declension. 119 N.Vo trist-5s trist-ia Acc. trist-es Is trist-ia Gen. trist-ium D.Abl. trist-ibus PLURAL. felic-es felic-ia felic-es is felic-ia felic-ium felic-ibus ingent-es ingent-ta ingent-esis ingent-ia ingent-ium ingent-itous M. SINGULAR. F. N. M. N.V. celer celer-is celer-e | acer Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis. F. acr-ls N. acr-e SINGULAR. M. F. N. N.V. meli-6r meli-us Acc. melior-em meli-iis Gen. melior-is Dat. melior-i Abl. melior-e (i) SINGULAR. M. F. N. N.V. inops Acc. inop-em inops Gen. inop-is D. Abl. inop-i PLURAL. M. F. N. melior-es melior-a melior-es (is) melior-a melior-um melior-ibus melior-ibus. PLURAL. M. F. inop-es inop-es is inop-um inop-ibu& Section V. 1. The Fourth Declension: TT-Nouns. U-Nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc. (Fem.) words, gradu-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which are three only : cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit. The endings of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus, p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are used by all U-nouns except grus, sus. «5 Fourth DecleD* sion. ii. Table. SINGULAR. step^ m. tribe y f. knefiy n. N.V. grad-u s trib-iis gen-u Acc. grad-um trib-um gen-u Gen. grad-us trib-us gen-u» Dat. grad-ui u trib-ui il gen-u Abl. grad-u trib-u gen-u PLURAL. N.V.A. grad-us trib-us gen-ua Gen. grad-TJum trib-Uum gen-U"um D.Abl. gxad-ibus trib-ubus gen-ibus 120 Latin Wordlore. iii. Confusion of 0- and U-nouns. d) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the U-declension is invaded by many forms of the 0-declension, 2. Thus senati, tumulti, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the earhest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad- venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti (frequent), sumpti, victi, &c. b) Ficus, f. Jig-tree^ an 0-noun of Decl. 2., fluctuates in Gen. S. i or us, Abl. S. o or u. Nom. PI. i or us, Acc. PI. os or us. Laurus, f. bay-tree^ cupressus, cypress-tree^ are similarly declined : also pinus, pine^ but with Abl. S. in u only : and cornus, cornel^ but with Gen. S. in i only. Myrtus, f. 7Jiyrtle^ an 0-noun, has Nom. PL i or us ; Acc. PI. OS or us. Quercus, f. oak^ is a U-noun, but Gen. PI. quercorum, Cic. Colus, 2. f. distaffs Gen. S. i or us, D. o, Abl. o or u. Nom. PL us, Acc. us or OS. So domus, f. hoiiscy fluctuates between Decl. 4 and Decl. 2. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. V. domus domiis Acc. domum domos (us) Gen. domiis domuum, domorum Dat. dom-ui, o domibus Abl. dom-o u domibus Domi (or domui), at home^ is the Locative. It can be used with an Attribute : domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Caesars house. Also domui alienae, at another's house. Pecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris), cases of which are found : Dat. S. pecui. Abl. pecu. PI. Nom. Acc. pecua (Dat. AbL pecubus .?). Gelus, 4. m. frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. AbL gelu. Gelum, 2. n. is also extant. Tonitrus, 4. m. AbL S. tonitru. Nom. Acc. PL tonitrus (also tonitrua from abyform tonitruum 2. n.). Dat. AbL tonitribus. (Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4. n. = os boney are only found in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211. iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension. i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like that of others, in uis, though old grammarians held it to be in u. §26. The Fifth Declension, 121 2) The Dat. ul is generally contracted into u : usu for usui : 'parce metu * victu invigilant/ Verg. It is much used with esse, habere, &c., ' usui esse/ to be useful ; ^ derisui habere/ &:c. 3) In the Dat. Abl. PI. iibus is generally weakened into ibus. The only Nouns which exclude ibus, are acus, arcus, and tribus : iibus is however usual in artus (PI.), limbs ; lacus; partus, birtk\ portus, harbour; specus, cave\ veru : and found in genu, tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have Ibus alone. V. Gender in the Fourth Declension. The Feminine Nouns of the U-declension (besides those deter- mined by meaning as females or plants) are : acus, needle, point ; domus, house \ manus, hand', ^oxx\c\\s, porch \ tribus, tribe ; Idus (PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (Pl.)> a byform of Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva. Specus, m. is rarely f (PI. specua is found in E, L.). Obs, Most Nouns of this Decl. are Derivatives ; either from Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi- fying office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean- ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often correspond forms rather less abstract in -lo 3. f., actio, auditio, visio, &c. ; and others concrete in um 2. n. : (actum), eventum, visum, &c. Section VI. i. The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns. 26 E-nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative : in the other Fifth cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. Decien- sion. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Decl. I. dea dea-m dea-i Decl. 5. die-s die-m die-i deae dea-rum dea- bus die-s die-rum die-bus - ii. Table. SINGULAR. N. V. dayy c. thing', f. faitky f. di-es r-es fid-es Acc. di-em r-em fid-em Gen. di-el r-ei fid-el Dat. di-ei r-ei fid-el Abl. di-e r-e fid-e PLURAL. N. Ac. V. di-es r-es none Gen. di-erum r-erum Dat. Abl. di-ebus r-ebus 122 Latin Wordlore. §26. iii Cases in the Fifth Declension. 1) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined. Acies, £dge, ar77ty, fa.cieSj /ace, effigies, v/ia^^e, glacies, ^V^ (Verg.), series, ;specie3,y^r;;^, spes, /lope, have the first three Plural Cases. ^ All others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col- lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns : materia, i., materies, 5., mother-sttiff, matter mollitia, i., mollities, 5., softftess, effeminacy. So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria, <es ; segnitia, es, &c. Other words are caesaries, (clipt) hair ; caries, rot (in wood) ; •congeries, mass ; esuries, hunger ; macies, wasting disease ; pau- peries, poverty ; pernicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies, .offspring', rabies, fary, madness ; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ; scabies, the scab, mange, or rot ; superficies, surface ; temperies, .climate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, h^imoderation (PI. in- temperiae of the ist. Decl.). 2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confuse some cases with Decl. 5. Thus fames, hunger, has Abl. fame; tabes, Abl. tabe, in Lucr. Requies, rest, has Acc. requiem and requietem, Gen. requietis, Dat. requieti, Abl. requie. Plebes or plebs has Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat. plebi or plebei. 3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in es survives in Lucr. iv, 1083 : ' Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.' 4) The e of Gen. Dat. ei is long after i : diei, progeniei ; but short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-ei, rei (spei ?). But in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei,' Enn., Lucr. ; rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in rei, spei coalesce by synizesis. 5) za was also contracted into e, anciently into l, diei, die, dii plebei, plebi. * Constantis iuvenem fide ' commissa fide,' Hor. * Munera laetitiamque dii,'Verg. A. Gellius cites from old Latin authors such instances as acii, fami, luxurii, pernicii, progenii, &c. 6) The phrases ^ die crastini,' ^ die proximi,' * die septimi/ are examples of the Locative Case in this Decl. So cotidie, postridie.^ iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension. All E-nouns are Fem. except dies, which, when it means a day, is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri- dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means timCy dies is Fem. : ' Longa dies ilH quid profuit ? ^ luv. x. ^ Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as speres for sp es: facierum ; specierum, speciebus. " No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions. §27. Irregular Nouns. 123 Section VII. 27 i. Irreefular Nouns. irregu- ^ lar 1) Irregularity (dviOfiaXla) is said to exist in a word if it de- parts in any respect from the normal constitution of its class. 2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Num- bers, with six Cases in each, all of the same gender, following one pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far as it departs from this constitution. 3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than usual) or Defect (fewer forms than usual). A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an- other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural. ii. Abundance in Substantives. ^bun- dance. Abundance is shewn in i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning, are formed after more than one Declension. See § 25. 6. a) With difference of Gender : Decl. I. f. and 2. n. alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a um, chaise ; margarit-a um, pearl ; mend-a um, faulty mulctr-a um, milking^pail. Note ostrea, oyster^ f. ; PI. ostrea, oysters , n. Decl. I. f. and 2. m. vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry. Decl. I. f. and 3. m. cratera, crater, mixing-bo wL Decl. I. f., 2. n., and 3. n. gausap-a, um, e, frieze cloth or coat, Decl. I. f. and 3. n. caepa, caepe, onion (PI. from caepa). Decl. 2. n. and 5. f. diluvi-um, es, deluge, Decl. 2c n. and 3. f. consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion^ Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f. praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib^ stall (PI. 3. n.). Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m. tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet 124 Latin Wordlore. ^ §27^ Decl. 2. n. and 3. n. tergum, tergus (or-), hack (rarely 2 m.) Decl. 2. n. and 4. m. angiport-um, us, /^;/^ ; Q,on2X-ViVS\jMS^ endeavour \ event-um,us, issue \ event 121, Ods.); incQst-um, us, tncest ; suggest- wm,MS, pulpit. F return, yr/V//, has an ancient form fretus, 4. Obs, The old root pen-, i7iterior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare, penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. m., penu-m, 2. n., and penus penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food \ as, * magna penus,' Lucil. ; * penus annuus/ Plant. ; * penum erile/ Afran. ; ^ frumenta penus- que,' Hor. b) With the same Gender : Decl. I. and 3. f. cassida, cassis, helmet \ fulica, fulix, coot\ iuvent-a^ us,^^2^/>^ ; senect-a, ijs, old age. Decl. 2. and 3. m. delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri, and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio. Decl. 3. and 5. f. colluvio, colluvies, conflux-, paupertas, pauperies, /^727^^//. Decl. 2. and 3. n. iugerum (iuger), acre-, nihilum, nihil, nothing, Necessus,, necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, ii., 238. Decl. I. and 5. (see § 26). On Greek names of two Declensions, see § 24. ix. Obs. Names of trees have Norn, us, f., their fruits um, n. Usually. cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry prunus plum-tree prunum plum So malus, apple-tree, malum, apple ; pirus, pear-tree, pirum, pear : but amygdala, almond-tree, amygdalum, almond, 2) Substantives, chiefly of Decl. 2, which vary their Gender, and with it their Case-forms, in the Plural. ^) place, m. . . . loci, m loca, n. (loci often means topics^ places in books, but not exclusively) iocus,y^j'/, m. ... ioci, m ioca, n. sibilus, hiss, m. . . . sibili, m. . . ., . sibila, n. carbasus, canvas, f. . . (carbasi) .... carbasa, n. Tartarus, hell, m Tartara, n. Like Tartarus are formed many names of mountains, referred in Sing, to mons, m., in PI. to iuga, n. : Ismar*us, PI. -a; Maenal-us, PL -a ; Tayget-us, PI. -a. Irregular Nouns. I2S d) rastrum, harrow, n. . . rastri, m. . . rastra, n. frenum, bit, n. ... freni, m. . . frena, n. caelum, heaven, n. . . caeli, m. (Lucr.) porrum, leek, n. . . . porri, m. «:) In Decl. 3 : siser, skirret, n, . « . siseres, m. Many examples of words in one Decl. which borrow cases from another are given in §§ 21 ... 26 : plebes, fames, requies, domus, fraus, &:c. See especially § 25. Note. The compounds respublica, co7nmonwealth, iusiurandurn, oath, decline both elements : rempublicam, reipublicae, republica, &c. ; iurisiurandi, iureiuranda iii. Defect in Substantives. Defect is of Number or Case. A. Defectiva Numero are : I) Nouns which have no Plural Number (Singular only). 1. Words which seem, by their nature, to need no Plural, are Nomina Propria, Abstracta, Collectiva, and Materialia. Yet Proper Names may take a Plural, when several of one name are mentioned, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars ; Cn. et L. Scipiones, the Scipios Gnaeus and Lucius ; also if, as types of a class, they become Appellatives : * Non omnes possumus esse Cicerones,' we cannot all be Ciceros, * Sint Maecenates, non derunt, Flacce, Marones,' Mart. Abstracta take a Plural, when various instances of their occur- rence are implied : odia, hatreds, amicitiae, friendships, invidiae, envies, impietates, &c. So Collectiva may take a Plural, if several instances are implied : pOpuli,/^^7//<?j-, 'E>^ndX\x's>, senates, mundi, worlds, &c. Materialia may take a Plural, when more than one kind is im- plied : vina, wines. Also when objects made of the material are meant : cerae, waxen tablets or waxen busts ; asra, bronzes ; mar- mora, works in marble. Other metals, as aurum, gold, argentum, silver, are not used in the Plural, because objects of show were not usually made in them. Argentum, Sing., is used for the collective silver plate of an owner. As we say fish, meat, lamb, cheese, Sec, so the Romans expressed objects of ordinary consumption in the Singular : ^ Villa mea abundat porco, haedo, agn o, gallina, caseo, melle/ C. Faba, Sing., is used for beans, rosa for roses, glans for acorns, &c.^ Similarly, miles for milites, eques for equites : gemma, jewelled cups, tegula, tiles. On the other hand, poets use in the Plural many words which might appear to confine their meaning to the Singular : mella, tura, farra, hordea, nives, grandines, rores, soles, rura, corda, colla, pectora, ora, silentia, crepuscula, hgna, &c. So they pluralize local * The word/m in English is a modern corruption of the true form '_peas,'' L. pis-um, Fr. pois. In Shakespere we find ' a peas or a bean.' The plural is pease or peasen. 126 Latiii Wordlore. §27.^ names : Esquiliae, the Esqiiiline hill; Capitolia, the Capitol^ Palatia, the Palatine, &c. * 2. Generally, in Latin, the Plural has a large and liberal use. Yet the following words may be mentioned as Singular only, no good authority or analogy sanctioning a Plural form : acetum vinegar lac milk pus matter ador spelt letum death salus safety aether sky limus mild sanguis blood argentum silver meridies noon supellex fnrniture aurum gold merum ) nectar ^ wine venia pardon fames hunger ver spring ferrum iron oleum oil vesper eveniu!^ garum pickle plumbum lead virus venom humus ground pontus sea vulgus populace It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia, pueritia, ex- perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use cannot be confidently denied. Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used irl the Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension. II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These are numerous in Latin. 1) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome, Ramnes, Tities, Luceres. But most of such names may occur as Singular: Arpinas, Samnis, Gallus, Saxo ; thus Hor. * infi- delis Allobrox ' Marsus et Appulus ' Dacus et Aethiops.' 2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) : Acf ocer- aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insiilae). So the street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly). 3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as Consisting of parts: i. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syi'acusae, Thebae;^ 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii : Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from the name of the people, asLeontini:^ or from a Plural Appellative, as Aquae Sextiae, Fundi, Ostia, Centumcellae* 4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen- dae ; Nonae ; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, &:c. : as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae)) Quinquatrus; nundinae (feriae), market day, Circenses (ludi) ; Feralia, Floralia, Libe- ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa- turnalia (festa). To this class belong n up ti a e (epulae), wedding; r e p o t i a (festa), feast after a wedding ; sponsalia (sacra or * Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytilenae for the Greek forms in e. * Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names from the old Galhc tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum) ; Amiens (Ambiani) ; Limoges (Lemovices) ; Bourges (Bituriges) ; Orleans (Aureliani) ; Tours (Turones) ; Rouen (Rotomagi) ; Soissons (Suessiones) ; Langres (Lingones) ; Sens (Senones) ; Nantes (NannetesJ ; Treves (Augusta Treverorum), &c. §27. Irregular Nouns. 12 f festa), betrothal ; iusta (sacra), fimeral rites ; parentalia (festa)v funeral banquet ; i n f e r i a e (epulae), offering to the dead, 5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ; metaphysica, metaphysics ; Georgica, the Georgics^ &c. (scripta). 6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a free Roman; one being un us (una) e liberi s or liberorum : inferi, dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; Decl. 3. maiores, ancestors-^ minoxQS, descendants-^ c2iQ\\tQs^ heavenly deities ; lemures, goblins ; penates, household-gods ; optimates, primores, proceres, chiefs^ nobles (the last six rarely S. : ^ Agnosco procerem/ luv.) ; manes, ox ghosts. 7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or ' never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3. neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3. small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en- trails ; intestina 2. viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) : ilia 3. groin, bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantices 3. paunch. The words genae, cheeks ; tempera 3. tanples ; fauces 3. jaws ; renes 3. kidneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence gena (Suet.), tempus (Verg.) : Abl. fauce often in poetry (Hor. Ov. &c.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used ^ technically. Artus 4. the limbs; Sing, once in Lucan. S) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished' thus : a) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) : Decl. I. 2int3ie, pilasters ; clitellae, packsaddle; dirae, curses, furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) /^«^A^i-^/^i*^ ; habenae, rei7is (s. in Hor.); plagae, nets\ scalae, J'/^/rj' ; thermae, war7n^ baths \ ^2X^2,^, folding doors . Decl. 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions; arma, arms ; bellaria, dessert; crepundia, (rattling) toys; cihRr'm, food ; munia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta, second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds. Decl. 3. antes, m. front viite rows ; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com- pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f lute-striiigs (s.) ; obices, c. bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ; magalia, mapalia, n. htits, village. b) Plural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable. Decl. I. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baths) ., higdio,, chariot and pair; cunae, cradle \ divitiae, riches; epulae, banqtcet; ex- sequiae, burial ; exuviae, spoils {stript from the dead) ; induviae, clothes ; lapicidinae, stonequarry ; manubiae * The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits were deified under the title ofdi manes or manes; and the word is sometimes used, as a true Plural , of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular-Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an individual. Thus, ' Quae vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; ' Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. ' ' CaUimachi manes,' Prop. ; *Verginiae manes,' Li v. 128 Latifi Wordlore. or manibiae, prize 7noney (in war) : phalerae, trappings ; parietinae, 7'uins ; quadrigae, chariot and four (s.) ; quis* quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant \ salinae, saltwork ; scopae, besom, broom. Decl. 2. cancelli, railing (in court) ; clathri, grating ; codiciUi, ledger \ adversaria, notebook ; compita, cross-road or roads (s.) : cunabula, cradle ; donaria, treasury \ multicia, y^;^^ raiment serta, wreath, garland. Decl. 3. ambages, (circuits) evasive la7iguage or conduct; fraces, f. oil-lees ; fores, f. ^^^^^^^r (s.) ; pugillares, m. writing-tablet ; sordes, f. dirt, meanness (s.) ; altaria, high altar ; brevia, shoals; moenia, town-walls. c) Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation* Decl. I. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness \ blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, tithes ; deliciae (s.), de- light, darli7ig ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasa7itry (s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae, enmity insidiae, a7nbush, treachery, minae, threats', nugae, trifles ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, flrst- fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, darkness ; vindiciae, claim* Decl. 2. fasti, annals ; flabra, blasts (also flamina) ; lamenta, lainentations ; ohV\.w\di, forgetfulness. Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina, gripes. V ana- tion of Mean- ing in Plural. Ill) Nouns which vary their meaning in the Plural. SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedes temple aedes house aqua water aquae 7nineral springs auxilium help auxilia auxiliary forces bonum good (abstr.) bona goods, property career prison carceres starting-place (s) castrum ) castellum ^ fort castra camp cera wax cerae waxen tablets or busts comitium A ssembly-place comitia the Assembly at Rome copia plenty copiae forces, resources facultas faculty facultates means finis an end fines boundaries fortuna fortune fortunae gifts of fortune gratia favour gratiae thanks (s) hortus garden horti pleasure-grounds impedimentum hindrance impedimenta baggage littera a letter litterae epistle, literature loculus box loculi money-case ludus play ludi public games lustrum five years lustra lairs, dens natalis birth-day natales origin opera exertion operae workpeople (s) opis (Gen.) help opes power, wealth [faction pars a portion partes part in a play ; side or 5 27, Irregular Nouns. 129 SINGULAR. rostram sal tabula torus balneum, 2. epulum. 2. beak salt board couch bath sacred feast rostra sales tabulae tori balneae, i. epulae, i. PLURAL. the Roman pulpit wit (s) writing tablets muscles bath-house banquet B, IDefectiva Casibus. Defec- tiva Ca- Pl. vir-es ium, &c. In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus ^ jportion only of the ordinary Case-forms.^ A) The following Noufls have the full Plural ; but in the Singu- lar they have only a) Four Cases : N.V. vis, Acc. vim, Abl. vi ; force, 3. f. Nom. (dap-) (frug-) b) Three Cases : (op-) em is — € (prec-) em — i e (sord-) em is — e (vie-) em is — o * Visc-us eris Acc. em em Gen. Dat. Abl. is i e banquet, 3. f. is i e fruit, Z'i, um,^... help, 3. f. prayer, 3. f. dirt, 3. f. } PI. es PI. es^ PI. es um, &c. ium, &c. ~, &c. um^ &c. change, 3. f. ere entrail, 3. n. PI. a c) Two Cases : (verber-) — — g stripe, 3. n. PI. a iim, &c. d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 : ambage, f. | casse, m, | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere* n. E) Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Acc. Plural. Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &c., 3* n. ; metus, situs, &t:., 4. m. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5; f. Astus, cunning, 4. m., has Nom. Abl. Sing, and Nom. Acc. Plur. C) The following Nouns, without Plutal, have in the Singular d) Four Cases: Nom. V. Acc. (dicio on-) . em Gen. is Dat. i lu-es man-e em e Abl. ^ Powei^, 3. f. e wasting disease, 3. f. e (1) mornings 3. n. ' Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians MoNOPTOTA ; those with two, Diptota ; those with three, Triptota ; those with four, Tetraptota : (from tttwo-i?, case, and the several numerals). K 130 Latin Wordlore. §27. b) Three Cases : ^ Nom. V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl. fors • • • — — — fort-e chance^ 3. f. fas , , • fas — — — right {by divine law), 3. n. nefas . . nefas — — — wrong lpy divine law), -^,11, c) Two Cases : Nom. instar . . instar — — — likeness, 3. n* nihil, ml . nihil, nil — — — nothings 3. n, opus . . opus — — — need, 3* n. — — impetis — impete force, 3. m. — venum — veno — sale, 2. n. d) Nouns using only one Case are numerous : Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law ; inquies, 5. f. restlessness, Acc. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre^ pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &:c.). Gen. die is (causa), 3. for forfn^s sake \ non liauci, 2. not worth a iiiitshell, worthless. Dat. despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de- spise, baffle, ridicule', indutui gerere^ /^? wear; ob- tentui esse, to be a show, &c., 4. Abl. sponte (mea, sua, &c.), 3. f by choice, spo7itaneously. accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu, hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4. noctu, by night \ diu, lucu, by daylight, 4. in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi- 7iess, 4. natu maior, elder; natu vcivcior, younger, 4. pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is Used with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown of 200 pounds' weight, D) The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural a) Two Cases : N. Acc. suppetiae, -as, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac). Gen. repetundarum, Abl. repetundis, i. f. extortion (under- stand rerum, rebus). Acc. foras, out of doors, Abl. foris, abroad^ i. f. One Case : Acc. ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. f. — infitias ire, to deny, i. f Abl. (gratiis) 'gxdX\%, freely ; ingratiis, against will ^ I. f. E) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c. Various words from other languages : Adam. Infinitives: amare, vivere. * Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Acc), necessitv, Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessum, i^eccssus. See p. 124, and M.. Lucr, \\. 710, vi. 815. § 28-29. Comparison, iv. Irregularity in Adjectives. I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other like tristis or ingens : acclivis (us) biiugis (us) effrenus (is) unanimus is hilaris (us) steep two-yoked unbridled of one mind cheerful imbecillus is imberbis (us) weak beardless mermus is unarmed opulentus (opulens) wealthy violentus (violens) violent So exanim-us, is ; semianim-us, is ; sublim-is, us ; and others. The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens. 28 Adjec- tiva Abun- dantia* 11) Some are Defective in Number : Defec p2i\ici,few, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis, 203). plerique, niost^ is found Sing, with Collective words : ' pleraque nobilitas ' (for plerique nobiles), Sail b. Some are Defective in Case and Number : €1) Two Cases : Nom. S. pernpx, Abl. pernocte, all night, b) One Case; Nom. S. damnas, condemned^ for damnat(u)s, with esto : but usied also idiomatically as Nom. PI. with sunto; exspes, hopeless ; pot is, pote, able ^ possible, c. Of some the Nominatives are not found, but other Cases only: (sons), guilty ; sontes, the guilty : but insons, innocent, has full Cases. Macte, Voc* S., macti, Voc. PL, are used with esto, este, be blessed, be lucky, &c. : * Macte (macti) virtute esto (este),' good luck to you for your valour, Liv. See M. Lucr. v. 1339. d. The dat. S. frugi {for good) is used as an indeclinable Adjec- tive of all Cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to this is the indeclinable Adjective nequam, good for nothing \ pro- bably for ne quam frugem (habet), no good. See pp. 129, 133. These idioms are drawn from the colloquial language of Italian farmers in early times. Section VIII. i. Comparison of Adjectives. Compa- rison of The same quality may be perceived in several ob- twi^" jects. If three be taken, the quality may be perceived in the second more than in the first, and in the third most of all. These relations are expressed by the flexion called Comparison in Adjectives and Adverbs, K 2 /32 Lati7i Wordlore. The Degrees of Comparison are therefore three : 1. The Positive Degree shews quality absolutely perceived: vir procerus, a tall ma7i\ or equally in two: vir tarn procerus quam Lucius, a man as tall as Lucius, II. The Comparative Degree shews quality per- ceived more in one of two than in the other : vir procerior quam Lucius, a man taller than Lucius, III. The Superlative Degree shews quality per- ceived most in one of several : vir omnium procerissimus, the tallest man of alL The formation of the Comparative and Superlative is explained in p. 42, Note, Com- parison of Ad- lectives. ii. Examples : Pes. Compar. dur-us hard dur-lor harder trist-is sad trist-ior sadder fel-ix happy felic-iop happier lib-er free lib-er-iop more free nig-er black nig-r-lor blacker salub-er healthy salub-r-ior healthier simil-is like simil-ior 7Jtore like Superl. dur-lssimus trist-lsslmus felic-lssimus lib-er-rlmus nig-er-rimus salub-er-rimus simil-limus hardest saddest happiest 77iost free blackest healthiest most like Like simiiis are formed facilis; gracilis; humilis; diffi- cilis ; dissimilis. But utilis and others have Sup. -issimus. Maturus, early, has Sup. maturrimus or matur issimus. iii. Notes on Comparison, a) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) : durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh, b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very high degree (Elative sense) : ' vir doctissimus/ a very learned man (i.e. in the highest grade of learning). c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally -iimus, after which -imus prevailed : maxumus, maximus ; optu- mus, optimus. See p. 31, C, d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion like other Adjectives : amans amantior amantissimus paratus paratior parat issimus * Comparison. 133 iv. Irregular Comparison. 1) Forms from various Roots. bonus good melior better optimus best malus bad peior worse pessimus worst parvus small minor less minimus least multus much (plus, n.) more plurimus most The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but full Plural : plur-es a, plur-ium, plur-ibus. Lucr. has parvissima, i. 615. See M. 2) Variant Stem-forms. mag-nus, great ; maior, greater ; maximus, greatest. frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus* nequam, worthless ; nequior, nequissimus. dives ) ^.^j^ divitior divitissimus (dis) 1 ditior ditissimus Adjectives compounded with -dicus -ficus -vdlus (from dico, facio, volo) form their comparison in -entior -entissimus, as if from Participles in -ens. maledicus slanderous maledicentior maledicentissimus magnificus splendid magnificentior magnificentissimus benevolus benevolent benevolentior benevolentissimus Similarly : egenus, needy ^ egentior, providus, foreseeing^ providentior, egentissimus providentissimus. V. Defective Comparison. i) Comparison without Positive Form : d) The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives : e, ex intra supra infra Preposition. out of within above below (prae) before post after Positive Adj. (exter) (inter) (super) (infer) CIS ultra prope de on near side beyond near down from (poster) (citer) (ulter) (deter) Comparative. exterior interior superior inferior prior posterior citerior ulterior propior deterior Superlative. extremus intimus supremus, summus infimus, imus primus postremus (postumus) citimus ultimus proximus deterrimus worst ad) Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not used. Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut. Sing, with mare (mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in Plun 134 Latiti Wordlore. . §29. Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur. Poster(us) is used (but not in Nom. Sing. Masc.) : pos- tera aetas ; postero die: and Plur. posteri. See p. 127. Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive them from ir^o : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) - primus. bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some- thing good, fallen off) ; peior worse (than something bad). cc) Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense ''highest \^ or supremus, poet. Onthe other hand, supremus is used iox'-last^ and summus, poet, : ^venit summa dies,' Verg, Postremus, hindmost (last) : postumus, coming after, last born, born after the father'' s death. Four Superlatives can express the notion * last : ' ultimus (yon- der most, farthest), extr emus {outermost) \ which are most usual: also postremus and supremus. To these Comparisons may be added : dexter, on the right, dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus, sinister, 07i the left, sinisterior, (sinistimus).. b) — ocior swifter, ocissimus swiftest^ — i^oiior preferable, potissimus. In the Greek wkvq (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis, pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms, 2) Comparison without Comparative Form. The Adjectives bellus, consultus, diversus, falsus, in- clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus, sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative. Vetus, Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is visual). 3) Comparison without Superlative Form. a) senex old senior — iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior) — Senior has a kind of Pos. force : ' one who has become old^ Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior: eldest by natu maximus, or maxiinus. So younger is natu minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini- mus. b) Adjectives in btlis have Comparative without Superl. : except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus, &c. c) Also the following : adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater, caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diuturnus, deses, exilis, longinquus, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus, propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnis, serus, supinus, surdus, tacitumus, teres, vicinus, &c. Note, (satior) satius, better, fitter, is a Comparative from the Ad- verbial word satis, enough. §30- Comparison^ 135 4) Absence of Comparative Flexion. A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion : some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) : merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form mem or, tre- mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage.* Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are most of those in eus, ins, uus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but not those in quus : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus). Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives : assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has * Egre- gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12. Any Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, can be modified Compara- tively by the addition of the Adverb magis : ^Quid magis est durum saxo, quid mollius unda,^ Ov. ; and Superlatively by the Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde^ and others. vi. Comparison of Adverbs. Adj. Adv. dignus digne worthily digniiis- dignissime vafer vafre cunningly vafrius vaferrime tutus tuto safely tutius tutissime (6) facilis facile easily facilius facillime fortis fortiter bravely fortius fortissime constans constanter firmly constantius constantissime audax audacter boldly audacius audacissime But meritus merito deservedly meritissimo (e) uber (ubertim) abundantly uberius uberrime 30 Com- parison of Ad- i) Adverbs in e, o, e, ter, derived from Adjectives, verbs often follow their C'omparison, with Comparative End- ing tis, Superlative e (0, um) : Exam- ples. * Adjectiva Incomparabilia are too numerous to be set down at full, and are indeed best learnt by reading and practice. Among them may be mentioned : (i) those which express colour, matter, time, place, nationality, descent : a 1 b u s (but v i r id i s has Compar. flexion), aureus, aestivus, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (2) De-^ minutives, paryulus, vetulus, &c. (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli- dus, per facilis, subobscurus, vesanus, &c. (many compounds of prae are comparable, as p r a e c 1 a r i o r). (4) Compounds of animus, a r m a, c o 1 o r, g e n u s, gradus, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of a r s, cor, mens are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementior). (5) Com^ pounds of fero, gero: signifer, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -Tcus, -Tmus, -Tnus, -In us, -or us, -ivus, -bundus, -aris, -alls, -I lis; exceptions are, divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more. (7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos, impos, cicur, dispar, impar, ferus, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, lacer, lassus, mancus, mediocris, merus, mirus, mutilus, mutus, nefastus,. rudis, sospes, trepidus, trux, vagus, vivus, volucer, volgaris, &c. Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison ; exclusissimus, ipsissimus, oculissi-^ mus, patruissimus, ridiculissimus. 136 §31. 2) Irregular Comparison bially : Latin Wordlore. is in most forms represented adver- Adj. " Adv. Compar. Superl. bonus bene well melius better optime best malus male ill peius worse pessime worst magnus magnopere^^r^^/Zy maeis more maxime most 1 parvus - f paulum I parum a little ' too little^ [ minus less \ f minime I minimum very little least multus multum 7nuch plus more plurimum very much r — • ocius quicker ocissime very quickly prius sooner \ r primum I primo first at first potius rather potissimum preferably deterius worse deterrime very badly intus within interius intime post after posterius — postremo prope nearly propius proxime Also saepe diu penitus satis secus temperi nuper often saepms diutius penitius satius otherwise setius betimes temperius lately l07lg deeply enough saepissime diutissime penitissime — — nuperrime Mag is means ^7norein degree \^ plus, ^ more in quantity^ ^ Lucio magis carus sum : ' * Lucius me plus diligit.' Section IX. Pro- i Pronouns (Pronomina). nouns. V ' 1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be (i) Substantive: (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being both. 2. A Pronoun may be (a) 1st Person : (b) 2nd Person : {c) 3rd Person : {d) Of all Persons. ii. Classification of Pronouns. A, The Pronouns purely Substantival are: 1. The Personal Pronouns ego, /, nos, w, of the First Person ; and tu, thoUy voSyj/e, of the Second. 2. The Reflexive Pronoun, se, himself ^ herself, or themselveSy which has no Nominative, and is always re- ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or Plural. §31. Pronouns, 137 B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are: The Possessive Pronouns, which correspond to the Personal and Relative Pronouns : meus, my, mine corresponding ta . . . ego noster, our — nos, tuus, thy, thine — tu vaster, j/^^^ — vos, suus, hisy her, or their own -— se cuius, whose — qui with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country, vestras, of your country ; cuias, of what country ? Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third Person, C The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often used as Relational Substantives. These are : 1, The Demonstrative Pronouns (of the Third Person) : IS, ea, id, that (or he, she, it) hie, haec, h5c, this (near me) iste, ista, istud, that (near you) ille, ilia, illud, that, yon (aloof from us), 2, The Definitive Pronouns (of all Persons) : ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self idem, eadem, idem, same. 3. The Relative Pronoun (of all Persons) : qui, quae, quod, who or which. Akin to this are : a. The Interrogative Pronouns : quis, quid ? qui, quae, quod } who or what ? uter ? whether of two ? b. The Indefinite Pronouns : quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any. uter, either of two. c. The various Compounds of quis, qui, uter. 4. Pronominalia, or Adjectives of a Pronominal nature : as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c., qualis, quantus, &c., aliquantus, &c. See v. i38 Latin Wordlore, §3». Tables of De- clension. iii. Tables of Declension of Pronouns* A. PERSONAL (of either Gender), First Person, singular. plural, Nom. ego, / nos, we Acc, me, 7ne nos, ms Gen. mei, of me nostri^ or nostrum, of us Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for ms Abl. mQj from or with me nohiSy from or with us Second Person. N. V. tu, thou \os,ye Acc. te, thee vos, you Gen. tui, of thee vestri, vestrum, of you Dat. tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you Abl. t.Q,fro7n or with thee vohis, from or with you Reflexive. singular and plural. Nom. (none). Acc. se, or sese, himself herself itself or themselves^ Gen. sm, of hiinself &:c. Dat. sibi, to himself &c. Abl. se, or sese, &c., from himself &c. B. POSSESSIVE, l) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus : meus, mea, meum, my^ mine ; tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine ; suus, sua, suum, hisy &c., their ^ owwj, cuius, cuia, cuium, whose. meus has Vocative Masc. mi.^ 2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger : noster, nostra, nostrum, our ; | vester, vestra, vestrum, your. The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ; but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his {her) cow, 3) Gentilia (of 3rd Decl.) : nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui-as -ati- ? The affix met {self) may be appended to all the cases of ego, tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se, sibi: egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet : often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum. Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tu temet. The affix met is appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often follows: Mntra suamet ipsum moenia compulere,' they drove- him within his own walls, L. vi. 36. Also meamet : Sail, Plant. The affix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos- sessives : ^Meopte ingenio,' Plant. ' Suapte manu,' with his own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr, vi. 755. * The only Pronouns capable of having a Vocative are tu, vos ; and meus, noster. Pronouns. 139 C, I, DEMONSTRATIVE. M. N. is Ac. eum a D. Ab. eo SINGULAR. F. ea earn eius ei ea a, Unemphatic. Is, that, or he^ she, it. N, id id eo M. ei (ii) eos eorum PLURAL. F. eae eas earum eis (iis) eis (iis) N. ea ea eorum b. Emphatic. Hie, this (near me), or he, she, it. SINGULAR, N. hie haec hoc Ac. hunc hanc hoc G. huius D. huic Ab. hoc hac hoc PLURAL, hi hae haec hos has haec horum harum horum his his Iste, that (near you), or he, she, it. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. iste ista istud isti istae ista Ac. istum istam istud istos istas ista G. istius istorum istarum istorum D. isti istis Ab. isto ista isto istis I He, that {yonder), or he, she, it. N. Ac. G. D. Ab. ille ilium illo SINGULAR. ilia illam illius illi ilia illud illud illo PLURAL, illi illae ilia illos illas ilia illorum illarum illorum illis iUis 2. DEFINITIVE, i) Idem, same. SINGULAR. Nom. idem eadem Idem Acc. eundem eandem idem Gen. eiusdem Dat. eidem Abl. eodem eadem eodem PLURAL, lidem eaedem eadem eosdem easdem eadem eorundem earundem eorundem isdem or eisdem isdem or eisdem 140 Latin Wordlore. 2) Ipse, self. SINGULAR. Nom. ipse ipsa Acc. ipsum ipsam Gen. ipsius Dat. ipsi Abl. ipso ipsa ipsum ipsum ipso ipsi ipsos ipsorum PLURAL, ipsae ipsas ipsarum ipsis ipsis ipsa ipsa ipsorum Plautus has the forms eumpse, eampse, eapse, &c. Also reapse, in reality, for re ipsa. a) The affix -c (for ce) is added to iste and ille, making a pronominal declension as follows : — N. istic istaec Acc. istunc istanc Abl. istoc istac SINGULAR. istoc or istuc istoc or istuc istoc PLURAL. N. Acc. — istaec il.lic illaec illoc or illuc illunc illanc illoc or illuc illoc iliac illoc ^ — illaec Ce sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &g. So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine? hocine? &c^ b) The Interjection ecce, lo / coalesces in comic poetry with cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum, &c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo / also coalesces with ille into the. Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas. 3. RELATIVE. Qui, who or which. SINGULAR. Nom. qui quae quod Acc. quem quam quod Gen. cuius Dat. cui Abl. quo qua quo a) Interrogative. Quis ? qui ? who or which f SINGULAR. Nom. quis qui Acc Gen. Dat. Abl. quem quem quo quae quam quam cuius. cui qua quid ) quod^ quid ) quod> quo PLURAL. qui quae quae quos quas quae quorum quarum quorum quibus or quis quibus or quis b) Indefinite. Quis, qui, anyone, SINGULAR. (qua) quid y quae (qua) quod f quis qui quem quem quo quam quam cuius cui qua quid ) quod) quo In the Plural like the Relative. Indefinite PI. Nom. Qui, quae, qua or quae. The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod^ AdjectivaL §31. Pronouns. 141 a) Add to these Uter ? whether of the two ? SINGULAR. Nom. uter utra utrum Acc. utrum utram utrum Gen. utrius Dat. utri Ab. utro utra utro PLURAL. utri utrae utra utros utras utra utrorum utrarum utroriitn utris utris Uter is also Indefinite : either of two. Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uteir. c) Compound Pronouns. 1. a) quisnam, quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, whOj what f b) uternamj utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two? 2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone f So numquis, siquis, ne quis. &c. 3. a) aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, some one, b) alteruter, one or other \ Gen. alterutrius or alteriiis utrius, &C* 4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively)^ 5. quisquam, quicquam, ^;^)/^?;^^ ^z// (with non, haud, vix, &c.)rf 6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one. 7. a) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what^ soever. ^ b) utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two. 8. quisquis, whosoever^ quidquid, whatsoever ; Acc. (quemquem), quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quo- quo), &c. ; PI. D. Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these forms are rare. 9. (i) quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any you will. b) utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will. 50. d) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please, b) uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please. II. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each. b) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each one : Acc. unumquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen. uniuscuiusque, &c. c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two. Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un- declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnamy alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, &c. &c. * Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque dom'at Venus, Hor. 14? Latin Wordlore. §31. 4. PRONOMINALIA. Alius, another. SINGULAR. Nom. alius alia Acc. alium aliam Gen. alius Dat. alii Ab. alio alia aliud aliud alio PLURAL, alii aliae ali^ alios alias alia aliorum aliarum aliorunt aliis aliis Alter, one of two {the one, the other). Nom. alter altera alterum Acc. alterum alteram alterum Gen. alterius Dat. alteri Ab. altero altera altero alteri alterae alteros alteras alterorum alterarum alteris alteris altera altera alterorum Solus, alone. Nom. solus sola Voc. sole sola Acc. solum solam Gen, solius Dat. soli Ab. solo sola solum solum solum solo soli solae sola soli solae sola solos solas sola solorum solarum solorum solis solis Totus, whole, is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, a7iy at all, nulluSj none. See Numeralia. Nihil, nothing (N. Acc.) is undeclined. Nemo, nobody, Acc. neminem ; G. nuUius ; D. nemini ; AbL Hullo. Plural, nulli, &c. The Plural word plerique, most ; from an E. L. Adj. plerus. Nom. plerique pleraeque pleraque Acc. plerosque plerasque pleraque D. Abl. plerisque The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum. The phrase plerique omnes = paene omnes, almost alL Also the following words, with their compounds : qualis, of what kind} talis, such (like tristis). q u a n t u s, how ^reat ? t a n t u s j-^? great (like bonus), quot, how many? tot, so many (undeclined). iv. Observations on certain Pronouns. I. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui) differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually the nature, name, &c. ; qui adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fem. in the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fem. quae to the form qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use : quod vinum ? but quid vini ? what wine? Pronouns, 143 2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, &c.; or with a second case of its own : * siquis quern fraudavit.' It enters into com- position with the prefix all- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite affixes -plam -quam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive -que (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam). 3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal {-soever) by self-duplication (quis quis), and by taking the affix -cumque or -cunque (quicumque, quicunque). It is also modified by the appended Verb-forms, vis, you will, libet, it pleases (quivis, qui- libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam, (quisnam ? quinam ?), Some of these affixes are likewise taken by the Interrogative Pronominals qualis, quantus, quot, and the Inter- rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c. See v. 4. U t er (for cuter = fcor€poc), whether of two, with its compounds, forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui.^ * The following n<)te treats chiefly of the cognate and ancient Case-forms of the Latin Pronouns. I. The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive. 1. Nominative Singular, The Prim, roots of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma, tu (or sva. How the root ma connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sk. aham, Gr. eyw, L. ego, is a doubtful question. Pr. tu (Sk, tvavt) becomes Gr. tv (av), L. tu. 2. Accusative Singular. Sk. mam or md, Gr. /xe (ejxe), L. me. Sk. tvdm or tvd^ Gr. (re for rf e) o-f, L. te. Or. e (for af e), L. se, point to a Pr. svdm. But Sanskrit has only an undeclined form svayam, which may be joined to cases of Personal Pronouns. 3i Dative Singular. Sk. ma-hyam (for Pr. ma-bhyarn) becomes L. mihi (U. mehe, E. mihe, mihei). Sk. tu-bhyam becomes L. tibf (U. tefe, E. L. tibe, iibei). Hence sibi (E. L. sibcy sibei) points to a Pr. but not extant {sva-bhyam). 4. Ablative Singular. Sk. and Pr. ma-t, tva-t and by analogy (Pr. sva-t) become in E. L. iHe-d, fe-d, se-d ; afterwards me, te, se. , These forms in -d were also used for the Accus. Sing, in E. L. 5. Nominative and Accusative Plural. Unaccented Accus. forms in Sk. nas (for masi) and vas (for tvas\ appear to be the originals of the Latin cases n o s, v o s. See Schleicher, § 266. In the Carmen Arvale enos appears for Acc. n o s. 6. Dative and Ablative PluraL Schleicher explains the suffix blS {-bei-s) in nobis, vobTs, as the Plural of "bi (l)ei), attached to the stems nos- vos- (see above), which become no- vo-. Festus cites a form {itis). 7. Genitive Singular and Plural. The Sk. Gen. S. is (i) mama, (2) tava. But Pr. forms mas, ivas, {svas) are trace* able in very ancient L. forms mis, tis. The forms classically used for these cases are nothing more than the Neuter Geni- tives of the Possessive Pronouns : mei, tui, sui ; nostri, vestri ; nostrum (for nostrorum), vestrum (for vestrorum). Thus * vive memor mei (nostri) ' is lit. live mindful of what is mine {ours) ; i.q. 0/ me (j4s). 144 Lati7i Wordlore. §3'. V. Correlation of Pronominal Words. A) Certain Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs, ate correlated to one another in several classes : namely II. The Possessive Pronouns. These are derived from the Personal Roots. TuuS) suus correspond severally to Gr. reos (for rfeo? or Tefo'5), k6% (for o-feo? or (refd?). L. forms are tovos, sevos. The scenic poets use the cases as monosyllables. Noster, vester are formed with the Comparative Suffix ter (like dexter, sinister), as are: Gr. r)fji.€-T€p-09, ujae-Tep-09. III. The Demonstrative, Relative, &c. Pronouns. The Flexion of these Pronouns has many features in common. 1. (1) Nominative Singular Masc. a. The stem I-, as an I-noun, takes the ending S, forming the Nom. Is. It corresponds to Sk. sa, Gr. 6. In E. L. we find (ets). It has an O-stem (io-) for most cases. Its comp. Idem has E. L. forms {^isdem, isdem, eideni). Is-te, another compound (stem isto-), has in Plautus the form is-tus. I-ps£, also a compound (for is-pse), is found as i-ps-us. Ille is for oll-us (stem olio- or illo-), from an Italian root. The stem ho- or hi- takes in most cases the affix -ce (c); becoming in Nom. S. Masfc; h i c (for hi-ce or his-ce). An E. L. form is (Jiec). A Qui qui-s Interrog. and Indef. (stem qui- or quo-) corresponds to Sk. Interrog. ka, ka-s \ Gr. rts, O. pis. Qui, as the Relative, is peculiar to Latin. E. L. forms are {que^ guei). Quei ton- tinued in use to the time of Caesar. Queique is an old form of quisque. Quiy- quir is cited by Varro for quisquis. c. Alius has an old I -form alis, alid. Uter (for cuter) corresponds to Pr. katara^ Gr. KOTtpos : quot, tot, to Sk. kati, tatu (2) Nom. S. Fem. E a is by assimilation for ia from stem (z*^-) : the same change from 1 to e is tii^de m most cases of is, idem. An old form {sapsd) for ea ipsa is cited from Pacuvius. Ista, ipsa, ilia are regularly formed from the O-stems, but quae (0. pai, E. L. qudi), haec (E. L. hai-ce) are irregular flexions in which the forms hd qtid are strengthened by the vowel i. The analogy of these is followed by istaec, ill^ee (for ista-ce, illa-ce). (^u2 is kept usually in the Indef. Pronoun and its compounds : siqua, numqua, ecqua, aliqua. (3) Nom. Accus. S. Neuter. The follovVing Pronouns weaken the Prim. Neuter suffix t into d : id ; idem (for id-deni) ; qui-d ; quo-d ; and illud, istud, aliud (anc. alid) : in these three O is also weakened into 11. Hoc is for (ho-d-ce). The rest take um ; ipsum, utrum, alterum, &c. 2. Accusative Singular. E. L. forms of is {em, im from the I-stem ; sumi sam from the Pr. sa) are cited from the old poets for eum, eam, severally. Also eumpse, eampse occur for eum ipsum, eam ipsam. Hunc is for {hom-ce, hone) ; hanc for {kam-ce). Quem belongs to the I-stem qui : quam and quod to the O-stem quo-. 3. Genitive Singular. The flexion of this case in all these Pronouns is a Variation of Sk. asya. They strengthen the stem with i and then take US for the Case-ending. Thus are obtained {ii-us) by dissimilation eius (in E. L. ei-ius, elus). (illoi-ns, illei-ns) illlus or iJlTus. So ipsius, istius, unius, nulling, totius ; utrlus ; alius ; alterius ; sollus : (alterlus, sollus occur rarely)^ {hoi-tis) huius ; {guoi-us) cuius. In the scenic poets quoius is used as one syllable, suppressing u ; hence the forms quoi- inodi for (quoismodi), and cuicuimodi far <cuiscuismodi}. §31. Pronouns. I45 (i) Interrogative; (2) Demortstrative ; {3) Definitive; (4) Inde- finite ; (5) Relative. Examples : (i) quis? q}iUwho^ whati (2) is, he^ that^ Sec. (3) ipse, self; idem, //i^ same ; alius, another ; (4) quis, qui, any ; quis- piam, anyone ; aliquis, sojne or other ; quisquam, any at all (used only with non, haud, si, num, &c.); quidam, a certain one ; (5) qui, who, fi) uter? whether of two? (2) is ; (3) alter, one of two, the other ; (4) alteruter, one or the other ; (5) qui. (i) qualis ? of what kind? (2) talis, such ; (3) — ; (4) — ; (5) qualis, as, (i) quantus ? how great? (2) tantus, so great \ (3) tantusderil 5 {4} aliquantus, ^t/'vS"^?;;/^ j'/^'^ ; (5) quantus, ^zj- (^r^^/); %. Dative Singular. The Locative ending i appears to have been generally used instead of the' Dative ending ei in all these Pronouns ; but the ending ei occurs in old forms. The forms in use are : i) e-i (also anc. eiei eei) ; illi (for illo-i), &c., huic (for hoi-ce) : 2) cui (for qtio-i, or quo-ei, which is found in E. L.)- The 0-noun forms of the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of some Pronominal^ occur rarely : as touUi consili, Ter. ; aliae pecudis, Cic, ; loquitur alterae, Ter. ; toto orbi. Prop. : also «Qen. illi, illae, isti, ipsi, &c. in Piaut. and Lucr. 5. Ablative Singular. This case follows the O-stem. But qui is used adverbially {how) ; also when the Pre- position cum follows it : quicum for quocum : quique for quoque in Lucr. 6. Nominative Plural. a) From is, E. L. forms before Plautus are (^eeis^ iezs, eis) ': afterwards in R. L. ie'ij ei : in the scenic poets ei (i). In L L. ii (pronounced i) was allowed. From idem the forms etsdem, tsdem^ ftdem are found as Nominatives Plural before Caesar. Once in Plautus eidem. lidem was admitted in I. L. From hie the forms {keis, heisce, hisce) appear in E. L. ; hei in R. L. to the Aug. age : then hi ; which, like the irregular Fem. form hae (for kai), rejects c (ce) to avoid con- fusion. But the forms (^kaec, illaec^ /j/a^^r) are found in E. L. as Fem. Nominative Plural. The Neut. PI. haec is strengthened with being, as Well as the Fem. S., for {ha-i-ce)i }}) An old PI. (|ues from quis is found in Senatus-consultum de BacchanaUbus, &c., Pacuvius, and Cato : but quei in R. L. is PI. of quis and qui ; also qui, which became general : and Fem. quae (for quai). The Neut. quae, like haec, is a strengthened form : qua remains often in the Indef., and always in aliqua. Grammarians tell us that in plebeian speech the initial vowel was often cast off in such forms as istae, istuc, &c., which Were sounded stae, stuc, &c. 7. Accusative PluraL These forms ^re regular from O- and A-steriis Except the Neutei- foriiis haec, quae. See 6. 8. Genitive Plural. This Case is formed in all iiS from d-nouns. Horumce, harumce appear in the scenic poets as horunc, harunc ; once in Plant, quoium seems to be Gen. PI. from qui ; and also in two andent laws. Dative Ablative Plural. a) From ' is ' tke forms are various. Thus, from I-stenl, ibu s, Plaut. i Tb u s, Lucy. ; and Fem. feabusj Cat From O-stem, (E. L; eieis, eeis) ; ieis in R. L. to Aug. ; eis or Ts in the scenic pdets and Lucr. ; dhce in Plaut eis. Under Aug. we find Is for iis (ieis) pfo- «ounced as one syllable. So, from idem, asdem or Tsdem, dnte in Juv. eisdem : iisdem (disylL) is found. From hie, hlbus is cited once from Plaut. : usually his (E. L. heisCe). From ille (E. L, oloes, m. olaes^ f.) illis {olleis, illeis). Old forms in ibus are cited. h). From qui, quis, the only forms are quTbus (from I-stem) and quis (from O-stem) in all Genders. I. 146 Latin Wordlore, (i) quot ? how many? (2) tot, so many \ (3) totidem, /wj-/ so 7?iany \ (4) 2i\\c\\iot^ so7ne (5) c\yiot^ as {77iany), Derived from this are : quotus, one of how manyl (Demonstr. totus, Lucr. v. 652.) quotusquisque = how few ? Demonstr. ^Tmci, few. quotiens, how often ? Demonstr. totiens, so often ; Indef. ali- quotiens, several times : Rel. quotiens, as {pfteji), (i) ubi, whcrel (2) ibi, there \ hie, here^ &c. ; (3) ibidem, in the very place ; ahas, elsewhere ; (4) ubi, in any place ; ahcubi, in some place ; (5) ubi, where, (l) unde, whence ? (2) inde, thence ; hinc, hence^ &c. ; (3) indidem,^(?;;2 the sa^ne side ; ahunde; (4) wxid.^^ from any quarter ; ahcunde, from some quarter ; (5) unde, whence, (l) quo, whither 1 (2) eo, thither \ hue, hither^ &c. ; (3) eodem, ///^ j^^;;/^ place ; alio, another place ; (4) quo, a7iywhither ; aUquo, somewhither ; (5) quo, whither. So qua^ -z^///^/ direction ? ea, //z^/ ; hac, this d.y &c, (i) quam, how? (2) tam, ita, j"^? ; (3) itidem, /A^ sa?ne way; ahter, otherwise ; (4) ahquam ; (5) quam, as. With other series, as quando, when ? turn, then, 8cc, B) The Universal Pronouns (6) also are severally correlated to the above, and to other forms which imply (7) Choice ; (8) Distribu- tion ; (9) Exclusion ; (10) Inclusion. Examples : (6) quisquis, quicumque, whosoever, whatsoever'; (7) quivis, quilibet, ajiy you will ; (8) quisque, each ; (9) nemo, nobody ; nullus ; (10) omnes, all. (6) utercumque, whichever of two ; (7) utervis, uterlibetp which of two you will ; (8) uterque, each of two ; (9) neuter, neither; (10) ambo, both. (6) qualisqualis, qualiscumque, of whatever kind, (6) quantusquantus, quantuscumque, how great soever; (7) quantusvis, quantuslibet, as great as you wilL (6) quotquot, quotcumque, as 7nany as, however 77iany \ (7) quotlibet (rare) ; (8) unusquisque, singuli, each 07ie ; (9) nulli, none ; (10) universi, the e7itire number, (6) ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever; (7) ubivis, ubilibet, where you will ; (8) ubique, everywhere ; (9) nusquam, nowhere, (6) undeunde, undecumque, whencesoever ; (7) undevis, un- delibet, whence you will ; (8) undique, fro7n every side (utrimque,yr^;;^ both sides), (6) quoquo, quocumque, withersoever; (7) quovis, quolibet, whither you will. (So quaqua, quacumque ; quavis, qua- libet : usquequaque, &c.) (6) quamquam, quamcumque, howsoever ; (7) quamvis, quam- libet, how you will ; (8) — ; (9) neutiquam, in no way ; (10) omnino, i7i every way, (6) quandocumque, whe7tsoever ; (7) quandolibet; (8) quando- que; (9) numquam, ^ievcr; (10) semper always. gp^33. Numerals. 147 Section X. i. Numeralia. Numerals (Numeralia) are Nouns and Adverbs used Nume- in the expression of Number. 32 Sym- bols. ii. Latin symbols of Number:' I V X L C IDorD CIDorM I 5 10 50 100 500 1000 By these symbols the Romans exhibited any required Number. A smaller symbol before a larger is subtracted : IV = 5 - 1» A smaller after a larger is added : VI = 5 + i. Equal symbols are added together : II = i + i ; XX = 10+10. But a smaller symbol before M multiphes M : IIM = 2000. Usually such a number was expressed by words, not by symbols : duo milia or bis mille. The symbol ID is multiplied by ten as often as 3 is subjoined, thus, I33 = iox 500= 5,000 As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equaUing the number of suffixed D, the total is doubled. Thus, CID = twice 500= 1,000 CCIDD= twice 5,000= 10,000 CCGIDDD =^ twice 50,000= 100,000 &c. iii. The four chief Numeral Series: Nume- ral 1. Cardinal Numerals (Cardinalia), which are Series. Adjectives answering the question QuOt, how many? II. Ordinal Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad- jectives answering the question Quotus, which in order of number ? * The Numeral symbols were not originally letters, except, perhaps, M, the initial of tnillei The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards L The sign of lo was cruciform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs are found in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent 50^ looj and loco, the Romans took three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and Phi. An old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 5d. 0 was corrupted into C, the initial of Centum, iGo. which stood for 1000, was broken into the form Cl3 ; and half of this* lo, was taken for 500, sometimes closing up int6 the form D. (See Momm- sen, Unteritaliscke Dialekten, pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, i?^^/;^. Museum, 1869, p. 12, &c.) Ritschl also considers M to be modified from the symbol Cl3. It is generally admitted that the words decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. fie'/ca) and digitus (Sd*CTUAos) are cognate : and Curtius adds to these d extera (Sk. dakshinUi Gr. Se^ia), referring to the verb Sexo/otai, to receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of shewing or teaching, doceo (Sk. disf , Gr. Set/c-). This points to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers, and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the unit sign I represeated the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed. 148 Latin Wordlore. §33. III. Distributive Numerals (DistrLbutiva), which are Adjectives answering the question Quo- teni, how many each or each time ? IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering the question Quotifens, how ofte7i ? iv. Numeral Series of minor extent: 1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the suffix plic-. They answer the question quotuplex, how many fold? and only nine are classically known : though many more might be formed by analogy : simplex si7nple triplex quincuplex decemplex duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex Also sescuplex or sesquiplex. 2. Proportionalia, formed from a root of nilmber and the suffix pul-o = plO' {7nore), answer the question quotuplus,^^?^ more f The words in this series classically used are : simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus duplus quadniplus septuplus Also sescuplus, as much a7id half as much more, from sesqui (for sinsemisque, i^). Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus. 3. From the Ordinals come Adjectives in anus, which often imply a soldier of the legion designated by the Numeral : primanus . . . decumanus . . . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &c.^ a soldier of the I si, lo/h, 2olh, 2isl, &^c. legion. But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartan ague or fever : decumanus ager, tithepaying land ; decu- manus, a tithe farmer \ decumanus fluctus, the teitth (i.e. largest) wave : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp^ the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy). Adjectives in arlus^ implying class or rank : primarius, secun- darius, &c. Qbs. Miharius lapis, a milestones bec^tis^ the RomaH' *mile' measured ^ mille passus,' 1000 paces = 5000 feet.- 4. From the Distributives come Adjectives in arius, which mean ^ contai^ting or consisting of so many each : ' binarius, ternarius, &c. Numerus binarius, the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a verse of 6, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius, a coin of 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con- tracted by youths under 25 years of age. Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable, 5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral roots exist in great number : ^ It is remarkable that una of unaetvicensima (legio) and analogous Fern, forms remain in these Adjectives. §33. Numeral Series^ 149 bimns, two years old \ trlmus, three , . , quadnmus,^/^r . . from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c. bimenstris, trimenstris, semenstris, '0/2, 3, 6 months (also written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c. biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis , . . decennis, * of 2, 3, 4, 5 ... 10 years ^ from annus with bi- tri- &c. 5 but quinquennahs, ^ happening once in 5 years,'' biennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . . , 2. n. ' a ter7n 0/2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years,' biduum, triduum, quatriduum , , , ^ a term of 2, 3, 4 . . . days (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c. binoctium, trinoctium, &:c. are rare. bivium, trivium, quadrivium, ^ a place where 2^ 3, 4 roads (viae) meet' Compounds of as, assis are tressis [of 3 asses), quinquessis, octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c, 1 The official terms duumvir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission of two, three, &c., are used in both numbers : but may also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c. \ To these may be added a very large Hst of Adjectives simU larly compounded : biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . bilinguis, trilinguis ... bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . o . bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis , . . biremis, triremis . . . bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . . The word ^ balance ' is derived from bilanx (double-dish). 6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series ^f Adverbs implying partition : bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c. \ \^ ^ ^ . nnrt<= bipartito, tripartito, quadripartito, &c. i ' ^^* ^^ ^^' Obs. The words unio (whence Engl, onion), binio, ternio, qua- ternio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice^ throw (called also Venus) in dice-play. 7. The Ordinals form two series of Numeral Adverbs implying sequence : primum . . . tertium quartum ... primo . . . tertio quarto ... Primum may mean ' the first place ^ or ^for the first time,': When it means *in the first place,' it is usually followed by ; deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, tum, deinceps^ leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine. When it means 'for the first time,' its sequence is : iX^mm, for the- \ second time, tertium, quartum . . . postremum. \ Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it : * L. Corn. Scipio consul iterum . . . tertium consul,' &c. Primo usually means * at the beginning^ at the first, and may be followed by dein, next, post, postea, &:c. But primo is sometimes ; rised hkc primum, in the first place ^ followed by dein, tertio, quarto, 6cc. ISO Lati7i Wordlore, §33. V. Declension of the Numerals.' M. i) Sing. Nom. un-us Voc. un-e Acc. Gen. Dat. F. a a un-um am un-ius un-i N. um 07ie, am am Plural as bonus. Abl. un-o a Like unus : ullus (for unulus), miy ; nullus (for ne unulus), none. The Ordinalia and Distributiva are declined as bonus. NUMERAL Arabic I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 28 29 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 98 99 100 101 136 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 2,000 5,000 10,000 50,000 100,000 1,000,000 Roman Symbols I II III IV V VI VII VIII Villi IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XVIIII^rXIX XX XXI XXII XXVIII XXIX XXX XL L LX LXX LXXX xc lie IC c pi CXXXVI cc ccc cccc l3 D lOCC or DCC IDCCC ^^DCCC IDCCCC or DCCCC CIO or M CI3CI3 orMyi I33 CCIOO ID^3 CCCI3^3 CCCCI3333 Cardinalia unus, a, um duo, ae, o tres, tria quattuor quinque sex septem octo novem decern undecim duodecim tredecim ; decern et tres ; tres et decern quattuordecim ; decern et quattuor quindecim sedecim ; sexdecim ; decern et sex decern et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecim duodeyiginti (decem et octo) undeviginti (decem et novem) vigmti unus et yiginti ; viginti unus duo et viginti ; viginti duo duodetriginta (octo et viginti) undetriginta (novem et viginti) triginta quadraginta quinquaginta sexaginta septuaginta octoginta nonaginta nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta nonaginta novem ; undecentum centum centum et unus ; centum unus centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s. ducenti, ae, a trecenti . . . quadringenti . . . quingenti . . . sescenti . . . septingenti . . . octingenti . . . nongenti . . . mille duo milia (bis mille) quinque milia decem milia quinquaginta milia centum milia ; centena milia deciens centum milia : deciens ' See note on page 152. Declension of Numerals. 151 2) Plur. Nom. Acc. Gen. D. Abl. M. duo duos (duo) duorum duobus F. duae duas duarum duabus N. duo two, duo duorum duobus 3) Plur. N. tres, tria ; Acc. tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl. tribus. 4) Plur. Nom. Acc. milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus. Duo for duos is classical., Duum is a form of Gen. much used with weights, measures, numbers; as duum nummum ; duum am- phorum ; duum milium. TABLE. L/RDINA1-.IA -us, -a, -um T)tstrirutiva. QUOTIENTIVA (-iens or -ies) prinuis secundus {or alter) tertius quartus quintus sextus Septimus octavus nonus decimus singuli bini terni or trini quaterni quini seni septeni octoni noveni deni semel. bis. ter. quater. quinquiens or quinquies. sex iens. septiens. octiens. noviens. deciens. unaecimus • duodecimus tertius decimus (decimus et tertius) quartus decimus (decimus et quartus) . quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodevicensimus (octavus decimus) : undevicensimus (nonus decimus) undeni duodeni terni deni quaterni deni quini deni seni deni septeni deni duodeviceni undeviceni undeciens. duodeciens. terdeciens or tredeciens. quattuordeciens or quater d. quindeciens <?r quinquiens d. sedeciens or sexiens deciens. septiensdeciens. duodeviciens octiens d. undeviciens or noviens d. vicensimus (vigensimus) or vicesimus unus et vicensimus (primus et vie. ; vie. pr.) diLcr ci vicciibiiiiuis a« , ciuu ci vic.^ duodetricensimus (octavus et vicensimus) undetricensimus (nonus et vicensimus) tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus quadragensimus quinquagensimus sexagensimus septuagensimus octogensimus nonagensimus nonagensimus octavus undecentensimus viceni viceni singuli viceni bini duodetriceni undetriceni triceni quadrageni quinquageni sexageni septuageni octogeni nonageni nonageni octoni undecenteni viciens. semel et viciens or v. s. bis et viciens or v. b. octiens et viciens. noviens et viciens. triciens. quadragiens. quinquagiens. sexagiens. ' septuagiens. octogiens. nonagiens octiensi. undecentiens ? centensimus or centesimus centensimus primus centensimus trincensimus sextus duocentensimus trecentensimus quadringentensimus qumgentensimus scxcentensimus.; sesc. ■ septingentensimus octingentensimus nongentensimus centeni centeni singuli centeni triceni seni duceni treceni quadringeni quingeni seceni septingeni octingeni nongeni centiens. centiens semel. centiens triciens sexiens. ducentiens. trecentiens. ^ quadringentiens. quingentiens. sescentiens. septingentiens. octinj^entiens. nongentiens. millensimus millesimus bis millensimus quinquiens millensimus deciens millensimus quinquagiens millensimus ccntiens millensimus quingentiens millensimus milieus millensimus singula milia bina milia quina milia dena milia quinquagena.niUia. centena milia quingena milia decies centena milia miliens. bis miliens. quinquiens miliens. deciens miliens. quinquagiens miliens. centiens miliens. quingentiens miliens. deciens centiens miliens. 152 Latin Wordlore. §33. Ambo, both, is declined as duo : but without contraction. Mi lie, thousand, is undeclined. * The whole Numeral system contains only 14 roots : those of the ten first Cardinal Numbers (unus . . . decern); mille; semel; and those of primus, secundus. All other Numerals come from these. Formation of Numerals. A) Cardinalia. Unity is expressed in Latin by two forms: (i) u-nu-s; (2) sim-, which appears in singuli, simplex, semel. - 1) Unus (E.L. ointis) seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai, oi = u) and taking the suffix no-, so as to imply * consisting 0/ that,' 'that and no other— one. The Sk. word for one x^ekcis, the same pronoun compounded with the interrogative Pron. ka, ' who or what/ meaning * that whatsoever' In Zand the form is aiva or aeva^ corresponding to Gr. otos, otfos, ' alone.* 2) Sim- represents Sk. sa-ina, which is the Superl. of the Demonstr. Pron. sa, thus expressing * tJtat especially' Singulus(for sim-culus), a deminutive expressing * that particular' * tliat small 70iit,'\s used as Plural ; very rarely Singular. It would seem as if s i n g u lu s and unus had changed places in usage : for althouglj^ singulus is well suited to the Cardinal series, it belongs to the Distributive,, which, having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, terni, &c.), might clainx u n u s as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are numbered: is una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (binae, trinae, &c.) lit- te rae, ae des, &c. From sim- comes sem-e-1 ; also sim-u-1, sim -ili-s : ^rtw^: is contained also in Or. et? (er-?), /xia, sV, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so passes into els, and the Fem. sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so /utia. For the names of the Cardinalia from 2 to 10 see Table. The Cardinalia from 11 to 17 are additive Compounds of the first nine with decem, lol un-decim, duo-decim, &c. The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive : duodeviginti (2 off" 20); undevi- ginti (i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39, &c. to 99, undecentum: 98 only being excepted. The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiplicative Compounds of the Nume- rals 2 . . . 10 with decent! or degenta (10): — 20 (d-videcenti 2 x 10=) viginti ; 30 (triadecenta 3X io) = triginta ; 40 (quatora decenta 4X 10=) qu'adraginta, &c. ; but in 70, septuaginta, a byform sept uo is used for sept em ; and in9o, nonaginta, nona- seems to be contracted from novena. It must be observed that all these forms in a are probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ^ncient long a. Centum alone is Neut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentiim 10 x 10), dropping the first three syllables, as in English the word wig has dropt the two first syllables of periwig. The Sk. form is s'ata {=katd), Gr. kKarov, perhaps for (<5e/ca- 6e'<caT0i/). The Multiples of centum from 200 to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals with the form - c e n t i, among which quadr-?«-genti is strangely formed on the analogy ofquingenti, &c. ; octingenti goes back to the Pr. form («^^^w) ; andnongenti is for (novingenti). • The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind. sahasra : Gr. xi^ioi \ L. mille ; Goth, thusund, &c. The root of m i 1 1 e is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. mily Gr. b-fjLiX-y to associate, assemble. B) Ordinalia: Primus (Sk. prathamas, Gr. Trpcoros) is Superl, of p rae, pro (Sk. pra, Gr. irpo. Compare irpLv). Secundusis Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sad, Gr. err-). The next four assume the Superl. suffix (/a) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s, TptTos)j by inserting i. Octa-v-us (oySofos) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. ashtau : and the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissimilation. Nonus is a contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi- nals, as unus (see above) among the Cardinal numerals. §34. Use of the Numerals, vi. Use of the Numerals. Use^f the Nu- A) Cardinalia. merals. a) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other Numerals alv/ays has emphasis : * Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus quasi animus fiat ex pluribus,' the essence of friendship is that one soul as it were is formed of several^ C. Lael. 25. But, 'Matronae annum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned Brutus for one year^ as a father ^ L. ii. 7. Unus niay take a Superlative force, or emphasise Superla- tives : * Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores/ Z^^;;^^?^- thenes stands unrivalled among orators^ C. Or, 29. * P. Nigidius, unus omnium doctissimus,^ Publius Nigidius, the most learned of men, C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some Pronouns and Pronominals : * Hoc non quivis unus ex populo poterat agnoscere,' it was not any individual from aino7tg the people that could recognise this, C. Br, 93. 'Nemo unus erat vir quo magis innisa res Roman a staret/ there was no one man on whom the Roman comfnonwealth more leaned for its support, L. ix. J 6. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17. c) Mi He is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with Sing. Verb: 'Amplius mille hominum cecidit,' more than one In the Ordinals of 20, 30 ... . to 90 the Superl. ending -simu-s -sumu-s is taken, form- ing -ent-simus (or ent-sumus), -en-simus (or -en-sumus), before the Aug. age, after- wards resimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumus), vicesimus, &c. This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds, ducentensimus, &c., and in mill-ensimus. C) Numeral Adverbs. Semel: see A): bis for (d-vis) ; ter by transp. for tri: quater (for quat-v-or). All others are formed with the final suffix -iens : q li i n q u i e n s, &c. In the multiples of 10, -iens takes the place of -inta : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c. In 100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille, milieus. After the Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquies. . . . milies. So toties, quoties: inR. L. totiens, quotiens. D) Distrihutiva. Singuli:see^): bi-ni (for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or trT-ni:quater-ni:qui-ni (for quinc-ni), se-ni; septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, de-ni (for dece-ni), &c. Afterwards the suffix -ezii is taken by all Distrihutiva below 1,000, The form m i 1 1 en i is not used, but instead of it m i 1 i a is multiplied by the previous Distributives : singula mill a, bina milia, &c. See Numeral Table. Nii^guluSj an E.L. word (for ne-singulus), =nullus. The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithii^nian, Welsh (Cymraeg), Gothic, and German. Lat. Sk. Gr. Lith. W. Goth. Germ, unus ekas vena un aina eins duo dvi 5vo dva dau twai zwei tri- tri tri tri thrija drei quattuor c' at vara s TeVfape? keturi pedwar fidvor vier quinque pane 'an irdvTe (Tre^tTTe) penki pump fimf fiinf sex shash szeszi chwech saihs sechs septem saptan septyni saith sibun sieben octo ashtau OKTU) asztuni wyth ahtau acht novem navan evvefa devyni naw niun neun decem das'an deszinti deg taihun zehn centum s'ata iKarov szimta cant hund hundert 154 Lati7i Wordlore. §34. thousand men fell, Nep. Dat. 8 : frequently with Plural verb : *Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque,' there was an interval of a mile between the ciiy and the camp, L. xxi. 61. So mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: 'Mille rates,' ^1 thousand ships, Ov.. Met. xii. 7. The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed usually by a Genitive: ' Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti Capitolium occupavere, four thousand five hujidred men seized the Ccipitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : * Tria milia et septingenti pedites ierunt/ there marched 3,70q infantry, L. xxxv. 40. ^ Mille as Abl. is peculiarly used in the following place : ^Cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum,' L. xxi. 61. d) The Numerals sescenti and mille are idiomatically used by Latin authors to express indefinitely large numbers : ^ Ses- centas uno tempore epistolas accepi,' / received 600 letters at oncCy C Att, vii. 2. 'Aiaxmilies oppetere mortem quam ilia perpeti maluisset,' Ajax would rather have died 1,000 tijnes than have e^i- d2ired that treatment, C. Off. i. 31. ^ Mille pro uno Kaesones exstitisse plebs querebatur/ the plebeians were grumbling that for one Kaeso there were now 1,000, L. iii. 14. Poets use centum for this purpose. 'Non, mihi si linguae centum sint oraque centum,' not if I had a hundred tongues and a hundred mouths, Verg. G. ii. 44. ^Caecuba servata centum cla- vibus,' the Caeciiban wine guarded by a hundred keys^ Hor. C. ii. 14. 26. Tres stands for a few in Plautus. * Te tribus verbis volo. Vel trecentis,^ / want three words with you. Three hundred if you will^ Trin. iv. 2. B) Ordinalia. a) Alter may be used for second : * Alter ab undecimo tum me iam ceperat annus,' my twelfth year (lit. next from the eleventh) had then commenced, Verg. B. viii. 39. * Unus et alter,' one or two. Secundus expresses no more than the numerical order : alter implies that the second is in kind the same as the first. So, ' De- nique haec (Pelopidas) fuit altera persona Thebis, sed tamen secunda ita, ut proxima esset Epaminondae,' in short, Pelopidas was the second personage in Thebes, but holding the second rank sa as to be very near Epainifiondas, Nep. Pel. 4. See Hor. C. i. 12. 18.. b) Ordinals are used in computing time : ^ Anno post urbem conditam septingentensimo quinquagensimo quarto natus est Christum/ Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of Rome. ^Ab illo tempore annum iam tertium et quinquagen- si mum r^gnzXy from that time he has now been reigning 53 years, Q.p L. Man. 3. Hora quota est } what o'clock is it f Hora prima, secunda, tertia, &c., 7, 8, 9. &^c. o'clock. Hora nona, at 3 0'' clock. c) The Ordinals are used with quisque : * tertio quoque anno,' every third year, &c. But ' alternis diebus,' every other day, C) Distributiva. a) These apply the Number they express to each of several persons or things or times : ^ Data ex praeda militibus aeris §34* Use of the Numerats, 155 octogeni bini sagaque et \Mmc2i^^ the soldiers received from the spoil eighty -two asses each, with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili- tibus singulis). ^ Germani singulis uxoribus contenti sunt/ the Germans are satisfied with one wife each, Tac. 6^. 18 (i.e. Germani singuli). * Ursae pariunt plurimum quinos/ bears bring forth at most five cubs at a birth, PI. N, H, (i.e. ursae singulae). b) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : * Singulis censo- ribus denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt/ each censor had 300 denars imposed on hiin for the statue of the praetor^ C. Verr, ii. 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this position: ^Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos/ they punish with stripes y 60 soldiers each centurion^ Tac. Ann. i. 32. ^ Antonius quingenos denarios singulis militibus ddit,^ Antonius gave each soldier 500 denars, C. Fam, x. 31. Singuli incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus eadem hunt, the same happens every day, Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year; cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, fnan by man, for any .Masc. case of singuli. Plautus has ^ singulum vestigium/ Cist. iv. 2. c) The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice two? Cic. ' Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen canerent/ the pontiffs decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in each, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37. d) Uni (not singuli), trini (not terni), and the Distributives bini, quaterni, quini, &c., are used with Substantives of Singular sense and Plural form : *Una castra iam facta ex binis videban- tur,' one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes. B, C. i. 24 : * trinis castris/ Caes. B. G. vii. 66. So, ^ unae nuptiae/ unae litterae, &c. ; but, ^ tres liberi/ three children. On this principle the following expressions are legitimate: 'uni Ubii/ the Ubii alone, Caes. : *unos sex dies,' six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae- monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus wiwymt,' the Lacedae- monians have now been living y 00 years with one set of habits, C.p, Flacc. 26. e) Bini is used to express a pair \ * Pamphilus binos habebat scyphos sigillatos/ Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr. iv. 14. *Bina manu crispans hastilia/ brandishing a couple of spears, Verg. A en. i. 313. f) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative sense : ^ Septeno gurgite/ with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444. Frequently for the Cardinals : * centenas manus,' a hundred hands, Verg. But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus B.stra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis- tributive is correct, because each year is implied, 6^. i. 231. g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con- tracted into um : * quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septenumve annorum/ Latilt Wordlore. 134. Com- "^ii- Compound Numeration. pound Nurae- a) In the Table of Numerals the most approved forms are set down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed. b) In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number with et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre- cedes the smaller: 'Romulus septem et triginta regnavit annos,' Ro^milus reigned 37 years, C. Rep. ii. 10. ' Macedo Alex- ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of Macedonia died in his t hirty -third year ^ C. Ph. v. 17. ' Septuaginta et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. i. * Pliniiis sc!ripsit sub Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of 7iatural history^ Plin. Ep, iii. 5. * Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thirty-two teeth are as^ signed to a 7?ian, PI. N. H. vii. 16. But *et^ occurs after the larger Numeral : ^ viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat. M. 9. Also the smaller occurs before the larger without et : 'Quattuor quadraginta illi debentur minae/ 44 7ninas are due to him^ Plaut. Most. iii. i. ^Septimo quinquagensimo die rem confeci/ I finished the affair in 57 days^ C. Fam. xv. 4. Unus, when it occurs with viginti, &c., generally stands first, and the Noun last : unus et viginti ho- mines ; unum et triginta milia. But exceptions occur: * Vi- ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. * Viginti unam muscas/ 21 flies, PI. A^. H. XXX. 10. ' Diebus viginti uno/ V\. N, H. xxix. 6. c) In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without et generally precedes the smaller: 'Leontinus Gorgias cen-v tum et septem complevit annos,' Gorgias of Leontini co7npleted loj years, C. Cat. M. 5. 'Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibuS; planetis in eundem recurrentibus locum, quod fit post duodecimo milia nongentos quinquaginta quattuor annos,' />^^j/ w^^^/^^^ have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same: place, which happens after i2,g^/\. years, Cic. 'Sescentensimum et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primum Cimbrorum audita sunt arma/ Rome was in its 6^oth year when the ar7ns of the Cimb7'i were first heard, Tac. G. yj. * Olympiade centensima quartadecima Lysippus fuit,' Lysippus lived in the Mj\th Oly77ipiad, PI. N. H. xxxiv. 8. 'Aristidis arbitrio quadrin- gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata,' under the control of Aristides ^60 talents were annually contributed to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar. 3. d) The multiples of 1,000 are expressed by the Cardinals (or Distributives) multiplying milia : duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi- ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, &c.), milia. Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c. with mille : 'bis mille equos,' Hor. ; 'quinquiens mille quad- ringenta stadia,' PI. A^. H. And so with smaller Numerals : ' Hie (Caesar) deciens senos tercentum et quinque diebus addidit/ Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F. iii. 163. e) The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad- verlDs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the following passage: 'Non erat apud antiques numerus ultra centum^ Numeral Expression of Fractions. 1 5 7 milia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena milia aut saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond 100,000 ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied^ so as to use the form * ten times a hundred thousand^ and the like in progression^ PL iV. H. xxxiii. 10. Thus we find : * viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 = miles^ Caes. : 'bis ettriciens centum milia passuum,' 3,200,000 miles, Sueti * quinquiens miliens centum milia/ 500,000,000, PL ; ^ octagiens quinquiens centena sexaginta octo milia,' 8,568,000 PL In cipher the thousands were written with a line above them, and the hundred thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,999 in writing is : noviens centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in cipher: | ix | xcix loccccxcix. aa, Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal primus: 'Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est/ Plato died while writing in his Sistyear, C. Cat. M. So unetvicen- simus, unaetvicensima or unetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare^ viii. Numeral Expression of Fractions. The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : ^ 1) If the numerator is i, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars = |, tertia pars = |, &c. 2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than tTie denomi- nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing ' partes : ' duae quintae = | ; tres septimae = f , &c. 3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by i only, the latter may be suppressed, ' partes ' being expressed : duae partes = I ; tres partes = | ; quinque partes = |, &c. 4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of twa fractions : dimidia tertia = | x | = | ; quarta septima = | x ^ = i,, &c. 5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions : as pars dimidia et tertia = | + 1 = | ; pars quarta et septima = | + 7 ~ 28* 6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as. The ^ as' (unit) of weight, called X\^x2., pound — — — of length — ipes, foot — — — of area — iugetum, acre was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae.^ Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of unciae they contained, as follows : — ^ Dimidio maior means * half as much larger, altero tanto maior, as large again, i.e. twice as large. The following passage from PL N, H. vi. (cited by F. Schultz) may be' a useful exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography which existed in Pliny's time : — * Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Asiae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean- dem altero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Africam.. Quod si misceantur omnes summae, liquido patebit Europam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam^ paulo amplius, Asiam vero quartam et quartamdecimam, Africa m autem quintam et in- super sexagensimam.* * Hence inch as well as ounce is derived from uncia. Latvi Wordlore. § 35-36. uncia = I unc. 1 12 of the unit septunx sextans = 2 — 1 6 J) bes quadrans = 3 — 1 J) dodrans triens = 4 — \ 3 dextans quincunx = 5 — 5 12 1 2 )> deunx semissis = 6 — • ?> = 8 = 9 3 3 I 6 11 12 By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,' universal heir : ^ heres ex semisse/ /leir to half the estate ; * heres ex dimidia et quadrante/ heir to three-fo2irths^ &c. The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. : — scripulum = 2^ unc. = —-^ of unit _ 1 6 sextula = 2.88 JL 72 sicilicus semuncia = \ unc. _ 1 2 = ^ of unit 24 Sescilncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = \\ uiicia = J of unit. Sesquialtera ratio = i| : i = 3 : 2. CHAPTER IIL THE VERB. Section I. Verb The Verb Finite and Infinite. Sde page 72. Finite finki"* I. The Verb Finite is so called, because its forms ai'e limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense. II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited by Mood and Person. Note. Any Finite form is called a PERSONAL Verb, because it agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person. 36 Voices. ii. The Voices of the Verb. There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram- marians have called Voices (Voces, Genera) : 1) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), from agere, to do. 2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati, to suffer. i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or does something : sum, / a7n amo, / love valeo, / aju well moneo, / advise g 36. Transitive and Intransiiive Verbs. 159 2) The Passive Voice indicates generally that a Sub- ject suffers something (has something done to it) : amor, / am loved moneor, / am advised iii. Deponent Verbs. Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms, have an Active meaning : venor, / hunt vereor, / fear These are called by grammarians, Deponent Verbs (Deponent ia).* iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi- tive and 1) In order that it may be fully conjugated (like amo and sitive moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs. Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only. 2) A Verb is called Transitive when its action passes on (tran- sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo Lucium, / advise Lucius \ Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me, A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares \ lepores nos verentur, hares fear us, 3) An Intransitive Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no Object: surgo, I rise ; proficiscor, I go. Those which express state or condition are called Static Verbs : aegroto, / am sick ; sto, / stand ; irascor, / am angry. An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained, may be joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty game ; aegrotare mirum morbum, to be sick of a strange disease. See Syntax (Accusative). The construction called Impersonal allows Intransitive Verbs to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of the Passive Voice : surgitur (a nobis or ab illis being understood), we {they) rise (literally, there is rising by us or by them). See § 50* 4) The Subject of a Transitive Verb may become its Object : (ego) verto me, / turn myself] (tu) vertis te, yot4 turn yourself \ (is) vertit se, he turns himself. This Pronoun Object is sometimes omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively : iam verterat fortuna, fortune had now turned^ Liv. On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself \ lavor, / wash myself Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive. Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, / boast {myself) ; vescor, I feed {inyself). Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor, I grudge^ am loth (lit. am grieved). * The term * Deponent * is bad, though inveterate in Latin grammar. Would be a better name for these Verbs. Medial ^Media) l6o Latin Wordlore. §37. V. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verb^. 1) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and are called Quasi-Passive Verbs : exsulo, I. I am banished, vapulo, I. I am beaten fio, / become or am made^ Passive of facio, / niake, pereo, / am lost or destroyed — perdo, / lose or destroy, veneo, / a^n on sale — vendo, / selL liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction). The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and vendendus, are in use. Verbero, I beat,h2iS a Passive verberor, but vapulo often took its place in popular speech. 2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it : audeo, 2. I dare ausus sum, I dared gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced soleo, 2. / a7n wont solitus sum, / was wont fido, 3. / trust fisus sum^ / trusted fio, / become factus sum, / became These are called Semi-Deponent Verbs. 3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect^ with a Passive Perfect Participle, active in sense : ceno, cenavi, / supped cenatus, having supped iuro, iuravi, / swore iuratus, having sworn prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined nubo, nupsi, / was wedded nupta, wedded Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are : adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi cretus, sprung — cresco, crevi suetus, accusto7ned — suesco, suevi (with compounds) obsoletus, out of date — obsolesco, obsolevi ^\2j:\\.\xs, pleasing — placeo, placui. potus, having drunk, from an old stem po- perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet. Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratiis, exoletus, initus, inveteratus, propensus. See M. Lucr, ii. 383 ; iii. 772. vi. The Moods of the Verb. Moods (Modi) express the manner of action in a Finite Verb. There are three Moods of the Verb Finite : i) The Indicative Mood declares a fact or condition as real or absolute : gaudeo quod (si) abest, I am glad that (if) he is absent. §38. The Tenses of the Verb. i6i 2) The Conjunctive Mood states a fact or condi- tion as conceived or contingent : gaudeam si dih sit, I shall be glad if he be absent y velim absit, / would wish he were absent : vellem abesset^ I conld wish he had been absent This Mood, in principal construction, we call the PURE Conjunc- tive, gaudeam, velim, vellem. When it depends on another Verb, it is called SUBfUNCTlVE, absit, abesset. The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the use of an auxiliary Verb, may, might, would, should, shall, &c. The Subjunctive is often rendered by the English Indicative : nescio quid velis, I know not what you wish; tarn stulti sunt ut nihil intellegant, they are so foolish that they understand nothing', also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num in tell e- gat, I doubt if he understand but often it must be expressed by an auxiliary verb may, anight: edimus ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but by exemplification, reading, and practice. 3) The Imperative Mood is for command and en- treaty : hue cur re, run hither \ memento venias, you must remember to come. See p. 163. vii. The Tenses of the Verb. Tenses. Tenses (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time of action or state in Verbs. 1. Tense -forms are either I NFLECT ED or Combinate. An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi- fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram. A Combinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par- ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, td be, which, combined with the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c. 2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as Pres. love, lovest, loves ; Past loved, lovedst : but its Verb is enlai^ged by combining with Infinitive and Parti- cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely, a. be (am, was, &c.) have (had) must do (did) let shall (should) can (could) may (might) will (would) j8. to ; about to ; by ; in. M 1 62 Latin Wordlore. § 38. Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As grammatical tables cannot supply all the Enghsh equivalents for each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating. 3. Time is Present, Past, or Future. Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future. For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense- form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past. Thus, in the Indicative Mood, SmPLE Present. Simple Past. Simple Future, Active. amo, / love amavi, loved amabo, shall love Passive. amor, / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved 4. But it is often necessary to describe action and state with more complex relations of time; and this the English language, by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more fully than Latin, buch relations are (in the Indicative Mood) : Active. L Present in Present am loving* Past was loving Future shall-be loving* II. Past in i Present have loved* J Past had loved ( Future shall-have loved Passive. am being-loved* was being-loved shall-be (being) loved* have-been loved* had-been lovedf shall-have-been lovedf III. Future in Present am about-to-lovef Past was about-to-lovef Future shall-be about-to-lovef am about-to-be-loved$ was about-to-be-lovedj shall-be about-to-be-loved;t Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive : Indie. Act. amabam, / was loving — — amaveram, / had loved — — amavero, / shall have loved — Pass, amabar, / was being loved To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are used: amo, amor; amabo, amabor; amavi, amatus sum (fui). To express that marked f , Combinate forms are needed : amatus eram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fui, ero (fuero). §38- ' The Tenses of the Verb, 163 For the English marked J, and other temporal relations still more complex, the help of particles is required in Latin : the woman is about to be killed in eo est mulier ut trucidetur : the woman was about to be killed in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur. If this be thrown into obhque statement (I think y I thought that, &c.), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine may be used; or futurum (fore) ut with Subjunctive : puto (putavi) mulierem trucidatum iri puto futurum ut mulier trucidetur putavi fore ut mulier trucidaretur. 5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta)^ The names of the Finite Tenses are : 1) Of Incomplete Action : Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect* 2) Of Complete Action : Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect. The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods 01 each Voice. (See Scheme.) Active Passive Conjunc. 1 Imper; Indie. Conjunb. Imper. i) Present amo amem ama 1 1 amor amer am are Fut. S. . amabo amato amabor amatOi Imperfect amabam amarem amabar amarer 2) Perfect amavi amaverim amatus amatus Fut. P. . sum sim amavero amatus Pluperf. ero amaveram amavissem amatus amatuS eram essem The Imperative to4orms are generally regarded as strengthen- ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz, &c.) treat them in this sense as = Future forms* We do the same, but merely for the sake of convenience. * Gossrau {Laiein. SprachL § 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Teftses are not temporal in the same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect beirig the only one which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this difficulty is so far from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction used in this grammar, of Pure Conjunctive in a principal sentence, and Subjunctive in a dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunctive) forms Dy the names of the Indicative Tenses, from which some of them diverge in use so v/idely. The only way of M 2 164 Latin Wordlore. § 39-40. Obs. The defects of this Tense-system are in part supplied by the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Partir ciples in -rus, -dus (see § 47) : amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c. amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c. 6. Tenses are Primary or Historic.^ The Primary Tenses are the Present and the Futures : the Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past {I loved). When Present-Past (I have loved), the Perfect is Primary. It is a great advantage of Greek, as compared with Latin, that it has inflected forms for both these relations : Simple Past (Aorist) . . f ^/Ar^ca, / loved Present Past (Perfect) . TrecpiXrjKaj I have loved 39 i^umber viii. Numbcr and Person in the Verb. and i^crson The Tenses of the Finite Verb have two Numbers, Singular and Plural ; with three Persons in each Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings. The First Person expresses one or more speaking ; The Second „ „ „ spoken to ; The Third „ „ „ spoken of : SINGULAR. PLURAL. ego am-0, I love nos ama-mus, we love tu ama-s, thou * lovest vos ama-tis, ye ^ love is ama-t, he loves ii ama-nt, they love The oin amo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha- racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi- natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly omitted : am-o, / love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, he loves, &c. In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its Present Tense the Second Person only is used. 40 The ix. The Verb Infinite contains: Verb -■'J finite. 1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub- stantival ; 2. Participles, which are Adjectival. avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive forms, when cited in Syntax, a numeral notation easy to be remembered : amem ; moneam ; regam ; audiam: or amaverim ; monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : Ca or Sj amarem ; monerem ; regerem ; audirem : C3 or S3 amavissem ; monuissem ; rexissem ; audissem : C4 or S4. ' English usage has adopted you for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of thou and ye^ which are now used only in prayer or by poets. §40. The Verb Infinite. i6s \, A) The Infinitive (Infinitivum) describes action infini- or state in a general manner, without personal relation. It has Tense-forms : 1) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) : Act. ama-re, to tove, be loving^ have been loving Pass, ama-ri, to be loved, 2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) : Act. amav-isse, to have loved Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to have been loved, 3) For Future in Present Action : Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum, being Supine, is invariable). 4) For Future in Past Action : Act. amat-urus, a, um, fuisse, to have been about to love, B) The Gerunds (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n. The Gerundive (Gerundivum) is a Participle or Verbal Adjective with the same suffix : Gerundive. Nom. S. ama-ndus, a, um {meet) to be loved declined as bonus.. Gerunds. Acc. ama-ndum, loving Gen. ama-ndi, of loving Dat. ama-ndo,^^^ loving Abl. ama-ndo, by or /;/ loving The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either impersonally, as eundum est, one must go ; or personally : vita tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundum est mihi, I must go ; vita nobis tuenda est, life should be protected by us. C) Supines (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supines, a Verb-noun of Decl. 4, with suffix -tu (su) or -to (sa) : ama-t-um, to love ama-t-u, in loving 2. Participles (Participia) are so called because they Panics take part of the properties of Verbs^ and part of the properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three other Participles are found in Verbs : Active Pres. and Imperf. 2imdi-xis,loving . , . . as in gens — Future .... ama-t-uriis, about to love 1 , Passive Perfect .... d.m^,-x-^^yhaving been loved) "^^i^^^ Latin Wordlore. a) The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied : Act. Part. Perf. having loved, cum amavisset (or by Abl. Absolute) Pass, — Pres. being loved, qui amatur, or dum amatur — — Fut, about to be loved, qui amabitur. b) Some Verbs form Participials in -bundus or -cundus, express- ing ' fulness/ as vagabundus, wandering, iracundus, wrathful ; in -bilis, expressing ^possibility / '^'BiXd^y^ySi, procurable ; in -ilis, expressing ' capacity/ docilis, teachable ; in -ax, expressing inclination/ loquax, talkative ; in -idus, expressing ' active force/ rapldus, hurrying^ cuptdus, desirous, c) Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par- ticiples in -ns, urus, and also use their Perfect Participle in an Active sense : Pres. vena-ns, hunting Fut. vena-t-urus, about to hu7tt Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as well as actively, as polVicitus, promised or havirig promised, from polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus, adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di- mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus- tratus, imitatus, impertltus, machinatus, meditatus, mentitus, meri- tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblitus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus, pactus, partitus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortitus, testatus, testi- ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c. Section IL The' i- The Conjugation of Verbs. three st^emsin i) In ordcf to conjugate a Verb of Active form, three elements must be known : 1. Present Stem. . . ama- 2. Tho Perfect Stem. . . amav- 3. The Supine Stem . . . amat- 2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (v^hich has no Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must be known : 1. Pres. Stem . . . vena- 2. Sup. Stem . . . venat- The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character. o) From the Present Stem are derived : Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive Present, in each Voice ; Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active Voice. §42. The Conjugation of Verbs. 167 j8) From the Perfect Stem are derived : Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in the Active Voice. 7} From the Supine Stem are derived : Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ; Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all the Combi- nate Tenses in the Passive Voice. 42 ii. The Verb of Beinsr? sum,* esse. The ' Verb Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- ^^^l Jugation of the irregular Verb of Beings sum, esse, fui, to be, which enters into their Combinate Tenses as an auxiliary Verb. This Verb is formed from two roots : €s- (Sk. as) to be ; fu- (Sk. bhu) to be or become. The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore) belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par- ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both, ^ The Root of Being, Sk. ds Or. k<j- L. es-, is found in all branches of the Aryan family, variously modified. 1) The root ' es- ' forms Present Indie. L. s-«-m es (for es-s) est sumus es-tis sunt Sk. as-mi as-i as-ti s-mas &-4ha s-anti Gr. etjxt {e(Tfit) et (etr-at) eo-rt iafxev (eo-jixe?) €0"T€ ettrt (ei/ri) Fut. Indie. L. ero (for es-w), Gr- l(TO-jM.ai. Imperf. L. eram (for es-am), Sk. (simple Aor. in am), Gr. iiiv (for eff-Tjv). Pres. Conjunc. L. (siem) sim (for es-iein)^ Sk. s-ydm, Gr. t-lrji' (for t<T'inv). The forms siem, sies, siet are occasionally found. Imperf. Conjunc. L. essem. See p. 58. Imperative. Pres. S. PK L. es este Sk. e-dhi i^ox as-dhi) s-ta Gr. 1<t-9l ecrre Future S. PI. esto estote suntQ as^u s-antu e (TTW * (TTWV The Infinitive es-se is, as that of every Active Verb, the Dative (or Loc.) Case of a V erb-noun. 2) The Root fu-, Sk. hhu, Gr. ^v- forms Imperf. Conjunc. forem (for/z^-^^ajf/) : Infin. fore (fory«-5^). Fut. Partic. fut-urus. It also forms the Perfect Stem fu- (for fuv-), and its derived Tenses, by agglutinating the tenses of sum. See p. 58. The English forms * am,' * art,' ' is,' * are,' belong to the root as\ * be ' to the root , ika. 1 68 Latin Wordlore. O -I < CO V) )3 C/3 "50 (A >3 ll— 1 CO CO z J5 " S s s C/J ^ C/3 o o 5 ^ <D «-5 <^^ C/) 'i^ 5-1 (A c« 6 e crt si; >2 5 >sj « .=3 ^ ,:3 1^ s C/5 t/5 >3 *5 -t-» >3 c «c ?5i u o ^3 S 3 u o .:3 (L) .=3 ^ «4-. •5 § a «4:^ ^ v2 ^ ^ 'H^! ^ ■Si .:3 <^ o I— t Q o u 5z; o u CJ Q o Q o u in C/3 (J Oh ^ CO - 2 >3 c/: > 3 m O "a -»-> ^ -'^ ^ u (D ^ Ph Ph ^ lO o b (1) (U 5-1 CI CO .5^ id i £PL, (/) . 03 S OJ Oh ;3 C/3 u t/5 TJ (L) o ^ .i^ O ^3 oj i5 ;=! CO lO C 5-1 :ri Oh 5-< s (/) <u I— 1 C3 (/) 5-1 t/) Q o o H Pi ^ g ^ ^ ^ ^s a; S S S c/i(^ CO Ph i 3 Oh §43* Conjugation of the Verb. 169 iii. Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four conju- Classes, called Conjugations, ds:zox6\.ng to their Pre- ^^^'''"^* sent Character, that is, the last letter of their Present- Stem. a) One of these Conjugations, haying for its Present-Character either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant u, is called the Strong Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present-Stem forms, without suffering contraction : reg-^"-re indu-/-re. Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in ' Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient ' times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on account of I the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in I which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically. 1 b) The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their i ^Character is a Vowel (a, e, i). They are also called Weak, or Con- ' tracted, because in some Present-Stem Forms the Vowel Character unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: ama-o, amo; ama-im, amem, &c. So ama-/-re, amare ; mone-/-re, monere ; audi-^-re, audire.^ c) A-verbs are called the ist Conjugation, E-verbs — — 2nd — I -verbs — — 4th — Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation, See a), d) The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before /-re in the Strong Conjugation : Conj. I. am A- re, /^7/^ ^ . (XO^G-eYQ, rule — 2. monE-re, advise ^' 1 indu-/re, put on — 4. audl-re, hear e) In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit t in many Present-Stem forms : caP-/-o, paT-/-or; this I not being, however, the Character of the Verb. ^ Although the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for most of the forms in which the Characters a, G, t are long before a Consonant, it cannot safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical rules are : 1) The Characters e, i are short before a Vowel : moneam, audies. But a with a following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am-o, ama-im, amem. 2) The Characters, a, 6, i are long when final: am a, mone, audi; or before a Consonant: amas, amamus; mones, monemus; audls, audimus (an- ciently amamus, &c.). Exceptions are : (i) before t final, though originally long (amat, monet, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage : amat, monet, audit; (2) the Verb da-, £'£ve, keeps a short before a Consonant : dare, dabo, dabam, dato, but da. 3) The Mood-vowels, a, e, i, follow generally the same law as the Characters : audias, audiamus; ames, amaremus; veils, vellmu?; but audiat amare t, vellt (anciently audiat, amaret, vellt). 170 Latin Wordlore. §43- /) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows : — Method of Con- juga- ting. ACTIVE VERBS. Present. Perfect. Supine. 1. am A- amav- amaT- 2. monE- monu- moniT* 3. reG- rex- (for reGs) recT- 4. audi- audiv- audiT- DEPONENT VERBS. Pres. venA- verE- UT- partl- Sup. venaT^ veriT- us- partiT- The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is called a Clipt Stem : am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver-, part-. g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming — (1) the Present Indie, ist Person; (2) the Infinitive Pres. ; (3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ; (4) the Supine in um : amo, amare, amavi, amatum ; but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms. CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. I Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-o mon-eo reg-o aud-io 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-as mon-es reg-is aud-is Infinitive . . . am-are mon-ere reg-ere aud-ire Perfect . . . , am-avi mon-ui rex-i aud-Tvi Gerund in dum . am-andum mon-endum reg-endum aud-iendumf — di . . am-andi mon-endi reg-endi aud-iendi — do . . am-ando mon-endo reg-endo aud-iendo Supine in um . am-atum mon-itum rect-um aud-itum — u . . am-atu mon-itu rect-u aud-Ttu Partic. Present . am-ans mon-ens reg-ens aud-iens — Future . am-aturus mon-iturus rect-urus aud-iturus CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. ist Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. 1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-eria aud-iris Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri i"eg-i aud-iri Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-itus sum rect-us sum aud-itus sum Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-itus rect-us aud-itus Gerundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus^ Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning. Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i. wander, have no Gerundive Adjective. * The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Voice because none but Transitive Verbs, can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it maybe ascribed to both voices. If a horse is * ferox ante domandum,' ivild be/ore being broken in, his rider is * cautus ante domandum,' cautioics before breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed *amor habendi ; ' of their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, *ad digitos lentcscit habendo,' it yields to the fingers in being handled. §43' Conjugation of the Verb, 171 1 Pers. Pres. Ind. 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. Infinitive Pres. . Perfect .... Gerund in dum . — di — do Gerundive . . . Supine in um. . — u . . Partic. Pres. . . ^ Perf. . . — Fut. . . CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS htmt fear ven-or ver-eor ven-aris ver-eris ven-ari ver-eri ven-atus sum ver-itus sum ven-andum ver-endum ver-endi ver-endo ver-endus ver-itum ver-itu ver-ens ver-itus ver-iturus ven-andi ven-ando ven-andus ven-atum ven-atu ven-ans ven-atus ven-aturus use ut-or ut-eris ut-i US-US sum ut-endum ut-endi ut-endo ut-endus us-um us-u ut-ens us-us us-urus divide part-ior part-iris part-iri part-itus sum part-iendum, part-iendi part-iendo part-iendus part-itum part-Itu part-iens part-itus part-iturus Verbs in i-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem forms, retain this / generally ; but not before i, final e, and short fir. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds : Fug/o, fac/o, and iac/o, Compounds of spec/o and lac/o, Par/o, fod/o, and quat/o, Ciip/o, cap^Q, rap/o, sap/o ; (Deponents) grad/or, pat/or, mor/or, And, in some tenses, potior, or/on Their form of Conjugation is : Active. Passive. Deponent. I Pers. Pres. Ind. . . cap-/-o cap-/-or pat-/-or 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. . . cap-is cap-eris pat-eris Infinitive Pres. . . . cap-ere cap-i pat-i capt-us sum pass-US sum Gerund in dum . . . cap-/-endum pat-/-endum — di . . . . cap-/-endi pat-/-endi — do . . . . cap-/-endo pat-2-endo cap-/-endus pat-2-endus Supine in um . . capt-um pass-um — u . . . . . capt-u pass-u Partic. Pres. . . . pat-/-ens — Perf. . . . capt-us pass-US — Fut. . . . pass-urus Note I. — In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the corresponding Enghsh of one Verb. English must be supplied, on the same principle, to the other Verbs. Note 2. — The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c., are set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle follows that of the Noun with which it agrees : is auditus est, ea audita est, he was heard, she was heardy And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers. id auditum est, it was heard. 172 Latin Wordlore, §44. § 44. SCHEME OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. c <y o 'a d fa am mon reg aud Indicative Mood Singular. ^ Plural. 1. 2. 3. I. 2. 3. / thoic he, &c. w they love lovest loves love love love -(a)o -as -at ^amus -atis -ant -eo -es -^et -emus -etis -ent -o -IS -iX, -2mus -ztis -unt -10 -Is ■'it -imus -itis -iunt shall ama -bo mone -bo reg -am audi -am wilt \ -bis ]- -es will -bit -gt shall will will — love, &c. -bimus -bitis -bunt -emus -etJs -ent o 'Si u ama -bam mone -bam rege -bam audie -bam was were were were — loviftg, Sec. -bas -bat -bamus -batts -bant loved or have amav -I monu -I rex -I audiv -1 lovedst loves hast has -isti -it loved have -imus loved, loved, &c. have have — loved, &c. -istis -erunt or -ere 0) 3 shall amav -ero monu -ero rex -ero audiv -ero wilt will shall will will — have loved^ &c. -ens -ent •erimiis -eritis -erint ft had amav -eram monu -eram rex -eram audiv -eram hadst had had had had — loved -eras -erat -eramus -eratis -erant I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods. A) (Pres. and Fut. Active) : lego, / read : quid agis? what are you doing? lego, / am reading: lege sis, read, if you please: lego, / do read: iamdiu lego, / have been reading long: quid facies? what will you do ? legam, / shall read : leges lliadem, you will read the Iliad, I hope: legam, I will read it: cum legero semel, when I shall have read it once : relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus non depo- sueris antequam relegeris, you will not put it out of your hands till you have read it again. E) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? what were you doing yesterday^, legebam, / was reading: quid agebas ruri? what did you do in the country '^. \egeha.my / 7ised to read : legebam dum lux erat, / read while it was light : legere te iusseram, / told you to read : legebam, I did read : legeres lliadem, you were to read the Iliad: legi heri, / read it yes- terday : legistine lliadem? have you read the Iliad'? legi, I have read it : legere debuisti, yoti ought to have read it : legi, / did read it : legeram pridie, / had read it the day before. §44. Conjugation of the Verb, FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative Mood. Singular. Plural. I. 2. 3- I. 2. 3. / thou he^ Sec, we ye they am art is are are are — loved. &:c. am -or -aris -atur -amur -aminl -antur mon -eor -eris -etur -emur -emlni -entur reg -or -^ris -/tur -2mur -mimr -untur aud -iof -iris -Ttur -Tmur -imini -mxsXm shall wilt will shall will will — be loved, &c» ama -bor) mone -borl^ -ber-is (e) -bitur -bimur -bimini -buntur reg -ar ) audi -ar ' -er-is (e) -etur -emur -emmi -entur was ama -bar wast was were mone -bar , . ... ■I ^ r -uar-ib le) rege -bar [ ^ ^ audie -bar) were were — being loved -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur was wast was have hast has amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus V / sum es est (fui) (fuisti (fuTt) were were were — loved have have have — been laved amati, moniti, recti, auditl V ^ 1 sumus estis sunt (fulmus) (fuistis) (fuerunt, e) shall will will amatus, momtus, rectus, auditus V ) shall will will — have been amati, monitl, recti, audit! [loved — V — ens ero ens erit (fuero) (fueris) (fuerit) erimus V eritis erunt (fuerimus) (fueritis) (fuerint) had hadst had amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus V . , ^ eram eras erat (fueram) (fueras) (fuerat) had had had — been loved amati, moniti, recti, audlti V . / —v eratis eramus eratis erant (fueramus) (fuerat is) (fu erant) Note I. — In the Second Pers. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write re for rTs, on account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat. Pass. Cicero has very few instances, chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re. 2. — Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -ibo, -Ibis, &c.. Pass. -Tbor, -iberis(e), &c. ; and the Imperfects, Act. -ibam, -Ibas, &c., Pass. -Ibar, -Ibaris (e), &c. ; as audlbo, audlbor; audibam, audibar. These were the ancient forms. M. Lucr. v. 934. 3. — The Perf. Partic. used with sum expresses that something was and is complete : with fui, that something was complete at some past time : ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae promulgatae fuerunt,' C. /. Sest. 25. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. p. 218. 4. — On the exclusion of V, followed by contraction, from Perfect Stemg in av-, ev-, OV-, UV-, Tv-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -isse, are used in prose as well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found ; but most disyllabic forms keep V ; as quivi, slvi. Latin Wordlore. SCHEME OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. Present. S. 2. PI. 2. S. 2. love thou ye thou am -a -ate am -at5 mon -e -ete mon -eto reg -e -z'te reg -^to aud -I -Ite aud -ito Imperative Mood. Future. S. 3. he^ &G. -ato -eto -^'td -Ito PI. 2. 3. ye they J &c. -atote -aiito -etote -ento -rtote -Ttote -i//nt5 ^ ft) let ID Conjunctive Mood; Singular. Plural. I. 2. li 2. • 3- am -em -es -et -emus -etis -ent mone -am -as -at -amus -atis -ant reg_ -am -as -at -amu^ -atts -ant audi -am -as -at -amus -atis -ant am a -rem ^ mone fege -rem -rem -res -ret -remus -retis ^rent audi -rem > amav -erim^ monu rex -erim -enm -ens -erit -erimus -erltis -erint audiv -erim , amav-\ monu- rex- audiv-- Mssem -isseS -isset -issemus -issetts -issent II. Pure Conjunctive. A) (Potential and Conditional uSe) : mirum fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem nvonderful : ita amicos pares, tktis you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, some one may ask : dixerit aliquis, somebody may {might) say : pace tua dixerim, / would say luith your leave : pro certo affirmaverim, / can aver for a fact : crederes victos, you wojild have supposed them vanquished : velim esse tecum, / ivoidd like to be with you: nolim te abire, / shoidd not like }>ou to go away : nollem id factum, / could wish it had not been done : mallem aliud factum, / would rather something else had been done. B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam? what must {can, shall) I do ? quid facerem? what shotdd {could) I have done ? faveas tu hosti ? must {should) you favour an enemy ? C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, sup. pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fuisset anceps fortuna, fortune might have been doubtful. D) (Optative use) : vivas, 7nay you live : valeant cives mei, may my cortntrymen flourish : di bene vertant, heaven prosper it : moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if I speak falsely : ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you— upon my life I love you. E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bonos, let us imitate the good : desinant furere, let them (or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, you should have been minding your own business : mortem pu^rn^ins oppetisset, he shoidd have died fighting. §44- Conjugation of the Verb, 175 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. Imperative Mood. Present. S. 2. PI. 2. be thou ye — loved, &c. ama -re -mm! mone -re -mim reg -/re -/mini audi -re -mini S. 2. thou ama -tor mone -tor reg -2tor audi -tor Future. S. 3. he -tor -tor -itox -tor PI. 3. they -ntor -ntor -2/nt6r -//ntor ^ 1 Conjunctive Mood. am mone reg audi 1. -er -ar -ar -ar Singular. 2. -er-ts(e) -ar-is(e) -ar-ts(e) -ar-is(e) Plural. 1. 2. -etur -emur -emim -entur -atur -amur -amini -antur -atur -amiir -amini -antur -atur -amur -amini -antur ama mone reg-/ audi -rer-is(e) -retur -remur -remini -rentur amatus, momtiis, rectus, auditus V . ^ f sim sis sit (fuerim) (fueris) (fuerit) amati, moniti, recti, auditi V ^ ; simus sitis sint (fuerimus) (fueritis) (fuerint) amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus ~v essem esses esset (fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset) amati, moniti, recti, auditi V y essemus essetis essent (fuissemus) (fuissetis) (fuissent) III, Subjunctive. Fit ut a e g r o t e m, it happens that I am sick t evenit ut a e g r o t a r e m, it fell out thai ■ I was sick: necesse est eas (necesse erit eas), j/ou mtist go : opus est ut eas (oportet eas), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ires), it behoved you to go : metuoJ ne eas, I fear you will go : mietUebam ne ires^ / feared you would go : metuo ut eas, / fear you are not going : metu^bam ut ires, / feared yotc were not going : cura ut eas (fac eas), mind you go : sine e a m u s, stiffer us to go : oro ut e a s, / beg that you go i oravi ut ires, I begged yotc woitld go : utinam eas ! O that you may go ! utinam ires ! O that you had been going I utinam ne isses ! O that yoti had not gone ! scio cur veniat, / know why he comes : scio cur venerit, / know why he cajne : sciebam cur veniret, / knew why he came : sciebam cur venisset, / knew why he had come : non tarn amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go: non tani amens fuit ut iret, he was not so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, / eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederenty they lived that they might eat : laudant me quod e a m, they praise me because I go: laudant me quod ierim, they praise me because I went: laudabant me quod irem, they praised 7ne because I went : laudabant me quod issem, they praised me because I had gone : quae cum ita sint, ibo, since this is the case, I will go : quae cum ita essent, ivi, since this was the case, I went : aegrotabam cum irem, / was ill when I went: convalui cum issem, / got well when I had gone: exspecta dum redeam, wait till I return: nusquam ibo antequam re de at, I will go 7io%vhere before he returns Z 176 Latin Wordlore, 44. Active Voice. SCHEME OF THE VERB Pr. Impf. to love, &.C. ama -re mone -re rege -re audi -re Infinitive. Perf. Plup. Future. to have loved, &:c. to be about to love, &c. amav -isse amat -urus \ monii -isse monit -urus rex -isse rect -urus audiv -isse audit -urus -essS lovzjig, Gerunds. Supines. Partic. Pres. of, by, to love, i7i loving, loving, &c. &c. &c. amand -um -1 -0 amat -um -u ama -ns monend -um -1 -o monit -um -u mone -ns regend -um -1 -6 rect -um -u reg-^ -ns audiend -um -I -o audit -um -u audi-^ -ns Partic. Fut. abotU to love, &c. amatur -lis -a -urn monitur -us -a -um rectur -us -a -um auditur -us -a -urn utpeccaverit, carus est tamen, though he has sinned, yet he is dear: quamvis pec- casset, carus fuit, though he had simied, he 7vas dear : clamas tanquam surdus sim, yo7i bazvl, as though I were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, you were bawling^ as if I had been deaf : emo libros quos legam, / bicy books to read : emi libros quos lege rem, I bought books to read : non is sum qui te deseram, / am not oJie to forsake yoti : non is fuit qui me desereret, he was ftot one to forsake me : quis est quin fl e a t aliquando ? who is there that weeps not sometimes? nemo fuit quin fleret, there was no one but wept : nihil dubito quin gaudeant, I have no doubt they rejoice : non dubitabam quin gauderent, I had no doubt they rejoiced: nihil obstat quominus earn, nothing hinders me from govig: per me stetit quominus ires, I was the catise of your not going: ve- titus est ne iret, he was forbidden to go : dubito an Verum sit, / do7ibt it may be true .* nescio an verum sit, I rather thi7ik it is triie : felicemesse putoqui rei nullius indigeat, / consider him to be happy who wants nothing : ais te cum r ed e am adfuturum, you say you will be present when I return : ait se cum redierim adfuturum, he says he will be j>resent whe7i I have returned : aiebant se cum rediissem adfore, they said they would be present when I had rettirned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non sit honestum, / say that nothing is expedient which is not morally -right: aedes quas emisset ex- ornari iussit, he ordered the house which he had bo7ight to be decorated : exprobratur mihi quod lliadem nondum lege rim, I am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad: exprobratum est mihi quod lliadem nondum 1 e g i s s e m^ / was reproached with having not yet read the Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset, Themistocles used to walk by night, because {he said) he could not sleep. IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination. Velim rescribas, / shoidd wish you to write back : vellem adesses, / could wish you 'were here : nollem accidisset, / could wish it had not happetted : mallem quidvis faceres, I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter i^cisset, I would rather he had done otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, / would suffer anything rather than tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, yo7i should perform what you have under- takett : praestaret quod recepisset, he should perform what he had undertaken : eant quo velint, they may go where they will : irent quo vellent, they might go where they would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint ? who can say he wonders that free men do not wish to be slaves ? earn si iubeas, eam si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, / shall go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, / would go if you bade me : issem si iussisses, / wotdd have gone, had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, / should not have been about to go, unless you had bidden me. (Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc- tive Mood, in its various uses, better than Engli.sh given in Tables.) §44. Co7ijtigation of the Verb. 177 , FOUR CONJUGATIONS. Passive Voice. infinite. Pr. Impf. to be loved^ &c. ama -n mone -ri reg -\ audir -1 Perf. PIup. Future. amat monit w -us rect r -US audit -USi - esse amat monrt rect audit -um -um -um i -um) iri Gerundive. {meef) to he loved, &c. amand -us -a -urri monend -us -a -um regend -us ^a -um audiend -us -a -um Partic. Perf. PIup. loved or having been loved, &c. amat -lis -a -um monit -us -a -um rect -us -a -um audit -us -a -um ACTIVEi legere utile est to read is useful librum legere coepi / have begun to read the book memini me legere / remember that I read aio me 1 e g i s s e / say that I have read memineram me 1 egisse / remembered tliat I had read videor mihi lecturus esse / think I am going to read aio melecturumesse / say that I ivill read aiebam me le cturum esse / said that I would read aiebam me lec turum fuisse / said that I would have read V. The Verb Infinite. Passive. legi libros utile est it is useful that books be read liber legi coepit the book has begun to be read memini librum legi / r^ineuiber the book being read aio librum lectumesse / say that the book Juis been read memineram librum lectum ejsse / remejnbered the book had b^en react dicitur liberlectus esse the book is said to have been read aio libros lectum iri ) aio fu turum ut libri legantur j / say the books are going to be redd: aiebam fore ut libri kgerentur / said that the books woidd be read aio futurum fu isse ut legerentur / say they would have been read putor lecturus fuisse it is supposed I shotcld have read legend um est nobis we must read consuetudo legend! the habit of reading cupidus sum legendi / ain desirous ^ reading aptusest legendo(ad legendum) he IS fit for reading inter legendum in the course of reading oblector 1 e g e n d o / amuse myself with reading in legendo versor / am engaged in reading eo lectum Iliadem / am going to read the Iliad lecturus sum Iliadem / am about to read the Iliad Iliadem 1 e g e n s oblector / aan charmed with reading the Iliad lejgendus est Whtt the book must be read cupido librorum legendorutn the desire of reading books cupidus sum libri legendi] / am desirous of reading the book aptus est libris 1 e g e n d i s ) aptus est ad libros legendos ) he is fitted for reading bodks oblector libris legend is / ainki^ myself with reading books in libris legendis versor I am engaged in reading books librum unicuique legendum a. book to be read by everybody librum utilem lectu a book useful to read Iliade lecta gaudeo / rejoice in having read tJie Iliad 178 Latin Wordlore. §45, §45. SCHEME OF THE DEPONENT Indicative Mood. C5 <L> (/} a Singular. / you ven -or -ar-ts(e) ver -eor -er-is(e) ut -or -/r-is(e) part -ior -lr-is(e) he^ &c. -atur -etur -Itur -Itur I. we -amur -emur -Imur -imur Plural. 2. ye -amtni -emini -Imini -imini 3- they -antur -entur -z^ntur -i//ntur J s in 3 vena -"bori ^g^.jg/g\ -btour -bimini -buntur vere -bor ) ^ ^ \ ut -ar parti -ar }-er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini -entur u s vena -bar^ vere -bar ute -bar partie-bar --bar-is(e) -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur V ^ P4 venatus, verttus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti v_ ■ — sum es (fui, &c.) est sumus -V estis sunt u 3 venatus, veritus, usus, partitus^ ero eris (fuero, &:c.) erit venati, veriti, usi, partiti V_, . V erimus eritis erunt 3 venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti^. V V — ' ''Tirr' ^ eram eras (fueram, &c.) erat eramus eratis erant Imperative Mood. Present. S. 2. hunt,^c.thou vena -re vere -re ut^" -re parti -re PI. 2. ye -mini -mini ^ -/-mini -mini S. 2. thou vena -tor vere -tor vXt -tor parti -tor Future. S. 3- he -tor -tor -tor -tor PI. 3. they -ntor -ntor AT^^^.-Some Deponents have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare. §45- Coitjtcgation of the Verb. 179 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. VERBS. Conjunctive Mood. Singular. Plural. I. 2. 3- z. 2. 3. ven -er -er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini entur vere -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini antur ut -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini antur parti -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini antur C/3 vena-rer\ vere -rer [ _ . ^ » ut/ -rer[ -rer-is(e) -retur parti-rerJ -remur -remini ^rentur venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati^ veriti, usi, partiti Sim SIS (fuerim, &c«) sit -Y- CD venatus, veritus, usus, partitus V . ^_ — .. ^ essem esses esset (fuissem, 8ic.) simus sitis sint venati, veriti, usi, partiti essemus essetis assent Pres. Impf, vena -ri] c§ vere -ri( -kt ut -i I parti -ri J Pr. Impf. VERB INFINITE. Infinitive. Perf. Plup. \ Future. venat-us esse verit -us esse us -us esse h*^ ^ partit-us esse *S | J ^ Participles. venat-urus esse verit -urus esse us -urus esse partit-urus esse vena vere iit-^ -ns -ns -ns parti-^-ns ^ venand -us V verend -us Gerundive. \ Perf. PIiip. venat -us utend -ubj I partiend-us J ^ I y.^S^'^ verit -us us -us partit -us 8i Future. venat-iirfis verit -urus us -urus partit-urus Gerunds. -um -1 -6 -um -i -o -um -i -o venand verend utend partiend -um -i -o o a ^ ^ Supines. venat-um -u verit-um -u us-um -u partit-um -u ^ N 2 i8o Laii7i Wordlore. § 46-47. 46 Verbs in i-o. Indie. Pres. — Fut. — Imperf. Conj. Pres. — Imperf. Imper. Pres. — Fut. Infin. Pres. Gerund. Part. Pres. VERB in i-o OF CON JUG. III. (Present-Stem Forms.) ACTIVE. cap/-o, cap-Ts, -% -tmus, -ttis, cap/-unt. cap/-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. _ cap/-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. cap/-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant^ cap-erem, -eres, -eret, -eremus, -eretis, -erent. cap-e, -ite. cap-ito, -itote, -/-unto, cap-ere. cap/-endum, -endi, -endo. cap/-ens. DEPONENT. I Indie. Pres. piU-or, pat-eris, -Itur, -Imur, -imTni, -^-untur. _ Fut. pau'-ar, -er-is(e), -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur. _ _ Imperf. patz-ebar, -ebar-Is(e), -ebatur, -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. _ . . Coni. Pres. pat/-ar, -ar-is(e), -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur. - Imperf. pat-erer, -erer-Is(e), -eretur, -eremur, -eremmi, -eren-^ tur. pat-ere, -tmini. pat-Itor, -/-untor. pat-i. pat/-endum, -endi, -endo. pat/-endus. 4 patf-ens. The Passive of cap/- o is similar, omitting Gerund and Part. a) Potior follows the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms wavers between the Third and Fourth: potltur or potitur, potlmur or potimur, poterer or potirer. b) In orior the forms orTri and orlrer (rarely orerer) are classi- cal ; but others (oreris, oritur, &c.) follow the Third Conjugation. c) Gradior, mo ri or were originally I-verbs ; and exhibit various i-forms in older Latin (as -grediri -gredirer, moriri). In classical Latin they became Consonant -Verbs wholly. Honor, orior, have Future Participles moriturus, orituru?. Imper. Pres. — Fut. Infin. Pres. Gerund. Gerundive. Part. Pres. pj! iv. Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation. &Tu-' The Participles in -urus, -dus, may be combined with all the Tenses of the Verb sum. These forms are called, i) ^Coniugatio Periphrastica Futuri ^ 2) *Con- iugatio Periphrastica Gerundivi : ' ^ as ' So also the Passive Combinate Tenses (amatussum, eram, &c.) might be callec ' Coniugatio Periphrastica Praeleriti.* S47. Periphrastic Conjugation, i8l i) C. p. F. amaturus, a, um, &c. &c. Singular. 2) C. P. G. amandus, a, um, &c. &c. Pres. 0. r ut. r- sum ero es eris _A_. est erit sim sis 7> Sit Imp. Perf. Fut. P. eram fu-i fu-ero eras -isti -eris erat -it -erit essem fu-erim esses -eris esset -erit Plupi. fu-eram -eras -erat fu-issem -isses -isset T Indie. M. Y Conj. M. amaturi J ae, a, Plural. amandi, ae, a, &c. &c. &c. &c. Pres. S. Fut. sumus erimus estis eritis sunt erunt simus sitis sint Imp. Perf. Fut. P. eramus fu-imus fu-erimus eratis -istis -eritis erant -erunt -erint essemus fu-erimus essetis -eritis essent -erint Plupf. fu-eramus -eratis -erant fu-issemus -issetis -issent V Indie. M. V — Conj. M. Infinite Forms. amaturus, a, um, &:c. amaturi, ae, a, &c. amandus, a, um, &c. amandi, ae, a, &c. Pres. Imp. esse Perf. Plup. fuisse. ' Correspondence of the Latin Verb. The Latin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek ; but there are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities. The points of agreement are chiefly — 1) The Active Personal Endings. 2) The use of Mood Vowels generally. 3) The use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin. 4) The form of the Present Participle Active. 5) The correspondence of many Roots. But Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects;— 1) It has only two Voices and two Numbers. 2) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of Optative and Conjunctive Mood. 3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating 'SC' 4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination. 5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it. E) Personal Endings. '^thus^^''°"^^ Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond SINGULAR. PLURAL. I, L. m, o ; Sk. mi, m ; Gr. V, ui ; 2. s si, s 3- t ti, t mus mas, ma 2. tis than, ta Te 3- nt V7% l82 Latin Wordlore. §47. In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about to love ; amandus sum, / ain meet to be loved (or, / am to be loved). So futurus sum, / am about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, &c. Examples : Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt). Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere). Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit. Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum esset. Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus. Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis. These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, which are noticed later. The Endings of the Imperative Active also coincide : I 2 L. a, &c. te to tote nto Sk. a ta tu ntu Gr. t T« Tea VTttiV The Ending tO was in E.L. tod ; in Oscan tud ; in Umbrian tu. The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58. c) The Imperative Passive Endings are so formed : amatorforamato-se amantorforamanto-se Similar agglutination of Passive forms appears in the Umbrian and Oscan dialects ; also in the Sclavonic and Lithuanian languages. The Second Persons Plural in -mini are to be regarded as Participles (like Or. -jncroi) with which the Verb of Being e stis, este, is to be understood: — mino is an old ending of the Imper. Fut. Pass. 2nd Person, as arbitramino. Plant. Epid. v, 2., where «milior is called by Ritschl a traditional fiction. C) Formation of the Tenses. d) Present Tense Active. I The Present Stem is prefixed to the Personal Endings ; but the A-verb contracts ao into O in (amao) amo ; the I-verb takes vincular u in 3. Plur., audi-»-nt the Consonant Verb takes a vincular in all persons but i. Sing. ; / in 2. 3. Sing, and i. 2. Plur. ; « in 3. Plur. : reg-?-s, reg-?-t, reg-/-mus, reg-/-tis, reg- «-nt. On the quantities, see p. 169, Note, b) Future Simple Active. Here is found variety of formation. The A- and E-verbs form this tense by agglutinating -t>0, which represents the Pres. verb f uio. The personal inflexion is like that of the Cons. -Verb in Present Tense: ama-bo, mone-bo, -bis, -bit, &c. The Cons, and I-verbs take between Stem and Ending in the 1st Pers. S. the Con- junctive mood-vowel a (Sk. «) : as veham (Sk. vahdm\ audiam : in the other Persons they take the Optative mood-vowel e (Sk. e) : vehes, vehet (anc. vehet), vehemus, vehetis, vehent. So audies, &c. But I-verbs in E. L. took the forms -"bo, -biS, &c. tasaudfbo, audlbor, &c. : and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebo, &c., appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicem^faciem were written by tho elder Cato for di cam, faciam. c) Imperfect Indie. Active. This Tense in all Conjugations takes the form -bam -bas, &c., representing f u a m, fuas, &c., the old Imperf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti- nated to the Present-stem am a-bam, mone-bam; but in the Cons, and I-verbs 6 connects them : reg-e-bam, aud i-e-bam : a formation which seems due to mere analogy. Here too the form -ibam for -i^bam occurs in old Latin and in poetry. § 48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 183 V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) : 1) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem : sum, possum, fero, fio 2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; edo. d) Present (and Fut.) Conjunctive. The E- I- and Cons. -Verbs take the old Sk. Conjunctive vowel a, adding am, aS, &c. to the Present Stem ; moneam, moneas, &c. ; audiam, audias, &c. ; regam, regas, &c. But as ama-am, &c., would be inadmissible, -am in A- Verbs seems to have been weakened into -im ; whence ama-im, amem, &c. The a of the Stem is also found in old Latin to be weakened into U in duim (Cic), for d e m (da-im). Thus, in Plautus, perduim, creduim (also creduam). The ending im, which appears in sim, velim, is also found in old and poetic forms of other verbs : edim, Hor. ; comedim, Cic. ; carint ; effodint ; temperint (Plaut.). e) Imperfect Conjunctive. Esem (=erem) is agglutinated to the Present-stem : forming (ama-esem)amarem ; (mone-esem) monerem; (reg-esem) regerem ; (audi-esem) audirem. y) Perfect Indicative. Perfect-stem with i, isti, &c. On these end-forms much has been written, and their origin is still disputed. Curtius (with Schleicher), Corssen, Liibbert, and Herzog have taken different vieWs, which may be compared in the work of the last- named scholar {UntersuchMtigen iiber die Bildungsgeschichte der Griech. und Lutein, Sprache). In so doubtful a matter it may be allowable to surmise that this tense, like the rest of its Class, is formed by agglutination, the Present forms of the Verb e s- (sum) being added to the Perfect-stem of each Verb, and synco- pation ensuing in most Persons. This theory would give : amav-es-m-i passing into amav-i ! amav-es-s-i — — amav-is-t-i amav-es-t — — (amav-is-t) amav-It, amav-it amav-es-mus — — amav-i-mus amav-es-tis — -r- amav-istis amav-es-unt — — amav-erunt, -erunt, -ere Forms in ^for T, elt for It, belong to E.L. and R.L. Poets use -erunt : steterunt, Verg. ; verte-runt, Hor., &c. g) The other Perfect-stem Tenses are formed by agglutinating es-im, es-o (ero) and es(s)em severally to the Perfect-stem : Perf. Conj. amav-erim; Fut. Perf. amav-ero; Plup. Conj. amav-issem (sharpened from -esem). D) The Verb Infinite. The Infinitive Pres. Act. a m a - r e (for ama-se), Perf. amav-is-se (for amav-i-se), are Verb-nouns formed by adding the Dative or Locative element -se to the Pre- sent and Perfect Stems severally. The Present Active Participle in ns (nt-S) corresponds to the Greek Participle in VT-i Sk. t {nt when nasalized ; Nom. S. n). ^he Supines and Passive Participle in tU-r tO- (tUS) correspond to the Sk. Parti- cipial in ta. The Future Participle in -turus corresponds to the Sk. agentive ending tar (tor) : amaturus (amator). The Gerundive in -ndo (ndus) seems to have a double suffix : (i) Pres. Partic. in nt, (2) do-. The vincular e which connects these with the Present-Stem of Cons. and I-verbs was anciently u ; which remained in legal documents to the Aug. age : reg(?ndus, reg^^ndus ; feri^ndus, feriz^ndus : but ori^ndus always. On the old Passive Infinitive form ier (which passed into i), see p. 58. Gossrau says that Lange has collected 336 instances of its use in inscriptions', laws, old writers, and poets : of the latter, 187 are in Plautus, 46 in Lucretius, and 6 in Virgil. Pure Verbs are those which shew it oftenest. On the archaic and poetic forms which omit Si, see p. 54. 48 Irre- gular Verbs Latin Wordlore. §48. Possvim. !• Possum, / can^ is assimilated from pot-sum = potis (or pote) sum, I am able, Perf. potui for pote-fui. See p. 168. SCHEME. Indie. Conjunc. Indie. Conjunc. Present. S. possum potes potest P. possumus potestis possunt possim possis possit possimus possitis possint u potui potuisti potuit potuimus potuistis [-e potuer^unt potuerim potueris potuerit potuerimus potueritis potuerint 3 S. poterq poteris poterit P. poterlmus poteritis poterunt as Pres, potuero potueris potuerit potuerimus potueritis potuerint as Perf. Imp. S. poteram poteras poterat poteramus poteratis poterant possem posses posset possemus possetis possent d 3 * potueram potueras potuerat potueramus potueratis potuerant potuissem potuisses potuisset potuissemus potuissetis potuissent Infin. Pr. Impf. posse (for pot-es-se) ; Perf. Plup. potui sse. Pptens is an Adjective rather than a Participle, ^ powerful^ able.' Some archaic forms are found in the elder po^ts : as poterint, potessem, potesse, possiem, possies, &c. The Impersonal Passive potestur is in Lucr. and Plaut. This, and the Passive forms of queo, nequeo, eoepi, desino, are only used before an Infinitive Passive. See Munro on Lucr. i. 1045. Potis sum^ es, est, &c. are found in poetry.^ Fero. n. Fero (Sk. bhar, Gr. </>fp-), brings bear, The peculiarities of this Verb are : ' i) In the Present-stem forms it easts out vincular \ before s and t : as fers, fert, fertur, &c. : also e between r and p : as ferrem, ferrer, ferre. The Imperative fer rejects final e. 2) It takes its Perfect-stem tul- from the root tol-, and the Supine-stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the same root {tal- or tla-). For Cpp. see p. 217. , * Potis, pote (originally Adjectives) are also used adverbially. Their origin is Sk. pati, * Iprd/ whence Gr, Trocrts, -nofv^a (/ord ^ncj /ff<^). §48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs, 185 SCHEME. Present-Stem Tenses Active. Indic. Conjunc. Imper. Infin. Part. Present. S. fero fert P. ferlmus fertis ferunt feram feras ferat feramus feratis ferant fer ferte ferre ferens Fut. S. S. feram feres &c. as Present ferto &c. laturus esse laturus, a, um Imperf. S. ferebam ferebas &c. ferrern ferres &c. ■ Present-Stem Tenses Passive. Present. S. feror ferris fertur P. ferimur ferimini feruntur ferar ferar-is (e) feratur feramur feramini ferantur • ferre ferimini ferri latus, a, um [um ferendus, a, Fut. S. S. ferar ferer-is (e) &c. as Present fertor &c. latum iri Imperf S. ferebar ferebar-is (e) &c. ferrer ferrer-is (e) &c. Perfect- Stem Tenses (Active). tul-i, tuUero, tul-eram, tul-issem, &c. ; tulisse : regularly, as rex-i, &c. Supine-Stem Tenses (Passive). latus , . sum (fui, &c.), ero, eram, sim, essem, &c. : regularly, as rect-us sum (fui), &c. III. Fio (Sk. M//, Gr. ^v-), ain made^ become. The Quasi-passive fio is used as the Passive of facio in the Present-Stem Tenses. The Supine- Stem Tenses are formed by factus regularly. 1 86 Latin Wordlore, SCHEME. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Infin. Part. Present. S. fro fis fit P /'fTmus^ (fitis) fiant flam fias fiat f Tamils fiatis fiant ft (fite) fieri factus, a, um [um faciendus, a, Fut. S. fles &c. as Present (fito) &c. fntnfiiQ PQciP fore TlltllVllC U lULUi Us^ <x^ um Imperf. S. fiebam fiebas &c. fterem /teres &c. t: S. factus sum &c. factus sim &c. factus esse factus, a, um The bracketed forms are hardly found. Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fu-. Hence fore and futurus may be assigned to this Verb as well as to sum, by which they are borrowed. This appears from the constant usage of Latin authors : 'Neque ego ea, quae facta sunt, fore quum dicebam, divinabam futura,' C. Fam. vi. i. 5 ; ' Quid fidit, factum, futur- umve sit.' C. d. Or, ii. 26. 113. The i is long except before er, and in fit. Comic poets often lengthen i in fie rem, fieri. Fio, being the Passive of facio, appears as such in many Com- pounds : liquefio, calefio, satisfio ; with Prepositions only in a few instances, as in some forms of confieri, defieri, interfieri, efHeri, superfieri. Also infit,, begins {to speak), Y^xg, IV. V. VI. Volo, nolo, malo. Volo, / wish, I will (Sk. var, Gr. /3oX- /3ou\-), has the following peculiarities : 1) Its stem- vowel fluctuates between o, u, e. 2) It rejects i in three Persons of Pres. Indie. (2. 3 S. 2 PL), and e in Impf. Conj. and Infin. Pres. 3) It rejects a consonant in Pres. Indie. 2nd Pers. vis. (Corssen says that this cons, is not 1 but the prim. r. See KriL Nachtrdge, 287.) 4) It assimilates s to preceding 1 in vellem, &c. for vel-sem, &c. and in vel-le for vel-se. 5) The Pres. Conj. takes the ending im, is, &c. instead of am. Nolo is compounded of ne (non) with volo : Malo of magis or mage and volo. §48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 187 Mavelim, mavelle, &c., also nevis, nevelle, appear in E. L. Volt, volt is were used before Augustus. Noli is formed from nolis, 2nd Pers. Conj. SCHEME. Indicative. 1 Conjunctive. S. volo nolo malo velim ndlim malim • Vis nonvis mavis velis nolis malis 4-» CS milt nonvult mavult velit nolit mdlit to u P. volumus nolumus malumus velimus nolimus mallmus r\ . (-H It* vultts nonvultis mavultis velitis nolitis malitis volunt nolunt malunt velint nolint malint in S. volam voles noles males as Present &c. &c. &c. S. volebam nolebam malebam vellem nollem malle77i volebas nolebas nialebas velles nolles malles &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. S. volui nolui malui voluerim noluerim maluerim voluisti noluisti maluisti volueris nolueris malueris &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. S. voluero noluero maluero 3 volueris nolueris malueris as Perfect &c. &c. &c. d S. volueram nolueram malueram voluissem noluissem maluissem volueras nolueras malueras voluisses noluisses maluisses &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. Imperative. (volo and malo, none) s. 2 3. P. 2. 3. Pres. noli — nolite — Fut. nolito nolito nolitote nolunto Infinitive. Pres Impf. velle nolle malle Perf. Plup. voluisse noluisse maluisse Participles. Pres. volens nolens (rare) Gerunds are hardly found. a) Pervolo, wish muck, h^s pervelim, pervellem, pervelle. Vin is used for visne, will youf sis for si vis ; sultis for si vultis, if you please ; caps is for cape si vis. i88 • Latin Wordlore. VII. Eo (for io),^^7. The root is i- (Sk. Gr.), to go, which becomes e before a, o, u. SCHEME. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Verb Infinite. c S. eo is it earn eas eat I INFINITIVE. ^'Pr Imof) ire (Perf. PIup.) ivisse or isse Participles. ^Pres Imnf. ^ iens euntem &c. Pres< P. imus itis eunt eamus eatis eant lie Fut. S. S. ibo ibis Ibit P. ibimus ibitis ibunt as Present ILO ito Itote eunto (Future) iturus esse (Future) Iturus Imperf. S. ibam ibas &c. irem Ires &c. Gerund. Supines. Perf. S. ivi or li ivisti, isti &c. lerim leris &c. eundum eimdi eundo 1. it-um 2. ItU The remaining Tenses are formed as in aud-ivi. The v is usually dropt by ivi and its Compounds: ii, iisti or isti, ieram, issem, &:c. ; redii, rediero, redistis, redisse, &c. The Impersonal Passive itur, Itum est, iri, &c., is often used^ Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the Active e o forms a periphrasis with Supine, iniurias istas ultum eunt they are going to avenge those wrongs aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri they say that those wrongs a7'e going to be avenged (literally : there is a-tending to avenge those wrongs), Km\>\o, go round, canvass, follows the Conjugation of audio. VIII. IX. Queo ; nequeo. Queo, can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot, are like eo, so far as their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds, queo quis quivi quire .... quitum quiens (queuntis) nequeo nequis nequivi nequire . nequitum nequiens (nequeuntis) The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo. Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. : subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; *quita est,' Ter. Hec, iv. I. 59; ^nequitur,' Plaut. Rttd, iv, 4. 20. §49. Conjugation of Defective Verbs, 189 X. £do (Sk. ad, Gr. eat. Edo. This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of forms, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d. 2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act es for ed-t-s (ed-s). 3rd „ 2nd Pers. PI. Imperf. Conj. Imperat Pres. „ Fut. Inf. Pres. . 5> est for ed-i-t (ed-t). estis for ed-i-tis (ed-tis). essem for ed-e-rem (ed-sem), &c. este for ed-t-te (ed-te) esto, estate for edito, editote esse for ed-e-re (ed-se) 3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, esttir for ed-i-tur (ed-tur) The other forms of this Verb are regular; except that e dim, edis, &c., are sometimes found for edas, edat, &c. vi. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. Defective Verbs are without some of the usual parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of Verbs are Defective ; but those commonly so called by grammarians are the following : L Praeteritiva : Verbs which, having no Present-Stem forms in use, express these by Perfect forms. 1) coepi,^ {have begun begin^ from co-ap-^-o (Obsolete) 2) odi, {have hated-) hate, from 6d-/-o (Obsolete) 3) memini, {have mi7tded =) re}ne77tber, from men- (Obs.) SCHEME. 49 Defec- tive Verbs. Coepi, odi, memini. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Infin. Perfect. coepi coepisti &c. odi odisti &c.^ memtni meministi &c. coeperim coeperis &c. oderim oderis &c. meminerim memineris &c. coepisse odisse meminisse Fut. Perf. coepero odero meminero memento coepturus esse osurus esse Pluperf. coeperam oderam memineram coepissem odissem meminissem * The obsolete Verb apio, acqtcire^ of which coepio, coepi, is a compound, ap- pears in the forms a p i s c o r, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also in apis, 190 . . Lati7i Wordlore. ^ §4^. a) K Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum: as ^comitia haberi coepta sunt/ Cic. Coepturus is used by Pliny, Quintilian, &c. The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut. Ten). Co-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro. b) The obsolete Verb od/o, odere, probably meant to repel. Osus sum is a rarer form of odi. Osurus is used. Exosus, perosus, hating greatly^ have Passive sense in L. L. c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. of an obs. verb meno (mano) = Sk. man^ * think/ which appears in comminiscor commentus ; mens; mentio; mentior, and numerous Greek and other forms. Novi. 4) N ovi [Jiave cojne to unow)^ Perfect of nos co, know, is used as a Praeteritive (/ know), like Gr. oila. Hence noveram, noram, knew\ novero, shall know novisse, nosse, to know, &c. Aio. IL Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. agh). Indie. Conjunc Imper. ai-o a-i (rare) «•! a-is ai-as C V (A a-it ai-at 0) Pi ai-unt ai-ant Imperf. ai-ebam ai-ebas &c. The Participle ai-ens is very rare ('negantia sunt contraria ai- entibus/ Cic). Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity. Ain' tu? do you say so ? was a familiar expression. Inquam. IIL Inquam, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.), for inquio. op is, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is ap (Pr. af). The kinship of apio, coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we observe the similarity of meaning as well as form : for not only is the sense of acquiring in capio, accipio, per- cipio, &c., but also that of he ginning vol incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi, some- times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in Italian speech, as a simple form, of the compound co-ap- {get together ^ and so take), bearing the same relation to a p - that comprehendo does toprehendo. The old word remained, in the sense of beginning, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c.), after- wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own compounds incipio, incepi, occipio, occepi ; as well as in its derivative occupo : 'interdum ra- pere occupat,' now and then she is the first to snatch thetHy Hor. The passage of com- pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances. §49- Conjiigatio7i of Defective Verbs. 191 SCHEME. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Present. lilUUdlll inquis inquit inquimus inquiunt inquiat ? — Fut. S. inquies inquiet inquito di 6 inquiebat Perf. j inquisti inquiit? Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk. Gr. \xC) in the Pres. Indie. Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between parts of construction, as quoth in English. Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khydmi, ^ I say'). IV. Fari, to speak^ has these forms : Indie. Pres. Fut. . . Perf., &c. Imperat. . Infin. . * Gerund . Supine Part. Pres. Fari. fatur, speaks fabor, fabitur fatus, sum, eram, &c. fare fari fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus fatu fantem, fantis, &c. Part. Perf. fatus Its Compounds af fari, effari, (inter prae pro)-fari, can use the same forms and a few more : ' affamur,' Ov. ; ^affamini,' Curt. ; * affabar,' Verg. ; * effabere,' Lucan ; * effabimur,' Cic. ; ' praefantes,' CatuU. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c. V. Ovare, to rejoice, triumph, has some Third Persons Sing. o> (ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic. Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus. VI. Quaeso, I beg', ist P. PI. quaesumiis. VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and fnfimtive : impera- hail! hail! farewell ! come ! be off ! tivc S. salve have (or ave) vale ag^ apage PI. salvete havete valefe agile S. salveto haveto valeto salvebis valebis salvere havere valere Add S. cedo, PI. cedite, cette,jz^r<2y tell me, give me, &c. Imperative >vare. Quaeso. Forms. J) Fut. S. Infin. . so Imper- sonal Verbs, Latm Wordlore. § 50. VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs. Impersonal Verbs are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin- gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive. A, Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice. i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation : oportet, taedet, miseret, piget, pudet, paenitet, decet atque dedecet, libet, Hcet, et liquet, attinet et pertinet, behoves y disgusts, moves pity it irks, shaines, repents it beseems, inisbeseems it pleases, is lawful, is clear it relates, belongs. Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.) : Indie. me, te, eum, nos, vos, eos mihi, &c. . ad me, &c. 1. oport 2. taed 3. miser 4. pig 5. pud 6. paenit 7. dec 8. dedec 9. lib 10. lie 11. attin 12. pertin Conj. Infin. -et -ebit , -ebat -uit -uerit -uerat -eat -ere . Pres. S. Fut. -eret Imperf. -uerit -uisse . Perf. . . . . * . . Fut. Perf. -uisset .... Pluperf. The following Perfects are also used: 2. pertaesum est; 3. miseritumest;4. pigitumest; 5. puditumest; 9. libitum est ; 10. licitum est. Mi sere scit is used ; sometimes miseretur. Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni- tens, dec ens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives. The Persons are expressed by the Case : as Sing, oportet me ire ^ oportet te ire oportet eum ire PI. oportet nos ire oportet vos ire oportet eos ire Sing, licet mihi ire licet tibi ire — licet ei ire — PI. licet nobis ire — licet vobis ire — licet iis ire — And so in the other Tenses. behoves me you him — — us — — you — — the7n ^ it is allowed me >to go-=^< I you he you him MS you them^ 'togo^-f, we ye they ) (I you he ought logo we X^they ^fnaygo ^ C. derives oportet (op-portet) from Gr. -nop-, * it is the ^art ;* pudet, paenitet, from Sk. pu ; taedet, from Sk. (see pp. 14, 15); decet from Sk. dt^. Libet or lubet: Sk. lu&k, 'desire.* Licet: Sk. ric\ Gr. AtTr- L. liwquere, leave. The same relation exists between * to leave ' and the noun leave in English. * I give you leave* — ^ I leave it to yo7i ; * * / have leave '^* it is left to me* Piget is unexplained. 2) Some Personal Verbs are meaning : accidit happens conducit it profits contingit// befalls evenit it turns out convenit suits expedit // is expedient placet it pleases re Stat it remains succurrit // occurs vacat there is leisure So usu venit, in mentem venit, &c. Impersonal Verbs, 193 used impersonally with special delectat iuvat mihi fallit tibi fugit ei interest nobis refert vobis est iis, &c. fit constat praestat me, te, eum, &:c. it charms it delights it eludes it escapes it concerns \ mea, tua, // imports I eius, &c. is a fact it cofnes to pass it is acknowledged it is best 3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather! such are fulgurat // lightens ningit // snows lucescit it dawns tonat it thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light gr3.ndina,t it hails rorat there falls dew vespQYSiScit it gets late Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog- nate Noun as Subject: nix ningit, snow snows = nix est, snow occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti = pudor facti me pudet = pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Inlinitive Verb- noun or a dependent Clause. B. i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the Passive Voice ; luditur, from ludo, I play. Present . . Simple Fut. . Imperf. . . Perfect . . Fut. Perf. . Pluperf. . . Ind. luditur ludetur ludebatur lusum est lusum erit lusum erat Conj. ludatur luderetur lusum sit Infin, ludi lusum iri lusum esse lusum esset lusum fuisse The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the Preposition a or ab following the Verb : Present Indicative. Sing, luditur a me there is playing by me luditur a te luditur ab eo — PI. luditur a nobis — luditur a vobis — luditur ab iis — And so in the other Tenses. thee him MS you them = I play — thou play est — he plays — we play =ye play = they play The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play, or they play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on joue, o 5^ Stems. Present Stem. 194 Latin Wordlore, §51. 2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or "Necessity, with a Dative or Ablative of the Person : Present Indicative. Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me -I ludendum est tibi — — — thee = thou ludendum est ei — — — him =he PL ludendum est nobis — — — us -we ludendum est vobis — — — you =ye ludendum est iis — — — them = they And so in the other Tenses. In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may be absent, and we^ they, or one supplied, as in the former instance. So French, on doit jouer. Section III. Three Thc Forms of the three Stems in Verbs. i. The Present-Stem. 1. The only Verb-roots which have Indicative Present-Stem forms unchanged immediately before Personal endings are : The root es (sum, es-mi) in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te, es - to (es-se). The root vol in the forms vol-t, vol- 1 is. The root fer in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te, fer-to, (fer-re). The root da, give, in the forms da-t, da-mus, da-tis, da-nt, da-te, da-to, (da-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this root is reduplicated. 2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre- sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per- sonal endings are : The root sta, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi- callysta-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt, sta, sta-te,sta-to, (sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated. The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, pie, y^//, in the same forms, fie- s, ne-s, -pies-, &c. The root 1, go, in the forms i-s, I-t (classically It), T-mus, i-tis, 1, i-te, I- to (i-re). In eo, eam, &c., 1 is strengthened, but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix. The root qui, can (with its compound nequi), the forms of which resemble those of 1. (Note, fl-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an example here.) 3. In all other A- E- and I-Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt- S tern * (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all fiexional suffixes. This * On the Term Clipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 30. The Present' Stein, 19s is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength- ened in the Present-stem: indu-is, indu-e, indu-ere: but audi-s, audi, audi-re. 4. With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3), Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short. Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs have the long vowel : die ere (E. L. deicere), ducere (E. L. doucere), fidere (E. L. /eider e), compared with veridicus, dux ducis, fides. These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie* Pres. 1st P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi)^ Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd (Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, comd into notice here. A) Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha* racter (Nasalisation). See § 12. xvi. To the-examples there given many may be added, tvhieh, though keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred forms: fi-;z-g- (fictum) ; fre-^-d- (fressum), -he-;^-d- (x"^~> -hed^ra) ; iu-;^-g- (iugum) ^l^-m-h- (labium) ; li-^-g- (ligurrio); mdi-n^d- (mala); mi-;^-g- (mictum) ; mn-n-g- (mucus); ni-;^-g- (hix); pa-;^-d- (passus) ; ^i-n-s- (pistor); sa-;2-cire (sacer) 5 sca-/^-d- (scala) ; sti-;^-g- (o^WQ ; a-;2-g- (dyiov), B) Suffix n (Sk. no) joined to a Vowel or Liquid Stem : Strengthened Stem True Stem Shewn in Perf. W-n- li- or le- ll-vi or le-vi 81-/2- si- sl-vi posi-;^- \ . (posi-vi) pos-ui ) pon- i posi- posi-tum (Sup.) > cer-n- cer' (ere-) cre-vi sper-;^- Sper- (spre) spre-vi ster-;^- Star- (stra) stra-vi tem-;^- tem- tem-si in £.L. are found siich forms as da-;^-unt fordant, soH-^^-tiiit for Solent, nequi-;2-Unt for nequeunt, obi-/2-unt for obeunt. C) the Suffix sc, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb I n- . ceptive or I ncho a tive (i) when the True Stem ends in a VoweL Thus : from pa-, pa-j^^-ere; from fati-, fati-J-^-ere ; from ira-, ira-j'^--i; from na-, na-j'^-i ; from ere-, cre-j-^r-ete; from quie-y quie-jr-ere; from no-, no-^y^-ere ; from hi-, hi^j-^'-ere. (2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular / is re- quired : from ap-^ ap-^'-j-^-i ; from men-, men-i-se-i ; from obliv-, ohViY-i-sc-i ; from pac-, pac-Z-j'^'-i ; from profic- profic-/-j"^:-i ; from ulc-, wlc-i-sc-i ; from nac- (also nasalised), Xi2i-n-c-i-sc-i ; from experrig- (also syncopated), experg-2-^<r-i. C is excluded by di-j^r-ere for dic-^^r-ere ; d by ve-^^-i for ved-jc-i. o 2 196 Latin Wordlore, ^ §51. Obs, The foregoing examples are mostly from stems which are not in use as actual words : but Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs derived from existing Verbs or Nouns are a very large class, all of the 3rd Conjugation, and express the beginning of action. Those derived from Verbs add so- or -i-sc- to the Present-stem : laba-^^-ere from laba-re, i. palle-J'r-ere — palle-re, 2. trem-Z-j'^r-ere — trem-ere, 3. obdormI-j*^:-ere — obdormi-re, 4. Those derived from Nouns add esc- (rarely a-sc-) to the Clipt Stem : dur-^j'r-ere from durus mit-^i-^r-ere — mitis macr-^j^-ere — mScer plum-^i-^r-ere — pluma vesper-^j-^:-ere — vespera For a fuller list see Syllabus. D) A few Present-stems are reduplicated. On Reduplication see § 12. xiv. Thus ^/-be-re for pi-pe-re (Stem^^, po) ^/-gn-ere — gi-gen-ere (Stem gen, Sk. jari) j-Z-ste-re — sti-ste-re (Stem std) j-^-re-re — si-se-re (Stem so) E) The Liquid 1 is doubled in the Present-stem of eel/ere, fal/ere, pel/ere, tol/ere. F) T is added to the True Stem in flec/ere, nec/ere, pec/ere, plec/ere. G) A few Present Stems are written with g or gu indifferently : nin^ere or nin^//ere, tin^ere or tin^^/ere, un^ere or un^//ere. So in Conj. 2. ur^ere or urguere. H) The appearance of in certain Verbs of Conj. 3. (cap/o, pat/or, &c.), as an extension of the Present-Stem, has been noticed. (Peculiarities of special Consonant Verbs will be found in the Syl- labus.) ii. The Perfect-Stem. V orma- v Perfect The Perfect Stem of Latin Verbs is formed in various ways. Stem A) By reduplicating the Present-Stem without or with vowel- change of Stem : the reduplicative syllable being in some instances ^ dropt. B) By lengthening the vowel of the Present-Stem, without or with vowel-change. ^ This i represents a Conjugative sufifix ya in Sanskrit, of which the a falls away in Latin : so that cap-i-o, pat-i-or, &c., may be represented as= cap-yo, pat-yor, &c See Schleicher, p. 577. v. The P erf ect'S tent. 197 C) By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem. D) By suffixing to the Present-stem v or u, representing fu-. E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing es-. A) Perfect-stem formed by Reduplication. d) The Reduphcative syllable consists of the first two letters of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel-change of the Stem. In E-verbs the Chpt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated : mo-mord-i frommord-e-; pe-pend-i from pend-e-; sp6-pond-i (for spo-spond-i) from spond-e-; totond-i from tond-e-. In Consonant Verbs the True Stem : cu-curr-i from curr- ; di-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ; pe-pend-i from pend-; p6-posc-i from pose-; pu-pug-i from pu-;2-g-; te-tend-i fromtend-; tu-tud-i from tu-;^-d-. Fid-i is for {fi-ftd-i) from fi-n-d- ; scid-i for (sci-scid-z) from sci-;/-d-. The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with e ; in which case some weakening of the stem-vowel also takes place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as above in pependi, tetendi. The only instances in A- verbs are de-d-i from da-; ste-t-i from St a- : which seem to cast out the stem-vowel. But they probably are for dedei, stestei, and so have weak- ened a into e. ■ In Consonant Verbs the instances are : pe-perc-i from pare-; pe-plg-i from ipd^-n-g-; te-t!g-i from ta-;^-g- ; ce-cid-i from cad-; ce-cid-i from caed- ; ce-cin-i from can-; me-min-i from men-; pe-per-i ■ frompar-^"-; f e- fell -i from fall- ; pe-pul-i from pel-/-. Tuli from tol-/- is for te-tul-i, which is found in old Latin. Ce-cul-i is from eel-/- ; but both are obsolete : the Cp. percell- forms perculi. Other forms of E. L. are fefici from fac-, tettni from ten-, B) Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present-^ stem. See § 12. xiv. p. 18. d) The Vowel of the CHpt Stem is lengthened without other change in these Pure Verbs : iuv-ifrom iuva- ; lav-i from lava-; sed-i from sede- ; vTd-i from vtde- ; cav-i from cave- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from pave- ; fov-i from fove- * mov-i from move- ; v6v-i from vove-. b) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other change in these Consonant Verbs : vic-i from vi-;^-c- ; liqu-i from li-;/-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i from leg- ; ed-i from ed- ; fod-i from fod-/- ; fud-i from i\x-n-A- ; rup-i from xxx-m^^^' ; scab-i from scab- ; em-i from em-. igS Latin Wordlore. § gi. c) The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the following Consonant Verbs : fec-i from fac-/ ; iec-i from iac-/- ; eg-i from ag- ; freg-i from fra-;/-g- ; cep-i from cap-/- ; and in -peg-i from some compounds of pa-;^-g-. C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem. a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E- verbs : prande- prand-i ; stride- strid-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui). and in the I -verbs : comperi- comper-i ; reperi- repper-i ; miless rep peri is syncopated from repeperi. b) The Present-stem becomes Peyfect-stem in these Consonant forms : bib-i ; cud-i ; ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ; pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ; vis-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.). Likewise in U-verbs classically: ru-i, metu-i. But on these see § 12. xiv. p. 18. U) a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing v ( = fu-) to a strengthened Vowel character. This is done by most A- and I-verbs : ama-v-i audl-v-i and by some E -verbs : dele-v-i fle-v-i Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True Vowel stem. See p. 195. ; cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or li-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ; pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i. Likewise a few Verb^ in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine forms of Conj. 4. : cup-/- cup-iv-i ; pet- pet-iv-i ; ter- ter-Iv-i or trivi ; quaer- for quaes- quaes-iv-i ; arcess- arcess-iv-i ; and so capess- facess- lacess-. Perfect-stem formed by ^suffixing; u ( = fu-) to the Present Stem. d) To a Clipt Stem : In a few A- verbs : crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-, veta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica^ ; neca-, plica-. But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus. In most E'Verbs : mone- mon-u-i In the I-verbs aperi- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-Uri ; sali- sal-u-i. Note. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma- tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in esc- isc- derived from Nouns, if they haye a Perfect, form it in u-i : obduresc- obdur- u-i^ 151. The Supine- Stem, I99 b) To a True Consonant Stem : in most Verbs with character 1, m : al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; &c. also in elic-/ elic-u-i ; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ; stert- stert-u-i ; cnmb- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins- pins-u-i ; ser-, jozUy ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i ; gign- ( -- gen-) gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i, E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing s ( = es) to the Present- stem. This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does the Greek Aorist form in 0*0. As this formation brings s into concurrence with other conso- nants, the laws of euphony must be applied as set forth in § 12. xxvi. ^nd § 12, xxix : where it is shewn that a guttural with s produces x: dixi, rexi ; b before s be- comes p: scrip si ; dentals are cast out, Compensation or Assimilation often ensuing: risi, sensi ; and gutturals, are cast out after r, l: mersi, fulsi. Also p is inserted between m and s : sum/si. <?) S is suffixed to the Clipt-stem of many E-verbs and some I -verbs : auge- auxi ; luce- luxi, arde- arsi ; &c. farci- farsi ; vinci- vinxi ; sanci- sanxi, &c. In iube- iussi the assimilation is peculiar ; mane- mansi is an unusual formation: in haere- haesi and hauri- hausi r ( = s) has fallen out before s. b) S is suffixed to most Consonant Stems with a Mute cha- racter, and to some with m, p, (s) : due- duxi ; teg- texi ; sparg- sparsi ; ced- cessi ; nub- nupsi ; com- compsi ; ur- ussi, &c. See Syllabus. iii. The Supine-Stem. Format tion of This has the suffix t, which is added to the True or Clipt Stem, |^p^»« without or with i before the ending -um. A Vowel Character (a, e, i) is, with some exceptions, lengthened. I. T is suffixed to the Stem without mutation of Consonants, but with lengthening of a Vowel Character i) In those Pure Verbs which add v to the True Stem in the Perfect : ama-t-um fle-t-um audi-t-um including some which strengthen the Pres. Stem with a suffix : p. 95 • cre-t-um quie-t-um na-t-um spre-t-um ira-t-um no-t-um stra-t-um But in the following Supines the Stem vowel is not lengthened 1 li-t-um (lino) si-t-um (sino) i-t-um (eo) sa-t-um (sero) Pa»s-t-um (pasco, pavi, from root pa) keeps s irregularly. 1 200 Latin W or More. § 51, 2) In Verbs of Conj. 3., which adopt in the Perfect the Character i of Conj. 4.: cupi-tum ; petl-tum ; quaesi-tum ; tri-tum ; arces- sl-t-um ; capessi-t-um ; facessi-t-um ; lacessi-tum. 3) In U-verbs : indu-t-um (indu-ere). Except ru-t-um or ru-T-t-um (ru-ere) ; lu-t-t-um (lu-ere) ; fru-I-tum (fru-i). 4) In Consonant Verbs with the Characters c (after a Vowel) x p, n, m (with euphonic p), r, 1 (after a, u) : dic-tum, duc-tum, nac- tum, tex-tum, ap-tum, comp-tum, par-turn, al-tum, consul-turn, &c. Also stru-c-t-um (from stru-ere for stru-ic-ere). For Exceptions see III. On the Vowel-change which occurs in the close syllable of many Supines : affec-tum (afficere), cul-tum (colere). See § 12. xxiv. 5) Insta-t-um (sta-re), sometimes sta-t-um. But da-t-um (da-re) keeps a short. II. T is added to the Stem with mutation of Consonants. 1) The Guttural Characters gr, gv, qv, h, in Conj. 3. become o when t follows (see § 12. xxvi. II.): a-c-t-um (ag-ere) ; fra-c-t-um (fra;/g-ere) ; un-c-t-um (ungu-ere) ; co-c-t-um (coqu-ere) ; -li-c- t-um (li;/qu-ere) ; tra-c-t-um (trah-ere) ; ve-c-t-um (veh-ere). Also vi-c-t-um (viv-ere) ; experre-c-t-um (experg-isci) ; pis-t-um (pins- ere). See Syllabus. 2) qv is vocalized into -cu in lo-cia-t-um (loqu-i) se-cu-t-um (sequ-i) 3) The Labial character b becomes p : nu-p-t-um (nub-ere) scri-p-t-um (scrib-^re) 4) V is vocalized into n in sol-u-t-um (solv-ere) vol-u-t-um (volv-ere) 5) R (primitively s) becomes s again : ge-s-t-um (ger-ere) u-s-t-um (ur-ere) que-s-t-um (quer-i) 6) Exclusion of the preceding Character occurs in ul-t-um (ulc-isci) obli-t-um (obliv-isci) III. T is joined to the Stem by /, in the following Verbs of Conj, 3, with Nasal Character : frem-^-trum, gem-z-t-um, gen-^-t-um, vom-2-t-um. Also in eUc-2-t-um, fug-^-t-^um, bib-^rt-um, cub-^-t-um, strep-i'- t-um, mol-2-t-um, coal-i'-t-um (coalesc-ere), pos-^-t-um, lu-^'-t-um, ru-^'-t-um, fru-^'-t-um. IV. T is added to the Clipt Stem without mutation of Consonants in the following : A- verbs : seca- sec-t-um ; frica- fric-t-um ; eneca- enec-t-um. E-verbs : doce- doc-t-um; tene- ten-t-um; misere- miser-2-t-um (or miser-t-um). I-verbs : amici- amic-t-um ; sanci- sanc-t-um (or sanc-T-tum) ; vinci- vinc-t-um ; saepi- saep-t-um ; aperi- aper-t-um ; com peri- Supinc-Stem, 20 r comper-t-um ; experi- exper-t-um ; opperi- opper-t-um ; ori- or-t-um ; reperi- reper-t-um; sali- sal-t-um ; sepeli- sepul-t-um (with vowel-change) ; veni- ven-t-um. The Participle mor-t-u-us ff om mori-or is an irregular formation,, in the nature of an Adjective, from mor-s, mor-ti-, death, V. T is joined to the Clipt Stem with mutation of Consonants : 1) A- and E- verbs in v-a-, v-e-, vocalise v, and form contractions u-u X u ; a-u x au or o ; o-u x o : A-verbs : iuva- iu-t-um ; lava- lau-t-um, lo-t-um. E-verbs : cave- cau-t-um ; fave- fau-t-um ; fove- fo-t-um ; move- mo-t-um ; vove- vo-t-um. 2) The Consonant is changed by Assimilation in the following : E-verbs : auge- auc-t-um ; torre- tos-t-um ; sorbe- sorp-t-um. I-verb : hauri- haus-t-um (hau-sum). 3) The Consonant is excluded in the following : E-verbs : indulge- indul-t-um ; misce- mis-t-um (mix-turn) ; tor- que- tor-t-um. I -verbs : farci- far-t-um ; fulci- ful-t-um ; sarci- sar-t-um. VI. T is joined to the Clipt Stem by z : 1) In the A-verbs crepa- crep-^'-t-um; cuba- cub-2-t-um ; plica- plic-^-t-um (or-atum); doma- dom-/-t-um; sona- son-/-t-um; tona- ton-^'-t-um ; veta- vet-2-t-um. 2) In most E-verbs : mone- mon-2-t-um. VI L T joined to the True Stem becomes s : 1) In Dental Verbs of Conj. 3. : a) The Dental is excluded : cs becomes x, and a short Vowel is lengthened by Compensation : fleet- flexum ; nect- nexum ; amplect- amplexum ; lit- iisum ; vert- versum ; pend- pensum ; fu-n-d- fusum ; cad- casum ; caed- caesum ; divid- divisum. So clau-sum, cu-sum, -fen-sum, fi-sum, prehen-sum, scan- sum, &c. But tend- ten-sum or ten-tum; tv-n-d- tun-sum or tu-sum; nit- nl-sum or nixum. d) The Dental becomes assimilated to s : ced- cessum ; fi-;^-d- fissum ; sci-;/-d- scissum ; met- messum ; fre-;^-d- fressum ; fod-/- fossum ; pat-/- passum ; quat-/- quassum. Add to these mitt- missum ; pand- passum (or pansum), and, with vowel-change, fat-/-sc- fessum ; grad-^'- gressum. 2) In Guttural Verbs, the Guttural falling out between r and s : pare- parsum ; sparg- spars um ; merg- mersum ; terg- tersum. 3) In Verbs with Character rr or 11, dropping one Liquid : curr- cursum ; verr- versum ; fall- falsum ; cell- celsum. And, with Vowel- change, pell- pulsum ; percell- perculsum ; veil- vulsum. 4) The following are special instances : fig- fixum ; flu- (flugv-)fluxum ; lab- lapsum ; prem- pressum. 202 Latin Wordlore. yill. T joined to the Clipt Stem becomes s : 1) After Dentals : d) The Dental being excluded, &c. E-verbs : arde- arsum; morde- morsum ; pende- pensum ; prande- pransum ; ride- risum ; suade- suasum ; sponde- spon- sum ; tonde- tonsum ; vide- visum ; aude- ausum. But gaude- (for gav-id-e-), gavisum. In I-verbs : senti-sensum; assenti- assensum ; ordi- orsum. ^ b) The Dental being assimilated to s : sede- sessum ; fate- fassum, 2) After Gutturals following r or 1 : mulce- mulge- mulsum ; terge- tersum. 3) In special instances : iube- iussum ; cense- censum ; haere- haesum ; mane- mansum meti- mensum (mentior may have been the original Present). Note. The importance of the Supine-Stem lies in the Participles, derived from it, not in the Supines themselves, which are com- paratively little used by Latin authors. Section IV. Com! Composition of Verbs. ofverbs. I. The Prepositions compounded with Verbs are : A) Separable : — ab ^ ante inter prae subter abs - circum ex} ob praeter super a . cum per pro trans ad de in post sub B) Inseparable : — ambi- (amb-), around, about ; sed- se, apart. dis-, di-, in different parts or ways ; sus,^ (susque deque).,! red-, re-, back, again ; To which some add por ( = Gr. irpori), an or in ( = am). Prepositions in Composition are subject to various mutations. A) i) A, ab, abs, are written a before m, v : amitto, avoco. abs before c, t : abscedo, abscondo, absterreo. as before p : asporto. au before f : aufero, aufugio. But afui, afore. ab before other letters : abeo, abdo, abigo, abiungo, abludo^. abnuo, abrado, absisto, abundo. 2) Ad remains before b, d, b, 1, m, v, and vowels : adbibo, addo, adhibeo, adiungo, admitto,^ advoco, adeo,^ adoro. Becomes a- before gn, sc, sp : agnosco, ascendo, aspicio (but ad may remain). * On sus, see Corssen ii. 580. He derives it from sup-us (= v^t, a, locative form, out of which grew sup-s-i, sup-s, sus. supinus), related to Creek Composition of Verbs. 203 Is assimilated before other letters : accendo, affero, alludo, annuo, appono, acquire, arrideo, assisto, attendo. But adfero, adnuo, &c., are also used. 3) Cum, in-, are written com-, im-, before p, b, m : comparo, combibo, committo ; impello, immergo. Assimilated before 1, r : coUudo, corrodo, illido, irruo. Cum becomes co- before vowels, ii, and gn : Coeo, cohaereo, cognosce. So i g n o s c o. Note comedo. Con-, in-, before other consonants, in- before vowels and li : concurro, condo, confero, coniungo, connecto, conquiro, construe, continge, convoco, incumbo, induce, inee, inhie, infringe, ingero, iniunge, innue, inquire, insisto, intono, invade. Con-, in-, may remain before p, l : conpono, inludo. 4) Ec, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio. Ex before vowels, lij c, q, p, s, t : exeo, exhibeo^ excedo, exquiro, expelle, extrue, extraho. E before others : educe, elude, emitte, erumpo, evoce. 5) Ob,^sub, are assimilated before c, gr, p, f : eccurro, eggan- nie, oppeno, effero, succede, suppono, suggere, sufficie. They remain before ether letters : ebdo, obee, obicie, eblmo, obrue, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio, subduce, subiungo, subridee, subside, subtrahe. Note emitte, eperie, estende, surripie, summevee, summitto, 6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio, pellucee, peiero. 7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-censonans : trade, trane, traicio. Tran- before s : transcribe. Remains before others : transfere, transee, transmitto. 8) Ante de pest prae super circum inter praeter pro subter remain in composition with Verbs : except intel-lego pred-ee prod-igo pred-esse, &c. Pro, usually long, is sKertened in a few compounds : profari, profiteri, proficiser. B) i) A mb - (a/x0t) becomes am- before p : ampute, ampilector. 2) D i s - is assimilated before f : differo. Remains before gutturals, labials, t, t-censonans, and s with vowel : discerpe, dispelle, distraho, disicie, dissero. But diiudice. Di- before s with consonant, and before ether consonants : dirue, distringe, divelle. Observe dir-ibee for dis-hibee, dir-ime for dis-ime. * The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared with abstineo, abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a compound of olesco, iS really (with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo (solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare ; oscen is from os, for oh would make it occen ; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch before the face shew : obtendois itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus, where (instead of the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. i2i. 204 Latin Wordlore. ^ 3) Red- stands in redamo, redargue, reddo, redeo, redhibeo, redimo, redigo, redoleo, redundo. Re- in other compounds, as remit to. 4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs, secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco. 5) Sus- is used before ci, t : suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli. su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro. 6) For- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol- lingo, polluceo, polluo, possideo. 7) An- (according to Key) in anhelo, anquiro, intumesco, &c. Note, The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See § 12. xxiv. Simple Verb Comp. Present Comp. Perfect Comp. Supine. I. d i e a 2. a i t a 3. a t t e 4. a i e ■ e 5. a I i/ t M 6. a V t e 7. e I e 8. e */ t e e 9. e i I Simple Verbs in question. ago, frango, pango. tango, cado. rapio, cano. facio, iacio, lacio, capia. salio. fateor. teneo.. sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo. egeo. Examples : 1) dzo frango p^ngo 2) tango cado 3) rapio cano 4) facio iacio lacio capio 5) solio 6) fateor 7) tmeo 8) s/deo sp/cio l^go r^go ^mo pr/mo /geo 9) subigo effringo compingo attingo occxdo surripio concino reficio . deicio illicio accipio prosilio confiteor sustineo obsideo perspicio diligo dirigo eximo reprimo indigeo subegi effregi compegi attigi occidi surripui concinui refeci deieci illexi accepi prosilui sustinui obsedi perspexi dilexi direxi exemi repressi indigui — Exceptions appear in the Notes to the Syllabus. subactum effractum compactum attactum occasum surreptum concentum refectum deiectum illectum acceptum prosultum confessus sustentum obsessum perspectum dilectum directum exemptum repressum subdue, break open. fasten together* reach, die, steal, sing in unison*' repair, throw down. entice, receive spring forth. confess, sustain. besiege, look through. love, direct, take out. repress need. § 53. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 205 II. A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, with Nominal, or with Verbal elements : benefacio, malefacio, satisfacio, satisfio, satisdo ; venumdo, vendo, veneo, pessumdo, valedico, calefaciOj «alefio, with a large number of other compounds of facio, fio. Section V. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. Syiiabus ^ of Stem- A) The First or A-Conjugation contains many Sor^' Verbs, Active and Deponent. Most of the Active are Transitive ; most of the Deponents Intransitive. [Many A- verbs are derived from Nouns ; many from Verbs. Ji^e^^* Among the former are Imitative Verbs in -isso : at tic-is so, Verbs, graec-isso, com-issor. Among the latter 1) Frequentative Verbs, which express repeated or intense ^'''"e- action, formed either in -to, -so, from Supine-stems: c a.nt o y smg ^ive"'^* muck (cano, cantum), cur so, rtm often (curro, cursum) ; so Verbs, adiuto; apto ; capto ; dicto ; iacto ; gesto; lacto; nuto; occulto; rapto ; tento ; tracto ; vecto ; voluto ; cesso ; merso ; penso ; prenso ; presso ; pulso ; quasso ; verso ; grassor ; — or by adding i-to, i-tor to the Clipt Stem: rog-/-to, ask often (rog-o), min-/-tor, threaten much (min-or) : (so agito, cogito, mussito, strepito, visito) : some- times to the Supine Stem: haes-/-to, lus-/-to. Frequentatives may be formed from Frequentatives : cant-/-to ; curs-/-to ; dict-/-to. 2) D em inutive Verbs in -iiio, from Present- stems : cons crib- Demi- ill o, scribble ; s o r b - i 1 1 o, ] Verb^ Perf. I Sup, A-verbs form -avl 1 atum Variant Verbs are cited in the Syllabus ; Deponents in the Notes. B) The Second or E-Conjugation contains fewer Verbs than the First, and very few Deponents. Its Verbs are principally Intransitive. Several have by- forms in -ere, 3. used by poets: ferv-ere, frig-ere, fulg-ere, strid-ere, turg-ere. A large number pass into the Inceptive or Inchoative form in -sco, 3. Many Verbs of this Conjugation are without Supine ; some with- out Perfect also. Inchoatives in Perfect and Supine follow the for- mation of the Verb from which they spring. E-verbs should regularly form -evi, etum ; but they usually have -iil, -itum. Most of them are cited in the Syllabus. C) The Fourth or I-Conjugation has not a large number of Active Verbs, and few Deponents. Most are Trar>«^i^'v<^ 206 Latift Wordlore. §53* Deside- rative Verbs. [Desiderative Verbs are of this Conjugation, formed from Supine Stems with Suffix -ur-io : es-iir-io, desire to eat, am hungry, script-ur-io, desire to write.^ Perf. -ivi Sup. -itum I -verbs form -ivi ) Only Variant and Deponent I-Verbs are cited iii the Syllabus. D) The Third Conjugation contains Consonant Verbs and U-verbs : Consonant Verbs in eacih class are placed in the order of their character : Guttural (c, g, qu, h, &c.) ; Dental (t, d) ; Labial (p, b) ; Nasal (m, n) ; Liquid (1, r, s). Nearly all Simple Verbs of this Conjugation are cited; (Most Compounds of all Verbs cited are mentioned at the foot. . The formation of Perfect and Supine is the same in the Com- pounds as in the Simple Verb, unless otherwise stated. S. means Stem : L. S. lengthened Stem, as in mov-i : Cp. Corny pound : Cpp. Compounds.) , A- verbs. A) First Conjugation : A- verbs : ^ (am-are Redupl. I -atum : 1. dare dedi 2. stare steti am-avi am-attim) LS. I -turn : 3. mv-are 4. lav-are mvi lavi datum statum iutum Igtutn give, put stand kelp, please wash * A-Verbs. I. Dare is the only Verb which keeps short a. (except in da). The Cpp. circumdare, set round, pessumdare, ruifii venumdare, jset for sale^ Sd.tis- dare, give security, keep a, and form dedi, datum. All its other Cpp. pass over to the Cons. Decl. -do -dTs -dere, &c., with meanings of several, which (as in circumdare) do not represent 'giving,' but 'placing* or 'setting.* Hence it seems clear that this Verb, whether as dare or - dere, contains within its forms two Verbs, which in Sanskrit and Greek are distinct : namely, Sk. dd {daddrnz), Gr. (So) SiSojfxL, give, and Sk. dhd {dadhdmi), Gr. {de) TLOrjfAi, set, put. Some of the Cpp. must be ascribed to the latt^ Verb: circumdo, abdo, condo, indo, obdo, &c. : while others, dedo, reddo, trado, &c. may be more easily assigned to the former. See M. Lucr. iv. 41. s. Cpp. (ad con ex in ob per prae re)-sto -stiti. See sisto 3. (Ante circum)-sto -steti. Disto, super-sto, have no Perf. or Sup. The Sup. statum has a. short in *stata tempora,' also stator, status, statura, statim. But in Cpp. long quantity prevails: constaturus, exstaturus. Praestitum, L. xliii. 18: praestiturus has some authority. R. Pr. sta^ Sk. sthd, Gr. o-ra. 3. luvaturus. Sail. Cp. adiuvo. R. Sk. dn',*shine.' 4. Lavavi, Ter. lavatum; lautum : whence Adj. lautus, sumptuous. Older form lave re, Verg. Hor. : still older lu ere (distinct from lu- /f?^?^^). See this and its Cpp. R. Gr. A.u-. See Curt. Gr, Et. p. 371. 5. Simple necare, -avi -atum: necui, Phaedr. : iiom nex, Violent dcatA ; Gr. v€Kvs, corpse, R. Sk. nas' , ' perish.' Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 207 -ul I -turn : 5. enec-are 6. fric-are 7. sec-are -ui I -itum : 8. crep-are 9, cub-are 10. dom-are 11. son- are 12. ton-are 13. vet-are enecui fricui secui crepui cubui domui sonui tonui vetui enectum frictum sectum crepitum cubitum domitum sonitum tonitum vetitum kill rub cut creaky prattle lie down tame sound thundey forbid 6. Cp. perfrico. A vSupine fricatum is used by frico and Cpp. effrico, refrico. R. Sk. ghar. Gr. XP'-- See Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 203. 7. Secaturusis found. Cpp. (dis ex re sub)-seco. 8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide ; (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum. 9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se)-cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumbere 3. is a nasalised byform. R. Sk. 5'/, ' lie down* Gr. /cet-. la Cpp. (e per) domo. R. Sk. damy Gr. fioju,-, tame. 11. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svan^ *to sound.* 12. Cp. intono -ui -atum. Adj. attonitus, R. Sk. tatiy Gr. rei/-, to stretch. Tonere, sonere 3. are old and poetic forms. 13. Vetavit, Pers. ; but some read notavit. 14 Simple Verb has plicavi; plicui is rare : plicitum and plicatum. Cpp. applico, complico, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf and Sup, The Verbs duplico, multiplico, supplico are not Cpp. andhave-avi -atum. Gr. 5rXg««, See plecto 3. 15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi (*dimicui/ Ov.), dimicatum ; einico, emicui. ^ a) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A- verbs are ; From gelare : congel-ascere -avi -2X\xm, freeze. — labare : lab-ascere (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to waver. — hiare : hiscere . . (no Perf or Sup.), gape, whisker ; M. Lucr. iv. 66. — .... dehiscere Deponent A-verbs (all conjugated regularly in -ari, -atus). Those marked * have also an Active form in -O, -are» in general peculiar to old ' Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to all. abomin-ari, abhor *adminicul-ari, pro^, sup- port advers-ari, oppose *adul-ari, flatter aemul-ari, rival alucin-ari, dote *alterc-ari, wrangle amplex-ari, embrax:e ampuU-ari, talk big ancill-ari, act as handmaid apric-ari, sun oneself aqu-ari, fetch water *arbitr-ari, think, deem architect-ari, build argument-ari, prove *argut-ari, quibble *aspern-ari, despise assent-ari, comply , flatter adstipul-ari, support auction-ari, hold an auction *aucup-ari, catch avers-ari, dislike ^augur-ari, | ^^^^^ auspic-ari, ) atixili-ari, aid *bacch-ari, revel (as a Bac- chanal) (de) *bell-ari, make war *bubulcit-ari, tend kine *cachinn-ari, laugh loud calumni-ari, cavil, chicane cavill-ari, ba7iter caupon-ari, sell by retail caus-ari, allege comiss-ari, revel *comit-ari, accompany *comment-ari, remark ""communic-ari, impart contion-ari, harangue conflict-ari, contend con-ari, endeavour consili-ari, counsel consol-ari, comfort *conspic-ari, behold *contempl-ari, view convici-ari, revile *^cony'\v-SLn, feast cornic-ari, chatter *crimin-ari, accuse *cunct-ari, delay *depecul-ari, pillage despic-ari, despise devers-ari, lodge digladi-ari, combat ^dign-ari, deem worthy dedign-ari, disdain *domin-ari, rule elucubr-ari, work out, com* pose e.'p\x\-3ir\, feast *exsecr-ari, C7irse *fabric-ari, fashion *fabul-ari, talk (con-) famul-ari, serve f-ari, speak (af- ef- prae- pro-) *fener-ari, lend on interest feri-ari, keep holiday *fluctu-ari, fUictttate 208 Latin Wordlore, §53- -avi (ui) I -itum or -atum : 14. p]ic-are plicavi (-ui) plicitum (-atum) fold -al or -avi { -atum. 15. mic-are micui (-avi) -micatum glitter fniment-ari, lay in corn *frustr-ari, baffle *frutic-ari, sprout fur-ari, steal gesticul-ari, make gestures glori-ari, boast graec-ari, live sumptuously {like Greeks) grass-ari, advance, attack grat-ari, ) congratulate gratul-ari, i (con) gratific-ari, do a kindness grav-ari, grudge hariol-ari, divine helu-ari, eat gluttonously hort-ari, exhort (ad- ex-) hospit-ari, lodge *iacul-ari, dart (e-) imagin-ari, imagine imit-ari, imitate indign-ari, disdain infiti-ari, deny insidi-ari, plot interpret-ari, explain *ioc-ari, jest *laet-ari, rejoice *lacrim-ari, iveep lament-ari, lament latrocin-ari, rob lenocin-ari, pander licit-ari, bid (in auction) lign-ari, collect timber lucr-ari, make gain *luct-ari, struggle (col- ob- re-) *ludific-ari, make mock *luxuri-ari, wanton machin-ari, contrive materi-ari,y^// timber *medic-ari, heal *mendic-ari, beg medit-ari, con, plan (prae) merc-ari, buy *meridi-ari, take-siesta *met-ari, measure *min-ari, ) threaten *minit-ari j (com-^ mir-ari, wonder (ad- de-) *miser-ari, pity (com-) *moder-ari, rule, restrain. modul-ari, tune *moriger-ari, comply *mor-ari, delay (com- de- im- re.) *muner-ari, reward (re-) ■'^mutu-ari, borrow negoti-ari, do business *nict-ari, wink nidul-ari, make nest *nundin-ari, market nug-ari, trifle ■^nutric-ari, nurture obvers-ari, be present (to sight or mind) odor-ari, scent out *omm-a.r'i, jbrebode oper-ari, work *opin-ari, think *opitul-ari, help *^opson-ari, btiy meat *oscit-ari, yawn *oscul-ari, kiss oti-ari, be at leisure pabul-ari, forage *pacific-ari, make peace *pal-ari, wander *palp-ari, stroke, flatter pandiciil-ari, stretch oneself parasit-ari, play the buflbon patrocin-ari, patronise percont-ari, percunct-ari, peregrin-ari, dwell as a stranger periclit-ari, venture, be in peril philosoph-ari, philosophize *pigner-ari, take-pledge pigr-ari, be lazy pisc-ari, fish (ex-) pollicit-ari, promise *popul-ari, lay waste (de) praed-ari, plunder *praestol-ari, wait for praevaric-ari, walk crooked, play the rogtie prec-ari, pray (com- de- im-) inquire *proeli-ari, fight a battle (de-, ratiocin-ari, reason record-ari, re7nember refrag-ari, vote against, op- Pose *rim-ari, rake out^ search rix-ari, wrangle rustic-ari, live in the coun- try *savi-ari, kiss scit-ari, ^ Uvi^^^v^ *sciscit-an, ) Ecrut-ari, search out (per-) , scurr-ari, play the buffoon ' *sect-ari, follow (as- con* in-) sermocin-ari, discourse sol-ari, comfort spati-ari, walk (ex-) specul-ari, look out *stabul-ari, be in a stall *stipul-ari, bargain (ad- re-) stomach-ari, be angry suffrag-ari, vote with suspic-ari, suspect tergivers-ari, shuffle ' call to witnesfSf bear witness (at- con- de- ob- pro- testari) tric-ari, make difficulties trist-ari, be sad trutin-ari, poise in ike scales *tumultu-ari, make an up- roar *tut-ari, defend urin-ari, dive vad-ari, hold to bail *vag-ari, wander (di- e- per-) vaticin-ari, prophesy *velific-ari, sail velit-ari, skirmish *vener-ari, venerate (de) ven-ari, hunt verecund-ari, be shy vers-ari, be engaged, dwell (con- de- di-) *vocifer-ari, cry out test-an, testific- ari. Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few from Verbs. Adulare (i) may be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog, flatterer, &c.); on aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 253: cunctor, R. Sk. s'ank, * hesitate : ' con- templari is primarily an augural word, to observe the heavens (templa caeli) : populare probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. anvAov. § S3' Syllabus of Stem-Formatmi in Verbs. 209 B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : ^ (Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed in itahcs.) Redupl. I -sum : 1. mord-ere momordi morsum 2. pend-ere pependi pensum 3. spond-ere spopondi sponsum E-verbs. 4. tond-ere totondi L. S. 5. cav-ere 6. fav-ere 7. fov-ere 8. mov-ere 9. vov-ere 10. pdv-ere turn : cavi favi fovi movi vovi pavi L. S. I sum Ti. sed-ere 12. vid-ere 1 { sum : 13. prand-ere 1 I no Sup. 14. comv-ere 15. strld-ere 16. ferv-ere sedi vidi prandi conivi stridi ferbui tonsum cautum fautum fotum motum votum sessum visum pransum bite hang contract shear beware favour cherish 7nove vow quake sit see dine blink creak boil * E-verbs. I. Memordi is us6d. B. 430, See Gorss. See Curt. Gr^ Et. 324. Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo -mordi -morsum. Krit. B. 430. R. Sk. mard. 2. Pendere is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans, pend^re 3. hang', whence pondus, weighty and Frequent, pensare, j>onder. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo, (de pro)-pendeo -pendi -pensum. 3. Spopondi) euphonic for spo-spondi ; Spepondi is found. Cpp. despond^o, betroth, respondeo, answer, -spondi -sponsum. See Corss. Krit, N. ii2i The Verb means * to give a legal contract,' ' sponsionem facere.' 4. Also tetoridi. Cpp. attondeo, detondeo -tondi -tonsum. The Verbs 1-4 shew that Compounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. re/u.i'w, Curt. Gr. Et. p. 221. 5. Cp. praecavfeo. R. Sk. sku, ' hide.' 6. 7. See Corss. Krit. B. $6, 57. 8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro re se sum)-moveo. 9. Cp. devoveo. 10. Inchoative expavesco, expavi, 11. Cpp. (circum super)-sedeo. But assTdeo, possTdeo, and (con de dis in ob prae re sub)-sideo -sedi -sessum. R. Sk. ^ad, Gr. e5- 12. Cpp. (in per prae pro)-video. R* Sk. vid, Gr. Fi^-. 13. Prandeo is * to eat the prandium ' (pri-, dies- ?) or earlier meal (answering to the present English * luncheon/ French 'dejeuner a la fourchette '), distinguished from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner/ formerly 'supper.' 14. Also conixi. The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice falling out ; R* Sk. jdnu, yovv, genu, knee. See C. Krit. B. 56. 15. Byform stridere. 16. Byform fervere, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui is euphonic for fervni, R. Sk. gkar, Gr. Oep-. See C. Krit. B, 165. 203. Inch, defervesco, deferbui ; effervesco, efiferbui. 210 Latin Wordlore. §53 -evl j -etum 17. del-ere 18. fl-ere 19. n-ere 20. -plere 21. vi-ere 22. ci-ere 23. -olere 24. su-ere -ul I -itum : 25. arc-ere 26. coerc-ere 27. exerc-ere 28. car-ere 29. deb-ere 30. ddl-ere 31. hab-ere 32. iac-ere 33. lic-ere 34. mer-ere 35. mon-ere 36. noc-ere 37. par-ere 38. plac-ere 39. praeb-ere 40. terr-ere delevi flevi nevi plevi (vievi) -olevi suevi arcui coercui exercui carui debui dolui habui iacui licui merui monui nocui parui placui praebui terrui deletum fletum netum pletum vietum (olitum) suetum (-artum) coercitum exercitum carltum debttum dolitum habitum iacitum licitum merftum monitum nocitum paritum placitum praebitum tern turn blot out weep spin fill bind with twigs stir up grow, &c. be wont Ward off restrain exercise be without^ be in want of owe grieve have lie be bid for serve, earn advise hurt appear, obey please afford affright 17. Some make this Verb de-olere, comparing abolere. More probably it is a Cp. of le-, smear, True Stem of lino. 18. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. <^Ae- </)Av-, L. flu-. See Curt. 302. 19. Gr. i/e-. Eng. medley G. nadel. 20. Cpp. compleo, impleo, oppleo, suppleo, (ex re)-pleo, R. Sk. prty Gr. ttAc-. 21. Hence vitis, vimen. 22. R. Sk. ^i, 'sharpen.* The Perf. and Sup. are formed from cire 4. 23. The root of growth, ol-( = Sk. nr, L. al- ar- or-), is distinct from the root of smell, ol ( = od). Olesco has the Cpp. adolesco, grow up, adolevi, adultum : inolesco -evi, grow in : whence ind-oles ; and subolesco, whence suboles. The Transi- tive Verbs adoleo, inflame sacrificially , aboleo, abolish, with their Inchoatives (adolesco, abolesco), have a distinct sense, and may possibly be derived from the word oleum, implying an old practice of using oil to make the sacrifices burn speedily : Verg. iv. 244 : Pingue super oleum infundens ardentibus extis. 24. Suere is found in Lucr., but suesco is the Verb in classical use. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco, suevi, suetum. Also mansuesco -suevi -suetum, grow mild, tame. See Curt. 251 ; M. Lucr. i. 60, iv. 1282. 25. 26. 27. R. Gr. aA/c-, ap<c-. 30. Inchoatives : (con inVdolesco -dolui. 31. Cpp. debeo (dehibeo) ; praebeo ; (prae-hibeo) ; (ad co ex in per pro red)-hibeo -hibui -hibitum. But posthabeo. 32. Cpp. (ad circum sub)-iaceo. The intransitive Verb corresponding to iacio, cast. See this in Conj. 3. 33. See Curt. 456 : and p. 192 of this Gr. 34. See Curt. 332. 35. Cpp. (ad con prae)-moneo. R. Sk. man. 37. Cpp. appareo, compareo, appear. 38. Cpp. displiceo -plicui -plicitum ; (com per)-placeo. Sk. pri. 40. Cpp. absterreo ; (con de ex per)-terreo. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-. § 53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 21 1 41. tdc-ere 42. vdl-ere -ui I -turn : 43. doc-ere 44. misc-ere 45. ten-ere 46. torr-ere -ui I -sum : 47. cens-ere -ui I no Sup. 48. eg-ere 49. mm-ere 50. ol-ere 51. sofb-ere 52. stud-ere 53. dc-ere 54. dr-ere 55. cdl-ete 56. call-ere 57. cand-ere 58. darker e 59. flor-ere 60. frond-ere 61. horr-ere 62. langu-ere 63* Idt-^ere tacui valui docui miscui tenui torrui censui egui -minui olui sorbui studui acui ami calui callui candui clarui florui frondui horrui langui latui taciturn be silent valitum be strong^ be wdl doctum teach imixtum \^^ng^e tentum hold tostum scorch^ roast censum value, vote want jut smell suck up study be sour be dry be hot be hard-skinned glow white be bright, illustrious bloom be in leaf shudder, be rough be faint lie hid 41. Cpp. (con ob re)-ticeo, ticui: no Sup. : usually -tJcesco, -ticui. 42. Cp. praevaleo : others form Inch, (con e in re)-valesco -valui -valitum 43- Cpp. (ad de e)-doceo. R. Sk. dis!, Gr. 5etfc-. 44' For mic-sc-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. mis'r Gr. juiy. * 45. Cpp. attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk tan Gr. re I/-. * 46. R. t'n tarsh, *be dry/ Gr. repo-. Inch, torresco, Lucr. iii. 890. 47. Cpp. accenseo, recenseo, succenseo. Censitus occurs on Inscrr. ; hence recensitus^ 48. Cp. indig-eo -ui, Gr. a.xr\v. 49. Cpp. emin-eo -ui : immineo, no Perf. ; promineo. SO* Cpp. (red sub)-oleo. Subst. odor. R. Gr. 6^«, oSwSa. 51. Cpp. (ab ex ob re)-sorbeo. Gr. po<^>e-. 52. Gr. cnr^vhin. 53. Inch, acesco -acui. Cp. coacesco, R. Gr. a/c-, sharpen. 54- Inch, aresco. Cp. exar-esco -ui. 55- Inch, cal-esco -ui. Cpp. (con per)-cal-esco -ui, grow hot. 56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui. '^' ^''t:r^^\ H in)-cand-esco -ui. Cauda 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Trans. lorm. bee Corss. JC. B, m.) 58. Indh. claresco, Cp. inclar-esco -ui, decome bright, illustrious. 59- Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bloom. 60. Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-esco -ui, come into leaf again. 61. Cpp. (ab ex in)-horreo. Inch, horresco. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in pet)-horr-esco -ui shudder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle/ Gr. <^)pto-o-w. * 62. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco -ui, grow faint. R. Gr. Aav- 63. Inch, lat-esco, Cp. delit-esco -ui. Frequent, laiito i. See C. Kr B 79. PS 212 Latin Wordlore. §53- licui madui marcui nitui palliii patui putui putrui rigui^ nibui silui sordui splendui^ squalui stupui tabui tepui timui torpui tumui vigui virui melf be wet fade shine be pale be open smell rank be rotten be stiff be red be silent be dirty glitter be filthy be amazed pine be lukewarm fear be torpid swell be vigorous be green 64. Itqu-ere 65. mad- ere 66. marc-ere 67. nit-ere 68. pall-ere 69. pdt-ere 70. put-ere 71. putr-ere 72. rig-ere 73. r lib- ere 74. sil-ere 75. sord-ere 76. splend-ere 77. squdl-ere 78. stiip-ere 79. tdb-ere 80. tep-ere 81. tim-ere 82. torp-ere 83. tmn-ere 84. vig-ere 85. vir-ere No Perf. I No 86. av-ere 87. claud-ere 88. clu-ere 89. dens-ere 90. foet-ere 91. frend-ere 92. maer-ere Sup. : long limp be called thicken be fetid gnash teeth mourn 93. pigr-ere 94. poU-ere 95. veg-ere 96. aegr-ere 97. alb-ere 98. calv-ere 99. cdn-ere be sluggish be powerful excite be sick be white be bald be grey 64. Inch, liquesco ; Cp. deliqu-esco, delicui, begin to melt. 65. Inch, mad-esco -ui, become moist. Gr. /u.aS-. 66. Inch. niarcesco,y^//^, R. Pr. vtar^ Gr. /xop-. 67. Cp. eniteo. Inch, nitesco, enitesco -ui, shin&forth. 68. Inch, pallesco, Cpp. (ex im)-pall-esco -ui, grow pale. R. Gr. ttcA- 69. Inch, pat-esco -ui. R. Gr. Trera-. 70. Inch, putesco -ui, become foul ) ^ 71. Inch, putr-esco -ui, become rotten ) 72. Inch, rig-esco -ui, Cpp. (di ob)-rig-esco -ui, grow stiff. 73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub-esco -ui, blush. R. Pr. rudh^ Gr. epud-. 74. Inch, sil-esco -ui, become silent. 75. Inch, sord-esco -ui, becotne mean, worthless. 76. Cp. resplendeo. Inch, splend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out. 78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, See Curt. 218, 79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238. 80. Inch, tep-esco -ui. R. Sk. tap. 81. Cpp. (prae sub)-timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per)-tim-esco -ui. 82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp-esco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438. 83. Inch, tum-esco, Cp. intum-esco -ui, begi7t to swell. R. Sk. tu. 84. Inch, vig-esco -ui. R. Sk. tiksh, 'grow strong,' Gr. vy-. But see Curt. t86. 85. Inch, vir-esco, Cp. revir-esco -ui, become green again. 86. See Curt. 309. 88. R. Sk. ^Yu, Gr. kAv-. 96. Inch, aegresco, become sick. 07. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white. §53. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 2 1 3 100. fiacc-ere 10 1. fldv-ere 102. heb-ere 103. lact-ere lo\. liv-ere 105. muc-ere -si I -turn : 111. polluc-ere 112. aug-ere 113. indulg-ere 114. mulg-ere 115. torqu-ere 116. lug-ere -si I sum : be flabby be yellow be dull be milky be livid be mouldy polluxi auxi indulsi mulsi torsi 106. renid-ere 107. scat' ere 108. sen-ere 109. um-ere 110. uv-ere smile bubble up be old be inoist be dank polluctum auctum indultum mulctum tortum make a feast increase indulge milk twist 117. mulc-ere 118. terg-ere 119. ard-ere 120. rid-ere 121. suad-ere 122. iub-ere 123. man-ere 124. haer-ere si I no Sup. 125. alg-ere J 26. fulg-ere 127. turg-ere 128. urg-ere 129. frig-ere 130. luc-ere luxi mourn mulsi mulsum soothe tersi -tersum wipe arsi arsum take fire risi risum laugh suasi suasum persuade iussi iussum command mansi mansum remain haesi haesum stick alsi be cold fulsi glittef tursi swell ursi urge -frixi be cold luxi shine 100. See Corss. Kr. B. 28, Byform scatere, 3. Lucr. v. 40. T08. Inchoative, sen-esco, consen-esco -ui, grow old. (The other Verbs from 96 to iii form Inchoatives, which denote beginning of state ;. but are without Perf, and Sup. except incanesco, which has Perf. incanui.) 112. Cpp. (ad ex)-augeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksh. 113. See Corss. K. Beitr. 382. This derivation from dAeyw is very doubtful. 114. Cp. immulgeo. R. Sk. marjy Gr. a-juteAy-. 115. Cpp. (con dedis ex in re)-torqueo. R. rpeTr-. 116. See Curt. 182. The Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form. 117. Cpp. (de per)-mulceo. See Curt. 327. 118. Cpp. (abs de)-tergeo. See Corss. K. B, 437. 119. Inch, ard-esco, exard-esco -arsi, Corss. derives from aridus, K. B. iii,. 120. Cpp. arrideo, irrideo, (de sub)-rideo. R. Sk. krtd, *play.* 121. Cpp. (dis per)-suadeo. R. Sk. svad, * sweeten/ Gr. aS-. 122. From ius- hibere. 123. Cpp. (per re)-maneo. R. Gr. fxev-. 124. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in)-haereo. Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp. 126. Cpp. affulgeo, effulgeo, refulgeo. Inch, fulg-esco, fulsi. Byform fulgere, 3. R^ Sk. bhraj, Gr. <f>\ey-. 128. Cp. adurgeo. R. Pr. varj, ' to press,' Gr. fetpy-. 129. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refrigesco -frixi. R. Gr. pty-. ^30. Cpp. colluceo (e re sub)-luceo. Inch, lucesco, Cp. illucesco -luxi^ dawn^ R. Sk. ru(^, Gr. \vk-.. Latin Wordlore, §53. Semideponent : 131. aud-ere ausus sum — dare 132. gaud-ere gavlsus sum — rejoice 133. sdl-ere solitus sum — be wont Deponent : 134. lic-eri licitus — hid for 135. mer-eri meritus — deserve 136. miser-eri miseritus — pity 137. tu-eri tuitus — view ^protect 138. ver-eri veritus; — J^^^, respect 139. r-eri ratus — think 140. fat-eri fassus — confess 141. med-eri — — h^al C) Fourth Conjugation : I-verbs : * (aud-ire, aud-ivi (ii), aud-itum.) Variant : -Ivl (ii) I -turn : 1. sepel-Ire 2. ire (eo) 3. quire -ni I -torn 4. sal-ire 5. aper-ire 6. oper-ire -i I turn : sepelivi ivi quivi salui aperui operui comperi repperi 7. comper-ire 8. reper-ire (C. S.-) -turn : 9. ven-ire veni sepultum Itum quitum (saltum) apertum opertum compertuni repertum ventum bury go be able leap, dance open cover find discover come 131 132 133- 134 135 137 Corss. derives from avid-us. Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. 7a f-. Probably connected with the forms Sk. sa-rva-s^ E. L. sollus, Gr. o Ao?, &C. Cp. assoleo. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco, ex-solesco, ob-solesco -evi (insolens, exoletus, obsoletus). Cp. poUiceor, promise. See 33. Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor. Cpp. (con in)-tueor. See Corss. K. B. 437. 138. Cpp. (re sub)-vereor. R. Pr. mr, * cover.' 140. Cpp. diffiteor, dififessus ; (con pro)-fiteor -fessus. R. Gr. <^a-. 141. Medicatus is used as Partic. of medeor. » I-Verbs. 2. Cpp. (ab ad ante circum co ex in inter ob per prae praeter prod red sub trans)-eo. Also ven-eo, ven-Tre (venum ire), to be sold, quasi-passive of vendere (venum- dare), to sell: has no Sup. : Pass. Partic. venditus, vendendus. Ambio, as audio. 3. Cp. nequeo. See p. 188. 4. Salii is used. Cpp. (ad de ex in pro re sub)-silio -silui or -silii, -sultum. sar^ Gr. aAA-. 5-8. These Verbs with experior, opperior, peritus, periculiim, belong to a lost verb perire, try. R. Pr. par^ * accomplish.' Comperior is used by Sallust. 9. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in inter ob per prae pro re super sub)-venio. R. Sk. gam. S^e Corss. Kr. B. 58. R. Pr. §53. Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 21$ -si I -turn 10. amic-ire 11. farc-ire 12. fulc-Tre 13. sanc-Ire 14. sarc-ire 15. vinc-ire 1 6. saep-ire 17. haur-ire 18. rauc-ire -si I -sum : 19. sent-ire amixi farsi fulsi sanxi sarsi vinxi saepsi hausi rausi sensi amictum fartum fultum sanctum sartum vinctum saeptum haustum sensum No Perf. I No Supine : 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. 25. caecut-Ire croc-Ire dement-ire fer-Ire feroc-Ire gest-ire 26. gann-ire Deponent ; -itus : 33. bland-iri 34. '^larg-iri 35. "^ment-iri 36. '^mol-iri 37. ^part-iri 38. pot-iri SQ.'^un-iri 40. *sort-iri -tus (from C. S.) : 41. "'^exper-iri 42. opper-iri 43. 6r-iri be blind 27. croak 28. be distracted 29. strike 30. be wild 31. be eager 32. yelp. blanditus largitus mentltus molitus partitus potitus punTtus sortitus expertus oppertus ortus clothe stuff prop consecrate mend bind hedge in drain be hoarse feel gl6c-ire grunn-ire hinn-Tre inept-ire prur-Ire cluck grunt neigh be silly itch singult-ire sob fawn^ flatter bestow speak falsely plan divide get possession of punish allots take by lot experience wait for arise 10. Also amicui. 11. Cpp. diflfercio (con in re)-fercio -fersi -fertum. 12. Cpp. effulcio, suffulcio. Derived from iwxc^^proPy C. 13. Sa-«-c-io is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R, Gr. tra-o?. 14. Cp. resarcio. 15. Cp. devincio. 16. Gr. o-rjfcd?. Saepes, praesaepe, saepire, shew the same labialism as lupus. &c., p. 59. , 17. Also hausum. Cp. exhaurio. 19. Cpp. (con per)-sentio. 21. It is evident that the C in the verbs crocire, croak, glocire, cluck, must have had the hard k-sound. 33-40. These are derived from Nouns. Cpp. subblandior : (di e)-largior: emen- tior : (e re)-molior : (im dis)-pertior. 43. Orior, Gr. op- has Cpp. (ad co ex ob)-orior -ortus. 2l6 Lathi Wordlore. §53. -SUB (from C. S.) : 44. "'^assent-Iri assensus agree 45. met-iri mensus 7neasure 46. ord-iri orsus begin Cons, and U-verbs, D) Third Conjugation : Consonant * and U-verbs : I. Consonant Verbs. i) Verbs with Reduplicated Perfect-Stem. (Compounds drop Reduplication; except those of disco, posco, sisto, -dere, and sometimes of curro.) Redupl. 1 -turn : I. dij*c-ere didtci learn 2. posc-ere poposci demand 3. pa-;^-g-ere pepigi pactum fasten 4. pu-;/-g-ere pupugi punctum prick 5. ta-;/-g-ere tetlgi tactum touch 6. sist-ere ■-sttti (-stttum) stop 7. -d-ere -didi -dttum put^ give 8. tend-ere tetendi tentum stretch 9. can-ere cecini cantum sifig 44-46. Assentior from sentire : metior, Sk. md, Suff. -tl : Cpp. (de di e)-metior -men- sus. This Participle is difficult. Perhaps the Pres. also was nasalised, but dropt n to avoid confusion with mention Cp. of ordior, exordior -prsus. R. or- with suff. d-1. Virgil uses nutriri as Depon.: *nutritor olivam,' G. ii. 425. Inchoative from Verbs of Conj. 4. edormivi obdormivi scivi conscivi descivi rescivi dormi- sci- edormi-sco obdormi-sco sci-sco consci-sco desci-sco resci-sco edormitum obdormitum scitum conscitum descitum rescitum slee/f out fall asleep ratify resolve revolt learn * Consonant Verbs. 1. Cpp. (ad con de e per prae)-disco For dic-sc-o. See p. 195. 2. Cpp. (de ex re)-posco. For porc-sc-o. R. Sk. prac'hy 'ask, pray.' Hence, prec-ari, procus. 3. Cpp. compingo, impingo -pegi -pactum ; oppango, oppegi. (De re)-pango. R. Sk. Pasf , Gr. Tray-, whence also pac-i-sc-or, pax, pignus, &c. 4. Cpp. (com dis ex inter)-pungo. On the probable common origin of pungere, pingere, pix, &c., and Gr. tt^vki], TriKpo?, ttoikiAo?, from a Pr. R. pik, ptck, to prick, doty &c., see Curt. Gr. Et. I. 133, 4. Compare YjH^. peaky pike, pick, pecky pokey pock. (Can Sk. Ms^ be cited here ?) 5. Cpp. attingo, attigi, attactum ; (con G.U)rtingo -tigi -tactum. The root-form tag-o is used by Plautus : also attigo (Gr. ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 217. 6. Sisto, redupl. of sto, is trans, orintrans., but its Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad con de ex in ob per re sub)-sisto -stiti. Sup. (-stitum, -statum) is very rare. 7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dare) are (ab ad con de e in ob per pro red sub tra)-do -didi -ditum. Also credo (Sk. s'rad-dadhdmi, ' put trust, believe '), -didi, -ditum, trust, and vendo -didi -ditum, sell. See dare. The Partic. praeditus, endued, is a relic of praedere, not otherwise occurring. 8. Cpp. attentio (con \x\ ob prae sub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro re) -tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. raj/- rei/-, with suf- fix d. 9. Cpp. occmo, succTno -cinui -centum ; so (con prae)-cino. IntercTno, recino, HO Perf or Sup. Occecini is found. §53. Sj/llabtts of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 21 J 10. par-ere 11. toU-ere peperi sustuli partum sublatum bring forth take Mp Redupl. -sum 12. parc-ere 13. cS,d-ere 14. caed-ere 15. pend-ere 16. tu-;2-d-ere 17. curr-ere 18. fall-ere 19. pell-ere 2Q. (-cell-ere) peperci parsum spare cecidi casum fall cecldi caesum cut, beat, kill pependi pensum ' weigh (tutudi) tusum thump, pound cucurri cursum run fefelli falsum deceive pepuli pulsum drive (ceculi) (-culsum) push 2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect. (S-) I -turn : 21. fac-ere (i-6) feci factum make, do 22. iac-ere (2-0) ieci iactum throw 23. li-;^-qu-ere llqui -lictum leave 10. Fut. Part, pariturus. 11. The old Perfect tetuli is used by Plaut. and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication, is used as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup. of fero, is for t-latum from Sk. tuly Gr. rXa-, L. tol-, lift^ endure. The Cpp. of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans)-fero -tuli -laturn ; afifero attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli collatum ; differo distuli dilatum ; eflfero extuli elatum ; infero intuli illatum ; offero obtuli obla- tum ; sufifero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by tollo). 12. Cp. comparco -parsi -parsum : or with e ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr. 13. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -cTdi. So (con de ex in inter pro re)-CKio : occasum is the only Sup. Recidi for rececidi. 14. Cpp. accTdo, occTdo, succTdo -cidi -cTsum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cIdo. 15. Cpp. appendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus)-pendo. 16. Cpp. (con ob re)-tundo -tudi -tusum or tunsum. R. Sk. tud^ * to strike, push, bruise. ' 17. Cpp. (ante circum in inter pro re super)-curro -curri. So succun:o. Accurro, occurro and (con de dis per trans)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae) -curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsh, * draw. ' Cecurri is found. 18. Cp. refello, refelli; no Sup. R. Sk. sphal, Gr. o--<^aAAa> (sphal-yo), make to fall. 19. Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puli -pulsum. So appello, impello. As- pello, no Perf. or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli. 20. (Cello ceculi) are not used. Cp. percello, perculi, perculsum, to thrill. R. Sk. kal, ' to push. ' 21. Cpp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-fTcio -feci -fectum ; so afficio, officio, suf- ficio : but (satis bene male)-facio -feci -factum. Facio is compounded with many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -factum, together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com- pounds of fio. 22. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iectum. See Munro on Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403. 533. The Supine is only found in the Cpp. (re dere)-linquo -liqui -lictum. R. Sk. rid, Gr. AtTT-. 2l8 Latin Wordlore, \ 53. 24. vi-;^-cere 25. ag-ere 26. fra-;^-g-ere 27. leg-ere 28. cap-ere (2-0) 29. ru-?/2-p-ere 30. em-ere 31. scab-ere (S-) I -sum : 32. ed-ere 33. fod-ere (^-o) 34. fu-;^-d-ere Exceptions : (S-) I 1-tum : 35. fug-ere (2^-0) (S) I -i-tum : 36. bib-ere (S) I -turn : 37. Icere Lost Redupl. | 38. fi-/2-d-ere 39. sci-;2-d-ere (S.) I -sum : 40. vert-ere 41. -cend-ere vici egi fregi legi (lexi) cepi rupi emi scabi edi fodi fudi fugi bibi (ici) ■sum : fidi scidi verti -cendi victum actum fractum lectum captum ruptum emptum esum fossum fusum fugitum bibltum ictum fissum scissum versum -censum conquer do break readj choose take break buy, take scratch eat dig four fiy drink strike cleave cut turn set alight 34. Cpp. (con de e per re)-vinco. 25. Cpp. (circum per)-ago -egi -actum ; (ab ad ex red sub trans transad)-igo -egi -actum ; coTgo = c6go, coegi, coactum ; deigo=dego degi, prodigo prodegi, no Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. ; satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. «/, Gr. ay-. 26. Cpp. confringo, effringo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpay-. 27. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, choose : sub-lego -legi -lectum, (col de e se)-lTgo -legi -lectum ; intellego, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum ; and di-ligo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Aey-. 28. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re sus)-cipio -cepi -ceptum. So accipio. But antecapio. See p. jgo. Note. 29. Cpp. corrumpo, irrumpo ; (di e inter per pro)-rumpo. R. Sk. lup, * to tear.* 30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red)-imo -emi -emptum ; coemo, (inter per)-emo. The rest (como, demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be the Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo. i 32. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-edo -edi -esum. See Irreqular Verbs, p. 189. 33. Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also effodio. 34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re)-fundo. Also affundo, effundo, offundo, suffundo ; Gr. yy-y with nasalised suff. d : pointing to a lost root ghu. 35- Cpp. aufugio, difFugio, effugio : (con per pro re trans)rfugio. R. Sk. bhuj, Gr. </)vy-. 36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbibo. R. Sk. Gr. tto-. Present-stem redupl. ; the, p being softened to b. 38. Cp. dif-findo. 39. Cpp. (ab di ex re)-scindo. R. Sk. dhid. 40. Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae re sub)-verto. R. Pr. vart* 41. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum. §53. Syllabus of Stem -Formation in Verbs. 219 42. cud-ere cudi cusum hammer 43. -fend-ere -fendi -fen sum strike 44. mand-ere mandi mansum chew 45. pand-ere pandi pan sum spread 46. prehend-ere prehendi prehensum take^ grasp 47. scand-ere scandi scansum climb 48. sid-ere sidi — settle 49. lamb-ere Iambi — lick 50. verr-ere verri versum sweep 51. vell-ere {vulsil" vulsum rend^ pluck 52. psall-ere psalli — play (^chords) 53. vis-ere visi visum visit 54. f idere fisus sum — trust 3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect-stem in -ui or -vi. a. -ui I -turn : 55. compesc-ere compescui — restrain 56. rap-ere (/-0) rapui rap turn seise ^^57. dl-ere alui altum nourish 58. col-ere colui cultum till 59. consul-ere consului consultum consult 60. occul-ere occului occultum hide 61. ser-ere serui sertum set in row 62. pins-ere pinsui pistum pound 42, Cpp. (ex in pro)-cudo -cudi -cusum. Hence incus incud-, anvil. 43. Cpp. (de of)-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestus (for -fendtus). Sk. han (Pr. dhan? ), Gr. 0ei/-. 45. Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -pansum or passum. 46. Also prend-ere, prendi, prensum. Cpp. apprehendo (com de re)-prehendo or -prendo, &c. Gr. x°-^' x°^^^^^^- 47. Cpp. (ad con de in tran)-scendo -scendi -scensum. R. Sk. skand. 48. See sed-ere, of which sidere is a variant form. Cpp. (ad con in re sub)-sido -sidi. 49. Latin root lab-. 50. Cp^ everro. See Corss. Kr. B. 403. 51. Cpp. (con di per re)-velli -vulsum : (a e)-velli or -vulsi -vulsum. See Corss. Kr. B. 325. 53. From Sup. of video. Cpp. (in re)-viso. 54. Cpp- (con dif )-fido, of which the Perfects (con dif)-f idi are in use as well as (con- diQ-fisus sum. 55. For comperc-sc-ere. 56. Cpp. (ab de di e)-ripio -ripui -reptum. So arripio, corripio, surripio. Pott and Corssen take rap to be the original form of Sk. luj>, ' to tear,' also shewn in. ru-m-pere. 57. Al, ol, is the root of growth=Pr. ar : shewn in al-ere al-tus, olescere, and nume- rous words. Inch, co-al-esco -ui -itum, unite^ curdle. See Curt. 359. 58. Cpp. (ex in re)-colo. See accolo. R. Pr, >^(a:r, 'make.* . 59. Corssen {Nachtr. 280) agrees with Mommsen in adopting Pr. sar, 'move,' L. sal-, as the root of con-sul-ere, exsul, praesul, &c. He gives consulere a sense = con- venire, and makes consul (for consul-us) its derivative. 60. Occulo, celare, cella, clam, and Gr. /caAvTrrco (kpvtttco) /caAta, are evidently cog- nate and point to a common Pr. kal^ * hide/ which appears in Sk. as kills Curtius compares also clepere and color. 61. Cpp. (con de dis ex in)-sero. So assero. Gr. etpw. See Curt. 355. 62. Sometimes pisere, pisi. R. Sk. /w^, 'crush.' 220 63. tex-ere 64. deps-ere -ui I i-tum : 65. elic-ere (/-0) 66. stert-ere 67. strep-ere 68. cuwb-ere 69. frem-ere 70. gem-ere 71. trem-ere 72. vom-ere 73- gign-ere 74. ponrcre 75. mol-ere 76. velle (volo) 77. nolle (nolo) 78. malle (malo) -ui I -sum : 79. met-ere 80. fre/^d-ere 81. (-cell-ere) b, -vl I -turn : These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms. a, 82. lT;/-ere levi Htum smear 83. si;/-ere sivi situm allow 84. cer;/-ere crevi cretum sift 63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. ^«/^), * fashion.* Gr, 64. Gr. 84(l)u). 65. See lacere. 67. Cpp. (ob per)-strepo. 68. Cpp. (con de dis in pro re)-cumbo. See cubare. 69. Cp. infremo. R. Sk. bhram» Grr. ppciJL-<t). 70. Cpp. (con in)-gemo. Inchoative : gemisco. Cpp. (con in)-gemisco, gemui. 71. Inchoative tremisco. Cpp. (con in)-tremisco, tremui. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-. Suff. m. 72. Cpp. (e re)-vomo. R. Sk. z/^;;?, Gr. fe/x-e-. 73. Cp. progigno. Redupl. of gen-. Sk. Jan, Gr. yei/-. Geno is found in old Latin. 74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pono. See p. 195. 75. Cp. permolo. Gr. /mvA-, L. mola, a mill. Hence malt ? 76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. 186. 79. Cp. demeto. (Sk. md, 'measure'?) 80. The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St. See frendere» 81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-cello cellui. Hence the Adjectives celsus, excelsus, praecel- sus. R. Sk. kaly 'push,' shewn also in procul, procella, culter, celer, KeWto, /Sov/coAos, and others. See 20. 82. Cpp. (per ob sub)-lino -levi -litum. Also collino, illTno. Another form, is linire.. R. Sk. It 83. Cp. desino, (desTvi) desii, also desTtus sum. 84. Cpp. (de dis ex se)-.cerno. R. Gr. Kpt-. Hence L. cribrum, stez/e. Latin Wordlore. §53- texui lexium weave depsui kneady tan elicui elicitum /^f^ forth stertui snore strepui strepitum rattle cubui cubitum tie aowftf iremui iremiium roar gemui gemitum groafi tremui tremble- vomui vomltum vomit genui genitum beget posui ppsitum place molui molltum grind volui wish nolui wish not malui wish rather messui messum fre;/dui fressum (-cellui) (-celsum) mow^ reap gnashy bruise push Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 221 8s. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. r- 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. sper;^-ere stem-ere ser-ere crej'^-ere quiej^-ere suei*^-ere (g)nosc-QYe pai-^^-ere cup-ere (i-o) pet-ere quaer-ere rud-ere sap-ere (/-o) ter-ere arcess-ere incess-ere capess-ere facess-ere lacess-ere sprevi stravi sevi crevi quievi suevi (g)novi pavi cupivi petivi quaesTvi rudivi sapivi trivi arcessTvi incessivi capessivi faces sivi lacessivi spretum stratum satum cretum quietum suetum (g)n6tum pastum cupitum petitum quaesltum rudltum tritum arcessltum incessitum capessltum facessitum lacessltum spurn strem sow grow rest be wont know feed desire demand seek bray savour rub, bruise fetch attack take in hand cause provoke 4) Verbs forming Perfect-Stem with agglutinated -s (for es-). a. Guttural Stems : -si I -turn : 104. dic-ere dixi dictum say 105. duc-ere duxi ductum lead 106. -lac-ere (/-0) -lexi -lectum entice 85. Spernere, properly ^zV>^.' Curt. 289. 86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Gr. <rTop-. 87. Cpp. (con in)-sero -sevi -situm. 88. Cpp. (con de ex in)-cresco. Also accresco, succresco. Cresco is Inchoative of creo, Sk. ^n» 'make.' 80. Cpp. acquiesco, (con re)-quiesco. Sk. 5'i, Gr. jcet-. 90. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadhd, 'self-will.' R. sva, 'self.* 91. Nosco has dropt which reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agnitum ; cognosco, cog- novi, cognTtum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco, intefnosco have no Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only remnants of a Latin O-verb. Sk. jnd) Gr. yvo-. 92. Cp. depasco. 93. Cupiret, Lucr. 94. Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. pat, Gr. Tfiet-, fly- ^ 95. For quaesere or quaesire. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)-quiro -quTsivi -qmsTtum. So perquiro, conquiro. 96. Sk. ru, rud ; Gr. (opvw. Persius has rudere : but rudens, cable. 97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -ui. Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grow wise again. This word, compared with sucus, shews labialism, as lupus, popina, &c. 98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Perf. terivi and terui are found. Connected with Gr. retpw, reprfv. L. tener. 99-103. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action. Arcess- is for acci-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for inci-ess- : both from root ci, roj^se : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac- Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects incessi, facessi, lacessi, are cited. 104. Cpp. (ad bene contra e in inter male prae vale)-dico. R. Sk. dis', Gr. SeiK-. 105. Cpp. (ab ad circum con de di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra)-duco. 106. Cpp. al-licio, il-licio, pel-licio, pro-licio -lexi -lectum ; but elicio, elicui, elicitum. 222 Latin Wordlore. §53- 107. -spec-ere (^-o) -spexi -spectum espy lOo. coqu-ere COXl coctum cook 109. cing-ere • • cinxi cinctum surround IIO. fi;/g-ere fi//xi fictum fashion III. -iiig-ere -nixi -nictum smttc 112. frig-ere frixi fnctum roast ^ jry 113- lung-ere , • • lunxi lunctum join 114. Img-ere -linxi •linctum 115. mung-ere • -munxi -munctum wipe IIO. • ^ pi;/g-ere pi^xi pictum paint 117. plang-ere ■1 • pianxi planctum beat IIo. reg-ere rexi rectum rule 119. stri;/g-ere sin/^xi strictuni oinct 120. — w sug-ere suxi SUCLUIIl C-IJ /'If 121. teg-ere LCXI ICLIUIII LU Uor 122. -stmgu-ere • • -stinxi -stinctum 123. tingu-ere tinxi tinctum stain 124. ungu-ere unxi unctum anoint 125. ningu-ere • • ninxi snow 120. ang-ere (anxi) squeeze 127. ciang-erc 128. trah-ere traxi tractum draw 129. veh-ere vexi vectum carry 130. viv-ere vixi victum live 131- stru-ere struxi structum pile 107. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spicio -spexi -spectum. So aspicio, suspicio. R. Sk. j/a*', Gr. <r/c67r-. 108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coquo. R. Sk. /rt:c', Gr. ttctt-. See p. 59^ 109. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So accingo, succingo. 110. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. Qiy-. 111. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligare, routy is of Conj. i. 112. R. ^.hJirajj^ Gr. ^pvy-. 113. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. puj, Gr. ^vy-. 114. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, pollinctum. Sk. rz^ ot lih^ Gr. Aet^-. 115. Cp. emungo, wipe the nose, clean out. R. Sk. viucf. 116. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk. 117. Gr. TrArjy-. L. plaga. 118. Cpp. arrigo, coriTgo, dirigo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also pergo, perrexi, per- rectum ; surgo, rise^ surrexi, surrectum, with its compounds : (as con ex in re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectum. R. Gr. opey-. 119. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per prae re sub)-stringo. From praestringere comes praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. o-Tpayy-. 120. Cp. exsugo. 121. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Latin has dropt s. R. Sk. sthag^ Gr. o-rey-. 122. Stinguo has the sense of pricking and also of quenching. Cpp. : (i) (di in)- stinguo ; (2) (ex re)-stinguo. Gr. arC^ia. 123. Gr. reyyw. 124. Cpp. (in per)-unguo. Tinguo, unguo maybe written tingo, ungo. 125. A primitive s-nih- must be assumed, from which, by casting off S and nasalizing, comes the form ningu-, and again nix, nivis, &c. Gr. vC<f><a. Hence Germ, schnee, Eng. snow. R. Sk. snu. 126. R. Sk. anj, Gr. dyx-. 128. Cpp. attraho ; (con de dis ex per pro re sub)-traho. 129. Cpp. (a ad circum con de e in praeter re sub)-veho. R. Sk. z/ah, Gr. foxe-. 130. Prim, gviv, Sk. j'fv, whence vigv-, the True Stem of vivo, which drops the second V in Perf. and Sup. Corssen, B. 72. Inchoative : reviv-isc-o, revixi, re- victum. 131. See Corssen, B. 72. Cpp. (ad con de ex in ob sub)-struo -struxi -structum. §53. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 223 -si I -sum : a, 132. fig-ere fixi ^ 133. flu-ere fluxi^ Q, 134. merg-ere mersi 135. sparg-ere sparsi 136. terg-ere tersi fixum fluxum mersum sparsum tersum Jix flow drown sprinkle wipe b. Dental Stems : -si 1 -sum : ij/* necL-eic ilCAUlil uena 138. nect-ere \ ^^^^ . \ ^ iicxu.1 ' nexum twine T "^Q DPrf-prp DGxi nexum 140. plect-ere -plexum Iplait \ smite 141. mitt-ere misi missum send 142. quat-ere (/-0) quassum shake 143. ced-ere cessi cessum yield 144. claud-ere clausi clausum shut 145. divid-ere divisi divisum divide 146. laed-ere laesi laesum hurt 147. lud-ere lusi lusum play 148. plaud-ere plausi plausum clap hands 149. fad-ere rasi rasum shave 150. rod-ere rosi rosum gnaw 151. trud-ere trusi trusum thrust 152. vad-ere -vasi -vasum go 132. Cpi*. affigo, suffigo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figo, 133. Enlarged forms Aug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius. Cpp. (circum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also affluo, difiluo, effluo. The noun fluctus points to an older Sup. in -turn. 134. Cpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-mergo. 135- Cpp. conspergo, dispergo ; (ad in re)-spergo -spersi -spersum. In old L. these keep a>. 136. For stergere. So C. and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, Jlesh-scra^er. See ter- gere. 137. This and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a suffix t : but, as t falls out before S, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (circum de in re)-flecto. 138. Cpp. (ad con in sub)-necto -nexui -nexum. See meto. 139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum. 140. Gr. TrAeK-. 141. Cpp. dimitto, immitto, omitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub trans)-mitto -misi -missum. 142. Cpp. (con dis ex in per)-cutio -cussi -cussum. So repercutio. 143. Cpp. (abs ante con de dis ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo. 144. Cpp. (con dis ex in inter prae re se)-cludo -clusi -clusum. So occludo, Gr. KAetw. 146. Cpp. allTdo, collTdo, elTdo, il-lTdo -lisi -lisum. 147- Cpp. alludo, colludo, illudo, (de e) -ludo -lusi -lusum. J48. Cpp. applaudo -plausi - plausum, (ex sup)-plodo -plosi -plosum. 149. Cpp. (ab e)-rado. So corrado. R. Sk. rad. 150. Cpp. (de prae)-rodo. So arrodo, corrodo. Sk. rad. 151. Cpp. (abs de ex in ob pro)-trudo. 152. Cpp. (e in per)-vado. 224 Latin Wordlore, §53^ Gk Labial Stems -si -turn 153. carp-ere 154. clep-ere - .rep-ere \ serp-ere r \ scalp-ere 5 ' tsculp-ere 157. glub-ere 158. nub-ere 159. scrib-ere d. Nasal Stems : -si I -turn : 160. c 5m- ere 161. dem-ere 162. prom-ere 163. sum-ere 164. temri-ere -si I -sum : 165. prem-ere carpsi clepsi repsi serpsi scalpsi sculpsi glupsi nupsi scripsi compsi dempsi prompsi sumpsi tempsi pressi e. Liquid (Sibilant) Stems -si I -turn 166. ger-ere 167. ur-ere gessi ussi carptum cleptum reptum scalptum sculptum gluptum nuptum scriptum comptum demptum promptum sumptum temptum pressum gestum ustum pluck steal creep crawl scratch grave peel wed writ6 dress hair take away take forth take up despise press carry on burn IL U-verbs : -ul I -utum : 168. acu-ere 169. argu-ere acui argui acutum argutum sharpen prove 153. Cpp. (con de dis ex)-cerpo -cerpsi -cerptum. 154. Gr. Kkdmo). 155. Gpp. (ad ob per sub)-repo. Correpo, irrepo. Serpsi is not found in Classical Latin. R. Pn sarp, 156. Cpp. (ex in)-sculpo: 157. Gr. yAv<^(o. 158. Nubo is classically applied to the woman only, except in a'jocular sense : as Martial viii. 12 : *uxori nubere nolo meae.' It has Perf. nupta sum as well as nupsi. That the verb is originally transitive, meaning to veil or cover, is shewn by various passages and by the Compound obnubo. Hence the bride who covers herself with the flammeum is said nubere (se). 159. Cpp. (ad circum Con de ex in per prae pro re sub tran)-scribo. 160-163 are Cpp. of emo, take, but differing from it in the Perfect. Cpp. of promo : (de ex)-promd -prompsi -promptum. Cpp. of sumo : (ab as con de in re)- sumo -sumpsi -sumptum. 164. Cp. contemno contempsi contemptum. 165. Cpp. imprlmo, supprimo ; (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum* 166. Cpp. (con di e in)-gero. So aggero, suggero. 167. Cpp. (ad ex in per)-uro. Corssen {Kr. Nnchtrd^e, 117) derives amburo, com-buro -bussi -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sk. prushy phishy ' to burn.' 168. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of U in U-verbs, see p. 18. 169. Cp. redarguo. Sk. arjtma-s, clear, Gr. apyds. Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Va^bs, 225 17a exu-ere exui 171. indu-ere indui 172. imbu-ere imbui 173. lu-ere lui 174. minu-ere minui 175. nu^ere nui 176. spu-ere spui 177. statu-ere statui 178. sternu-ere sternui 179. su-ere sui 180. tribu^ere tribui 181. solv-ere solvi 182. volv-ere volvi exutum put off indutum put on iniDUtUiri ItflgC lutum washy atone minutum lessen nutum nod sputuin Spit statutum set up sternutum sneeze sutum sew tributum assign^ pay solutum loose ^ pay volutum roll 183. ru-ere rui 184. batu-ere batui 1^5. -gru-ere -gnii 186. metu-ere metui 187. plu-ere plui rutum (ruttum) beat fear rain Deponent Verbs in Conj. 3 : a. 188. fung-i functus perform 189. nit-i nisus (nixus) strive 190. plect-i -plexus twine 191. pat-i (/-or) passus suffer uti usus use 193. grad-i (/-or) gressus step 176-i. Latin -uo in these Verbs corresponds to Gr. 6uw. Curt. 621. But see Corss. Beitr. 496. Hence, ind-uviae, ex-uviae. 172. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form of p& po-^ * to drink. * 173. Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub)-luo -lui -lutum. Fut. Part, luiturus. Luo is the weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. Aovce ahd L. lav-ere, Idvare (see A-verbs). Curt. 370. See solvere. 174. Cpp. (com de di im)-minuo. R. Sk. mt, Gr. /ai-v. 175. Cpp. (ab an in re)-nuo. Gr. i/evw. 176. Cpp. (con de ex re)-spuo -spui. Gr. irrvo), hence p-i-tuTta for s-pituTta. 377. From status. Cpp. (coh de in pro re subVstituo -stitui -stitQtuni. 179. Cpp. (as con dis re)-suo. R. Sk. siv, 180. From tribus, ^rtde : Root tri, tkree. Applied first to the state-payments of the three original Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo. 181. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solvo. For se-luere, from a verb lu-, /oose=Sk. lii, Gr. \v-, but not otherwise shewn in L. 183. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. fcX^oa. 183. Cpp. (di e ob pro sub)-ruo -rui -riitum. Sd corruo, irrtio. Fut. Part. rUi* tiirus. 185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo. 186. MetQtum appears in LuCr. v. 1139. 187. Cp. depluo. (The word delibutiis, steeped, belongs to a disused Verb delibuo.) 188. Cpp. (de per)-fungor. 189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re sub)-nitor -nixus. J'or g-nitor. R. Sk. jdHU, Or. ydinj, knee. 190. See plectere. Cpp. amplector, complector, embrace. 191. Cp. perpetior, perpessus. 192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus. 193- Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus. Q 226 Latin Wordlore, §53. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. j3. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204, 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. lab-i mor-i (/-or) quer-i fru-i 16qu-i sequ-i apisc-i -menisc-i expergisc-i fatisc-i (g)nasc-i irasc-i nancisc-i oblivisc-i pacisc-i proficisc-i lapsus mortuus questus fruitus locutus secutus aptus -mentus experrectus fessus (g)natus iratus nactus oblitus pactus profectus glide ^ fall die complain enjoy speak follow obtain have in mind wake up be weary be born be angry find forget bargain set out 194. 195. Cpp. (de di e praeter pro sub re)-labor -lapsus. So allabor, collabor, illabor. Cpp. (de e)-morior -mortuus. Fut. Part, moriturus. So imraorior. R. Sk, viar. Mortuus is an Adj. used participially. 196. Cp. conqueror conquestus. 197. For frugv-i, hence fructus ; but Fut. Part, fruiturus. Cp. perfruor perfruitus. 198. Cpp. (e ob pro)-loquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor. 199. Cpp. (con ex in ob per pro sub)-sequor -secutus. R. Sk. sad, Gr. kit-. 200. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. dp. 201. Cpp. comminiscor commentus ; reminiscor, no Part. R. Sk. man. 202. The Cp. expergisci experrectus is evidently weakened from exporgisci 'expor- rectus : from exporrigi, to stretch oneself out (on awakening). See rego. Cp. defetiscor defessus. Cp. (con e in)-nascor -natus, Fut. Part, nasciturus. Observe cognatus. prog- natus. See gignere, 73. Nanctus is also used : and nanciam is cited as an old form. From liv-ere, to be of a dark colour ; hence oblivisci, to become darkened, to forget. So Corssen, Nachtr., 34, See pan go. Cpp. (com de)-paciscor or -peciscor. R. Sk. pasf. From pro fac- {niake forward). (Inchoative Verbs derived from other Verbs have been mentioned in the Notes to the Syllabus.) A) Inchoatives derived from Nouns are very numerous ; examples are— i) Having a Perfect, but no Supine. 203. 204. 206. 207. 208. 209. From vesper — creber crudus durus — macer — maturus — mutus — niger — notus — surdus — vanus — vilis vesperasco advesperasco invesperasco crebresco increbresco percrebresco recrudesco duresco induresco obduresco macresco maturesco obmutesco nigresco innotesco obsurdesco vanesco evanesco vilesco evilesco vesperavi advesperavi invesperavi crebui increbui percrebui recrudui durui indurui obdurui macrui maturui obmutui nigrui innotui obsurdui vanui evanui vilui evilui (grow towards evening I become frequent become sore agaifC I grow hard grow lean become ripe become mute become black become known become deaf I vanish a^vay I become cheap §53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 2^7 ': 210. ulcisc-i 211. vesc-i y. 212. liqu-i 213. ring-i ultus avenge feed melt grin s) Without Perfect or Supine : puer puerasco (re) curvus incurvesco ignis ignesco iuvenis iuvenesco (re) integet" integrasco mitis mitesco arbor arboresco mollis mollesco diVes ditesco pinguis pingueseo dulcis dulcesco pluma plumesco glHandis grandesco sterilis sterilesco gravis gravesco (in) tener tener-esco -asco (iri) niger iiigresco lentus lentesco fatisco (Gr. xa-),fall o^en, &c. 3) Some are of uncertain origin : glisco, increase Conquinisco, conquexi, st/^oJ>^ is am old and temarkable Inchoative Verb, Obs. Other Verbs of Conj, 3. without Perfect and Supine are : ambigo, doubi ; clango ; furo, rage ; plecto, s^rike^ B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though differiii^ in sense and gisnerally morigm, i) Verbs having the «anie First Person Present Ind. in different Conjugations. „Conj. I, appello compello colligo consterno effero Conj. 3. call address bind alarm appello compello colligo consterno mAke wild effero land compel collect strew bear out Conj. I. Conj. 3. fundo found ftindo pouf^ mando entrust mando chew obsero bolt obsero sow over volo Jlj^ volo wish With difference of Quantity : CcMij. I. Conj. 3. Colo strain colo till dico dedicate dico say indTco point out indico proclaim praedlco declare praedico foretell 2) The same form df Perfect ; Cdnj. i. Conj. 3'. educo train educo lead out lego bequeath lego read, &C. with Compounds. acesco, 3. cerno, 3. ffigeO, 2. fulgeo, luceo, 2. mulceo, 2. paveo, 2. grow sour sift am cold glitter shine soothe dread 3) Thfe same form of Supine ; Cerno, 3. pando, 3. pango, 3. teneo, 2. verro, 3. video, 2. vivo, 3. sift spread fasten hold sweep see live I'erfect. acub, 3. iharpen acui cresoo, 3. grow crevi frigp, 3. roast frixi fulcio, 4. prop fulsi lugeo, 2. mourn luxi mulgeo, 2, milk inulsi pasco, 3. feed pavi Supine. CreSCo, 3. grow tretum patior, 3. suffer passum paciscor, 3. bargain pacturrt tendo, 3. stretch fentum verto, 3. turn versunl viso, 3. visit visum vinco, 3. conquey victura Q 2 228 Latin Wordlvre. ^ % 54-55. 54 Par CHAPTER IV. PARTICLES. verbs. tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun- cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad- verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul, s i m u 1) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re- lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a Noun-case. Section 1. Ad-^^ Adverbs.* i. The relations expressed by Adverbs zx^'^Xz.tt^ Time; Number ; Order ; Manner ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad- verbs (which maybe called Logical) are used for questioning, deny- ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse. ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to 1. Place : 1. ubi ? where ? 4. qua ? by which way f 2. quo ? whither ? quatenus ? how far ? 3. quorsum? whitherward? 0 The following List contains most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverbs, with samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs. The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.) I. Adverbs of Place : X. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Ubi? ubinam? tVkere? *Utrubi? In which place {oi two) t . . ibi,illic, istic, there; hie, here; hie illic, here and there; mibi, therein; ibidem, in the same place; alibi, elsewhere; alicubi, somewhere; -ubi, uspiam, a-ny- where; usquam, anywhere at all; ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever; ubivis, ubilibet, where you will; *utrulibet, in either place ; *utrubique, in both places ; *neutrubi, in neither place ; ubique, usquequaque, everywhere ; nusquam, no- where; prope, near-, procul, aloof, afar; ante, prae, in front ; post, pone, be- hind; circa, circum, around; cis, citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond; contra, over against; iuxta, iuxtim, adjoining; intra, within; extra, without ; sm^qv, above; subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; supeme, above ; inferne, below ; pas- sim here and there, everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign parts ; praesto, at hand ; run, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ; belli, m'ilitiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance. 2. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde ? Whence ? inde iUim illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc mde, hmc iWxnc, from this side and that ; indidem, from same place ; aliunde, from another place ; alicunde, from some place ; -unde, from anyplace ; undeunde, nndecumciue, from whatever Place • undevis, undelibet, whence you will ; undxque, from all sides; utnmque, from 'both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; mtus, intnnsecus, from within, within ; extrinsecus, without ; altrinsecus,/r^w one or other side \ §55- Adverbs, 229 II. Time : 1. quando ? when? 3. quousque? to what limit f 2. quamdiu? how long f quoad? until when? Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago f desuper, JroM. above ; subtus, from beneath ; caelitus, from heaven ; divinitus, from t)ie deity ; penitus, from far within ; funditus, from the base ; radicitus, stvr^\X.\xSyfrom the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.) 3. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Quo ? quonam? Whither ^ *Utro2 To which place (of two)? eo, illuc, illo, istuc, isto, thither ; hue, hither ; hue illue, hither and thither ; eodem, to the same place ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhither ; -quo, quo- piam, anywhither ; quoquam, anywhither at all ; nequoquam, nowhither ; quo- quo, quocumque, whithersoever', quovis, quolibet, whither you will; *utrovis, to which place you will {pi two) ; *utroque, to both places ; *neutro, to neither place ; citro, to this side; ultro, to yon side, farther ; ultro citroque, to and fro ; intro, to within ; ^oxxo, forward; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, hito the country ; foras, out of doors. Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to yon side : idiomatically it gains these senses : going farther, yet farther, without instigation, of free motion. The questions quoad ? quousque? how farl are answered by usque» all the way ; ea usque, that far ; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thus far. 4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? Whitherward'? illorsum, istorsum, thithenuard ; horsum, hitherward ; aliorsum, to another quar-^ ter; aliquors-um(-us), to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter', *utroque versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-us), inwards ; sursum, upwards ; deors-um, downwards ; sursum deorsum, susque deque, up and down ; prors-um (-us), straightforwards ; rursum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors-um (-us), rursumC-us), rursum vorsum, backwards ; seors-um(-us), apart ; exadvers-us (-um), over against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the left ; pessum, to ruin ; incjissum, to no purpose. 5« Adverbs corresponding to the question Qua? quanam? By which way? in which direction ? ea, lUa, iliac, thai way ; hac, this way ; eadem, the same way ; alia, another way ; aliqua, sojne way ; -qua, any way ; quaquam, any way at all ; quadam, a certain way ; quaque, every way ; quaqua, quacumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet, any way you will ; *utravis, *utralibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by no means ; recta, straight on ; dextra, by the right road ; sinistra, by the left road. The question Quatenus ? How far ? is answered by eatenus, that far, so far ; hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua- damtenus, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent. Obs. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istic, hie ; inde, illinc,, istinc, Wnc; eo, illue, istuc, hue, &c., correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is, ille, iste, hie. In the series of time, nunc corresponds to hie, tune to is. The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis, qui, being chiefly used with Particles, as si-c-ubi, si-e-unde, siquo, &e., ne-e-ubi, ne-c- Unde, nequando, &c., where ubi, unde, resume the e of the Relative. Uspiam, quopiam, &e., are used, like quispiam, in afiirmative clauses; usquam, quo- quam, &c., like quisquam, in negative or dubitative clauses. II. Adverbs of Time : I. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecquando? When? turn, tune, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; nunc, now ; etiamnunc or etiamnumj even now ; inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; hine, abhinc, dehinc, henceforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time ; ali- quando, at some time ; umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes; numquam non, always ; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam, ohm, some time or other {formerly or hereafter). — lam, now, already ; iam turn, even then ; iamnunc, nunciam, iamiam, et iam, even now ; diu, long j 230 Latin Wordlore, § 55. II L Number : quotiens? how many times f how of ten f IV. Manner : {how f) quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qui? ut?) dudum (for diudum), a while ago ; pridem, at a former time ; iamdiu, iamdu- dum, iampridem, long ago ; haud dudum, haud pridem, not long ago; interdum, no%v and then ; nondum, hauddum, not yet ; vixdum, hardly yet \ tandem, at length ', demum, at last ; mox, by and by, soon ; propediem, presently \ protenus, protinam, forthwith ', interim, interea, meanwhile ; ante, antea, prius, before;, antehac, antidhac, heretofore ; post, postea, (postidea), after, afterwards ; post- hac, hereafter; postilla, after that time; postmodo, soon after. — Modo, now, lately, soon ; nuper, newly, lately ; TQcens, freshly, lately ; denuo, afresh,^ again ; commodum, j'tist now ; antiquitus, of old ; primitus, from the first ; simul, at the same time ; semper, usque, usquequaque, always ; perpetuo, continu- ally ; sero, late ; cito, speecfily ; actutum, briskly ; confestim, in a trife ; cop- tinuo, without stop ; extemplo, on the moment ; ilico (in loco), o^t- the spot ; ilicet, straightway ; statim, instantly ; repente, derepente, subito, ^u^denly ; quam primum, as soon as possible ; obiter, by the way. — Hodie, to-day ; heri, here, yesterday ; eras, to-7norrow ; pridie, the day befote ; postridie, the day after ; perendie, the next day but one ; nudius tertius, the third day back, &c. ; mane (mani), in the morning ; dilueulo, at dawn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi, vespere, at eve7i ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytime ; nocti, noctii, in the night- time. The Abl, brevi, also perbrevi, mefins either in a short time or in a few words (brevi dictione). a) The questions quam dudum? quam pridem? how long ago? are answered by diu ; dudum ; pridem ; iamdiu ; iamdudum ; iampridem ; h^ud dudum ; haud pridem ; haud ita pridem. 2. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu ? How long ? (diu, long ; perdiu, very long ; tamdiu, so long,- aliquamdiu, some length of time ; tantisper, so long ; aliquantisper, for some time ; pjirumper, paulisper, for a little time ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum, for ever ; amplius, longer ; non amplius, haud amplius, non iam, no longer. The questions quousque, quoad, to what limit of time ? are answered by usque, usque- quaque, cojitinjially ; adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c. JII. Adverbs of Number : Answering the question, Quotiens ? How often f totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, pluriens, several times ; identidem, repeatedly ; inter- dum, subinde, 7iow and then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepius, often \ per- saepe, saepissime, very often ; plerumque, generally ; crebro, frequently ; raro, seldom ; cotidie, indies, daily ; quotannis, annually ; semel, once ; bis, twice ; ter, thrice, &c. &c, See Numeralia. a) Ordinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordine ? primum, frst ; primo, in the first place ; deinde, in the next place ; turn, then, afterwards ; denique, finally ; postremo, in the last place ; deinceps, next in order ; secundo, in the second place ; tertio, in the third place, &c. ; porro, farther ; insuper, moreover ; necnpp, also ; praeterea, besides ; quin, further- mo7'e. IV. Adverbs of Manner : Answering the question Quomodo? quomodonam? quemadmodum? qui? ut? How? adeo, ita, sic, so ; aeque, adaeque, equally, as much ; item, itidem, pariter, perinde, proinde, similiter, iuxta, in like mmner; contra, contrariwise; aliter, secus, otherwise. 1 55. Adverbs, 231 V. Degree : I. quam? how? 2. quantum? how much? VI. Cause : {why ? wherefore f) quare ? cur ? quamobrem ? VII. Quality: qualiter ? in what kind of way f V. Adverbs of Degree : %. Adverbs answering to the question Quam? How? tarn, so ; omniho, prorsiis, altogether ; admodum, oppido, penitus, plane, perquam, sane, sanequam, valde, valdequam, very, quite ; vementer, exceedingly : longe. Jar; magis, more ; maxime, most, very; minus, less; m\vi\m^, leas*, not at all \ potius, rather; potissimum, chiejly ; in primis, apprime, praecipue, praesertim, especially ; etiam, vel, even ; fere, almost, generally ; ferme, paenc, almost ; prope, propemodo, propemodum, nearly, almost ; aegre, vix, scarcely, hardly ; dumtaxat, merely ; modo, only ; saltern, at least ; solum, solummodS, tantum, tantummodo, only ; utique, in fact, at all events. 2. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum ? How much ? tantum, so much ; aliquantum, considerably ; multum, much ; permultum, plurimum, very much ; plus, more ; satis, sat, eno7igh ; abunde, affatim, plentifully ; nimis, nimium, too much ; paulum, little ; paululum, very little ; parum, little, too little ; minus, less ; minimum, least, very little ; quantulum, quantillum, hoiv little ; tantulum, tantillum, so little, a) The question Quanto ? By how much ? is answered by tanto, eo, by so much ; ali- quanto, by a good deal; multo, nimio, by a great deal ; paulo, by a little ; nihilo, &c. The question Quanto o\)Q.xq.,How gteatly? by tanto opere, so greatly, magnoopere, greatly ; maximo opere, very greatly. VI. Adverbs of Cause : Answering the question Quare ? cur ? quamobrem? Why 1 wherefore ? eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, on that accoutit ; ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; proin, proinde, accordingly. VII. Adverbs of Quality (chiefly formed from Adjectives : but also many from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles). Answering the question Qualiter ? In what kind of way ? Examples are : bene, well ; male, /// ; rite, duly ; iucunde, pleasantly ; gravate, grudgingly ; recte, rightly ; i)ulch.re, finely ; late, widely ; longe lateque,yrt:r andwide ; publice,/?/^- licly ; misere, wretchedly ; splendide, nobly, &c. &c. &c. ; audacter, boldly ; feliciter, happily ; fortiter, bravely ; amanter, lovingly ; decanter, becomingly ; sapienter, wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim, gradually ; furtim, stealthily ; paulatim, pedetentim, little by little ; nominatim, by nam^- ; singulatim, sigillatim, individually ; viritim, man by man ; tributim, tribe by tribe ; vicissim, by turns ; seorsim, apart, &c. &c. &c. ; consulto, deliberately ; tuto, safely ; falso, falsely ; fortuito, casually ; gratuito, zvithout fee ; improviso, inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly ; liquido, clearly ; merito, deservedly, &c. ; clam, clanculum, secretly ; palam, openly \ una, simul, together ; bifariam, bipartito, in two parts ; trifariam, tripartito, &c. ; temere, at hazard ; forte, by chance ; sponte, by choice ; rite, duly ; temperi, seasonably ; frustra, in vain ; perperam, badly; gratiis, gratis, yr^^/j/ ; ingratiis, unwelcomely ; coram, face to face; alio- qui(-n), ceteroqui(-n), in other respects ; nequiquam, to no purpose ; incassum, fruitlessly ; praefiscine, without offence. This adverb is derived from prae, fascino, barring the evil eye^ under favour, * Praefiscine dixerim,' Plant. Asin. ii. 4. 84. For Comparison of Adverbs see § 30, 232 Latin Wordlore, §56. VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affirma- tive or negative answers, are : -ne (enclitic)? an? anne? num? numne? utrum? utrumne? nonne? annon? 56 Prepo- sitions. Table of Prepo- sitions. Section II. Prepositions. A Preposition is an exponent of relation between one Noun and another. i. The primary relations are those of Place, Time, Number. From these spring many others, which are figurative or logical. The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when Person or Thing represents Place : apud regem, at the king's court \ ante me, in front of me ; ^d bellum, to the war. The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the time of Romulus ; ante tubas ferrumque, ^^r^ the invention of trumpets and steel. Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with Verbs of Rest ; many with both. Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to forrn Adverbial Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs: admodun;i, in- vicern, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c. ii. Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative. i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case : — ad to^ at, &c. ob over against, on advers-us(uni) against, toward account of ante apud circum circa circiter cis, citra contra erga extra infra inter intra iuxta before near, at, with around around, about about on this side of against towards outside of below penes per pone post praeter in the power of through behind after, behind beside prope, near,^ propius, proxime propter on account of nigh secundum next, ciccording to supra aborve trans across between, among ultra beyond within versus, versuni toward^ next to Logical Adverbs, used to modify Discourse, are (1) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely y of a sooth \ nimirum, to be sure ; (2) quidem, equidem, indeed ; certe, certainly, at least ; tamen, attamen, yety nevertheless ; nihilominus, nevertheless ; (3) fors, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perhaps ; (4) immo, nay buty nay rather \ (5) certo, assuredly ; ita, etiam, yeSy even so ; ne (often spelt nae), yea, verily ; plane, evidently ; profecto, doubtless ; sane, ^uite so ; utique, in sooth ; vero, truly, yes indeed', quippe, to be sure \ (6) non, noty no ; baud (haut), not, no (the reverse) : minime, by no means ; ne, not, lest ; nedum, not to say, much less ; ne . . . quidem, not even. Conjunctions, 233 a, ah^ abs absque clam coram cum de out oj^ front in sight of before^ owing to before for without as far as^ Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city. Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case. 2) The following take the Ablative Case: — by or from ex, e without palam unknown to prae tn the presence of pro with sine from, concerning tenus Ab stands before vowels and li ; a and often ab before consonants ; ^b5 sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usual. Ex stands before vowels and li ; ex and e before consionants. Cilam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets. Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some- tiajies to the Relative : as mecum, nobis cum, tecupi, vobis- cu^, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum, 3) The following take the Accusative or (he Ablative : — an into, against (Ace), in (Abl.) super over^ upon sub up to, under (Ace), under (Abl.) subter undeir In and sub with Accusative imply motion ; \vith Ablative, rest. junc- tions. Section III. Conjunctions. 57 Conjunctions are of two Classes : co^- Coordinative, or those which link words and sen- tences without affection of Mood. B, Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with affection of Mood. The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination : quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quam- vis, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu. A. Coordinative Conjunctions are;— Annexive : et, -que,^ ^;^^ both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and\ neque, nec, nor, neither : and the adverbial words item, also, etiam, quoque,^ also, even ; necnon, moreover. Disjunctive : aut, vel, -ve,^ or, either*; sive, seu, either, or. Adversative : sed, at (ast), verum, but ; autem,^ but, now ; ceterum, ; 2it<\m, but yet \ vqyo,^ truly, but ; t3men,yet, nevertheless ; attamen, verumtamen, however, but yet. Causal : nam, namque, enim,^ etenim, for ; enimvero, for in truth. ' -que -ve are enclitics, always attached to the word which they affect, or to some other in the same clause. ^ Quoque, autem, vero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause, but usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ; quoque, quidem, after the word which they affect. 234 Latin Wordlore, §58. Illative : ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore. Conclusive : quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, w/^^r^m Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, veluti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem- admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque, ac, as ; quam, thaji^ as ; quasi, tamquam, as^ as it were\ utpote, as being, B, Subordinative Conjunctions are :— Consecutive : ut, so that ; (ut non) ; quin, btit that, that not. Final : ut, /;/ order that ; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), /;/ order that not ; utinam, O that ; utinam ne, &c. ; quo, /// order that ; quominus, in order that not. Causal : quod, quia, because ; quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, since ; siquidem, inasmuch as ; quom or cum, since. Temporal : quom or cum, wheri ; ubi, quando, when ; ut, when, from the time that ; dum, donee, while, whilst ; dum, donee, tmtil ; quoad, whilst ; quoad, until ; ante- quam, priusquam, />^^/ ; postquam, after that; simul ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotiens, as often as ; and others. Conditional : si, if; sin (for si-ne), but if ; sive, seu, or if whe- ther; msi, unless ; ni, unless; si modo, si tantum, if only, or modo, tantum (omitting si); dum, ^Mva'sxiod.o, provided that, or modo (omitting dum). Concessive : etsi, etiamsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, althougJi, even if; quamquam, utut, howeve?' ; quamvis, although, lit. how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although. Comparative : quasi, as if {(or quam si) ; ut si, ac si, velut si, as if; or velut (dropping si); tamquam, as though (for tamquam si) ; ceu, as //(dropping si). Obs. In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included All Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely : The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c., inasmuch as both these classes link sentences with affection of Mood. 38 Section IV. Inter- I n t C f j C C 1 1 0 nS, jections. Interjections strictly so called (interiecta, inserted in the sentence without affecting its form) express : Invocation : O, heus, oho or ohe, eia or heia; pro (proh), eho, ehodum, hark, halloa, &c. Designation ; en, ecce, lo I behold! Surprise : O, hem, em, e hem, babae, and the comic words au; hui; va (vah) ; eia; bombax ; at at or attat; at t ate; attat tatae. Disgust : (comic) phui, 2ih.2i, faugh ; T^}\y,pooh/ Sditi^ty : oYiQ, o\Q\, enough / Laughter : (comic) aha (ha ha), hahahae. Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, huzza! joy ! &c., and the comic words euax, eugepae (evyeTrai)- Derivation of Nouns. 235 Praise : eu, euge, eia, bravo ! well done ! Sec, Pain and Sorrow : heu, eheu, hei or ei, vae, ab or a, alasf woe / i 1 i c e t, alPs up ! Deprecation : pro (proh), forbid it ! Call to Silence : st, hush! Several Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs are used in exclamation or invocation, like Interjections. Such are : 1) Nouns: pax, ^/^j-i^/ malum,//^^//^ / nefas, infandum, ^;^^?;^- stroits ! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe. The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used with an Ablative or Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb ma cere. M. Lucr. v. 1339. 2) Verbs : quaeso, prithee I precor, oro, obsecro, pray; 2imdiho^ do t please ; sis (si vis), sultis (si Y\x\i\s\ please : sodes (si audies?), if you'll be so good : agesis, agedum, agitedum,, come now ; c e d o (PL c e 1 1 e), give me\ a p a g e, away, avaunt, 3) Adverbs : profecto, really \ nae (or ne), i'mhy used with the Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim . . . nae illi arrant, &:c* [a) The following expressions are elliptical : mehercule^ = me, Hercule, iuves, so help me, Hercules. mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, iuves, so help me. Castor, edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so help m.e^ Pollux, medius fidius = me, deus Fidius, iuves, so help me, God of faith (ZeifQ III(ttiol). pro luppiter = prohibeas,^ luppiter, J^ove forbid, pro di immortales = prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven forefend! {b) O, a, heu, eheu, hem, eia, en, ecce, pro are found with Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, heus, eho, and others are often accompanied by a Vocative. The Vocative itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction of the sentence. CHAPTER V, DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. Section L Derivation of Nouns. i. The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are suffiLs shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next vadol? to sh ew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root, or one Stem from another. * Mehercle, hercle, are abridged forms. ' The etymology of pro (proh) here given is not disproved by the phrase ' pro denm atque hominum fidem,' which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deum atque hominum ndem violari.' 236 Latin Wordlore. §59. That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac- ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crude lit as, Stem cru-d-eli-tat-, tat is the staminal Suffix. It commonly happens that a word comes immediately from an- other, which is itself derived from a third, and so on, till a root or rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the Theme of such as are immediately derived from it. Thus, Theme of crudelitas : Adj. crudelis ; Stem crudeli-. Theme of crudelis : Adj. criidus; Stem crudo- for cru-Ido-. Theme of crudus : Root cru-, Sk. kraviy Gr. icjocf-, raw flesh.. Beginning from the Root, the order is : cru-, crii-Ido- ( = cru-du-»), cru-Id-ell- ( = cru-d-eh-»), cru-Id-ell-tat*. ( =- cru-d-eli-ta-s). Here the suffixes are id6 (id-), ell, tat ; to each of which the ending s is joined to form the Nominative Case. The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation^ \>Y other suffixes. Thus from cru- come cru-or,^^7r^, cru-entu-s,^^7r>' ; from this the Verb cru-ent-a-re : from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s and cru-d-esc-ere : from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter ; crudelitas merely forms its own Cases. ii. Root or Rudiment. The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Con** parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand- ing the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture. Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; e s, tct> go^ I, fhat^ da, sta, ag, ap, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cap (see p. 190): while inf3,c, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin words, c is now held to be a suffix, added to the root fa = Sk. bhdy Grv ^a-, to give light, under which stand new groups, including fax, facies, fateor, fari, fas, &c., with their derivatives. Hence it is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi- ment rather than a root. iii. Suffix. The derivation and distribution af Latin Suffixes, with their meaning, when they have one, are a special topic too wide to be fully treated here. The Syllabus which follows, with the subjoined examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's method (Lat. Wortbildung und Composition), though not his order ; corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher {Com- pend. §§ 215-231) and Corssen {Ausspr, L 566, &c.). Bopp, Leo Meyer, and Kick's Lexicon have also been consulted. Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, having been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni- ence as if it were simple. Such are tudon^ mento^ cundo, bundo, &c. § 59i Derivation of Nouns. 237 iv. Rudimental Words. Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are d) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux, nex, nux, pix, prec-, die-, grex, pes, vas (vad-), adips, caelebs, dap-, op-, stip-, with many compound words, auspex, haruspex, obex, index, iudex, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps, praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c. lux, pax, vox, lex, r ex, &c. c) sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos, ros, flos, OS (or-) : also farr- (far), fell- (fel), melt- (mel), ost- (os, bone), cord- (cor). V. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot). In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations used are : S. Substantive. V, Verbalia (words derived from Verbs). A. Adjective. D, Denominativa (words derived from Nouns). Unc. (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown. &c. ) placed after Examples cited, indicate that many &c. &c. others exist of the same class, and that in &c. &c. &c. J some instances the number is very large. Every Suffix ending in 5 must be taken as including the forms lis, a, um; that is, A-nouns as well as 0-nouns* I. Vowels and V.^ Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters a, 6, K, ii, e), the most important is id, including, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub- stantives in !a, mm, and of Possessive Adjectives in ius. S. «) a /8) 6 7) e, ie d) u %) t K) r}) 0) u6, v6, iv6, vi. I. Vowels and V. Substantives. a) Masc. V. scrib-a, adven-a, incol-a, tefrigeii-ai, &c. V. merg-us, cormorant ; tor-us, couch \ fug-a, Jligkt ; talp-d> Mole ; pronub-a, bridesmaid ; iug-um, yoke, &c. &c. D. nimb-us, cloud ; nerv-us ; tauf-us ; lup-us ; or-a, coast ; sal-iim, brine, &.C. y) V. f Id-es, efifig-ies, spec-ies, &c. D. paut)er-ies . . . 6) V. ac-us, D. nur-us. 0 V. arx, falx, nix, ap-is, rup-es, &c. D. nox, nub-es, mar-e, &c. ^ Mostly D. calc-eus, shoe ; trab-ea, striped robe ; flamm-eum, bridal veil, &c. V, 61-ea, olive. ri) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, player . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A large number of Fern. D. av-ia, grandmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audac-ia, boldness ; ignav-ia, sloth ; victor-ia, znctory ; absent-ia, absence, &c. &c. &c. A large number are Neut. most K denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, mar- ^age ', gaud-ium, Joy, &c. &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old age : sav-ium, kiss, &c. &c. Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, &c., should be ranked as V. $) Ud : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian-ua, house-door ; v6 : V. D. cer-vus ; ri-vus ; lar-va, mask, spectre ; zx-SMxa, ploitgh-land \ iv6 : ol-iva, an olive; sal- iva, spittle ; VI : V. ci-vis. 238'^ Latin W or dlore. §59, A. a) 6 j3) 1 7) eo 5) 16 €) u6, v6, ivo, tiVo, vi. II. C. C is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives : Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however, the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind : as in senex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex ; caecus, flaccus, luscus, mancus, truncus, &c. So in c-ulo c is deminutive, but in c-undo it denotes permanent activity. S. cr) ci ic f3) CO C16 ICO tico 7) ac oc 5) ic ico i) ucd. A. a) CO ico tico lico jS) aci oci 7) aco aceo Adjectives : a) 6: V. ^A-us,, faithful ; viv-us, alive . . . with Cpp. naufrag-us, shipwrecked; T^Toing-us, ftigitive . . . D. re-us, accused ; nov-us, new ; me-us, tu-us, su-us . . . /3) \: I-s ; qui-s ; qui ; iug-is . . . Cpp. bimar-is . . . y) eo : D. implying * Fo-nned of : ' aur-eus, golden ; argent-eus, of silver ; * Exhibit- ing'J lut-eus, mtiddy ; lut-eus, of deep yellow ; * Belongi7ig to : ' virgin-eus, maiden, maidenlike, &c. Note. — eo represents Gr. €109, Pythagor-eus, El-eus, of E lis. 6) io : D. imply generally * Having the quality ' of, or ' Belonging to : 'mart-ius, patr- ius, reg-ius, pluv-ius, &c. &c. ; some Cpp. egreg-ius, exim-ius. Aer-ius, aether-ius are Greek, having the sense of L. eus. Alius, Gr. aAAo?=al-yus ; medius, Gr. /u.€'<rcro? = med-yus ; 1 being i-consonans. Add plebe-ius = plebe-yus. 0 u6 : V. with some in v6, iv6, chiefly ]^., may imply ^Active quality : ' contig-uus, adjoi7iing ; contin-uus, &c. ; gna-vus, knowing ; ^ro\.Qr-\\xs, frolicsome ; sae-vus, raging, &c. ; noc-uus or noc-ivus, hurtful^ &c. : ot may have Passive use ; divid-uus, parted ; ingen-uus, freeborn ; mut-uus, exchanged (between two per- sons or parties), mutual ; relic-uus, left ; rig-uus, irHg-uus, watered ; vid-uus, •widowed ', ca-vus, hollow ; sal-vus safe ; adopt ^ivus, chosen, adoptive ; especially those in t-iv6, having the Supine or participial suffix t : captivus, captured ; fes- tWus, festive ; fugi-tivus, na-tivus, praeroga-tivus, vo-tivus, &c. &c. Aes-tivus, of summer, supposes a verb aedere (Gf. aiB-), to heat ; tempes-tivus, season- able, is abnormal ; mor-tuus (=mor-tivus), dead ; ann-uusis a rare Denom. ;mens- tr-uus seems to be for mens-trius from itiensis, month, vi : brevis, Gr. ^paxv^ ; gravis, Sk. gun^s, Gr. ^apv^ ; le-vis, Sk. laghus, Gr. cAaxv'?, light ; le-vis, Gr. Aetf OS, smooth ; sua-vis, Sk. svaduSi Gr. tt/Su's. II. C. Substantives. a) ci: lanx, merx (faeci- fauci- . . .): ic (ix). P". appendix : ic (ex), V. vert-ex, vort-ex, D. ram-ex. See pp. 9^-6 (most uftc). J3) CO : V. fo-cus, hearth ; fu-cus, drone ; es-ca, food, D. luven-cus -ca ; cio-, V. sola-cium ; D. un-cia (from unus); iCO : D. vil-icus, steward; vil-ica, steward's wife \ man-Tea, handcuff ; ped-ica, fetter, springe, &c. ; ticO, V can-tlcum : D. viaticum, provision for journey. y) D. forn-ax, furnace ; Yim-ax, snail ; ce\-ox, yacht. ic, p. 96 (most unc. rad-ix, &c.) : but F. in triC- trlx, Fem. as mere-trix, vic- trix, &c. (see R) ; ic6 : V. D. mend-icus, -Tea, beggar; \ect-Tca., litter, and others. e) lact-uca, lettuce (some unc. ). Adjectives. a) CO : V. D. par-cus, pau-cus, pris-cus, rau-cus, sic-Cus, &c. (some unc.) : ic6 : most D. imply * Pertaining to : ' bell-icus, publ-!cus, &c. : some V. med-Tcus, of healing (as Subst. physician). Many Gentilia ; ScythTcus, &c. tiCO : D. rus-tTcus, aqua-ticus, &c. V. vena-tTcus ; lico : D. fame-lTcus. /3) aci : V. imply * Inclined to,' * Capable of : ' aud-ax, daring ; ed-ax, devouring ; iox-z-x, fruitful, &c. &c. ; 5ci : V. ' Inclined to : ' fer-ox, haughty ; vel-ox, swift. y) aco: mer-acus, pure (op-acus, shady, unc); Subst. clo-aca, sewer (clu = lu). a,ced : D. ' Consisting of : ' farr- aceus, of flour, and some others. §59' Derivation of Nouns. 239 5) ic6 Icio tlclo e) Icl uco uceo 17) laco. III. G, In many words which have gr before the final vowel or case-end- ing, this cons, is known to be a root- character : as in lex, rex, strix, frug-, coniux, angu-is, compag-es, contag-es, merg-us, rog-us, fug-a, plag-a, plag-a, tog-a, iug-um, and others. {Pinguis, as compared with Sk. Gr. 7rt-, seems to shew a suffix but not if compared with Gr. Tra^vc. See Curt. Gr, Ef, 276,) This suggests the probabihty that in uncertain words, as vag-us, alg-a, and others, gr is radical rather than suffixal. On the other hand, it is probable that the root dg is suffixal (ig, ag, ig, iig) in various words. Its presence in remex (remum agere), auriga (aureas agere), prodigus, and ambages, is obvious : in con- fluges, coagulum, strages, stragulus, it may be conjectured : also in nugae, for nov-ig-ae, novelties = trifles as opposed to sefia (from serus), long-considered inatter : * hae nugae seria ducunt in mala.' Valgus, volgus are deduced by some from Sk. roots. (May not the latter be referred to the former word ?) Finally, the root ag may be supposed in agron, egron, ug:on : see M". Compare the Greek odnyo^j Xopriyog, &c. On fastig-ium, vestig-ium, see C. Ausspr. II. 427, Kr, B, 197, 361. IV. T. This is the most efficient suffixal letter in Aryan language. If we include its representation by s and d, it enters into the forma- tion of all Participles and Participial Adjectives, and into that of all Verbal Substantives with Participial theme : by the suffixes to (so, <16), tu (sii), ti (si), tion (sion), nti, &c. Besides which it forms important groups of Denominative Substantives ; concrete by the suffixes it et, abstract by the suffixes tat tut, and others. (For the suffixes into which n enters, see HT : for do, di see B. The suffixes so, sii, si are included here.) S. o) ta ita /6) to (so) ito y) tu (su) itu atu Itii ultii 5) ic6 : V. 2im-\cViS, friendly (Subst. friend') ; pud-icusy modest ; apr-icus, sunny ; from Particles ; ant-iquus, ancient ; post-Icus, hinder ; iciO : D. imply * Consist- ing of : ' later-Tcius : brick,' &c. 'Pertaining to ;' natal-icius, belonging to a birthday, &c. but nov-Tcius, newly arrived {novice')^ Juv. : ticio (sicio) : V. (Sup. St.) Participial: advec-ticius, imported; Gonduc-ticius, hired', trala- ticius, transferred, &c. The quantity of ti, si is probably variable. e) (fel-ix, pern-ix, both una) i) UCO : V, only ca-d-ucus,, falling; uceo : D. only pann-uceus, ragged, rj) Greek D. card-iacus, dyspeptic : Aegypt-iacus, &c. IV. T. Substantives. a) D. nau-ta, nav-ita. . V . numerous : lec-tus, bed ; sec-ta, sect ; fa-tum, fat^ ; cau-sSy cause ; pen-sum, task ; mer-itum, desert ; ius-sum, command, &c. &c. D. : liber-tus, freedman ; iuven-ta, yotith ; salic-tum, willow-bed ; carec-tum, sedge-bed ; virgul-tum, thicket, &c. The last three have turn for etum. See 6) below. 7) tu (su), J tu : V. (Sup. St.) fle-tus, weeping; mo-tus, motion ; ic-tus, stroke; crucia-tus, torture ; mugl-tus, bellowing ; hab-itus, habit ; strep-itus, noise ; nex-us, connexion ; vi-sus, sight, &c. &c. (Pr. st.) hal-Ttus, spir-itus, breath ; tum- ultus, tiproar. But D. in atU denote Office, Position, Corporate Body, &c. : consul-atus, cojisulship ; sen-atus, senate ; re-atus, state of aocusatio7i ; equit-- atus, cavalry, &c. 240 Latin Wordlore, §59- et5 0 it (st) t) et \t ry) tat Itat etat estat 6) tut itut i) tid (sld) Itlo Itie ic) ato uto ltd X) dt ted. f A. a) td (sd) \Xo i8) at6 7) et6 8) ito c) dt6 ut5 X) ati Itl f?) tl Stl ft. V. B. This cons, is a principal element in several important compound . Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under w. Be- sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix ido* S. a) do Idd /3) di 7) ed od I) ud. A. a) do id5 6) di. VL P, It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except piilo, in which the root pur^ pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained : mani^pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c. : du-pl-ex, &c. in which pi- ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s). 5) ace-tum, vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting * Place of grotuth myrt-etum, mjrtle-grove ; oliv-etum, olive-yard, &c. <) gens, mens, sors, &c. ; vec-tis, ves-tis, vi-tis, mes-sis. D. me'n-sis, nep-tis. K seg-es, ar-ies (see C. Nachtr. 268-270) : and D. in es It-, al-es, equ-£s, ped-es, &c p. 97. ■»)) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pi-etas, soci-efas (e by dis- similation after i), &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c., see It : pot-estas, eg-estas may be for -ent-tas. <6) Abstract D. iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, serv-itus. •t) Z>, nun-tius, nun-tia, trist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-'itia, &c. &c. *) pal-atum, /a/a/^ ; ^zX-Mta., goddess of Morn \ phu-ita., ^pAlegm^ A.) dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson. |ui) lin-teum, towel. Adjectives. a) D. numerous: ius-tus,y?/5/ ; mul-tus, much ; Sex-tus, sixth, &c. &c. V. tac-ifus, silent', sal-sus, salted', with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of 2. and others ; tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-itus, atton-itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c. &c. &c. jS) D. numerous : barb-atus, bearded ; ferr-atus, iron-clady &o. &c. most Parti- ciples of Conj. I. am-atus, arm-atus, &c. &c. &c. y) V . fac-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr-etus, &c. fi) D. crin-ltus, rich-haired ; mell-itus, honied, &c. V. most Participles of Conj. 4. and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c. &c. «) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed^ &c. V, Participles of Verbs in UO, ac-utus, arg-utus, &c. ^ D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, Ztd p. xo8. 17) for-tis, hebes, dives, p. n6, &c. V. B. Substantives. a) V. mo-dus ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae>da ; crep*Idat V. laus, cla-des. y) V, her-es, merc-es,(cust-os?) 8) D. pec-us ud-. Adjectives. a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, thilly, frosty \ hcrb-idus, grassy ; morb-idus, diseased \ sol-idus ; suc-idus, juicy , and others : V. many from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Conj. 2.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av-idus, call-idus, ferv-idus, pall-idus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, val-idus, um-idus, &c. &c. ; cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, viv-idus. /5) D. gran-dis ; viri-dis. §59. Derivation of Nou7is, 241 VII. B. S. o) b6. /3) bi. A. bo. on bundo see JJ ; on bili bert^ &c., see :l, S. VIII. This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter- minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of all Masc. and Fern. Nouns, and the first three cases of Neut. 0-nouns. The Suffix mo enters into the Superl. form of the Adj. Min (men), mento have con- crete use, implying Instrument : monio implies Permanent State : S. ct) mo imo timo /^) min (men) imin (imen) iimini (umen) y) mento imento iimentd amento /) mon iimon f) monio imonio l) umno. A. a) mo /3) imo (iimo) timo (tiimo) simo (siimo) riilio (riimo) liind (liimo) issimo (issiimd) esimd (esiimd). VII. B. ^ Substantives, a) mor-bus, tu-ba, tur-ba, ver-bum. /3) plebs, pu-bes. Adjectives : pro-bus (7rpo-<|)V7?9), super-bus (urrep-^UTjs?). VIII. Substantives. a) V. ar-mus, shoulder-j'dint ; fu-mus, smoke ; ra-mus, hougJi ; a!n-Tfritis, nihid ; an-Tma, breath ; fa-ma, y^zw^; flam-ma, ; spu-ma,yi7^;« ; vic-tima, victim ; ar-ma, arms, S:c. D. bru-ma, /;/^V/-'^f^V^^^r (brevi-ma). /3) V. Neut. (numerous) : imply * Means, Instrument or Concrete Effect : * (i) wheri the theme has active force : flu-men, stream ; lu-men, light ; lenT-men, leva-meii, assuagejnent ; nu-men, nod, deity ; nutrT-men, nutriment ; feg-imen, govern- ment ; sola-men, comfort ; teg-men, covering : (2) when the theme has a pas- sive sense : ag-men, a marching body (quod agitur) ; no-men, Jtdme (quod nos- citur) : stra-men, straw (quod sternitur) ; se-men, ^^^^(quod seritur) ; exa-men, swarm of bees (quod exigitur, which is driven out) or tongue of balance (quod exigitur, which is adjusted). So crimen, a charge ; doc-umen, lesson, &c. &c. &c. Some suppose Verbs not in use : albu-men, gra-men, grass (ger-ere or gen-ere ? Compare ger-men, sprout). (Many unc. abdo-men, bitu-men, iT-men and others. Flamen, Masc. from flag- </)AeY-, lighter of sacrificidl fire.) 7) this Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and varieties: V. (i) Act. argu-mentum, /r<?<2/^ ; 2iX-mt.nX.\xm, plo^igh-cattle ; comple- mentum, what fills up ; fo-mentum, pozdtice (quod fuvet), fer-mentum (quod fervet) ; nutrT-mentum, orna-mentum, al-Tmentum, teg-umentum. (2) Pass, cae- lAentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; ra-mentum, shaving (quod rMitur), testa-mentum, will. Sec. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calcea-men- tum, shoe ; rudT-mentum, first training, rudiment (compare erudire) ; palud- amentum, military cloak. 5) sef-mo, discoiirse : (Lucu-mo, prince, priest, in Etruria). e) jD. acr-imonla, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melancholy ; parc-imonia (rather thart pars-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint : al -imonium, nonri^hmeiit, 8lc. 0 V- al -umnus, nui^sling ; eol-umna, column. Adjectives. a) V, al-mus, genial ; fir-mus, firm. D. On Superl. suffix mo s€e p. 42. So the Ordinal Numerals septinuis, decimus, &c. p. 152. D. plur-Tmus, ci-tTmus, pes-stmus, acer-rTmus, humil-lTmus, dur-issTmus, quin- quag-ensimus, cent-ensTmus (umus), &c. &c. See pp. 42, 153. 242 Latin Wovdlore, § 59. y) itimd (itiimd) Imo () mi. IX. W. The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when n is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (na, no, ind, and, ino, &c.) or by two vowels (neo, ineo, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub- stantives, the Stem-character (en, in, en, on, on) ; here it does not, like t, d, fall out before a Nom.-Ending s, but rejects s, remaining itself in the form en or en (pecten, tegmen, lien), but rejected by the stems on on, which become 0 in Nom. Sing, (homo, natio, Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, d or s (ento, enti, endo, ensi, &c.), rarely before gr (quadringenti) : being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (men-td), sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (ntl, nsi). S. (i) o) na /3) no ino y) and ond iind end ilend I) Ino i) nl (2) Q en (in) men (min) n) on (in) 0) gon agron Ig^on ugrdn (grin) i) don edon iddn udon (din) tudon itudon (din) fc) on ion cion tion sion (3) X) enti anti \i) undon (din). See mento under »1. 7) D. leg-itTmus, mar-itimus (-umus). 6) D. matr-Tmus, having motJier alive ; patr-Tmus : (op-Tmus, having wealth, rich). e) co-mis, subllmis {seeti Jrom underneath * limis oculis ? ' i.e. loft^^. Compare obli- quus). IX. Substantives, o) V. ver-na, houseslave. /3) V. som-nus, dom-inus, pen-na, pag-ina, feg-'num. ... 2). pi-nus, pine-tree. ■y) and : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parchment ; (gra-num, a grain) \ ono : V. col-onus, farm-tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ona, matron ; und : D. trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una> fortune ; end : V. hab-ena, rein \ D. lani-ena, butchet^s shop ; (ven-enum, poisdn^ ; le-aena, lioness, &c. ; ilend : V. cant-ilena, ditty. 6) ind : V. inquil-inus, lodger; rn-ina., fall, ruin \ rap-msi, plunder ; cu-lina, kitchen ; D. gall-ina, hen ; medic-ina, medical art ; discipl-ina,- teaching, school, &c. e) y. fi-nis, end ; cri-nis, parted hair. 0 V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mm), &.C. see IMt. 7i) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, whirlwind, top. $) g'dn : X>.vir-go, virgin ; agrdn : V. \or-3igo, gulph ; D. farr-ago, mess of flour', (im-ago, imagef) ; ig^dn : V. or-igo, origin ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ug^dn : D. aer-ugo, copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down, &c. (Genitives glnis.) a) ddn : or-do, order ^ eddn : V. dulc-edo, sweetness'', torp-edo, numbness', Iddn : V. cup-ido, desire ; uddn : D. test-udo, tortoise , penthouse ; ituddn : D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, viciss-itudo ; Vale-'tudo (for valent- udo?), &c. &c. (Genitives dinis.) k) 5n : m. D. commilit-o, fellow-soldier ; epul-o, ianqueter, ^c. &c. : V. bib-o, toper ; erro, vagabond ; ion, many masc. D. liid-io, player ; sen-io, sice, &c. V. pug-io, poniard. Fem. V. (Pres. St.) : condic-io, leg-io, opin-io, suspic-io, &C. Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. ; cion : homun- cio ; tion, sion : Fem. V. (Sup. St.), a very numerous class of words : aestima- tio, admoni-tio, sortT-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c. &c. &c. A) V. adulesc-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, animrans, inf-ans, &c. D. tri-ens, quad-rans, &c. hir-undo, swallow;, har-undo, reed. Derivation of Nouns. 243 A. (i) cx) no ino neo g^ino grno tino /8) ano aneo taned y) end leno oend uno I) ino, tino i) ni (3) ento iilentd olento ilento (grinto cento ^ento) / ) anti enti ilenti ulentlC 6) ensi lensi ensiii () undo endo ando k) cundo A) bundd. X. s. The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly F., represents the Dentalt (so, si, sion,sor, sorid, surd). When s is a Stem-charactei-, in many words, especially in the older, it remains in Norn. Sing, flos, r o s, o p u s, n e m u s, V e n u s, p u 1 V i s, &c., but oftener becomes r in the suffix OS or : pudor, auctor, &c. : while in some words both forms were used : honos or honor, labos or labor, lepos or lepor : so amos, colos occur. In the Oblique Cases s becomes r : floris, roris, operis. Veneris, honoris, &c. But if in derivation such words come before a Mute, then s is resumed : flos-culus, opus- culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for h€s-i| Gr. x^^^c) : not before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see On the falling out of n befoi-e s in various words (quotiens, sem- enstris, formonsus^ vicensumus, &c.)^ see p. 50. a) sa /3) so si slid eszd ison Adjectives. «) D. mag-nus, sa-nus; va-nus, vfef--hu^, no-hus, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-hus ; acer-niisi' of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-Tnus; ahe-neus, of brass ; ebur-neus, of ivory ; (ido-neus, fit) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gntis, kind, boiin- tifii^ : cras-tinus, of the morrow ; pris-tlnus, of olden time. D. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain \ quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily ; s,\xh\xrh-zxvcis,, near the city \ subterr-aneus, imdergrotind ; V. supervac-an6us ; cijllec-taneus^ gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c. y) V. eg-enus, needy : D. aili-entis, foreign ; terr-enus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op- port-unusy at hand ; (amoenus, agreeable^. 5) D. can-Inus, of a dog ; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea^ &c. &c. ; libert-inus, off^eedman-class ; matut-inus, of morn ; yesper-titius, if evehing, &c. sfeg-nis, lazy. O cru-entus, bloody ; vi-oleiitus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, tvdsted \ (corp-ulentus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms vi-gintiy tri-gmta, &c. du-centi, quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia. V Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denoting * Pfesent activity : ' abs-ens, eleg-ans, impud-ens, pf ud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-ens, audi-^ns,' &c. &c. &c.j (petiil-ans). D. pest-ilens. 6) D. for -^nsis^qftheforuni', Athen-iensis, of Athett^ ut-ensilis,^^??' ; observe di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questioniible. 0 V. Gerundive Palrticiples in undus (anc), endus, andus ; reg-undue, audi-endu^; alm-andus, &c. &c. &c. 'Y\\t.y diQXiO\.%^ Present dcttvity.^ See Syntax. V- CUndd is a suffix compounded of the sufiixes cd and ndd^ and denotes ^ Permanehi action or ^Present activity'.* fa-cundus, eloquent', iu-cundus, pleasant ; v^fe-cundus, bashful, &c. &c. &c. ^ • bundd is compounded of "bd and ndd, a!nd denotes * ProduciioH of Present activity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in laying waste \ vaga-bundus^ giveh to wan- der ; moH-bundus, on the point of dying, &c. It is foand with afl Object : ^vita- bundus ca;stra hostium,' striving tti dzJoid the enemy s campi LiV. X. S. Substantives, a) V, Hxa, sutler (lic-ere ?). V. na-sus, nose ; noxa, hartn, &c. (see T) ; mes-sis, harvest ; ama-sius, sweet- lieart ; Megal-esiajj^^^/ of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom. R 2 244 Latin Wordlore, § 59. 7) isco isto estro astro es {ts, iis) = er t) OS {tis) = or I) OS {or) = or »?) used usto A. o) SO s^6 /3) oso ioso coso ciilosd &c. 7) stri estri astro Istro c) est! estico t) used estd usto T]) ids (^'^^r) = lor. XI. R. This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes without a second Consonant in the same Suffix (ro, ari, arid, &c.), often in sequence of one of the mutes, c, t, b (cro, tro, bro, &c.). On its relations to 1 and to s see pp. 64. 65, and s above. S. n) TO P) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) bero (bro) t) t^rd (tro) V) TVL v) ri 9) er erco erto y) lent-iscus, lentisk ; ar-ista, ear of com ; fen-estra, ivindoiu ; D. in -aster, -astrum are of a demi native nature : ole-aster, ivild olive ; api-astrum, wild parsley ^ mint ; parasit-aster, a ivould-be parasite. 6 e 0 Nouns increasing in er- from Nominatives in Ts, us, in or- from us, and in or- from OS, will be found at pp. 25, 102. rf) moll-usca : (loc-usta). Adjectives. a) F. las-sus, anxius, &c. &c. See T. oso (for onso or ontid, as ouo-ia for ourla), numerous ; D. anim-osus, form-osus, &c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur-iosus, &c. : belli-cosus, siti-culosus, monstr-uosus, &c. 7) V. illu-stris ; D. palu-stris, silv-estris : sin-ister, 5) D. agr-estis, cael-estis, dom-esticus. \) D. cor-uscus, glittering. j) D> funestus from funus, er- ; scelestus from scelus, er— ; honestus from honos, or- (so tempestas from tempus, or-) ; but onustus from onus, er- ; venustus from Venus, er- ; vetustus from vetus, er- ; modestus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus from augur, and robustus from robur, shew that, even in Subst. with Nom. ur, the original ending was us. t;) This is the Suffix of Comparatives : mel-Ior (anc. melior, melios). Seep. 21. XI. R. Substantives. a) V. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, lip ; (aurora, morning, p. 66). /3) V. num-erus, number ; arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, son-in-law ; op-era, aid \ iug- erum, acre. D. um-erus, shoulder', sat-ura, satire. y) V. Neuter words implying * That which effects action : ' simula-crum, likeness ; sepul-crum, a grave ; lu-crum, gain ; ful-crum (for fulc-crum), prop, &c. &c. Culd (cl6) is another form : cena-culum, dining-room. See Ii. The suffix comes from the root Sk. kar, L. cre-o, to make. fi) V. * That which effects action : ' fa-ber, engineer ; dola-bra, hatchet ; late-bra, hidvig-place ; cri-brum, sieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel). D. candela- brum, candlestick. Root Sk. bhar, Gr. ^ep-. Biilo is another form : turi-bulum, cetiser. e) The Suffix ter (tro) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr. Top- (shewn in ripixa, terminus, trames, trans, in-tra-re, pene-tra-re, &c.), go beyond, penetrate, attain, (i) It corresponds to the comparative suffix Sk. tara, Gr. T^po-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Com- par. -Tepo5, L. ter : magis-ter, minis-ter, mater-tera, &c. &c. and in Adverbs. (2) Like cro and bro, it denotes in V. * That which effects the actioji : ' cul-ter, knife ; mulc-tra, milkpail ; ara-trum, plough ; claus-trum, barrier ; ros-trum, beak (rod-) ; ras-trum, harrow (rad-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, S is euphonically in- serted. ^) V. cur-rus, chariot. 7)) V. au-ris, ear; na-ris, nostril, e) D. ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hausa, Gr. xh^^y ((ander; paes-er, sparrow ; muli-er, woman; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. it-^r, journey ; cad-av-er, corpse. g 59. Derivation of No mis. 24 5 i) beri bri fc) teri (tri) X) ter tr /u) iner inor v) bar i) or iir o) ari tt) ario p) or = or (t) t6r = tor (sor) trie- t) torio (sorio) v) uro url urio turo (surd), A, o) ro j8) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) e) bero (bro) tero (tro) t) esteri (estri) aro oro ero rj) cer» (cri) G) beri (bri) <) teri (tri) k) ari A) ario p) torio (sorSo) 1^) turo (surd). t) V. ie-hris, fever. k) (linger or lunter, boat ?) A) See above eX This suffix corresponds to the Sk. tara, denoting chiefly relation- ships : pa-ter, ma-ter, fra-ter. Observe (Sk. svasar, Gr. oap, L. soror for sosor). ft) (itiner), journey ; (iociner), liver : (facinor-) facinus, deed, exploit, crime, i ) iu-bar, sunbeam. I) D, aequ-or, level surface, sea ; (unc. iecur, ebur, robur. Gen. -oris). V. fulg-ur, ligtning; Gen. -uris. (Unc. augur, turtur, vultur.) o) mol-aris (lapis), grindstone: many Neut. from Adjectives : alve-are, ^^W; calc-ar, sptir, &c. &c. Tt) Properly Adj . libr-arius, copyer of books ; den-arius, a ten-as piece ; Aulul-aria (name of a Comedy of Plautus) ; tabul-arium, record-office ; pom-arium, orchard, &c.&c, p) V. or from prim, rudiment : am-or, love ; cru-or, blood ; clam-or, outcry ; trem-or, trembling ; um-or, moisture ; (ux-or, ivife ?), Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. Many had character S originally : umos, lepos, &c. See S. «r) V. a numerous class, denoting * an Agent : ' ara-tor, ora-tor, pisca-tor, moni-tor» ac-tor, vic-tor, spon-sor, mes-sor, Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. The Fern, form is trie trix : moni-trix, vic-trix, tons-trix, &c. &c. D. gladia-tor, via-tor, fund-T-tor, iani-tor, and some others. t) From Verbal Adjectives Neut. : denote chiefly locality : audi-torlum, lecture-room ; dever-sorium, hostel, &c. See below m)- v) K f Tg-ura, shape ; sec-uris, ci c \ , , i en-uria, petiury ; promunt-urium, promoH" tory. </)) V. (Sup. St.) na-tura, nature ; sepul-tura, Imrial ; men-sura, measure ; cae-sura, cuttiftg, &c. : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tura, quaestorship \ cen-sura, censorship. Others imply ' the work of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura, painting ; ton-sura, shaving, &c. Adjectives. o) V. cla-rus, gna-rus. /3) V. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, lac-er, sac-er, scab-er, rough : D. satur. 7) ludi-cer. 5) V. cre-h&r, fre(/7(ent. «) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, nos-ter, ves^-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See above e). V. av-arus, covetous ; can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aust-erus ; sev-erus ; sin-cerus, pro-cerus ?). ■)?) V. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer ?). V. cele-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-brls (drops r). This suffix is from Sk. R. bhar, Gr. (f)ep-. 0 D. I. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semes-tris (for semens- tris) : 2. camp-estris, silv-estris, terr-ester (tris). k) D. in art are a large class and imply * Belonging to ; ' they are used for forms in all if 1 is before in the word : consul-aris ; famili-aris ; milit-aris ; sol-aris ; vulg-aris, &c. &c. &c. They form Substantives in ar ari. See above o). A) The suffix ario is an enlargement of ari. The Adjectives derived from Nouns and Particles imply character, quality, class. See. : agr-arius, of land ; greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt» arius, &c. &c. &c. Hence Substt. See above tt). m) These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply * Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, &c. &:c. &c. v) This is theFut. Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting ' Intended activity :' ama-turus, da-turus, placT-turus, T-turus, fu-turus, lu-surus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c. 246 Latin Wordlore. §59. XII. l. This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D. (ulo, 616, eli6, &c.) : and it often denotes weakness^ lightness^ &c. in Suffixes of Verbaha (ulo, ili, till). But after a long Vowel it has the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus the Suffixes ali ari are virtually the same : but the former is always preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) : but ario is never changed into alio (agr-arius). The Suffix biilo is a softened form of bero (bro) ; bili of beri (bri), both from root bhar^ ^ep- ; ciilo (as distinguished from the double Demin. c-ulo) is a softened forra of per6 (cro) from root kar. (i) Not fprmally Deniinutive. S. a) ^ /3) 15 iilo ule6 7) pul5 (cl6) h) bulo 6) el6 Wo illo 17) n III i)) fill 11| eU. A. a) ulo uleo /8) \\o XII. Xi. (?) Substantives, a) V. assec-la, mSi%Q.. follower. /3) D. vio-la, violet (Gr. \ov) ; pi-lun^, pestle ; neb-ula, cloud- V, cpc-ulus, CK,ckoo ; ang-ulus, corver ; fig-ulus, potter ; qc-u1us, eye ; cop-ula, link ; spec-ula, watch tower ; exem-p-lum (for exim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulum), ^c- &c. In these and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, ^nd in many unc. (cat-ulus, cum-ukis, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. (rvoTreAo?, stim^ulus. vit-ulus, fist-ula, ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3). Oi^ rSg-ula, rule-, teg-ula, tiie, see pp. 16, 17. P6-pul-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the root par {pri) p7il pie. See P. y) V. (Pres. St.) numerous : implying ' Instrument^ means of action,' are Neut. : gu- berna-culum, hehn ; ora-culum (-clum), oracle ; specta-culum, sight ; vehi-culum, vehicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c. &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain ; torculum, press, C (QU) has fallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the same occurs in ia-culum, javelin ; spe-cu|um, mirror. Unc. are (graculus, jackdaw, ^nxzxAw^, shoot baculum, walkiii.g-stick, Gr. /3a-? saeculum, rt« ^^i?, generatipn, &c.). See cero (cro)in TL. V. (s^e meaning) : fa-bula, story ; su-bula, awl ; l^ti-bulum, hiding-place ; pa- bulum, yb^/fj^e-r : voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bu|um, censer. f) V. (Pre^. St.) cand-ela, candle; (redupl.) cicind-pla, glp'wworjn ; suad-ela, /^r- snasion : (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St.) corrupt-ela, corruption ; tut-el^, guardianship or (concrete)^«a?'<^/<^«, "jpard. D. client-ela, clientage. {;) (unc. aqu-ila); D. cap-illus, ^<«z> ; anc-illa, maidservant ; arg-illa, clay ; scint-illa, s^ark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex-illum, banner, &c. (probably deniinutive of lost forms, or formed by analogy). 17) V. cw.-\\z, stalk ; q.qS,-\\'b,, hill ; %tx\^^X\%, flesh-brush. D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. all, Masc. : nat-alis, hirth<^ay ; riv-alis, ifiv^l (unc. can-alis, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c. Neut. foc-ale, neck'isjrapper ; penetr-ale, inner shrine ; aniri^-al, &c. p. 107, with Plur. names of Feasts : Consutalia, Luperc-alia, Termin-aha, ^c. &c. p. 126. ill, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, April, &c. Neut. cub-ile, hast-ile, ov-ile, sed-ilp, &c. p. 107. Plur. Var-ilia., feast of Pales ; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with sacrifice of swine, sheep, and steer- eli '• patru-elis, cousin on father's side. Adjeptives. a) D. bubtulus, of an ax \ caer-ulps, caer-uleus, sky-blue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V- (Pres. St.) denoting * Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus, strid-ulus, sed-ulusj, trem-ulus, &c., all wi^^i demin. characteif : (ui^c. aem-ulus). /3) D. nub-ili^s, cloudy ; rut-ilus, red^diish. § Derivation of Nouns, 247 7) 111 bill ibiu i) tin (sin) ^ Sltm »/) all 111 uli ell, (2) Deminutive. S. and A, I. d) iilo (anc. 615, which remains after e, 1), ello, 1115, ull5, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal, but contain the Stem-character 1, n or r assimilated to 1 of the Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy. c) ell5, 1115, secondary Deminutives for ul-ul5. d) ellul5, illul5, secondary Deminutives, when derived from ^), tertiary, when derived from c). 7) V, (Pres. St.) denoting Tendency or capacity : ag-ilis,- nimble ; hab-ilis, apt ; tieb-ilis, weak ; fac-ilis, easy ; diffic-ilis, difficult ', nub-ilis, marriageable ; ut-ilis, usefuly &c, D' hum-ilis, lowly ; sim-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc. grac-ilis, slender). 5) V. (Pres. St.) denoting chiefly * Passive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderful ; muta» bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mournful ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis, credible ; no-bilis, noble, &c. &c. &c. Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force, (Sup. St.) ^^yi-ihiWs,, flexible ; plaus-ibiHs, commendable ; sens-ibilis, perceivable^ Add poss^ibilis, possible (of the Silver age). f) V. (Sup. St.) Some denote only ' /*<tj5zW ^«^j/^V^/ differing little from the Perf. Part. : fattened ', coc-ti!is, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned; fis-silis, cleft; mis-- silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted ; versa-tilis, made to revolve, &c. : others denote ' Passive capacity : ' flex-ilis, flexible ; diffu-silis, expansive ; t&z- tilis, that may be touched : others ' A dive quality : * pen-silis hanging ; ses-silis, squab \\o\-.-d,\S!i\s,, flying, &c. Abnornial : itx-vXis^ fruitful, indicating an old word fert-us (fut-tiUs,y>^///^?). ^ D, aqu-atilis, fluviratilis, river-dwellins^, SiC. n) all : Z>. (numerous) denote * Belonging to,' &.C, : aequ-alis, dot-alis, fat-aHs,furi-aIIs, liber-alis, marti-alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triumph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c. &c. ill : D. civ-ilis, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilis, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis, &c. SubtT-lisfor sub-telis, of the zvoof^fitte, subtle. \lXi : D. cur-ulis, like a chariot (applied to the * sella ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) ; trib-ulis, of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis, eatable, is abnormal, ell : D. crud-elis, cruel ; f id-elis, infid-elis. See above ff). (2) Deminutive Nouns. I. a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem un-. less e, 1, 1, n, or r precede the ending : riv-us, riv-ulus ; frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; scut-um, scut-ulum. After 6, i, olus (a, um) is used : alve-us, alve-olus : aure-us, aure-olus ; line-a, line-ola ; horre-um, horre-olum ; <ilj-us, fili-olus ; glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum. Guttural and Dental Nouns add uliis (a, um) to the True Stem : rex, reg-ulus ; cornix, cornTc-ula ; adolescens, adolescent-ulus, g,dolescent-ula caput, capTt-ulum : lapid-u-lus becomes lapillus. h) uliis (a), mus (a), Tnus (a), enus (a), become ellus (a) : populus, popellus ; fabula, fabella ; asinus, asellus ; gemlnys, gemellus ; patina, patella ; catinus, catellus ; catena, catella. er (ra or era, rum) become elliis (a,um) : liber, libellus ; miser, misellus ; capra, capeUa ; oper^, opella ; labium, labellum, G-nus, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium : pug-nus, pug-illus ; signum, sigillum ; poculum, pScillum ; (but scamnum, scabeU lum). 24S Latin Wordlore. §59- e) Substantival Deminutives olio, alo (for axiilo); uleo, and Ad- jectival aulo (aullo), auliild (aulliild), are rare. ^ II. o) The double Deminutive c-iilo. / ) cion is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio. y) unculo in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus. Note I. Care must be t^ken not to class among Deminutives words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : iaculum, poculum, &c. It is probable that umbra-culum and taberna- culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives. 2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogether from that of its theme : avunculus, U7icle (on mother's side), from avus, grandfather ; osculum, kiss, from os, inoiUh. 3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes i'r^>r;^ : usually sniallness only. They keep the Gender of their Primitives. 4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages, which form many words from them : as L, luscini-ola, It. Visignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightiiigale \ L. api-cula, Fr. ab- eille, L. agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb\ L. gem^ellus^ Fr. jumeau, twin, vi. Patronymica, Names derived from Parents or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75. c) Porcellus from porculus, cistella from cistula, codic-illus from codie-ulus (codex), pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives. d) Porcellulus from porcellus, cistellula from cistella, pauxillulus from pauxillus, are ter- tiary Deminutives. e) Coron-ula, corolla ; palus for (paxulus) paxillus ; equ-us, pqu-uleus or equ-ulus ; pauc-ulus, pauUus ; whence pauUulus. II. a) Other Consonant Nouns add cuius (a, um) to the Stem : frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; animal, animal-culum ; flos, flos-culus ; mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum. And from Comparative Adjectives : grandius-culus, rather older \ melius-culus, a little better ; plus-culum, somewhat more. on becomes un : homo, homun-culus ; virgo, virgun-cula ; ratio, ratiun-cula. p$ becomes US in arbos, rumor : arbus-cula, rumus-culus. Bos (bovis) forms bucula, heifer, for bovi-cula. I-nouns take cuius (a, um), and usually shorten i : piscis, pisci-culus ; levis, levi-culus ; pars, part-Tcula ; rete, reti-culum ; venter, ventn- culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canicula, cutlcula, febricula. from anguis, snake, comes anguilla, eel. U-nouns join i-culus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem : versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-Icula ; cornu, corn-iculum. Lacus-culus, domun=ciila, are abnormal exceptions. E-nouns add ciila to the Stem : die-cula, re-cula. Nube-cula, plebe-cula, vulpe-cula, from Nouns of Decl. 3., are formed as though from p-nouns. Derivation of Notms. 249 vii. Names of Countries are usually formed from the name of the people with ending ia. Ital-i, Ital-ia ; Graec-i, Graeeia ; Gall-i, Gallia ; Arab-es, Arab-ia ; Arcad-es, Arcad-ia, &c. Some with the ending is : Pers-ae, Pers-is ; Colch-i, Colch-is ; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c. Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, Illyricum, and some others. viii. Nominative Endings of Derived Words, according to their several meanings.^ I. Substantives : (I.) Abstract : 1) Action; Faculty . K tio, sio ; tus, sus 4 ; io (fem.) ; tura, sura, 2) State; Habit; Effect: V. or or- ; us or-, us er- ; ies, ium ; ina ; monia j monium ; ela (ella) ; tela ; ido, edo ; igo. 3) Quality ; Qualified Condition ; Function : D. ia, ies, ium ; itia, ities, itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo ; ela ; ma ; io (fem.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, tigo ; atus 4 ; tiara, sura. (II.) Concrete : 1) Personal Agent ; Individual: V. tor, sor (masc), trix (fem») ; atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ; D. tor (masc), trix (fem.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; es, it- ; o, io (masc). 2) Efficient Thing {Means, Instrument) . V. en; men; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum, brum, bra; trum. Z>. bulum, brum (in a few instances). ^ Exarpples : I. (I) i) actio, visio ; actus, visus ; oblivio ; sepultura, versura. 2) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ; suadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo. 3) Concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollities, calvitium ; ignorantia, in- tellegentia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senectus ; latitudo, mansuetudo ; clien- tela ; disciplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonium ; pinguedo ; farrago, lanugo ; consulatus, comitatus ; pictura, censura. (II) 1) V. doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus; comedo: — Z>. viator, funditor, ianitrix ; candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio. 2) V. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentum ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulnm, delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : — D. acetabulum (umbraculum, taberna- culum may perhaps be taken as Verbalia). 250 Latin Wordlore. §59 3) Thing effected: K turn, sum. 4) Locality : D, etum ; ctum ; Itum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri- num ; ina. 5) Object: V, ex, Tc- ; D. ale, al ; are, ^r, lie. Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here. Obs. Under other Endings, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; um ; is 3 ; es 3, &:c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but almost all concrete. II. Adjectives : (I.) Verbalia : 1) With Active sense ; ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cqndus ; bundus ; ax j idus ; icus, ucus ; uus, Ivus ; ulus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris; cer, cris ; aneus. 2) With Passive sense : tus, sus (Perf. Part.) : \\\s ; bflis ; tflis, sflis ; uus ; tlvus ; ticius ; taneus. 3) With sense Active or Passive . ndus (Gerundive). (II.) Denominativa : with the meanings 1) * Belonging to : ' ius ; icus ; ticus ; anus ; iSnus ; aneus ; enus, eneus ; ensis^ iensis ; alis, aris, arius ; ilis, elis, ulis ; atilis ; inus ; Ivus; ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus. 2) *'Made ' or ^ consisting of: ' eus ; inus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; ilceus. 3) meritum, visum. (Visio, the seeing ; visus 4, the faculty of sights or the fact of sight: visum, the thing seen.) 4) querqetum ; salictum ; virgultum ; ^^rbustum ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina,. pistrinum ; officina. 5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare, calcar ; bubile ; but V. sedile. II. (I) i) constans, fulgens ; dicturus, mansurus ; iracundus, verecundus ; errabundus ; tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nocivus ; garrulus ; volatilis ; saluber, lugubrls ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus. 2) notus, fessus ; docilis ; amabilis (terribilis, Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis; mutuus; vo- tivus ; conducticius ; collectaneus. 3) notandus, delendus, gerundus,. (II) i) regius, oratorius ; bellicus ; fanaticus, rusticus ; montanus, decumanus ; Caesa- rianus ; spontaneus ; terrenus ; aeneus ; castrensis, Carthaginiensis ; hiemalis, Solaris, gregarius, senaHus ; erilis, crudelis, tribulis ; aquatilis ; marinus, libertinus ; aestivus ; pedester ; caelestis ; maritimus, legitimus ; pater-nus. (Ob- serve colurnus by transposition for corul-nus, from corulus, hazel. ) ?) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; querQUS ; latericius ; hordeaceus ; pannuceus. g Derivation of Nouns, 3^ ^ Full of;"* ^ abounding in : ' osus ; olentus, ulentus, olens ; idus. 4) ' Endued with ' (analogous to Perf. Part.). atus, Itus, utus. 5) ^ Having the nature of:^ stus ; gnus. 6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tinus, tlnus; ernus, umus. ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles; some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions.^ perendie ; perendlnus repente ; repentlnus siiTiul ; similis temere ; temerarius 3) frondosus ; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often implies faultiness : glori-osus, full of (vainy^lory, boastful ; fam-osus, {full of fame,^ but) illfamed ; mor-osus, (full of moralitieSy but) peevish^ morose. Ul- entus, ul-ens probably combine the root of growth, Ol, 111;, with ent- the par- ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody ^ omits Ol. 4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus. 5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus. 6) annotinus ; hornotinus ; serotinus ; ma|;utlnus, vespertlnus ; fiet-ernus, hib-emus, di-urnus, noct-urnus. Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives : diu ; diutlnus hodie ; hodiernu3 diuturnus nimis ; nimius eras ; crastinus nuper ; nuperus heri ; hesternus peregre ; peregrinus Also semp-^i^ternus from semper. Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi- ments : an- an-te (for old Abl. anted or antid). (anter-us) anter-ior : — antlquus. pos' pos-t (for pos-te=old Abl. postid). See M. Lucr. iv. 1186. poster-us, poster-ior, postre-mus : — post-Icus. ct- ci-s ; ci-tra ; ci-tro : (citer) citer-ior, citi-mus. ul- ultra ; ultro : (ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : — ultroneus. com contra ; contro- : (cqnterrus) : — contr-arius. ec- ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus : exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : — externus ; extraneus ; extrarius. in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, (intris) intrin-secus : (inter-us) inter-ior, inti-mus :— intestinus: — intemus : — infra, inferus, infer-ior, infimus, imus : — infemus. pri- prae ; praeter : prior, primus ; priscu? ; pristmus. pro pro-pe ; propter : propior, proximus : — propinquus : — probus : pronus. sup- sub susr ; super, supra ; subter : super-US^ super^ior, suprermus : — supinus. See Footnote, p. 202. de (di-s) : (deter-us), ^eter-ior, deteyripius. re- retro. Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix CO appended to each. se- clam tar- : sme. clandestlnus (lost form clan-dus), appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra. 252 Latin Wordlore. §59. X. Adjectives derived from Proper Names. A) From Personal Names :^ 1) Suffix ius : This is the ending of Roman Nomina Gentiha (clan names) : Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is used sub- stantively. But it is used adjectively to describe a law brought in, a road or public edifice made, by a member of any gens, as lex Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus. 2) Suffixes anus, ianus, Inus, imply * belonging to ' the person : Caesar-/-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August- janus), (Sec. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and 'oratio Metell-ina,^ C. ■ Ait. i. 13. 3) Suffix -eus is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-eus, Romul-eus, &c. Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as domus Augusta ; historia Augusta ; so co lum na Trai9.na, portus Traianus. 4) Suffixes eus ius, for Gr. -ctoc, and Icus for Gr. -tfcoc, are used in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aristotclais, Socrat-icus, &:c. B) Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c. These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively. 1) Suffix anus, chiefly from Places in a or ae : Alba-nus, Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus. 2) Suffix Inus, from Places in ia, lum : Amer-inus (Amerta), Aric-inus (Aricia), Clus-inus (Clusium). Observe also Praenest-inus (Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum). ^ Roman Names. — A Roman of distinction hadat least three names : the Praenomen, individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Gens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur- name, shewing the Familia or family. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Lucius of the Gens lunia and Familia Brutorum. To these were often added Agnomina, titles either of honour (Africanus, Asiaticus, Coriolanus, Creticus, Isauricus, Macedonicus, Numi- cjicus, Magnus, Maximus, &c.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from an- other Gens : Aemjlianus, {adopted from the Gens Aemilia), Domitianus, Licmianv Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Titianus, and many more. The full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and adorned by the Senate with a title, was Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus. The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia, Memmia, Coruncania, &c.) : or there might be a patrician and plebeian j^ens of the same race, as of the Claudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina give them their titles ; being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes are derived ivom. Numerals : Quinctia, Quinctilia (Pompeia, Pompilia, Pomponia, Pontia), Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : soPostumia. Some from Colours : Albia, Caesia, Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, F-ubria, Rutilia. Some from Animals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap- ronia, Canmia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porcia, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities : Caecilia, CaUdia, Catia. Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genucia, Hirtia, Tuventia, Lici- nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Plancia, Plautia, Silia, Spuria, Stertinia, Turpilia, Varia, Val- gia, Vcgetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived from OJj/icey business, station, birthplace. §59. Derivation of Adjectives, 253 3) Suffix as from. Places in na nae num no : Fiden-as (Fidenae), Arpin-as (Arpinum), Aquin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena), Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea). These are declined in at-, like nostras, vestras, optimates, Pe- nates. 4) Suffix ensis from Places in o, and from some in a ae um : Narbon-ensis, Cann-ensis, Mediolan-ensis. Some take i-enfiis : Athen-i-ensis, Carthagin-i-ensis. The same Suffix may represent Gr. eur, as Chalcid-ensis (XaXfci- levc). But eus is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heracleotes for Heracleensis. 5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are : Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Gamerinum : Veiens, from Veii ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the usual forms are Gaeret-anus, Gamert-inus, Veient-aniis,, Tiburt- inus. 6) The Suffixes lus (toe), aeus (atoc)j enus (ryvoc) belong to Ad- jectives derived from the Names of Greek Places : Gorinthius, Rhodius, Lacedaemonius, Larissaeus, Smyrnaeus, Gyzicenus. 7) The Greek Suffixes ates ites otes are rare in Latin : Spar- tiates, Tegeates (but the Adjective forms are Spartanus, Tegeaeus) Abderites (but also Abderitanus) ; Epirotes, Heracleotes. 8) Feminine Gentile Names are in a is as : Gressa, Crefaniy A\xsom%, Ausonian^ Troas, Trojan woman. C) Names of People are either derived from Names of Goun tries and of Gities : Latinus (Latium), Romanus (Roma), Siceliot' ^ (Sicilia), or they are Primitive : Afer, Callus, Syrus, Thrax, Gres {Creta7i). Such Names form Adjectives in icus ius aeus ens'is, &c. : Africus, Gallicus, Syrius, Thracius, Gretaeus, Gretensis,. Cre- ticus, &c. With Personal Names the primitive is often used adjectively, as poeta H ispanuS, miles Gallus, &c. Poets use it with Appel- latives : Marsus aper, venena Go Icha, fl umen Rhenum, flu- men Medum, Hon; and so Fem. Adjectives: Ausonis ora, Gressa pharetra, Verg. or residence, Slg. : Antistia, Aurelia, Cluentia, Coella, Coponia, Cornificia, Curia, Duilia- or' DuilHa,Falcidia, Flaminia, fonteia, Furnia, Gabinia, Hortensia, Maria, Nautia, Scribonia, Servia, Silvia, &c. The Gens lulia is tra;ced back to lulus ; Titia to Titus ; Tullia toTullus, &c. The Cog no mi na are similarly distinguishable: in the oldest times the birthplace or residence often gave a Cognomen ; which sometimes descended to the Family, Came- rinus, Sabinus, but usually not, as Auruncus, Caeliomontanus, Fidenas, Privernas, Siculus, Soranus, Tuscus, &c. Colours give rise t6 Cognomina r Albus, Flavus, Niger, Pullus, Rufus, RutilusI Animals: Asina, Bestia, Biiteo, Canina, Catulus, Catullus, Corvus, Cossus, Galba, Gallus, Lupus, Merula, Mus, Noctua, Porcina, Pulex, Taurus, Verres, Vitulus. I^egv- tables : Caepio, Cicero, Piso ; Lactacinus. Parts of the Body : Arvina', Axilla, Barbula, Crus, Denter, Nerva, Sura, Sulla (for Surula), Scapula : and with Suffix on (o) indi- cating size or prominence of the feature : Capito {big-head), Fronto {big-brow), Labeo, {thick lips), Mento {chiimy), Naso( big nose : but Nasica, sharp nose), Pedo {splayfoot), &c. Implements : Caligula, Carbo, Caudex, Dolabella, Fusus, Malleolus, Marculus, Mar- cellus, Pera, Pnlvillus, Scipio, Stolo, Spinther, &c. Office, station, business, ability, &c. : Albinus, Bubuicus, Camillus, Cursor, Cornicen, Cunctator, Figulus, Hortator, Metellus, 254 Latin Word lore, § 55* ; Section IL doTof' Derivation of Verbs. Verbs. A) Verba Verbalia. Inchoativa (Inceptiva) in sco 3. § 53, p. 209, &c. Imitativa in isso i. \ Frequentativa in so, ito i. [§ 53? P'. 205. Deminutiva in ilio i. J Desiderativa in uric 4. § 53, p; 206. B) Verba Denominativa. Most Verbs in Conj. i and 4 are from Substantives or Adjectives : the greater number being Transitive. laud-are i. praise dit-are i. enrich milit-are i. serve in war liber-are i. set fre> ee nomin-are i name sollicit-are i. make anxious fin-ire 4. eiid insan-ire 4. be mad vest- ire 4. clothe moll-ire 4. soften pisc-ari i. fish laet-ari i. rejoice mol-iri 4. contrive larg-iri 4. bestow Suffixes ul ol cin it igr- ( = &gr-) Xc- Occuf in Conj. i : grat-ul-ari congratulate nav-ig-are sail vi-ol-are do violence mit-ig-are soften sermo-cin-ari discourse claiid^ifc-are limp debil-it-are weaken comitlun-ic-are impart So iur-g-are for iur-ig-are, pur- g- are for pur-ig-are. Most in Conj. 2 are from Substantives ; a fe\^ from Adjectives ; the greater number being Intransitive : call- ere, luc-ere, fiof-efe, flatr-ere. A few U-verbs 3 are Denominativa : acu-ere, metu-ere^ minu-efe/ tribu-ere. Obs, Some Roots have a Trans, and an Intrans. Verb correspond- ing to each other: fugare, to put to flight • fugere, to fly. So cae- dere, cadere ; iacere, iacere ; liquare, liqiiere ; pendere, pendere ; placare, placere ; sedare, sedere and sidere. , Natta, Paterculus, Rex, Regulus, Sallnator, Vespillo. Per&dniilpeculidrities, characteristics or accidefits : Ahenobarbus, Ambustus, Balbus, Barbattls, Brutus, Caecus, Caesar, Cato, Celer, Celsus, Cerco, Cinria, Cincinnatus, Claudus, Cornutus, Crispus, Crassus, Curvus, Dentatus, Fetix, Festus, Flaccus, Flamma, Frugi, Geminus, Glabrio, Gurges, Lana- tus, LentuluS, Lepidus, Longus, Nepos, Nobilior, Paetlis, Pansa, Pilatus, Paullus, f'oUio, Potitus, Plancus, Plautus, Poplicola, Postumus, Priscus, Proculus, Pulcher, Scaeva, Scaevola, Strabo, Torquatus, Tremulus, Trigeminus, Tubfero, Varro, Varus, Verrucosus, Vetus, Vulso. Many Cognomina in anus inus were originally Adjectives derived from an earlier ^ Cognomen : Au2:urinus, Censorinus, Mamercinus, Paetanus, Rufinus, Silanus, An Agnomen of honour sometimes became a Cognomen of the family. Thus in the Valerian clan (which had also the Agnomina Poplicola and Maximus) we find a family be- coming Corvini from Valerius Corvus, and another branch Messallae from the capture of Messana. Of many Cognomina as well as Nomina the origin cannot be traced. §59' Derivation of Particles. 255 Section III. Derivation of Particles. J?^^^; Par- i. Primitive Particles in Latin are few. Of these most tides, belong also to kindred language. Such are ab ; ante ; ambi- ; di- dis- ; ex ; in, indu- in- ; pro ; pri- prae ; per per- (japa and TrepO 5 (cTrt ?) sub ; cum co- [avv ?, K-oiroc) ; et, at ; aut (?) ; que ; ne ; an ; si ; semi- ; seni- or sim- ; heri. A few cannot be traced with certainty beyond Italian language. Such are ad ; de ; re- ; se- ; sine ; cis ; uls ; haud ; eras ; sat. ii. Most Latin Particles are either derived or compounded. 1) Derived Particles are either a) Denominative (from Substantives, Adjectives, or Parti- ciples) ; or b) Pronominal (from Pronouns). c) A few only are from other Particles. Derived Adverbs in general are either Cases of their theitles, or" formed from them with peculiar Endings, in the manner of Cases. The Cases which chiefly form Particles are the Accusative, the \' Ablative, the Locative. 2) Particles may be cortipounded of th€ same or various Parts of Speech.^ • From the List in pp. 228, &c. the student will be able to select examples of coiiiK pounded Particles. I. Relative : 1) with its own Particles and Elements : quamquam, quoquo, ubiubi, utut, &c. : qua- cumque, undecumque, utcumque, quotiescumque, &c. : quSque, ubique, undiqtie, utique, usque, usquequaque, umiquam, uspiam,- usquam : quippe : quousque : (with uter) utrubi, iitrimque, utroque, &c. 2) with Prefix ne : neque ; nec ; nequaquam, nequiquam, neutiquam ; numquam,- nus= piam, niisquam, neutrubi, necubi. 3) with Prefix ali- ', aliquO', aliquam, aliquantum, alicubi, aliquoties ; with other De- monstrative Prefixes : tamquatn, sicuti, sicut, namque, nempe, at^ue ; with Prepositions : antequam, perquam, postquarn, praequam, praeterquam, praeut, prout ; with Conjunc- tions : at-qui, nun-cubi, si-cubi, si-cunde, &c. : with Adjectives : alioqui, ceteroqui, prius- quam. 4) with Demonstrative Suffixes : quonam, quanam, ubinam, utinam, &c. ; ^Vith suffixed Prepositions : quoad, quaprbpter, quocirca, qu^tenus, aliquatenus, &c. ; with Conjunc- tions: quasi, quin, &c. ; with Verbs : quamvis, quovis, quolibet, ubivis, &c. ; with Nouns : quomodo ; quare, cur ; qu^ttiadmodum, quamobf'em, quominus, titpote, &c. II. Demonstratives : Compounded with each other: hi-c, illi-c, &c. : hin-c, illin-c, &c. ; hu-c, illu-c, &c., alibi, aliu-ta, i-ta (for ita-d), i-tem, si-c, e-nim, etenim ; ast (at-s6t C. ?), au-tem, tamen (tarn in?) ideo : With Prepositions: adeo, adhuc, dein, exin, proin, abhinc, dehinc, inibi, interibi, postibi ; interim ; antea, aritidea, antehac, antidhac, postea, postidea, posthac, postilla, interea, praeterea, praeterhac, hacpropter (compare quapropter) ; hactenus, eatenus ; horsum (hovorsum), illofsum, &c. From' dein is formed dein-ceps' (capio). Igitur is of obscure derivation. 2S6 Latin Wordlore. % 59. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases. In the form of Accusative : €1) From Substantives : 1) Uncompounded : (perhaps) parti m, ; foras (pi.), ^;// of doors ; and (rarely) vicem, in the stead ; diu, a long ii7ne (for dium). 2) Compounded with Particles, admodum, affatim, comminiis, eminus, invicem, incassum, obiter, obviam, propcdiem, propemo- dum, postmodum. Clam, coram, palam, perperam, saltem or saltimare of question- able origin. b) From Adjectives : 1) in am : bifarlam, &c. p. 149 : multifariam. pluvifariam, in many pLij'ts ; promiscam, protinam (Plaut.): in as : alias. 2) in um : ceterum, circum, clanculum, commodum, demum, nimium, solum, verum : — multum, pauUum, parum, tantum, quan- tum, &c., primum, secundum, iterum. Sec, plerumque ; with many Superl. minimum, plurimum, potissimum, postremum, summum, ultimum, &c. (Non, 7iot, anc. noen-um for ne-unum). 3) in e (from real or supposed Adj. in is) : abunde, facile, ap- prime, impune, prope, paene, saepe, &:c. On procliv-i, -e, see Madv. C. Fin. 14 ; M« Liter, ii. 455. 4) in us, IS (Comparative) : plus, minus, melius, potius, saepius, magis (nimis?), &c. &c. &c. Also secus, tenus, protenus. 5) Recens for recenter is a special instance. Obs. I. Add to these the Compounds with vorsunl (versum), as aliorsum, prorsum, rursum, &c. Some of these often use the Nom. form : prorsus, rursus, &c. Obs. 2. Poets freely use Neuter Adjectives Sing, (sofnetirrtes Plur.) adverbially : ^ perfidum ridens Venus,' Hon ; ^ crassum ridet Vulfenius,' Pers. ; Mulce loquentem Lalagen,' Hor. ; ^ suave locus resonat,' Hor. ; ' sedet aeternumque sedebit,' Verg* ; * sera coman- tern narcissum,' Verg. See p. 374. -^) In the form of Ablative : a) From Substantives : i) in o : modo (o being shortened) ; ergo, numero ; and the Compounds, extemplo, profecto, postmodo, saepeilumero ; mag- nopere or magno opere, &c., ilico (in loco), oppido (irri izilip .?). [The peculiar words antea (forante ea), antehac (for ante haec), &c., have been variously explained. Some scholars, as Bucheler, take the Pronouns to be Ablatives, dating from a time when the Prepositions ante, post, inter, praeter, &c., may have been constructed with that case : and they cite arvorsum ead in the Senat. Cons, de Bacch., also apud sCd inter sed, which are found. But Corssen, who discusses the matter, At(ssJ>r ii 45.5 &c takes the Pronouns to be Accus. PI. with the ancient long quantity, and ead, sed,'med,' ea, hac, to be Accus. also, the d growing out of a temporary confusion of Accus. and Abl. forms at an era when the Abl. was losing its old final d. This view .seems right ] § 59^ Denominative Adverbs, 2$/ 2) in e : forte, lure, rite, sponte. ^ 3) in is (pi.) : gratis or gratiis ; ingratis or ingratiis ; foris. M. Lucr, iii. 935. d) From Adjectives and Participles : 1) in a (orig. Abl. ad, underst. parte or via) : dextra, laeva, sinistra : the Pronouns ea, hac, alia, &c. To this formation belong all the Prepositions in a, which are really Ablatives Fem. (circa, citra, ultra, contra, &c.). 2) in o orig. 6d (but cito) : certo, composito, continue, consulto, ' falso, merito, raro, subito, tuto, vero, &c. &c., bipartite, &c., inopi- nato, necopinato ; primo, secundo, &c. : immo : Superl. meritissimo^ postremo, supremo, ultimo, praesto : omnino, from a lost omninus : Cp. denuo (de novo). To this formation belong the Prepositional Adverbs citro, ultrd, intro, porro, retro, contro- from Adjectives in -ter (from tara^ comparative suffix). 3) in i : brevi, perbrevi (dicto or tempore). 4) in Is : alternis (vicibus) ; paucis (verbis); imprimis Or iii primis ; cum ptimis. Q In the fotm of Locative (Place or Time) ; heri ; domi ; humi ; ruri ; temperi ; vesperi or vespere ; mane (mani) ; diu, dy dcty ; noctu or nocti ; ho-die ; pri-die ; postri-die ; peren-die {iripar^ the day after to-morrow ; cotidie. PI. quot-annis. (The forms diu, long^ perdiu and perdius, all day, ittterdius^ interdiu, Z7t the daytime^ are by C. considered to be Accusative.) iv. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. These Endings are principally e (e) ; ter (er), ^ter \ tim, sim ; tiis ; tens or ies. 1) Adverbs in e are derived from Adjectives and Participles of the O-declerision : alt-e, caut-e, misfet-e, pulchr-Cj &c. &c. &c. Bene, male were shortened early, like mo do. Obs, e appears to be an anc. Abl. for e-d. See p. 46. 2) Adverbs with the Compar. ending ter, iter are derived chiefly from Adjj. of the Cons, and I-declensions : audac-ter (audac-iter), difficul-ter, felic-iter, forti-tet, molli-ter, pari-ter, &c. &c. T'i falls out : decen-ter for decenti-ter, &c. Ali-ter is from the old form alis. Some 0-Adjj. form Advv. in ter as well as ifi ^ : dur-e and dur-iter : hiiman-e and human-iter \ luculent-e and luculen-ter, &c. 3) Adverbs in tim, sim are derived d) from Perf Participles : s 2S8 Latm Wordlore. §59. coniunc-tim, minu-tim, praeser-tim, rap-tim ; pede-tentim, step by step (pedem tendere) ; sta-tim, immediately ; cur- sim, pas-sim, sen-sim, seor-sim, &c. &c. h) from Substantives or Adjectives : fur-tim, uber-tim ; vicis-sim ; singul-tim, &c. Obs, Some form e as well as im : gravat-e or -im ; separat-e or im, &C. 4) Adverbs in tus are from (i) Substantives : cael-I-tus; fund-I- tus ; radic-i-tus ; pen-i-tus : (2) Adjectives : divin-I-tus : (3) Pre- positions ; in-tus ; sub-tus. Mord-icus, with the teeth^ is peculiar. 5) On the Numeral Adverbs in lens (ies) see § 33. V. Derivation of Pronominal Particles. Pronominal Stems give birth to various Case-form Particles (Conjunctions and Adverbs), and again to various inseparable Elements, which enter into the composition of other Particles. 1) The Interrogative and Relative Stem quo, qui (Prim, kd) : whence the Case-form Particles quom or cum, quam, quod ; quo, qui, qua ; and the Ele- ments u- um- us- (whence u-bi, un-de, us-que, umquam, &:c.) ^ -que {-pe ?) -ciimqiie. The Demonstrative Stems 2) 1, 16 : whence the Particles ea, eo, and (with Suff.) i-bi : and the Element im which with -de forms the Particle inde. 3) to, ta : whence the Particles tam, tum, and (with Suff. t for ce) tun-c : also the Elements -tern -td -tiy -to. By composition of 1 with to is formed the Pronoun iste (for istus), whence the Particles isti-c, istu-c, istim, istin-c, &c. Also i-ta, ita-que, t-tem, i-ti-dem, &c. 4) no, na : whence the Particles nam, num, and (with Suff. c) nun-c ; ne : and the Elements -nam, -num, -ne, 5) ho. Hi (anc. so, si) : whence (with c) the Particles hi-c, hu-c, ha-c, si-c : and the Elements ho-, him- : whence the Particle hin-c. 6) ol, ul, il, forms the Pronoun ille (for ol-us), and gives birth to its Particles, illi-c, illu-c, ill-im, illin-c, illa-c, and olim. 7) al, ali : compounded with i, 16 gives rise to the Pronominals alius (al-is) al-ter, and forms or enters into numerous Particles, alio, alia, al-ibi, ali-ter, &c. 8) ci forms the Prep, ci-s and the Element (c), which becomes a Suffix to so many Pronouns and Particles. Note, Other Particles formed by Pronom. Stems in Composi- tion with each other, with their own Elements, and with various Prefixes and Suffixes, are shewn in the Footnote, p. 255. * Corssen formerly (ICr. B. i.) adopted the common view, that u-bi, un-de, u-ti (ut), u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rel. quo-, dropping the guttural. But in Kr. N. 26, he subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demonstr. Pron. u, which as- sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct Rel. formations. The question must be regarded as still * sub iudice.* 1 60. The Compositiofi of Words. 259 Obs, I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. noTEpoc or Korepog) forms Particles of its own and in composition with many above named. Ods, 2. Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of the Prim. Pronom. Stem a with the Stem to. This may also be the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for e-ce). Obs, 3. The Particles dum, iam, with the Elements -da^n, -dem, 'do, -dey -dmn, also -iam, have been usually assigned to a Prono- minal Stem; but Corssen {Kr, Beitr, p. 197, &c.) derives all these forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div^ to shine, whence dyus = dies. Compare propediem.^ The Elements -pe and -iam form the compound Element -piam. vi. Some other Particles. With the suffix per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per, tant-is-per/ parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for ally always, from root sama, as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c. As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c. &c. C. derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de: immo froih an Adjective in-mus. Mox (jjLoy-LQ ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obscure^ Oh the last see C* Ausspr, i. 205. The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (irfe liefet), scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences. Dumtaxat (dum taxat), ^ while one estimates^ ^merely ^ is a clause. Vel, ve is from velle, to choose, Niminjm, no doubt -ri\\x\xm iest ni. ^ Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance, perchance : and in fors it, forsitan, ^^r^^/j (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassi^ = forte an si vis, for which is used fortasse, perhaps. Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super. Section IV. The Composition of Words* 60 i. Composition takes place when two words are so compo- jbined as to form one word. word°^ * The Particles formed by this class of enclitics are : a) quon-dam ; /3) quT-dem, ibT-dem, utrobl-dem, iridi^dem, iti-dem, indenti-dem, ^ri-'dem and Cpp. tarl-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem 17) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-un-de, quam-de ; fi) quan-do and Cpp. aliquan-do, &c. : e) du-dum (for diu-dum), ne-dum, non-dum, nec- diirri, hiud-dum, riihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum : also with the Imperatives age-duni, mane-dum, stay a bit, fac-dum, do just, ades-dum, &c.). iamiam, fet-iam. nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C. forms qui-a from qui-iam. On iamiam, see M. Lucr. iii.894. Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an Adjectival form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr. V. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum. Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu> quamdiu, aliquamdiu, pefdiu, interdiu and interdius, nudius. The suffix ' is (=ius)' is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-is), Time (patil-is-) or Place (sin-is-tef). It is found also as us (minus, secus, &c.). S 2 26o Latin Wordlore. §60. (Only Nouns and Verbs are here considefed : the Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.) The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former Determinative. Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrees with the other : ^ res-publica ; ius-iurandum ; tres-viri : or that the second actually governs the first : senatus-consultum ; veri-similis* Such compounds can be severed : resque publica ; senatusve consulta* But generally one part or both lose the form of words : magnanimus; Troiugena; artifex. ii. Composition of Words may be (i) constrtictivey when one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of a Case governed by the other part : (2) attribiitivey when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially modifies the second : (4) possessive^ when Adjectives are so compounded as to imply 'having' the fundamental part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it.^ A) Substantives are compounded i) constriictively \ when the parts are , S,y.V.\ agri-cola (qui agrum colit) : ^ Parathetic Compounds, in which either the parts actually agree, or the first is governed by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (2) agricultura ; aufifodinae, gold-mine; iurisconsultus, civil lau/yer, ludimagister, schoolmaster; pater- mater- filius-familias ; plebi-scitum ; (3) verisimUis , (4) lucrifacere, pessumdare, venumdare, vilipendere. In Pronouns we find such forms as altefuter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. ; and in Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-decim, tertius-decimus, &c. ; subtractive ; as un- de-viginti, duo-de-triginta, &c. ; multiplicative : as ducenti, treceni, &c. ^ Examples of Synthetic Composition. A) Substantives : S.y^V. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative Substantives are principally these : ag- caed- capi- can- col- faci- (f Tc-) die- leg- speci- : asremex, remigium, navigium ; homi-cida, parri-cida (-cidium) ; auceps, aucupium, manceps (-cipium), municeps (-cipium), particeps (-cipium) ; bucina, f Idi-cen (-cTna), tlbi-cen (-cTna), tubi-cen, galli-cinium, cock-crowing ; caelicola, ruricola ; aedificium, arti-fex (-ficium), carnifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrificium ; veneficium ; causs-idicus,//m^<??'; iudex, indicium ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti- legium, spicilegium ; auspex, auspicium, exti-spex (-spicium), haruspex. Other examples are : funambulus, rope-dancer ; nomenclator, namecaller {c.2i\2cc^) ; nau- c fragium, shipwreck; ca.pnmu\gus, goat-milker ; puer-pera (-perium) from parere, also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendium), libripens ; faenisex ; iustitium, stoppage of law-courts (ius sistere), solstitium ; lectisternium ; nas- turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuens), &c. g^Q, The Composition of Words, 261 S,xS.: viti-sator (vitium sator). 2) attributively ; when the parts are A.>^S, or N, (Numeral) x S. : pleni-luTiium : tri-ennium, 3) adverbially ; when the parts are N. X V. or F, x V, : prin-ceps ; in-edia. Note. F. X S. may be (i) constructive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad- verbial : com-mercium ; nihil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516). P) Adjectives are compounded 1) constructively \ when the parts are «5". X K : armi^ger ; melli-fluus. X S., wh^n S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes, 2) adverbially^ when the parts are X K : iV. X F. : F, x V. : omni-potens ; bi-ftdus ; bene- volus. N.xA.: F.xA,: semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor, SxS. Substantives of this form are few : caprificus, wild Jig', iuglans (lovis gla,ns); manupretium ; rupicapra, chamois. Ay.S. Substt. few: latifundium ; privilegium ; viviradix ; medi-astinus, N. y S. numerous : see § 33 with bi- tri- &c, : as iUbra, biduum, biennium, &c. ; decempeda, ten-foot pole ; teruncius, three-^unce coin ; also with semi- sesqui- : sembella (for semi-libella), selibra (for semilibra), semideus, semihomo» semihora, semivir ; semuncia, sescuncia, sesquihora, sesquimensis, &c. N.y. V. : P.y. V. '. rare : for such words as aecola, incola, advena, convene, ambages, coiux, conviva, dedecus, incus, adigen'-, ingenium, indoles, proles, suboles,obiex or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, praefica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de- rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c., or, at least, as coor- dinate with these. P. X S. (1) constructive : adverbium, ambarvalia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies, interlunium, internecio, internundinum, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium, proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super- cilium. (2) adverbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminiculum, ad- nepos, agnomen, cognomen, coheres, coinmilito, compes, condiscipulus, con- servus, consobrinus, contubernium, convallis ; deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im- pluvium, incuria, intemperies, internuntius, interpres, interrex, interregnum ; nefas, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro-, mulsis, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies. Adjectives. S. X V. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : cin-dic- fer- f fc- fr3g- flu- fiig- gen- ger- leg- son- vaga- vom- : faticinus, fatidicus, aurifer, munif icus, naufragus ; mellifluus, lucifugus, nubigenus, belliger, morigerus, florilegus, fluc- tisonus, nemorivagus, flammivomus. Add arcitenens, velivoJius, &c. ; armipotens, caelipotens, &c. See Examples of P. X 6*. in next page. A.y.V. '. N.xV.: P.x V. : from the following and other Verb-roots : die- f Tc- fid- flu- loqu- sci- son- vaga- vola- : veridicus, mirificus, multifidus, largifluus, vani- loquus, dulcisonus, soli vagus, altisonus ; quadrifidus, septemfluus ; conscius, in- scius, nescius, praescius, benef Tcus, malevulus, necopinus, innuba, &c. Horri- sonus, terrificus, &c. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, profiigus, &c., may be regarded as derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, &c. jy.y. A. : chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals : semij- barbarus, s^emihians, seminud;us, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, &c. 262 Latin Wordlore. ' § 60. 3) possessively ; when the parts are A,y. S, \ N. X S, : magn-animus ; centi-ceps. X ^5". : ali-pes ; igni-comus. P, X S, : when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case : con-cors, in-numerus, prae-ceps. C) Verbs are compounded i) constructively ; wh^n the p^rts are S.y.V, \ belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere). P.y.A.: com- implies union : compar, compos, consimilis^ ^c. ex- intensifies : edurus, efferus, &c. ob- implies * coming in face : ' oblongus. per- * throughout, in a high degree : ' pervigil ; perdifficili^. prae- (i) * excess'.* praelongus, praecelsus; (2) Apriority.* praecanus, prema- turely grey ; ' praeposterus, last firsts inverse ; (3) * extremity : ' praeustus, burnt at the tip. pro- forward : procurvus, propatulus. re- red- back : recurvus ; again, redivivus. sub- diminishes : subobscurus, rather dark^ subtristis, somei/uhai ^ad. ve- = male : vesanus, wai/=malesanus. ne- is privative : nefandus, nefastus, iinpious. in- (inseparable negative = Greek a»/-) forms numerous Cp. Adjectives: impar, impotens, impius, ingratus, insanus, infidelis, inutilis, ignarus, ignavus, ignotus, ignobilis, illotus, irritus, &c. &c. &c. A.XS. : N.xS. : S.xS. : unanim-is (us), 'having* one mind, lon^i-msLrxus, 'having* long hands : tripes, 'having' three feet : anguicomus, snake-haired. So aequa- evus, longaevus, multiformis, misericors ; soUers ; biennis, b^frons, triceps, tri- linguis, &c. &c. ; cornipes, sonipes, &c. P. X vS". (i) When P. is of adverbial nature : anceps (ambi-ceps), double-headed, doubtful. coaevus, concurring in time : cognominis, communis, concolor, confinis, consan- guineus, consonus, consors, conterminus, &c. &c. discolor, divided {differing^ in colour ; discors, dissonus, &c. imbellis, unwarlike ; imberbis, beardless ; immanis, implumis, importunus, inanim- is (us), inerm-is (us), iners, infamis, informis, infrenis, illimis, illunis, inglorius, iniurius, insomnis, invius (but insignis from in i^^ on)^ &c. &c. 8iG. obscenus, obscurus, ob.vius. pervius. praeceps, praesignis, praevius, &c. proclivis, profundus, &c. vecors. (2) When P. has a prepositional nature : see p. 261. 1), abnormis, amens, avius, &c, acclivis, afifinis, &c. antelucanus, antemeridianus, antesignanus, &c. circumforaneus. (:isalpmus, cisrhenanus, cispadanus, &c. commodus. ^eclivis, decolor, deformis, degener, delirus, demens, devius, &p. effrenus, efifrons, egregius, elinguis, enervis, enodis, enormis, exanimis, excOVS, exheres, exlex, exsanguis, exsomnis, exsors, extorris, &c« obnoxius, opportunus. perduellis, perennis, perfidus, periurus, pernox, &c. pomeridianus. profanus, profestus, prosperus. §ecurus, sedulus, &c. subdialis, subdolus, sublucanus, subsignanus, subsolanus, subterraneus, suburbanus, &c. transalpinus, tr^nsmarinus, &c. O Verbs. S.xy.: aedificare, significare ; litigare ; vociferari, morigerari. § 6a The Composition of Words, 263 A^y.V,\ aequi-parare ( = aequum parare). V.xK: cale-facere ( = calere facere), cale-fieri. 2) adverbially ; when the parts are F, X V, : bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ab-ducere, and all Verbs similarly compounded. F,xS. or F, xA. : ef-feminare : e-rudire,* Nole. Words which have two Determinative parts are called Decomposita : im-per-turbatus. On Compound Words in Latin see M. Li^cr. p. 312-313. A.x V. : amplificare, gratificari, &c. V.xV. : These are the Compp. of Verb-roots with facio, fio. See p. 217, and on the quantity of e see Prosody. The student may usefully test the force of Verbs compounded with Prepositions by Compo- comparing, with the help of a good Dictionary, the meanings and uses of the Compounds sition of of the oldest and most obvious Simple Verbs : such as ago, cado, caedo, cano, capio, cedo. Verbs curro, dico, do (dha), duco, emo, eo, facio, fero, habeo, iacio, lego, mitto, moveo, nosco, pleo, pono, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, teneo, tendo^ veho, venio> f^^^' verto, video, voco. tions. When compounded with Verbs : 1. Ab, a, abs {from, away) always denotes 'separation ; ' absum, am away, abeo, go away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, refrain from, &c. Note abdico (me magistratu), resign office ; abrogo (legem, &c.), repeal. Abundio,yf<?w over, abound ; abutor, use tip, (^btise, contain the notion of excess, 2. Ad {to, at, near) generally denotes, (i) * approach, presence at or near ; ' adsum, am Present ; adeo, go to ; advenio, coi7te to ; assideo, sit by ; adsto, stand by, &c. : hence, (2) * application to : ' adhibeo, apply ; admoneo, admonish ; afificio, affect ; alloquor, ad- dress, 8cc. : (3) ' acquisition,' a.s Siccipio, receive; adipiscor, gain; arrogo, claim. Sec. : (4) 'addition,' as addo, add ; adnumero, reckon with ; addisco, learn besides : (5) 'action to the fill:* admiror, admire; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, recognise; atton- deo, shear close, &c. : (6) ' response, favotir, sy^npathy : ' acclamo, cheer ; adfleo, weep with ; arrideo, smile on ; annuo, assent : so affulgeo, shi7ie on, &c. The Verb adimo, take away (quis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.), cannot be a true form. It is probably a vocal corruption of abemo, an ancient word cited by Festus, the sound of which would not be agreeable. Ar- was an old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum. 3. Cum, com-, con-, co- {with, together) implies, (i) 'union, coining, bringing, oracling together : ' coeo, unite ; concurro, run together ; coUigo, collect ; confero, bring together I Gonvenio, meet; convoco, call together, &c. For various purposes: (a) ' comparison i* Gomparo, compono, confero, compare, &c. : (jS) ' constraint : ' cohibeo, restrain ; cogo> compel, &c. : (y) 'friendly action : ' colloquor, talk with ; concedo, allow ; confido, trust ; Gonfiteor, confess ; consolor, console ; corrigo, correct : (8) * hostile action : ' confligo, battle with ; colluctor, struggle with ; so coarguo, convinco, confute. (2) In some words it im- plies ' combined thought, reflection : ' concipio, conceive ; conicio, guess ; computo, reckon, up. (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives to many verbs the sense of completeness or intensity : cognosco, learn ; conficio, complete ; commoveo, disturb ; compleo, jf// up ; cormo, fall in ; consumo, waste ; contendo, strive ; converto, turn round : cohorresco, contremisco, shudder all over ; convalesce, get well, &c. So consterno, bestrew ; collino, besmear. 4. De {down, down from, from) implies, (i) 'action downward; ' decido, fall down ; deicio, throw down ; depono, lay down : (2) * absence, departtire, removal, prevention* &c. : decedo, depart ; detineo, detaifi ; demo, take away \ dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo, deter; depr^cor, pray against ; desum, ajn wanting; deficio, revolt, fail, &c. ; derogo, abate (a privilege by law ; see word in dictionary), &c. : (3) ' diminutton, subtraction : * depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as deerro, stray ; de- cipio, deceive; delude, delude ; detero, rub off; detraho, detract, &c., the preposition carries a bad sense (deterioration). Debeo (dehibeo), owe, i.e. have a debt or minus quantity, to be subtracted : (4) 'negation ox retractation;' dedeceo, misbeseem ; dediscQa. ^64 Latin Wordlore, g 60. unlearn ; dedoceo, unteach ; despero, despair. (5) In numerous words it implies * ««- tensity ox complete7iess ' (compare the phrase *de haut en bas ') : deambulo, ivaik up and down ; deamo, love exceedingly ; defleo, weep ititensely ; decerno, decree ; debello, finish a war; defungor, discharge ; deleo, blot outy destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devenio, arrive ; devinco, vanquishy &c. (6) Such words as dedico, dedicate \ defero, offer, imply hti- mility in the agent. Decurro means variously run down, co7nplete a course y or have re- "Course. 5. Ex, e {put of ) implies, (i) * action out or from : * exeo, go out ; eicio, cast out ; ex- tendo, stretch out ; eximo, take out, take away : (2) * manifest action : ' edico, proclaim ; exhibeo, exhibit ; exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand forth, exist : (3) 'achieve- ment of action : ' edisco, learti by heart ; efficio, effect ; elaboro, work out ; enumero, count up \ eyenio, happen; ev'mco, prove; existimo, forfn opinion, think: so efFero, i. drive wild ; effemino, make womanish. Note exaudio, hear from far. 6. In (in J into, against, upon) implies, (i) * action in, being in :' insum, am in ; inam- bulo, walk in ; incolo, inhabit ; inerro, wander in : (2) * action into : ' ineo, ingredior, fnter ; immitto, send into, &c. ; (3) * action onward : ' incedo, move on ; impello, urge on, ^c. : (4) 'effective action,' in many Transitive verbs : imminuo, lessen, break; impetro, obtain by prayer ; impleo, fill ; incendo, set on fire ; inficio, infeci ; instituo, informo, ijistruct ; instTwo, furf lis h ; irrigo, water, &c. : (5) ' action upon, over, against,' &c., in many Trajective Verbs : illido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, impart ; in- cumbo^ le(\n on ;immineo, impendeo, overhang ; insurgo, rise against, &c. : (6) * intensive q,ction,' especially in Inceptive Verbs: illucesco, dawn, ; incalesco, grow hot ; ingravesco, grow worse ; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark incipio, begin ; invenio, find (come upon) ; invideo, envy (look on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was endo, ijndu (eVSoi/), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endogredi or indu- gredi = ingredi ; endoperator or induperator = imperator. So inc[-igeo ; ind-oles. The negative particle in- appears in the compounds ignosqo, excuse^ pardon, and im- probo, disapprove. 7. Inter {between, among) denotes, (i) * action between : ' jntercido, fall between ; inter- •pono, place between ; hence, (2) ijiterruption : interpello, i. (ic^dress abruptly ; interrogo, qitestioji ; 'm\.ex\ex\\o,interve7ie : (2) ' hiiidrajice, stoppage : ' intercedo,yi^r^zV/ (by veto) ; \x\.X.exo\\xAo,shiU off ; interdico, prohibit, exclude : (3) ' concernru^nt in : ' intersum, am en- gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has ^ peculij^r use in the words intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interficio, kill. See Per. Also intellego, perceive, 7C':derstand. Prof Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of 'through ' is often con- veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius: interfodio, interfugio. See J\I. Lucr. iv. 7t6. 8. Ob (— cTTt) seems to denote ' occupation of space in front : 'as, obeo^ go, to encounter, perforin, die, &c. ; obicio, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; pffero, offer, present. This is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; o.brup, opprimo, (fverwhelni ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against ; sometimes friendly : as, oboedio, obsequor, obtempero, ^'^^j. ' Persistence' \?, often implied by ^ihis particlp : pbsfupesco, ^tand amazed ; obdormisco, slumber ; obsolesco, become obsolete. The use qf obs is ■doubtful : obs-trudq in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, show, may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since pbtendo, streick, toward, is an existing compound. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob-mitto or om-mitto (which is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of * persistence.' Qperio, cover, is not (as a Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its root. Obs. Note the Adjj. obliquus, athwart; obscurus, (having o-/cta. Prim, sku, in front). 9. Per h^s the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through hence, thoroughly \ perdisco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undone (pessum eo) : peremo, kill; perdq, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears pessum dq. Thes^ uses qf per, inter, may perhaps grow ou^ of some now forgotten cusr tom or superstition. 10. Prae {before) expresses, (i) 'priority of place or rank ; ' ^s, praeeo, go before ; prae- fioxo, place in command; praesum, am in command; praepono, prefer; praeluceo, out- shine. Sec: (2) ' priority of time ;* as, pxsLedico, foretell : pxaemoneo, forewarn ; prae- video, foresee. : (3) 'action in front ; ' as, praecingo, gird in front ; praebeo (for praehibeo), hold in front, afford ; praefendq, ho{cL out, &c. : (4) 'passing along : ' praelabor, glide by. \ praetexo, shirty border. 4 The Composition of Words. 265 . II. Pro ^roA- {forth, /onvardy before, for) expresses, (i) ^motion or action forth, pub- licity : ' prodeo, go forth ; prodo, give forth, surrender, betray ; promo, take forth ; pro- ,fero, bring forth ; provoco, cat/ forth, challenge ; proclamo, proclaim, &c. : (2) * motion or ■action forward:' proc^do, go forward ; procumbo, fall forward ', promoveo, projuote ; . propello, drive forward, &c. : (3) 'action in front : ' prohibeo, hold aloof , forbid ; pro- ^ngno, fight for ; protego, protect ; protero, trample down (a) with the notion of advan- tage ; as, procuro, care for ; proficio, prosum, profit ; provenio, come on, prosper, &c. : (b) of prominence ; as, promineo, jut out ; propendeo, haiig forward ; promereo, deserve emifiently : (4) 'priority ' (rare) : proludo, prelude ; propino, pledge a health ; provideo, look out, foresee. The most noticeable verbs compounded with pro are, (a) promitto, Ht. send forth ; which obtains the meanings let grow {hair, beard, &c.), predict, and hence its derived but most usual sense, promise : (b) prorogo. Put ojf{\.Q a forward time) by , legal act ; prprogue. 12. Sub sus- {under) may imply, (i) * being under : ' subsum, am tinder, am at hand ; subiaceo, lie tmder ; submergo, dip under ; subscribo, write under ; subsisto, stand wider ; sucpumbo, sink under \ suffulcio, prop ; sustineo, sustain : (2) * viotion under : ' • subdo, subicio, submitto, suppono, put under ; subeo, go under, undergo ; subigo, bring under, subdue ; sulfundo, pour under : (3) * motion from under : ' subduco, subtraho, subveho, withdraw ; submoveo, remove (from below) ; subverto, overthrow ; {upward) ; . sublevo, tc^ise up ; suscito, rouse up ; suspendo, hang up ; suspicio, look upy look up to, suspect ; suspiro, sigh : (4) ' motion iri close sequence : ' subsequor,y£'//i7w close ; succedo, . come after, succeed, also means go under, be successful, &c. : {with a view to help or sup- , ply) subvenio^ succurro, succour ; sufficio, suppeto, suppleo, supply ; subrogo, supply (a legal successor). Sometimes sub implies * secrecy : * succenseo, am angry (in the heart) : surripio, stea,l ; sometimes slight action ; subblandior, fawn a little ; subirascor, am . father angry. 13. Dis- di- (5ta) {apart, asunder) implies ^division, severance, difference, distinction* &c. : diduco, sever; disto, stand apart, am distant; dido, spread; diffindo, cleave \ dignpsco, distinguo, distinguish ; differo, sunder or differ ; dimitto, dismiss , discedo, depart ; diribeo, dirimo, divido, divide ; disrumpo, pull in pieces ; discumbo, recline apart (of guests at tq.]:?le), &c. It is particularly used to express difference in argument, opinion, action : discepto, disputo, dissero, argue, dispute, discuss ; discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, differ in sentiment, disagree ; digladior, dimico, contend in co7nbat : hence, diiudico, judge between contending sides. In some words dis- gives a negative sense : displiceo, displease ; dififiteor, deny ; diffido, distrust : in some it is intensive : disperdo, ruin utterly ; dispereo, atn utterly ruined ; discrucio, torture painfully. The verb diligo, love, implies a choice between different persons. 14. The inseparable particle red- re- {back, again) conveys the two general meanings : 1. 'reciprocated action : ' II. 'repeated action :' but the shades of meaning are nume- rous, and will repay minute analysis with the aid of the dictionary. I. If AB be a straight line, with motion from A to B, then red- or re- implies 1) * recurrence from B to A :' redeo, return ; recurro, run back ; reduco, lead back', relabor, slide back ; remitto, send back ; redhibeo, repono, replace ; refero, reporto, bring back ; revoco, call back ; reddo, give back, restore ; redimo, buy back, redeem, rattsotn ; renuntio, tell back, bring tidings ; restituo, restore. Here rank compounds which ex- press reflected light, echoed or replying sound : respondeo, answer ; reluceo, shine back ; reboo, remugio, rebellow; tidal reflux : refluo, redundo, ^«^w back, &c. ; but in actions \*hich by their nature imply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis ; respiro, breathe : refulgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter, Recaleo, become warm from being cold. 2) ' recuTrrence * from B towards A : i.e. backward action : rqcumbo, lean back, recline ; resideo, sit back, sit dowjt ; refringo, break open ; repello, drive back ; remaneo, stay back, remain ; remoror, retardo, retard; relinquo, leave behind ; respicio, lookback; re- tineo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (b3ic\C)= away : relego, send away ; removeo, move away, remove : with implied care : recondo, hide away, ^tpw : or force ; revello, pluck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the particle {against) implies resistance : rebello, war against, rebel ; reclamo, cry against ; redarguo, refello, refute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recuso), renuo, refuse ; repugno, resisto, resist. II. * Repeated action^ {again, anew); recognosco, examine anew; recalesco, grow warm again ; revalesco, reviresco : so, reparo^ repair ; reficio (make again), repair, renew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relevo, raise again, relieve. In refercio, cram, repleo, fill full, &c., the notion is that of repeating tq excess. In recludo, retego, revelo, uncover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down ; resigno, unseal, re- has a force like that of de (removal> Iri revereor, reverence ; reticeo, keep silence, it implies bashftdncss : 266 Lathi Wordlore. in redoleo, smell of, the idea is that of giving back to one who requires, as in renuntio. In some compounds re- gives various senses, as recipio : for which see dictionary. 15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short notice : (a) ante {before) : anteire, to go before : (jS) circum {around) ; circumdo, place rotmd ' (■y) post {after, behind) : posthabeo, postpono, place behind : (5) praeter {beside, beyojid) : praeterlabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pass over, omit : (e) subter {beneath) : subterlabor, glide wider : in subterfugio, escape, secrecy or slyness is implied (subterfuge) : {Q super {over, above) : superiacio, throw over : sometimes implies excess ; superfluo, fioxu over, overfiozu. Note supersum, survive, superstes, surviving (living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, dispense ivith : see Ablative Case. (17) trans {across, thro7cgh) is properly used of crossing a river, moun^ tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pass beyond '. XxdLX\s,itxo, carry across, transfer ; transigo, carry through, pierce, complete, trans- act, &c. : {&) se- s^d- {apart frotn) : seduco, draw aside : s^iungo, separate ; seligo, select, &c. : (i) amb- am- an- {around, about, atxi})i) : ambio, go routid, canvass ; ambigo, doubt, question ; anquiro, question, search, {k) the adverbs bene^ male, satis, intro, retro, in a few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefacio, do kindness ; maledico, revile ; malefacio, do harm ; satisdo, satisfacio, satisfy ; introeo, go iji ; retrogredior, retreat. Obs. I. Many Verbs, of which the first element is a Preposition, are not Compounds in the same sense as those hitherto named, but belong to one or other of the three follow- ing classes : — 1) Derivatives of Compourul Adjectives or Substantives : concinno t. arrange (con-? cinnus) ; concordo i. agree (concors) ; discordo i. disagree (discors) ; indignor i. am in^. digfiajit (indignus) ; infesto i. make daJtgerous (infestus) ; effero i. drive zuild {efferus) ; obliquo I. slant (obliquus) ; deliro i. am mad (delirus) ; commodo i. /?«^ (commodus) ; incommodo i. iticonvenieyice (^ViCommoAw^C) ; praecipito 1. fling headlong {pra.eceps) ; per- nocto I. pass tJie night (pernox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanus) ; consulo 3. consul^ (consul) ; concilio i. conciliate (concilium). 2) Verbs compounded of Particle and, a Noun which has no derived simple verb : — recorder i. recollect (re, cor); defaeco i. draijt (de, faex) ; infamo i. dcfajne (in, fama)'i^ so diffamo i. ; effemino 1. 7nake womanish (ex, femina) ; suffoco i. choke (sub, faux) ; digladior 1. fight %uith sword {6.1-, gladius) ; illaqueo i. ensnare i^m, laqueus) ; enervo i. •weaken (e, nervus) ; enucleo i. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impedio 4. hinder, entangle- (in, pes) ; expedio 4. disejitangle {^x, pes) ; irretio 4. ensnare (in, rete); derivo i. draw off, derive (de, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) ; exstirpo i. root oict (ex, stirps) ; ex- surdo I. deafen (ex, surdus) ; contemplor i. gaze at, observe (cum, templum augural division of sky) ; praevaricor i. act dishonestly, deceive (prae, varus); convaso 1. /«f^ up (cum, vas) ; exubero i. abound {^-x., uber). 3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb-stems : — ad-«/-or \. flatter {or- ?) ; amb-z^/-o i. walk; im-^w-o.j. dye, steep ; com-/;?/r-o 3. buriiv in-coh-o I. begin ; QC-ciil-o 3. hide ; in-du-o 3./«/ on ; ex-u-o (for ex-duo) -^. put off; de-- fend-o 3. ; oifend-o 3. ; x^-frdg-ox i. oppose by vote ; suf-/nz^-or i. vote for ; con-gru-o 3. agree ; xxv-gru-o 3. ; m-vit-o. i. invite ; ix-rtt-o 1. provoke ; pxo-mulg-o i. publish ; dis- sip-o 1. scatter. The verbs oc-cup-o i. anti-cz/>-o i. anticipate, xe-cip-ex-o, xe-cup-ex-o i. recover, are forms modified from cap-, take. De-stin-o, destine, oh-stin-o, keep firm, are weakened from stan-, the root sta^- strengthened with suffix H, like da-n-o from dar, and Gr. (t>Oa-p-u) from (f)9a. Obs. 2. a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, alj which appears in Latin as ar, al, or, Ol : sometimes, perhaps, as er, el, Ul. It appears, (i) in alo and its derived words, <«/tus, co-rt^esco, &c. : (2) in orior and its forms : (3) in -oleo, -olesco and their com- pounds ad^j/esco, ab^7/esco, inolesco, &c., proles {pxo-olesi), subf/es, ind^7/es. Probably t© this root may belong many names of common quick-growing, or tall, plants ; as ar-bor, ar-ista,(h)ar-undo, al-ga, al-nus, al-lium, (h)ol-us, ol-ea (ol-eum), ol-iva (ol-ivum), or-nus, er-vum, epi/o?, il-ex, ul-va, ul-mus : perhaps, also, ar-duus, ar-dea, Al-pis, op-o?, el-ephas> and other words. It must be observed that the root of Smell, olere, has no connection with that of Growth. In the former I represents d, as shewn in odox (Gr. oSu>Sa), while in the latter l=r. b) The root of Solidity appears in Latin chiefly as sol- (= Gr. 6X-), shewn in the words sol\u& (6A05), solum, solidus, sollexs, soll-\. citus, soleo, with its compounds oh-solesco, exolesco, insolesco, insolens. Obsolesco and exolesco have often been taken fcr com- pounds of olesco, the verb of growth ; but this is a mere error of grammarians- § 6i. The Uses of Words. 267 CHAPTER VI. THE USES OF WORDS. Section I. i. Figurate Construction. yxIIx^x.^ (In this place it is convenient to describe certain variations of struc- Construction.) ^^o"- ii, Ellipsis and Zeugma: Pleonasm: Attrac- tion: Synesis. A) Ellipsis (eXXeixl^ig) is the omission of one or more words which would be used if complete fullness of expression were nectssary. This may be 1) When what is omitted appears from the conte^^t : * Metuo tuam iram et patris ' (iram), I dread your (in<^er and my father'' s. ' Ego amp te et tu me ' {ai^as), I love you and you me, 2) When usage or the exigence of meaning makes the omitted word, evident : Falernum (i.e. vinum), Falernian wine ; gelida (i.e. aqua), cold water : turn ego (i.e. inquam), the7i said I . Zeugma^ or the construction ^tto koivov^ is th^ connexion of one word with two words or with two clauses, to both of which it does not equally apply : so that for one of them, another word (to be gathered from the sense of the pass- age) must be mentally supplied. Zeugma is therefore a species of Ellipsis : * Ex spoliis et torqueni et cogno- men induit,' C. ' Querimoniae conventusque h abe ban- tu r,' c. The agreement of a Verb or Adjective wUh one only of several Noufis forming one Subject, is also called Zeugma.^ ^ E^llipsis and Zeugma are brachylogical constructions ; that is, they abbreviate dis- course. (In the following Examples words bracketed in italic type are explanatory merely.) a) Where the words to be supplied are forms of another word in the sentence, the con- struction is Ellipsis of the fi;-st kind : *Abi rus ergo hinc ; ibi ego te {feram), tu me feres,' Ter. Haut. iv. 2. 4. *In Hyrcania plebs publicos alit canes, optimates domesticos ' ialunt)^ C. T. D. i. 45. * Paene ille timore {corruit), ego risu corrui,' C. Qtt. Fr. ii. 10. * Caper tibi salvus et h^edi' {salvt), Verg. B. vii. 9. *Hic illius arma {fuere), hie currus fuit,' Verg. Ae. i. 16. ' Hos tibi dant calamos, en accipe, Musae, Ascraeo quos ante seni ' {dedere)y Verg. B, \\. 69. * Nisi f a c i e n t quae illos aequum est ' {^facere)^ Ter. Ad. iii, 4, 8. When the sense requires a different word. Ellipsis becomes Zeugma : * Hoc tempus praecavere mihi me {iubet), non te ulcisci sinit,' Ter. And. iii. 5. 18. * Fortuna qua illi florentissima nos duriore conflictati videmur,' C. Att. x. 4. *Aliinau- fraglo iperiisse), alii a servulis ipsius inter fectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nep. Hann. viii. 'Quod ar^uum sibi {sjimpsii), cetera legatis permisit,' Tac. A. ii. 20. * Ne tenues"pluviae {corrumJ>a7it) rapidive potentia solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile 268 Latin Wordlofe. B) Pleonas7n {j:\iovaG\A6q) is the use of more words than seem necessary to the expression of a thought : ' Suo sibi gladio hunc iugulo/ / slay this fellow with his own proper sword, Ter. Ad. v. 8. So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus ; nihil quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit prius. C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another, frigus ad u rat,' Verg. G. i. 93. * Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hostem, per- saepe velut qui lunonis sacra ferret,' Hor. ^S". i. 3. 9 (i.e. saepe currebat velut qui fugiens hostem curreret, persaepe tardus iyicedebat velut iticederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret). -y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : * I He quidem baud negat. Immo edepol negat profecto ; neque se bas aedis Philolachi vendidisse ' Plaut. Most. v. i. 3. *Stoici negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem auten^ nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere vyluptatem' {dic7int\ C. Fin. i. 18. * N olo existi-. mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' {^olo exisiimes), C. N. D. i. 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, nec Graeci Latine {sci7mi), C. T. D. v. 40. Qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo quam sibi sprtem Seu rs^tio, dederit se^ fors obiecerit ilia Contentus vivat, laudet ( = j^'^/ ut qiiisque laiidet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. 6'. i. i. i. Com- pare Hor. Epod. v. 87. 6) Justin bas ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Dar.i (Corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur,' vi. 9. 14 (i.e. non mortem depre-, cantur sed .... precantur). And * Et caedem patris {vijidicavif), et se ab insidiis, vindicavit,' iii. i. 9 (the same verb meaning in the former clause, _/9r^^/ in (the latter). But such licenses of a l^te age are not to be imitated. Zeugma qf t|ie second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called avA- ATjv/zt?, when a Verb, Attribute, Apposite, Relative, &c. stands m relation to several Sub- stantives oi Pronouns which are often of different Numbers, Genders, Persons, &c. The rules belong to the Syntax of Agreement (see this) : but examples are : 'Pater mihi et mater mortui,' Ter. E^in. iii. 3. * Cerere nati sunt Liber et Libera.' C. N. D. ii. 24. 'Attoniti . . . concipiunt Baucisque preces timi- dusque Philemon,' Oy. Met. viii. 6§i. 'Ptol^maeus et Cleopatra, reges. Aegypti, L. xxxvii. 3. 'Sustulimu^ manus et ego et Balbus,' C. F'avi. vii. 5. * E r r a s t i s, Rulle, vehementer et t u e t c o 1 1 e g a e tui, ' C. Z.. Agr. i. 7. * Ipse dux cum urbe et exercitu deleti,' Sail. * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tact a erant,' L. xxxii. 29. 'Arbitrum habebimus Civilem et Veledam, apud quos pacta sancientur,' Tac. H. iy. 65. Fa vent pietati fideique di, per quae P. R. ad (tantum fastigii venit,' L. xliv. 2. In these examples the related words are all Plural ; and Gender and Person are deter- mined by consideration of all the Nouns. Zeugma occurs when the co;istruction agrees with one of the Nouns only, whether in Number, Gender, Person, or all these : an Ellipsis being supposed of the other agreeing words. * Filia {captd) atque unus e filiis captusest,' Caes. B.G.\. id. 'Convicta est Messalina et '^xXxw?,' {convictus), Tac. A. xii. 65. 'Utinam aut hie surdus {/actus), aut haec muta facta sit,' Ter. And. iii. 4, 5. * Et genus {viliics) et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior alga est,' Hor. S. ii. 5. 8. * 'PopvM{liberait\ provinciaeque liberatae sunt,' C. Phil. v. 4. * Et tu {sets) et Qmnes homines sciunt,' C. Fam. xiii. 8. i. * Et ego {Jlagitd) et Cicero mens flagitabit,' C. Att. iv. 17. 3. In such examples agreement is with the nearer Noun ; and thus it is a kind of Attraction. Rarer mstances occur of Zeugma,, in which agreement is with the more distant word : * Ego populusque Romanus populis priscorum Latinoyum bellum in dico facioque,' L. i. 32. ' Quibus ipse meique ante Larem proprium v esc or,' Hor. S. ii. 6. 65. B) Pleonasm, which expands discourse, belongs to the domain of rhetoric more than to. that of grammar, and needs not to be dwelt ou at length here. Periodic style, such as that of the Ciceronian speeches and treatises, is necessarily, to, some extent, pleonastic : and the rounded fullness of Cicero's diction exposed him, even in his own times, to the charge of tumid Asiatic luxuriance. Two ox three sentences will illustrate this tendency. *Si fructibus et emolu mentis et utilitatibus amicitias colemus, dubium est quin fundos et insulas amicis antepor|,amus ? ' Fin. ii. 26. * Dicendi facultas non debet esse ieiuna atque nuda, sed as.persa atque distincta multarum rerum iucunda quadam varietate,* Or. i. 50. ' Quinctius orat atque obsecrat ut multis iniuriis iactatam atque agitatam aequitatem in hoc tandem loco con- sistere et confirmari patiamini,' p. Quinc. 2. Examples of Attraction, SynQsis, &c. will be found in various parts of the Syntax. g 6i. Figurate Constrtictio7i. 269 is diverted from the usual construction to a less usual one : ' Hie est quern quaero hominem/ this is the man I seek ; where the Subst. would usually be Nom., but, attracted by quern, becomes Accus. ^Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est/ L. for ' Thebae, quae Boeotiae caput sunt;' the Complement caput (Neut. Sing.) attracting the Relative from its usual agreement in Gender and Number with the Antecedent (Thebae). D) Synesis is when words are constructed in accordance with meaning (avveaLg), not with form: ^Subeunt Tegeea iuventus auxilio tardi/ the youth of Tegea come slow to the succour, Stat. Th, vii. 605 : where iuventus (a Collective Noun Feminine and Singular) has the meaning of the Concrete inw en es, young men (Masc. Plur.), with which meaning the Verb subeunt (Plur.) and the Adjective tardi (Masc. Plur.) agree in construction. iii Other Variations. a) When a Verb or Adjective agrees with several Substantives- ((TvW-qypLgy see last Foot-note) : ^ Pater, mater et filia capti sunt.' l?) When words are dislodged from the normal order (hizep- /3arov) : ^Tu illas abi et traduce.' An interposed clause is called Trafjevdearic if not in construction^ with the rest : ^At tu — nam divum servat tutela poetas — Praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro/ Tibull. ii. 5. 113. c) When a Preposition follows its Case {a^acrrpofri) : Spemque metumque inter dubii, Verg. d) When compound words are separated into their parts (jyLrjfnq) : 'Quae me cum que vocant terrae/ Verg. for quaecum- que ; disque supatis for dissipatis ; ordia prima, Lucr. for primordia. e) When one Part of Speech, Number, Case, Tense, &c., is used for another (traXXay//) : ' Vivere nostrum' for vita nostra ; *Samnis' for Samnites, ' nos ' for ego : *populus' for popule ; 'expectate' for 0xpectatus ; ' mox navigo ' for navigabo, &c. /) Interchange of Cases (yiraWayii) : * Dare classibus Austros/ Verg. for * dare classes Austris.' Or attribution of an Adjective to another than its natural Noun: * Fontium gelidae perennitates,' C. for gelidorum : * Tyrrhena regum progenies,' Hor. for Tyrr- henorum. g) Expression of a complex notion by two Substantives, instead of Subst. and Adj. {evdia^vfnr) : 'Pateris libamus et auro,' Verg. ij. G. i()2, for pateris aureis. h) That kind of Ellipsis which omits Annexive Conjunctions is called dtrvi'^erov : ^Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit,' C. Cat, i. i. vfTvvhsTov is a kind of Pleonasm, which multiplies Conjunc- tions in poetry : * Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque pro- cellis Africus/ Verg. Ae. i. 85. i) Archaism is a form, phrase, or idiom borrowed from old writers {dpyaioC) : ^ animai" ; in cassum magnum,' Lucr. 270 Latin Wordlore. §62, k) Graecism {\Xkr]vi(T\x6q) is a phrase or idiom borrowed from Greek : 'Amplexi habent/ Lucr., for amplexi sunt : 'Metuo fratrem ne intus sit/ Ten, for * ne frater intus sit/ The foregoing Variations (which grammarians call ^ Figures belong chiefly to Syntax. iv. Metaphor and Metonymy. (These are Figures of Rhetoric.) I. Metaphor {iieracpoptiy translatio) occurs when a term proper to one matter is transferred by analogy to another : volnus, wound, for damnum, toss ; portus, harbotn^ for refugium, refuge ; sentina reipublicae, si7ik of the coimiionwealth, for turpissimi cives, vilest citizens ; ardeo, / burn^ for amo, / love, &c. A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi, tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : 'In una philosophia quasi tabernaculum vitae suae coWoc^LXunt,^ ihey have pitched as it were the te^tt of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or. iii. 20. * Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auHbus opimum quod- dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus/ the Carians and Phrygians cho^e a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. 'Scopas, utitadicam, mihi videntur dissolvere/ they seem to me to be untying, so to say, besoms, C. Or. 71. II. Metony7ny (luLETwj'vuia) puts a related word for a proper one: (i) Cause for effect; Mars for bellum ; Ceres for segetes ; * Bacchus' for vinum ; Manus' for larii vicus or for lani templum. (2) Material for work: 'argentum' for vasa ar- gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, 'cor Enni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete for abstract : ' Cedant arma togae,' for ' cedat bellum paci.' (5) Country fot inhabitants : ' Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse : *In Persas ire/ for in Persiderd, Nep. (6) The part is put for the whole (fJvvzKloyri) caput ' for homo ; ^ tectum ' for domus. (7) Sometimes the whole for the part: ^Sal sextante erat/ for * modius salis/ ^ salt was at two unciae the peck, Section IL 62 usesof Uses of the Substantive. the Sub- stantive. certain classes of Singular and Plui^al Substantives see § Z7. iii.) i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plural. Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic, Caes. : frequent in Liv., Tac, Curt, and poets. g 62. Uses of the Substantive. 271 Ex, rosa = rosae : pedes = pedites : Samnis = Samnites. The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and Tacitus often use it : ^ Hispani milites et funditor Baliaris,' L. xxvii. 2. * Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi/ Tac. H, iii. 59. ii. Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose. £'.r. aquae, ardores, calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran- dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C. In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco- nita, mella, colla, corda, currus, altaria, numina, litora, capitolia, tecta, &c. It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre. iii. Plural of Appellatives expressing a *genus' when individuals are implied. Occasional in prose : * Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is meant), C. Z. Man, : frequent in poetry: * Quas mulieres, quos tu parasitos loquere Plant. Men. ii. 2 ; ^ Barbaras regum est ulta libidines ' (meaning Tereus), Hor. C iv. 12. 7. iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express typical characters. This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ^ Pauli, Csttones, Galli, Scipiones, Phili,* C. LaeL 6. ' Decii Marii magnique Ca- milli,' Verg. G, ii. 169. V. Abstract Substantives,^ Verbal and Deno- minative, used in Plural. This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry. 1) When several kinds are implied: *Tres c onstantiae,' C 7*. D, iv. 6 ; * Alia exitia,' C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; * Sapiens nostras am- bitiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise ma7i despises ouf ambitious and shallow pursuits ^ C. T. D. v. 36. 2) Several occurrences : * Domesticae fortitudines,' C. Off, i. 22. So offices in L. and Tac. : ^ Tribunatus et praettirae et consulatus,* Tac. D, 7. d) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural orna- mental objects manufactured from it : ^ Ephyreia aera,' Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G, ii. 463. * Veteres cerae/ old waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argeriturri. remain Singular always. * Draeger states that there are in Latin 3,814 abstract Sutstantives ; of which 2,889 are used in the Singular only, 925 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero, including 36 in Piautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only^ 19, in Caesar, Sal- lust, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub- sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Historische Syntax, der Lat. Spr.^ Part i. p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given. 272 Latin Wordlore, §62 3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : ' Conscientiae maleficiorum/ C. Par, 2. 4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : *Tot artes, tantae scien- tiae, tot inventa/ C. Cat, M, 21. vi. Abstract Substantives for Con(^rete in prose and poetry : This may be in any of three ways : 1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr.. . , , , Plun Abstr. for Plur. Concr. I ^^^^^^ Ex. ^ corruptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad. v. 3. 7; Mesiderium' = res desiderata, Hor. C. i. 14. 18; * servitia ' = servi, C. Flac. 38; ' imperia ' = imperatores, Caes. B. C. iii. 32 ; ' matrimonia ' = uxores, L. X. 23. * Mea festivitas/ my delight, App. ii. 10; so *scelus' = ^z wicked wretch, * sQ^lQXdiy scoimdrels ; Wigiliae ' = vigiles ; * excubiae ' = excubitores. 2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : * amores ' = atilatus or amata : * Pompeius nostri amores,' C.Att. ii. 19. *Aemen . i suos amores/ Catull. xlv. t. So * deliciae ^Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius/ C. Div. i. 36. 3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry : 'amicitia' = amici,Tac.^. 271 ; ^barbaria' = barbari; ^civitas' = cives; ' coniuratio ' = coniurati ; * iuventus ' = iuvenes; * nobilitas ' = nobiles ; ^societas ' = socii ; ' statio ' or * custodia ' = custodes ; ^ remigium ^ = re- miges. So * Canes amica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod.6. 6. * In hac tanta immanitate versari/ C. = inter tam immanis homines. * Cum vestra aetate/ C. = cum vobis adulescentibus. O^s. From the Plural use of SulDstantives we can hardly discon- nect the * Pluralis Modestiae/ which includes also Verbs and Pro- nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number : 'Imperatores appellati sumuS,' C. Att,v. 20. 'Poscimur, si quid vacui sub umbra lusimus,' Hor. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and Sing, occur together : * Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos- trum scriptis illustretur tuis,' C. FaM, v. 12 ;^Et flesti etnostros vidisti flentis ocellos/ Ov. I/, v. 45.^ Vii. Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice- tonian: i) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : ^ Ora- toris est languentis populi incitati o et effrenati moderatio,' an orator's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an infuriated^ populace, C. d. Or, ii. 9. * The Plural of Majesty (we, our), used in the proclamations of modern princes and potentates, was unknown to classical Latin ; but it probably grew out of the use of the * modest ' Plural by Roman Emperors in such phrases as * nostra mansuetudo,' ' nostra maiestas/ * nostra excellentia,' &c. Uses of the SiLbstantive, 273 2) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used for a Noun with Epithet. *Vis flammae aquae multitudine opprimitur' ( = flam- maviolenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat. M. 19. 'In con- suetudine sermonis' ( = in consueto sermone), in ordinary con- versation^ C. Inv. ii. 40. 3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object. ^ Est etiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies ad iocandum/ deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for banter J C. d. Or. ii. 59. 4) A Noun of quahty or condition is used as Subject or Object with Genitive of the real Subject or Object, Or with a Possessive Pronoun. * Pupilh aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor debuit/ the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan ward, C. Verr. i. 58. * Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua,' your preoccupation \ = y on being preoccupied) 7nay refuse me this, C. Fam, v. 12. 8* 5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors : * Occa- sionis tarditas ; ' ' Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia fortunae ; ' ' summa luctus acerbitas:' ^mentis ocuh;' ' philosophiae portusj' ^gloriae stimuli ; ' ' eius sceleri virtus M. Bruti obstitit*' 6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed hj the concrete words puer, adulescens, &c., consul, praetor, &c., rather than by the abstracts pueriti a, consulatus, &c. 'Doctus apuero,' learned froin boyhood, C. *Ab parvulis,^yr<?;;2 their infancy , Caes. * Philosophiae multum adulescens temporis tribui,' I gave much ti7ne to philosophy i7i 7ny youth, C. Off.\\. 4. 'Ante (post) me con*' sulem,' before [after) 7ny consulship : ' consule Planco//;^ the C07isul- ship of Plancus, tlor. Biit the abstracts can be used. 7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in -tor-trix^ are used Adjectively. ' Ennius equi fdrtis et victoris senectuti comparat suam,' Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong and victo7^iou^ horse, C. Cat. M. 5. 'Art if ex stilus/ an artistic style, C This idiom is especially poetic. 'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni,' the conqueri7ig cause pleased the gods, but the conquered cause Cato, LuCan. i. 128. ' Populum late regem/ a far-ruling people,YQYgi Ae7L I, 22^. 8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : 'nonien Latinum' ( = Latini), 'res Romanae' ( = Roma). So 'res repetundae' {extortion), respublica, iusiurandum, &g. 9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons and Places stand for their works or properties : ' Percipietis volup- tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nos- tras leges conferre volueritis,'j)/<?^ will fi7id pleasure in co7nparing our laws with [those of) the Lycurgiis a7td Dr-aco and Solo7t of the Greeks, C. d. Or, i. 44. 10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govefn the same cases as their Verbs : Cicero has ' domum itio ; ^ ' Narbone reditus ; ' ' ob- temperatio iegibus.' Constructions such as ' receptio virum meum/ ' curatio hanc rem,' are used by Plautus, but not subsequently. 274 Latin Wordlore. §62. viii. Ellipse of the Substantive: Omitted Substantives are indicated i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets : ' ager : in Tiburti, C. agtm : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta, Plin., luv. ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica. capilli : cani, C. and poets. caro .* agnina, la^nl^ ; anatina, d2^ck ; aprugna, wild-boa}' ; bu- iDula, beef', ferina, venison ; suilla, ; vitulina, veal, castra : aestiva ; hiberna ; stativa : C, Caes., L., Tac. &:c. dies : natalis ; and in phrases poster o, in poster um, &c. fabida : togata, with Roman characters ; pal Hat a, with Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, plays in which cha- racters with these dresses appeared. familiaris : ' complexusinde Coriolanus suos dimittit,' L. ii. 40. febris : quartana, quartan ague^ luv. feriae : Latinae, tJie Latin holidays. fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c. C, L. /ratres : gemini ; trigemini. funis : cereus, a waxe7i torch. hora : quarta, 10 o'clock ; octava, 2 dclock^ luv. lapis : molaris, millstone^ Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fottrth milestone^ Tac. &c. liber : 'in T. Livii primo/ Quint. ; *in tertio de Oratore/ do. ; ^ ne in pontificiis quidem nostris/ C. N. D. i. 30. ludi : Circenses, luv. manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra. mare \ Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profundum, &c. 7iavis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C, L. ; Liburna, Hon, &c. nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, &c. officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C, Plin. ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in the Roman theatre, Suet. ovis : bidens. partes : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the frst, second, &c. parts in a drama, C, Hor. &c. pecuniae-, repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis. porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, &c., C, &c. praedium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, &c., C. res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c., C. sella : curulis, Tac. sol : occidens ; oriens. spolia : opima, Sen. Tr. telum : missile, L., Verg. temptis : brevi ; horno, Plaut. toga : praetexta, Hor. and later. tribus : Q. Verres Romilia, C. &c. usurae ; centesimae ; quincunces, besses, deunces, &c. vas : aenum ; fictilCi Cat., Ov. &c. Uses of the Adjective. 27s ventus : Africus, lapyx. ^ verba : multa, plura, &c. versus^ senarius. via : Appia, Flaminia, Latina, &c. vicibiis : alternis, Lucr., Verg. vimun : Caecubum, Falernum, Massicum, Sabinum, Surren- tina (vina), &c. Hor. &c. Also menstruum (^frumenfum)^ L. ; nullas {epistulas), C. ; molaris (dens), luv. ; Papia Poppaea {lex),T3.c. Dialia, Liberalia, &c. {festa). 2) By Substantives which depend on those omitted : aedes or templum : ^ ad ApoUinis ; ' * ad Opis ; ' ^ ad lovis Sta- toris ; ' ' ad Vestae ; ' * prope Cloacinae ' (aedem), C.j L. &c* actor : 'Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum/ C. Brut. 69. iter : ' castra aberant bidui,' C. Att, v. 16. Jilius^ filia : ^ Faustus Sullae ; ' ' Caeciha Metelli ; ' * Hannibal Gisgonis.' uxor : Terenlia Ciceronis ; Apicata Seiani, Tac. homines : 'pergere ad Treveros etexternaefidei/ Tac* poculuni : 'da noctis mediae/ &c. Hor. C. iii. 19. \o% servus : frequent in phrases : 'a manu' or ' ad manum/ amaim- ensis : ' ab epistulis/ letter-writer ; ' a potione/ cup-bearer ; ' a bibliotheca/ librarian, &c. 3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject. See §109, §126. Object omitted : mittere (lijuitiuui) ; agere (vitam) ; obire {ijzo?'- tem) ; merere {stipendia) ; movere {castra) ; ducere {exercitum) ; appellere, conscendere (navejn, classein), and others. Besides Pronoun Subjects, the Nom. homines is constantly omitted in the phrases aiunt, tradunt, narrant, &d. ix. Substantives are used with different kinds of meaning (active or passive). alumn-us -a (usually qui alituif ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela [clieniship ; clients ; patronage) : gloria {glory ; boasting, vanity) : hospes (host; guest) : fuga {flight ; exile) : invidia {envy ; odiuni) : nuntius {inessenger ; news) : odium {hatred as feeling : hated ob- ject) : opinio {opinion ; credit) : ruina {ruin suffered or inflicted) : spes {hope as feeling ; as object) : tristitia {sadness ; gloom inspiring sadness) : tutela {guardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded, ward) : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster : qui vehitur, passejiger), &c. Section III. Uses of the Adjective. Uses^f i. Adjectives used as Substantives. See § 15. b). %lttt A) Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning. I. Singular : a) in arius, icus, anus, inus, &c., including Gentile words : adversarius; consiharius ; librarius ; ostiarius: sicarius ; statuarius; T z 2/6 Latin Wordlore. §63. tabellarius; vicarius, &c. ; criticus, rusticus, vihcus, &c ; hortu- lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; libertinus ; vicinus, &c. ; Romanus, Sabinus; Atheniensis, &c. Also the terms for legionary soldiers ; primanus, secundanus, &c. U\ Words of Kinship and Relation : amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; affinis ; agnatus, cognatus ; con- sanguineus; contubernalis ; familiaris; gentilis ; maritus; necessa- rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius. c) Various; aemulus ; conscius ; consularis ; luvenis ; insipiens ; fultus &c Cicero has, * Meos partim inimicos partim invidos, p. Flanc.^ ^ Nonnulli Aostri iniqui/ do. 23. ^Omnibus iniquissimis meis, Verr, v. 69. d) Participles : ' a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens. /3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us (a) ; spons-us (a). e) Generally, ' ma7i' may be omitted when any epithet implying it is used (Ellipsis) : ^ lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui, the ^ body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man, C. Div. 1. 30. Non de improbo, sed de callido improbo quaerimus/ we are enqiaring ; not about a knave, bnt abont a cunning knave, C. Fi7i. 11. 17. ' Ne- He^ere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed omnino dissoluti/ careless of what others think about him indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipled, C. UJp. 1. 2i5. 11. Plural : Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express men \ chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut* So^ boni, divites, inferiores, infimi, iuniores, magni, maiores, mmores, : multi, mortales, nulli, optimi, omnes, pauci, plerique, posteri, proximi, summi, tenues, urbani ; nostri, sui, &c. &c. ; adstantes, dis- ^ centes, legentes, spectantes, &c. ; docti, indocti, imperiti, mortui, &c. , Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some property, classes in natural history: balantes = oves ; natantes = pisces ; volantes = aves ; laniger = aries ; squamigeri = pisces. Cicero has ' errantes ' for ' planetae.' B) Neuter Adjectives and Participles : I. Singular : a) It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan- tives in arium, torium, sorium, turn, sum, ale, lie, are, &c., were originally Adjectival : as cibarium, deversorium, dictum, respon- sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c. b) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut. Adjective into an Abstract Noun (70 kya^ov, to KciXor). Latin authors, without this advantage, use a certain number of Neuter Adjectives Singular in this way : such a*-e § 63. Uses of the Adjective. 277 a) Moral Abstracts : aequum, bonum, commodum, decorum, falsum, honestum, iustum, malum, nimium, pravum, rectum, ridiculum, utile, verum, &c. Physical Abstracts : album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane, pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquillum, vacuum, &c. y) Ordinal Numerals : primum, secundum, &c. extremum, medium, &c. c) The most extensive Substantival use of Neuter Sing. Adjec- tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phrases of an adverbial character. Among the most usual phrases of this kind are : ex adverso ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; e5^ transverso ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : — in abdito ; in alto ; in ambiguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ; in incerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ; in praecipiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ; in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tur- hido ; in tuto : — ab imo ad summum : — pro certo ; pro com- perto ; pro indigno : — do alieno ; de cetero ; de communi ; de medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; — in adversum ; in arduum ; in artum ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in immensum ; in incertum ; in maius ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum : and the temporal phrases, in aeternum; in futurum ; in longum ; in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : — ad certum, ad constitutum, ad immensum ; adliquidum ; ad irritum, ad vanum ; ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum, ad (in) multum diei, ad ultimum.^ II. Plural : Neuter Plural Adjectives are freely used in Latin as Abstract Nouns, signifying ' things.^ bona, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c. &c. ; multa, plu- rima, omnia, &c. ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc. Some in local sense : avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta ; aperta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, &c. &c. : often with a de- scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia montium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c. ^ Draeger cites other instances : Ex : abdito, alto, affluenti, antique, aperto, arido, communi, composite, conducto et locate, diverse, facili, patenti, praeparate, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &c. In (Abl.) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedite, extreme, facili,, difficili, levi, occulto, pacato, private, profane, promiscuo, summe, &c. In (Accus.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, centrarium, publicum, sublime, uuum, &c. 278 Latin Wordlore. §63. ii. Adjectives used adverbially.^ (1) ' Senatus frequens convenit/ the senate met in force ^ C. So ^invitus (or libens) veni ^imprudens (or sciens) feci/ &c. Especially Adjectives of time^ order, &c. : serus, citus, matutinus, nocturnus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimus, postremus, supremus, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, &c. ^ Lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat,' the wolf prowls about the flocks at ni^ht, Verg. G. iii. 538. ^ Sulla multus aderat,' Sulla shewed himself much, Sail. lug, 9. 'Philotimus nullus venit,' Philotimus caine not at all, C. Fam. xi. 22. (2) Virgil has ^ tarda volventia plaustra ' (for tarde), ^ sublimem expulsum ^ (for sublime), * inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ; and similar examples abound in poetry. iii. Partitive Attributes, Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos- tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to designate one part of that to which they are attributed. * Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur,' at break of day the top of the mountain was occupied by Labienus, Caes. B. G. i. 22. ^Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa- ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit,' Gnaeus Pompeius prepared a mighty war at the close of winter, comme^iced it at the beginning of spring, completed it in tkc piiddle of summer, Q,p, L, Man, 12. See M. Lucr, iii. 250. iv. Proleptic Attributes. An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not existing yet, but about to result from the action contained in the sentence : * Ingentes toUent animos' (i.e. ut ingentes fiant), Virg. G, iii. 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry. V. Multiplication of Attributes, 1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea : ^Propter Ennam est spelunca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos dies anniversarios agunt,' close to Enna is a certain cavern, where the people of Syracuse hold annual holidays, C. Verr, iv. 52. ^Columna aurea solida sacrata est,' a pillar of solid gold was dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. ' Verri apud Mamertinos privata navis oneraria maxima publice est aedificata,' a private yacht of very heavy tonnage was built for Verres in the Mamertine city at public cost, C. Verr. iv. 52. Here ^festos dies,' ^ columna aurea,' 'navis oneraria maxima,' severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucn v. 13 : ' Divina antiqua reperta;' and iv. 394^ *suo corpore claro.' 2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive, when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive : * Auribus indicantur vocis genera permulta, candidum, fuscum, lene, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene,' C. N, D, ii. Or when intervening Conjunctions are supposed, not expressed : §63 Uses of the Adjective. 275 ^ Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum rationis et consili, quern vocamus Hominem/ C. Leg. i. 7. ' Mon- strum horrendum informe ingens/ Verg. Aen, iii. 658. VI. Possessive Attributes. The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely, instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origin, Possession, &c. : Anacreon Teius, Anacreon of Teos ; Hercules Xenophonteus, Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis filius, my master^s son ; fraternus sanguis, a brother's blood ; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage ; bellum sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, the faults of others ^ &c. vii. Idioms of the Superlative. For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the Syntax of the Ablative. 1) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates any very high degree, though not the highest : ^ Ego sum mise- rior quam tu quae es miserrima,' I am more wretched than yoUy who are very wretched^ C. Fam. xiv. 3, 2) The force of the Superlative is increased by a) The Adverbs longe, multo, quam, vel : ^Ex Britannis omnibus longe humanissimi sunt, qui Cantium inco- lunt,' of all the Britons^ the most civilised by far are those who inhabit Kent^ Caes. B. G. v. 14. 'Alcibiades fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,' Alci-^ blades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep. Ale. I. ^Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostendit quam brevissime/ definition shews as briefly as may be, what it is that is trecited of C. Or. 33. Hence, quam primum {as soon as possible) \ ^ Huic mandat, ut quam primum ad se revertatur,' this man he directs to return to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21. ^ In fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt,' in lute- playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest errors, C. Off. i. 41. The elliptical expressions, tam quam qui, tantum quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum, cum: *Tam sum mitis quam qui lenissimus,' / am as mild as the very gentlest, C. p. Sull. 31. * Commendation! meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum,' assign to my recommendation the greatest weight you would to any, C. Fam. xiii. 22. * Grata ea res, ut quae maxime senatui unquam, fuit,' that circumstance pleased the senate as much as atty thing had ever pleased the^n, L. v. 25. ^Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is thronged to its very utinost^ C. Qu. F. ii. 6. c) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum : Aves quam possunt mollissime nidos substernunt, ut quam 28o Latin Wordlore. §63. facillime ova serventur,' birds line their nests as softly as they can, that the eggs 7nay be preserved with the greatest ease, C. N. D. ii. 52. * Hannibal quantam maxi- ma m potest vastitatem ostendit/ Hannibal exhibits tJie ut7nost desolation in his power y L. xxii. 3. Utpotuib re- vis si me dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could. On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 153. 3) The Pronoun quisque {each), attached to the Superlative, imparts a universal notion: ^ Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit,' all the most learned men despise the Epicureans, C. T.D, i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force ; 'Maximae cuique fortunae minime credendum est,' all the greatest fortunes are least to be trusted^ L. xxx. 30. (i) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, it a following with another: 'Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi- me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari,' this is a special duty, according as men most need assistance^ so by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other words, Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est. b) Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : *Quo quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira- cundius et \2^\iOx\o%\\x'^^ the greater a man's skill and ge7iius, the more fervour and pains he throws into his teaching, C. p. Q. Rose. 11. c) Quisque also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque, decimus quisque, &c. : 'Quinto quoque anno Siciha tota censetur,' a census of all Sicily is taken every fifth year, C. Vcrr. ii. 56. viii. Other Intensive Phrases. 1) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mi rum quan- tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c. (surprisi7igly, exceedingly, &c.) : Md mirum quantum profuit ad concordiam civitatis,' this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the citizens, L. ii. i. 'Vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane quantum discrepat,^ ^^/w^^/^ the lamp-lit carouse and the Median scimitar y vast is the difference, Hor. C. i. 27. 5. 2) Praecipue, sumnie, valde, vementer, admodum, apprime, in- primis, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfect e, and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec- tive or Adverb: 'Praecipue sanus,' eminently healthy, Hor. f luvenis admodum,' quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and Quam.) 3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense, like that given by the adverb nimis : ' At ne Ion gum fiat videte,' mind it be not too long (i.e. tedious), C. Leg. ii. 10. ' Nihil arduum fatis,' nothing is too hard for destiny ^ Tac. H, ii. 82. §64. Xfses of l^ronoims. 281 ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas- sive and Active sense. Such are ambiguus (doubted ; doubtmg) ; angustus {narrow ; 7iarrowing)\ anxius {disturbed; disturbing)-, caecus {dark ; blind) \ credulus, incredulus ; docilis ; dubius ; flebilis : formidolosus ; gnarus, ig- narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno- cuus, innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus, ignotus ; odiosus ; operosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ; surdus ; suspiciosus ; tristis, and others. See these in Dictionary. 1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Pro- tised by a single person speaking of himself. ^Norisnos: docti "^""^ swx^yys^ you should know nie^ I am a man of learnings Hor. 6^. i. 9. 7. See p. 272 Obs, 2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad, apud, ab, to signify ^ house ^ * abode * Septimo Idus veni ad me in Sinuessanum/ on the yth of the Ides I caine to my villa at Sinuessa, C. Att. xvi. 10. * Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio// hear that Scaurus is at his country seat, C. de Or. i. 49. ^ Quisnam a nobis egreditur foras ? ' who is coming out of our house? Ter. Haul. iii. 2. 50. 3) Pronouns of i stand 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an Apposite Noun; * Hannibal peto pacem/ /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx. 30. ^Omnes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all we conservatives ever regard noble birth with favour, C. p. Sest. 9. *Soli Tusqulani vera arma invenistis/ only you men of Tus- culum have discovered genuine warfare, L. vi. 26. 4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly ; thus, for ^ I see my father^ the Latin is ■ Patrem video,' omitting the Possessive unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : ' Quid vos uxor mea violarat?' what wrong had my wife done you? C. p, Dom, 25. Yet the Possessive is sometimes introduced without obvious necessity : ^ Cum ita animum induxti tuum,' as you have prevailed on yourself, Ter. An. i. 2. 12. Pleonasm of other Pronouns occurs in poetry : ' Nec dulcis amores sperne puer, neque tu choreas,' despise in boyhood neither sweet loves nor yet dances, Hor. C. i. 9. 15. 'Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat,' thus he used to carry his eyes, his hands, his countenance, V. Ae. iii. 490. For the pleonastic use of ille by Virgil in comparisons see Ae, x. 707, xi. 809, xii» 5, and notes there. 5) The Possessive Pronouns are used by poets in the sense propitious : 'Sedmihi tamfacilis unde meosque deos?' but whence can I obtain gods so easy and propitious ? Ov. Her. xii. 84. 'Ventis iturus non suis,' about to sail with unp7'opitious winds, Hor. Epod*. ix. 30. * Haud numine nostro,' V. Ae. \\. 396. Section IV. Uses of Pronouns. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 64 Personal and Pos- sessive 282 Latin Wordlore, § 65. 6) On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Personal, see Syntax of Genitive. Thus, ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit tuo,' this he did neither fro7n disregard nor from hatred of you, Ter. Ph, v. 9. ii. Demonstrative Pronouns. Of Demonstrative Pronouns, hie refers to what is near to the speaker's person, place, time, habits, &c. : ill e to what is remote from these : iste to what is in near relation to those addressed. Hie. i) ^Haec quae videtur esse accusatio mea,' this which seems ta be my prosecution^ C. in Q. Caec, 2. * His me is litteris,' by this letter of mine, C. Fam. i. 3. ■ Huic homini^ ( = mihi), Plant, Epid^ i. 2. 38. * Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' my neighbour Chrysis here died, Ter. An. i. i. 78. * Hoc a te peto, ut subvenias huic meae sollicitudini ethnic meae laudi studium dices,' what I ask of you is to relieve my anxiety and study to support 7ny honour in this 7natter, C. Fam. ii. 6. * His duobus mensibus,' within the last two months^ C. Fam. vii. i. 'Hie dies/ to-day, Licentia haec/ this modern licence, L. xxv. 40. Ille. 2) ^Si ill OS, Labiene, quos iamvidere non possumus, neglegis, ne his quidem, quos vides, consuli putas oportere 1^ if you disre- ga7'd those, Labienus, whom we can see no longer, do you think 7ia care should be taken even for these, whom yau do see ? C. p. Rab. 1 1. ^ Q. Catulus non antiquo illo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit eruditus/ Qimitus Catulus was learned not in that ancient 7nanner, but in this later one of our ow7t, C. Brtit. 35, a) Ille may refer to what was ere while, or what will be here- after (hence its locative olim has both meanings) : * 1 11am veterem iudiciorum vim/ C. ^ Sapiens non pendet ex futuris, sed exspectat ilia, fruitur praesentibus,' a wise man hangs not on future things, but looks for them, while he enjoys the present, C. Fitt. i. 19. b) When special stress is laid on a proposition or fact, it is introduced by illud: *Illud animorum corporumque dissimile, quod animi valentes morbo temptarinon possunt, / corpora possunt,' there is this striking difference between minds and bodies, that healthy 7ninds cannot be assailed by disease, bodies can, C. T. D. iv. 14. Ille is used to express fame or dignity : ^ Medea ilia,' the celebrated Medea, C. p. Z. Man^ 9. 'Veneramini ilium lovem, custodem huius urbis,' adore that great Jupiter, guardian of this city, C. Cat. ii. 12. So with an attribute : * An censes omnium rerumpublicarum nostram veterem illam fuisse optimam '^. ' do you think that of all common^ wealths that old one of ours was the best? C. Leg. ii. 10. Or with other pronouns : Mnstat hie nunc ille annus egregius,' there is coming on now this fine, fa7nous year, C. Att. i. iS. Mile ego liber, ille ferox, tacui/ /, tha^ free, that haughty one, was 7nute, Ov, Met» i, 757. 65 Demon- stritive Pro- nouns. §65- Uses of Pronouns 283 d) Ille, the other (of two named) : ^ Themistocles domino navis qui sit apcrit : at ille procul ab insula navem tenuit in ancoris/ Themistocles disclosed to the ship's captain who he was: whereupon the other kept the vessel at anchor some way from the island^ Nep. The77t. 8. I Hi, the other side, the other party : ' Illorum qui disserxtiunt/ C. p, L. Man, 23. 3) When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either Hic what is last mentioned, or what is nearer to the speaker's mind : ille, either what is first mentioned, or what is farther from the * speaker's mind : * Idem et docenti et discenti propositum esse debet, ut ille prodesse veht, hic proficere/ the teacher and learner ought to have the same object ; the former should desire to confer advantage, the latter to obtain it, Sen. Ep. 108. * Scitum est illud Catonis, melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos mereri quam eos amicos qui dulces videantur : illos saepe verum dicere, hos num- quam,' it is a shrewd saying of Cat 0, that keen-tongued enemies de- serve better of some men, than those friends who seem sweet-spoken : the former often tell the truth, the latter never, C. Lael. 24. ^ Me- lior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haec in tua, ilia in deorum manu est,' better is sure peace than hoped-for victory ; the one is in your own power, the other in thej)ower of the gods ^ L. xxx. 30. The two Pronouns are also used for distribution : hoc et illud, this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that 7nan, C. p. Rose. A. 21. 4) Iste has the same relation to tu(vos) that hic has to ego Iste. (nos). * Quae est ista praetura?' what sof^t of proctorship is that of yours ? C. Verr, ii. 2. 18. ^De istis rebus exspecto tuas litteras,' / await a letter from you about affairs in your parts, C. Att, ii. 5. 'Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefacta sunt,' as soon as you arrived those benches (next you) were cleared, C. Cat. i. 7. In Cicero's speeches iste often means *the defendant,' or the person attacked. Contempt is not contained in the meaning of the Pronoun iste, but it is implied somictimes, inasmuch as the speaker seems to repel what he names from himself to some one else. ^ Quid sibi isti miseri volunt "^. ' what do those wretches wa7tt ? C. ' Errare malo cum Platone quam cum istis vera sentire,' I had rather be wrong with Plato than hold true doctrine with that crew, C. T. D. i. 1 7. 5) Is, the unemphatic Determinative Pronoun, is used a) In reference to a Noun before mentioned : ' Veientes regem creavere. Offendit ea res populorum Etruriae animos, odio ipsius regis. Gravis iam is antea genti fuerat,' the people of Veii elected a king: that act dis- pleased the population of Etruria, from their hatred of the king himself : {for) he had already been oppressive to the nation at a for7ner time, L. v. i. * Maximum orna- mentum amicitiae toUit qui ex ea tollit verecundiam,' he takes away the chief grace of frie7idship, who takes fro77i it respectfid7iess, C. Lad. 22. 284 Latin Wordlore, § 65. Its oblique cases are often left to be understood : ^ Eadem secreto ex aliis quaerit; reperit esse vera/ he asks the saiJie questio7is privately of otliers^ and finds all trice, Caes. B, G. i. 18. /3) In correlation to a Relative, which it usually precedes, but often, for the sake of emphasis, follows : Is qui hoc fecit, he who did this. * Magna sunt ea quae sunt optimis proxima,' great are those things which are 7iext to the best, C. Or, 2. * Bestiae, in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se non conimovent,' beasts do not move from the place they ivere born in, C. Fin, v. 15. It inay be omitted: *Qui e nuce nucleum esse vult, frangit nucem,' he who wishes to eat the kernel out of the walnut, breaks the walnut. Plant. Cure. i. i. 55. * Semper in proeho maximum est periculum qui maxime timent,' ever in battle their peril is 7nost whose fear is greatest. Sail. Cat. 58. ' Quidquid non licet, nefas putare debemus,' whatever is unlawful w^ ought to think impious, C, Par. 3. y) In the sense of ^ one of a kiftd,^ ^ such : ' in which sense it may relate to any person, and be followed by qui with Indie, or (more usually) Subjunctive, or by ut with Subj. ; ' Atque haec omnia is feci, qui sodalis et familiarissimus Dolabellae eram,' a^id I who did all this, was one, who stood i7i the 77iost i7iti7}iate ajid familiar relations to Dola- bella, C. Fa77i. xii. 14. * Nequeenim tu is es qui quid sis n^scidiS,^ for you are not the 7na7i to be ig7wra7itofyour own powers, C. Fa77i. v. 12. * Matris est ea stultitia, ut earn nemo hominem, ea vis, ut nemo feminam, ea crudelitas, ut nemo niatrem appellare possit,' such is that 7nother's folly that none ca7i call her a hu7na7i bei7ig ; such her vior le7ice that no7ie can ter77i her a wo7nan ; such her cruelty that 7t07ie ca7i speak of her as a 77iother, C. p. Clu. 70. Obs. In such sentenqes as, * The features of the 77tind are fairer^ tha7i those of the body,^ where the Demonstrative {those) is used in English, the Latin idiom omits it : as ■ Animi lineamenta pulchriora sunt quam corporis,' C. Fi7i. iii. 22. The use of an e7nphatic pro- noun (hie or ille) is no real exception to this rule : * Nullam virtus, aliam mercedem laborum periculorumque desiderat, praeter banc laudis et gloriae,^ virtue wa7its no other reward of its perils a7id toils, but this of praise and glory, C. p. Arch. \\. So, 'Those dwelling at Rome ' is in Latin not, Ei Romae habitantes ; but either- Romae habitantes, or ^^i qui Romae habitant. Idem. 6) The Definitive Pronoun idem (is-dem), ' the same ^ is often aptly rendered 'also ' Quidquid honestum, idem est utile,' what- ever is morally right is also adva7.itageous, C. Off. ii, 3. ' Non omnes, qui Attice, eidem bene ; sed omnes, qui bene, eidemetiam Attice loquuntur,' not all who speak in the Attic fnanner also speak well; but all who speak well speak also in the Attic manner^ C. Brut. 84. Sometimes it implies a contrast but yet') : 'Inventi multi sunt,, qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, eidem gloriae iac- turam ne minimam quidem facere vellent/ ma7iy have been foutid §66. Uses of Pronotms. 285 who were prepared to yield up life for their counfrv, yet wotild not choose to make the smallest sacrifice of glory ^ C. Off. i. 24. It is placed, like ipse, in apposition to other Pronouns: 'Tu idem dixisti/ also said, C, p. L, Man, 17. So haeceadem, qui idem, &c. Note I. Et is, isque, atque is, et is quidem, et hie quidem, et idem, idemque, atque idem {and that too), nec is {and that too not), &c., are used to lay stress on some quality of a word before mentioned: * Homo habet memoriam, et eam infinitam rerum innumerabilium,' man has memory, and an infinite one too, of countless things, C. T, D, i. 24. ' Apollonium cognovi optimis studiis deditum id que a puero,' / have known Apollonitis to be devoted to sound learning, and that from boyhood, C. Fam, xiii. 16. Note 2. The Adverb quidem is elegantly joined to Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns, especially to ille, when a concession is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (sed) ; answering to the EngHsh ^certainly . . . but'.'' 'Ignosco equi- dem (ego quidem) tibi, sed tu quoque velim mihi ignoscas,^ / par- don you certainly, but I would have you too pardon me, C. Q. Fr. iii. I, 5. ' Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere moderandus,' yours is a grief natural to man, I adinit, but cne which should be considerably modified, C. Att. xii. 10. ^ Ludo et ioco uti illo quidem licet, sed tum, cum seriis rebus satisfeceris/ you 7nay indulge in sport and ainusement, I grant, bid not till you have fulfilled serious engagements, C. Off i. 29. The adversative rclause is omitted in C. Off ii. 6 : ^Quae sordidissima est ilia qui- dem ratio,' &c., a principle which Is, I admit, of the 7neanest kind. See § 64 (4). Note 3. Redundance of Demonstrative Pronouns occurs : ^ Par- menides, Xenophanes minus bonis quamquam versibus sed tamen. illis versibus increpant QOx\xTCi2iXxo^d.Xi\\^m^ Parmenides andXeno-- phanes reprove their arrogance in verses, which, though not very good, are verses nevertheless, C. Ac. ii. 23. Msta animi tranquil- litas ea ipsa est beata vita,' that tranquillity of mind is itself hap*' piness, C. Fin. v. 8. This peculiar redundance is especially remarkable in Relative clauses : ^ Plato Titanum e genere statuit eos, qui,ut illi caelestibus, sic hi adversentur magistratibus,' Plato assigns to the Titan race those mejt who oppose magistrates, as the Titans opposed the gods, C. Leg. iii. 2. ^ Est istius furor repellendus qui quae maiores volu- erunt, ea iste labefactavit,' we should put away fro7n us his mad- ness, who has shaken those ijistitutioTis, which our ancestors thought proper to establish, C. p. Do7n. 42. 66 iii. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus. TheR flexive Personal and Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Per- ^^o- sons may be used reflexively : that is, they may be referred to a "e^" uu Subject of their own Person. But se and suus differ from the rest, inasmuch as they cannot be used unless there be a Noun of their own (the Third) Person, expressed or understood, to which they are referred. Although we can say, am at me, he loves me ; amat te, he loves thee] we cannot say, amo se, amas se, but amo eum, I love 2S6 Latin Wordlore. §66, him ; amas eum,you love him ; not culpo suum factum, but culpo ei us factum, / blame his deed. The general rules for the use of se, suus are these : — 1) First : they may be referred to a Subject Nominative of the Third Person in their own Clause. ' Fur telo s e defendit/ the thief defe7ids himself with a weapon^ Q. p. Mil, 2>' 'Atticus incitabat omnis studio suo/ At tic us inspired all with his own zeal^ Nep. Alt. I, * Sentit animus se vi sua moveri/ the soul feels that it is inoved by its own force ^ C. T, D. i. 23. The Pronoun quisque is a frequent Subject of se, suus : * Ipse se quisque diligit, quod per se sibi quisque carus est,* everyone loves hi7nself because every- one by the law of his own nature is precious to himself C. LacL 21. 2) Secondly : they may be referred to an Object (which usually precedes) when this reference causes no ambiguity. * Scipionem impellit ostentatio sui,' ostentation of self sways Scipio, Caes. B. Ci. 4. 'Caesaremsua natura mitiorem facit,* Caesar's own cha- racter makes him milder^ C. Fam. vi. 13. * Ei nunc alia ducendast domum, sua cognata,' he has now to marry another ^ his own kins- womafiy Plant. Cist. i. i. * Multa sunt civibus inter se com- niunia,* many things are common to fellow-citizens^ C. Off. i. 17. * Scipio suas res Syracusanis restituit,' Scipio restored to the Syracusans their property, L. xxix. i. ^Apibus fructum restituo suum,' I restore to the bees their produce, Phaed. iii. 13. 3) Thirdly, they may be referred to an Indefinite Object Case (alicui, aliquem) understood : ^ Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed etiam aHorum,' 7nen niust take account not of themselves alofie, but also of others. Especially in conjunction with an Infinitive : * De- forme est de s e ipsum praedicare,' it is tmsee^nly to vaunt of one- self C. Off. i. 38. 'Bellum est sua vitia nosse,' it is a fi7ie thing to know one^s own faults, C. Att. ii. 17.^ ' The principles stated above hold good when se, sutis, occur in Participial, Gerundial and other dependence. *Multa mea in se collata, etiam sua in me proferebat officia,' he brought forward many services done by me to him, and also those done by himself to 7ne, C. /. Sull. 6, 'Constituit igitur ut ludi, absente se, fierentsuo nomine,' therefore arranged that in his absence the games should be held in his name, C. A tt. XV. II. *Tanto gratior populo fuit quanto doctior maioribus suis,' he was more popular in proJ>ortio7t as he was more learned than his ancestors, lust. xvii. 3. * Si nulla caritas erit quae faciat amicitiam ipsam sua sponte, vi sua, ex se et propter se expetendam,* if there is no love to rnake friendship desirable on the first offer, by its own force, from itself , and for itself, C. Fin. ii. 26. ' Itaque redimendi se captivis copiam i^zox^' accordingly they gave the prisoners the opportunity of ransoming them- selves, L. xxii. 58. * M ithri datem Tigranes excepit diffidentemque rebus suis con- firmavit,' Tigranes received and encouraged Mithridates, who was despairing of his own resources, C. L. Man. 9. From such bold constructions as those of the three latter examples, in which the Reflexive is referred to the Object Case by virtue of an intervening Verb Infinite (expetendam, redimendi, diffidentem), has arisen one yet bolder, in which the Preposition cum is equivalent to a Relative Clause : 'Dicaear- chum cum Aristoxeno, aequali et condiscipulo suo, omittamus,* let us pass over Dicaearchus, and Aristoxeims his contejnporary and fellow-pupil, C. T. D. i. 18, where cum &c. =quocum coniungimus Aristoxenum . . suum. A similar idiom is extended to places where the Preposition in (more rarely ad, ab, intra) follows such Verbs as remittere, retinere, reverti, lubere, cogere, removere, &c. the formula of command being adopted by the writer from the speaker's mouth. Thus, *Caesar Fabium cum legione sua remittit in hiberna,' Caesar sends back Fabius and his legion to their winter encampjnent, Caes. B. G. V. 53, is equivalent to * Caesar imperat, Fabius eum legione sua in hiberna rever- §67. Uses of Pronouns, a) The Cases of is (sometimes those of ipse) are used when se, suus, would be wrong : ^ Chilius te rogat, ct ego eius rogatu/ Chilius asks you, and I at his reqicest, C. Att, i. 9. < Aranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse factum/ news came to Quinctius while ploughing, that he was appointed dictator, C. Cat, M. 16. h) The Reflexive when referred to the Pronoun q u i s q u e (either Subject or Object) generally stands immediately before it : ' Mors sua quemque manet/ his death awaits every man, *Suus quoique mos/ every one has his own fashion,TeY. Ph. ii. 4. But sometimes after it : ^Quisque suos patimur Manis/ Verg. Ae7t. vi. 743. So, *Ut quis- que sibi maxime confidit/ C. Lael. 9. c) The use of the Adjectival phrase suusquisque (though not noticed in Madvig's grammar) is explained and illustrated by him on C. Fi?i. v. 17 : *Quia cuiusque partis naturae et in corpore et in animo suaquaequevis sit,' because eveyy part of nature both in body and soul has its own particular power. So ^suo quoque anno' on an Inscription. See M. Lucr. ii. 372. d) The Plural Masculine sui is used for amici, familiares or milites so idiomatically, that it sometimes appears to transgress the laws of Pronominal reference : * Is annus Crassi omnem spem atque omnia vitae consilia morte pervertit ; fuit hoc luctuosum suis,' that year overthrew by death all the hope and all the life-plans of Crassus : it was an event full of sorrow to his friends, C. d. Or. iii. 2. * lam perventum ad suos est ' ( = iam pervenerant ad suos), L. xxxiii. 4. On these Pronouns in Dependent Clauses see § 231 — 236. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. i) This is of any person, and strengthens any Noun-term, especially a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun, with which it is placed in attributive apposition: ^Ipse Pater dextra molitur fulmina,' the Sire himself wields the lightnings with his right hand, tantur.' So: * Carthaginienses M a g o n e m c u m classe sua copiisque in Italiam mit- tunt,' the Carthaginians send Mago with his Jleet and forces into Italy, L. xxiii. 32. *Corbulo, ut Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, exscindere parat castella,' Corbnlo, in order to compel the Armenians to defend their possessions, prepares to de- stroy their forts, Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, where Corbulo may be supposed to say, * Armenios ad sua defendenda cogam.' In such instances, if the Subject of the sentence is of the Third Person, the word or words to which the Reflexive suus is referred will be found immediately before the Reflexive. If the Subject is not of the Third Person, or if re- ference to it would be absurd, this is unnecessary. * In sua terra cogam pugnare eum,' / will compel him to fight in his ozvn land, L. xxviii. 44. ' Suis flammis delete Fi de- Ti2iS,,' destroy Fidenae with its own flames, L. iv. 33. ' Desinant insidiari domi suae consuli,' they shonld cease to lay snares for the consul at his own hotise, C. Cat. i. 13. In constructions, however, like some of those cited in this note, it is optional to use the Demonstr. instead of the Refl. ; and the following passages (cited by Madvig, Gr. § 490) shew that ancient writers often did so: * Omitto Isocratem discipulosque eius Ephorum et Naucratem,' C. Or. 51. *Pisonem nostrum merito eius amo plurimum,' C. Fam. xiv. 2. 'Deum agnoscis ex operibus eius,* C. T. D. i. 28. 67 Ipse. 288 Latin Wordlorc. 67.. Verg. 6^.1.329. * Tarde nosmet ipsos cognoscimus/ we gain knowledge of ourselves slowly^ C. Fin. v. 15. ^ Ego ipse cum eodem ipso non invitus erraverim/ / ?nyself would be wrong with- out reluctance in that very saine 7nan^s company, C. T, D. i. 1 7. 2) Ipse implies that the notion, which it thus accentuates, is op- posed to some other, expressed or understood. Cicero writes, ^ Nemo est qui ipse se oderit/ there is no ojiewho hates himself, C. Fin. V. to. If he had written Nemo est qui se ipsum oderit, the EngUsh would still be, there is no one who hates himself Yet there is a difference between the two Latin sentences, for, in the former, ipse indicates the following contrast, ^utcumque alii eum oderint,' however others 7nay hate him ; in the latter the following : 'utcumque alios oderit,' however he may hate others. So, ' Non egeo medicina : me ipse consolor,' / want no medicine, I comfort inyself C. p. Cael. 3, where ipse with the subject implies, ' I and no other,' but me ipsum consolor ' would mean ' I comfort myself but nobody else/ 1) The Pronoun, which ipse emphasises, may be understood : 'Quaeram ex ipsa,' I will inquire of herself ( = ex ea ipsa), Q. p. Cael. 14. 2) When ipse strengthens the Subject, and a Reflexive Pronoun is Object, that Pronoun usually stands before ipse: ^Artaxerxes se ipse reprehendit,' Artaxerxes bla^ned hi77iself Nep. Dat. 5. ' Artes se ipsae per se tuentur singulae,' the several arts maintain themselves on their own grou7ids, C. de Or. ii. 2. But after qui, qui dam, &c., or for stronger emphasis, ipse may precede the Pronoun Object : *Non sunt composita mea verba: ipsa se virtus satis ostendit,' mi7ie is fio set speech : virtue of itself is co7ispicuous enough, Sail. hicr, 85. ^ Qui ipse sibi sapiens prodesse non quit, nequiquam sapit,' the wise 7na7i who carmot be7iefit hi77iself is wise i7t vain, C. Fa77i. V. 6. 3) Ipse strengthens the Object usually, when something in the context is opposed to that Object. Thus, in the phrase killed him- self, though ipse generally stands with the Subject lulius Prisons se ipse interfecit,' Tac. H. iv. 11), yet it may sometimes distinguish the Object : ' Pompeianus miles fratrem suum, dein cognito faci- nore s e ipsum interfecit,' a soldier of Pompeius slew his brother, a7id then, discovering his C7'ime, killed himself, Tac. H. iii. 51. Cicero writes, ' Sunt qui dicant, foedus quoddam esse sapientum iie minus ami cos quam se ipsos dihgant,' some say there is a kifid of cove7ta7it a7no7ig the wise to love their friends not less tha7i the7nselves, Fin. i. 20. Yet it is a peculiarity of his to connect ipse with the Subject, and so heighten its force, even when the opposi- tion lies between the Pronoun and something else : Mste sic erat humilis atque demissus, ut non modo populo Romano, sed etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur,' the m-a7i was so lowly a7id downcast, that not only to the Roman people but even to him- self he seemed already condemned, C. Verr. Act. i. 6. ^ Non ita abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, cum ipse me non possim,' I have 710 1 such excess of ability as to co7nfort you when I cannot comfort 7nyself C. Fa7n. iv. 8. §68. Uses of Pronouns, 289 4) Ipse is also used d) For ultro, of one's own accord : ' Ipsae lacte domum re- ferent distenta capellae ubera/ the she-goats of their own accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders^ Verg. B, iv. 21. b) To define time exactly : *Cum Athenis decern ipsos dies fuissem,' when I had been at Athens exactly ten days, C. Fam, ii. 8. So, 'nunc ipsum/ at this very moment, C. Att, xii. 16. ' Tunc ipsum/ that exact time, G. de Fin. ii. 20. On the other hand ahquis is used to state time inexactly: 'Aliquos viginti dies/ some twenty days^ Plaut. Men, v. 5. 47. c) To express the chief person : ' Pythagorei respondere sble- bant, Ipse dixit/ the Pythagoreans used to reply, He himself said so (i.e. Pythagoras), C. N. D. i. 5. Hence slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa : and Catullus uses ipsa for era : 'Suamque norat Ipsam tam bene quam catella matrem,' aftd knew its mistress as well as a kitten knows its mother, iii. 6. V. The Indefinite Pronouns. 68 i) The Indefinite Pronouns, quis, qui,^ being Efichtie, canndt inde- begin a sentence. They Usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne, ^^'^ an, num, ut, &c.) or a Relative. 'Si qUis est sensus in morte,' niuns. if there is any feeling in death, Qi Phil, ixi 6. 'Si qui etiam inferis sensus est,' tf even the shades below have any feelings C. Quis, Fam. iv. 5. ' Oppida coeperunt munire et ponere leges, ne quis Q"^- fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter,' they began to build towns and establish laws, that none should be a thief or bandit or adulterer, Hor. S. i. 3. 105. So numquis, ecquis, &Ci The Particles are similarly combined^ siqua, siquando, sicubi, necubi, ecquando, &c. a) Quis Iridef. is often connected with a case of its own : *Si mala condiderit in quem quis carmina, ius esit,' if 07ie man has composed libellous verses on another, there is a remedy at law^ Hor. S. ii. i. 82. Or with Indef. Particle : *si quando quis faceret/ &c.^ L/ ^ It has been stated (p. 140) that the Interrogative and Indefinite forms quis, quid, are subslantival, qui, quod, adjectival ; and the truth of this assertion is shown by the two facts, that quis in old Latin is of both genders, and that quid and quod always retained their distinct cha:raGters as Substantive and Adjective. But it is also true that quis (quae) is often used adjectively, as quis campus, puer quis in Horace, sensus aliquls in Cicero ; the reply to which is that Other Substantives are also used adjectivelyi as rex, regina, incola, indigena, raptor, &c. Another difficulty is the distinction of the Feminine Singular and Neuter Plural forms qua, quae, of quis (qui) Indefinite. Some suppose that qua belongs to quis, quae to qui ; but this is mere conjecture without proof. Both forms are used adjectively* and both (less often) substantively ; but adjectives may beconie substantives, and occa- sionally substantives take the place of adjectives. The question thus remains undecided. Cicero writes : 'ecquae civitas? ecqua religio ? si quae pars ; si qua natio ; si quae prava sint ; ne quadiscidia fiant ; aliqua significatio virtutis but not 'aliquae,' which occurs in Lucretius. Upon the whole it may be stated that the form qua (Indef; S. and PI.) is more usual than qu?^, but that quae is also classical. U 290 Latin Wordlore, §68. S) Si quis, si qui, stand for the Relative with a shade of un- certainty : ^Errant si qui in bello omnis secundos rerum proventus expectant/ they are wroiig who in war expect all issues to be prosperous, Caes. B. G. vii. 29. c) Quis and qui indefinite are sometimes used without a Par- ticle, but only when the context expresses uncertainty : ^ Potest quis errare aliquando,' a person may err now a7id then, C. Div, i. 32. * Etiam quis forsitan hostis haesura in nostro tela gerit latere,^ a7id already perhaps some foe carries darts that will fasten in my side, Tib. i. 10. 1 3. Here forsitan favours the use of quis. 2) * Nescio quis, nescio qui (I know not who or what = ) some or other, ^ are used as Indefinite Pronouns : ^Fortasse non ieiunum hoc nescio quid quod ego gessi et contemnendum videbitur,' /^r/z^jZ^j* this so7nething which I have done will see7n not ba?'ren and despic- able, C. Fa7n. XV. 17. Particles correspond in use, nescio quo, nescio quando, &:c. Aliquis, 3) Aliquis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis, aliqui. qui, and imply a person or thing assumed to exist somewhere. They do not need a Particle : ' Semper aliqui anquirendi sunt quos diligamus,' we must always seek so77ie persons to love, C. Lael. 27. ' Sensus morienti aliquis esse potest,' 07ie who is dying may have so7ne sensation, C. Cat. M. 20. But they can follow a Particle : 'Si est aliqui sensus in morte,' if there is any ki7td of feeli7ig Z7t death, C. p. Ses. 62. Aliquando, aliqua, alicubi, &c.^ correspond in use to aliquis. a) Occasionally aliquis signifies 'a person of importance:' ^Sese aliquem credens,' considering hi77is elf somebody (of importance), Pers. i. 129. b) Aliquis itself (with its particles) has always positive force : but may stand in a Negative sentence or clause : ^Cum scias . . . sceleri ac furori tuo non mentem aliqua m aut timorem tuum, sed fortunam populi Romani obstitisse,' knowi7ig as you do that your wicked madness was not baulked by any 7'ight feeling or fear on your part, but by the good fortune of the Roman people, C. in Cat. i. 6. Draeger {Hist or. Synt. p. 23) exemplifies at great length the use of this Pronoun and its Particles. 4) Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather less than aliquis: 'Forsitan aliquis aliquando eiusmodi quidpiam ^^z^x\\.^ percha7ice so77iebody or other at some ti7ne or other viay have do7ie a thi7ig of the kind, C. Ve7'r. ii. 32. Quispiam is used chiefly in positive sentences : quisquam chiefly in negative and dubitative sentences : nonnullus only in a positive, ullus only in a negative or dubitative construction. ' Dicat (dixerit) quispiam,' so7ne one may say, C. ' Hereditas est pecunia, quae morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit iure,' a7t inheritance is money which by so7nebodys death has come to any one by right, C. Top. 6. 'Zeuxis tabulas pinxit, quarum non nulla pars usque ad Nescio quis, nescio qui. Quis- piam, quis- quam, &c. §68. Uses of Pronouns. 291 nostram memoriam mansit/ Zeuxis painted pictures, some of which have reinaiiied to oitr time, C. Inv, ii. i. ' Nihil attinet quicquam sequi, quod assequi non queas/ avails not to pursue anything which you cannot attain, C. Off. i. 31. * Heu, cadit in quemquam tantum scelus ? ' alas, occurs there to any one such great wickedness ^ Verg. B, ix. 17. 'Nihil est quod Deus efficere non possit, et qui- dem sinelabore ullo/ there is nothing which God cannot effect, and indeed without any toil, C. A^. D. iii. 39. * Indignor quic- quam reprehendi non quia crasse compositum illepideve putetur^ sed quia nuper,' I am indignant that any work should be censured^ not because it is supposed to be of coarse or tasteless, but of modern^ composition, Hor. Ep. ii. i. 76. See M. Lucr. i. 1077. Uspiam corresponds in use to quispiam ; usquam, umquam to quisquam and ullus ; nusquam, numquam, to non quisquam, non ullus. Nemo = non quisquam ; nullus = non ullus. Nemo quisquam is used : also homo quisquam. Rare instances occur of quispiam with negatives, of quisquani in positive sense, and of qui, aliqui where ullus would be usual. 5) Quidam, a certain one,2j=> opposed to aliqui s, implies that the Quidam. subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described : thus we q^ivis, should say, ^ Quo dam tempore natus sum : aliquo moriar,^ I was born at a certain time ; I shall die so7ne time or other. ^ Accurrit quidam notus mihi nomine tantum,' a certain man runs up to 7ne, whom I only knew by name, Hor. S. i. 9. 3. It is joined with epi- thets, like the English word ' certain : ' 'Erat spinosa quaedam et exihs oratio,' his was a certain prickly and lean style^C.d. Or.i.18. It occasionally means ^some^ as opposed to ^ the whole'' ox ' others 'Nullis piscibus supra quaternas pinnae sunt, quibusdam binae, aliquibus nullae,' no fishes have jnore than four fins^ some two, a few no7ie at all, PI. N. H. ix. 20. Hence it is used to quahfy an expression not meant to be taken strictly : 'In ideis Plato quid- dam divinum esse dicebat,' Plato used to say that in ideas there is something divine, C. Ac. i. 9^ Quidam also stands in contrast to qui vis, quilibet, any you will. ' Ut saltatori motus non quivis sed certus quidam est datus, sic vita agenda est certo genere quo dam non quolibet/ as to a dancer is assigned not any optional movement, but a certain de- fiiiite 07te, so 7nust life be passed in a certain defi7iite way^ 7iot in any we please, C. Brut. 50. 6) Quisque, quaeqiie, quicque, each of any number. Plautus Quis- uses quisque = quisquis : ' Quemque ofTendero,' who77isoever I findf q^^- Capt. iv. 2. For its other uses, see pp. 280, 287. On quem quisque, &c., see M. Lucr. i. 966. 7) The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with ^ctimque Univer- or of the duplicated form (quisquis, &c.), have no special idioms i^tives" distinguishing them from other Relatives : 'Quoscumquedete queri audivi, quacumque ratione potui placavi,' / appeased in whatever way I could all whojn I heard C07nplai7ii7tg of you, C. Q. Fr. i. 2. 'Quidquid erit tibi erit,' whatever there is shall be for you,Q. Fam. ii. 10. ' Q'u ant i quant i bene emitur quod necesse est,' what is necessary is well purchased at any price, C. Att. xii, 24. On quicquid for quicque, each thing, see M. Lucr. i. 289. u 2 292 Latin Word/om §69. vi. Pronomlnalia. 1) Alter is one of two : the forms in -ter (as -repoQ in Greek) implying comparison of two. ^Agesilaus claudus fuit altero pede/ Agesilaus was lame of one foot, Nep. Ag. 8. * Epaminondas habuit collegas duos, quorum alter erat Pelopidas/ Epa7nino7idas had two colleag7ies, one of who?n was Pelopidas, Nep. Ep. 7. Thus it answers the question u-ter, which of two ? al-ter qui . . . the one who, alter qui . . . the other who. * Consules inter se agitabant uti alter Samnites hostis, alter Etruscos deligeret, et uter ad utrum bellum dux idoneus magis esset/ the consuls were discuss- t7ig, how that one of the two should choose the Sanmites for enemy ^ the other the Etruscans ; and which comma7ider was more suitable for which war, L. x. 14. So, ^quidquid negat alter et alter/ whatever o?ie de?iies, the other denies also, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 4. a) Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same clause, distributing ambo, uterque, &c. * Uter que horum medium quiddam volebat sequi : sed ita cadebat ut alter ex alterius laude partem, uterque autem suam totam haberet,' both these men wished to attain a mean ; but it so fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each possessed his own entire, C. Brut, 20. Uterque {each of two) ; alteruter {one or the other of two) : ^ Non est tuae dignitatis atque fidei ut contra alterutrum, cum sis utrique coniunctissimus, arma feras,' // squares not with your dignity and honour, to bear ari7is agai7ist 07ie or the other, beijig nearly allied to both, C. Att. ix. 10. Alter alter um amant, they love 07ie a7iother', also expressed, * amant se invicem,' ' mutuo amant,' * amant inter se/ Alteri . . . alteri, 07ie party . . . the other party, b) Alter means ^ a seco7id^ ' a7iother^ besides one named or implied : ' Solus aut cum altero,' alone or with another, C. Att. xi. 15. ^ Me ipsum accuso, deinde te, quasi me alterum,' / reproach myself, and theri you, a sort of second self C. Att. iii. 15. * Alter erit tum Tiphys,' the7i will there be a second Tiphys, Verg. B. iv. 34. * Alter ab- illo,' next to him, Verg. B, v. 49. Alterum tantum, as much again, 2) Alius repeated in successive clauses signifies 07ie , , , a7iother, &:c., without limit of number. ^Aliud equo est e natura, aliud bovi, al iud homini,' 07ie thi7ig is natural to a horse, a7iother to an ox, a7iother to a i7ian, C. Ein. v. 9. Contrast is similarly effected by the adverbs of alius ; aliter, alias, alibi, alio, &c. Alias con- tentius, alias remissius, at one ti7ne mo7'e vigorously, at a7tother 77iore slackly. Here too the repetition of alius in the same clause, or its juxtaposition with one of its adverbs, or two of these adverbs in the same clause, will denote a difference of the predicate for different subjects. ^ Duo deinceps reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt,' two successive kings i7icreased the civic body in different ways, L. i. 21. * Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus indicant,' those 77ien judge one thing at 07ie ti7ne, another at another, on the sa77te questions, C. de Or. ii. 30. ^ Eadem aliter alibi nuncupantur,' the same things are differe7itly na77ted i7i different places^ PI. A^. H, XXV. 4. Aliud ex alio, 071c thi7ig after a7iother* Uses of Prepositions. Section V, Uses of Prepositions, i. Prepositions with an ACCUSATIVE Case. I. Ad {to, at, 8^c.). Usque ad is often used : usque ad Numantiam. Hor. has ^adusque supremum tempus/ ^^'^/^ to his last hour. Also the Adv. usque, omitting ad. * Usque Puteolos/ as far as Pozzuoli, C. * Tar- sum usque/ C. ^Ab ovo usque ad mala/ yr<?;;^ the eggs to the: (ipples, Hon, i.e. from the beginning to the end of dinner. :) Local Use. a) Ad, to, takes a Case of Place or Person, after a Verb ex- pressing or implying motion : as ire, adire, accedere, du- cere, adducere ad urbem, &c. ; mittere, scribere ad ali- quem, &c. For simple Dat. : ' Dulce rideat ad patrem/ Catull. See M. Lucr. i. 750. b) Ad, at, takes a Case after a Verb not expressing naotion : esse ad urbem : ad pedes iacere : ad quartum lapidem ; victoria ad Cannas ; Curio fuit ad me, at my house ; ad indices^ before the judges ; ad vinum, over wine ; ad Opis, at the ternple of OpSy C. 2) Temporal Use, d) Limit of Time {to) : ad summam senectutem, to extreme old age ; ad hosce dies, to modern times ; ad ultimum, to the very last', a mani usque ad vesper um, y^wy/ ^naming to evening) ad multam noctem, //// late in the night. b) Point of Time : ad lucem, at daybreak \ ad postremum, at last ; ad summum, in fine. Time fixed beforehand : exspecto te ad Kal. Febr., I look for you by the \st of February ; dies praestituta est quam ad solveres, a day was appointed you for paying, c) Time within which : ad tempus, for a time, or at the right time ; ad breve tempus, for a short tijne ; ad decern annos, ten years hence, 3) Ad marks the limit of Number and Degree : ad octingentos ; or adverbially, ad octingent^ caesi, about 800 were slain, L. So, ad unum omnes, to a man ; ad assem, to the last farthing ; ad summam, on the whole ; ad summam impudentiam, to the, most ^haineless height, 4) The derived uses are : d) Addition : ad haec vulnera ; ad hoc, moreover, b) Standard : ad fistulam canere, to sing to the pipe ; ad: yerbum ediscere, to learn word for word ; ad eum modum, of that ki7id', ad unguem, to a nicety ; ad amussim, accu- rately, c) Comparison : nihil est ad Persium, he is nothing to Persius, 70 Use of Prepo- sitions.. 294 Lathi Wordlore, §70. d) Respect : Insignis ad laudem, honourably distinguished. Ad speciem ; ad pondus. See M. Lucr. iii. 214. e) Occasion : Ad famam obsidionis, on report of the siege. Ad ictum, after the blow. See M. Lucr. i. 185. f) Reply : Ad ilia respondeo, to this I reply, g) Purpose : Ad earn rtm, for that purpose : ad praedam,y^r plunder : especially with Gerund and Gerundive : ad ves- \:.^Xi6Mm^ for food \ sid 3.gYos colendos, for ag/ic7dture. So servus ad remum, rower, Liv., ad ma^ium, amanuensis ; Lygdamus ad cyathos, the cup-bearer Lygdavius, Prop. ; ad limina custos, a doorkeeper , Verg. And with a Case of that against which precaution or remedy is used : ad morsus bestiarum,ybr bites, ad morbos, against diseases. II. Adversus, adversum (advorsus, advorsum) express 1 ) Place {over against, opposite) : Adversus Py dnam, opposite to Pydna. Quis haec est quae me advorsum incedit ? who is this woman coniifig face to face with me ? Plaut. Ire advorsum alicui, to go to meet some one — obviam ire. Exadversus is found : exadversus At^ienas, opposite Athens, 2) Relation (towards, against). Amor adversus parentes, love towards parents, Adversus solem ne loquitor, you must not speak against the sun, III. A pud expresses near neighbourhood, generally to Persons, rarely to Place : Apud oppidum, near the town, 1) With Persons it is used in various senses : Apud Lycome- dem, hi the house of Lycomedes ; apud nie, at my house, Apud populum orationemhabuit, he spoke before the people \ apud iudices eosdem reus factus est, he was arraig7ied before the same judges. Apud priscos Romanos hie mos erat, this was the custoin among the old Romans. Apud Ciceronem, in the writings of Cicero ; apud Homerum (but in Iliade Homeri, in Ciceronis Libro de Officiis). 2) In phrases : Apud animum cogito, / am considering in my mind, Haec apud me valent, these things have weight with me. Fac apud te sis, keep your wits about you, IV. Ante {before) is applied to 1) Place : Hannibal ante portas est. 2) Time : Ante lucem, before daybreak. Ante urbem conditam, ■ before the foundation of the city. Ante tris annos, three years ago (also tribus ante annis or tertio anno ante). Multo ante, long before. Paulo ante, a short time before. Ante domandum, before taming^ Verg. 3) Order and Preference : Hunc ante me diligo, / love him above myself Ante alios carissimus (or carior). Ante omnia placent silvae, woods please above everything, V. Pone (pos-ne) {behind) : Pone castra pabulatum ibant, they went behiiid the camp to forage. Ante et pone, before and behind. §70. Uses of Prepositions, 295 VI. Post (pos-te : see ante) describes 1) Place {behind) : Hostis post montem se occultabat, the enemy was hiding behind the mountain. Manus eius post tergum religatae sunt, his hands were tied behind his back, 2) Time iafter^ since) : Post cenam, after supper. Post urbem conditam, after the foundation of the city. Post Christum natum, after the birth of Christ. Post hominum memo- riam, since the memory of 7nan. Post paucos dies (or paucis post diebus), a Jew days after, Paulo post, soon after. Longo post tempore, V. 3) Of Order and Dignity {after ^ behind) : ^ Neque erit Lydia post Chloen,' nor shall Lydia be after Chloe, Hor. VII. Cis, citra (c it era parte), {on this side of within), is applied to I j Place : Cis Alpis, cis Padum, citra Euphraten, citra mare, 2) Time (very rarely) : Cis paucos dies hostis aderit, the enemy will be here within a few days. Citra Kalendas Octobris, before the ist of October. Note. — Hence citra is used of measure in the sense of without (i.e. without reaching)^ short of\ Citra controversiam, without dispute. Citra ebrietatem, short of intoxication, VIII. Ultra, from the root iI = Ql = ul (ultera parte, on yonder side, beyond) describes 1) Place : Ultra Aethiopiam, beyond Ethiopia, Ultra Gara- mantas et Indos, beyond the Garainantes and Indians, 2) Measure : Ne sutor ultra crepidam (progrediatur), the cobbler must not go beyond his last. Ultra puerilis annos est, he is past childhood. Ultra feminam ferox, fierce beyond the nature of woman. So, ultra fas ; ultra fidem, IX. Trans {across, beyond) is applied to seas, rivers, hills, &c. : Naves trans mare currunt, ships glide across the sea. Trans Eu- phraten, beyond the Euphrates, Trans Alpis. Trans caput, V. X. I. Circum {round, about) of Place: Terra circum axem vertitur, the earth turns about its axis, Circum haec loca com- moror, / ain staying about these spots, Turba circum regem, a. crowd around the king, 2. Circa (not used before Livy), describes 1) Place {round) : Urbes circa Capuam occupavit, he seized the cities _ around Capua. Multos circa se habebat, he kept many about him. Circa vias discurritur, there is a skurry about the streets. Circa pectus, round the bosom, 2) Time and Number {about) : Circa Calendas Februarias, about the ist of February. Circa quingentos capti sunt, about five htmdred were taken. 3) Respect {about, concerning) in Post-Augustan Latinity : Varia circa haec opinio est, there is variety of opinion on this subject. 296 Latin Wordlore, 3. C ire iter {about) denotes extension round, and is used of Time and Number : Circiter meridiem advenimus, we came about noon. Decern circiter milia passuum abest, he is about ten mites away, XI. Contra (contera parte) denotes a tendency of two things to Qpme together, and describes 1) Place {over against) : Carthago Itaham contra, Carthage over against Italy, Aspicedum contra ixie, look 7ne in the face, 2) Relation {against) : Contra naturam, against nature. Contra legem, against law. Hoc contra ius fasque est, this is agaitist law a7id religion. Quod contra fit a plerisque, most people do just the contrary, Non caru'st auro contra, hds worth his weight in gold, XII. Erga (towards) is used of Relation : Tuam erga me li)ene- volentiam agnosco, / acknowledge your goodwill towards 7ne, Scio quomodo erga me affectus sis, / know how you feel towards me, Erga is once used of place by Plautus ( = facing), XIII. Extra (extera parte) describes 1) Place {outside of without) : Extra urbem, outside the city. Extra teli iactum, out of range of darts, 2) Relation {without^ beyond, clear of) : Extra culpam, peri- culum, locum, ordinem, modum, causam, &c. 3) Exception (except) : Nemo extra eum, nobody except him, XIV. Intra (intera parte) (within) describes 1) Place : Intra urbem factum est, // happened within the city. Intra montem Taurum, within Mount Taurus (for cis). 2) Time : Intra triginta dies, within thirty days, 3) Extent : Hortensii scripta intra famam sunt, the writings of Horteiisius are short of their reputation. Intra modum, intra legem epulari, to feast within measure, within law. The Adv. intus (within) is also used with Accus. Intus domum, Plaut. Intus cellam, L. XV. Inter signifies extension inside, and is used of — i) Place (between) : Inter urbem et fluvium, between the city and river, 'i) Time (between, during : Inter horam tertiam et quartam, between nine and ten o'clock. Inter prandendum (or inter cenam) curis vaco, at dinner (or at supper) I am free from cares. Inter tot annos, during so many years. Inter vias, on the road. 3) Relation (between, among) : Inter hominem et beluam multum interest, there is much difference between a man and a brute. Constat inter omnis, all are agreed. Inter arma silent leges, amidst arms laws are silent. Inter cetera et illud dixit, among other things he said this too. § yo. Uses of Prepositions. 297 And of mutual relation with se ; as Inter se amant^ tJiy love one another. Inter haec = interea, meanwhile. XVI. Infra (infera parte) {beneath) describes 1) Place : Infra lunam nihil est non mortale, beneath the moon there is nothing not mortal. 2) Time : Homerus non infra Lycurgum fuit, Homer was not after Lycurgus. 3) Number : Non infra novena, not less than nine at a ti7ne. 4) Measure : Uri magnitudine sunt paulo infra elephantos, buffaloes are of a size rather under elephants, 5) Worth : Infra dignitatem meam, beneath my dignity, XVII. Supra (supera parte) {above, over) describes j) Place : Caelurn supra terram est, heaven is above earth, Saltu supra venabula fertur, he bounds over the hunting spears. Supra caput. Supra me erat Atticus, infra Ver- rius, Atticus sat above fne^ Verrius below, 2) Time : Supra banc memoriam vixit, he lived before these times, Ut supra dixi, as I said above, 3) Number : Caesa sunt supra milia viginti, more than twenty thousand were slain. Supra belli Sabini metum, over and above the dread of a Sabine war, 4) Measure : Supra humanam formam altior, taller than, human form. Supra modum, above measure, XVIII. luxta (iugista parte, Corss.) describes 1) Place {adjoining) : Hortus meus iuxta viam est, my garden adjoins tM road, 2) Order (next to, as well as, akin to) : Iuxta deos in tua manu positum est, next to the gods it lies in your hands, Inermes iuxta armatos trucidati sunt, unarmed as well as armed men were slaughtered. Celeritas iuxta formi^inem est, speed is akin to fear, Iuxta seditionem ventum est, things almost came to mutiny. Solo caeloque iuxta gravi, soil and climate being equally unhealthy, XIX. Ob descjribes 1) Place {before) : Ob oculos mihi mors versata est, death was before my eyes. Follem sibi obstringit ob gulam, he ties a bladder on his throat, Ob os trudere, to thrust in one^s face. 2) Cause (for, on account of with a view to) : Poenas ob stul- titiam do, / suffer punishment for my folly. Pecuniam ob absolvendum accepit, he received money to acquit, Ar- gentum ob asinos, money to pay for the donkeys. Ager oppositu'st pigneri ob decem minas, the estate is mortgaged for ten minas. Frustra an ob rem, ineffectually, or to some purpose. Ob indnstrisixn, studiously, Ob cam cau- sam, on that account. XX. Penes (in the pqwer of resting with) : Penes imperatorem est summum imperium, supreme power rests with the commander- 298 Latin Wordlqre, in-chief. Deum penes est custodia mundi, the guardianship of the world rests with God. Servi penes accusatorem sunt, the slaves are in the prosecutor's power. Culpa te est penes, the fault lies with yotc. Penes te es ? are you i?i your senses f XXI. Praeter means extension in front of, and has the uses 1) Along ^ beside^ before : Praeter ripam, along the bank. Prae-^ ter oculos, before their eyes. Via una praeter hostis erat, the 07ily road was along the eneinys flank, 2) Besides, except : Praeter se nemiinem amat, he loves none besides himself Quod crimen dicis, praeter amasse, meum ? what crime do you call 77iine, except having loved f ' 3) Beyond : Praeter modum, beyond meas7ire. Praeter ceteros clarus, re7iow7ied beyo7id others. 4j Co7itrary to : Hoc praeter opinionem accidit, this happened co7itrary to ^xpectatio7i. So, praeter spem. XXII. Prope 7tigJi to) \ Prope viam ^i^^x^z'dX, he builds near the road. Prope Kalendas Sextilis, near the first of August, Prope abesse ab aliquo, to be near to some perso7i or place, Prope secessionem plebis res venit, matters al77iost ca7ne to a secession of the C0771771071S. The Comparative propius, and Superlative proxime, also take an Accusative : Propius urbem, 7iearer the city, Proxime montem, 'very 7iear the 77iou7itai7i, XXIII. Propter (prope-ter) means * extension near,' and de- scribes — 1) Place {7iear^ alongside of) : Volcanus tenuit insulas propter Siciliam, Vulca7i held the isles near Sicily, Propter aquam ambulavimus, we walked beside the water ^ Propter te sedet, he sits beside you, Cubantes propter, sleeping near, 2) Cause or Object {on account of) : Sapiens non propter metum legibus paret, the wise ;na7i obeys not the laws on accau7tt of fear. Ilia propter se expetenda sunt, those things are desirable on their own account, XXIV. Secundum, from sequor, denotes following, and de- scribes — 1) Place {7iext behi7id) : I secundum me, go next to 7ne. Se- cundum aurem vulnus accepit, he received a wound behind his ear, (Alo7tg) : Secundum litus, along the shore, 2) Time {after) : Secundum Idus lanuarias veniam, / will come after the 13/// of ya7iuary, 3) Rank {next after) : Secundum te nemo mihi amicior, after you no 77ia7i is 7nore f7'ie7idly to me. Secundum vocem vultus valet, cou7ttena7tce tells 7text after voice. 4) Agreement {according to, in favour of) : Secundum natu- ram vive, live according to fiature. Secundum Stoicos omnia vitia paria sunt, accordi7ig to the Stoics all faults are equal, Pontifices secundum me decreverunt, the priests decreed in my favour. / g yi. Uses of Prepositions. 299 XXV. Per {through) signifies Passage from one end to another, or in all directions, and describes — 1) Place : Per Macedoniam, through Macedonia. Sanguis per venas in omne corpus diffunditur, blood is diffused through the veins into the whole body. 2) Duration of Time (throughout ^ during) : Per tris annos, for three years. Per noctem cernuntur sidera, the stars are seen all night. Per somnum, during sleep. 3) Agency {by^ through) : Per procuratorem non per se ipsum agit, he acts by an agent, not personally. 4) Manner or Means {by) : Eos per vim eiecit, he turned them out by force. Per simulationem amicitiae me perdidit, he ruined me on pretence of friendship. Per litteras certiorem . te faciam, I will acquaint you by letter. So, per vices, by turns, per silentium, in silejice, per looMm, jocularly. 5) Motive or Cause : Per avaritiam id fecit, he did that through avarice. Amicitia per se expetenda QSt, friendship should be sought for its own sake. Per me licet hoc agas, you may do this with my free will. Per leges non licet civem verberare, the laws do not allow beating a citizen. Per te stetit quominus ego discederem, you were the cause of my not departing. (>) Per is used in Prayers and Adjurations (by) : Per deos te oro, I pray you by the gods. JVote. Per is sometimes disjoined from the word with which it is compounded : as, Per mihi gratum est, it is very agree- able to me. Per ovilia turbans, V. Or from its case : Per ego te deos oro, I pray you by the gods, XXVI. Versus, versum (anc. vorsus, vorsum) {towards), always follow their Case : Hannibal Romam versus contendit, Haniiibal marched towards Rome. The best writers subjoin it to a case governed by ad or in : Ad meridiem versus ibimus, we will go towards the south. \xi Italiam versus se convertit, he turned towards Italy. ii. Prepositions governing an Abl. Case. 1. A, ab, abs, express a ^ proceeding from,' and describe — i) Place : — {a) Motion from : Sidera ab ortu ad occasum corn- meant, the stars m^ove from east to west. Ab nobis domo'st, comes from our house. b) Distance from : Mille passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub- sedit, he halted six miles from Caesafs carnp. See Prope. Amilibus passuum esse, to be a mile off. See M. Lucr. i, 554. c) Position in regard to {on, on the side of) : A fronte, in front. A tergo, in the rear. A sinistro cornu, on the left wing. A Platone {a.cio, I am on the side of Plato. Zeno et ab eo qui sunt, Zeno and his disciples. Hoc a me est, this is in 7ny favour. A senatu stetit, he took the senate's side. See M, Lucr, i. 693, 935 ; v. 754, 1332 ; vi. 968. 300 Latin Word lore. §71. Obs, Procul ab is used : Procul a patria, Verg. And procul without ab. Haud procul seditione, L. Usque ab. Ab usque, V. Lucr. has ore foras, out from the motcth^ iv. 554. , 2) Time {from) : Ab antiquissimis temporibus hie mos in- valuit, this custom prevailed from the earliest tiines. So, ab initio, a puero, a pueritia, ab incunabulis, a prima aetate, &c. A primo,^<?;// the first or froin the beginning, 3) Rank {after) : Proximus a rege, next after the king. Alter ab illo. Alter ab undecimo, the \2th, Ab hoc sermone profectus est, after this discourse he set out, Ab exequiis. Ab igni, after (in consequence of) fire, M. Lucr, vi. 968. 4) Separation {from) : A poena liberi sumus, we are free frojn punish^nent. Defende te a periculo, defend yourself frojn danger. Non ab re fuerit ea narrare, it will not be irre- levant to relate these things, Abhorrere ab aliqua re, to shrifik fro7n anything ; to dislike. \ 5) Origin in general (frojn) : Pecuniam a me accepit, he re- ceived the 7noney from me. Ab Egnatio solvet, he will pay through Egnatius. A te mihi salutem dixit, he greeted me fro7n you. A superstitione animi vates adhibuit, he called in seers from me^itat superstition. M. Lucr. ii. 51. 6) Agent after Verbs Passive and Intransitive {by) : A cane non magno saepe tenetur aper, a wild boar is often held by a small dog. Oculi a sole dolent, my eyes are pained by the sun, Ab hoste venire, to be sold by an enemy, 7) Respect {in^ in point of on the side of) : Ab animo aeger fui, / was sick in mi?id. Firmus est ab equitatu, he is strong in cavalry. A doctrina instructus est, he is well furnished in point of learnmg. A patre- nobilis erat, h^ was noble on the father's side. To this use belong the phrases for the offices of slaves and freedmen at Rome, and the modern phrases for the posts in a royal household, &c. Thus, (servus) ab epistulis, meant a letter-carrier or estafette ; (servus or libertus) a manu, an a77ianuensis ; a bibliotheca, a librarian ; a pedi- bus, a footman ; a potione, a butlet; or cupbearer^ &c. So, Regi a secretis consiliis, a privy counsellor of the king, Reginae a saqris, queen's chaplain, 11. De expresses 1) Place {down from, from) : De rostris descendit, he came down from the rostra, De manibus hostium effugit, he escaped from the ene^^ys hands, Susque deque, up and down, 2) Time {ere the close of at) : De prima luce, at daybreak. De die, in daytime.'^ De nocte, in the tiight. De multa nocte, in the dead of night. De prandio, after luncheon. Diem de die exspecto, / am waiting from day to day. * Cicero's jeu de mots {Phil, ii 34), * non solum de die sed in diem vivere,' links two common phrases, *de die (potare),' to carouse by daylight, and * in diem vivere,' to live for the day, so as to suggest that Antonius drank from before the evening of one day to the dawn of the next (de die in diem). J Uses of Prepositions, 3^1 3) Origin : De summo loco, of highest rank. De scripto dixit, he spoke from a written paper, De facie eum novi, / know him by sight, Emi domum de Crasso, / bought a house ofCrassus, Hoc audivi de patre, this I heard from my father, De marmore signum, a bust of marble. Fies de Vhetore consul, from a rhetorician you will become consul, 4) Partition {of) : Una de multis, one of many maidens. Ac- cusator de plebe, a plebeian prosecutor. De tuo illud addis, you add of your own suggestion, De meo, at my expense, 5) Respect (concerning^ of &c.) : Multa de eo scripta sunt, much was written about him, Legati de pace, envoys to treat for peace. De captivis commutandis, concerning an exchange of prisoners. De nihilo irasci, to be angry about nothing. Quid de me fiet? what will become of me? De Gallis triumphavit, he triumphed over the Gauls, 6) Cause {for, from, &c.) : Multis et gravibus de causis, for many important reasons. Hoc de communi sententia fac- tum est, this was done by common vote, De via langue- bam, / was ill from the journey, 7) Manner {according to, on) in many phrases : De more, ac- cording to custom. De industria, on purpose. De im- -proViso, unexpectedly, novo, anew, De integro, ^r^^-/^, &c. De gradu conari, to combat on foot, de genu, on the knees, in. E, ex, describe — 1) Place {out of, from, on, &c.) : Ex urbe venio. Ex Italia discessit. Ex arbore pendet, // hangs on a tree. Ex equis pugnant, they fight on horseback. E longinqtto, from far. Ex propinquo, near. Ex obliquo, athwart, E regione, in a direct line with. See M. Lucr. vi. 344. 2) Time {from, since) : Ex illo die numquam eum vidi, since that day I never set eyes on him. Ex Metello consule, from the consulship of Metellus, Ex itinere, on arrival, 3) Origin {from, of) : Ex eo audivi. Ex me quaesivit. Ex Pompeio sciam. Statua e marmore facta. Homo ex animo constat et corpore, man consists of soul and body. 4) Transition {from, after) : Ex oratore arator factus est. So, aliud ex alio, one thing after another : diem ex die, from day to day. Pallidum e viridi folium, a palish green leaf, 5) Partition {of) : Unus ex amicis meis, one of my friends, 6) Cause {from, for, by, &c.) : Ex quo manifestum est, whence it is clear. Ex lassitudine dormio, / fall asleep from weariness. E vino vacillat, he staggers from the effects of wine. Ex vulneribus mortuus est, he died of his woimds, Vir ex doctrina nobilis, a 7nan renowned for his learning. Ex pedibus laborat, he has gout in his feet. Illud ex sena- tus consulto factum est, that was do7ie by vote of the senate. Hoc mihi ex sententia evenit, this happened to my hearfs 302 Latin Wordlore, §71. content. Ex animi sententia loqui, to speak with sincerity. So, ex ordine, ex composito, by arrangement^ e re mea, for my interest^ e republica,y^r the good of the state, with other phrases. See p. 277. 7) Manner, in many phrases : Ex occulto, secretly, ex impro- viso, ex insperato, unexpectedly, ex parte, /;/ part. Heres ex asse, heir to the whole property by will ; heres ex deunce, heres ex semisse, &c. XV. Cum {with) expresses 1) Company : Cum patre proficiscor, /go with 7ny father. As a Sociative Particle : Romulus cum fratre Remo, Ro- mulus and his brother Remus. d) The Adv. simul is used with Abl. for simul cum. Simul his, together with these, Hor. Ore simul cervix, Ov. 2) Coincidence of Time : Pariter cum ortu solis, exactly at sunrise. 3) Community: Nihil mihi cum illo est, I have nothing to do with him. Bellum gessit cum Helvetiis, he waged war with the Helvetii. Tecum loquar, / will speak with you. Conferre, comparare cum, to compare with. 4) Coincident Circumstances : Homines cum gladiis adsunt, 7nen with swords are present. Esse cum imperio, to be in chief command. Magno cum dolore loquor, / speak with great pain. Illud cum causa fecit, he acted thus with reaso7i. Cum pernicie reipublicae, to the ruin of the state. Cum clamore. Cum silentio. Cum lacrimis. Madida cum veste, in wet clothes, * as simple AbL' See M. Lucr, i. 755. Note the phrase : cum eo ut . . . on condition that . . . Li v. V. Absque [without) is chiefly found in the Comic poets : Absque te esset, were it not for you ; sometimes in Cicero. Litterae absque argumento, a letter devoid of matter. VI. Sine (without) : Vana est sine viribus ira, anger without strength is fruitless. Sine dubio, sine ulla dubitatione, without any doubt. Lucr. uses seorsum [apart from) with Abl. : seorsum corpora. VIL Palam {in view of) : Palam populo, in the people's sight. VI IL Clam, clanculum (without the knowledge of) : Clam patre, without his father's knowledge. In Comedy with Accusative : Clam uxorem ; clanculum patrem. IX. Coram (in the presence of) : Coram populo dixit, he spoke before the people. Coram loqui cum aliquo, to speak with another face to face. X* Prae describes i) Place (before) : I prae, sequar, go forward, I will follow ; but generally before a Pronoun, and after the Verbs ago, g 71. Uses of Prepositions, 303 fero, gero : as Pastores prae se agant gregem, let shep- herds drive the flock before them, Pugionem prae se fert, he displays a dagger. Also metaphorically : Speciem boni viri prae te i^xs^you exhibit the appearance of a good man, 2) Comparison {compared with, before) : Prae nobis beatus es, yoti are happy compared with ns, Prae se neminem putat, he thinks no7ie his superior, Utilitatis species prae hones- tate recte contemnitur, the show of advantage is properly despised in comparison with moral rectitude, 3) Cause {owing to, for) : Prae lacrimis scribere non possum, / cannot write for tears, Prae multitudine sagittarum solem non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the Jiumber of arrows. Prae laetitia lacrimae prosiliunt mihi, tears start into my eyes for joy, Plant. XL Pro expresses 1) Place {before) : Pro foribus, before the door, Stabat pro litore classis, the fleet was lying off the coast. Pro rostris dicebat, he was speaking from, the rostra. Pro contione laudatus est, he was thanked in full assembly, 2) Defence {in behalf of for) : Hoc non modo non pro me, sed etiam contra me est, this is not only not for 7ne, but is even against me. Pro Ligario dixit, he spoke for Liga- rius. Pro patria mori, to die for country, 3) Substitution {instead of, equivalent to, &c.) : Mihi pro parente fuit, he was as a father to 7ne. Vultus saepe pro omnibus verbis est, countenance is ofte7i equivalent to any words. Pro praetore fuit, he was propraetor, 4) Retribution {for, in requital of) : Pro istis factis te ulcis- car, /V/ punish you for that conduct. 5) Resemblance and Respect {in the light of) : Illam educavi pro mea, / brought her up as 7Jiy daughter. Pro cive se gerit, he coinports himself as a citizen. Pro certo hoc habui, / held this as certain. Pro comperto illud afferunt, they inform me as an assured fact, 6) Proportion {accordiiig to) : Pro tua temperantia vales, your good health accords with your temperance. Pro viribu? contendam, / will try my best. Pro re nata me geram, / will conduct myself as present circumstances dictate. Pro re et tempore consilium cape re, to take counsel according to existins" circumstances. Pro multitudine hominum an- gustos habent finis, their exte^it is small compared with their population. Proelium atrocius quam pro numero pugnantium fuit, the battle was more furious than ?night have been expected from the number of the combatants. XII. Tenus (^i* far as) ^ from root tan^ ten, ^ stretch^ follows its Case, and governs Abl. Sing, (rarely Plur.) and Plural Genitive : Capulo tenus abdidit ensem, he buried his sword to the hilt. Nu- 304 Latin Wor^dlore, tricum tenus, as far as the breast Crurum tenus. Observe verbo tenus (as far as words go) ; quadam tenus {a certain way, to some extent) ; eatenus, hactenus, quatenus, understanding parte. The Abl. PI. ^ Pectoribus tenus ' is found in Ovid : the Acc. S. ' Tanain tenus ' in Valerius Flaccus. 72 iii. Prepositions governing an Accusative or Ablative Case. 1. (^) In with Accusative signifies motion to, and describes 1) Place {into, to, upon, against ) : In carcerem coniectus est, he was thrown into prison. In aram confugit, he fled for refuge to the altar. In equum conscendit, he got on horse- back. Ad urbem, vel potius in urbem, exercitum adduxit, he led an army up to the city, or rather, into the city. By a Constructio praegnans (one Verb having the force of two) in with Accusative sometimes follows a Verb of Rest : Vitruvium in carcerem asservari iussit, he oi^dered Vitruvius to be kept in prison. Adesse in senatum iussit, he bade him attend the senate. Portus in praedonum po- testatem fuere, the harbours were in the power of pirates. 2) Time {for) : In crastinum diem me invitavit, he htvited 7ne for the 7norrow. Comitia constituta sunt in Kalendas lanuarias, the elections were fixed for the ist of January. In perpetuum [for ever), in praesens [for the present), in posterum,y^?r the future, &c. 3) Transition [into) : Mutatur in lapidem. In soUicitudinem versa fiducia est, confidence turned to anxiety, 4) Dimension (to) : In altitudinem pedum sedecim murum perducit, he carries the wall to the height of sixteen feet. 5) Distribution : Censores bini in singulas civitates descripti sunt, two ceiisors were appointed for each state. Ad dena- rios quinquaginta in singulos modios, at fifty de7iars the bushel, Mutatur in dies et in horas, he changes daily and hourly. In aestatem, every summer. M. Lucr. vi. 712. 6) Relation {towards, agaifist, &c.) : Liberalis in milites, liberal towards the troops. Merita in x^m'^\y}cX\c^.vs\, services to the state. Cicero in Vertem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres. Viri in uxores potestatem habent, husbands have power over their wives. In te oculi omnium defiguntur, all eyes are fixed on you. 7) Manner {in, after) : In hunc modum locutus est, he spoke after this fashion. In verba imperatoris iuraverunt, they swore allegiance to the general. So, in universum, in commune, in vicem {in turn), in numerum, in measured time, M. Lucr. ii. 631. 8) Purpose {for) : Gladiatores in ludos locavit, he engaged gladiators for the games. Sontes in poenam dediti sunt, the guilty were delivered for punishment. Omnia in maius ^2. Uses of Prepositions. 305 celebravit, he exaggerated everything, Dabo tibi pecuniam in rem familiarem, / will give you money for your house- hold expenses. Quae in rem tuam sunt, what is for your interest, {b) In with an Ablative signifies rest in, and describes i) Place (in) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium versaris, you are in everybody s mouth. In Miltiade erat summa humanitas, in Miltiades there was the greatest courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est Vergilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair i^ all smooth. In incerto. In difficili. In medio delictum eSt, // has been left unsettled. In luctu et squalore sum^ / a^n in sorrow and mourning. In manu, in hand, {On) : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the brink. Nix est in summo monte, snow is on the summit of the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was formed on the river. In equo sedens^^»;/ horseback, Ponere curam, cogitationem, &:c*^ in aliqua re, to employ the mind on some object. {Among) : In magnis viris numeratun Haec in bonis sunt habenda, these must be counted among blessings, i) Time (during^ in) : Ter in anno rus imus, I go into the country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there is no need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub- venit, when corn was dear he helped the city. In tempore veni. Impraesentiarum, tnider present circumstances, is a corruption of 'in praesentia harum rerum,' chiefly used by elder and late authors, also by Nepos. 3) Circun) stance {amidst, in) : In tanta perfidia veterum ami- corum nihil supererat spei, amidst such treachery of old friends no hope remaified, Etiam in summa bonorum civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti sumus, we are eloquefit over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore, in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V. {In the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in this man's ease I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo dici solet, the same is said of a good slave. 4) Cause {on the score of) : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus, for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus, Pausanias was blamed on that score, 11. {d) Sub with an Accusative describes i) Place {under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were 7nade to pass- under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, he came under my view. Sub Judicium cades, you will be subject to trials Sub sensus subiecta, withiii reach of the senses, X 3o6 Latin Wordlore, §72. 2) Time {immediately after or before, about, against) : Sub eas litteras recitatae sunt tuae, 7iext after that letter yours was read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en- gaged, Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife prepares supper agaijtst her husband^s arrival. Sub lacri- mosa Troiae funera, just before Trofs sad destruction, {b) Sub with an Ablative is applied to 1) Place {under), rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi- tant, moles dwell under the groujid, ludaea sub procura- tore erat, Judea was U7ider a procurator. Sub hac con- dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub oculis, in view, 2) Time {about, at) : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year. Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr, iv. 545-785 ; vi. 413, 416. III. {a) Super with an Accusative expresses 1) Place {over, above, beyond) : Alii super vallum praecipitan- tur, others fling themselves over the entrenchinent. Super navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship. Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Sunium, Super ipsum, above the host at table. 2) Number {besides) : Super bellum annona premit, besides war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super omnia, over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re- ceived above three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super savia, kisses upon kisses, 3) Comparison {beyond) : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro- ceed beyond our wishes, ^w'^^x, principally, V. 4) Time {during) : Super cenam coUocuti sumus, during supper we conversed, Lucan uses desuper {over) with Accus. Desuper Alpis nubi- ferae col lis, &c. L 688. {b) Super with an Ablative expresses 1) Place {over, upon) : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword hangs over his neck. Fronde super viridi requiescimus, we rest on green foliage, 2) Time {during, at) : Nocte super media, at midnight. 3) Subject Matter {about) : Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam, much about Hector, Verg. IV. Subter (under, below), signifying extension under, gene- rally governs an Accusative, but sometimes in poetry an Abla- tive : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet, virtue holds everything subject to itself, Subter densa testudine, under a compact pent-house. ]\jote I. — The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs ; ante, citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post, prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam. § 73. Correlation, 307 Note 2. — Comminus ire, ^ to close with, is used by Propertius with Dat. and Accus. ^Haemonio comminus isse viro,' iii. i, *Agrestis comminus ire sues,' ii. 19. So Ov. F. v. 176. Note 3. — Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean- ing :— ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super ad — ab cis — (trans) prope — procul in — ex citra — ultra clam — palam Note 4.-— Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose 1) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re ; hanc ob causam ; magno cum metu, &c* 2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun ; quem contra dicit ; quos inter, hunc adversus, &c. Not so found are, ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in. 3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition and Case : * in bella gerentibus ; ' * in suum cuique tri- buendo ; ' ^ post autem Alexandri Magni mortem,' &c. Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, atld sometimes aloof from them : ^ Vitiis nemo sine nascitur,^ Hor. S, \. 3^ 68i See M. Lucr. i. 841 ; iii. 140. (On Prepositions in composition^ see § 52, § 59.) Section VL Interr. Deiti. Rel. quis is qui ubi 1 ibi ubi Interr. Dem. Rel. quare 1 ideo quod quafido.? tum quum (cum) Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing a Subordinate sentence. Correlative Construction. Con-e- latioh. i. Pronominal Correlation^ The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influehtial word in Latm ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions. A) i) Every Interrogative word may question Directly or Obliquely. I^ii'ect. Oblique. quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier unde estmulier? die unde sit mulier verumne est illud 1 quaero verumne sit illud Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a Subordmate Sentence. 2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has correspondiftg to it at least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle j and a Relative Pro- noun or Particle* X 2 3o8 Latin Wordlore, § 73. B) Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival form : thus ubi = quo in loco ? ubi ... ibi = in eo loco ... in quo. i) Correlation of Person or Thing. Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel. 1"fs I (est ?) qui i ^ ' who {is he f) i"!n (sit) qui ) ^ ^ who {he is) is, &C. he qui who b) quid (est ?) what {is it ?) quid (sit) what {it is) id, &c. that quod which (The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used interrogatively.) c) uter (est ?) uter (sit) which of two {is which of two he ?) {he is) 2) Correlation of Quality. qualis (est ?) qualis (sit) of what kijid {is of what kind he ?) {he is) 3) Correlation of Quantity. quantus (est ?) quantus (sit) how great {is he?) quot (sunt) how inaiiy {are they ?) is (alter) that one qui which how great {he is) talis such tantus so great qualis as quantus as 4) quot (sint) tot quot how many so many as they are) (This includes quotiens ? how many times? totiens . . . quotiens.) 5) Correlation of Place. d) ubi (est ?) where {is he f) b) unde (est?) whence {is he f) c) quo (it ?) whither {goes hef) d) qua (it ?) by which way {goes he ?) (These include quorsum, whitherward^ &c., quousque ? quoad 1 quatenus ? how far, Sec. ; compounded with quo, qua.) 6) Correlation of Manner. ut (flet ?) ut (fleat) ita ut how {weeps he ?) how {he weeps) so as (Similarly quomodo .^* ita quomodo quemadmodum ? ita quemadmodum.^ ubi (sit) where {he is) ibi there ubi where unde (sit) whence (he is) inde thence unde whe7ice quo (eat) whither {he eo thither quo whither goes) qua (eat) by which way {he goes) ea by that way qua by which §73- Correlation. 309 7J Correlation of Degree. Direct Intcrrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel. quam (celer est ?) quam (c. sit) tarn quam how {sivift is he ?) how s. {he is) so as (For tarn . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque (ac) and many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of Inequahty quam follows Comparatives and some other words which contain the idea of comparison.) 8) Correlation of Cause. 1"^''^ (venit?) ^"^''n (veniat)'*^^°, ^ ^noA. cur ) ^ ^ cur i ^ ^ propterea) quia ) why {comes he f) why {he comes) therefore because 9) Correlation of Time. d) quando (it ?) quando (eat) tum quum when {goes he ?) when {he goes) then when b) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam net Y) neat) how long {stays how long {he so long as he f) stays) So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum fdonec) ; tamdiu . . . quam, &c. C) Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation. 1) ' Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it that first produced dreadful swords? Tib. i. 10. i. *Qui cantus moderata orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod carmen artificiosa verborum conclusione aptius ?' what song can we find sweeter than a well-uttered speech ? what poetry ?ieater than a skilful period ? C. d. Or. ii. 8. *Ecqui pudor est, ecqua religio, Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have you any shame ^ Verres? any scruple? any fear? C. Verr. iv. 8. * Ubi aut qualis est tuamens.^' where or of what nature is your soul? C. T. D. i. 27. * Ut valet Put me- minit nostri?' how is his health? how does he keep 7ne in mind? Hor. Epist. i. 3. 12. (In exclamation :) * Quam non est faci lis virtus, quam vero difficilis eius diuturna simulatio !' how far from easy is virtue J how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence ofit! C. Att. vii. I. * Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what you^re coming to! Ter. An. i. i. 100. * Gnaeus autem noster ut totus iacet ! ' how totally prostrate is our friend Gnaeus I C. Att. vii. 19. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom ! Ter. Eun. iv. 7. 2) Several Interrogatives in one Sentence : 'Considera, Piso, quis quem fraudasse dicatur,' consider^ PisOy who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q. Rose. 7. ^Uterutri insidias fecit ' which plotted against which ? C. p. Mil. 9. 3) Quotus quisque literally is, ^ each {unit) of what total number ' = ^ one in how many^ and might be answered : centensimus quisque, one in a hundred; vicensimus quisque, ^?;/^ in twenty, decimus quis- 310 Latin Wordlore. §74. que, one in ten^ &c. Hence it came to mean, how small a propor- tion? how few? ^Quotus enim quisque formosus est?' how few men are handsome ? C. N. D. i. 28. 4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb : Quid ? well? how ? &c. quid multa ? why be prolix? quid quaeris ? what would yoii have inore? Quid t3.ndem? why pray ? So, quid enim ? quid ergo ? quid tum ? quid quod . . . ? need I add that? 5) Quin for qui non? ^Quin quod est ferendum fers?' wonH you bear what must be borne ? Ten Ph. ii, 3. 82, Quidni posgim ? why can 1 7tot ? (^-to be sure I can), Q\ T. D, v. 5. Quippini ? why not? to be sure, Plaut. On quin with Indie, see M. Lucr. i. 588. JP) Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative : 1) ^ Fere libenter homines id quod volunt credunt,' men gene- rally believe with readiness what they wish, Caes. B. G» iii. 18. <Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat,' let every one practise the profession he knows. * Non sunt tanti uUa merita quanta insolentia hominis quantum que fastidium,' none of the via7i^s deserts are 07i a par with the greatness of his insolence and pride ^ C, d. Or, ii. 52, * Ubi bene, ibi patria,' country is where we are well off. Inc. ^ Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' w^i? has lost his purse will go where you please, Hor. Epdst. ii. 2. 40. * Qu am audax est ad conandum tam est obscurus in agendo,' is as secret in action as he is bold i7i enterprise, C. Ve^'r. ii. 2, ^ U t magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magistratus,' as laws govern magistrates, so do magistrates the people, C. Leg. \\\, i. * Quid egeris tunc apparebit gurn animam ages,' what you have do7ie will appear whe7i you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep. 26. 2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : * I n ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio vitae,' you are in that city wherein regulatio7t and govern7nent of life were born and reared^ C, Fam. vi. i. M bi imperium erit unde victoria fuerit/ empire will be on the side of victory^ L. i. 24. 3) Demonstrative understood : * Donum redde unde accepisti, render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun, i. 2. 34. This is the most frequent form. 4) The Correlation of cum and tum, originally of Time, is em- ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the other (with tum) special, to which attention is thus invited. ^ Mul- tum cum in omnibus rebus tum in re militari potest fortuna,' fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B, G» vi. 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem tum inimicum cenis sumptuosis,' look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fc(>m» ix, 23. ii. Correlations of Manner, Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are : As Interrogative {how ?). As a Subordinative Conjunction {that, &c.). As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison {as). The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed. I 74. Correlation, 3 1 r 1) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quo mo do, quemadmodum {as)^ is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives it a, sic, also with itidem, item, &c., eodem modo, ad eundem modum, isto modo, &c. — pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut (veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative. A) Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. (M. Lucr, ii. 901.) 'Ut optasti ita est,' it is as you wished^ C. Fam, ii. 10. 'Ut male posuimus initia, sic cetera sequentur,' accordiiig to our bad beginnings the rest will follow^ C. Att. x. 18. *Ut vir doctissimus fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum,' / think I shoiM act as the learned Plato didy C. p. Clu. 24. ' Non ille ut plerique, sed isto modo ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat,' he did not speak as most do, but in that manner of yours, with clearness y power ^ and elegance, C. N, D. i. 21. 'Quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus, s i c de amicitia disputa,' argue concerning friendship, as you are wont to do on other subjects, C. Lael. 4. ' Necesse est, quo tu me modo esse voles, ita esse, mater,' / jnust be as you wish me^ mother Plaut. Cist. i. i. 48. 'Ita ut fit,' ift the ordinary way, a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : 'Ita me di ament ut ego tam meapte causa laetor quam illius,' so may the gods love vie as I rejoice on my own accoimt as much as hisy Ter. Haul. i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti- cally : 'Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo,' your health, upon my lifCy makes me anxious, C. Fatn, xvi. 20. See Hor. C. i. 3, i. b) Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita following with adversative force in another : ' U t errare, mi Fiance, potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Flancus, but deceived you could not have beeriy C. Fam, x. 20. E) Without Demonstrative : ' Praesertim ut nunc sunt mores,' especially as fashions now are, Ter. Ph. i. 2. 5. Ut res dant sese, in the present state of affairs. These Conjuiictions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod : as, ut aiunt, as they say ; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you please ; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c. Also, ut nunc est, ut nunc quidem est {under present circumstances)^ ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, (as far as possible). 2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like- ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de rebus loquor,' / speak on these subjects like any other head of a family, C. d. Or. i. 29. ' Inspicere tamquam in speculum in vitas hominum,' to look into men^s lives, as into a mirror ^ Ter. Ad, iii. 3. 61. 3) Ut is used a) To introduce a modifying expression, ' considered as being^ ^for^ without a Verb : ' Clisthenes multum, ut tempori- bus ill is, valuit dicendo,' Clisthenes had great powers of speaking for those times, C. Brut, 7. /:>) Also with a Causal force {as being) : ' Apud me, ut bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam testes valent/ 313 Latin Wordlore. §75. with me, as a discreet judge^ ci/cu7nstantial proofs have more weight than wit7iesses, C. d. Or. i. 38. 7) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in conformity with some other: ^ Aiunt hominem, ut erat f u r i o s u s, respondisse,' they say the tnan^ raging as he was, replied, C. p. Rose. Am. 12, ^Horum auctoritate finitumi adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consiha, Trebium retinent/ the neighbouring tribes^ led on by these vien^s itifluence^ with the precipitatio7i usual in the inea- stires of the Gauls, detaiti Trebius, Caes. B. G. iii. 8. This sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui ( = quia talis) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same thing to use any of these phrases ; Jut es prudens qua es prudemia I tacebas -( ^ \ ^ J ^ laceoas - with your usual prudence quae tua est prudentia [ {were silent Vpro tua prudentia You 75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike- ness. At que, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like- ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis, idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, ae que, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter, perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness they follow the Adjectives alius, contrarius, dissimiHs, dispar, di- versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c. contra, secus. Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in Livy, aeque, perinde quam in post- Augustan writers. i) Correlation of Likeness i—^Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri nostrique apud vos sint ac nos socu^ provided our common enonies be 7iot on the same footing in your esteem as we your allies, L. xxxix. 37. * Animus te erga idem est ac fuit,' the feeling towards you is the same as it was^ Ter. Haul. \\. 3. * Pari eum at que illos imperio esse iussit,' he ordered him to be equal in command with the others, Nep. Dat. 3. * Ahquid ab illo simile at que a ceteris est factum,' he did something like what others did, C. Phil. i. 4. * Faxo eum tali mactatum atque hie est infortunio,' / w/// make hi^n suffer such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph, v. 9. ^Pa- riter me nunc opera adjuvas ac re dudum opitulata you assist me now with your zeal just as you helped me some time ago with your mo7iey, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. *Hi quidem coluntur aeque atque illi,' these are worshipped equally with the former, C. N. D. iii. 18. ^Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ ^^j- soo7i as a7i a7ti7nal is bor7i. it delights i7i pleasure, C. Fi7i. ii. 10. ^ Desiderium absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit/ nothing sharpens re- gret for the abse7it like neighbourhood, PI. Ep. vi. i. * Ostendant milites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse,' let the troops shew they can wage war in winter as well as in sHi/i77ier, g Correlation, 3 ^ 3 L V 6. ' Omnia in Themistocle fuerunt paria et Coriolano/ all the fads in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Corto- laitus C. Br. II. *Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque inopia vexavit/ scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as much as the besieged, L. ix. 13. ' Miltiades totidem navibus atque erat profectus Athenas rediit/ Miltiades returned to Athens with as many ships as he had gone out with, Nep. Milt. 7. So, ^Haud centensimam partem dixi atque possim exprimere/ / said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut. M. Gl. iii. i. Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac. d) Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : ^Eo- dem mecum patre genitus est,' he has the satne father as myself, Tac. A. xv. 2. 'Quo in loco res nostrae sint iuxta mecum omnes intellegitis,' //^^ state of our affairs you all understand as well as I do, Sail. C. 58. Horace uses idem with a Dative : * Invitum qui servat iden) facit occidenti,' one who rescues a man against his will does the same as one who kills, ad Pis. 467. b) Pro eo {in proportion) goes before ac, ut, quantum {as). ' Pro eo ac debui,' as I was bound, C. Fam. iv, 5. ' Pro eo ac mereor,' according to my desert, C. in Cat. iv. 2. ' Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit,' as far as the existing difficulties allowed, C. Verr. iii. 54. ' Pro eo quanti te facio,' in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam. iii. 13. c) Prout {according as). ' Prout ipse amabat litteras,' in ac- cordance with his own love of learning, Ncp. Att. i. d) Praeut {compared with), praequam {coinpared with) are Comic : * Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be, Plaut. Bacch. iv. 9. 5. ^ Praequam quod molestumst/ com- pared with the trouble, Plaut. A)nph. ii. 2. 3. e) Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137. 2) Correlation of Unlikeness : * Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu,' they are of different temper from you, C. Leg. ii. 7. ^ Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur,' the Stoics say many things are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses, C. Ac. ii. 31. * Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed paulo secus a me atque ab illo distributa,' there are the same members in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat differently from his method, C. d. Or. iii. 30. ' Vides omnia fere contra ac dicta sint evenisse,' j^?^ see that almost everything has turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div. ii. 24. ' Brutus iuvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu- erat,' Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he had assumed, L. i. 56. ^Multiplex quam pro numero damnum est,' the loss is out of all proportion to the 7iU7nber, L. vii. 8. * Eruca diversaeest quam lactuca naturae, is of a different cha- racter from lettuce, PI. A^. H xix. 8. d) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative : ^ Neve putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum,' and you will deem none other happy than the wise and good man, Epist. i. 16. 20. Latin Wordlof'e. §76, Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de- rivative of alius : * Aliud ratio est, aliud oratio/ reason is one things speech another = a.li\x d est ratio at que (et) oratio. See p. 317. 76 Quanu iv. Corrclations of Degree with quam. The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quem^ ad m o d u m. As an Interrogative particle {how), it intensifies Adjectives, Ad- verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80. Correlative to tarn expressed or understood {as), it compares the qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309. Following Comparative words, quam {than) compares things in a ratio of inequality. Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See Syntax (Compound Sentences of Time). Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long ago, are Interrogative only. Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam {as). pfEqua- i) The idioms in which quam {as, how) is attracted to other Ad- lity. verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus, it intensifies Positive words of quality ( - very) ; where the full ex- pression might be tam quam potest. ' Ab eius summo, sicut palmae, rami quam late diffunduntur,^ the boughs spread very widely from its summit, like those of the pahn-tree, Caes. B. G. vi. 26. * Cenam afferri quam opimam imperavit,' ordered a very splendid repast to be brought in, Caes. B. H. 33. ' Sunt vestrum, indices, quam multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt,' there are very many of you, gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr, iv. 25. 2) With a Verb quam = tam (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc- tions quam-vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will ; *quamvis multos,' as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So, ^Quamvelitsit potens,' be she as influential as she will C. p. CaeL 26. ^Quam vol en t in conviviis faceti sint,^ be they as witty as they please at dinner parties, C p. CaeL 28. Quam potest, as much as possible. 3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla- tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : ' Relinquebatur ut quam plurimos colhs occuparet et quam latissimas regiones praesidiis teneret,' it remained for him to occupy as many hills and hold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes. B. C. iii. 44. See p. 279. 4) Tam . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is an archaic construction. *Magis quam id reputo tam magis uror,' the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plant. Bac. v. I. 5. ^ Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxime tutus est,' the worse any man has acted, the safer he is, Sail. lug, 31. 5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe- equality g , Correlatio7i, 315 daily mire, and, morerarely, admodum, nimis, oppido,per, sane, valde: Perquam doctus, very learned'. *Mire quam illius loci cogitatio delectat,' / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought of the place, Q,Att.\.\\. * Sane quam sum gavisus,' / rejoiced exceedingly, ' Suos valde quam paucos habet,' C. Fain. xL 13. E) The Comparison of Inequality with quam {than) is used after Com. Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. of in°'* 1) Plus, amphus, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non minus, &c., are used in this comparison, as tam in that of equality : * Prodest plus imperator quam orator,' a general is of more service than an orator, C. Br. 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison, magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud amplius, are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible. 2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis quam may connect the Adjectives. ' Celer tuus disertus magis est quam sapiens,' friend Celer is fluent rather than wise, C. Att. xi. 10. Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. *Pauli Aemihi contio fuit verior quam gratior populo,' the harangue of Paulus Aemilius was mo7'e truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38. * Romani bella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt,' the Roma7ts waged so7ne wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43. Tacitus has ^vementius quam caute,M^r. 4. 3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive quality: 'Senectus est natura loquacior,' old age is naturally somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative), C. Cat. M. 16. *The- mistocles liberius vivebat,' Themistocles lived too freely, Nep. Them. i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several. ^ In columba sentio pluris videri colores, nec esse plus uno,' in the dove I notice a semblance of several colours^ but not more than one actually, C. Ac. ii. 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead, 4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and Pronouns: ' Siculis plus frumenti imperabatur quam quantum exararant,' the Sicilians were ordered to pay mo7'e corn than they had harvested, C. Verr. iii. 23. See pro (Prepositions). 5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle: 'Accipere quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T. D. v. 19. 6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : ^Tacita bona est mulier semper quam loquens,' a woman is always better silent than speaking, Rud. iv. 4. 70. 7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius : plus annum, more than a year \ amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium, C. * Plus quingentos colaohos infregit mihi,' he inflicted on me fnore than five hundred blows, Ter. Ad. ii. i. 46. Obs. In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui an imam . . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iii. 426. See M. Lucr, iii. 456. 3i6 Latin Wordlore. §77- Section VII. Coordination. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con- junctions enumerated § 57, or by the Relative and its Particles. A) Annexive Conjunctions. 1) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con- sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nec, neve or neu. E t associates things of equal importance. Que appends a usual adjunct ; being attached, as enclitic, to the word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes.^ Atque (ac) =ad-que, adds something important, as it were by afterthought. Neque (nec), nor^ and not, associates negative propositions; neve (neu) associates prohibitions. 2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati- cally. Such are etiam = et iam, also^ even, for which et itself is often used; quoque, also, even, an emphatic que; item = eo modo, likewise ; necnon, also, moreover* On etiam quoque, quoque etiam, &c., see M. Lucr. iii. 208. 3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre- quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms are : et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : *Et monere et moneri proprium est verae amicitiae,' both advising and being advised is the property of true friendship, C. Lael. 25. Mllud neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest,^ that 7natter can neither by any means be 07nitted fro7n my speech, nor yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr, ii. i. 34. ' Carthaginiensibus condicionespacis dictae,bellum neve in Africa neve extra Africam iniussu populi Romani facerent,' the terms of p^ace dictated to the Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of Africa, without authority from the Rofnan people, L. xxx. 37. Que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, are poetic, but rare in prose. On et or que in protasis without conjunction in apodosis, see V. A en. xi. 171. 4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . . neque, neque . .. et, nec . . . que: Mntellegitis Pompeio et animum praesto fuisse nec consilium defuisse,' you perceive that Pompeius had both courage for the occasion, and no lack of counsel, C. PhiL xiii. 6. ^ Vitia erunt donee homines; sed neque haec continua, et meliorum interventu pensantur,' vices will exist as long as men J but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetual, so also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin^ ciples, Tac. H. iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280. ^ -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first is a Preposition or other small particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tam variisque, &c. And later still in poetry» to assist metre : mjiltus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. ii. 5. 71. § 77. Coordmation. 317 5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences, cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . . modo; nunc . . . nunc; modo . . . nunc; simul . . . simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars. Also by alter . . . alter; alius . . . alius ; and its particles, aliter . . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . . alibi; &c. Examples: — ^ Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, tum a Xenophonte collaudatus est/ Agesilaus has been extolled both by other writers^ and especially by Xenophon^ Nep. Ag. i. * Hae stellae tum occultantur tum rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time hidden^ at another again displayed^ C. N. D. ii. 20. * Socrates non tum hoc, tum illud, sed idem dicebat semper/ Socrates did not say one thing at one time, another at another ; but the same thing always, C. LaeL 4. ^Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consili summaeque tum benevolentiae tum etiam prudentiae,'/^^ have written me a letter full of good advice^ and of great kindness as well as prudence, C. Att, ix. 5. * Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis, qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit/ all the Fabii, both plebeians and senators, were men of eminent merit ^ L. ii. 45. ^Animalia cibum partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium tenacitate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum ; alia sugunt, alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt/ some animals take their food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, so7ne seize it by their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N. D. ii. 47. * Natura alterum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alteri deest praesto plerumque est alteri/ Nature would have one man stand in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum. Pr, 6. ^Aliter cum tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur,' we live in one way with a tyrant, in another with a frieiid, C. Lael. 2/^, 89. 6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi- dinative) are, primum (in the first place), deinde {jn the next place), variously followed by one or more of the words, tum, postea, mox, tides, praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in short, finally, or postremo (um), in the last place, * Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista sors inaudita Graecis est; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboliam versus intellegere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere,' in the first place Apollo never spoke in Lectin ; in the next the Greeks never heard of that oracle ; moreover, in the times of Pyrrhus, Apollo had already ceased to make verses ; in fine, Pyrrhus would have been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div. ii. 56. Sometimes tum precedes deinde ; and denique is followed by postremo. In Cic. Fin. v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum . . . tum .... deinde . . . post . . . tum . . . deinde, without denique or postremo. See also M. Lticr. iii. 529. In these sequences primum is used; seldom primo, which means originally, at first, but sometimes itt the first place, deinde fol- lowing. 318 Lati7i Wordlore. § 78-79. d) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 h), b) Anaphora is the construction which, instead of using An- nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more words : * Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis, sed malign is verbis,' he promised, but hardly, with knitted brows, and in spiteful language, Sen. Ben. i. i. * Si recte Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit,' if Cato judged rightly, then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent; nor yet the vendor of an unwholesome house, C. Off. iii. 16. dve""*^' -^) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions. Con- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve ; sive, seu. tions. Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another. Vel (ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make optional distinction {or, if you please). Sive (seu) sometimes means orif\ but, as here cited, it implies a distinction of name rather than of fact. * Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda,' we must dare something as a body, or individually oidure all things, L. vi. 16. * Sequimur vel antecedimus,' Curt. ^ loco seriove,' in jest or earnest, L. 'Discessus sive potius fuga,' departure or rather flight, C. 2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu- tion : *Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit,' either no man or, if aiiy, Cato was wise, C. Lael. 2. ' Vel vi, vel clam, vel precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, C. p. Lig. 3. 3) Vel may mean ^ even.^ * Per me vel stertas Xxc^iyyou may even snore if you will for me, C. Ac. ii. 29. And ^for instance,^ ^ Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi,' C. Fam. vii. 24. Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279. 79 Adyer- Q\ Advcrsativc Conjunctions. sative ' Con- The Adversative Conjunctions are autem, sed ; verum, vero ; tKns. tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum. 1) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after est, sunt) the second word in its clause : *Magnes lapis est, qui ferrum ad se trahit : rationem autem, cur id fiat, afferre non pos- sumus,' the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 39. * Bonum est autem recta praecipere,^ Lact. d) Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re- peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. * Ferendus tibi in hoc mens error : ferendus autem .'^ immo vero etiam adiuvandus,' you must endure my mistake here: endure, do I say f you must eiien abet it, C. Att. xii. 42. 2) Sed, a form of se- {separate), distinguishes with more or less of opposition. After a negative, it supphes an adverse or differing notion: * Oti fructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio,' the advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but relaxation, C. d» §79 Coordination, 319 Or, ii. 5. Otherwise it is corrective : * Contemno magnitudinem doloris. Sed si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae/ &c. I despise greatness of pain,. But suppose it as great as that of PhilocteteSy &c. C. T. D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics : ^Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : sed ea quae restant audia- mus/ / quite differ from our friend Quintus, But let us hear what remains to be said, C. N. D, ii. i. 3) Verum (but truly) resembles sed in use, but is stronger ; * Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae- rimus/ we are not inquiring what is profitable to us, but rather what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or. i. 60. Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause. 4) Vero {but in truth) when used as a Conjunction is postposi- tive, and generally corrects by heightening the previous notion : * Quidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex- petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, id gratum acceptumque habendum,' whatever is good^ is desirable; what is desirable, is surely to be approved ; again what you approve must be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C. Z". Z>. v. 15. 5) Tarn en {yet, however, nevertheless) detracts from the force of a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in the context. It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be most emphatic. See Syntax (Concessive Sentences). Sed tamen, attamen, verumtamen, et tamen {but yet), are used. 6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob- jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c. ^ Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio,' &c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was liked by Publius Servilius, &c. C. Phil. ii. 12. * At te di deaeque perduint,' may the gods and goddesses destroy thee ! Ter. Hec. i. 2. 59. 'Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice,, quam copiose!' Aeschines upbraids Demosthenes: aye^ and how skilfully, how copiously, C. T. D. iii. 26. d) At = at tamen : ^ Si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e con- spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt,' if those champions of our freedom have removed theinselveS' from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. PhiL ii. 44. At enim, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like aXXa v\] A/a in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per- venit. Quae est ista defensio .'^ ' &c. but that money, it is urged, never reached Verres. What a lame defence is here? &c., C. Verr. ii. 10. * At vero malum est liberos amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufiferre et per- peti,' C. Fam. iv. 5. ' At ego, inquit, vobis rationem osten- dam, qua tanta mala ista effugiatis,' Sail. Cat. 40. tf) Atqui {yes but, but indeed) adds an objection which needs to be considered. * O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex- plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est,' O what a difficult and inexplicable matter, yo?i say ? Yes, but it must be ex^ plained, C. Att. viii. 3. See M.Lucr. i. 755. 320 Lati7i Wordlo7r, § 80-82. 7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but) is used by historians. ' Qui Romanomm amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt : cete- rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt/ Sail. lug. 14. So ceteroqui(n). D) Causal Conjunctions. i) Nam {for^ for instance^ to he sure) introduces a cause as ex- planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second word of a clause) introduces a proof. Namque is a strengthened form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first words in their clause. d) Nam is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to the Interrogative (quisnam, curnam, &c.), or, in old Latin chiefly, preceding it. * Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?' why what can I now say of my father? Ter. An, i. 5, 17. b) Enim is hnked with other Particles : etenim, y27r, neque enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero, verum enimvero. All these may begin a sentence. * Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae,' why realty j DavuSy there is no room for laziness ^ Ter. An, i. 3. i. c) Enim may be emphatic {yes). * Id enim est, inquies, ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. *Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno,' V. Aen. viii. 84. E) Illative Conjunctions. 1) Igitur, ergo, therefore ^ itaque, proinde (proin). Igitur expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer- ence ; itaque iaiid so) an inference arising from the antecedence ; proinde {so then) an inference proportioned to the antecedence. 2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea {on that account)^ point to a ground of fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground, M. Lucr, iii. 531. 3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, have a Conclusive sense : {wherefore, on which account),^ ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Par- ticles. i) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon- strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autem, enim, igitur, &c.). * Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum/ />^^ fact itself speaks; and this always has most weighty C. p. Mil. 20. 'Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem) generis est magna penuria,' and steady friends must be chosen: but of this class there is a great dearth ^ C. Lael. 17. * Mul- tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos ( = eos igitur) legite studiose,' the wo7-ks of Xenophon are useful for many purposes : read them then^ I beg, with caj-e, C. Cat. M. 1 7. Note. A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really to a Demonstrative understood (or expressed in another clause). *Quod est bonum omne laudabile est; quod autem laudabile * The uses of Latin Adverbs and Conjunctions are a very extensive subject, whicb can- not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfinished edition of Turscl- Unns de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large octavo volumes. §82. Coordination, 321 est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,' C. Fin. iii. 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood. 2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises. * Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con- suli quam inaurari,' upon My life I think^ such is your vanity^ you would rather be consulted by Caesar than plated with gold, C. JFam, vii. 13. ^Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio,' L. xlv. i. 3) When a Noun has in Attribute, especially a Superlative, and a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at- tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit,' Themistocles sent to Xerxes by night the most faithful slave he had, Nep. Them. 4; 4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the Relative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordi* nate Clause : *Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset {for quein si is adesset) non molliter ferret,' all pain was absent, but had any been present, he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin. ii. 20. 5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial constructioii. ^ Non sunt ea bona dicenda nec habenda, quibus abundantem licet esse miserrimum,' those things ought not to be called or held good, amidst the overflow of which one may be utterly wretched, C. T. D. V. 15. With an Infinitive Clause. *In eos, quos spe ramus nobis pfofuturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre,' we do not hesitate to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage^ C. Off. i. 1 5. With an Interrogation. * Magnus orator fuit Demosthenes : quern quis umquam dicendo superavit?^ Demosthenes was a great orator : for who ever surpassed him in speaking f C. 6) The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen- tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin- cipal Sentences, to shid^ \}\e\Y logical connexion with something which has gone before. Such are the phrases quofacto, qua te cog- nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c. Also quod {now, but, in fact^ &c.) stands before Conjunctions, si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. :^Fit protinus had re audita ex castris Gallorum fuga : quod nisi ere* bris subsidiis ac totius diei labore mihtes fuissent defessi, omnes hostium copiae deleri potuissent,' on this intelligence the Gauls forsook their camp : in fact, if our troops had not been worn out by frequent skirmishes and a whole dafs fatigue, the e7itire forces of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. B. G. vii. 88. See C. Off. i. 14, Div. li. 63, Fin., i. 20 ; Liv. xxix. 34, xxxvi. 2. 7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr. ii, 248.) d) as quantum : *Tu, quod poteris, no§ consihis iuvabis,' you will help me with your advice as far as you can, C. Att. X. 2. 'Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem pro- fiteri est ausus,' Epicurus is the only man, so far as I know, who ventured to profess wisdom, C. Fi7i, ii. 3. Y 322 Latin Word I ore. §82. b) opening a sentence in relation to something about to be stated {as to) : see M. Lucr. iv. 855 : '(2uod scribis te velle scire qui sit reipublicae status, summa dissensio est/ as to the wish yotc express in your letter to know the con- dition of public affairs, all is discord , C. Earn, i. 7. c) as quare : 'Est quod te visam/ there is so7nething I must see you for^ Plaut. ' Credo ego vos mirari quid sit quod ego surrexerim/ / imagine you are wondering for what reason 1 have stood up, C. d) occasionally for ex quo (since) : * Dies tertius est quod audivi recitantem Augurinum/ // is now three days since I heard Augurinus read, PI. Ep. iv. 27. So cum : *Multi anni sunt cum ille in aere meo est/ // is mafiy years that he is in my good books, C. Ea7n. xv. 14. And tantum quod for vix ubi, vixdum : *Qui tantum quod ad hostis pervenerat, Datames signa inferri iubet/ he had but just reached the enemy when Datames ordered the standards to advance, N ep. Dat. 6. 'Tantum quod ex Arpinati veneram, cum mihi litterae a te redditae sunt/ I had just arrived from my house at Arpinum^ when a letter from you was delivered to 7ne, C. Ea7n. vii. 23. Note I. The transition by which the Relative quod {which)hQ- comes the Conjunction of Fact quod {that) and the Causal Con- junction quod {because) is apparent from such examples. An an- alogous transition appears in the English that, and the Greek on. Concedo quod postulas, I grant (the thing) that you ask. Rectum est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is right, Nefas est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is a sin, Gaudeo quod venisti, I am glad that you are come. Gratum est quod venisti, // is a pleasure that you are come. Consolatio est quod venisti, is a comfort that you are co7ne. Hoc consolatur quod venisti, this comforts, that you are come, Fugit idcirco quod timet, he flies because that he fears. Venit ideo quod pactus est, he came because that he agreed, Felix est quod sapiens est, he is happy in that he is wise. Note 2. On change of construction after Rel, see M. Lucr, i. 720, and Yerg. Aen. vi. 284. 8) The place of the Relative can be taken by its Particles, ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c. Ubi may stand for in quo, in qua, in quibus, of place, person, or thing : ' Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ( = in qua) inambulamus/ this very colonnade in which we are walking, C. d. Or, ii. 5. Unde stands for ex quo, qua, quibus, a quo, qua, quibus, &c., and is also referred to place, person, or thing : * Fontes unde (ex quibus) hauriretis/ sources fro7n which you might draw, C. d. Or, i. 46. 'Eloquentia, unde ( = a qua) longe absum,^ eloquence, from which I am far removed, C. Brut. 92. Quo for ad quem, quam, quod, quos, quae, &c. ' Dignus Roma locus quo ( = ad quem) deus omnis ^2i\.^ Rome is a place worthy to be visited by every deity, Ov. E. iv. 270. Such Particles are connected with mood according to the same rules as the Relative Pronoun. §83 Negative Words, 323 Section VIII. Negative Words* i. Ne and its Compounds. 1) From the Negative Root na cdirie the Particles ne, n§. Ne, the lighter form, is used as an encUtic Interrogative* Ne. It enters into the composition of many v^ords : ne-que (nec), ne-uter, ne-utiquam, non, nisi (for ne-si), nihil (for ne-hil)^ nemo (for ne^homo), nullus (ne-uUus), numqiiam (ne-umqualm), nusquam (ne-usquam) : ne-queo, ne-scio, nolo (ne-volo), ne-fas and its deri- vatives: as nec, of nec-dum, nec-rton, nec-opinus, ne^-otium, ne^^-lego. On nec for non, see M. Lucr. ii. 23. N e, the strengthened form, is used in prohibitive and findl con- struction, and in the phrases ne . . . quidem, nedum, &c. It enters into the composition of words : ne-ve (neu), ne-cubi, &c. ; ne-quaquam, ne-quiquam, ne-quam ; in old Latin more largely, as funera ne-funera in Catullus. On ni, nei, as old forms of ne, see M. Lucr. ii. 734, 2) Ndn, haud (anc. haut), not, deny Predication or Attribution. Non simply denies : haud somewhat more strongly. Cicero rarely uses haud with a Verb, except in the phrase^ haud scio an' (often in MSS. hauscio an). But ' Haud equiderri ^ssen- tior/ Leg. iii. 11. See also Cat. M. xxiii. 82, Div. ii 39. The ordinary use of haud is with Adjectives and Adverbs. Thus in C. haud deterior, haud mediocris, haud sane, haud paulo, haud facile, haud fere quisquam, haud umquam. Comic poets use haud with Verbs, especially with possum: Virgil rai'ely with finite Verbs. Horace has ^ haud mihi dero/ 3) Nihil (nil) maybe Used as a Particle [tn no wise) : nihil opus e^t, nihil moror, nihil me fallis. Rarely with Adjectives and Par- ticiples : 'Nihil similis,* L. * Senatus nihil sane intentus,' Sail. Cat. 17. * Animos nil magnae laudis egdntis,' Virg. Ae. v. 751. 4) Soquicquam : ^Nehoc quidettl ipso quicquam opus fuit iudicid,* even of this judgment there was no need, C. d. Inv. ii. 27. 5) Nullus is used with the force of non. ^Sextus ab armis nul^ lus discedit,' Sextus does not lay down his arfns, C. Att. xv. 22. 6) The Substaintive nemo (ne-homo) is used for nullus : as 'l^emo pictor J no painter, C. * Nemo fere adulescens,V/^r^/y ^;// young man ; even * hominem neminem,' C. Fam. xiii. 55. * Nemo \xn\xs^ not one person, L. iii. 12. So quisquam, though Substan- tival, is found with homo, civis, &c. On the other hand, Gen. nullius, Abl. nullo, are used as Cases of nemo, rarely of nihil. 'Si iniuste neminem laesit, si nullius aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odionec domi nec militiae fuit,' if he has harined no one unjustly, if he has done violence to no man, by woj'd or act, if, to say the least, he has Y 2 83 Nega- tive Words. 324 Latin Wordlore. §84. been disagreeable to 7to?ie at hojne or abroad^ &c., C. p, Miir. 40. ^ Ut quisque sic munitus est ut nullo egeat/ according as each man is so provided as to wa7it 7iobodys help, C. Lael, 9. a) Non ita, haud ita, are used as modified Negatives : non ita pridem, haud ita pridem, {not very long ago). Neutiquam {iiot at all) is chiefly found in Comedy : also in a few places of Cicero and Livy. L. has neutique. Nequiquam, {to no purpose). Nequaquam, haudquaquam, {by 710 7neans). b) Vix, scarcely, hardly, is a modified Negative. c) Minus is used as nearly = non. ' Nonnumquam ea, quae praedicta sunt, minus eveniunt/ so7neti7nes predictio7is fail to tur7i out true^ C. Div. i. 14. Especially quominus ( = ut eo minus), and sin minus, but if not. Minime {least of all=7tot at all) is a strong Negative. d) The enclitic dum {awhile, yet) is compounded with all the Negatives except nemo ; also with vix ; nondum, haud' dum, nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum. ii. Succeeding Negatives. 1) A Negative precedes the word which it affects ; and if another Negative follows within the same predication, the negation is an- nulled, and the predication becomes Affirmative. Hence arise new Pronominal forms; some Indefinite : nonnuUus nearly = aliqui nonnemo — = aliquis nonnihil — = aliquid nonnumquam — = aliquando some Universal : as, nullus non nearly = omnis nemo non — omnes or unusquisque nihil non — = omnia numquam non — = semper nusquam non — = ubique So, neque . . , non is nearly = etiam (also). 2) Non followed by non forms a strong affirmative : thus, non prossum non = necesse est mihi. *Non potui non dare litteras ad Caesarem,' I could not but write to Caesar^ C. Att. viii. 2. So, nemo . . . non : nihil . . . non, &c. *Tuum consilium nemo potest non maxime l^Md^xe,^ 7tobody ca7t help praising your de- sig7i highly^ C. Fa7n. iv. 7. Non modo, non tantum, 7tot only ; modo non, tantum non, only 7tot = all but: ^Modo non montis auri pollicens,' profnising all but niountains of gold, Ter. Ph. i. 2. 18. 3) If a negative proposition branches into two clauses with neque . . . neque, the proposition remains negative: * Caesar numquam neque fecit neque fecisset ea quae nunc ex falsis eius commentariis proferuntur,' Caesar never did nor would have done the things which are produced fro7fi his spurious niamiscripts, C. Fa7n. xiv. 13. § 85- Negative Words, 325 d) As the English ^ and not^ is usually expressed by neque ; and by ^ et non * only when the negative belongs emphati- cally to the following word ; so ^ and none^ ' and no- thing^ * and nobody^ * and never^ &c., are expressed by * neque ullus,' * neque quicquam/ *nec quisquam/ *nec umquam/ &c. ; not by et nullus, et nihil, et nemo, et num- quam, &c. : but if the negative is emphasised, the latter forms must be used: 'Domus temere et nullo consilio administratur/ the household is conducted in a confused way, and without any plan, C. d, Inv, i. 34. b) Neque is used with vero, tamen, enim, rarely autem, to con- nect Adversative and Causal Sentences negatively. 85 iii. Ne . . . quid em, nedum, non modo, &c. Ne . . quidem, 1) Ne . . . quidem = ;/<7/ even, takes the emphatic words be- tween the particles. ' Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo,' / will not appeal even to Cato, C. Att. iv. i. Another negative may go before, with the predicative word: *Non fugio ne hos quidem mores,' I do not shun even these morals^ C. Verr, iii. 90. Nec is rarely used for ne . . . quidem. ^Esse aliquid manis et subterranea regna nec pueri credunt,' that ghosts and subter- ranean realms have any existence not even boys believe, luv. ii. 152. 2) Nedum indicates that a predication is out of the question. Nedum. Hence with previous negative, it means * much less ; ' with affirm- ative (usually) ' not to say.^ ' Satrapa si siet amator, numquam sufferre eius sumptus queat, nedum tu possis,' if a satrap were her lover, he could not support her expenses, much less can you, Tqy. Haut.m. 1.43. ^ Nulla simulacra urbibus, nedum templis, sinunt,' they allow no images to their cities^ much less to their temples^ Tac. H. v. 5. ' Tu quoniam quartana cares et nedum morbum removisti sed etiam gravedinem, te vegetum nobis in Graecia siste,' since you are free from quartan fever, and rid not to say of disease but even of languor, present yourself to us in Greece flourishing, C. Att, x. 16. Sometimes, but not in Cicero, nedum after an affirmative means ' much more notJ' ' Et consules bellicosos creatos, qui vel in pace bellum excitare possent, nedum in bello respirare civitatem forent passuri,' warlike consuls had been elected, who could stir up war even in peace, much more in war would not sniffer the state to take breath, L. xlv. 29. See also Hor. ad Pis. 69. 3) When the principal sentence contains not only, an Adversa- tive clause {but) succeeds. Hence non modo, non solum, are followed by sed, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam, &c. : *Non solum verbis arte positis moventur omnes, verum etiam numeris ac vocibus,' all men are affected not only by words skilfully ar- ranged, but also by measures and sounds, C. d Or, iii. 50. a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by sed, sed etiam, &c., or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed neque, &c. : ' Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra me est potius,' this is not only not for me, but even against me, C. d. Or, iii. 20. 'Ego non modo tibi non irascor, 326 Latm Word lore. §86. sed ne reprehendo qui d em factum tuum/ /^ww^j/^^w/V not angry with you, but do not even blame your deed, C. p, SulL is. When both sentences have a common verb, non modo may be elliptically placed in the former, for non modo non: *Tahs vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit' ( = sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man will not venture, not merely to do, but even to conceive anything which is not morally right, C. Off. iii. 19. * Nihil eis Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui- dem suis reliqui fecit,' Verres left them nothing, I do not say of their produce, but even of their property, C. Verr. iii. 48. c) The sentences are soqietimes inverted, so that non modo = 7nuch less-. *Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse/ 7iot even swi?te would desire that, much less himself C. T. D. i. 38. d) Non tam, not so much, is followed by sed oi sed magis. See M. Lucr. iii. 833. Section IX. Questions and Answers. R.T 1. Questions (direct or oblique : see § 73), An- swers. Interrogation may be Single or Disjunctive* imfrf Single Interrogation without a Particle. tian. An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the beginning, ' Will you go f ' But in Latin the sense or tone shews the distinction. * Certe patrem tuum non occidisti?' assuredly you did not kill your father ? Suet. Aug. 33, which suggests the reply, Certe non occidi. * Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dig his ground f Sen. Prov. 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon- strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation : *Non pudet ad morem discincti vivere Nattae ? ' are you not ashamed of living in the fashion of dissolute Natta? Pers. iii. 31. Or attention is awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether.-^' seest thou with scented fires how shines the sky f Ov. i^ i. 75« * Viden tu hunc?' Plaut. Capt. iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, &g. ii. Single Interrogation with a Particle. i) Num expects a negative answer; nonne, an affirmative; ne asks indifferently: ' Num formidulosus, obsecro, es, mi homo ? — Egone formidulosus nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus,' are you in a fright, pray, my good fellow f — / in a fright ? no 7nan alive is less so, Ter. Bun. iv. 6. 19. * Nonne miseri sumus.'*' § 86. Questions and Answers, 327 d) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : ' Deum ipsum numne vidisti ?' have you seen God Himself? (no), C. TV. A i. 31. * N umnam ego perii ? ' ain I a lost 7na7i ? (I hope not), Ter. Eun, v. 4. 25. ^Ecquis mc vivit hodie fortunatior?' lives there any this day more lucky than I ? Ter. Eun, v. 8. i. < Numquis hie est? nemo est: numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one here ? nobody: is any one following me out ? Ter. Eun. iii. 5. I. 2) An properly signifies 'or^ and introduces the second and fol- lowmg members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to introduce a single interrogation, it really refers to a previous ques- tion conceived in the mind is this adinitted or,' &c.). Hence it confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op- posite notion : * Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de- decet. An tibi irasci tum videmur cum quid in causis acrius et vehementius dicimus ' anger is unbecoming in an orator^ the sem- blance of anger is not unbecoming. (Do you allow this 1) or do you suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual vehemence? C. T. D, iv. 25— meaning : 'we are not really angry when we so speak ; the semblance therefore affords no argument against the maxim that anger is unbecoming in an orator.' Sometimes an refers to aliudne understood : 'Quid dices an Siciliam virtute tua liheratsim?' what will you say? that by your valour Sicily was freed? C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything else, or, &c. = will you not probably say that, &c.) See § 87, Foot-note. An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in Enghsh we say,'/ know not whether he is coming^ we imply a probability that * he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat usually means existimo eum venire. So, 'Nescio an modum excesserint,' / am inclined to think they have over- stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium praestantissimus,' the wisest and perhaps the most excellent of all, C. N. D, ii. 4. b) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc orationem m Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor- tuus est an diebus an mensibus,' this speech he entered in his Origmes a few days (must we say) or months before he died, C. Brut. 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus. c) If it were wished to express the meanings ' probably not; I am mclined to think not,' Sec, a Negative was intro- duced m the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, f think he is not coming. ' Quaere rationem cur ita vide- atur: quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scfo an non possis, non tu ostenderis,' &c., seek a ground for this opinion ; but though you be ever so successful in findinp one, which I rather think you cannot do, you will not have shewn, &c., C Ac. ii. 25. 'Contigit tibi, quod haud scio an nemi ni, there has happened to you what I rather think has befallen no one else, C. Qu. Fr. i. i. It is questioned Latin Wordlore. whether the same sense is obtained by using, instead of Negatives, those Pronouns and Adverbs which are only- found in negative or hypothetical sentences, quisquam, ullus, unquam, &c. ; but, as the reading in all the places cited is doubtful, it is safer to use the Negatives for this purpose. d) Writers of the Silver age sometimes give nescio an the negative force, ^ I think not' 87 Disjunc- iii. Disjunctive Interrogation has four varie- tiveln- terroga- w 1 v, o. tion. In First Member. In Second Member. i) utrum (utrumne) an 2^ ne •••«•••« an 3) No Particle an (anne) 4) No Particle ne.^ 1) ^ Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est ?' is that your fault or ours? C. Ac. ii. 29. * Quod nescire malum est agitamus, utrumne divitiis homines an sint virtute beati,^ we discuss^ what it is an evil to be ignorant of, whether men are happy by riches or virtue^ Hor. S. ii. 6. 73. 2) ' Quod si dies notandus fuit, eumne potius notaret, quo natus, an eum, quo sapiens factus est V now, if a day was to be marked, should he have marked that rather, on which he was born^ or that on which he became wise? C. * Quaeritur virtus suamne propter dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos expetatur/ // i^ a question whether virtue be sought for its own worth or for so77ie profits ac- cruing, C. d. Or. iii. 29. 3) ^ Recto itinere duxisti exercitum ad hostis an super omnes an- fractus viarum .'^ ' did you march your ar7ny straight to the ene77ty, or by every windi7ig road? L. xxxviii. 45. * Refert oratorem qui audiant, senatus an populus an judices, frequentes an pauci an singuli,' it is of mo}ne7it who a7t orator's audience are, the senate or people or be7ich of judges ; a crowd or a few persons or a7t indi^ vidual, C. d. Or. iii. 55. 4) ^Albus aterne fueris ignorans,' not knowing whether yoie were white or black, Q. Phil. ii. 16. ^Tarquinius Superbus Prisci Tarquinii filius neposne fuerit, parum liquet,' whether Tarquin the Proud was son or grandson of Tarqui7i the elder, is not certain, ]L. i. 41. This form is only used in Oblique Interrogation. a) An . . . an, ne . . . ne, are poetic, but rare in prose : ^ Distat an maturitas uvarum in torcularibus fiat an in ramis,' it makes a difference whether the grapes become ripe in the press-rooms or on the boughs., PI in. N. H. xv. i. ^Quiteneant . . . hominesne feraene Quaerere consti- * Madvig {Opusc. 230), witb whom Hand concurs {Turs. iv. 321), denies that the form num ... an can be classed with the other Disjunctive forms, in which one alternative must be affirmed. As num always points to a negative answer, an, when annexed to it becon>es almost = annon. 'Numfuris? an prudens ludis me obscura canendo?' are you going mad? or do you purposely Receive me with dark oracles? Hor. S. ii. 5- 59» plying that the latter is the fact, §88. Questions and Answers, 329 tuit/ he resolves to inquire who inhabit it , , , whether men or wild beasts, Verg. A en. i. 308. b) If in the Second Member there is a Negation of the former, necne or annon is used, generally without, sometimes with, the Verb repeated : ^Fiat necne fiat id quaeritur/ the question is whether it does happen or not, C. Fain. i. 39. ^ Di utrum sint necne sint quaeritur/ it is in question whether gods exist or not, C. N. D. iii. 7. * Num tabulas habet annon ? ' has he the accounts or not? C. p. Qu. Necne is not used after num ; and only in Oblique Interrogation. 11. Answers. i. Affirmative Answers in Latin are given in ASirma- three ways. ^'J^.t"' 1) By repeating the emphatic word of the question in the required person or case : ^ Abiit Clitipho. — Solus 1 Solus/ Clitipho is gone. Alone? A lone J Ter. Haul. v. i. 31. ^Virtutes narro. — Meas ? Tuas.' I talk of virtues. What, mine? — Yours, Ter. Ad. iv. i, 19. ^Tunenegas? Nego hercle vero/ do you deny it? Ves,^ upon my word, I do, Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 67. 2) By some expression equivalent to a repetition of the emphatic word: 'Die, Chaerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi Factum,^ say, did Chaerea strip your coat off? He did, Ter. Run. iv. 4 39. Or increasing the emphasis : 'Pater est Ipsust,' // my father? Himself, Ter. *An voluptas in bonis habenda est.'^ At que in maximisquide m,' is pleasure to be reckoned ainong goods ? Ay, and among the greatest, C. 3) By Affirmative Particles, either alone, or joined to the em- phatic word. Such are, it a, sane, etiam, verum, utique, vero, certe, ita plane, ita enimvero, ita prorsus, omnino, admodum, rccte, profecto. 'Numquid vis ? Etiam,' do you want anything? Yes, Ter. 'Visne potiora tantum interrogem? Sane,' would you have me ask only the principal matters? Exactly so, C. ' Fuisti saepe, credo, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum .^^ Vero, ac libenter quidem,'jK^>2^ were often, I suppose, when you were at Athens, in the schools of the philosophers ? Yes, and with pleasure, C. T. D. ii. II. d) Nimirum, nempe, quippe, videlicet, scilicet {obviously, to be sure, why), express irony : ' Quem hunc appellas, Zeno ? Beatum, inquit. Etiam beatissimum ? Quippe, inquiet,' what call you this man, Zeno ? Happy, says he. ' Supremely happy, too ? Why yes, he will say, C. Fin. v. 28. 'Tibi ego possem irasci "^. Scilicet,' could I have beefi angry with you ? Very likely ! C. Qu. Fr. i. 3. b) Certo always affirms positively {for certain^ : certe some- times affirms positively, sometimes restrictively (at all events, at least). Vero affirms positively {of a truth), or it may be used as an Adversative Particle. Vere means verily, really, truly. Latin Wordlore. % 89-90. 89 ^ega- ii. Nesfative Answers are also efiven in three tive An- *^ swers. ways. 1) By repeating the emphatic word with a Negative Particle : *Estne frater intus? N on est/ is my brother inf No, Ten Ad, iv. 2. 30. 2) By Negative Particles alone, such as non, non vero, non ita, minime, minime vero, nihil sane, nihil vero minus, nequaquam, ne id quidem, &c. * Cognitorem adscribit Sthenic. Quern? Cogna- tum aliquem aut propinquum ? Non. Thermitanum aliquem, honestum hominem ac nobilem? Ne id quidem. At Siculum, in quo ahquis splendor dignitasque esset ? M inime/ assi^us to Sthenius a defender. lVho?n f Was it soine blood-relation or kins- man f No. Some inhabitant of Thermae., a man of honour and rank ? Not even that. Well, but a Sicilian., possessing some emi-^ 7ience and dignity ? Far from it, C. Verr, ii. 43. * Non opus est ? Non hercle vero,' is there no occasion? None, I assure you, Ter. Haul, iii. 3. 50. 3) By immo {nay rather = \hQ Greek /ncV ovi^), when the answer is not simply Negative, but at the same time corrective of the opinion implied in the question : * Ubi fuit Sulla, num Romae ? Immo longe afuit,' where was Sulla f was he at Rome? Nay, he was at a great distance from it, C. p. Suit, 19. ^ Visne adesse me una? Immo longe abi,' would you like me to attend with you ? No, keep at a distance, Ter. * Sicine hunc decipis ? Immoenim- vero hie me decipit,' is it thus you deceive him? Nay, to tell the truth, he is deceiving me, Ter. Ph. iii. 2. 43. Immo is also used when the answer admits the fact, but adds some heightening circum- stance : as * Hie tamen vivit. Vivit ? Immo etiam in senatum venit,' yet this man lives. Lives ? Yea, even comes into the s.enate, C. Cat. I. ^Tenaxneest? Immo ^ertmdix,^ is he tenacious/ Yes, and pertinacious, Flaut. Capt. ii. 2. 39. a) Recte, optime, are used not only affirmatively, but also polite Negatives : ^ Rogo numquid velit. Recte, inquit' J ask if he wants anything. All right, says hCy Ter. Eun. ii. 3. 4. So, benigne [youVe very kind) is used as a polite mode of declining : as in French, je vous remercie. See Hor. Epist. i. 7. 16. Section X. Uses of the Verb.^ (In Ch. III. Sections I. — III., Verbal uses have, to some extent, been explained along with the forms of the Verb. Throughout Syntax they again appear as affecting construction generally. The matter of the present Section is therefore limited to a few points.) ' Every finite Verb is a predicative word, having Number, Person, Mood and Tense. In regard of Number and Person, it is determined by its Subject : in regard of manner of action (Mood) and Time (Tense), it is determined by its relations to the speaker or narrator. Thus when Dido in Virgil says, * Veniet mihi fama,' the report will come to me. Indicative Tenses. 331 i. The Indicative or Fact-Mood and its 91 Tenses. J"vf*- A. Mood. See § 37. ^^*""^' The Indicative is the Fact-Mood, used to declare (state categor- ically) : scribo, I write ; scribam, I will write, &c. Such declaration may be 1) Independent, in a principal sentence. Scribo ad filium, / write to my son : non scripsi ad Lucium ; and (in the form of Interrogation), scribesne ad patrem ? 2) Subordinate, if the clause in which it stands is purely objective (independent of mental conception). Thus the Indicative may be used in clauses of fact (quod), cause (quod, quia, &c.), condition (si, nisi), concession (etsi, quamquam, &c.), time (cum, quando, ubi, antequam, postquam, dum, donee, &c.) : and in clauses introduced by the Relative Pronoun or a Relative Particle ; whenever such clauses are free from those forms of thought which require (as hereafter shewn) the Subjunctive. Examples : Gratum est quod venis (venies, venisti, &c.). Gaudeo quod (cum, si, &c.) venis, &c. Gaudebo si (cum) venies (veneris). Non gaudebo nisi venis (venies, veneris). Gaude- bam cum (quia) veniebas (veneras). Mane dum redeo, Eo quamquam aeger sum. Ibo etsi tu noles (nolueris). B. Tenses. The relations of the Indicative Tenses Active (shewn § 38) may indic. be thus re-stated. Tenses. Writing, as an action, is to me I. a, simply present : scribo, / write, b, — past : scripsi, / wrote. c, — future : scribam, / shall write. II. I. a, now present : scribo, I am writing, b* — past : scripsi, / have written. <r. — future : scripturus sum, / am about to write, 2. a. formerly present : scribebam, / was writing, — past : scripseram, / had written, c, — future : scripturus eram, / was about to write. 'veniet'is determined in Number (Sing.) and Person (3rd) by its Subject *fama:' its Mood is Indicative and its Tense Future, because Dido declares what will happen to her. See § 37. Had she said, *Veniat mibi fama,' * may the report come to me,' * veniat' would be re- lated in the same respects to *fama : ' but its Mood (Conjunctive in Optative Sense) and Tense (Ci) would be determined by the fact that Dido states a conceived wish that some- thing may happen to her in time coming. If we suppose the expression to be, *optabat Dido veniret sibi fama,' * Dido wished th& report might come to her, 'veniret ' again follows the Number and Person of *fama ; ' and is again Conjunctive in Optative Sense because a conceived wish is expressed ; but its Tense becomes C3 because (instead of coming directly from the speaker's mouth as 'veniat* did) it depends on the narrator's statement, *optabat,' which, being Past, re- quires (as hereinafter shewn) the Historic Consecution : and what is stated is, that Dido ill time past conceived a wish that something might happen in time then future to her. 332 Latin Word lore. §91. 3. a. hereafter present : (scribam, / shall be writing), b, — past : scripsero, / shall have written. c, — future : scripturus ero, / shall be about to write. Forms under I. are the Simple or Aorist (indefinite) Tenses. Forms under II. are the Relative Tenses. The Passive Tenses correspond similarly. A^ote. I. The form II. i. a. (Present with Present relation) is seldom needed except when there is a clause with dum : * Dum tu sectaris apros, ego retia servo/ while you are chasing boars, I am watching nets, Verg. B, iii. 74. ' Dum aes exigitur, dum mula ligatur, tota abit hora/ while the fare is being taketi, and the 7nule harnessed^ a whole hour passes, Hor. S. i. 5. 13. The form 3. a. (Future with Present relation) is rarely needed. A) The Present Tense expresses 1) Momentary Present action. *Procumbit humi bos/ the bull falls prostrate, Verg. Aen, v. 481. ' Momento turbinis exit Marcus Dama/ as soon as twirled he comes forth Marcus Da^na, Pers. v. 77. 2) Action or state occasionally, habitually, or permanently pre- sent. ^ Domesticus otior/ / lounge at ho7ne, Hor. S, i. 6. 127. * Honos alit artis,' honour nurtures the arts, C. T. D. i. 2. ' Deus est, qui sentit, qui regit et moderatur, et est aeternus,' there is a god, who perceives, who rules and governs, and is eternal, C. Rep. vi. 24. 3) The opinion or statement of an author, who is cited as if still living and speaking: 'Laud at Africanum Panaetius/ &c., C. *S crib it Cato/ C. &c. Peculiar uses of the Present are : a) The Anticipative Present, sometimes found as an emphatic substitute for the Future : ' Ni propere fit quod impero, vinciri vos iam iubeo,' if what I com7nand is not done with speed, I order you to be put in chains this moinent, L. xxxvi. 28. ^Abeo an maneo.^' shall I go or stay ? Ten Ph. V. I. * Imusne sessum 1 ^ shall we go and sit down? C. d. Or, iii. 5. b) The Historic Present, used for the Past in animated and picturesque narrative, whether in history, oratory, or poetry: ^ Dimisso senatu, decemviri prodeunt in con- tionem, abdicantque se magistratu, ingenti hominum laetitia,' when the senate broke up, the decemvirs go forth to the assembled people, and resign office, to the great delight of the public, L. iii. 54. Note 2. Here maybe noticed the idiom of the Historic Infinitive (Pres. Imperf ) used predicatively for a Finite Verb ; a construction analogous to the omission of the verb sum, inasmuch as it leaves out, like this, the expression of time, number, and person. Both constructions are found occurring together : ' Ceterum facies totius negotii varia incerta foeda atque miserabilis; dispersi a suis pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines 91 Indicative Tenses. 333 observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resist ere ac propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes, cives permixti ; nihil consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere/ now the aspect of the whole affair was confused^ indecisive^ shocking and pitiable ; parties scattered from their comrades were some retiring^ others advancing ; observing neither standards nor ranks ; where peril encotmtered each man^ there was he resistifig and repelling : arms, darts ^ steeds, men, foes, country inen were inter 7ningled, nothing was proceeding by counsel or command : chance directed alL Sail. lug. 51. This construction, in which the Infinitive maybe considered Imperfect, is frequently used by poets as well as historians. c) The Historic Present is commonly used in a Temporal clause with dum, even when the Principal Sentence is Past or Future : *Dum obsequor adolescentibus, me senem esse sum oblitus/ in complying with young men, I have forgotten that I ain old, C. d. Or. ii. 4. d) The Present obtains a Past sense also when joined with iam, iam diu (dudum, pridem) : ^ Annum iam audis Cratip- pum,' you have now for a year been attending the lectures of Cratippus^ C. Off i. i. * lamdudum video,' / have seen it this long time, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 15. ^ lampridem cupio Alexandriam visere,' / have been long desirous to visit Alexandria, C. Alt. ii. 5. e) Poets use the Historic Present with great license for the Perfect : ' Quantum mutatus ab illo Hectore, qui redit exuvias indutus Achillis,' how changed from that Hector who returned clad in the spoils of Achilles, Verg. Aen. ii. 275. B) The Perfect Tense expresses 1) As Aorist, the simple statement of a past fact : ^ Veni, vidi, vici,' / came, I saw, I co7iquered, Caes. 2) As Present with Past relation, the statement of a fact com- plete at the present moment. * D ixi,' I have spoken, Cic. ^ Venit summa dies,' the last day is come, Verg. Aen. ii. 324. It is idiomatically used to express: a) The rapid completion of action (poetic) : ^Fugere ferae,' beasts have fled, Verg. G. i. 330. b) Cessation of existence (poetic) : * Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium,' we Trojans have been, Troy has been (i.e. exists no longer)^ Verg. Aen. ii. 325. General habit: *(Rege) amisso rupere fidem constructaque mella diripuere,' if the queen-bee is lost they break faith and pull down their honey stores, Verg. G. iv. 213. Prose writers use this idiom in clauses with cum, si, &c. 'Cum fortuna reflavit affligimur,' when fortune blows contrary, we are flung down, C. Off. ii. 6. d) Anticipation, for the Future Perfect : * Brutus si conser- vatus erit, vicimus,' if Brutus shall have been saved, we have won the day, C. Fa7n. xii. 6, Latin Wordlorc. C) The I mperfect expresses 1) Action going on in time past along with other action (Past with Present relation) : Mbam forte Via Sacra . . . accurrit qui- dam,' &c., / was walking by chance along the Sacred Road {when) a certain 7nan ran up to me, &c., Hor. Sat. i. 9. i. 2) Action repeated or habitual in time past : * Dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius/ Hortensius used to speak better than he has written^ C. Or. 38. * Noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane, diem totum stertebat/ //5^ used to lie awake whole nights till daybreak, and snore all day long, Hor. S, i. 3. 17. 3) Action in time past, intended or begun, but not completed : * Aeneas . . . lenibsit dictis a.nimum,* Aeneas was trying to so/ten her mind with his words, Verg. Aen. vi. 468. ' Num dubitas id me imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas?' do you hesitate to do at my comjnand what you were already on the point of doing ifoluntarily f C. Cat. i. 5. * Huius deditionis ipse, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit,' of this surrender the very man who was to be surrendered was the mover and adviser, C. Off. iii. 30. D) The Pluperfect expresses action past in a time itself past, and often stands in connection with other Tenses : * Cum esset De- mosthenes, multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant, nec postea defecerunt,' in the time of Demosthenes there were many great and renowned orators^ and there had been such before, nor did they fail afterwards, C. Or. 2. ' Postquam lux ceVtior erat, et Romani, qui caedibus superfuer ant, in arcem confugerant, conticescebatque tumultus, turn Tarentinos convocari iubet,' when the light became stronger, and the Romans, who had survived the massacre, had escaped into the citadel, and the tcproar was getting quiet, he then orders the Tarentines to be convoked, L. xxv. 10. d) As Clauses expressing habit are in the Perfect with cum, si, ubi, simul ac, when the principal Verb is Present (see above B c), so they are in the Pluperfect with the same Conjunctions, when the principal Verb is Imperfect. 'Gyges, cum palam eius anuli ad palmam Converterat, a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat; idem rursus videbatur cum in locum anulum inverterat,' as often as Gyges turned the bezel of that ring towards his palm, he was visible to none, while he saw everything himself: moreover he came into sight again, as often as ht turned the ring back to its place, C. Off. iii. 9. * Si hostis deterrere nequiverant, disiectos ab tergo circumveni- ebant,' ^ they could not deter the enemy ^ they surrounded their divisions in the rear. Sail. lug* 50. (The relations of the Past Indicative Tenses, also of the Historic Present and Infinitive, are well exemplified in C. Verr. iv. 27; Sail. lug. 50-51.) Tenses A^^?/^ 3- A Roman, writing a letter, arranged the Tenses with re- in letter- ferencc to the time when the letter would be received. Hence many wruing. facts, which to the writer were Present, are stated as Past in regard to the receiver. And other facts, which to the writer were Past, are §91. Indicative Tenses. 33? stated in the Pluperfect, for the same reason. The English practice being different, a Roman letter must be translated not literally, but into our idiom : ^ Pridie Idus haec scripsi ante lucem. Eo die apud Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram cenaturus,' / ^^7/^ wr//- ten this before daybreak on the day before the Ides, I am going to dine with Pcmp07tius to-day at his wedding,, C. Q. F. ii. 3. * Nihil habebam quod scriberem: neque enim novi quicquam audieram, et ad tuas omnis rescripseram pridie,' / have no- thing to write about : for I have heard no news, and I repiied to all your letters yesterday,, C. Att, ix. 10. But matters which will remain present to the receiver, are stated in the Present : ' Ego hie cogito commorari, quoad me reficiam,' / think of remaining here whilst I am recj'uiting my healthy C. Fam, vii. 26. The Simple Future expresses what its name implies, simple action in the Future: * Ut voles me esse, ita ero/ / will be as you shall wish me to be, Plaut. Pseud, i. 3 d) It is often used as a polite Imperative : * Quod superest, puerum Ciceronem curabis et amabis,' for the rest, please to treat young Cicero with care and affection, C. Att, iv. 7. See Hor. Epist. i. 18. 37-40. F) The Future Perfect expresses action to be fulfilled in Future time: ^Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit,' he, who shall have crushed Antonius, will have finished the war, C. Fam, X. 20. d) It may be connected with the Simple Future, or used for the Simple Future, with a view to Emphasis : ' Ut semen- tern feceris, ita metes,' as you shall have sown, so will you reap, C. d. Or, ii. 65. ^ Si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam,' should anything new happen, please to let me know, C. Fam, xiv. 8. *Quid inventum sit, paulo post videro,' what has been discovered, I shall very soon see, C. Ac, ii. 24. *A, si pergis, dihiQYo,^ nay, if y(m go on, I shall be off Ten Ad, i. 2. 47. ' Sitne malum dolor necne Stoici viderint,' whether pain is an evil or not, the Stoics will have to see, C. T, D, ii. 1 8. G) In the Future Periphrastic Conjugation (-urus sum, eram, fui, fueram, ero, fuero, &c.) the Indicative Tenses are called Present, Perfect, &c., according to the forms of sum : and the general distinctions above stated apply to them, but not the idiomatic uses. This Conjugation expresses 1 ) * Being about to ;^ * being on the point of: ' * Apes evolaturae sunt,' the bees are about to swarm, Varr. R, R. 16. ^ Vos cum Mandonio arma consociaturi fuistis,' j/^?/^ were on the point of allying your arms with Mandonius, L. xxviii. 28. 2) 'Being likely to ; ' '-being sure to :^ ' Haec sine doctrina cre- dituri fuerunt,' this they were sure to believe without learning, C. T, D, \, 21 they would have believed.' See the use of this form, and of the Inf -urum fuisse, in the Apodosis of Condi* tional Sentences). 336 Latin Wordlor'e, §91. 3) ^ Being desti7ied to"' (a7n to, are to, &c.) : ' Si una interiturus est animus cum corpore/ &c., if the soul is to perish with the body, &c., C. Cat, M. 22. ' Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus manet mansurumque est in animis hominum/ all that zve have loved of Agricola abides and is destined to abide iit the inemory of fnen, Tac. Agr. 46. *Me ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri sum us,' yoji viiist love 7ne 7nyself if we are to be true frie7tds, C. Fi7i. ii. 26. See Conditional Sentences : and Consecution of Tenses. (On the Gerundive Conjugation -ndus sum, -ndum est, &c., see Syntax of ^ the Verb Infinite.') Note \. Latin writers often use Verbs and phrases expressing necessity, propriety, possibility, &c., in the Past Indicative Tenses instead of the Conjunctive, to indicate that it was proper or possible at that time to do something which however was not done. 1) Past Tenses of debere ; decere ; oportere ; aequum (aequius, melius, par, utilius, &c.) esse; posse ; malle ; licere, &c. ^ Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quem patris loco cole re debebas,' you have loaded with every insult one whoin you ought to have revered as a father, C. PhiL ii. 38. ^Ad mortem duci te iam pridem oportebat,'/<?// ought long ago to have been dragged to death, C. 171 Cat. i. I. * leci fundamenta reipublicae serius quam decuit,' I laid the foii7idatio7is of the co77i7no7i wealth at a later ti7ne than I should have do7ie, C. PhiL v. 1 1. * Haec tecum coram malueram,' / would rather have discussed these thi7igs with you face to face, C. Fa7n. vii. 3. ' Quanto melius fuerat promissum patris non esse servatum,' how 77iuch better had it bee7i that the father'' s proi7iise had not bee7i kept, C. Off,\\\. 25. * Hie tamen hanc mecum poteras requiescere noctem,' yet you 77iight have rested here with 7ne this night, Verg. B. i. 80. 2) Periphrastic Past Tenses, Future and Gerundive : ' Romani Poenos depoposcerunt, qui Saguntum oppugnassent : deditos ultimis cruciatibus affecturi fuerunt,' the RoTnans de7nanded those Car- thaginians who had besieged SaguntU7n ; they would have exe- cuted the7n, if surrendered, with the utterTnost tortures, L. xxi. 44. * Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit,' Mure7ia should not have been reproached with the mention of Asia, C. p. Mur. 5. a) Analogous idioms are the Indicatives possum, longum est, infinitum est, &c., where Enghsh idiom would write could^ Ht were tedious^ &:c. * Possum persequi multa oblectamenta rerum rusticarum : sed ea ipsa quae dixi fuisse sentio longiora,' / could detail the 7nany delights of farTning operations ; but even what I have said I feel to have bee7i rather tedious, C. Cat, M, 16. 'Longum est mulorum persequi utilitates et asinorum,' were tedious to detail the advantages of mules and asses, C. N. D. ii. 64. See M. Lucr, i. 400. (On the Indicative in the Apodosis of Conditional Sumptio Ficti, see Syntax of Conditional Sentences.) The Imperative. 337 ii. The Imperative or Will-Mood. § 37. impera- tive. 1) The Imperative Present commands or entreats. *Quae cutn ita sint, Catilina, perge quo coepisti ; egredere aliquando ex urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere/ such being the case, Catilina^ proceed on your chosen path ; quit the city at some time; the gates are open: go forth, C» in Cat. i. 5. ^Pergite, adulescentes, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite/^d? on^young men, and devote yourselves to that study, on which you are engaged, Ci d. Or, i. 8. 2) The Imperative forms in ^to -tote may entreat or command : but they oftener command ; being used in legal forms : ' Cuiti faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito/ when I shall be sacrificing a calf for the crops, you must come yourself, Verg. B, iii. 77. ^ Divis omnibus pontifices, singuHs flamines sun to; virginesque Vestales in urbe custodiunto ignem foci pubhci sempiternum/ all gods in common mttst have pontifices, each particular god a flamen; and the Vestal virgins in the city must guard for ever the fire of the public hearth^ C. Leg, ii. 20. * Regio imperio duo sun to iique consules app ell 201 tor/ there shall be two magistrates with royal power, and they shall be called consuls^ C. Leg. iii. 3. See Plaut. Pseud, iii. 2. 66, &c. 3) Ne with Imperative Present (ne crede, ne credite, Verg.) be* longs to poetry : but is rare in prose. L. has *ne timete.^ (See Conjunctive Mood.) With Imperative Future it is used in legal forms, 'Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito/ thou shall not bury or burn a corpse in the city, C. Leg. ii. 23; 4) A Periphrasis of the exhorting Imperative is made by f a c, fac ut, cuta ut, velim, with Subjunctive, and in poetry by me- mento with Subjunctive or Infinitive; and a Periphrasis of th^ forbidding Imperative by fac ne, cave, noli m, with Subjunctive ; or by noli, and (poetically) parce, mitte, omitte^ absiste, fuge^ &c., with Infinitive. * Magnum fac animum habeas/ mind you have a lofty spirit ^ C. Qu, Fr. i. 2. ^Curaut valeas,' take care of your health, C. * Aequam memento rebus in arduis serVare mentem,' j/^?^ remember to keep an even mind in difficult circumstances, Hor. C ii. 3. I. /Cave facias,' beware of doing it, C. Att. xiii. 33. *Hoc nolim me iocari putes/ I would not have you think I say this in jest, C. Fam. ix. 15. *Nolite id velle, quod fieri non potest' do not wish what cdnnot be, C. Phil. vii. 9. 'Mittesectari rosa quo locorum sera moretur,' search not in what spot the rose lingers late, Hor. C i. 38. 3. *Vos timere absistite,' cease ye to fear, Phaedr. iii. 2. 18. ' Fuge suspicari,' do not sitspect, Hof. 5) Imperative forms are modified by the polite phrases sis, suit is, sodes, amabo, &c., please, pray (see p. 235). Sis is frequent in comedy (once in Cic.) ; suit is often in Plautus. Sodes, C. (once .^); frequent in comic and other poets. Amabo, amabo te ( = si me amas) in comedy often : and in Cic. So, Cave sis, vide sis, &r. * Refer te sis ad veritatem,' C. 'Hoc agite sultis,' Plaut. 'Scin' quid te amabo ut facias.'*' j^^// I tell you, please, what to dof Plaut. Md agite, amabo/ C. Z Latin Wordlore. § 93-94 Con? iii. The Conjunctive or Thought-Mood. ju na- tive. (On the Conjunctive as the mood of mental conception generally, and on its twofold use, (i) as Pure or independent Conjunctive ; (2) as Subjunctive or dependent, see § 37. 2.) P^j^g^ Iv. The Thought-mood is properly termed Conjunctive by all Con- German scholars, seeing that its use is to join with both the other live'^' Moods, and assist their power of expressing speech. It joins with the Indicative so as to state and question in a tone either contingent on a condition, or modified by mental reserve in the nature of a condition. It joins with the Imperative, so as to supply its deficient forms, and also to express the various shades of will-speech in modified tone. The Conjunctive Mood has four Tenses, called Present, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect, the powers and uses of which are best learnt from reading and practice. See p. 163. Though the Futures are wanting, all the Tenses are capable of referring to Future time, when required. I. Pure Conjunctive of contingent or modified Statement (nega- tion takes non, or baud). A) When a condition is formally expressed. Earn si moneas (monueris), / will go, if you advise : irem (issem) si moneres (monuisses), / would have gone, if you had advised : non eam nisi tu moneas (monueris), / will not go unless you advise \ non irem (issem) nisi tu moneres (monuisses), / should not have been going {should not have gone) if you had not advised, ' Tu, si hie sis, aliter sentias.^ * Improbe feceris nisi monueris,' Cic. 'Si luxuriae temperaret, avaritiam non time res,' had he curbed luxury ^ you would not have dreaded avarice in him, Tac. * Si redisset filius, pater ei veniam daret (dedisset),' had the son coine back, his father would have forgiven him. 'Si non des, optet/ Hor. Si non dares (dedisses) optaret (optasset). B) When a condition is informally expressed : see § 217, 3. Eam (irem, issem) te monente, if you advise {advised), or a te monitus, if advised by you : non eam (irem issem) te invito, against your will, or prohibitus a te, if forbidden by you. ' O p t a n t i tibi divum promittere nemo auderet,' no god would have ventured to promise had you expi'essed the wish, V. 'Non illi quisquam se impune tulisset obvius armato,' no man would have en- countered him, arjned for battle, with impunity, V. ' S i n e D eo non esset mundus,' Cic. ' I ta laudem invenias et amicos pares,' Ter. C) When a condition is implied, especially with Verb in 2nd Person. 'Migrantes cernas,' you may see them on the move, V. 'Marte videres fervere Leucaten,' >w tnight have seen Leucate boiling with war (i.e. had you been present). 'Pelago c red as innare revulsas Cycladas,' V. 'Nec quisquam . . . putet,' &c. V. A en, vii. 704. 'Crederes victos,' L. D) When modified to avoid positi veness or blufifness. ' D u b i te m baud equidem,' V. Velim, nolim, vellem, nollem are frequently used on this ground. 'Nollem accidisset,' I wish it had not happened, C. Fam. iii. 10. 'Vellem adesse posset Panaetius,' / The Conjtmctive. 339 wish Panaetius could have been present^ C. T. D. i. 33. Also with forsitan or fortasse : forsitan quaeratis ; roges fortasse; ^forsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras/ V. Aen, ii. 506. * Vix verisimile fortasse videatur,' Cic. Especially is used to convey assertion or opinion moderately. Crediderim, / am in- clined to believe', vix crediderim, I can scarcely believe. 'Non te transierim/ V. *Ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco/ V. G, ii. 289. And with forsitan. This and the next use are sometimes called Potential. II. E) Pure Conjunctive of the modified Question (Negation has non). d) A direct question of inquiry or of feeling implies more of mental dubitation when used in the Conjunctive. As in the Indicative, it may be of single or disjunctive form. Quid hoc homine faciati s ? what are yotc to do with this man ? 'Quis Troiae nesciat urbem?' V. 'Quid d em, quid non d em,' Hor. 'Quid faciam? roger anne rogem?' Ov. 'Eloquar an sileam?' V. *Tibi ego irascerer, mi frater? tibi ego possem irasci?' Cic. Quid facerem ? quo fugerem ? Iremusne annon ? quare non iremus? issemne nisi voluissem? III. Pure ConjunctivQ of modified Will-speech (Negation has ne). F) Concessive use : allowing, granting, &c. * Lu ant peccata,' let them {they may) pay the penalty of their sinsy V. *Vendat aedes vir bonus,' suppose a good man has a house on sale, Haec sint falsa sane, granting this to be quite untrue. *Fuerit mains civis,' suppose he was a bad citizen. 'Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est,' allowing pain not to be the greatest evil, an evil it is at all events^ Cic. 'Verum anceps pugnae fuerat fortuna: fuisset; quem metui moritura?' but the chance of war had been doubtful ; stippose it were : whom could I f^ar with death in view f V. Aen. iv. 603. d) Ut is used in concession. 'Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,' though strength be lacking^ yet will- ingness is praiseworthy^ Ov. Ep. P. iii. 4. C) Optative and Precative Uses. i) The Optative use conveys a wish, and (when in direct con- struction without ' utinam ') by Cj. (Negation has ne.) Sis felix, 7nay you be happy. ' Valeant cives mei, sint florentes, sint beati,' Cic. * Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor/ V. Aen. iv. 625. It is frequently used in imprecation. *Ne sim salvus si aliter loquor ac sentio,' may I never be saved if 1 speak other than I think^ Cic. *Moriar nisi vera loquor.' With ita (sic) . . . ut. * I ta vi vam ut te amo maxima.' And without ut. * I ta culmo surgeret alto,' Hor. S. ii. 2.124. ' I ta me di ament,' Cic. Latin Wordlore, §95. d) Utinam, utinamne (rarely non) are used with the Optative. With Cj it expresses a possible wish : Utinam possim, / wish 1 may be able ; utinam ne adsit, / wish he may not be present. With Cg an impracticable one : utinam possem, / wish I could (but I cannot) ; utinam ne adesset, / wish he were not prese?it (but he is or waj). With a bygone possibility : utinam potuissem, / wish I had been able (but I was not) : utinam non adfuisset, / wish he had not been present (but he was). h) Ut for utinam is sometimes found : Ut ilium di deaeque p e r d u i n t, may the gods and goddesses destroy hiin^ Ter. c) O si (rarely si alone) with Opt. is poetic. ^ O mihi prae- teritos referat si luppiter annos/ O if Jove would bring back to me the past years, V. Aen, viii. 560. See vi. 187. O utinam may be used. 2) The Precative use is chiefly in the Second Person, when a sacred being or a superior is addressed : ^ S i s bonus o felixque tuis,' V. Buc. v. 65. ^Adsis o placidusque iuves et sidera caelo dextra feras/ V. Ae7i. iv. 578. H) Hortative and Jussive Uses : exhorting, commanding, &c. Negative has ne. The principal Hortative use is in the First Person Plural. The Jussive use in the Third Persons conveys a com- mand more or less stringent. Thus ^ naviget ' (V. Aen. iv. 237) is a strong mandate : the instructions in the Georgics given in the Third Persons Conjunctive are precepts rightly called jussive. See G. iii. 300, 329. i) ' Surgamus/ V. X. *Eamus omnes,' Hon jE^/. ^Mori- amur et in media arma ruamus/ V. Aen. ii. *Aegri- tudinem depellamus/ Cic. 2) 'Ecferant quae secum hue attulerunt/ Ter. 'Vine at utilitas reipublicae.' 'Sit sermo lenis, i n s i t in eo lepos/ Cic. 'Vilicus ne sit ambulator, sobrius sit semper, ad cenam ne quo eat,familiam exerceat, ne plus censeat sapere se quam dominum, parasitum ne quern habeat.' Cato. 'Donis impii ne placare audeant deos,' Cic. Leg. ii. 16. The most remarkable examples are those which convey this use of the Will-speech Conjunctive into past time by C3, C^. 'Prae- diceres/_y^7// should have told me beforehand^ Plaut. 'Rem tuam curares,' jj/^?// sho7ild have been minding your own business, Ter. 'Dictis, Albane 7Jianeres,^ you should have remained true to your word, O Alban,N. 'Ne poposcisses^ you ought not to have de- manded, Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ; 'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non Pallanta, referret,' V. Aen. xi. 162 ; see x. 854. a) Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive. The Second Person of Cj is often supposed to be Pure where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verb. Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7 ; dones, i. 31. 18, depend on precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on die o. ' Sis . . . Second Person Con junctive. The Pure Conjunctive. 341 sequare . . . cures/ C. Fa7n. x. 1 6, carry on the construc- tion after * hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation should shew this. ^ Sis . . . scias,' L. xxvi. 50, de- pend on paciscor. ^ Ne pigrere/ C. Att. xiv. i, on quaeso. b) Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive. Terence has 'Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post culpam conferas in me/ if you are bent on doing it ^ you may ; but please not afterwards to throw the blame on me, Eun. ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with Second Person of Cj) is not used as an independent pro- hibition, but ne with Second Person of is so used fre- quently. ^Quod dubitas ne feceris/ what yoic doubt, do not perform, Plin. Ep, i. 18. 'Ilium iocum ne sis as- pernatus/ do not conte7nn that jest, C. Qu, F, ii. 12. ' Tu ne quaesieris/ &c. Hor. C. i. 11. i. When Horace writes, ' Ne forte credas,' &c., he means lest perchance you should believe y C, iv. 9. i. And so often. On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337. V. Examples of Pure Conjunctive: — A) See Examples under § 213 /3, y, p. 468. B) See § 217, 3, p. 473. 0 'Pecuniae an famae minus parceret baud facile disce rneres,* Sail. Cat. 25. 'Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos diceres, ita odora- bantur omnia et pervestigabant,' C. Verr. iv. 13. * Ilium indignanti similem similemque minanti aspiceres,' V. A en. viii. 650. D) *Tu velim sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bonorum in te esse positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit,' C. Fam, xii. 6. *Malim mihi Crassi unam pro Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos,' C. Br. 73. * Ego me Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te ad Stoicos inclinavisses,* C. Fin. iii. 3. * Hie quae rat quispiam, cuiusnam causa tanta molitio facta sit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. *Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse poetas, excerpam numero ; neque enim concludere versum dixeris esse satis,' Hor. i. 4. 39. 'Forsitan quispiam dixerit; nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, abstulerit cibum alteri ? ' C. Off", iii. 6. 'Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam?* C. Pis. 30. * Quid videatur ei magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitudo?' C. T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnino nulla esse potuisset?' C. Off. ii. 4. ' F a v e a s tu hosti ? bonorum spem virtutemque debilites? et te consularem aut senatorem aut denique civem p u t e s ? ' C. Phil, vii. 7. * Apud exercitum mihi fueris tot annos ? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn diu? et, cum longo intervallo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de d'gnitate contendas?' C. Mur. 9. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futurum locum?' C. Mil. 34. * P u t a r e s n e unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent ? ' C, Fam» ii. II. ' Corinthiis bellum i n d i c a m u s annon ? * Cic. F) *At tamen dicat sine. Age dicat, sino,' Ter. An. v. 3. 24. *Fuerint cupidi, fuerint irati, fuerint pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi, 1 i c e a t Cn. Pompeio mortuo, 1 i c e a t multis aliis carere,' C. Li^. 6. ' Nemo is, inquies, umquam fuit. N e f u e r i t,' Cic. G. i) 'Quod bonum faustum felixque sit populo Romano,' L. i. 28. 'Filiam despondi ego ; di bene vertant !* Plant. AmL ii. 3. * Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto contingant ut vehementer velim,' C. Fam. v. 21. * Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro, me tua valetudo,' C. Fam. xvi. 20. * N e v i va m, si tibi concedo, ut eius rei tu cupidior sis quam ego sum,' C. Fain. vii. 23. *Ne istuc luppiter optimus maximus sir it,' L. xxviii. 28. 'Utinam tibi istam mentem dii immortales duint?' C. Cat. i. 9. * U t i n a m, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam habcretis, ut 342 Latin Wordlore. § 96. V. The Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is alwaysa Mood of dependence, and, in most instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use. A Subjunctive Clause^ sometimes has no link connecting it with the prior Verb : ^Sine te ex o rem,' let me prevail on you, 'Vellem adfuisses,' I wish you had been present. But usually it is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative. 1) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always Subjunctive, when it contains cC) A dependent Consequence {so that, such that). Such a clause may be introduced by ut, quin ; or by the Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and Ut-clause Enuntiative. b) A dependent Purpose {in order that, lest, &c.). Such a Clause may be introduced by ut, ne, quo, quo mi- nus ; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle of Time or Condition; antequam, dum, &c. See Final Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua. c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lest^ or u t, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua. d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative Pronoun or Particle, See^ Interrogatio Obliqua. II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when it contains a mental conception haec vobis deliberatio difficills esset ! * C. L. Man. lo. * Illud u t i n a m ne vere scriberem!' C. Fam. v. 17. *Quod utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem incidisset/ Ter. Pk. i. 3. 5. *Utinara minus vitae cupidi fuissemus/ C. Fam. V, 17, * Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi : quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum esset!* C, Att xi. g. 2) * Nihil ignoveris; nihil gratiae causa fe c e r i s ; misericordia commotus ne sis/ C. Mur. 31. 'Ne fueris hie tu,' Hor. E/t'st. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con- firmaveris, ad nos venias/ C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Afficias, xxvi. 50. Hor. kS". ii. 3. 326 {j>lease to^ pray), H. i) 'Meminerimus, etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Off. i. 13. ' I m i t e m u r nostros Brutos, Camillos, Decios ; a m e m u s patriam, pareamus senatui, consulamus bonis, id esse optimum put em us, quod erit rectissimum,* C. Sest. 68. 2) * Orator v i d e a t in primis, quibus de rebus loquatur ; si seriis, severitatem a d h i b e a t ; si iocosis, leporem/ C. Off. . i. 37. ' S u m a t u r nobis quidam praestans vir optimis artibus, Isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n ga t u r,' C. T. D. v. 24. * Fortasse pater Cliniae aliquanto Iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quern ferret, si parentem non ferret suum?' Ter. Haut. i. 2. 28. * Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris animi magnique dlxerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses,' C. Sest. 20. * Ne quis tamquam parva fastidiat grammatices elementa,' Qu. 1. 4. *Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hor. C. i. 36. 15 * Tu ista ne asciveris neve fueris commenticiis rebus assensus/ C. Ac. ii. 40. * The term Clause is used to signify * any member of a Compound Sentence ' which is not the 'Principal Sentence.' The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called 'Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua, Distinguished from this is *a Finite Clause ; ' that is, one of which the Verb is Finite. 9« Sub- junc- 'ive. § 97. ^''^^ Subjunctive. 343 d) Of Cause : introduced by cum, since^ by qui causal (usu- ally) ; by n on quod, n on quia, &c. See Causal Clauses. U) Of Condition : after dum, modo; or when si, itisi are re- lated to a conceptive Apodosis : * s i p o s s i m velim ; ' *si possem vellem,' &c. See Conditional Sentences. c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum, quamvis, although. Also when etsi, etiamsi, tametsi are related to a conceptive Apodosis. ^Etsi possem, nollem.' See Concessive Sentences. d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut, tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences. Ill) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive when it is really dependent on d) An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua). ^ Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.' b) An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin- cipal or prior Verb {virtual oratio obliqua). ' Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens,' Cic. ^Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu- tem,' Qu. See p. 345. Obs. The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative Pronoun or Particle. c) A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua). ^Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' ^Vellem omnia ' dixisses quae in animo haberes.' Note, The following are Idiomatic Uses : — a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another past action (quasi-causal). *In Cumano cum essem, venit ad me Hortensius,' wheu I was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me^ Cic. * Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset,^ Agesilaus died after coming into harbour^ N ep. Ag, /3) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im- perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present in philosophical statements by M. Lucr, iii. 736. y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in dependence on a sentence containing a maxim (yi^w^?/). See Madv. Gr, 370; M. Lucr, i. 327, ii. 36, 41. * Bonus segnior fit ubi neglegas,' a good person becomes slacker y when you neglect him^ Sail. lug, 31. vi. Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97 nouns which introduce Subordinate Clauses, according to the Mood introduced. 344 Latin Wordlore. § 98. A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose, introduce a Subjunctive. d) Conjunctions : 1) Consecutive : ut ; quin. 2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus. 3) Causal : cum, since, 4) Conditional : dum ; modo, dummodo ; provided that, 5) Concessive : licet, ut ; cum, quamvis (usually), 6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &Q, b) The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used i) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally {in order that) ; 3) Causally ( = cum, since) ; 4) Concessively {although), c) Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are 1) Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; qualis ; quantus ; quot ; quotus, 2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how, quare. cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ; unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -ne, num. d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on ^ Conjunctive Mood, See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above. Note /3. y. B) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum* stances above named) introduce an Indicative. a) Conjunctions : 1) Causal: quod; quia; quoniam ; quando; quandoquidem ; siquidem. 2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut {when, &c.) ; quotiens ; simul ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst. Also cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343, a, 3) Concessive : quamquam ; utut. b) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles. C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjunctive, according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency. 1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, until ; antequam, prius- quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is contained, or doubtfulness conveyed. ^) Conditional and Concessive : si, nisi ; etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, Obs. The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns. vii. Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive Construction. See § 229. The General Rule is that Primary Tenses (S^ So) follow Primary (Present ; Future). Historic — (S3 SJ — Historic (Past Tenses). §9». Conseciitio7i of Tenses, 345 Examples illustrating the Consecution of Tenses. I. i) quereris you complain qu8rar-is (e) you may complain querer-is (e) you will complain questus eris | . questus fueris ] * you will have complained questus sis questus fueris you may have complained questurus es (sis, &c.) you are {may be, &c.) about to co7nplain I 2) querebar-is (e) you were coinplaining questus es you complained questus eras you had complained quererer-is (e) you would complain questus esses you would have complained questurus eras you were about to complain quod te deseram that I forsake you quod te deseruerim that I have forsaken you quod te deserturus sim that I a7n about to forsake you quod tui memor non sim that I am not mindful of you quod tui memor non fuerim that I have not beeit mindful of you quod tui memor non futurus sim that I shall not be mindful of you quod tibi non succurram that I do not succour yon quod tibi non succurrerim that I have not succoured you quod tibi non succursurus sim that I ain not about to succour you quod te desererem that I was forsaking you quod te deseruissem that I had forsaken you quod te deserturus forem that I was about to forsake you quod tui memor non ess em that I was not jnindful of you quod tui memor non fuissem that I had not been mindful of you quod tui memor non futurus essem that I was not going to be mind* ful of you quod tibi non succurrerem that I did not succour you quod tibi non succurrissem that I had not succoured you quod tibi non succursurus fo- rem that I did not mean to succour you 346 Latin Wordlori*, i) orant ; orent orabunt ; oraturi sunt oraverint ; oranto 11. ne se deseram ut sui memor sim ut sibi succurram 2) orabant ; orarent oraverunt ; oraturi erant oraverant; oravissent ( ne se desererem \ ut sui memor ess em i ut sibi succurrerem Note. On the Verb Infinite see § 15 and § 40. Its further uses are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. L II. III. 99 Ellipsis viii. Ellipsis of the Verb. 1) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other forms of the Verb of Being. * Summum ius summa iniuria,' C. Off. \. 10 (s. est). * H abenda ratio valetudinis, utendum modicis exercitationibus,' C. Cat. M. II (s. est). ' Omnia praeclata rara,' C. Lael. 21 (s. szmt). * lucundi acti labores,' C. Fin. ii. 32 {s.sujit), ^ Aurum vestibus inlitum mi- rat a,' Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 (for mirata est). * Sed haec vetera {sunt): illud recens {est), Caesarem meo consiUo interfectum' {esse)^ but these are old stories : here is a new one, that Caesar was slain by vty advice, C. Phil. ii. 11. ^ Ludi Romani biduum instaurati' {stmt), L. xxix. 38. ' Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis utrum honestius' {sit), C. Off. i. 43. a) The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used in the Nom. Case with an Elhpsis of esse, being really a Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me- moratur, narratur, &c. 'Sic miser instantis affatus dicitur undas,' Mart. d. Spect. 25. 5 (for affatus esse). * Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par- ticulam undique desectam,^ Hor. C. i. 16. 13 (for coactus esse). 'Quidam memoratur Athenis . . , populi con- temnere voces sic soli t us,' Hor. S.\. i. 64 (for solitus esse). *Fabulaqua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia barbariae lento collisa duello,' Hor. Episf. i. 2. 6 (for collisa esse). And often in prose : ' Q. Fabius Maximus sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur,' L. xxii. 38 (for allocutus esse). * Cap t a eo proelio tria milia peditum et equites trecenti dicuntur/ L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428. 2) Inquit, inquam, &c. are omitted. * At ille' . . . 'tum Brutus' . . . * tum ego,' &c. 3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus* {dicit), C. ' Cave turpe quicquam' {facias)., C. * Ne quid crudeliter' {fiat), C. * Cicero Attico salutem ' {dicit), C. * Crassus verbum nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit), C. * Expecto quid ad ista * {dicturus sis), C. ' Quas tu mihi intercessiones ' {narras) ? C. * Finemille ' {fecit), Q. ' Clamor inde concursusque ' {factus est), L. Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, ' Quid multa.'^' ' Quid plura ? ' ^ Ne multis,' &c. And forms of fieri in such phrases as ' Quid tum ? ' * Quid postea ? ' &c. of Verb. §99. Ellipsis of the Verb, 347 Livy often uses the phrases, * nihil aliud quam/ *quid aliud quam,' in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. ^ Per bid- uum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum/ /2£/^; days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle^ L. xxvi. 20. The phrase becomes adverbial = merely^ only. 'Nihil aliud quam perfusis vano timore Romanis/ the Romans being tnerely panic- struck^ L. ii. 63. 'Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it. ' Vin- cam silentium et, si nihil aliud {faciam), certe graviter inter- pellabo/ Curt. iv. 28. 4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply. ' Sed haec coram ' {tractabimus)^ C. ' Litterarum aliquid interea ' (dabis)^ C. * A Chrysippo pedem numquam ' {movet)^ C. ' Sed ad ista ahas ' (respondebo), C. ' Sed non necesse est nunc omnia ' {commemorare), C. ' Di meliora ' {dent). 'A me C. Caesar pecu- msm^ {postulat)! C 'Ad Tamum cogitabam ' (/r^), C. ' Unde mihi lapidem' {petam)l Hor. 'Nihil ad rem;' 'Quid ad me' iattinet) 1 With many more instances. 5) In the phrases, * Quo mihi ? ' 'quo tibi ?' ' usui' is to be supplied, quo being an old form of cui. * Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = ' cui usui est tibi ? '). But there is a further ellipse of habere or consequi : ' Quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti ? ' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam T), 6) Proverbs, being generally known and understood, are often cited elliptically : ' Fortuna fortis' (adiicvat). ' Minima de mahs' {eligenda sunt). 'Sus Minervam ' {docere vult). 'Cuneus cuneum' {trudit). 'Manusmanum' [lavat). 'Bis ad eundem ' {lapidem <) * e?idere). ' Nec sibi nec alteri ' {prodcst). 'Cornici oculum' (io'ijigere). 'Bene tibi' (dico)^ &c. 'Bene Messallam' {^alere iubeo)y Tib. > PART II. LATIN SYNTAX. icx> CHAPTER I. THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES. Speech in a connected series forms Discourse, Sen- As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of Discourse are Sentences, 1. Sentences are either Affirmative or Negative. Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, the parrot speaks, the parrot does not speak, 2. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. 1) A Simple Sentence is the expression of a single thought, and contains one Finite Verb : Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak, 2) A Compound, ^ENTENCE consists of two or more Simple Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses. d) Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur, the parrot hnitates man^ aiid so it speaks. b) Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitur, the parrot does not speak ^ although it imitates man. In {a) ^ Psittacus hominem imitatur^ is the Principal Sentence ; * ItaqiLie loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but not constructively dependent. In {b) * Psittacus non loquitur' is the Principal Sentence ; ^Quamvis hominem imitetur' a Subor- dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent. 3. Every Simple Sentence is in one of three forms : I. Enuntia tio (statement) : Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks. II. Petitio (will-speech) : Loquere, psittace, speak^ parrot. Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak, III. Interrogatio (question) : Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak? § lOI. Simple Sentence, 349 4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). OUiqu^ If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the Principal Verb, it is called Obi i qua (obhque or indirect). I. Enuntiatio Obliqua (Indirect Statement) is mostly con- structed as ^ Accusative and Infinitive (Constat) \ (it is a facty I psittacum loqui, (Scimus) I that the parrot speaks, {we know) ) I'l. Petitio Obliqua (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con- structed as ^ Subjunctive with ut or ne (Poscitur) \ {it is required) f ut psittacus loquatur, ( Rogamus) [ that the parrot speak, {we ask) III. Interrogatio Obliqua (Indirect Question) is constructed as ' Subjunciive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle (Incertum est) ^ {it is doubtful) quid psittacus loquatur, (Narra) [ what the parrot speaks, {declare) Obs. Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival, because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or Object, or in Apposition. Note, As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda- mental rules are equally applicable to the other two formSt CHAPTER II. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 101 i. The Simple Sentence has two essential The members: i'""?^® ben- tencc* 1) The grammatical Subject \ that of which the action or state is predicated or declared ; 2) The grammatical^ Predicate ; that by which the action or state of the Subject is declared. Subject. Predicate. Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks, * * Grammaticar in contradistinction to 'logical.' A Predicate in formal logic is always a Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y. 350 Latin Syntax, § I02. 1) The Subject must be — (1) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub- stantive ; as (2) a Pronoun \ (3) an Adjective [used Substantively. (4) an Adverb j (5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive. (6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely. (7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs. 2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state is declared, the Predicate must be a Verb ; and, as action and state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb. Examples : — Subject. Predicate, (1) Deus regnat, God rules, (2) Nos paremus, we obey. (3) Omnia florent, all thijiQ^s bloom, (4) Satis temporis datur, enough time is given, (5) Navigare dekctat, sailing gives delight, (6) Mnstant' \ they come \ clamatur, * Ad arma ' [ is shouted, to arms ) (7) Quae sit natura lucis ambigitur, what is the nature of light is disputed. Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen- tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb. This general truth is not overthrown by the following frequent exceptions : I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed : 1) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See § 39. 2) in some of the constructions called Impersonal. See § 50. II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed when the mind can be trusted to supply one. See § 99. III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite : 1) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See p. 332. 2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See § 99, i. Examples of such Exceptions : I. I. Nec veni, V. Venisti tandem, V. 2. Pudet pigetque facti. Quid agitur ? Statur, Ter. II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide, tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed. III. I. Turn sic affari et curas his demere dictis, V. 2. Fusi hostes, L. Extern plo turbati animi, V. § 102. Copulative Verbs, 351 ii. Incomplete Predication. Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi- cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia fuit, corn is where Troy was^ Ov. Usually it is a Copula^ coupling the Subject with another term, called the Complement^ which qualifies the Subject : the Predi- cate being then Copula with Complement. Predicate. Subject. Copula. Complement. Seges est matura, the corn is ripe, Troia fuit urbs munitissima, Troy was a strongly fortified city. Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called Copulative Verbs, Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if their predication is extended (or Extensible) by an Infinitive (vii.). A few of these are also Copulative. Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore — 1) Copulative, but not Extensible : (a) sum, forem, fio ; and (sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic) audio, be called ; {b) many passive verbs of being called or named ; appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurpor, scribor, inscribor : being chosen or declared ; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declaror, prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted^ found ; cogno- scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior. 2) Copulative and Extensible : videor {seem), dicor, memoror, censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor. 3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ; volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ; desino ; pergo ; conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trador. See vii. and § 180, where it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative* a nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject. a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be — (1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute. (2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite. (3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb. Examples of Copula with Complement. Predicate. Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. (i) Homo est mortalis is mortal Puer fiet doctus the boy will become learned Vos habemini prudentes are held prudent I 352 Latin Syntax, % 102. Examples of Copula with Complement (continued). Predicate. Subject. (2) Homines men Mulier the woman Isti those men (3) Bona the goods Facundia eloquence Divitiae riches Navigare sailing Conatus endeavours Copul. Verb. sunt are evadit comes out appellantur are called sunt are censetur is counted numerantur are reckoned est is fuerunt were \ Complement.* animalia animals victrix conqueress philosophi philosophers viri the husband^ s magni of great value in bonis among goods voluptati a pleasure frustra in vain b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive. Socrates parens philosophiae dici potest, C. Fin. ii. i. Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut* 56. Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat, 54. Xanthippe, Socratis uxor, Inorosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, GelL i. 17. Ora- cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe- runt, C.Z^/V. ii. 57. Brevis esse laboro ; obscurusfio, H.^.P. 25. Animus hominis dives, non area, appellari solet, C. Par, vi. i. Tyndaridae fratres victoriae nuntii fuisse perhibentur, C. Tusc, i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut. 69. Fis anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C, iv. 13.2, L. Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, Q, Fam. \x. 21. Cum floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. 11 ; vi. 22. Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vi. i.'^ Add to these the important examples of Participle Perf (passive or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive^ esse being understood : § 99a, and p. 428, Note. * The term Complement must be understood to mean * Predicative Complement,' that is, the word or phrase which comJ>letes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. French writers employ this term to denote the Cases which complete the construction of various Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Recipient, &c.). It is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances. Some German writers use the term * Nominalpradikat." ' In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copulative, its Accus. Complement is called an Oblique Complement. Thus in * Puto psittacum loqui ; * * puto psittacum (esse) loquacem psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See § io8, p. 360. (Note on § 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtual. Thus in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Csesarcum Balbo venit ; hoc nobis d e d e c o r i est ; we call * magni ingeni,' * cum Balbo,' and * dedecori,' Phrases. An Euthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, but con- vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause ; * ab exilio regressus ; ' 'philosophus nobilis :' *me absente.' See II. 2) p. 354, A Clause has beeo explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentence. Relations hi the Simple Sentence, 353 iii. Relations in the Simple Sentence. The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words, Phrases, and En theses used as Adjuncts, and standing in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen- tence bear to one another. These Relations are : — I. The Predicative Relation. This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject. The Sub« ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so related as to agree with it in Number and Person. d) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a Collective Subject^ and its Predication may agree with the sense and not with the form : ^ Pars militum occisi sunt/ part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D), b) A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annexive Rela- tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a Plural Predicate : 'Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out. Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed Subject : pudet ( = pudor pudet) ; curritur ( = cursus curri- tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject : parendum est. See § 50» II. The Qualitative Relation. (i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in Attribution: *magnae ^\w'\\A2iQ.^ great riches \ Mocti viri/ learned men ; 'iste psittacus/ that parrot. (2.) Between a Noun Apposite and the Noun to which it stands in Apposition: * Cicero consul/ Cicero the consul ; 'rex Croesus/ king Croesus, The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible. See § 107. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter. See Examples on p. 360.^ * In the classifications of Language, each class does not excUide all the members of every other class. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and Adjective, as Noun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c. So the classification here given is not invalidated by the fact that some words, phrases, cases, &c., may be referred to more than one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and Qualitative, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c. ■ Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other qualifying expressions : Genitives Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective ; Ablatives of Quality and Manner : frequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes Adverbs. Examples • Sullae exercitus ; vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosophtis nomine non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domum reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interitus ferro, fame, frigore, pestilentia : excessus e vita : litterae a Caesare ; liber de Officiis : collo- quium cum Balbo ; omnia ante bella : tua -temper lenitas, &c. I. Predicative. II. Qualitative. III. Objective. IV. Receptive. V. Circumstantive. VI. Proprietive* VII. Prolative. VIII. Annexive.* 354 Latm Syntax, % 103. This relation appears in four varieties : ' 1) Attribute or Apposite as Epithet : *doGti viri;' 'rex Croesus.' 2) Attribute or Apposite as Enthesis : 'Cicero, ab exilio tan- dem regressus, in senatum venit/ Cicero^ having at length returned from exile ^ ca7ne into the senate (regressus = ubi regressus erat). 'Socrates, philosophus in primis nobilis, veneno interiit,' Socrates^ an eminently renow7ied philosopher J died by poison (philosophus = qui philosophus fuit). 3) Attribute or Apposite, agreeing with the Noun, but in close union with the Verb, in the manner of an adverb : ' Cicero primus in senatum venit,' Cicero came first into the senate, ' Caesar aedem Fortunae consul vovit,' Caesar when co7zsul vowed a temple to Fortune, 4) Attribute or Apposite as Complement, already described and exemplified, p. 352. III. The Objective Relation. When the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, the predication is often without meaning until a word is added expressing that on which the Verb acts. This is called the Object, and its relation to the Verb and Subject is the Objective Relation. Thus, ' Romulus interfecit,^ Romulus slew, is deficient in sense until we add ' Re mum,' Remus, *Remum' is in the Accusative Case, as Object of the Verb interfecit, and in Objective Relation to that Verb and to its Subject Romulus. See Syntax of Accusative. a) Anything which may be the Subject of a sentence may also be the Object : and when a Verb-noun, a Vocable, a Clause, or an Adverb, is used as Object, it is taken to be in the Accusative Case. b) Verbs of asking, teaching, concealing, take two Objects, one of the Person, the other of the Thing: 'Doceo te litter as,' I teach you letters. See § 130. c) Factive Verbs take a second Accusative in attribution or apposition as complement to the first : ' Socratem s a p i e n- tissimum puto,' / deejn Socrates very wise, 'Caesar Octavium scripsit heredem/ Caesar left Octavius his heir. See §§ 102, 131. Such an Attribute or Appyosite is called an Oblique Com* plement. See A^<?/^, p. 352. IV. The Receptive Relation. The Dative is the Case of the Recipient, that is, of tne person or thing interested in an action or state ; for, to, up07i, or against which the action or state occurs : 'Non nobis sed reipublicae nati sumus,' we are born not for ourselves, but for the common- ivealth. 'Do tibi hbrum,' I give a book to you, 'Pax grata civibus,' a peace welcome to the citizens. ' Poeni bellum inferunt Rom an is,' the Carthaginians wage war against the Romans, § 103. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 355 The Relation of such a Dative to the Verb or Adjective govern- ing it, and to their Nouns, is the Receptive Relation.^ a) The Dative of some Nouns is used as a Complement (Pre- dicative Dative or Dative of the Purpose) : See § 142; *■ Haec mihi voluptati sunt,' these things are a pleasure to me, * Habet nos derisui,' holds us in derision, V. The CiRCUMSTANTIVE RELATION. This limits the Verb and Adjective principally, also the Substan- tive and Adverb, by Adjuncts, which may be : (i) Adverbs; (2) Noun-cases or Phrases ; (3) Enthesesi The chief Case of Circumstance is the Ablative; but also the Accusative, sometimes the Genitive, may express limiting cir- cumstances. Limiting Phrases are especially Prepositions with their Cases, A frequent limiting Construction is the Ablative Absolute ; that is, a Noun with Participle (or with a second Noun) in the Ablative Case. The Circumstances expressed in this relation are numerous : as, Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter : — Respect ; Mea- sure ; Manner ; Condition ; Quahty ; Time ; Place Where : — Place Whence ; Separation ; Origin ; Comparison, &C* Examples : 1) *0 dea certe,' O surely a goddess, * Vir longe optitnus,* a man by far the best, * Vixi hodie/ / have lived to-day* 2) ^Gladiis certant,' they contend with swords. *Vir pro- cero CO or a man of tall frame, *Fraude non vi periit,' died by fraud, not by force, 'Centum annoS vixit,' he lived a hundred years, 'Hie rus in urbe est, here is country in the city. 'Remus a Romulo occisus est,' Remus was killed by Romulus, ' Vir nattls ad glori- am,' ^ man born for glory, 3) 'Occiso Gaio, Claudius imperavit,' Gaius being slain^ Claudius became emperor. 'Solecadente dormitant aves,* tvhen the sun sets, birds sleep, 'Torquato consule natus est Horatius,' Horace was born in the consulship of Torquatus. See §§ 161, 238, 239. * Verbs or Adjectives which take a Dative for their appropriate dase, as parcere^ to S^are ; p 1 a c e r e, to please ; i u c u n d u s, pleasant ; o d i o s u s, hateful^ &c. , are called Tr A- JECTIV6 words. If the Verb, as dare, to give i takes dn Accusative also, it is a Trajective Verb Transitive. Verbs may be classed according to the Cases they take : Transitive Verbs . . . taking Accusative . * as Quid-Verbs. Trajective Verbs ... „ Dative ... Cui- Verbs. Trajective Verbs Transitive „ Acc. and Dative „ Cui-Quid- Verbs. Transitive Verbs taking Double Accusative . . Quem-Quid-Vetbs. Factive Verbs ,^ Quid-Quale-Verbs. The Accusative is often called the Case of the Nearer Object ; and the Dative the Case of the Remoter Object. A A 2 « 356 Latin Syntax, § 103. VI. The Proprietive Relation. When the Genitive Case of a Noun depends on another Noun which it has for a possession^ a part, or, generally, as a notion which it qualifies or determines. See §§ 162-176. Examples : * Templum Minervae/ the temple of Minerva. *■ Multi mili- tum/ many of the soldiers, * Vir magni ingeni/ a man of great genius, * Cupido pecuniae/ the desire of money, d) The Proprietive Relation is, in some examples, a special instance of the Qualitative: thus, Vir magni ingeni = vir ingeniosissimus; in others it is a special in- stance of the Objective Relation; thus * Cupido pe- cuniae' is nearly the same as * cup ere pecuniam.' b) Genitives of an Objective nature are joined to many Ad- jectives : ^ Memor leti,' mindful of death ; and to some Verbs, 'Generis miseresce im,' pity thy offspring, VII. The Prolaiive Relation. When Predication is ^;r/<?;/(^d^^ (profertur) by an Infinitive ad- joined to certain extensible Verbs and Participles or Adjectives. Examples : * Noli contendere,' do not contend, 'Ego videor videre res futuras/ / seem to see futu7'e things, ' lussus con- fundere foedus,' ordered to break the treaty, 'Ludere pertinax,' persisting to play. That such an Infinitive is not an Objective Verb-Noun appears from the fact that Infinitives of Copulative Verbs, so constructed, keep the Complement in the same Case with the Subject : 'Puervult fieri doctus,' the boy wishes to becoine learned, ' Non omnes possumus esse philosophi,' w cannot all be philosophers, 'Homerus caecus fuisse creditur,' Ho7ner is believed to have been blind. See § 180. d) Other uses of the Infinitive in the Simple Sentence fall under the Predicative or Objective Relation : Supines under the Circumstantive Relation; the Gerund is ranked ac- cording to its Case; Participles follow the rules of Adjectives. b) Cases of Nouns depend on the Infinite as well as on the Finite Verb. VIII. The Annexive Relation. When a word is annexed to the construction of a similar word preceding, either by a Conjunction, or the Conjunction being omitted. Examples : * Pulvis e t u mbra sumus,' we are dust and shade, ' Non nobis nati sumus, sed patriae,' are not born for ourselves^ but for our country. ' Patriae nati sumus, non nobis,' we are born for our country , not for ourselves, * Arma vi- § I04-5. The Relative Fronotm, 4 357 rumque cano/ ar7ns and the ?na7i I si7ig, * Pater et mater mortui sunt/ my father and mother are dead. * Pater, mater, fratres periere,' father^ mother ^ brothers have perished, 'Me amat ut fratrem suum,' he loves 7ne as his own brother, a) One Finite Verb annexed to another makes, strictly speak- ing, a new sentence : but is often conveniently ranked under this Relation: ^ Odi profanum volgus et arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the profane mob, ' Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit/ he has de- parted^ gone forth, escaped, burst out, iv. Interjections and Vocative. 1) To the forms constructed in a Simple Sentence under the eight Relations heretofore mentioned, must be added Interjections and Interjectional utterances, especially the Case (of the person or thing addressed) called the Vocative, which, with or without an Interjection, is attached to the Sentence, but not constructed with it; thus, with its adjuncts, forming an appendage, which maybe called a Vocative Ecthesis. Thus Horace {Carm,\, i. i) begins with a Vocative Ecthesis of two lines : Maecenas, atavis edite regibus, O et praesidium et dulce decus meum, Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum Collegisse iuvat, &c. 2) Ecthesis appears also in the Accusative Case, with or without Interjection; in the Nominative Case, usually with Interjection; in the Dative, never without Interjection. V. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. The consideration of the Relative belongs properly to the head of Compound Sentences; but it is introduced here so far as to establish its agreement in Gender, Number, and Person with its Antecedent, that is, with the Term in the Prior Sentence to which it stands related. To this extent the Relative Pronoun is Qualita- tive ; but, as respects Case, it may (in its own clause) be Subject Nominative or fall under any of the following Relations : Objective, Receptive, Circumstantive, or Proprietive. It corresponds to any Person. See §§ 108, 114, 204. Note, The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, may be explained as standing between two Noun-terms, with the former of which it agrees in Gender, Number, and Person; with the latter in Case. 1) Sometimes both Noun-terms are expressed: ' Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent,' there were two roads by which they might go forth, L. 2) Usually the latter is omitted: 'Animum rege, qui, nisi paret, imperat,* rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands (i e. qui animus), Hon 3S8 Latin Syntax. % io6. 3) Sometimes the former is omitted in poetry : * Sic tibi dent nymphae quae levet unda sitim/ so may the nymphs give thee what water may assuage thirst (i.e. undam quae unda), Ov. 4) Sometimes both : ^ Sunt qui bus in satira videor nimis acer/ there are some to whom J seem too keen in satire (i, e, homines quibus hominibus), Hor. b) The following scheme illustrates this principle. 1) Vir quern virum vides rex est (full form). 2) Vir quem . ♦ . . vides rex est (usual lorm), 3) . . . quem virum vides rex est. 4) , . . quem . . , , vides rex est. €) Any Noun-term may be the Antecedent to a Relative. vi. Rules for the Conversion of an Active into a Passive Sentence. 1) The Nominative of an Agent becomes Ablative (if expressed) with the Preposition a^ a D • Act. Nos currimus, ) ■n A u • -4. \ we run. Pass. A nobis curritur, ^ Or the Person may be suppressed : Act. Sic imus ad astra, ) ,7 ^ 41 4 c- J 4. r thus we zo to the stars. Pass. Sic itur ad astra, * s ^ * Obs, The Ablative of the Agent may also be used with the Quasi- Passive Verbs fio, vapulo, veneo : Haec a legionibus fiebant, these things were being done by the legions. Testis a reo vapulavit, the wit7iess was beaten by the defendant, Nolim ab host e venire, / would not be sold by an enemy. 2) The Nominative of an Instrument becomes Ablative without Preposition : Act. Flores caput ornant , ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ Pass. F lor lb us caput ornatur, > 3) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject : Act. Deus mundum creayit, \ God made the world. Pass. A Deo mundus creatus est, ' 4) If there are two Objects (Person and Thing) the Accusative of the Thing remains : Act. Rogas me sententiam, \ you ask me my opinion. Pass. Rogor a te sententiam, ^ - ■ 5) Factive construction becomes Copulative: A. Clodium plebs t r i b u n u m c r e a v i t, \the plebeians elected P. Clodius a plebe creatus est tribunus,^ Clodius tribune, • §io7-8. Agreement 359 6) Other Cases remain, and Intransitive Verbs become Imper- sonal. Act. Pater librum fi 1 i o dat, > the father gives a book to his Pass. A patre liber filio datur, ^ soru Act. Medicinae indigemus, ) we need medicine Pass. Medicinae a nobis indigetur, > Act. M i h i isti nocere non possunt, | . , Pass. Mihi abistis noceri non potest, i^^^-^ cannot nun me. Note, On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs see § 50. CHAPTER III. CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. These fall into three Sections. 107 I. Agreement. II. Case-construction. III. Verb-construction, so far as concerns the Simple Sentence. Section I. AGREEMENT. 108 Agreement, in Syntax, is the assimilation of the Agree, form of one word to that of another. i. The Four Concords. There are four Rules of Agreement, called CON- CORDS : namely, Concord I. — A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject- Nominative in Number and Person. . Examples : ^ Ego doceo; nos docemus.' ' Tu disces; vos discetis.' * Magister hortetur; magistri hortentur.^ ' Vivere est cogi- tare.' ^ Omnia sunt recte.^ ' Quod venisti gratum est.' Concord 11. — An Adjective agrees in Gender, Number, and Case with that to which it is in Attribu- tion. Concord III.— A Substantive agrees in Case with that to which it is in Apposition. Obs. — Concords II. and III. are true for every various position of the Attribute or Apposite — whether they are Epithets, as in the 360 Latin Syntax, § log. examples marked (i) of the two lists which follow: Entheses, as in those marked (2) ; Adverbial, as in those marked (3) ; or Com- ' plements, as in those marked (4) and (5). Examples. II. (i) Vir bonus ille bonam hanc uxorem habet, />^^/^^^^ man has this good wife, (2) hirundo pullis suis orbata queritur, the swallow bereft of its young complains, (3) quis vita male acta felix moritur ? who^ after a life ill- spent, dies happy f (4) cari sunt parentes; CdiX2Lts\.^2iir\2i, dear are parents ; dear is country, (5) pueri discendo fipnt docti, hoys by learning become learned, (6) haec est nob i lis ilia ad Trasimenum pugna, this is that renowned battle at Lake Trasimenus, (7) quid sit futurum eras incertum est, what will happen to-morrow is uncertain, (8) malim pueros esse quam videri bonos, I would rather boys should be, than seern, good, (9) tacere aliquando utile putamus, to be silent at times we deem expedient, (10) scire tuum nihil est, your knowledge is nothi7ig, Obs. — In (7) 'incertum' agrees with the Clause 'quid sit futurum eras.' In (8) * bonos' (Oblique Complement) agrees with 'pueros/ which is Oblique Subject of each Infinitive. Hence it is seen that Copulative Verbs, Finite or Infinite, have the same case of agreeing v/ords after as before them. Example (q) is of the same kind, for esse might be supphed to utile. See III. (6), III. (i) Nos pueri patrem Lollium imitabimur, w ^^Tyi" 7£//// imitate our father Lollius, (2) effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum, riches are dug out, incentives of evil, (3) Cicero legem Maniliam praetor suasit, Cicero recom- mended the Manilian law when praetor, (4) spes est expectatio boni, hope is the expectation of good. (5) syllaba longa brevi subiecta vocatur iambus, a long syllable followi^ig a short one is called iambus. (6) Athenas omnium doctrinarum inventrices esse cre- dimus, we believe Athens to be the inventress of all sciences. (7) cogita oratorem institui, rem arduam, reflect that an orator is being formed, a difficult business, (8) Tungri sunt Galliae ci vitas, the Tungri are a state of Gaul. Obs, — In (7) rem is in Apposition to the Clause ^oratorem institui.' § I09-I lo. Agreement, 36 1 Concord IV. — The Relative Pronoun Qui, quae, quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person ; but in Case it follows the construction of its own clause. See § 105. 1. Tu, filia, quae nos amas, oboedies nobis, qui te a mam us, you^ daughter, who love us, will obey us, who love you, 2. Deum veneramur, qui nos creavit, we worship God who created us, 3. adsum quem (\\xdier\\\s, I am present whom ye seek, 4. habeo quibusrum colloquar, I have so7ne to talk with, 5. in tempore ad eam veni, quod rerum omnium est primum, / came to her at the right mo7nent, which is the most important Huug of all, 6. nos, id quod debent, virtutes delectant, virtues delight us, as they ought, Obs. — In 3, the Antecedent is ego, in 4, ali quo s, understood ; in 5, the Principal sentence is the Antecedent : in 6, id is in apposi- tion to the sentence *nos virtutes delectant.' (Id quod = ut.) ii. Ellipsis of the Subject 1) Pronoun Subjects (ego, nos, tu, vos, is, ei) are omitted, unless required for emphasis : ' Si vales bene est, ego valeo,' if you are well, I rpjoice ; I am well, C. Fam, xiii. 6. ^ Odi profanum volgus et arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the profane vulgar, Hor. C, iii. I.I. * Poscimur,' we are required, Hor. C. i. 32. i. 2) When a Suljact of the Third Person is omitted, it is generally known from the context. On the omission ol homines (Fr. on. Germ, mari) before aiunt, ferunt, &c., see p. 275. *Teque ferunt irae paenituisse tuae,' and they say you have repented of your anger, Ov. A, A. ii. 592. The adverb volgo stuxetimes ?^ ompanies this elHpsis : 'Volgo ex oppidis gratulabantur Pon peio/ they came in crowds from the toivns to co7tgratuluCe Fofnpeius, C. T. D. i. 35. 3) Impersonal Verbs have no Substantive or Pronoun expressed as Subject. But many have a Verb-noun Infinitive: 'Ire iuvat; fugere dedecet,' &c. Many have a Clausular Subject : ' Oportet hnec fieri:' interest ut te videam,' &c. The Subject of others is implied in the Verb itself : Pudet facti ; taedet vitae ; miseret hominis,' &c. : also in Pluit, tonat, grandinat, &c., and in Passive Impersonais, Itur, statur, vivitur, &c. See ^ 50. On Ellipsis, see pp. 267, 274, 346. iii. Attraction of the Verb. i) A Copulative Verb sometimes agrees with the Complement. •Amantium irae amoris integratio est/ lovers^ quarrels are the renewal of love, Ter. An, iii. 3. 28. ' Ouas geritis vestis <;ordida lana fuit,' the clothes which ye wear were dirty wool, Ov. A, A, iii. 222. - 362 Latin Syntax, § III. 2) This Attraction may affect Gender. ' Non omnis error stu^ - titia est dicenda/ not every error must be called folly ^ C. Div, ii. 43. * Gens universa Veneti appellati/ />^^ entire race were called Veneti, L. i. i. 3) A Verb sometimes agrees with the Apposite rather than with the true Subject. * Tungri GalHae ci vitas fontem habet insig- nem/ Tongres, a city of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain^ PI. TV. H, xxxi. 2. I" iv. Synesis in the first and second Concords. See p. 269. 1) Feminine or Neuter words implying males are found with Masculine agreement: * Ilia furia qui . . . &c. impunitatem est assecutus/ the fury who (namely Clodius) &c., obtained impunity,, C. Fam. i. 9. * Milia triginta capitum dicuntur capti/ thirty thou- sand prisoners are said to have been taken, L. xxvii. 16. * Ubi i 11 ic est s eel us, qui . . . ^ where is that villain who . , . ? Ter. An, iii. 5. Analogous to this is Livy's practice of mentioning the name of a town, and then continuing the construction as if he had mentioned the inhabitants: ^Saguntum civitas longe op- ulentissima ultra Iberum fuit. Oriundi a Zacyntho insula dicun- tur mixtique,' &c., the city of Saguntum was by far the wealthiest beyond the Ebro : they (cives) are said to have originated from the isle of Zante, and to have been mingled, &c., L. xxi. 7. 2) Singular Collective Nouns, pars, multitudo, volgus, turba, vis, iuventus, nobilitas, plebs, &c., are used by Livy, Sallust, and the poets, with Plural Predicates, and agreement of Gender Kara (Tvvfniv. ' Locros omnis multitudo abeunt/ the whole number remove to Locri, L. xxiv. 3. ^Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Ro- mam inermes delatisunt,'<i very small portion, having lost their leader, were brought unarmed to Rome, L. ii. 14. This construc- tion is rare in Caesar, not used by Cicero. 3) The Distributive words and phrases quisque, uterque, pars, alius ... alium, alter . . . alterum, vir . . . virum, &c., are apparently used as Subjects to Plural Predicates, but may be explained as apposite to Plural Subjects understood : * Uterque eorum exercitum e castris educunt/ they both lead out a7t army from the camp, Caes. B, C. iii. 30. 'At nostri, repentino metu perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt; alii fugere, alii arma capere : magna pars volnerati aut occisi,' but our inen, seized with a sudden panic, provided for themselves according to their several habits ; some fled, others took arms : a great portion were wounded or slain, Sail. lug. 57. 'Alius alii subsidium fe- runt,' they bring support one to another, Caes. B, G, ii. 26. 'Vir virum legebant,' each 7nan picked another, L. x. 38. 4) The Adverb partim is plurally constructed by Cicero, with Gender fcaro ai'-rfdii' : 'Eorum partim in pompa partim in acie illustres esse voluerunt,' some of them chose to be brilliant in pro- cession^ some on the battlefield, C. d. Or. ii. 94. * Partim e nobis Composite Subject. 363 timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi/ the one part of us are cowards^ the other mifriendly to the state ^ C. Phil, viii. 11. 5. Mi lie is generally Plural, sometimes Singular. See § 34. V. Composite Subject {avXXrjylrisi). Two or more Subjects united in one Predication are called a Composite Subject. See p. 268. A, i) If the Subjects so united form an evidently Plural notion, the Predicate will be Plural: ^Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio foede perierunt,' C. J^am. ix. 18. * Castor et Pollux ex equis pugnare visi sunt,* C. JV, D, ii. 2. ^ lus et iniuria natura diiudicantur,' right and wrong are naturally distinguished^ C. Leg.i. 16. 'Aetas, metus, magister, prohibebant,' age, ti- midity, and a tutor forbade, Ter. An, i. i. 27. Sometimes, when the Prep, cum unites the Subjects: *Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur,' the commander himself with some leading men were captured^ L. xxi. 60. 'IliacumLausode Numitore sati,' Ov. F, iv. 55. But Cicero prefers the Singular in this last construction, 'Tu cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites/ / should like to know what you and Sextus think, Att. vii. 14. 2) If their union forms one complex Singular notion, the Verb maybe Singular. ^Tempus necessitasque postulat,' C. Off.i. 23. 'Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae,' C. Off.m. 10. So ' Senatus populusque Romanus ' forms one complex notion, and usually, but not always, takes a Singular Predicate. 3) If one of the Subjects is ist Pers. Sing, (ego), the Predicate may be ist Pers. Plur. If one of the Subjects is 2nd Pers. Sing, (tu) and none ist Pers., the Predicate may be 2nd Pers. Plur. * Si tu et TuUia, lux nostra, valetis, egoet suavissimus Cicero valemus,' If you and my darling Tullia are well, I arid our sweet boy are in good health, C. Fam. xiv. 5. 4) If the Subjects are sentient beings and of the same Gender, the Attributes follow that Gender ; if of different Genders, the At- tributes are Plural Masculine. * Non mihi venistis Semele Ledeve docendae,' ye are not co7ne a Semele or a Leda to be taught by me^ Ov. A, A, iii. 251. * Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are dead J Ter. Eun. iii. 3. 11. 5) If they are non-sentient things and of the same Gender, that Gender may be kept by the Attributes, or these may be Neuter : if of different Genders, the Attributes are usually Neuter Plural. * Grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae iutre,^ grammar and music were formerly combined, Ou. i. 10. 17. ^Ira et avar- itia imperio potentiora erant,' anger and avarice were more powerful than authority^ L. xxxvi. 32. * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tacta erant,' at Fregellae a wall and gate had been struck by lightning, L. xxxii. 29. See M. Lucr, iii. 136. 6) If sentient beings and non-sentient things are combined, the former will sometimes regulate the Gender: 'Rex regiaque 364 Laii7L Syntax, % 113. classis una profecti/ the kmg and the royal fleet set out f^* gether^ L. xxi. 50. But Neuter Attributes are more usual : ' Ro- mani regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt,' the Romans know that the kmg and kingdom of Macedonia will be theirs^ L. xl. 10. B, i) Often, however, the Verb and Attributes are constructed with only one of the Subjects, and mentally supplied with the rest (zeugma). That one will be nearest to the Predication, and gene- rally the most important. * Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, ni- hil doctrina prodest,' now neither books nor literature nor learn- ing avail me aught ^ C. Att,x. 10. ^ Homer us fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' Homer and Hesiod were before the founda- tion of Romey C. T. D. i. i. * Dice bat idem Cotta, Curio,' Cotta said the safne^ and Curio^ C. Off. ii. 1 7. * Cum quaesturam nos, consulatum Cotta, aedilitatem peteret Hortensius,' 'Z£/^^;^ I stood for the quaesturship, Cotta for the consulship^ Hortensius for the edileshipy C. Brut. 92. So, ^Et tu et omnes homines sciunt/ you and all mankind know^ C. Fam. xiii. 8. 2) The agreement of Gender with a nearer word appears in this Example : * Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorque caeli/ 7neteors were seen in the night and a fiery sky, C. in Cat. iii. 8. 3) Singular agreement with the^ more distant Noun is rare : *Lucus quidem ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur, saepe a me lectus in Mario,' I recognise yonder grove, and this oak of the Arpinates, which I have often read of in the Marius, C. Leg, i, I. 4) ' Unus et alter' takes a Singular Verb: *Unus et alter assuitur pannus,' one or two patches are stitched on, Hor. ad Pis. 5) When the Subjects are connected by aut, the Predicates sometimes appear as Singular, sometimes as Plural : *SiAeacus aut Minos diceret,' C. Off. i. 28. ' Si quid Socrates aut Aris- tippus . . . fecerint locutive sint,' C. Off. i. 41. But with aut . . . aut, the Singular alone is used. Et . . . et, neque . . . neque, usually lead to a Singular Predicate, but sometimes to a Plural. In short, the construction of a Composite Subject exhibits every variety of usage. 6) Such instances as the following belong to Attraction : ^ Ei cariora semper omnia quam decus et pudi citia fuit,' everything was at all times dearer to him than decency and 77iodestyy Sail. Cat, 25. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. i) As Complement, the Adjective may be attributed to any Noun-term; as Epithet, chiefly to a Substantive : but sometimes to an Infinitive: 'Velle suum cuique est,' everyone has his own inclination, *Totum hoc displicet p h i 1 o s o p h a r i,' all this phi- losophising they dislike, Cic. Fin. i. i. *Me hoc ipsum nihil agere delectat,' /'///i' ^far niente^ itself is to me delightful^ C. d. Or. ii. 6. g Attribution a7id Apposition, 365 2) Sometimes, in Copulative construction, an Adjectival Pro- noun seems to take the place of Subject, and the Substantive, to which it refers, that of Complement. So placed, the Adjectival word usually agrees with the Substantive : ' H ae sunt fere de animis sententiae,'" these are pretty nearly the [current) opinions on the soul Cic. * Hie murus aheneus esto, nil conscire sibi,' let this be a wall of brass, to be conscious of nothing {wrong), Hor. Epist. i. i. 6i. But sometimes the Pronoun is substantivally Neuter: ' Quod ego fui ad Trasimenum, ad Cannas, id tu hodie es,* what I was at Irasimenus, at Cannae, you are now, L. xxx. 30. ' Nunc scio quid sit amor,' now know I what love is, Verg. B, viii. 43. 3) The Adverbial and Froleptic uses of the Attribute and Appo- site are important idioms, noticed p. 278. d) Attribute : 'Turn tu insiste audax muris,' then do thou advance on the walls boldly, L. iii. 26. * Castris se pavi- dus tenebat,' he kept hitnse If within the camp timidly, L. *Vespertinus pete tectum,' seek the roof at eventide, Hor. Epist. i. 6. 20. * Aeneas se matutinus agebat,' Aeneas set himself in motion at morn, Verg. A en. viii. 465. *Domesticus otior,' / lounge at ho7ne, Hor. S, i. 6. 127. *Hostes rari se ostendere coeperunt,' the enemy began to show the77iselves in small parties, Caes. G, v. 17. * Memini, tametsi null us moneas,' I re7ne7nber, without any suggestio7t fro7n you, Ter. Eun, ii. i. 10. * Hannibal princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proeHo ex- cedebat,' Ha7t7iibal used to be the first to go to battle, a7id after the engage7nent the last to quit the field, L. xxi. 4. * Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum,' believe that every day that has daw7ied on you is your last, Hor. Epist. i.4. 13. Thus, where the English generally uses a Relative Pronoun : He was the first (last or 07tly 07te) who ca7ne, the Lai in more concisely says Primus (ultimus, solus) venit. B) Adverbial Apposition limits the agency of the Subject in re- spect of time, age, office, capacity, &c. : ' Furius, noster familiaris, puer didicit quod discendum fuit,' inti7nate friend Furius learnt in boyhood what he had to learn, C. d. Or. iii. 23. ^ Cato senex scribere historiam instituit,' Cato began to write history in old age, Suet. Ner. 31. * C. lunius aedem Salutis, quam consul voverat, censor loca- verat, dictator dedicavit,' Gains Ju7iius dedicated i7i his dictatorship the temple of Salus, which he had vowed in his co7tsulship, and given a co7ttract for i7i his censorship, L. X. I. Under this head may be placed such phrases as, Anteme consulem [before 7nv consulship), post me quaes- tor em [after my quaestor ship). See p. 273. 4) If Neuter Adjectives are so constructed as to qualify Mas- culine or Feminine Nouns, they must be regarded as words which have acquired the nature of Substantives, and as standing in ap- position : * Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor,' unsee77tly is: an aged soldier, U7tsee7nly an old ma7t^s love, Ov. Am. \.c).^,^yiors 366 Latin Syiitax. omnium rerum extremum est, death is the final close of all things, C. Fa7n. vi. 21. ^Turpitude peius est quam dolor/ dishonour is worse than pain, C. T, D. ii. 13. ' Patres et plebem, invalida et inermia, ludificatur/ he deludes the Senate and Commons, weak and defenceless bodies, Tac. Ann, i. 46. 5) The Apposite usually agrees in Number with its Noun, but not necessarily: ' Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, ^ Tullia, my little darling, C. Att. i. 8. Substantiva Mobilia, having two forms, Mas- culine and Feminine, will agree, as far as possible, in Gender with their Noun: Usus m agister egregius,' experience, an excellent teacher, VXm, Epist, i. 20. * Vita rustica parcimoniae magistra est,' a count?y life is the teacher of thrift, C. p, S, Rose. 27. Such words are also used as epithets, chiefly by poets : * Regina pe- cunia,' queen Money, Hon Epist, i. 6. 36. An Apposite may seem to take a different case from its noun: ' Archias natus est Anti- och i a e, celebri quondam urbe,' Archias was born at Antioch, a once populous city, C. p. Arch. 3. 6) Peculiar forms of Apposition : a) Apposition to a Pronoun Subject understood : ^Hannibal peto pacem,' /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx. 30. ^ Qualis artifex pereo!^ what an artist dies in me (ht. / die) ! Suet. Ner, 49. b) Apposition of the Part to the Whole : ^ Galli Ruscinonem, aliquot populi, conveniunt,V>^^ Gauls, a few tribes, 7neet at Ruscino, L. xxi. 24. ^Duae filiae harum, altera occisa, altera capta est/ the two datighters of these women^ one was slain^ the other captured, Caes. B. G. i. 53. * Cetera multitudo sorte decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti sunt/ the rejnaining crowd were picked, every tenth ?Jian^ for execution, L. ii. 59. * Vos sibi quisque consilium capitis,' j/^ consult each for himself, Sail. C. 52. c) Apposition of the Proper Names of one Person : P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus. See p. 193. d) Apposition annexed by Conjunctions, such as ut, velut, quasi, ceu, tamquam, quamvis : 'Aegyptii canem et felem ut deos colunt/ the Egyptians worship the dog and cat as deities, C. Leg. i. 1 1. * Herodotus quasi sedatus amnis fluit/ Herodotus flows as a cabn fiver, Q. Or. \2. ' Ficta omnia celeriter, tamquam flos- c u 1 i, decidunt,' all unreal things quickly droop like flowers, C.0fl'.u.i2. * Manlius filium suum, quamvis vie to ren\ occidit/ Manlius slew his son, though conqim'or, Flor. i. e) Apposition which requires a Noun answering a question to be in the same case as the Noun which it answers : ^Quone malo rnentem concussa? Timore deorum/ by what malady disturbed in mind? — By fear of the gods, Hor. S. ii. 3. 293. But here, too, the cases may seem to differ: * Ouanti emptum ? — Parvo. Ouanti ergo? — Octussibus/ Hor. .9. ii. 3. 155. §114. Agreement of Relative. 367 7) A single Adjective is seldom referred to more than one Noun except as Complement. When it is otherwise referred to more than one, and the Genders differ, it usually agrees with the nearest: ' Romanis cuncta maria terraeque patebant/ all seas and lands were open to the Rofnans, Sail. C 10. Sometimes it is Neuter Plural, Hke a Complement : ^Gallorum genti natura corpora animosque magna magis quam firm a dedit/ nature has given to the Gauls great rather than strong bodies and minds^ L. v. 44. 8) A Noun subdivided by more than one Singular Attribute is Sometimes found Singular, sometimes Plural : ' Legio Martia quartaque rempublicam defendunt,' the Martian legion and the fourth defend the commonwealth^ C. Phil. v. 17. * In rabiem tractae prima ac vicesima legiones/ the first and twentieth legions were drawn into the mad revolt, Tac. Ann, i. 31. A Noun in apposition to several others will be Plural in the same Case with them : ' Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae/ the poets Eupolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes^ Hor. S. i. 4. i. Sometimes the Nomen or Cognomen is in apposition to the Praenomina of two or more persons : ' M. et Q. Cicerone s/ the Ciceros, Marcus and Quintus : ' C. et L. Memmii/ the Memmii, Gaius and Lucius, vii. Synesis, Ellipsis and Attraction in Re- 114 lative Construction. 1. a) The agreement of the Relative may follow meaning: *Multitudo, qui convenerant . . b) The agreement of a Relative with a Composite Subject is in principle the same as that of an Adjective. * Pater et mater qui mortui sunt ' . . . * Fortuna, decus, honos, quae fortuita sunt. . . c) A Personal Pronoun as Antecedent may be implied in a Possessive : ^ Omnes laudare fortunas me as, qui gnatum haberem tali ingenio praeditum/ all were extolling my good fortune in having a son of such a character^ Ter. An, i. i. 97. 2. d) ElHpsis of the Antecedent is frequent. See Concord iv. Ex. 3. 4. But that of the word or words which govern the Relative (when they are to be supplied from the ante- cedence) is less so : * Nos imitamur quos cuique visum est (i.e. eos quos cuique visum est imitari)/ we i^nitate those, whom we severally think proper to imitate, C. Ofi^. i. 32. This idiom some- times resembles Attraction : * Si aliquid agis eoru m quo- rum consuesti, gaudeo (i.e. eorum quorum ahquid agere consuesti),^ if you are pursuing any of your wonted occu- pations, I am glad ^ C. Fa7n. v. 14. 368 Latin Syntax. b) When the Relative has been used in one Case, another Case of it is sometimes suppressed : * Bocchus cum peditibus, quos filius eius adduxerat, neque in priore pugna adfuerant, postremam Romanorum aciem invadunt/ Bocchus and the infantry^ which his son had brought itp^ and which had not beefi present in the former battle^ attack the rear of the Romans^ Sail. /. 10 1. 3. d) The Relative may agree with an Apposite, or not : *Flumen Scaldis quod . . * Flumen Rhodanus qui. . b) The Relative may agree with the Complement of its own Clause, rather than with its Antecedent : * Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est,^ L. Madvig's rule is {Gr. § 319) that, if the Antec. is defined without the aid of the clause, the Rel. agrees with its Compl. ; if not, wiih the Antec. But many exceptions occur. c) The Antecedent is drawn into the same Clause and Case as the Relative : ' Quam artem novi, exerceo.^ Or the Ante- cedent may remain in its own sentence, and be repeated in the Relative Clause : * Dies instat, quo die . . Sometimes the attracted Antecedent precedes the Relative : *Urbemquam statuo vestra est,' V. A en. i. 573. Horace has a daring Attraction : * Ouis non malarum quas amor curas habet Haec inter obliviscitur ? ' Epod. ii. 37. d) An Attribute, especially unus, pauci and Superlatives, may be attracted to the Relative Case and Clause (§ 82. 3.) : 'Tempestivis conviviis delector cum aequalibus, qui pauci admodum restant,' I enjoy earty dinners with contempora- ries^ very few of whom remain^ C. Cat. M, \ 4. * Consiliis pare, quae nunc pulcherrimaNautesdat senior,' V. Ae. v. 728. e) Attraction of the Relative to the Case of the Antecedent is rare : ' ludice quo nosti populo,* in the judgment of that public with which you are acquainted^ Hor. S. i. 6. 15. This is sometimes complicated with Ellipsis of the Ante- cedent or of the governing word, or of both : * Haec cadere possunt in quos nolis (i.e. in eos in quos nolis ea cadere),' C. d. Or. ii. 60. viii. Qualis, quantus, quot. Qualis {such as)^ quantus {as great as), follow the same rule as qui only when they are placed between two Cases (expres^^e^l or understood) of the same person or thing: *Non sum qualis eram,' I am not what I was, Hor. C. iv. i. 3. * Crocodilus parit ova quanta anseres,' the crocodile lays eggs as big as geese lay, PL N. H. xviii. 25. But if they are used to compare two diffe7'ent Nouns, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case with the latter ; while their Demonstratives (talis, tantus) agree with the former : ' Talis est, qualem te esse video, he is such as I see you are, C. Mur. 14. *Dixi tanta contentione quantum forum est,' / spoke with exertion of voice as great as the forum is, C. Fam. xii. 7- So tot . . . quot, which are undeclined. § 114. Agreement of Relative, , 369 Abnormal constructions are: ^Animae qualis neque can- didiores terra tulit, neque quis me sit devinctior alter/ Hor. 6^. i. 5. 41. * Nardo perunctum quale non perfectius meae laborarint manus,' Hon Epod, v. 57,^ • Examples of the Rules of Agreement, for practice. A. {Subject: Predicate: Complement: Attribution.) 'Menspeccat, non corpus,* L. i. 58. * Nos consules desumus,' C. Cat. i. i * Nitimur in vetitum semper cu pi- rn usque negata,' Ov. Am. iii. 4. 17. * Natura tuillipateres, consiliis ego,' Ter. Ad. I. 2. * Haruspicum munus era t exta inspicere,' Val. M. i. i. *Quidsitoptimum neminem fug it,* Qu. xi. 2. * Vivitur parvo bene,' Hon C. ii. i6i 13. * lusta omnia decorasunt: iniusta contra, ut turpia, sic indecora,' C. O^. i. 27. * Catilinae inerat s a t i s eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,' Sail. C. 5. 'Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,* C. Att. xiii. 28i 'Dulce satis umor,' Verg. B. iii. 82. ' Omnis ars imitatio est naturae,' Sen. ^/5. 65. *Terra altrix nostra diei noctisqiie efFectrix eademque custos est,' C. Univ. 10. 'Servus, cum manu mittitur, fit libertinus,' Qu. vli. 3. *De Amicitiaeo libro dictum est, qui inscribitur Laelius,' C. Ojff^. ii. 9. * Athenis tenue caelum, ex quo acutiores etiam putantur Attici,' C. Fat. 4. * Poste- riores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientioreS esse Solent,' C. Phii. xii; 2. 'Omnia orta occidunt et aucta senescunt,' Sail. lug: i. * Romam serae avaritia atque luxuria immigraverunt,' L. Praef. * Scythae perpetuo intacti aut invicti mansere,' lust. ii. 3. *Marius, Septimum consul, domi suae senex est mortuus,' C. N. D. iii. 32. Apiid matrem recte ^st,' Q,, Att. i. 7. 'Sum Dyrrachii hoc tempore, et sum tuto,'C. Fam. xiv. 3; 'Nihil est tarn angusti animi tamque parvi quam arriare divitias,* C. Off. i. 20. * Libertas et anima nostra in dubio est,' Sail. C. 52. *Ne Pericles quidem dixit Attice, cui primae sine controversia deferebantur,' C. Or. 9. B. {Synesis.) 'Pars in crucem acti, pars bestiis obiecti sunt,' Sail. 7«^. 14. ' Volgu s Macedonum Demetrium cum ingenti favo^e conspiciebant,' L. xxxix. 55. * Samnitium caesi tria milia ducenti, capti quattuor milia ducenti,' L. x. 34. 'Optimus quisque iussis par uere,' Tac. H.vv.2$. 'Dux uterque pari culpa meritus adversa prosperis defuere,' Tac. H. iv. 34. * Hie uterque me intuebatur, seseque ad audiendum significabant paratos,' O Fin. ii. i. (Cicero never has a Plural Verb with uterque : see Madvig ad 1. c.) C. {Composite Subject.) 'Dant veniam genitor coniunxque,' Ov. P. li. ^29. * Spectantur in chartis tenuitas, cando r, laevor,' PI. A^. // xiv. 12. ' Per inter- regem consules creati sunt Valerius et Horatius,' L. iii. 35. ' Ego ac tu simplicissinie inter nos hodie loquimur,' Tac. H. i. 15. * Haec neque ego neque tu f ecimiis,' Ter. Ad. i. 2. 23. * Ex eo die ego et leo in eodem specu viximus, Gell. v. 14. 'Qiiid est quod tu aut ilia cum fortuna hoc nomine queri possitis,'C. Fam. iv. 5. *Necsenatus gloriari necprincepspoterant,' Plin. Ep. 75. * Effigiem nullam Vesta nec ignis habent,* Ov. F. vi. 298. 'Demosthenes cum ceteris populiscito in exsiliura erant expulsi,' Nep. Pkoc. 2. 'Dea Inventus Termi- nusque deus id non sunt passi,' L. v. 54. 'Serpens, sitis, ardor, harenae, dulcia virtuti,* Lucan. ix. 402. * Societas hominum et aequalitas et iustitia per se expetenda sunt,* C; Leg. i. 18. 'Omnibus in rebus temeritas ignora- tioquevitiosa est,' C. Fin. iii. 21. 'Mens et animus et consilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus,' C. /. Clu. 53. * Bene de republica meteri, laudari, coli, diligi, gloriosuni est,' C. Phil. i. 14. ' Mihi magnae curae est ut tu ipse tuique bmnes scire possint me tibi esse amicissimum,' L. xxix. 17. ' Tarquinius cum prole fugit,' Ov. F. ii. 851. ' lane, face aeternos pacem pacisque minis - tros,'Ov. F. i. 287. 'O noctes cenaequ^ deum, quibus Ipse tneique ante lares pro- prios vescor,' Hor. 6". ii. 6. 65. D. {Apposition.) 'Alexander, victor tot regurii atque populorum, irae succubuit,' Sen. Ep. 113. 'Quiddicam de thesauro omnium rerum memoria?' C. d. Or. i. 5. 'Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montis pertinet,' Caes. B. G. i. i 'Oppidum Genabum pons fluminis Ligeris continet,' Caes; B. G. vii. 11. *Hostis hostem occidere volui,' L. ii. 12. 'Duo exercitus Aventinum inse- distis,' L. ix. 34. 'Duo consules eius anni alter ferro alter morbo perierant,' L. xli. 18. 'Civilis omnium coniuges parvosque liberos consistere a tergo iubet, hortamenta victoriae vel pulsis pudorem,' Tac. H. iv. 61. * Batavi machinas etiara, insolitum sibi, ausi,' Tac. H. iv. 23. 'Numquam ingenium ad res diversissimas, B B 370 Latin Syntax, S H5-16. Section II. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. A, The Nominative Case, i. The Nominative is the Case of the Subject of a Finite Verb and of those words which agree in Case with the Subject. See Concords L 11. III. ii. Thus the Nominative stands as Comple- ment 1) Of F'inite Copulative Verbs. 2) Of Copulative Verbs Infinite, prolatively used. 1) 'Galba medius inter Neronem et Othonem imperator ex- stitit/ Galba was the emperor intervening between Nero and OthOy Suet. '6^. 6. ' Subtilis veterum iudex et callidus audis,' are called a nice and shrewd critic of ancient authors^ Hor. ii. 7. parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit,' L. xxi. 4. 'Corioli oppidum captum est a Marcio,' L. ii. 23. * Ludi Taurilia per biduum facti,' L. xxix. 22. *Oculi tamquam speculatores altissimum locum obtinent,' C. N. D. ii. 140. 'Dies quo ceperat imperium Gaius Palilia vocatus est, velut argumentum rursus conditae urbis,' Suet, Cal. 16. * Caelius historiam, ut homo neque doctus neque maxime aptus ad dicendum, ut potuit dolavit,' C. d. Or. ii. 54. * Cottam cum Titurio legatos amisimus,' Flor. iii. 10. * Duae urbes potentissimae Carthago atque Numantia ab eodsm Scipione sunt deletae,' C. /. L. Man. 20. * Soceri tibi Marsque Venusque contigerunt,' Ov. M. iii. 130. * Duo fulmina Romani imperi subito in Hispania Cn. et P. Scipiones exstincti sunt,' C. /. ^^/3. 15. *Acernme deliciae meae Dicaearchus contra immortalitatem dlsseruit,' C. T. D. i. 'Pompeius nostri amores ipse se afflixit,' C. Att. ii. 19. 'Cetera turba, nos, inquam, cenamus avis,' Hor. 5". ii. 3. 26. 'Hoc dedimus nos tibi nomen eques (for equites),' Ov. F. ii. 128. * 'Tec multo post diem obiit utroque liberorum superstite, Tiberio Drusoque Neronibus,' Suet. Tib. 4. 'Corinthi Achaiae urbe Vespa- sianus certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae,' Tac. H. ii. i. 5. * Quid meritu's ? Crucem,'Ter. An. iii. 5. 15. ' Cuius es? Amphitruonis,' Plaut. Amph. v. 3. 222. *Quantiemit? Vili,' Plaut. Ep. i. i. 49. E. {Relative and Antecedent.) a. * Pax ita convenerat ut Etruscis Latinisque fluvius Albula, quam nunc Tiberim vocant, finis esset,' L. i. 8. ' Est locus in carcere, q u o d T u 11 i a n u m appellatur, circiter duodecim pedes humi depressus,' Sail. Cat. 55. * V e i e n s bellum exortum, qui bus Sabini arma coniunxerant-v' L. ii. 53. ' Habebam inimicum non C. Marium, sed duo importuna prodigia, quos egestas, quos aeris alieni magnitudo, quos levitas, quos improbitas tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat,' C. p. Ses. 16. * Ad quadraginta milia miiitam, quod roboris in Samnio erat, convenerant,' L. x. 38. *Illud, mi Tiro, te rogo, ne sumptui parcas ulla in re quod ad valetudinem opus sit,' C. Fa7n. xvi. 4. 'luniores, id maxime quod Kaesonis sodalium fuit, auxere iras in plebem,' L. iii. 14. * Favent pietati fideique di, per quae populus Romanus ad tantum fastigi venit/ L. xliv. 2. * Minime miror qui insanire occipiunt ex iniuria,' Ter. Ad. ii. I. 43. *En dextra fidesque quem secum patrios aiunt portare penatis,' Verg. Aen. iv, 598. ' Dividebat agros quibus volebat,' C. Off. i. 11. ' Lacedaemonii Agin regem, quod numquam antea apnd eos acciderat, necaverunt,' C. Off. ii. 23. * Raptim quibus quisque poterat elatis iam continens agmen migrantium impleverat vias,* L. i. 29. * Pomptinus a te tractatus est praestanti ac singulari fide, cuius tuibeneficii sum ego testis,' C. Earn. iii. 10. ' Accusator non ferendus est is, qui quod in altero vitium reprehendit in eo ipso dep»* |henditur,' C. Verr. iii. 2. *Nullo modo animus audientis . § M7~i9. Vocative Case. loi. *Princeps in senatu tertium lectus est P. Scipio Afri- canus/ Publius Scipio Africanus was for the third time chosen prince of the Senate^ L. xxxviii. 28. ^Amicitia virtutum adiu- irix a natura data est, non vitiorum comes,' C. Lael, 22. 2) ^Aristaeus inventor olei esse dicitur,' Aristaeus is said to be the discoverer of oil, C. Verr. iv. 57. ^ Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Cato preferred being to see7mng good, Sail. C. 54. * Socrates parens philosophiae iure dici potest,' Socrates may justly be called the father of philosophy, C. Fin, ii. i. ' Ad auream arietis pellem profecti dicuntur Argonautae,' the Argonauts are said to have gone after the golden fleece^ Varr. R, R, ii. i (esse being omitted). iii. The Nominative may stand with the Inter- jections en, ecce> o, and others* ^En dextra fidesque!' lo the right hand and the pledged faith! Verg. Aen. iv. 597. ^ Sed ecce nuntii, ecce litterae, Caesarem ad Corfinium,' but lo couriers and letters stating that Caesar is at Corfinium, C. Alt. viii. 3^ *0 vir foi'tis atque amicus !' 0 the brave and friendly man I Ter. Ph. ii< 2* 10. B, The Vocative Case, ^ n8 i. The Vocative is used without or with an vocative Interjection : fill, Pompei, luppiter: O fili, O Pompei; pro luppiten ii. The Nominative takes the place [of the Vocative : 1) When the Noun is Collective: * I, pete virginea, populus, suffimen ab 2iX'3i^ go, people^ seek incense from the virgin^ s altar, Ov. F. iv. 731. * O Pomp ill us sanguis,' Hor. ad Pis. 292. 2) When the word is an Attribute or Apposite enthetically or adverbially used: 'Tu quoque Cydon Dardania stratus dextra,' Verg. Aen. x. 320. *Nudus iaciture sepulcro,' St. Th. vii. 777. 3) Yet poets sometimes keep the Vocative in such circum- stances : ' Sic venias ho die me,' so mayst thou come to-day, Tib. i. 7,53. *Rufe mihi frustra ac nequiquam credite amice,' O aut incitari aut teneri potest, qui modus a me non tentatus sit/ C. Or. 38. * Haec est quam Scipio laudat in libris et quam maxime probat tempefationem reipublicae,' C. Leg. iii. 5. * Poeta id sibi negoti credidit solum dafi popillo ut placerent quas fecisset fabulas,' Ter. An. Pf. 3. ' Tullia, qui illius in te amor fuit, hoc certe te facere non vult,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Cuius lenitatis est Galba, iam fortasse promisit,* Tac. H. i« 37« 'Qua es prildentia, nihil te fugiet/ C. Fafn. xi. 13. (See p. 312.) * Sarmatis neque conti neque gladii, quos praelongos utraque manu reg^nty usui erant,' Tac. H. i. 79. 'Consul, qui unus supererat^ moritur,' L. iii. 7. b. 'Talis est quaeoumque respublica qualis eius aut natura aut voluntas qui illani regit,' C. Rep. i. 31. 'Hoc bellum est, quale bellum nulla barbaria gessit,' C. in Cat. ii. I. 'Videre mihi videor tantam dimicationein quanta numquam fuit,' C. Att, vii. I. B B 2 372 Latin Syntax. § I20-I. Rufus vainly and to no purpose believed my friend^ Catull. 77. i. * Quibus Hector ab oris exspectate w^msl^ from what shores^ Hector, comest thou expected? Verg. A en, ii. 282. See Pers. iii. 28. Ausonius has * lane, veni, novus anne, veni/ Id, viii* x. C, The Accusative Case. 120 Accusa. i. The Accusative is the Case of the Attained else. Nearer Object : also of the Contained Object. Any Agent may become an Object : a striker may be struck, &c. But not every Object can be an Agent in a proper sense. There- fore it is that in Neuter Nouns (as bellum, regnum ; mel, far, &c.), the Accusative is the primary, the Nominative only a secondary, form. Therefore also, when a Proposition (as, ' the parrot speaks ') quits the form of statement, and passes into an abstract notion (• the parrot's speaking*), while the Finite Verb becomes Infinitive (loqui), the Nominative becomes Accusative (psittacum) ; that is, the Subject of an Infinitive is an Accusative in Latin. Such a notion, 'psittacum loqui,' is essentially Objective, but, like the Nominative of a Neuter word, it can, by a secondary use, become the Subject of a Proposition ; ' psittacum loqui credibile est,' the parrofs speaking (that the parrot speaks) is credible, ii. Transitive Verbs of any class take an Accusative of the Attained Nearer Object. 1. mater alit pullos, the mother nourishes the young ones. 2. in primis venerare Deum, in the first place worship God, 3. pudetme stultitiae, / am ashamed (lit. * it shames me') of my folly. The First Example, in Passive form, becomes pulli a matre aluntur. The Second (where the Verb is Deponent) and the Third (where it is Impersonal) cannot assume the Passive form. This is the standard Rule, because Transitive Verbs are so large a class. But to draw the line which divides Intransitive from Transitive Verbs is not easy. Intransitive Verbs are often used with Transitive force: ardere, flere, pallere, sitire, &c. Tran- sitive Verbs may drop their Object and seem to be Intransitive : amare, durare, obtinere, &c. The following considerations may throw light on this subject. ^ 121 General Rule. - By the Attained Object is meant that wiiich follows Transitive Verbs : by the Coa- teined Object that which follows lotrans^tive Verbs. § 122. Accusative Case, 373 iii. The Contained Object or Cognate Accu- Con sative. obj 1) Every Verb has at least one Object, its own Activity, repre- sented by its most abstract Verbal Noun in (ion-) -lo: agere actionem, stare stationem, ire itionem, narrare narra- tionem, 5cc. This purest abstract form is not, however, used by Latin authors in connection with Verbs. But other Substantives, more concrete, are so used with the Verbs to which they belong : the construction being that called * the Cognate Accusative,' or ' Accusative of the Verbal Operation,' or ^Contained Accusative.' Such instances are : Canere cantilenam, Ter. ; cenare cenam. Plant. ; furere furorem, Verg. ; gaudere gaudium, C. ; iurare iusiurandum, C. ; insanire insaniam, Sen. ; ludere ludum, Hor. ; nocere noxam, L. ; ridere risum, C. ; servire servitutem, C. ; somniare somnium, Plaut. ; vivere vitam, Plaut. ; moveri motus, Lucr. When such expressions occur, the Substantive usually has an epithet: Ludum insolentem ludere, Hor. 2) Instead of the purely Cognate Accusative, Intransitive Verbs oftener take a Contained Accusative expressing some more limited operation of the Verb : Agere {to- pass), aetatem ; agere {to act) partis ; cantare melos ; coronari Olympia (to be crowned as an Olympian 7/^V/^?r = vincere Olympia) ; currere stadium ; degere vitam, &c. ; dormire noctem ; errare litora ; ire viam, &c. ; iurare numen, &c. ; praelucere spem ; ludere aleam ; ludere carmina ; militare bellum ; mentiri auspicia ; natare aquas, &c. ; navigare aequor, &c. ;^ prandere holus ; pugnare proelia ; quadrare acervum ; respondere ius ; resonare Amaryllida (alcyonen) ; saltare (moveri) Satyrum (Cyclopa) ; sonare vitium (hominem), &c. ; triumphare hostem ; vagari terras ; vehi maria ; vivere aetatem (Bacchanalia, Nestora), &c. ; vigilare noctem ; vincere causam (iudicium), &c. Especially Verbs which express CL) Odour or flavour : olere crocos (pastillos, lampadem, anti- quitatem, &c.), redolere flores ; spirare odorem ; exhalare mephitim ; sapere mella (aprum, mare, plebeium, &c.). b) Visible emanation: manare mella; depluere lacrimas ; spirare flammas ; stillare rorem ; sudare electra ; erum- pere liquores, &c. Such constructions are chiefly poetic : but many of them occur in prose. 3) Other Intransitive Verbs take a Contained Accusative only or chiefly of Neuter Pronouns and Pronominal words : Quod, quid, ahquid, quicquam, nescio quid, nihil, hoc, id, idem, illud, istud, utrumque : quae, omnia, cuncta, eadem, multa, pauca, &c. See M. Lucr, vi. 404. Among such Verbs are: cogere, dolere, dubitare, disserere, 374 Latin Syntax. §123 gaudere, gloriari, laborare, laetari, obsequi, peccare, stomachari, succensere, &c. And the expressions : animum advertere, auctor sum (/ advise), 4) Out of this usage have grown a large number of Accusative phrases, which have an Adverbial use : Cetera (alia, pleraque), multum, plus, plurimum, summum, aeter- num, &c. ; suam vicem ; quod genus ; id genus, omne genus ; magnam partem ; istuc (illud, id) aetatis ; hoc noctis ; id temporis, . id auctoritatis, &c. All these belong to prose style, 5) A Contained Accusative of the Neuter Adjective, Singular or Plural, is used by poets freely in an adverbial manner, especially with Verbs which express sensitive or sensible action : Dulce ridere (loqui) ; immane spirare (sonare) ; suave re- sonare ; perftdum ridere ; turbidum laetari ; lugubre rubere ; im- mensum attolli (crescere) ; altum dormire ; lene virere ; suave olere ; lucidum fulgere ; falsum renidere ; acerba tueri ; sera comare ; vana tumere ; rauca gemere ; crebra ferire ; plura mo- rari ; insueta rudere ; sollemnia insanire, with many more, 6) A form of the Contained Accusative, largely used by poets, sometimes by Livy and prose writers of the silver age, is Hhe Accusative of Respect,' also called *Accusativus Partis,' because it defines more nearly the part affected of the Object. Often an Ablative appears with it, sometimes a Dative. This construction is taken by some Intransitive Verbs : tremere artus (ossa), torpere nervos, tumere colla, dolere caput (oculos), &c. Oftener by Passive Verbs : suffundi ora rubore ; expleri men- tem ; molliri ingenium ; diduci animum; pingi alvum notis ; * Capita Phrygio velamur amictu,' V, Aen, iii. Most frequently by Passive Participles and Adjectives : Tectus cahgine vultum; ornatus crinis apio ; mutata men- tem ; labefactus animum ; laniata genas, &c. ; madidus unguento comam; os umerosque deo similis; crura thy mo plenae ; nudae bracchia et pedes. Sometimes by Substantives : Ora puer pulcherque habit um; cetera fossor, iv. Medial Object. Different from the Accusative of the Part, and having more the nature of an Attained Accusative, is that which poets often give to Passive Verbs and their Participles, used Reflexively, like the Greek Middle Verb. Thus cingi ( = cingere se), indui ( = induere se), exui (-exuere se), pasci ( = pascere se), colligi ( = colHgere se), suspendi ( = suspendere se), &c., take (as it were) a Second Object of the thing girt on, put on, put off, fed 07i, gathered up, hmtg on, &c. In prose this is rare, but sometimes found. * Exuitur cornua,' she puts off her horns, Ov. M. ix. 52. * Inutile ferrum cingi tur,V/^? girds hirnself with useless steel , Verg. Ae, ii. §124-5. Accusative Cas^, 375 510. * Pascuntur silvas/ they graze on the forests, Yo^rg. G, iii. 314. * Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto/ having their satchel and slate hung on their left arm^ Hor. kS". i. 6. 74. So * chlamydem circumdata/ having a mantle thrown round her, Verg. Ae7i. iv. 137.; 'saiurata dolorem/ having her resentment glutted^ Verg. A en, v. 608. V. The Accusative of Limiting Circum- stances (Time, Space, Measure), § 103, V. 1) The Accusative of Duration of Time : 'Annum iam audis Cratippum,' you have been a scholar of Cratippus for a year, C, Off, i, i. * Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis,' Pericles was prime minister of Athens forty years, C. d. Or. iii. 34. And after natus, expressing age : * Dionysius quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum occupavit,' Dionysius seized the government at the age of twenty^ five years, C, T, D. v. 20. This last Accusative sometimes continues even when the Com- parative (maior, minor) is introduced : * Dionysius maior annos sexaginta decessit,^ Dio7iysius died when more than sixty years old, Nep. Eum, 2. 2) The Accusative of Distance of Time past with abhinc : ' Pater abhinc duo et viginti annos est moYimis,^ the father died twenty-two years ago, C. Verr, ii. 9. 3) The Accusative of Space traversed and of Distance : * Milia tum pransi tria repimus,' then after luncheon we crawl three miles, Hor. S. i. 5. 25. ' Hadrumetum abest a Zama circiter milia passuum tree en ta,' Hadrumetum is about 300 miles from Zatna, Nep. Hann. 6. 4) The Accusative of Measure of Length, Breadth, Height, Depth, with the Adjectives longus, latus, altus : also of Weight with the word p o n d o : Longum (latum, altum) ducentos pedes . . . quaterna cubita, &c., digitos sex, &c. So, libram pondo, a pound weight. (The Ablative and Genitive are used in Constructions of Time, Space, and Measure: also Prepositions; per, ad, intra, supra, in, &c.) vi. Accusative of Place Whither. The Accusative of Place whither is chiefly used when the Place is a town or small island (sometimes, as by poets, more exten- sively) ; also when it is expressed by domum (home), rus {into the. country). ' Legati Athenas missi sunt,' L. iii. 31. ^Caesar Narbonem profectus est,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. Mbimus Afros,' Verg. B. i. 64. 'Veni consulis Antoni dom>um,' C. Fa7n. xi. 28. * Ego rus ibo,' Ter. Eun. ii. i. 10. So^ domum itio, reditio, reditus. The 376 Latin Syntax, § 126-27. phrases Mre infitias,' to deny, 'ire exsequias/ to attend a fu7ieral, are constructed on this model. The Prepositions ad, in, usque, are also much used in expressing Motion to a Place. See Prepositions.^ 126 vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. The Subject of a Transitive Verb may be made its Object : Moveo me, moves te, movet se, &c. ; and some Transitive Verbs may omit this Pronoun, and so become Intransitive. Such are, Aequo, ago, abstineo, augeo, deflecto, duro, habeo, inclino, insinuo, lavo, minuo, moveo, muto, pasco, pono, praecipito, remitto, turbo, urgeo, verto, averto, vibro, volvo, and others. See M. Lucr, iii. 502 ; v. 931. Ex. 'Abstineto irarum,' abstain frorn angry feelings, Hor. C, iii. 27. 69. *A veritate deflect it,' he swerves froin truth, C. p, Caec. 51. * Bene habet,' // is well, luv. * Nilus praecipit^t ex altissimis inontibus,' the Nile dashes from very high mountain^, C. S, Sc. 13. ^ Ubi nos laverimus lavato,' when we have bathed, bathe, Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 48. ^ Minuente aestu,' the heat fnoderating, Caes. B. G. iii. 12. 'Res humanae semper in adversa mutant,* human affairs always change to adversity, Sail. lug. 104. ^ Re- miser ant dolores pedum,' the pai7ts of the feet had abated, C. Br, 34. ^ lam verterat fortuna,' had now changed, L. y. 49. * Venti posuere,' the winds have dropped, Verg. Ae. vii. 27. Conversely, many Passive forms are used reflexively : Congregor, delector, effundor, exerceor, fallor, feror, lavor, moveor,' mutor, oblector, pascor, versor, vertor, avertor, volvor, &c. See iv. 127 viii. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively. The tendency of Intransitive Verbs to become Transitive is variously shewn. i) Many Static Verbs take the cause or motive of the state as an Object, and so become Transitive. Such are Doleo, lugeo, maereo, grieve, grieve for', tremo, treinble, tremble at-, erubesco, blush, blush for', ardeo, burn, burn for', esurio, hunger, hunger for ', sitio, thirst, thirst for-, lateo, lie hid, lie hid from ; maneo, re^nain, await ; miror, wonder, wonder at ; , pereo, depereo, die or waste away, die or waste for love of-, queror, complain, C07nplain of-, sileo, taceo, ajn silent, a7n sile7it of ; audeo, dare ; calleo, a7n e7iured, a77i fa77iiliar with ; fasti dio, loathe ; horreo, horresco, shudder-, paveo, pavesco, quake ; palleo, pallesco, turn pale, &c. Ex. ' Doleo casum tuum,' I grieve for your 77iisfortu7te, C. ^ Pon- tum palluit,' she tur7ied pale at the sea, Hor. C. iii. 27, 26. ^ Eru- bescit soloecismum,' he blushes for his solecis77i. Sen. Ep. 95. * Nutum divitis horret,' he shudde7's at the rich 77ia7i^s 7iod, Hor. Epist. i. 18. II. * The Accusatives of Time, Space, ISIeasure and Place, are in the naturfi of thfr Contained Accusative. Thus * ire Romam ' = * ire iter Romae. ' §127 Accusative Case. 377 2) Verbs of Intransitive action take as Object that which excites the action : latro, bark, bark at ; sibilo, hiss ; rideo, laugh, laugh at ; fleo, weep, weep for ; gemo, gemisco, groari, groan for, ^ Populus me sibilat/ the populace hiss me, Hor. i. 1.66. 'Fletnecem fili/ she weeps for her son^s death, Tac. Note, Most in these classes have no personal Passive : ardeo, audeo, calleo, lateo, pereo, paveo, palleo, &c. A few are found Passive: ^ Quo plus sunt potae plus sitiuntur aquae/ water is thirsted for 77iore, the more it has been drimk, Ov. F, i. 216. 3) Various Verbs, usually Intransitive, take a Transitive force in certain senses : Annuere, grant ; adsuescere, consuescere, insuescere, accustom ; desinere, leave off-, censere, enroll ; cunctari, delay ; deproperare, festinare, maturare, properare, speed \ iaculari, shoot \ laborare^, elaborare, work out \ fugere, escape from ; migrare, transgress '\ morari, delay ; pergere, continue ; plaudere, pat ; putare, reckon^ prune ; sufficere, supply ; ruere, proruere, overthrow, rake up ; surgere, rouse up ; vergere, incline, 8lc, On the other hand, some Verbs, usually Transitive, have also a * peculiar Intransitive use : such are, ^ Audire, (hear) be called; differre, (sunder) disagree ; debere, {owe) be bound [ought) ; superare, {surpass) survive, remain. Credere, ' (entrust) believe, takes Dat. or Acc. of thing, Dat. of person. Sortiri, allot ^ or take by lot, is Transitive in each sense. 4) Many Compounds of Intransitive Verbs, especially verbs of Motion, obtain a Transitive or Semitransitive force, chiefly when compounded with Prepositions governing an Accusative, ad, ante, circum, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, trans: Adire, aggredi, allabi, adsilire, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi, antevenire, circumire, circumnavigare, circumvenire, inire, ingredi, illabi, innare, innatare, insilire, insultare, invadere, invehi, obire, obambulare, obequitare, perambulare, percurrere, permeare, praeterire, subire, transcurrere, transire, tranare, trans- gredi, transilire, transvolare, &:c. Some which do not contain motion : Adiacere, accumbere, adstare, adsidere, alloqui, circumsonare, circumsedere, circumstare, impugnare, inclamare, incubare, insi- dere, instare, inundare, oppugnare, obsidere, occumbere, &c. Many of these may take a Dative instead of an Accusative : ' Allabi, illabi, innare, succedere, subrepere, incubare, instare, &c. Some Verbs of motion, compounded with Prepositions which govern an Ablative, cum, e, prae, can be used as Transitive : Coire, con venire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere, exire, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere, praegredi, praevenire ; And some not of motion : Abnuere, aversari, edormire, expugnare, &c. Most of these also vary their construction. Note I. We call those Verbs Semitransitive which, though they take an Attained Object, are not used Passively : Adiacere, adsidere, and others in the preceding lists. 378 Latin Syntax, §128. The test of an Active Transitive Verb is Personal use as Passive : ' Tamesis uno loco pedibus transiri potest/ Thames can be forded in one spot^ Caes. B. G, v. 18. *Circumsedemur copiis omnib'.is/ we are beset by all the forces^ C. Att. xv. 9. Therefore transeo and circumsedeo are used as Transitive Verbs. So, * Quidam oratores si arriderentur, esset id ipsum Attico- rum/ if certain orators were smiled on, this would be a true sample of Attic fashion, C. Opt. G, O. 4. Note 2. Intransitive Verbs which take a Contained Object are often used transitively in the third Persons Passive : *Tota mihi dormitur hiQTsv^s,W sleep the whole winter, M^crt, xiii. 59. ^ Noctes vigilantur amarae/ there are bitter nights watches^ Ov. H, xii. 169. ^Tertia vivitur aetas/ a third age of life is passing, Ov. M. xii. 187. * Multo pisce natantur aquae/ the waters are swum by 7nany a fish, Ov. A. A, i. 4.S. Rare instances of Trajective Verbs personally Passive are found : invideor in Horace; imperor both in Horace and Cicero. But Impersonal Passive Construction is regular in such Verbs. 5) Sometimes the Preposition is repeated after Compound Verbs, or another introduced : ^Sestius ad urbem advolavit/ Sestius flew to the city,C,p, Ses. A' 'Orator peragrat per animos hominum/ an orator travels through the minds of men, C. d. Or. i. 51. ' Pittacus acce* dere quemquam vetat in funus ahorum/ Pittacus forbids anyom to approach the funeral of other people, C. Leg. ii. 26. This happens also with Prepositions governing the Ablative : * Excedere ex urbe/ ' eripere ab aliquo pecuniam/ &c. Hence some Compound Verbs, the Primitives of which are Tran- sitive, have two Accusatives ; one of which is the Object of the Simple Verb, the other depends on the Preposition. The Preposi- tions admitting this construction are trans, ad, circum, praeter: *Petreius iusiurandum adigit Afranium/ Petrcius makes Afranius (take) an oath, Caes, B. C. i. 76. * Postquam id animum ad vert it/ whejt he tur7ted his wind to tins, Caes. B. G. v. 18. ^ Allobroges Pompeius sua praesidia circumduxit/ Pompeius led the Allobroges roiuid his posts, Caes. J3. C. iii. 6i. The Passive construction retains the Accusative governed by the Preposition: *Scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea/ my speech seems to have cleared the rocks, C. p. Coel. 21. ix. Idiomatic Uses. 1) The Abstract Verbal Noun itself appears in the Comic poets with an Accusative: *Quid tibi banc curatio est rem?' what concern have you with this affair? Plant. Amph. i. 3. 21. 2) The Participial in -bundus is sometimes used with an Accu- sative : ' Populabundus agros/ laying ^vaste the lands, Cell. xi. 15. Livy uses perosus, hating, with Accusative. Exosus and pertaesus, are so used by writers of the silver age* § I29-I30- Accusative Case. 379 3) Comic poetry shews that it was an idiom of Roman conversa- tion to begin a sentence with an unconstructed Accusative, ante- cedent to a Relative also in the Accusative : 'Naucratem quern convenire volui, in navi non erat,' Naucrates whom I wished to meet was not on board, Plaut. Amph. iv. i. i. 'Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis quas turbas that eunuek whom you gave us, what trouble he has given / Ter. Eun, iv. 3. II. a) The Greek idiom was also used, by which the true Subject of a Relative Clause is made the Object of the principal sentence : * Scin' m e in quibus sim gaudiis do you know how overjoyed I am f Plaut. Bac, iv. 6. 28. ' Servum meum Strobilum miror ubi sit/ / wonder where is my slave Strobilus^ Plaut. AtcL iv. 7. 16. Note, Many Verbs take a great variety of Objects, thus forming an extensive phraseology, which may be studied in good dictionaries with advantage. Such Verbs are : ago, capio, do, facio, fero, habeo, volo and their compounds. 129 X. The Exclamatory Accusative. Accusa- ^ tive in Ecthe- 1) The Accusative may stand with one of the Interjections O, sis. heu, eheu, pro, en, ecce, &c., or without an Interjection : 'O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam,' O the deceitful hope of men and frail fortune, C. d. Or, iii. 2. 7. ^ En quattuor aras! Ecce duas tibi Daphni, duas altaria Phoebo/ lo, four altars / behold two for thee, Daphnis, and two of higher elevation for Phoebus, Verg. B, v. 65. * Pro deorum atque homi- num fidem,^ C. T, D. v. 16. 'Heu stirpem invisam!' Verg. Aen. vii. 293. * Me miserum !^ C. Fam. xiv. i. 'Operam tuam mult am, qui et haec cures et mea expedias,' how much trouble you take in both minding these affairs and expediting mine, C. Alt, xiii. 6. 2) This Accusative may take the form of an Interrogation : * Huncine hominem? hancine impudentiam, indices, han- cine audaciam.^' what a man is this? what shamelessness, gen- tlemen, what audacity ? C. Verr. v. 25. (On the Government of the Accusative by Prepositions, see § 70.) xi. Accusative of two Objects. DouWe Accusa- i) Certain Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing, sometimes tive. take two Accusatives, one Contained, of the Matter, the other Attained, of the Person. ' Quis musicam docuit Epaminondam ? ' who taught Epa7ninondas music? Nep. Praef ^Numquam divitias deos rogavi,' I never asked the gods for riches, Mart. iv. 77. i, 'Anti- gonus iter quod habebat omnis eel at,' Antigonus concealed from all the road he was taking, Nep. Eimt, 8. t Latin Sy7itax, § i3»- Such Verbs are : Doceo (and its compounds, edoceo, dedoceo), erudio (in poetry)^ rogo, interrogo, oro, exoro, posco, reposco, flagito, percontor, postulo, celo ; and (in Horace) lacesso, veneror, Consulo with double Accusative is rare. 2) Moneo and its compounds, cogo, and some other Verbs, may have this construction when the Accusative of the Matter is a Neuter Pronoun or Pronominal : 'Illud me praeclare admones,' j/^?^ remind me of that fact excellently^ C. Att. ix. 9. 2. ^ Mult a extis admonemur,' we are admonished of 77^any things by entrails', C. N. D, ii. 66. And this is the most common Accusative after Verbs of asking, ■ 3) Verbs of informing,, warnings enquiring y concealing,, may take an Ablative of the Matter with de : *De paratis incendiis senatum edocet,'^^ informs the Senate of the intended conflagrations ^ Sail. C. 48. * Non est profecto de illo veneno eelata mdXcXy certainly his mother was not kept in ignorance of that poison^ C, p, Clu, 66. 4) Pet o, contend o, take an Ablative of the Person with a, ab: which may also follow rogo, oro, exoro,posco,postulo, flagito : ' Hoc a te peto,' this I ask of you, C. 5) Quaero, scitor, sciscitor, percontor, exigo, take an Ablative of the Person with ab, ex: 'Zeuxis quaesivit ab iis quasnam virgines formosas haberent,' Zeuxis enquired of them what beatttiful maidens they had, C. d. Inv. ii. i. 6) The Contained Accusative of the Matter may remain in the Passive : * In primis cultum agrorum docenda est vita,' life 7nust first be taught agriculture, PI. N, H, xv. i. * Livius est primus ro- gat us sententiam;^' Livius was first asked his opinion, xxxvii. 14. xii. Oblique Double Accusative with Verbs of making, thinking &c. (Factive). i) A simple Copulative Sentence, of which the Verb is sum, may become an Oblique Clause (Accusative with Infinitive), and (the Infinitive being omitted) the Clause may be made to depend on a principal sentence with one of these Verbs. Examples ; Numa est rex ; Numam esse regem ; Numam regem : ^Populus Romanus Numam regem creavit,' the Roman people elected Nimia king. Tu es doctus et prudens; te esse doctum et prudentem; te doctum et prudentem : ^Puto te doctum et prudentem,' I count you learned and prudent. g i^x. Accusative Case. 38,1 Eumenes est sepeliendus ; Eumenem esse sepeliendum ; Eu- menem sepeliendum : 'Antigonus Eumenem sepeliendum tradidit.' Antigonus gave Eumenes to be buried, Numam, te, Eumenem, are Oblique Subjects (becoming Objects). Regem, doctum, prudentem, sepeliendum, are Oblique Comple- ments. This use of the Gerundive is very frequent. 2) The Verbs which form this construction are : d) The Active forms of the Copulative Verbs enumerated on p. 351. b) Also many other Verbs : Adiungo, adscisco, arbitror, constituo, do, facio, impertior, monstro, peto, pono, praebeo, praesto {exhibit^ make)^ reddo, sumo, tribuo, &c. 3) Instead of an Apposite or Attribute, the Complement in any such form of Construction may sometimes be one of the Pre- positions pro, in, with an Ablative Case, inter with Accusative, or loco, numero, &c., with a Genitive. Thus the English sentence, ' I hold Gains my friend^ may be rendered in many ways : Gaium ami cum habed. Gaius a me amicus habetur. Gaium habeo Gaius a me habetur pro amico. in amicis. inter amicos. ^ in amicorum numero. Examples of Accusative. ii. {Attained Acc.) *Ea, quae leviter s e n s u m voluptate movent, facilllme fugi- unt satietatem,' C. d. Or. iii. 25. * Nulla ars imitari sollertiam naturae potest,' C. iV^. D. i. 33. 'Solet Dionysium, cum aliquid furiose fecit, pae n i ter e,' C. Att. viii. 5. iii. {Contained Acc.) 'Dentatus triumphavit triumphos novem, Gell. ii. ii. 'Magna voce iuravi verissimum pulchcrrimumque iusiurandum, quod populus idem magna voce me vere iurasse iuravit,' C. Fam. v. 2. * Aquillius iuravit morbum,' G Att. i. i. * Quomodo tibi placebit lovem lapidem iurare, cum scias, lovem iratum esse nemini posse?' C. Fam. vii. 12. * Claudius ale am studiosissime lusit,'Suet. Claud. 2,3' * Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt,' luv li. 2. *Qui stadium Cufrit, eniti et contendere debet ut vincat,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Tigellius noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane,' Hon 6". i. 3. 17. * Si Xerxes, cum tantis classibus tantisque copiis mare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, mel se auferre ex Hymetto voluisse diceret, certe sine causa videretur tanta conatus,' C. Fin. ii. 34. 'Nero sub exitu vitae palam voverat saltaturilm se Vergilii Turnum,' Suet. Ner. 54. 'Infer alia prodigia carnem pluit,' L. iii. 10. * Magis laudatur unguentum, quod ceram, quam quod crocum olere videtur,' C. d. Or. iii. 25. 'Definitio genere ipso doctrinam redolet,' C. d. Or. ii. 25. * In Hispania rAulta in spartariis mella herbam eam sapiunt,' Plin. N. H. xi. 8. * Hand tibi voltus mortalis, nec vox hominem son at,' Verg. Aen. i. 328. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii. i. *De Q. Fratre nihil ego te accusavi,' C. Fam. xiv. i. * Cetera assentior Crasso,' C. d. Or. i. 9. * Q. Falbius Maximus moritur, exactae aetatis; si quidem verum est, augurem dous et sexaginta annos fuisse, quod quidam auctores sunt,'L. xxx. 26. * Stupentis tribunos et suam iam vie em anxios libd- ravit onere consensus populi Roman i, ' L. viii. 35. ' Siievi non multum frumento, se'd maximam partem lacte atque pecore vivunt,' Caes. B. G. iv. i. * Scis me orationes aut aliquid id genus solitum scribere,' C. Att. xiii. 12. ' Si apud te plus auctoritas 3»2 Latin Syntax, §13^ that which is It has three I. As Remoter Object, it completes the construction of many- Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive ; of many Adjectives, sometimes of Adverbs, rarely of Substantives : Dare librum (alicui) ; coronam capiti imponere ; placere, irasci (alicui) ; vicinus, carus, odiosus (alicui) : convenienier naturae : utiliter patriae : obttmperatio legibus. mea valuisset, nihil sane esset quod nos paeniteret,' C. ad Q. Fr. \. 2. Id nobis oneris, hominibus id aetatis, imponitur/ C. d. Or. i. 47, * Roman orum nemo id auctori- tatis aderat,' Tac. Ann. xii. 18. * Cometae sanguinei lugubre rubent,' Verg. Aen. x. 273. * Artabanus, ubi data fides a legatls reddendae dominationi venisse, adlevatiir animum,' Tac. Ann. vi. 43. * Arminius impetu equi pervasit oblitus faciem sue cruore ne nosceretur,' Tac. Ann. ii. 17. * Hannibal, dum murum Sagunti incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit,' L. xxi. 7. * Non ilia colo calathisve Minervae femineas adsueta man us,* Verg. Aen. vii. 805. iv. {Medial Obj.) * Die quibus in terris inscripti nomina regum nascantur florcs',' Verg. B. iii. 106. * Septem et viginti virgines, longam indutae vest em, carmen in lunonem reginam canentes ibant,' L. xxvii. 37. * Domitianus sacellum lovi conserva- tor! aramque posuit casus suosin marmore express a m/ Tac. H. iii. 74. V. {Accus. of Time^ Space, Measure.) *Multa saeculasic viguit Pythagoreorum nomen, ut nulli aiii docti viaerentur,' C. Z. D. i. 16. * Duodequadraginta annos tyrannus Syracusanorum fuit Dionysius, cum quinque et viginti annos natus doniinatum occupavisset,' C. T. D. v. 20. 'Abhinc triennium commigravit hue viciniae,' Ter. An. i. i. 43. * A recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet discedere,' C. Att. xiii. 20. * Zama quinque dierum iter ab Karthagine abest,' L. XXX. 29. * Milites aggerem, latum pedes trecentos, altum pedes octoginta exstruxerunt,' Caes. B. G. vii. 24. vi. Accus. of Place.) * Athenienses bello Persico sua omnia, qua6 moveri poterant, partim Salaminem, partim Troezenem asportarunt,' Nep. Them. 2. * Hannibal in hiberna Capuam concessit,' L. xxiii. 18. * Galli quondam longe ab suis sedibus Delphos usque ad oraculum orbis terrae spoliandum profecti sunt,* C. p. Fcnt. 10. * Pompeius Africam exploravit ; inde Sardiniam cum classe venit,' C. L. Man. 12. * Aristoteles, Theophrastus, Zeno, innumerabiles alii philosophi numquam do mum ' revertere,' C. T. D. v. 37, 'Scipio rus ex urbe, tanquam e vinculis, evolabat,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. * Helvetii oppida sua omnia incendunt, ut, domum reditionis spe sublata, paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent,* Caes. B. G. i. 5. *Magni domum con- cursus ad Afranium fiebant,' Caes. B. C. i. 53. 'Hoc nemo eat infitias, Thebas, quamdiu Epaminondas praefuerit reipublicae, caput fuissetotius Graeciae,' Nep. Ep. 10. * Exequias Chremeti, quibus est commodum, ire tempus est,' Ter. Ph. v. 8. 37. vii. *Terra dies duodequadraginta movit,' L. xxxv. 40. *Aermovetur nobiscum/ C. N. D. ii. 33. ' Suevi lavantur in fluminibus,' Caes. B. G. iv. i. viii. 'Nemo tam ferus fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit/ Nep. Ale. 6. *Vel inagistri equitum virgas ac securis dictatoris tremere atque horrere sclent,' L. xxii. 27. * Nec honores sitio, nec desidero gloriam,' C. Q. Fr. iii. 5. * Commissa tacere qui nequit, hie niger est,* Hor. S. i 4. 84. * Ea quae disputavi disserere malui quam iudicare,' C. N. D. iii. 40. *Risi nivem atram,' C. Q. Fr. ii. 13. *Vigila illud, quod facile est, ne quid mihi temporls prorogetur,* C. Fam. ii. la 'Quisudo deproperare apio coronas curatve myrto ? ' Hor. C. ii. 7. 23. * Quam expedita tua consilia, quam evigilata tuiscogitationibus ! ' C. Att. ix. 12. * De natura deorum Cotta sic disputat, ut hominum nondeleat religionem, credo, ne communia iura migrare videatur,' C. Div.'x. 5. 'Matutine pater, seu lane libentius audis,' Hor. ii. 6. 20. 'Me miseram ! quid iam credas aut cui credas?' Ter. Ad. iii. 2. * Insepulta membra different Uipi,' Hor. Epod.x. 99. ' Haec cogitatione inter se differunt, re quidem D, The Dative Case, 132 Dative i. The Dative is the Case of interested in an action or state, principal uses in Latin: Case. § 132- Dative Case. 383 II. As Recipient or Acquisitive (Dativus Commodi et Incom- modi) it is added to any Predication to express that for whom or for which something is, or is done : Legere virgines Vesta e : esse patrem urbi. (The Datives I. II. oftener express persons than things.) III. Idiomatically, the Latin Dative is used to express a Pur- pose in constructions which generally complete the construction of sum, do, habeo, fio, verto, venio, and other verbs. Esse cordi, bono, usui, odio, honori. &c. ; vitio, culpae, crimini dare ; contemptui, derisui, habere ; auxilio, subsidio, venire, &:c. copulata sunt,' C. T. D.'w. 11. *Aequalege necessitas sortitur insignis et imos,* Hor. C. iii. i. 15. * Gens Claudia regnum in plebem sortita,' L. iii. 58. * Hie tibi rostra Cato ad volat,' C. Att. i. 14. ' Te nunc alloquor, Piirizzxi^,' Ad Herenn. iv. 15. * Appellitur navis Syracusas,' C. Verr. v. 25. 'Dictator triumphans u r b e m invehitur,' L. ii. 31. * Creati consules Kalendis Sextilibus, ut tunc principiuni anni agebatur, con su la turn ineunt,' L. iii. 6. * Achaeos Aetoli, navibus per fretum, quod Naupactum et Patras interfluit, exercitu traiecto, depopulate erant,' L. xxvii. 29. 'Pythagoras multas re gi ones barbarorum pedlbus obi it,' C. Fin. v. 29. 'Quaeritur, sitne honestum, gloriae causa mortem obire?' C. d. Or. iii. 29. ' Diligentissime semper ilium diem et illud munus solitus es obire,' C. Z^^/. ii. *Ad Antonium mittuntur qui nuntient ne M u t i n a m o b s i d e a t, ' C. Phil. vi. 2. ' Euphrates Babyloniam mediam per meat,' Plin. H. N. v. 26. * Non orat Roscius ut earn HOC tern per vigilet,' Q,. p. S. Rose. 35. * Populus solet nonnumquam dignos prae- terire,'C. Plane. -^. 'Crassus Euphratem nulla belli causa transire voluit,' C. Pin. ill. 22. 'Hannibal cum reliquis copiis Pyrenaeum transgreditur,' L. xxi. 24. * Haec Fetialis, quum finis suprascandit, haec portam ingrediens peragit,' L. i. 32. ' Germani intra annos quattuordecim tectum non subierant,* Caes. B. G. i. 36. ' Equites Pompeiani a c i e m Caesaris a latere aperto c i r c u m i r e coeperunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 93. 'Angustias Themistocles quaerebat ne multitudine circumiretur,' Nep. Them. ■^. * Eumenes extremo tempore circumventus est,' "Nep. £um. 5. 'Themistocles adire ad magi' stratum noluit,' Nep. Th. j. ' Ubii orabant ut Caesar exercitum modo Rhenum tra nsportaret,' Caes. B. G. W. 16. 'Transadigit costas et cratis pectoris ensem,' Verg. Aen. xii. 508. 'Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum duodecim milia equitum Iberum tra- duxit,' L. xxi. 23. ' Scipio colloquium hand abnuit,' L. xxx. 29. 'Verginius orabat ne se, ut parricidam liberum, aversarentur,' L. ii. 50. ' Utinam, Cn. Pompei, cum C. Caesare societatem aut numquam coisses, aut numquam diremisses ! ' C. Phil. ii. 10. 'Non eos solum con venire aveo, quos ipse cognovi, sed iDos etiam, de quibus audivi et legi,' C. Cal. M. 23. 'Urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi,' C. /. Plane. ' Struthiocameli altitudinem equitis insidentis equo e xc ed unt,' PI. N. H. X. i. * Edormi crapulam,' C. Phil ii. 12. ' Historia non debet egredi veritatem,' Plin. Ep. vii. 33. ' Decius M. Livium pontificem praeire iussit verba, quibus se legionesque hostium pro exercitu populi Romani Quiritium devoveret,' L. x. 28. X. * En miserum hominem!' C. Fin. ii. 30. 'O ho mi n em fortunatum,' C. Quine. 25. 'Me caecum, qui haec ante non viderim, ' C. A tt. x. 10. ' Di vostram fidem ! ' xi. {^Double Objeet.^ Eloquentia eflficit ut ea quae scimus alios docere possimus/ C. N. D. ii. 59. -Achaei quoque auxilia PhiHppum regem orabant,' L. xxviii. 5. 'Orationes me duas postulas,' C. Att. ii. 7. 'Pauca milites pro tempore hor- tat u r,' Sail. 49, ' Rascilius de privatis m e primum sententiam rogavit.'C. Q. Fr. ii. I. * Verres parentespretium pro sepultura liberum poscebat,' C. Verr. i. 3. ' Ibo et consulam banc rem amicos, quid faciundum censeant,' Plaut. iv. 3. 26. ' Non te celavi sermonem Ampii,' C. F'am. ii. 16. ' Scito, me non esse rogatum sententiam, 'C Att. i. 13. 'Hocnoscelatos non oportuit,' Ter. Hec, iv. 4. 23. ' Non audimus ea qua e a natura monemur,' C. Lael. 24. xii. {Factive Construetion.) 'Neminem pecunia divit em fecit,' Sen Ep. 120. 'Interrex creatur M. Furius Camillus, qui P. Cornelium Scipionem inter- regem prod id it,' L. v. 31. ' Cicerone m universa civitas consulemdeclaravit,* C. in Pis. I. ' Ubi illi tot di, si numeramus etiam caelum deum? ' C. N. D. i. 13. Latin Syntax. § 133-4. ii. (I) The Dative of the Remoter Object. The Words which govern this Dative are Verbs or Adjectives containing the general notions of 1) Proximity and Remoteness. 2) Demonstration and Obscurity. 3) Gratification and Disfavour. 4) Rule and Subservience. But many words, having these meanings, either take some other Case^^ or, while they take a Dative, admit other constructions also. On this account it is desirable to name first those Verbs which take a Dative only^ and then to add lists of Verbs with other varieties of Construction : and so in the Adjectives. A) I. Verbs with which a Remoter O b j e c t^ if expressed at all, is always a Dative, are chiefly the following : The Impersonal Verbs : accidit, conducit, contingit, con- venit, expedit, libet, licet, liquet, placet, praestat, restat, usuvenit, vacat : (fas est, necesse est, opus est, usus est), &c. Verbs of affirming, relating, shewing, proving, &c. — affirmo, confirmo, dico, exhibeo, indico, monstro, demonstro, narro, ostendo, patefacio, praecipio> probo, suadeo, persuadeo, dissuadeo, auctor sum, &c. (Trans.) Appearing, being known, being near, &c. — appareo, innotesco, pateo, videor, obviam eo, praesto' sum, &c. (Intrans.) Giving, lending, payiiig, owing, entrusting, &c. — commodo, concedo, credo, divido, do, fero, and their compounds, mando, ministro, praebeo, praesto, pendo, redhibeo, re- linquo, solvo, suppedito, trado, tribuo, debeo, committo, fido, confido, cedo, &c. (Trans.) Pro7nising, refusing, grudging — polliceor, promitto, reciplo, spondeo, despondeo ; — nego, recuso, renuo, invideo, &c. (Trans.) Congratulating, thanking ; — threatening : gratulor, grator, gratias (gratiam) ago, (refero, habeo) j — minor, minitor, &c. Dedicating, consecrating, sacrificing, vowing — dico, dedico, sacro^ consecro, operor, immolo, sacrifico, voveo, devoveo, &c. (Trans.) Assisting, favouring^ benefiting, satisfying : — injuring, op- posing : auxilior, benefacio, faveo, gratificor, medeor, opitulor, parco, patrocinor, prosum, satisdo, satisfacio, ' M o n t e m Vesontione murus circumdatus arcemefficit,' Caes. B. G. i. 38. * Socrates totius mundi se incolam et civemarbitrabatur,'C. T.D.v.yj. * Nemo credit, fiisi ei, quern fidelem put at,' Q. p. S. Rose. 39. 'Laelium Decimum co2:no- vimus virum bonum et non illitteratum,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. * Lentulus attribuit nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros civis interficiendos Gabinio, urbem inflam- m an dam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae,' C. in Cat. iv. 6. * Thus delecto, iuvo, rego, though resembling in sense some of the Ver]?6 hereafter fecounted, are always Transitive, taking no Case but the Accusative Dative Case, studeo, subvenio, succurro : — adverser, incommodo, in- sidior, malefacio, noceo, obsto, obsum, officio, repugno, resisto, &c. (Intrans.) , Believing^ flattering^ assenting^ pteasing : — distrusting, dis^ pleasing, upbraiding, reviling, being angry, &c. — credo, fido, confido, benedico, blandior,assentor, assentior, ignosco, indulgeo, placeo, morigeror, morem gero, convicior, diffido, obtrecto, displiceo, exprobro, irascor, maledico, stom- achor, succensco, &c. (Chiefly Intrans.) Ruling, commanding, obeying, serving — dominor, imperOj regno : — ancillor, cedo, famulor, oboedio, pareo, servio, inservio, subservio, suffragor, supplico, &c. (Intrans.) Observe the expression, dicto audieiis sum, / obey. On nubo, vaco, see iii. To these must be added numerous Verbs compounded with the particles : Ad, ante, ab, con, de, e, in, inter, ob, post, prae^ proj re, subj super, bene, male, satis : Addo, addico, affulgeo, desum, indormio, impendeo^ oppono, posthabeo, praefero, subiungo, satisfacio, &c. Among such Compounds, however, some admit an Accusative where a Dative might stand : many repeat their Preposition with its Case, or admit another Preposition and Case, where a Dative might stand. Generally the Dative prevails in poetry, Prepositions in prose. But this is not true of all such Verbs : and as no Grammar can exhaust the combinations of Verbs and Cases, the student should observe these in reading, with the aid of a good Dictionary. 2. d) Verbs used with Dative or Accusative : Adiaceo, adno, adstrepo, adsulto, adulor, aemulor, allatro, 135 antecedo, anteeo, antevenio, assideo, ausculto, comitor, decet, deficio, inhio, innato, inno, insto, intervenio, lateo, medicor, moderor, obambulo, obequito, obstrepo, obtrecto, obumbro, occumbo, plaudo, praecedo, praecello, praecurro, praemineo, praesideo, praestolot, supersto, supervenio. Observe mitto, nuntio, scribo^ alicui or ad aliquem. b) Verbs implying agreement, commtmion, comparison, &c., take either a Dative or, oftener in prose, the Preposition cum with its Case, or the phrase inter se. Such are Coeo, cohaereo, communico, comparo, Compono, concilio, confero, congrego ; also, apto, haereo, iungo, misceo, necto, socio, and their compounds with cum. This applies also to Verbs of contention, certo, contendo, pugno, &c. c) Verbs which imply disagreement^ disunion, difference, dis- tance, &c., take either a Dative or, often in prose, a Preposition with Case, usually ab, sometimes inter. Such are, Absum, differo, discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, disto, &c. c c 386 Latin Syntax. d) Verbs which imply taking away, defending, protecting from, &c., take either a Dative of the Remoter Object or, oftener in prose, a Preposition with Ablative. Such are, Abstraho, adimo, aufero, detraho, eripio, eximo; arceo, defendo, depello, propulso, &c. e) Verbs which may take either a Dative of the Object with an Accusative of the Thing, or an Accusative Object with an Ablative of the Thing. Such are, Adspergere, inspergere, circumdare, circumfuildere, donare, munerare (i), exuere, induere, intercludere, impertire : Dono tibi munus ; dono te munere. f) Interdico is best known in the phrase, ^ iilterdicere alicui aqua et igni/ to banish by the form of exclusion from fire and water-, but ^interdicere rem alicui' is a good Latin construction; also 'interdicere alicui de re.' Verbs which may take Dative alone or Accusative of Thing with Dative of Person : Condonare {remit, forgive); ignoscere {excuse, pardon) ; credere {believe, lend) ; gratulari {congratulate) ; imperare {command) ; indulgere {grant, indulge) ; minari, minitari {threaten) ; probare {prove, make good) ; suadere {recom- mend) ; per^uadere {persuade^ convince") ; invidere {envy, grudge). Also fidere, confidere {trust). Persuadere alten ut, &c., to persuade one to, &c. Persuasit hoc mihi, he convinced 7ne of this. Persuasum habeo ; mihi persuasum est, / am convinced : hoc mihi persuasum est. Invidere {to grudge) alteri re aliqua is a construction some- times used. ?ueh Verbs cannot be so used in the Passive as to make that which was the Dative their Subject, though Horace has imperor; invideor: Lucr. officiuntur, ii. 156, where see Munro. Regularly, the Dative remains in the Passive : and, if there was an Accus., this becomes the Subject; if none, the Verb is Impersonal : * Id mihi probatur : ' * Invidetur mihi.' 3. Examples of Verbs which vary construction with meaning : Accedere {to approach) muris ; muros, poet. ; ad muros ; in senatum. Accedere {to join, concur with) alicui. Acce- dere {ta be added) : aliquid accedit (accessit) alicui. Aequare {to level) agrum. Aequare, aequiparare {to 7nake equal) hunc illi ; hanc rem illi. So adaequare, exaequare. Aequare, aequiparare {to be equal to) aliquem. Cavere {to take caution for) securitati ; agris ; alicui. Cavere {to beware of) canem. Cavere a veneno. Cedere {to retire) patria. Cedere {to yield) fortunae. Cedere {to give tip) aliquid de iure suo alicui, &c. Constare sibi {to be C07tsiste7it). Constat (// is a7i established fact). Constare parvo, magno, &c., to cost little, 77iuch, &c. Consulere : Si me consulis, ego tibi consulam, if you C07i- sult 77ie, I will co7isult for your i7iterest. § 136. Dative Case, 387 Gonvenire {to suit) alicui, in aliquem. Convenire {to meet) aliquem. Convenit mihi tecum, you and I are agreed. Inter se convenit ursis, bears agree together, Convenit, // suits y it is agreed, Cupere {to desire) aliquid. Cupere {to wish) alicui {in some- body s interest) k Deficere {to fail) aliquem; alicui. Deficere ab aliqtib, to revolt from, D^re litteras alicui {to giv^ a letter for delivery), rarely {write to). Dare litteras ad aliquem, to post a letter to some one, Dolet mihi {I gHeve) : doko r^m* Excusare^ purgare {to excuse, clear) se alteri ; se apud alte- rum. Excusate morbum, to plead the excuse ofill^ies^. Imponere {to lay on) fern alteri ; rem fei ; aliquid iti ali- quid; aliquid in aliquo. Imponere alitiii, to cheat a7iy one, Ihcumbere {to lean on) rei. Incumber^ {to devote oneself) ad rem, in rem. interest inter {there is a difference between) h5c fet illud. Interest omnium^ nostra, &c., // is the interest of all ^ ofus, &c. Interesse {to be present at) rei, in r^. Mactare {to slaughter) deo victimam^ {to sacrifice) victima. Mactare aliquem honoribus, to grace with honours, Mac- tare suppliciis, to visit with punishment, Manere (to remaiii) alicui. Manere {fo await) aliqueiil. Metuere, timere, &c. {to fear) aliquem; aliquid; alicui {for somebody), Moderari, temperare [to curb) rei. Moderati, tertlperare {to govern) rem. Teitiperare {to refrain) a re. Temperare {to spare) alteri. Parceirc {to ispare) alteri. Parcerd {to forbear) a f e. Paf cere {to spare) aliquid sibi, aliquid alteri* Petete, precari {to beg) aliquid sibi ; aliquid altefii Petere {to sue for) consiilatum, &:c; Petere {to entreat) aliquid ab altero. Petere {to seek) locum. Pr^eire {to go before) alicui. Praeire {to recite) Verba alteri {words for another to repeat), Praestare {to e^cel) alteri aliqua re. Pfaestare {to assure, to warrant) aliquid alicui. Pfaestare {to prove, exhibit) se talem. Praevertere {to prefer) aliqtiid alicui rei. Praevertere {to anticipate) aliquid or aliquem. Praeverti {to despatch first) rei. Prospicere, providere {to provide for the good of) alicui. Prospicere, providere {to foresee) rem, de re. Recipere {to give assurance) alicui. Recipere {to receive) c c 2 Latin Syntdx. aliquem. Recipere {to betake) se aliqiio. Recipere {to retake^ recover) res, urbem, &c. Renuntiare {to mmounce) alicui aliquid (de aliqua re). Re- nuntiare {to proclaini) aliquem consulem, &c. Renuntiare {to renounce) alicui rei. ) Solvere {to pay) alicui pecuniam, &c. Solvere {tt) release) aliquem re. Succedere {to succeed) alteri, alicui rei ; in locum alicuius. Succedere {to come up to) portas, muris, &c. Sufficere {to suffice) alicui ; alicui rei* Sufficere {to supply) aliquem ; aliquid. Supersedere {to sit upon) rei; rem. Supersedere {to dis^ pense with) re ; rarely rei. Velle aliquem, to want sojnebody. Bene velle alicui, to wish well to somebody. Nolle alicui, to wish ill to, £) The principal Adjectives used with a Dative Object are : Cognatus, contiguus, conterminus, finitimus, praesens, pro- pinquus, propior, proximus, vicinus, &c., assuetus, con- suetus, &c., acclinis, aptus, accommodatus, commodus, congruens, consentaneus, conveniens, decorus, habilis, ho- nestus, idoneus, natus, necesse, necessarius, opportunus, promptus, proclivis, &:c., aequalis, aemulus, idem, concors, consors, &c., concolor, &c. : — par, compar, similis, assi- milis, contrarius, diversus, insuetus, &c., incommodus, indecorus, inopportunus, turpis, &c., dispar, impar, inae- qualis, discors, dissimilis, dissonus, discolor, &c. Apertus, certus, cognatus, compertus, conspicuus, evidens, liquidus, manifestus, notus, patens : — ambiguus, caecus, dubius, incertus, obscurus, &:c. Aequus, amicus, acceptus, benignus, benevolus, blandus, bonus, carus, clemens, dexter, dulcis, familiaris, fructuosus, gratus, iucundus, lenis, mitis, propitius, prosper, saluber, salutaris, secundus, suavis, utilis ; expeditus, facilis, levis, obvius, pervius : — calamitosus,damnosus, exitialis,funestus, inutilis, malus, noxius, periculosus, pestifer ; adversus, amarus, asper, crudelis, fatalis, hostilis, infensus, infestus, inimicus, iniquus, iratus, laevus, letalis, sinister, saevus ; tristis, ingratus, invisus, molestus, odiosus, terribilis ; in- credulus, infidus, infidelis ; contumax, rebellis ; arduus, difficilis, durus, gravis, invius, laboriosus, &c. Imperiosus : — dicto-audiens, obnoxius, obsequiosus, simi- missus, supplex, &c. a) Adjectives which take Dative or Genitive are : Aequalis, affinis, alienus, communis, conscius, par, dispar, proprius, similis, dissimilis, superstes. The following also may be treated as Substantives, and so take a Genitive : § 139-41. Dative Case. 389 Aemulus, amicus, inimicus, cognatus, necessarius, propin- quus, socius, supplex, vicinus. Alien us also takes an Ablative with or without ab. Proprius is used by Cicero with Genitive only. Pro pi or, proximus are found with Accusative; also with ab and its case. /6) Adjectives of fitness^ aptus, commodus, idoneus, natu^, pro- clivis, promptus, &c., may take ad (rem), y) Many Adjectives which express feeling or behaviour may take in, erga (aliquem) : Acer, acerbus, crudelis, durus, iniquus, iniuriosus, saevus, severus, &c. ; benignus, comis, liberalis, mitis, plus, im- pius, gratus, ingratus, &c. C) Adverbs derived from Adjectives are sometimes used with a Dative : • Constanter sibi, convenienter naturae, utiliter patriae. D) Verbal Substantives governing Dative rarely occur : Obtemperatio legibus ; remedia morbis, &c. But such words as hostis, legatus, &c., being of an Adjectival nature, are followed by a Dative j and others are so used when the Dative is Acquisitive. "r iii, (II) The Recipient or Acquisitive Dative. (Dat. Commodi et Incommodi.) ^Pisistratus sibi non patriae Megarensis vicit,' Pisistratus con(j2ie7'ed the Megarians for himself not for his country^ lust. ii. 8. 'Neque mihi ex cuiusquam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis aut adiumenta honoribus quaero,' C. p. L. Man. 24. * Filius Blaesi militibus missionem petebat,' Tac. Ann, i. 19. *Cat6 . . . urbi pater est urbique maritus,' Lucan. ii. 388. , 1) Here may be ranked the Datives with vac are, to be at leisure (alicui rei), nubere, to zued^ properly 'to take the veil for ^ (viro), and those with Verbs of care^ caution^ fear : consulere, studere, cupere, cavere, prospicere, providere, metuere, timere, &c. (alicui), to consult^ look outy fear (for somebody or something). 2) Est, sunt, &c., with a Dative, express * having:' Suus cuique mos est,' every one has his own custojn, Ter. * Sex filii nobis, duae filiae sunt,' we have six sons and two daughters, L. xlii. 34. 3) Facio, fio are used with a Dative : ^ Quid facies huic ?' C. * Quid mihi futurum est ?' C. Also in the same sense, with de and Ablative : Quid de me fiet ? what will become of me ? And with Abl. alone : Quid me fiet ? Quid te futurum'st.^ Ter. 4) The Dative of a Pronoun, loosely added, and expressing general reference to a person, is called Dativus Ethicus ; 390 Latin Syntax. § 142. ^Quid mihi Celsus agit?' how does my Celsus get on? Hor. Epist, i. 3. 15. ^Quid ait nobis Sannio?' what says our Sannio f 5) Similar to this is the Dative with the Interjections hem, ecce: Hem Davum tibi, see^her^s Davus\ Ecce tibi Antonius, &:c. 6) Hei, vae take a Dative : ^ Hei misero mihi/ alas for wretched me, Ter. Vae victis, woe to the conquered^ L, 7) A Recipient Dative, instead of an Ablative of the Agent, may be joined tq Passive Participles, especially to Gerun- dives; also to Participials in rbilis : * Forniidatus Othoni,' dreaded of Otho, luy. * Bell^ matri- bus detestata,' wars abhorred by mothers^ H or. ^ P roe- lia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of Hor. * Non ulli affabilis,' Verg. Poets extend this idiom tq Personal Passive Verbs ; * Non intellegor ulli/ Ov. ^ Carmina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus/ Hor. Epist. i. 19, 3. In prose it is rar^. ' Dissimillimis bestiisi communiter cibus quaeritur/ C. N, D, ii. 48. 8) To such predications as ^ Cui (huic) nomen est, quibus (his) nomen datur, damns/ &c., the Name itsel; i§ sorrie^ times joined as an attracted Dative : ^ Volitang, qui nomen asilo Romanum est/ an insect ivhose Romcin name is asilus, Verg. G. iii, 147. ' In campis, quibus nomen erat Raudiis, decertavere/ they fought in plains called the Raudian, Veil. ii. 2. (But a Nominative or Genitive of the Name is found: ^Ei morbo nomen est avaritia/ C. ^ Npmen Mercuri est mihi/ Plaut. A^jt. Prol. 19.) 9) Analogous to this are the attractions : ^ Hoc mihi volenti est/ Sail. ^ Quibus bellum volentibus erat/ who wished for war, Tac, 10) When a Copulative Infinitive (esse, fieri, &c.) depends on a Verb with Dative Object, the Complement is generally Dative : ^Mihi non licet esse neglegenti,' Q.Att, i. 17. ^Da mihi fallere, da iusto sanctoque videri/ Hor. Epist, i. 16. 61. But it may be Accusative : ^ Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse poet as excerpam numero/ Hor. 6'. i. 4.39 (where Orelli reads poetis without authority or necessity). Note, The Dative of Place Whither is poetic : ^ It clamor caelo,' q shout reaches the sky, Verg. Ae, v. 451. iv. (Ill) The Predicative Dative of Purpose. This is usually found with a Second Dative of the Recipient : Odio esse (cordi esse) alteri, to be an object of hate (liking) to another ; vitio vertere alteri, to impute as a fault to another. So, commodo, dedecori, delectationi, emolumento, honori, voluptati, &c., esse alicui, crimini dare alteri ; auxilio, subsidio venire alteri. Dative Case. 391 But a second Dative is not always used : Habere aliqucm con- temptui, derisui, ludibrio ; habere rempublicam quaestui ; poncre (opponere) aliquid pigneri, to pawn, moi^fgage ; canere receptui, to sound a retreat. (Akin to this construction is that of the Dative Gerund and Gerundive : solvendo esse, to be solvent ; tresviri reipubhcae con- stituendae, three com7nissioners for settling the gov eminent,) In Personal Passive construction both Datives remain; Libera patre filio do no datus est.^ Examples of the Dative Case. I. [Dative of Remoter Object.) 'Zenoni placuit, bonum esse solum, quod ho- nestum esset,' C. T. D. v, IX. 'Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam,* C. Phil. xiii. 8. *Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse lovi,' Ov. Tr. ii. 216. 'Cicero meus salutem tibi dicit,' C. Att. v. 9. 'Diem mihi dixerat, multam irrogarat,' C. A Mil. 14. 'Qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,' Enn. 'Angnis Sullae apparuit immolanti,' C. Div. ii. 30. ' Tironem Dolabellae obviam misi,' C. Att. xii. 5. 'Dionysius nobis praesto fuit,' C. Att. iv. 12. * Pompeio et Senatui pacis auctor fui,' C. Att. ix. 11. 'Quantum consuetudini famaeque dandum sit, id curent vivi,' C. T. D. i. 45. 'Is denique honos mihi videri solet, qui non propter spem futuri beneficii, sed propter magna merita Claris viris defertur et datur,* C, Fam. x. 10. 'lam non ago tibi gratias; cui enim re vix referre possum, huic verbis non patitur res satisfieri,' C ad Brut, ii. i, *Attici neptem Caesar Tiberio Claudio Neroni privigno suo despondit,' Nep, Att. 19. ' Dissociatis animis civium, alii SuHanis, alii Cinnanis partibus favebant,* N. Att. 2. 'Omnino irasci amicis non temere soleo, ne si merentur quidem,' C. Phil. viii. 5. ' Tirones iureiurando accepto nihil iis nocituros hostis se Otacilio dediderunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 28. ' ludicis est innocentiae subvenire,' C./. Clu. 1. ' Antiochus si parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperi dimicasset,' Nep. Hann, 8, * Imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique,' Hon Epist. i. 10. 47. 'Cur succumbis cedisque for- tunae?' C. T. D. iii. 17. * Non Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis eius omnibus pro Ligario exsule Cicero suppUcavit,' C, Fam. vi. 14. 'Cui Gellius benedixit unquam bono? ' C. /. Sext. 52. *Tu verbis solves numquam quod mi re malefe ceris/ Ter, Ad. ii. i. 10. ' Pelopidas omnibus periculis adfuit,* Nep. Pel. 4. 'Erat nupta soror Attici Q. Tullio Ciceroni,' Nep. Att. 5. 'Venus nupsit Vulcano ; Astarten Adonidi nupsisse proditum est,' C. N. D. iii. 23. 'Brutus collegae suo imperium abrogavit,' C. Br. 14. 'Stheniusest is, qui nobis assidet,' C. Verr. ii. 34. * Leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt,' C. Fin. iii. 19. 'Dionysius aureum lovi Olympio detraxit amiculum, eique laneum pallium iniecit, cum id esse ad omne anni tempus diceret,' C. N. D. iii. 34. ' Est viri et ducis, non deesse fortunae praebenti se, et oblata casu flectere ad consilium,' L. xxviii. 44. 'Praetor interdixit de vi hominibus armatis,' C. /. Caec. 8. * Hortensius veritus est ne Fufius tribunus plebis ei legi intercederet, quae ex senatus consulto ferebatur,' C. Att. i. 16. 'Ut Thucydidis concisis sententiis officii Theopompus elatione atque altitudine orationis suae, quod idem Lysiae Demosthenes, sic Catonis luminibus obstruxit posteriorum quasi exaggerata altius oratio,' C. Br. 17. ' Hannibal A lex^ andro Magno non postponendus est,' lust. xxx. 4. 'Certis rebus certa signa praecurrunt,* C. Div. i. 52. 'Deus am mum, ut dominum atque imperantem, oboedienti praefecit corpori,* C. Univ. 7. ' Nihil semper floret: aetas succedit aetati,' C. Phil. xi. 15. * Numquam Atticus potenti adulatus est Antonio,' N, Att. 8. * Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius, ut me meae paeniteret, C. Div. ii. 2. ' Lictores praetoribus anteeunt cum fascibus duobus,* C. d. L. Agr. 11. 34. *Te semper ante it torva Necessitas/ Hor. C, i. 35. 17. *Iis aemulamur, qui ea habent quae nos habere cupimus,' C. 7*. D. i. X9. 'Quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris,' Nep. Ep. 5. 'Cui nullum probrum dicere pote rat, eius obtrectare laudes voluit,' L. xlv. 37. * Non id laboro, ut, si qui mihi obtrecfcent, a te refutentur,' C. Fam. ix. 11. 'Mihi ausculta; vide ne tibi desis,' C. .S". Rose. 36. 'Homines auscultant crimina,' Plant. Pseud, i. 5. 12. 'In Formiano tibi praestolor,' C. Att. ii. 15. ' Curionis adventum L. Caesar Alius ad Clupeam * The saying ' Cui bono fuit ? * whose interest was it ? deserves special notice, because it is often erroneously cited in a different sense. See C,/. Mil. 12 ; Phil. ii. 14. 392 Latin Syntax. E. The A blative Case. 43 '^^^^^ i. The Ablative is the Modal Case, or Case of Circumstances which modify the predication adverbially. Besides its proper Ablative functions (taken in Greek by the Genitive), it comprises those of the Primitive Instru- mental (partly taken in Greek by the Dative) and most functions of the Locative Case, Its uses may be conveniently taken in the following order : I. Instrumental Ablative : comprising Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter. II. Locative Ablative: comprising Respect;^ Difference j Manner; Condition; Quality; Time When; Place Where and by Which. III. Ablative Proper : comprising Place Whence ; Separation; Origin ; Thing Compared. praestolabatur/ Caes. B. C. ii. 23. * Aucta fama cladis ingens terror Patres invasit, dictatoremque dici placebat/ L ix. 38. * In Galliam Antonius invasit, in» Asiam Dolabella/ C. Phil, xi. 2. * Equidem ut veni ad urbem, mirus invaserat furor non solum improbis sed etiam his qui boni habentur ut pugnare cuperent,' C. Fain. xvi. 12. * Est mihi magnae curae, ut ita erudiatur LucuUus, ut patri re- spondeat,* C. Fin. iii. 2. * Respondebisne ad haec?' C. Phil. ii. 43. * Si inest in oratione mixta modestiae gravitas, nihil admirabilius fieri potest,' C. Off. ii. 14. *Inerant lunaria fronti cornua,' Ov. M. ix. 687. * Caritati ipsius soli longo tempore a ssuescitu r,* L. ii. i. *Assuetae sanguine et praeda aves,' Flor. i. T. ■ In omnia familiaria iura assuetus,' L. xxiv. 5, * Natura vi rationis hominenv conciliat homini,' C Off. i. 4. *Ratio et oratio conciliat inter se homines,' C. Off. i. 16. * Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam,* C. Cat. M. 5. * Quaeso, pontifiees, et hominem cum homine, et tempus cum tempore, et rem cum re comparate,' C. p. Dojn. 50. * Longe mea discrepat istis et vox et ratio,' Hor, S. i. 6. 92. * Id a tuis litteris discrepabat,' C. Att. ii. i. *Duae leges inter se dis- crepant,' C. d. I71V. 2. ^Conexum sit principium consequenti orationi,^ C. d. Or. ii. 80. * Amicitia cum voluptate conectitur,' C. Fin. i. 20. * Mamertini honorem debitum detraxerunt non homini, sed ordini,' C. Vcrr. iv. 11. 'Sacerdotem ab ipsis avis detraxisti,' C. d. Har. 13. * Ille non cessat de nobis detrahere,' C. Att. xi. II. *Orationi adspergentur etiam sales, qui in dicendo nimium quantum valent,' C. Or. 26. ' Pythagoras ne Apollini quidem Delio hostiam immolare voluit, ne aram sanguineadspergeret,' C. N. D. iii. 36. * Dionysius fossam latam cubiculari lecto cir cum d edit,' C. 7\ Z>. v. 20. ' Deus animum circumd edit corp ore,' C. Univ. 6. * Equites Hannoni se c rcumfudere,' L. xxix. 34. ' Agesilaum amici, quod mel non habebant, cera circumfuderunt,' Nep. yi^. 8. 'Atticus Atheniensis vniversos frumento donavit,' Nep. Att. 2. 'Ciceroni populus Romanus aeter-, nitatem immortalitatemque donavit,' C. in Pis. 3. 'In deyersorio erant ea composita, quibus rex te munerare constituerat,' C. /. Deiot. 6. * Di earn potestatem dabunt, ut beneficlum benemerenti muneres,' Plaut. Capt. v. i. 15. Doctrinis aetas puerilis impertiri debet,' Nep. Att. i. * Terentia impertit tibi multam salutem,' C. Att. li. 12. * Sto expectans si quid mihi imperent,' Ter. Run. iii. 5. 46. * Conon ad mare missus est, ut maritimis civitatibus navis longas imperaret,' Nep. Q(»t.\. *Matronis Medea persuasit ne sibi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria,' C. Fam. vii. 6. * Hoc mihi non modo confirmavit, sed etiam persuasit^' C. Att. xvi. 5. ^ Nihil facile persuadetur invitis,' Qu. iv. 3. * Cato iis solis non invi- debat, quibus nihil ad dignitatem posset accedere,' C. Att. vii. 3. * Aliorum laudi atque gloriae maxime invideri solet,' C. d. Or. ii. 51. 'Africae solo oleum et ' Respect, Difference, Manner, Condition, Quality, Time, may be considered Loca- tive, as logically limiting the position of that which they modify. In many examples it is not easy to say whether the Ablative should be referred to Cause, Instrument, Matter, or Manner. § 144. blative Case. 393 ii. (I) Instrumental Ablative. A) The Ablative of Cause answers the question Owing to what f i) It chiefly limits state ; and is therefore joined to Verbs Intransitive or Passive, to their Participles, and to Adjectives. vinum natura invidet,' PL N. H. 3?v. 2. *Invidet igne rogi miseris,' Lucan. vii. 798. * Manus extrema non accessit operibus/ C. Br. 33. * Nondum ad rcm- publicam accessi,' C. p. S. Rose. i. 'Dolor accessit bonis viris : virtus non est imminuta,' C. Att. i. 16. * Rumore adventus nostri Cassio animus accessit/ C. Att.v.io. *Accedam in plerisque Ciceroni/ Qu. ix. 4. 2. * Athenienses consu- luerunt ApoUinem Pythium, quas potissimum religiones tenerent/ C. Leg. ii. 16. * Di consulunt rebus humanis/ C. Div. i. 51. * Prudentia numquam deficit ora- torem/ C. Br. 24. * Cum iam amplius horis sex continenter pugnaretur, non solum vires, sed etiam tela nostris deficiebant/ C9,es. B. G, iii. 5. * Indulge valetudini tuae, cni quidem tu adhuc, dum mihi deservis, servisti non satis/ C. Fam. xvi. 18. * Indulsit ornamenta consularia procuratoribus/ Suet. Clatid. 24. * Praestat honestas incolumitati/ C. hiv. ii. 58. * Atheniensium civitas antiquitate, humanitate, doctrina praestabat omnis/ Nep. Att. 3. * Ser. Sulpicius honorem debitum patri praestitit/ C Phil. \yi. S- * Trebatium obiurgavi, quod parum valetudini par- ceret/ C. Fam. xi. 27. ' Precantur ut et a caedibus et ab incendiis parceretur/ L. XXV. 25. 'Libros oratorios in manibus habeo, quos, ut spero, valde tibi probabo/ C. Att.iw. 14. 'Atticae meae velim me ita excuses, ut omnem culpam in te trans- feras,' C. Att. xv. 28. 'Quod te mihi de Sempronio purgas, accipio excusationem/ C. Fai7t. xii. 25. ' Anton ius leges civi tat i per vim imposuit,' C. Phil. vii. 5. * Metellum multi filii in rogum imposuerunt/ C. T. D. i. 35. * Imposuistis in cervicibus nostris sempiternum dominum,' C. N. D. i. 20. * Non recuse quin, si cui-. quam Verresulla in re umquam temperaverit, vos quoqueei temperetis/C. Verr. ii. 6. * Quis talia fando temperet a lacrimis?' Verg. Ae. ii. 8. * Nobilitas Ser. Sulpicii hominibus litteratis et historicis erat notior, populo vero obscurior/C. Mtir.']. ' Voluptatibus maximis fastidium finitimum est,'C. d. Or. iii. 15. 'Audivi te esse Caesari familiarem,' C. Fam. vii. 14. *Omnis voluptas honestati est contraria,' C. Off. iii. 33. * Fidelissimi anife omnia homini sunt canis atque' equus,' PI. N. H. viii. 40. * Nec fertilis ilia iuvencis, nec pecori opportuna seges nec commoda Baccho,' Verg. G. iv. 128. 'Romulus multitudini gratior fuit, quam Patribus; longe ante alios acceptissimus militum animis,' L. i. 15. * Ilia expugnatio fani antiquissimi lunonis Samiae, quam luctuosa Samiis fuit, quam acerba toti Asiae !' C. Verr. i. 19. * Ea virtus est praestantis viri, quae est fructuosa aliis, ipsi autem laboriosa, periculosa, aut certe gratuita,' C. d. Or. ii. 85. ' Sollertia pestifera mult is admodum paucis salutaris est/ C. N. D. iii. 27. ' Falernum mihi semper idoneum visum est deversorio,' C. Fam. vi. 19. 'Verba innocenti reperire facile est; modum verborum misero tenere difficile,* Curt. vi. 10. 'Senator! necessarium est nosse rem publicam,* C. Leg. iii. 18. * Epaminondas velut gratulabundus patriae exspiravit,* lust. vi. 8. * Syracusan; nobis dicto audientes sunt,' C. Verr. v. 32. 'Apud Germanos probrosum est superstitem principi suo ex acie recessisse,' Tac. G. 14. 'Socrates nec patronum quaesivit ad indicium capitis nec iudicibus supplex fuit,* C. T. D. i. 29. ' Ennio, aequalis fuit Livius, qui primus fabulam dedit,' C. Br. 18. 'Aequalis temporum illorum,' C. Div. i. 20. ' Vetilius id dicit quod illi causae maxime est alienum,' C. p. Caec. 9. * Ea scripsi ad te quae non alien a esse ducerem a dignitate,' C. Fam. iy. 7. * Alienum dignitatis/ C. Fin. i. 4. ' Nihil est a me commissum, quod esset alienum nostra amicitia/ C. Fam. xi. 27. 'Omni aetati mors est communis,' C. Cat. UT. 19. * Haec ita iustitiae propria sunt ut sint virtutum reliquarum communia,' C. Fin. V. 23. 'Studium conservandi hominis commune mihi vobiscum esse debebit,* C. p. Rab. i. * Natus abdomini suo non laudi atque gloriae,' C. in. Pis. 17. 'Ad laudem et ad decus nati sumus,' C. Fin. v. 22. 'Thracibus est ferrum et promptus libertati aut ad mortem animus,' 1^2jc. Ann. iv. 46. * T. Manlius perindulgens fst in patrem, acerbe severus in filium,' C. Off. iii. 31. < lugurtha propior montem pedites collocat,' Sail. lug. 49. ' Treviri proximi Rheno flumini sunt,' Caes. G. iii. 11. ' Ubii proximi Rhenum incolunt,' Caes. B. G. i. 54. * Summum bonum a Stoicis dicitur, convenienter naturae vivere,' C. Fin. 394- Latin Syntax. § 144. Plecti neglegentia ; mori senectute ; pallescere culpa ; impe- ditus morbo ; pallidas ira ; ardens amore ; fessus inedia et fluetibus, &:c. It may limit Transitive Verbs, especially when it expresses feeling or motive : Hac mente, hoc consilio, laetitia, odio, &c., facere, dicere aliquid, &c. 2) It includes the phrases : causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, for the sake of, * Quaestus causa//^?r the sake of gain ; but mea, tua, &c. causa. * Turpitudinis effugiendae gratia,'/^?;^ the sake of avoiding disgrace, ^ Virtutis ergo (nomine),' on the score of jnerit. 7. • Elf quibusdam stirpibus et herbis remedia morbisetvulneribus eligimus/ C. N'. D. ii. 64. II. {Dativtcs Commpdi et Incommodi.) * Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, propinquis, amicis, maximeque reipublicae,' C. Oj^. iii. 15. * Si domus pulchra est, intellegimus earn dominis aedificatam esse, non muribus,' C. m Caecil. 3. *Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi seris, tibi eidem metis,* Pl^ut. Merc. i. i. 71. * Caesar reperiebat favere Dumnorigem et cupere Helvetiis propter affinitatem,* Caes. B. G. i. 18. *Tibi favemus ; tibi optamus earn rempublicam^, in qua tuorum renovare memoriam atque augere possis,' C. Br. 97. * Pro deum fidem, quid vobis vultis?' L. iii. 67. ^Atheniensis Clisthenes lunoni Samiae, cum rebus timeret suis, liliarum dotes credidit,* C. Leg. ii. 16. ' Germani ab parvulis labori ac duritiae stqdent,' Caes. B. G. vi. 21. * Scabien; pecori et iumentis cavetq,' Cato, R. R. 5. * Bene mihi, bene vqbis, b§ne omnibus nobis!' Plant. Pers. v. i. 20. * Consulite vobis, prospicite patriae,' C. in Cat. \w. 2. * Numa virgines Vestae legit, Salios itein Marti Gyadivo,' L. i, 20. *Improbo et stulto et inerti nemini bene esse potest,' C. Par. *Tibi bene ex animo volo,' Ter. Haut. v. 2. 6. ' Multis de causis ego huic causae patronus exstiti,* C. p. S. Rose. 2. * Semper in civitate, quibus opes nullae sunt, bonis invident,' Sail. Cat 37. *An nescis longas regibus esse manus?' Ov. Ner. xvii. 166. * Filius mens si quid peccat, mihi peccat,' Ter. yi^/. i. 2. 35- * Quid mihi L,. PauU nepos quaerit, quo modo duo soles visi sint ? ' C. Re^. i. 19. * Ecce tibi, qqi rex populi Romani dominusque omnium gentium esse concun pierit, idque perfecerit ! ' C. O^. iii. 21. -Audita est Brenni, reguli Gallorum, intolc'i randa Romanis vox; Vae victis esse,' L. v. 48. *Cui non sunt auditae Demos-. thenis vigiliae?' C. T. D. iv. 19. * Mihi consilium cap tum iam diu est,' C. V. 19. * Ut esse possem orator, magno studio mihi a pueritia est elaboratum,' C. in Caecil. 12, *Legendus mihi saepius est Cato Maior,' C. Att. xiv. 21. * Restat Chremes qui mihi exorandus est,' Ter. An. i. i. 130. ' Hic tibi sit potius quam tu mirabilis illi,* Hor. Episi. i. 6. 23. * Vix audior ulli,' Ov. Ep. ex P. \\\. (^. * Duo sunt Roscii, quorum alteri Capitoni cognomen est,' C. /. S. Rqsc. 6. * Attus Clausus, cui postea Appio Claudio fuit Romae nomen, ab Regillo magna clientium comitatus manu Romam transfugit,' L, ii. 16. * Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse ; vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse,' L. ;^3£i. 44. *Medios esse (nos) iam non licebit,' C. Att. x. 8, III. {Predicative Dative. ) * Vitam rusticam tuprobroetcrimini putas esse?' C. S. Rose. 17. *Otho quidquid epistularum erat, necui periculo aut noxae apud victorem forent, concremavit,' Suet. Otk. 10. * Spero homines intellecturos, quanto sit omnibus odio crudelitas, et quanto amori probitas et dementia,* C. Fam. XV. 19, * Ampla domus dedecori domino saepe fit, si est in ea solitudo,' C. Off: \. 39. 'Vitio mihi dant quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero,' C. Fam. ?ci. 28. * Pergite, ut facitis, adulescentes, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite, ut et vobis honori, et amicis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumento esse possitis,* C. d. Or. i. 8, * Flaminius consul ante signum lovis Statoris sine causa repente concidit, nec earn rem habuit religioni,' C. i. 35. * Habere quaestui rem-, publicam turpe et nefarium est,' C. Off. ii. 22. * Virtus sola neque datur dono nequQ accipitur,' Sail. 7?/^. 85. § 145-47« Ablative Case* 395 3) Also the phrases iussu, iniussu, monitii, mandatu, per* missu, rogatu, &c., ope, opera, beneficio, dolo, &c 4) Cause may be expressed by the Prepositions ab, de, ex, per, prae. Ab animi levitate ; per aetatem ; multis de causis ; prae gaudio. E) The Ablative of the Instrument answers the question By what means f 1) It limits Verbs Active or Passive, and their Participles. Pugnare gladiis ; defendere se cornibus ; lapide ictus ; veneno exstingui, &c. 2) The Ablative of an Abstract Noun may be Instrumental : ' Forma et moribus conciliare aliquem/ 3) The Preposition cum with its Case is sometimes used as equivalent to a Participle with Instrumental Ablative : ^ Homines cum gladiis ' = homines gladiis armati. C) The Ablative of the Personal Agent with the Preposi- tion ab, dyy answers the question By whom ? 1) It is joined to Verbs Passive or Quasi-passive and their Participles : * Mundus a Deo administratur ; ' ab hoste venire ; ab improbis expulsus, &c. 2) The Preposition per is used to express both Instrument and Agent : Per dolum, per insidias capi ; per bonos restitui, &c. 3) Abstract terms, though in general Instrumentally used in the Ablative, are sometimes treated as Agents : ' Piget dicere ut vobis animus ab ignavia atque socprdia corruptus sit,' is sad to state how your mind has been corrupted by idleness ajid sloth^ Sail. lug. 31; M. Lucr, i. 813. D) The Ablative of Price answers the questions For how much f At what cost ? i) It accompanies Verbs of purchase, sale, barter^ hiring, letting, bidding, costing, &c., or any other with which Cost or Value can be connected. Such are Emere and its compounds, mercari, opsonari, vendere, venire ; conducere, locare, coUocare ; licere, liceri, licitari, &c., constare, stare, valere, esse, &c., aestimare, &c. Also Adjectives implying cost, dearness, cheapness : Venalis, vendibilis, parabilis, carus, vilis, &c. Emere, &c., venalis esse, &c., pretio, grandi pecunia, centum nummis, viginti denariis, centum milibus, mille drachmis (minis, talentis), &c. 396 Latin Syntax, 2) The following Ablatives of Cost are used with such words, the Noun pretio being understood : Magno, parvo, minimo, paululo, plurimo, nimio, dimidio, duplo, vili, &c. Tanto, quanto may be used ; but Price is more usually expressed by their Genitives tanti, quanti, also by the Genitives pluris, minoris, maximi, which Adjectives are not used in the Ablative of Price without pretio. d) Valuation is usually expressed by the Genitives magni, parvi, &c. (pretii), and others. See Genitive. The Verbs mutare, commutare, permutare, vertere exchange) y take either an Accusative of the thing parted with, and an Ablative of the thing taken : ^ Mutare pacem bello,' to exchange peace for war, i. e. to go to war ; or (especially in poetry) an Accusative of the thing taken, and an Abla- tive of the thing parted with : ^ Permutare otio divitias/ to take wealth in exchange for ease, E) The Ablative of Matter answers the questions Where- with f (in a material sense :) Whereof? It accompanies a great number of Verbs and Adjectives : \) Transitive Verbs of sacrifici^tg ; adornifig, enduing, arming; dignifying, afflicting, punishing; nourishing, supporiingi, delighting ; fashioning^ instructing , furnishing ; binding, &c. : Facere, immolare, litare, libare, &c. victima, hostia, agno, &c. vino, lacte, &c. : — ornare, induere, armare, &c. veste, corona, ense, &c. : — afficere, mactare, &c. beneficio, honore, iniuria, poena, &c. : g.fficere admiratione ; affici morbo, &c. : — alere, pascere, iuvare, delectare, oblectare, &c. opibus, sermonibus, &c. : — formare, informare, insti- tuere, munire, &c. doctrina, bonis artibus, subsidiis, &c . : — obligare, devincire, obstringere, tenere, &c. iure- jurando, religione, &c. 2) Intransitive Verbs of consisting, being 7nade ; being accus^ torned ; depending; being stro7tg, being distressed ; flour- ishing, languishing ; rejoicing, boasting, grieving; rely-. ing, distrusting ; &;c. : Constare, conflari, contineri, fieri ; suescere, assuescere; pen- dere ; pollere, valere, vigere, lascivire, laborare ; florere, lan- guescere ; gaudere, laetari, exsultare, triumphare, gloriari ; dolere, maerere ; fidere, confidere, niti ; (macte esto) ; dif- fidere, &c. Constare also takes ex. ^ Omnis ex re atque verbis con- stat oratio/ all speech consists of?natter and words , C. d. Or, iii. 5. 3) Adjectives and Participles in meaning akin to some of these Verbs : Compositus, conflatus, concretus, factus; praeditUs {en^ dued), beatus, felix, contentus, fretus (relying)-, laetus, superbus ; fisus, diffisus, coniunctus, assuetus, assuQfactuS;^ insuetus, &c. The last six also take a Dative. §148, Ablative Case, 397 4) Dignus {worthy)^ xxs^^xz'^ViS {unworthy)'. Sometimes also with Genitive. They are appHed either to person or to thing : Vir dignus est laude : vox indigna est responsione. Dignari, to deem worthy ^ or to be deemed worthy (honore, &c.), is always used passively by Cicero; by poets and later prose writers actively also. 5) Opus est, there is needy opus habere, to have need (con^ilio, prudentia, duce, &c.) Generally used with Ablative, or with Genitive by poets. Opus may also stand as Complement : * Dux nobis et auctor opus est/ we need a leader arid adviser^ C. Fam. li. 6. Usus est, there is occasion^ is sometimes found : * Nunc viribus usus,' fiow there is occasion for strength^Noxg, Ae, viii. 441. Opus is used with Passive Participial words : *Ita dictu opus est,' so must we needs say, Ter. Haut, v. 1.68. * Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est,' ere you begin, there is need of consultation, Sail Cat. i. *Opus fuit Hirtio convento,' there was occasion for an interview with Hirtius^ C. Att, x. 14. 6) Fungi, to perform, fulfil, with compounds defungi, per- fungi ; frui, to enjoy, with perfrui ; uti, to use, with abuti; vesci, to feed on, eat\ potiri, to acquire, gain pos" session of The Ablative with these Verbs (which is properly instru- mental) is construed like an Object. They were originally Reflexive, and are used with Accusative in E. L., hence they retain the Gerundive : * Vita data est utenda.' * Spes potiundorum castrorum,' Caes. See M. Lucr, iii. 956. Utor is found in the sense of possessing : ^Valetudine utor non bona,' I have poor health, C. Fam, xiv. 5. Being intimate with'. ^Utebatur intime Q. Hortensio,' he was intimate with Hortensius, N. Att. v. 4. Potior also takes a Genitive : sometimes an Accusative. 7) Transitive Verbs of endowing, enriching., filling, increasing, loading, sating, &c., depriving, despoiling, ernptying, strip- ping, releasing, &c. : Donare, munerare, dotare, ditare, locupletare, opulentare, complere, explore, implere, opplere, replere, augere, cumu- lare, onerare, farcire, confercire, refercire, satiare, exsa- tiare, saturare, exsaturare, &c., destituere, fraudare, pri- vare, orbare, viduare, spoliare, despoliare, vacuare, nudare, levare, exonerare, laxare, liberare, solvere, exsolvere, expe- dire, exhaurire, emungere, exuere, &c. (re aliqua aliquem). Intransitive Verbs of aboundirig, overflowing, Sec, wanting, being void beijig destitute, &c. 398 Latin Syntax, § 149-50« Abundare, flu ere, affluere, circumfluere, diffluere, exuberare, exundare, redundare, manare, stillare, pluere, scatere, &c., carere, egere, indigere, vacare (re aliqua). Verbs of this class often take a Genitive in poetry; egere, indigere, prefer a Genitive in prose also. Some are followed by the Preposition ab; levare, libe- rare, vacare (a re). 8) Adjectives of abundance and want : Abundans, beatus, compos, dives, felix, ferax, fertilis, fecun- dus, fetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, laetus, largus, lo- cuples, nimius, onustus, opulentus, plenus, refertus, satur, tumidus, uber, &c., cassus, egenus, expers, immunis, ina- nis, inops, liber, mancus, nudus, orbus, pauper, purus, solutus, sterilis, truncus, vacuus, viduus, &:c. (re aliqua). Many of these may take a Genitive: compos, plenus, fe- cundus; expers, inops^ and some others^ especially in poetry. Some may take thd Preposition ab : immunis, liber, purus, solutus, vacuus (a re); the case after such words being a true Ablative of Separation. iii. (II) Locative Ablative. A) The Ablative of Respect answers the question In regard of what? It is joined to any predication, especially to Substantives and Adjectives, denoting that particular in respect of which the pre- dication is made : * Nomine grammaticus, re barbarus,' in name a gram- marian^ in fact a barbarian \ * claudus altero pede,' lame of one foot\ * virtute et doctrina excellere;' *contremere tota menite et omnibus artubus:' 'hae domo Carthaginienses sunt.' So, natu maior, elder (minor, maximus, mininlus) ; grandis natu, elderly y &c. E) The Ablative of Measure answers the question By what measu7'e ? t) It limits Measurement ol* Conlparison : * Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra,' the sun is many times greater than the earthy C. N, D. ii. 36. 2) It includes the Ablative of Space and Distance : *Trium milium spatio (or tribus milibus passuum) dis- tare,' &c., to be three unites off, Sic, Ab may be used with this Ablative of Distance : 'Naves ab milibus passuum octo vento tenebantur,' the ships were kept by a wind eight miles off, Caes. B, G, iv. 22. § 15 1-53» blative Case. 399 3) The following Ablatives are used with Comparative and other words implying Comparison : Hoc, eo, quo, tanto, quanto, aliquanto, multo, paulo, dimidio, nihilo, nimio, altero, &c. *Eogravior dolor quo culpa m a i o r,' the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is greater, Multo optimus; multo praes::are; multo malle, &c., multo ante (post) ; paulo ante (post) ; tanto ante (post), &c. Multo aHter, secus, &c. See p. 279. C) The Ablative of Manner answers the question How? 1) It is eminently adverbial, appearing in many phrases as a single word : Ordine, ratione, via et ratione {systematically), dolo, fraud e, vi, iure, iniuria, vitio {faultily')^ equo {o7i horseback), pedi- bus {ofi foot), &c. (Per might be used with some of these words in the same sense : per dolum, per vim.) 2) In some instances an unqualified Ablative may be used with or without cum : Clam ore, cum clamore ; silentio, cum silentio. But cum is generally used with an unqualified Ablative of Mannar : Cum dolore ; cum gaudio ; cum fide ; cum cura. 3) Certain Ablatives, more, modo, ritu, take a Genitive if they have no epithet. *More Sophoclis' or ^more Sophocleo,' in the manner of Sophocles-, ^ Herculis ritu,' in the fashion of Hercules, Hor. 4) With an Epithet the Ablative of Manner often stands with- out a Preposition, in some phrases always : Hoc (eo) modo, nuUo modo, nullo pacto, nullo ordine, nullo negotio, &c. The Preposition seems to be used or omitted at discretion (on its frequency see M. Lucr, i. 755). 'Magno studio' or ^cum magno studio;' 'magno gaudio' or ^cum magno gaudio;' *adesse omnibus copiis' or *cum omnibus copiis,' &c. D) The Ablative of Condition answers the question On what terms ? It is one form of the Ablativus Modi : Pace tua, by your leave, bona tua venia, with your in- dulgence, meo iure, by my own right, mea sententia, in my opinion, 8cc. E) The Ablative of Quality answers the question Of what description ? It always has an Epithet and defines a Substantive, to which it stands either as an Enthesis or as a Complement: Murena, vir mediocri ingenio, &c. or^Murena medi- ocri ingenio fuit.' See Genitive of Quality. 400 Latin Syntax. % 154.: F) The Ablative of Time answers the questions When? Within what time? Hieme, vere, aestate, primo vere, diluculo {at dawn), prima luce, hora quarta, tertia vigilia,^ Kalendis lanu- ariis, anno septimo, &c., centum annis, biennio, biduo, paucis diebus, &g. 1) Recurring solemnities may express Ti7ne when : Ludis, at the ga^nes ; gladiatoribus, at the gladiators' show ; comitiis, at the co7nitia ; Liberalibus, at the feast 0} Liber, &c. ' .--^ Rarer idioms are, Sereno, in a calin ; austro^ in a south wind, 8cc. Interdiu, noctu, mane (mani), luci, vesperij heri, pridie, postridie, crastini die, are expressions of Time represent- ing old Locatives. 2) The Preposition used to define Time when, is chiefly de {beginning from, ere the close of, during) ; de nocte, de multa nocte (long before night ended) ; de media nocte, de die, de mense Decembri. I n is used to express tiine within which : and often when the Ablative has another Numeral, Distributive or Quo- tientive, connected with it : Sol binas in singulis annis reversiones faeit,' the sun makes two turns annually, C. N, D, ii. 40. ' Quidam oves in anno bis tondent,' some shear sheep twice a year, Varro. See also intra, sub. 3) The Pronouns hie, ille sometimes emphatically define the Ablative of Time within which. H i s annis quadringentis, within these last 400 years ; hoc triennio, within the next (or last) three years-, hoc biduo, within the next (or last) two days — the Tense determining whether hie refers to Future or Past Time. 4) Post is also used in answering the question //(^Te/ soon? paucis post diebus or paucos post dies, or post paucos dies, within the next few days, 5) How lo7tg ago IS expressed by ante: paucis ante diebus, or paucos ante dies, or ante paucos dies. Also by abhine with Accusative or Ablative of the Time: ^ Ab- hinc triennium (or triennio) hue commigravit,' she came here three years ago, Ter. An, i. i. 6) The occurrence of one of two facts before or after the other is variously expressed. Thus the English, I saw him three days before he died, may be rendered by any of the following sentences : Vidi eum tribus diebus {or triduo) antequam mortuus est. Vidi eum tertio die antequam mortuus est. Vidi eum ante tres dies {or ante triduum) quam mor- tuus est. Vidi eum ante tertium diem quam mortuus est. ' The Romans divided the day (from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.) into 12 hours, of whicn 7 a.m. was the fitst (prima hora). Noon was called meridies or sexta hora. The night (from 6 P.M. to 6 A.M.) they divided into four watches (vigiliae) of three hours each. 55- Ablative Case, 401 Pridie quam mortuus est, the day before he died ( = ante diem quam). Likewise, he died six years after I saw hiin^ may be rendered by any of the following : Mortuus est sex annis {or sexennio) postquam eum videram. Mortuus est sexto anno postquam eum videram. Mortuus est sexto anno quam eum videram. Mortuus est post sex annos (or post sexennium) quanl / eum videram. Mortuus est post sextum annum quam eum videram. Postridie quam eum vidi, the day after I saw him ( = post diem quarri). Cum, quo, quibus, are used for postquam t 'Biduo quo (or cum) haec gesta sunt; two days after these things were done, CaeSi On multo, paulo, &c., with ante, post, see § 1 50; 7) The Accusative of Duration shews the space of time through which an action extends ; the Ablative, that within which it is contained. G) The Ablative of Place Where generally takes *ih:' ^ In portu navigo,' I am sailing in harbour, Sen* 1) In is omitted in many instances : loco, multis locis, plu- ribus locis^ &c. ; hoc libro, alio libro, &c. ; terra, mari ; tota Asia, throughout Asia ; dextra (parte), on the right hand ; laeva, sinistra, on the left hand ; media urbe, in the middle of the city ; medio aedium, in the middle of the house ; eodem statu (or in eodem statu). Also with 'se tenere,' ^continere:' ^Pompeius s^ oppido tenet,' Ponipeius keeps in the town, C. Att. ix. li. 2. 2) Poets are more free in the omission : * Silvisque agrisque viisque corpora foeda iacent,' in forests and fields and foads tie revolting corpses, Ov. Met, vii. 647. But this licence needs discrimination. 3) When a work is quoted, in is used : in Iliade Homeri ; in Andria Terentii ; in Gorgia Platonis. But when the author only is cited, apud: apud Homerum; apud Terentium ; apud Platonem. 4) If the Place is a town or small island, the question. Where? is answered by a Case in -ae, -i, Singular, -is Plural, when the Noun is of Deck I. or II. : Romae, at Ro7ne, Cypri, at Cyprus, Athenis, at Athens^ Delphis, at Delphi; but by a Case in -e ot -i, Singular, -ibiis, Plural, when the Noun is of Deck III. : Babylone, at Babylon, Neapoli, at Naples, Gadibus, at Cadis. 5) The Case of Place in -ae, -i is taken by the words militia, bellum, humus, domus, rus : Militiae, belli, at the wars, humi, on the ground^ domi, at home, ruri (or rure), in the country. Terrae, on the earth, is used by poets : ' Procubuit terrae,' Ov. D D 402 Latin Syntax. 6) That the Case in -ae, -1 is not really a Genitive, was known even to the ancient grammarians, who call it an Adverb. But as it ends in l (Romai = Romae, militiai =militiae, domi, ruri, &c.), comparing the older forms of Place in Decl. III., Anxuri, Carthagini, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi, we cannot doubt the original existence of a Locative Case ending in i Sing, s Plur., in Latin as in Sanskrit. Compare Die septimi, Plaut. ; die crastini, Cell, (so die pristini, proximi) ; heri vesperi, C. Some refer here the Case of the Part Affected : animi pendeo; maturus aevi, &c. Some that of Price. 7) A Gentile Adjective is sometimes found with the name of a town locatively constructed : *Teani Apuli/ at Teanum of Apulia^ C. ^Curibus Sabinis/ L. Other epithets are used in poetry : ^ D octas iam nunc eat, inquit, Athenas,' let hmi forthwith go {says one) to learned A thens^ Ov. Her, ii. 83. 8) Apposition to a town without Attribute is generally with in: ' In urbe Antiochia.' But when an Attribute is added, the name of the town usually precedes : ^Antiochiae^ celebri quondam et copiosa urbe,' at Aittioch^ a once populous and wealthy city^ C. Arch. 3. 'Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido,' at Naples^ a very populous tow7t. So, ^ Syracusas in urbem florentissi- mam,' to Syracuse, a very flourishing city, C. 9) Domi, domum, admit the epithets meus, tuus, suus, alienus, also a Genitive of the Possessor : * Nonne mavis sine periculo domi tuae esse quam cum periculo alienae?' would you not rather be at your own house without peril than with peril at another'' s? C. Fain, iv. 7. ^ Clodius deprehensus est domi C a e s a r i s,' Clodius was caught at Caesar'' s house ^ C. Alt. i. 12. ^ Alius alium domos suas invitant/ they invite each other to their houses, Sail. lug, 66. 10) Prepositions are much used with names of towns : In Epheso est ; in Ephesum abii ; ^ has litteras a Brun- disio dedi,' C. So ad, apud. And with humus, domus, rus : ^ Alcibiades educatus est in do mo Periclis,' Alcibiades was brought up in the house of Pericles, Nep. Ale. 2. Usque is joined to names of places with or without Prepo- sitions : ' Ab Aethiopia est usque haec,' she is as far as from Ethiopia, Ter. 'Usque Ennam profecti sunt,' they went as far as Enna, C. H) The Ablativeof Direction of Motion has no Preposition: ^Ire Via Sacra,' to walk on the Sacred Road, Hon; 'ingredi urbem p o r t a E s q u i 1 i n a,' to enter the city by the Esquiline gate, L. § 157-59- Ablative Case. 4^3 iv. (Ill) Ablative Proper. ^ ' ^ Ablativ< A) The Ablative of Place Whence, if a town or small island, ^''^op^'^- or domus, rus, humus, militia, is used without Preposition: Redire Roma, Athenis, Epheso, Delphis, Tibure, Gadibus, militia, domo, rure, &c., to return from Rome, Athens, &c. But Prepositions (ab, de, ex) may be employed. 1) The Ablative of Place Whence is used in dating letters : ^ Litteras dederam Epheso pridie,' / wrote yesterday from Ephesus, C. ^Ego unas Capua litteras dedi/ / have written once from Capua, C. 2) Native place is sometimes expressed by this Ablative : Cn. Magius Cremona, Gnaeus Magius of Cremona^ Caes» B, C. i. 24 ; but more usually by an Adjective (Cremon- ensis) ; sometimes by ab : * Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia,' L. i. 50. * Pastor ab Amphryso,' V. G, iii. 2. 3) The name of the tribe is thus appended in inscriptions to that of a Roman citizen : *Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rufus,' Servius Sulpicius Rufus, son of Quintus, of the Lemonian tribd B) The Ablative of that From which Separation occurs 158 depends on many Words either without of with a Preposition. 1) The usage of such Words must be carefully distinguished* Some either omit or take the Preposition in Prose : Arcere, cedere, exsulare, movere, pellere^ prohibere, sol- vere^ summovere, removere : procul, alienus, &c* Others prefer a Preposition (chiefly ab) in prose, but may omit it in poetry : Alienare, discedere, disiungere^ dispellere, distare, divellere, repellere, secernere, segregare, separare, &C. Horace Writes * alium sapiente bonoque,' Epist, i* 16. 20< On discrepo^ differo, &:c., see § 135. 2) Verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, can take an Abl. by means of the Preposition : ^ Detrudit navis scopulo/ Verg. But most of them^ in prose, repeat their Preposition or add another : Excedere ex urbe ; a Roma abesse ; ex equo desilire ; a loco deicere. 3) Abstinere, abstain, varies its construction thus: Abstinere vino, &c., abstinere se vino, &:c., abstinere a vino, &c. 4) Observe the legal phrases : Abdicare se magistratu, to resign office^ movere senatu, tribu, &c., to expel from the senate, the tribe f &c. (an act of the Censor) ; ' interdicere aqua et igni/ to banish by excluding from fire and water. Supersedere, to dispense with, generally takes an Ablative. C) The Ablative of Origin is only a special instance of the 159 Ablative of Separation. D D 2 Latin Syntax, § 1 60. 1) It is joined to Verbs and Participles expressing or implying descent, origination, &c. Such are Nasci, oriri> gigni, with their compounds : and the Parti- ciples, editus, creatus, cretus, genitus, natus, prognatus, oriundus, ortus, satus {born, sprung, descended) : Nasci familia nobili ; Claris maioribus ortus ; patre genitus illustri ; sate sanguine divum, &c. 2) The usage of these words must be noted : Most admit Prepositions (ab, de, ex), and some prefer this construction even in poetry : ^Prisco natus ab Inacho,' Hon C, ii. 3. 21. 'Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati/ Ov. iv. 54. * Edita de magno flumine hympha fui/ Ov. Her, v. 10. D) The Ablative of the Thing Compared may be referred to the idea of Origin (or, as some think, to that of Respect). 1) It is attached to Comparative Adjectives or Adverbs in place of qua m (than) with the Nominative or Accusative. * Nihil est amabilius virtute/ nothing is 7nore amiable than virtue, C. 'Lacrima nihil citius arescit/ no- thing dries sooner than a tear, C. Inv, i. 56. * Puto mortem dedecore leviore m/ / think death easier than disgrace. 2) In comparing the other Cases quam miist be used : * Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Vergili/ to none more a cause of weeping than to thee, Vergilius, Hor. C. i. 24. 10. ^Flagiti magis nos pudet quam erroris/ we are more ashamed of the crime than of the blunder, C. And often for perspicuity : ' Segnius homines bona quam mala sentiunt,* men feel goods less keenly than evils, L. xxx. 21. 'Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixiquam te/ / love Brutus not less than thou, I had almost said, than thee, C. Att. v. 20* But poets do not always attend to this: 'Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat?' Why does he shun oil more cautiously than viper's blood ? Hor. C. i. 8. 9. 'Ego possideo plus Pallante et Lici- nis/ luv. i. 108. 3) If the Comparative itself is in the Genitive or Dative, quam with a clause generally follows : 'Haec sunt verba Varronis doctioris quam fuit Claudius/ these are the words of Varro, a more learned 7na7i than Claudius was, Cell. x. i. 4) The Ablatives aequo, iusto, dicto, solito, spe, opinione, necessario, follow Comparatives: 'Flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri/ ainan^s grief ought not to be more violent thaii is ri^ht, luv. xiii. II. ' Caesar opinione omnium celerius venturus est/ Caesar will arrive sooner than is generally expected, C. Fain. xiv. 23. § i6i. Ablative Case. 405 This Ablative elegantly falls out : Liberius vivebat (i.e. iusto)/ he lived too freely y Nep. Th. i, ^ So, * Res, graviores ' (i.e. solito), matters of tmusual iin-' portance. On quam after Comparatives, see § 76. 5) Inferior takes Ablative, and, in the Silver age. Dative: Sapientia omnia inferiora virtute ducit,' wisdom deems all things inferior to virtue^ C. T, D, iv. 26. * Padus est nulli amnium claritate inferior,' the Po is inferior to no river in clearness^ PI. N. H. iii. 16. 6) The Prepositions ante, praeter, supra, prae, are used in Comparison : ^Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnis,' Pyg-^ malion more monstrous in wickedness than (lit. before) all others^ Verg. Aen. i. 347. 'Crux praeter ceteras altior,' a cross higher than (lit. beyond) the resty Suet, Galb. 9. Obs. On several Ablatives with one Verb, see M. Lucr, i. 183. Madvig cites C. Brut. : 'Menippus meo iudicio tota, Asia illis temporibus disertissimus erat.' V. Ablative Absolute. Ablative Abso- 1) The construction called Ablative Absolute (Ablativus Convenientiae) occurs when the Ablative of a Substantive or Pro- noun takes for its adjunct another Ablative, which is either a Parti- ciple or an Adjective or a Substantive or (rarely) a Pronoun. Such an expression is equivalent to a Clause, often of Time : Imperante Augusto, when Augustus was emperor \ Caesare occiso, when Caesar had been slain ; vivo patre, while my father is {was) alive ; Camillo duce, when Cainillus is (was) comma7ider ; Caninio consule, in the consulship of Cani- nius ; hac iuventute, when our you7tg men are of this character. But the clause may express a condition, a concession, a cause, &c., according to the context. Thus te invito may mean, in various places, if you are miwilling ; though you are unwilling ; since you are unwilling ; without your consent. 2) The Absolute Participle is often equivalent to the Gerund or Ablative of Manner : ^ Tarquinius Turnum oblate falso crimine oppressit,' Tar^ quinius crushed Turnus by impeding a false charge^ L. i. 51. * Aruns Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis,, magis non prohibente Servio quam approbante,' Aruns Tarquinius and Tullia the younger marry rather withotd the opposition than with the approbation of Ser- vius, L. i. 56. 3) An Impersonal Participle is sometimes absolute: Mihi, errato, nulla venia; recte facto, exigua laus proponi- tur,' to 7ne, if I blunder, no indulgence ; if I succeed, small credit is offered, C d. L. Agr. ii. 2. Errato = si erratum erit a me ; recte facto = si Vecte factum erit a me. 4o6 Latin Syntax, § i6i. Sometimes a Clause is absolute with a Participle : 'Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus/ cheerful in all respects^ save that you are not with me, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 50. See § 237-240. I. {Instr.Abl.) A) {Causal.) * Lollius, aetateetmorboimpeditus, ad testimonium dicendum venire non potuit,' C. Verr. iii. 25. * Noli putare, pigritia me facere quod non mea manu scribam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. * Consul dictatorem comitiorum causa T. Manlium Torquatum ex auctoritate senatus dixit,' L. vii. 26. * Has familias honestatis amplitudinisque gratia nomino/ C. p. S, Rose. 6. * Demosthenes corona aurea donatus est virtutis ergo,' C, O. G. Or. 7. * Senatus supplicationes consulum nomine decrevit,' L. iii. 63. ■ Vestra magis hoc causa volebam quam mea,' C. 4. Or. \. 35. * Ad eum ipsius rqgatu aqcersituque veneram,' C. N, Z>. i. 6, ;5, B) C) {Instr, Agent.) ' Cor nib us tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones se tutantur," C. iV. D. ii. 5a * Etesiarum flatu nimii temperantur calores,' C. N. D. ii. 53. * Illud tibi affirmo, fore ut absens a multis, cum redieris ab omnibus collaudere,' C. Fam. i. 7. * Nisi iam factum est aliquid per Flaccum, fiet a me/ C. Fam. iii. 11. ' Ingenium placida mollimur ab arte,' Ov. A. A, iii. 545. D) {Price.) * Plinius commentarios suos vQndere poterat quadringentis mil- jbus nummum,' Plin. Ep. iii, 5. * Dareus mille talentis percussorem Alexandri emere voluit,' Curt. iv. i. * Aurea nunc vere sunt saecula ; plurimus auro venit honos,' Prop. iii. 12. *Mercatur tris libros nihilo minore pretio quam quod erat petitum pro omnibus,' Cell. i. 19. * Seius in caritate annonae asse modium populo dedit,' C. Off", ii. 17. * Vix drachmis opsonatum est decem,' Ter. An. ii. 6. * Sextante sal et Romae et per totam Italiam erat,' L. xxix. 37. * Cum esset fru- mentum sestertiis binis aut trinis, quibusvis locis provinciae duodenos sestertios exegisti,' C. Verr. ii. 3. 84. 'Aristidis, Thebani pictoris, unam tabulam centum talentis rex Attains liqitatus est,' PI. N. H. vii. 37. * Multo sanguine ac vulne- ribus ea Poenis victoria stetit,' L. xxiii. 30. * Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus aestimantur,' Tac. An. i, 17. * Notavit aliquos, quod pecunias levioribus usuris mutuatas graviori fenore collocassent,' Suet. Aug. 33. *Triginta milibus Coelius habitat,' C. /. Coel. 7. *ParvQ fames constat, magno fasticjium,' Sen. Ep. 17. * El mandasti negotium, cui expediret, illud venire quam pluripio,' C. Fam. vii. 2. * Ambulatiuncula dimidio pluris constabit,' C. Att. xiii. 29. * Ego quaero, cur civis optimi bona tantulo venierint,' C. P- S. i?. 45, * Quanti emi potest? M ini mo,' Plant. * Istuc verbum vile est viginti minis/ Plant. Mpst. i. 3. i39- * Clodii insula venalis est decem milibus/ C. Coel. 7. * Quod non opus est asse carum est,' Sen. Ep. 94. * Nefas duco victrice patria victam mutare,* L. V. 30. * Tellus Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista,* V«?rg. G. i. 8. *Tauro mutatus membra rebello,' Ov. M. ix. 81. * Fortuna prae&ens supeirbos vertere funeribus triumphos,' Hor. Od. i. 35. 4. J^) {Matter.) 'Germani Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus humanis quoquehos- tiis litare fas habent,' Tac. G. 9. ' Romulum lacte, non vino libasse, indicio sunt sacra ab eo instituta/ PI. N. H. xiv. 12. * Hoc etiam maiore es malo mactandus, quod non solum facto tuo, sed etiam exemplo rempublicam vulnerasti,' C. c. Vatin. 15. * Ad mi rati one afficiuntur ii, qui anteire ceteros virtute putantur,' C. Off. \\. 10. * Caesar Germanos, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, primus Romanorum maximis affecit gladibus,' Suet. Caes. 25. * Summa difficultate rei frumentariae afficiebatur Caesaris ejfercitus, tenuitate Boiorum, indiligentia Aeduorum, incendiis aedificiorum, Caes. B. G. vii. 17. * Virgo inficitur teneras tota rubore genas,' Tibull. iii. 4. 31. * Natura oculos tenuissimis membranis vestivit et saepsit,' C. N. D. ii. 57. * Hippias gloriatus est pallium, quo amictus, soccos quibus indutus esset, se manu sua confecisse,' C. d- Or. iii. 32. * Bonis artibus aetas puerilis ad humanitatem in- formari solet,' C. p- Arch. 3. * Caesar Corfinium oppidum vallo castellisque circumvenire instituit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. * Indignum est in ea civitate, quae legi- bus tenetur, disced! a legibus/ C. p. Ciu. 53. 'Quid de Tulliola mea fiet?' C. Fam. xiv. 4. * Quid fecisti scipione?' Plant. Cas. v. 4. 18. 'Quaero, si, qui vellnt vendere, non fuerint, quid pecunia fiet?' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 27. 'Delicto dolere, correctione gaudere oportet,' C. Lael 24. ' Ut adulescentibus bona indole praeditis sapientes senes delectantur. sic adulescentes senum praeceptis gaudent, quibus ad vjrtutum studia duguntur/ C. Cat. 31. 8. ' Duobus vitiis, ava- \ § 162-63. Genitive Case. 407 F, The Genitive Case, 1^)2 i. The Genitive in Latin has for its main function Gem- ii. The uses of the Genitive may be considered ^ as twofold : A) Subjective, when a predication is implied of which the Genitive word is Subject : hominum timor, mcn^s fear (homines timent ahquid). ritia et luxuria, Romana civitas laborabat,' L. xxxiv. 4. * Nemo potest aut corporis fir mitate aut fortunae stabilitate confidere,' C. T. D. v. 14.40. * Meis consiliis, monitis, studiis, auctionibus nituntur/ C. Fain. v. 8. * Parvo est natura contenta,* C. Fin. ii. 28. *Varus est homo summa religione et summa auctori- tate praeditus,' C. /. Clu. 19. ' Non segetibus solum et pratis et vineis et arbustis res rusticae laetae sunt, sed etiam hortis etpomariis; turn pecudum pastu, apium examinibus, florum omnium varietate,' C. Cat. M. 15. * Cimon Thasios, opulentia fretos, suo adventu fregit/ Nep. Cim. 2. * I, decus Ausoniae, quo fas est ire superbas virtute et fact is animas,' Sil. x. 573. * Exclusus ab Antiochia Dolabella, nulla alia confisus urbe, Laodiceam se contulit,' C. Fam. xii. 15. * Curionis patrio fuit institute puro sermoae assuefacta domus,* C. Brtit. 59. * Excellentium civium virtus imitatione, non invidia, digna est,' C. Phil. xiv. 6. * Quam multi indigni luce sunt, et tamen dies oritur,' Sen. Ben. i. i. * Descendam magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum,* Verg. Aen. xii. 649. * Haud equidem tali me dignor honore,' Verg, Aen. i. 335. * Hi apud maiores nostros tali honore dignati sunt,' C. Inv. ii. 39. * Nihil opus est simulatione et fallaciis,' C. d. Or. ii. 46. 'Auctoritate tua nobis opus est et consilio et etiam gratia,' C. Fam. ix. 25. * Viginti iam usus est filio argenti minis,' Plaut. Asin. i. i. * An cuiquam est homini usus se ut cruciet,' Ter. Haut. i. i. * Ubi summus imperator non adest, citius quod non facto est usus fit quam quod facto est opus,' Plaut. Am. i. 3. ' Si quid, quod opus fuerit, Appio facies, ponito me in gratia,' C, Fam. viii. 6. *Verres multa sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos circa se haberet,' C. Verr. i. 48. * Magna Helotarum multitudo agros Lacedaemoniorum colit, servorumque munere fungitur,' Nep. Pans. 3. * Crassus, cum cognomine dives tum copiis, functus est aedilicio maximo munere,' C. Oj^. ii. 16. * Hannibal Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore,' N. Hann. 13. *Cum Phalerico portu neque magno neque bono Athenienses uterentur, Themistoclis consilio triplex Piraeei portus constitutus est,' Nep. Them. 6. * Id est cuiusque pro- prium, quo quisque fruitur atque utitur,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totlus Galliae imperio potiri,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. * Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vesce- bantur,' Sal. lug. 89. * Ad agrum fruendum etiam invitat senectus,' C. Cat. M. 16. * Operam abutitur,' Ter. An. Prol. 5. * Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum,' C. Univ. 3. * Crotoniatae quondam templum lunonis egregiis picturis locupletare voluerunt,' C. Inv. ii. i. * Satiate sanguine quem sitiisti,' lust. i. 8. * Te autem quibus mendaciis homines levissimi onerarunt,' C. Fam. iii. 10. * Abundarunt semper auro regna Asiae,' L. xxxv. 46. * Met all is plumbi, ferri, aeris, argenti, auri tota ferme Hispania scatet,' PI. N. H. iii. 3. * Democritus dicitur oculis se privasse,' C. Fin. v. 29. * Gravius est spo- liari fortunis quam non augeri dignitate,' C. /. Plane. 22. * Murus defenso- ribus nudatus est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 6. * Non ante abscessum est quam castris exuerunt hostem,' L. xxix. 2. 'Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur supersti- tione, liberamur mortis metu,' C. Fin. i. 19. * Cotidie nos ipsa natura admonet, quam paucis, quam parvis rebus egeat, quam vilibus,' C. T. D. v. 35. * Carere hoe significat, egere eo quod habere velis. Regno carebat Tarquinius, cum regno esset expulsus,' C. T. D. i. 36. * Animi, quo maior est in eis praestantia, eo maiore indigent diligentia/ C. T. D. iv. 27. * Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget,* tive Case. 408 Latin Syntax, % 163. B) Objective; when a predication is implied ot which the Genitive word is Object : timor hominum, fear of 77ieii (aliquis timet homines). d) One word may have both Genitives dependent on it : Hominum timor mortis, men^s fear of death ; Ciceronis defensio Gabinii, Cicero's defence of Gabinius, Among words capable of taking this double Genitive are : Amor, desiderium, iniuria, miserat^o^ obsequium, odium, stu- dium, &c. U) One Genitive may depend on another : Africani sororis filius, Africanus's sister^ s son» C. Fin. iii. 15. ' Gravitas morbi facit ut medicinae egeamus,' C. Fam. ix. 3. * Plinius plenus annis, plenus honoribus obiit,' Plin. Ep. ii. i. *Habes episT tulam plenam f e st i n a t i o n i s et pulveris,' C. Att. v. 14. *Amor et melle et felle est fecundissimus,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. * Dives agris, dives positis in fenore nummis,' Hor. ad. Pis. 421. * Sum dives pecoris, nivei sum lactis abun- dans,' Verg. B. ii. 20. * Consules praeda ingonti compotem exercitum reducunt,' L. iii. 70. ' Numquam animus cogitatione et motu vacuus esse potest/ C. Div. ii. 62. * Mamertini soli vacui, expertes, soluti ac liberi fuerunt ab omni sumptu, molestia, munere/ C. Verr. ii. 4. 10. * Plerique patria, sed omnes fama atque fortunis expertes sumus,' Sail. Cat. 33. ' Caesari tradita urbs est nuda praesidio, referta copiis,' C. Att. vii, 13. 'Decius, Macti virtute, in- quit, milites Romani, este,' L. vii. 36. * Nunc cassum lurnine lugent,' V. Aen. ii. 85. II. {Locative Ail.) A) {Respect.) 'Agesilaus nomine non potestate fuit rex/ Nep. Ag. I. * Cn. Pompeius fuit forma excellens, innocentia eximius, sancti- tate praecipuus, eloquent ia medius/ Veil, ii. 29. * Uri sunt magnitudine paulo infra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri,* Caes. B. G. vi. 28. * Q. Maxi- mum Cato adulescens colere coepit non admodum grandem natu, sed tamen iam aetata provectum,* C. Cat. M. 4. * Persae mille numero navium classem ad Delum appu- lerunt,' C. Verr. i. 18. * Cum illius temporis mihi venit in mentem, quo die mihi dicen- dum sit, non solum commoveor animo, sed etiam toto corpore perhorresco,' C. in Caecil. 13. ^Medius Polluce et Castore ponar,' Ov. Am. ir. 16. 13. *Verres pretio, non aequitate iura describebat,' C. Verr. v. 11. B) {Measure.") ' Messalla consul est egregius ; ille alter uno vitio minus vitiosus,* C. Att. i. 14. * Aesculapi templum quinque milibuspassuumab Epidauro distat,' \a. XXV. 28. * Belgae ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, et ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt,' Caes. B. G. ii, 7. * Surculos demittita ita ut sex digitis de arbore exstent/ Columella, xxvi. 4. * Numa Pompilius annis permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras,' C. d. Or. ii. 37. * Tribunus anno post fuit Crassus,' C. Br. 6,0, * Tan to Pompeius superiores duces vioei^at gloria quanta Caesar omnibus praestitit,' C. /. Deiot. 4, * Meo iudicio muUo stare malo quam omnium relic^uorum,* C. Att. xii. 2. * Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia,' Caes. v. 13. ' Nimio plus quam velim nostrorum ingenia sunt mobilia,* L. ii. 37. 'Quinquiens tanto amplius Verres quam quantum in cellam sumere licitum erat civitatibus imperavit,' C. Verr. iii. 97. * Alcibiades fuit om.nium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,* Nep. Ale. i. O {Manner.) 'Iniuria fit duobus modis, aut vi aut fraude,* C. Off. \. 13. * Pace advenio, et pacem ad vos affero,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 32. * Quod exemplo fit, id etiam iure fieri putant,* C. Fam. iv. 3. * Arminius equo conlustrans cuncta, ut quosque advectus erat, reciperatam libertatem ostentabat,' Tac. Ann. ii. 45, * Galli urbem cum clamore et impetu invadunt ; patentis passim domos adeunt/ Fl. i. 13. * Cur Pythagoras tantas regiones barbarorum p e d i b u s obiit?' Cic. Fin. v. 29. * Quan- topere movemur, cum pie, cum amice, cum magno animo aliqnid factum cognos- cimus,' C. Fin. v. 22. * Cultus deorum est optimus, ut eos semper pura integra incorrupta et mente etvoce veneremur,' C. N. D. ii. 28. ' Parthi Euphratem transierunt cunctis fere copiis,' C. Att. v. 18. * Scipio profectus in Siciliam est trigintanavibuslongiSj'L. xxviii. 46. * Mihi litterae redditae sunt, Pacorumcum permagno equitatu Parthico transisse Euphraten,' C. Fain. xv. i. * Magna 164. Genitive Case, 409 iii. A) Subjective Genitive (Possessive; De- subjec scriptive ; Partitive). I. Genitivus Auctoris et Possessoris. II. Genitivus Descriptionis. III. Genitivus Oualitatis. IV. Genitivus Rei Distributae et Demensae; with other Partitive Constructions. Note I. As Latin has an Ablative, its Genitive is more restricted than the Greek ; but poets imitate the freedom of the Greek Gen. In some instances the Abl. and Gen. concur (as in constructions of Quahty, Price, Matter) ; and Prepositional phrases are substituted live Ge- nitive. cum cura atque diligentia scripsit,* C. Inv. i. 39. * Erit turn consul Hortensius cum summo imperio et potestate,' C. Verr. i. 13. * In summo apud Graecos honore geometria fuit,' C. T. D. i. 2. * Plancus in earn urbem rediit armis, e qua excesserat legibus,' C. Phil. xiii. 12. D) {Condition.) Optimo iure sunt ea praedia, quae optima condicione sunt,* C. d. L. Agr. iii. 2. 'Auspicia nunc a Romanis augunbus ignorantur ; bona hoc ^ua venia dixerim; ^ Cilicibus tenentur,' C. Div. i. 15. * Isocratia glojiam nemo, meo quidem iudicio, est postea consecutus,' C. Br. 8. *Meoiurete hoc beneficium jrogo ; nihil enim non tua causa feci/ C. Ait. xiv. 13. * lam mater rure rediit? Responde mihi. — Sua quidem salute ac familiae maxuma,' Plant. Merc. iv. 5. 9. E) {Quality^ * Fuit quidam summo ingenio vir, Zeno, cuius inventorum aemuli ^toici nominantur,' C. /. Mur. 29. * Iphicrates fuit et animo magno et corpore, imperatoriaque forma,' Nep. Iph. 3. * Erat apud Heium sacrarium, in quo signa pulcherrima quattuor, summo artlficio, summa nobilitate/ C. Verr, iv. 2, * Magno timore sum ; sed bene speramus,' C. Att. v. 14. F) {Time.) * Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit,' PI. N. H. vii. 40. ' Exc\ir, remus mense Spptembri, ut lanuario revertamur/ C. Att. i. i. ' Hannibal, in^» perator factus, proximo triennio omnis gentes Hispaniae subegit/ Nep. Han. 3. ^ Abeunt hirundines hibernis mensibus,' PI. H. N. 24. * Septimo ferme anno Caesar morabatur in Galliis, cum lulia, uxor Pompeii Magni, decessit,' Veil. ii. 47. * Erat consuetude, ut quem ordinem interrogandi sententias consul Kalendis lanuariis instituisset, eum toto anno conservaret, Suet. Caes. 21. * Claudius ueminem ultra mensem, quo obiit, consulem designavit,* Suet. Claud. 46. * Brutus consul collegam sibi comitiis centuriatis creavit P. Valerium,' L. ii. 2. ^ Urbes Afncae post M. Atilium Regulum annis prope quinquaginta nullum Romanum ^xercitum viderant,' L. xxix. 28. ' Nuntius hic decem horis nocturnis sex et quin- quaginta milia passuum cisiis pervolavit,* C. /. S. Rose. 7. * Ecce autem repente, his ^iebus paucis, eadem ilia vetera consilia pecunia maiore repetuntur,' C, Verr. i. 6. 'Epistulamde nocte daturus eram, sicut dedi ; nam earn vesperi scripseram,' C, Att. viii. 6. * Lysander Atheniensis in Peloponnesios sexto et vicesimp^inno bellum gerentis confecit,' N. Lys. i. * Caesar compluris equitum turmas eo 4^ media nocte misit,' Caes. B, G. vU. 45- * Fac ut naviges de mense Decembri {before the end of),' C. Qm. Ft. ii, i. * De tertia vigilia castra movit,* Caes. B. C i, 63, * Artes in omni aetate cultae mirificos efferunt fructus,' C. Cat. M. 3. * I^fummos tibi reponaminhoc triduo.,' Plant. Pers. i. i. 33. * Fere in diebus paucis quibus haec acta sunt Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' Ter. An. 1. i. * Ego si semper haberem cui darem litteras, vel ternas in hora darem,' C. Fa7n. xv. 16. * Testamentura Augusti ante annum et quattuor mensis quam decesserat factum est,' Suet. Aug. ipi. * Livius docuit anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius,' C. Brut. 18. * Aristides, decessit fere post annun; quartum quam Themistocles Athenis erat expulsus,' N. Ar. 3. * Aristides sexto fere anno postquam erat expulsus, in patriam restitutus est,* N. Ar. I. 'Undecimo die postquam a te discesseram, hoc litterularum exaravi,' C. Att. xii. i. 'Dictator die octavo quam creatus erat, magistratu se abdicavit,' L. iv. 47. *Anno trecentesimo altero quam condita Roma erat, iterum mutatur forma civ itatis,' L. iii. 33. * Andricus postridie ad me venit quam exspectaram,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Collegam triduo cum has dabam litteras exspecta- Latin Syntax. §164. for the Gen. : thus, una de multis, una e multis, una multa- rum, are equivalent. Hence in French ^ de"* is used as a Gen. and Abl. Preposition; in Itahan, ' dV is the Gen., ^ da 'the Abl. Preposition. Note 2. This Genitive is in the nature of an Attribute. Thus it is the same thing to say, ^Sullan us exercitus' or ^Sullae ex- ercitus,' ^flamen Martialis' or 'flamen Martis.' (Even for the Objective Gen. Adjectives are used : ^ Timor ex- ternus ' for ' timor exterorum.' And Possessive Pronouns : ' Tua fiducia,' in reliance on you, C. Verr, v. 58. *• Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed etiam aliorum,' a man should take account not of himself alone but also of others^ C. Off. i. 39.) ' Native of a place^ is usually expressed by an Adjective derived from the place : as, ^ Dionysius Halicarnasseus,' for Dionysius Halicarnassi natus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, bam,* C. Fa7n. x. 23. * Ipse, ut spero, octo diebus quibus has litteras dabam, cum Lepidi copiis me coniungam,' C. Fam. x. 18. G) {Place Where.') * Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timo- theus Lesbi, Chares in Sigeo,' Nep. Chabrias. 3. ' Castra Gallorum opportunis locis erant posita,' Caes. B. G. vii. 69. * Hi vagantur laeti atque erecti passim toto foro,' C. A Font. 11. * Ab A«co Marcio career ad terrorem increscentis audaciae media urbe imminens foro aedificatur,' L. i. 33. * Ut Romae consules. sic Kartha- gine quotannis annui bini reges creabantur,' Nep. Hann. 7. *Per eosdem dies quibus haec ilU consuhabant, consilium de iis Carthagini erat,' L. xxviii. 26. * DionysiuSj» cum fanum Proserpinae Locris expilavisset, navigabat Syracusas,' C. N. D. iij, 34. * Fuit Arganthonius quidam Gadibus qui octoginta regnavit annos,' C. Cat. 19, *Scipio, L. Marcio Tarracone, M. Silano Karthagine Nova ad praesidium His- paniae relictis, in Africam traiecit,' L. xxviii. 17. ' N eapoli in celeberrimo oppido etiam senatores cum mitella saepe vidimus,' C. /. Rab. Post. 30. 'A Romanis nihil bel U domique nisi auspicato gerebatur,' L. i. 36. * Manlius Titum filium ruri habitare iussit,' L. vii. 5. ' Manlius rure iuventam egit,' PL N. H. viii. 46. 'Nihil domi, nihil militiae per magistratus geritur sine augurum auctoritate,' C. Leg. ii. 12. * Cadmus spargit humi iussos, mortalia semina, dentis, O. Met. iii. 105. * Antonius intimus erat Clodio, cuius etiam do mi quiddam moUtus est/ C. Phil. ii. 19. H) {Place by Which.) Demonstrabo iter; Aurelia via profectus est,' C. Cat. ii. 4. * Cur non sancitis, ne vicinus patricio sit plebeius nec eodemitinere eat, ne idem con- vivium ineat, ne in foro eodem consistat?' L. iv. 4. * lam consul via Lavicana ad fanum Quietis erat,' L. iv. 41. * Lupus Esquilina porta ingressus cum in forum decu- currisset, Tusco vico atqae inde Germalo per portam Capenam prope intactus evasit,' L. xxxiii. 26. ' Legiones victrices Penninis Cottianisque Alpibus, pars monte Graio, traducuntur,' Tac. H. iv, 68. III. {Ahl. Proper.) A) {Place Whence.) *Roma acceperam litteras, Milonem queri per litteras iniuriam meam,' C. Att. v. 8. 'Auximo Caesar progressus omnem agrum Picenum percurrit,' Caes. B. C. \. 15. * Maiores nostri Capua magistratus, senatum, omnia denique insignia rei publicae sustulerunt, neque aliud quicquam nisi inane nomen Capuae reliquerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. 1. 6. * Dionysius Platonem Athenis arcessivit,' N. Di. 3. * Caesaris milites cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania pabulum supportare,' Caes. B. C. iii. 58. * Princeps Academiae Philo cum Atheniensium optimatibus Mithridatico bello domo profugit, Romamque venit,* C. Bnit.^ 89. * Video rure redeuntem senem,' Ter. Ftin. v. 4. 45. 'Vix oculos attollit humo,'Ov. Met. iii. 448. B) {Separation.) ' Censores omnis, quos senatu moverunt quibusque equos ademerunt, aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt,' L. xlii. 10. * Hostis Antonius iudicatus Italia cesserat,' N. Att, 9. 'Apud Germanos quemcunque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habetur,' Tac. G. 21. * Adolescentia a libidinibus arcenda est,' C. Off. i. 34 ' Avocat a rebus gerendis senectus,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Di, talem terris avertite pestem/ Verg. Aen. iii. 620, 'Nisi is Antonium ab urbe aver- tisset, perissent omnia,' C. ad. Br. i. 3. 'Romano bello Fortuna Alexandnim jibstinuit,' Liv. viii. 24, 'Tiberius et Augustus publico abstinuere, inferius sessoris» § 165. Genitive Case. 411 165 I. i) The Possessive Genitive expresses that which stands Genc- in the relation of Author, Origin, or Proprietor to the Noun Auctoris on which it depends : et Pos- Oratio Ciceronis, leges civitatis, fortitudo militum, rex Ponti, domus PericHs, &c. It may be rendered in English by the Possessive Case in '^, or by the Preposition of : Philippi fiHus, Philip* s son, or so7i of Philip, 2) The Dativus Commodi is often substituted for it : ^ In Palatio prima urbi fundamenta ieci,' / laid the first foundations of {fo7') my city on the Palatine hill, L. i. 12. ^Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ^go^ you are his sire by nature, I by counsels, Ten Ad, i. 2. 46. So advocatus, praefectus, legatus (properly Participles) sometimes govern Gen., sometimes Dat. Likewise affinis, maiestate sua rati,' Tac. Ann. iii. 3. * Quale beneficium est, quod te abstinueris a nefario scelere?' C. Phil. ii. 3. * Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus abstinuit; tanta vis fuit poenitendi,' C. T. D. iv. 37. 'Abhorrent moribus nostris/ Curt. vii. 8. 'Nostra aetas abhorret a castris, praesertim civilibus,' C. Att. xiv. 19. * Virtus numquam ulla vi labefactari potest, numquam demoveri loco,' C Phil. iv. 5, * Miserum est exturbari fortunis omnibus,' C. Quinct. 31. 'Augur potest decernere ut magistratu se abdicent consules,' C. Leg. ii. 12. •Hominis natura a reliquis animantibus differt,' C. Off. i. 27. * Quindecim milibus passuum Arabicus sinus distat ab Aegyptio mari,' PI. H. N. ii. 68. ' Exculta hominum vita distat a cultu et victu bestiarum,' C. Off. ii. 4. ' Temeritas a sapientia dissidet plurimum,' C. Off, ii. 2. 'Alienum est magno viro, quod alteri praeceperit, id ipsum facere non posse,' C. ad. Br. i. 9. C) {Origin!) * Nati sunt Carthagine, sed oriundi a Syracusis,' L. xxiv. 6. * Ex me is natus est,' Ter. Haul. v. 4. * A parentibus, id quod necesse erat, parvus sum creatus; a vobis natus sum consularis,' C. post Red. 3. *E principio oriuntur omnia: ipsum autem nulla ex re alia nasci potest,' C. T. Z>. i. 23. * Qualis ille tibi videtur Tantalo prognatus Pelope natus?' C. T. D.\\\. 12. * Quidam parentibus nati sunt humilibus,' C. Lael. 19. * Mq equestri ortum loco consulem videtis,' C. Rep. ii. 7. D) {Thing Compared.) *Deus maior est ac potentior cunctis,' Sen. Ep. 58. * Lux sonitu velocior est,' PI. H. N. ii. 54. 'Villus argentum est auro, virtu- tibus aurum,' Hor, Epist. 'x. i. 52. 'Quid est melius aut quid praestantius bonitateet beneficentia?' C. N, D. i. 43. 'Demosthene nec gravior exstitit quisquam nec c a 11 i d i o r nee temperatio r,' C. Or. 7. 23. * Recte auguraris de me, nihil a me abesse longius crudelitate,' C. Att. ix. 16. * Herodotum cur vera- ciorem ducam Ennio?' C. Div. ii. 56. ' Neminem Lycurgo aut maiorem aut utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit,' Val. Max. v. 13. ' Res aliquanto expecta- tione omnium tranquillior fuit,' L. iv. 24. 'Voiuptas cum maior est atque longior, omne animi lumen exstinguit,' C. Cat. M. 12. ' Felix ante alias virgo,' Verg. Ae. iii. 321. ' Prae nobis beatus videris,' Sulp. ap. C. Fam. iv. 4. ' Minor quam pro tumultu caedes,' Tac. H. v. 15. * Thais quam ego maiuscula est,' Ter. Eun. iii. 3. 21. E) {Ablative Ahs!) * Crastino die orientesole redite in pugnam,* L. iii. 2. * Solon et Pisistratus Servio TuUio regnante viguerunt,' C. Br. 10. ' Caesare venture, Phosphore, redde diem,' Mart. viii. 21. ' Caesar inita hieme in Illyricum profectus est,* Caes. B. G. iii. 7. * Romani, Hannibale vivo, numquam se sine insidiis futuros existimabant,' Nep. Hann. 12. * Caninio consule scito neminem prandisse ; nihil tamen eo consule mali factum est,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Nil desperandum est Teucro duce et auspice Teucro,' Hor. C. i. 7. 27. ' Plebs Romana, Sicinio quodam auctore, in Sacrum montem secessit,' L. ii. 32. 'Romana respublica, Cannensi calamitate accepta, maiores animos habuit, quam umquam rebus secundis,'C. Off. iii. II. ' Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda,* Caes. B. G. vi. 21. ' Alia causa est eius, qui calamitate premitur, et eius, qui res meliores quaeri^ nuUis suis rebus adversis,' C. Off. ii. t8. ' Proxime, recenti adventu nieoj rem aliter institutam offendi ac mihi placuisset, si affuissem,' C. Fam. v. 17. 412 Latin Syntax. amicus, com.es, consors, familiaris, hostis, inimicuSj par, vicinus, &c., aequalis, communis, proprius, sacer, similis, dissimilis, &c. 3) This Genitive may depend on Neuter Adjectives and Pro- nouns used Substantively : Amicorum omnia, C. ; alio rum non me digna, C. ; prae- clarum hoc Thrasybuli quod, &c., N. Xerxi maxime est illustre quod, &:c., the most famous fiat of Xerxes is that, &c., N. 4) , The Noun is in some instances omitted : ^ Huius video Burriam,' I see this 7nan!s {slave) Burria, Ter. An. ii. 2. 20. (See p. 275. 2). Cicero has an ellipse of fundus, estate : ^Tu neque per Locustae neque per Varronis viam ducere voluisti,' you would not carry a road through either Locusta^s or Varro^s property, Qu. F. iii. i. 5) Another Ellipse of the governing Noun before the Gen. is, when that Noun occurs in a previous part of the sentence, whether in the same or in a different case : * Meo iudicio. €tare malo, quam omnium reliquorum,' / would rather abide by my own judgment than by that of all beside, C. Att. xii. 21. ' Quis est qui possit conferre vitam Trebonii cum Dolabellae ?' who, can compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolabella ? C. Phil. xi. 4. This takes place when two kinds of the same thing are spoken of, or where the Noun is first used specifically, thei^ generally : but if first used generally, then specifically, the Noun is repeated, or an emphatic Pronoun put for it : * Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate con- tendere,' there is no speed to vie with that of the mind, C. T. D. i. 19. ^ Cum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, tum ilia ingeni atque eloquentiae multo molestissima,' while all assujnption is odious, that (suggested) of genius and elogf uence is by far the most displeasing, C. in Caec. 1 1. 0) The Pronouns mens, tuus, suus, noster, &c. must be used Possessively instead of the Genitives, mei, &c. ; but with them may stand Pronorninal or Participial Genitives agreeing with the Gen. which the Possessives virtually contain. Such are, ipsius, ipsorum, unius, solius. am- borum, duorum, &c., besides Participles : Respublic^ mea unius opera salva erat,' the coinmon- wealth was saved by my single exertion, C. in Pis. 3. 'Aves fetus adultos suae ipsorum fiduciae permittunt,' birds entrust their grown young ones to their own self- reliance, On. u.^. ^ N ostros vidisti flentis ocellos,' saw the eyes of me weeping, Ov. Her. v. 45. jr) The Possessive Genitive, being of Attributive nature, may be used in Copulative or Factitive construction : ^ Omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine/ all things that were the womafi's become the husband*^, § i66. Genitive Case, 413 tinder the title of dowry ^ C. Top. 4. Hercules dicebatur esse Myronis/ C. Verr. iv. 3. ' lam me Pompeii totum esse you kiiow I am now Pompefs thorough partisan^ C. Fam, ii. 13. * Popillius clavis portarum suae potest- atis {Qc\t^^ Popillius took possession of the keys of the gates, L. xliii. 22. 8) Especially when the Subject of the Sentence is an Infin. and the Gen. may be supposed to depend on a suppressed notion, such as indicium, token, indoles, nature, munus, o^^ohyxm^ function, duty,part^ &c., proprium, : ' Cuiusvis hominis est errare/ C. Phil. xii. 2. * Honoris amplissimi esse puto miseros defendere,' I deem it a function of highest office to defend the unfortunate, C. in Caec. 21. * Adulescentis est maiores natu vereri,' C. Off. i. 34. ^Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habi- tum,' C. Fa7n, iv. 9. 9) All these words are found before the Gen. : ' Id viri est officium,' C. T. D. ii. 21. * Principum munus est resistere levitati multitudinis,' C. p^ Mil. 8. ' Sapientis est proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere/ C. T, D. V. 28. Pars itself is so used: as, ^Plura de extremis loqui pars ignaviae est,' to dwell at length on the closing scene of life is a coward^ s part, Tac. H. ii. 47. 10) For this Gen. are used Possessive Pronouns or other Adjec- tives indicating personal character : * Nostrum est ferre modice populi voluntates,' C p. Plane, 4. ^Et agere et pati fortia Romanum est,' L. ii. 12, *Non est mentiri meum,' Ter. Haul. iii. 2. 38. 11) The Genitives moris, consuetudinis, arbdtrii, iuris, tutelae, when Complements, may be explained by reference to proprium : * Negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres,' he said it was not a fashion of the Greeks for women to sit at table in a party of men, C. Verr, i. 26. * Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis,' Caes. B. G, iv. 5. ^ Victos tutelae nostrae duximus,' L. X5ii. 41. 166 II. i) The Descriptive Genitive expresses the specific class to Geneti- which its governing Noun belongs, being often nearly vus De- equivalent to an Apposite, sometimes to an Epithet : onis.^^" ^ Nomen regis ; vox voluptatis ; virtus continentiae ; vitium ignorantiae ; flos rosae ; arbor fici ; lauri nemus ; montes auri ; poena legis ; oppidum Antiochiae ; promunturium Miseni, &c. See Cic. Off. ii. 5. ' Ceteris causis enume- ratis, eluvionis, pestilentiae,' &:c. d) This Gen. may be equivalent to a Preposition with Case : Pyrrhi bellum = bellum cum Pyrrho or contra Pyrrhum ; odium inimicitiarum = odium ob inimicitias, &c. b) A Possessive and a Descriptive Gen. may depend on one and the same word : Latin Syntax. 167. ^Exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum mag-na et perni- ciosa sentina reipublicae/ that great and mischievous sink of the commonwealth consisting of your companions shall be drained from the city^ C. p. S. Rose. 5. 2) The Gen. with causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, more, modo ritu, has been noticed. Observe that with instar. Instar {linage) is a Substantive used to express likeness, equivalence, &c., either as Apposite, Complement, or after habere, obtinere, &c. : 'Instar montis equum,' Verg. Ae. ii. 15. ^ Ille dies mihi immortalitatis instar fuit,' that day was to me as good as immortality, C. in Pis, 22. * Unus is innumeri mi litis instar habet,' he alone is worth cotmtless troops, Ov. Her. xvi. 368. Ad instar is found in later Latin. 3) Here may be classed the Genitive of the F act after Verbs, Participles and Adjectives expressing accusatio7i ; convic- tion; condemnation ox acquittal; criminality ot innocence ; since it may be regarded as dependent on a suppressed Ablative such as crimine, nomine, causa, lege, iudi- cio; which often appear. d) Such Verbs are : — Accuso, ago, arguo, coarguo, appello, anquiro, arceSso, capto, cito, compello, defero, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, postulo, reum ago, reum facio, &c. AUigo, adstringo, convinco, obligOj obstringo, prehendo, deprehendo, teneo, &c. Damno, condemno, infamo, noto, &c. Absolvo, libero, purgo ; also iudico, plecto, &c. . . . (aliquem rei ; crimine rei ; nomine rei alicuius, &c.) b) The Adjectives are : — Affinis, reus, suspectus ; compertus, manifestus, noxius ; in- nocens, innoxius, insons. c) The principal Genitives, expressing legal offences, which accompany such Verbs and Adjectives, are : Ambitus (bribery), caedis, homicidi [murder), furti [theft), latrocinii [robbery), iniuriarum [wrongs), maiestatis, prodi- tionis [treason), parricidii [parricide), repetundarum [extor- tion), sacrilegii [sacrilege), veneficii, veneni [poisoning)^ rei capital is, rerum capitalium, &:c. The following forms have a Preposition : de vi [violence^ assault, Sec), inter sicarios [assassination). d) Such cases may be used with the legal terms above : reum esse, &c., furti, de vi, &c., furti nomine, crimine, &c. e) Other phrases are : damnare capitis or capite, to co7tdemn capitally, i.e. to death or disfranchisement : capitis minor, a disfraiichised person. Damnari voti, to be conde^nned to pay what was vowed, be- cause the prayer has been granted. § i68. Genitive Case, 415 Damnare quindecim millibus, to condeinn to a fine of 15,000 sesterces ; damnare octupli, to condemn to a fine of eight times the mnount, &c. Also with Dat., or with ad : damnare morti ; damnare ad bestias. y) Anquirere capitis, capita, pecunia, &c., implies prose* cution by the Tribunes, who specified the penalty before- hand. g) Arguo, insimulo may be used in common parlance: ^ Meque timoris argue tu, Drance,' and do you, DranceSy undertake to convict me of cowardice, Verg. Ae, xi. 383. h) Damni infecti promittere, repromittere, stipulari, satisdare, &c., are legal phrases : ' to give security against damage J' 168 III. A. i) The Genitive of Quality is also Descriptive ; but Gene- it takes the place, not of an Apposite, but of a strengthened q^" ^_ Attribute, tatis. Vir excellentis ingeni=vir peringeniosus ; Lucius est excel- lentis ingeni = Lucius est peringeniosus. 2) The Gen., then, like the Abl., of Quality, is a construction by which one Substantive (in Latin always with Epithet) is joined to another, for the purpose of describing it in some particular : Vir magni animi, corporis ingentis, spectatae virtutis, trium litterarum (i.e. fur) ; adulescens bonae indolis, bonae spei, summae audaciae ; auctor sublestae fidei, an author of slight credit ; codex optimae notae, a manuscript of the best authority, 3) This form of description may extend to Number, Measure, Weight, Age, Time, Value, &:c. : Classis septuaginta navium ; colossus triginta trium pedum ; lapis decern librarum pondo ; puer quindecim annorum ; tempus viginti sex horarum ; gemma maximi pretii. 4) In such examples the Noun which the Gen. qualifies is an Appellative or Common Noun ; and silch it will be when the Gen. of Quality is used as an Epithet merely ; but if a Finite Copulative Verb is joined (vir est, fuit, habetur, habitus est, &c., magni animi, &c.), the Subject of such sentence may be a Proper Name : Lucius est (fuit, &c.) bonae indolis : Claudius erat somni brevissimi ; Sicilia est magnae fertilitatis, &c. 5) Rare instances occur, in which the Gen. of Quality accom- panies a Proper Name enthetically : *Tum T. Manlius Torquatus, priscae ac nimis durae severi tatis, ita locutus fertur,' then Titus Manlius Torquatus, a man of antique and over-rugged strictness, is reported to have spoken thus, L. xxii. 60. 6) A Possessive Gen. and a Gen. of Quality or Description may depend on one Noun : ^Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio,' Sabinus^s de^ lay of the preceding days, Caes. B, G. iii. 18. x 4i6 Latin Syntax. § 169-70. 7) Modi, compounded with Pronouns, is a Gen, of Quality: Huiusmodi, eiusmodi, istiusmodi, cuiusmodi, cuicuimodi, &c., of this ^ that, which, whatever kind, &c. (It is hardly possible to discriminate nicely the uses of the Gen. and Abl. of Quality ; the usage of writers differing, and some phrases being by custom assigned to the one, some to the other. Upon the whole it seems true that the Gen« oftener describes essential and permanent, the Abl. accessory and occasional circumstances. But many ex- ceptions occur.) i) The Genitive of Value and Price requires notice, because, though this is a particular instance of the Gen, of Quality, pretii is usually suppressed. 2) Price may be described after words which mean or imply buying, selling, hiring, letting, costing, &c., by the Geni- tives tanti, quanti, and their compounds, and by the Comparative Genitives pluri^, minoris (rarely maioris) ; but other Positive and the Superlative Adjectives (mag no, &c., plurimo, &c.) describe Price in the Abl. : * Quanti emptum ? Parvo,' Hor. S, ii. 3. 156. Tanti est, // is wdrth while » Non tanti est, // is not worth the trouble, 3) Valuation, after ducere, habere, facere, pendere, putare, taxare, esse, &c., is described by the Gen. of all the Adjec- tives above named : aestimare takes Gen. or Abl. Parvi pendere aliquid ; magni (magno) aestimare. See Madvig on C. Fin, iii. 3. 11. 4) Instead of nullius pretii, of no value ^ the Romans in com- mon parlance (besides nihili) often, like ourselves, used such phrases with a Negative as, as sis (unius assis), a penny {a single penny) ; teruncii, a farthing ; nauci, pili, flocci, answering to the English phrases, not a fig, not a rush, &c. The phrase huius seems to imply a gesture, like snapping the fingers. Non huius facio, / do not care THAT for it, 5) To the Genitive of Value belong the phrases : Lucri facere, to make prize of; aequi boni facere, to take in good part boni Consulere, to 7nake the best of A Verre omnem illam pecuniam lucri facta m videtis,' yoic see that all that money has been e77ibezzled by Verres, C. Verr, iii. 75. ^Animus meus totum istuc aequi boni facit,' my te77tper takes all that in good part, C. Att. vii. 7. ^ Hoc munus rogo, qualecumque est, boni consulas,' / beg you will 77iake the best of this present, whatever its value, Sen. Be7i. i. 8. C. 1) The Constructions of the Impersonal Verbs, interest, it i77iportSy concerns, refert, it co7icer7is, are re- markable. Interest may take a Genitive of the Person or Thing con- cerned : interest omnium, interest reipublicae, &c. kefert does so less frequently; never in Cicero. ^Refert ipsorum,' L. xxxiv. 27. Genitive Case. The ground of concernment is expressed, if at all, either by an Infinitive, or by an Infinitive Clause or its equivalent, or by an Oblique Interrogation : ^Interest omnium recte facere,' C. ii. 22. 'Sa- lutis communis interest, duos consules in re- publica esse,' C. p. Mur, 2. 'Plurimum refert com- po siti onis, quae quibus anteponas,' it 7natters much to periodic co?istructio7t^ what words you place before what^ Ou. ix. 4. 2) But if what is concerned is in the First or Second Person, or to be expressed reflexively or relatively, then the Pos- sessive forms mea, tua, nostra, vestra, sua, cuia, are used with these Verbs instead of a Genitive : ' Et mea et tua maxime interest te valere,' C. Fam. xvi. 4. ' (2uid nostra id refert victum esse Antonium?^ what matters it to us that Anto7tius is conquered? C. ad Br. i. 17. 3) These Verbs may be qualified by the Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, pluris, tanti, quanti : * Utriusque nostrum magni interest utte videam,' C. Att. xi. 22. ^ Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cri- brum geras,' this matters no 7nore than if y 021 car^ry water to a sieve, Plant. Pseud, i. i. no. Also by nihil, multum, tantum, quantum, quid, parum, &c., and by Adverbs: valde, magnopere, maxime, minime, vementer, &c. The Verbs may be used perso* nally, as in the last example, with a Pronoun. 4) Interest and refert are constructed sometimes with ad, sometimes with a Dative: * Magni ad honor em nos- trum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire,' C. Fam. xvi. i. * Die quid referat intra Naturae finis viventi iugera centum an mille aret,' Hor. S. \, i. 49. Refert is often without Case: as, ' Neque enim numero comprendere refert,' nor indeed is it iinpo7'ta}it to coitJit them, Verg. G. ii. 104.^ 171 YV. A. i) The Plural Genitive of the Thing Distributed Genetl- is a divisible Whole, and depends on Partitive Words Distri-^^ indicating that one or more Parts (or no Part) of such butae. Whole are taken : ^Virtutum in alia alius mavult excellere,' 07te prefers to excel i;i one virtue, another in a7iother, C. Off. i. 32. *Neque stultorum quisquam beatus neque sapi- entium non beatus,' C. Fi7i. i. 18. 'Nunc iuvenum princeps deinde future senum,' Ov. ' Roma regionum Italiae media est,' L. v. 54. 2) The Partitive Words are : a) Substantives which express Partition : pars, portio, nu- ^ Interest is perhaps originally corrupted from in re est ; and refert (not from refero) is from res and fert ; with this Ablative re the Pronouns mea, &c., agree. Some sup- pose inter e st to be for inter rem est, refert tor rem fert, and mea, &c., to be corruptions of me am, &c. E E 8 Latin Syntax. § ,72. merus, multitudo, nemo, nihil, &c., and the Adverb partim. j3) Pronominals : alius, alter, uter and its compounds, ullus, nullus, plerique, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceteri, solus; ui, quis, and their compounds: tot, quot, and thek erivatives. 7) Numerals both Cardinal and Ordinal: also princeps, medius. I) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ; the former dis- tributing two things: ' Maior Neronum or one class into two parts: * Avium lo qua ci ores,' the noisier sort of birds ^ PL N, H, Also Superlative Adverbs : ' Mi- nime omnium.' () Any Noun which can imply distribution : * Sancte de- orum ;' Mecti iuvenum ;' ^piscium feminae.' 3) A Partitive Adjective, agreeing with that which is Part of a Whole,, naturally follows the Gender of the Whole : Beluarum nulla = beluarum nulla belua ; yet it is sometimes attracted to the Gender of the Subject. 'Indus est omnium fluminum maximus,' C. N. D. Or to that of the Person impHed, by Synesis : * Dulcissime rerum,' tny dearest friend^ Hor. S. i. 9. 4. 4) Partitives sometimes take the Gen. of a Collective Noun : 'Plato totius Graeciae doctissimus fuit,^ C. Rab. Post. 9. (Graeciae = Graecorum). 5) This Genitive is found in the place of a Complement : ' Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium,' Hor. C. iii. 13. 13. Qbs, 'Neque ille Sepositi ciceris nec longae invidit a venae,' Hor. S. ii. 6. 84, is a Graecism {j^ivtiv rov olrov). 6) English idiom uses the Preposition Rafter Numeral words, when no part is taken, but the whole implied : as, ^ there are two of ms :' but in Latin this would be, ^Nos duo sumus.' ^o,' three hundred of them conspired'' is, ' llli trecenti coniuraverunt ; ' ' kinsmen of who7n I have few^ 'Cognati quos paucos habeo.' 7) Distribution is also expressed by Prepositions : ' Nihil ex his, quae videmus, manet,' Sen. 58. 'Thales sapientissimus in septem fuit,' C. Z^^. ii. 12. 'Inter Scythiae amnes amoenissimus Borysthenes,' Mela, 12. ' Ante omnis Turnus pulcherrimus,' Verg. Ae. vii. 55. ' Una de multi s/ Hor. C. iii. 11. 33. B. i) The Genitive of the Thing Measured depends on Quantitative Words, which imply that so nmch of a Whole is taken, not so many. 2) Such Quantitative W^ords are : a) Substantives implying measurement of Quantity : 172. Genitive Case. 419 Amphora, cask-, medimnus (um), bushel^ modius, /^^rX' (frumenti, of corn) ; libra, poiuid (casei, of cheese)^ &c. ; acervuSj copia, numerus, pondus (auri), vis, &c. /8) Quantitative Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns : Multum, plus, plurimum, amplius, minus, minimum, tantum, quantum, aliquantum, nimium, dimidium, nihil, aliud, id, &c., quod, quid, &c. y) Quantitative Adverbs ; Abunde, affatim, nimis, parum, partim, satis. I) The Adjectives and Adverbs are usually rendered in English as in agreement with the thing measured : 'Tantum vini,' so mtich wine\ * minus splendoris,' less brilliance ; * satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,' elo- quence enough^ little wisdo^n^ Sail. ; * nimium pecuniae/ too much i7iomy 5 * nihil mali/ 710 evil, 3) The Genitive may depend on a Demonstrative Pronoun understood from a following Relative. ^Medico mercedis quantum poscet promitti iubeto,' 7nust order that as high a fee as he shall ask be proi7tised to the physician^ C. Fani. xvi. 14. ^ Vastatur agri quod inter urbem ac Fidenas est/ all the land that is between the city and Fideiiae is laid waste ^ L. i. 145 Mi Lticr^ iv. 372. 4) Classes /3 and y may also be constructed tvith the Genitive of a Neuter Adjective of the Second Declensioh ; but an Adjective of the Third is commonly (but hot always) put in the same case with the word of Quantity : * Prima est historiae lex tit ne qttid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid yeri non audeat/ C. d. Or. \l 15. ^ Si quicquam in vobis, fton dico civilis, sed humani esset/ L. v. 3. 'Nec viget quicquam simile aut secundum/ a7td nothing exists like or in second rank^ Hor. C. i. 12. 18. Note the Ciceronian phrase, 'Qtiod eius facere poteris/ as far as you can (but quoad for quOd in some MSS.). * Nihil reliqui facere,' to leave nothing undone; ^nihil pensi habere,' to have no regard, 5) The Genitive Pronouns nostrtim, testrlim, are used with Partitive words ; but, if an individual or human nature itself is quantitatively divided, mei, tui, siii, nostri, vestri may be used: ^ Multa pars mei/ Hor. C, iii. 30. 6. 'Plus nostri superest rogo/ Sen. Tr. 6) The Genitives loci, locorum, gentium, terrarum, are used with Adverbs of Place, ubi, quo, unde, hue, eo, aliquo, usquam, nusquam, &c. : * Ubi terrarum sumus/ where on earth are we? Q.p. Rab. Post, 13. 'An quisquam usquam gentium est aeque miser 1 ' is there anywhere in the world one so miserable ? Ter. Hec, iii. i. ' Res eodem est loci ubi reliquisti, the affair is in the same position you left it i7i^ C. Alt, i. 13. E E 2 420 Latin Sjmtax. § 173. Genitives not local are found with them, but not in Cicero : 'Eo deliciarum pervenimus ut nisi gemmas calcare noli- mus/ we have reached that pitch of luxury^ that we will not tread except on jewels^ Sen. Ep, 88. Turn (tunc) tem- poris occurs in Justin : interea loci {meanwhile^ in the Comic poets ; minime gentium {least in the worldy by no means) f postea loci, in Livy ; inde loci, M. Lucr. v. 791. ^Pridie eius diei' (the day before), ^postridie eius diei' {the day after), &c. Pridie, postridie also take Accus. 7) The Verb satago {I am busy) (sat and ago) takes a Gen. : * Clinia rerum sua rum satagit,' Clinia has enough of his own business. Ten Haul. iii. i. 13. * Nunc agitas sat tute tuarum rerum,' j/^/^ have now affairs enough of your own in hand, Plaut. Bac. iv. 3. 23. 8) Neuter Adjectives of either Number, put abstractly for Sub- stantives, sometimes govern a Genitive : * Adulescens in lubrico aetatis est,' a young man is at a slippery time of life, Plin. Epist. iii. 6. So medium die i, serum diei. (On id temporis, id locorum, hoc aetatis, &c., see Accusative.) Constructions like ^ Incerta casuum,' ' occulta saltuum,^ ^ opaca locorum,' ^ angusta viarum,' * amara curarum,' are not usual in Cicero ; but they occur in Livy, abound in Tacitus, and in poetry they are frequent. See p. 278. C. i) The Genitive of Abundance and Want is Parti- tive. See Ablative, p. 397. 2) Verbs: egeo, indigeo prefer the Genitive in prose: com- pleo, expleo, impleo, take it occasionally : abundo, parti- cipo, saturo, scateo : abstineo, careo, desino, desisto, levo, libero, solvo, dissolvo, and others, chiefly in poetry. Mndigere medicinae;' ^impleri veteris Bacchi :' *abstinere irarum ; ' ' desine querellarum,' &c. Potior has a Genitive both in prose and poetry: apis cor, adipiscor, in Tacitus ; regno once in Horace. 3) Adjectives: fertilis, ferax, largus, plenus, refertus : — in- anis, indigus, inops, ieiunus : often have Gen. in prose and \ poetry; compos, particeps, exheres, expers, exsors, almost always : potens, impos, impotens, no other Case : benignus, dives, fecundus, locuples, prosper: pauper, solutus, truncus, exsul, vacuus, &c., dignus, indignus, are found in poetry with Genitive. * Vita plena metus et insidiarum ; ' ^ terra frugum fertilis ; ' ^ ^ compos mentis ;' ^voti compos;' * Musa potens lyrae ; ' I * rationis expers ; ' ' dives opum ;' ^ exsul patriae ; ' * pauper I aquae Daunus,' &c. V Z>. Of a Partitive nature also are the Genitive of Respect I and that of the Part affected, which, in imitation of I (jreek construction, is very freely used by poets and also I by prose writers of the silver age. Such phrases are : I 173 Geneti- vus Copiae €t Ino- piae. § 174. Genitive Case. 421 ^Consili certus;' 'militiae impiger, strenuus Wetus sermonis;' all in Tac. : — ^integer vitae/ Hon; * integer aevi/ Verg. ; ^ seri studiorum/ Hor. «&c. Especially animi : * Excruciari animi;' ' angi animi;' * pendere animi/ C. : ^ animi falli/ Lucr., Plaut. (desipere mentis, Plant.) : 'Animi anxius, aeger, audax, caecus, ferox, ingens, immodicus, infelix, laetus, promptus, turbidus, validus/ &c. This Genitive principally depends on Words which contain the Genu Transitive force of Verbs from which they are derived. Such are : — ^i^e. 1) Substantives: amor patriae; cultus agrorum ; scientia iuris ; ignorantia recti ; cura peculi ; studium lucri ; victor hostium. Note I. The Genitives nostrum, vestrum (in old Latin nos- trorum, vestrorum) are used in Partitive Construction: mei, tui, &c., nostri, vestri, Quantitatively or Objectively. But the phrases ' omnium nostrum,' ' omnium vestrum' are also used as Possessive Genitives: sometimes nos- trum, vestrum alone. And mei, tui are sometimes found where the Possessive might have been expected : 'Fruitur fama sui,' Tac. Ann. ii. 13. Also the Possessives mens, tuus are sometimes used Objectively. See p. 410. Note 2. An Objective Genitive (with Substantives derived from Transitive Verbs) must often be rendered in English by some other Preposition than of\ 'Coelibis obsequ- i u m,' attentio7i to an unmarried 7nan^ Hor. 'Praestantia an i ma rum reliquarum,' superiority over otJier souls ^ Cic. 'Remedium irae,' re^nedy against anger, Cic. * Miseri- cordia pauperum,' for the poor, ' Quies laborum/ rest from toils. 2) Adjectives : a) Verbal Adjectives in ax: capax, edax, ferax, fugax, pertinax, rapax, sagax, tenax, vorax, &c. /3) Present Participles used Adjectively: abundans, amans, appetens, contemnens, colens, cupiens, despi- ciens, diligens, efficiens, egens, experiens, fugiens, in- tellegens, metuens, neglegens, observans, patiens, im- patiens, proferens, sciens, sitiens, timens, tolerant, bene- gerens, servantissimus, &c. 7) Adjectives of knowledge and ignorance-, assuetus, cal- lidus, certus, certior, conscius, consultus, docilis, doctus, expertus, gnarus, memor, peritus, praescius, praesagus, providus, prudens, scitus, sollers ; alienus, ambiguus, dubius, inscius, incertus, inexpertus, ignarus, immemor, imperitus, improvidus, imprudens, indoctus, insolens, insuetus, nescius, oblitus, rudis. Here remark the phrase, 'Certiorem i2iC^Ye^ {to inform): 'Pompeius me certior em sui consili fecit,' Pompeius informed me of his plan, Cic. A it. ix. 2. IV. B) Objective Genitive. 174 Objec- 422 Latin Syntax, % 175. t^) Care and carelessness : aemulus, anxiiis, curiosus, certus, formidulosus, parcus, pavidus, sollicitus, timidus, tre- pidus, impavidus, incuriosus, incautus, intrepidus, inter- ritus ; profusus, prodigus, securus, socors. i) Desire and dislike : avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus fasticjiosus, t) Ad^i superstes, supplex. Obs. I. Most of these are rendered with the sign of \ except as- suetus {accustomed to) ; insuetus, insolens {iinacciistonied to) ; cal- Hdus, consultus, doctus, peritus, &c. {skilled m) ; indoctus, imperitus, &c. {unskilled in) ; scitus, prudens, expertus^ &c. {acquainted with) ; imprudens, rudis^ &c, {iinacquairited with), and others. Obs. 2. Many such Adjectives also take Prepositions : ^ Calhdus ad fraudem/ C. * Prudens in iure/ C. * Securus de bello Romano/ L. ^ Certiorern fieri de aliqua/ Some take other Cases : ' Peritus bello/ Veil. ' Dulcis docta modos/ Hor. Obs. 3. A list of other Adjectives found with a Genitive is given in Stallbaum's Ruddiinari^ Pars II. p. 73. None are from Cicero but Mnvidus laudis a few from Livy ; many from Tacitus. Virgil has 'fessus rerum ^fidissima tui regina;' ^ vanus veri/ &c. Lucr. has 'aversa viai/ i. 1081, see M. ; Horace: 'lassus maris ; divina avis imbrium ; exsul patriae/ &:c. ; but most examples are from later poets, Statins, Silius, Claudian, &c. The student must distinguish prosaic from poetic usage, which admits Gen. freely. 3) A Genitive of the Matter, sometimes an Accusative, depends on Verbs of renieinbering^ forgettiiig^ reminding-, memini (Gen. or Accus.), reminiscor (Gen. or Accus.), recordor (Accus., rarely Gen.), obliviscor (Gen. or Accus.); moneo, admoneo, com- moneo, commonefacio (Accus. of person, Gen. of thing); men- tionem facio (Gen.). (See memor, immemor, &c. above.) 'Vivorum memini, nec tamen Epicuri hcet oblivisci/ / remeinber the living^ nor yet may I forget Epicurus, C. Fi7i. v. i. ^ Res adversae admonent nos religionum,' adversity reminds tis of religious duties, L. v. 51. -Dulcis moriens reminiscitur Argos,' Verg. Ae. x. 782. a) Verbs of Remembering sometirnes take de: 'De Clodio ne meminisse quidem volo/ C. Fam. v. 3. b) The phrase 'venit in mentem' is used impersonally, either with Genitive, or with Preposition: 'Venit mihi in mentem temporis illius, quo fuimus una/ C. Fani. vii. 3. 'Astute venit ei in mentem de speculo/ he craftily re?nembered the ntirror, Plant. Alost. i. 3. Or per- sonally : ^ Non venit in mentem pugna apud Regillum lacum V do you not remember the battle at lake Regillus f L. viii. 5. 4) A Genitive depends on the Verbs misereor 2. miseresco 3. {feel pity) ; but an Accusative in the best authors on miseror i. commiscror i. {express pity, bcv^ail), § 176 Genitive Case, ^Nil nostri miserere/ Verg. ii. 7. ^Arcadii miserescite regis/ Verg. Ac, viii. 573. ^Sortem miseratus iniquam/ Verg. Ae, vi. 332. 5) The Impersonal Verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur), piget, pudet (veretur), paenitet, taedet, take an Accusative of the Nearer, with a Genitive of the Remoter, Object : ^ Me tuarum miseritum est fortunaru m/ / pitied your for- ttmes^ Ter. Haut. iii. i. 'Me civitatis morum piget taedetque/ / ajji weary and sick of the inanners of the state, Sail. lug. 4. * Pudet me stultitiae/ / ashamed of my folly, C. *Me tui, mi pater, pudet/ I am ashamed to face you, father, Ter. Ad. iv. 5. 49. See C. Att. vii. 4 (veritus); Fin. ii. 13. 6) The Genitive of Cause in poetry is a Greek idiom : Mustitiaene prius mirer belHne laborum?' Verg. xi. 126. ^ Notus in fratres animi paterni/ Hon C. ii. 2. 6. ' Felix, Bolane, cerebri/ Hor. S. i. 9. 11. ' Laudabat leti iuvenem/ Sil. iv. 160. ^ O mihi nuntii beati/ Catull. ix. 5. 'Foederis heu taciti/ Prop, iv. 7. 13- Examples of the Genitive Case. A ) {Subjective. ) I. {Possessive. ) 'Amore patriae nostrorum maiorum inventa nosse debemus, C. d. Or. i. 58. * Sullae et Caesaris pecuniarum translatio a iustis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri,' C. Off. i. 14. * Nihil est quod multorum naufragia fortunae colligas/ C. Verr. v. 40. * Consul es designatus, optima aetate, summa eloquentia, maxima orbitate reipublicae virorum talium,' C. Fatn. X. 3. * Egerius fratris filius erat regis,' L. i. 38, *Polycleti signa plane perfecta sunt,' C. Br. t8. ' Singulorum facultates et copiae divitiae sunt civitatis,' C. Off. iii. 15. * Pacis est comes otique socia, et iam bene con- stitutae civitatis quasi alumna quaedam, eloquentia,' C. Br. 12. ' Omnium est communis inimicus, qui fuit host is suorum,' C. Verr. i. 15. ' In primis hominis est propria veri inquisitio,' C. Off. i. 4_ ' Ilia insula eorum deorum sacra putatur,' C. Verr. ii. 18. * Phoebi Triviaeque sacerdos Deiphobe Glauci,' Verg. Ae. vi. 35. *Dinomaches ego sum,' Pers. iv. 30. 'Paterae aureae ad Cereris positae,' L. x. 23. * Quae in nostris rebus non satis honeste, in amicorum fiunt honestissime,' C. Lael. 16. ' Petulantia magis est adulescentium, quam senum ; nec tamen omnium adulescentium, sed non proborum,' C. Cat. M. 11. * Id maxime quemque decet, quod est cuiusque maxime suum,' C. Off. i. 31. * Nolae senatus Romanorum, plebs Hannibal is erat,' L. xxiii. 39. * Solon capite sanxit, si qui in seditione non alterius utrius partis fuisset,' C. Att. x. i. 'Hannibal quod inter Alpis Apenninumque agri est suae dicionis fecit,' L. xxi. 53. *Tardi ingeni est rivulos consectari, fontis rerum non videre,' C. d. Or. ii. 27. * Qualis oratorisetquanti hominis in dicendo putas esse historiam scribere?' C. d. Or. ii. 12. * Est proprium munus magistratus, intellegere, se gerere personam civitatis,' C. Off. i. 34. * Quae est animo natura? propria, puto, et sua,' C. T. D. i. 29. ' Nulla mora est operae; vestrum dare, vincere nostrum est,' Ov. F. iv. 889. 'Tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus,' C. Phil. ii. 43. *Noster duorum eventus ostendet utra gens bellosit melior, L. i. 7. * Solius meum peccatum corrigi non potest,' C. -(4 xi. 15. 'Die mihi, Damoeta, cuium pecus, an Meliboei?' Verg. B. iii. I. II. {Descriptive.") i) * Stella Veneris Lucifer dicitur, cum antegreditur solem, cum subsequitur autem, Hesperus,' C. A^. D. ii. 20. * Non faciendo id, quod non decet, impudentiae nomen effugere debemus,' C. d. Or. i. 26. ' Duae sunt huius obscuritatis causae, una pud oris, altera sceleris,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 24. ' Ea bona sunt generis, pecuniae, propinquorum, amicorum, opum, valetudinis, formae, ingeni,' C. d. Or. ii. 11. 2) ' Persuadent mathematici, terram ad universi caeli complexum quasi punctiinstar obtinere,' C. T. D. i. 17. ' Quidam Romani habebant domos instar urbium,' Sen. Ep. 90. Latin Syntax. Section III. VERB-CONSTRUCTION. (On Moods and Tenses see §§ 91-99. On Verb Infinite, § 40.) infinf- i. I) The Infinitive. tive. The Infinitive is at once a Verb and a Neuter Substantive. As a Verb, it governs Cases. As a Substantive it has Cases ; on which see § 181 : and on its Tense-forms, § 40. 3) *Labeo arguebatur male administra tae provinciae aliorumque cri- minum,' Tac. Anii. vi. 27. *Cum capitis a nquisi vissent, duo railia aeris damnato multam edixerunt,' L. ii. 52. * Caesar Dolabellam repetundarum postu- lavit,' Suet. Caes. 4. 'Defertur impietatis in Principem,' Tac. Ann. vi. 19. * Legibus ambitus interrogati dederunt poenas,' Sail. Cat. 18. * Alcibiades, post- quam se capitis damnatum audivit, Lacedaemonem demigravit,' N. Ale. 4. * Miltiades, capitis absolutus, pecunia multatus est,* N. Milt. 7. * Recte con- demnamus haruspices aut stultitiae aut vanitatis,' C. Div. i. 36. ' Coelius iudex absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium poetam nominatim laeserat,* Auct. ad Her. ii. 19. * Nomine sceleris coniurationisque damnati sunt multi,' C. Verr. v. II. * Miltiades crimine Pario est accusatus/ ^g^. Milt. ' Silanus saevitiac captarumque pecuniarum tenebatur reus,' Tac. Ann. iii. 27. * De mani- festis rerum capitalium more maiorum supplicium sumendum est,' Sail. Cat. 52. Q. Sergius senator inter sicarios damnatus est,' C. /. Clu. 7. ' Furius damnatus voti quum victor Romam revertisset, dictacura se abdicavit,' L. vii. 28. III. {Quality.) a. * Tune trium litterarum homo me vituperas?' Plant. Aiil. ii. 4. 46. * Sp. Servilius, fervidi animi vir, periculum audacia discussit,' L. ii. 52. * Themistocles persuasit populo ut classis centum navium aedificaretur,' N. Th. 2. * Latini cor on am auream in Capitolium tulere parvi ponderis,' L. iii. 57. * Spes unica imperi populi Romani L. Quinctius trans Tiberim quattuor iugerum colebat agrum,' L. iii. 26. * Caesar a fronte castrorum pedum quindecim fossam fieri iussit,' Caes. B. C. i. 41. * Hamilcar in Hispaniam secum duxit filium Hannibalem annorum novem,'N. Ham. 3. ' C. lulius Caesar annum ad solis cursum accommo- davit ut trecentorum sexaginta quinque dierum esset,' Suet. Caes. 40. * Ser- vius Tullius iuvenis evasit vere indolis regiae,' L. i. 39. *Magni iudicii, summae etiam facultatis esse debet orator,' C. Or. 21. * Nos in castra propera- bamus, quae aberant bidui,' C. Ait. v. 16. 'Agesilaus octoginta annorum in Aegyptum profectus est,' N. Ag. 8. * Admittenda est hominum cuiusquemodi multitudo,' C. Oj^. i. 39. * Eorum dierum consuetudo itineris nostri exer- citus perspecta est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 17. b. * Ego a meis magni pendi postulo,' Ter. Ad. v. 4. 'Est hominis sapientis maximi aestimare conscientiam mentis suae,' C. Clu. 58. ' Patrem tuum plurimi feci, meque ille mirifice coluit,' C. Att. xvi. 19. * Vendo meum frumentum non pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris, cum maior est copia,' C. O^. iii. 12. ' Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit quam ira,' Sen. Ir. i, 2. * Mercatores non tantidem vendunt quanti emerunt,' C. Verr. iii. 83. * Noli spectare quanti homo sit ; parvi enim pret ii est qui iam nihili sit,' C. Qu. Fr. i. 2. ' Non quantum quisque prosit, sed quanti quisque sit, pondera,' C. Br. 73. 'Quanti quisque amicos facit, tanti fit ab amicis,' C. Lael. 16. 'Qui homo timidus erit in rebus dubiis, nauci non erit,' Plant. Most. v. i. i. * Sapiens dolorem nihili facit,' C. Fiyt. ii. 13. 'Ego, quae tu loquere, flocci non facio,* Plant. Rtid. iii. 5. ' Neque fas neque fidem pensi habet,' Tac. An7t. xiii. 15. ' Te huius non faciam,'Ter. Ad. ii. I. 'Video quanta tempestas invidiae mihi immineat ; sed est mihi tanti,' C. Cat. i. 9. * Si vos non movet periculum ne serpat latius contagio eius mali, nos The Infinitive, 425 Livy (not C. or Caes.) uses a Past for a Present Infin. with such predications as satis est, mehus est, satis habeo, contentus sum : also with possum, volo and some Impers. Verbs. ^ Qui esse melius erit,' L. i. Poets take this license freely : * Magnum si pectore possit excussisse deum/ Verg. Ae, vi. 78. * Etfugisse volunt longe longeque remosse,' Lucr. iii. 69. See M. aequi bonique facimus/ L. xxxiv. 22. * Haec, quaeso, consule missa boni/Ov. Ep. ex Po7it. iii. 8. c. * Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn s u a quam reipublicae interesse, uti salvus esset/ Suet. Caes. 86. ' Epistulis certiores facimus absentis, si quid est quod eos scire aut nostra aut ipsorum intersit,'C. Fam. ii.4. *Quid refert mea, cui serviam?' Phaedr. i. 35. * Civitatum hoc mul tar um in terfu it, antiquum vocum servare modum,' C. Zr^*^. ii. 15. 'Semper Milo, quantum interesset Clodii, se perire, cogitabat,' C. p. Mil. 21. 'Quid, Chreme, tua, malum, id refert ?—Magni, Demipho,' Ter. Ph. iv. 4. 'Quid id nostra? — Nihil (i.e. refert),* Ter. Ph. v. 7. IV. {Partitive.^ a. ( Thing Distributed.) ' Nihil tam absurde dici potest quod non dicatur ab aliquo philosophorum,* C. Div. ii. 58. ' Incertum est, quam longa nostrum cuiusque vita futura sit,* C. Verr.\.^^. 'Equitum centum quinquaginta in- terfecti,' Curt. iii. 11. * Erant Phocionis tempore duae factiones, quarum una populi causam agebat, altera optimatum,' N. Phoc. 3. * Tarquinius Superbus Septi- mus atque ultimus regum Romanorum fuit,* Eutr. i. 8. * Rationem defectus solis apud Graecos investigavit primus omnium Thales Milesius,' PI. N. H. ii. 12. 'Alexander seniores militum in patriam remisit, Curt. x. 2. 'Quadrupedum talpis visus non est,* PI. N. H. xi. 37. 'Canum degeneres caudam sub alvum reflectunt,' do. xi. 50. 'Lanarum nigrae nullum colorem bibunt,' do. viii. 48. ' Mardonius erat in primis omnium Persarum manu fortis, N. Ar. i. * Sulpicius Gallus maxime omnium nobilium Graecis litteris studuit,' C. Br. 20. ' Trevirorum civitas longe plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet,' Caes. B. G. v. 3. 'Aliqui e nostris aliter existimant, quos quidem video esse mul tos sed imperitos,' C. Fin. \. 17. ' Quaeritur, quot sint species rerum publicarum, quas tris accepimus, quae populi, quae paucorum, quae uniuspotestate regerentur,' Qu. v. 10. * De vera etper- fecta amicitia loquor, qualis eorum, qui pauci nominantur, fuit,' C. Lael. 6. * Numerate quot ipsi sittis,' L. vi. 18. 'Trecenti coniuravimusprincipes iuventutis Romanae,* L ii. 12. 'Ex qu inquaginta milibus Graecorum supersumus pauci,' Curt. v. /3. {Thing Measured.) 'Voluisti magnum agri modum censeri,' C. p. Fl. yz. 'In iugere Leontini agri medimnum fere tritici seritur,' C. Verr. iii. 47. * Maxi- mus vini numerus fuit, permagnum optimi pondus argent i,' C. Phil. ii. 27. 'Tantum quisque se in republica posse postulat, quantum habet virium,' C. ad Btut. i. 10. ' Rogo, ut de his rebus, quas tecum colloqui volo, annum mihi temporis des,* N. Them. 9. * Romani castrorum oppugnatione, quia serum erat diei, abstinuere,' L. vii, 8. 'Ate nihildum certi exquiro, sed quid videatur,' C. Att. vii. 12. * Prae- missus Caecina, ut occulta saltuum scrutaretur pontisque et aggeres humido paludum et fallacibus campis imponeret,' Tac. Afin. i. 61. 'Quid mulieris uxorem habes?' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. * Velim, ut, quod eius fieri possit, praesentiae tuae desi- derium meo labore minuatur,' C. Fain. v. 8. 'Ut adulescentem, in quo senile aliqui d, sic senem, in quo est adulescentis aliquid, probamus,' C. Cat. M. 11. 'Ambula- tionem postmeridianam confecimus in Academia, maxime quod is locus ab omni turba id temporis vacuus esset,' C. Fin. v. i. 'Dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,' Hor. Epod. 17. 19. 'Armorum affatim erat Carthagine captorum,' L. xxvii. 17. 'Pa- rentes abunde habemus, amicorum numquam sat is,' Sail. hig. 102. ' Multis in locis parum firmamenti et parum virium Veritas habet,* C. Cbi. 2. ' Ubi terrarum esses ne suspicabar quidem,' C. Att. v. 10. 'Qui virtutem adeptus erit, ubicumque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur,' C. A^. Z>. i. 44. * Rhodum aut aliquo terrarum migrandum est,' C. i^^w. xi. 1. ' Mulier quaedam commigravit hue vici- niae, Ter. An. \. i. ' Populus Romanus eo magnitudinis crevit, ut viribus suis conficeretur,' Flor. iii. 12. 'Postridie eius diei Ariovistus praeter castra Caesaris suas copias transduxit et milibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fecit,' Caes. B. G. i. 48. y. {Plenty and IVant, ' Celeriter adulescentem suae temeritatis implet,' L. i. 4. ' Me omnium laborum levas,' Plaut. Rttd. i. 4. ' Helvetii totius Galliae se potiri 426 Latin Syjitax, § 178. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject: Mnviderenon cadit in sapientem/ C. T, D. iii. 10. Mnge- nuas didicisse fideliter artes em oil it mores/ Ov. Ep. ex P, ii. 9. Especially 1) Of an Impersonal Verb : ' Libet semper disc ere/ C. d. Or, iii. 23 2) Of a Copulative Verb with Adj. or Adv. Complement : ^Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori/ Hor, C iii. 2. 13. 3) Of a Copul. Verb, when the Complement is a Subst. (either Nom., or Possessive Gen., or Dat. of Purpose) : ^Tempus est maiora conari/ L. vi. 18. * Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habitum/ C. Div. ii. 60. * Laudi erit certasse.' Obs. I. If the Infin. is Copulative, and the principal Verb has an Accus. Object, the Complement will be Accus. : ^Dedecet hominem esse mendacem.' If the Object is Dative, the Compl. may be Dat. or Accus. : ^ Licuit esse otioso Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae/ C. Jl i. 15. 'Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum/ C. ^^/^. 12. Obs. 2. An Infin. is rarely found as Complement : 'Docto hx)mini et erudito vivere est cogitare,' C. Fa7n. vi. i. posse sperabant,' Caes. B. G. i. 3. * Regio aeris ac plumbi uberrima,' lust. xliv. 3. 'Plena errorum sunt omnia,' C. T. D. i. 5. 'Gallia adeo frugum homi- numque fertilis fuit, ut abundans multitude vix regi posse videretur,' L. v. 34. * Roma externae opis indiga fuit,* Tac. H. ii. 48. 'Vis consili expers mole niit sua,' Hor. C. iii. 4. 65. *Certe omne» virtu tis compotes beati sunt,' C. T. D. v. 13. 'Postquam Pompeius et consules ex Italia exierunt, non sum, mihi crede, mentis compos,' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Eripite isti gladium, qui sui est impos animi,' Plaut. Cas. iii. 5. ' Ira, ut insania, impotens sui est,' Sen, Ir. i. i. 'Descendam magnorum hand umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. Ae. xii. 649. 'Pacis eras mediusque belli,* Hor. C. ii. 19. 28. 'Aevi maturus Acestes,* Verg. y^^'w, v. 73. 'Damnatus longi Sisyphus Aeolides laboris,' Hor. C. ii. 14. 19. 'Fortunate animi,' St. Th. i. 638. 'Antiphome excruciat animi,* Ter. Ph. ii. 2. 10. B) {Objective.^ * Iram bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae,' C. T. D. iv. 23. Me tuae dignitatis non modo fautorem, sed etiam amplificatorem cognosces/ C. Fain. X. 12. 'Epaminondas philosophiae praeceptorem habuit Lysim Tarenti- num, Pythagoreum,' N. Ep. 2. ' Adhibenda est quaedam reverentia adversus homines, et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum,' C. Off. i. 28. 'Patria est com- munis omnium nostrum parens,' C. in Cat. i. 7. *Ais, Habe mei rationem : habe tu nostrum (i.e. Romanorum : nostri would =■ mei), ' C. Att. vii. 9. ' Habetis dueem memorem vestri, obi itum sui,' C. hi Cat. iv. 9. 'Nostri nosmet paenitet,* Ter. Ph. i. 3. * Nihil malo quam et me mei similem esse, et illos sui,' C. Att. ix. 16. * Magna mei sub terras ibit imago,' Verg. Ae. iv. 65 a. ' Divi quorum estpotestas nostrorum hostiumque,' L. viii. 9. ' Cogor vest ram omnium vicem unus con- sulere,* L. xxv. 38. ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit Juo,' Ter. Ph. V. 8. 'Galba omnium consensu visus est capax imperi, nisi imperasset,' Tac. H. i. 49. ' Natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus,' Qu. i. i. *Tu me sitientem virtutis tuae deseruisti,' C. p. Plane. 'Epaminondas adeo fuit veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur,' Nep. Ep. 3. * Cum com- mode navigare poteris, ad nos amantissimos tui veni,' C. Earn. xvi. 7. ' Romani semper appetences gloriae praeler ceteras gentis atque avidi laud is fuerunt, C. /. L. Man. 3. ' Catilinae corpus erat patiens ine diae, vigiliae, algoris,' Sail. Cat. g. ' Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Atheniensis,' N. Them. 2. § I79-80. The Infinitive, iii. Infinitive as Object. »79 ^Adimam cantare severiV Hor. Epist. i. 19. 9. 'Mori nemo sapiens miserum dux it/ C. Fam. vi. 3. Infin. with Attribute : 'Hoc ridere meum, tarn nil, nulla tibi vendo Iliade/ Pers. i. 122, With Preposition : 'Multum interest inter dare etaccipere/ Sen. Ben. v. 2. On the Historic Infinitive see p. 332 ; Infin. Clause, § 194. iv. Prolative Infinitive. (See § 102, § 103.) 180 (i) The 'Extensible' Verbs which take this Infinitive imply: ability^ learjiing^ knowledge; duty; desire j dislike ; daring, dready hesitation; custoin; endeavour, purpose, resolve ; omission, neghct; beginning, eontiiiuing^ ceasing ; hastening, delaying ; deserving. Also Passive Verbs of seentiiig^ being deemed, said, found, &c. : with doceor, moneor, cogor, iubeor, vetor, prohibeor, impedior : Possum (queo, debeo, volo, nolo, audeo, soleo, meditor, certo, coepi, desino, cogito, propero, moror, animum induco, videor, putor, dicor, reperior, doceoi', iubeor, &c.) currere, legere, &:c. If the Infinitive depending on any such Verb is Copulative, the Complement will agree with the Subject : Possum (debeo, volo, &:c, ; videor, putor, &c. ; cogor, iubeor, vetor, &c.) esse tranquillus, esse doctus, esse philosophies, &c. Obs, I. Verbs of Desire, and oportet, take a Perf. Participle as Passive Infin. : 'Patriae consultum volo,' / wish my coicntrfs good to be regarded. ' Mansum oportuit,' we oitght to have re- mai7ied. See § 203. *In omnibus rebus est aliquid optimum, etiamsi latet, idque ab eo potest, qui eius rei gnarus est, iudicari,' C. i/. Or. ii. 2. *Oratornephysicorum quidem sit ignarus,' C. Or. 34. 'Evander vir erat venerabilis miraculo litterarum, rei novae inter rud is artium homines,' L. i. 7. 'Pecoris cupidissimi sunt barbari,' Caes. B. G. vi. 34. * Urbanae militiae Proculus impiger fuit, belloi um insolens,* Tac. H. i. 87. * Galli homines insueti laboris,* Caes. B. G. vii. 30. * Uti lam te, frater, non solum vitae sed etiam dignitatis meae sup erst item reliquissem,' C. Qu. F. i. 3. *Mihi quidem stultius nihil videtur, quam existimare eumstudiosum tui, quem non noris,* C. d. Pr. C. 7. * Caveant intemperantiam, meminerint ver ecundiae,* C. O^. i. 34. * Plancii meriti in me recordor,' C. /. Plane. 28. * Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia cernere, suorum obli visci,' C. 7". Z>. iii. 30. * Neque omnino huius re i meminit usquampoeta,'Qu. xi. 2. * Admon itus sum huius aeris alieni,'C To^. i.5. 'Gram- maticos officii sui commonemus,' Qu. i.5. *VenitmihiPlatonisin mentem,'C» Ftn.\.\. ' Bene fici a debet meminisse is, in quem collata sunt, non commemorare» qui contulit,' C. LaeL 20. * Est operae pretium diligentiam maiorum recordari,'C. d. L. Agr. ii, 27. *Obliviscoriniurias, depono memoriam doloris mei,' C. /. Coel. 20. 'Ea potius reminiscere, quae digna tua persona sunt,' C. Fa77t. iv. 5. 'Viveme- mor let i,' Pers. V. 153. *Omnes immemorem benefi cii od e run t,' C. ii. i8, ' Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere,' C. Att.'w. 5. *Tui me miseret, mei piget,' C. Z>/V. i. 31. * Numquam in re bona m a 1 i pudebit auctoris,' Sen. Trajiq. 11. ' Numquam primi consili Deum paen itet,' Sen. Ben. 23. * Me non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pu de t,' C. A -^^w. 29. ' Prorsus vitae taedet; ita sunt omnia miseriarum plenissima,' C. Att. ii. 24. * Postquam Alexander Clitum trucidaverat, pigere eum facti coepit,' lust. xii. 6. 'Decemvirorum Ro- manos pertaesum est,' L. iii. 67. 4-28 Latm Sy7itax, § i8i. Obs, 2. Habeo, do, idiomatically take Infin. : 'Tantum habeo polliceri/ Q. Fam.x, 'Dare bibere,' L. Similarly, * Dederat comam diffundere ventis, V. (for ad diffundendum). Obs, 3. Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, potest, solet, are impersonal with impers. Infinitives: ^ Paenitere eumfacti coepit,' *Perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest,' Qu. x. i. 'Coeptum est,' desitum est are so used with Pass. Infin. (Coeptus sum, desitus sum are used personally with Pass. Infin.) ^ Obs, 4. The construction of Infin. with Verbs of inotion is found in poets : * Ego hue missa sum ludere,' Plaut. (2) The Infinitive extends also the construction of Adjectives in poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age, especially in Tacitus. A few Adjectives are thus used by Cicero, Livy, &c., but the greatest number appear in poetry, especially in Horace: ^Audax omnia perpeti * impiger hostium vexare turmas.' Other Adjectives so used are : aptus,blandus, bonus, callidus,catus, cautus, celer, doctus, durus, efficax, facilis, fortis, idoneus, impotens, largus, lenis, natus, neglegens, par, pernix, pertinax, potens, piger, praesens, prudens, segnis, sellers, timidus, &c. II) Cases of the Infinitive (Geiunds and Supines). V. Gerundial Construction. The base of the Latin Gerundial Construction (as of the partially corresponding Greek) is a Participial Adjective— the Gerundive in dus^ which, as Pott says, is neither Active nor Passive exclusively : bibendus, proper for drinking. This serves three uses : (i) By its Oblique Cases (called Gerunds) it completes (with the Supines) the Active Infinitive Verb-noun : Sing. N. bibere, Acc. bibere (ad bibendum, bibitum). Gen. bi- bendi, Dat. bibendo, Abl. bibendo (in &c. bibendo), bibitu. * Copulative Verbs Passive are oftener used personally with an Infinitive than with the Infin. Clause. Videtur errasse Cicero, not, videtur errasse Ciceronem. But nuntior, dicor, trador, credor can take the Clause. * Nuntiatum est adesse Scipionem,' Caes. And Cic, once uses * videtur mihi ' with Clause : T. D. v. 5. A Periphrastic or Combinate Infin. (-us esse, -urus esse, -ndus esse) frequently follows such Verbs; and esse as often as not is suppressed. 'Titus Manlius locutus fcrtur,' L. 'Affatus dicitur undas,' Mart. 'Creditur olim velificatus Athos,' luv. *Secuturi vindicem libertatis videbantur,' L. 'Delectus haben- dus puCatur.' This idiom has not been adequately noticed by grammarians and commentators : and hence words have been taken as Participles which are true Infini- tives. Such in Horace are 'solitus,' S. i. i. 66; 'collisa,' Ep. i. 2. 7. and perhaps * adfatus,' C. i. 7. 24: especially 'coactus,'C i. 16. 14, where the construction (undi*- cerned till lately) is, * Prometheus fertur coactus . . . etapposuisse . . . y Pro- 7netheus is reported to have been compelled, &c., and to have attached, &c. This ex- planation having been questioned by some on account of the coupling of Act. and Pas§. Infin., the following instances (supplied by Mr. Munro) remove that objection, * Ant tenui percussum verbere Circes et cum remigibus grunnisse Elpenora porcis.' luv. XV. 21. ' Bustis exisse feruntur tacitae q u e s t i tempore noctis avi,' Ov. F. ii. 551. 'Emersisse iam e vadis <?/ scopulos praetervecta vi<ietur oratio mea, C. i>. Cael. 21. ' Ne aut velificatus alicui dicaris, aut aliquid, quod referret scire, reticuisse,' Cael. ap. C. Fam. viii. 10. Also L. i. 11 ; Tac. Ann, i. 65. So the omission of the finite est from Perfects Pass, and Dep., frequent as it is, has sometimes caused these to be mistaken for mere Participles: 'mirata,' Hor. C. iv. g. 15; ' ausa,' Hor. C. i. 37» 25. See § 99. § l82. Gerunds, 429 (Its Adjectival origin appears in Gerundial Attraction.) (2) Its Neuter Nom. with est becomes a Verb Impersonal, signify- ing necessity y duty^ meetness : ' Nunc est bibendum/ (3) As a Participle, it still signifies necessity^ duty, meetness, but has the Adjectival Construction of Attribute or Complement : Aqua bibenda : aqua est bibenda. vi. The Gerunds. (i) In the Gerunds, two things are to be considered : A) The cases which depend on them as Verbs. B) Their own dependence as Oblique Cases of Nouns. A) A Gerund may govern the same Case as its Verb : Spes satisfaciendi reipublicae. A Transitive Gerund, in classic authors, does not generally take an Accus., except of Pronouns or Neuter Plural Adjectives : aliquid, multa, omnia, &c. But it may do so when rhythm or perspicuity recommends : ^ Salutem hominibus dando.' The usual construction of a Transitive Gerund is that called Gerundial Attraction, by which the Gerund assumes the Gen- der and Number of its Object, and the Object assumes the Case of the Gerund : For Huendi urbem' is written 'tuendae urbis/ „ ^ liberandi cives' „ ' liberandorum civium.' B) Dependence of the four Gerunds : a) The Accus. Gerund depends on Prepositions: ad, inter, ob ; rarely ante, circa, post. Ad discendum; ad agros colendos ; inter ludendum ; ob rem iudicandam. /9^ The Gen. Gerund depends, as Subjective, Descriptive, or Objective, on numerous Substantives: amor, ars, causa (also causa, the sake), &c. As Objective, it depends on many Adjectives which govern a Genitive: cap ax, cupidus, ignarus, peritus, &c. Ars canendi ; studium dicendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ; cupidus audiendi; conscius delendae tyrannidis; dux bene vivendi, &c. 7) The Dat. Gerund as Dativus Commodi depends on Verbs and Adjectives of ability, attention, and adaptation : praeesse, operam dare, sufficere, esse, &c. ; aptus, utilis, &c. Substantives : locus, materia, sedes, &c. (Generally) on any predication implying purpose : * Operam dedi pingendo ; ' * Aqua utilis (inutilis) bibendo,* * Studium aptum ingeniis acuendis,' &c. : solvendo non esse {to be insolvent). The purpose of an office is stated in this form : * Tiberius Gracchus triumvir dividendis agris creatus est,' Tiberius Gracchus was elected one of three commis- sioners to divide the lands. Flor. 430 Latin Syiitax, § 183-85. I) The Abl. Gerund is of cause, mstruinent^ or 77ia7me7' ; and with the Prepositions de, ex, in ; rarely pro. Mens ahtur discendo, audiendis philosophis : in iubendo ; a acribendo ; de captivis commutandis, &c. vii. Impersonal Gerundive Construction. (2) This is not used transitively, but may be without Case : * Bibendum est/ we 7nust drink^ Acc. bibendum esse : or it may govern any Case but the Accusative : ^Serviendum est legibus 'utendutn est aefate.' In old Latin the Accus. was used : * Aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendtim/ Lucr. viii. Attributive Gerundive Construction. (3) This is used by Transitive Verbs only : ^ Aqua bibenda est,^ water shoidd be drunk, Obs, The Gerundive may be an Epithet : ^Ridenda poemata,' ridiculous podjns^ luv. x. but oftener takes a Dative Case (see p. 390) : ^ Proelia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of Hor. For this Dative an Ablative of the Agent with ab may be used if required for perspicuity. ix. ~ Notes on Gerund and Gerundive. 1) The Verbs fungor, fruor, utof, vescor, potior, may be used in Gerundive Construction, both attractional and attri- butive, because they were anciently Transitive : * Officii fungendi causa.' ^ Vita non fruenda sed utenda est.^ 2) The Genitive Gerund is fotmd with dependent Gen. : ^ * Nobis fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas/ we had the power of choosing examples ^ C. d. Iiiv. ii. 2. 3) It appears in historians as causal: ' Regium imperium conservandae libertatis fuerat,' the royal power had existed for the preservatio7i of f7'eedo77i^ Sail. Cat, 6. A strange idiom is used by Tacitus : * Vologesi vetus et penitus infixum erat arma Romana vitandi,' Vologeses had a7i old a7id deeply rooted practice of shit7i7iing the Ro77ia7i ar77is, xv. 5. 4) The Attracted Abl. is found after a Comparative : ^Nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est,^ 710 duty is more 7ieccssary tJian gratitude, C. Off. i. 15. * Madvig (on Cic. Pin. p. 112) says that this Gen. is always Plural. But this is disproved by Munro (on Lucr. v. 1225), and Wagner (on Ter. Haiti., Note 29)^ §i86--87. Stipines, 43 1 5) The Gerundive is used as Oblique Complement with do, trado, conduco, loco, propono, euro, &c., to express purpose : ^Scriba quidam Cn. Flavius ediscendos fastos populo pro- p o s u i t,' one Flavius^ a clerk ^ published the calendar for the people to learn by hearty C. p, Mtir, 11. * Conon muros Athenarum reficiendos curat,^ N. Con. \, See § 131. (So Pass. : 'Vita data est utenda/ life was given to be used.) Poets use an Infin. for this Gerundive : *Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum p or tare ventis,' sadness and terror I will deliver to the boisterous winds to carry into the Cretan Sea, Hor. C i. 26. i. . 186 X. The Two Supines. Supinei These are Cases of Verb-nouns of the U-declension. (1) The First or Accus. Supine (-um) implies Purpose after a Verb of actual or implied motion : *Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego,' Hor. S. i. 5. 48. a) It may take a Case : * Hannibal defensum patriam revocatus est,' N. Han. 6^ b) Sometimes motion is rather implied than expressed : ^Coctum ego, non vapulatum conductus sum/ / was hired to cook^ not to be beaten, Plaut. Aul. iii. 3. 3. 'Augus- tus filiam luHam primum MarceliO; mox Agrippae nuptum dedit,' Suet. Atig. 63. c) 'Ire' with this Supine means to set about doing a thing'. Perditum ire, raptum ire, ultum ire, &c. Hence the use of the Impers. Infin. iri with the Supine to supply a Passive form for Infin. Fut. ' Audierat non datum iri filio uxor em suo/ Ter. An. i. 2. 6. d) Other constructions oftener express the purpose of motion : ' Eunt consultum Apollinem. ' For 'consultum' might be used, 'ut consulerent,' 'qui consulerent' 'ad consulen- dum,' ' consulendi causa less usually, ' consulturi.' Livy uses this Supine most largely. (2) The Second or Abl. Supine (-u") limits the undeclined Substan- 187 tives fas, nefas, opus, and Adjectives which signify good or evil, pleasantness or unpleasantness, fitness or unflt7iess, &c. ' Nefas visu,' horrible to behold. ' Turpe dictu,' sha7neful to say. a) After some words, ad with the Gerund is more elegant : ' Cibus facillimus ad concoquendum,' C. Fin. ii. 20. b) In poetry the Infinitive may be used : ' Cereus in vitium flecti,' waxlike in beijig inoulded to vice^ Hor. Pis. 161. 432 Latin Syntax, § 1 88. c) The Supine in -u is rare after Verbs : ' Pudet dictu,' Tac. d) Anciently it appears as an Ablative of Origin : * Primus cubitu surgat vilicus, postremus cubitum eat,' the bailiff should be the first to get up^ the last to go to bed^ Cato. Note on the Annexive Relation. A Word is said to be in Annexive Relation to another, when it is so joined to it by a Conjunction (expressed or understood) as to take the same construction on the same grounds: * Dis homini- b usque visum est;' ^non mihi loquitur sed tibi;' ^ Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixi, quam te:' where tu, by being Nominative, shows that it is annexed to ego understood: te, by being Accusative^ shows that it is annexed to Brutum. Examples of Infinitive. *Non attinet quicquam sequi quod assequi non queas,' C. Off. i. 31. * Quo mihi fortunam. si non concedituruti?' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12. * Flaccum numquam pro- spexisse vestrae saluti paenitebit,' C. /. Fl. 41. * Bene sen tire recteque facer e satis e s t ad bene beateque vi vendum, ' C. Fa7n. vi. i . * D e c e t verecundum esse adulescentem, ' Plaut. ^j. V. I. * Consul em fieri valde utile Mario V id ebatur,* C. Off.'\\\. 20. * lovis essenepoticontigit baud uni,* Ov. 71/^/. xi. 219. 'Mihi iurato dicere fas fuit,' C./. Mtir. 37. * Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,' C. Att. xiii. 28. ' Id primum videamus, beate vivere vestrum quale sit,' C. ii. 27. * Neque mihi praestabilius quicquam videtur quam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere quo velit, unde autem velit deduce re,' C. d. Or. i. 8. * Honeste atque inhoneste vende re mos erat, Sail. Cat. 30. ' Fas est et ab hoste doceri,' Ov. M. iv. 428. 'Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime vale re et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus dicebant interesse,' C. Fhi. ii. 13. * Nondum fuga certa, nondum victoria erat ; tegi magis Romanus, quam pu gn are ; Volscus inferre signa, urge re aciem, plus caedis hostium videre quam fugae,' L. iv. 37. See Sail. B. lug. 50. 51. 75. * Certos mihi finis terminosque constituam, extra quos egredi non possim, si maxime velim,'C. /. Q7iinct. 10. * Perge reliqua ; gestio enim scire omnia,' C. Att. iv. 11. * Aelius Stoicusessevoluit, orator autem nec studuit umquam nec fuit,' C. Br. 56. *Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Sail. C<z/. 54. *Tu animum poteris in- ducere contra haec dicere?' C. Div. i. 13. * Thraces, navibus comm ittere se non ausi, domos dilapsi sunt,' L. xliv. 45. * Miltiades Chersonesi manere decrevit,' Nep, Milt. 2. * Desiderio Romuli populus Romanus regem flagitare non destitit,' C. Rep. ii. 12. * Spartae pueri rapere discunt,' C. Rep. iv. 5. * Vos sociis prospicere la bo- ratis,' C. Verr.'xn. 55. * Sestii mortem ulcisceremini, si liberi esse cogitare tis,' C. Sest. 38. * Datames Aegyptum proficisci parabat,' N. Dat. 4. 'Fortes et sapientes viri non tarn praemia sequi solent recte factorum quam ipsa recte facta,' C. /. Mil. 35. * Verus patriae diceris esse pater,' Mart. Sp. iii. 11. 'Amens mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. lo. 'Barbara narratur venisse vene- fica tecum,' Ov. H. vi. 19. ' In Graecia primum humanitas, litterae, etiam fruges in- ventae essecreduntur,' Plin, Ep. viii. 24. 'Existimatur Caelius Catilinae nimium familiar is fuisse,' C. /. Cael. 4. 'Prometheus affixus Caucaso trade- batur,'C. T. D. v. 3. 'Commisisse cavet quae mox mutare laboret,' Hor. m Pis. 168. * Romani peperci sse volunt,* L. xxxii. 21. 'Contenti sumus illud unum dixi sse, quanti ille fuerit,' Veil. ii. 108. *Si potuit meruisse necem, me- ruisse putetur,'Ov. //. xi. 109. ' Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum,' C. N.D. Lii. 39. ' Gallinis meridie bibere dato,' Cat. 89. ' Legati Celtiberorum nihil prius petierunt a praetore quam ut bibere sibi iuberet dari,' L. xl. 47. * Lucere coepit,' C. Div. i. 23. 'Non desiit paenitere me suscepti adversus Romanes belli,' L. xxiii. 13. 'Solet eum, cum aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere,' C. Ait. viii. 5. ' Armis disceptari coeptum est de iure publico,* C. Favt. iv. 4. * lampridem contra eos desitum est disputari,' C. ii. 13. * Comitia nostra haberi coepta sunt,' C. Verr. i. 9. ' Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocaridesitus,'C. Fam. Ik. 21. Gerunds and Supines. 433 'Glebae coepere moverl,' Ov. M. iii. io6. ' Is est maxime docills qui attentissime est paratus audire,' C. htv. i. i6. * Reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati,' Hor. C. i. X. 17. 'Maesta civitas fuit, vinci insueta,' T^. iv. 31. Examples of Gerunds and Gerundive. I. ^Gerunds and Gerimdial Attraction.') * Fuerunt apud Romanes qui assentando multitudini grassarentur,' L. xlv. 23. * Diogenes dicebat, artem se tradere bene dis- ser^ndi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi,' C. d. Or. ii. 38. * Ita nati factique sumus, ut et agendi aliquid et diligendi aliquos, et libertatis, et referendae gratiae principia in nobis contineremus,' C. Fin. v. 15. * Nulla causa iusta cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi,*C. Phil. ii. 22. 'Legem doctissimi viri Graeco putant nomine a suumcuique tribuendo appellatam,' C. Leg. i. 16. 'Cernitur in delectu bonorum et malorum iustitia, et in sue cuique tribuendo,' C. Fin. v. 23. ' Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, verum etiam ad docendum/ C. /^/«. iii. 20. ' Oculus conturbatus non est probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum,' C. T. D. iii. 7. ' Mores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegUnt,' Qu. i- 3. 12. * Flagitiosum est, eum, a quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis, condem- nare,' C. Verr. ii. 32. 'Homo magna habet instrumenta ad obtinendam adipi- scendamque sapientiam,' C. Leg. \. 22. 'Eadem precor a dis immortalibus ob L. Murenae consulatum una cum salute obtinendum,' C. Mnr. i. ' Nihil Xeno- phonti tarn regale videtur quam studium agri colendi,' C. Cat. N. 17. *Veni consulis Antoni domum saepe sal ut audi causa,' C. Fa7n. xi. 28. * Reliqua, ita mihi salus aliqua detur potestasque in patria moriendi, ut me lacrimae non sinunt scri- bere,' C. Q. Fr. i. 3. 'lustitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges constituti,' C. Off. ii. 12. ' Pythagoreorum more exercendae memoriae gratia quid quoque die dixerim, audierimj egerim, commemoro vesperi,' C. Cat. M. 11. * Epaminondts studiosus erat audiendi,' Nep. 3. 'Demosthenes Platonis studiosus audiendi fuit,' C. d. Or. i. 20. * Homines be Uandi cupidi magno dolore afficiebantur,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. ' Multi propter gloriae cupiditatem cupidi sunt bellorum gerendorum,' C. Off. i. 22. 'Multae res oratorem ab imperito dicendi ignaroque distinguunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 44. *Mons pecori bonus alendo erat,' L. xxix. 31. ' Ver tamquam adulescentiam significat ostenditque fructus futures ; reliqua tempora demetendi s fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt,' C. Cat. M. xg. ' Tu, Eruci, p raeesse agro c o 1 e n do flagitium putas ? ' C. S. Rose. 18. ' Consul placandis dis dat operam,' L. xxii. 2. 'Galli Transalpini baud procul inde, ubi nunc Aquileia est, locum oppido condendo ceperunt,' L. xxxix. 22. * Multarum civitatum principes ad me detulerunt, sumptus decerni legatis nimis magnos, cum solvendo civitates non essent/ C. Fam. iii. 8. ' Tributo plebes liberata est, ut divltes conferrent, qui oneri ferendo essent,' L. ii. 9. * Dece mviros 1 egibus scribendis intra hos decern annos et creavimus et e republica sustulimus,' L. iv. 4. 'Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit/ L. ii. 8. ' Hominis mens discendo alitur et cogitando,' C. Off. i. 30. ' Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur legendis oratoribus et poetis,' C. Or. iii. 10. ' Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo Platonis amplitudo,' C. Or. i. 5. ' Multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt,' C. Fin. i. 2. 'Exprovidendo appellata est prudentia,' C. Leg. 1. 23. 'Saepe plus in metuendo mali est, quam in illo ipso, quod timetur,' C. Fain. yi. 4.^ 'In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maxime cernitur,' C. Leg. i. 19. 'Rehquorum siderum quae causa collocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit collocatio, inallum sermonem differendum est,' C. Tijn. 9. 'Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis condonandi,' C. Phil. v. 3. ' Aedui legatos ad Caesareiu sui purgandi gratia mittunt,' Caes. B. G. vii. 43. ' Kaec prodendi impcri Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt,' L. xxvii. 9. II. {Impers and Attrib. Germidive.) ' Hie vobis vi ncendum aut moriendun?, est, m^ihtes, L. xxi. 43. ' Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano,' luv. x, ^?^;^ 'Noncorpori soli subveniendum est, sed menti atque animo multo magis, C. Lat. Af. II. 'Suum cuique incommodum ferenduni est potius, quam de alterius commodis de trahen d um,' C Off. iii. 6. 'Apud Pythagoram disci pu lis quinque annistacendum erat,' Sen. Ep. 52. 'Tria videnda sunt oratori : quid dicat et quo quicque loco, et quomodo,' C. Or. 14. 'Semper ita vivamus ut rationem redden- dam nobis arbitremur,' C. Verr. ii. 11. 'Pietati summa tribuenda laus est,' C d. Or. n. 40. ' Quaentur, praeponendane sit divitiis gloria,' C. 7^^/ 22 ' Suo cuique ludicio est utendum,' C N. D. iii. i. 'Sentio moderandum mihi esse F F 434 Latin Syntax, § 189. CHAPTER IV. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. Section I. SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES. (See Chapter I. § 100.) 189 Subor- Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds : dinate Clauses. Substantival ; B) Adverbial ; C) Adjectival or Relative. A) On Substantival Clauses see § 100, p. 349. B) An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence like an Adverb, answering the questions how, whyy when^ &c. Such Clauses are of seven kinds : Consecutive {so that) Conditional unless^ &c.) Final {in order that) Concessive {although^ &c.) Causal {because^ since, &c.) Comparative {as if, &c.) Temporal {when, whilst, &c.) C) An Adj ecti val or Relative Clause is formed by the Relative qui or one of its Particles. When this contains some Adverbial sense {so that, in order that, since, if, although), it generally exhibits the Subjunctive Mood. iam orationi meae,' C. F^-rr. iii. 43. * Intelleglte quibus credendum et a quibus cavendum sit,' L. xxxiv. 39. ' Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis et ipsorum et reipublicae causa consulendum,' C. p. L. Man. 2. 'Spectandus in certamine Martio,' Hor. C. iv, 14. 17. 'Thrasybulus legem oblivionis non tantum ferendam curavit, sed etiam ut valeret efFecit,' Nep. Thras. 3. ' Pueris sen- tentias ediscendas damus,* Sen. Ep. 33. * Redemptor columnam lovis con- duxerat faciendam,' C. Div. ii. 2.1. Examples of Supines. {First Supine.^ .* Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit,' L. ii. 35. 'Legati ab Roma venerunt questum iniurias et ex foedere res repetitum,' L. iii. 25. * Quid est, Crasse, inquit lulius, imusne sessum? Etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagi ta t u m,' C. d. Or. iii. 5. * Cur te is perditum?' Ter. An. i. i. 107. * Ubi se flagitiis dedecoravere turpissimi viri, bonorum praemia ere p turn eunt,' Sail. lug. 85. *In earn spem erecta civitas erat, in Africa eo anno debellatum iri/ L. xxix. 14. * Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias civitates collocavit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. (Second Supine.) * Narratio brevis erit, si non longius, quam quod scitu opus est, in narrando procedetur,' C. Inv. i. 20. * Humanus animus cum alio nullo, nisi cum ipso deo, si hoc fas est dictu, comparavi potest,' C. T. D.v. 13. * Quid est tarn iucundum cognitu atque auditu quam sapientibus sententiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio ? ' C. d. Or. i. 8. * Quod optimum factu videbitur, facies,' C. Att. vii. 22. * Ad imitaRdum tarn mihi propositum exemplar illud est quam tibi/ C. p.Mur. 31 § 190-91. Siibobliqnc Construciion. 435 Section II. SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION. i. Oratio Obliqua. OrX Obliqua. 1) Oratio Obliqua (in distinction from Oratio Recta, direct oration) is a term especially applied to Substantival Clauses, and, above all, to the Infinitive Clause and its substitutes. 2) A subordinate or dependent Clause may have another depend- ing on it ; and in a long Compound Sentence, or Period, there may thus be di primary, secondary, &c., dependence of clauses. If the Verb (whether Infin. or Finite) of a primary dependence forms Oratio Obliqua, the Verb of a following depe^idence is 'Sub- ordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (in one word) Suboblique. ii. The first important Rule of dependent Construction is this : I) A Suboblique Finite Verb is in the Subjunctive Mood. This is seen by comparison of the two following passages : Oratio Recta : 'Ars earum rerum est quae sciuntur ; oratoris autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia^ continetur : nam et apud eos dicimus, qui nesciunt, at ea dici- mus, quae nescimus ipsi,' C. d. Or. ii. 7. Oratio Obliqua: (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet :) Artem earum rerum esse, quae sciantur : oratoris autem omnem actionem opinione, non scientia, contineri; quia et apud eos dicat, qui nesciant, et ipse dicat quod nesciati Here * artem esse,' ' actionem contineri/ form Oratio Obliqua, and the Finite Verbs in subsequent dependence (sciantur, dicat, nesciant, nesciat) are therefore Subjunctive. * .191 iii. But, secondly, a principal Verb often contains more than is virtual expressed by the mere form^ ; not merely the writer's or speaker's Oratio declaration, but an implied opinion or assertion of some other; ^^^^^^ upon which the Verb of the primary clause may depend. Such a principal predication has been called by some writers ' Cogitatio Obliqua;' but a more convenient term is 'Virtual Oratio Obliqua:' from which it follows that the dependent Verb is Virtually Suboblique. Hence results the second Rule of dependent Construction : namely, II) A Finite Verb virtually Suboblique is in the Sub- junctive Mood. Laud at Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. (' Laudat' implies 'ait esse laudandum.') Caesar Aeduos frumentum, quod polliciti essent, flagitabat, (Flagitabat implies that Caesar reminded the Aedui of their promise. Hence the Mood of polliciti essent.) F F 2 436 Latin Syntax, % 192-93. 192 Depen- dence on Con- junc- tive. 193 Excep- tions. A mere change in the Mood of the dependent Verb may cause a change of reference to, or from, the writer or speaker : * Themistocles noctu ambulabat in pubhco, quod somnum capere non posset/ Here the mood of posset (and this alone) refers the clause to the mind of Themistocles, who alleged inability to sleep as the reason why he was in the habit of walking by night. Had poterat been written, the sentence would still be good Latin, but the cause would then rest on the assertion of the writer (Cicero). iv. The principle of Rules H. and HI. is, that dependence on a conception must itself be conceptive ; and, as the Conjunctive is the Mood of Conception, this leads to the third important rule : HI) A Verb really dependent on a Conjunctive Verb is generally Subjunctive : ^Equidem illud molior, ut mihi Caesar concedat ut absim, cum aliquid in senatu contra Gnaeum agatur/ C. Att, ix. 6. 'Quaerimus qualis in bello praedonum praedo ipse fuerit Verres, qui in foro populi Romani pirata nefarius reperiatur .'^' C. Verr, i. 59. * Erat in Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogita- visset,' C. Br, 88. Agatur is Subjunctive, being dependent on absim; reperi- atur, on qualis fuerit; c ommentatus esset and cogitavisset, on redderet. V. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in Dependence. 1) A Clause which seems, by its position, to depend on Oratio Obliqua, may be independent ; that is. it may contain a fact in- troduced by the author : in which case the Mood will be Indie: ^Caesari nuntiatum est, Sulmonensis, quod oppidum a Cor- finio septem milium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere, quae vellet, sed a Q. Lucretio senatore et Attio Paeligno prohiberi, qui id oppidum septem cohortium praesidio te neb ant,' Caes. B> C, i. 18. The Clauses quod . . . abest and qui . . . tenebant con- tain facts stated by the historian, and are not part of the message received by Caesar. But quae vellet is dependent. 2) A short Relative Clause, especially when it immediately fol- lows a Demonstrative, is often constructed independently of Oratio Obliqua, being regarded as a mere epithet : ^ Eloquendi vis efficit ut ea quae ignoramus discere, et ea quae scimus alios docere possimus,' C. A^. D. ii. 59. 3) Dum [whilst) is sometimes constructed with Present Indie, even when subordinate to Oratio Obliqua : * Quanto laudabilius periturum Pisonem, dum amplecti- tur rempublicam, dum auxilia libertati invocat!' Tac. An)i. XV. 59. (Other reasons may occur, inducing an author to exempt a Clause from the general law and to keep the Indie. Mood.} §194- Substantival Clauses. 43; Section III. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. I) Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). i This has three forms : (i) first and principally the Infinitive Jiie Clause : (2) the Ut-clause : (3) the Quod-clause. A. The Infinitive Clause, or Accusative with Infinitive. 1) This is introduced As Object, by ^ Verba Declarandi et Sentiendi,' Verbs which state or imply a fact, feelings or opinion. Such are: a) aio, dico, fateor, nego, scribo, &c., auctor sum; certiorem facio : b) audio, credo, disco, puto, scio, spero, &c., gaudeo, gratulor, &c. As Subject, by the Passives of such Verbs ; by Impersonal Verbs of those meanings: apparet, constat, interest, patet, placet, &c. ; by est with many Adjectives, certum est, credibile (perspicuum, falsum, probabile, verum» verisimile, utile, &c.) est. As Apposite, by Substantives and Pronouns : fama (mos, rumor, spes, fas, &c.) est ; illud certum est, illud nego, and the like. 2) The Tense of the Infinitive Verb will be such as sense and consecution require. Dico (dicam, dixero) eum venire, that he is coming ; eum venisse, that he has come ; eum venturum esse, that he will come. Examples of Suboblique Construction. I) *Cato mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vi-» disset/ C. Div. ii. 24. *ScIto me, postquam in urbem venerim, redisse cum libris in gratiam/ C. Fam. ix. i. 'Fateor me oratorem, si modo sim, ex Academiae spatiis exstitisse,* C. Fin. v. 5. i. * Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem ; propius aecedere ilium, qui alterius bene in- ventis obtemperet,' C. /. CIm. 31. II) *Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart. xii. 28. *Alium rogantes regem misere ad lovem, inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus,' Phaed. i. 2. 'Darius eius pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit,' N. Milt. 3. * In Hispania prorogatum veteribus imperatoribus est imperium cum exercitibus quos haberent,' L. xl. 18. * Cum abessem, quotienscunque patria in mentem veniret, haec omnia occurrebant, colles campique et Tiberis et hoc caelum sub quo natus e ducat usque essem,' L. v. 54. III) *Dici non potest quin ii, qui nihil metuant, nihil angantur, nihil con- cupiscant, beati sint,' C. T. D. v. 7. *Hirri necessarii fidem implorarunt Pompeii ; praestaret quod proficiscenti recepisset,' Caes. B. C. iii. 82. 'Miraretur qui cerneret,' L. xxxiv. 9. * Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras,* C. Cat. M. 10. {Exceptions.^ * Themistocles Xerxem certiorem fecit id agl ut pons, quem in Helles- ponto fecerat, dissolveretur,' N. Th. 9. 'Placet Stoicis eos anhelitus terrae, qui frigidi sunt, cum fluere coeperint, ventos esse,' C. Div. ii. 19. 'Die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur,' ap. Cic. T. D. i. 42. 43^ Latin Syntax, § 194. Copias mitti, thai forces are being sent ; copias missas esse, that Jorces have been sent ; copias missum iri, tJiat forces will be sent. Dicebam (dixi, dixeram) eum venire, that he was coming ; eum venisse, that he had come ; eum venturum (esse), that he would come. Copias mitti, that forces were being sent ; copias missas esse, that Jorces had been sent ; copias missum iri (or missas fore), that forces would be sent. For copias missum iri may also be used : ^ Futurum (or fore) ut copiae mittantur {will) . . . mitterentur (ivoidd).^ If the Clause is to express that something would have happened or not, this is done by using. For Active sense, the Future Participle with fuisse: Dico (dixi) . . . eum venturum fuisse, I say {said) that he would have come (lit. wets about to come). For Passive sense, futurum fuisse ut with Passive Subjunctive : Dico (dixi) futurum fuisse ut copiae mitterentur, / say {said) that forces would have been sent (lit, it was about to happen that forces would be sent). 3) Verbs, which by their meaning imply that the dependent action is Future, usually take a Future Infinitive Clause. Such are Verbs of pronusing, vowing^ threatening, hoping : Polliceor, promitto, recipio, spondeo, voveo ; minor, minitor ; spero, despero, spes est : Pollicentur, minantur se ita facturos. Spe ramus, spes est eum venturum esse. a) Such Verbs are also found with a Present Clause : * Modo sum pollicitus ducere,'/ jtcst 7tow promised to marry her, Ter. An. iii. 5. 7. ' Haec scripsi ut sperares te assequi id quod optasses,' C. Fam. ii. 10. See M. Lucr. i. 722. And when spero implies belief : ^ Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus,' C. Fatn. ii. 2. b) Posse after a Verb of hoping gives a Future character to the Clause : 'Velme licet existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere,' 7nay deem that even I have no hope that I can leant those thifigs thoroughly, C. d. Or. i. 36. 4) An Infinitive Clause, used Interrogatively without a principal Verb, expresses Indignation : ' Mene incepto desistere victam?' what, I be vanqidshed, and abandon my design f Verg. Ae. i. 37. ^ O praeclarum imperatorem ! tantumne vidisse in metu periculoque provinciae ?' C. Verr. V. 5. ' Ita comparatam essehominum naturam !' Ter. H. iii. i. Ut with a Subjunctive may be used for the same purpose : ^ Te ut ulla res frangat?' the idea that anything will hicmble you, C. Cat. i. i. ^Tibi ego ut credam, furcifer.^' Ter. An. iii. 5. § 194- Stibstafitival Clauses, 439 5) In the Infin. Clause the following ellipses occur : a) An Indefinite Subject understood in the Subjective Con- struction : ^Conveniet in dando jnunificum esse (aliquem)/ C. Off, ii. 1 8. b) A Reflexive Pronoun omitted : 'Ferre non posse clamabit/ C. T. D. ii. 17. ^ Id nescire Mago dixit/ L. xxiii. 13. Most frequently with the Fut. Infin. : ^L. Caecilius agrariae legi intercessorem fore professus est/ Caecilius declared that he would interpose to forbid the agrarian law, C. p. SmU, i 3. Esse is at the same time often omitted : ^Brutus populum iureiurando adegit, neminem Romae pas- suros regnare/ Brutus made the people swear they would allow no one to be king at Rome^ L. ii. i. (Poets sometimes use the Greek idiom, by which the Nom. of the principal Verb becomes also the Subject of the Infin. ^Phaselus ille . . . aitfuisse navium celerrim us/ Ca- tuU. iv. I. ^Sensit medios delapsus in hostis/ Verg. Ae,\\. 377. 'Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse pa- ratus/ Hor. Epist. i. 7. 23. ^Rettulit Aiax esse lovis pronepos/ Ov. xiii. 141. A far bolder instance is : * Acceptum refero versibus, essenocens/ Ov. TV. ii. IQ. Compare Hor. C i. 37. 31. iii. 16. 32.) c) A Demonstr. Pronoun omitted if there is no ambiguity : ^ Valerius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam vicem indignantem magistratu abisse/ Valeritis resigned the dictatorship : the motive was clear to the plebeians ^ that he quitted office from indignation on their account, L. ii. 31. d) A Verb omitted in a Correlative Clause, subordinate to In- finitive, its Noun being attracted to the Accusative : ^Te suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, interdum gravius commoveri,' / suspect you are sometimes stirred too deeply by the same thiiigs which stir 7ne, C. C M, i. Qu ibusmeipsumis for qui bus ipse commoveor. 6) The ambiguous construction of two Accusatives, Subject and, Object (as in the famous oracle, ' Aio te, Aeacida, Romanes vin- cere posse may be evaded by using the Passive Construction. Thus render, ^ / believe that Marcus loves you^ (not, * Credo Marcum te amare/ but) * Credo te a Marco amari.' 7) The English, ^it is said of Homer that he was blind,' or ' they say of Homer that he was blind,' or ' Homer, they tell us (it is said), was bhnd,' is rendered by one of the constructions, ^Jradunt (tra^ 440 Latin Syntax. g i^^^ ditur) Homerum caecum fuisse/ or ' traditur Homerus caecus fuisse.' But the use of de is not inadmissible : * De Tirone, video tibi curae esse/ C. 8) On the Personal Construction of Passive Copulative Verbs, see Note, p. 427. 9) 'Mem ini me videre ' or ^ memini videre,' / reineinber seeing. * Memini me vidisse,' / i^einember that I saw (at a specific time). * Memineram me vidisse,' I rejnembered that I had seen, 195 ut- B, Ut-clause for Infinitive Clause, Clause. U t {that), with Subjunctive, for the Infin. Clause, is used as Sub- ject, to express consecutiveness. It depends on 1) Impersonal Verbs: est, esto, abest, accedit, accidit, con- tingit, evenit, fit, interest, refert, relinquitur, restat, sequi- tur, superest, usu venit, &c. See M. Luer. i. 442. 2) Est, with an Adj. or Adv. complement: aequum, consen- taneum, consequens, extremum, iniquum, insitum, inte- grum, par, rarum, rectum, reliquum, tritum, usitatum, utile, verisimile, verum, &c. : prope, satis est, &:c. 3) Est, with a Subst. : consuetudo, mos, vitium, and others. This Ut-clause is often in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun. Examples: ^Est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta sulcis/ Hor. C. iii. i. 9. 'Ad Appii Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset,'C. Cat. M. 6. *Est hoc commune vitium . . . ut invidia gloriae comes sit,' C. Verr. ii. 65. Obs. I. Owing to the nature of this clause, it seldom contains a negative ; but if it does, the negatives are non, nihil, null us, &c. 'Fuit hoc in Crasso, ut non tam existimari vellet non didi- cisse, quam . . . nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis ante- ferre,' C.<:/. Or. ii. I. 'Soli hoc contingit sapienti ut nihil faciat invitus, nihil dolens, nihil coactus,' C. Par. v. i. 'Est ut ple- rique philosophi nulla tradant praecepta dicendi, et habeant paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant,' C. d. Or. ii. 36. Obs. 2. On the other hand, ut, implying purpose (as in Petitio Obliqua), takes n e^ nequis, &c., in negation. See Examples, p. 446. Certain predications may sometimes imply consequence only (in- troducing an Oblique Enunciation), sometimes purpose (intro- ducing Oblique Petition). Such are facere, fieri, efficere, &c. ; expedit, interest, refert, placet, prodest, utile est, &c. ; condicio (consilium, ius, munus) est ; and others. The following passage shews Obi. Petition and Obi. Enuntiation dependent on the same word : ^ Ex hoc efficitur non ut voluptas ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,' ///6» result of this is not that pleasure will cease to be pleasure., but that pleasure is not the chief good ^ C. Fi7i. ii. 8. The first result \'6 pur- posed (ut ne sit), the second consecutive (ut non sit). See the use of ' ita ne ^ in Consecutive Clauses. Obs. 3. Ut Consecutive with predications oi affirming, thinking^ or perceiving, is confined to one or two expressions : § 196. Substantival Quod-clause. 441 'Qui probari potest ut sibi animus mederi non possit?' how can we be satisfied that the 7nind is tenable to heal itself f C. T. D, iii. 3. Hence it rarely forms Objective Clauses. See V. Aen, xi. 153. Care must therefore be taken not to confound it with the Interrog. Particle ut (Jiow), which often forms such clauses: *Videmus ut luna sohs lumen accipiat/ C. d. Or, iii. 5. See § 202. Obs. 4.. Licet, oportet, necesse est, when they take the Sub- junctive, usually omit ut : ' Licet pauca degustes,' you may taste a few samples, C. AIL xvi. 8. * Me ipsum ames oportet,' C. Fin. ii. 28. ^ Oratio, si res non subest, aut nulla sit necesse est aut omnium irrisione ludatur,' a speech without matter must be either not delivered or laughed at by everybody^ C. d. Or. i. 12. Quod, that^ with Indie, (but, if Suboblique, with Subjunctive) stands for the Infin. Clause, either to mark distinctly that a fact is expressed, or to shew that the Oratio Recta finds its Cause in a fact. 1) For the former purpose it appears As Subject, with accedit, accidit, apparet, evenit, fit, interest, nocet, obest, occurrit, parum est, prodest, &c. ; or with est and a Substantive : causa est, consolatio est, vitium est, &c. As Object, with ad do, adicio, animadverto, excuso, facio, mitto, nihil moror, non dico, omitto, praetereo, praetermitto, &:c. And in Apposition to Pronouns. 2) For the latter purpose it is joined to Verbs of Emotion, ex- pressing sorrow^ surprise^ praise^ blame, indignation^ &c. As Subject, to do let, iuvat, gratum (indignum, mirum, per- gratum) est, &c. As Object, to accuso, admiror, aegre (graviter, indigne, mo- leste) fero, angor, bene facio, delector, doleo, gaudeo, glorior, gra- tulor, ignosco, indignor, laetor, laudo, miror, obicio, queror, repre- hendo, &c. Examples: 'Accedit hue quod postridie ille venit,' C Fam. viii. 2. ' Addequod pubes tibi crescit omnis,' Hor. C. ii. 8. 17. ' Magnum beneficium est naturae quodnecesseest mori,' Sen. Ep. 103. 'Inter causas malorum nostrorum est, quod vivimus ad exempla.' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Habet hoc optimum in se generosus animus, quod concitatur ad honesta,'<3: noble mind has this chief merit, that its impulse is to virtue^ Sen. Ep. 39. 'Benefacis quod me adiu vas,' C. iii. 3. 'Gratum est quod patriae civem populoque dedisti,' luv. xiv. 70. ' Dolebam quod socium et consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram,' C. Br. i. 'Quod spi- ralis, quod vocem mittitis, indignantur,' L. iv. 3. ' Caesar ad me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim/ C. Fam, viii. II. Obs. I. After predications of Emotion in the ist Pers., the Clause is often Indie, because the speaker states the ground of his own feeling. But after 2nd or 3rd Pers., often Subjunctive, when the writer or speaker ascribes the ground to the mind of another; C. Quod-clause for Infin. Clause. 196 Quod- clause, 44^ Latin Syntax, § i^^^ ^Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem/ Mart. xii. 28. < Nemo umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus' C. d. Or. iii. 14. V * Obs, 2. Predications of Emotion are connected with the Infinitive Clause^ or with quod, for which cum sometimes occurs : te aegrotare \ quod aegrotas I cum aegrotas dolet mihi angor animo / am sorry you are ill. , fte convaluisse ^ quod convaluisti gratulor cum convaluisti • / am glad you are recovered. Obs. 3. On the use of quod in connecting sentences, see § 82. * Quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile dictu est de singulis,' C. Fam, i. 7. Obs, 4. Quod, that, after a Verb of thinking or declaring (except in Apposition to a Pronoun) is hardly classical ; but, in later Latin, it became a common barbarism.^ Petkio II) Indirect Will-speech (Petitio Obliqua). Obliqua. 1) This Clause is the Oblique form of an Imperative Sentence. It may be introduced by ut final, ut ne, ne (ne quis, &c.) with Subjunctive ; depending (as Subject, Object, or Apposite) on pre- dications expressing : Concession, permission, demand, entreaty, exhortation j advice y persuasion, impulsion, compact (paciscor, rarely spondeo, debeo) ; command, direction, will, or any forms which may imply these (dico, mitto, monstro, nuntio, respondeo, scribo) ; also, care, provision, endeavour ; achieving, ej^ecting, conducing, &c. These include such phrases as condicio (ius, lex, munus, regula, &c,) est.^ 2) Most of these predications can omit ut before the Subjunc« tive ; but some always keep it : Cogis (mones, scribis, auctor es, id agis, impetras, &c.) ut earn. Oravi (suasi, hortatus sum, mandavi, &c.) utadesses; adesses, 3) Such predications point to the attainment of an end. When they take n e, prevention is implied ; and most can take n e, except iubeo, nolo, and a few more. Rogas (imperas, operam das, efficis, &c.) utne(ne) quis eat. Suasisti (pactus es, misisti, voluisti, &c.) ut ne (ne)abessem. ^ A few words (accidit, evenit, interest, &c.) admit all three Enuntiative Clauses, while many are used with two of them. Care must be taken to note these uses, and to dis- criminate them where this is possible. But between some there seems little or no differ- ence. We may write. * Rectum est maiori parere minorem,' or * Rectum est ut maiori minor pareat : ' * Gaudeo te salvum redisse,' or * Gaudeo quod (cum) salvus redisti.' ' ( Verbs on which Petitio Obliqua defends) : concedo, do, patior, permitto, sino ; oro, rogo, peto, postulo, contendo, precor, obsecro ; hortor ; cogo, impello, incito, induco, moneo, moveo, persuadeo, suadeo, auctor sum ; censeo, decemo, edico, iubeo, impero, mando, praecipio ; placet ; caveo, euro, facio, id ago, nitor, enitor, operam do, prospicio, studeo, video, provideo ; adipiscor, assequor, consequor, committo, efficio, perficio, im- petro, evinco, pervingo ; opto^ volo, nolo, malo, &c. Blandior in L. and Lucr. ii. 173. § 198-201. Petitio Obliqna. 443 4) Another Class of Verbs points to the prevention of an end. Of these caveo, when it means beware^ takes or omits ne: * Cave ne titubes ^ or * cave titubes.' Y^to, forbid, takes ne, and very rarely omits it (in poetry). Prohibeo, forbid, takes ne and quominus ; also deprecor, deterreo, dissuadeo, impedio, intercedo, interdico, invideo, obsto, officio, pugno, repugno, recuso, resisto, tempero, teneo, contineo, terreo, veto, and others of like import. Some of these admit qiiin. 5) Quominus. Quo- Quominus ( = ut eo minus) with Subjunctive depends on predi- cations implying hindrance. Such predication is often negative or interrogative ; but it may be positive. To the Verbs above cited which take quominus, may be added abstineo, arceo, cohibeo, defendo, moror, mora est, religio est, impedimentum est, &c. ; fieri, stare per aliquem. Nulla religio est quominus adsim, / have no scruple about coming. Per te stetit quominus adessem, you stood in the way of my coming, • 6) Quin : see M. Lucr. \. 58^. Quin. The Consecutive Conjunction quin, but that (qu?-ne = ut non, cur non), with Subjunctive depends on predications which de?ty (or go near to deny) a preventing cause. Such predications are always either negative (non, baud, nihil, &:c.), quasi-negative (vix, aegre, minimum, paulum), or interrogative (quid? num? &c.). Verbs and Phrases so constructed are numerous : a) (Non) dubito, dubium est, &c. /3) (Non) contineor ; retineor ; resisto ; tempero ; possum ; facere possum ; fieri potest ; abest ; procul est, &c. : (nulla) causa (controversia) est, &c. y) Numquam, with almost any Verb. a) * Non dubito . . . hand dubium est . . . nullus dubito . . . quis dubitet.'^ quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae,' no doubt there were poets before Homer, C. /3) Aegre retentus sum . . . paulum afuit . . . temperare mihi vix potui quin fie rem, I could hardly refrain from weeping. 7) Numquam discedis aliquo quin te omnes desiderent,j/<?^ never go away bict that all regret you. 200 7) Predications of Fear. Fear. Metuo, timeo, vereor, pavidus sum, timor est, periculum est, &c., take ne with Subjunctive of that which it is feared will happen ; ut, ne non, of that which it is feared will not happen. Metuo (timeo, vereor, &c.) ne pereas, / fear you will perish. Metui ut (ne non) effugeres, I feared you would not escape. This ut is the Oblique Interrog. hozu, used idiomatically to avoid the harshness of a negative form. 8) Predications of Caution, caveo, video, cogito, considero, Caution have some resemblance to those of Fear, so far as they introduce ne (which caveo can omit); but when ut follows them, they have the sense of euro, take care ^provide that. See Examples. 9) Periphrastic phrases : non committere ut (/^ act so that), id agere, animum inducere, facere, efficere, fieri, fore, &c. ut (ut ne), ne. See M. Lucr. vi. 412-415. 444 Latin Syntax. § 202, 202 interro- HI) Indircct Question (Interrogatio Obli- Obiiqua. qua). 1) If a Question, formed by an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle (quis es ?), becomes dependent upon another predication, its Verb becomes Subjunctive (quis sis). Such Interrogatives are : quis, qualis, quantus, quot, uter, quotus, unde, ubi, quando, quomodo, cur, quare, quamobrem, quam, num, ne, ut, an, utrum. 2) Predications on which such a Clause may depend are those of inquiring^ stating^ hearings knowings perceivings rememberings doubting^ caring^ considering^ determining^ concerning^ Sec. Quaero, die, scio, &c., quid facias, feceris, fa cturus sis : Quaesivi, Sec, quid face re s, fecisses, facturus esses. Examples of Substantival Clauses. (Verbs which illustrate the rules of Oratio Obliqua are printed in Italics.) I) Enuntiatio Obliqua. (i) Infinitive Clause. * Fac animos non remanere postmortem; vides nos, si ita «V, privari spe beatioris vitae,' C. T. D. i. 34. * Sic decet, te mea curare, tua me,' C. Att. xv. 2. 'Aequum est ci vis civibus parcere,' N. Th. 2. * Meum gnatum rumor est amare,' Ten An. i. 2. 'Solon furere se simulavit,' C. Off. i. 30. * M etellum memini puer bonis esse viribus extremo tempore aetatis,* C. Cat. M. 9. * Meministis, me ita initio distribuisse causam,' C. /. 6". Rose. 42. * Thucydides non negat fuisse famam Themistoclem venenum sua sponte sumpsisse,' N. Th. TO. *Hunc censes primis, ut dicitur, labris gustasse physiologiam, qui quic* quam, quod ortum sit^ putet aeternum esse posse? N. D.\. Z. (See C. Qu.F.x.x.'^. * Ac mihi quidem videtur . . . humanitatis.') 'Memineram, C. Marium, cum vim arraorum/r<2/«^m^/, senile corpus paludibus occultasse,' C. Sest. 22. * Plato turn demum beatum terrarum orbem futurum praedicavit, cum aut sapientes regnare aut reges sapere coepissent,' Ya\. Max. vii. 2. 'Exaudita voxest, futurum esse ut Roma caperetur,' C. Div. i. 45. * Nisi nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur,' Caes. B. C. iii. 101. *Lentulus consul senatui reique publicae se non de futurum pollicetur,' Caes. B. C. i. I. * Si quando parvis ludentes minamur praecipitaturos alicunde, exti- mescunt,' C. Fin. v. 11. *Ad matrem virginis venit, iurans se illam ducturum domum.' Ter. Ad. iii. 4. * Magna in spe sum nihil mihi temporis prorogatum iri,' C Att.\\.'2. * Spes dabatur, pueros mergi posse,' L. i. 4. * Iniecta mihi s p e s est velle raecum Sulpicium coUoqui. C. Att. x. 7. 'Video te velle in caelum migrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis,' C. T. D. i. 34. *Verminae responsum a legatis est : Si quid ad pacis leges a d d i, demi, muta- tive velleiy rursus a senatu eipostulandum fore,'L. xxxi. ii. * Semper ita vivamus utrationem reddendam nobis arbitremur,' C. Verr. ii. 11. * Me non cum bonis esse?' C. Att. ix. 6. *Hasne tibi gratis, haec praemia digna rependi?' Stat. Th. viii. 50. 'Egone ut te interpellem?' C T. D. ii. 18. *Utne tegam spurco Damae latus?' Hor. S. ii. 5. 18. 'Confitere hue ea spe venisse,' C. S. Rose. i-z. * Dissimulare etiam sperasti, perfide, tantum posse nefas?' Verg. Aen. iv. 305. * Par est, primum ipsum esse virum bonum, tum alterum similem sui quaerere,' C. Lael. 22. 'Prima sequentem honestum est in secundis tertiisque consistere,' C. Or. I. *Tu fac, quod facis, ut me ames teque amari a me scias,' C. Fam. xiii. 47. * De Antonio tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me conventum,' C. Att. xv. i. * Platonem ferunt idem sensisse quod Py thagoram,' C. T. D. i. 17. 'Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 62. *Nuntiatur Afranio, magnos comitatusad flumen cons t it isse,' Caes. B. C. i. 51. * Si Veios mi- grabimus, non reliquisse victores, sed amisisse victi patriam videbimur,' L. v. 53. 'Non mihi videtur ad beate vivendum satis p osse virtutem,' C. T. D. v. 5. § 202. Interrogatio Obliqua, 44S 3) An Oblique Interrogation must be carefully distinguished from an Adjectival (Relative) Clause. The former depends on the principal V'erb, and requires the Subjunctive: Intellego quae mihi narres, / understand what things you are telling me ; where quae is from the Interrog. qui. The latter is referred to a Demonstrative, expressed or under- stood, and does not require a Subjunctive: Intellego (ea) quae mihi narras, / understand those things which you tell me, where quae is from the Relative qui. (Cp. d. Or, ii. 74. 299 ; T. D. v. 8, in which there is an irregular transition from the Personal construction to the Clause.) (2) The Enuntiative Ut-clause. *Quando fuit ut, quod licet, non liceret?' C. /. Cael. 20. 'Absit a nobis ut ex incommodo alieno nostram occasionem petamus,' L. iv. 58. 'Reliquum est ut certemus officiis inter nos,' C. Fain, vii. 21. *Rarum est ut satis se quisqu£ vere- atur,' C. /. Fl. 27. *Fit fere ut cogitationes sermonesque nostri pariant aliquid in somno,' C. Soimt. r. 'Fieri potest ut recte quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite eloqui non possit,' C. 7". Z>. i. 3. * Valde optanti utrique nostrum cecidit ut in istum sermonem delaberemini,' C. d. Or. i. 21. *Mos est hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere,' C. Br. 21. *Quam habet aequitatem, ut agrum multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum qui nullum habuit habeat, qui au tern habuit amittat?' C Off. ii. 22. * Ut colloqui cum Orpheo, Musaeo, Homero, Hesiodo liceat, quanti tandem aestimatis? ' C. T. D. i. 41. {.Inf. Clatise or ut.) * Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, sequitur ut falsa sit,' C. Fat. 12. * Si, quod honestum est, id solum est bonum, sequitur vitam beatam virtute confici,' C. T. D. v. 8. 'Restat ut doceam, omnia, quae sint in hoc mundo, hominum causa facta esse,' C. A^. D. ii. 61. *Restat Bactra novis, restat Babylona tributis frenari,' Stat. 6". i. 40. 'Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam esse rempublicam,' C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Expedit omnibus ut singulae civitates sua iura et suas leges habeant,' L. xxxiv. i. ' Puero opus est cibum ut habeat,' Plant. True, v, i. 'Nunc opus est te animo vale re, ut corpore possis,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. * Tris convenit res habere narrationem, ut brevis, ut dilucida, ut verisimilis sit,'^i///,?r. i. 9. 'Verisimile est, cum optimus quisque maxime poste- ritati serviat, esse aliquid, cuius is post mortem sensum sit habiturus,' C. T. D. i. 15. 'An verisimile est ut civis Romanus aut homo liber cum gladio in forum descenderit antelucem?' C. /. Sest. 36. 'Potest illud esse falsum, ut circum- ligatus fuerit angui,' C. Div. ii. 31. ' Haud falsa sum nos odiosas haberi/ Ter. Run. ii. 2. (So credibile, aequum, rectum, verum est, and other adjective predications, can take cither Clause. ) (3) " The Enuntiative Quod-clause. 'Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi quod alienae erat civitatis,* N. Eutn.i. 'Aristoteles laudandus est in eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura moveri censuit aut vi aut voluntate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. 'Ex tota laude Reguli unum illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit,' C. Off. iii. 31. 'Quanta ilia benign itas naturae, quod tarn multa ad vescendum tam varia tamque iucunda gignit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Mitto quod invidiam, quod omnis meas tem- pestates subieris,' C. (mitto =dicendum non puto). (Quod, cum, with Verbs of Emotion.') 'Sane gaudeo quod te interpellavi,' C. Leg. iii. i. 'Dolet mihi quod tu nunc stomacharis,' C ad.Br.i.xj. 'Gratulor tibi quod salvum te ad tuos recepisti,' C. Fam. xiii. 73. 'Laudo te cum isto animo es,' C. A Mil. 36. 'Haec urbs laetari videtur quod tantam pestem e7>o- muerit,' C. Cat. ii. i. 'Memini gloriari solitum es.se Q. Hortensium quod nunquam bello civili interfuisset,' C. Fatn. ii. 16. {Inf. Clatcse with Verbs of Emotion.) 'Gaudeo, id te mihi suadere, quod ego mea. spontefeceram,' C. Att. xv. 27. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii i. ' Lentulus se alterum fore Sullam inter suos gloriatyr,' Caes. B. C. i. 4. ' Gratulor Oechaliam titulis accedere nostris,' Ov. Her. ix. i. * Inferiores non dolere debent, se a suis superari,' C. Lael. 20. 446 Latin Syntax. § 202. 4) Some examples, which at first sight seem to shew Indie, in Oblique Intern, really belong either to Interr. Recta: ' Quin tu uno verbo die, quid est quod me velis now tetl me in one word, what do you want with me f Ten A7t. i. 1. 18. Or to Adjectival (Relative) construction : 'Nihil est admirabiUus quam quomodo ille fill mortem tulit,' nothing is more admirable than the 7nanner iri which he bore his son's deaths C. Cat, M, 4. But the Comic poets use the Indie, in Oblique Interr. as an idiom of parlance ; and some examples occur in later poets, but not in good Latin prose ; for examples cited from Cicero are either corrupt readings or direct Interrogations. (Curyi?;' quod. ) *Prlmum illud reprehendo et accuse cur in re tarn veteri tarn usitata quicquam novi feceris/ C. Verr. iii. 7. * Repeto me correptum ab avunculo cur ambularem: Poteras, inquit, has horas non perdere,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 'Miror cur philosophiae prope helium indixe ris,* C. d. Or. ii. 37. (Ut quod. ) 'Accedit ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod nihil est animo velocius/ C. T. D. i. 19. 'Accedit quod Caesar ingeniis excellentibus delec - tatur,' C. Fam. vi. 6. 'Accidit ut Athenienses Chersonesum colonos ve llent mittere,* N. Milt. i. *Accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti,' C. Att. i. 17. *Evenit inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi,' Hor. 6". i. 3. 28. 'Magna me spes tenet, bene mihi e venire quod 7nittar 2A mortem,' C. T. D. i. 41. * Invitus facio ut recorder ruinas reipublicae,' C. in Vatin. 8. * Noli putare pigritia me facere quod non mea manu scribam,' C. Aii. xvi. 15. (Interest, refert take all three clauses, besides other constructions. See § 203.) II) Petitio Obliqua. * Petes a Crasso ut earn copiam in lucem proferat,' C. d. Or. i. 35. *Ate id, quod suesti, peto, me absentem diligas et defendas,'C. Fam. xv. 8. ' Non peto ut decernatur aliquid novi, sed ut ne quid novi decernatur,' C. Fam. \\. 7. * Magnum documentum ne patriam rem perdere quis velit,' Hor. S. i. 4. iii. *Ex- ercitus Alexandrum lacrimis deprecatur, finem tandem belli faceret,' lust. xii. 8. *Alcibiades lacrimans supplex erat Socrati, ut sibi virtutem traderet turpitudi- nemque depelleret,' C. T. D. iii. 32. 'Id te rogo, ut valetudini tuae diligentissime servias,*C. Qu. Fr. i. i. ' Cum magnum aliquod munus susceperis, hoc te rogo, ne demittas animum, neve te obrui tamquam fluctu, sic magnitudine negoti sin as,' C. Qu. Fr. i. I. 'Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opimius consul videret nequid res publica detrimenti caperet,' C. Cat. i. 2. * Gabinius egerat aliud nihil nisi ut, urbes depopularetur,' C. in Pis. 17. 'Qui stadium currit, eniti et contendere debet ut vincat,' C. Oj^. iii. 10. ' Coeperunt ponere leges ne quis fur esset neu latro,' Hor. i. 3. 105. 'Vetusest lex ilia iustae veraeque amicitiae, ut idem amici semper velint,' C. Plane. 1. 'Ariovistus respondit ius esse belli ut qui vicissent iis quos vicissenty quemadmodum vellent, imperarent. Factum est senatus-consultum, ut duo viros aedilis ex Patribus dictator populum rogaret,' L. vi. 42. 'Bene maiores nostri hoc comparaverunt, ut neminem regem, quem 2aTMS, cepissent,V\X.2i priv sirent,' ad Her. iv. 16. 'N untia Patribus, urbem muni ant, et Fabio, Aemitium et vixisse et adhuc mori,* L. xxii. 49. 'Dicam tuis ut librum tuum describant ad teque mittant,* C. Fajn. xiii. 17. 'Die ad cenam veniat,' Hor. 'Dicebam tibi ne matri consuleres male, Plaut. As. V. 2. 'Rogo ergo scribas tuis, ut liberto villa, ut domus pa teat, Plin. Fp. V. 19. 'Caesar ad Lamiam scripsTt, ut ad ludos omnia pararet,' C. Att, xiii. 45. (Auctor sum, / advise, takes ut, ne ; auctor sum, / assure, takes Infin. Clause.) (Quominus.) 'Quid *obstat quominus Deus sit beatns?' C. .V. D. i. 34. ' I socrati, quominus haberetur summus orator, non ofifecit quod infirmitate vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Plin. FJ>. vi. 29. 'Nihil ne ego quidem moror quominus decemviratu abeam,' L. iii. 54. 'Praetor Samnitibus respondit: Nec quominus perpetua cum eis amicitia esset, per populum Roma- num stetisse ; nec contradici, quin amicitia de integro reconcilietur ; quod Interrogatio Obliqua, 447 5) Nesc io quis (qui), &c., followed by Indicative, is a special exception, being regarded as Pronominal = a liqu is, aliqui. So mirum quantum, immane quantum, &c. See § 86-97. 6) By Greek attraction the Subject of the Clause sometimes be- comes Object of the Principal Verb : (See § 128, 3.) 'Sanguinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa videor posse dicere unde concreta sint,^ I think I can state what bloody bile, phlegTn, and bones are formed frojn, C. 7". Z>. i. 24. * R e m f r u m e n t a r i a m ut satis commode supportari posset timere se dicebant,' //^^j/ they were afraid the supply of corn cotdd not be furnished easily, Caes. B, G. i. 39. ad Sidicinos attineat, nihil intercedi, quominus Samniti populo pads bellique liberum , arbitrium sit,' L. viii. 2. 'Qui domum meam, quominus ruat, fulcit, praestat mihi beneficium ; ipsa enim domus sine sensu est,' Sen. Ben. v. 19. ' Saepe accidit in mari, ut naves teneantur quominus in portum pervenire possint,' Caes. B. G. iv. 22. (Quominus, being a Final Particle, may also be represented by ne, with prohibeo, im- pedio, deterreo, deprecor, and many other Verbs.) (Quin.) *Npn est dubiumquin beneficium sit etiam invito prodesse,' Sen. Ben. v. 19. *Numquam mihi dubium fuit quin ate diligerer,' C. Att. xvi. 19. 'Non dubito* quin probaturus sim vobis defensionem meam,' C. Mil. 4. 'Quis du- bitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint ? ' C. Par. 6. 'Nolite dubitare quin {do not hesitate to) Pompeio uni credatis omnia,' C. /. L. M. 20. 'Tempe- rare non potuit quin facti reminisceretur,' Suet. Claud. 4. 'Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus,' C. Att. ii. 15. 'Hand procul erat quin castra turbarentur,' L. v. 12. 'Vergilii et Livii scripta paulum afuit quin ex omnibus bibliothecis amo- veret Caligula,' Suet. Cal. 34. 'Nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin Pompeium a Caesaris coniunctione avocarem,' C. Phil. ii. 2. 'Equidem numquam domum misi unam epistulam, quin esset adte altera,' C. Fam. ii. lO. (On *non quin,' see Causal Clauses.) (Dubito also takes a Prol. Inf. or Inf. Cla^ise, or Interr. Obi.) *Nondubitaviida te per litteras petere,' C. Fam. ii. 6. ' Pompeius non dubitat, ea, quae de re- publica nunc sentiat, mihi valde probari,' C. Att. vii. i. (See Interr. Obi.) {Fear. )*Metuoneid consili ceperimus, quod non satis explicare />ossiniuSy' C. Fam. xiv. 12. 'Timor Romae grandis fuit, ne iterum Galli Romam redirent,' Eutr. v. i. 'Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis,' L. xxiv. 42. *Non vereor ne mea vitae modestia parum valltura sit contra falsos rumores,' C. Fam. xi. 28. 'Omnis labores te excipere video; timeo ut sustineas,' C. Fam. xiv. 2 * Hoc quia vos foedus non iusseritis, veretur Hiempsal ut satis firmum sit et ratum,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 21. ' Veremur ne forte non aliorum utihtatibus, sed propriae laudi servisse videamur,' PHn. Ep. i. 8. 'Nese penuria victus opprimeret metuebat,* Hor. S. i. I. 98. *Extimui ne vos ageret vesania discors,' Hor. 6^. ii. 3. 174. {Caution.) ' Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videatar, cogitandum tamen est re tutior non sit,' C. Fam. iv. 9. ' Videamus ne beata vita ex sui similibus partibus effici debeat,* C. T. D. v. 15. 'Credere omnia vide ne non sit necesse, C. Div. ii. 13. *Ad rempublicam gerendam qui accedit, caveat ne id modo consideret, quarn ilia res honesta sit, sed etiam, ut (=ne non) habeat efficiendi facultafem,' C. Off. i. 21. (where considero is constructed like vereor). * Haec mea cura est, ne quidtu perdas neu sis iocus,' Hor. S. ii. 5, 36. (See Hor. Epist. i. 5. 21-28.) (Caveo, take care, is used with ut : caveo, beware, with ne, or suppressing ne.) 'Caveamus ut ea, quae pertinent ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem, moderata sint,* C. Off. i. 39. * Lege Cincia cavetur ne quis ob causam orandam pecuniam donumve accipiat,' Tac. A.^in. xi. 5. 'Cave festines aut committas ut aut aeger aut hieme naviges,' C. Fam. xvi. 12. {Verbs which form periphrases.") 'Non committam ut in scribendo neglegen^ fuisse videar/C. Fam. v. 9. * Numquam omnino perlculi fuga committendum est ut imbelles timidique videamur/ C. Off. i. 24. 'Omne animal id agit ut se con;. 44^ Latin Syntax. § 203. Note. Many of the Verbs included in II. III. of this Section ad- mit a variety of dependent constructions. The range of such variety is : I. Ut. 2. Omission of ut. 3. Xe. 4, Infin. Clause. \a. That form of Clause in which the Infin. is Perf. Pass., suppressing esse (nollem datum). 5. Object-case and Infin.; or Infin., suppressing Object-case (hortamur fari). 6. Prolative Infin., the Finite Verb being Active (vult ire). 7. Prolative Infin., the Fin. Verb being Passive. 8. Oblique Interrogation. 9. Ouominus. <^a. Ouin. servet,' C. Fin. v, 9. *Potuit animum inducere ut se patrem esse oblivisceretur,* Q. p. S. Rose. 19. * Faciam {will cause) ex tragoedia comoedia ut sit,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 54. *Invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eic erem(=invitus eieci),' C. Cat. M. 12. *Omnes concedant oporter, numquam facturum {allow kiifiself) virum bonum ut men- dacium dicat,' Qu. xii. 15. Y2.z{s7ippose), quaeso. quiego jzw, esse te,' C. Fam. vii. 23. * Facut vale as,' C. ' Fac int ellegam, tu quid sentias,' C. N. D. 'Quid a me fieri potuit aut elegantius aut iustius, quam ut sumptus egentissimarum civitatum minuerem?' C. Fam. iii. 8. 'Faciendum mihi puta\H ut litteris tuis breviter responderem,' do. * M. Crassi consilio factum est ne fugiti\i ad Messanam transire possent,'C. Verr. v. 2, * Clamabant fore ut ipsi sese di ulciscerentur,' C. Verr. iv. 40. * Quibus oculis animi intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam tanti operis, qua construia deo atque aedi- ficari mundum facit {proves)''.'' C. -A". D. i. 8. 'PoK-phemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finxisset, cum ariete etiam colloquentem facit {makes), eiusque la u da re fortunas, quod qua vellet ingredi posset et quae vellet attingere,' C. T. D. v. 39. * Nati me coram cernere letum fecisti {caused),' Verg. Ae. ii. 538. 'Quae est Socratis oratio, qua facit {f>iakes) eum Plato usum apud iudices iam morte multatum ? ' C. T. D. i. 40. ' Dolabella plus fecit {-made out) Verrem accepisse, quam iste in suis tabulis habuit,' C. Verr. i. 39. ' E ffi c i t u r r^-^-i/Z/j) igitur f a t o fieri quaecumque Jiatit,' C. Fat. 10. 'Fides ut habeatur duabus rebus effici {be achieved) •^ox.&?>x., si existimabimur adepti coniunctam cum iustitia prudentiam,' C. Off. ii. 9. 'Sol efficit (causes) ut omnia floreant et in sue quaeque genere pubescant,' C. N. D. ii. 15. *Vos effici {be brought aboid) negatis sine divina posse sollertia ut innumerabilis natura mundos efFectura s i t, effici at, effecerit,' C. X D. i. 20. * Potestis efficere ut male moriar; ne moriar, non potestis/ Plin. Ep. iii. 16. Ill) Interrogatio Obliqua. * Istud non est beneficium, sed fenus, rircumspicere, non ubi optlme ponas, sed ubi quaestuosissime habeas, unde facillime tollas,' Sen. Ben. iv. 3. 'Solon Pisis- trato t)'ranno, quaerenti, qua tandem spe fretus sibi tam audaciter obsisteret, re- spondisse dicitur : Senectute,' C. Cat. M. 20. 'Sapiens videbit, ubi victurus sit, cum quibus, quomodo, quid acturus : cogitat semper, qualis vita, non quanta sit,' Sen. Ep. 70. ' Si vis gratus esse adversus Deum, recordare, quam multa sis consecutus; cum adspexeris, quot te antecedant, cogita, quot sequantur» cogita, quam multos antecesseri.s,' Sen. Ep. 15. ' Vides ut alta stet nive can- didum Soracte,' Hor. C. i. 9. i. ' Matri denarrat ut ingens belua cognatos eliserit,' Hor. vS". ii. 3. 315 (see Hor. Epist. i. 8. 3). 'A me consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor, in Siciliane subsidas an ad reliquias Asiaticae negotiationis profici.s- care?' C. Fayti. vL 8. 'Apud Germanos ea consuetude erat ut matres familiae eorum sortibus et vaticinaticnibus declararent, utrum proelium committi ex usu esset necne,' Caes. B. G. i. 50. * Non id quaeritur, sintne aliqui, qui deos esse putetit di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur,' C. N. D. iiL 7. 'Antigonus nondum sta- tuerat, conservaret Eumenem necne,' N. Eujn. 11. * Di immortales, sit Latium deinde annon, in vestra manu posuerunt,* L. viii. 13. * Metellus transfugas et alios opportunos, lugurtha ubi gentium, aut quid ageret, cum paucisne esset an ex- ercitum habere t, exploratum misit,' Sail. lug. 54. 'Quae parare et quaerere arduum fuit, nescio an tueri difficilius sit,' L. xxxvii. 54. 'Haud scioan quae dixit sint vera omnia,' Ter. Aft. iii, 2. 45. *Si per se virtus sine fortuna ponderanda sit, dub i to an Thrasybulum primum omnium p on am,' N. Thr. i. (See Hor. Epist. i. 12. 16-20; i. 18. 96-103 ; ad Pis. 114-118. 307-315.) {Impersonal Verbs: Interest, refert.) ' Illud mea magni interest, te ut videam.' C. Att. xi. 22. ' Illud permagni refer re arbitror, ut ne scientem sentiat te id sibi dare,' Ter. Haut. iiL i. 58. ' Epistulae inventae sunt, ut certiores faceremus absenlis, si •03 Verbs vari- ously con- struc- ted. § 203. Various Constructions of Verbs 449 Constructions within this range taken by certain Verbs. a) Impersonal Verbs : Interest and refert: i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 8. Licet and necesse est : (i) 2. 4. 5. 6. Oportet : 2. 4. 4^7. 5. b) Verbs of Desire : Volo : I. 2. 3. 4. AfU. 5. 6. Malo : i. 2. 4. 5. 6. Nolo : i. 2. 4. 4^. 6. Opto : I. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. Studeo : i. 3. 4. 4^. 6. Cupio : 4. 4^. 6. c) Various lubeo : i. 2. 4. 5. 7. Cogo : i. 4. 5. 7. Patior : i. 4. 6. Sino : i. 2. 4. 5. 7. Concedo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Permiito : I. 2. 4. 5. 8. Impero : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mando : i. 2. 3. 4. Praecipio : i. 2. 3. 5. 8. Veto : 3. 5. 7. 9. Pro- hibeo : i. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 9^. Impedio : 3. 5. 9. Hortor and oro : i. 2. 3. 5. Postulo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Suadeo and persuadeo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Doceo^ i. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mo- neo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Censeo : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Video : i. 3. 4. 7. 8. Curo : i. 2. 3. 4. (espec. Gerundive) 5. 8. Statuo : I. 3. 4. 6. 8. Dico : i. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. quid esset, quod eos scire aut nostra aut ipsorum interessety C. ii. 4. * Par\-i refert. vos publicanis amissis vectigalia postea ^*ictoria recuperare,' C. p. L,. Man. 7. *Theodori nikil interest humine an sublime putrescat,' C. T. D. i. 43. *Aves pascantur necne quid refert?' C. Div. ii. 35. (Necesse est, oportet, licet.) ' Qui se metui volent, a quibus metuentiir, eosdem metuant ipsi necesse est,' C. Oj^. ii. 7. 'Animus oportet tuus te iudicet divitem, non hominum sermo, neque possessiones tuae,' C. Par. vi. i. ' To lias licet,' Hor. Ep. i- 16. 76. 'A Deo mundum necesse est regi,' C, N. D. ii. 30. 'Narrationem oportet tris habere res, ut brevis, ut aperta, utprobabilis sit,'C. hiv. i. 20 'Neque nos lepore tuo, neque te, si quis est in toe, meofrui licet propter molestissimas oc- cupationes meas,' C. Fam. vii. i. ' Non dubitabit, quid me sentire conveniat, cum, quid mihi sentire necesse sit, cogitarit,' C. d. Pr. C. i. ' Ifnpetrabis a Caesare, ut tibi abesse liceat et esse otioso,' C. Att. ix. 2. ' Is erat annus, quo per leges ei consulem fieri liceref,' Caes. B. C. iii. i. ' Adulescenfi morem gestumopor- tuit,' Ter. Ad. ii. 2. 6. {Verbs of Desire.') ' Maiores vol ue runt, qui testimonium diceret, ut arbitrari se diceret, etiam quod ipse vidisset \ quaeque iurati iudices cog7wvisse7it, ea non ut esse facta, sed ut Nnderi pfonuntiarent,' C. Ac. ii. 47. ' Nolo mentiare,* Ter. Eun. v. 2. ' Tu ad me de rebus omnibus s crib as velim,' C. Faui. viii. 13. * Vellem equidem aut ipse Epicurus doctrinis fuisset instructior aut ne deterruisset alios a studiis,* C. Fin. \. 7. 'Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stulti cives laudent,' L. xxii. 39- * Caesar studebat maxime ut partem oppidi a reliqua parte urbis excluderet,' Hirt. B. A. I. * Optandum est ut ii, qui praesunt reipublicae, legum similes sint, quae ad puniendum non iracundia sed aequitate ducuntnr,'' C. Off. i. 25. 'Optavi pe teres caelestia sidera tarde,' Ov. Trist. ii. 57. 'Videmini intenta mala, quasi fulmen, op tare, se quisque ne attingant,' Sail. Fr. 'Ego me Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. Cupio, me esse clemente m ; cupio, in tantis rei publicae periculis menondisso- lutum videri,* C. Cat. L 2. * Quam multa passus est Ulixes in illo errore diutumo, cum et mulieribus inser%'iret et in omni sermone omnibus affabilem et iucundum esse se vellet,' C. Off. \. 31. ' Homo tenuis gratum se videri studet,' C. Off. iL 20. 'Te mihi ipsum iamdudum optaram dari,* Ter. H. iv. 4. 10. 'Domestica cura te levatum volo,' C. Qu. F. iii. g, ' Patres ordinem publicanorum in tali tempore offensum nolebant,' L. xxv. 3. ' Nollem factum,'/';;? sorry for it^ ^t.r.Ad. \\. I. ' Duabus de causis a te potissimum petere constitui quod impetratum maxime cupio,' Plin. Ep. ii. 13. 'Volo is e sse quern tu me es>e voluisti,' C. /^czw. i 7. 'Nolo esse laudator na G G 4SO Latin Syntax, § 203. videar adulator,' ad Her. iv. 21. * Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat/ Sail. Cat. 54. * Hunc videre optabamus diem/ Ter. ^^c. iv. 4. 26. * Scire studeo quid egeris, C. Att. xiii. 20. 'Cupio te consulem videre,'C. Favt. xv. 13. (lubeo.) * L. Quinctius iussit ut, quae ex sua classe venissent naves, Euboeam pete- rent,' L. xxxii. II. *Velitis iubeatis Quirites, uti L. Valerius L. Titio iure legeque filius siet,' Gell. V. 19. ' lube mihi denuo respondeat,' Ter. Eun. iv. 4. 24. 'Dio- genes proici se iussit inhumatum,' C. T, D. i. 43. 'lubeo gaudere te,' C. Fain. vii. 2. ' lussi ei dari bibere,' Ter. An. iii. 2. 4. 'Transire in Epirum est iussus,' L. XXXV. 24. (Cogo.) 'Quid Paris? ut salvus regnet vivatque beatus cogi posse negat,' H or. Epist. i. 2. 10. ' Nonne di ipsi cogent ab his virtutibus tanta vitia superari,' C. in Cat. ii. II. ' Innumerabilia sunt ex quibus cogi {be necessarily inferred) possit nihil esse, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat,' C. N. D. iii. 13. 'Num te erne re coegit, qui ne hortatus quidem est,' C. Off. iii. 13. * Neque cogi pugnare poterat rex,' L. xlv. 41. (Patior.) 'Nein turpi quidem reo patiendum estut quicquam adversarii se minis proficere arbitrentur,' C. p. Font. 12. 'Consilium meum a te probari facile patior,' C. Att. xv. 2. 'Patior vel inconsultus haberi,' Hor. Epist. i. v. 15. (Sino.) 'Sivi animum ut expleret suum,' Ter. An. i. 2. 27. 'Sine te hoc exo- rem,' Ter. A71. v. 3. 30. ' Germani vinum ad se importari non sinunt,' Caes. B. G. iv. 2. 'Sineres tu ilium tecum facere haec?' Ter. Ad. iii. 3. 42. * Accusare eum moderate a quo nefarie accusatur, non est situs,' C. Sest. 44. (Concedo.) 'Concedo sit dives,' Catull. cxlii. 5. 'Non concedam ut Attico nostro iucundiores tuae litterae fuerint quam mihi,' C. Fain. xiii. 18. 'Concede, nihil esse bonum, nisi quod honestum j// : concedendum est, in virtute sola posi- tam esse beatam vitam,' C. Fin. v. 28. 'Concedunt plangere matri,' Stat. Th. v. 134. ' Quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti,' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12. (Permitto.) ' Quis Antonio permisit ut partis faceret?' C. d. Or. ii. 90. *Permissum ipsi erat faceret quod e republica ducetet esse,' L. xxxiii. 45. * Ille meas errare boves, ut cernis, et ipsum ludere quae vellem calamo permisit agresti,' Verg. B. i. 9. 'Rex Cononi permisit quern vellet eligere,' N. Con. 4. *Tibi permitto, responderene mihi malis, an universam orationem audire meam,' C. N. D. iii. I. (Impero.) ' Senatus imperavit decemviris ut libros Sibyllinos inspicerent,* L. vii. 27. ' Leto det imperat Argum,' Ov. M. i. 670. ' Mihi ne abscedam imperat, Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 30. 'Pro serapionis libro tibi praesentem pecuniam solvi impe- ravi,' C. Att. ii. 4. 'Imperavi egomet mihi omnia assentari,' Ter. Enn. ii. 2. 21. * Animo nunc iam otioso esse impero,' Ter. An. v. 2. i. 'Haec ego procurare et idoneus imperor et non invitus,' Hor, Epist. i. 5. 21. 'In lautumias Syracusanas de- duci imperantur,' C. Verr. v. 27. 'Imperabat coram quid opus facto esset,' Ter. Ph. i. 4. (Praecipio.) ' Atheniensibus praecepit, ut Miltiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent; id si fecissent, incepta prospera futura,' Nep. Milt. i. 'His praecipit omnis mortalis pecunia aggrediantur,' Sail. lug. 30. 'Haec praecipienda videntur historiarum lectoribus, ne alienos mores ad suos referant, neve ea, quae ipsis leviora sunty pari modo apud ceteros fuisse arbitrentur,' Nep. Ep. i. 'Sunt qui p rae ci- piant herbas satureia nocentis sumere,' Ov. ^4. ii. 415. ' Huic indici qui d fieri vellent praeceperunt,' N. Paus. 4. (Veto.) * Pontus erat vetitus ne mergeret aequore terram,' Man. iv. 645. ' Vetabo qui Cereris sacrum vutgarit arcanae sub isdem sit trabibus, ' Hor. C. iii. 2. 26. * Non ego, avarum cum veto te fieri, vappam iubeo aut nebulonem,' Hor. Sat. i. i. 103. Desperatis etiam Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicinam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. 'Nolani muros portasque ad ire vet iti sunt,* L. xxxiii. i6. ' Sapientia nulla re quo- minus se exerceat ve tar i potest,' Sen. 9. Prohibeo.) * Id potuisti prohibere ne fieret,* C. in Caec 10. (One example of prohibere ut : * Di prohibeant ut hoc . . . praesidium sectorum existimetur,' C. p. S. Rose. 52.) Ignis fieri in castris prohibet,' Caes. B. G. vi. 29. ' Peregrinos urbibus uti prohibent,' C. Off. iii. 11. *AIii diurnum victum prohibiti quae- re re,' Suet. Ner. 36. * Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse quominus de te certum haberemus,' C. Fain. xii. 5. 'Neque me luppiter neque di omnes id prohibebunt quin sic faciam uti constitui,' Plant. An. v. 3. 17. (Trapedio.) * Isocrates infirmitate vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Pliiu §203. Various Constn/ctiojis of Verbs. 451 E^. V. 2q, * Cur iudices reipublicae munere impediantur quo setiu s suis rebus ct commodis servire possint?' C. /wz'. ii. 45. * Aetas no 11 imped it <juonunus, litterarum studia teneamus usque ad ultiraum tempus senectutis,' C. CaL M. 17. (Impedire quin is rare and not good). * Quid est quod me impediatea quae mihi pro- babilia videantur sequi?' C. O^. ii. 7. (Postulo.) 'Tribuni plebis postulant ut sacrosancti habeantur,' L. Hi. 19. * Postulo, Appi, etiam atque etiam consideres quo progrediare,' L. iii. 45. 'Legates ad Bocchum mittit postulatum. ne sine causa hostis populo Romano fie ret,' Sail. Ing. 83. 'Postulant non ut ne cogantur statuere. Quid igitur? ut ipsis ne liceat.* C. Verr, ii. 60. 'Hie postulat se Romae absolvi,' C. Verr. iv. 60. ' Incerta haec si tu postules ratione certa face re, nihilo plus agas quam si des operam ut cum ratione insanias,' Ter. -£"7^. i. i. 16. ' Postulat deus credi,' Curt. vi. 43. (Flagito has the same construction.) (Suadeo. Persuadeo.) ' Caesar mihi ut sibi essem legatus non solum sua sit, verum etiam rogavit,' C. d. Pr. C. 17. ' Dolabellae quod scripsi suadeo videas,' C. Fajn. ii. 15. 'Pelopidas persuasit Thebanis, ut subsidio Thessaliae proficiscerentur, tyrannosque eius expellerent,' N. Pe/. 5. ' Huic Albinus persuadet regnum Numi- diae ab senatu petat,' Sail. /t{£: 39. 'Duo tenipora inciderunt quibus aliquid contra Caesarem Pompeio suaserim ; unum ne quinquennii imperium Caesari prorogaret; alterum ne pateretur ferri ut absentis eius ratio haberetur: quorum, si utrumvis per- suasissem, in has miserias nunquam incidissemns,' C. P/ii/. ii. 19. 'Mihiab adoles- centia suasi nihil esse in vita magnopere expetendum nisi laudem atque hones- tatem,' C. Arch. 6. 'Mihi numquam persuade ri potuit animos, dutn in corporibus essent mortalibus, vivere, cum exissent ex iis, emori,' C. Cat. M. 22. ' Nobis per- suasum est, fore aliquando, ut omnis hie mundus ardore deflagret,' C. Ac. ii. 37. ' Saepes . . . somnum suadebit in ire,' Verg. .5. i. 56. 'Persuasum est facere cuius nunc me factipudet,' Plaut. Bacc. iv. 8. 93. ' Dionysio persuasit Plato tyrarinidis facere finem,' N. Dion, "^^i^rare). See Verg. Aen. xii. 814. (Doceo.) ' Philosophia nos cum ceteras res, tum quod est difficillimum, docuit, ut nosmet ipsos nosceremus,* C. Les;. i. 22. 'Orpheum poetam docet Aristoteles nun- quam fuisse,* C. A^. Z>. i. 38. 'Declamare doces,* luv. vii. 150. ' Graece loqui- docendus sum,* C. Fin. ii. 5. ' Invideo magistro tuo, qui te tanta mercede nihil sapere docuit,' C. Phil. ii. 4. *Ne litteras quidem uUas accepi, quae me docerent quid ageres,' C. Fam. iii. 6. (Moneo.) ' Hanc habet vim praeceptum Apollinis, quo monet, ut se quisque nosca:t , non enim, credo, idpraecipit, ut membra nostra, aut staturam figuramve noscamus, C. T. D. i. 22. * Caesar legatos monuit ad nutum et ad tempus omnes res ab iis ad- ministrarentur,' Caes. B. G. iv. 23. 'Caesar cum a summo haruspice moneretur ne in Africam transmitteret, nihilominus transmisit,' C. Div. ii. 24. ' Caecos in- stare tumultus sol monet,' Verg. G. i. 464. * Ratio ipsa monet amicitias com- parare,*C. Fin. i. 20. * Soror alma monet succedere Lauso T u rn u m,' Verg. .<4^«. X. 439. ' Moneo quid facto opus sit,' Ter. Ad. iii. 5. 65. {C&n&QO, Judge, vote.) ' Plerique censebant ut noctu iter face ret,' Caes. B. G. i. 57. 'Arcessas censeo omnis navalis terrestrisque copias,' L. xxxvi. 7. 'Stolida impudensque postulatio visa est, censere ne in Italiam transmittant Galli bellum,* L. xxi. 20. 'Aristoteles omnia aut natura moveri censet (^judges) aut vi aut volun- tate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. (The two next examples are idiomatic. 'Quid censes hunc ipsum Roscium, quo studio esse in rusticis rebus ? ' C. /. 6". Rose. 17. 'Quid cen- semus superiorem ilium Dionysium, quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum?' C- Off. ii. 7.) 'Bona regis reddi censuerunt,' L. li. 5. ' Regulus captivos in senatu reddendos non censuit,' C. Off. i. 13. 'Antenor censet belli praecidere causas,' Hor. Epist. i. 2. 9. (Video.) 'Nos id videamus ut, quidquid acciderit, fortiter et sapienter feramu.s,' Q.Att.xiy. 13. 'Videne,' &c.: see Caution. 'Volucris videmus fingere et con- struere nidos,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. ' Carneadem videre videor,' C. Fin. v. 2. 'Amens mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. 10. 'Videamus primum deorumne providentia mundus regatur, deinde consulantne rebus humanis,' C. N. D. iii. 25. (Curo, I. 2. 3. 4. 5.) *Cura ut valeas,' C. Fani. xiv. 5. ' Ante senectutem curavi ut bene viverem ; in senectute ut bene moriar,' Sen. Ep. 6i. * lam curabo sentiat quos attentarit,' Phacd. v. 2. 6. 'Curanequid mihi ad hoc negoti aut oneris accedat aut temporis,' C. Fain. iii. 8. ' Non verbum verbo curabis redder e,' Hor. in Pis. 133. * Tu recte vivis, si curas esse quod audis,' Hor. Epist. i. 16. 17. ' Ex eo auro buculam curavit faciendam,' C. i. 24. 'Nec herclc magno opere nunc curo quid Aetoli censeant,' L. xxxvL 28. G G 2 452 Latm Syntax, § 204-5. Section IV. ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. (These are properly considered in connexion, on account of the Adverbial character often taken by Adjectival Clauses.) Relative \. Rclativc OX Adjectival Clauses. Clauses. 1) A Relative Clause is called Adjectival, because it qualifies, like an Attribute, the Sentence on which it depends : Deus est, qui regit mundum, qui creavit omnia, quern veneramur, = Deus est, mundum regens, creator omnium, veneratus a nobis. 2) A Clause may be introduced by a Relative Particle, equiva- lent to Pronoun with Preposition : Roma est, ubi habito, quo proficiscor, unde venio, &c. = in qua habito, ad quam proficiscor, ex qua venio, &c. 3) The Mood in a Relative Clause will be Indie, when no reason exists for another Mood. But the Subjunctive will be required, (i) if the Clause is actually or virtually Suboblique ; (2) if it is Gnomic, or, sometimes. Iterative ; (3) if the Clause contains a Con- sequence {such that^ so that), a Purpose {in order that) ; often when it contains a conceived Cause {since), a Condition {if), or a Concession {atthoicgh), 4) In the latter cases (3), as an Adjective may have Adverbial force (serus venit = sero venit), so an Adjectival Clause may become Adverbial : as when qui = ut ego, ut tu, ut is, &c. : quo = ut eo or CO quod : ubi = ut ibi, &c. Hence, in considering Adverbial Clauses, it is proper, in each kind, to include those Relative (Adjectival) Clauses which contain Adverbial force, and always or usually require a Subjunctive. Con°^ ii. Consecutive Clauses. Secutive Clauses. Consecutive Clauses are so called because they express conse- quence or result. A) An Adverbial Consecutive Clause is formed by the Conjunc- tion ut, that, with Subjunctive ; often following some Demonstrative word, but sometimes without Demonstr. { = so that). i) Such Demonstratives are : Adverbs : ita, tam, adeo, sic ; tantum, tantopere, totiens; eo. hue, illuc. Pronouns and Pronominals : is, hie, tahs, tantus ; tot, toti- dem ; eiusmodi ; huiusmodi. Ut also follows the Adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus. Ut may follow a Comparative with quam {than) : and some- times ut falls out after quam, the Verb being still Sub- junctive. § 205- Consecutive Clauses, 453 2) If Negation is required, the Negative words used are : Non, nec, nihil, nemo, nullus, numquam, nusquam. 3) Ita miseri sunt ut fleant, fleverint {have wept)^ fleturi sint. Ita miseri erant ut flerent, fleturi essent. Ita miseri fuere ut fleverint (they wept). Quis tamdurus est ut numquam fleat, fleverit, fleturus sit? Quis tam durus eratutnon fleret, fleturus esset? Quis tam durus fuit ut non fleverit? [In Historic Consecution, if the fact is to be brought out, Sj (fleverint) is used instead of S3 (flerent). The following examples unite both constructions : — * Sicilia et classis Marcello evenit. Quae sors, velut iterum captis Syracusis, ita exanimavit Siculos, ut comploratio eorum flebilesque voces et extemplo oculos hominum converterent et postmodo sermones praebuerint,' L. xxvi. 29^ * Usque eo ut compluris dies milites frumento caruerint, et . . . extremam famem sustinerent,' Caes. B. G, vii. 17. Sg will be necessary, when the consequence can only be referred to the time of the writer or speaker : * Hortensius ardebat cupiditate dicendi sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim {have seen), ^ C. Br, 88.] 4) Idioms of Adverbial Consecution : a) The phrase Uantum ab esse,' with an Enuntiative Ut- clause, may take also a Consecutive Clause, the meaning being so far from . . . that : ^Tantum abest ut enervetur oratio compositione ver- borum ut aliter in ea nec impetus ullus nec vis esse p o s s i t,' j'^? far is a speech from being weakened by periodic arrangement^ that otherwise there can be no movetnent or force in it^ C. Or, 68. The Adverbial Clause after tantum abest is sometimes changed for a Principal Sentence : ^Tantum afuit ut inflammares nostros animos, somnum isto loco vix tenebamus.' b The phrase * in eo esse ut ' means to be on the point of : *Iam in eo erat ut in muros evaderet miles,' L. ii. 17. 5) Ita ut is used with various shades of meaning: {in such circumstances; on condition; with the understanding; with the^ feeling ; with the exception) that ; &c. : ^Clodius Roma ita profectus est ut contionem turbulentam relinqueret,' Cp.Mil.io. « Huius ingenium italaudo ut non pert imes cam,' C. in Caec, 13. * Caligula in adulescentia ita patiens laborum erat ut tamen non- numquam subita defectione ingredi vix posset,' Suet. Cat, 48. 6) When ita or sic implies design, the Clause is rather Final than Consecutive, and, if Negative, takes ne: 'Hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur,' this is useful with a view to our being not altogether made a mock of C. p, Rose. 10. Here ita is equivalent to idcirco. Latin Syntax, § 206. 7) Is ... ut (of the kind that) is often used, though not so often as is . . . qui in the same sense: ' Ison is sum ut mea me maxime dele c tent/ C. ad. Br. i. 15. E) An Adjectival Consecutive Clause with a Subjunctive occurs when qui or its Particle expresses (not the individual which, but) the kind which ( = talis ut, ita ut, &c.). Examples of Consecutive Clauses. A) {^Adverbial.) * Galli dies natalis et mensium et annorum initia sic observant, ut noctem dies subsequatur (^^^cc^^d^j- to^ Caes. B. G. vi. i8. * Socratis response sic indices exarserunt ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent,' C. d. Or. i. 54. 'Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus ut in vita omnia s i n t (way ^^*) apta inter se et convenientia/ C. Off. \. 40. * Quis est tarn demens ut sua voluntate maereat {as to mmcm)t' C. T. D iii. 29. * Decori vis ea est ut ab honesto n on queat {cannot) separari^' C. Off. i. 27. *Non ita adulatus sum lortunam alterius ut me meae paeniteret (<t!^ ^-^^^r/),' C. Div. ii. 2. 'Dolores,, si qui incurrunt, numquam vim tan tarn habent, ut non plus habeat {zoill not have) sapiens, quod gaudeat, quam quod angatur,' C. Fin. i. 19. 'Hannibal petens Etruriam adeo gravi morbo- adfici- tur oculorum, ut postea numquam dextro aeque bene usus sij/ Nep. Hann. 4, * Iphicrates Atheniensis fuit talis dux, ut non solum aetatis suae cun? primis com- pararetur sed ne de maioribus natu quidem quisquam antepoReretur. Multum vero in bello est versatus, saepe exercitibus praefuit, nusquam culpa sua male rem gessit;. semper consilio vicit, tantumque eo valuit, ut multa in re milltari partim nova at tu- lerit, partim meliora fecerit,' Nep. iph. i. 'Quanta ilia Scipionis fuit gravitas, quanta in oratione maiestas, ut {so that) farife ducem Romani popuH dice res,' C. LaeL 25. 'Arboribus consjta Italia est, ut tota pomarium videatur {seems),' Varro, i. 'Cuius aures clausae veritati sunt, ut ab amico verum audire nequeat, huius salus desperanda est,* C. Lael. 24. 'In virtute multi sunt ascensus, ut is maxime gloriaj excel la t {excels) qui virtute plurimum fraestet,' C. Plane. 25. * Data merces est erroris mei magna, ut me non solum pigeat stultitiae meae, sed e tiara, pudeat, qui noxvintellexerim, Q^^}a\X£>, ut ^micis, crederem,' C. p. Dom. 11, 'Maior sum quara» ut mancipium sim {too great to be) mei corporis,' Sen. Ep. 65. * Hoc videtur esse altius quam ut nos humi strati suspicere possimus {too high for ns to be able)* C- d. Or. iii. 6. ' Galba parcior fuit quam conveniret principi,*Su€t. Ga//^. 14^ 'Dignus es ut possis {to be able) totum servare clientem,' Mart. x. 34. 'In- cjigni ut a vobis redimeremur (/"i? he rajisorned) visi sumus,' L. xxii. 59. 'Tan- tum a fuit ut Rhodiorum praesidio nostram firmaremus cJassem- ut etiam a Rhodiis commeatu prohiberentur milites nostri,' C. Fam. xii, 15, 'Tantum abest ut nostra miremur ut usque eq difiiciles ac morosi simus ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes,' C. Or. 29. 'Tantum abes a perfectione raaxfmorum operum ut fundamenta nondum ieceris,' C. p. Marc. 8. 'Is, qui occultus et tectus dicitur, tan- tum abest ut se indices, perficiet etiam ut dolere alterius improbe facto Tideatur,' C. Fin-, ii. 17. 'Ita {with this exception) probanda est mansuetudo atque dementia ut adhibeatur reipublicae causa severitas,* C. Off. \. 25. 'Pythagoras et Plato mortem \t2L {zvith this proviso) \2i\xd:in\. ut fugere vitam vetent,' C. Scaur. 2. ' Aristoteles ita non sola virtute finem bonorum contineri putat ut rebus tamen omnibus virtutem anteponat,' C. Fin. iw. 18. 'Ego tibi onus impo*iam, ita {with the nyiderstanding) tamen ut tibi nolim molestus esse,' C. Fam. xiii. 56. 'Ego a patre ita eram deductus ad Scaevpl^m ut a senis latere numquam discederem,'C. Lael. i. ' Potest esse bellum, ut tqjnultus non sit {without insurrection), tumultus esse sine bello non potest,' C. Phil. viii. i. 'Ita vobiscum amicitiam institui par est ne qua {provided //za^ vetustior amicitia ac societas violetur,' L. vii. 31. * Minucius sciebat ita se in provincia rem augere oportere ut ne quid de libertate deperderet,* C. Ver-r. ii. 30. 'Ea {such) invasit hpmines habendi cupido ut possideri magis quam possidere vi- deantur,' Plin. Ep. ix. 30. ' Ea natura rerum est ut, qui sensum verae gloriae ceperit^ nihil cum hac gloria comparandum putet,' C. Phil. v. 18. 'Non is {the kind o/tnan) es, Catilina, ut te aut pudor a turpitudiqe aut metus a periculo aut ratio a furore revo- carit,' C. Cat. i. 9. B) {Adjectival.) *Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat,' L. ix. 3. *Non is sum qui, quidquid videtur, tale dicam esse quale videatiir,' C. Ac. it. 7. 'Innocentia est affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini,' C. T. D. iii. 8. 'Est aliquid quod non oporteat, etiamgi licet,* C. p. Balb. 3. ' Quotusqui sque est § 2o6. Consecutive Clauses, 455 i) This may happen : After the Demonstratives is, eiusmodi, huiusmodi, talis, tantus, tam, &c. : ^Habetiseum (eiusmodi, talem, tam bonum) consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet,' you have such a consul^ as will not hesitate to obey your decrees^ C. Cat. iv. II. * Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram et libertatem/ nothing was so valuable that we should barter for it our honour and freedom^ C. ad. Br. i6. Wherever the Predication on which the Relative Clause depends might be explained by talis or tam : for instance, when it contains €) Indefinite, Interrogative, Negative, and other Pronominal words : aliquis, quidam, &c., quis, quot, quotusquisque, &c., nemo, nihil, nullus ; unus, solus, primus, ultimus, &c. ; nonnuUi, multi, pauci, &c. b) Dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, &c. c) A Comparative with quam. d) A Verb, the Subject or Object of which (being the Antece- dent) is not expressed, but left Indefinite. Such expres- sions are : est qui, sunt qui, reperitur qui, habeo, invenio, reperio qui, &c. : and many like phrases. Even if the Antec. is expressed, the Rel. will take Subjunctive when it defines the class or kind. qui voluptatem neget esse bonum?' C. Div.\\.y^. 'Nullum est animal praeter homi- nem, quod habeat notitiam aliquam Dei,' C. Leg. i. 8. 'Nihil est quod tam miseros faciat quam impietas et scelus,' C. Fin. iv. 24. 'Multae hodie sunt gentes quae tantum facie noverint caelum, quae nondum sciant cur luna deficiat,' Sen. N. Qu. vi. 25. 'Sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nos exhor- rescere metu non sinat,'C. Fin. i. 13. * Sola est in qua merito culpetur Vespasi- anus pecuniae cupiditas,' Suet. Vesp. 16. 'Est quod differat inter iustitiam et verecundiam,' C. Off. i. 28. 'Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem,' C. T. D. i. 9. 'Est quatenus amicitiae dari venia possit,' C. Lael. 17. 'Fuere qui crederent M. Licinium Crassum non ignarum Catilinae consili fuisse/ Sail. Cat. 17. 'Fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer,* C. d. Or. \. I. 'Quid est cur virtus ipsa per se non efificiat beatos?' C. T. D. v. 6. 'Livianae fabulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur,' C. Br. 18. 'Men- tern solam censebant idoneam cui crederetur,* C. Ac. i. 8. ' Campani maiora deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset,' L. xxv. 12. 'Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut tecum?' C. Lael. 6. 'Non facile est invenire qui, quod sciat ipse, non tradat alteri,' C. Fin. iii. 20. ' Nihil difficilius quam re- perire quod sit omni ex parte in suo genere perfectum,' C. Lael. 21. 'Nihil habeo quod incusem senectutem,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Quid est quod tu cum fortuna queri possis?' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Non est causa cur Epicurus fatum extimescat,' C. Fat. 9. 'Antonius quo se verteret non habebat,* C. Phil. ii. 25. ' Ne qui infans quidem est adsuescat sermoni qui dediscendus sit,' Qu. i. i. 'Augusto prompta ac profluens, quae deceret principem, eloquentia fuit,*Tac. Ann. xiii. 3. ' Paci, quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum, semper est consulendum,' C. Off. i. 11. 'Quis est quin cernat quanta vis sit in sensibus?' C. Ac. ii. 7. * Cleanthes negat ullum esse cibum tam gravem quin is die et nocte concoquatu r,' C. N. D. ii. 9. 'Nemo tam ferus fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit,* N. Ale. 6. 'Totas noctes dormimus, neque ulla est fere qua non somniemus,* C. Div. ii. 59. 'Nihil est tam sanctum quod non aliquando violet audacia,' C. p. S. Rose. 25. 'Nulla tam detestabilis pestis est quae non homini ab homine nascatur,' C. Off. ii. 5. 'Non possunt una in dvi* tat e multi rem atque fortunas amittere, ut non pluris secum in, eandem trahant cala- 456 Latin Syntax. §206. Examples : Aliquis (quis? quotusquisque ? nemo, unus, &c.) est qui sciat, there is somebody {who is there ? how many are there? there is nobody^ there is one) who knows, Pignus (indignus, idoneus) est qui imperet, is worthy {unworthy , fit) to rule. * Maior fuit quam cui resisti posset/ was too great to be resisted. Sunt (reperiuntur, existunt, &c.) qui velint, there are (are fotmdy exist) those who will be willing, Habui puerum quern mittere possem, I had such a boy as I could send, < Sati? est causae cur timeamus.' 2) If a Relative Clause, depending on a Negative or Interro- gative Predication, requires Negation itseJf, qui non (numquam, nusquam) may be used, or quin for qui non : Quis est (nemo est) quin (qui non) sues habeat? who is there {there is nobody) that does not keep swine ? * Nihil est (quid est?) quin (quod non) male narrando possit depravari/ /A^r^ is nothing {what is there?) that cannot be spoilt by telling it badly ^ Ter. Ph. iv. 4. 'Nullum intermisi diem quin ( = quo non) scriberem,' / let no day pass without writings C. d) Quin rarely contains any Case of the Relative except Nom. or Abl. ; but a few exceptional instances are found : *Nego in Sicilia tota ullam picturam fuisse quin Verres conquisierit ( = quam non),^ C. Verr. iv. i. f)) Quin must be resolved into qui non whenever the Nega- tive has a distinctive application to a part of the Clause, requiring special emphasis. c^ If another Relative Clause intervenes, quin = ut non, and a Demonstrative Pronoun follows : ^ Nihil est, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat, there is nothing that has feeling but it perishes^ C. N. D, iii, 13- d) In some instances quin consecutive will be resolved into mitatem,' C. /. L.Man. 7. 'Quod litteris ej^stet, Pherecydes Syrius primus dixit animos esse hominum sempiternos,' C. T. D. i. i6. ' Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est,* C. Off. iii. lo. * Refertae sunt Catonis orationes amplius centum quinquaginta, quasquidem adhuc invenerim et legerim, et verbis ct rebus illustribus,' C Br. xj. {Exceptions ivith Indie.) *Tu es is qui me tuis sententiis saepissime ornasti,' C. Fam. XV. 4, 'Sunt bestiae quae dam, in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis, nt in leonibus, ut in canibus,' C. Fiji. v. 14. * Interdum volgus rectum videt : est ubi peccat,' Hor. Epist. ii. i. 63. * Gemmas . . . argentum . . . sunt qui non ha- beant, est qui non curat habere,' Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 180 (where est qui implies the poet himself). 'Sunt quibus e ramo frondea facta casa est,' Ov. F. iii. 527. 'Sunt nonnullae diciplinae, quae officium omne pervertunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'Sunt multi, qui eripiunt allis, quod aliis largiantur,' C. Off. i. 14. 'Duae sunt artes, quae possunt locare homines in amplissimo gradu dignitatis, una imperatoris, altera oratoris boni,' C I\Uir. 14. 1 207. Final Clauses, 457 ut non; if purpose is implied, ne takes its place; if cause is implied, cur non, quare non, &c. : ^ Quid fuit causae cur in Africam Caesarem non seque- rere,' what was the reason for your not following Caesar into Africa f C. PhiL ii. 29. 3) Qui with the Subjunctive is used parenthetically with a sense of limitation : 'quod sciam,' so far as I know \ in which use the Relative is often modified by quid em : ' Antiquissimi fere sunt, quorum quidem scripta con- stent, Pericles et Alcibiades,' Pericles and Alcibiades are about the most ancient orators of those at least whose writings are known, C, Or. 2. ^Omnium oratorum, quos equidem cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q. Sertorium/ C. Br, 48. Exceptions, The Demonstr. before a Relative may be so definite, that the Relative, having no consecutive force, takes an Indicative. Thus * is est qui ' may mean ' he is the person who ' (fecit, did it). Even talis qui, eiusmodi qui are sometimes used with that definite- ness which allows an Indie. : 'Mihi causa talis oblata est in qua oratio deesse nemini potest,' the case I speak for is of a sort in which no man can be at a loss for words, C. p. L. Man, i. Sunt qui, sunt multi qui, sunt quidam qui, &c., are not always indefinite : 'Sunt qui appellantur alces,' Caes. B, G. vi. 27. 'Sunt quidam qui molestas amicitias faciunt,' C. Lael, 20. ' Multa sunt quae dici possunt' ( = ea quae dici possunt, sunt muita). So est qui and sunt qui are constructed with Indie, in poetry, in imitation of Greek idiom : 'Sunt quos curriculo pul- verem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat,' some there are who delight with the chariot to raise clouds of Olympian dust^ Hor. C i. i. 3. iii Final Clauses.^ 207 A Final Clause expresses an End or Purpose, and its Verb is Jinai Subjunctive. ^^""^'^ A) An Adverbial Final Clause is introduced by the Conjunction ut {in order that), but if Negative by ne {lest, that-not), ut ne, ne quis, necubi, nequando, &:c. : Venio ut videam ; veni ut viderem ; abito ne pereas, ut ne pe- reas, nequando pereas ; abiit ne periret, &c. ^ Examples of Final Clauses (§§ 207-8). A) {Adverbial^ * Sessum it praetor : quid ut iudicetur ?* C. N. D. iii. 30. *Quidmereas i^what would you take) ut Epicureus esse desinas?' C. N. D. i. 24. * Condiunt Aegyptii mortuos ut quam maxime permaneant diuturna corpora,* C. T. Z>. i. 45. 'Platonem ferunt, ut Pythagoreos cognosceret, in Italiam venisse,' C. T. D. i. 17. 'Inventa sunt specula, ut homo se ipse nosceret,' Sen. N. Qu. i. 17. *Dionysius, ne tonsori collum committeret, tondere filias suas docuit,' C. T. D. v. 20. * Hunc librum lege con vi vis tuis, si me amas, hilaris et bene acceptis, ne in me stomachum erumpant, cum sint tibi irati,' C. Att. xvi. 3. * Caesar cum Pompeio Crassoque iniit societatem, ne quid* ageretur in republica, quod displicuisset ulli e tribus,' Suet. Caes. 19. * Tu quam plurimis de rebus ad me velim scribas, ut prorsus ne quid ignorem,' C. iii. io. * Silanus signa Ruam maxime ad laevam iubebat ferri, necunde ab stationibud Latin Syntax, % 208-9. 1) Such Clauses may follow Demonstrative words or phrases : Eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob eam rem, ob earn causam, eo consilio. Idcirco iugit, ut salvus sit. > Ob eam rem fugerat, ne peri ret. 2) A Final Clause with ut or ne often stands parenthetically in such phrases as the following : Ut ita dicam, so to say, ne dicam, not to say ; ne longus sim, not to be tedious ; ne te detineam, not to detain you, &c. 3) The construction of nedum with a Subjunctive is a pe- culiar instance of a Final Clause. See § 85. (The idea of Purpose is often contained in certain Temporal Conjunctions, donee, dum, antequam, &c. See TEM- PORAL Clauses.) 208 An Adjectival Final Clause is formed by a Relative or Rela- tive Particle containing the notion of Purpose, and taking the Subjunctive : *Clusini legatos Romam qui auxilium a senatu peterent misere,' L. v. 35. ' Ne illi sit cera, ubi facere possit litteras,' tet him have no wax to write upon, Plaut. As. iv. i. 22. i) Quo is thus used, especially with a Comparative word : * Medico puto aliquid dandum quo sit studiosior, / think the physician should have so^nething given to him that he may be more zealous, C. Fa7n. xvi. 4. Causal Causal Clauses. Clauses. A) Adverbial Causal Clauses are introduced by Conjunc- tions of three classes : i) Quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, quandoque (since), siqui- dem, quatenus {inas?nuch as, seeing that)^ of adinitted Cause. The Verb is Indicative, if not Suboblique. Punicis conspicerentur/ L. xxviii. i. *Haec eo scripsi ut potius relevares me,* C. Att. iii. 10. *Eo perperam olim dixi ne vos forte imprudentes foris effutiretis,' Ter. Ph. V. I. 18. * Hanc ideo rationem suhiecimus, ut hoc causae genus ipsum, de quo- agimus, cognosceretur,' C. Inv. ii. 23. * Suscipienda bella sunt ob eam causam ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur,' C. Off. i. 11. * Legibus idcirco omnes servimus ut liberi esse possimus,'C. /. Che. 53. 'Quid stultius est quam cetera parare, amicos non parare, optimam et pulcherrimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellectilem ? ' C. Lael. 15. *A te peto ut huic meae laudi vel, ut verius dicam, prope saluti, tuum stu- dium dices,' C. Fant. ii. 6. * Moleste ferebam tantum ingenium in tam levis, ne dicam ineptas, sententias incidisse,' C. N. D. i. 21. 'Ne te morer, audi quo rem deducam,' Hor. S. i. 1. 14. See Hor. vS". i. 3. 137 ; C. iv. 9. i. * Vix in ipsis tectis et oppidis frigus hiemale infirma valetudine vitatur, nedum in mari et via sit facile abesse ab iniuria temporis,' C. Fam. xvi. 8. B) (^Adjectival!) *Homini natura addidit rationem qua regerentur animi appe- titus,' C. A^. D. ii. 12. 'Hannibal tripartito Iberum copias traiecit, praemissis, qui Gallorum animos, qua traducendus exercitus erat, donis conciliarent, Alpium transitus specular en tur,' L. xxi. 23. ' Subacto mihi ingenio opus est, ut agro non semel arato, sed novato et iterato, quo meliores fetus pos sit et grandiores edere,' C. d. Or. ii. 30. * In funeribus Atheniensiuin i>ublata eraf celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamcn- tatio minueretur,' C. Leg. li. 26. (Horace has quo ne,' S. ii. 1. 37.) § 209. Causal Clauses, 459 2) Quod, quia {because)^ ascribe a Cause : with Indie, normally. But Causal Clauses are often Suboblique with quod, some- times with quia : ^ Mater irata est quia non re die rim,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. 105, Quod, quia, maybe strengthened by the same Demonstra- tive words or phrases as P'inal Conjunctions : eo, ideo, propterea, &c. 3) Cum [since) expresses, usually, conceived Cause, with Sub- junctive. a) While quod and quia (=Greek dn^dioriy and French parceque) state a Cause ascripiively^ cum ( = Greek cttc/, and French puisque) states it co7iceptively^ hence taking Subjunctive. Hence too, when cum, after emotional expressions of joy^ grief, surprise, praise, congratulation, &c., assigns a fact as cause, it takes an Indicative. See § 196. (On cum in correlation with tum, see Temporal Clauses.) B) The Subjunctive of a Verb of thinking is also used with quod where the author doubtfully suggests the motive of an action : Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanos discedere a se existimarent, sive eo quod re frumentaria inter- cludi posse confiderent, nostros insequi ac lacessere coeperunt,' Caes. B, G, i. 23. c) And, by a very remarkable idiom, a Verb of assertion fol- lowing quod is made Subjunctive, when the cause itself (which is the really SubobHque notion) is contained in the Infin. Clause dependent on that Verb. Examples of Causal Clauses (§§ 209-10). A) Adverbial. {Admitted Cause.) *Geramus, dis bene iuvantibus, quando ita videtur, bellum/ L. xlii. 51. * Dicite, quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba,' Verg. B. iii. 55. *Quandoque hice homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus ictum iri spoponderunt, atque ob earn rem noxam nocuerunt, ob eam rem quo populus Romanus scelere impio sit solutus, hosce homines vobis dedo,' L. ix. to. ' Vos, Quirites, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite,' C. Cat, iii. 12. * Ea divi- nationum ratio ne in barbaris quidem gentibus neglecta est, si quid em et in Gallia Druidae sunt,'C. Div. i. 41. *Audeat refrenare licentiam, clarus postgenitis, quate- nus virtutem incolumem odimus,' &c. Hor. C. iii. 24. 28. {Alleged Cause.) * Codrus se in medios immisit hostis veste famulari, ne posset agnosci, si esset ornatu regio ; quod oraculuni erat datum, si rex interfectus esset, victricis Athenas fore,' C. T. D. i. 48. *Hae sordes susceptae sunt propter unum me, quia meum casum luctumque doluerunt,' C. p. Sest. 69. *Quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt,' C. Lael. 9. * Feci e servo ut esses libertus mihi propterea quod serviebas liberal! ter, ' Ter. An. i. i. 10. {Suboblique.) * Comitiorum i 11 1 habendorum, quando minimus natu sit, munus con- sensu iniungunt,' L. iii. 35. 'Principes Trevirorum de suis privatis rebus petere coepe- runt, quoniam civitati consulere non posse nt,' Caes. B. G. v. 3. ' lugurthae bellum illatum est, quod Adherbalem et Hiempsalem, Micipsae filios, intere- misset,' Eutr. iv. 11. 'Nemo ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspernatur,' C. Fin. i. 10. *Nec quia sit honesta atque pulcherrima rerum eloquentia, petitur ipsa, sed ad vilem usum et sordidum lucrum accingimur,' Qu. i. 12. * Falso queritur de natura genus humanum quod imbecilla atque aevi brevis forte potius quam virtute r e gat ur,* Sail. lug. i. * Aristides nonne ob eam causam expulsus est patria, quoc praeter modum iustus esset?' C. T. D. v. 36, * Plato escam malorum voluptater. appellat, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur, ut hamo pisces,' C. Cat. M. 13. 460 Latin Syntax, % 209, ' Ab Atheniensibus locum sepulturae intra urbem ut darent, impetrare non potui, quod religione se impediri dice rent/ C. Fam. iv. 1 2. ^ Qui e Gallia veniunt, superbiam tuam accusant, quod negent te percunctantibus respondere/ C. Fam, vii. 16. d) The ground of a writer's or speaker's present opinion will be Indie, but that of his former opinion may take the Sub- junctive, as if he were speaking of another person. See C. 71 D, ii. 3. cited by Madvig. e) Non quod,non quia, non quo (less often non quoniam), are used with the Subjunctive when the reason denied is conceivable^ but not real; sed generally following with the true reason : * N on idcirco librorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suc- censerem; sed quod eorum me suppudebat/ / had not abandoned the intimacy of my books because I was angry with them ; but because I was a little ashamed of my behaviour to them, C. Fam. ix. i. ^Numquam mihi defuturam orationem, qua exercitum meum alloquerer, credidi; non quo verba umquam potius quam res exer- cuerim, sed quiaassueram militaribus ingeniis,' / never supposed I should lack language to address my army ; not that I have ever practised words rather than deeds ; but because I had been accustomed to the tempers of soldiers, L. xxviii. 27. f) If the cause denied is one which is not conceivable, non quod, non quia take the Indicative : *Ad urbem Scipioni majore resistitur vi ; non quia plus {Conceived Cause. ) 'Cumsintin nobis consilium, ratio, prudentia, necesse est deos haec ipsa habere maiora,' C. N. D. ii. 31, 'Cum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet Dionysius, contionari ex turn alta solebat,' C. T. D. v. 20. * Cum Athenas tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum est,' C. Off. iii. 2. {Non quody &^c.) ' Mihi apud vos de meis maioribus dicendi facultas non datur ; non quod non tales fuerint, qualis nos, illorum sanguine procreatos, videtis, sed quod laude populari atque honoris vestri luce caruerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. i. 'Sta- dium sapientiae mihi Latinis Uteris illustrandum putavi, non quia philosophia Graecis litteris percipi non posset;, sed meum semper iudicium fuit, omnia nostros accepta a Graecis fecisse meliora,' C. T. D. i. i. * Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire discipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; non quo non assent quidam probabiles, sed quia, si aliquid modo esset vitii, id ferre ipse non posset, C d Or. i. 28. ' Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed mihi egere commendatione non videbatur,* C. Fam. xiii. 16. *Ego me ducem in civili bello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed quia, quod multo rectius fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit,' C. Att. vii. 26. E) Adjectival. * Alexander cum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset, O fortunate, inquit, ado- lescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem in veneris,' C. /. Arch. 10, *Cum Dion non desisteret obsecrare Dionysium, ut Platonem Athenis arcesseret et eius consiliis uteretur, ille, qui in aliqua re vellet patrem imitari, morem ei gessit,' N. Di. 3. *0 magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum calliditatem facile se per se ipsam defendat, C. /, Cael. 16. 'Numquam laudari satis digne philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,* C. Cat. M. i. ' Habeo senectuti magnam gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis et cibi sustulit,' C. Cat. M.^ 14- 'Virtus est una altissimis defixa radicibus, quae numquam ulla vi labefactan potest, numquam demoveri loco,' C. PkiL iv. 5. ' Callidus adulator non facile cognos- §210-11. Temporal Clauses, 461 animi victis est, sed melius muri quam vallum armatos arcent/ L. x. 41. See Hon S. ii. 2. 89. g) Non quin is used for non quo nonornonquia non: * Consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ab eo dissentiam, sed/ &c., / dare not blame your plan ^ not that I do not differ from it, buty &c., C. Fam, iv. 7. B) An Adjectival Causal Clause is formed by the Relative 210 qui, or one of its Particles. Qui causal usually contains conceived Cause, with Subjunctive. Sometimes it contains quia, and takes Indie. Quippe strengthens qui, cum, sometimes quod; the Mood being usually Subjunctive ; but quippe qui is found with Indie. Ut qui, utpote qui, are rare, but found with each Mood : utpote cum with Subjunctive only. citur, quippe qui etiam adversando saepe assentetur,* C. Lael. 26. 'Animus fortuna non eget ; quippe quae probitatem, industriam aliasque artis bonas neque dare neque eripere cuiquam potest,' Sail. lug. 1. *Sed de hoc tu videbis, quippe cum de me ipso ac de meis te considerare velim,' C. Att vii. 13. *Multa de mea sententia questus est Caesar, quippe quod etiam Crassum ante vidisset,' C. Fam. i. 9. ' Me incommoda valetudo, qua iam emerseram, utpote cum sine febri laborassem, tene- bat Brundisii,' C. Att v. 3. *Nero inusitatae luxuriae fuit, ut qui retibus aureis piscaretur,' Eutr. vii. 9. Examples of Temporal Clauses (§§ 211-12). A) Ubi, &c., with Demonstratives, tum, tunc, tum demum, turn denique, ibi, iam, continuo, extemplo, ilico, ilicet, semel, statim, quamprimum, repente, &c. (Ubi, ivkeuj ubi primum, as soon as. Sec.) a. ' Miserum est opus fodere, ubi sitis fauces tenet,* Plaut. Most. ii. i. ' Haec ubi aperuit ostium, continuo hie se coniecit intro,' Ter. Haut. ii. 2. 35. (Ubi nuntiata sunt, statim,* &c. C. Verr. v. 47. 'Ubi . . . decessit, ilicet,* &c.. Sail. lug. 41.) *Ubi Syracusanorum dolorem cognovi, tum eos hortatus sum,' &c., C. Verr. vi. 63. *Ubi primum est licitum, ilico pro- peravi abire de foro,' Plaut. Men, iv. 2. 34. 'Taleae ubi trimae sunt, tum denique maturae sunt,' Cato, R. R. 45. /3. Divico ita cum Caesare agit : Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futuros Helvetios, u b i eos Caesar constituisset,' Caes. B. G. i. 13.7. *Idfetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in finis eorum mittebat,' L. i. 32. * Ubi pretio non aequitate iura descripserat, Veneri iam et Libero reliquum tempus deberi arbitrabatur,' C. Verr. v. 11. 2ir Tern- Clauses. V. Temporal Clauses. i) Temporal Conjunctions may be placed in four groups: po^^f A) Ubi, when, ubi primum, simul ac, simul ut, simul, as soon as ; ut, when ; from the time when ; ut primum, cum primum, &c., since; as soon as; quotiens, ^zj often as; postquam, after that, since. B) I, Dum, donee, quoad, whilst, as long as; quamdiu, as long as, 2. Dum, donee, quoad, until, C) Antequam, priusquam, before that D) Cum. With most of these Conjunctions various Demonstrative Adverbs may be correlated, which are noticed in the Examples. 462 Latin Syntax. §211 2) Tense and Mood vary much in Temporal Clauses. Variation of Tense is naturally due to the various combinations of Time in Clause and Sentence. As to Mood, there is no Conjunction of Time which does not normally take the Indicative. But the Subjunctive often is required : d) In Suboblique, Gnomic, and (in some styles) Iterative Construction. b) When the notion of Time is complicated with that of Con- sequence, Purpose, Cause, or Concession. Thus, cum is constructed so as to express Consequence (Time of such z.kind that), Cause [since), Concession {although, whereas) ; sometimes even Condition. Dum, donee, quoad {until) ^ antequam, priusquam, &c. may imply Purpose. The two latter sometimes take a Subjunctive which has no such internal reason ; and which may perhaps be explained by the Consec. use of quam. See § 205. (The two last examples shew the difference of Iterative Pluperfect construction in Livy and Cicero : Subjunctive in the former. Indicative in the latter,) (Quando, when^qno tempore.) *Ubi satur sum, intestina nulla crepitant ; quando esurio, tum crepant,' Plaut. Men. v. 5. 27. ' Utinara tunc essem natus quando Romani dona accipere coepissent,' C. 0_^. ii. 8. (Quotiens, as often as.^ * Heraclitus quotiensprodierat et tantum circa se male viveotium, immo male perenntium, viderat, flebat,' Sen. Ir. ii. 10, * Quotiens patriam vide ret, totiens se beneficium meum videre dice bat,' C. d. Or. ii. 30. (Ut, when, as soon as', ut primum, cum, cum primum.) *Varro ut advenit, ex- templo Hostilius legionem unam signa in urbem ferre iussit,' L. xxvii. 24. * U t Hostus cecidit, confestim Romana inclinatur acies,' L. i. 12. 'Cum primum sapere coepit, acerbissimos dolores percepit,' C. Fam. xiv. i. * Pompeius ut me primum Tidit, complexus est,' C. Fam. x. 13. *Ut vidi, ut peril,' Verg. B. viii. 41. *Ut quis- que me viderat narrabat,' &c. C. Verr. ii. (Ut, since, from the time when^ex quo.) *Ut tetigi Pontum, vexant insomnia,* Ov. Tr. iii. 8. 27. *Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Ister,' Ov. Tr. v. 10. i. See Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. *Ut Athenas veneram, expectabam ibi iam quartum diem Pomptinum,' C. Att. v. 10. (Simul, simul ac, simul ut, statim ut, as soon as.) 'Simul ac duraverit aetas membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice,' Hor. S. i. 4. 119. * Ego statim habebo quod sentiam, .simul ut videro Curionem,' C. Att. x. 4. * Simul inflavit tibicen, carmen agnoscitur,' Cic. Acad, ii, 27. 'Statim ut ille praetor est factus . . mira contentio est consecuta,' C. Fain i. 9. 5. 'Simul ac annuisset, numeraturum se dicebatj' C. /. Quinc. 3. (Postquam, posteaquam, after that, since, when.) "Relegatus mihi videor postea- quam in Formiano sum,' C. Att, ii. 11. 'Postquam nec ab Romanis vobis ulla spes est, nec vestra iam arma vos defendunt, pacem affero necessariam,' L. xki. 13. 'Quae postquam sunt audita et undique primores patrum consules increparent . . . tum T. Quinctius consules immerito increpari ait,' L. iv. 13. (In this place sunt audita simply marks time as stated by Livy, increparent adds the circumstance which caused Quinctius to feel and speak.) * Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat, in Africam venit,' N. Hann. 8. * Hoc scribis post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,' C. Att. ix. 12. * Scriptum a Posidonio est trigiiita annis vixisse Panaetium posteaquam illos libros edidisset,' C. Off. iii. 2. (In C. Fain. ii. 19, /. L. Man. 4, instead of posteaquam, postea cum is the right reading.) B) I. Dum, donee, quoad {whilst, as long- as), often with Demonstratives, tamdiu, interea, interim, tantisper. * Aegroto dum anima est, spes esse dicitur,' C. Att. ix. 10. * Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant,' C. T. D. i. 42. 'Tiberius Gracchus tamdiu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum mane bit,' C. Off. ii. la. \ §211. Temporal Clauses, 463 c) By Latin usage (cum historic), when, in narrative, an event is stated in the Perfect or Historic Present, a con- temporary fact is expressed by cum with Imperfect Sub- junctive ; a preceding fact by cum with Pluperfect Subjunctive : Cum videret, ingemuit ; cum vidisset, ingemuit. d) The Iterative Subjunctive is used in Temporal, Relative, and Conditional Clauses, chiefly by historians. It occurs when an action indefinitely I'epeated in past time is ex- pressed by the Clause, the Principal Verb being then generally in the Imperfect. *Cum cohortes ex acie procucurrissent, Numidae im- petum nostrorum effugiebant/ Caes. Cii. 41. ' Ignoti, faciem Agesilai cum intuerentur, contemnebant,' Nep. Ag. 8. 'Quemcumque lictor iussu consulis pre- hendisset, tribunus mitti iubebat,' L. iii. 11. ^Nec quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere valuit,^ lust. XXV. 4. 'Ut quisque maxime laboraret locus, aut ipse occur re bat, aut aliquos mittebat,' L. xxxiv. 38. And after si • ' Ubi his ordinibus exercitusinstructusesset, hastati omnium primi pugnam i n i b a n t. Si hastati profligare hostem non possent, pede prcsso eos retrocedentis in intervalla ordi- num principes recipiebant. Tum principum pugna erat. Si apud principes quoque haud satis prospere esset pug- natum, a prima acie ad triarios sensim referebantur/ L. viii. 8. *Dum ad Antium haec geruntur, interim Aequi arcem Tusculanam capiunt,' L. tii. 23. *Duni is in aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant interea qui suis vulneribus mederentur,' C. 6". Rose. 32. 'Ego te meum esse dici tantisper volo dum quod te dignumst facies,* Ter. Haut. i. i. 54. 'Sic se quisque hostem ferire, conspici, dum tale facinus faceret, properabat,' Sail. Cat. 7. 'Donee eris felix, multos numerabis amicos,' Ov. Tr.i.g.^, 'Volgus trucidatum, donee ira et dies permansit,' Tae. Ann. i. 68, * Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude erevit,' Nep. A it. 2. *Minueius praefectus anwonae, quoad res posceret, in ineertum creatus,' L. iv. 13. (Dum with Historie Present.) 'Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nun- tiatum est equites Ariovisti propius tumulum accedere,' Caes. B. G. i. 46. * Quidam tradunt, dum ad palum deligatur, quia parum inter strepitus axidXri possent qn^i^ vociferabatur, silentium fieri Flaccum iussisse,' L. xxvi. 16. (Subobliqtie.) 'Dum in aestivis nos essemus, ilium pueris locum esse bellissi- mum duximus,* C. Ait. v. 17. 'Nihil trepidabant elephanti, donee eontinenti velut ponte agerentur,' L. xxi. 28. {Purpose.) 'Die insequenti quievere, dum praefectus iuventutem Apolloniatium inspiceret,' L. xxiv. 40. * Multa quoque et bello passus dum conderet urbem inferretque deos Latio,' Verg. Ae. i. 5. (Quamdiu.) 'Tamdiu requiesco quamdiu aut ad te scribo aut tuas litteras \t%Oy' C Att. ix. 3. ' Deum atque hominum fidem implorabis, eircumveniri Verrem, quod accusator «i7/zV tamdiu quamdiu liceat loqui,' C. Verr, ii. i. 9, 2. Dum, donee, quoad, until. Demonstratives are eo usque, usque eo, tamdiu, tantisper. o. ' Ratine Phormionem, dum hue ego servos evoco,* Ter. Pk. v. 7. * Delibera hoc, dum ego redeo,' Ter. Ad. ii. i. 42. * Ea mansit in condicione usque ad eum finem dum iudices reiecti sunt,' C. Verr. i. 6, ' Caesar exanimis aliquamdiu iacuit. donee leeticae impositum tres servuli domum retullerunt,' Suet. Caes. 82. 'Tarquinii tam- diu dimicaverunt donee Aruntem filium regis manu sua Brutus in ter fee it,' Flor. i. Latin Syntax, §212. e) The Indicative is so used, by Cicero generally, in the Plu- perfect. But an Imperfect Subjunctive Clause in Itera- tive Sense is not unusual in Cicero : * Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter/ / used often to attend Zend^s lectures^ when I was at Athens (where he was more than once)/ C. N, D. i. 21. This may happen even when tum precedes cum : ^ Nos tum, cum maxime consilio nostro subvenire communi saluti oporteret, in senatum non vocabamur/ C. Phil, v. i. Cum. 13) Other uses of the Conjunction Cum: a) Cum, when^ is the most extensively used Temporal Con- junction, correlative to the Demonstrative tum, as dum to interea; and signifying a point of Time, as dum signifies extension of Time. b) When the relation between the principal Sentence and the Clause is merely Temporal, cum takes an Indicative in the Present, Future (Simple or Exact), or Perfect Tense, according to the time required : Cum venio, video ; cum veniam (venero) videbo ; cum veni, vidi (videbam, videram). c) The time is more strongly defined by means of a Demon- strative (tum, eo tempore, nunc, iam, &c.). * Vos tum paruistis cum paruit nemo/ C. p, Lig. 7. d) Cum may take an Imperf. Indie, if an Imperf. is in the principal Sentence : Cum veniebam, videbam : Or, sometimes, if the point of time is to be strongly marked, the principal Verb may be Perfect : 10. * Epaminondas ferrum usque eo in corpore retinuit quoad renuiitiatum est vicisse Boeotios,' Nep. Ep. 9. ' Expectandum putabant dum se res ipsa aperiret,' Nep. Paus. 3. * Iratis subtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, dum se ipsi colligant/ C. T. D. iv. 36. 'Augustus rectorem solitus est apponere regibus aetate parvis ac mente lapsis, donee adolescerent aut resipiscerent,' Suet. Atig. 48. * Thessalonicae esse statueram, quoad aliquid ad me scriberes,' C. Att. iii. 13. *T. Quinctio consuli pro- rogatum in Macedonia imperium, donee successor ei veni s set/ L. xxxii. 28. C) (Antequam, priusquam.) a. *Antequamde incommodis Siciliae dico, pauca mlbi videntur esse de provinciae dignitate dicenda,' C. Verr. ii. 2. 'Priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam,' C. Phil. ii. 3. *Membris utimur pri- usquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus/ C. Fin, iii. 20. * Non ante finitum est proelium quam tribunus militum interfectus est,' L. xli. 2. *Dociliora sunt ingenia priusquam obduruerunt,' Qu. i. 12. 9. * Non defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias rationesque percepero.' C. d. Or. iii. 36. /3. 'Tempestas minatur antequam surgat/ Sen. Ep. 103. *Tragoedi cotidie, ante- quam pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant,' C. d. Or. i. 59. * Saepe magna indoles virtutis, priusquam reipublicae prodesse potuisset, exstincta fuit,' C. Phil. V. 17. * Numidae, priusquam ex castris subveniretur, in proximos coll is . discedunt/ Sail. lug. 54. *Appiusnon ante continuando abstitit magistratu quam obruerent eum male parta, male gesta, male retenta imperia,' L. ix. 34. ' Providentia est, per quam aliquid videtur, antequam factum sit,'C. Inv. ii. 53. * Nescire, quid anteaquam natus sis accident, id est semper esse puerum,' C. d. Or. 34. 'In omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens.' C. Off. i. 21. 'Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, ubi consulueris, mature facto ©pus est,' Sail. Cat. i. (The three last Examples are Gnomic.) § 212. Temporal Clauses. 46s ' Nuper, cum te iam adventare arbitrabamur, re- pente abs te in mensem Quintilem reiecti sumus/ Lately^ at the very moment we thought you were corning^ we were thrown over by you suddenly to the month of July, C. Att. i. 3. See Verg. Aen. xii. 736. e) Cum may take Pluperf. Indie, when a Demonstrative marks the time : ^ T u m cumin Asia res magnas permulti a m i s e r a n t, scimus Romae fidem concidisse/ at the very tiine when 7iunierous persons had lost great properties in Asia we know that credit sa7ik at Rome, C. p. L. Man. 7. f) Cum iterative ( = quotiens) takes Plup. Indie, in Cicero, an Imperf. being in the principal Sentence, when repeated action is expressed : in which sense Livy has Subjunctive : ^ Cum ad ahquod oppidum ven erat, eadem lectica usque ad cubiculum deferebatur/ as often as he came to any town, he was conveyed to his bed-chamber in the same seda?t, C. Ve7'r, V. II. D, I.) Examples of cum with Indicative. (§ 212.) (Cum = quo tempore.) *De te, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant ; cllm patiuntur, decernunt ; cum tacent, clamant,' C, Cat. i, 8. * Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn cum urbem con did it,' C. Div. i. 17. 'O praeclarum diem, cum in illud amicorum con- cilium coetumque proficiscar,' C. Cat. M. 23. 'Sedplura, cum ista cognoro,' C. Att. XV. 9. * Regulus, tum cum vigilando necabatur, eratin meliore causa, quam si domi senex capfivus, periurus consularis, remansisset,' C. Q^. iii. 27. 'Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant Aedui, alterius Sequani,' Caes. JS. G. vi. 12. 'Credo, tum cum Sicilia fl ore bat opibus et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula/ C. Ver-r. iv. 21, *Gum Collatino collegae Brutus imperium abfogabat, poterat videri facere injuste,' C. 0_ff'. iii. 10. 'Aliud est dolere, aliud laborare : cum varices secabantur C. Mario, dolebat, cum aestu magno ducebat agmen, laborabat,' C T. D. ii. 15. (Cum=quotiens, with Pl-u/>.Tncttc.) *Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat, a nullo videbatur,' C. Off. iii. 9. See Ac. ii. 47. Cum ver esse coeperat (cuius initium iste non a Favonio neqtie ab aliquo astro notabat, sed cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur), dabat se labori atque itineribus,' C. Verr. V. 10. (Cum />ut inversely.) * Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, cum interim Dyrrachii milites domum, in qua eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt,' C. in Pis. 38, 'Evolaratiame conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, cumetiamtum ceterae naves uno in loco moliebantur,' C. Verr. v. 34. * Hannibal iam scalis subibat muros Locrorum, cnm repente patefacta porta Romani erumpunt,' L. xxix. 7. * Commo- dum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius,' C. yi/^. xiii. 19. * P. Sestius, fretus sanctitate trlbunatus, venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli : cum subito manus ilia Clodiana, in caede civium saepe iam victrix, exclamat. incitatur, in- vadit/C. /. Sest. 37. * Iam dies consumptus erat. cum tamen barbari nihil remit- tere, atque, noctem pro se rati, acrius in stare,' Sail. lug^. 98. (Cum=ex quo tempore.) Permulti anni iam erant cum inter patrlcios magistratus tribunosque nulla certamina fuerant,' L. ix. 33. * Nondum sex menses sunt cum hue commigravit,' Plant. Pers. i. 3. 2) Examples of cum with Subjunctive. (§ 211.) {Iterative cum with Subjimctive.) ' Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vesti- tum, suum amiculum dedit,' N. Ci^n. 4. ' 'Cum in ius duci debitorem vidissent, undique con volaban t,' L. ii. 27. (Especiallywith cum diceret, cum dicat, following audio; an idiom which resembles the Consecutive use.) ' Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio est; saepe ex eo audiebam, cum se scribere neque consuesse neque posse diceret,* Cic. Br. 56. 'Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire dis- cipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem,' C. d. Or. i. 28. H H 466 Latin Syntax, §'212. g) The Inverse Construction with cum occurs in Narrative when the Clause seems to change places with the Prin- cipal Sentence, indicating that one action is interrupted or quickly succeeded by another. ' In this case, cum is often accompanied by such Adverbs as repente, subito, interim, interea, iam, &c., and the Verb is frequently Present Historic, now and then His- toric Infinitive. * Parata sententia consularis, cum repente ei affertur nuntius,' the consuVs opinion was just ready ^ when a sudden message reaches him^ C. Phil, xiii. 9. * Id modo plebs agitabat, cum interim comitiorum mentio nulla fieri,' that was what the commons were debating^ while meantime no mention was being made of comitia^ L. iii- 37- (Cum Subobligue.) *Totiensne me litteras dedisse Romam, cum ad te nullas darem,' C. Att. v. n. 'Qmppe ius Laodiceae me dicer e, cum Romae Aulus Plotius dicat,' C. Att. v. 15. ' Mihi non videbatur quisquam esse beatus posse, cum in malis esset,' C. T. D. v. 8. {Consecutive cum = quali tempore.) * Erit illud profecto tempus, cum tu unius post homines natos fortissimi viri magnitudinem animi desideres,' C. Mil. 26. *Fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer,' C. Or.'x. I. *Ingressus est urbem cum dextra sinistra minaretur domtnis, notaret domos/ C. Phil. xiii. 9. ( But Indie, if cum =quo tempore.) *Fuit quoddam tem- pus, cum in agris homines passim bestiarum more vagabantur et sibi victu fero vitam propagabant,' C. Inv. i. 2. (Cum causal.^ * Quae cum ita sint, quid est quod de eius civitate dubitetis, praesertim cum aliis quoque in civitatibus fuerit adscriptus?' C. Arch. 5. (See Causal Clauses.) (Cum concessive.^ 'Atticus cum esset pecuniosus, nemo illo minus fuit emax, minus aedificator, ' N. Att. 13. *Cum multa sint in philosophia gravia et utilia, latissime patere videntur ea, quae de officiis tradita sunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'His, cum facere non possent, tamen loqui licebat,* C. /. Gael. 17. (Specially frequent, when tum follows): ' Cole iustitiam quae, cum sit magna in parentibus et propinquis, tum in patria maxima est,' C. d. Rep. vi. 15. 'Cum plurimas et maximas commoditates amicitia contineat, tum ilia nimirum praestat omnibus, quod debilitari animos non patitur,' Cic. Lael. 7. * Haec urbs cum manu munitissima esset, tum loci natura terra ac mari claudebatur,* C. Verr. ii. 2. (Cum conditional is rare) : * Haec neque cum ego d i c e r e m, neque cum tu negRres, magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur auris index erigeret ani- mumque attenderet? Cum Dio ipse prodiret, cum reperiretur pecunias sum- psisse mutuas, cum tabulae virorum bonorum proferrentur,' C. Verr. i. 10. (Cum historic.') * Agesilaus, cum adversaries intra moenia compulisset, et ut Corinthum oppugnaret multi hortarentur, negavit id suae virtuti convenire,' N. Ag. 5- 'Socrates, cum paene in manu iam mortiferum illud teneret poculum, locutus ita est, ut non ad mortem trudl, verum in caelum videretur ascendere,' C. T. D. i. 29. * Cimon Cyprum cum ducentis navibus imperator missus, cum eius maiorem partem insulae devicisset, in morbum implicitus, in oppido Citio est mortuus,' N. Cim. 3. (Cum ^/■y/'<7r/V is found even after tum, where the Indicative might have been used.) 'Neque enim, si tibi tum, cum peteres consulatum, adfui, idcirco nunc, cum Mure- nam ipsum pet is, adiutor eodem pacto es.se debeo,' C. p. Mur. 3. (In the following passage, the two Moods are used in succession ; haberent being purely historic, e rant appealing to later experience, shewn by perspexeratis): ' Unum hoc certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere : tum cum haberet haec res publica Luscinos, Calatinos, Acidinos, homines non solum honoribus populi rebusque gestis, verum etiam patientia paupertatis ornatos ; et tum cum erant Catones, Phili, Laelii, quorum sapien- tiam temperantiamque in ©ninibus rebus perspexeratis, tamen huiuscemodi res com- missa nemini est, ut idem iudicaret et venderet,' C. d. L. Agr, ii. 24. I 213- Conditional Sent a ices, 467 h) Cum for ' ex quo tempore' takes the Indicative. * Nondum centum et decem anni sunt cum de pecuniis repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est/ it is not yet 1 10 years since Lucius Piso brought in a taw concerning extortion^ C Off. ii, 21. 21' tcnces. vL Conditional Sentences. Condi- tional 1) The Conditional (Hypothetical) Conjunctions are: si, //"(si s^^"-^ non, if not) ; nisi, ni, unless ^ if not, 2) In the Compound CONDITIONAL SENTENCE, the Clause which contains the Condition is called Protasis (quae praetendi- tur) ; the Principal Sentence is called Apodosis (quae redditur), the Conclusion. These terms imply the logical assumption that the condition comes first, and that the conclusion is in the nature of a reply to the question, What then 1 But it is equally possible to regard the Protasis as an adverbial clause limiting a principal sentence : ' Maxi- mas virtutes iacere omnes necesse est voluptate dominante,' C. » si voluptas dominetur. I. Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence^ Protasis. Apodosis. a. si das negat if you offer he refuses si dabis negabit if you shall offer he will refuse Normal Examples of Conditional Sentences. (§ 213.) a. {Sumptio Dati.'\ *Si ariiitti beata vita potest, beata esse non pbtest,* C. -F/^. ii. 27. *Parvisunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi,' C. Off. i. 22. *Si noles sanus, curres hydropicus, et niposces ante diem librum cum lumine, si noti in- tendes animum studiis et rebus honestis, invidia vel amore vigil torquebere/ Hor. Epist. i. 2. 34. * Si bellum omittimus, race numquam fruemur/ C. Phil. v. i. 6. *Non si is, qui accepit, bene utitur, idcirco is qui dedit, amice dedit,' C. N. D. iii. 28. *Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, ignoscam,' C. Fam. v, 19. * Nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi erit omnium artium scientiam consecutus,* C. d. Or. i. 6. *Si in omnibus innocens fuefo, quid mihi inimicitiae nocebunt?* C. Verr. iii. 69. * Malevolentiae hominum in me, si poteris, occurres ; si non potueris, hoc consolatere, quod me de statu meo nullis contumeliis detei"rere possunt,' C. Fam. xi. 11. * Telo si primam aclem praefregeri s, reliquo ferro vim nocendi sustuleris,' lust. vi. 8. * Haud ergo, ut opinor, erravero, si a Zenone disputationis principium duxero,* C. N. D. ii. 21. * Apud maiores magistratum non gerebat is qui ceperat, si patres auctores non erant facti,' C. Plane. 3. 'Cesseram, si alienam a me plebem fuisse vultis, quae non fuit, invidiae ; si commoveri omnia videbantur, tempori ; si vis suberat, armis,' C. p. Sesi. 30. ' Si liciuit, patris pecunlam recte abstulit filius,* C. p. Ftacc. 25. 'Si me amas, paulum hie ades,' Hor. Sat. i. 9. 3^. 'Si vis amari, am.a,'Sen. Ep. 9. Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti; si non> his utere mecum,' Hor. Epist. i. 6. 67. * Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce,' C. Att. iii. 15. * Caus^.m Iinvestigato, si poteris,' C. Div. ii. 28. * Mirer, inquit, si vana vestra ad plebem auctoritas est,' L. iii. 2. * Etenim, si Lentulus pvitavit suum nomen fatale fore, cur ego non laeter?' C. Cat. iv. i. 'Si sciens fa Ho, turn me, luppiter optime maxime, pessimo leto afficias, 'L. xxii. 53. *Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant h©nores, ne attingant rempubli- cam,' C. Sest. 66. 'Quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo commoverentur' {they should have been touched — Hortative Past), C Sest. 24. H H 2 468 Latin Syntax, § 213. /3. si des (dederis) neget (negaverit) if you were to offer he would refuse 7. I. si dares negaret (lit.) if you had been he would have beefi refusing offering (often = if you offered he woidd 7'efitse) 2. si dedisses negasset if you had offered he would have refused 3. si dedisses negaret if you had offered he would have kept refusing p. {Stimptio Dandi.) * Thucydidis orationes ego laudare soleo ; imitari neque pos- sim, SI velim, nec velim fortasse, si possim/ C, Br. 83. 'Si exsistat hodie ab inferis Lycurgus, gaudeat murorum Spartae ruinis, et nunc se patriam et Spartam antiquam agnoscere dicat,' L. xxxix. 37. *Si gladium quis apud te sana mente de- posuerit, repetat insaniens : reddere peccatum sit, officium non reddere,' C Off. iii. 25. *Si scieris aspidem occulte latere uspiam, improbe feceris nisi monueris alterum ne assideat,' C. Fin. ii. 18. *Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, abstulerit cibum alteri homini ad nuUam rem utili? Minime vero,' C. Off. iii. 6. See Hor. Epod. ii. 39, &c. ; Epist. ii. 2. 1-17. y. {Stimptio Ficti.) i. *Si semper optima tenere possemus, haud sane consilio multum egeremus,' C. Part. 25. * Si universi videre optimum et in eo consentire pos- sent, nemo delectos principes quaereret,' C. Resp. i. 34. *Si plane sic verterem Platonem aut Aristotelem, ut verterunt nostri poetae fabulas, male, credo, mererer de meis civibus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transfer rem,' C. Fin. i. 3. 2- 'Antiochus si tam in agendo bello parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, quam in suscipiendo instituerat, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperii dimi- c asset, N. Hann. 8. ' Glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus banc epistulam non misisset/C. Verr. iii. 18. 3. ^ 'Nam si quam Rubrius iniuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate fecisset, de tui comitis iniuria questum ad te potius quam te oppugnatum venire nt,* C. Verr. i. 31. 'Esset Antonio certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne accipere voluisset,' C. Phil. iii. 5. ' Ulla si iuris tibi peierati poena, Barine, nocuisset unquam, dente si nigro fieres vel uno turpior ungui, credere m,' Hor. C. ii. 8. I. 4. 'Consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium maiores nostri appellassent senatum,' C. Cat. M. 6. ' Mortuis tam religiosa iura maiores nostri tribuerunt, quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbi- trarentur,' C. Lael. 4. The following passages also strikingly illustrate the distinction between constructions /3. and 7. i. (^.) 'Si vir bonus habeat banc vim ut, si digitis concrepuerit, possit in locu- pletium testamenta irrepere, hac vi non utatur, ne si exploratum quidem habeat, id omnino neminem unquam suspicaturum. At dares banc vim M. Crasso, ut digi- torum percussione posset heres scriptus esse qui re vera non esset heres, in foro, mihi crede, saltaret,' C. Off. iii. 19. Here the first sentence (3) suggests a case ■which (though imaginary and really impossible) Cicero, by a fabulist's license, is entitled to represent as possible. The second falls into Construction 7. i., because Crassus was dead at the time, and the condition, therefore, is a bygone possibility. Why then is not the Construction of the double Pluperfect Conj. used? Is it that the floating period of Crassus's public life is contemplated ; or that Cicero, taking Crassus as a mere type of unscrupulous greed, uses a form which includes an imaginary Future as well as an imagined Past? Compare Hor. C. iv. 8. 20 : 'Neque, si chartae si leant quod bene feceris, mercedem tuleris: quid foret Iliae Mavortisque puer, si taciturnitas obstaret meritis invida Romuli?' ib.') * Cur igitur Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos et quinguaginta fere annos eventura putaret; et ego doleam, si ad decem millia annorum gentem aliquam urbe nostra potituram putem?* C. T. D.\. 37. Here, as the first hypothesis respecting Camillus belongs to a floating past time, it rig:htly takes the form y. i, while the second, relating to the present and future of Cicero, takes /3. §213 Colli iitioual Sentences. 469 4. si civis esses non negasset if you had been a citizen he would not have refused 1) Class Alpha contains those Sentences with Indic. Protasis, in which it may be assumed that both Condition and Conclusion are real, because no suggestion is implied to the contrary. Hence it is called Sumptio Dati, the Condition of Reality. The Apodosis is usually either Indicative or Imperative ; but it may be pure Conjunctive (C^ or Cg) if it conveys a modest as'sertion, a wish, an exhortation, or prohibition. The combinations of Tense in Class o. may be as large as the logic of language allows. Examples : si vis, do (dabo) nisi vis, non do (dabo) si voles, dabo (dedero) nisi voles, non dabo (dedero) si volueris, dedero (dabo) nisi volueris, non dedero (dabo) si volebas, dabam nisi volebas, non dabam si voluisti, dedi nisi voluisti, non dedi si dedisti, gaudeo si non dedisti, doleo si voluerat, dederat (dabat) nisi voluerat, non dederat (dabat) si vis (voles, volueris, voluisti), da (dato) nisi (si non) vis (voles, &c.), ne dato (ne dederis) mirer si non vincimus (vincemus, vicerimus) si potes (poteris), velim adsis ne vivam nisi te amo si fas est (erit, fuerit), eamus. 2) In Classes and y. the Condition and Conclusion are more or less unreal ; but of this unreality there are two kinds : one which implies a possibility (more or less probable) of immediate or future realisation ; the other, from which such possibility is excluded. 3) In Class /3. Protasis and Apodosis may be Cj or C2, and the variation can make no difference in the English rendering. This Class is called Sumptio Dandi, the condition of Possibility. 4) In Class 7. the Protasis often expresses a Condition which might possibly have occurred, but did not occur, in time past. It is therefore purely imaginary ; hence such a Sentence is called Sumptio Ficti. The Mood of both Verbs is (normally) Con- junctive ; the Tense of each may be Imperfect or Pluperfect, or one may be Imperfect, the other Pluperfect : the relations of time being what these Tenses express, as shewn in the examples. 5) It is, however, proper to observe that in the double Imperfect form of Sumptio Ficti (y. i), the reference to past time is often faint, and the distinction between this form and Sumptio Dandi discernible only in the greater liveliness of the latter : which brings a Condition before the mind, as the Historic Present brings an Action, more vividly and picturesquely. Hence Sumptio Dandi is a favourite construction of the terse and vivacious Horace.^ ^ Such a relation of these two constructions is well shewn in a passage of Cicero {d. Or. i. 48, 49) which treats of the definition of the Orator. He begins by saying, 'Si forte quaereretur quae esset ars imperatoris, constituendum putare m,' &c. then: 'Sin autem quaereremus quis esset is qui ad rempubiicam . . . studium 470 Latin Syntax, § 214. 6) Thus the Construction of the double Imperfect (y. i.) exhibits a Condition as Present in Time Past ; but such exhibition may- take either of two shapes : d) The Condition may belong only to the Past : ^ Si mehercule ex omni copia conventus Syracusani faceres potestatem aratori non modo reiciendi sed etiam sumendi recuperatores, tamen hoc novum genus iniuriae nemo ferre posset/ if from your whole court at Syracuse you had allowed the farmer not merely to challenge but even to choose commissioners^ yet could none have bo7'ne this novel kind ofwro7igy C. Verr. iii. 13 (said of any time during the now past government of Verres). b) The Condition may not only exist in Time Past, but con- tinue, and be still valid, in Time Present. *An possem vivere nisi in litteris Yxw^x^m^ could I have been living at ally if I lived not in literary studies ? C. Fam, ix. 26. Here Cic. refers not only to a portion of his life past, but also to his present circumstances and feelings. 214 II. Conjunctive Protasis with Indie. Apodosjs. i) An Indie. Past Tense is used in Apodosis to express an action begun, but hindered by another action which appears in a Conjunctive Protasis with nisi, ni, or si. Such an Apodosis gene- rally stands before its Protasis.^ * Examples of Idiom i. (§ 214.) {Im/>erf. in Apodosis.^ * Lab e bar longius nisi me retinuissem,* C. Leg. i. 19. *Auctoritas tanta plane me movebat, nisi tu opposuisses non minorem tuam,' C. Ac.xx.Q.o. *Vincebat auxilio loci paucitas, ni iugo circummissus Veiens in verticem collis evasisset,' L. ii. 50, * lam fames quam pestilentia tristior erat, ni annonae foret subventum,' L. iv. 52. 'Atrox certamen aderat, ni Fabius consilio neutri parti acerbo rem expedisset,' L. iii. i. * Germanicus ferrum a latere diripuit elatum- que deferebat in pectus, ni proximi pressam dextram vi attinuissent,' Tac. Ann. \. 35. Si in Cic. Verr. v. 49. ^Si per Metellum licitum esset, matres illonim sorores- que veniebant.' (In the two following places an Indie, of being is understood in the Apodosis): * Mitis legatio, ni praeferocis legatos habuisset,' L. v. 36. ' Suavis res, si non causas narraret earum et naturas dominus,' Hor. ii. 8. 92. {Per/. Apod., usually with paene or prope.) 'Pons Sublicius iter pa en e hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes/ L. ii. 10. * Prope oneratum est sinis- trum Romanis cornu, ni referentibus iam gradum consul pudore metum excussisset,' L. ii. 65. 'Paene imprudentia admissum facinus miserabile, ni utrimque praemissi equites rem explor^vissent,' Sail. B. i. 53. * Eadem nave pa ene Aethiopia tenus Aegyptum penetravit nisi exercitus sequi recusasset,' Suet. Caes. 52. Virgil has: *Nec veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent/ yi^. xi. 112. {Pluperfect Apodosis.^ ' Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem Lepidus recepisset Antonium,' C. Fam. xii. to. * Qui ante Latinos ne pro se quidem ipsis attingere arma passi sumus, nunc nisi Latini sua sponte arma sumpsissent, capti et deleti eramus, L. iii. 19. * Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi Faunus ictum dextra levasset,' Hor. C. ii. 17. 28. See iii. 6. 3. 'Perierat imperium, quod iam in extreme stabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum ira suadebat, Sen. Ir. i. 11. suum contulisset, definirem hoc modo,* &c. ; then, * Sin autem quaereretur quis- nam iurisconsultus vere nominaretur, eum dicerem,' &c., but next, * Atque ... si musicus, si grammaticus, si poeta quaeratur, possim similiter explicare,' &c. Here evidently the transition from Sumptio Ficti to Sumptio Dandi is not caused by any essential distinction in the nature of the hypotheses ; though probably the use of examples to establish the first three led Cicero to choose the Imperf form as most suitable for the purpose. § 214. Conditional Sentences. 471 2) An Indie. Pres. Verb of ability or duty (possum, debeo), also est with longum, immensum, infinitum, or with Gerundive, may stand in Apodosis with Pres. Conjunctive Protasis. 3) The idiom by which Past Indie. Tenses of Verbs of abitity, duty, necessity, fitfiess^ &e. (including e s s e with Gerundive and other com- plements), can be used instead of Conjunctive forms, is noticed in p. 336. Such Verbs (except convenire, lieere) retain the same idiom in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence with Conjunctive Protasis, so far as regards the Imperf. and Perf Tenses (but the {Verb conditisned a dependent or suppressed Verb.) * Admonebat me res ut hoc quoque loco interitum eloquentiae deplorarem, ni vererer ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri ' (admonebat res ut deplorarem=re admonente deplorabam), C. Off. ii. 19. 'Ob- sistere ac retinere conatisuntni strictis gladiis viri fortissimi inertes submovissent' (et retinuissent mentally supplied), L. xxii. 60. * Volsci comparaverant auxilia quae mitterent Latinis, nimaturatumab dictatore Romano esset '(supply *et misis- sent '), L- ii- 22. {^Analogous idiom.) ' Numeros memini si verba tenerem ' (the mind supplies *et canerem '), Verg. B. ix. 44. Examples of Idiom 2 ; — * Hi te homines neque d e b e n t adiuvare si possint, nequepossunt si velin t,'C. Verr. iv. 9. *Non potest iucunde vivi nisi cumvirtute vivatur/ C. Off. * Immensum est si velim singula referre,' Sen. Ep. 68. 'Dequo iudicio si velim dicere omnia, multi appellandi laedendique sunt,' C. Verr. i. 60. (Similarly) * S i plus tibi promissa noceant quam illi prosint cui promiseris, not> contra officium est (i.e. potest) mains anteponi minori,' C. Off, i. 10. (Of like nature are the Gnomic constructions) : *Si valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet (=iaceat necesse est),' Ov. Tr. iv. 3. i. * Ista discuntur facile, si et tantum su mas quantum opus sit, et habeas qui docere fideliter possit, etscias etiam ipse discere (discuntur= disci possunt),' C. d. Or. iii. 23. *Si ridere concessum sit, vituperatur tamen cachinnatio,' C. T. D. iv. 31. {Pres. of Periphr. Fut. in Apod, with Conj. Protasis.) 'Quid, si hostes ad urbem veniant, factu r i estis? quid siplebs mox armata veniat?' L. iii. 52. Examples of Idiom 3 : — {Imperfect.) 'Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco, si uUa in te pietas esset, colere debebas ' (implies *et nunc debes),' C. Phil. ii. 38. *Si mihi pater succenseret, te maiorem fratrem pro minore deprecari oportebat. Ubi prae- sidium esse oportebal, ibi exitium est,' L. xl. 15. 'Poterat utrumque praeclare fieri, si esset fides, si gravitas in hominibus consularibus,* C. Fam. i. 17. 'Si verum respondere velles, haec erant dicenda,' C. Fin. iv. 23. * Quantus imperator Aemilius fuerit, si ex alia re nulla aestimari posset, vel hoc satis erat,'L. xlv. 37. (With concessive meaning of si, although.) 'Quod si liceret, tamen non debebas,* C. Fam. vii. 27. *Si Romae Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat deligendus atque mittendus,' C. /. L. M. 17. Nihil est necesse, et si quid esset, id necesse tamen non erat confiteri,' C. Or. 69. (Cicero generally prefers the Conjunctive Apodosis when the Protasis is concessive.) 'Quae si maxime meminissem, tamen illius temporis similitudinem iam sequi de- berem,' Att. ix. 13. (Especially when the Apodosis is posse.) 'Si tibi nemo respon- surus esset, tamen ipsam causam demonstrare non posses,' Crt^/. 13. {Perfect.) 'Ne domi quidem, si sui iuris finibus matronas contineret pudor, quae leges hie rogarentur abrogarenturve curare d ecu it,' L. xxxiv. 2. 'Si ita esset, hac lege lunium accusatum oportuit, qua accusatur Avitus,' C. p. Clu. 33. 'Ergo si viri ilH arma habuissent, capi Roma me consule potuit?'L. iii. 67. 'An una fieri potuerunt, si una tribus non tulissent,' C. p. Plane. 22. ' Hanc urbem vos non hostium ducitis, ubi, si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit,* L. ii. 3?. (With concessive force of si.) 'Debuisti, Vatini, etiam si falso vcnisses in sus- picionem P. Sestii, tamen mihi ignoscere,' C. in Vat. i. 472 Latin Sy^itax, §215. Pluperf. in poetry only: * Si di mihi parcere vellent, perdere de- buerant/ Ov.). The Indie, lays stress on the duty, &c,, as existing (Imperf.), or having existed (Perf.), independent of the Condition. Otherwise the Apodosis will be Conjunctive. 4) Especially, the Past Indie. Tenses of the Periphr. Fut. Con- jugation are thus used in Apodosis. 215 III. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 1) Generally if the Protasis is Indicative and the Apodosis Con- junctive, this implies that if the former is^ the latter 7nay be. Such are the instances, already given (p. 469), of modest assertions (dixerim, &c.), wishes (moriar, peream, ne vivam, &c.), exhortations, prohibitions, &c., in Apodosis with Indie. Protasis. 2) Some passages occur, in which, though the Verb in the Pro- tasis is Indie, the true logical Protasis is a Conjunctive Verb im- plied in some adjunct, or to be otherwise mentally supplied. ^SiCaesaris causa in provinciam veniebatis, ad eum pro- fecto exclusi provincia venissetis: venistis ad Pompeium,' you were commg into the province in Caesuras interest, no doubt when you were shut out of the province you would have come to him: you came to Pompey^ C. p. Lig. 8. Here veniebatis con- tains a fact : * You were actually intending to come ; ' but the logical Protasis lies in the phrase,^ Caesaris causa,' ^had it been ijt Caesar's interest that you were intending to come.' * Nisi Deiotarus revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset^ quod proxima nocte corruit. At id neque, si fatum fuerat, effu- gisset, nec, si non fuerat, in eum casum incidisset,' C. Div. ii. 8. Here the true Protases of the Conjunctive Verbs must be men> tally supplied : ' had it been so destined, he would not have escaped, eveii if he had turned back : had it not been destined, he would not have met with that calamity, even if he had not turned back J Examples of Idiom 4. {Imperf. Indie, of Periphr. FtU. in Apod.) ' Conclave Illud, ubi mansurus erat, si ire perrexisset, proxima nocte corruit,' C. Div. i. 15. ' Illi ipsi aratores, qui remanse- rant, relicturi agros omnes erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset,' C. Verr.'ixi. 52. * Quid ? si ego morerer, mecum exspira tu ra respublica, mecum casurum imperium populi Romani erat?' L. xxviii. 28. * Gravior ultor caedis, si superesset, rex futurus erat,' L. i. 40. {Perf Indie, of Periphr. Fut. in Apod. ) * S i P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri? fuistisne vos ad patrium ilium animum excitaturi? fuistisne aliquando rempublicam a funesto latrone repetituri?' C. Sest. 38. 'Quid futurum fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset tribuniciis procellis?' L. ii. i. ' Furius et Aemilius currum triumphalem me conscendere prohibent, quos ego, s i tribuni me trium- phare prohiberent, testis citaturus fui rerum a me gestarum,' L. xxxviii. 47. {Protasis virtually cojitained iji a word or phrase. ) * Quid tandem i n c e n s i s futurum fuit ?' ( = si incensae essent), C. Cat. iv. 8. ' Haec sine doctrina credituri fuerunt,' C. T. D. i. 2T. *Quomodo trucidato te ipsi evasuri fuerunt?' L. xl. 14. {Duty, &c. strietly depeudin§^ on Cofidition.) * Quod si bona Quinctii possideres, possidere omnia eo iure deberes' (i.e. nunc non debes), C. ' Omnino si id consilium placeret, necesse esset ' (sed non placet), C. Att. xiii. 41. * Nisi tiialiquid dixisses, nihil sane ex me quidem audire potuisses' (sed aliquid dixisti), C. N. D. i. 21. ' Sic faciendum fuisset si Gabinium accusassem ' (sed non accusavi), C. (?«. F. iii. 4. § 2i6-i8 Conditional Sequences. 473 * Si domum tuam expugnaturus, capta domo dominum inter- fecturus eram, non temperassem vino in unum diem?^ L.xl. 14. Here 'si expugnaturus (interfecturus) eram 'may be regarded as equal to ' si voluissem expugnare (interficere)/ because conditional force may exist in a Periphrastic Future. IV. Abnormal Relation of Tenses. Rare forms of Conditional Consecution occur in poetry : ' Carmina ni sint, ex humero Pelopis non nituisset ebur,' Tibull. i. 4. 63 (where a permanent condition affects a past fact). 'Et faceret si non aera repulsa sonent/ Tibull. i. 8. 22 (where faciat would be normal ; but the poet wished to mark past time also as affected by the condition). V. Protasis without si. 1) The Conjunctive Protasis often suppresses si. '• Rex velit honesta, nemo non eadem volet/ Sen. Tr. Thy. 214. ^ Unum cognoris, omnis noris/ Ter. Ph. ii. i. 35. 'Dedisses huic animo par corpus, fecisset quod op tab at,' Plin. Epist. i. 12. *Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento, quinque diebus nil erat in loculis,' Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15. 2) A Categorical form takes the place of the Conditional. Mra exardescit, libido concitatur: in eandem arcem confugiendum est,' anger flames out ; lust is excited; to the same stronghold must we fly, C. T, D. ii. 24. *Negat quis ; nego: ait; aio,'Ter. Eun. ii. 2. 21. 3) Sine with Ablative, or an Ablative Absolute, or some phrase, may stand as Protasis instead of si with Verb : 'Sine Deo (Deo sublato) non esset mundus ( = si Deum tol- leres).' ' Neque agricultura, neque frugum fructuumque reliquorum perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuis- set. . . nec lapides e terra exciderentur sine hominum labore et manu (i.e. nisi hominum opera, labor, manus accessissent),' C. ii. 3. 'Animi magnitudo, r emota communitate coniunc- tioneque human a, feritas sit quaedam et immanitas (i.e. si com- munitas remota sit),' C. Off. i. 44. VI. Si in various senses. i) The Protasis and Apodosis of a Condition may stand in the mutual relation of premise and conseqjience, or cause and effect. Hence si is found in correlation to it a, sic, tum, tum vero ; ideo, idcirco. 'Hoc ita iustum est, si est voluntarium,' this is just, on con- dition of its being voluntary, C. Off. i. 9. 'A patribus acceptos deos ita placet coli si huic legi paruerint ipsi,' C. Leg. ii. 10. ^ Haec si ages et senties, tum eris magnus consul et consularis ; sm aliter, tum in istis amplissimis nominibus honorum non modo dignitas nulla erit, sed erit summa deformitas,' C. Earn. x. 6. 'Non, si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum civem putabunt,' they will not think you a good citizen because you defended Opimius, C. d. Or. ii. 40. 474 Latin Syntax, § 219-20. 2) Si is used in a peculiar Final Sense ( = /^7 see if ; to try if, &c.) : 'Ad Gonnum castra movet, si oppido potiri posset/ L. xlii. 67. * Circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent ( = ut possent, si possent)/ the enemy swar7ned round to try if they could find any access^ Caes. B, G. vi. 37. ' Te adeunt fere omnes, si quid velis ( = ut discant quid velis, si quid velis)/ nearly everybody calls on you to find out if you want anything^ C. Fam. iii. 9. 'Expectabam si quid ad me scriberes ( = dum scriberes, si scriberes)/ / was waiting to see if you would write to me any things C. Poets use a similar idiom with Indie. : * Inspice si possum donata reponere laelus/ examine me and see if I can cheerfully restore your xifts, Hor. Epist, i. 7. 39. See Hor. S, ii. 5. 87, 3) Si is used in a Concessive Sense: si maxime, though ever so much ; si nihil aliud, though nothing else : which are often con- nected with the Demonstratives tamen, certe, &c. 'Vivorum memini : nec tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, si cupiam/' C. Fin, V. I. ' Caelestia si maxime cognita essent, nihil tamen ad bene vivendum conferrent/ C. Ac. i. 4. *^Si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis animorum gloriam dies haec dederit/ L. xxii. 29. VII. Si in combination with various Pronouns and Par- ticles. 1) Si is enclitically followed by many Particles and Indefinite Pronouns. Such combinations are : Si quis, si qui, si quando, sicubi, 8cc. (also si quisquam, si aliquis, si unquam, &c.) ; si quidem, si modo, si tamen, si forte, si maxime^ si vero, &c. ; sin (for si-ne), h^t if: sin autem, sin vero, &c. 2) Si quis = qui or quisquis : si quando =- quandocumque, &c. * Licet irridere si qui vult, plus apud me tamen vera ratio valebit quam vulgi opinio: neque ego umquam bona perdidisse dicam, si quis pecus aut supellectilem amiserit/ C. Far, i. 'Si quod erat grande vas et maius opus inventum, laeti afferebant ; si minus eiusmodi quodpiam venari potuerant, ilia quidem certe pro le- pusculis, patellae, paterae, turibula/ C. Verr, iv. 21. VIII. Idiomatic Uses. 1) A Clause with si (especially accompanied by an indefinite Pronoun or Particle) is used to imply that the Apodosis is as certain or remarkable as any similar case which could be cited : 'Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectat,' if anything of that kind charms me^ painting does, C. Fam. vii. 23, 'Si quando urbs nostra floruit, nunc maxime floret,' Plin. i. 10. 'Si tibi umquam sum visus in repubhca fortis, certe me in causa Clodiana admiratus esses/ C. Att. i. 16. 2) Hence si quidem sometimes becomes C2i\iS2\- inasmuch as: ' Antiquissimum e doctis est genus poetarum, siquidem Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' of the learned classes, poets are the inost ancient, seeing that Homer and Hesiod lived before Rome was founded^ C. T. D. \. i. But si quidem may also ^ si modo. § 221-22. Conditional Sentences, 475 3) The Protasis with si is sometimes designed to correct the form of expression in the principal Sentence : * Romae delectus habetur totaque Italia, si hie delectus appel- landus est, cum ultro se offerunt omnes,* a levy is going on at Rome and throughout Italy, if levy it can be called, when all pre- sent themselves unpressed^ C. Fam. xi. 8. 4) Si modo, si tamen, si vero are used for a similar purpose ; also si forte. * Ea diligenter a me expressa acumen habent Antiochi, nitorem orationis nostrum, si modo is est aliquis in nobis,' C. Att, xiii. 19. * Nunc incorrectum populi pervenit in ora, in populi quicquam si tamen ore meum est,' Ov. 7V. iii. 14. 23. 5) Often si enforces an entreaty by suggesting a reason. •Si me diligis, excita ex somno tuas litteras,' if you have any regard for me, wake tip your correspondeiice, C. Fam. xvi. 14. ^ Nihil amplius oro, Maia nate, nisi ut propria haec mihi mu- nera faxis, si neque maiorem feci ratione mala rem, nec sum fac turns vitio culpave minorem,' Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 4. 6) The phrase si quaeris, si quaeritis {if you want to know), also s i quaerimus, apologises for a possibly superfluous statement : S i dis placet {save the mark I forsooth) is an expression of slightly contemptuous surprise. VEa res, si quaeris, ei magno honori fuit,' C. Off. iii. 20. 'Et, si quaeritis, is, qui appellatur dicax, in hoc genere maxima excellit,' C. d. Or. ii. 62. ^ Etiam Latini, si dis placet, hoc bien- nio dicendi magistri exstiterunt,' C. d. Or, iii. 24. IX. Sive, Seu. Sive, seu {whether, or if or), are often used in Distributive con- struction, sive . . . sive, seu . . . seu, &c. See Conjunctions. ^Sinocte sive luce, si servus sive liber faxit, probe factum esto,' L. xxii. 10. *Veniet tempus mortis et quidem celeriter ; et sive retractabis sive properabis,' C. 71 i. 31. ^Mala et impia consuetudo est contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive simulate,' C. N. D. ii. 67. ' Inviso semel principe seu bene seu male facta premunt,' Tac. H. \. 7. < Illo loco Hbentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut lego,' C. Z^^. ii. I. ^ I.Ttcumque haec, sive errore humano, seu casu, seu necessitate inciderunt, bonum animum habe,' L. xlv. 8. * luxta periculoso Acta seu vera promeret, monuit Liviam,' Tac. Ann. i. 6. X. Conditional Negation. i) Nisi {unless, except if) denies a supposition : si non (// not) supposes a denial, the emphasis falling on the negative. ' Nemo fere saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit,' hardly any sober person dances, unless perchance he is mad, C. p. Mur. 6. ' Si non quaeret, nullus dixeris,' if he shall not ask, you will say nothing, Ter. Hec. i. 2. 4. S 1 rninus, sin minus, sin ah ter, sin secus, are used for si non. Nisi is strengthened by Adverbs: nisi tamen, nisi forte, nisi vcro, &c. 476 Latin Syntax, § 222, 2) One Conditional clause with si or si non following another without distinct reference to the former may express an alternative or contradictory hypothesis : ' ludicia non metuis : si propter innocentiam, laudo; si propter vim, non intellegis ei, qui isto modo iudicia non timeat, quid timendum sit?^ C. Phil. ii. 45. * Si erunt in officio amici, pecunia non derit; si non erunt, tu efficere tua pecunia non poteris/ C. Fain. xiv. i. ^ Quid nos, quibus te vita si superstite iucunda, si contra gravis ?^ Hor. Epod. i. 5. 3) But sin, sin autem, sin aliter, are used in distinct reference to- another Condition which has gone before, actually or virtually: ' Mercatura si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et copiosa, non est admodum vituperanda,' C. Off. i. 42. * Luxuria cum omni aetati turpis, tum senectuti foedissima est : sin autem libidinum intemperantia accesserit, duplex malum est/ C. Off. i. 34. ^Velim deinceps meliora sint; sin aliter fuerit, reipublicae vicem dolebo,^ C. ad Br. i. 10. 4) Sin minus, si minus, sin secus, if 7tot, may follow without repeating the Verb : * Senatus consultum si erit factum, scribes ad me; sin minus, rem tamen conficiam,^ C. Att. v. 4. ' Huic tu libro maxime velim ex animo, si minus, gratiae causa suffragere,^ C. Fam. xii. 17. Sin, sin autem, are sometimes used in the same way : * Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus : sin, quod di omen avertant, omnis omnium cursus est ad vos,' C. Fam. xii. 6. ' Iniecta mihi spes quaedam est velle mecum Ser. Sulpicium colloqui. Si vir esse volet, praeclara avrolia-, sin autem, erimus nos qui solemus,' C. jA.tv» x* y » 5) Nisi is sometimes used in a sense resembling that of sed {put) : * Quid erat quod Capitonem primum scire voluerit ? Nescio ; nisi hoc video, Capitonem in his bonis esse socium,' why was it that he wished Capita to be informed first f I can^t say ; but this I observe^ that Capita is a partner in this property y Q. p. Rose. 35. In this sense nisi tamen, nisi quod are used. 6) Nisi is also used to set aside a possible objection : ' Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute,' so far, certainly y if I am not out of iny wits, all has been do?te foolishly and unwarily, C. Att. vii. 10. 7) Nisi forte, nisi tamen, nisi vero, have an ironical use : 'Eruci criminatio tota, ut arbitror, dissoluta est, nisi forte ex- pectatis ut ilia diluam quae de peculatu obiecit,^ C. p. S. Rose. 29. * Frangetis impetum vivi, cuius vix sustinetis furias insepulti ; nisi vero sustinuistis eos qui cum facibus ad curiam cucurrerunt,' C. p. Mil. 33. ^ Equidem nec cur Patro tantopere contendat video, nec cur tu repugnes : nisi tamen multo minus tibi concedi potest quam illi laborare sine causa,' C. Fam. xiii. i. 8) On the other hand, nisi si stands for nisi when the excep- tion is purely conditional ; and often before quis, quando, &c. ^Miseros illudi nolunt, nisi si se forte iactant/ they lu ill not have § 223. Conditional Sentences. 477 the unforttmatc ridiculed^ unless^ indeed, they vaunt themselves:^ C. d. Or, ii. 58. ^ Ambiguum admirationem magis quam risum mo vet, nisi si quando incidit in aliud genus ridiculi/ C. d. Or. ii. 62. 9) Nisi, as a mere annexive Conjunction, especially follows Negatives, Interrogatives, &:c. : 'Nullum imperium^est tutum, nisi benevolentia munitum/ Nep. Di, 5. * Hoc sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse/ C. Lael. 5. ' Oleam Theophrastus negavit nisi intra xL millia passuum a mari nasci,' PI. N, H. xv. i. ' Quicquamne putas me curare nisi ut ei ne desim/ C. Att, xii. 4. ' Erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio,' C. d. Or, ii. 12. 10) Hand (Tursellinus iv.) denies that ni is a contracted form of nisi. He regards it as an ancient negative particle, which re- mains in use only in a conditional sense = si non. 'Neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo pri- mum proeho cum Romanis bellassent,' that battle wonld not have been recorded^ had it not been the first in which the Marsi waged war with the Roma7ts, L. ix. 41. ' Ni virtus fidesque vestra spectata mihi foret, nequiquam opportuna res cecidisset,' if I liad not well tried yonr valour and fidelity^ this opportunity would have occtirred in vain, Sail. Cat. xx. * Respondere vadato debebat, quod ni fecisset, perdere litem,^ he was bound to appear in court to one who had taken bail froin him, or, in default of appear- ing, to lose his cause, Hor. Sat, i. 9. 37. a) Ni follows Optatives of Imprecation : 'Dispeream ni sum- mosses omnis/ upon my life you would have supplaiited all, Hor, Sat. i. 9. 47. N i is used in the formula of a wager : ' Lutatius, eques Romanus, sponsionem fecerat, ni vir bonus esset,' Lutatiiis, a Roman knight, had laid a wager {on condition of losing) if he were not a good man, C. Verr. iii. 59. (This was the usual mode of settling disputes of personal honour at Rome. See Mommsen, Rojn, Hist, B. iii. Ch. 1 2.) ^ XI. The following table shews how to convert Conditional Sen- tences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infin. Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it. ' Examples of nisi (ni), si non, &c. (§ 222.) L a. 'Actum de te est, nisi provides,' C. Fam. ix. i8. * Opprimemini, nisi provi- deritis,' C. ad Brut. i. 2. *Ni tua custodis, avidus iam haec auferet heres,' Hor. S. ii- 3- 151- b. Te nusquam mittam, nisi das firmatam fidem,* Plaut. M. Gl. ii. 5. * Doli non doli sunt, nisi astu colas,' Plaut. Capt. ii. i. c. 'Nisi ego ilium hominem perdo, perii,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 9. 'Moriar, nisi facete,* C. Att. xvi. II. *Mirumni ilia salva est,' Ter. Haut. iii. 5. d. 'Cogere eum coepit, sponsionem facere cum lictore suo, ni furtis quaestum faceret,' C. Verr. v. 54. * Da pignus, ni easit filia,' Plaut. Epid. v. 2. * Da hercle pi gnus, ni omnia memini et scio,* Plaut. Pers. ii. 2. e. 'Ausculta paucis, nisi molestum est, Demea,' Ter. Ad. v. 3. 20. * Impetrarim libenter, nisi molestum sit,' C. T. D. v. 29. 'Nisi molestum est, percontari hanc paucis hie vult,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 4. 4/8 Latin Syntax, §323. Conditio Recta. Si peccas, doles, peccabis, dolebis. peccaveris, dolueris. pecces, doleas. peccares, doleres. S S S S S 01 peccavisses, ) 1 , • e- f uoluisses. Si peccares, i t^ioo^c). •4-* O • •— < < Conditio Obliqua. si pecces, dolere, 1 pecces, ] doliturum si 1 peccaveris, ■ (dolendum) ipeccaturus sis,/ esse, si peccares, doliturum (dolendum) esse doliturum SI ( peccavisses, 1 peccares, (dolendum) fuisse.^ II. a. * Et certe, nisi is Antonium ab urbe avertisset, perissent omnia,' C. ad Br. i, 3. *Haec illius severitas acerba videretur, nisi multis condimentis humanitatis miti- garetur,' C. /. Q7i. i. * Plures cecidissent, ni nox proelio intervenisset,' L. xxiii. t8. b. * Haec ego non ferrem, nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem,' C. Fain. vii. 30. 'Nam ni vellent di, non fieret, scio,' Plaut, AmI. iv. 10. * Agesilaus talem se im- peratorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit, nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non fuisse/ Nep. Ag, 6, c. *Quod ni ita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamur deos?' C. N. D. \. 44. 'Quod ni ita se haberet, nec iustitiae ullus esset nec bonitat; locus,' C. Fi7i. iii. 20. III. \. a, * Si republica non possis frui, stultum est nolle privata,' C. Fam. iv. 9. * Vas factus est alter eius sistendi ut, si ille non revertisset, moriendum esset ipsi,' C. Off. iii. 10. *Egovero meum consilium, si praesertim tu non improbas, vehementer ap- probo,' C. Qn. Fr. iii. 4. b. *Si mundus universus non est deus, ne stellae quidem,' C. N. D. iii. 9. *Quod si veri.simile non est, ne illud quidem est, haec unde fluxerunt,' C. A'. D. iii. 18. *Si tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umquam movebit,' L. xxii. 60. 'Quae potest esse sanctitas, si di humana non curant?* C. A^. D. 1. 44. *Si non tangendi copia est, eho, ne videndi quidem erit?' Ter. Em7i. iv. 2, c. *Si illud non licet, saltim hoc licebit,' Ter. Eun. iv. 2. * Si non urna» tamen iunget nos littera ; si non ossibus ossa meis, at nomen nomine tangam,' Ov. M. xi. 706. * Victi sumus igitur, aut, si vinci dignitas non potest, fracti certe et abiecti,* C. Fam. iv. 7. 'Dolorem iustissimum, si non potero frangere, occultabo,' C. Phil. xii. 8. 2. rt. *0 miserum te, si intellegis, miseriorem, si non intellegis,' C. Phil. ii. 22. 'Bene si amico feceris, ne pigeat fecisse, at potius pudeat, si non feceris,' Plaut. Trin. ii. 2. b. *Si mihi veniam, quam peto, dederit, utar condicione ; sin minus, impetrabo aliquid a me ipso,' C. Att. ix. 15. *Sume, catelle ; negat : si non des, optet,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 258. c. *Si aflfers, tum patent, si non est quod des, aedes non patent,' Plaut. As. i. 3. d. 'Valerium iureconsultum valde tibi commendo, sed ita etiam si non est iurecon- sultus,' C. Fam. iii. i. 3. a. ' Aes pro capite dent : si id facere non queunt, domum abeant,' Plaut. Poen, Pr. b. 'Quid, si quis non sit avarus, continuon' sanus?' Hor. S. ii. 3. 159. 'Quid si non impetraro ? ' C ^ tt. ix. 2. 4. a. 'Koc tamen nuntia, melius me morituram fuisse si non in funere meo nupsis- sem,' L. XXX. 15. b. 'Interminatus est a minimo ad maximum, si quis n on hodie munus mi^sset sibi, eum eras cruciatu maximo perbitere, Plaut. Ps. iii. i. c. 'Peream male si non optimum erat,' Hor. 6". ii. i. 6. *Peream si non invltant omnia culpam,' Ov. Her. xvii. 183. d. 'lubetP. Quinctium sponsionem cum S. Naevio facere, si bona sua ex edicto praetoris dies xxx. possessa non essent,* C. Qu. 8. e. 'Volo te verbis pauculis, si tibi molestum non est,' Plaut. E/>. iii. 4. ' Examples of Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua. (§ 223.) *Omnes intellegunt, si salvi esse velint, necessitati esse parendum,' C. Off. ii. 11. * Equidem putabam virtutem hominibus, si modo tradi ratione possit, insti- 1 § 224-25. Concessive Sentences, 479 XII. Modo, dum, dummodo. Modo (pnly) is used for si modo, if only ; modo ut, provided that ; with Negative, modo ne, provided that . . . not. Tan turn is similarly used in poetry. Dum {whilst)^ dummodo {whilst only), may also signify, pro- "vided that, provided that only : and, if Negative, take ne. All these Conjunctions require the Subjunctive.^ viL Concessive Sentences. These, like Conditional Sentences, have Protasis and Apodosis. They are called Concessive, because the Protasis concedes an ob- jection : meaning althoiighy even if, however, granting that, &c. I. Concessive Conjunctions are of several classes. (1) The strengthened forms of si (including si itself used con- cessively), etsi, etiamsi, tamen-etsi (usually written tametsi), even if although. The natural Demonstrative of these and of all Concessive forms is tamen, nevertheless, yet-, certe, at, at certe, sed tamen, tamcn, saltern, are also used (2) The Universal Relative Adverbs, quamquam {howsoever = although), utut [however). tuendo ac persuadendo tradi,' C. d. Or. i. 58. * M. Claudius vociferatur : ita demum liberam civitatein fore, ita aequatas leges, si sua quisque iura ordo, suam maiesta- tem teneat,' L. iii. 63. *Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt ; si veiit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat,' Caes. B, G. iii. 8. 'Ariovistus respondit : si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet, quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oport- ere se a populo Romano in suo iure impediri/ Caes. B. G. i. 36. * Additum decreto : si quis quid postea, quod ad notam ignominiamque Philippi pertineret, ferrent, id omne populum Atheniensium iussurum; si quis contra ignominiam prove honore eius dixisset fecissetve, qui occidisset eum iure caesurum,' L. xxx. 44. * (Hasdrubal Carthaginiensibus suadet) si ulla Hispaniae cura esset, successorem sibi cum valido exercitu mitterent,' L. xxiii. 27. * Batavi praemisere qui Herennio Gallo mandata cohortium exponerent : si nemo obsisteret, innoxium iter fore; sin arma occurrant, ferro viam inventuros,' Tac. H. iv. 20. 'Ad ea Epicydes, si qua ad se mandata haberent, responsum eis ait daturum fuisse: ... si bello lacessant, ipsa re intellecturos, nequaquam idem esse Syracusas ac Leontinos oppugnare,' L. xxiv. 33. ' Examples of modo, dum, &c., in Conditional Sense. (§ 224.) * Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria/ C. Cat. M. 7. * Mediocritas in puniendo placet Peripateticis ; et recte placet, modo ne laudarent iracundiam,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Modo ut haec nobis loca tenere lice at, bellissime mecum esse poteritis,' C. Fain. xiv. 2. 'Oderint, dum metuant,' Suet. Calig. 30. 'Sin autem ieiunitatem et siccitatem et inopiam, dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans, in Attico genere ponit, hoc recte dumtaxat,' C. Br. 82. * Mea nihil refert, dum potiar modo,* Ten An. v. i. 31. 'Ego si cui adhuc segnior esse videor, dum ne tibi videar, non laboro,' C. Att. viii. 11. 'Aliqui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt, dummodo potentiam consequantur,' C. Off. iii. 2t. *Sit summa in iure dicundo severitas, dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequabilis,' C. Qtt. Fr. i. I. 7. (Dum non used conditionally by Seneca.^ * Omnia licet foris resonent, dum intus nihil tumultus sit, dum inter se non rixentur cupiditas et timor, dum avaritia luxuriaque non dissideant, nec altera alteram vexet ; nam quid prodest totius regio- nis silentium, si aflfectus fremunt ? * Ep. 56. (Tantum used by Virgil conditionally, like modo.) * Veniam quocumque voca' is, audiat haec tantum vel qui venit, ecce, Palaemon,* B. iii. 49. See do. 53, and B. ii. 28. Lathi Syntax, § 226. (3) The Verbal forms quamvis, quamlibet, quantumvis {how you will = howsoever, although), licet (// 7nay be that = although), for which licebit is sometimes used. See Hor. Epod. xv. 19. (4) Ut in Concessive Sense ( = concesso granting that, i.e. although)', with ne ( = concesso ut granting that . . . 7iot). Also cum {whereas), 11. Mood in Concessive Clauses, (1) Concessive Sentences which have etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, or si, in the Protasis, are subject to the same rules of Mood as Conditional Sentences, of which they are merely special instances. (2) A Concessive Clause with quamquam, utut, will be Indi- cative ; but if Suboblique or Gnomic, Subjunctive. By writers of the Silver Age, as Tacitus and Suetonius, quam- quam is freely used with Subjunctive. (3) A Concessive Clause with licet and Subjunctive is a special instance of Petitio Obliqua, in which ut is omitted. Quamvis is used with Indicative once by Cicero ; sometimes by Nepos, Livy, and the poets : usually taking Subjunctive. (4) Ut, ne, Concessively used, are also special instances of Petitio Obliqua, in which the Verb is suppressed. Cum Concessive is found with both Moods. On its use with Indie, see M. Lucr, i. $66 226 III. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 1) Etsi, quamvis, rarely quamquam, are used adverbially to qualify words without affecting mood. Licet, quamlibet are so used in poetry only. ^Si mihi obtemperatum esset, etsi non optimam, at aliquam rempublicam haberemus,' C. Off. i. 11. ' Haec mira quamquam fidem ex eo trahebant quod,' &c., Tac. Ann. vi. 30. * Res bello gesserat, quamvis reipublicae calamitosas, attamen magnas,' C. Phil. ii. 45. * Huic, licet ingratae, Tityrus ipse canam,' Prop, iii. 30. 74. ^Adiuvat in fir mas quamlibet ira manus,' Ov. 2) Quamvis, quam vultis, quam volet, &c., are so used in the sense of quantumvis, ever so {much). * Quasi vero mihi difficile sit quamvis multos {ever so many) nominatim proferre,' C. p. Rose. 16. ^Exspectate facinus quam vultis improbum {as dishonest as you please), vincam tamen expectationem omnium,' C. Verr. v. 5. ^Ouam volet iocetur,' let him jest as he will, C. A^. D. ii. 1 7. 3) Quamvis licet, quantumvis licet with Subjunctive. * Quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos ; metuo ne soli philo- sophi sint,' we may rail at the Stoics as much as we please : I am afraid they are our only true philosophers, C. T. D. iv. 24. ^Ouamvis licet menti delubra et virtuti et fidei consecremus, tamen haec in nobis ipsis sita videmus,' we may dedicate temples as 7nuch as we will to Intellect and Vi7'tue and Faith ; yet these are things we perceive to he resideiit in ourselves, C. N. D. iii. 36. 'Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, omnis tuos ad amplissimos honores perducere,' C. Lael. 20. § 226. Concessive Seutcjiccs. 4) The Protasis with etsi or quamqiiam is sometimes added to modify or correct the Apodosis, and may be rendered and yet.^ ' Do, do poenas temeritatis meae : etsi quae fuit ilia temeritas I pay the penalty of my rashness : and yet what was that rashness / C Att, ix, 10, ' Puto mea non nihil interesse, quamquam id ipsum quid intersit non sane intellego/ / think I have some hiterest in the matter; and yet I don^t quite perceive what that interest is^ C. Fam^ v. 2 1 . 5) The Protasis of a Concessive Sentence may, without a Con- junction, be contained a) In the Pure Conjunctive : ^Naturam expellas furca, tamen Usque recurret/ Hor. Epist, i. 10. 24. b) In the Indicative, especially with quidettl : ^Matura res erat, consules tergiversabantur tamen/ L. ii. 45. ^Maxima est ilia quidem consolatio, sed tamen necessaria/ C. Fam, vi. 2* €) In an Adjectival or Participial Enthesis i 'Homonatura lenissimus stomachari tamen coepit,' C. Ae. iL 4. ' A nigro album etiam nullo monente oculus distinguit/ Sen. Fp. 94. (On the Concessive use of si see p. 474.) ■I Examples of Concessive Sentences. (§ 225.) {Etsiy etiamsiy tametsi.") 'Viri boni faciunt quod rectum, quod honestum est, etsi; nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident,'C. Fin. ii. 14. 'Cum tuis dare possem litteras, non praetermisi, etsi, quod scriberem, non habebam,' C. Att. xi. 19. * Sunt qui, quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant dicere,' C. Off. i. 244 * Homo quod crebro videt non miratur^ etiamsi cur fiat nescit,'C, Div. ii. 22. *Cur nolint^ etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt,'C. in Caec. 6. 'Rectum est in contentionibus, etiamsi nobis indigna audiamus, tamen g^ravi- tatem retinere, iracundiam repellere ' (Gnomic)^ C. Offi i. 38. *Equidem, etiamsi oppetenda mors esset, domi atque in patria mallem quam in externis atque alienis locis,' C. Fam. iv. 7. * Mihi quidem, tametsi haudquaquam par gloria sequatur scriptorem et actorem rerum, tamen inprimis arduum videtur res gestas scribere * (Virt. Or. Obi. but some edd. have sequitur). Sail. Cat. 3. {Quamqtianty utut.) 'Quamquam sunt omnes virtutes aequales et pares; sed tamen est species alia magisalia formosa et illustris,* C. d. Or. iii. 14. *Utut erga me meritus't, mihi cordi est tamen,' Plant. Cist. i. 1. iii. * Ut tu me carum esse dixisti senatui, sic ego te, quamquam sis omni civitate taeterrimus, tamen dico esse odio civitati,' C. /. Vat. 3. * Vi quidem regere patriam, quamquam et possis et delicta corrigas, tamen est importunum,' Sail. Itig: 3. {Quamvisy licet.) a. 'Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nullo modo potest,* C. Off. iii. 19. 'Licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio, frequenter tamen causa virtutum est,' Qu. i. 2. 22;. 'Assentatio quamvis perniciosa sit, nocere tamen nemini potest, nisi ei qui earn recipit atque ea delectatur,' C. Lael. 26. 'Licet irrideat, si quis vult ; plus apud me tamen ratio valebit, quam vulgi opinio,' C. /'fiA-. I. 'Ilia, quamvis ridicula essent, sicut erant, mihi tamen risum non moverunt,' C. Fam. vii. 32. * Pompeius multa alia vidit, sed illud maxime, quamvis atrociter ipse tulisset,- vos tamen fortitcr iudicaturos,' C. p. Mil. 8. 'Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, tamen intellego, te hie ne verbo qui- dem levare me posse,' C. Att. iii. 12. b. 'Hoc ille natus, quamvis patrem suum numquam viderat, tamen et natura ipsa duce, quae plurimum valet, et assiduis domesticorum sermonibus in paternae vitae J I 482 Latin Syntax, § 227. 6) The Protasis is sometimes a Relative Clause, which may be Subjunctive or Indicative. 'Egomet, qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, cum Athenas venissem, compluris ibi dies sum commoratus,' C. d. Or, i. 18. * Oculorum, inquit Plato, est in nobis sensus acerrimus ; quibus sapientiam non cernimus/ C. Fin. ii. 16. 227 , Compa- viii. Comparative Sentences. rative ♦ i. . . ^ Sen- L These, which, as special instances of conceived Condition, fences, contain in the Protasis ^ the meaning as if^ require the Verb of the Protasis to be Subjunctive. They are introduced by the Comparative Conjunctions quam, ut, ac (see Correlation) going before (or supposing) si, and are usually preceded by one of the Demonstratives tam, ita, sic ; vel ; perinde, proinde, aeque, similiter, &c. : is, idem, itidem. Hence are obtained Conjunctional forms quasi (for quam si); quasi si (rare) ; tamquam si ; tamquam (understanding si); velutsi; velut (understanding si) ; also non aliter quam si, and similar forms : sometimes proinde ac, &c., without si; ac si, ut si, without Demonstrative. similitudinem deductus est,* C. /. Rab. Post. 2. * Miltiades inter suos potestate erat regia, quam vis carebat nomine,' N. Milt. 2. *Quamvis cecidere trecenti, non omnis Fabios abstulit una dies,' Ov. Ep. Pont. i. 2. {Ut, ne, cum.) *Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,' Ov. Ep, Pont. iii. 4. 79. 'Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me f rangeret,' C. T. D. i. 21. *Ne sit sane summum malum dolor: malum certe est,' C. T. D. ii. 5. *Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pyrrho certe aequabitis,' L. xxi. 7. *Cum omnibus virtutibus me affectum esse cupiam, tamen nihil est, quod malim, quam me et gratum esse et videri,' C. /. Plane. 33. ' Hoc ipso tempore, cum omnia gumnasia philosophi teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire quam philoso- phum malunt,' C. Or. ii. 5. Examples of Comparative Sentences. (§ 227.) * Stultissimum est, in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio maeror le vetur,' C. T. D. iii. 26. * Nisi forte idcirco numen esse non putant, quia non apparet, nee cemitur : proinde quasi (/«j/ «j nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus,'C. p. Mil. 31. ''Quasi sua res aut honor agatur, ita diligenter Naevii cupiditati morem gerunt,' C. p. Quinc. 2. * Educavit magna industria, quasi si esset ex se nata,' Plaut. Cas. Prol. 45. *Sic Plancius quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natus,* C. /. Plane. 25. *Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimum inspicere possit,' Sen. Ep. 83. 'Antonius Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et igni interdictum sit,' C. Phil. vi. 4. *Tu, qui id quaeris, similiter facis ac si me roges. cur te duobus contuear oculis, quum idem uno assequi possim,' C. N. D. iii. 3, 'Quae perdifficilia sunt, perinde habenda saepe sunt ac si effici non possint,' C. Part. 24. * Me iuvat, velut ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervenisse,' L. xxxi. i. * Sequani absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem, velut si coram ad as set, horrebant,' Caes. B. G. i. 32. 'Scipiades belli fulmen, Carthaglnis * The true Apodosis is a suppressed Conjunctive Verb. Thus, in the sentence Tam amo te quam si frater esses, the true Apodosis to si e ss es is amarem understood : / love you as (I should lov« you) if you were my brother. § 228-29- Consecutiofi of Tenses, 483 11. Comparative Idioms. 1) Ceu is used for ceu si (as if) in poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age. ^ Natura dedit cornua convoluta arietum generi, ceu caestus daret,' PL A/". //. xi. 37. Ceu si is used by Lucretius : *Ceu lapidem si percutiat lapis/ vi. 160. 2) Quasi vero, quasi autem, hke nisi vero, are used ironically {as if forsooth) : * Quasi vero id cupiditate defendendae nobihtatis fecerit/ C. /'^?;;^. iii. 7. Mmmo vero quasi tu dicas quasique ego au tem id suspicer/ Plaut. Pseud, ii. 2. ^<y, 3) Quasi, tamquam, velut, ceu (like ut, sicut, si, nisi, etsi, quamvis, quamquam), may be used as mere annexive or ad- verbial Particles, not affecting Mood. ^Litteras Graecas avide arripui quasi diuturnarti sitim explere cupiens,' C. Cat. M. 8. ^ Servis respublica et quasi {as it were) civitas domus est/ PI. Ep. viii. 16. 'Ex vita ita discedo tam- quam {as though) ex hospitio, non tamquam ex domo,' C. Cat. M. 23. Sometimes quasi is used forfereorcirciter {almost^ about) : * Quasi ad duo miha,' aboiit 2,000, L. xxvii. 12. SECTION V. SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIOI^. I. Consecution of Tenses* The Law that Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic by Historic (see § 98), is illustrated by all the Examples in this Chapter, especially by those of Petitio and Intetr. Obliqua, Con- secutive and Final Clauses. On the use of the Tense (-erim), see § 204. i) The two following passages shew that a Present Past admits either Consecution : ^ Non ita generati a natufa sumus ut ad ludum et iocum facti esse videamur/ C. Of.i.2g. ^Homines sunt hac lege generati, qui tuerentur ilium globum . . . quae terra dicitur,' C. Pep. vi. 1 5. It is, however, the prevailing idiom of Cicero, to construct the Present Past with Historic consecution : ^Adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus pos- set is,' I have brought a man before you, in dealing with whom you may do your duty to foreign nations, Verr. i. 2. * Quemadmodum officia ducerentur ab honestate satis explicatum arbitror,' I consider that I have explained enough how duties are derived from moral principle, Off. ii. i. horror, ossa dedit terrae, proinde ac famul infimus esse t,' Lucr. in. 1048. * Eius negotium sic velim cures ut si esset res mea,' C. Fain. ii. 14. ' Egnati absentis rem ut tueare aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent,' C. Fam. xiii. 43. 'Qua de re quoniam nihil ad me scribis, perinde habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse,' C. A it. iii. 13. I I 2 484 Latm Syntax, § 229. 2) The Historic Present generally takes Historic Consecution : but sometimes Primary : ^ Sulla suos hortaturuti fortem animum gererent/ Sail. hig. 107. ^ Pompeius, ne duobus circumcluderetur exercitibus, ex eo loco disc edit/ Caes. B, C. iii. 30. ^ Caesar cohortatur milites ne labori succumbant/ Caes. B, G. vii. 86. Transitions occur from the Historic to the Primary Consecution and conversely : ^Monebant etiam ne orientem morem pellendi reges inultum sineret: satis libertatem ipsam habere dulcedinis : nisi quanta vi civitates eam expetant, tanta regna reges defendant, aequari summa infimis: nihil excelsum, nihil quod supra ceteros emineat in civitatibus fore/ they warned him also not to leave unpunished the nascent custom of expelling kings: freedom (they said) was sweet enough in itself: if kings were not to defend their thrones as vigorously as states seek freedom^ the highest were levelled with the lowest ; there would be in communities nothing lofty y iiothing to rise above the mass, L. ii. 9. ^ Novum in republica introductum exemplum queritur, ut tribunicia intercessio armis notaretur atque opprimeretur, quae superioribus annis armis esset resti- tuta : Sullam, nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate, tamen intercessionem liberam reliquisse : Pompeium, qui amissa resti- tuere videatur, ademisse/ he complaiiis that a novel precedejit has been introduced in the comjnonwealfh, of censuring and putting dozmi by arms the intercession of the tribunes^ which in the pre- ceding years had been restored by arms : Sulla (he said) though he stripped the tribunician power of everything else, had yet left the veto free : while Pompeius, who seemed to be restoring what was lost, had taken it away, Caes. B. C. i. 7. 3) When two Future actions are brought into connexion there are three possible varieties : a) When both actions commence and continue together, both Verbs will be in the Simple Future : ^ Profecto beati erimus, cum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus expertes/ C. T. D. The English idiom differs : * We shall be happy, when we are free from desires.' So when we say, ^ I will come if (when) I can/ the Latin construction is, Veniam si (cum) potero. b) When one action will commence after the other is com- plete, one Verb will be in the Simple Future, the other in the Future Perf : * De Carthagine vereri non ante desi- nam quam illam excisam esse cognovero,' C. Cat, M. 6. Cum ego veniam, tu discesseris. c) When both actions will be complete together, both Verbs are in the Future Perf. : ^Qui Antonium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit, whoever shall have crushed Antonius, will have coiicluded this most horrid war, C. Fam. x. 19. But if an action going on is the condition of a Future action, the Protasis may be Present : 'Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsessos/ the war will he fifiished if we press the besieged, L. v. 4. § 229. Consecution of Tenses. 4) As the Simple Future has no Subjunctive of its own, the Future Active form used in iinmediate consecution of Primary- Tenses is -urus sim : that used in im^nediate consecution of Historic Tenses is -urus essem : * Non debes dubitare quin ah qua repubhca sis futurus qui esse debes/ you ought not to doubt that, while there is any republic^ you will be what you ought to be^ C. Fam, vi. i. * Antea dubitabam venturaene essent legiones ; nunc mihi non est dubium quin venturae non sint/ / was in doubt before whether the legions would come ; now I have no doubt they will not, C. Fam, ii. 1 7. But, in secondary subordination (futurity being expressed in the first), S^ or (in Historic Consecution) S3 will represent the Future Simple : Sg or (in Historic Consecution) S^ will represent the Future Perfect : Examples : (1) Qui hoc dicet errabit, subordinated, becomes : Non dubito quin, qui hoc dicat, erraturus sit. Credo eum, qui hoc dicat, erraturum esse. Non dubitabam quin, qui hoc die ere t, erraturus esset. Credebam eum, qui hoc die ere t, erraturum esse. (2) Si ita fecero, me culpabis, becomes : Non dubito quin, si ita fecerim, me culpaturus sis. Non dubitabam quin, si ita fecissem, me culpaturus esses, (3) Id faciemus, cum Lemnum veneris, becomes : Respondent id se facturos, cum Lemnum venerit: Respondebant id se facturos, cum Lemnum venisset. 5) If a Conditional Sentence in Sumptio Ficti, with Apodosis S3, is subordinated by ut, ne, quin, &c., it may remain : ^ Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, vel si obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset specieque laudabile,' morality is such that, even if 7nen were unacquainted with it or had been silent, it would still deserve praise for its own native loveliness, C. Fin. ii. 15. 'Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei vis esset illata?' had he rejected it, have you any doubt that violence would have been offered to him ? C. p. Sest, 29. 6) When S4, in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, is subor- dinated so as to form a Consecutive Clause or Oblique Interroga- tion, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Conjugation in -urus takes its place : ' Hannibal, nisi fugae speciem timuisset, Galliam repetivisset,' becomes, ' Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi fugae spe- ciem timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit,' Hannibal was so pressed by scarcity, that, if he had not dreaded the semblance oj flight, he would have returned to Gaul, L. xxii. 32. So, ' Die agedum quidnam facturus fueris si eo tempore censor fuisses,'//^^"/ tell us what you would have done, had you been censor at that time, L. ix. 33. ' Nec dubium erat quin, si tam pauci simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint,' there was no dotibt that if so srnall a number could have done everything at once, the enemy would have taken flight, L. iv. 38. 486 Latin Syntax. Credo me intellegere 7) ^ Might have' is expressed in a Consecutive Clause by potu- erim : * Captivi tantum timorem fecerunt, ut, si admotus extemplo exercitus foret, capi castra potuerint^ (the camp might have been taken)^ L. xliii. 4. * Ought or must have' is expressed by the Gerundive Perf. Sub- junctive : 'Adeo aequa postulastis ut ultro vobis deferenda fue- rint/ you have made such fair demands that they ought to have been spontaneously offered you^ L. iii. 53. 'In eos versa peditum acies haud dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata extrema agminis fuis- sent, ingens in eo saltu accipienda clades iw^xW {great loss must have been suffered)^ L. xxi. 34. These Constructions arise out of the idiom by which potue- runt is used for potuissent, and deferendum fuit for defer- endum fuisset. Seep. 336. 8) When an Infinitive (Present or Future), a Participle, Gerund, or Supine, intervenes, consecution is still dependent on the principal Verb : quid agas, egeris, acturus sis; quid agatur, actum sit, agendum sit. (quid ageres, egisses, acturus esses; Credebam me intellegere ] quid ageretur, actum esset, agendum V esset. ^ Cato mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret haruspex, haru- spicem cum vidisset,' C. Div, ii. 24. ' Cupido incessit animos iuvenum sciscitandi ad quem eorum regnum Romanum esset venturum,' L. i. 56. But, if an Infinitive Perfect intervenes, the consecution is Pri- mary or Historic according as the Infinitive is Present Past or Simple Past: *Ita comparatam esse hominum naturam om- nium, aliena ut melius videant et diiudicent quam sua,' strange that the characters of men are so constituted that they see and decide the^ affairs of others better than their own, Ter. Haul. iii. i. 98. ^Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur in via Clodio/ Milo is acquitted of having gone with the design of lying in ambush on the high road for Clodius, C. p. Mil. 18. But to this Infinitive we must apply what was said above, i) : * Satis videor docuisse, hominis natura quanto omnes anteiret animantis,' / thifik I have sufficiently shewn how much the nature of man surpasses all animals, C. N. D. ii. 61. The same Rule applies to the Periphrastic Perfect Infin. : ' Quis est qui hoc non sentiat, quidvis prius futurum fuisse quam ut hi fratres diversas sententias fortunasque sequerentur?' who can help feeling that anything would sooner have happened^ than that these brothers shoicld follow diverging sentimeiits and fortmiesf C. 9) As the Infinitive has no Conditional force of its own, it acquires this by means of the Future Participle. ' I knew that he would come if he could,' Sciebam eum ven- turum esse, si posset ; ' I know that he would have come if he could/ Scio eum venturum fuisse si potuisset. § 230. Narratio Obliqua, 487 II. Narratio Obliqua. Narra- When an author relates the speeches or writings of others not, obiiqua. as the speakers or writers delivered them, in the First Person, but in a series of Oblique constructions, dependent on his own state- ment that they so spoke or wrote, such use of Oblique Oration is called Narratio Obliqua. Caesar almost always reports speeches obliquely, Sallust di- rectly; Livy and Tacitus in both ways, often gliding from the indirect into the direct form. Enunciations are interspersed with Petitions and Interrogations ; and in general, when transition takes place from one form of Oratio Obliqua to another, a new Verb is not introduced, the original Verb (by Zeugma) supplying its meaning. i) The Clauses are sometimes carried on in the Infin. Clause : (1) After a Relative : ' Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum oppositam esse barbaris, apud quam ( = nam apud eam) iam bis class is regias fecisse naufragium,' Nep.. Th, 7. (2) After various Conjunctions (quia, quamquam, cum, nisi forte, &c.) : Mdeo se moenibus inclusos tenere Cam- panos, quia si qui evasissent aliqua, velut feras bestias per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare quodcumque obviam detur,' they kept the Canipanians shut up within their walls on this account, that, if any of them got out anywhere, they wandered over the country like wild beasts, Examples of Narratio Obliqua. (§ 230.) *Orat Tarquinius Veientis, ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno Gum liberis adolescentibus ante oculos suos perire sinerent: alios peregre in regnum Romam accitos ; se regem, augentem bello Romanum imperium, a proximis scelerata. conjuratione pulsum : . . . patriam se regnumque suum repetere, et persequi in- gratos civis velle: ferrent cpem, adiuvarent; suas quoque veteris iniurias ultum irent, toties caesas legiones, agrum ademptura,' Tarqtunius entreats the people of Veii not to allow him with his grown-up children to die before their eyes, expelled in desti- tute condition from a royal station lately so eminent: (he says) that others had been tnvtted to Rome front abroad to reign : that he, when king, and aggrandising the Roman empire in war, had been driven out by a wicked conspiracy of his nearest kin;^ that he wished to reclm.im his country and kingdom, and to take vengeance on his un- grateful countrymen: (he entreats them) to lend their aid, to assist him : to set about avenging their own ancient wrongs, the frequent slaughter of their legions, the curtail- ment of their territory, L. ii. 6. Docebat Caesar, quam veteres quamque iustae causae necessitudinis ipsis cum Aeduis interced erent ; quae senatus consulta, quotiens, quamque honorifica m eos facta essent ; ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuissent^ prius etiam quam nostram amicitiam appetissent: populi Romani hanc esse consuetu dinem, ut socios atque amicos non modo sui nihil deperdere, sed gratia, digni- tate, honore auctiores velit esse: quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent, id us eripi quis pati posset?' Caesar shewed, what ancient and just grounds of friendship existed between themselves (the Romans) and the Aedui ; what decrees of the senate had been made in their favour, how often, and in what ho7iourable terms ; how the Aedui from time immemorial had held the first rank in Gaul, even before they had courted our friendship : (adding) that the custom of the Roman people was to resolve thai its allies and friends should not only lose nothing of their own, but even he in- creased in influence, dignity, and honour : but {as to) what they had possessed at tJie tune of contracting friendship with the Roman people, who could endute that this sko2ild be wrested from them? Caes. B. G. i. 43. 488 Latin Syntax, §230. and tore and slaughtered whatever came in their way, L. xxvi. 27. See ii. 13, xxxiii. 45. 2) Rhetorical questions belong to the primary clauses of Oratio Obliqua, and take the Infinitive : * Plebs fremit : Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri, si, quod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi non possint ?' the plebeians 7nurmured : Why were they livings why reckoned one portion of the citizens^ if what the valour of two per- sons had wo7iy their entire body were U7table to maintain ? L. vii. 1 8. But Caesar generally throws such questions into the Con- junctive. 3) Questions, to which an answer is expected, are regularly put in the Conjunctive : ^ Docet Caesar, latum ab decem tribunis, ut sui ratio absentis haberetur, ipso consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri passus esset? sin probasset, cur se uti populi beneficio prohi- bu i sset ?^ Caesar informed them^ that the ten tribunes had brought in a billy allowing him to rank as a candidate ^ though absent , in the very consulship of Pompeius ; if Pompeius disapproved, why had he allowed the bill to be brought in f if he approved, why had he prevented him from taking advantage of the people's boon ? Caes. B, C i. 32. 4) a. A Potential Sentence may become Oblique by means of the Verb possum ; an Optative Sentence by means of volo. Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. A. ENUNTIATIO. I. Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. I. Eo. 2. Ibo. 3. Ivi. 4. Eo quia (cum, quo, si) iubes. 5. Ibo cum (quo, si) ius- seris. 6. Ivi quo (cum, quia) ius- sisti. 7. Faciam quod voles. 8. Feci quod voluisti. 9. Gratum est mihi quod quievisti. 10. Dummoraris, urbscapta est. 11. Non recuso quominus (quin) eas. 12. Edo ut vivam. 13. Expedit civitati ut re- deam. 14. Quaeras quid agam. 15. Moriar ni gaudeo. 16. Si quid mihi, Caesar, a te opus esset, ipse ad te venirem(venissem): si quid tu me vis, ad me veni. Ait se ire : iturum esse : isse. se (quia, &c.)ille iubeat, ire. se (cum, &c.) ille iusserit, iturum. se (quo, &c.) ille iusserit, isse. se, quod ille velit, facturum. se, quod ille voluerit, fecisse. gratum esse sibi quod ille quieverit, urbem, dum ille moratur, esse captam. se, quominus (quin) ille eat, non recusare. se, ut vivat, edere. expedire civitati ut ipse redeat. quaerere ilium posse quid ipse agat. velle se mori ni gaudeat. si quid ipsi a Caesare opus sit, sese ad eum venturum esse : si quid ille se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere. Dixit se ire : iturum esse .' isse. se(quia, &c.)illeiuberet, ire. se (cum, &c.) ille iussisset, iturum. se (quo, &c.) ille iussisset, isse. se, quod ille vellet, facturum. se,quod illevoluisset,fecisse. gratum esse sibi quod ille quievisset. urbem, dum ille moratur, captam fuisse. se, quominus (quin) ille iret, non recusare. se, ut viveret, edere. expedire civitati ut ipse rediret. quaerere ilium posse quid ipse ageret. velle se mori ni gauderet. si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum ventu- rum fuisse : si quid ille se vellet, ilium ad se venire oportere. - - § 231, Reflexive Pronoiuis in Clauses. 489 A An Imperative Sentence may become Petitio Obliqua; or it maybe expressed by debeo, oportet, &c., or Gerun- dive Construction. 231 IIL The Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. Se, suus. i, Se (Personal), suus (Possessive), are Reflexive Pronouns of the Third Person ; implying reference to a Subject in that Person ; which, in general, is the Subject of the Sentence. To supply their defect, and for distinction or emphasis, ipse is used. Se, suus, are therefore Pronouns of Subjective Reference al- ways ; ipse, so far as it is used for them, or with them. The Demonstratives is, ille, iste, hie, &c., are Pronouns of Objective Reference. See § 65. The use of these Pronouns in Clauses is a difficult subject, respecting which certain general directions may be given. A) First : Pronominal reference must be interpreted according to the logic of the passage. This logical interpretation (the Reason of the thing) must be applied especially when in the same Clause, or in suc- ceeding Clauses, Subjective reference is made by the Reflexive Pronouns to different Subjects. Thus Caes. B, G. iv. 8', Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt : si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat. Here ^the Reason of the thing' shews that suos must be Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. — cont. B. PETITIO. •1, Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. I. Abi quo vis. z. I quo condlxi. 3. Utere vita dum potes. 4. Ite, create consules ex plebe ; transferte aus- picia quo nefas est. Imperat (orat, hortatur) abeat quo velit. eat ille quo ipse condixerit. vita, dum possit, utatur. eant, creent consules ex plebe ; transferant auspi- cia quo nefas sit. Imperabat (orabat, hortabatur) abiret quo vellet. iret ille quo ipse condixisset. vita, dum posset, uteretur. irent, crearent consules ex plebe : transferrent auspi- cia quo nefas esset. C. INTERROGATIO. t. Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. 1. Quid tibi vis ? 2. Num bellum proderit ? 3. Cur facitis quod vetitum est ? 4. Cur fecistis quod vetitum est ? 5. Quid deinde restat, si neque ex equis pepuli- mus hostem ; neque pedites quicquam mo- menti facimus? Quam tertiam expectamus pugnam? .i. Quaerit quid sibi velit ille? (velle ilium ?) num bellum profuturum sit (esse) ? cur, quod vetitum sit, faci- ant? cur^ quod vetitum sit, fece- nnt? quid deinde restet, si neque ex equis pepulerint hos- tem, neque pedites quic- quam momenti faciant? quam tertiam expectent pugnam ? Quaerebat quid sibi vellet ille? velle ilium ? num bellum profuturum esset (esse) ? Gur, quod vetitum esset, facerent ? Gur, quod vetitum esset, fecissent ? quid deinde restaret, si ne- que ex equis pepulissent hostem, neque pedites quicquam monienti face- rent? quam tertiam ex- pectarent pugnam ? 490 Latm Sy7itax, § 232. referred to Crassus (Subject of velit), sibi to Veneti (the Principal Subject). E) Secondly : in some Clauses there is an intimate connexion between the use of the Reflexive Pronouns and that of the Subjunctive Mood ; both being determined by the same law of Subjective relation. Thus, if the following Clauses be compared : (1) Marcus sal vus rediit, quod ei peperceram: (2) Marcus gratias mihi egit quod sibi pepercissem: In (i), the Quod-clause is alleged by the speaker as the cause of an act on the part of Marcus objectively regarded (salvus rediit), for which reason the Demonstrative e i and Indicative peperceram are used: In (2), the Quod-clause is cited as the cause subjectively felt and avowed by Marcus for an act of his own (gratias egit); therefore the Reflexive sibi and the Subjunctive pepercissem are used. C) Thirdly : it often happens (principally in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses, or in Participial Entheses, which stand for them) that a Subjective Pronoun is used when the writer wishes to refer the Clause to the mind of the Sub- ject : though, if the Clause were only part of his own statement, he might have used an Objective Pronoun. ^ Africanus, qui suo cognomine declarat, tertiam partem orbis terrarum se subegisse, tamen, si sua res ageretur, testi- monium non diceret,' C. S. Rose, 36. Here Cicero might have written eius for sua, if he had not wished to continue the Subjective construction, and to place the con- dition in the mind of Africanus (si mea . . . non dicerem). ii. The use of Reflexive Pronouns in the various Clauses will now be noticed. A) I. In a Substantival Clause standing as Object, while the Principal Subject is in the 3rd Person, Pronominal reference to that Subject will be Subjective, unless the Clause has a Subject of its own, requiring Subjective reference to itself. "ait sibi et suis commodis serviendum esse (ser- viri). putat nos sibi et suis commodis obesse. queritur quod vos sibi et suis commodis obsis- tatis. vult ut se et sua commoda tueamur. orabat se et suos liberos defenderem. timet ne ipse et liberi sui neglegantur. non dubitat quin ipse et sua conxmoda sper- nantur. multa obstare putat quominus sibi suis que con- sulatur. ^videt quanta sibi suisque mala impendeant. Such examples are frequent, and free from difficulty. As the Clauses have either no new Subject, or a new Subject Marcus * Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 491 not of the Third Person, or a new Subject not admitting Subjective Pronominal reference, there is nothing to dis- turb the reference of the Reflexive Pronouns to the Prin- cipal Subject Marcus. 2« But, when a Substantival Clause receives a new Subject capable of Subjective Pronominal reference, many diffi- culties arise, the solution of which is generally derived from ' the Reason of the thing,^ sometimes from the character of the principal Verb, sometimes from that of the dependent a. The general Rule in such case is, that the Reflexive Pro- nouns are referred to the Subject, if capable, of the Clause in which they stand ; but if that Subject is not capable, then to the Principal (or Prior) Subject. The capability of the Clausular Subject is tested by seeing if the Clause, converted into Oratio Recta, gives a good sense. 'Caesar reperit Dumnorigem his rebus suam rem fami- liarem auxisse,' B. G. i. 18. Here the converted Clause would be: ^ Dumnorix his rebus suam rem familiarem auxit/ which gives a good sense, and so determines the reference of suam to Dumnorigem ; and this ^the Reason, of the thing' demands. Obs, Sometimes the reference to the Clausular Subject is determined by qui s que joined to the Reflexive : * Natura quidquid genuit in suo quodque genere perfectum esse voluit,' C. T, D, v. 13. Sometimes by other Indefinite Pronouns : ^ Nec quemquam nisi sua voce, utcumque quis posset, ac sine patrono rationem vitae passus est reddere,' Suet. Claud. 16. b. On the other hand, conversion of the Clause in such ex- amples as the following shews that the Reflexive Pro- nouns cannot reasonably be referred to the Subject of the Clause, but must go back to the Principal (or Prior) Subject. 'Datames audit Pisidas quasdam copias adversus se parare,' Nep. Dat. 6. 'Ariovistus respondit, omnis Galliae civitates contra se castra habuisse,' Caes. B, G, i. 44. ^Caesar... docebat, ilium (Ariovistum) . . . beneficio ac liberalitate sua ac senatus ea praemia con- secutum,' Caes. B. G, i. 43. See i. 33. B) If the Clause is an Oblique Petition, with a Subject of its own allowing Subjective Pronominal reference, the meaning of the Principal Verb will cause a difference. If that Verb is one of prayer, command, or endeavoicr, the Subjective reference in the Clause will be to the Principal Subject; if it is one of exhortation, advice, or persuasioUy such reference will be to the Subject of the Clause. Verb. Marcus but Marcus hortatur (admonet) Aulum ) (ut) sibi consulat (i.e. Aulo suadet (persuadet) ^ Aulo). 492 Latifi Syntax, This distinction lies in ^the Reason of the thing that is, in the assumption that we pray or coimnand another for our own benefit, that we exhort or advise him for his own. (1) Iste petit a rege et eum pluribus verbis rogat ut id ad se mittat,' C. Verr, iv. 28. ' Arverni Vercingetorigem obsecrant ut suis fortunis consulat, neu se ab hostibus diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se bellum translatum/ Caes. G, vii. 8. (2) Caesar Nervioshortaturne suiin perpetuum hberandi occasionem dimittant,' Caes. B. G, v. 38. ^ Rex supplicem non prodidit, monuitque ut consuleret sibi,' Nep. Th. 8. 'Helvetii persuadent Rauracis . . . uti, eodem usi consiho, oppidis suis vicisque rehctis, una cum iis (Helvetiis) proficiscantur,' Caes. B, G. i. 5. (Persuadeo is found with Subjective reference in the Clause to the Principal Subject) : * Multa polHcendo persuadet Metellus (legatis) uti lugurtham maxime vivum, sin id parum procedat, necatum s i b i traderent,' Sail. lug. 46. Obs. A Case dependent on a Passive Verb or on sum is sometimes referred to as a Principal Subject, if it appears such when converted into Active form. *A Caesare invitor ( = Caesar me invitat) sibi ut sim legatus/ Caesar iiivites me to be his lieutenant^ C. Att, ii. 18. Ham inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat ( = ' Faustulus speraverat) regiam stirpem apud se educari, L. i. 5. But if it cannot be so converted, the reference will be Objective : 'L. Quinctio Cincinnato in agro aranti nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse factum,' C. Cat, M, 16. In the following places it might seem that the reference ought to be Subjective : *A Cur i one mihi nuntiatum est eum ad me venire,' C. Att, X. 4. ' Nuntiatum est nobis a M. Varrone venisse eum Roma pridie vesperi,' C. Ac. i. i. But the Prep, a means from^ not by : a Curione (M. Varrone) missi nuntiarunt; the true Subjects, therefore, are the messengers. C) Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : I. If the Clause is Final, the Pronominal reference to the purposing Subject will usually be Subjective : ^Cuncti ad me saepe venerunt, ut suarum fortunarum omnium causam defensionemque susciperem/ C. in Caec. I. * (Tiridates) mittebat oratores qui suo Parthorumque nomine expostularent, cur depelleretur,' Tac. Ann. xiii. 37^ Yet we find : *Pompeius . . . idoneum locum nactus ibi copias collo- cavit, suosque omnis in castris continuit, ignisque fieri prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius adventus,' Caes. C. iii. 30. *Verres Milesios navem poposcit, quae eum praesidii causa INIyndum prosequeretu r,' C. Vcrr. i. 34. § 234« Refitxive Pronomis in Clauses. 495 2. In Ut-clauses of a Consecutive nature Pronominal reference to a Principal Subject will usually be Objective, because (result not purpose being implied) there is so far no sub- jectivity in the Clause. * Ligarius in provincia pacatissima ita se gessit ut ei pacem esse expediret/ C. p. Lig, 2. * Habet hoc virtus ut viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste posita delectet/ C. in Pis, 32. Yet if in a result a purpose is implied, the Subjective Pro- noun may be used : *(Agesilaus) locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse multitudo hostium suae paucitati posset/ N. Ag, 7. In the following, the Reflexive is necessary for reference to the Subject of its Clause : *Is enim sic se gerit ut sibi iam decemvir designatus esse videatur/ C. d. L. Agr. ii. 19. 'Caput est Heraclides ille Temnites, homo ineptus et loquax, sed, ut sibi videtur, ita doctus ut/ &c., C Flacc. 18. In the sentence, ' Tum mittit rex ad istum, Si sibi vide at ur, ut reddat/ C. Vefr, iv. 29, the Reflexive seems strange, when we compare : ' Cum ei scriptam orationem orator Lysias attulisset, quam, si ei videretur, edisceret,' C. d. Or. i. 54. ' Reliquum a suis Tyndaridis peteret, si ei videretur,' C. d. Or, ii. 86. But the direct message of the king, *si tibi videtur, redde,' is rendered in oblique form. Other special causes may make the reference in such Clauses Subjective : ' Ambiorix ad hunc modum locutus est : Sese, &c. . . . suaque esse eiusmodi imperia ut non minus haberet iuris in se multitudo quam ipse in multi- tudinem,' Caes. B. G. v. 27. The use of se instead of eum is determined by sese preceding and by the anti- thesis se . . . ipse. 3. Suboblique Quod-clauses often require Subjective Pro- nominal reference to the Principal Subject : ' Scipionem Hannibal eo ipso quod adversus se dux potissimum lectus esset, praestantem virum credebat,' L. xxi. 39. 'Divitiacus ait, scire se ilia esse vera, nec quemquam ex eo plus quam se doloris capere, prop- terea quod per se crevisset,' Caes. B. G. i. 20. 4. Pronominal reference in Conditional Clauses often follows the same rule: 'Domino navis qui sit (Themistocles) aperit, multa pollicens, si se conservasset,' Nep. Th. 8. * Sed ausus est Furfanio dicere, si sibi pecuniam, quan- tam poposcerat, non dedisset, mortuum se in domum eius illaturum,' C.p, Mil. 27. 5. The Subjective reference to the Principal Subject is often kept in a Relative Clause, if * the Reason of the thing ' shews that the Reflexive cannot be referred to the Relative itself: 'Epaminondas ei, qui sibi ex lege praetor suc- cesserat, exercitum non tradidit,' C. Inv. i. 33. 'Dexio 494 Latin Syntax, § 235-36' hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sed imicum abs te filium fiagitat/ C. Verr. v. 49. ^Epaminondas . . . eos coegit superare Lacedaemonios, quos ante se imperatorem nemo Boeotorum ausus fuit aspicere/ Nep. Ep, 8. Yet in such places the Objective Pronoun would not have been wrong ; and in the last cited example there seems little justification for se instead of eum. When Caesar writes : ^ Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant eius regno finitimi, proficiscitur/ B. G. v. 38, he uses the Objective Pronoun because the Clause is a statement of his own, not referred to the mind of Ambiorix. Obs. But, if the Relative Clause is Suboblique, it will often happen that Subjective reference is made to the Relative itself or its immediate Antecedent : ' Commemorant . . . errare eos, si quic- quam ab his praesidii sperent, qui suis rebus diffidant/ Caes. B. G. V. 41. iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes between the Principal Sub- ject and Pronominal reference to it in a Clause, Latin authors, having evidently much freedom of choice, often prefer the Objec- tive reference, as less liable to confusion. 'Quod cum interrogatus esset Socrates, respondit, sese me- ruisse ut amplissimis honoribus et praemiis decoraretur, et ei victus quotidianus in Prytaneo publice praeberetur,' C. d. Or. i. 54. ' Tarquinius e suis unum sciscitatum Romam ad patrem misit quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem, ut omnia unus Gabiis posset, ei di dedissent,^ L. 54. iv. When in the Clauses of a Compound Sentence Subjective reference is made to more than one Subject, ' the Reason of the thing' must determine to what Subjects the Pronouns are referred severally. ' Scythae petebant ab Alexandro ut regis sui (i.e. Scytharum) filiam matrimonio sibi (i.e. Alexandro) iungeret ; si dedignaretur affinitatem, principes Macedonum cum primoribus suae gentis (i.e. Scytharum) conubio coire pateretur,' Curt. viii. i. ' Ariovistus re- spondit, Neminem secum (i.e. cum Ariovisto) sine sua (i.e. con- tendentis) pernicie contendisse,' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 'Tarquinius orabat Tarquiniensis ne se (i.e. Tarquinium) . . . ante oculos suos (i.e. Tarquiniensium) perire sinerent,' L. ii. 6, V. The Definitive Pronoun ipse, which may qualify Nouns or Pronouns of any Person, assists in two ways the use of the Re- flexive Pronouns in Clauses. (i) By qualifying the Subject of a Clause in which a Reflexive Pronoun occurs, so as to shew the reference of that Pronoun to the Subject of the Clause rather than to the Principal Subject. ' Natura movet infantem ut se ipse diligat,' nature prompts an infant to love itself C. Fin. ii. 11. Without ipse the Pronoun se might have been referred to natura. ' Clearchus ait . . . proinde consulant sibi ipsi ; iubeant abire se,' lust. xvi. 4 (sibi is referred byipsi to the Subject of consulant: se refers to the Principal Subject Clearchus). ' Neque prius vim adhibendam putaverunt (Ephori) quam se ipse (Pausanias) indicasset,' Nep. Pans. 4. § 237. Participial Constr2ictio7L 49S 'Flaccus milites portis murisque sibimet ipsos tecta milita- riter coegerat aedificare/ L. xxvii. 3. (2) By standing for the Reflexive se, when antithetic to some other word; whether to a Substantive, to suus, or another Pro- noun. In such use ipse refers to the Principal Subject, and the word to which it is antithetic is either the Subject of the Clause, or referred to the Subject of the Clause. ' Pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret,' Nep. Ale, 5. ^Caesar quaesivit, cur de sua (i.e. miUtuni desperantium) virtute aut de ipsius (i.e. Caesaris) diligentia des- perarent,' Caes. B, G. i. 40. If no such antithesis exists, ipse refers to the next preceding Noun : *Habemus a Caesar e, sicut ipsius dignitas . . . postulabat, sententiam,' C. Cat, iv. 5. Obs. The cases of ipse, when they appositively strengthen and define se, semet, &:c., suus, suusmet, &c., assist Pronominal reference so far only as, by distinguishing Gender and Number, they often make the reference more clear and obvious. * (Rex meminerat hos fratres) nuper praeter consuetudinem . . . admovisse semetipsos lateri suo . . . seque mirantem quodnon. vice sua tali fungerentur officio ... ad armigeros recessisse . . . lam temeritatem verborum, quae in semetipsum iacularentur, nihil aliud esse quam scelesti animi indicem ac testem/ Curt, vii. 2. N'ote I. Inter ipsos, in Cicero, is always preceded by a Case (Genitive or rarely Dative) dependent on some Noun which admits the notion of reciprocity: ^ Id iam patebit, si hominum inter ipsos societatem coniunctionemque perspexeris,' C.Z^^. i. 10. * Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter omnis, societas haec est,' C. Off. i. 16. In other writers inter ipsos appears without the preceding Case: * Sed gloriae maximum certamen inter ipsos erat,' Sail. Cat, 7. 'Haec dum in India geruntur, Graeci milites, orta inter ipsos seditione, defecerant,' Curt. ix. 51. Note 2. Inter se must be connected either with a Plural Ad- jective or with a Verb, or Participle, implying likeness or unlikc- ness^ agreement or disag7'eement^ &c., as, ' Omnes inter se dissi- miles fuerunt,' C. d. Or, iii. 7. A Participle is the Attribute of one that acts, or has acted, or will act ; of one that is being acted on, or has been acted on, or will be acted on ; to which must be added, of one that is meet for acting on. As Adjective, it agrees attributively with Nouns and Pronouns : as a Verb-form, it takes the same Case-constructions as its Verb. A) I. The want of a Perf. Participle Act. in Active Verbs is sup- plied in Latin either by the Finite Verb Active, with Relative or Particle, or by an Abl. Absolute Passive : ' Tarquinium regem qui non tulerim, Sicinium feram?' having refused to endure Tarqicin as king, shall I e7idu7'e Sici- IV. Participial C onstruction. 237 Parti- ciples. Latin Syntax, §238. niusf L. ii. 34. ^Alexander, eum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus abstinuit/ Alexander^ having slain Clitus, hardly re- frained from suicide^ C. Z". D, iv. 37. ' Pompeius, captis Hiero- solymis, victor ex illo fano nihil attigit/ Pompeius^ having taken Jerusalem^ in the very moment of victory^ meddled with nothing belonging to that temple^ C. p, Flacc. 28. 2. The want of a Pres. Participle Passive is supphed by the Finite Passive Verb with Relative or Particle : * Pueri, qui (cum, dum) docentur, discunt = Greek vraTSec Zi^^arTKoyLtvoL \xavQavovm^ children {by) being taught learn. Rarely the Perfect Participle Passive takes a Present Passive sense: 'Sperata victoria' ( = victoria quae speratur), L. xxx. 30. 3. A Fut. Participle Passive is not often used even in Greek. In Latin the Finite Verb with Relative stands for it: * Grata superveniet quae non sperabitur hora/ Hor. Epist. i. 4. 14. 4. Some Participles are used as mere Adjectives. Such are, neglegens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, vene- randus, &c. Many appear as Substantives : amans, adulescens, sponsus ; nupta, sponsa ; coeptum, dictum, factum, praeceptum, &:c. Neuters such as the last named are sometimes modified by Adverbs: 'Verum est fortis et sapientis viros non tam praemia sequi solere recte factor um quam ipsa recte fact a,' C. Mil. 35. The Nouns, man^ men., things, are frequently understood with Participles: * Grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto,' they that would utter a sublime strain must cull mists on Helicon, Pers. V. 7. ^ Male part a male dilabuntur/ /// gottcii, ill go, C. Phil. ii. 27. 'Beatos puto, quibus deorum munere datum est aut facere scribenda, aut scribere loquenda,' Plin. Ep. vi. 16. B) A Participle may often be considered as an Enthesis or Abbreviated Clause. Such use is of two kinds : (1) Attributive, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbrevi- ated is contained (in any Case, and expressed or under- stood) in the Principal Sentence, and the Participle agrees with that word in Gender, Number, and Case : * Alexander moriens ( = cum moreretur) anulum suum dederat Perdiccae/ Alexander in his dying mo7?ients had given his riiig to Perdiccas, Nep. Eum. 2. *Spreta( = si spreta est) in tempore gloria interdum cumulatior redit,' glory spurned at the right mo^nent now and theft retu7vts in ampler measure, L. ii. 47. ' Animo nobis opus est non abhorrente ( = qui non abhorreat) a quietis consiliis,' we need a temper not averse from peaceful cou/t- sels, L. XXX. 30. ^Servilius Ahala Sp. Maelium, regnum appetentem ( = quod appeteret) interemit,' Servilius Ahala slew Spurius Maelius,for aiming at royal power, C. Cat. M. 16. (2) Absolute, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbreviated is not contained in the principal Sentence, but is placed, together with the Participle, in the Ablative Case. See § 161, and Examples, p. 411. § 239- Participial Constnictio7t 497 1) It appears therefore that the Ablative Absolute must not generally be used when a Noun-term for the Participle to agree with can be found in the Principal Sentence. For instance, we must not write : Nostra te legente, utere tuo iudicio ; but, ' Nostra legens utere tuo iudicio,' when yon read my works, use your own judgment, C. This rule is sometimes, but very rarely, violated, and then only for the sake of some peculiar emphasis. ' Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile in- cendit (eos),' Caes. B, 6^. vii. 4. * lugurtha fratre meo interfecto regnum e i u s sceleris sui praedam fecit,' Sail. lug. 14. 2) The want of a Copulative Participle (being) enables the Abl. Abs. to consist of Substantive with Adjective : ' Caesare vivo,' Caesar being alive, or of two Substantives : ' Caesare duce/ Caesar being commander : ^ Consule Planco/ 3) The Impersonal Passive construction (erratur, litatur, &c.) enables a Participle alone to be used Absolutely : Errato (a mistake having been made), litato {sacrifice having been duly performed), &c. 4) A Clause may be Absolute with a Participle or Adjective. See § 161. 4. C The Participial Construction, Attributive and Absolute, is ^39 used to abbreviate (1) Relative Clauses : ' Peloponnesus est peninsula, angustis Isthmi faucibus con- tinenti adhaerens,' the Pelopomiesus is a peninsula, attached to the continent by the narrow pass ofihe Isthmus, L. xxxii. 21. ^ Sunt divitiae certae, in quacumque sortis humanae levitate permansurae,' sure riches are those that will abide in whatsoever fickleness of hmnan fortune, S^n. Ben. Y\. * Pisistratus Homed libros, confusos an tea, disposuit,' Pisistratus arranged the books of Homer, which were heretofore confused, C. d. Or. iii. 4. (Where adhaerens = quae adhaeret ; permansurae = quae permansurae sunt ; confusos = qui confusi erant.) ^ Gau- dentem ' (Hon C. i. i. 11) =^ hominem qui gaudet.' (2) Adverbial Clauses : 1) Consecutive Clauses are represented by Participial construc- tion (chiefly where this is accompanied by a Negative) : ^Sapientis est, nihil contra mores, leges, instituta facien- tem, habere rationem rei familiaris,' it is a wise man^s duty to have regard to his private fortune, so that he do nothing contrary to morals, laws, and customs, C. Ofi^.m. 15 (where nihil facientem = ita ut nihil faciat, without doing anything). ^ Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die,' nature has given the loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing a7ty day for repayment, C. T. D. i. 39.^ • Here observe the versions of the English idiom 'without,' followed by a Verb. K K 498 Latin Syntax, 239* 2) Final Clauses may be abbreviated by the Fut. Participle : * Catilina ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi/ Catilina goes to the ar7ny, intending to march on the city, Flor. iv. I. * Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum/ Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to get provisions for the winter, Curt. viii. 8. (Where illa- turus =ut inferat ; paraturum = ut pararet.) See § 186. 3) Causal Clauses: ^ Nihil affirmo dub it an s plerumque et mihi ipse diffidens/ / affit'm nothing because I gene- rally doubt and distrust myself, C. Div. ii. 3 (dubitans = quia dubito, diffidens = quia diffido). ^ Hephaestio longe omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandre, cum ipso pariter educatus/ of all his friends Hephaestion was by far the dearest to Alexander, becatise he had been brought up with him. Curt. iii. 12 (educatus = quia educatus erat). ^Flaminium Coelius religione neglecta cecidisse apud Trasimenum scribit/ Coelius says, that Flaminius fell at Trasimenus, because he had neglected religion, C. A^. D. ii. 3 (i.e. quod religionem neglexisset). 4) Temporal Clauses: * Herculem Germani, ituri in proelia, canunt/ the Germans, when about to march to battle, chaunt Hercules, Tac. G. 3 (i.e. cum ituri sunt). * Tar- quinius Ardeam oppugnans imperium perdidit/ Tarquin lost his power, while besieging Ardea, Eutr. i. 8 (op- pugnans = dum oppugnat). ^ Pleraeque scribuntur ora- tiones habitae iam, non ut habeantur/ most speeches are written after being delivered, not that they may be deli- vered, C. Br, 91 (habitae = postquam habitae sunt), ^love tonante cum populo agi non est fas/ when Jupiter thunders, it is against religion to transact affairs with the people, C. Phil. v. 3 (i.e. cum luppiter tonat). 5) Conditional Clauses: ^ Epistulae offendunt, non loco red- di\l2i,^,^ letters annoy, if not delivered in season, C. Fa7n, xi. 16 (i.e. si non redduntur). ^ Nihil, me sciente, Marcus entered the city ivitho7it being saluted by any one, may be variously rendered : (1) Marcus nullo salutante urbem ingressus est. (2) Marcus a nullo salutatus urbem ingressus est. (3) Marcus insalutatus urbem ingressus est. (4) Marcus sine cuiusquam salutatione urbem ingressus est. (5) Marcus ita urbem ingressus est ut a nullo salutaretur. (6) Marcus urbem est ingressus neque a quoquam salutatus est. And, with a Negative, Marcus never entered the city without being saluted — (7) Marcus numquam urbem ingressus est quin {or ut non) salutaretur. This force of the Participle with a Negation may be illustrated by a few more examples: 'Epicurus, non erubescens, voluptates persequitur omnis nominatim,' Epicurus without blushing details all pleasures by name, C. ^V. D. i. 40. 'Constat Nu- mam non petentem in regnum ultro accitum,' it ts well known that Numa, without being a candidate, was solicited to accept the royal office, L. i. 35. * In bello civili nihil accidit non p r a e d i c e n t e me,' in the civil war nothing has happened without 7ny foretelling it, C. Fam. \\. 6. * Quis est qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis philosophum se audeat dicere?' who ivill dare to call hi7nself a philosopher without lay- ing down iiny rides of duty ? C. Off. i. 2. § 240. Participial Coiisirtiction, '499 frustra voles/ you shall wish for nothing in vain, if I know it, Sail. (i.e. dummodo ego sciam). 6) Concessive Clauses: ^ Scripta tua iam diu exspectans, non audeo tarn en flagitare/ though I have long been look- ing for your writings, yet I dare not demand them, C. Ac, i. I. (i.e. etsi exspecto). ^Perditis rebus omnibus, tamen ipsa se virtus sustentare potest/ though all things be lost, yet virtue ca7i support herself, C. Fa7n. vi. i. (i.e. quamvis perditae sint). Nisi, etsi, quamvis may annex a Participial Clause: ' Etsi aliquo accepto detrimento tamen summa exer- citus salva locum quem petunt capi posse/ though some loss would be sustained, yet the spot they ai7ned at inight be occupied without the main ar?ny being destroyed, Caes. C i. 67. 7) In Comparative Participial Constructions the Particles are prefixed to the Participial Clause : * Graecas litteras senex didici, quas quidem avide arripui, quasi diuturnam sitim explere cupiens/ I learnt Greek in old age, and grasped it indeed with 77iuch zest, as if I wished to quench a pro- tracted thirst, C. Cat, M. 8. ^ Antiochus securus de bello Romano erat, tamquam non trans ituris in Asiam Romanis,' A7ttiochus was ca7'eless about the war with Rome, as i7nagining that the Romans would not come over to Asia, L. xxxvi. 41. D) Notes on Participial Construction. 1) The Participle Perfect Passive is used to express a past action continuing in its consequences, after such Verbs as habeo, teneo, possideo, &c. : ^Illud exploratum habeto, nihil fieri potuisse sine causa,' co7isider it clear, that nothing could have been made without a cause, C. Div. ii. 28. * Hoc tibi persuasum habe,' be persuaded of this, C. 'Hoc cognitum comprehensumque habeo/ this is thoroughly know7i a7id C07nprehe7ided by me, C. 2) It is used in older Latin with the Verbs do, reddo, euro, by way of Periphrasis: 'Stratas legiones Latinorum dabo/ I will lay prostrate the legions of the Latins, L. viii. 6. 'Hoc tibi e ff e c t u m r e d d a m/ /V/ get this do7ie for you, Ter. An. iv. 4. 'Inventum tibi curabo et mecum adductum Pamphilum,' Fit look up Pa77iphilus for you and bring him with me, Ter. An. iv. 4. To the same idiom belong the phrases missum face re and fieri: 'Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant honores,' if any are seduced by pleasures, they 7nay bid farewell to honours, C. p. Sest. 68. ' Legiones bello con- fecto missas fieri placet/ I recom7ne7id that 07i the close of the war the legions be disbanded, C. Phil. v. 19. After vol o, nolo, cupio, oportet, a Perf. Participle repre- sents Infin. Pass., see p. 449. The constructions ' Pro- perato opus est/ hasty action is needed, C. ;*Liberis consultum volumus,'w wotdd have the children's good K K 2 Latm Syntax, § 240. regardedyCr, ^Mansum oportuit/ Ter., arise from the Impers. use of Passive Verbs. 3) The Participle Perfect is used attributively to supply the place of a Substantive expressing the action of the Verb : ' Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis etreceptus Han- nibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motum faciebat/ both the reception of Hannibal and the co7nmencement of war against Eumenes made King Prusias an object of suspicion to the Romans^ L. xxxix. 51. * Labeo male administratae provinciae arguebatur/ Labeo was, charged with maladministration of the province, Tac. Ann. vi. 29. Hence Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the Neuter Participle Perf Pass, to express the Substantival notion of the Passive Verb, which the Greeks expressed by the Article and Infinitive : *Diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem ne ante meri- diem signum dare posset,* the lo7ig-continued want of a well-omened sacrifice had withheld the dictator from being able to give the signal before noon, L. vii. 8. So, tenta- tum, L. iv. 49. * Summisque negatum stare diu,' Lucan, i. 70. ' Notum,' V. Ae. v. 6. ' Expectatum,^ V. G. iii. 348. €) The Gerundive Construction is more largely used in the place of Substantives expressing the transitive action of the Verb : ^Flagitiosum est ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere,' it is scandalous to take mo7iey to give a verdict in court, C. Verr. ii. 2,2. 'Temperantia constat ex praetermit- tendis voluptatibus corporis,' temperance consists in abstinence from bodily pleasures, C. N. D. iii. 1 5. ^ Pho- cion cum Demade de urbe tradenda Antipatro con- sen serat,' Phocio7i had agreed with De7Jiades as to the sur- render of the city to Antipater, Nep. Phoc. 2. In Livy's Preface we read ^ ante conditam condendamve urbem,' which probably means ^ before the actual or de- signed foundation of the city,' ' before the city was built or commenced.' See Gerundive Construction. 5) Participles are sometimes equivalent to Gerundive Instru- mental Construction : * Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit,' the air, by flowing hither and thither, causes winds, C. A^. D. ii. 39. * Crescit indulgens sibi dirus hydrops,' the dreadful dropsy grows by self-indulgence, Hor. C ii. 2. 13. See § 161. 2. 6) A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two Verbs : 'Caesar scribit, se cum legionibus profectum celeriter adfore,' Caesar wrote word that he had set out with his legions and would soon arrive, Caes. B. G. v. 38. * lure interfectum Clitum Macedones decernunt, sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset,' the Mace- do niafts voted that C lit us was justly slai?i, and would § 241. Arrangement of Words, even have denied him burial^ had not the king ordered him to be interred^ Curt, viii.- 2. 7) A Participle Present after such Verbs as audio, video, facio, pingo, &c., expresses the action or state of the Object heard, seen, &c. : * Audivi eum dicentem, vidi eum ambulantem,' &c. Analogous to this is the construction, 'Est apud Platonem Socrates . . . die en s,^ &c., we read in Plato of Socrates saying, &c. C. 8) The Participle sometimes repeats the preceding Verb : 'Mars videt hanc visamque cupit,' Mars sees, and seeing desires her, Ov. Fast. iii. 21. 9) A Participial construction is often involved with an Oblique Interrogation or a Relative Clause : 'Cogitate quant is laboribus fundatum imperium, quanta virtute stabilitam libertatem una nox paene delerit,' C. Cat. iv. 9. Such a sentence cannot be rendered in English without paraphrase : Consider how vast the toil that founded this empire, how great the valour that esta- blished this freedom, which a single night all but de- stroyed. CHAPTER V. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND STRUCTURE AND CONNEXION OY SENTENCES. The Order of Words reflects the progress of a Ar- writer's ideas. This is true of modern languages, such memoi as English and French, which, having lost their inflex- Words, ions, are obliged in the arrangement of words to follow somewhat definite rules ; but it is worthy of special attention in languages which, by inflecting the Nouns and Verbs, can abandon the syntactical order as often as emphasis or harmony requires. Latin is one of these languages, which are called Transpositive. A. Since an unusual order indicates logical or rhetorical em-^ phasis, it is necessary for adequate translation that the ordinary arrangement should be clearly understood. We shall consider I. the beginning; 11. the end; III. the middle of the Sentence. 1. I. The Subject usually stands either first, or after the word definitive of time, place, or logical connexion : Verres Siciliam vexavit. At ille in iudicium venit. 2. Everything logically connected with the Subject must be placed in close connexion with it ; 502 Latin Syntax. ^ 242. The Aediii, since they were unable to protect themselves a7id their property^ sent ambassadors to Caesar. ^Aedui legates ad Caesarem mittunt, cum se suaque defendere non possent/ Caes. Democritzis was of course unable to distinguish between black and white, after he had lost his sight. 'Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra discernere non poterat/ C. Hence, if emphasis is to be thrown on the Subject, it must be placed in a striking position. Now the most striking position is that farthest removed from the ordinary one. Therefore it should be placed at the end of the Sentence : * Scenicorum mos tantam habet verecundiam, ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo/ C. ^Hannibal iam subibat muros, cum in eum erumpunt Ro- mani/ L. II. The end of the Sentence is occupied in general by the Verb, because this usually contains the main predication, and unites together the whole proposition. Such order is frequently observed throughout long paragraphs, as in L. ix. 40, 41. This arrangement, however, should be abandoned : 1. If it is inharmonious in sound, as happens whenever several Verbs come together in a period: ^Constiterunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando praeter spem hostis occur- risset, faciendum esset consulerent quieti opperientes/ L. xxxiii. 6. 2. If it is necessary to give peculiar importance to the Verb, which, like other words, acquires emphasis from an unusual posi- tion: ^Offendit te, A. Cornell, vos, Patres conscripti, circumfusa turba lateri meo,' C. 3. Or to emphasise a word, which in the middle of the sentence would not have the requisite stress : * Sicine vestrum militem ac praesidem sinitis vexari ab inimicis?' L. 4. To prevent the separation of closely connected words : ^Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis,' C. 5. To secure directness of expression in clauses introduced by enim or autem : ' Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat : habet enim flebile quiddam in quaestionibus,' C. ^Amicum aegrotantem visere volebat : habitat autem ille in parte urbis remotissima,' C. 6. To secure Antithesis by the figure Chiasmus : * Aedes pesti- lentes sint, habeantur salubres,' C. 'Patriae salutem ante- ponet saluti patris/ C. III. The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by the Adverb and other quahfying words ; and by the Oblique Cases. The Adverb, however, and the Oblique Cases, like other words, acquire emphasis from peculiarity of position : ^ His Fabriciis sem- per usus est Oppianicus familiarissime/ C. ' Secuti estis alium ducem ; sequemini nunc Cam ilium/ L. Notes. i) The Adjective or dependent Genitive usually follows its Sub- stantive : * Vir bonus. Moderatio animi.' But if it is emphatic § 242. Arrangement of Words, 503 or imparts a specific meaning to an Adjective, or other word, it precedes it: Magnus Alexander, or Magnus ille Alexander, luris prudens. 2) Usually Substantives having a Genitive belonging to them all, should not be separated, but all should follow or precede it: * Huius autem orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium invenire,' C. ^ Honestum autem illud positum est in animi cur a atque cogitation e,' C Similarly several Genitives depending on a single Noun either follow or precede it : ' Dedicatum est inter cellam lovis et Minervae,' L. * Haec omnia honoris et am- plitudinis commodo compensantur,' C. Yet closely connected words are frequently separated for the sake of emphasis: Mustitiam cole et pietatem,' C. * Quod et aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae/ C. 3) An Adjective qualifying a Substantive with dependent Geni- tive is placed first, the Genitive next: Una litterarum signifi- catio. Constans omnium fama. But an Attribute acquires emphasis by separation from its Noun: In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. ^Unum a Clu- entio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende,' C. 4) Contrasted words are rendered effective by juxtaposition : * Ex bello tam tristi laeta repente pax cariores Sabinas viris ac parentibus fecit,' L. * Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror contemnendam,' C. 5) Similarly, different cases of the same word, and words having a common derivation, are placed in juxtaposition : 'Alium alio nequiorem. Sint semper omnia homini hu- mana meditata. ^ Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi,' C. Lael, 6) Qui s que should be placed in juxtaposition with suus and the cases of sui: *Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur/ ^Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas dimisit/ L. xxi. 7) The directness of Latin expression requires that in Negative Sentences the Negative form should be stamped on the sentence at once : *Negat Epicurus quemquam, qui honeste non vivat, iucunde posse vivere,' C. * Nihil est agricultura melius, nihil homine libero dignius/ C. 'Vet at enim dominans ille in nobis Deus iniussu nos hinc suo demigrare,' C. ^Nemini quicquam negavit. Non memini me umquam te vidisse. Hence non is frequently separated by one or more words from mo do, solum, tantum, minus, magis : *Ius bonumque apud Scythas non legibus magis quam natura valebat,' C. 8) Similarly for the sake of emphasis ante and prius are sepa- rated from quam, and the Demonstrative from its Relative : 'Ante revertit quam expectaveram/ C. 'Illud quidem post accidit quam discesseram,' C. 'Hanc esse perfectam philoso- phiam semper indicavi, quae de maximis quaestionibus, &c., C. 9) The Demonstrative Pronouns usually precede their Substan- tives . Latin Syiitax. §243 *Eius disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi : quas hoc libro exposui meo arbitrio/ Cic. Unless it is desirable to bring them into close connexion with the Relative : ^ Numquam qui iratus accedet ad poenam mediocritatem ill am tenebit, quae est inter nimium et parum/ C. 10) Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case, or at least are only separated from it by a Genitive belonging to the Case they govern : ^Sanguis a corde in totum corpus distribuitur/ C. 'Quid est tarn inhumanum quam eloquentiam ad bono rum perniciem per- vertere/ C. 11) Qualifying words, however, which form an essential part of the word governed by a preposition, may intervene between the preposition and its case : Ob non redditos transfugas. De bene beateque vivendo. ' Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et iudicio volumine,' C. 12) Disyllabic prepositions often follow their case, if it is a pronoun: is quem contra dico; sometimes also ad, de, per, post, follow their case. This, however, is usually to prevent the separation of the relative from its antecedent : lUud, quo de agitur. Aft Apposition to a Proper Name is commonly placed after the name, as conveying a subordinate idea : ' Q. Mucius augur multa narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo, solebat/ C. Agis rex ; Cyprus insula ; Hypanis fluvius ; Orpheus poeta. If, however, the Appellative is more important, and requires to be emphasised, it will precede the Proper Name : 'Obviam ei venerunt duo consules, C. Terentius Varro et L. Paullus Aemilius,' L. C. The Connexion of Sentences. Connex- 0 Latin writers not only paid great attention to the logical ion of sequence of Clauses and Sentences, but made this logical con- ce"^^"' riexion obvious by placing a particle as the first or second word in the sentence. Hence no sentence stands detached unless it is logically disconnected from what precedes. Senteaces connected in thought form links of a chain, which only breaks off because the topic is altogether dismissed. 2) The Relative and its Particles are particularly useful for this connexion of sentences, and for avoiding monotonous repetition. The Relative may be used for the Demonstrative with a Particle, and is therefore found with those Conjunctions which allow of connexion by means of a Particle. See COORDINATION. Quod cum audissem ; quod si fecissem ; quod quamvis non ignorassem ; for Et cum hoc, &c. From this habit of connexion by Relatives, appears to have arisen the use of quod before many Conjunctions, as a merely Sociative Particle. It is most freauent before the conditional g 244. Periodic Style, 505 Particles, si, nisi, and etsi, and is found also, though more rarely, before other Conjunctions : so quod cum, quod ubi, quod utinam ; in all which the Conjunction alone would have been sufficient. Even before the Relative, we find quod thus used : ^ Quod qui ab illo abducit exercitum, et respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium firmissimum adimit reipublicae,' C. See § 82. 3) Another peculiarity, which in Latin helps the connexion of Sentences, is the use of neque (nec). It stands for et with the Negation, in whatever form it occurs in the sentence, unless when it belongs exclusively to a single word in antithesis. This con- nexion is in Latin so common, that, for the sake of it, neque is joined to enim and vero, where in English we could not use and, and are, therefore, obliged to explain it by saying that neque = non. The Period in Latin. L i) A Period is a compound Proposition, consisting of at least two, generally of several Sentences, which are so connected, that grammatical construction is not complete before the last clause is added. A Period {ambitus or circuitus verborum) is so called because the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses. 2) A Period is Simple, when it does not consist of more than two such Sentences, related to each other as Antecedent and Con- sequent (Protasis and Apodosis). It is Complex if it consists of several Sentences so related. 3) Thus the following sentences do not constitute Periods : Quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia vel maximae dilabuntur. Vitis natura caduca est, et claviculis quid- quid est nacta complectitur. But they may readily be made to assume a simple Periodic form : Constat, quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescant, ita dis- cordia vel maximas dilabi. Vitis, quae natura caduca est, quid- quid est nacta, complectitur. The latter sentence, if we add to it, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, becomes a Complex Period, in which vitis complectitur is the principal sentence, quae natura caduca est, nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, quidquid est nacta, are the clauses. It may be further enlarged as it stands in Cicero : * Vitis, quae natura caduca est, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, eadem, ut se erigat, claviculis, quasi manibus, quidquid est nacta complectitur,' C. Cat. M. is* 4) If the Subject of two Sentences united by a Conjunction is one and the same, the almost invariable practice in Latin is to form them into a Period : ^ Antigonus, cum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret, in proeho occisus est,' Nep. E7^m. ' Verres, simul ac tetigit pro- vinciam, statim Messanam Htteras dedit,' C. Verr. i. So also when the Object is the same for both Propositions : ' Quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis interfecerunt,' Nep. Ate, 5o6 Latin Syntax, § 245. 5) The Clauses of a Period are modifications of the main pro- position. By being grouped together in due order, they produce the effect of logical completeness, of sonorous and dignified ex- pression, which accorded well with the gravity and majesty of tht Roman character. The Periodic style is admirably fitted for the great oratorical efforts of an accomplished rhetorician like Cicero; and for history designed, as was Livy's, to celebrate the greatness and triumphs of the Roman people. Hence the style of the golden age of Latinity is essentially Periodic. It is, however, but ill adapted for an age in which a profusion of new ideas and fresh information demands the most rapid and facile expression. The modern style is on this account essentially unperiodic. It will be easily understood that the Period is not suited for all subjects. It is out of place in the description of ordinary and trivial matter, in epistolary composition, in outbursts of passion, irony and denunciation. II i) As the dignity of the Roman character delighted in the sonorous roll and fulness of the Period, so their practical sagacity and critical ear required that it should be well proportioned, rhyth- mical, unmonotonous, and above all, perspicuous and clear. 2) To secure the first of these requisites, a Period should consist of sentences of nearly equal length : ^ Et quisquam dubitabit | quin huic tantum bellum transmit- tendum sit | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella capienda | divino quodam consiho natus esse videatur,' C. * Stultitia etsi adepta est quod concupivit | numquam se tamen satis consecutam putat,' C. 3) Roundness and regularity of sound is chiefly to be obtained :by correspondence in the structure of sentences. Words, which are opposed to each other, should, as far as possible, be of the same kind, so that noun should answer to noun, verb to verb, &c. If possible, more than one important word should intervene between a parenthetic Clause and the end of a Sentence : * Magnitudo maleficii facit, ut, nisi manifestum parricidium pro- feratur, credibile non sit,' C. 4) All good prose writing is rhythmical, that is, it flows on in such a manner as to satisfy and dehght the ear. It is, however, especially necessary to attend to the cadence of a Sentence or Period, because the necessary pause at the close gives the ear time to criticise. The following is a table of cadences approved by Cicero and Quintihan : Creticus cum Ditrocheo . . Trochaeus cum Molosso . . Trochaeus cum PaeoneTertio -v Creticus cum Cretico . . . Dochmius ^tui^Scipio. Tribrachys cum Spondeo . . ^ varietates. Trochaeus vel Iambus j * pluribus de causis. cum Dispondeo . . i »^-1 |virum condemnarimt. Bacchius . ^ videri. Palimbacchius ^ novisse. 5) As the rhythm of prose is essentially distinct from that of -w-v^ gloriam comparavit. membra firmarunt. esse videatur. coffitans sentio. — <^ — § 246-47. Periodic Style, 507 verse, all verse-endings should be avoided at the close of a sen- tence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and spondee. Such endings, therefore, as quo me vertam nescio ; esse videtur; are carefully to be avoided. It should be observed, however, that the historians were less careful on this point than the orators and rhetoricians. Hexameter endings are frequently met with in Livy. III. To prevent monotony in the periodic style, short detached sentences {cola or commata) are introduced. Such frequently occur in periodic style. To secure perspicuity and clearness of expression in constructing them, the following rules should be observed : (1) That no Sentences be admitted into a Period but such as are logically connected together. (2) That of these Sentences the leading thought form the main proposition. (3) That the limitative and qualifying Sentence be placed in logical subordination. Hence in a narrative the accessory details should be arranged in the order of time. (4) That every Period, indeed every Sentence, commence with the word in closest logical connexion with the preceding : ^ Bellum propter nos suscepistis : susceptum quartum deci- mum annum pertinaciter geritis,' L. * Quod si acciderit, facienda morum institutorumque m u t a t io est. Commutato autem genere vitae/ &c. C. (s) Hence the Relative should be placed as near to the Ante- cedent as possible. To secure this, either the Relative Clause is introduced parenthetically after its Antecedent : ^Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, pluris ait fuisse,^ C. Or the Antecedent is drawn into contact with the Relative by being placed at the end of the Principal Sentence : ^ Dicebam habere eos actorem Q. Caecilium, qui praesertim quaestor in eadem provincia post me quaestorem fuerat,' C. The same remark applies to hie, inde, unde, ibi, &c. : * Hannibal tris exercitus maximos comparavit. Ex his unum in Africam misit (not unum ex his)/ L. Hence quamobrem and quare always begin a sentence. IV. As, in the construction of a Simple Sentence, minor addi- tions and circumstances are thrown into the middle, and the Verb closes the whole, so Clauses containing explanatory matter are thrown into the midde of the Period : * Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam traiecit. Itaque, cum Romam venisset, statim imperatorem adiit,' L. So8 Latin Syntax. % 248. The usual arrangement of clauses in a Period is analogous to that of words in a Simple Sentence. (i) The word or clause containing the Subject, with the words or clauses immediately connected with it. (2) The words or clauses explanatory of the time, place, motive, &c. (3) The word or clause expressing the remoter object. (4) The clause express- ing the immediate object. (5) The principal Verb. To this arrangement there are frequent exceptions, particularly in the position of the principal Verb, for, as was before stated, an agglomeration of finite Verbs at the end of a Period was especially distasteful to the Romans. Hence the principal Verb frequently precedes a Substantival, Final, or Consecutive Clause : ^ Cum C. Licinius sacerdos prodisset, clara voce, ut omnis contio audire posset, dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peier- asse,' C. ' Commilitones appellans, orabat ne, quod scelus Ap. Claudii esset, sibi attribuerent,' L. * Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens, confestim Turno necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo civium animos domi oppresserat, Latinis infer ret,' L. V. Correlative construction is largely employed in forming Periods. If emphasis is sought, the Relative is placed before the Demonstrative : * Quid ? ii qui dixerunt totam de dis opinionem fictam esse ab hominibus reipublicae causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad officium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustule- runt.'" C. ^ Quod si, quam audax est ad conandum, tam esset obscurus in agendo, fortasse aliqua in re nos aliquando fefel- lisset,' C. So qualis often precedes talis : quidquid id: and quo, hoc or eo. But this is not the universal practice. VI. Grammatical Subject and Object in Periods. t) The literature of the Romans is distinguished above all others by directness and lucidity of expression. This is mainly due to the practical sagacity which was their distinguishing charac- teristic ; but partly also to the conditions under which their literary works were composed. There was then no eager public, demand- ing daily information and periodical criticism : consequently there was no popular literature. As reporters did not exist, we have no trustworthy remains of spontaneous eloquence. The orations that have come down to us are either masterpieces redacted by the orators themselves, or speeches attributed to eminent men by his- torians. Hence both in matter and form they are the products not of extemporaneous eloquence, but of literary labour. Moreover, in the case of the ancients, the limited character of their scientific and other information, and the comparative want of fecundity and diversity of ideas, made artistic expression in every branch of art more easily attainable. The simplicity of conception and purity and unity of execution, which distinguish the great works of antiquity, are denied to a modern writer by the very pro- fusion of thought and material which surrounds him. Fer iodic Style. 509 2) To secure unity and directness of expression : (i) The Subject remains in the same Case, as far as possible, throughout a Period : When they asked h i m for his opinion^ he replied, ■ Rogatus sententiam respondit. Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp ; but he soon ' returned, because he said that he had forgotten some- thing. ' Cum Hannibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paulo post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret,' C. * (2) The introduction of several independent subjects in the same Period is avoided. Hence sentences expressing the time, condition, or means of accomplishing the main action, are frequently thrown into the Ablative Absolute or are introduced in a Subordinate Sentence, not coordi- nated as they frequently are in English : This was observed^ and they altered their plan. Id ubi vident, mutant consilium. The plan was universally approved^ and the consul was entrusted with the execution of it. Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur. (3) If an Oblique Case of one sentence becomes the Subject of the next, the change of Subject should be clearly indi- cated by a Pronoun : * Huius filiam virginem auro corrumpit Tatius, ut arma- tos in arcem accipiat. Aquam forte ea tum sacris extra moenia petitum ierat,' L. i. 'Principium defectionis ab Othone factum est. Is cum magna popularium manu transfugit,' Tac. (4) The Subject of discourse, in whatever case it may appear, should receive prominence by being placed at the begin- ning of the Period. Four cases require illustration : d) When the grammatical Subject of the principal sentence and clauses is the same : ^ Dionysius, cum gravior crudeliorque indies civitati esset, iterata coniuratione obsidetur,' Nep. * Ea animi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis, si iustitia vacat, in vitio est,' C. b) When the Subject of the principal sentence is the Object of the clauses : *Galli, cum eos non caperent terrae, trecenta milia ad novas sedes quaerendas miserunt,' L. 'Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti de- pugnari placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohibe- rent,' C. c) When the Object of the principal sentence and of the clause is the same : *Praemia virtutis communi petitorum consensu tulit, concessit autem Alcibiadi, quem magno opere dilexit.' Latin Syntax, § 249-50- ^ Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finx- isset, cum ariete colloquentem facit/ C. d) When the Object of the principal sentence is the Subject of the clauses : apt is, cum paenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur edixit/ L. *Midae illi Phrygio, cum puer esset, dormienti formicae in OS tritici grana congesserunt/ C. The forms d) and c) are most deserving of imitation, because they possess greater directness and unity of expression. When, how- ever, prominence is to be given to the motive or occasion of an act, it may be necessary to employ the other forms. «49 VII. Historical narrative requires frequent change in statements of time : to express which, historians have recourse to two resources — the Participial construction, attributive and absolute, and the Conjunctions, cum, ubi, postquam. By these Livy can unite, without failure of perspicuity, in one Period, what in English must be broken into three or more : ' Numitor, inter primum tumultum, hostis invasisse urbem atque adortos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes per- petrata caede pergere ad se gratulantis vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque eius auctorem ostendit,' L. i. ^ His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, post- quam dolo viam obsaeptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus, circumire supplex Etruriae urbes,' L. ii.^ 250 Quaii- E. Poetry and Prose alike require the virtues of Purity, Perspi- sTyie.^ cuity, Simplicity, and Harmony. 1) Purity is violated by Barbarism or Solecism. Barbarism is the use of a word not properly Latin, as, confiscare, ^ to confiscate : ' or (what is more to be guarded against as a more easy error) the use of good Latin words in meanings they do not bear : as, in ten tio, for ^ an intention,' instead of consilium. Solecism is a construction not allowed by Syntax : Parce me, for pare e mihi : Ita graviter aegrotavit ut paene mortuus est, for mortuus sit 2) Perspicuity of style requires that it be clear and intelligible, free from confusion and ambiguity. 3) Simplicity of style requires it to be free from affectation, and unencumbered by tawdry and tasteless ornament. 4) Harmony of style requires that harsh and unmusical sounds be carefully avoided ; that long and short words be well inter- mixed, and that grave and important words close the sentences.^ * Compare with these a much less elegantly constructed Period in Caes. B. C. ii. 22 : * Massilienses . . , constituunt.' ' The style of Prose Composition admits a fourfold distinction : (i) The Didactic ; (2) the Epistolary ; (3) the Oratorical ; (4) the Narrative or Historic. 5 251-52. Quantity and Rhythm. PART III. sody. 25> LATIN PROSODY. 251 A. PROSODiAy of which the Latin accentus is a trans- Pro- lation, denoted in classical Greek the accent of a word. In later times, when Accent became confounded with Quantity, the word was sometimes employed in its modern sense. In English and other languages Prosody now signifies that part of Grammar which deals with the quantity of syllables and the rules of metre. I. Quantity and Rhythm". Quan- I. In Latin, as in Greek, Verse depended on the Quantity of syl- Rhy."^ lables, every syllable being either long or short ; and the various thm. metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short syllables to each other. We therefore first treat of the Quantity of syllables, so far as it can be reduced to rule ; and then discuss the most important metres : the Heroic Hexameter first, as the leading and typical form of verse ; next the Elegiac, and then the Lyric metres, mainly those of Horace and Catullus. Of the first three styles, the model in Latin is Cicero, to whom, we may justly say, non viget quicquam simile aut secundum, (i) His Didactic writings are in the form of Treatise or of Dialogue. Of the Treatise, his work De Officiis is the best model ; of his i)ialogues, the Laelius or De Amicitia, and the Cato Maior or De Senectute, are best adapted to the young student, who may proceed afterwards to the Tusculan Disputations and the De Oratore (2) Cicero's Letters are either dignified or familiar. Of the dignified style, the letters to Lentufus and I«ucceius, and the first Ad Quintum Fratrem may be taken as models ; of the familiar, the First Book of Letters to Atticus. (3) Speeches are either Forensic or Public. Forensic speeches are for the Prosecution or for the Defence. Of the former, we have only Cicero's Verrine speeches, of which the Actio Prima may be taken as a sample. The latter are numerous ; and of these the best samples for early study are Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Milone, and Pro Murena. Public speeches may be classed under the three heads of Exposition, Eulogy, or Invective. Hardly any of Cicero's Speeches belong entirely to the first class ; but some of the Catilinarianand later Philippic Speeches approach it. Of Eulogy, Pro Lege Manilla is the best example. Of Invective, the First In Catilinam and the Second Philippic. In History, the greatest Latin authors are Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. Caesar's style is the clear, full, and unaffected narrative of an accomplished soldier. That of Livy is more ornate and picturesque, bespeaking a student of the Greek historians. The manner of Tacitus, though not without a Thucydidean tinge, is yet peculiar to himself — terse, vigorous, subjective, sternly moral, sometimes bitterly sarcastical ; often rising to eloquence, here and there indulging in picturesque description, especially of gloomy and tumultuous scenes. The student may further compare the following Periods in Livy and Cicero : Liv. i. 16, 'Romanapubes . . . obtinuit.* xxii. 3, *Flaminius qui . . . proposuit.* xxiii. 25, *Hac nuntiata clade . . . submitterent»' Cic. p. S. Rose, i, 'Credo . . . comparandus. ' p. Mil. 4, * Est enim . . . salutis.' /. Caecin. i, *Si quantum . , . audaciae.* p. Mur, 2, * Quod si . . . subeundas,' in Cat. iii. 12, *Sed quoniam . . . providere.' in Cat, i. 13, 'Ut saepe . . . ingravescet.* See also Off. i. i. i ; Fam. iii. 8. i. He may also consult with advantage, * Hints towards Latin Prose Composition * (Macmillan and Co.), by Alexander W. Potts, Esq., Head Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, who has afforded valuable assistance in the present chapter. 512 Latin Prosody, §252. We learn from the ancient grammarians (Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian among them) that Rhythm, or a due admixture of long and short syllables, was of vital moment in prose as well as verse. As our ears and tongues can at the best discriminate imperfectly differences of Quantity, it is most important for us to acquire a mental ear and tongue, to be able to feel the beauty of Plato as well as Homer, of Cicero as well as Virgil. Cicero's technical writings will supply an excellent commentary on what is here meant. 2. Syllables are either Short or Long. A short syllable is tech- nically denoted by this mark (^), a long syllable by this ("). A short syllable was said to contain one Mora or time^ a long syllable two Morae or times. Syllables which at one period of the language were long, at another were short. Certain classes of syllables, which might at the same period be either long or short, are called Doubtful. In verse a long syllable is exactly equivalent to two short. 3. Long syllables have two main divisions, syllables long by nature, and syllables whose short vowel is lengthened by Posi- tion, that is to say by coming before a double consonant, or two or more consonants, whether in the same word or in two consecutive words. In the words fat 6, maestis both syllables are long by nature: in factus subsunt the four syllables, whose vowels are short by nature, are all lengthened by position.^ 4. H does not give position any more than the aspirate in Greek ; and qu has only the power of a single letter. 5. In the older language final s, preceded by a short vowel, was slightly sounded, if at all ; was often therefore not written, and * Technically all long syllables and all short syllables are respectively equal, though the nature of the case and the testimony of the ancients prove that there is a great diver- sity in their real length. Fr actus and factus have each their first syllable long, but the latter is only lengthened by position, the former is long by nature also ; aqua and neque have each the last syllable short, but the rules of elision, observed by the most careful poets, shew that e was much lighter than a. We are often ignorant of the natu- ral quantity of Latin syllables lengthened by position. The n] and (u, and sometimes the accent, gives us this knowledge in regard to Greek syllables, though we are sometimes at a loss even there in the case of a, t, v. The poet Accius introduced the practice of denoting naturally long vowels by doubling them. This was soon laughed out of fashion by Lucilius. We find some traces of this usage in inscriptions of that time : Maarcus, paast ores and the like. Later such vowels were often marked by an apex (') ; many traces of which we find in inscriptions of all ages; a, Marti s, domineis, &c. Quintilian alludes to both these fashions. Attention to general laws of the language will enable us to determine the quantity of many vowels. Thus the vowel of the Supine and cognate parts of the Verb was long by nature (even if the vowel of the Present Indie, was short) when it was followed by a medial : the a of actus (for ag-tus) was long, of factus short by nature ; the e of lectus (for leg-tus). Part, was long, of lectus, bed, short. Again, every vowel followed by ns or nf was long by nature, as in mens, sapiens, and other cases ; while e was short in mentis, sapientis, &c. This is what Cicero means when he says in his Orator, 48: 'Inclitus dicimus brevi prima littera, insanus producta, inhumanus brevi, infelix longa ; et, ne multis, quibus in verbis eae pri- mae litterae sunt, quae in sapiente atque felice, producte dicitur in.' In many cases we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek : Sestius (Srjo-Tios), Roscius ('Ptoa/ctos) and many proper names ; but Mayi^o?, Fpa^cxos and the like show us that in such words the vowel was short by nature. §253. Quantity of Inner Syllables, 513 often with the older poets, including Lucretius and Cicero when young, did not give position: as, ^infantibus parvis,' 'torvus draco/ 6. An important exception to the rule of position is this : A vowel short by nature, coming before a mute followed by a liquid in the same word, may either remain short, or be lengthened by position : tenebrae or tenebrae, retro or retro, triplex or triplex. In the same verse Virgil has patris, patrem ; Lu- cretius patribus, patres; Horace nigris, nigroque ; Ovid voliicri, volucris. 7. Before g:m, gn, a vowel cannot remain short : tegmen, agnus. In genuine Latin words not compounded, the other mutes do not precede m, n. Thus the older writers, such as Plautus, wrote dracuma, mina, cucinus, lucinus, Alcumena, Tecumessa, and the like, for the corresponding Greek words. The learned poets, copying the Greeks, did not object to cycnus, Tecmessa, Procne, &:c. It is worth noting, too, that Plautus, Terence, &;c., following no doubt the usage of common life, seem never to have lengthened a short vowel before a mute and liquid ; while the Augustan and later poets preferred to lengthen one, when the mute was a medial, b or gr; writing labra, nigro rather than lab r a, nigro. With this we might compare on the one hand the repug- nance of Aristophanes to lengthen a short vowel before a mute and liquid, unless he is parodying a serious poet, and on the other the great frequency with which this is done by the tragedians ; while Homer nearly always lengthens the vowel in such cases, unless constrained by the metre. 8. The older poets, among them Lucretius, do not hesitate to leave a vowel short before a word beginning with sc, sp, sq, st, x, z, grn. The more careful poets avoid such positions, not choosing either to lengthen the vowel or to leave it short. Virgil has only one instance of such a lengthening — ^date tela, scandite and once only leaves the vowel short — ^ Ponite : spes in each case the license seems to be used for effect. Horace has no instance of either license in his Odes or Epistles ; but several in his Satires. As in the case of mutes and liquids, this would seem to point to a studied contrast between the usage of common life and the more stately pronunciation of the higher poetry. In a few Greek words, such as Scamander, Zacynthus, zmaragdus, some of the poets follow the Greeks in a rare exceptional license. Catullus in his two pure Iambic poems three times lengthens a short a before a mute and liquid of the following word: as, 'impotentia freta :' ^ Propontida trucemque . . . ; ultima Britannia.' The peculiar metre seems to have influenced him in this. 11. Quantity of Inner Syllables. The Quantity of Final Syllables may be reduced to rules ; but chat of Syllables in the body of words is so indefinite, that we must confine ourselves to pointing out a few general principles, with the leading exceptions to these. I. Where two vowels are contracted into one, the syllable is long: cago, coperio, tibicen, bobus, iunior, bigae, mo- rn e n t u m. Latin Prosody, §253. In semi, ante, and a few other particles, the vowel does not coalesce, but is altogether elided, when followed by a vowel in a compound word. The syllable is therefore not lengthened: semi- homo, ant(e)eo, antea, &c., whether the vowel be omitted or not in writing. Forms like ' grave olens,' ^ suave olens/ magno opere,' ' summo opere,' are better written as two words. 2. All diphthongs are long : Grains, aura, harpyi a. Except prae in composition before a vowel, as in praeustus, praeeunte. Ovid once wrote * Maeotis but in exile. Statins once uses praeiret ; and in Catullus the prae of ^ prae- optarit ' coalesces into one syllable with the op. 3. A vowel before another vowel in the same word, but a different syllable, is short: traho, meae, via, 10, boant, tiius. Exceptions : (1) Gaius, dius, Rhea (Silvia), but Rhea ('Pea), eheu; aer is Greek usage: and there are hundreds of other Greek words, adopted by the poets, chiefly proper names^ which keep a vowel long before another : io, cycneus, &c. Diana, 6 he are doubt- ful : also some Greek words: as, daedaleus and daedaleus, chorea and chore a. ^ Academia, long in Greek and the best Latin, is shortened by some later poets. (2) The i of fio is long, except when followed by er, as fieri, fieret ; though Plautus and Terence sometimes have fieri, &c. (3) The a of the old Genitive of the ist Declension is long: terrai, aulai, purpureai. (4) The e of the Gen. and Dat. of the 5th Declension is long in diei, fidei (Plautus, Ennius, Lucr.), but fidei in Manilius and later writers ; rei (Lucr.), rgi (Hon). Lucretius and others some- times make rei a monosyllable. In Terence, spei seems always monosyllabic, but spei in Seneca. In Latin poetry no other Gen. or Dat. in -ei seems to be found, neither specie i, materiei, nor any such. Lucretius has ei, Catullus ei, for the Dat. of the Pro- noun is. (5) The i of Genitives in ius is doubtful: illius or illius, and so with istius, ipsius, ullfus, nullius, solius (solius, Ter.). But always alius, which is contracted. In later writers alterius; but alterius sometimes in Plautus. Utrius, utriusque. By comparing Cicero {d. Or, iii. 47) with Quintilian (i. 5. 18), we learn the interesting fact that in the time of the former the prose pronunciation was illius, unius, &c. ; in the time of the latter illius, unius, as he with all the later grammarians held the shortening to be a poetic license. * In Latin i seems often to have been doubled in pronunciation and to have served for a vowel and consonant at once : thus in Cicero's time Pompeius and such words were often written with ii ; and so Troi-ia-nus, ei-ius, cui-ius; and hence perhaps the quantity of the two last words. In compounds of iacio it was usual to write i only once, as in e-icit, ab-icit, though the i was equivalent to ji. We can thus account for the quantity of re-icio, where the i formed a diphthong with the e of re, and also a separate syllable. On the other hand ei-cit, rei-cit, are sometimes disyllabic, and ab- Tcit, ad-Tcit are found with their first syllable short. In the older writers, too, eius, cuius are often monosyllabic, and sometimes have the quantity cuius, eius. § 253. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 515 4. Derivatives are said to follow as a rule the quantity of the words from which they are derived. But this rule has many exceptions, some systematic, some which seem to be accidental. (1) Disyllabic Perfects and their compounds, with the tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long: vidi, invidi, videram; but video, viderem, &c. ; legi, legissem; but lego, legam. Except bibi, dedi, (fidi) diffidi, (scidi) discidi, &c., steti, , (stiti) constiti, &c., tiili, attuli, &:c. But these exceptions are perhaps only apparent, as the Perfects seem either to be actually reduplicated, as dedi, steti, or to have once been so, as tuli, &c. (tetuli, Lucr., &:c.). (2) Some apparent derivatives are illusory: rex regis, regina^ do not come from rego. Coma {kojjlt]) has no connection with como. (3) Disyllabic Supines, with the parts of the Verb formed from them, are also long: visum, visurus, &c. Except datum, itum, litum, quitum, ratum, (rutum) dirutum, &c., statum from sisto; but statum from sto; citum from cieo; but citus from cio. (4) Other apparent or real discrepancies might perhaps be ex- plained, if we had the required knowledge : lux, lucis, luceo, but lucerna; moles, molestus ; sopio,s6por; humanus, homo ; iuro, peiero. (5) We find not a few variations of quantity in the same word : Lucret. has ' llquidis ^ and ' liquida ' in the same verse ; he has * liquor aquai,' all others liquor (subst.), but liquor (verb) ; he has ^ fiuvidus ^ and * fliividus,' ' glomere,' but * glomero/ &c. with other instances. Silius derives Sabini from Sabus; Mamurra (CatulL), Mamurra (Hor., Mart.). Luceres (Prop.), Luceribus (Ov.). Lemiires and Lemuria (Ov.). Mamuri (Prop.), Mamiirium (Ov.). Catillus (Verg.), Cfitilus (Hor.), Catillus (Stat.). Vertragus (Mart.), vertraga (Gratius). Coturnices (Plant, Lucr.), cdturnices (Ov,, luven,). Vaticanus (Hon), Vatica- nus later. Palatia, Palatinus, usually, but palatia (luv.). Often conubia ; often also coniibia, coniibio, conubiis, &c. It is an error to regard the latter forms as trisyllabic. See Munro o^i Lucr. iii. 776. (6) Sometimes the consonant is or is not doubled : vacillo, but vaccillo (Lucr., Cic). Compare far, farris, farina; mamma, mamilla ; offa, ofella ; tintino, tintinnabulum, Porsenna, Pors^na ; and perhaps currus, ciirulis, quattuor, quater ; littera, litura. (7) The penult of the 3rd Pers. Plur. Indie. Perf, is long : ama- verunt, legerunt. But the poets not unfrequently shorten it ; and dederunt (Lucr. Hon), fuerunt (Lucr. Prop.), tulSrunt (Verg.), ver- terunt (Hon), locaverunt (Plant) prove that this was not done from metrical necessity merely. (8) The penult of the ist and 2nd Pers. Plur. of the Fut. Perf. Indie, and the Perf. Subj. is doubtful : viderimus (Lucn), egerimus (Verg,), fecerimus (Catull.) ; vider^tis, dixeritis, but dederitis L L 2 5i6 Latin Prosody. §254. (Ov.). The poets appear to have been determined solely by the requirements of their metre. As i and u are both vowels and consonants, from necessity of the verse the vowel sometimes passes into its corresponding con- sonant : ar-ie-te , for ariete, ab-ie-te for abiete, ten-ui-a for tenuia. Sometimes without such necessity we have ab-ie-gnus, tenvis for tenuis, and the like. Trisyllabic in Horace is once princip-ium, once consil-ium, in Virgil fliiv-iorum ; Lucr. has fiutant. Some- times the 1 is suppressed between two long syllables : vindem- iator, stel-io, taen-its. Lucretius once makes 6r-iun-di a trisyllable with short o. The third syllable of fortuitus, gratuitus seems doubtful : Statius certainly has gratuitus. Promontorium is an error : the real form is promuntiirium. On the other hand v some- times becomes ii : soliio, dissoluo, voluo, &c. : Hor. has slliiae and miluus. But relicuus is the genuine form (Lucr., Plaut., &c.) : reliquiis does not appear before the Silver Age. The Augustan poets abstain from using it, perhaps from a dislike to lengthening the first syllable. (9) Vemens, vementer are the only genuine forms : vebemens, <Scc. never appear in good writers. (10) Many Crases occur in the poets, like aurei, ferrei, even omn-ia as disyllabic, precant-ia as trisyllabic. (11) In words like deinde, dein, deesse, deest, deerrarunt, the first e is altogether elided, as in antehac, anteactus, &c. ; so numquam, nusquam, nullus for neumquam, &c. In neutiquam, neu becomes diphthongal. (12) Eodem, eaedem, eosdem, are disyllabic or trisyllabic; but disyllabic only where the second vowel is long by nature : eundem, eandem, are always trisyllabic. Idem (plur.) and isdem are disyllabic in the best writers ; eisdem seems to occur first in Juvenal: ei (nom.) or ii, eis or iis are avoided by the poets. (13) A few words like suesco, suetus, deorsum, seorsus are either disyllabic or trisyllabic : suo is twice monosyllabic in Lucr., who has sis for suis after Ennius. Note, The quantity is doubtful in many Proper Names, adopted from the Greek, in which short vowels are often lengthened for metrical reasons, as Priamides. / III. Quantity of Final Syllables. \ (I) I. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: except the enclitics que, ve, ne, and qua (Nom. and Accus.), which is also an enclitic (si qua, nequa). 2. It is perhaps most convenient to say that monosyllables ending in a consonant are also long. Exceptions : (1) Such as end in b, d, 1, t, are short, two only, sal and sol, being long (aut and baud, as diphthongs, are of course long). (2) Fac, nec, an, in, fer, per, ter, vir, cor, bis, cis, is (Pron.), quis (Nom.). § 254. Quantity of Final Syllables. 517 (3) Also es (sum) : es is found in Plautus, &c. : but es (edo) is circumflexed and long. (4) Hic (Pron.) is doubtful : hoc (Nom. and Acc.) is doubtful in the old scenic, long in the later, poets. (5) Ac in good writers never comes before a vowel, and its quantity is uncertain. Very late writers seem to use it both long and short. (II) 2. In words of more than one syllable: «. £L final is long — (1) In the Abl. Sing, of ist. Decl. : as, mensa. (2) In the Imperative of ist Conj. : ama, monstra ; but putJt is used parenthetically. (3) In the Numerals triginta, &:c. (4) In Prepositions and Adverbs : circa, contra, erga, frustra, intra, supra, interea, postea, praeterea, postilla ; which are really Ablatives, and therefore regularly long, as may be proved by forms like posthac, antehac, prae- terhac ; and by the forms extrad, suprad, arvorsum ead (adversum ea), in old inscriptions. But ita, quia are short: eia or heia is perhaps doubtful, certainly short. /3. A final is short in all Noun- Cases but the Ablative : except (1) In Greek words ending in a, the a is sometimes retained in Latin, but there is a stiong tendency to shorten it : philo- mela ; elegia Ov.) ; elegia (Mart. Stat.) ; Electra (Cic. Ov.), Electra (Sen.). Phaedra and Phaedra (Ov.) ; Phae- dr^i (Sen.). For Greek Nominative in ar, we find Tiresia (LuciL), Tiresia, Pelia (Sen.). But when a represents ly, it is short : as, nympha ; so, Nom. Atrida (Prop.). (2) In Vocatives of Greek names in as, a is long : Aenea, Palla ; but doubtful in Vocatives from Nom. in es : Atrida (Hon), Anchisa ''Verg.), Cecropida (Ov.). E final is short : except (1) Abl. Sing, of 5th Decl. : die (hodie, &c.), re (quare) ; so fame, which in this case at least belongs to this Decl. (2) 2nd Pers. Sing. Imper. of 2nd Conj. : as, gaude, mone. But cave (Hor. Ov.) ; though these have also cave ; vide (Phaedr. Pers.).i (3) Adverbs from Adjectives of the 2nd Decl. : valde, aegre, docte ; and in ferme, fere, ohe. But bene, male, inferne (Lucr.), superne (Lucr. Hor.), are short. Temere follows the general rule, as is proved negatively by ^ The Latins had a strong tendency to shorten the final in famih'ar iambic words : compare puta above, and other examples, ending in i and o ; and this is especially- true and important in the old scenic prosody. In 'vale vale inquit ' (Verg.), 'mane inquii' (CatuU.), *fave Ilithyia ' (O v. ), the e is long and only shortened by a vowel following. 5l8 Latin Prosody, §254. e being always elided in Hexameter poets ; positively by its frequently occurring with e in Seneca. (4) When it represents n : nymphe, Hebe, Antigone, tempe, &c. Z final is long : except (1) i is doubtful in mihi, tibi, sib!, ibi, ubi ; short in nis¥, quasi, necubi, sicubi. O^s. The i of uti ( = ut) is always long ; sicuti dactyl is a fiction ; ibidem always in Hexameter poets ; the second i is doubtful in the scenic poets ; utique, utinam are short. So ubinam, ubivis ; but ubique. (2) The i of Vocatives which represent I is short : DaphnX, Adoni ; also Thybri. (3) The i of Datives, representing i, is short in Minoidf, TethyX (Catull.), lasoni, Palladi (Stat). But Thetidi, Paridi, &c., have i long ; and these are the more nu- merous. O final is long : except ^ (1) The archaic endo is short: also cito (adv.), mode (adv.), duo, ego, cedo, owing to the tendency to shorten the final of familiar Iambic words. Yet modo as well as modo is in Lucr.; ego occasionally in Plautus. (2) Homo is doubtful, generally short. (3) Scio and nescio, which have o doubtful in the scenic writers, for metrical reasons have it short in Hexameter poets, &c. XT final is long : except in the archaic indii ( = in), and nenii ( = ne oenum = ne unum = non). Y, a purely Greek letter, is short in the few words adopted from Greek : as, moly, Tiphj^. C final lengthens the Vowel : except donee. ^ The final o continued always inflexibly long in Datives and Ablatives of the 2nd Decl., and when it represented a final a> (Clio); but in Verbs and Nominatives of the 3rd Decl. it became doubtful ; though still in most cases generally long. Seneca, indeed, Juvenal, and others, venture to shorten the Gerund in do (vincendo, vigilando, &c.), and Juvenal even postremo, though these appear at least analogous to the Dat. and Abl. in o ; so indeed is quomodo (Hor.). As might be inferred from the laws of Latin pronunciation, this shortening first took place in Cretic and Iambic words. Virgil, an anxious metrist, only ventures to shorten Pollio (three times), nuntio and audeo. In all these instances the o is elided ; but, as he never elides the final of a Cretic, preferring hiatus, as, insula^ lonio, he evidently did not regard the o as long. It is probable, however, that the elision was a compromise, and that the vowel was to him neither precisely long nor short, something, in fact, like a final m, which he occasionally elides in Cretic words, audiam et, omnium egenos. Horace, in his Odes as careful a metrist as Virgil, shortens only Pollio, but in his Satires and Epistles he has, besides this word, eo, rogo, veto, dixero, obsecro, mentio, quo- modo. But before them Catullus has volo, dabo, and puto, when, like puta, it is a quasi adverb. Tibullus desino, Propertius caedito, and even findo. Ovid always shortens Siilmo, Naso ; and we find in him examples of amo, cano, nego, peto, rego, leo, con- foro, desino, odero, Curio, Gallio, Scipio, esto, credo, tollo, rependo, nemo, ergo. In most poets of the Silver Age this 6 is frequent enough : we find quando, porro, sero, amb5, octo, &c. In all ages quandoquidem. 254. Quantity of Final Syllables, 519 B final shortens the Vowel. final shortens the Vowel. In nihil it is doubtful; generally short, but occasionally long in Ov. Lucr. Some only use contracted nil ; Virgil seems only twice to use the disyllabic, each time before a consonant: B, ii. 6.; Ae, ii. 287. But there are some 18 instances in which it might be said that he wrote nihil, not nil. [m final is treated of under the head of Elision.] W final shortens the Vowel. The only Exceptions are Greek words. Those in en are long, as they represent 7\v : hymen, &c. Those in on are long, which represent ; short, which represent ov : Trit5n, Troilon. Those in an, in, yn, are long or short, as they are long or short in Greek : Elec- tran, but Iphigenian ; chelyn, but Tethyn. R final shortens the Vowel : except (1) Celtiber is doubtful. (2) Compounds of par are long, as dispar, impar. (3) When -er represents it is long, as aer. But or, even when representing u>jO, follows the general rule : Hectdr, rhetor. As final is long : except The Nom. Sing, and Accus. Plur. of Nouns taken from the Greek, which have -aq : Pallas (-adis), lampadas, &c. Es final is long : except (1) penes.. (2) Nouns of Decl. 3 which increase short, as miles milit-, obses obsid-, seges seget-. But pes and compounds, Ceres, abies, aries, paries, remain long. (3) Compounds of es, as potes, ades. (4) Words representing Greek eg ; as cacoethes (Neut.), Arcades (Nom. Plur.). Is final is short : except (1) Dat. and Abl. Plur. in -Is : terris, dominls, vobis. (2) Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. in -is ( = es) : omnis, gentls. (3) 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Subj. in -is : adsis, velis. (4) Compounds of vis, as mavis, quamvis. (5) Nominatives which increase long : as, Samnis (-itis) ; and from Greek Iq : as, Salamis (-inis). (a) The -is of the Fut. Perf. and Perf. Subj. is doubtful : as, dixeris (Hon), dederis (Ov.). Compare the quantity oif the 1st and 2nd Persons Plur. in these tenses. (d) Sanguis has is always in Lucretius ; though usually short in and after the Aug:ustan age, it is loner more than once 520 Latin Prosody, §255. in Ovid, Lucan, Silius ; and once in Verg. TibulL Seneca, Valerius Flaccus, and in the ^ Aetna.' Virgil has only pulvis. Os final is long : except (1) Exos (Lucr.), compos, impos. (2) Greek words which end in oy, as Chios, Phasidds. Us final is short : except (1) Nominatives in us with u in Gen.; virtus (-utis), tellus (-uris), (paliis in Horace's Ars P, must be corrupt). (2) Gen. Sing, and Nom. and Acc. Plur. of the 4th Decl. gradus. (3) When -us represents Greek -ovq-, Panthus, Mantus (Verg.). Ys final is short, occurring only in a few Greek proper names, as Tiphys. Except Tethys (Verg. Ov.), and chrysophrys. T final shortens the Vowel. Except contracted Perfects, disturbat (Lucr.), petit, obit. The final of the uncontracted petiit, iit and its com- pounds, as rediit, is often long ; some say always, and do not admit exiit and the like. IV. Quantity of Words in Composition. Generally words in composition retain the quantity they had in their simple form.^ Thus : — (1) Pro is long in composition. But there are many exceptions : procella, profanus, proficiscor, profecto, prdffugus, profundus, profiteor, profari, protervus (also protervus in Plant.), pronepos, proneptis, profundo (but profundo, Catull.) ; propello twice in Lucr., elsewhere propello ; procuro, prdpino, propago (Verb and Subst.) are doubtful ; Proserpina, but Proserpina once in Horace, once in his imitator Seneca. In Greek words -n^o remains short, as Propontis. Yet prologus in Plautus and Terence. (2) Ne- is long ; nequaquam ; but short in neque, nequeo, nefas, nefandus, nefarius, &c. (3) Re in composition is short, unless lengthened by position merely, as rescribo. The four Perfects, reccidi, repperi, reppuli, rettuli, have always re, as they are really reduplications, and should have the consonant doubled. As the old quantity was re, red, generally, redduco or reduco always appear in Lucr. Plant. ^ In many cases, however, compound words have undergone such organic changes as remove them from the domain of prosody ; they belong to the general grammar and history of the language. We might ask again why we have omitto, not obmitto, as in Obmoveo, obmurrauro ; hodie, not hoddie (hoc-die) ; idem (neut.), not iddem, as idem (is-derh). But as such quantities are invariable in all periods of the language, we must take them for granted, assuming that the tendency of the language was to shorten such syllables in familiar words. This tendency, unchecked in old times, was Nartificially resisted by more educated ages. §256. Elision. 521 Ter. Compare reddo. Reccido is in Ov. Prop. luv. (Virgil does not use the word). Isolated cases occur of rellatus, rellictus. The Hexameter poets always have religio, relicuus, reliquiae from me- trical necessity ; but also religio, relicuus, reliquiae in Plaut. Ter. Phaedrus, &c. ; and in later poets always reliquus. (4) In that peculiar compound Verb, formed with facio an l words like cale- rare- (where by the way the word had a double accent, as cdle-f^cit, rare-f^cit), the quantity of the e is very variable. Lucretius has many of them wuh these quantities: rarefieri, rarefacere, expergefactus, confervefacit, putre- factus, vacefit, patefecit once, patefiet once, but oftener patef., liquefit, but liquefactus, calefecit, cinefactus, labefacto, tepefactus, timefactus, conlabefactus, conla- befiunt. It will be seen that the e is always long where a long syllable precedes ; but generally short where a short syllable goes before ; and this tendency to shorten the e is even greater in later poets. We see from the form calfacio how short the e was in this word, the most usual of the class. Ritschl says that in Plautus the e is long where the preceding syllable is long ; short, where it is short. We have thus another instance of the tendency to shorten the finals of iambic words in common use, the e in all these words having been originally long. This tendency has a powerful influence, as will appear, on the old scenic poetry. Videlicet, long in Hexameter poetry, shortens the e in Plautus and Terence. V. Elision. (i) EHsion, sometimes termed by Grammarians Synaloepha, sometimes Ecthlipsis, is an important modifying principle of Quantity. Shortly stated it is this. In a Latin verse, when one word ends in a vowel or diphthong or m, and the following word begins with a vowel or h, such final vowel or diphthong or m with its vowel is elided, that is to say, does not count in the verse.^ * This general principle, however, is subject to many limitations. Much depends on the age of the writer, much on the style of verse. Plautus, or Ennius himself in his dramas, will freely employ elisions which the latter, to judge from the fragments, would never admit in his Annals, written in heroic verse. Virgil has many elisions which Ovid never admits : nay, Horace in his later Odes abstains from elisions found in the earlier books, in his Epistles from elisions which often appear in the Satires. We have room here only for a few remarks. There is not evidence to show in what precise way the elision took place ; how far the former vowel was modified or destroyed ; whether some short vowels, as e in indeclinable words, bene, que, atque, &c., disappeared alto- gether ; whether a long vowel formed a kind of diphthong with a followmg long vowel ; whether a long vowel, elided before a short, was first shortened, and then formed a kind of synaeresis with the other ; how it fared with syllables ending in m, and the like. As elision, especially of long vowels, continued to become rarer and rarer with careful writers, in the higher kinds of verse, it is probable from this, as well as from other facts, that the artificial cultivation of the language produced a more distinct sounding of final syllables. In a single verse of Plautus or Terence five or six elisions, even of long or middle sylla- bles in m, are usual enough. The quantity of syllables in m is somewhere between that of a long and a short syllable. That, as some suppose, the former vowel or diphthong was lost altogether in pronun- ciation, and the accent thrown a syllable back, seems impossible : for then many verses of the best poets would cease to be verses at all : such as Virgil's * Sublimem expulsam eruerent,' ' Insontem infando indicio.' The latter would then be equivalent to * Insons infans indicio,' which has no rhythm. 522 Latin Prosody. 256. (2) Elision is very rare when a vowel or diphthong immediately precedes the elided syllable, though we find in Virgil, * Alpheae ab origine in Horace's Satires, * ho et mersor/ (3) Monosyllables, long or ending in m, should not be elided before a short vowel, except a few, such as me, te, se, tu, si, cum, turn, i am, sum but not sim, qui sing, not plur. Here, and in what precedes and follows, we are not speaking of the old scenic poets. (4) Iambic words (^~) are never elided before a short vowel: seldom (never by some poets, such as Ovid in his Elegiacs) even before a long vowel. Lucretius so elides only once, 'equi atque hominis.' Virgil, however, makes use of this license, but yet under limitations. (5) Careful poets, as Virgil, abstain from eliding the ultima of a Cretic (~ ^ "), because this can be only before a short syllable. The style of verse, however, makes a difference. Horace does this in his Satires, as ^ tantuU eget,' not elsewhere ; Catullus in his Lyrics and Elegiacs, not in his Heroics. So elision of words in m, like omnium, is rare, yet occurs in the best writers: as, ^omnium egenos' (Verg.), ^fluminum amores' (Ov.), *principum amicitias' (Hon). (6) There are many distinctions in the elision even of short vowels. Thus e or 1 elide more freely than a or 6 before a short vowel. Many poets will hardly thus elide a except in the first foot of a verse or before another ^ : Flumina amem is a much easier elision than Fliimina erant. The e of indeclinable words, such as que, ve, atque, neque, bene, male, temere, is the easiest of all elisions. A poet like Ovid will only admit the elision even of a short vowel in the last half of the Pentameter with very great limitation, and such elisions as a rule occur only in the first foot of this half ; elisions like ' insula habet,' ^ resistere equos,' are quite exceptional. In the final syllable of the verse Elision is un- known. (7) An apparent, not a real, exception to what is said must be noted. We often see est at the end or in other parts of a verse, where Elision would be inadmissible : ' dolori est,' ^ laborum est,' *meo est,' ^ sua est,' and the like. Here est is enclitic, and we ought to write, or at least pronounce, dolorist, laborumst, meost, suast. Also es sometimes is an enclitic in the same way. Virgil, moved perhaps by his love of the older poets, frequently elides long vowels, but generally in the first half of the verse or in the middle of the fourth foot ; not at the very beginning of the line : *Si ad vitulam spectes,' in one of his earliest Eclogues, being a singular exception. But between Virgil and Ovid a great change was going on : the latter has hardly one elision of a long vowel for ten of Virgil's : his elisions too of syllables in m are much rarer. The most careful poets, such as Martial, follow Ovid ; though Virgil's authority had weight with some of the later Epic poets. As an illustration of what is said, it is to be noted that Horace, in the Fourth book of his Odes, only once elides a long syllable : *Quod spiro et placeo ;' and even here the o may have become doubtful, though spon- daic words did not so soon begin to shorten the final. Horace, however, freely elides here syllables in m. § 257. Hiatus, 523 A. Exceptions to the law of Elision, forming Hiatus. See Hiatus. § 12. xxxi. p. 52. (a) The monosyllabic interjections a, o, heu, for manifest rea- sons are not elided by the dactylic poets. Ovid once has the Greek Interjection ai al unelided ; once, too, he writes : * Et bis 10 Arethusa vocavit 10 Arethusa,' for a peculiar effect, and Catullus leaves 10 unelided in his Epithalamium. Others do not allow a vowel to fol- low 10. (^) Sometimes a long vowel is left unelided and long in the arsis of a foot. Virgil employs this license more than others, clearly in imitation of the Greeks ; but there is not more than one instance to several hundred verses. ' Stant et iuniperi et castaneae hirsutae' gives two in one verse. Often it occurs in Greek words ; sometimes for poetical effect : ^ Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam ; ' 'Si pered, hominum manibus.' Once and once only he leaves a syllable thus long in the thesis of the foot : ' Glaucd et Panopeae et Inoo Melicertae a manifest Greek rhythm, as in Homer a vowel is very often thus left long in the thesis of the first foot. Ovid keeps an unelided vowel more rarely than Virgil, and in deference to him. Many poets abstain from it alto- gether : Horace has it very rarely : * capiti inhumato.' * Daedaleo ocior^ is not genuine ; for the o would then remain long in thesis. This license is very rare in middle syllables in m, and most of the examples admit of easy correction, as in Propertius, * O me felicem, o nox mihi Candida' (read nox o). (c) In thesis, too, a long vowel is sometimes shortened before a short vowel, but generally in the case of Iambic or Cretic words, which would hardly admit of elision, many of them being Greek or Proper Names. It is sometimes united with the other kind of hiatus in the same line ; see some of the examples given above ; and Virgil's ' Hyla Hyla omne sonaret' Virgil has Wale vale inquit,' Mn- sulae lonio,' &c. ; Lucretius, ' Remigi oblitae,' * etesiae esse Ennius has, ' Scipio invicte ; ' Cicero, ' etesiae in vada,' who in his 'Orator' speaks of it as a license very rare in Latin, common in Greek. Such license is scarcely allowable in polysyllables in m, though Ennius has ' Dum quidem unus homo,' ' militiim octo,' and Lucilius ' sordidum omne.' Instances given to Lucretius have no foundation. Virgil's two examples of such a hiatus with a short syllable, 'Addam cerea pruna honos erit,' and ' patuit dea Ille ubi,' may perhaps be defended by the pause, but are almost unparalleled ; for the ' male ominatis ' assigned by some to Horace, and the 'male, o miselle passer' given by others to Catullus, are impossible. {d) Long monosyllables and those in m are sometimes short- ened in thesis before a short vowel : Virgil has ' qui 524 Latin Prosody. §258, amant/ ^ te amice,' ' 6 Alexi Horace ' mg amas,' * num adest.' Lucretius has eleven instances of this hcense ; which is frequent in the comic poets, but there only in arsis. (e) A license, resembling that of hiatus, is the lengthening of a short syllable ending in a consonant before a voweL Virgil has many examples, in imitation of Homer and Ennius, the license often taking place in or before a Greek word : ^ Pectoribiis inhians,' * Altius ingreditur et,' ' fultus hyacintho/ Lucretius has only two examples, * fulget auro,' * sciret animoque ; ' Catullus three, all coming before the Greek word hymenaeus. (/) Virgil, if his text is right, thus lengthens a short syllable ending in a vowel : ^gravia sectoque elephanto ;^ but * anima atque istius inscia culpae,' where there would be hiatus alsO; is condemned by all sound critics, as well as ' supervacua aut' in Juvenal. (^) Virgil, however, has one singular license : sixteen times he lengthens que in -arsis, though que is one of the shortest syllables in the language and eminently susceptible of elision ; and he has induced hardly any one else to follow his example. But, in fifteen of the sixteen cases, que is in the arsis of the second foot, as ^ Terraeque tractusque once in the arsis of the fifth, ^ Noemonaque Prytanimque,' with Greek words. Clearly it is a mere imitation of Homer's lengthening of in the second and fifth foot. In fourteen of the cases, too, the next word begins with a double consonant.^ B, Having discussed the laws of Quantity generally, we proceed to apply them to the chief kinds of Verse employed by the Latin poets, which are all borrowed from the Greeks. The poets, however, with whom we need concern ourselves, have with great tact confined themselves to a few of the simpler kinds of verse, discarding the more complicated feet, rhythms, and verses, as unsuitable to their language. Those, however, which they have selected, they have adapted with great skill to all its peculiarities. L Verse and Metre. I. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of Feet. A Foot (pes) contains a certain number of morae, three at least. * In all the above instances a purely short syllable is artificially lengthened. Virgil employs this license, so far as we know, much more than his predecessors. It is not, therefore, a reminiscence of the time when such syllables were long : once on a time perhaps every final in the language was long. It is manifestly an imitation of Greek rhythm. When a syllable in Latin is really doubtful, it is used indifferently long or short in all places of the verse : comp. Virgil's * Ante ora patris patrem qui obtruncat ad aras ; ' Martial's ' Capto tuam, pudet heu, sed capto, Pontice, cenam.' Here lengthening as well as shortening takes place in thesis. § 259- Metre and Vei'se. 525 Each simple Foot has two parts, one of which is said to have the ictus upon it, and is called arsis (marked £); the other part is called thesis. The relation of these parts to one another deter- mines the nature of the Foot, and thereby of the Verse. 2. There are, properly speaking, only four distinct Feet with which we need concern ourselves. Two of these have the arsis and thesis equal, each consisting of two morae. Two have them unequal, the arsis containing two, the thesis one mora. The first two are, 1. Dactylus . . • « . - ^ ^ « . . iTtora. 2. Anapaestus . . . . ^ - , . . patiilae. The last two are, 3. Trochaeus (or Choreus) ... arma. 4. Iambus ^ - ... cano. These are the genuine Feet ; but for the Dactyl often appears in every kind of Dactylic verse 5. Spondeus ..... — . . , fatd. Also 6. Tribrachys . . . . ^ , , , temere can take the place of either the Iambus or the Trochee. Therefore the Spondee and the Tribrach are representative Feet.^ In most kinds of Trochaic and Iambic verse, a Spondee may be used for the Trochee or Iambus in certain parts of the verse ; and sometimes it may be represented by an Anapaest or a Dactyl. In Dactylic and Trochaic verse the arsis is on the first part of each foot : litora, arma. In Anapaestic and Iambic on the last : patulad, cano. The arsis therefore falls on a long syllable ; in regular Dactylic verse invariably. When, however, a Dactyl is used for an Ana- paest, the arsis falls on the first short syllable, litora : when a Tribrach or Anapaest takes the place of a Trochee, the arsis is on the first syllable, tdmere, p^tulae ; when a Tribrach or Dactyl is used for an Iambus, the arsis is on the second syllable, temere.^ II. Verses. I. The Dactylic Hexameter occupies as large a space in Latin poetry as all other Verses together, and is of more relative im- portance than the Homeric Hexameter is in Greek. * In Anapaestic verses both the Spondee and the Dactyl may stand for the Anapaest. A full list of (so-called) Feet is subjoined for reference. V/ Pyrrhichius: pater — Iambus : amant {a) Of two Syllables— — v-» Trochaeus : vTdTt — — Spondeus : latos ib) Of three Syllables. Tribrachys : regere — Anapaestus : animos w Dactylus : corpora — Creticus : dixerant | _ _ _ Molossus : dTcebas V-/ — ^ Amphibrachys : latTnus w — _ Bacchius : regebant Palimbacchius : rexTsse — 526 Latin Prosody. §259. This famous Verse, as well as the Elegiac couplet, was first adapted from the Greek by Ennius, who died B.C. 169 ; was gra- dually improved, until it attained an admirable perfection in the hands of Virgil, Ovid, and others ; and continued for many cen- turies to be the favourite form, until the total extinction of the old classical world. It may be defined as a Dactylic Hexameter Catalectic (catalecticus in disyllabum), the last Dactyl losing its final syllable. It consisted therefore of five Dactyls and a Tro- chee. But as the final syllable of a Verse (except when connected closely by Synaphea ^ with the following Verse, as in the Anapae- stic system and the Glyconic of Catullus) was indifferently long or short, the final Trochee might always be a Spondee. And indeed, while in Greek the last syllable is indifferent, in all the most careful Latin writers it is much oftener long than short. For Ennius, followed by the rest, seems to have thought the last Foot a real Spondee, and, from mistaking Homer, to have even introduced occasional Hypermetrical Verses. In this he has been followed by Virgil and most Latins, though to Homer this licence is unknown. In him we feel that the last Foot is a Trochee or curtailed Dactyl ; while the best Latin Verse lets us see that in the writer's mind the last Foot was rather a genuine Spondee. Of the five Dactyls which remain, the fifth must, as a rule, always remain a Dactyl, probably to keep in view the Dactylic nature of the Verse. The first four may be indifferently Dactyls or Spondees ; and, contrary to the rule in Greek, in Latin the Spondees are somewhat the more numerous, owing perhaps to the character of the language. Sometimes not only the older poets, but, for poetical effect,Virgil and, in imitation of him, Ovid and others have a Spondee in the fifth foot ; but then (to give weight to the exceptional rhythm) the two last feet are generally contained in a single word, and the fourth foot is in most cases a Dactyl. Sometimes a purely Greek rhythm, the words being often Greek, is introduced; in which cases a Spondee now and then appears in the fourth foot. These three instances from Virgil will illustrate what is meant : * Cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.' ' Lamentis gemituque et femineo ululatu.' ' Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo.' (f) Of four Syllables (compound) — \j \j \^ \u ^ \j \^ \j V/ — *W W — <^ Proceleusmaticus : hominibus Paeon Primus : condTdTmus Paeon Secundus : amabimus Paeon Tertius : nemoralTs Paeon Quartus : regTminl lonicus a Minore : metuentes lonicus a Majore : terreblmus Diiambus : protervTtas The Pyrrhich is not properly a Foot. — — — — — V/ ~ — \^ — _ V-» 1^ — \J \J — — — Ditrocheus : condTdTsse Choriambus : opposTtTs Antispastus : regebamur Epitritus Primus : amavTsti Epitritus Secundus : audTebas Epitritus Tertius : audlverant Epitritus Quartus : rexTssemils _ _ _ Dispondeus : suspexerunt The Trochee is also called Choreus, the Cretic Amphimacer : this has a second arsis. The Ionic a Minore is used by Horace and Catul- lus. The Proseleusmatic is occasionally put for its equivalent Spondee or Anapaest by the old scenic poets, and even by Seneca. * Synaphea (o-vfaTrreiv) is said to exist in any system of Verses, when the last syllable of each verse is influenced by the first syllable of the following verse, as it would be if the two words stood in one and the same verse. § 26o. Dactylic Hexameter, Caesura, 5^7 The two following : ' Cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis.' * Cum sociis gnatoque, penatibus et magnis dis/ are reminiscences of Ennius. These Versus (nzovcELa^ovTf.c, are proportionally more frequent in Catullus from imitation of the Alexandrine poets. In the fragments of Ennius we find one or two verses without a single Dactyl. The only instance in later writers seems to be one in Catullus : ^ Si te lenirem nobis neu conarere.' 260 But to make a verse it is not enough to place side by side six Caesura, feet of the kind mentioned ; as in these verses of Ennius : ' Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pelhte tonsis.' ^ Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret.' Both verses are rude attempts to make the sound point the sense ; but we might apply to them the ' horret et alget/ which Lucilius jocularly proposed for the end of the second. For the beauty and harmony of a verse Caesura is necessary. (i) Caesura is the technical term for the law that in some part or parts of the verse the end of a word must coincide with the middle of a foot.^ ^ Explanation may here be given of various technical terms. A. Hemimeris (T7/Lii/xepts) means Hence one foot and a half (f) is called Trihemimeris : two feet (f) Penthemimeris ; three (f) „ Hephthemimeris ; feur (f) „ Ennehemimeris. Hence : Examples : (a) Caesura after feet is called Trihemimeral ; (b) 2^ Penthemimeral ; (c) 3^ „ Hephthemimeral : (d) 4^ ,, Ennehemimeral ; 1. udit equi 2. Aut amite 1 magnd tellus 1 levi rara percussa tendit tridenti. — ^Verg. retia. — Hor. In I (a Dactylic Hexameter) the caesuras a, b, c, being after an arsis, are strong ; but d, being after a thesis, is weak. In 2 (an Iambic Trimeter) all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weak. In contradistinction to Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with the vtiddle of a foot) the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot may be called * Dialysis : ' Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum. B. Metre (ixerpov, measure) is used in two senses. I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or system of verses used by a poet in any composition (Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre). (a) A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monocolum ; ,, two kinds „ ,, Dicolum ; „ „ three „ „ Tricolum. (from fxoi^os, single ; KuiXov, member). (b) When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Distichum (from fit?, twice ; <rn'^, row\ a Distich or couplet. Latin Prosody. (2) The best and most common caesura in the Dactylic Hexa- meter is the penthemimeral or semiquinarian, where the coinci- dence takes place after two feet and a half, or five half-feet : Tityre tu patulae | recubans sub tegmine fagi. The caesura in question has place after patulae, though the verse has also two subordinate caesuras, after tu and recubans. When recurrence takes place after four verses, these form Tetrastichum, a Tetrastich (stanza). (c) Thus the Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic), Iambic Trimeter, Trochaic Tetrameter, and others, are found as Metra Monocola. The Elegiac Metre and many others are Dicola Disticha. The Sapphic and some others are Dicola Tetrasticha. The Alcaic is Tricolum Tetrastichum. 11. Metre, in the second place, is used to express a given portion of a Verse in some Rhythms ; as the Dactylic, the Trochaic, the Iambic, and the Anapaestic. (a) In a Dactylic Verse, one foot constitutes a Metre. In Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic Rhythms two feet (SiTroSta) constitute a Metre. (b) A Verse comprised in a angle Metre is called Monometer ; in two, Dimeter ; in three. Trimeter ; in four. Tetrameter ; in five, Pentameter ; in six. Hexameter. (c) Wanting one syllable to complete its metres a Verse is called Catalectic (Kara- Arj/crtKos) ; in syllabam, if the incomplete foot retains one syllable ; in disyllabum, if if retains two. Wanting two syllables, Brachycatalectic (/Spaxv/caraA-.^KTog) ; Having a syllable above its metres, Hypercatalectic (uTrepKaraATj/CTOs) : Having its metres complete, Acatalectic (a/caraAij/cTOs). (d) A Verse may also be called according to the number of feet : Binarius (2), as the Adonian ; Ternarius (3), as the Pherecratean ; Quaternarius (4), as the Trochaic or Iambic Dimeter ; Senarius (6), as the Dactylic Hexameter or the Iambic Trimeter ; Septenarius (7), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalecticus ; Octonarius (8), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Acat. of the scenic poets. (2) Or a Verse may be called according to the number of its syllables, as Phalaecius Hendecasyllabus (11). So the Alcaic Strophe consists of two Alcaic Hendecasyllabi (11), one Akaic Enneasyllabus (9), and one Alcaic Decasyllabus (10). C. (a) A syllable at the beginning of a Verse before the just Rhythm is called Ana- crusis (afa/cpovai?, hack-stroke) : as (according to one mode of scansion), O I magna Carthago probrosis. (b) Two syllables so preceding the just Rhythm are called a Base, which may be tro- chaic : Lute I umve papaver ; ©r spondaic : Duram | difficilis mane. (c) A double Base is trochee + spondee, as in the Sapphic Verse : lUe ml par | esse deo videtur. This may have Anacrusis before it, as in the Alcaic Hendecasyllable : Mors I et fugacem | persequitur virum. D. (a) A Verse is called Asynartete (a(rvi'apTi7T09) which is really composed of two different verses welded, as it were, together : Tu vina Torquato move !l consule pressa meo. (b) A Verse which has one syllable more than its regular constitution, elided before a vowel at the beginning of the next verse, is Hypermetrical (Hypermeter) : Sors exitura et nos in aetern | um Exitium impositura cumbae. § 26o. Caesura. 529 This caesura, however, is so powerful that it is alone sufficient for a perfectly harmonious verse : Illius immensae | ruperunt horrea messes. Or the verse may equally have two or three caesuras, as in the one quoted, and Silvestrem | tenui | Musam | meditaris avena. Caesura after the first half-foot seems to have no force ; and * Quid faciat laetas segetes' seems equivalent to * Conficiat laetas segetes/ However, there is a weak trochaic caesura, after the trochee or second syllable of the dactyl ; so that a verse may in a way have five caesuras : Una I salus | victis | nullam | sperare | salutem. But in all these instances the penthemimeral is the one important caesura. As a quite exceptional rhythm, we might find ^ viam | vi,' for instance, instead of * salutem/ which would give one more caesura. This verse of Lucretius : Augescunt | aliae | gentes | aliae | minuuntur, in which are four strong caesuras, is faulty. See (11), p. 530. (3) But, to avoid monotony, the best poets seek variety of rhythm by other caesuras. Next in power to the penthemimeral is the hephthemimeral or semiseptenarian caesura, coming, that is, after three and a half feet, or seven half-feet. But, to give a proper verse, this caesura must be combined with one or more others. In this verse. Quid faciat | laetas | segetes | quo sidere terram, it may be said the principal pause is at the hephthemimeris^ But the verse has its character really determined by the penthemimeral caesura. (4) When the latter is absent, the next best form is obtained by uniting with the hephthemimeral caesura the trihemimeral, in the middle of the second foot, and also the weak caesura which falls between the two short syllables of a dactyl in the third foot : Formosam | resonare | doces | Amaryllida silvas. (5) Less perfect, though coming perhaps next to the above, is that form which has only the trihemimeral and hephthemimeral : Despiciens | mare velivolum | terrasque iacentes. (6) It is less common to find the caesura at the third trochee together with only the trihemimeral ; though sometimes a pleasing effect is thus produced ; as in this verse : Praecipitat | suadentque | cadentia sidera somnos ; yet in Greek this is perhaps the normal type of the Hexameter. (7) The caesura at the third trochee by itself is still rarer and is usually intended for poetical effect : Aequora concussitque | micantia sidera mundus. Falleret indeprensus | et inremeabilis error, M M Lati7i Prosody. (8) This caesura, preceded by one at the second trochee, pro- duces an unpleasant rhythm : O crudelis | Alexi | nihil mea carmina curas ; unless it is designed for effect : Una Eurusque | Notusque|ruunt creberque procellis and even Horace's familiar style will not reconcile us to Dignummente | domoque | legentis | honesta | Neronis. But the alternation of the trochaic with the stronger caesuras is often pleasing : Quantus I Athos | aut quantus | Eryx | aut ipse | coruscis : Marsa | manus | Paeligna [ cohors | Vestina | virum | vis. (9) Sometimes, but rarely, the preposition beginning a com- pound word serves for a quasicaesura ; as in this verse of Horace, Vestrum praetor, is intestabilis et sacer esto. Virgil, or Lucretius, would mask the harshness by elision : Conplerunt, | magno indignantur murmure clausi : and thus in Virgil's Magnanimi | lovis ingratum ascendere cubile, the main caesura is hephthemimeral not penthemimeral ; while in both verses the rhythm is helped by the trihemimeris. (10) The effect of Elision generally on the caesuras and rhythmi of a verse, as was said above, is not easy to determine. It seems clear that the elided syllable did not disappear altogether, and that the rhythm of such a verse as this for example : Monstrum | horrendum j informe | ingens | cui lumen ! ademp- tum : was not identical with Hie I vertex | nobis | semper | sublimis | at ilium. The elisions, which in this case were designed for effect, must have had some intermediate influence. (11) The close of the verse should have a free open movement, in contrast, as it were, to the involution caused by the caesuras in the middle of the verse. Good Latin verse indeed exhibits only two main types of rhythm here: i. where the fifth dactyl is wholly contained in one word and ends with that word : ^ sidere terram,' ^ adiungere vites ; ' 2. where caesura takes place between the two short syllables ; ' cultus | habendo,' ' primus | ab oris.' The verse, as a rule, is faulty, when caesura takes place in the middle of the dactyl ; as ' aliae | minuuntur' in the verse quoted above from Lucretius ; unless the dactyl contains two entire words, as ^ ac tua nautae'* in Virgil. Lucretius and the older writers often violate this law ; Virgil very seldom, and then with his usual skill for the sake of effect : Ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat | sola neve. Quam pius Aeneas et quam magni | Phryges et quam. As this rhythm is much more frequent in Greek, Virgil and Ovid are fond of using it with Greek words, like hymenaeus, hyacin- thus. § 26l. The Elegiac Distich, (12) The last foot should be contained in one word; though occasionally it may consist of two monosyllables, as in the line just quoted. Here again artists like Virgil use exceptional cadences like ' procumbit humi bos/ * praeruptus aquae mons/ * atque homi- num rex/ to produce exceptional effects. (13) Lucretius often comprises the two last feet in one word, like principiorum, material ; Virgil and Ovid very rarely, and then always for a special purpose, as ' perfractaque quadrupedan- tum or with Greek words in imitation of the Greeks. Elisions in this part of the verse should be of the easiest kinds : e or 1 : ergo age in the fifth foot has its special excuse. Virgil has two or three endings like ' mentem animumque,' ^ hoc animo hauri,' which strike by their rarity and are perhaps in compliment to Lucretius. EUsions within the sixth foot are still rarer : Virgil elides e in *huc turbidus atque hue,' ^hinc comminus atque hinc Horace in his satires ventures to say, ' iugera centum an.' As shewn above, est at the end of a verse makes no elision. (14) Hypermetrical verses were introduced by Ennius, probably, as wa.s said above, from his misapprehending Homer. A super- numerary syllable at the end of one verse is supposed to be elided by a vowel at the beginning of the next, sometim.es even when a full stop intervenes. Lucretius has only one instance, ^ concurrere deber|e:' Catullus only one or two Virgil has more of them: que is generally the superfluous syllable, and a long syllable pre- cedes. But if his MSS. are to be trusted, he has these two end- ings: ^vivaque sulpur|a,' 'arbutus horrid | a.' (15) The part also of the verse which precedes the caesura must be properly connected with the rest. If there is no trihemimeral caesura, the end of the second foot should not coincide with the end of a word. Exceptions to this rule are exceedingly rare in Virgil ; still rarer in Ovid. In the former we find, ' Scilicet omni- bus est labor impendendus.' ' Armentarius Afer.' * Sed tu desine velle.' ' Spargens umida mella.' * Per conubia nostra:' the second foot being always a dactyl. Lucretius has very many instance s, and sometimes a spondee in the second foot, if a mono- syllable follow : ' Sive voluptas est.' Such a commencement as * Et quaecumque coloribu' sint,' is also very exceptional. Once he makes sound echo sense by a most exceptional but felicitous rhythm : ' Et membratim vitalem deperdere sensum.' Horace, aiming at a conversational style, has a few negligent rhythms. 261 2. The Elegiac Distich^ (Dactylic Hexameter with so-called The ^ Pentameter) comes next in importance. Borrowed by Ennius j^^*^?^ from the Greeks, it passed to Catullus, Gallus, Tibullus and Pro- pertius, and attained its final polish in the hands of Ovid : he and the two last mentioned being always looked upon as its greatest masters. ^ Rhythm of the Elegiac Distich : (1) Dactylic Hexameter. (2) - <^ j — V/ I _ II — >^ V I — ' M M 2 532 Lathi Prosody. §261. (1) The Elegiac Hexameter is subject to the same laws as the Heroic. But Ovid indulges in very few licences, fewer even than in his own Heroic, though there he is stricter than Virgil. He seldom deviates from one or other of the two best types of caesura ; and abstains from harsh elisions. Catullus' Elegiacs, on the other hand, are much harsher in their elisions than his Heroics are. (2) The second verse of the couplet, called the Pentameter from a strange fancy of the ancient grammarians, has been brought by Ovid and others under much stricter rules than the Greek verse from which it is derived. It consists of two Dactylic Penthe- mimers, which must be kept quite distinct, and the sentence, or at least a distinct clause, must close with the couplet.^ The first Penthemimer corresponds precisely with that of a Hexameter, ending with a distinct, penthemimeral caesura, never followed by an elision ; for a verse like Propertius's ' Quaerere : non impune ilia rogata venit,' never occurs in Ovid. The second of the two Penthemimers gives the Latin Elegiac its peculiar character. Like the Greek, the two full feet must be dactyls ; but the Latin, unlike the Greek verse, ought to end with an Iambic word.^ This restricts the rhythm to very few types, which do not differ essentially in their general effect. The rest of the penthemimer must either be contained in one word, like delituisset; excutiatque; or in two: ut videare; arte regendus; praebuit ille (excutiat sit would be inadmis- sible); or in three: tu mihi sola; quo sit amanda ; quisquis es, adde ; ille vel alter; or in four: as, mens sit et apta. Ovid's Elisions in this part of the verse are the easiest and slightest, as of e or 1 ; if a, only before another a. They have place too only in the middle of the first dactyl, or else between its two short syllables. Elision between the two dactyls is very rare, except in the case of que. In the second dactyl it is very excep- tional, as * insula habet,' * resistere equos.' At the end it is utterly inadmissible, except before the enclitic est (es) spoken of above. Ovid in this part of the verse never elides any long or even doubtful syllable. With him, therefore, Ennius's ^me aequipa- rare queat,' or Propertius' ' si altera talis erit,' would not be possible. Catullus, however, has very harsh ehsions in this half of the verse, especially in his short vituperative Elegiacs : * me pretio atque malo ;' even ^ ploxemi habet veteris.' As the Romans definitively accepted the strict Ovidian type for the Elegiac, we are bound to do the same. It commends itself, however, by its own intrinsic merits, its marvellous ease and * Very rarely the Subject is in one distich, and the Verb in the next : as, Languor et immodici nullo sub vindice somni Aleaque et multo tempera quassa mero Eripiunt omnis animo sine vuhiere nervos, Ov. ' In Versus Elegiacus a final trisyllable is rare and ungraceful : a final word of four or five syllables is less ungraceful, but rare in Ovid : as. Maxima de nihilo nascitur historia, Prop. Lis est cum forma magna pudicitiae, Ov. The final disyllabic should be a Verb, Substantive, or Pronoun ; rarely an Adverb ; more rarely still an Adjective or Participle, and only when a strong emphasis falls on it : Hoc faciei positae te mihi, terra, levem, Ov. § 262-63. Lyric Metres. 533 buoyancy. Propertius in his earlier poems has a very distinct style of his own : in his later, influenced doubtless by the example of his younger friend, he approaches much nearer to the Ovidian movement. 3. Lyric Metres. (1) The Lyric poetry of the Romans is far less in amount than their Heroic and Elegiac. It is of much less importance also than that of the Greeks. The same is true of their Iambic and Trochaic poetry, if we omit the old scenic verse. The peculiar excellence, however, of the two chief representatives of these styles, Catullus and Horace, gives to them an important rank in Latin literature. Catullus and Horace saw that Latin was unfitted for the rich and complicated variety of choral rhythm, so brilliantly worked out by the Greeks, and confined themselves to the simpler and more manageable melodies of Alcaeus and Sappho, and, in the case of Catullus, of the Alexandrine school. They subjected even these to stricter laws, in conformity with the genius of their lan- guage, as had been done by Virgil, Ovid, and others in the metres cultivated by them. They also both made use of Iambic measures, but in different ways. Horace and Catullus are the only important models in these styles, with two exceptions. Each had a follower ; Catullus a very brilliant one in Martial, who has largely employed in his Epigrams the Phalaecian Hen decasyllabic and the Iambic Scazon, increas- ing the strictness of their laws on principles of metre akin to those of Ovid. Seneca in his numerous choruses copies the lyrical mea- sures of Horace, especially Asclepiads and Sapphics, but with little skill and often in a very hybrid fashion. (2) Though it is so much used by the old scenic writers, and was always the favourite measure in popular chants, and seems so well adapted to the genius of the language, and is so common in Greek, the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic is hardly found in the extant learned poets. Seneca has very few of them : the * Pervigilium Veneris,' though brightly burnished, is of the copper age. Ana- paests, too, found little favour, if we except Seneca, Plautus, the old Tragic fragments and those of Lucilius. (3) Both Horace and Catullus must have tried many metres, before they finally decided which were best adapted to their genius and purpose ; but such they seem to have found at last. The Odes of Horace are 104 in number: of these, ninety-seven are Alcaic, Sapphic, or Asclepiad; of which last he employs five different systems. But his Epodes preceded his Odes in time; and here the Iambic is the prevailing type. Only one, however, the 17th and last, is in continuous Trimeter Iambics. Horace has here imitated strictly the Greek Trimeter. The caesuras are very precise : generally the penthemimeral, now and then the hephthemimeral. Of resolved feet he admits the dactyl in the first, and the tribrach in any of the next three places. It is remarkable, too, that he observes the law of the Greek tragic pause in the fifth, with one exception only in the eighty- one verses, in which the rhythm is designed for a pecu- liar effect ; in which, too, elision disguises the violation ; Alitibus atque cdnibus homicidam Hectorem^ 534 Latin Prosody, 264. He must have felt, however, that the regular Greek trimeter was not effective, alone and unrelieved ; and has not repeated the experiment. (4) Catullus, too, with his nice tact, must have felt the same. He has but one poem (52), of four lines, in ordinary trimeters, two of the four being pure Iambics. Like Horace, he would not have liked to recall the old scenic verse with its spondees, effective in its way, but to them inartistic. He has therefore obviated the monotony by two opposite methods. Two of his best poems, the 4th and 29th, are in pure Iambics, to which his taste and skill give lightness, force, and variety. In contrast to this, eight of his poems are in the Scazon, or limping Trimeter (ChoUambus) of Hipponax : Miser Catulle | desinas indptire, Et quod vides perisse | perditum ducas. The peculiar movement produced by the inversion of rhythm at the end is very effective. The caesura is indifferently penthemi- meral or hephthemimeral, but always one or other. He has a dactyl once in the first, once in the third place ; but no other resolved feet. Martial after him uses the Scazon often and with equal success. (5) To avoid the monotony of the continuous ordinary Trimeter, Horace has composed the first ten Epodes in Iambic couplets, this Trimeter alternating with a Dimeter, resolved feet being very rare. In the remaining six Epodes he has sought still further variety by coupling in five of them the regular Heroic with some other metre — in two (14, 15) with the Iambic Dimeter just spoken of ; in one (10) with a pure Iambic Trimeter ; in one (12) with a Dactylic Tetrameter Catalecticus in disyllabum, in which metre he has also composed two of his Odes (i. 7 and 28). In the fifth (13) he has joined the Heroic with an Asynartete verse, the lambelegus, com- posed of a Dimeter Iambic followed by a Dactylic Penthemimer. In the remaining Epode (11) he has united a Trimeter Iambic with the reverse Asynartete, a Dactylic Penthemimer followed by an Iambic Dimeter. Besides the above, he has single examples of five other metres in his Odes: namely i. 4 ; i. 8 ; ii. 18 ; iii. 12 ; iv. 7. The first contains a peculiar Verse (Dactylic Tetrameter going before three Trochees) alternating with an Iamb. Trim. Cat. : the second, a verse consisting of Dactyl and two Trochees alternating with Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the third. Trochaic Hephthemimer alternat- ing with Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the fourth, a pure Ionic a Minore system; the fifth. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Dactylic Penthemimer. Most of the foregoing systems have technical names from their supposed inventors or chief cultivators. See Table of Metres. (6) But all these seem to have been but experiments, and he con- fined himself chiefly to three Lyric types of metre, one which was mainly Dactylic, one which joined this with the Trochaic move- ment, and a third which united the Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic rhythms. Lyric Metres. 535 (7) Of the first, or Asclepiad, Horace employed five systems, each consisting of one or several kinds of the following verses. 1. The Glyconic: / / / - Sic te diva pot^ns Cypri. 2. The Pherecratean: / / / — — — V/ — -* Gr^to Pyrrha sub dntro. 3. The Lesser Asclepiad: / / ^ \ ^ / — — — ^ -~ w "-" M ascends atavis | edite r^gibus. 4. The Greater Asclepiad : // ^ \ ^ - \ ^ / ^ Tu ne quaesieris | scire nefas | qu^m mihi, quem tibi. In all these four varieties, out of which he has composed 34 of his 104 Odes, Horace tenaciously keeps a Spondee for the base, with perhaps one exception, ^ Ignis Iliacas domes whereas with the Greeks and with Catullus the Trochee is the typical base of the Glyconic verse. But in his one poem, written in the greater Asclepiad, Catullus also has a Spondaic base. Horace too in both 3 and 4 is most tenacious of the penthemi- tneral caesura, as we have marked in our scheme ; not so Catullus and other Greeks. In the two apparent exceptions : Dum flagrantia de|-torquet ad oscula : Arcanique fides | prodiga per|-lucidior vitro : tne preposition gives a quasicaesura. He has but one real ex- ception : Non incendia Car|thaginis impiae, occasioned perhaps by the proper name. Out of these four kinds of verse he has composed five different Asclepiad systems : 1. The Lesser Asclepiad alone, as i. i. 2. The Greater Asclepiad alone, as i. 11. 3. A stanza composed of three Lesser Asclepiad verses, followed by one Glyconic, as i. 6. 4. A couplet of alternate Glyconics and Lesser Asclepiads, as i- 3- 5. A stanza of which the first two lines are Lesser Asclepiads, the third a Pherecratean, in which the last syllable is always long ; the fourth Glyconic ; as i. 5. In two of these five systems the metre shews they are in stanzas of four verses. In the other three kinds, as in the Odes generally of Horace, the Odes are multiples of four, except in one Ode, written in the Lesser Asclepiad, iv. 8. But such divisions in the case of the uniform metres, and of those which run in couplets, is of no practical importance, as there is no necessary pause at the end of each fourth, anv more than of the other verses. 53^ Latin Prosody. 266. Catullus has employed the Glyconic with great happiness in his long * Epithalamium/ and in one other poem, the 34th. The stanza in the former consists of four Glyconics. followed by a Pherecratean : -^-v/w-^ - (four times) - c - ^ - (once) in the latter, of three Glyconics followed by the Pherecratean. But his rhythm is nearer the Greek than is Horace's, as he prefers a Trochee for the base ; and in one stanza the four lines are con- nected by synaphea, the last syllable of the Glyconic being always long, while that of the Pherecratean is doubtful; in the other stanza the first three and last two lines are similarly connected. The light Trochaic base, and the point given by the final long syl- lable together produce a beautiful and powerful metre, hyper- metrical syllables sometimes suffering elision at the end of a line. Horace's earlier Asclepiads seem to suffer from the number of weak short syllables at the end of verses ; and to a feeling of this we refer the occurrence of such lines as these in the 4th book : Cur facunda parum decor |o (hypermetrical) Sed cur heu, Ligurine, cur; Lentum soUicitas ille virentis et Audivere Lyce di mea vota di and even the Alcaic : Ne forte credas interitura quae. 266 ^ Sapphic (8) The Sapphic stanza, consisting of three Sapphic Hendeca- Verses. syllables, followed by a Dactyl. Dim. Catal. in disyllabum (Versus Adonius) : - w - Risit Apollo. In his first three books Horace rarely departs from the following rhythm in the Sapphic Hendecasyllable : / /1 / - — v-f — — I v/v^— 'vy — ^ lam satis terris | nivis atque dirae, differing in this exceedingly from Sappho. The monotony is in- creased by his always having a Spondee in the second foot. He seems himself at least to have felt the faultiness of his monotonous caesura, and in his fourth book and * Carmen Saeculare' often sub- stitutes the caesura at the third Trochee : as, Liberum munivit | iter daturus. But the stiffness is thus increased and the monotony not much diminished. He sometimes, like Sappho and Catullus, has hypermetrical verses ; sometimes too, like them, he has no break between the third and fourth verse : as, Labitur ripa love non probante u- xorius amnis. Catullus has two Sapphic Odes, one a very early poem, a trans- lation of Sappho ; the second written with reference to this, and, a5 it were, a defiant retractation of it. He is less regular in his Lyric Metres. 537 rhythm than Horace, and three times has a Trochee in the second foot. But he seems to have felt the futility of competing with Sappho, and has with briUiant success made a variation of the Sapphic his own, by adopting in forty out of fifty-nine of his Lyric and Iambic poems the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable, which differs from Ihe Sapphic in this, that the Dactyl forms the second instead of the third foot. This difference, however, has enabled him to wield it with marvellous grace and at the same time freedom, as it has no regular caesura, which is apt in a short verse to cause monotony : / / / Quoi dono lepidum novum libellum Arida modo pumice expolitum ? Meas esse aliquid putare nugas. Martial has adopted it with equal success ; but the first foot with him is always a Spondee ; and we learn from the elder Pliny that a Spondee in his time was alone admitted. In his 55th poem Catullus has tried the experiment of occasionally substituting a Spondee for the Dactyl, but the result is not happy. (9) Horace's most successful stanza is that in which he has adapted Alcaic to Latin forms the famous system called after Alcaeus. It consists Stanza, of (i. 2) two Hen decasyllabic verses of this form, 267 Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit, (3) an Enneasyllabic verse of this form, _ — _ _ — V./ .v^ Dumeta natalemque silvam. completed by (4) an Alcaic Decasyllabic : ^V^V^j ^ \J \J \ ^ \^ ^ O Delius et Patareus Apollo. This varied metre, combining Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic forms, has gained by the restrictions to which the poet has subjected it. In the three first verses of the stanza he has admitted an Iambus rarely in the first foot, and not at all in his 4th Book. The fifth syllable too of verses i, 2, which Alcaeus uses as doubtful, is always long, with one single exception : Si non periret immiserabilis. In those verses the Penthemimeral Caesura is strictly observed, with only these two exceptions : Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico. Spectandus in certamine Martio ; though more than once he has the quasicaesura after the Preposi- tion of a compound word ; as. Hostile aratrum exi-ercitus insolens. Verse 3. too gains stateliness and weight by rejecting the most usual Iambic movements ; thus, Hunc Lesbio sacrare pkctro Latin Prosody, is the only instance of the second Iambus being contained in a word thus ending in an Iambus ; and only in the earlier books does it ever end with a word of four syllables, like barbarorum. Its most normal rhythms are : Breunosque velocis et arcis. Commisit immanisque Raetos. Quantis fatigaret ruinis ; and next to these : Vexare turmas et frementem. In the verse ^Non decoloravere caedes/ there is probably a pause after the preposition de. This verse is sometimes hypermetrical : as, ' Cum pace delabentis Etruscum | In mare/ In Verse 4 these seem the best rhythms : Vindelici didicere nuper. Alpibus impositas tremendis. Auspiciis pepulit secundis; or modifications of these : Stravit humum sine clade victor. 268 Gaiiiam- The Galliambus of Catullus is worth considering from the cele- bus. brity of his sixty-third poem. Varro and others used this metre in poems now lost. Its nature, often misunderstood, is simple enough. We may take as its type an Ionic a minore Tetram. Cat. with an unvarying caesura at the end of the second foot ; / / \ / C No whole verse of Catullus is of this primary form. Of the first part an example is Et earum omnia adirem : of the second, ' stadio et gymnasiis ; ' but Catullus probably wrote guminasiis. As a rule, in each part what is called Anaclasis occurs, that is to say, the last long syllable of the first foot changes place with the first short syllable of the second foot ; and the same occurs between the third and fourth feet : we then get this form : / / / I ^ ^ C V>/V/_V> \J _ _ _ w _ Aliena quae petentes | velut exules loca. This is the most common form for the first part ; but usually in the second part a further change takes place : the second long syllable is resolved into two short ones ; and we then get the regular type of the verse : Super alta vectus Attis | celeri rate maria. Occasional variations of this type occur. Tibicen ubi canit Phryx | curvo grave calamo, gives in one verse three of these variations : Ibi maria vasta visens | lacrimantibus oculis, gives the fourth. 269. Table of Verses and Metres. 539 TABLE OF CLASSICAL LATIN VERSES AND METRES. J 1. SINGLE VERSES. A, Dactylic Rhythms. (i) Trimeter Catalecticus in Syllabam (Penthemimer) called Archilochius Minor : — . v-» V-/ I _ I _ Arbori|busque co|mae, Hor. (2) Tetrameter Catalecticus in Disyllabum, called Alcmanius : Mobili|bus po|maria | rivis, Hor. In the case of a Proper Name Horace has a Spondee in third foot : Menso|rem cohijbent, Arjchyta. (3) On the Hexameter and the Elegiac Pentameter, see §§ 259- 261. B, Trochaic Rhythms. (i) Dimeter Catalecticus : Non tra|bes Hyjmettijae, Hor. (2) The Tetrameter Catalectic or Septenarius was used by the Greek Tragic and Comic Poets ; also by Plautus and Terence. The Latin Poem (of uncertain age and author) called Pervigilium Veneris, is a Monocolum in this metre ; of which the following is the scheme : w \^ \J \J ~ _ \J Cras a I met qui | nunquam a|mavit || quique ajmavit | eras a|met. Dialysis after the 4th foot is essential. In Comedy the license of feet is vastly wider (see Note, p. 474) ; but a Trochee or its equivalent, a Tribrach, must precede the final syllable. Plautus also uses the Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo- narius with similar license, but always with final Trochee. C. Iambic Rhythms. (i) Dimeter Acatalectus : — >-> — Forti I seque|mur pec | tore, Hor. Canidi|a trajctavit | dapes, Hor. 540 Latin Prosody. §269. (2) Alcaicus Enneasyllabus : Iamb. Dim. Hyperc, Periu|ra pu!gn|acis | Achivos, Hor. Caesura after the 3rd syllable is required. See § 267. (3) (Trimeter Acatalectus, or Senarius, which sometimes consists of six Iambic feet (Hexapodia Iambi ca) : Suis I et i|psa Ro|ma vijribus | ruit, Hor. Gemel|le Cas|tor et | gemel|le Cas|toris, CatuU. But usually Spondees are admitted into the first, third, and fifth places ; a Tribrach may stand in any place but the last for an Iambus ; a Dactyl in the first place, and an Anapaest in the first (rarely in the fifth) for a Spondee : Pater ina ru|ra bo | bus ex|ercet | suis, Hor. Aliti'bus atlque canijbus homijcidam Hec|torem, Hor. Pavidumlque lepo|rem et ad|venam | laqueo | gruem, Hor. A penthemimeral or hephthemimeral caesura is necessary to the harmony of the Verse. This Verse may form a Metrum Mono- colum, as Hor. Epod, 17. Note, The Comic Poets, Plautus and Terence, admit Spondees, Dactyls, and Anapaests, in every place but the last, sometimes even Proceleusmatics ; with numerous other licenses. The Iambic Trimeters of the fabulist Phaedrus resemble these, but take fewer feet of three syllables and fewer licenses. (4) Scazon, or Choliambus ; which is an Iambic Trimeter with a Spondee in the sixth, and an Iambus in the fifth, place ; as, Miser | Catul|le de|sinas | ine|ptire, CatuU. Used as a Metrum Monocolum, but not by Horace. The cae- suras as in (3). (5) Trimeter Catalecticus : Mea I reni|det in | domo | lacu!nar, Hor. Iunctae|que nym|phis Gra|tiae | decen|tes, Hon The penthemimeral caesura is essential. (6) Versus Hipponacteus (Dimeter + Hephthemimer). Depren|sa na|vis in | mari || vesa|nien|te ven|to, CatulL Dialysis after the Dimeter. This verse forms a Metrum Mono- colum, not used by Horace. D, Ionic Rhythms. (1) lonicus a minore Dimeter Acatalectus : Patruae ver]bera linguae, Hor. ^ (2) lonicus a minore Tetrameter Acatalectus : Miserarum est | neque amori I dare ludum, | neque dulci, Hor. (3) Versus Galliambus. See § 266. § 269. Table of Verses mid Metres, 541 E, Mixed Rhythms. I. Logaoedic. Logaoedic Rhythms are those in which Dactyls are followed by Trochees.^ A Base often begins them, and some- times a Choriambus is inserted. (i) Adonius : Dactyl. Dim. Cat. in Disyll. — V/ \^ I _ \J Risit A I polio, Hon (2) Aristophaneus (Dactylus simplex dupliciter Trochaicus) _ W I _ S> I — Vm/ Lydia | die per | omnis, Hor. Dialysis after the Dactyl. (3) Pherecrateus ; an Adonius with Base, which, in Horace, is Spondaic, in Catullus, chiefly Trochaic : Base . — I . Vi/ V/ I _ ^ Vix du|rare ca|rinae, Hor. Lute|umve pa | paver, Catull. (4) Glyconeus ; the Base of which, in Horace, is Spondaic, In Catullus, usually Trochaic : Base _ _ I _ w _ vy O — v> I Mater | saeva Cu pidinum, Hor. Tardat | ingenu|us pudor, Catull. (5) Asclepiadeus Minor, the Base being Spondaic : Base Maece|nas atavis||edite 1 regibus, Hor. Elision at Penthemimer is rare : as, Audi|tam modere|re arbori,bus fidem, Hor. It is used as Metrum Monocolum (Asclepiadeum Primum), (6) Asclepiadeus Maior, the Base being Spondaic : Base II ----II NullamlVare sacra | vite prius | severis | arborem, Hor. Caesuras after 6th and loth syllables. This is Metrum Monocolum. (7) Alcaicus Decasyllabus : _ v-' j _ vy j _ vy j _ G Nec vete|res agi|tantur | orni, Hor. (8) Phalaecius Hendecasyllabus ; Metrum Monocolum, not used by Horace. * As the last syllable of a verse is doubtful, a final Trochee can pass into a Spondee. In the Pherecrateans of Horace it always does so ; and in his verses generally a final long syllable is preferred. 542 Latin Prosody. § 269. Base Soles I occide|re et re | dire | possunt, CatuU. Sometimes an Iambus appears as Base, seldom a Trochee : Minister vetuli puer Falerni, Catull. Arida modo pumice expolitum, Catull. A Spondee is sometimes put for the Dactyl, but very inhar- moniously. (9) Archilochius Maior : Dactylic Tetrameter with Dactyl in fourth place, where is Dialysis, and three Trochees : Solvitur I acris hi[emps gra|ta vice || verisjet Fa|voni, Hor. (10) Sapphicus Minor, consisting of a Dactyl and two Tro- chees preceded by Trochee + Spondee (called by some a double Base) : ^ _ _ I — v> I _ \-/ I — . Nota quae se|des fue|rat co|lumbis, Hor. Sappho, the inventor of this verse, as also Catullus, often began with a double Trochee : but Horace always length- ens the fourth syllable. The strong caesura after the fifth syllable is usual ; occa- sionally the weak caesura is found after the sixth (short) syllable : Non semel dicemus !| io triumphe, Hor. One or other is essential to the harmony of the verse. (11) Sapphicus Maior: which only differs from the last in having a Choriambus between the Spondee and Dactyl : Saepe trans fijnem iaculo | nobihs | expe|dito, Hor. (12) Versus Alcaicus Hendecasyllabus, in which an Iambic Penthemimer (g - ^ — ) is followed by Dactyl and - : G — _ I ^ v> ^ I _ v> _ Mors et fugacem || persequijtur virum, Hor. Vides ut alta || stet nive | candidum, Hor. The first syllable is seldom short. The penthemimeral caesura is observed. Elision sometimes occurs there : Regum timendo || rum in proprios greges, Hor. (13) Versus Priapeius of Catullus : Metrum Monocolum. O collonialquae cupis||ponte'ludere|longo, Quendam | munici'pem meum || de tu|o volo | ponte, Catull. § 269. Table of Metres. 543 2. Asynartete. (1) lambelegus Archilochius : Iamb. Dim. Dactyl. Penthem. Tu vi|na Tor|quato | move || consule | pressa me|o, Hor. (2) Elegiambus Archilochius, Dactyl. Penthem. Iamb. Dim. lussus ab|ire do j mum || fere ! bar in|certo | pede, Hor. There is a Dialysis at the end of the Penthemimer. Note a. The Anapaestic Rhythm is the converse of the Dactylic. It admits however Spondees and Dactyls ; in which the arsis falls on the second syllable. The most usual verse is the Dimeter, having a break after the second foot : O va|ne pudor || falsumlque decus. Decies|nivibus!|canuit|Ide, Sen. Tr. The Greek dramatic poets used this verse in systems ending with a Dimeter Catalectic, called Versus Paroemiacus ; but Seneca has not in this imitated them ; nor does he admit a Dactyl at the close of a line. A Monometer is sometimes introduced (in Greek always before the Paroemiacus), called a Base. In Anapaestic metre the last syllable of the Dimeter is not indifferent, and makes position with the succeeding verse (Synaphea). Note b. The Saturnian Verse was an old Roman measure, not used in the best ages. The following is cited as its purest type : Dabunt | malum | Meteljli || Naevi]o po|etae. But great license was taken in its form. II. STROPHIC METRES. a. DiCOLA DiSTICHA or DiSTROPHA. On the Elegiac Distich, see § 261. (1) Metrum Hipponacteum. Troch. Dim. Cat. + Iamb. Trim. Cat Non ebur neque aureum Mea renidet in domo lacunar, Hor. ii. 18. (2) Metrum lambicum Senarium Quaternarium. Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. Beatus ille qui procul negotiis Ut prisca gens mortalium, Hor. Epod, 2. ^3) Metrum Archilochium Primum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Archilochius Minor. Diffugere nives ; redeunt iam gramina campis, Arboribusque comae, Hor. Od.'w, 7. (4) Metrum Archilochium Secundum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + lambelegus Archilochius. 544 Latin Prosody. § 269. Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres Nivesque deducunt lovem ; nunc mare nunc siluae, Hor. Epod. 13. (5) Metrum Archilochium Tertium. Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Elegiambus Archilochius. Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, iuvat Scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi, Hor. Epod, II. (6) Metrum Archilochium Quartum. Archilochius Mai or + Iamb. Trim. Cat. Solvitur acris hiemps grata vice veris et Favoni, Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas, Hor. Od. i. 4. (7) Metrum Pythiambicum Primum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis Oblivionem sensibus, Hor. Epod, 14. (8) Metrum Pythiambicum Secundum. , , Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Hexapodia lambica. Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit, Hor. Epod, 16. (9) Metrum Alcmanium. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Dact. Tetram. Alcmanius. Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mitylenen Aut Ephesum bimarisve Corinthi, Hor. Od, i. 7 ; Epod, 7. (10) Metrum Asclepiadeum Secundum. Versus Glyconeus + Versus Asclepiadeus Minor. Sic te diva potens Cypri, Sic fratres Helenae lucida sidera, Hor. Od, i. 3. Horace has twelve Odes in this measure. (11) Metrum Sapphicum Maius. Versus Aristophaneus + Sapphicus Maior. Lydia, die per omnes Te deos oro Sybarin cur properes amando, Hor. Od, i. 8. b, DiCOLA Tetrasticha or Tetrastropha. (i) Strophe Sapphica Minor. Terni Sapphici Minores + Adonius. Integer vitae scelerisque purus Non eget Mauris iaculis neque arcu Nec venenatis gravida sagittis, Fusee, pharetra, Hor. Od. i. 22. Horace has twenty-six Sapphic Odes. § 269. Tabic of. Metres, 545 The Adonian Verse is so intimately connected with the third Sapphic hne that Hiatus at the close of the latter is unusual, and words are sometimes divided between the two verses : as, Thracio bacchante magis sub inter- lunia vento, Hor. An Hypermeter is sometimes found among the Sapphic lines : as Dissidens plebi numero beator|um Eximit virtus, Hor. (2) Metrum Asclepiadeum Tertium. Terni Asclepiadei Minores + Glyconeus. lam veris comites, quae mare temperant, Impellunt animae lintea Thraciae : lam nec prata rigent, nec fluvii strepunt Hiberna nive turgidi, Hor. Od. iv. 12. Horace has nine Odes in this measure. (3) Strophe Glyconea Catulliana. Terni Glyconei Catulliani + Pherecrateus Catullianus. Sis quocumque placet tibi Sancta nomine, Romulique Antiquam, ut solita es, bona Sospites ope gentem, Catull. 34. Synaphea is kept in this Metre. Catullus in Poem 61 uses this Metre as Pentastichon. Namque lulia Maniio, Qualis Idalium colens Venit ad Phrygium Venus ludicem, bona cum bona Nubit alite virgo. Here Synaphea is observed between lines i, 2, 3, and between 4, c. Tricola Tetrasticha. (1) Metrum Asclepiadeum Quartum. Bini Asclepiadei Minores + Pherecrateus + Glyconeus. Prima nocte domum claude : neque in vias Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae : Et te saepe vocanti Duram difficilis mane, Hor. Od, iii. 7 29. Horace has seven Odes in this Metre. Although the Pherecratean ends, in theory, with a Trochee, yet in the usage of Horace a final long syllable is adopted. (2) Strophe Alcaica. Bini Alcaici Hendecasyllabi + Alcaicus Enneasyllabus + Alca- icus Decasyllabus. 546 Latm Prosody, Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit Crinis solutos, qui Lyciae tenet ^ Dumeta natalemque silvam Delius et Patareus Apollo, Hor. Od, iii. 4. 61. Horace has thirty-seven Odes in this Metre. NOTE, The metres of the Comic poets, Plautus and Terence, are too large a sub- ject to be treated in this grammar. We will merely observe that many final syllables (ar, or, at, et, it), short in later poets, are lengthened by Plautus and Terence ; Iambic words, on the other hand (such as h a b e n t, bonis), are often scanned as Pyrrhichs ; the law of position is often vio- lated ; and long initial syllables slurred into short quantity, when they follow monosyllables or elided Pyrrhichs. Add to these licenses the most extensive synizesis and the free use of Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, even Proceleusmatic for Iambus or Trochee (always excepting the final foot), and it will be seen at once in how wide a field of rhythm the old scenic poets ranged. See p. 56. 1 APPENDIX. A. LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography is defined by Suetonius {Ocf. 88), as * the form and method of writing taught by grammarians,' and by Quin- tiHan (i. 7), more shortly, as *the science of writing correctly/ We may blend the two definitions, and say that Orthography is *the science of writing in correct form the words of any language/ The Greeks settled their orthography with reference to four considera- tions : (i) analogy ; (2) etymology ; (3) dialect ; (4) history. The Latins left dialect out of question, but had regard to the other three points. Yet, owing to the fluctuating character of their language, and its many changes during the seven centuries between the first Punic war and the fall of the Roman empire, the settlement of a solid Latin orthography is a work of difficulty. The labours of Ritschl, Lachmann, and others have indeed during the last few years thrown much light on this subject. Ritschl justly selects the age of Quintilian's great work (about the close of the first century, A.D.) as the standard of Latin orthography ; but, un- fortunately, it is only by an inductive process, often uncertain, that the forms of words can, generally speaking, be referred to this age. Inscrip- tions, of course, have the greatest value ; but they are often inconsistent even when contemporaneous. The earliest MSS. are several centuries later than the Christian era ; and they also disagree. The opinions of old grammarians are not less various. Hence it often happens that the classical form of a word can be determined only by a balance of conflicting evidence ; and different minds will strike the balance differently. A few probable results, compendiously stated, must suffice here. The student may compare Munro's In^rod. to Lucretius, and Ribbeck's Proleg. to Virgil. H ere forms assumed to be most classical are named first : others of nearly equal authority are added with 'or:' those of minor authority are within brackets ; those which seem inadmissible follow 'not,' and are in italic type. 1) a, e: defatigo or defetigo ; depeciscor (depaciscor). 2) e, ae, oe : caecus, not coecus ; caelum, heaven, not caelum ; also caelum &c. graving-tool ; caementum (cementum) ; caerimonia, not ceremonia ; caespes, not cespes ; Camena, not Camoena ; cena &c., not coena &c.; ceteri, not caeteri\ faenum (fenum?), not foenum ; fecundus, not foecundus ; femina, not foemina ; fetus &c. , not foetus ; fenus (foenus) ; foedus, treaty ; glaeba ; heres, not haeres ; levis, not laevis \ maerere and maestus, not moerere and moestus ; cboedire (obedire) ; obscenus, not obscaenus obscoenus ; Paelignus, N N 2 548 A ppendix. not Pelignns ; paelex, not pellex ; paenitet, not poe7titet, but poena ; paenula, not pemda ; pomaerium (pomerium) ; prelum, not praelum ; proelium, not praelium ; raeda, not reda rheda ; saeculum, not seculum ; saepes &c., not sepes &c. ; scaena (scena). 3) e, i: benevolus (benivolus) ; deminuere &c., not diminuere &c. ; di (dei), dis (deis) ; genetrix, not genitrix ; heri (here) ; intellego (intelligo) ; neglego (negligo) ; protinus or protenus, but quatenus ; valetudo (valitudo) ; Vergilius, not Virgilius. As respects -Is (eis) or -es, Accus. Plur. of I-nouns, admitting that in the republican age -is was the more usual, as it is cer- tainly truer in formation, yet we believe that, before the age of Quintilian, -es was in general use ; and this, with its superior con- venience, has led to its frequent retention. On -e or -i in Abl. of I-nouns, see § 24. 5« 4) i, u: The middle tone between 1 and u (see § 11. p. 8 ; § 12. p. 33), led to the existence of a large number of double forms : aestimare (aestumare) ; Brundisium (Brundusium) ; inclutus (inclitus) ; lubet &c. or libet &c. ; recuperare (reciperare) ; Dat. PI. of Decl. 4 : grad-ibus &c. (gradubus &c. § 25) ; maximus (maxumus), and all Superlatives ; vicensimus (vicensumus), and other Ordinals in -imus (-umus) ; so maritimus (maritumus) ; monimentum or monumentum ; tegimen or tegiimen ; and other similar derivatives. But the ii-form in many of these was archaic in the Augustan and following age, which wrote carnifex rather than carnufex ; lacrima rather than lacruma ; clipeus rather than cliipeus ; optimus rather than optiimus, except perhaps in old formulas ; mancipium, not ma7icupium ; victima, not victuma. 5) e, u : -endus (-undus) in Gerundive forms : -undus was the ancient form, but superseded by -endus in the Imperial age. 6^ o, u : adulescens (Noun), adolescens (Part.) ; epistula or epistola; suboles (soboles). The earlier Latins, even to the Augustan age, wrote o rather than u when u preceded : but u was received under the emperors : hence vult (volt) ; avus (avos) ; equus (equos), &c. But Ribbeck in Virgil almost always avoids uu, vu. See 12. 7) e, o : vertere (vortere) ; versus (vorsus) ; vertex (vortex). The forms in o are comparatively archaic. But fenoris or feneris, feneror ; iecinoris or iecineris ; pignoris or pigneris, pigneror. 8) i, y : y is not properly a Latin letter, but introduced in Cicero's age to represent Greek v. Therefore, such forms as clypeus, hyems, indytus^ ocyus, satyr a, stylus, sylva, Sylla, are now justly exploded, the true forms being clipeus (clupeus), hiemps, inclutus (inclitus), ocius, satira, stilus, silva, Sulla. But, where Greek v is represented by y, this letter holds its proper place : lyra, Nympha, Syrus, Syria, Tyrus, &c. 9) guo or go : ling^re (linguere) ; ningit (ninguit) ; stinguere and com- pounds, not stingere ; tingere (tinguere) ; ungdre (unguere), but unguentum, unguen ; urgere (urguere). 10) gr or c : vicensimus (vigensimus), trigensimus or tricensimus, but quadragensimus, &c. ; so ducenti, trecenti, sescenti, but quadrin- genti or quadrigenti ; quingenti, &c, ; viceni, triceni, but quadra- geni, &:c. ; duceni, treceni, sexceni or sesceni, but quadringeni, quingeni, &c. See Numeralia, § 33. Cycnus or cygnus ; Cnosus or Gnosus. 11) grn or n : nasci not gnasci \ natus (gnatus), but agnatus, cognatus, &c. ; noscere not gnosca-e ; but agnoscere, cognoscere, &c. A. Orthography. 549 12) C or q (qu): cotidie or cottidie, not quotidie\ coquus (anc. cocus, coqus); equus (anc. ecus, equs, equos) ; pecunia (anc. pequnia) ; locutus (anc. loqutus) ; secutus (anc. sequtus) ; loquuntur, sequuntur (anc. locuntur, secuntur) ; cui (anc. quoi, quoei) ; cur (anc. qur, quor) ; quum or cum, conj. (anc. qum, quom) ; cum, prep. (anc. qum, quom). The form cum is good for preposition and conjunction ; quom was used for both to the Augustan age : after which the dis- like of uu seems to have gone out of fashion ; and the form quum is often used for the conjunction. But qu was uttered as c. Ribbeck in Virgil commonly edits ecus, ecum (or -quos, -quom) locuntur, secuntur, &c., instead of the forms with qu. 13) b for V : ferbui or fervi ; to avoid vu. 14) h initial present or absent : Hadria, not Adria ; alucinari (halucinari) ; Hammon (Ammon) ; harena (arena) ; harundo or arundo ; haruspex or aruspex ; hariolus, not ariolus ; have (ave) ; hedera, not edera ; erus, era, or herus, hera; heres (eres) ; herciscere, not e)'ciscere\ holus (olus) ; Hiber (Iber) ; Hister ( Ister) ; umere, umor, &c. , rather than humere^ hu?nor, &c. ; umerus, not humerus, 15) li interior: aeneus, &c. (aheneus, &c.) ; cohors or cors ; incohare (inchoare) ; nihil or nil ; prendo (prehendo) ; vemens, not veheniens. 16) euphonic p : compsi, comptum, &c. (comsi, comtum, &c.), and others ; hiemps (hiems). 1 7) ci or ti before a vowel. Authority favours dicio, condicio, solacium, patricius, tribunicius, &c., not ditio^ &c. ; and contio, fetialis, in- dutiae, nuntius, nuntiare, &c., setius; not concio^ &;c. Also con- vitium rather than convicium ; suspitio (Subst.), rather than suspicio; but the forms of these with ci were also used. See Corssen, I. 56. 18) b or p : caelebs (caeleps) : urbs (urps), &c., obsonium, obsonari (opsonium, opsonari) ; obtulit (optulit) ; subter (supter). But bs was sounded as ps, bt as pt. 19) d or t final. In Quintilian's time the endings in d, hand, sed, apud, &c., had become general in preference to the archaic t, haut (hau), set, aput, &c. But d final was sounded as t. 20) -icere or -iicere. The compounds of iacere have been elsewhere noticed. To the Augustan age the single i seems to have prevailed : adicere, deicere, conicere, reicere, &c. But in imperial times it was at least admissible: adiicere, coiicere or coniicere, &c., the former i being a consonant. And in adicere, &c. i did double duty as consonant and vowel = ad-yi-cere, &c. 21) ct or t: artus not ardus ; autumnus, not auctumnus\ but auctor. 22) n kept or omitted : conectere, conexus, coniti, conivere, conixus, conubium, not connectere^ Sec. (M. Lztcr. i. 633) : coniunx (coiunx coiux) : n before s was liable to elimination : thus Numeral Adverbs in -ens passed into -es ; the earlier form being, however, generally preserved : quotiens (quoties) ; totiens (toties) ; miliens (milies), &c. So vicensimus (vicesimus). Such omissions of n abound in Inscr. as cosol for consol, cesor for censor. See Corssen, I. 249, &c. 23) Consonants singled or doubled : on this point documents are especially discrepant. We find Britannia or Brittannia ; cottidie or cotidie ; luppiter (lupiter) ; littera (litera) ; loquella or loquela ; querella or querela: but medela, suadela, &c., also cautela, tutela, reliquiae (relliquiae), but relicuus (later reliquus) ; religio (relligio) : causa (caussa) : paulum (pauUum). But nummus (numus) ; bracchium, not brachium ; Messalla, not Messala ; soUemnis, not solennis ; Appendix, sellers, &c., noi solers^ &c. ; sollicitus, not solicitus^ &c. Yetanulus rather than annulus ; culeus rather than cuUeus, &c. ; litus, not litius ; ilico rather than illico ; vilicus rather than villicus ; stili- cidium. Pliny wrote mille but milia ; Augustus, however, writes millia, milliens ; and Corssen, I. 226, prefers the 11. Reppuli, repperi, rettuli, seem better than repuli, &c., which are, however, used. 24) Assimilation : quidquid (quicquid) ; quicquam (quidquam), quicque (quidque) ; quamquam (quanquam) ; tamquam (tanquam) ; umquam, numquam (unquam, nunquam) ; -cumque (cunque) ; quendam not quetndarji ; eundem not eumdem ; tantundem not tantumdem ; quo- rundam not quorumdam ; eorundem not eormndem. When m remains before the guttural or dental, it is sounded as n : quamquam = quanquam when uttered. 25) Assimilation of Compounded Prepositions. This is received or rejected in MSS. and Inscr. with such apparently free option in most instances, that no safe rules on the point can be laid down. Thus we read in imperial times adlectus and allectus, collapsus and conlapsus, collegium and conlegium, illustris and inlustris, impen- dium and inpeifidium, irritus and inritus, even imperium and in- perium, &c. On the whole assimilation prevails. See Brambach, Neugestaltung der Latein. Orthographie, p. 300, &c. 26) Not less uncertainty exists in regard to words beginning with s, when compounded with ex (ecs : c. e/c, e|). We find exspectare and expectare, exspirare and expirare ; exsequi, exsequiae, and exe- qui, exequiae ; exsecrari, &c. , and execrari, &c. ; exserere and exerere ; exsilire and exilire ; exsultare ?.nd exultare ; especially exsul, exsulare, exsilium with exul, exulare, exilium. In some words, it is perhaps better to retain the s ; but exul, &c. , have ample authority ; and excidium (from exscindo) is better established than exscidium. 27) Accessory Note : * W^e have now (writes Mr Munro) an accurate transcription of the large fragments of the Ancyra monument, containing no doubt an exact copy of the Res gestae " of Augustus, which, as Tacitus (Anil. i. 11) tells us, he had written out with his own hand, a short time probably before his death. The spelling is interesting, as Suetonius says that Augustus was a purist on such points. ' He always admits uu : rivus, vivus, as well as annuus ; but he writes Phrates, praerant. * In Gen. Plur. we find denarium, sestertium, deum, nummum ; triumvirum, but xv virorum. In Gen. Sing, always i, not li ; proeli, luli, Pompei, congiari. In Dat. Abl. Plur. of Decl. I and 2, both is and iis : dis, colonis, provincis, &c. ; but also consiliis, &c. ; both municipis and municipiis. Dalmateis, emer- iteis, quadrigeis : but oftener is in Dat. and Abl. Plur. Some- times is, but oftener es in Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. : once pluris in Nom. Plur. *Honos, incohare, Messalla, plebis Gen. Sing., but plebei Dat., sescenti, valetudo. * Always i, not u, in the fluctuating instances : legitimus, septimus, frequentissimus, reciperare, manibiae, &c. Compare what Sueto- nius (ch. 87) says of his writing simus for sumus. Perhaps it was this love of consistency which makes him always spell millia, B, Latin Profiunciation, milliens ; though he writes militum, militare. He has absens, not apsens ; adque, apud, sed, aliquod, with d not t ; cumque, but nunquam. Always quotiens, not quoties ; milliens, vicensi- mus, &c. Caussa, claussum ; also clausum, inclusum. * Generally he writes x, not xs, as exilium : compare Quintilian (i. 7, 4), who speaks of it as an affectation to write exspecto for expecto. But Augustus has exstinguere and sexsiens. He writes immortalis, but inmissus ; collaticius ; once collegium, five times conlega or conlegium ; accipere, oppressus, but ad- signare ; imperator, impendere ; but inpensa in the heading written not by Augustus, but probably by Tiberius.' aese interesting extracts shew that spelling had a large license even in the Augustan age. B. LATIN PRONUNCIATION. In the year 1872, the Latin Professors of Oxford and Cam- bridge (then Messrs. Palmer and Munro) issued the following Syllabus, in compliance with request. * If it were thought advisable to adopt any existing pronunciation, we should be inclined for many reasons to recommend the Italian with perhaps a few modifications. But not to speak of other difficulties, the tyranny of accent over quantity is at least as marked in the Italian as in the English reading of Latin ; and we hold with the most experienced teachers that to distinguish between long and short syllables is an essential part of a reform in pronunciation. At the same time Italian appears to us to offer many valuable aids which should not be neglected ; as English in its tones and vocalisation seems so different from old Latin, that often it is not easy to find in it even single sounds to give as adequate representations of an old Latin sound. The Italian of literature has been fixed for six centuries, and manifestly approximates to the Latin of the 7th or 8th century. * There can be little doubt that during the best ages the writing, as seen in inscriptions, was meant to represent exactly the sounding of words, and that a difference of spelling implied so far a difference of pronouncing. * We propose then that the letters of Latin should be sounded as follows : ' I. Vowels and Diphthongs : — * <2, as the accentuated Italian a-, i. e. as the middle a of amata, or as the a of father. * as the unaccentuated Italian a\ i. e. as the first and last a of amata. It is not easy to represent this sound in English : we know nothing better than the first a in away., apart, aha* * e, as the Italian closed e : arena ; nearly as ai in English pain : * ae, as the Italian open e : secolo ; nearly as the first e in English there, or French pere. * e, the same sound shortened : nearly as in English men, or our sounding of /xev. A wide induction, extending from classical times to the present, would support what is said of e, ae : thus Italians represent Latin ae always by their open e, and as a rule <? by closed e, e by open e. * f, as accentuated Italian i : i. e. as the first i of timidi, or the / of machine : as unaccentuated Italian i.e. as the two last 2's of timidi, or the / of pity. The way in which Latin t is represented in Greek on the 552 Appendix. one hand, and in Italian on the other, and its history in Latin itself, would tend to shew that its actual sound approximated to that of and was some- thing between the i of pity and the e of petty. ' as Italian closed o : nearly as in German ohne^ English more. ^ 0, as Italian open o shortened : nearly as in German gold ; less nearly as in English com. The English and English-Latin o is very peculiar, in most cases hardly an o at all ; compare our honos, domos ; and our non^ bos^ pojts on the one hand with nos^ hos, donum on the other. * Perhaps, comparing Italian, we should pronounce when it precedes or when it represents au^ as the Italian open o : gloria^ victoria^ plostrum^ Clodius. * as accentuated Italian u : as the first u of tumulo^ the second of tumulto^ or as u in rule, lure. * as unaccentuated Italian u : as the second u of tiimulo^ the first of tumulto, the u of fruition. * au^ as Italian au : nearly as oiv in English power. * In genuine Latin words the other diphthongs are very rare, except in archaisms where ei, oe, oi, ou are common enough. ' eu, as Italian eu, or Latin e quickly followed by Latin ti. Of Latin words we find perhaps only heu, ceu^ seti ; and we do not feel competent to propose a different sound for it in the many Greek words adopted into Latin. ' oe is also very rare in Latin words : for them, as well as for Greek words, we should prefer a sound like the German d : as an alternative we propose the open Italian e for oe, as before for ae. * ei too as a diphthong is very rai"e : we would give it the Latin e sound quickly followed by a Latin t sound. * But in a large class of words containing ae, ei, oi, or ui, the i is a semi- consonant, and should be sounded like English y : pronounce Graius, maior, Troia, eius, Pompeius, Seiaitus, cuius, as Grd-yus, 7nd-yor, Trd-ya^ e-yus, Pompe-yus, Se-yanus, cu-yus : eicit, reicit, as e-yicit, re-yicit. The o or e of proin, prout, dein, deinde, when not forming a distinct syllable, does not form a diphthong, but is elided, and must be treated as a final vowel is* treated, when it is elided before an initial vowel : so in neuiiquani e is elided. * II. In a fuller Discussion more might be said of the Consonants : a few Remarks must suffice for the present. * c, always as : in Cicero, fades, as well as Cacus. ' g, always as g in get : in gero, gijtgiva, gyrus as well as gaudeo. ' s, at the beginning and end of words, and at the beginning of syllables, and before consonants, is always sharp (as the s of sin) in Italian and should be so in Latin : sol, stella, de-sero, ni-si, nos, sonus. s, between two vowels, has in Italian a soft z sound, as in our rose : we would thus sound in Latin rosa, musa, 7niser. But words of this kind in Latin are but few : much more numerous are those where s might also be written ss, a lost consonant having been assimilated and the vowel always lengthened : causa, casus, visus, odiosus, divisio (see Quintilian I, 7, 20). Italian is here very suggestive ; and in all these words s should be sharp. ' t is always a pure dental, in ratio as in ratis, in notio as in notus, in vitiu7n as in vita. ' bs, bt should be sounded (and generally written) as ps, pt : lapsus^ aps^ apsens, optulit, supter. ' y, or consonant /, as y in yard. B. Pronunciation. 553 "As to consonant or we believe that its sound was as near as possible to that of the vowel u : i.e. like the on of the French oni^ not differing much therefore from English w. But as there is great diversity of opinion on this point, we propose to leave it an open question, whether it shall be pronounced in this way, or as the English and Italian v, * z, ch^ ph^ th were brought into the language to represent Greek sounds : 2, ph, th we propose should be sounded as at present : ch should never be pronounced as in our charter : it would be better to give it a ^ sound succeeded by an h sound ; but it must follow the fortunes of Greek x. or Greek v, had some middle sound between Latin u and perhaps re- sembling either French u or German ii ; but y and y came probably much nearer to I and t than to ii and ii. ^ ' In our Latin pronunciation quantity is systematically neglected : attention to if seems essential in any reformed method : d and d should be distin- guished in matris and pat?'is, as in mater and pater. The ancients observed the natural length of vowels, when the syllable was also long by position : as in Marcus^ pastor : Cicero tells us that every vowel when followed by ns or 7tf became long by nature : as in infimus, insanus : gn seems to have had the same power over the preceding vowel. Often too an extruded consonant leaves a naturally short vowel long : e from^'jr; es^ est from edo : Sestius i^'i](T'nos)^ but Sextius (26|Ttos). On the other hand the long vowel of many final syllables in time became short ; and we can scarcely suppose that, while the naturally long vowel in amat, docet was shortened, it always remained long in amant^ docent : it seems certain also, whatever the reason may be, that the e was short in docentis, etc., as much as in legentis, audientis. * Following the tradition of the Italians, we fortunately keep the accent in most cases on the right syllable, though the loss of quantity has changed its nature. In a summary like this we cannot dwell on the exceptions. * In respect of elision we may see, by comparing Plautus and Terence with Ovid, how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended to a more distinct sounding of final syllables. We must not altogether pass over the elided vowel or the elided syllable which ends in except perhaps in the case of e in common words, que^ neque, and the like. How far too final m was mute, or nasal, it is not easy to determine. Est ' is ' seems often in pronunciation (and in writing) to have lost its e and become an enclitic st after a vowel or m : thus tuo est, meum est can end an Ovidian pentameter, labori est an Hexameter : we must therefore pronounce tuost^ &c.' To the foregoing suggestions of these eminent scholars the present Editor assents generally. Only, (i) He cannot conceive that oe ought to be sounded in the same manner as ae, even alternatively ; (2) It is not to his mind an open question, whether Latin v had the sound of English v. His principal reasons for believing that Latin v had always the sound, or nearly the sound, of English w are given in a foot-note on pp. 66-7. 554 Appendix. C. AFFINITIES IN THE ARYAN FAMILY. I. As a stimulus to the interesting study of Comparative Philology, examples are here given of the affinity between words in Latin, Greek, and Indie (Sanskrit). i) Nouns. L. aes aevum ager anguis animus anser aurora bos can-is cor(d-) cuculus dens deus \ divus ) dexter domus ego equus fores f rater fumus genu gravis hiem-s ignis imber iecur aus evir upus ux (luc-) mag-n-us Gr. xnv av(<r)w5 KapSLa KOKKV^ o86vT- Zevs j ^ tTTTTO? 6vpa SvfJio^ yovv rjirap KAe'fos 5ar)p \VK- I. ayas (iron) ayus {it/e) ajras ahis anilas hansas ushas gaus svan hrid, bard kokilas dant div- devas ) dyaus j dakshinas damas aham asvas dvar bhratar dhumas janu gurus himam agnis abhram yakrit, yakart sravas devar vrikas, varkas rue' maha L. mater medius nasus navis novus nox (noct-) nubes oci-or oc-ulus opus OS (oss-) ovis pater pes (ped-) primus sal somnus Stella ) a-strum J soror sua-vis suus taurus umerus ulna ursus ver Vesta vestis vidua virus Gr. pi?^ i/au? I'VKT- OTT- 6<TT€^0V of Is Tran/jp TToS- rrpofAOS aX-s a-crrrip ) darpov ) £09 ravpo^ (d/U.09 apKTOS cap €(TTia » / I. matar madhyas nas, nas naus navas naktam nabhas a^us akshi apas asthi avis pilar pad prathamas saras svapnas star svasar svadus svas sthuras {strong) ansas aratni riksbas, arksbas vasantas vasta, vastu (vasti) vidhava vishas L. aest-uo ait ago apiscor aro bibo cano cio cluo coquo credo creo dico ) -dico j do (-dere) domo edo i (eo) fallo fari fero Gr. ap6a> iro- Kl- TTCTrTW icpaiVoi ri-Brj-fxt, Safidio I (el/at) I. 2) Verbs. L. indb aha aj A ap (dr) ^ , pa (pibami) kvan si ^ru pac (srad-dadhami) kri, kar dis da (da-da-mi) dha (da-dha-mi) dam ad i (emi) sphal bbasb bhri, bhar flagro I fulgeo ) frigo fu- fugio gigno iungo linquo loquor lubet luo men- moneo, &c. metior minuo misceo morior mulgeo mungo (g)nosco pac-iscor Gr. 4>pvya» ^va> <})€vy<a (^evy-vvfit, AeiTTO) XaK- Xvoi ■ flOV- fiav- fierpeto fxLcryu} ifJLOp-) dfjidXyui ftV<T<Tbi yt-yvu)<TK<ii nay' bhraj bhrajj bhu bhuj {bow) jan yuj ric lap lubh lu man ma mi, mi-nami misr mp, mar . mrij , marj muc jna pas 1 C, Affinities in the Aryan Family, 555 2) Verbs — continued. L. Gr. wpleo quie-sco scindo sedeo sequor serpo spec- sterno sto suo (e)s-um (esse) e<r-ftt vifJL'irKrifJii, eVo/xat epTTw aTp<avvvfj.t crra- I. pri, par SI dhid sad sac srip, sarp spas stri, star stha (sta) siv as-mi T (jr. T tesTO crreyw sthag ten-do TCI/- rai' tan terreo rpeVo tras toUo TaA- rAa- tul uro, ussi ush veho vah verto vrit, vart vestio vas video (vid, know) volvo (val ?) vomo vam 3) Particles. L. ab ante at, et bis heri in in- intus ne Gr. OTTO avri CTt a- av' I. apa anti at-i dvis hyas ni (an' ?) a- an- antar ma, na L. ob per pro quando semi- simul sub super Gr. «7rt Trepc Trpo Kore cifxa viro vnip I. abhi pari pra kada sami sam- upa upari 4) Numerals. See § 34, vi. In the Sanskrit words palatal k' is expressed by c' (sounded as ch in * child ') ; the softly aspirated sibilant (often representing Latin c, Greek k) by s'. The vowel ri may be rendered by ar (vrit = vart). II. Grimm's Law teaches that the Mute Consonants of Latin, Greek, and (generally) Indie, when they pass into Low Dutch and High Dutch languages respectively, undergo certain definite changes ; namely : — When L., Gr., I. have sonant surd aspirate Low Dutch has surd aspirate sonant High Dutch has aspirate sonant surd 1. Among Low Dutch languages are Gothic, Friesic, Dutch, English 5 High Dutch are Old, Middle, and present German. 2. The Surds are c, q, k, t, p ; the Sonants, g, d, b, v ; the Aspirates, ch, th, z, ss, ph, f, pf. Examples. I, L. egro Goth, ik Germ. icb L. cord- Eng. heart Germ. herz L. ob Eng. up Germ. auf 2. L. tacere Goth, tliahan M. G. dagren L. tu Eng. thou Germ. du L. pater Eng. father Germ. vater 3. Gr. X^Lx^^v Svydrrjp Goth, laigron Germ. lecken Gr. Goth, dauhtar Germ. tochter Gr. Goth, haubith Germ. haupt (This law is subject to exceptions.) 556 Appendix, D. THE ANCIENT DIALECTS OF ITALY. On the ancient races and dialects of Italy, see T. Momm- sen's History of Rome, bk. i. ch. 2. 3. 9. 13. 14. Mommsen comes to the following conclusion : * that from the common cradle of peoples and languages there issued a stock which embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and the Italians ; that from, this, at a subsequent period, the Italian branched off, and these again into the western and eastern stocks, while at a still later date the eastern became subdivided into Umbrians and Oscans/ As to the Etruscans, who called themselves Ras or Ras-ennae, he says they were not, according to the story, Lydian emigrants from Asia ; they perhaps had their earlier abode in the Raetian Alps, thence migrating into Italy and driving out the Umbrians from the land afterwards called Etruria. Their name (Rasennae) seems to have passed into Tursennae, Turseni, Tyrrheni, which the Umbrians changed into Tursci, the Romans into Tusci and Etrusci. Their lan- guage (he adds) differs as widely from all the Graeco- Italian dialects as did the languages of the Kelts or of the Sclavonians. Yet he thinks they may have belonged to the Aryan family. They received a modification, or rather several modifications, of the Semitic alphabet, from which their neighbours, the Umbrians and Sabellians, obtained their oldest letters. Our knowledge of the early dialects of Italy is chiefly gained from extant inscriptions, some of which are sepulchral, some dedicatory, while others contain laws, decrees, or religious formularies. Besides Latin and Etruscan, the dialects of which the most specimens survive are the Umbrian and the Oscan, the former in eastern and north midland Italy ; the latter chiefly in its south midland districts. Between these the Sabellian forms a link : while Faliscan (a relic of Umbrian in Etruria) and Volscian, south of the Roman plain, and cognate to Oscan, appear in a few remaining fragments. A) The Umbrian Dialect. The most important remains are the Eugubine Tables, seven in number, discovered in the 15th century near Gubbio (Iguvium). They are a code of rehgious ceremonies, engraved partly in letters of an alphabet borrowed from Etruria, partly in Roman letters. The ancient letters contain an older, the Roman a later Umbrian dialect. Old Umbrian is without the letters o, g, d, q, x. Of these o is represented by u ; d by a peculiar form of r (here marked r), which in New Umbrian becomes rs. Old Um- brian has k, but not hard c ; it has a soft c (here marked c), which in New Umbrian we mark as s. Final z=^ts. (New Umbrian forms stand between brackets. Latin equivalents follow =.) D. Italian Dialects, 557 a) Umbrian Vowels. Diphthongs faded into long vowels in New Umbrian : as, (questur) = quaestor. Ai = aj ; ei is medial between I and e ; au between u and 5, usually becoming o : (toru) = taurus. Sometimes i takes the place of u : (si-m) = suem ; (mani) = manu. Compounds seldom weaken a into i : thus, (procrtinurent) = procmuerint. Vowels are dropt by Syncope and Apocope . thus, pihaz = piatus ; katel = catulus. lu (io) becomes i; tertis = tertius ^ so in old Latin alis = alius, alid = aliud. b) Umbrian Consonants. P represents Latin qu : pis = quis: — r (rs)=d : arveitu = advehito, rere = dedit: — nd is changed into nn or n, (pihaner) for (pihander) = piandi ; panupei for pandupei — quandoque. B stands for v: benest veniet : for p : kabru for kapru = caprum. R for s is frequent : eru (erom) for esum = esse ; -arum for -asum ; (totar) fortutas ; but asa = ara ; fust = fuerit, &:c. M and s final are weaker than in Latin, and generally fall off : kapru or kabm = caprum ; puplu (poplo) =populus : also t falls off ; facia = faciat ; rere for dedet = dedit. Thus we see in this early language that Italian tendency to reject con- sonant terminations, which, checked for many centuries by the intervention of classical Latin, set in again with the decay of Rome, and culminated in the modem Italian. The chief final consonants in Umbrian are r, t, s, m (all weak and perhaps hardly sounded, when written) ; rarely n, z ; f in Accus. Plur. \ k in a few pronouns, p ( = Latin que) in a few particles. c) Umbrian Nouns. 1) First or A- Declension. Sing, N. a, u (o). Acc. am. G. as (ar). D. e. Abl. a. Loc. amem, emem (erne, e). Plur. N. as (ar), Acc. af. G. arum. D. Abl, es. Loc. afem, afe. Examples: tuta (tota) or tutu (toto), a state ^ people \ asa = ara; (cesna) = cena ; (peica) = pica, &c. 2) Second or O-Declension (regular form). Sing. N. us (os). Voc. e. Acc. um (om). G. es (er). D. e. Abl. u (o). Loc. umem (omem). Plur. N. us (ur, or). Acc. uf (of). G. urn (om). D. Abl. es (er, ir, eir). Loc. ufem (ofem). Examples : puplus (poplos) ; kaprus (kapros), &c. Syncopated forms occur : ins (is) : Ikuvins (Ikovis) for Ikuvi- nus ; az (os) : pihaz (pihos) for piatus, &c. ; and apocopated forms: katel = catulus ; (ager), &c. Neuters in um (om) differ only as in Latin ; having PI. N. Acc. in a, u, o. 3) Third or Consonant and I -Declension. Sing. N. masc. fem. s or none. Acc. m. G. es (er). D. e. Abl. e, i (ei). Loc. emem. Plur. N. masc. fem. es (er). Acc. f. G. um (om). D. Abl. e^ is (eis). Loc efem. Examples : Cons. Noun, kvestur (questur) ; I -Noun, ukar (okar), Nom. S. (okris), a 7?iountai?i. Neuters, which are rare, have a in Accus. PI. t 558 Appendix. U-Nouns are few : manu = manus ; vutu •= vultus : D. S. manu ; Abl. S. mani, for manu, d) Umbrian Verbs. Verb of Being : erum (erom) = esse. Besides this form are extant only est = est ; (sent) = sunt ; (sir) = sis ; (si) = sit ; (sins) = sint. From root fu- are extant : fuia = fiat ; fuiest = fiet ; fust = fuerit ; furent = fuerint ; futu = fito ; (fututo) = fitote. Umbrian has the Consonant, A, and E -Conjugations. Huschke attempts a paradigm of the Tenses, which Donaldson cites {Varron. p. 104). A few well-established forms must suffice here. Pres. Ind. -u = -o : sestu = sisto ; (suboca-u) = subvoco ; stahu = sto. Pass, emantur. Pres. Conj. fa^ia = faciat, tera (dersa, dirsa)=det or rather di-det, the Verb being a reduplicated form of da ; (dirsans, dirsas) =dent, (porta-i-a) = portet ; (etaians, etaias) = itent ; habia = habeat ; arhabas = adhibeant. Pass, mugatu = mugiatur. S. Fut. benes = venies ; ferest = feret ; (eest)=ibit; habiest = habebit ; staheren = stabunt. Perf. Indie. -fi = -vi; pihafi = piavi. Fut. Perf. -ust = -uerit ; -urent = -uerint ; (benust) = venerit ; terust, (dirsust) = dederit ; (iust) = ierit ; fakust = fecerit ; (andersesust) = inter- stiterit ; dersikust = dixerit ; (portust) =portaverit ; (habust) =habuerit ; — ambrefurent = ambiverint ; (procanurent) = procinuerint ; pihaz fust = piatus fuerit ; cersnatur furent = cenati fuerint. Imperative : -tu = -to ; -tuta -tutu (• tuto) = -tote ; aitu = aieto ; tertu (dirstu, ditu) = dato ; teitu (deitu) = dicito ; feitu, fetu = facito ; am- prehtu = ambito ; enetu = inito ; upetu = obito ; kuveitu = convehito ; (etuto) =eunto ; aitutu = aiunto ; habetu = habeto ; habetutu (habituto) = habento. Partic. Perf. Pass, -tu -to = -tus : declined as noun : (screhto) = scriptum ; (comohota) = commota. Gerundive : probably -nus = -ndus : pihaner = piandi. Infin. Pres. Act. -um = ere ; ferum = ferre ; fa^iu, for fa^iu-m, = facere. There are also traces of Supines -um -u. e) Umbrian Numerals. 1) Cardinal: ojie, unu=unus: two^ du = duo ; from which Nom. m. dur, Acc. m. duf, f. tuf, n. tuva ; Abl. tuves : — three^ Acc. m. f. tref, tre (trif treif), n. trija, Abl. tris. We find the word (petor- pursus) = quadrupedibus : therefore petor = quattuor (whenc petor- ritum, a four-wheeled carriage, Hor.). We find semenies (seh- menier, sehemenier) =semestribus ; therefore se (sehe)=sex: also (desendut) = duodecim ; therefore de9en (desen) = decern. Others are not extant : but, under 1000, a general correspondence with Latin numerals may be inferred. 2) Ordinal : prumu (promo) = primus : tertiu (tertio) = tertius : tuplu — duplus. Others are not extant. f) Umbrian Pronouns. 1) Personal. First* (mehe)— mihi. Second: Acc. S. tiu (tio, tiom) = te: (tefe)=tibi. Reflex. (seso)=sibi. 2) Possessive. Abl. S. tuer (tover) = tuo: tua = tua; vestra = vestra. 3) Demonstrative. V arious cases occur of the following : Ere, erek (erec)=is; (esto)=iste; (eso)=hic; (ero) = ille. Pro- bably also (ho) = hie ; this occurs only in the affix -hunt (-hont) attached to some forms of erek and ero, like -ce in Latin. D. Italian Dialects. 559 4) Relative and Interrogative. Rel. (poe) f. pu = qui, quae; svepu = siqua. Another Rel. is pure (porse). Of these only a few forms are extant. Pis = quis ? pisi = quis indef. ; pisipumpe = quicumque. g) Umbrian Particles. 1) Adverbs: (rehte) = recte ; superne ; (nesimei) = proxime. Eruk, erak = illic ; esuf = istic ; ife = ibi ; if-ont = ibidem. Enuk, enu (eno) , enumek, erek (erse) =•- tunc, turn ; panupei = quandoque ; este, isek, itek = ita; neip=non, nec. 2) Prepositions : Separable, ar (ars) = ad ; (ehe, eh) = ex ; hutra (hondra) = infra ; kum (com) ku (co) = cum, con- co- ; pus (post) = post; pustin (posti) = post-in ; pre = prae; (sei)=se; super; (subra) = supra ; tra (tref, trahef, traha) = trans : per = irep/, pro, is appended to its case : tutaper Ikuvina = pro civitate Eugubina. Inseparable : an in (negative) ; amb- ampr- (ambr-) = ambi : ah (aha), perhaps = ab ; anter (ander) = inter ; en = in ; up, us (os) re ; sub for up-s, = ob, os ; pru (pro) = pro ; pur = por- in porrigo, &c. 3) Conjunctions : Coordinative : et ; several others also, ene, enu, &c. = et ; neife = neque ; ute (ate) = aut ; heris — heris = vel — vel ; (surur, sururont) = dein, deinde (?). Subordinative : ape (apei) = ubi ; (arnipo) = donicum, donee (?) ; prepa = priusquam ; pus-pane = postquam ; pune = quum ; pufe = ubi ; pere (perse, pirse) = quippe ; (pirsi) = quando ; puze (puse, pusei) = quasi ; sve = si; (nosve) = nisi ; svepis = siquis ; svepu (svepo) = siqua. Note. The follovi^ing Latin Verb-roots occur in Umbrian: (ag-) ; aj- = ai-ere ; ben- = venire ; der (ders-) or ded- reduplicated from da- ; dik-, deik- = dicere; i-, e- = ire; em- = emere; es- = esse; fak- = facere; fer-=ferre; fing- = fingere ; frek- = fricare ; fu- ; gna- =g-nasci ; (gno-) =g-noscere ; habe- = habere ; hera = velle ; kan- = canere ; cave- = cavere ; krema- = cremare ; kura- = curare ; ci- = cire ; (loka-) = locare ; mal- = molere ; (move-) = movere ; muge- = mugire ; ning- = ningere ; ug- (og-) = augere ; ul- (ol-) ; ur- (or-)=oriri ; par = parere ; penn = pendere ; pese ; ple- = plere ; (porta-) = portare ; ques- = quaerere ; seka- = secare ; sere- = servare ; skreh- = scribere, (sona-) = sonare ; stahe- = stare ; sum- = sumere; take- = tacere ; tene- = tenere ; tenn- = tendere ; terg- = tergere ; trem- = tremere ; turse- = torrere ; vei- veh- = vehere; vel- = velle; vert- = vertere ; vire- = videre ; (v-oka) = vocare. Perhaps also the root tu- (to-) represents Indian dha, Gr. 06-, Lat. -de-re. B) The Oscan Dialect. Of the Oscan inscriptions some are in the old Umbro- Oscan cha- racters borrowed from Etruria, others in the Roman, a few in Greek letters. The chief fragment is the Tabula Bantina found in 1793, containing Roman laws for the Apulian town of Bantia. The old Oscan is without o, q, x : its other letters generally agree in power, though not in shape, with the corresponding Latin. It had however two forms of i, and two of u. The second form of i, which in- clined to e or ei, is here noted as i, and the second form of u, which in- clined to o, as u. In the Tabula Bantina they are not distinguished from i, o. (New Oscan farms stand between brackets.) Appendix, a) Oscan Vowels. The Oscan diphthongs agree generally with the Latin : al = ae, anciently ai ; ei = ei ; ui = oe, anciently oi. Weakening of vowels is less frequent than in Latin : thus (fefacust) = fecerit : Syncope and Apocope often occur, especially in Decl. 2 : tuvtiks = tuticus ; Bantins - Bantinus ; Pumpaiians = Pompeianus ; cevs = civis ; hurs = hortus ; Mutil — Mutilus, &c. Also Heirennis = Herennius ; Puntiis = Pontius, &c. Oscan often inserts a vowel between a liquid and another consonant : ter-^-mniss = terminos ; ar-^z-getud = argento ; also i before i or a: tiurri = turrim ; Viinikiis = Vinicius. b) Oscan Consonants. Here we find much resemblance to Umbrian. Thus p ^ q : pam = quam, nfJ/UTrrtes = Quintius ; ben- = ven- : kumbened = convenit ; nn = nd : upsannam = operand am ; ht = ct, saahtum = san(c)tum ; ehtrad = extra ; ft = pt; (scriftas) = scriptoe ; multas (moltas) =mult8e. T remains after ns : (censtur) = censor ; ti before a vowel — s : (Bansae) = Bantiae. S remains between vowels: asa = ara ; but in Gen. PI. (-azum) =-amm : here and in -azet for uerit z = soft s ; but in hurz = hortus z = ts ; in (zicolom) = dieculum z = ds, V may come between u and a consonant : tuvtiks = tuticus. Final m, s, t, do not fall off as in Umbrian. We find the ending d in Abl. S., as in old Latin ; toutad ; suvad = sua ; (dolud) = dolo ; also in some 3rd Persons of Verbs, as deded=dedit; in the Imperative: likitud = liceto ; estud = esto ; and in Adverbs : amprufid = improbe ; ehtrad = extra. c) Oscan Declensions. 1) First or A -Declension. Sing. N. masc. as, a, fem. u (o). Acc. am. G. masc. ai, fem. as. D. ai. Abl. ad. Loc. ai (ae). Plur. N as? Ac. as. G. (azum). D. Abl. ais. Examples : tuvta (touta) tuvtu (touto), a state or people ; viu:= via. 2) Second or 0-Declension. Sing. N. us (os, us). Acc. urn (om). G. eis. D. ui. Abl. ud (ud). Loc. el. Plur. N. us. Acc. uss. G. urn. Abl. uis (ois). Example : status ; (dolus). As in Umbrian, the Nom. S. often takes other forms : ins for inus ; ans for anus ; is for ius, &c. The variation of Neuters resembles that in Latin. 3) Third or Consonant and I-Nouns. Sing. N. s or none. Acc. im. D. ci. Abl. id. Plur. N. ss or none. Acc. D. Abl. iss. The Neuters have no distinctive peculiarities. Note. * Meddis (meddix, medix) tuvtikus' (tuticus) is the Oscan name for the chief magistrate, or mayor, of a town. See Li v. xxiii. 35, xxiv. 19, XXV i. 6. d) Oscan Verbs : Verb of Being: root es ; sum; lsl=est; (set) = sit; estud = esto: root fu : (fuid) = fiat: fusid (fust) fiet ; fufans = fuerunt. The Conjugations are Consonant and A only : Pres. Ind. Act. (anget) = agit ; amfret = ambit ; (dat) ; faamat = habitat ; eituns = eunt. Pass, (vincter) = vincitur ; sakaratei* = sacratur. D, Italian Dialects, 561 Pres. Conj. Act. (angit) = agat ; (hipid) = habeat, (pruhipid) = prohibeat ; stait = stet ; (dat) = det : Plur. 3rd P. -ins. Pass, sakahlter = sacretur. S. Fut. Ind. Act. (didest) = didet, (deivast) = iurabit. Perf. Ind. Act. prufatted = probavit ; (deicans) =dixerunt. Fut. Perf. Act. (dicust) = dixerit ; (hipust) = habuerit ; (fefacust) ^ fecerit. Imperat. Act. Ukltud (licitud) = liceto ; factud = facito. Infin. Pres. (deicum) = dicere ; (moltaum) = multare ; (censamur) = censeri. Part. Perf. P. (censto) censo ; pusst = positus ; (deivatud) = iurato. Gerundive : upsannam = operandam. e) Oscan Pronouns. 1) Possessive: suveis = sui; suvad = sua; (sivom, siom) = suum, n. 2) Demonstrative : Izik (izic), iuk, Idik (idic) = is, ea, id : in (ionc) = eum ; isidum = idem : ekik (exeic) =illud, with other case-forms of the same pronoun, of which Nom. S. is not extant, but supposed by Mommsen to be ekus, eksus, by Aufrecht eiso (eizo), Umbr. eso = hie. 3) Relative and Interrogative. S. Pus (pos) pal (pae) pud (pod) = qui quae quod : (phim) pam pud (pod) = quem quam quod: puv — quo. PI. pus = qui ; (pons) = quibus. Pis, pld = quis quid ? (pieis) = cuius ? ; (pitpit) = quidquid ; -pid = -que ; puturus-pid = utrique, pi. f ) Oscan Particles : 1) Adverbs: (amprufid) = improbe ; ip = ibi ; (mais) = magis ; (min) = minus ; pruf = probe ; fortis = forte. 2) Prepositions : Separable : az=antej anter = inter ; ehtrad = extra ; kum (com) = cum, com; (contrud) = contra ; up (op) = ob, apud ; (perum) = per ; pust (post) = post. Inseparable : (an- am- a-) = in- ; (-en) = in ; pru- = pro. 3) Conjunctions : Coord. ; avt (aut) = at ; (auti) = aut ; ekkum = item ;. inlm (inim), In (in), &c. =et; (-ni)=ne; nep (ne, nei, neip) = non, ne. Subord. pun (pon)— quom, cum; (pam, pan) = quam; (pruter-pam pruter-pan) =priusquam ; puf=ubi ; pukkapid (poeapit) = quandoque ; sva (sve) = si. Note, The chief Latin Verb-roots found in Oscan are : ag- ; c-ben- = venire ; kumben- =convenire ; censa- =censere ; da- ; deic- die- = dicere ; (deiva-) =iurare ; e- i-=ire; em-; es- ; fac- ; fu- ; habe- haf- (hip-) — habere (pruhip- = prohibere) ; liga- = legare ; (molta-) = multare ; pat- = pandere ; prufa- =probare ; pus- (pos-) = ponere ; rega- = regere ; sac- = sancire ; sakara- = sacrare ; sta- ; vine- = vincere. [The fullest account of the Umbrian dialect will be found in Aufrecht and Kirchhoff's Uinbrische Dejtkmdler : of the Oscan, Sabellian, &c. in T. Mommsen' s Die Unteritalischen Dialekte. The student should also con- sult Schleicher's Vergleichende Grammatik, Corssen's Aussprache^ &c., and various papers in Kiihn's Zeitschrift by Corssen and other scholars. Donaldson's Varroniaiius gives much valuable information : but some of its theories must be cautiously viewed. See Peile's Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology. '\ C) Specimens of Ancient Latin, taken from Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (Ritschl and Mommsen). 1. Epitaph of L. Cornelius Scipio Consul B.C. 259. Hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[omail duonoro optimo fuise uiro uiroro O O 562 Appendix. Luciom Scipione : filios Barbati consol censor aidilis hie fuet a [pud uos :] hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe [pucnandod :] dedit Tempestatebus aide mereto[d uotam.] 32. [In Classical Latin : Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bonorum optimum faisse virum virorum Lucium Scipionem : filius Barbati consul censor aedilis hie fuit apud vos : hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem pugnando, dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito votam.] II. Epitaph of another L. Cornelius Scipio. L. Cornelio Gn. F. Gn. N. Scipio. Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum. quoiei uita defecit, non honos, honore, is hie situs quei nunquam uietus est uirtutei. annos gnatus uiginti is Diteist mandatus : ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 34. [In Classical Latin ; L. Cornelius Gnaei filius, Gnaei nepos, Scipio t magnam sapientiam multasque virtutes aetate cum parva possidet hoc saxum : cui vita defecit non honos honorem (?) is hie situs est qui nunquam victus est virtute : annos natus viginti is Diti est mandatus, ne quaeratis honorem (eius) qui non sit mandatus.] III. The Columna Rostrata in honour of C. Duilius. Consul B.C. 260, which seems to be an antiquarian restoration of the Empire, is restored and explained by the learned editors, I. 195. But every line and sentence is mutilated. No consonants are doubled ; c stands for g, as lenoneis ; exempt for exemit ; we find max/mosque macistratos, but [maxjwmas copias ; castreis, soeieis ; numei ; naveis, claseis, but also navales, clases ; exfociont = effugiunt. Extract: Ma[celam . .] pucnandod cepet enque eodem mac[istratod prospere r]em navebos marld consol primos c[eset c]lasesque navales primos ornavet, cumque eis navebos claseis Poenicas om[nes . . 'max] umasque copias Cartaeiniensis praesente[d maxumod d]ictatored o[lor]om in altod marld pue[nandod vieet]. [In Classical Latin : Macelam urbem pugnando cepit, inque eodem magistratu prospere rem navibus mari consul primus gessit, classesque navales primus ornavit, cumque eis navibus classes Punicas omnes . . maximasque copias Carthaginienses praesente maximo dictatore illonim in alto mari pugnando vicit. ] I = 1. In the second * navebos ' the stonecutter had engraved u first, then o over it. IV. Extract from the Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186. Haice utei in conventionid exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum ; senatuosque sententiam utei seientes esetis . . . eonm sententia ita fuit : sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead feeisent quam suprad scriptum est, eeis rem eaputalem faciendam censuere . . . atque utei hoee in tabolam ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit ; uteique eam figier ioubeatis, ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei saeri est, ita utei suprad scriptum est, in diebus X. quibus vobeis tabelae datai erunt faeiatis utei dismota sient in agro Teurano, I. 196. [In Classical Latin : Haec ut in contione edicatis ne minus trinum nundinum ; senatusque sententiam ut seientes essetis . . . eorum sententia ita fuit : si qui esscnit qui adversum ea feeissent quam (i.e. aliter quam) E, Poetic Forms and Idioms. 563 supra scriptum est, eis rem capitalem faciendam censuere . . . atque ut jioc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aequum censuit ; utque earn figi iubeatis, ubi facillime nosci possit ; atque ut ea Bacchanalia, si qua sunt, extra quam si quid ibi sacri est, ita ut supra scriptum est, in diebus X. quibus vobis tabulae datae erunt, faciatis ut dimota sint in agro Teurano. ] V. Extract from the Lex lulia Municipalis, enacted by C. lulius Caesar, B.C. 49. Queiquomque inmunicipieis colonels praefectureis conciliabuleis c. R, Ilvir. Illlvir. erunt aliove quo nomine mag. potestatemve sufragio eorum, quei quoiusque municipi coloniae praefecturae fori conciliabuli erunt, habebunt, neiquis eorum quern in eo municipio colonia praefectura foro conciliabulo in senatum decuriones conscriptosve legito neve sublegito neve coptato neve recitandos curato nisi indemortuei damnateive locum eiusne quei confessus erit se senatorem decurionem conscreiptumve ibei h. 1. esse non licere, I. 206. [Here c. R. =civium Romanorum ; mag. = magistratum ; Ilvir. duumviri; Illlvir. =quattuorviri ; h. I. =hac lege. Observe ei for 1 in Abl. and Nom. PI. ; neiquis for nequis ; sii/ragio ; conscr^/ptum ; and the Prep. *in' proclitically joined to its case: inmunicipieis, indemortuei locum, j E. POETIC FORMS AND IDIOMS. Although the general Rules of Grammar are applicable to poetry as well as to prose, yet poetry has many vv^ords, phrases, constructions, and collocations peculiar to itself. A few of these will here be mentioned. I. Etymology and Use of Words. 1) The archaic Gen. of ist Decl. in ai is used by the Epic poets, Lucretius and Virgil, as, aulai, aquai. 2) Virgil and Horace always contract the Gen. of 2nd Decl. in it : oti, tuguri, Ingeni, imperi. The elegiac poets retain ii generally. 3) The contraction of the Gen. arum^ orum into is confined to Masculine Substantives: agricolum, socium; and of Adjectives to a few polysyllables only : magnanimum heroum. 4) Many Genitives in ium are contracted into um : apum, cohortum. This may be done m Present Participles : amantum. Words of the form - -, as nubium, seldom lose i ; but mensum, sedum are found. 5) The Dat. in m, and the Gen. and Dat. in ei, may be contracted into «, e : victu for victui, fide for fidei. 6) The Imperf. of the 4th Conj. in idam, and the Fut. in tdo, are archaisms occasionally used by Virgil : vestibat for vestiebat. This is not done in lyric verse, rarely in elegiac. The Infin. Pass, in ier is an archaism used occasionally in epic poetry ; not allowable in elegiac, rare in lyric. Other archaic forms are found. 7) Such forms as amaram amasse, fleram flesse, noram nosse, audieram audisse are of usual occurrence, 8) Tmesis is frequent, as Q uae me cumque vocant terrae, Verg. ; in que U g a t u s, Verg. Cum tu argento post omnia p o n a s, Hor. 9) (a) Substantive is used for Adjective or Participle : Victor equus ; fabulae manes ; populus late rex. {/>) Participle or Adjective for Substantive : volitans, an insect ; volantes, birds ; natantes, fishes ; praeceps, a precipice ; planum^ a 002 5^4 Appendix, level surface ; inane, the (void) air. So, Opaca domorum, strata viarum, &c. (c) Neuter Adjective for Adverb ; Lugubre rubens ; perfidum ridens ; transversa tuentes, &c. 10) The Plural Number for the Singular : as, Tua numina posco ; sibila colla tumens. And the Singular for the Plural : as, Thyna merce beatum ; late loca milite complet. 11) Transitive Verbs are used intransitively : Venti posuere, Verg. In- transitives used transitively: Horret iratum mare, Hor. Even Passives sometimes assume a Transitive force : Fontis avertitur, Verg. 12) The use of the Simple for the Compound Verb is a poetic idiom : Pone moras for depone ; tendere for contendere ; tenere for retinere, &c. 13) In regard to tenses, the Historic Present for the Preterite is often used ; also the Preterite Aorist for the Present to express habit or frequency ; the Perf. Infin. for the Pres. Infin. 14) Many words are purely poetic, not being used in prose. They are too numerous to be here specified, but should be noted in reading. II. Syntax. 1. Agreement. A Neuter Complement with Masc. and Fem. Sub- fetantives : Turpe senex miles ; and Synesis, are frequent in poetry, 2. Government. 1) The Accusative of Respect after Adjectives and Verbs is very fre- quent : Cetera laetus ; sibila colla tumens. 2) The Dative after Compound Verbs is favoured by the poets. Verbs of contending^ repelling^ differing^ uniting, have a Dative in poetry ; but in prose, for the most part, a Preposition with its Case : Mihi contendere noli ; solstitium pecori defendite ; scurrae distabit amicus ; verba sociare chordis, &c. A Dative after a Verb of Motion is peculiar to poetry, but rare : It clamor caelo. A Dative after a Finite Passive Verb is poetic : Neque cernitur uUi. 3) A large number of Adjectives govern a Genitive in poetry only : Inane lymphae, nimius pugnae, gravis morum, integer aevi, &c. 4) The Infinitive Mood after Adjectives is frequent in poetry, and rare in good prose : Callidus condere, catus iaculari, audax omnia perpeti, &c. After some Substantives : Causa perire, tempus abire, &c. After Verbs of motion : Populare penatis venimus : of entreaty ; Hoc petit esse suum : of feeling ; Furit reperire, dedignata teneri : of hastening ; Trepidat claudere, &c. Est is used for licet with Infin. : Aenean cernere erat : Nec sit mihi credere tantum. The use of the Participle after Verbs of Sense for the Accusative and Infinitive is a poetic Graecism : Sensit medios delapsus in hostis. The Infini- tive Active is used poetically where a prose writer would use the Participle in dus ; Dat ferre talentum ; quem sumis celebrare, &c. 5) Many instances of Ellipsis and Pleonasm are found in Poetry, too numerous to be here cited. Note. — Historians, as Sallust, Livy, above all Tacitus, often heighten their style by the intermixture of poetic imagery and expression, especially when a narrative is picturesque, or a speech impassioned. III. Collocation. The Collocation of words in poetry is much more free than that of prose, but will be better learnt by reading and practice than by any attempt to reduce the subject to rules. F. Supplement to Figurate Constructio7t. 565 R SUPPLEMENT TO FIGURATE CONSTRUCTION. §61. 1. Anacoluthon is the passing from one construction to another before the former is completed : *Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Romulus barbarorum rex fuerit,' C. 'Quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt, cumque aliqua his ampla et honesta res obiecta est, totos ad se con- vertit et rapit; tum quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudi- nemque virtutis ? ' C. Anacoluthon is often due to Attraction. 2. Hysteron-Proteron is when, of two things, that which naturally comes first is mentioned last: 'Moriamur et in media arma ruamus,' Verg. Ae. ii. 353. The following Figures belong to Rhetoric : — 3. Synecdoche puts the part for the whole : * Caput for homo ; tectum for domus,' &c. Sometimes the whole stands for a part : ' Sal sextante est' (Liv. ), for modius salis. 4. All^oria is a chain of metaphors : * Claudite iam rivos, pueri, sat prata biberunt,' Verg. B iii. III. Meaning, 'Cease to sing, O shepherds; sufficient recreation has been taken.' 5. Hyperbole magnifies beyond credibility : * Sudor fluit undique rivis,' Verg. Ae. v. 200. 6. Litotes states less than is actually meant : Non laudo, for culpo. 7. Ironia says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real meaning be understood: 'Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla refertis tuque puerque tuus,' Verg. Ae, iv. 93. 8. Climax rises by gradations, like the steps of a ladder : ' Quod 11 bet lis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent,' C. 9. Polyptoton brings together cases of the same Noun : ' lam clipeus clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide cuspis,' Stat. 10. Paronomasia is a play upon the sound of words : ' Tibi parata erunt verba, huic verbera,' Ter. 11. Antithesis contrasts opposites: *Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere iubemus ruris amatores,' Hor. 12. Chiasmus places a double Antithesis in introverted order: 'Ratio nostra consentit, repugnat oratio,' C. Fin. iii. 3. 'Non video quomodo sedare possint mala praesentia praeteritae voluptates,' C. T. D. V. 26. 'Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur,' Verg. B. li. 18. 13. Oxymoron unites seeming contraries: ' Temporis angusti mansit Concordia discors,' Lucan i. 98. 14. Periphrasis describes a simple fact by various attending circum- stances. Thus, instead of ' now night is approaching,* Virgil says, ' Et iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae,' B. i. 83. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii. 15. Simile or Parabole illustrates a statement by an apt comparison : * Per urbis Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas,' Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. 16. Apostrophe is an appeal to some person or thing: ' Quid non mor- talia pectora cogis auri sacra fames?' Verg. Ae. iii. 56. S66 Appendix, 1 7. Prosopopoeia represents inanimate things as living and acting : * Te Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno,' Hor. C i. 35. 21. * BelJ' ferrates rupit Discordia postis,' Enn. 18. Aposiopesis suppresses the conclusion of a thought: *Quos ego^ sed motos praestat componere fluctus,' Verg. Ae. i. 135. Most of these Figures (to which might be added others) are used in Prose as well as in Poetry. G, MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE. 1. •As* was the Roman unit of weight and measure. See its duodt. cimal division, § 34. viii. II. Money. 1. Cattle were the earliest Italian medium of exchange. The word * pecunia ' (from * pecus ') preserved the memory of this fact, as Engl. chattel and fee^ from Germ, vieh^ point to the same custom in the Teuton branch. Cattle fines are noticed in ancient laws as commuted for sums of money ; a sheep being rated at 10 ' asses librales,' an ox at 100. 2. The metals used for agricultural implements, iron and (in Italy) copper, were the next medium of exchange. These were at first weighed out roughly (the 'libra' or pound bemg the unit of this ' aes rude'), then cut in bars of various shapes and sizes, corresponding to the weights, and bearing generally some mark, as an ox, a swine, &c. This was called *aes signatum.' Its origin is referred to the reign of Servius, that is, to a time before authentic history. ' Aestimare,' to value, is de- rived from * aes ;' and the act of weighing copper continued in later times to be the legal form of * mancipatio ' in sales, repayments, and in one matrimonial solemnity (per aes et libram). The bit of unwrought copper with which the purchaser struck the scale was called 'raudus' or * rodus- culum. ' 3. About the year B.C. 451, u.c. 303, copper money was first coined, with impressions obverse and reverse, by the Decemviri. Their coinage comprised the *as libralis,' and some of its fractional parts, * semis,* *triens,' *quadrans,' *uncia,' and 'semuncia.' It had an alloy of about 7 per cent, of tin, not reducing its intrinsic value ; but, later, another alloy of about 23 per cent, of lead, by which the value was reduced, lead being in proportion to copper as i : 2. Varro says : * Libram pondo as valebat ' : and in theory, this copper * as ' was libral, equivalent to a pound of 12 ounces : but in practice existing specimens shew variation from 8 or 9 to 14 ounces, giving an average of about 10. Hence this coinage, on a scale nominally duodecimal, was really decimal. 4. It continued in use nearly 200 years : but shortly before the first Punic War, about B.C. 269, U.C. 485, a mint was established in the temple of Juno Moneta, and three commissioners were appointed (triumviri monetales auro argento acre flando feriundo), who began to coin silver money ; the coins being the denarius (nominally 10 asses), the quinarius or half-denar (nominally 5 asses), and the sestertius or quarter-denar (nominally 2^ asses). About the same time, a revolution was made in the copper money itself. The libral as (nominally of 12, but actually 10 ounces on the average) was reduced from the libral to the triental standard, that is, to the weight of 4 ounces. Nevertheless, the old libral standard was occa- sionally used or referred to, under the title of 'aes grave.' As the G. Money y Weighty and Measure, 567 denarius represented lo asses of the triental standard, =40 unciae, its quarter part, the sestertius, was equal to 10 unciae, which was the average value of the libral as. Thus it came to pass that, in the new monetary system, the silver sesterce represented the old copper *as,' so that any numerical sum * aeris gravis ' (as in Livy) may be counted at the same number of sesterces, under the triental standard. 5. Between the first and second Punic Wars, the value of silver in proportion to copper fell considerably. In consequence, the triental * as * sank first to the sextantar, and then, B.C. 217, U.c. 537, by the Flaminian law, to the uncial standard. At the same time the denarius was raised, by way of compensation, to the value of 16 (uncial) asses, making the sestertius equal to 4. The weight of this denarius was ^ of a pound ; that of the older one, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. Among these was a coin called * victoriatus, ' from the figure of Victory stamped on it. The original value of this was f of the denarius ; but by the Clodian law, B.C. 104, u.c. 650, it was reduced to the same value as the *quinarius,* or \ of the * denarius.' 6. Although the sesterce, when = 4 uncial or semuncial asses, ceased to possess the ancient value of the libral as, it still continued to represent the popular calculation of *aes grave.* During the first Civil Wars, B.C. 86, U.c. 668, the Marian Consul Valerius Flaccus carried an iniquitous law (afterwards repealed by Sulla), enabling debtors to clear themselves by paying one coined * as ' (| of the sesterce) in place of one ancient * as, * or the sesterce itself. In other words, debtors might discharge themselves from all liability by paying 25 per cent, of their debts, or, as we com- monly say, five shillings in the pound. 7. After the second Punic War silver became so abundant that it thenceforward constituted the chief Roman currency, and copper money was, as among ourselves, small change only. This led to a further reduc- tion of the copper *as,' which, by the Papirian Law, B.C. 89, U.C. 665, fell to a semuncial standard, indicating a rise in the value of copper as compared with silver. From this date copper coinage ceased for half a century, being resumed during the second Civil Wars. Besides the copper coins heretofore mentioned, the follovnng were also in use from time to time: the *dupondius,' in value 2 * asses'; * tressis,' 3 * asses'; * decussis ' 10, &c. * Centussis ' was not a coin, but a sum ; and when Persius says, 'Centum Graecos curto centusse licetur,' he means that the rude centurion would not give an ' as ' apiece for icx) Greek philo- sophers. 8. Gold coinage in the republican times was occasional but not frequent, chiefly for the purpose of military donations. The ' aureus ' of Sulla was ^ of a lb. of gold ; that of Pompey ^-^ ; that of C. Julius Caesar ~ ; that of Augustus This last and most important coin was made equal to 25 denarii or 100 sesterces. Mommsen values it at 1/. \s. 5^/., Hultsch at 1/. is, ^d. Thus it corresponds nearly to the English guinea. This rate makes the Augustan denarius about lO'^d. and the sesterce 2'6d., though before the gold coinage they were severally about 8*4^/. and 2'id, Some writers have been led into error by confounding the intrinsic value, or weight, of these two coins with their current or relative value. Finding the oldest republican denarius to have contained ^ of a pound of silver, the later republican and Augustan the Neronian they have fallen into the mistake of assuming a corresponding depre- ciation of the current value of the coins. As between the older and later republican coinage, silver being the standard of both, such calculation would be just ; but, when the Augustan gold standard came in, the current values of the silver (and gold) denar and of the brass sesterce (its fourth part) then coined were determined by their several relations to the 568 Appendix, * aureus' as t5o* '^^^ (see Mommsen, p. 766, &:c.) gold was not quite ten times as valuable as silver, while now it exceeds silver in the proportion of more than 15:1. As the relative values changed derangement of the coinage would result ; but the calculations hert given hold good for at least two centuries after Augustus (allowing for the simultaneous reduction of the intrinsic value of the coins by Nero). For the further details of this intricate subject the student must consult T. Mommsen's * Geschichte des Romischen Miinzwesens,' of which a con- venient abridgment is found in Hultsch's * Griechische und Romische Metrologie,' though with calculations of value sometimes not agreeing with those of Mommsen. We now set down a few practical rules, enabling the student to appreciate, at least approximately, the coins and sums cited by classical authors, especially by Livy, Cicero, and Tacitus. 9. The * sestertius' (* semis-tertius' because 2\ asses originally, though afterwards = 4) is often called *nummus' (a term borrowed from the Sicilian coinage, vdfxoi), sometimes * sestertius nummus.' It forms the basis of all pecuniary calculation after the following manner : — (a) Sums under 1,000 sesterces are named in sesterces (* sestertii ' or * nummi ') : * decem sestertios (nummos) ' = 10 sesteires ; * quinos sestertios (nummos) ' = 5 sesterces each, &.c. (5) In sums above 1,000 sesterces, the thousands may be described as consisting of sesterces : * duo milia sestertiorum (sestertium, num- mum) ; ' 2,000 sesterces ; * sexagena milia nummum (sestertium),' 60,000 sesterces each. Or a (supposable) noun sestertium, only found in the Plural * sestertia,' may be used, where each of the *sestertia' counted means ^ sum (not a coin) of about 1,000 sesterces. * Sexcenta sestertia ' = 600,000 sesterces ; * duodena sestertia ' = 12,000 sesterces each, &c. Or, again, both * milia 'and * sestertia ' can be used: * dena milia sestertia' = 10,000 sesterces. And, in poetry, * milia' is used with ellipse of ' sestertium : ' ' mullum sex milibus emit,' he bought a mullet for 6,000 sesterces, Juv. Horace has * bis dena ses- tertia nummum,' =20,000 sesterces. On the mode of writing compound numerals see § 34, vii. Thus * sestertia tria milia et quadringenti octoginta nummi ' = 3,480 sesterces', *xxxi milium quingentorum Ix nummorum ' = 31,560 sesterces. (c) The last mentioned mode of calculation extends to all sums under a million. For a million, and all higher amounts, must be used the Numeral Adverbs ; see § 34. vii. e. But the words centum (centena) milia are frequently understood, not expressed, m pecuniary calculations, with these Adverbs. Thus may be written deciens sestertium (sestertii, sestertio) or deciens (understandmg sestertium), to express 1,000,000 sesterces. In Cicero we also find * deciens centena milia,' and in Horace * deciens centena ' to «xpress this sum. The normal sum * centena milia ' is rated by Hultschat 875/. for the republican age, and 1,087/. 13^. 4^. for the Augustan. As this is probably a high estimate, we may take these sums approximately at 870/. and 1,080/. When an amount is described with more than one Adverb, the numbers they contam must be added together if the larger Numeral stands first, but multiplied when the smaller is first ; care being taken not to reckon the ' centena milia,' which is understood, more than once. Thus * miliens quingcntiens ' = I 000,000 sesterces, but * quaterdeciens miliens ' — 1,400,000,000 sesterces. G, Money, Weight, and Measure, 569 {d) For the Gen. * sestertium ' may be written its symbol HS, for IIS, 2^ (or, as some say, for LLS), the cross line indicating the PI. ' asses,' as the PI. ' librae' is indicated by our lb, £. \e) If the sums are described by cypher, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish whether sesterces, or sestertia, or centena milia sestertium are meant, unless the rule mentioned (§ 34, vii. 2) be observed. Thus, when Livia Augusta bequeathed to Galba * sestertium quingentiens,' Tiberius reduced the amount to 'ses- tertia quingenta, quia notata non perscripta erat summa. ' That is, he chose to read USD for HS|D|. Examples :— * HS deciens et octingenta milia ' « 1,800,000 sesterces. Viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem 'et septem nummos '=2,235,417 sesterces. (Hultsch cites a place in which mille is used for deciens.) 10) The following rules, of a roughly practical nature, will enable the student to calculate approximately the sums which occur in classical authors : — 1) For sums in 'aes grave ' (often in Livy) count the amount *aeris gravis ' as the same amount of sesterces, and count the sesterce = 2 '4^/. Thus ' milia aeris gravis ' = 1,000 sesterces = 2,400^/. = 10/. 2) For sums under the silver currency from B.C. 217 — B.C. 30, u.c. 537 — u.c. 624, cited by Cicero and other writers, count the sesterce = 2 'i^/. If 'sestertia' (i.e. 'milia sestertium') are to be regarded as an exact total of 1,000 sesterces, this would give them the current value of 8/. 15^-., and this is a convenient figure, though Hultsch rates it somewhat higher, 8/. 15^-. 6d. This calculation, as already stated, gives to ' centena milia (sestertium)' an approximate value of 870/., which will be the multiple understood with the Adverbs in -iens. Thus * deciens ' = 8, 700/. , ' centiens ' = 87,000/. , ' miliens ' = 870, 000/. , &c. , ap- proximately. 3) Under the gold standard from B.C. 30 to A.D. 200, count the sesterce, as above stated, 2'6d.^ * sestertia ' at 10/. i6s., 'centena milia' at 1,080/. approximately. Thus ' deciens' = 10,800/, ' centiens ' = 108,000/. , ' miUens,' = 1,080,000/. , approximatelv. III. Interest. The As and its fractional parts were used to calculate interest. Thus (interest being paid monthly at the rate of so much per 100 Asses) : — Unciae usurae = -^^ per cent, per month = I per cent, per annum Sextantes = i- = 2 „ ,, Quadrantes = 1 =3 ,, &c. &c. &c. Asses usurae = i per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum. Asses usurae were also called centesimae ; and binae centesimae = 2 per cent, per month = 24 per cent. ; so quatemae centesimae = 48 per cent, per annum. Horace says: *Quinas hie capiti mercedes exsecat ' (i.e. quinas centesimas), this man slices off 60 per cent, frofu the capital ; because in lending money he deducts from it interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per month ^ 60 per cent, per annum. 570 Appendix. Unciarium fenus, the yearly interest legalised by the Twelve Tables, was probably I uncia per As ( = 8^ per cent.) for the old year of lo months! Note. The silver sesterce of republican times had also the following fractional parts: *libella = ^ sest. (quinque libellae = |) ; sembella (|H- bella)=5^5 sest.; teruncius (i sembella) =4^^ sest. Cicero (Att. vii. 2) uses these terms to express fractional parts of an inheritance (j^^, -^^ severally). See Mommsen, p. 199. IV. Weight. The Unit or As of weight was the * libra ' or Roman pound (the sup- posed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally ex- tended). It was duodecimally divided (see § 34, viii.), the 'uncia,' ounccy ])eing its 1 2th part, and the scriptulum or scripulum, scruple^ its 288th part. Its exact relation to English weight is a debated question. See Smith's Diet. Ant. under Libra and Pondera^ where it is calculated at about 5050 grains. Hultsch (with ,B6ckh and Mommsen) rates it at 327*453 grammes (French) = 5044 grains English nearly. Metrol. § 21. V. Measure of Length. {a) The Unit or As of length was * pes,' the foot : the human body fur- nishing the first or technical measurement. * Digitus ' was a finger-breadth : * palmus,' a hand-breadth, =4 digits ; * pes,' a foot^ =4 palms = 16 digits. {b) In the second, or duodecimal division, of the foot (§ 34, viii. ), * uncia,* the 1 2th part, was an inch. Hence 3 unciae = 4 digits = i palmus. We find 2 feet sometimes called *dupondius 2^ feet 'sestertius* (also 'gradus') ; *sesquipes.' {c) Coming to larger measures, * Palmipes ' = pes + palmus = 1^ foot = 20 digits. 'Cubitus,' cubit (measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger), = i| foot = 6 palms = 24 digits. * Ulna, ell, is often a synonym of 'cubitus,* I J foot: but it sometimes means the full span of the human arms, reckoned = 6 feet. {d) Land was measured out by the *pertica' or * decempeda,' a mea- suring rod of 10 feet. An ' actus ' of length = 12 decempedas. (^) For the measurement of roads the unit was ' passus, ' a pace or double step = twice 2\ feet or 2 ' gradus ' = 5 feet. ' Mille passus* (or 'miJia passuum' or 'milia'), 1,000 paces, expressed the Roman mile (miliarium) = 5,000 feet. ' Stadium,' rt; furlong (borrowed from Greece), was | of a mile -625 feet. The Roman mile was about \ of the geographical mile, and less than an English mile by about (/) The relation of the Roman * pes ' to modern feet is a diflEcult problem. See Hultsch, Metr. § 15. Smith's Diet. Ant. states it as less than the English foot by ^-^ of an inch. According to Hyginus, a standard foot (pes monetalis) was kept in the temple of Juno Moneta. VI. Measure of Surface. The As of superficial measure was the * iugeiiim ' or Roman acre : which Smith's Diet. Ant. states at about \ of an English acre. Hultsch's state- ment is the same. It contained 2 square 'actus ' = 28,800 square feet. It G, Moneyy Weighty and Measure, 571 was duodecimally divided, like the * libra' and *pes.' Of the fractions of the ' iugerum ' the most important is the * scripulum * (scruple) or * decem- peda quadrata * = 100 square feet. Of these the 'clima' contained 36, and the * actus* 144. Surfaces exceeding the iugerum were : heredium=s 2 iugera : centuria= 100 heredia ; saltus = 4 centuriae. All these surfaces were squares, except the * iugerum ' itself, which was the sum of two equal squares. The sides of these squares were related to each other as follows, the decempeda here counting as i : dec. clima actus hered. cent. salt. I 6 12 24 240 480 The following Table (given by Hultsch) shews the relations fully : saltus I centuria 4 I heredium 400 100 I iugerum 800 2QO 2 I actus 1600 400 4 2 I clima 6400 1600 16 8 4 I scripulum 2304CX) 57600 576 288 144 36 VII. Measures of Capacity. i. Liquid Measure. (d) The Romans took for their standard a vessel of a cubic foot in con- tent, called * quadrantal, ' afterwards (from the Greek a^uc^opeOs) * amphora. ' Its parts (which are chiefly Greek) are thus exhibited by Hultsch, Metr. § 17. 3 : amphora I urna 2 I V congius 8 4 I sextarius 48 24 6 I hemina 96 48 12 2 I quartarius 192 96 24 4 2 I acetabulum 384 192 48 8 4 2 I cyathus 576 288 72 12 6 3 (b) The * sextarius ' (less than a pint) was an As duodecimally ditided, like the * libra,' *pes,' and * iugerum,' the * cyathus' being its *uncia' (not quite half an ordinary wineglass). Hence are to be understood the following passages, cited by Hultsch : * Interponis aquam subinde, Rufe, Et, si cogeris a sodale, raram Diluti bibis unciam Falerni.' Mart. i. 106. • Quotiens largissime se invitaret, senos sextantes non excessit. * Suet. Aug. 77. (Seni sextantes, i.e. 12 cyathi, fall short of a full pint of wine.) *■ Poto ego sextantes, tu potas, Cinna, deunces, Et quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem.' Mart. xi. 36. Martial also speaks of one who was *septunce multo perditus.' In the following epigram he alludes to the custom of drinking to the health of a person as many * cyathi ' as there were letters in his name. Quincunces et sex cyathos bessemque bibamus, Gaius ut fiat lulius et Proculus. — Mart. x. 36. 572 Appendix. (c) The *semuncia' was called Migula,' a spoon carrying \ * cya- thus ; ' the * sicilicus ' was * cochleare ', carrying \ * cyathus.' {d) * Culeus* (* culleus ') was a wine-vat, holding 20 amphoras. The 'amphora' itself was an earthen vessel with two handles, whence its name. (i) ' Cad us ' is sometimes used in the same sense as * amphora ; ' but usually it means a cask of no definite size. ii. Dry Measure. The 'modius' approached 2 gallons (| bushel) English. Its divisions were — modius I semodius 2 I sextarius 16 8 I hemina 32 16 2 I quartarius 64 32 4 2 I acetabulum 128 64 8 4 2 I cyathus 192 96 12 6 3 Again the * sextarius ' is duodecimally divisible, its * uncia ' being * cyathus,' its * semuncia ' being *ligula.' Larger measures are * trimodius ' (3 * modii ') and * decemmodius ' (10 ^ modii '). The ' sextarius ' is sometimes called * librarius. ' H. COMPUTATION OF TIME. A. The Julian Calendar agrees with the English, except in the manner of naming the days of the month. Every Roman month had three chief days : Kalendae or Calendae (Calends), Nonae (Nones), Idus (Ides). The Calends were always the 1st day of the month ; the None? were on the 5th ; the Ides on the 13th ; except in March, May, July, and October, in which months the Nones were on the 7th, the Ides on the 1 5th. March, May, July, October, these, we say, Make Nones the seventh, Ides the fifteenth day. These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as points, from which the other days were reckoned backwards. That is, the Romans did not say, such and such a day after ^ &c., but such and such a day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides. Calendae from calare, to call ; Nonae, ninth before Ides ; Idus from iduere (=:div-idere), to divide. See Hor. C, iv. II. 14. B. If January be taken as a sample, the first day was Kalendae lanuariae. The 2nd must be reckoned l3ackwards from the Nones, which in January fell on the 5th, Nonae lanuariae. But in this reckoning the day of the Nones itself must be included. Therefore our 4th of January was the 2nd day before the Nones, called pridie (ante) Nonas lanuarias. The 3rd of January was * tertio (ante) Nonas lanuarias ; ' the 2nd, * quarto (ante) Nonas lanuarias or, abbreviated, 'III. Non. Ian.,' *IV. Non. Ian.' To obtain the Roman name for the 6th of January, the reckoning must be made backwards from the Ides, which fell on the 13th, * Idus lanuariae.' Thus the 12th was * pridie Id. Ian. ;' the nth, * III. Id. Ian ; ' the loth, * IV. Id. Ian.,' &c. ; the 6th was therefore * VIII. Id. Ian.' To obtain the name for the 14th of January, the reckoning is back from the Calends of H. Computation of Time. 573 the next month, Kalenclae Februariae. Thus, January 31st was * pridie Kal. Feb. ; ' January 30th, * III. Kal. Feb.,' &c. &c. ; January 14th was, therefore, * XIX. Kal. Feb.' C. From these observations it appears that the Roman name for any given English day may be found by the following rules : — 1) If the given day is between the Calends and Nones of the Roman month, subtract its English number from the English number of the day on which the Nones fall, increased by one , the remainder will give that number before the Nones by which the day is called in Latin. 2) Similarly, if the given day is between the Nones and Ides of the Roman month, subtract its English number from the English number of the day on which the Ides fall, increased by one ; the remainder will give tlmt number before the Ides by which the day is called in Latin. Thus, to find the Roman name for the 4th of June, the Nones of June falling on the 5th, subtract 4 from 5+1, or 6 ; the remainder is 2 (pridie) ; therefore the 4th of June is * pridie Non. lun. ' Again ; to find the Roman name for the loth of May, the Ides of May falling on the 15th, subtract 10 from 15+ I, or 16 ; the remainder being 6, the loth of May is called * VI. Id. Mai.' 3) But if the given day is between the Ides of the given month and the Calends of the next, then subtract its English number from the total number of days in the given month, increased by two ; the remainder will give that number before the Calends of the next month by which the day is called in Latin. Thus, to find the Roman name for the i8th of August ; subtract 18 from 31 + 2, or 33, the remainder is 15, and August iSth is called * XV. Kal. Sept.' For April 21st, subtract 21 from 30 + 2, or 32, there remains ii ; and April 21st is called XI. Kal. Mai. For February 25th, subtract 25 from 28 + 2, or 30, there remains 5 ; and February 25th is called * V. Kal. Mart.' D. As regards Construction, the forms Kalendis, Nonis, Idibus, are used as Ablatives of time ; and when tertio, quarto, &c., Kalendas, &c. are used, the words die ante are understood. But Cicero does not employ these latter phrases: he writes (for instance) 'ante diem tertium Kalendas lanuarias,' or, in abbreviated form, * a.d. III. Kal. Ian.,' to express Decem- ber 30th, and so in every case. Here the Preposition ante has, by a corruption of custom, quitted its proper place before Kalendas, to stand before diem, which it does not govern. So merely idiomatic is this mode of expression, that it is used in dependence on Prepositions: * Consul Latinas in ante diem tertium Idus Sextilis edixit,' the Consul proclaimed the Latin holidays fo7' the wth of August, L. xli. 16. *De Quinto fratre nuntii nobis tristes venerant ex ante diem iii. Non lun. usque ad pridie Kal. Sept.,' I have sad nnvs of my brother Quintus from the yd of June down to the 2>^st of Aitgtisty C. Att. v. 17. E. The names of the months are all Adjectives agreeing with mens is understood : lanuarius, Februarius, Martins, Aprilis, Mains, lunius, lulius (so called from Julius Caesar, but before his time Quintilis), Augustus (so called from Augustus Caesar, but before his time Sextilis), September, October, November, December. With the words Kalendae, Nonae, Idus, they are used attributively, very seldom as Possessive Genitives : * Natus est Augustus IX. Kalendas Octobres,' Augustus ivas born on the 2yd of September, Suet. Aug. 5. ' Memoria tenent, me a.d. XIIX Kalendas lanuarias principem revocandae libertatis fuisse, ' tJieS remember that on the 20th of December I took the lead in restoring freedom, 574 Appendix. 4> 00 CO o CO T- ^ ^ • > 2 h-; •J.-'d^ ctf rt Ph ^ ci rt rJ ci cj ri rj c^' ei cj d 03 d ri OS tl) oi O U u Q O M o H u O D ^ >> 3 rt t/3 M •D9a -po 'PI 'PH O C/3 CO ci »— t l-H • ^ „ „ H3.«'d5**'_:'*'dS •D9Q -Sny -UBj •uBi -das 'qs^ if) cS o OS 1 I— < S> »-H HH H-t . t> LJ ^ ^ •§ O 'd •§ g ^3 n3 'T3 T3 t3 73 T: -TS -rj T3 ^ •PO 'FI *PH '^-^^M >• o 73 ■^ r J5 ,-4 . , <; T3 •'c O 13 "d 73 -d !=J 73 -d 73 T3 73 ^3' 73 73 73 'd 73 73 'S Sxx>ixxxxx£>>>>;is.2^ 0^ O M N N M N fO K, Abbreviations used in Latin, C. Phil. xiv. 7. * Capuam venire iussi sumus a d Nonas Februarias,' we were 07'dered to come to Capua by the ^th of February^ C. Ati. v. 1 7. *VII. IdusMaias aestatis initium,' the ^th of May is the commencemeni of summer, Colum. xi. 2. Feast-days are sometimes used to express the dates of letters : * L i b e r a 1 i- bus litteras accepi tuas,' I received your letter on the day of the Feast of Liber, C. Att. ix. 5. In Leap-year, the twenty-fourth of February (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart.) was reckoned twice over ; hence this day came to be called dies bissextus, and Leap-year itself was called annus bissextus. K, SIGLARIUM ROMANUM, OR ABBREVIATIONS USED IN LATIN. I. Pr^enomina. A. Aulus. C. Gains. * Cn. Gnaeus.* D. Decimus. K. Kaeso. L. Lucius. M. Marcus. M'. Manius. P. Publius. Q. Quintus. Ser. Servius. Sex. Sextus. Sp. Spurius. . T. Titus. Ti. Tiberius. Women's names were expressed by inverting the character : as, 0, Gaia. 2. Titles. Cos. Consul. Coss. Consules or Consulibus. Des. Designatus. D. Divus. Imp. Imperator. III. V. R. C. Triumvir Reipublicae Constituendae. P. C. Patres Conscripti. P. M. Pontifex Maximus. pRC. Proconsul. S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Romanus. Tr. Pl. Tribunus Plebis. X. V. Decemvir. XV. V. S. F. Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis. 3. In Voting on Trials and Elections. A. Absolvo. C. Condemno. A. P. Antiquam (legem) probe. N. L. Non liquet. V. R. Uti rogas. 4. On Tombs. F. C. Faciundum curavit. Ob. Obiit. H. C. E. Hie conditus est. P. C. Poni curavit. H. S. E. Hie situs est. V. Vixit. 5. Miscellaneous. A. U. C. Anno Urbis Conditae. D. D. Dono dedit. DD. Dederunt. D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedicat. D. M. Dis Manibus. F. Filius. F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortuna- tum. O. M. Optumus Maxumus. S. C. Senatusconsultum. S. D. Salutem dicit. S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit. S. V. B. E. E. Q. V. Si vales, bene est, ego quoque valeo. Tr. Pot. Tribunicia Potestate. - ■ • T * These names are written in MSS. Gaius, Gnaeus, but abbreviated Cn. 5/6 Appendix, 6. A. C. Anno Christi. A. D. Anno Domini. A. M. Anno Mundi. a. C. n. ante Christum natum. Cf, Confer or Conferatur. Coll. CoUato or CoUatis. Cod. Codex. Codd. Codices. Del. Dele or Deleatur. Kd. Editio. Edd. Editiones. e.g. Exempli gratia. Etc. or &c. Et cetera. h. e. hoc est. I. C. lesus Christus. Ictus. lurisconsultus. ibid, ibidem. i. e. id est. i. q. idem quod. L. or Lib. Liber. L. B. Lectori benevolo. 1. c. loco citato. p. C. n. post Christum natum. C. P. P. C. CoUatis pecuniis poni curaverunt Cet. Cetera. 1. 1. loco laudato, leg. lege or legatur. MS. Manuscriptus (Liber). MSS. Manuscripti (Libri). N. B. Nota bene. N. T. Novum Testamentum. Obs. Observa or observetur. PS. Postscriptum. q. V. quod vide, sc. scilicet, s. v. sub voce, vid. vide or videatur. v. 1. vide locum, viz. videlicet. V. Cel. Vir Celeberrimus. V. CI. Vir Clarissimus. V. T. Vetus Testamentum. 7. Academical. A. B. Artium Baccalaureus. A. M. Artium Magister. D. Doctor. LL.D. Legum Doctor. M. D. Medicinae Doctor. Mus. D. Musicae Doctor. S. T. P. Sanctae Theologiae Pro- fessor (which =^D.D. Doctor of Divinity). * * It was always supposed that the Universities gave two kinds of Degrees or Certifi* cates of proficiency — in Arts and in the Faculties. The inferior or preparatory Degree in each department was that of ** Bachelor" (baccalaureus), a barbarous title derived from the French Bas Chevalier, which primarily denoted a Knight Bachelor, one who sat at tne same table with the Bannerets, but, being of inferior rank, was " mis arriere," 01 ** plus bas assis : " hence it came to denote the unfinished apprentice, the unmarried man, and the semigraduate. The complete degree in Arts was that of Magister, Master — in the Faculties, Doctor, Teacher ; two titles equivalent to one another and to the common designation of Professor, or claimant of complete knowledge. The Arts were seven in number (Grammatica, Grammar \ * Dialectica, Logic ; Rhetorica, RhetoHc — which were called Trivium ; Musica, Miisic, Arithmetica, Arithmetic'. Geometria, Geometry; Astrologia, Astrology — which four were called Quadrivium) ; and are summed up in the technical lines : — GRAM- loquitur ; DIA- vera docet ; RHET- verba colorat ; MUS- canit ; AR- numerat ; GE- ponderat ; AS- colit astra. Music from an Art has passed into a Faculty, and has special Degrees. The older Faculties are Divinity. Law, Medicine : the first of which was supposed to include all Arts.* — Donaldson, Lat. Gr. p. 470. * When Public Schools were first established to prepare boys for the studies of the University, the subject mainly taught in them was the first and fundamental Art — that of language— Grammatica. Hence such a school was called Schola Grammaticalis, /7 Grammar School ; and, when founded by Royal Charter, it was declared to be Libera Schola Grammaticalis, a Free Grammar School, \.^, free from all superiority but that of the Crown, 577 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. I. (§ 6, p. 5.) * Primitive Sound or Root.' It seems necessary to explain more distinctly the sense in which the word * Primitive ' is here used. When a root appears with some variety of form in several kindred lan- guages (as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit), it is natural to ask which of the forms is earlier than the rest, and whether such earlier form is to be regarded as 'primitive,' or a still earlier one is to be assumed as once existing, though disused. To determine these points certainly or with high probability, the various forms must be carefully compared, and tested by well-ascertained principles and facts of language. Among such principles and facts are the following : (1) Guttural Letters sounded from the throat with the lips apart are pri- mitive, as compared with all others. Thus the vowel a, having its proper sound, either from the back of the throat, as m Indian ak ( = English iik), or from the front, as in English ak (for the sounds in English *ale,' *all,' are diphthongal), is the great primitive vowel, into which no other passes by strengthening, though itself may be weakened into others. Such weakening is either by closure of the lips, as in the series a, 6, ii, or by employment of the palate and tongue, as in the series u Hence it follows that If an a-sound compete with another vowel-sound, the a-sound belongs to the primitive form. Example. The Sanskrit stem signifying ' lather ' is pilar, the Latin pater, the Greek (Trdr-^^) Trarep-. We are hence able to infer that the primitive stem is patar, of which Sanskrit (in pitar) has weakened the first syllable, Latin and Greek the second. (2) A long vowel is the sum of two short vowels. Hence it appears that a root with long vowel is the development of another with short vowel, which is therefore the earlier of the two. Example. The ' foot ' of man or any other animal is expressed in Latin and Greek by the root ped- 7rd5-, but in Sanskrit the word is pad, nom. pad-as m. This shews, what we might have been pretty sure of, that the vowel of the root is a ; but here we find long a ; so we are led to expect an earlier root with short a, from which a is developed. And this we find in the Sanskrit verb-root pad, 'to go,' which has derivatives with a, pada/ pada-m, 'a pace,' * a step.' The Latin and Greek Nominatives pes, ttous, have the same quantity as pad, and so in Compounds Sk. dvipid, Lat. bipes, Gr. Stirour, &c. But the verb-form pad does not exist in Latin and Greek (unless bitere and lia-rCLv can be referred to it). (3) G^ttural Consonants, by (i), antecede the rest. Others are not changed into them, though they are represented by others. Hence if a guttural form compete with another, the guttural may be regarded as primitive. P P 578 Supplementary Notes, Examples. In Sanskrit, c' (soft ch) and s' often represent k, c ; sV may represent kv, qu ; sometimes Lat. p, tt, t, represent a guttural ; Sk. j re- presents g. See pp. 59-6 1- (4) Of the Consonant trills r, 1, so often interchanged (p. 64), r must be considered the earlier. (5) Sanskrit words beginning with h have lost an initial which preceded it. (6) The vocalized r-trill is expressed in Sanskrit by the vowel ri (ri), but this in Latin and Greek is usually represented by ar, er, or. Even in Sk. ar is the earlier form, and Professor Cowell has pointed out to me (since this Grammar was reprinted) that the great Sanskrit Dictionary, now being published at St. Petersburgh by the Russian Government, rejects ri from verb-roots, and receives ar as the true form, though the ri-form is that which Indian scholars use. Terminal diphthongs are also rejected. The words of the editors are : ' Wir haben aus den Verbal -wiirzeln die Vocale ri, ri und li vollstandig verbannt ; desgleichen die Diphthonge vom Auslaut derselben ; ri im Auslaut von Nominalthemen haben wir durch ar ersetzt. * Hence they write bhar not bhri, kart not krit, pitar not pitri, da not Me' or *do.' The following instances may suffice to illustrate the principles stated ; the suggested primitive form being placed in the fourth column : Lat. Gr. Sk. Pr. coqu- TTCTT- pac' pak (kak ?) quinque panc'an ric pankan (kankan?) li(n)qu- AtTT- rik equ-us 'Ittttos as'vas akva-s gno- 'yvo- jna gna vert vrit, vart hrid, hard vart cord- KapB-ia khard ? serp- epir- srip, sarp sarp lup-us \VK-OS vrika-s, varka-s varka-s urs-us 6.pKT-0S riksha-s, arksha-s arksa-s levi-s laghu-s, raghu-s raghu-s (for leg-vis) Raghu-s is a derivative of the verb-root ra«h, or ra;^-gh, to move fleetly. Exemplifying these principles further from other roots and words cited in P- 554» we are led to infer that the following, among others, are the primi- tive forms : ag drive-, ap acquire-, kru hear; kar make \ dha, place; da give-, dik shew; bhar bring; bhu be-, gan produce; man think; ma measure ; mar fade, die ; sad sit ; sak follow ; star strew ; sta stand ; stag cover ; tan stretch j vas clothe ; ghans goose ; kvan dog ; dvar- door ; avis sheep, &c. Many of these forms will be seen to differ in some respect or other from the Sanskrit, while others agree, as man, sad, tan, vas, avis, occ. The only two which agree exactly with Greek or Latin are ag, ap. Thus it is shewn how primitive forms are deduced with probability from a comparison of kindred languages. An instructive example may be added : the derivative word Sk. s'ravas, Gr. KKios, L. laus. The root is (Prim, kru) Sk. s'ru, Gr. k\v-, L. clu- hear. The derived forms may be compared letter by letter : Sk. s' r a v a s = s'ravas. Gr. K \ 6 (f) O S = K\€{f)05, L. — 1 av — s = laus. Here it is seen that (a) in Sanskrit : the primitive k passes (as often) into s' ; r remains ; av from u is a constant formation ; as is a Noun -ending. {b) in Greek : k remains in k ; the rough liquid r passes into the soft A ; Supplementary Notes. 579 av is weakened into ef, and the F (=v) is lost in later Greek ; o$ n. is the weakened ending for as n. . {c) in Latin : k falls off (p. 44) ; r passes into 1, av is vocalized into an ; and as the ending lis is hereby precluded, a suffix d is brought in, and the num. lau-d-s ( = laus) is formed, which, by Latin analogy, becomes Fem. A similar word is hravas (clearly for dhravas from root dhvri, or dhurv, • to bend ' or * make crooked ') = Latin fraus ; fr corresponding to dhr, the rest as in s'ravas and laus. The following is a list of Sanskrit roots corresponding to most of thosp cited on pages 14-17 : English, to yoke hear Jioat cleanse stink bray, sound shine cover sew be strong shew shine go that lie down adhere spy three love^ desire drive shine beget Sanskrit, yuj s'ru plu A pu puy ru rue' sku siv tu dis' div i i s'i li spas' tri lubh aj bha, bhas jan English. know hide slip measure fasten rule bathe stand strew seize make, create sit cover cover move sound sleep the sun speak fill fade^ die be Sanskrit. • A jna kul lamb ma pas' raj sna stha stri, star hri, har kri, kar sad sthag vri, var, val val svan svap svar vac' pri, par, pur mri, mar bhu The roots due- lead, nu- nod, fid- trusty ac- sharpen, sa- sow, mar- glitter^ are not represented in Sanskrit. We find push, nurture, and putra a son in Sanskrit, with which L. puev and its cognates are probably connected. Sanskrit has the Adjective rudh-ira red, but not the verb rudh to be red y yet to such a root we must refer the words ruber, rufus, i-pv6-p6s, Sec. The Latin verbs luo, lavo to wash, and f-luo to flow, are probably related to Sk. plu to float. To break is in Sk. bhanj : if this is the root of Gr. fpa-y, L. frang-, it has developed r in those languages. - L. sero, connect, may be from the Causal of Sk. sri sar, to proceed. That Sk. sarva, all, is of the same family as the Latin words of solidity, salus, solum, sollus, solus, sollers, &c., appears certain : and they are referred by some to the root sri, sar. Sk. svar, the sun, may indicate a verb-root svar or sur, to shine ; but such root is not extant. n. ^ Relations in the Simple Sentence, §§ 103-105, pp. 352-8.' In the belief that the meaning of these sections will be most clearly shewn by the analysis of a passage according to the principles laid down in them, the first Ode of Horace ( C. i. I .) is chosen for that purpose. Horace, presenting three Books of Carmina to his illustrious friend P F 2 58o Supplementary Notes. Maecenas in the year B.C. 19, u.c. 735, places this Ode first by way of dedication. The outline of what he says is this : * O Maecenas, my beloved protector, various are the delights of men. Some ivho, like the Greeks^ love excitement^ display a7id barren honour^ are glad to win the great Olympian chariot-race.' Romans having large landed property are overjoyed, one, if the popular vote exalts him to the three offices of state ; another, if he is enabled to acquire unrivalled wealth. The yeoman farmer would not be tempted by the riches of Attalus to forsake the tillage of his hereditary fields. The merchant captain, amidst the perils of shipwreck, may regret his native village ; but let him return there, and rest- less greed soon drives him back to sea. The Epicurean quaffs his wine, and takes life easily from day to day. The soldier is all for camps and battles ; the huntsman for the hardships of the chase. As for me ^ — at Rome I enjoy, as a learned man, the society of the great ; elsewhere^ the haunted forest and the favour of the Muses. But if, after readi7tg what 1 now sendf you rank me among lyric poets, I shall reach the very zenith of delight.' Maecenas atavis edite regibus, o et praesidium et dulce decus meum, sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat, metaque fervidis evitata rotis palmaque nobilis. * 5 terrarum dominos evehit ad deos hunc, si mobilium turba Quiritium certat tergeminis tollere honoribus, ilium, si proprio condidit horreo quidquid de Libycis verritur areis. lo gaudentem patrios findere sarculo agros Attalicis coiidicionibus numquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare. luctantem Icariis fluctibus Africum 1 5 mercator metuens otium et oppidi laudat iiira sui : mox reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati. est qui nec veteris pocula Massici nec partem solido demere de die 20 spernit, nunc viridi membra sub arbuto stratus, nunc ad aquae lene caput sacrae. multos castra iuvant et lituo tubae permixtus sonitus bellaque matribus detestata. manet sub love frigido 25 venator tenerae coniugis immemor, seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus, seu lupit teretes Marsus aper plagas. me^ doctarum hederae praemia frontium dis miscent superis, me gelidum nemus 30 nympharumque leves cum satyris chori secernunt populo, si neque tibias Euterpe cohibet nec Polyhymnia Lesboum refiigit tendere barbiton. quodsi me lyricis vatibus inseris, 35 sublimi feriam sidera vertice. The following Syntactic Analysis is thus arranged : — In the Predicative Relation (I) both related words, Nominative and Verb, are placed together. In II-VII, one word is stated ; and that to which it is related by agreement or government is added within brackets, Supplementary Notes. 581 sometimes by its initial only, but so as not to be mistaken. With Annexed words (VIII) the Conjunction, if any, is given, the related words following. Words to be mentally supplied are in italic type. Numerals by § or page refer to the Rules, as given in the Syntax or Uses of Words. 1. Predicative Relation. (§ 108. Concord I. § 115.) 3. Sunt homines (§ 114. 2, § 206. note). 4. collegisse iuvat (§ 177-8). 6. iUud Qwehit si, &c. (when si nearly = quod, the Protasis forms a Sub- stantival Clause which may be, as here, the Subject of the Apodosis).* 7-8. turba certat. 9. condidit. 10. quidquid verritur. 13. tu dimoveas. 14. z//e secet. 16-17. mercator laudat. 17. t//e reficit. 19. eat homo. 19-21. qui spernit. 23. castra iuvant. 25. venator manet. 27. cerva visa-est. 28. aper rupit. 29. hederae miscent. 30-2. nemus chorique secernunt (§ 112). 33. Euterpe cohibet. 33-4. Polyhymnia refugit. 35. itu inseris. 36. e^o feriam (p. 350, § 1 09). II. Qualitative. (1) Attribution (§ 108. Concord li.). o. As Epithet (p. 354). 2. Meum dulce (d.). 3. Olympicum (p.). 4. fervidis (r.). 5. nobilis (p.). 7. hunc {dominum, see note). 7. mobilium (Q.). 8. tergeminis (h.). 9. proprio (h.). 10. Libycis (a.), ii. patrios (agr.). 12. Attalicis (c). 13. Cypria (t). 14. pavidus (n.). Myrtoum (m.). 15. Icariis (f.). 17. sui (o.). 18. quassas (r.). 19. veteris Massici (vini). 20. solido (die). 21. viridi (a.). 22. lene (c). sacrae (a.). 23. multos (homines), 25. frigido (I.). 26. tenerae (c). 27. fidelibus (c). 28. Marsus(a.). teretes (p.). 29. doctarum (f.). 30. superis (dis). gelidum (n.). 31. leves(c.). 34. Lesboum (b.). 35. lyricis (v.). 36. sublimi (v.). )8. As Enthesis (p. 354. See also § 237-9). I. Edite (M. =qui editus es). 5. evitata (m. =quae evitata est). 1 1, gaudentem (virum = c\}x\ gaudeat). 15. luctantem (A. =dum luctatur or qui luctetur). 16. metuens (mere. = cum metuit). 18. indocilis (mere. = quia indocilis est). 22. stratus (qui = cum stra vent, ^ij!z^/;^^j/r^/^^^'^). 24. per- mixtus (s.). 25. detestata (b.). 26. immemor (v.). (2) Apposition (§ 108. Concord ill.), a. As Epithet (p. 354). 1. Regibus (atavis, which is the principal noun here : royal ancestors), /3. As Enthesis (p. 354). 2. Praesidium (M. = qui es praesidium . . . meum). 15. nauta (///i?= f actus nauta). 29. praemia (h. =quae sunt praemia). III. Objective. Nearer Object. (§ 120-1. See § 237.) 3. Quos (iuvat). 3. pulverem (coll.). 6. dominos (evehit, see note). 7. hunc (evehit, see note). 8. eum (tollere). 9-10. friimentum (coadidit). II. virum (dimov.). 12. agros (f.). 14. mare (s.). 15. Africum (met). 16. otium (laud.). 17. rates (r.). pauperiem (pati). 19. pocula (sp. ). 20. partem (dem.). 21. membra (stratus, § 122. 6). 23. homines (iuv.). 28. plagas (r.). 29. me (misc.). 30. me (sec). 32. tibias(c.). 33. bar- biton (t.). 35. me (i.). 36. sidera (f.). IV. Receptive (§ 132-3, &c. See § 237). 15. Fluctibus (1. § 135. b. c). 23. lituo (p. § 135. b.). 24. matribus (d. § 141. 7). 27. catulis (v. § 134. i). 30. dis (misc. § 135. b.), 35. vatibus (i. p. 385). 582 Supplementary Notes, V. Circumstantive. (§ 143, &c. Ablative: Adverbs: Prepositions.) 1. Atavis (ed. § 159). 3. curriculo (coll. § 145). 5. rotis (evit. § 145, or § 151). 6. ad deos (eveh. § 70. i.). 8. honoribus (tollere, § 151). 9. horreo (c, § 155. 2.). 10. de areis (§ 71, p. 300). 11. sarculo (f. \ 145). 12. condicionibus (dim. § 145). 13. numquam (d.). 14. trabe (s. § 145). 17. mox (r.). 20. de die (§ 71, p. 300). 21-2. nunc — nunc (str. p. 317). sub arbuto (str. § 71, p. 306). ad caput (str. § 70. I.). 25. Sub love (m. § 71, p. 306). 31. cum satyris (ch. § 71. iv.). 32. populo (sec. § 158). 36. vertice (f. § 145). VI. Proprietive (§ 162, &c.). 6. Terrarum (dom. § 174). 7. Quiritium (t. § 166). 16. oppidi (r. § 165). 19. vini (pocula, § 166). 22. aquae (c. § 165). 23. tubae (s. § 165). 26. coniugis (i. § 174, 2. 7.). 29. frontium (p. § 165). 31. nym- pharum (ch. § 166). VII. Prolative (§ 180). 8. Tollere (c). ii. findere (g.). 18. pati (indocilis). 34. tendere (r.). VIII. Annexive (§ 188). 2. Et decus (praesidium). 4-5. metaque palmaque (collegisse). 9. ilium (hunc). 17. et rura (otium). 20. nec demere (pocula). 23-4. et sonitus bellaque (castra). 31. chorique (nemus). (A) Vocative (§ 118) Interjections (§ 104) and Conjunctions. I. Maecenas (§ 104, § 118). 2. O (§ 104. 118) et (§ 77. 3). 7-9. si — si (see note). 13. ut that he^ &^c.^ § 205 : or, if to dimoveas be given the sense of persuading, *ut secet 'may be referred to § 197). 20-1. nec— nec (§ 77- 3)- 27-8. seu — seu (§ 221). 32-3. si neque — nec (§ 77. 3.) (B) Relative Construction (§ 108. Concord IV. § 105). 3. Quos (agrees with antecedent Aomines, § 108. case is governed by iuvat, § 121). 10. quidquid (omne frumentum is suppressed antec. On Case, see I.) 19. qui (agrees with antecedent homo : is nom. subject of spernit). 35. quod si, but if (=:as to which, i/, See. See § 82. 6). [Notes. M. 5. A full stop is placed after ' nobilis,' and no stop after * deos ' in 1. 6, with Macleane and Munro. Horace would tolerate no- where, much less in the opening lines of his First Ode, such a construction as * hunc — ilium ' dependent on 'iuvat ' or 'evehit' supplied from a previous and specially distinct sentence. * Nobilis ' forms a beautiful ending to the sentence *sunt quos,' &c. ; and * evehit, ' having for its subjects the two clauses * si mobilium,' &c., *si proprio,' Sic, is an exquisite, though not frequent construction. As to * terrarum dominos,' opinions will probably be divided between making it an apposition to * deos ' and taking it as object of * evehit, ' in the sense of * Roman landlords.' The latter explanation, supported by Lucan's * terrarum dominos,' Phars. viii. 208, which Orelli cites, is here preferred. 2 1. 29, &c. The reading *te,' which some suggest for the first 'me,' is tempting, because Maecenas was learned : see C. iii. 8. 4. But perhaps Horace in these lines speaks of his own two modes of life, both delightful : one, which, as a scholar favoured by the great (di superi^ i.e. Augustus, perhaps including Maecenas: see C. iii. 3, 11. — 5, 2. iv. 5, 33), he en- joyed at Rome ; the other, in his Sabine villa near Tibur. See iv. 3, the most exquisite of all his poems, where he expresses similar feelings in another form, and exults in having gained that which in the present ode he declares to be the summit of his hopes — to be called ' Romanae fidicen lyrae.'] INDEX I SUBJECTS. [Reference Is made sometimes to Sections, § ; sometimes to Pages. An asterisk marks a term introduced in modern works on Latin Grammar. Italics with asterisk mark a term introduced in this Grammar or its companion works. ] A, the standard guttural Vowel, § 12. Its sound ; strength, lo, ii ; forms diphthongs with i, u, 12 ; weakenings, 20-32. See Contents. *A-Nouns, Decl. I.. § 22. See § 20- 21. *A- Verbs, Conj. I., § 43-47. § 53. Abbreviations (Siglarium Romanum). Appendix K., 575. Ablativus Casus (auferre, to take away), the Ablative Case, so called from one of its uses (separation), § 19. Its form in the Declensions, § 20. Governed by Prepositions, § 71-72. In Circumstantive JRe- lation, § 103. V. Syntactic uses, § 143-161. See Contents. Ablativus Absolutus (absolvere, to release), the Ablative Absolute, so called because it stands released, as it were, from government. Also called *Ablativus Convenientiae, § 161. § 238-240. Ablative Supine, § 40. § 187. Abstract Names, 71, 125, 272. Abundance in Nouns, § 27. AcatalectUS (a, not, KaTaKrjysiVy to stop short), Versus, 528. Accentus (accinere, to intone). Accent, Acute or Circumflex, 7. Accentuation, § 10. 511. Accusativus Casus (accusare, to accuse), the Accusative Case, so called because the accused is the Object of prosecution. Gr. atTtartKTj TTTtoort?, § 19. Its form in the De- clensions, § 20. Governed by Pre- positions, § 70. § 72. Objective Relation, § 103. III. Syntactic uses, § 119-131. See Contents. Active Voice (agere, to do), § 36. Active Sentence, how changed to Pas- sive Form, § 106. Adaptation or Partial Assimilation of Consonants, 42. Adjectivum. Adjective (quod adicitur APO Substantivo). Gr. ^trLQ^rov [epithet), § 16. Declension of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I., 93 ; in Decl. III., 115-119. Irregularities, § 28. Com- parison, § 29. Derivation, § 59. Uses, § 63. In Qualitative Rela- tion, § 103. II. See Agreement ; also Contents. * Adjectival Clause, § 189. Adjectival (Relative) Clauses, § 204-210. Adonius Versus, 541. Adverbium, Adverb (quia ad Verbum est), § 15. Comparison of Adverbs, § 30. Correlation of, § 54. Table of, 228-230. Derivation of, 255-258. Strengthen Superlative and other Adjectives, 279. *Adverbial Attribute and Apposite, 278, 365. ^Adverbial Clause, § 189. {B.) Ad- verbial Clauses, § 204-227. See Contents. Adversative Conjunctions, § 57. 318; Affirmative Answers, § 88. Agreement, § 108-114. See CoN- tents. Alcaic Verse, § 267. § 269. Alphabet, the letters of any language, so called from Alpha, Beta, the first two Greek letters. Latin Alphabet, § 7. § 12. Anacoluthon, a Figure of Syntax, 565. Anapaestus, Anapaest, ^ a me- trical Foot, 525. Anapaestic Rhythm, 543. Anaphora, 318. Animals, names of, their gender, 76, 77. nnexive Relation in the Sentence, § 103, VIII. 432. Conjunctions, 316. Answers, Affirmative and Negative, § 88-89. Antecedent, 357, 361. Agreement of Relative with, § 108. 361, 367, 368. *Apod6sis (aTToStSoi/ai, to render back). If a Predication is so limited by a 384 Index I, APP Clause, that the Clause can be stated first, the Predication afterwards, such Predication is called Apodosis, while the Clause is called Protasis (Trporetfcti/, to stretch before). These terms are chiefly used in regard to Compound Conditional and Con- cessive Sentences [ify although) ; if, although — / Hand (Protasis), I ^ee (Apodosis). But there would be no impropriety in applying them wnen the Clause is Temporal or Causal, * tvhen — because — / stand, I see, ' or ! when it is Relative, as * whoever \ stands — he will see.* Any such clause is conditionally limitative, and is a Protasis ; because a con- dition precedes in logical order that of which it IS the condition. But in grammar the terms Apodosis and Protasis are applied to the principal sentence and condition severally, in whatever order placed. Appellativa (appellare, to call by natne). Common Names, 71. * Apposite (apponere, to place by), a Substantive attributed to another Substantive, 71, 353. Apposition, 71, 353, 359, 360, 364- 367- ^ , Arsis (atpeti^, to lift), that Syllable in a Foot on which ' ictus ' falls, § 258. Articles (ap0pa), none in Latin. 73. *Aryan Affinities, Append. C, 554. *Aryan Family of Speech. § 2. As, Compounds of, 149 : parts of, 157. Appendix G., 556. &c. Asclepiad Metres, § 255. ; 544, &c. •Assimilation of Vowels, 32-35 ; of Consonants, 41-43. Asynirtetus (a, not, cwoiprau, to link), Versus, 528, 543. Atonic or Baryton Syllables, § 10. * Attraction (attrahere, to draw to), a very important usage in Syntax, § 61. § 110. § 114. Attributum (attribuere, to assign), At- tribute, 71. In Qualitative Rela- tion, 353, 354. Concord, § 108. Attribution, Idioms of, § 113. COM B, a medial labial mute Consonant, Relations of, 63. Euphonically in- serted, 44 (note). Base in metre, 528 (note). ^ Being, Verb of (sum, esse), § 42.« C, a tenuis guttural mute Consonant, modified from r. Sounded as K., 9, 60 (note). Relations of, 59-64. Caesura (caedere, to cut), § 260. and note. Calendar (Roman), Appendix H., 572. Cardinalia (cardo, hinge), Cardinal Numerals, § 33. Uses of. § 34. Case, § 19. Cases, Formation of, § 20. See De- clensions. Case-construction, § 115-176. See Contents. Catalecticus (/caraAT/yetT', to stop short). Versus, 528. Causal Conjunctions : Coordinative and Subordinative, § 57. Causal Coordination, 320. *Causal Clauses, Adverbial and Ad- jectival, § 209-210. ^Character (x«P'"«T>7P, ifnpressed mark) of a Stem or Root, 70. * Circumstafttive Relation, § 103. V. Clause, 352. '*'Clipt Stem, 30, 170. *Coahtion, 53. Collective Nouns or Nouns of multi- tude, 71. Their construction, 362. *Combinate Tense-forms, § 38. Common. Gender, § 18. Common Names (Appellativa), 71 Comparatives and Superlatives, their formation, 42 (note). Comparative Constructions, 314, 315, 404, 405. Comparative Conjunctions, Coordina- tive and Subordinative, § 57. *Comparative Sentences, § 227-228. Comparison, § 29-30. *Compensation, 18. * Complement (complere, to complete)^ the (Predicative), that which com- pletes the construction of a Sen- ' The term * Substantive Verb,'' as used to denote * sum, esse,' has every disadvantage which a term can have, (i) It is a false translation of its Greek original, pT)ju,a vnaoKTLKov (verbum existens). (2) It tends to confuse learners, who ought to consider a Substantive one part of speech and a Verb another. (3) If any form could claim the term Substan- tive Verb, it would be the Infinitive, which partakes of each character (Verb-noun). These evils are aggravated by the modern practice of saying Substantive Verb, not Sub- stantive, which was the universal pronunciation of the Adjective formerly, in accordance with Johnson's authority (a substantive proposition). There is no more reason to obliterate his wise distinction by applying the general rule of pronunciation to this word in both its senses, than to accent the first syllable in adjacent, subjective, and hundreds more. Subjects, 585 COM tence, when the Verb is copulative, § 102. Oblique Complement, 351, 360, § 131. See Predicate. Composite Subject, 268, 353, § 112. Composition of Words, § 60. Composition of Verbs, § 52, § 60. * Com pound Sentence, § 100, § 198- 228. See Contents. Concessive Conjunctions, § 57. *Concessive use of Conjunctive Mood, 339- * Concessive Sentences, § 225-226. Concords, Four, § 108. Concrete Names, 71. Conditional Conjunctions, § 57. Conditional Sentences, § 213-224. See Contents. Conjugation (coniugare, to yoke to- gether), the Flexion of Verbs, 72. Periphrastic, § 47. Conjugations, the four, § 43. Their Paradigms, § 44-50. Conjugating, method of, § 43. Coniunctio (coniungere, to unite), Con- junction, Gr, avvSeafxa?, 73. § 57. Coordination by, 77-81. See Cor- relation and Compound Sen- tences. *Coniunctivus Modus, Conjunctive Mood, § 37. Pure Conjunctive, Examples of, 174. § 93-95. *Consecutio Temporum, Consecution of Tenses, § 98. § 229. * Consecutive C'onj unctions, § 57. * Consecutive Clauses, § 205, 206. Consonants, § 7. Scheme of, 8. Affections of, 41-58. Relations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, § 12. XXXV. See Contents. '*Consonant Nouns, § 20. § 24. "^Consonant Verbs, § 43-47. § 53. Contraction, 52, 56. *Coordination by Conjunctions, § 77-81. By Relative, § 82. * Copulative Verbs (copulare, /^? couple). List of, § 101. ♦Correlation, § 73-76. ♦Correlative Pronouns and Particles, §31. D, a medial dental mute Consonant, 63. Sounded as t when final. T written for final d, 63. Inter- changed with 1, 65. Dactylic Hexameter, § 259-260. Dativus Casus, Dative (Receptive) Case, § 19, 20. In Receptive Re- lation, § 103. IV, Constructions, § 132-142. See Contents. Declension (declinare, to slope down), § 19. I Declensions of Substantives, the Five, | eng § 20. Their Case-endings, § 21. First Decl., § 22. Second Decl., § 23. Third Decl., § 24. Fourth Decl., § 25. Fifth Decl, § 26. Declensions of Adjectives, 93, 94, 115-119. Irregularities of Declen- sion, § 27-28. Defective Nouns, § 27. Defective Adjectives, § 28. Defective Verbs, § 49. Deminutiva, Diminutives, 247. ♦Dental Consonants, '8, 63. Deponent Verbs, § 36. Their Con- jugation, § 45. Paradigm, § 171. Deponents of First Conj., 207-208. Of Second Conj., 214. Of Fourth Conj., 215. Of Third Conj., 225. Derivation, § 59. Cf Nouns, 235-253. Of Verbs, 254. Of Particles, 255- 259- Desiderative Verbs <desiderare, to desire^, 206. Dialects of Italy. Append. D., 556. Diphthongs (^t?, </>^oyyo5, sound), 6, 12, 13. Disjunctive Conjunctions, § 57. Disjunctive Coordination, 318. ♦Dissimilation of Vowels, 34. Of Consonants, 43. Distributive Numerals, § 33. Double Object Verbs, their construc- tion, 354, 379. ♦Dubitative Sense of Conjunctive, 339. Duration of Time in Accus. , 375 ; Abl., 401. E, medial Vowel between a and i. Its sound and strength, 11, 19. Forms diphthongs with i, u, 12. Various affections of, 24-28, 38. ♦E-Nouns, Fifth Declension, § 20. 21. § 26. ♦E-Verbs, Conj. II., §43-47. §53. ^Ecthesis {kKTiQkvai, to place out), a word or words standing out of the predication with which they are in context ; as, a Vocative Case, or an Interjection, with their adjuncts, § 104. Elegiac Distich, § 261. ♦Elision (elidere, to strike out), the re- moval of a final Syllable before a word beginning with a Vowel, 52, § 256. Ellipsis (eAAetVeti/, to omit), omission of one or more words in construc- tion, § 61. 274, 346, 367. ^Enclitic words {tyKhivew, to lean on), those which throw back accent on the word which they follow, 7, 259. Ending, § 14. English Language, 2. 586 Index L ENT "^Enthesis (lvr\.Bivai,^tp place in), 352. *Enuntiatio (enuntiare, to declare or state), a statement, § lOO. ♦Enuntiatio Obliqua, the First Class of Substantival Clauses, § lOO, 189, 194-203. See CONTENTS. Epicoene words, 77. Epithet (cTTtdeToi/, placed on to), an Ad- jective in simple Attribution ; as, vir b o n u s, § 15. See Attribute. Et)rmology (Irv/xos Aoyos, true account), §1. §6. * Euphonic Insertion of Consonants, 44. * Euphony, 19. Exclusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels, 56-58. Extensible Verbs, §102. §103, VII., § 180. F, an aspirate spirant Consonant ; its sound uncertain, 9. Corresponds to bh, dh, gh ; 0, x> 61, 62. Passes into h, 62. *Factive Verbs, 351. Their con- struction with Accusative (Oblique Clause), 380-381. Families of Language, § 2. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, § 61. Appendix F., 565. *Final Conjunctions (finis, end, pur- pose), § 57. *Final Clauses, Adverbial and Adjec- tival, § 207-208. "^Finite Verb, § 35. *Flexion (flexio, a bending), § 14-15. Foot, § 258. List of Feet, 525 (note). Fractions, how expressed, 157. Frequentative Verbs, 205. Futurum Tempus, Future Tense, Simple and Perfect, § 38. Their uses, § 90. 229. Consecution, 484, 485. See Periphrastic Conjugation, § 47. G, a medial guttural mute Consonant, § 12. 9. Its Relations and utter- ance, 61. Galliambus of Catullus, 538. Gender (genus), § 18. Generic Names, 74. Genetivus Casus, the Genitive (Pro- prietive) Case, Gr. yefiKr/ TTTwo-t?, § 19. Formation of, in Sing, and Plur., §20. Genitive in Proprietive Relation, § 103. VI. Syntax of Genitive, § 162-176. See Con- tents. Gentile or Clan Names ; also from People, Cities, &c., 252. Gerundia, Gerunds, § 40. Construc- tion, § 181-184. INF Gerundive Forms, 23 (note). Glyconic Metre, 536. Gnomic Use of Subjunctive, 343. Grammar, divisions of, § 1. Greek ; its influence on Latin, 2. Affinities, Append. C, 554. Greek Nouns in First Decl., § 22. In Second Decl., 92. In Third Decl., 112-115. *Guna, 12. *Guttural Consonants, 8, 6i. H, an aspirate guttural Consonant, 9. Relations of, 61-62. Hexameter (Dactylic), § 259-260. *Hiatus, 52-53, § 257. ^Historic Infinitive, 332-333. *Historic Present, 332. ^Historic Tenses, 164, § 98. Homonymous Verb-forms (o/jicGi/v/uia, having same name), § 227. * Hortative and Jussive uses of Con- junctive Mood, § 95. I (j). Vowel and Consonant, 9, 10. Its sound and strength as i-vocalis ; weakest Vowel, 11. Forms diph- thongs when strengthened by a, e, o, 12. Selection of i, 29, &c. Weakens a and e, § 12. I as a vincular or link-vowel, 11, 30- 32. I and u, 31. *l-Consonans (j), 9, 10-68. Sound, Ap- P'ind. *I-Nouns in Third Decl., § 24. *I- Verbs, Conj. IV., § 43-47. 214- 216. Iambic Rhythms, § 263. 539-540. Illative Conjunctions, § 57. Coordi- nation by, 320. Imperative Mood (imperare, to com- mand), § 37. Its Tenses, 163. How used, § 92. Imperfect Tense, § 38. Imperfect In- die, Its uses, § 90. Subjunctive, § 229. Impersonalia Verba, Impersonal Verbs, so called because they cannot take a Personal Pronoun as Sub- ject, § 50. § 109. Impersonal use of Passive Verbs, § 50. 359. Of Gerundive Construction, § 50. § 181. Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs, 196, §53. Indicative Mood (indicare, to shew) in Verbs, for categorical or absolute statement, § 37. Uses of, § 90. ^Infinite Verb, § 35. § 40. § 177- 188. See p. 169. Infinitivum, the Infinitive, § 35. § 40. Its constructions, § 177-188. Slibjccts, 587 INF ^Infinitive Clause (Accusative with Infinitive), § 194. Interest, Calculation of, Append. G., 569-570. Interjection (intericere, to throw be- tween), Interjection, § 58, 357. Interrogations, § 86-87. ■^Interrogatio Obliqua, the Third Class of Substantival Clauses, 100, § 202. Interrogative Particles, § 86-87. Intransitive Verbs, 15c, § 122-127. -io- Verbs of Third Conj., § 46. Irregular Nouns, § 27-28. Italian Dialects, Append. D., 556. * Iterative Construction w^ith Subjunc- tive, 343, 463 ; w^ith Indie, 464. K, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant, gradually disused in Latin, 9. Kalendae or Calendae, the Calends of the Roman month. Append. H., 572-574. L, a dental liquid Consonant = lisped r. Its Relations, 64, 65. * Labial Consonants, 8. Language, Families of, i. Languages derived from Latin, 2. Latin, § 2. Literature, § 5. Letters, § 7-12. Letter-change, § 12. Letter-writing, Tenses in, § 90. ^^Locative Case, § 20, § 155. See Declensions. Logaoedic Rhythms, 541. Loss of Initial and Final Letters, 44- 47. Of Inner Consonants by con- currence with other Cons., 47-50. Of Inner Vcwels before Consonants, 50-52. Of Inner Vowels with Con- sonants, 54. Lyric Metres, § 262. M, a labial nasal Consonant. Eupho- nically inserted, 44. Its Relations, 64. Metaphor (j«,eTa<^e'peti/, to transfer), a Figure of Rhetoric, 270. Metonymy (/Aera, ovo^a)^ a Figure of Rhetoric, 270. Metre, § 258. *Mobilia Substantiva, Substantives which have Feminine as well as Masculine Form, 74. Money, Computation of, Appendix G., 566. Month, Roman, Appendix /7., 572. Moods, § 37. § 90-97. * Morphology {fj-opi^ri, form, \6yo^, ac- count), Wordlore, § 8. § 13. Multiplicative Numerals, 148. ^'Mutation of Letters, § 12. PAR N, a nasal Consonant, usually dental, but before Gutturals becoming guttural or palatal ; its Relations, 64. Names (Roman), 252. How abbre- viated. Appendix K., 575. *Narratio Obliqua, § 230. ^Nasalization, insertion of n, 19. Negative Particles and Pronouns, § 83-85. Negative Answers, 330. Neuter Adjectives, their Substantival use, § 63. 365. Nomen, Noun, § 15. Gr. 6»/o/xa. Nominative Case, 6uo fxaaTLKri tttwo-i?, § 19. Formation of, in Sing, and Plur., § 20. Uses of, § 115-117. See Predicative Relation. Number, § 17. § 39. § 62. Numeralia, Words of Number, § 33-' 34. Numeral Series, Declension, Table, § 33-34. O, medial Vowel between a and u. Its sound and strength^ 11. Forms Diphthongs with i, 12. Weaken- ing into u, 21. *0-Nouns, Second Declension, § 20. § 23. *0-Verbs (fragments of), 221. *Obiectum (obicere, to cast in the way). Object (correlated to Subiectum, subject), that on which a Subject acts. It may be Nearer Object (Accus. Case), or Remoter (usually Dative, sometimes Accus.) See Accusative, Dative, and Objective Relation. * Objective Relation, § 103, III. ^Objective Genitive, § 163. § 174. *Obliqua Oratio, § 190-193. ^Oblique Subject or Complement (the Subject or Complement of an Ob- lique Infinitive Clause), 352 (note), § 131. Optative use of Conjunctive, § 95. Order of Words in a Sentence, § 241- 243. Ordinaha, Ordinal Numerals, § 33. Ordinative Particles, 317. Orthography, Append. A., 547. ^Oscan Dialect, Append. D. P, a labial tenuis mute Consonant, § 12. Euphonically inserted, 59, 63- ■'^Parasitic u (v) joined to q, 10, 58. Part affected, Accusative of, 374 Participles (partem capere), 165 Participial Construction, § 237-240. See Contents. 588 hidex L PAR Particulae, Particles or Small Parts of Speech, a name given to the four undeclined Parts, including some which are inseparable, or only used in Compounds : ambi-, dis-, in-, re-, se-, § 24. § 54-58. 255-259 Prirtitive (partiri, to divide), words which take a Genitive of the Thing Distributed, § 171. See Genitive in Contents. Parts of Speech or Words, § 14. § 16. Passiv^a Vox (pati, to suffer), Passive Voice in Verbs, § 36. Patronymic (n-arT^p, father, ovofxa, fi Line), a name expressing descent from a father or ancestor, 75. Perfect Tense (perficere, to complete), § 33. Disyllabic Perfect, 18. Its double use in Latin, 164. Its uses in the Indie. M., 162. In pure Conjunctive M., § 90. § 95. In Subjunctive, § 204. § 229. Perfect-Stem and Character, § 41. Its Formation, § 51. § 53. Period (TrepioSo?, circuit) and Periodic Style in Discourse, § 244-249. ^Periphrastic Conjugation, a term used to express the forms of predi- cation obtained by connecting the Participles with the Verb sum : especially the Future Active Parti- ciple in -urus and the Gerundive in -ndus, § 47. The term would be equally applicable to the Combinate Passive Tenses with sum and Perf Part., but is not usually given to these. See p. 164, § 47. Person, § 39. *Petitio (petere, to seek), that Form of a Simple Sentence in which the Im- perative Mood is used, § lOO. *Petitio Obliqua, Indirect Will-speech, the second of the three kinds of Substantival Clauses, 349, § 197. Phalaecian or HendecasyUable Verse, 537- Pherecrateus Versus, 535. Phonetic Decay, 11. ^Phonology {<\>iavf\^ sound, A670?, ac- count), Soundlore, § 7-12. Phrase ((|)pa(Tt?, from 0pa^eti/, to speak intelligibly), 352 (note). Place, Adverbs of, § 55. Construc- tions of, § 155-157. See CoN- tp:nts. Plautus and Terence, 3. Their Pro- sody, 56, 546. Pleonasm (TrAeora^'eir, to exceed), a Figure of Syntax, § 61. Pluperfect Tense (plus quam per- fectum, more than complete), § 38. Us use in the Indie. M., § 90. Con- junctive and Subjunctive, § 229.' PRO Plural Number (plures, more), § 17. Peculiar uses of, § 62. Plural only ; words generally without Singular, 125. Plural, variation of meaning in, 128. Poetic Forms and Idioms, Append. E., 563. I Position, a Term used in Prosody to express that a vowel is long, short, I or doubtful in quantity by coming before certain letters, 512. Potential Use of Conjunctive, 338. Praeteritiva Verba, Verbs not conju- gated with Present-Stem, § 49. * Predicate (praedicare, todeclare), that member of a Sentence by which something is declared of the Subject. Writers on Logic resolve every pro- position into Subject, Copula, and Predicate. But in Grammar this would only mislead, for it is not in such form that authors write. Neither sum, nor any other Copula- live Verb, exactly corresponds to the logical Copula ; and the word, which such Verb links to the Sub- ject, is often not identical with a logical Predicate. For these reasons (while Madvig and most other Grammarians are followed in allowing the term Predicate in Grammar to a Finite Verb) the term Complement is used to express the word or phrase linked by a Copulative Verb to the Subject, and so completing a Simple Sentence, § 101-102. * Predicative Relation, § 103, I. Prefix, 70. Preposition (praeponere, to place be- fori), Gr. irpo^eats, 72. Table of Prepositions, § 56. Prepositions in composition with Nouns, § 60. With Verbs, § 52-^0. Use of Preposi- tions with Cases, § 70-72. Present Tense, § 38. Its uses in Indie. M. , § 90. In Conjunctive M., § 94. In Consecution, § 229. Present Stem and Character, § 41. Affections of Present Stem, § 51. See Contents. ■^Primary Tenses, §. 38. § 95. ■^Primitive Roots, § 5. Supplementary Notes, 577. j *Proclitica (n-po/cAivfir, to lean for- ward), Particles which merge their j accent in the following word, 7. j Prohibition, forms of, § 92. § 95. j * Prolativc Relation (proferre, to ex- j tend), that in which Predication is extended by an Infinitive added to ; Verbs, Participles, or Adjectives, 356, i "^'Prolafive Infinitive, § 180. Stibjccis, 589 PRO Pronoun (Gr. ai'Twi/u^ia), § 15. Pro- nouns, § 32. Use of. § 64-69. See Contents. Pronominalia, 137, 142, 292, 368. § 73. Pronunciation of Vowels and Diph- thongs, § 12. Of Latin generally, Append. B. Proper Names ; Names peculiar to Persons or Places, 71. Proportional Numerals (duplus, &c.), 148. ^Proprietive Relation^ that of the Genitive to the Noun on which it depends, 356. § 103. Prosodia (irpoo-aSeti/, to sing in accord)^ Prosody, i. § 251-269. ^Protasis. See Apodosis. • Punctuation, § 11. *Pure or Independent Conjunctive Mood, § 37. Uses of, § 93-95. Q, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant, only used with parasitic u (v), 9, 10. Its Relations, 59-61. Sounded as 0 before u. Append. A. ^Qualitative Relation, that in which Attributes orApposites stand to their Nouns, § 103, II. Quahty, Ablative of, § 153. Genitive of, § 168. Quantitative Words, taking Genetivus Rei Demensae, § 172. Quantity of Syllables, § 8. § 252-255. *Quasi-Passive Verbs, 160. Questions. See Interrogatio. R, a dental liquid Consonant, § 12. Its relations, 64-66. Substituted for s, 65. * Receptive Relation, that in which a Dative Case stands to a Trajective or other Verb or Noun on which it depends, § 103, IV. *Recta Oratio (distinguished from Obliqua O.), Direct Discourse in a Principal Sentence, § lOO, § 190. Reduplication (reduplicare, to re- double), a peculiar mutation, by which the form and sense of words is varied in Greek, Latin, and other languages, 40. Reduplication in Present-Stem, § 51. In Perfects, § 51. Loss of, 118. Reflexive Pronouns (reflectere to bend back), se with its Possessive suus ; so called because they ' bend back ' their reference to a preceding Subject of the Third Person, § 32. Their use, § 66. In Clauses, § 231-235. * Relations of construction existing SUB between words in Simple Sentences, §103. Relative Pronoun (referre, to refer) qui quae quod, so called because referred to an Antecedent noun- term, § 32. The root of most Sub- ordinative Conjunctions and of numerous Adverbs, § 59. Coor- dination by Relative, § 82. Agree- ment of Relative with Antecedent, § 108j Concord IV. Notes on, §114. *Relative (Adjectival) Clauses, § 204. Consecutive, § 206. Final, § 208. Causal, § 210. Rhythm (pv^/Ltb?), modulated flow or measure in verse or prose, 512. Prose rhythm, 506. Rhythms in Verse, § 269. *Root, § 14. § 59. Supplementary Notes, 577. S, a dental sibilant Consonant. Rela- tions, § 12. Passes into r, 66. *Sanskrit, i, § 6. Append. E. Suppl. Notes, 577. Sapphic Stanza in Horace and Catul- lus, § 266. Sapphic Metres, 542-544. ! Selection, 20-32. *Semiconsonants, 9-10. *Semideponent Verbs, 160. Semitic Family of Language, § 2. Sententia (sentire, to express thought), a Sentence, § 100. Sentences. The Parts of Discourse ; their kinds, § 100. Order of Words in a Sentence, § 241. Shortening of Vowels, 55, &c. Simple Sentence ; three forms of, § 100. Its parts, 101-103. Con- structions of, § 107-188. See Contents. Singular Number, § 17. § 27. § 62. Singular only, words without plural, 125. *Soundlore (Phonology), § 7-12. See Contents. *Stem, § 14. The three Stems in Verbs, § 41. § 51. § 53. ^Strengthening, § 12. 12-19. Strophe or Stanza (<rTpe'</)en/, to turn), Strophic Metres, 528 (Note), 543- 546. "'^Subiectum, Subject, that member of a Sentence of which action or state is predicated, § 102. Subiunctivus Modus (subiungere, to subjoin), the Subjunctive Mood, a name given to the Conjunctive Mood when subordinated to an- Index L SUB other Verb, § 37. 175. § 96-98. In Suboblique Construction, § 190- 193. In Compound Sentences, § 194-228. See Contents. Suboblique Construction, the Con- struction of Verbs in Subordination to Oratio Obliqua, real or virtual, § 190-193. ^Substantival Clauses, why so called : their varieties, § 100. Construc- tion, § 194-203. See Contents. Substantive (substare, to stand be- neath), the first of the inflected Parts of Speech, § 15. Declensions of, § 17-26. Irregularity in, § 27. Uses of, § 62. ♦Suffix, § 14. List of Noun-suffixes, § 68. Suffixes of Particles, § 59. Superlativus gradus (superferre, to carry above), the highest Degree of Comparison in Adjectives and Adr verbs, § 29, 30. Idioms of, 279. Supine, an unmeaning term, applied to the two Cases of the Verb Infi- nite which end in um and u, 165. Their construction, § 185-186. Supine-Stem, § 41. Its formation, §51. Syllaba (<n;AAa/x/3ai/€ii/, to take together), a Syllable, § 7. Syllabation, 9. Synaphea, 520 (note). *Synesis (awUvai, to understand ; o-ui/eo-i?, meaning), a Figure of Syn- tax, by which meaning rather than form determines the construction, § 61. § 111. § 114. Syntax (o-vfrao-o-eii/, to construct), a Division of Grammar, § 1. S 100- 250. T, a dental tenuis mute Consonant, 8, 63. Tenses, § 38. § 90-98. Consecu- tion of, § 98. § 229. Temporal Clauses (Adverbial), § 211- 212. See Contents. Temporal Conjunctions, § 57. § 211. Thesis in Verse, § 253. Time of Syllables (Mora), § 8, § 512. Time, Constructions of, § 124. § 154. Computation of, Appen- dix H., 572. Tmesis, 35, 299, 563. Towns, Names of; their Gender, § 18. Their constructions, § 125. § 155-157. ZEU * Trajective (traicere, to throw over). Verbs and Adjectives which by their meaning suggest a Remoter Object, 355, 384. Transitive Verbs, 159, § 121-126. Transposition of Consonants, 44. U-V, Vowel and (Spirant) Consonant, its uses in each character, 10. U as weakening of a, o, 11, 21. *U-Nouns (Fourth Deal), § 26. *U-Verbs (in Third Conj.), § 43. § 53. 224. *Umbrian Dialect, Appendix D. Universal Relatives, 141, 146, 291. § 73. V, a soft Labial Spirant, 8, 10, 67. Sound of, 66 (note). Appendix B. Variant meaning of Plural Substan- tives, 128. Verb, Gr. pr?^a, § 15. § 35-53. § 59. 254. §60. §90-98. Verse, § 258. &c. *Vinculation, 11, 30. Vocales, Vowels, § 7-12. Scheme of, 8. Vocative Case (vocare, to call), §19. § 20. Vocative Ecthesis, § io4. § 118, 119. Voice (also called Genus), that form by which Verbs are marked as doing or suffering, § 36. *Vowel-change, § 12. See Cox- tents. Vowel-weakening in Compounds, 35- 39. See Contents. *Vriddhi, 12. ^Weakening, § 12. § 19, &c. See Contents. Words, § 14-19. *Wordlore (Morphology), § 13-99. X, double Consonant = cs ; not in the older Latin Alphabet, 9, 68. Y represents Gr. v, introduced with z ( = ^) in Cicero's age, 9. Its sound, Appendix B. Z, introduced with y, only used in latinised Greek words, 9. Zeugma, § 61. 591 INDEX II. LATIN WORDS. [The reference is to pages. An asterisk calls special attention to the word.^ a, ab, abs, 202, 231, 263, 299-300 abicio, conicio, eicio, &c., 10, 549 abiete, ariete, pariete, 10, 27 absque, 302 ac, atque, 233, 312, 313, 316 accestis, 55 accipiter, 77 acer, 16 ac si, 482 acetabulum, 571-572 acipens-is, -er, 29 actus, 570-571 acus, acuo, 16 ad, 232, 263, 293 adamantinus, 29 adeps, 65 adfatim, ad - amussim, 26, 105, 256 *adimo (forabimo?), 263 adiuris, 57 admodum, 135, 256, 329 *adolere, abolere,&c.,2io adorea, 102 adulescens, adolescens, 548 adultus, 160 advers-us, -um, 232, 294 aeque ac, 312 aequi boni facere, 416 aerugo, 36 aes, 56, 566 aes grave, 566-569 Aesculapius, 29 aestimare (aestumare), 548. 566 aetas, 54 Agaue, Agave, 130 age, apage, agesis, &c. ,191 agmen, agmin-, 25 ago, 16, 61 aheneus, aeneus, 50, 549 ai, 12 aidilis, 12 aio, 13, 48, 190 ain tu ? 190 ala, 48 Alcumena, 29 ales, 27 alias . . . alias, 292 aliquis, aliqui, 289, 290 alis, 144 aliter, 292, 314, 421 alius, 142, 292, 314, 362 alter, 42, 142, 144, 154, 292, 362 alteruter, 141, 260, 292 alucinari, 549 alumnus, 23 amabo, 235, 337 amb-, 203, 266 ambissint, 55 ambo, 151 amentum, ames, 50 amphora, 571-572 amphorum, &c., 87 amplus, 50 ampulla (amphorula), 23 an, annon, 326-329 ancora, 21 anguis, anguilla, 50 animans, 76 anser, 61 ante, 232, 251, 255, 294 ante diem, 573 antecedo, anticipo, 31 antequam, priusquam, 464 anulus, 550 apio, 189 (note) apis, 109 apprime, inprimis, prae- cipue, &c., 280 Aprilis, 51 apsens, optuli, &c., 42 apud, 232, 294 aquila, 33 (note) aranea, 47, 64 arbiter, 65 arbos, arbustum, 24 arceo, arx, 4 arcesso, 65 armentum, 28 artus (part.), 549 arx, 46, 64 as, 157, 566-570 asses usurae, 569 at, atqui, 259, 319 Athenis, 87 attinet, pertinet, 192 au, 12, 13 auceps, 27, 52, 57 audeo, 52, 57 audieram, &:c., 58 Aurelii, 63 auris, 66 Aurora, 66 ausim, 55 aut, 259 aut, vel, ve, 318 autem, 259, 314 autumnus, 549 avariti-a, -es, 33 avos, &c., 34 avus, avia, 74 balanus, &c,, 29 (note) balneum, 52 -bam -bo, &c., 51, 63 barbarus, 40 bardus, 65 belli, humi, &c., 83, 91 belli gerundi, 23 bellicus, 30 bellum, 46, 63 bene, bonus, 20, 34 benigne, 330 benignus, 51 -bero -beri, &c,, 51, 63 bibo, 40 biceps, 54 bicessis, 54 bidens, biennium, bifa* riam, &c., 149 592 Index IL biduum, triduum, &c., 15, 52, 149 bigae, quadrigae, 56 bilanx, 149 bimus, &c,, 149 binarius, &c., 148 bini, 153, 155 bis, 44, 63, 153 bissextus, =^75 bobus, bubus, 57 bonus, 44, 63 bos, 63, 67 brevis, 48 bruma, 57 Brundisium (Brundu- sium), 548 bubo, 77 bulbus, 23 cadus, 572 caecus, 547 caelebs, 27 caelnm, 45, 547 caementum, 49, 547 caerimonia, 547 caeruleus, 43 caespes, 547 calamitosus, 54 calcar, 45 calfacere, 51, 263 caligo, 16 camena, 50, 547 candidus, 30 canis, 59 canis, iuvenis, vates, log capella, 51 - ^^^capio, 189 (note) capsis, 187 carnifex, 548 caro, 65 Carthagini, 83 casa, 45 Cauda, 45 caupo, copa, 74 causa (caussa), 14, 55, 56 causa, 394, 414 cautum, fautum, &c.,io, 57 cave with Subj., cave sis, vide sis, 337 caveo, 14, 443 cavi, favi, fovi, &c., 18 cavus, 45 cedo, cette, 52, 191 cella, 16 cello, fallo, pello, 67 celo, clam, &c., 16 celsus, 28 cena, 50, 547 cenatus, 160 censeo, 451 centum, 59, 152, 154 centuria, 571 centussis, 36 Cerealis, 66 Ceres, 17, 25 cerno, crimen, cribrum, &c., 17, 65 certe, certo, 329 ceteri, 547 ceu, neu, seu, 13, 45 Charisin, 43 Chalybon, 113 cicindela, 40 ciconia, 40 cincinnus, 40 cinis, 25, 29 circuit, 53 circum, circa, circiter, 266, 295-296 circumago, 53 cis, citra, 133, 151, 294 cithara, 25 citimus, 42, 151 civis, 15, 76 clam, clanculum, 16, 256 clandestinus, 43, 251 claustrum, 43 clepsit, 55 cliens, clienta, 53, 74 clima, 571 clipeus, 548 cludo, 13 cluo, 14, 44, 64 coalitu*-, 160 cochleare, 572 codex, &c., 13, 27 coemo, 53 coepi, coeptus sum, 189 cogo, 450 cohors, cors, 56, 549 color, colos, &c., 66 columna, 41 colurnus, 44 comedo, 53 comes, 27 commmiscor, 190 con, com, 203, 251, 263 concedo, 450 condicio, 549 conectere, conubium, &c., 549 congius, 571 conmnx, coiunx, 76 consuetudo, 54 consul, 22, 36 consulo, consilium, 34 contamino, 48 contio, 57, 549 contra, 251, 296 contumelia, contumax, 39 convitium (convicium), 34 (note), 549 copia, 35 copis, S3 coquo, 59, 578 cor, 46 coram, 256, 302 cordi esse, odio esse, &c., alteri, 390 corpulentus, 50 cotidie, cottidie, 155, 255. 549 creare, crescere, &c., 17 credo, 216 Cres, Cressa, 75 cretus, 160, 404 crudus, crudelis, crus- tum, &c., 141 cubitus, 570 cuculus, 40 cucumis, 29 cui bono fuit ? 391 cuicuimodi, 144 culest, 53 culeus, 572 cum (prep.), 233, 263, 302 cum, or quum (conj.) : for quod, 442 ; causal, since, 449 ; temporal, when, 463-467 ; con- cessive, although, 480, 482 cum, quum (quom), 549 cum-tum, tum-tum, &c., 317 cuncti, 56 cupio, 449 cupressus, 28, 50 cur, quare, &c., 36, 53 cura, 14 cura ut, 337 curculio, 40 curia, 57 euro, 451 custos, cutis, &c., 14 cyathus, 571-572 cygnus, 43 -dam -dem -do -dum, &c., 259 damnas, 131 Dareus, Darius, 10 de, 251, 263, 277, 300 de, deterior, deterrimus, 133. 251 deabus, filiabus, &c., 84, 87 debeo, 56, 263, 427 decem, 59, 152-153 decempeda, 570 decennis, 53 decenter, 257 decet.dedecet, 192 decies, decies centena, &c., 156, 568-569 decuria, 57 Latin Words. 593 decurro, 264 decussis, 36 deesse, &c., 53 defetigo (defatigo), 36, 547 deflagratus» 160 deiero, 25, 39 dein, deinde, &c.p 13, 46 deminuere, 548 demum, 259 denarius, 567-8 deni, 47 denique, 259 denuo, 257 depeciscor (depaciscor), 547 deram, dero, 8iCt, 53 deses, 28 deus, divus, &c., 15, 33 dextanSp 56 dexter, dexterior, dex- timus, 42, 133 di (dei), dis (deis), 548 Diana, 15 die, due, fac, fer, &c., 45 dicare, dicere, 115 dicio, dTcis, 15, 549 die crastini, 120, 400 dies, diu, &c., 15 digitus, 570 dignus, 15 diluvies, 36 diribeo, dirimo, 66 dis- dir-, 203, 265 dis (dives), 57 disco, 48 (note) diu, by day ; diu, long, 257 diurnus, 66 divisse, 55 dixti, 54 do (Sk. da) J -do (Sk. dha), 206 doceo, 451 doctrina, 50 dodrans, 57 Dolabella, 51 doleo quod, 441 domi, 83, 120 domine, 26 domus, 120 donee (donicum), 259, 461-463 dracuma, 29 dubito an, 327 duellum, 45 dulcedo, 30 dulcis, 65 dum, 259 ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst, 461- 463 ; untily 461-464 dum, dummodo, pro- vided tkaff 479 dumtaxat, 259 dumus, 50 dupondius, 570 dux, duco, educo, &c. , 15 Ci ex, 133, 251» 264, 301 ebur, ebor-, 21 ecce» en, 235» 259 eccum, ellum, &c., 140 ecquis, 141 edepol, epol, pel, 235 edoj 189 edus, &c., 12 ego, 61 eheu, heu, 235 ei, 12, 13 eice, reicep 10 elephus, elephantus, 77 -endus, -undus, 548 enim, etenim, 259, 320 eo (v.), 189 eo (adv.), 229, 308 eo, quo, tanto, quanto, &c., with compar., 399 epigrammaton, 113 epistula, epistola, 548 Epona, 59 (note) equester, 28 equidem, 259 equus, 59 erepsemus, 54 erga, 296 ergo, 320 erus, era (herus, hera), 17, 62 es, 52 esse, 51 et is, &c., 285 et, que, 259, 316 et, neque, 316 etiam, quoque, 316 Etrusci, Tusci, 65 etsi, etiamsi, 479-482 eu, 12, 13 examen, 48 examussim, 106 excubiae, 79 exin, 46 existimo, 39 exosus, 160 exspecto, expecto, exsul, exul, &c., 550 exta, 52 exterior extremus, 42, 133 extinxerti, 54 extra, 296 faba, 63 fac with Infin. Clause, 444 Q Q fac (ut, ne), 337, 444 facies, 16 faciOp 16 facio, efficiOi 448 facit are, 35 facul, 46 faenum, 547 faginus, 29 Falisci, Falerii, 65 fallo, 45 famulp 46 far, 42, 46 fari, 14, 191 fas, 16 fateor, 16 fax, 16 faxOk faxim, faxitur, 55 febris, 50 fecundus, 23, 547 fel, 46, 63 femina, 29, 547 fendo, 60 fenus, fener- fenor^;, feneror, 25, 547, 548 ferbui, fervi, 549 feriae, 65 fero, 62, 184-5, 217 ferre, 51 fers, 52 fetialis, 549 fetus, 547 fMes, fido, &c., 15 figlinus. 51 finis, 49 fio, 185-6 firmus, 62 flagro, 62 flamen, 48 flanima, 41 fluo, fluvius, &c., 15 foedus (s.), 15, 547 fomentum, 57 foras, 256 fore, 21 fore ut, futurum ut, with Subjunctive;, 444 foris, 62 formosus, 50 fors, forte, 259 forsitan, fortasse, 259 fossa, 41 frango, 16 fra(n)go, iu(n)go, &c., ig( frater, 62 frigo, 62 frigus frigor-, 25 frivolus, 22 •^frugi, 131, 133 frustra, 39 fugio, 62 fui, 58 (notej, 62 fulcrum, 28 (note) fulgeo, 6a 594 Index IL fulmen, 47 fumus, 62 fundo, 63 funebris, 50 fungor, fruor, utor, ves- cor, with Abl., 397 funus, funer-, 25 furfur, 40 Furius, 65 Gaius, 9, 13 gallus, gallina, 75 gaudeo, 52, 57 gaudeo, gratulor quod, 441 genitor, genetrix, 30, 547 gen-va, 10 Georgicon, 92 gero, 65 gigno, genus, &c.,i6, 40, 61 glacialis, 53 Gnaeus, g gnarus, &c., 16 gnasci, 44 gnatus, &c., 16 gnavus, &c., 16 gnosco, &c., 16, 44 gradior, 180 gradus, 570 grando, 64 gratia, 394, 414 gravor, 159 habeo, with part, perf., 499 Hadria, 62, 549 Hammon (Ammon), 549 harena (arena), 62, 65, 549 hariolus, 549 harundo (arundo), 62, 549 haruspex (aruspex), 62, 549 haud, haut, hau, 323, 549 haudquaquam, 324 haud scio an, 323 haurio, 65 hauscio, 46 have (ave), 191, 549 hebetude, 54 hedera, 549 hei, vae, hem, 235, 390 hemina, 571-572 herciscere, 549 Hercules, 29 heredium, 569 heres, 17, 62, 158, 547 heri (here), 61, 257, 400, 548 hestemus, 65 Hiber (Iber), 549 hibernus, 44 (note) hie, 139, 144, 282 hie, ille, 283 hiemps, 61, 548, 549 hilaris, hilarus, 31 hilla, 50 hirundo, 17, 64 hirudo, 17 Hister (Ister), 549 hodiernus, 66 holus (olus), 62, 549 homicida, 54 homo, 19, 69, 76 homullus, 23 honestus, 28 hornus, 57 horsum, 57 I hortor, 442 huiusque, huiusce, 59 humi, humo, 83 iacio, 10 lanus, 45 ibi, illic, 228, 308 id aetatis, id temporis, &c., 374 idcirco, ideo, propterea, 320, 458. 459 idem, 50, 284, 313 idus, 572 iecur, ieciner- iecinor-, 59. 548 igitur, 320 ignis, 20 ignosco, 50 ihcet, 259 ilico (ilHco), 39 IHthyia, 12 ille, 26, 139, 144, 258,283 illinc, 258 imberbus, imberbis, 31 immo, 257, 259, 330 impedio, 450 impero, 264, 450 impetrassere, 55 impubis, 115 imus, 56 in-, 262 in- (Pr.), 202, 251, 264, 304-305 in eo esse ut, &c., 453 inciens, 53 (note) incitas, 130 inclutus (inchtus), 548 incohare, 549 induor, exuor, with Ac- cus., 374, 549 industrius, 53 (note) indutiae, 53 infimus, 42, 151 infitias ire, exsequias ire, 376 infra, 133, 297 inger, 45 in promptu, in procinctu, 130 inquam, 188 inquilinus, 34, 59 inquinare, 39, 59 instar, 130, 414 instiej'o, 17 intellego, 203, 264, 548 inter, 42, 265, 296-297 inter ipsos ; inter se, 495 interea loci, &c., 420 intercludo, &c., 264 interdius, interdiu, 257. 400 ■'^intereo, interemo, inter- ficio, 264 interest, refert, 193, 416- 417» 449 interior, intimus, 42, 151 intra, 133, 151, 296 intus, 29, 136 invideo, 264, 384 iocus, 15 ipse, 288-289, 494-495 iracundus, 30 ire, iri, with supine, 186 is, 139, 283-285 is, eiusmodi, talis, &c., ut (qui), &c„ 452, 455, &c. iste, 140, 283 ita, itaque, 258, 320 ita ut, 452 item, itidem, 258, 312,313 iterum, tertium, &c., 149 itur, 188 iubeo, 450 iucundus, 14 index, 50 iug-, iungere, iiigum, iugis, &c., 14 iugemm, 157, 570-571 iumentum, 14, 48, 57 iunior, 133 luppiter, 15, 45, 57 iuratus, 160 iurgor, 52 iuvat, 15, 193 iuvenis, 76 iuxta, 52, 297, 313 Kaeso, 9 Kalendae, 9, 527 Kalumnia, 9 Kartago, 9 labare, labi, 16 Labienus, 34 lac, 44, 46 Latin Words. 595 Tilcer, 64 }acrima, 65, 548 lama, 471 lamentum, 44 lamna, 52 lana, 47 lanius, 47 lanx, 45 lapicidina, 54 Lares, 65 latrocinium, 54 latus, 45 laus, 14, 44, 578 lavo, 14 Lemuria, 43 leo, lea, leaena, 64, 75 levir, 65 levis, 48, 64, 578 levis, 64, 547 libella, 570 libera schola, 576 libet, lubet, 9, 15, 192, 548 libido, 30 libra, 566, &c. librarius, 572 licet, 66, 192, 441, 449 ligula, 572 lilium, 64 Umax, 15 limus, 15 linere, 15 lingo, 61 lingua, 65 linquo, 59, 64 liquere, liquet, liquor, 17, 192 lis, 45 littera, lltura, linea, 15, 549 htus. 550 locuples, 54 locus, 45 loquella (loquela), 549 luci, 83 lucifer, 31 lucinus, 29 lupus, 45 luscinia, 14, 44, 64 lux, luceo, luna, lucerna, Luci n a, 14, 64 lynx, 77 machina, 29 macte, macti, 131, 235 maerere, maestus, 547 mage, magis, 26, 42, 136 magister, 25 maiestas, 28 maior, 13, 48 Maius, 13, 48 mala, 48 maleficus, malificus, 31 Mamers, 40 manceps, 50 mancipium, 79, 548 mane, mani, 257, 400 malo, 57, 186-187, 449 manibiae, 54 mansuetudo, 54 manus, 16 margo, margin^, 29 maritimus (maritumus), 548 marmor, 40 Maspiter, 35 matertera, 53 maximus, 42 mea, tua, &c., 417 mecastor, mehercule, medius fidius, 235 medicus, 30 meditor, 65 medius, 63 mel, 46 melior, melius, 21 memini, 189, 422 mensa, 16 mensis, 16 meridies, 65 metior, 16, 216 meto, 16, 220 mi, 56 militiae, Romae, &c., 83, 87 mille, millia (milia), 41, 152, 159 millia passuum, 570 mina, 29 Minerva, 29, 66 minime, 324, 330 minister, 28 minor, minimus, 42 minus ( = non), 324 mirum quantum, &c., 280 misceo, 48 (note) misereor, miseror, mis- eret, 192, 422-423 misti, 54 modestus, 28 modium, medimnum, &c., 91 modius, 572 modo, 324 modo . . . modo, 317 modo non, 324 modus, &c., 16 moles, mSlestus, 48 momentum, 57 moneo, 451 monimentum, monu- mentum, 548 monstro, monstrum, 44 morior, 180 mos, &c, , 16 CQOstellaria, 50 mostis, 57 mox, 259 mulsum. 24 multimodis, 50 murmur, 21, 40 nae (ne), nae tu, nae ille, &c., 235 nam, namque, 258, 320 nare, nS-tare, &c., 16 naris, nasus, &c., 16, 65 narrare, 44, 54 nascor, natio, &c., 16, 44. 548 nasturtium, 5a nauci, 416 nausea, 33 nauta, 52, 57 navis, 67 -ng, 326 ne, 323 ne prohibitive, 337-34^ neinPet. Obi., 442-443, 446-451 ne in Fin. CI., 457-458 ne . . , quidem, 325 nec, neque, 316, 325 nec ( = ne . . . quidem). 325 necdum, 323 necesse, 26 necesse est, 441, 449 necne, 329 necnon, 316, 323 necubi, 323 nedum, 323. 325 nefas, nefarius, 65 negassim, 55 neglego, 43, 548 negotium, 43 nemo, 56, 323 nemo unus, 268, 323 nemo non, &c., 324 nempe, 255 nepos, neptis, 52, 74 *nequam, 131, 323 nequaquam, 324, 330 nequeo, 188 nequiquam, 324 nescio quis, 290 neuter, 323 neutiquam, 323, 324 neve, 316, 323 nihil, nil, 34, 56, 323, 549 nihil dum, nullus dum. &c., 324 nihil non, 324 nihil quicquam, 268 nimirum, 259 nimius, 34 ningo, ninguo, nix, 43, 548 nisi, .q23, 475-477 596 Index II. noli, 337 nolo, 54, 57, 186-187, 449 nomenclator, 52 nomen Latinum, 273 non, 256. 323, 330 non modo, non solum, 325 non modo non, 325 non quia, non quod, 460 nonae, 572 nonne, 323 nonnemo, 324 nonnihil, nonnuUus, &c., 324 non possum non, 324 nonus, 152 nos, 141 nosco, nota, nomen, 16, 548 nostri, nostrum, 141 novem, 20 nubes, 26, 63 - nucleus, 52 nudius, 259 nuUus, 142, 323 num, numne, 326, 328 numen, numin-, 29 Numerius, 65 nummus, 568 numquis, 141, 143 nunc, 57 nuncupo, 54 nundinae, 57 nunquam, &c. , 52, 323, 324 nuntio, 57 nuo, numen, nutus, &c. , 1 5 nuper, 57 nurus, 66 O, 235 0, heu, pro, en, ecce, &c., 379 ob, 203, 264, 297 obit, 58 ■^obliquus, obscenus, 39, 264, 547 ■'^(obs), 203 (note), 264 oboedire, 39, 547 *obscurus, 14, 39 ■^obsolesco, exolesco, in- solesco, 203, 266 obsoletus, 160 obviam, 256 occulo, 16 Dccupo, 22, 266 ocior, ocissimus, 16, 134 octavus, 152 odi, 189 01, oe, 12, 13 olere, 65 olla, 50 omen, 50 omitto, 264 omnino, 257 onustus, 28 operae, 79 operio, 264 oportet, 192, 446, 449 optime, 331 optimus, 42 opto, 449 opus, usus, 197 orior, 180 oro, 449 OS, 46 *ostendo, 203, 264 ou, 12, 13 ovare, 191 ovis, 20, 21 pS-ciscor, pax, &c., 16 paelex, 547 Paelignus, 547 paenitet, 192, 548 paenula, 548 pala, 48 palam, 256, 302 palma, 50 palmipes, 570 palmus, 570 palumbes, 59 palus, 48 papaver, 40 Papirii, 65 par, pariter, 312 Parilia, 43 parricida, 41 pars, portio, 20 pars, plebs, &c., 362 partim, 105, 256 parum, 136, 256 parvulus, 22 paterfamilias, &c., 86 patior, 450 patricius, 549 patrocinium, 54 pauper, 54 pavo, 59, 77 pecu, 120 peiero, 25, 39 peior, 35 penes, 297 penitus, 136 penna, 41 peperi, 25 per, 299 -per, 259 per-, 262, 299 *perdo, peremo, pereo,54 (note), 160, 264 perendie, 257 pergo, 54 perinde ac, 312 perinde quam, 312 per mihi gratum est, per mihi placet, 35 permitto, 450 perosus, 160 perperam, 256 perquam, 135 Perses, Perseus, 114 persona, 17 pertaesus, 160 pes, 157' 570 pes monetalis, 570 pessimus, 42 pessulus, 22 pessum, 130 pestis, 50 picus, 15 pietas, 34 piget, 192 pila, 48 pignoris, pigneris, pig- neror, 548 Pinarii, 65 pinguis, 61 pinus, 47 pistrinum, 50 placitus, 160 plaustrum, 43 plebs, 17, 63 plenus, 47 plerique, 131, 142 plerique omnes, 268 pluo, pluvia, &c., 14 plus, plurimus, 42, 136 poematorum, poematis, 113 poena, 547 pomeridianus, 46 pomoerium, 46, 548 Pompeius, 13, 59 Pomponius, &c., 59 pondo, 130, 575 pone, 50, 294 pono, 50, 220 Pontius, &c., 59 popina, 59 populare, 41 pbpulus (popolus), 17, 21, 40 populus, 40 porro, 65 posco, 206 possum, 54, 184 post, 133, 151, 294 postea, posthac, 256 posterior, postremus, postumus, 42, 133 postquam, posteaquam, 462 postridie, 257, 400 postulo, 451 potes, 54 potestas, 28 potior (v.), 186 potior, potius, 134, 136 potis, pote, 20, 27, 3I; I 134. 184 Latin Words. 597 potus, 160 prae, 133, 151. 264, 302-3 praebeo, 56 praeceps, 27 praecipio, 450 praecipue, 280 praeco, 54 praeda, 56 praefiscine, 230 Praeneste, 28, 79 praes, 57 praestigiae, 128 praesto (adv.) 52 praeter. 251, 298 praetor, praetura, 24 praeterea, 256 praeut, 313 pransus, 160 prece, procus, 20 precor, 448 prehendo, prendo, 56, 549 prelum, 548 pridie, 400, 573 primanus, 148 primarius, 148 primo, primum, 149 primum, deinde, &c., 317 prior, primus, 42, 133 princeps, 43 pristis, 44 priusquam, 464 pro, prod-, 251, 265, 303 pro (interj.), 235 pro eo ac, 313 procul, 299 prodeo, prodesse, 203 proelium, 548 prohibeo, 443, 450 prohibessit, 55 proin, proinde. 13,53,482 proles, 53 promo, 53 prope, propior, proxi- mus, 42, 133, 298 propediem, 259 propter, 298 propterea. 458, 459 prosa, 50, 57 protenus (protinus), 548 prout, 313 prudens, 57 pCibes, 14 pubis, puber, 29 publicus, 40, 43 pudet, 14, 192 puer, 14 puerpera, 25 puertia, 52 pulmo, 65 pulvis, 25, 29 punio, purus, 14 pupa, 14 purgo, 52 pusillus, 14 pusio, 14 piiter, puteo, pus, 14 puto, putus, 14 quadrupes, 76 quaero, quaeso, quae- sivi, 65 quaeso, 191 qualis, 142, 145 qualis. quantus, &c., 308, 368, 388 qualus, 48, 50 quam, how, 309 quam, as, 314 quam, than, 315, 404 quamdiu, 461, 463 quamdudum, quam- pridem, 314 quamquam, utut, 479, 481-482 quamvis, quamlibet, quantumvis, quamvis licet, 480, 482 quando, 309, 458 quandoque, 458 quandoquidem, 458 quantillus, 51 quantus, 42, 142, 145, 308 quantuscumque, quan- tusquantus, 291 quare, cur, 36, 309 quare, quamobrem, &c., 320 quartarius, 571-572 quasi, 50, 482-483 quatenus, 458, 548 quattuor, 59 que, 59, 316 quemadmodum, quo- modo, 308 queo, nequeo, 188 querimonia, 30, 69 querquetum, quercetum, 59 qui = ut ego, ut tn, &c. &c., 452 ; (consec), 454-457 quia (coord.), 320, 459 quicumque, 291 quidam, 291 quidem, 285 quies, 15 quin, 45, in subst. sent., 443, in adj. sent , 455, &c. quina-vicenaria (lex), 148 quindecim, 54 quinetiam, 447 quinque, 26, 59 quippe, 329 quippe qui, 441 Quirites, 59 quis, 59 quis, qui, 140-141, 289- 290, 308 quisnam, uternam, 141 quispiam, 290-291 quisquam, 290-291 quisque, 280, 291, 362 quisquiliae, 130 quisquis, 291 quivis, quilibet, 291 quo, in order that, 458 quo, eo, &c.,3o8, 399 quoad, 461, 463 quocirca, 49 quod, that, 322, 441 quod, quia, because, 459 quoimodi, 144 quom, 59 quominus, 443, 447 quoniam, 458 quoque, 316 quorsum, 230 quot, 308, 368 quotannis, 155 quotiens (quoties). 33, 461, 549 quotus, 42 quotusquisque, 309-310 quousque, 230, 308 quum (j^^cum, conj.) radix, 45, 67 raeda, 548 ramentum, 49 rana, 47 raucus, 14 raudus, 14 re red-, 204, 265 recidi reccidi, &c., 54 recipio, 37, 266 reciprocus, 251 recte, 329 recuperare (recip-), 548 recuso, 39 redivivus, 15 refert, 193, 416-417, 449- rego, regio, 16 relligio, &c., 41 (note), 549 remus, 50 repente, subito, &c., 466 repetundarum, 130 repperi, 25,550 res repetundae, res Ro- mana, res publica, 273- retro, 251 rex, 16 rima, 48 rogo, 448 rosa, 45 598 Index IL rostrum, 43 ruber, rubigo.rufus, 14,62 rudis, 14 rudo, rumor, 14 rumpo, 64 rumusculus, 24 rursus, rursum, &c., 51 rus, rure, ruri, 375, 401, 403 saeculum, 548 saepe, 136, 256 saepes, 548 sal, 64 saiix, 66 saltus, 571 saltern, saltim, 26, 256 salus, salve, salvus, 17, 191 Samnium, 43 sane, 329 sanequam, 314-315 sanguis, 50, 99 sanguisuga, 50 satis, abunde, &c., 419 satin? 45 scaena (scena), 548 scala, 50 scilicet, 259 scopulus, 22 scripulum, 158, 571 scutum, 14 se- sed-, 204, 251, 266 se, 136 se, suus, 285-287, 489- 494 seco, 17 secundum, 298 secundus, 154 secus (s.), 130 secus (adv.), 136, 256 sed, 319 sedecim, 48 sedi, vidi, veni, 18 seges, 27 segmentum, 43 selibra, 54 sella, 41 sembella, 570 semel, 152 semestris, 50 semi, 66 semis, 53 semodius, 572 semper, 259 sempiternus, 50 semuncia, 158 senex, senior, 69, 133 seni, 48 septem, 26 sequester, 31 sequor, 59 serenus, 17 ero, series, &c., 17, 66 sero, semen, &c., 16,40,65 serpo, 66 serum, 66 serus, 17 servasso, 55 sescenti, 154 sescuncia, 158 sescuplus, &c., 148 sesqui, 54, 148 sesquialtera ratio, 158 sesquipes, 570 sestertius, sestertium, 48, 566-570 Sestius, 48 setius, 136, 549 sex, 66 sextarius, 571, 572 sextula, 158 si, 66, 467-475 sica, 17 sicilicus, 158 sicubi,si quando, &c.,474 si dis placet, 475 silua, 10 silva, 64, 66 similis, similiter ac, 312 si maxime, 474 si minus, 474 si modo, si tamen, si vero, 475 simplex, 152 simul, 66, 152 simul, simul ac, 312, 462 singuli, 152, 153 sine, 302 *sinister (next the sinus), 28, 133 sinistimus, 42 si quis, &c., 474 sino, 450 si non, nisi, 475-477 si quaeris, siquaerimus, 475 siquidem, 474 siris, 57 Sirius, 17 sis, sultis, 57, 187, 337 sisto, 40 sive, seu, 318, 475 soboles, suboles, 34, 548 socer, 21, 24, 174 socors, 34 sodes, 235, 337 sol, 17, 21 solacium, 519 *soleo, 214, 266 sollers, 266, 550 sollemnis, 550 sollicitus, 266, 550 sollus, &c., 66, 266 solor, 17 solvendo esse, 391 solus, 142 somnulentus, 23 (note) somnus, sopor, 17, 43 sonus, &c., 17, 21 sorbeo, 65 soror, 21 spero, spes, 65 spolium, 59 sponsor, 76 sponte, 130 spurius, 65 stadium, 570 stare, statio, &c,, 17 statim, 258 statim ubi, &c., 462 statuo, 448 Stella, 50 stercus, 59 (note) stemo, &c., 17 sterquilinium, 59 stHus, 17, 548 stipendium, 54 sto, 206 strigilis, 64 studeo, studium, 59 (note), 449 suadeo, persuadeo, 451 suavis, 49, 66 sub, SUS-, 202, 251, 265, 305-306 subtemen, 48 subter, 251, 306 successor, 76 sudor, 66 suffbco, 39 sultis, 187 sum (esse), 58 (note), 167- 168 sumen, 48 suo, sutor, subula,&c.,i4 supellex, 105 super, 66, 251, 306 supersedeo, 265 supra, 133, 251, 297 superior, supremus, sum- mus, 42, 133. 251 surgo, 54 surpui, 54 surrexe, 55 sus (s.), 66 susurrus, 21, 40 suspitio (suspicio), 34 (note), 549 suus, 66, 489-494 tabuleis publiceis, 12 taedet, 14, 192 talentum, 28 talis, 455 talpa, 59, 77 tam, adeo, sic, 452 tamen, 319, 479-481 Latin Words. 599 tametsi, tamenetsi, 480 tamquam (tanquam), 43, 482 tantum, 452 tantum abesse ut, 453 tantus, 145 taurus, 45, 64 tego, 17, 45, 61 tegula, 17, 45 Terns, 13 tela, 48 temo, 47 temperi, tempori, tem- perius, 25, 136 templum, 51 ten-via, 10 tenus, 304 terancius, 570 tibicen tibicina, 53, 75 timeo, metuo, vereor (ne, ut), 443. 447 titulus 40 tollo, 217 -tor -trix (subst.), 75 tormentum, 47 torqueo, 65 torus, 45, 129 tot, 145, 308 totus, 15 trans, 203, 251, 266, 295 traxe, 55 tres, ter, &c., 15, 65, 151, 154 tribunicius, 549 triginta, 54 trinundinum, 54 Troia, 13 Troius, 13 Tros, Troas, 75 trucido, 54 tum-cum, 456 tuber, 15 tugurium, 34 tumeo, &c., 15 turbassitur, 55 turris, 42 turtur, 40 Tydides, 13 uber, 63 ubi, when, 461 ubi, unde, &c., 285, 308 = Relative, 452 udus, 57 ui, 12 Ulixes, 65 udus, 41, 51, 142 ulna, 64, 570 ulterior, ultimus, 42, 133 ultra, ultro, 251, 295 ululo, 40 umere, umor, 62, 549 umerus, 549, 621 uncia, 151, 566-572 unciarium fenus, 570 unde, 308 undecim, 54 ungere, unguere, &c. , 548 unguis, 61 unus, 150, 152, 153, 157 unus et alter, 364 uni, trini, &c., 155 urbes, urbis, urbeis, 13 urbs, urps, 549 urna, 571 upilio, 57 upupa, 22 uro, 65, 224 ursus, 48 usura, interest, 569 -us -a, &c. (subst.), 75 ut {that) in Subst. CI., 440-441 ; in Petitio Obl., 442-451; in Con- sec. CL, 452-454 ; in Final CI, 457-458 ut, how, 309, 441 ut, as, 312-313 ut si, 482-483 ut, when, since, 461-462 ut, granting that, 339, 480-482 utare. utaris, 19 utcumque, utut, 479 uter, 230, 259, 308 uterque, 141, 362 utervis, uterlibet, 141 utinam, ut, 339 ut non, 440-441, 452- 455 ut ne, 442-451, 453, 457- 458 ut qui, utpotequi, 461 ut quisque, 280 utrimque, 230 utrum, 328 uxor, 74 valde, 125 vale, 191 Valerii, 65 valetudo (valitudo), 548 vallum, 17 vanus, 47 vapor, 44 vapulo, 160 -ve, 318 ve-, 262 j vehemens, vemens, 56, t 549 veho, 61 vel, 318 velle, 51 vello, 28 velo, 17 velox, 17 velut si, velut, veluti, 482 vendo, venumdo, 54, 160 veneficium, 54 veneo, 160 venere, venerunt, 19 venio, 18 ver, 66, 67 vere, vero, 329 verecundus, 30 vereor, 17, 443, 447 vermis, 64 vema, 66 versus, versum, vorsum, 299, 548 verto (vorto), 548 verum, vero, &c., 319 verus, 17 vespera, 67 vesperi, vespere, 83, 91, 102, 157, 400 Vesta, 67 vestis, 67 vestri, vestrum, 421 vetemus, 66 veto, 450 vetus, 118 Veturii, 65 via, 33 vicem, 256 vicesimus, 50 victima, 548 videlicet, 259 viden ? , 45 video, 447, 451 vidua, 63 viginti, 45, 541, 61, 152 vilicus, 550 villum, 50 viola, 67 violentus, 22 vir, 69 virus, 66 vis (s.), 65, 67 vis (v.), 52 vivere vitam, &c., 373 vivo, 45, 222 vix, vixdum, 324 voco, vox, 17, 21, 59, 67 volgus, vulgus, 22 volnus, vulnus, 20, 21 volo, nolo, malo, 64, 186-7, 449 volucris, 109 volvo, 67 vomer, vomis, 25 vomo, 67 6oc [AUCT. adHer,-^ INDEX IIL PASSAGES IN LATIN WRITERS referred to in this Grammar. [The first numbers refer to the Author quoted, the last number to the pages of this work.] AUCTOR ad Herennium. I. 9. 445 II. 13. 424 IV. 15. 383 16. 446 21. 450 AUSONIUS. Idylls, VIII. I. 372 C^SAR. Bellum Civile. I. I. 444 4. 286 4- 445 7. 484 15. 410 18. 436 24- 155 24. 403 32. 488 41. 424 51- 444 53- 382 62. 444 63. 409 67. 499 76. 378 II, 22. 510 23. 392 32. xxxiii 41. 463 III, I. 449 28. 391 30. 362 30. 484 30. 492 40. 495 14. 279 32. 272 41. xxxii 17- 365 44. 314 43- xxxi 18. 378 58. 410 43- 487 18. 378 61. 378 43. 491 27- 493 82. 437 44. 491 34. xix 93- 383 46. 463 38. 492 loi. 444 47- xxxi 38. 494 Bellum Galli- 48. 425 38. 500 cum. 50. XXX 41. xix I. I. 369 50. 448 41. 494 2. 407 53. 366 53- 286 2. 433 54. 393 VI. 12. 465 3. xxxi II. 6. 407 18. 454 3. 426 7- 408 21. 394 5- 382 17- 424 21. 411 5- 492 26. 362 26. 3H 13. xix 32. XXXIV 27. 457 13. 461 III. 5. 393 28. 408 16. xxxii 7. 375 29. 450 18. 284 7- 407 30- 310 18. 394 8. 312 34. 427 18. 406 8. 479 37. 474 18. 434 II. 393 VII. 4. 497 18. 491 12. 376 8. 492 20. 493 18. 310 II. 369 22. 278 18. 415 17- 406 23- 459 IV, I. 381 17. 453 26. 268 . Ir 382 20. xxxii 29. XXXV 2. 450 24. 382 32. 482 5- 413 29. 290 33- 491 8. 489 30- 427 36. xix 16. 383 43. 433 36. 383 21. 279 45- 409 36. 479 22. 398 52- xxxi 36. 494 22. 447 66. 155 37. xxxii 23- 451 69. 410 38. 384 V. 3. 425 86. 484 39- 447 3- 459 88. 321 40. xxxii 13. 408 —CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers. Be Hum Hispafn- ense. 33- 3H CATO. de Re Rustica. 5- 394 45- 461 89. 432 CATULLUS.* in. 6. 289 IV. ~. 534 IV. I. 439 IX. 5. 423 XXIX. — . 534 XXXIV. — . 536 XXXIV. — . 545 XXXVII 17. 153 XLV I. 272 LII 534 LV. — . 537 LXIII. — . 538 LXXVII. I. 372 CXIII. 5. 450 <:iCERO. Academica. I. I. 492 I. 499 4- 474 8. 455 9. 291 II. 4. 481 7. 454 7- 455 20. 470 23. 285 24- 335 25. xxxiv 25- 315 25. 327 27. 462 29. 318 29. 328 31- 313 37- 451 40. 342 47. 449 47- 465 i>ro Archia. 3- 366 3. 402 3. 406 5- 466 6. 451 10. 460 11. 284 ad Atticum. 17. 573 8. 394 T I. I. 381 17. 575 10. 364 I. 409 10. 400 10. 383 3- 465 20, 272 14- 397 7- 369 20. 393 16. 325 0. 366 20, 404 15. 311 9- 287 V i. I. 352 V T Al. 9- 342 II. 315 ■\7T T 2. 444 lo- 315 12. 402 I. 309 II. 392 13- 252 I. 371 15. 292 13- 383 I. 447 15- 423 13- 419 2. 154 19. 481 14. 383 2. 570 22. 417 14. 400 3- 88 22. 448 10. 391 3- 392 V TT Ail. I. 409 10. 393 4- 423 2. ^Qo 10. 474 7- 410 4- 477 17- 390 9- 420 5- 391 17- 446 10. 476 TT il. lo. 202 12. 425 10. 209 I. XXXV 13- 400 21. 4^2 I. 392 13- 401 24. 291 4- 450 14. 363 42. 318 5- 283 19. 309 VTTT 6. 379 5- 333 22. 434 12. 381 7- 303 VTTT V 1 11. 20. 400 19. 465 10. 321 324 19« 475 II. 402 3- 319 20. 3^2 12. 392 3- 371 20. 450 15- 391 5- 381 28. 369 15- 447 5. 432 28. 432 17' 2oO 6. 409 29. 406 ■rQ lo. 492 II. 479 33- 337 19. 272 12. XXXll 41. 472 19. 370 TV lA. 2. 421 45. 446 in. 24. 427 2. 449 V TT7 Al V, I. 341 10. 457 2. 478 13. 409 10. 450 3. 463 13- 451 12. 401 5. 317 21. 394 13- 404 5- 575 XV. I. 444 13- 403 6. 426 2. 444 15- 6. 436 2. 450 IV. 15- 407 6. 444 9- 378 I. 325 9. 380 9- 465 5- 427 10. 292 II. 286 7- <\ f\ 335 10. 335 19. 411 1 1. 432 10. 432 22. 323 12. 391 10. 451 27- 445 14. 393 10. 462 28. 393 V V * 17- 200 10. 481 XVI. 3- 457 3' II. 391 5. 392 4« 470 12. 382 0. 441 Q 0. 410 12. 462 10. 281 9- 391 13- 471 II. 477 10. 425 15. 478 15. 406 10. 402 16. 411 15. 446 T T XX. V 16. 426 15. 450 14. 408 I. 423 19. 424 14. 409 4. 267 19. 447 15- 466 4. 462 pro Balbo, i6. 275 4. 492 3- 454 16. 424 7. 444 12. 426 17. 463 7. 476 15. 370 * Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to. 6o2 Index Brutus. 6. 481 I. 441 10. 450 7- 311 II. 412 8. 409 12. 394 lO. 411 13. 408 II. 313 13- 453 12. 423 18. xxvm 14. 391 21. 413 17- 391 pro Cceciiia. 17- 456 I. 511 18. 393 8. 391 18. 409 9. 393 18. 423 pro Ccelio. 18. 455 3. 288 20. 292 4. 432 20. 425 7. 406 21. 445 7. 406 23- 327 13. 471 24. 393 14. 288 33. 393 16. 460 34- 376 17. 466 35- 282 20. 427 48. 457 20. 445 50. 291 21. 378 56. 352 21. 428 56. 432 26. 314 56. 465 28. 314 59- 407 in Catilinam. 60. 408 I. I. 269 69. 275 I- 330 69- 352 I- 336 73- 257 I. 369 73- 315 I. 438 73- 341 2. 446 73- 341 2. 449 73- 449 5- 334 82. 479 5. 337 83. 468 6. 290 84. 284 7. 283 88. 436 7. 426 88. 453 8. 465 89. 410 9- 341 91. 405 9. 424 91. 498 9- 454 92. 322 13. 287 92. 364 II. 13. 5" 93- 153 I. 371 97. 394 I. 445 ad Brutum 4. 410 £pistol(jB. II. 450 I. 3. 410 12. 282 3. 478 III. 8. 364 9- 411 12. 459 10. 425 12. 511 10. 476 IV. I. 467 15. 454 2. 313 17- 417 2. 394 17- 445 5. 495 II. I. 391 6. 384 in C<Bcilium. 8. 472 I. 492 9. 426 2. 282 9. 501 3- 394 ///. [CICERO— Cato Major, or 7. 424 de Senectute. 19. 407 I- 439 24. 311 I. 460 31. 437 3- 409 33« 471 4. 408 53. 369 4. 446 53. 406 5. XXX 53. 458 5- 156 58. 424 5- 273 66. 380 5- 392 70. 284 5- 410 pro Deiotaro. 5. 455 4. 408 6. 440 6. 392 6. 468 de Divinatione, 6. 484 I. 5. 382 7. xxix 13« 432 7. 479 14. 324 8. 406 15. 409 8. 483 17. 465 8. 499 17. 472 9. 156 20. 393 9. 444 23. 432 10. 437 30. 276 II. xxxvii 31- 427 II. 346 32. 290 II. 423 35- 394 II. 425 36. 272 II. 433 36. 424 II. 433 39. 318 12. 411 41. 459 12. 448 45. 444 13. xxxi 51. 393 13. 459 52. 391 14. 368 II. I. xxxix 14. 460 2. 391 15. 407 2. 454 15. 505 3- 498 16. 287 8. 472 16. 315 13. 447 16. 336 19. 437 16. 407 21. 434 16. 492 22. 481 16. 496 24. 313 17. 320 24. 437 17. 433 24. 451 ■ 17. 451 24. 486 19. 273 26, 320 19. 393 28. 467 19. 410 28. 499 19- 433 30. 391 20. 290 31. 445 20. 448 35- 449 21. 272 39- 323 22. 336 39. 455 22. 451 43- 362 23. 323 56. 317 23. 383 56. 411 23. 465 57. 352 23. 483 58. 425 pro Clue?ttio. 59. 455 I. 391 60. 426 2. 425 62. 321 CICERO. 1 Passages in Latin Writers. 603 62. 408 7- 402 2,'X. 341 pro Doino Sua. 7- 461 0 448 it XIII. I. 476 II. 454 7. 478 2S« 474 6. 361 25. 281 7- 481 24. 318 8. 268 29. 427 8. 288 26. 335 8. 364 42. 285 9. XXXVll 27. 471 16. 28 1; 50. 392 9. xxxvii 30» 407 16. 460 ad Familiares. Q. 41^^ 411 17. 446 I. 282 Q. 447 «J 478 18. 41:0 7. ■522 Q. 478 32. 481 22. 27Q 7. 406 12. 460 VIII. 2. 441 43. 483 7. 442 1 1 V. 6. 407 47. 444 7. 449 2. q8i 10. 428 55- 323 Q. Q62 422 II. 441 c;6. 41^4 Q. 461 6. 288 IX. 13- 449 73. 445 9. 462 8. 407 I. 437 XIV. I. q7Q II. 2. 438 8. 42^ I. 460 I. 381 4.. 42^ 9. 447 3- 408 I. 462 4. 449 12. 272 II. 391 I. 476 6. 282 12. 27 Q 15. 337 2. 287 6. 12. 284 18. 363 2. 447 6. 447 IT/ 14. ■567 18. 477 2. 479 6. 458 17. Q42 21. 65 3. 270 7. 446 17. ^42 21. 352 3- 369 8. 289 411 21. 432 4. 406 1 1 10. 2QI 19. 23- 310 5. 36q 10. QII 19. 467 25. 407 5« 3Q7 10. q82 21, X. 26. 470 5. 4^1 10. 438 VI. 21, 481 Q. 42"^ 8. qqi; 10. 447 I. 186 6. 47^ 12. 447 II. q4l I. 310 10. 391 13. 324 41^ I. 426 12. 426 2Q. 404 14. • 483 I. 432 13- 462 XV. I. 408 451 I. 485 16. 341 4. ie:;6 16. ^83 I. 499 18. 410 4. 4.'^6 16. 445 2. 481 19. 484 8. 446 17. 485 3- 427 20. 311 13. 4c;o 19. 462 4. 433 20. 335 14. Q22 III. I. 478 6. 446 23- 410 16. 40Q 6. 6. 498 31- 155 17. 290 7. 483 8. 448 XI. I. 425 10. QQ4 8. 13- 286 8. 475 XVI. I. 417 8. 4.48 14. 391 II. 467 4. "^70 8. 15. XXXll 13- 315 4. 4.17 8. 19. 393 13- 371 4. 4=^8 474 21. 366 16. 498 7. 426 10. 338 VII. I. 282 22. 278 8. 4c8 10. Q70 I. 381 27. 393 12. •3Q2 10. 407 I. 445 27. 393 12. 447 II. 406 I. 449 28. 375 I "5. QA2 313 2. 406 28. 394 IV. 3. 408 2. 450 28. 433 14. 419 4. 411 3- 336 XII. 28. 447 14- 445 4. 432 3- 422 5- 450 14. 475 5. 289 5- 268 6. 333 18. 393 5. 313 6. 392 6. 341 20. 311 5. 319 12. 381 6. 476 20. 341 5. 369 13- 109 7. 368 de Fato. 5. 371 13- 321 10. 470 4- 369 5- 427 14. 393 14. 284 9. 455 5. 455 16. 460 15. 407 10. 448 7. 324 21. 445 15. 454 12. 445 7- 393 23. 322 17. 476 6o4 Index in. [CICERO— de Finibus, I. I. 364 2. 433 3. 468 4- 393 6. 93 7. 449 10. 459 13- 455 16. XXX 17. 425 18. 268 18. 417 19. xxxiv 19. 282 19. 407 19- 454 20. 288 20. 321 20. 392 20. 451 II. I. 352 I. 369 I. 371 3- 321 5- 451 8. 440 10. 312 11. 494 13- 423 13. 424 13- 432 13- 432 14. 481 15- 485 16. 482 17. 276 17- 454 18. 468 20. 289 20. 321 20. 431 22. 417 26. 268 26. 286 26. 336 27. 432 27. 467 28. 407 28. 441 30- 383 32. 346 34- 381 III. 2. 392 3- 341 3. 416 3- 441 3. 565 7- 393 8. 321 15. 408 19- 391 20. 433 20. 455 20. 464 20. 478 21. 369 22. 284 22. 383 IV. 18. 454 23. 471 24- 455 V. I. 422 I. 425 I. 427 1. 474 2. 451 5- 437 8. 285 9. 292 9. 448 10. 271 ' 10. 288 11. 444 14. 456 15. 284 15. 288 15- 433 17. 287 22. 393 22. 408 23- 317 23- 393 23- 433 28. 329 28. 450 29. 383 29. 407 29. 408 pro Flacco. 18. 493 25. 467 26. 155 27- 445 32. 425 38. 272 41- 432 pro Font etc. 10. 382 11. 410 12. 450 de Haruspicum ^esponsis. 13- 392 \ad HerenniutTty seeAtictot' ad Herennium.^ de Inventiofie Rhetoric a. I. 2. 466 16. 433 20. 434 20. 449 33- 493 34. 325 39. 409 56. 404 II. I. 291 I. 380 1. 407 2. 430 23- 458 27. 323 39- 407 40. 273 45- 451 53- 464 58. 393 LcbUus, or de Amicitia. 1. 454 2. 318 2. 383 4- 311 4. 317 4. 468 5- 477 6. 271 6. 425 6. 455 7. 466 9. 287 9- 324 9- 459 15. 458 16. 423 16. 424 17. 320 17. 455 19. 411 20. 427 20. 445 20. 457 20. 480 21. 286 21. 346 21. 455 22. 283 22. 371 22. 444 24. 283 24- 317 24. 383 24. 406 24. 454 25- 153 25. 316 25. 454 26. 461 26. 481 27. xxix 27. 290 de Leg ibus. I. I. 364 7. 279 8. 455 10. 495 11. 366 16. 363 16. 433 18. 369 19- 433 19. 470 22. 433 22. 451 23- 433 II. I. 475 7. 313 10. 280 10. 282 lo- 473 12. 410 12. 411 12. 418 15- 425 i6. 340 16. 393 16. 394 20. 337 23- 337 26. 378 26. 458 III. I. 310 I- 445 2. 285 3. 337 5- 371 11. 323 18. 393 de Lege Agraria. I. 6. 410 7. 268 II. I. 460 2. 405 19. 493 21. 447 24. 423 24. 466 27. 406 27. 427 34- 391 III. 2. 409 pro Lege Manilia. 1. 457 2. 434 3. 154 3. 426 4. 462 7- 449 7- 456 7. 465 9. 282 9. 286 10. 342 12. 278 12. 382 17. 285 17. 471 20. 370 20. 447 —CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers, 23. 283 24. 389 pro Ligario. 2- 493 3- 318 6. 341 7. 464 8. 472 pro Mar cello. 8. 454 pro Milone. 3. 286 4- 447 4- 511 8. 413 8. 481 9- 309 10. 453 12. 391 14- 391 18. 486 20. 320 21. 425 26. 466 27. 493 31. 482 33- 476 34- 341 35- 432 35- 496 36. 445 pro Murena. I- 433 2. 417 2. 511 3. 466 5- 336 6. 475 7. 393 9- 341 II- 431 14. 368 14. 456 29. 409 31- 342 31- 434 37. 432 40. 324 £5?^ Natura Deo rum, I. 5. 289 6. 406 7. 268 8. 444 8. 448 13- 383 20. 393 20. 448 21. 311 21. 458 21. 464 21. 472 24- 457 II. in. 16. xxxi 1 23- 391 30- 433 28. 310 25- 451 30. 444 30. 274 27- 393 31- 154 31- 327 28. 467 31. 291 33- 381 30- 457 31- 423 34. 446 32. 369 31. 432 38. 451 34. 391 31- 449 40. 498 34. 410 32. 367 43- 411 36. 392 32. 417 44. 425 36. 480 34. 410 44. 478 39. 291 34- 413 44. 478 39- 432 34- 423 I- 319 40. 382 34- 427 2. 363 CLC KJJjlCltS, 1- I- 333 34. 476 3- 498 37. 342 4- 327 I- 375 30. 280 9. 455 I. 511 38. 481 12. 458 2. 456 39- 394 15. 448 2. 466 39. 410 16. 445 2. 498 39- 424 16. 451 4- 392 39- 447 17. 480 4- 423 40. 454 20. 317 9- 473 41. 279 20. 423 10. 346 41. 364 21. 467 10. 471 4 . 476 24. 268 II. 370 43- 346 28. 408 II' 455 44- 473 30. 449 II. 458 TT -r 11. I. 403 31. 460 11. 480 2. 411 33. 382 13- 342 2. 451 36. 398 13. 408 3. 284 39. 500 13. 451 3- 473 40. 400 14. 321 4- 273 47- 317 14- 423 4. 341 48. 96 14. 456 4. 411 48. 390 15. 280 5- 413 50. 406 15- 321 5. 455 52. 280 15. 430 6. 285 53- 341 16. 392 6. 333 53- 400 16. 495 7. 449 53- 441 17. 286 7. 451 53- 445 20. 369 8. 462 56. 370 21. 447 9. 369 57. 406 21. 464 9. 448 59- 383 22. 271 10. 406 59- 436 22. 433 12. 366 61. 445 22. 407 12. 433 61. 486 23. 363 12. 462 64. 336 24. 285 14. 392 64. 394 24. 447 16. 407 66. 380 24. 481 17. 364 67. 475 25. 449 17. 406 I. 433 25- 454 18. 411 I. 450 25- 479 18. 427 3. 482 27. 369 18. 439 7- 329 27. 411 19. 471 7. 448 27- 454 20. 449 9. 478 28. 270 21. 467 13- 450 28. 364 21. 478 13- 456 28. 426 22. XXV 15. 500 28. 455 22. 394 18. 312 29. 285 22. 445 18. 478 29. 483 23. 370 6o6 Index III, [CICERO— III. 2. 45' 40 15. xxxi r drCLCLOXa o 47' 44 15. 419 S toicoru fti . 6 40. 47 25. 381 I. I. 474 6 /fa's 40. 512 26. 186 I. 401 6. 4.68 51. 207 27. 423 II. I. 272 453 30. 292 I- 394 o 69. 471 . 30. 458 111. 2. 204 lO. 71. 270 30. 462 V. I, 44^ lO. q8i 36. 440 ^ 352 lO. ■I» 455 37. 408 I. 449 lO. I. 37. 446 2. 447 lO. 5- 3"9 38. 433 UiC M drlZltOTlo lO. 4.78 u, 4 / 40. 433 II. All ^X X 337 40. 472 T T 394 46. 407 25. 46» 12. A OA a. 432 51- 392 £/1 1 i'^PP tCCB IQ. A CO o- 434 52. 310 i J**/T ^-7 /I'M KJrClllOflcS. I 9. 301 54. 370 1. 4. 312 TO /1 /1 T 58. 477 '^4- 3"9 1 1^. i4> XXXI 59. 273 11. 2. 447 i6. ^18 lo. 29X 60. 368 3- 411 lO. 326 62. 475 0 A r\ A 3- 404 TO. 468 20. 433 62. 477 4- 451 TO 481 21. 445 65. 335 io« 303 20, 4^3 74. 445 II. 340 20. 475 80. 392 1^. 319 21. 394 85. 393 TO 080 21. 479 or» 0 T T 29. 311 86. 493 T /1 T ■^4' 39^ 25- 336 35. 400 90. 450 25. 468 35« 44^ 94. 362 19* 4 27. 465 30. 430 III. 2. 287 TO ACT 19« 451 334 3°- 312 2. 379 22. 433 31. 393 44- 273 4. 497 22. 47^^ 31. 445 A^ 000 4^* 0 5- 332 0 C /ICC 25- 455 32. XXV 47' 3*^-^ 5- 396 33- XXV 40. 4^9 5- 434 27. 490 33. 393 /in (zRt ^y . ^ u X 5- 441 de Ophmo Gen- 6. 4-54 34. 300 eve Oratorum, 5^' 37° 7- 495 oft 3o- 33"^ 4- 378 54* 454 10. 433 3°- 47-f 7- 406 54- 493 14. 442 43« 392 Orator. 54. 494 14. 481 43- 423 I. 433 423 15- 393 44- 319 2. 284 50. 479 20. 270 45- 470 2. 334 59. 404 20. 325 ^ c Ro 2. 457 DO. 319 23. 365 TTT c ^^S8 7. 411 ■ 1 T A Ar\ 11. 1. 44^ 23- 426 TV C Af,r> 8. 270 23- 471 9. 369 2. 427 24. 475 T A I. 407 12. 366 4- 333 25. 381 3- 433 14. 433 5- 3^^9 25. 381 0 A riR 3- 49° 21. 424 5" 322 29. 328 26. 392 r /480 5. 402 29. 383 T T II* 33° 29. 153 Q, 304 30- 313 TT T r6 29. 454 p. 302 32. 406 I7' 3°7 33. 279 f\ o8/4 0. 304 34. 375 17. 404 34- 427 0. 451 36. 464 t8 /1 c 1 454 34- 464 44. 433 IQ. AQO xy, ^yy 38. 371 8. 309 47. 514 VI. 2. 383 45- 41 9. 272 50. 325 4. 482 45- 45 II. 423 52. XXXVll VII. 5. 393 45- 46 12. 423 55. 328 7- 341 45- 47 12. 477 9- 337 —CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers, 607 VTTT 1 At^A I. 446 1 r 5* 39 I. 446 TT ^16*2 I, 479 2. 291 D. iiJoy 2. '^'37 A.i. -s. jy-* 2. q82 0 YVYvil 2. 424 A A TO "R. ^2Q 15« 39-'- 427 VTT 2 q6q 4'^i -2. 4iJ II. I. q8c} 0. 470 I. 40Q VTTT 6 -316 ■^. 3'^'i 0. 1. 6. 279 8 /1/1 c 10. 267 9, 4UU 12. "54.1 9. 466 13- 382 TO A ClC\ III. I. 285 XIV 6 4.07 I. 412 /• o/o 4.. 472 4. 478 I- 383 C Q82 0 ono Q. 44Q Q /1T2 Rabirio. T7 'JO'S I. '^Q'^ Tn A Ar\ 17. 44U II. 282 ATA 4''-4 O/l T 3"- o4^ PosthuMO. 00 /10Q 2. 482 30. 405 0. di8 4)vn Plnnrio 10. 410 T 4a6 A. IQ. 419 3- 3°3 post Reditutn in Senatu. /1 /1 T Q 2. 411 Republica. 00 /1 Pit 1. IQ. "304 00 /1 ^ T .«f.^. '^/ OT "371 Q4. 468 II. 7. 411 25. 402 TO T C6 20. 4^7 TO A QO 28 aq6 IV. 5. 432 00 A J?0 33' 4"-^ VI. ic;. 466 4^- 3°o 11;. 48Q 24. '3'32 T A An CoMoedo. T /1 07 7. '30Q TV A II. 280 ■i^yz? 0 iiinctio pro S. Roscio T AV8 X. 4/0 y\ insritio 2. 268 "2 /ifis I. t^I I 2 QQA 8 Z178 C ATA TO /<00 oy4 21;. ^8^ 6. 406 31. 411 7. 409 ad Quintu7n 10. 453 Fratrem. 12. 312 I. I. 327 16. 314 I. 444 16. 480 17- 394 Tusculancp. 17- 451 Disputationes. 18. 433 I, I. 364 19. 448 I. 460 1 21. 283 I. 474 1 / 1 22. 444 III 2. xxxii 25. 455 2. 332 27. 366 2. 4oq 29. 476 44 33. 463 9- 455 35. 12. 352 35- 476 15. 426 36- 391 15- 445 36. 490 16. 382 39. 384 16. 456 42. 444 17. 283 4S. 406 17. 288 47. xxxvi 17. 42Q 52. 450 17. 444 * Ml 1 pro Scaiiro. 17- 457 2- 454 18. 286 13- 376 19 391 ^r^? Sestio. 19. 412 4- 378 19. 446 9. 281 21. 335 16. 370 21. 472 1 / 20. 342 21. 482 22. 444 22. 4SI 1 ^ 24. 467 1 1 / 23. 286 25. 173 23. 411 29. 48 C 24. 285 30. 467 24. 447 1 1 1/ 36. 445 W I I vX 27. 309 37- 465 28. 287 38. 432 29. 393 38. 472 29. 423 44. 450 29. 466 52. 391 31, 280 62. 290 31. q70 66. 467 31- 475 68. 342 68. 499 34. 444 1 1 1 1 69. 459 34. 444 ^ 1 III Sulla. ^"^. "361 6. 286 QK. "203 13- 439 36. 407 18. 326 37. 468 19. 330 '^8. xxxvii 31. 279 38. 326 TimcEus or qq. xxv Universo, QQ. 407 3- 407 40. 448 1 If 6. 392 41. 445 1 1 1 vX 7- 391 41. 446 1 II 9- 433 42. 437 10. 369 42. 462 Topic a. 4q. 449 I. 427 43- 450 4. 413 45. 267 6. 290 45- 391 22. 433 45- 457 48. 459 3- 463 ♦ Index IIL ICICERO— III. IV. V. 5. 482 24. 342 7. 446 II. 329 26. 565 13- 470 13. 366 28. 413 i8. 468 15. 465 29. 477 23- 315 17- 439 35. 407 25- 406 18. 335 36. xxxix 34' 391 18. 444 36. 271 43- 434 19- 319 36. 459 47- 425 21. 413 37. 382 48. 326 24- 473 37. 384 52. 472 3- 441 39. 448 54' 313 7- 433 40. 268 55- 432 8. 454 Z7i Vatinium. 59- 477 10. 426 I. 471 69. 467 12. 411 3- 481 75. 416 17. 391 8. 446 83. 424 26. 319 15- 406 84. 406 26. 482 tn Verrem. 90. 325 28. xxxii I. 2. 483 97- 408 29. 454 3« 383 IV. I. 456 30. 427 6. 288 2. 409 32. 446 6. 409 3- 413 6. 271 6. 463 8. 309 II. 383 9- 432 9- 471 14. 282 9. 463 10. 408 17. 341 10. 466 II. 392 19. xxviii 13- 409 13. XXXVll 19. 394 15. 423 13. 341 23. 426 18. 407 14. 155 24. 480 19. 393 21. 465 25. 327 26. 413 21. 474 26. 405 31- 468 25. 314 27. 407 34. 316 28. 492 31. 471 34- 492 29. 493 36. 464 39. 448 40. 448 37. 411 47. XXXVll 52. 278 37. 496 48. 407 52. 278 3- 432 58. 273 57- 371 5. xxxvii 58. 425 60. 451 5. 310 59. 434 V. 2. 327 5. 428 60. 470 2. 448 5- 444 II. 2. 310 5- 438 6. 455 2. 464 5- 480 7. xxxii 2. 466 10. 465 7- 437 6. xxxi II- 408 8. 445 6. 393 II. 424 8. 445 9- 375 II. 461 8. 466 10. 319 II. 465 II. 391 II. 433 25- 379 13, 426 II. 444 25. 383 13- 434 18. 283 27. 334 13- 491 18. 423 27, 450 14. 407 30- 454 32. 393 15- 319 32. 290 34- 4^5 IS 321 32. 433 40. 423 15- 447 32. 500 47- 461 16. 379 43- 330 49. 470 19- 315 55. 155 49. 494 20. 375 56. 280 54. 477 20. 382 60. 451 58. 410 20. 392 65. 440 69, 276 20. 457 67. XXXIX 2a 460 1 III. 2. 370 COLUMELLA. Pr. 6. 317 II. 2. 575 26. 4. 408 CURTIUS, III. II. 425 IV. VL VIL VIIL 12, 498 1. 406 28. 347 lO' 393 43. 451 8. 411 1. 494 2. 501 8. 498 IX. 51. 495 X. 2. 425 EUTROPIUS. I. 8. 425 8. 498 IV. II, 459 V. I. 447 VIL 9, 461 FLORUS. 1. I. 392 10. 463 13. 408 III. 10. 370 12. 425 IV. I. 498 GELLIUS. I- 17- 352 19. 406 II. II. 381 V. 14, 369 19. 450 X. 1. 404 XL 15. 378 HIRTIUS. Be Hum Alex- cmdrinum. I. 449 HORACE.* Carmina, I. 535 579 582 I, I. 357 3- 457 II. 497 17. 433 2. 535 537 * Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to. —HORACE.] Passages in Latin Writers. 609 2. 3- 3. 4- 5- 6. 7- 7. 8. 8. 9- li. II. 12. 14 16. 22. 24. 26. 27. 28. 31- 32. 35. 36. 37. 38. II. 2. 7- 8. 9. 14. 16. 17- 18. 19. III. 1. 2. 3- 4. 49. XVI — . 535 — . 544 I. 311 7. 340 — • 534 — • 544 — . 535 — • 535 — . 534 — . 544 24. 428 27. 411 — • 534 — . 544 9. 404 1. 448 15. 281 — . 535 I. 341 18. 154 18. 419 18. 272 13- 346 14. 428 — • 544 10. 404 i. 431 5. 280 — • 534 18. 340 I. 272 I. 361 4. 406 17- 391 21. 566 15- 342 25. xvii 25. 428 31- 439 3- 337 6. 423 13. 500 I- 337 21. 404 23. 382 I. 468 17. 441 15. xvii 19. 426 26. 154 13- 369 28. 470 — • 534 — • 543 28. 426 I. 361 9. 440 15- 383 13. 426 26. 450 11. 582 61. 546 4. 65. 5- 2. 6. 3. 7. 29. 8. 4. 11. 33- 12. — . 13- 13- 16. 32. 19. 10. 24. 28. 27. 26. 69. IV. 30. I. 3- 4. 6. 3 42. 42. S- 33- 8. — . 20. 9. I I. 15. 15- 11. 14. 12. — . 7- 13. 2. 14. 17. EpistolcB, I. I. 52. 61. 2. 6. 7- 9- 10. 34- 3. 12. 15. 4. 13- 14. 5. 12. 12. 15. 21. 21. 6. 20. 23. 36. 40. 43- 67. 7. 16. 23. 39- 66. 8. 3. 10. 4. 24. ■ 47. 426 582 470 545 582 418 534 418 439 275 459 376 376 419 368 582 462 565 582 534 543 535 468 341 458 346 428 572 545 271 352 434 411 365 346 428 451 450 467 309 390 365 496 432 450 450 447 450 365 394 366 342 XX 467 330 439 474 XXX 448 292 481 391 R R II. 50. 12. 16 16. 17 20 20 61 18. II 37 96 19- 3 9 1. 63 76 76 2. I 40 180 Epodes. I- S 2. — 37 39 5. 57 87 99 6 6. 7- 9- II. 12. 30 406 448 451 313 403 390 376 335 448 390 427 456 xl 291 468 310 456 476 543 368 468 369 268 382 272 544 281 534 534 544 534 544 534 544 534 480 534 544 533 540 19. 425 ad Pisones, or Ars Poetica. 15- 364 25. 352 69. 325 114. 448 133- 451 161. 431 168. 432 203. 131 292. 371 307. 448 421. 408 467. 313 SatircB, I. I. I. 268 14. 458 49. 417 64. 346 66. 377 66. 428 13- ~ 14. — 15. — 19 16. — 17. — II. I. 98. 447 103. 450 3. 9. 268 15- 473 17. 334 17. 381 28. 446 68. 307 105. 289 105. 446 137. 458 4. I. 367 3. xxxiii 39- 341 39- 390 84. 382 III. 446 119. 462 5- 13- 332 25. 375 41. 369 48. 431 6. 15- 368 74. 375 92. 392 127. 332 127. 365 9- I. 334 3. 291 4. 418 7. 281 II. 423 15. 333 37. 477 38. 467 47- 477 6. 478 37. 458 82. 289 2. 89. 461 124. 339 3. 9. xxxiii 151- 477 IS5- 366 156. 416 159. 478 162. XXX 174. 447 258. 478 293. 366 315. 448 326. 342 5. 8. 268 18. 444 23- 340 36. 447 59. 328 87. 474 4. 475 20. 382 65. 268 65- 369 Z3. 32S 6. 6io Index II L [HORACE— 84. 418 7. 31. XXX loi. 370 8. II. XXXV 26. 370 92. 470 JUSTIN. I. 8. 407 II. 3. 369 8. 389 15. xxxii III. I. 268 3. xxxiii VI. 2. xxxiii 8. 393 8. 467 9. 268 2. xxxiv VII. XI. XII. XIII. XVI. XVII. XXV. XXX. 10. XXXlll 6. 427 8. 446 2. 327 4. 494 3. 286 4- 463 4- 391 JUVENAL. I. 108. 404 II. I. 381 152. 325 VII. 150. 451 VIII. 19. 271 X. 356. 433 XI. 12. 135 XIII. II. 404 177. IIS XIV. 70. 441 XV. 21. 428 LIVY. Praef. 369 I. I. 362 4- 425 4. 444 5- 492 7- 423 7. 427 8. 370 11. 428 12. 411 12. 462 14. 419 15. 393 16. XX 16. 511 20. 394 21. XXXV 21. 292 24. 310 28. 341 II. III. 29. 370 32. 268 32. 383 32. 461 33- 410 35- 498 36. 410 38. 423 39. 424 40. 472 41. 328 50- 403 51- 40s S4- 494 56. xxxiv S6. 313 56. 405 56. 486 58. 369 I. 280 I. 392 I- 439 1. 472 2. 409 s- 451 6. 487 6. 494 7- 153 8. 433 9- 433 9. 484 10. 470 12. 369 12. 413 12. 425 13. 488 14. 362 16. 394 17- 453 22. 471 23. 370 27. 465 31- 383 31- 439 32. 411 34. 496 3S- 369 35- 434 37. 408 38. 471 40. 274 45- 317 45. 481 47. 496 50- 383 50. 470 S2. 423 52. 424 S3- 370 S9- 366 63. 347 65. 470 I. 470 IV. V. 2. 411 2. 467 6. 383 7. 371 10. 381 11. 463 12. 323 14- 154 14- 370 15. IS4 19. 451 19. 470 23. 463 25. 434 26. 365 26. 424 31- 375 33. 409 35- 459 37. 466 45. 451 52. 471 53. 486 54. 332 54. 446 57. 424 58. 383 63. 406 63- 479 67. 394 67. 427 67. 471 70. 408 3. xxxvi 3- 441 4. 410 4. 433 6. xxxiv 13. 462 13- 463 24. 411 31- 433 33. 287 37. 432 38. 485 41. 410 47. 409 49. 500 52. 470 58. 445 I. 283 3. 419 4. 484 6. 313 12. 447 25. 279 30. 406 31- 383 34. 426 35- 458 36. 470 43. 315 44. 367 VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XXI. 48. 394 49. 376 51. 422 53- 444 54- 369 54- 417 54- 437 I. xxxix 16. 318 17. XX 18. 425 18. 426 26. 281 36. 138 42. 446 5. xxxiii 5. 410 8. 313 8. 425 8. 500 18. 488 26. 406 27. 450 28. 424 31- 454 36. 408 2. 447 5. 422 6. 499 8. 463 9. 426 13. 448 24. 410 35. 381 3- 454 10. 459 13- 313 16. 153 33- 465 33- 485 34. 369 34. 464 38. 392 40. 502 41- 477 41. 502 I. 365 14. 292 23. 272 23- 423 28. 383 30- 155 34- 369 38. 362 38. 370 41. 461 4. 4. 4- 7- 7- 7- 365 370 383 362 382 482 13. 462 LUCRETIUS.] Passages in Latin Writers. 6ii 20. 451 XXVI. 0, 500 WVTTT AAAXil. 4« 207 23» 303 20. 347 10. 450 I. 'JO. 23. 450 27. XXXIV, 45. 450 9°' 505 24» 300 29« 453 I. 445 128. 273 2o. 403 341 2. 471 Ooo. 3^^ 34' 40 0 V WTT 342 4. 407 2. 3°°' 3°9 39- 493 2. 271 9- 437 7. 798. 393 41. 413 3- 495 12. XXXI V c5. 200. 5°2 43- 433 433 22. 425 A A A ^ 444« 155 44. 336 12. fio 4°3 27. 416 9. 402. 409 44. 394 10. 3"2 38. 463 50- 364 17. 425 39- 434 53- 423 0 A ^4* ,4 Ao XXXV. I. 156 00. 363 ofio 3^3 24. 450 is 00. 210 154 37« T 40. 154 03. oo WTT 2. 433 XXVTTT 37« 302 40. 382 yO* 5° 3- 200 T 45° 46. 407 103. 405 3- 5« 3^3 XXXVI. 2. 321 105. 294 10. 475 17. 7. 451 27. 302 28. 332 29. 474 27. 4CO 28. 451 3^3« "0 32. 485 ofi 2o. 335 32. 363 327« 343 3^- 315 341 41. 499 400« 330 346 20. 472 XXXVII. 3. 268 A A ' A A M. 442. 440 39- 449 44« 207 14. 380 452. 35 49. ■»•50 44. 391 54- 448 554* 299 49. 440 40. 400 XXXVIII. 28. 371 50D. 400 340 XXTX 407 45. 328 500. 310 53- 342 7« 405 47- 472 pfifi A A ^ 500. 443 53- 407 14. 434 XXXIX. I. 286 ^-•^O' 133 58. 286 17. 3^9 22. 433 "33- 549 59. 454 370 37. 312 093. 299 60. 415 409 37. 468 720. 322 60. 471 433 51. 500 722. 43s 60. 478 34» /-» T 321 XL. 55- 369 750. 293 6i. xxxiu 34« 392 10. 364 755* 302 XXIII. 6. 502 37« 400 14. 472 755- 319 13- 432 ofi 3°- 346 15. 471 755- 399 13. 439 I5' 476 18. 437 °^3- 395 18. 478 0 T 404 XLI. 47. 432 841« 307 25. 511 ofir 301 2. 464 935- 299 26. 410 Ort <69* 302 16. 573 27. 479 30. 2C50 18. 369 970. 100 30. 406 30. ofir 201 XLIL 10. 410 1045. 184 32. 287 or* 28. 109 J.U^^, loo 35. 560 30« 305 34. 389 1077. 291 39- 423 3°' 300 51. 459 ±001» 422 XXIV. 45. 488 00 3°' 490 67. 474 T T T T Ta-\^ .3- 278 30- 496 XLIIL 4. 486 II. I. xvii 3- 362 37. 416 18. 206 23. 323 5. 392 XXXL 44. 479 22. 413 36. 343 6. 411 I. 481 XLIV. 2. 268 41- 343 19. 560 II. 444 2. 370 51» 300 33. 479 21. XXXIX 45- 432 53- loo 40. 463 XXXII. II. 450 XLV. I. 321 150. 386 XXV. 42. 447 18. 382 8. 475 173. 442 3. 449 21. 432 22. XXXll 248. 321 10. 334 21. 497 23- 433 o/-^* 207 12. 455 28. 464 29. 325 383. 160 25. 393 29. 368 37- 391 401. 52 28. 408 29. 363 37. 471 455- 256 38. 426 41. 450 631. 304 40. 282 662. 45 * Many of these references are to Mr Munro's notes on the line quoted. 12 Index IIL CLUCRETIUS— 710. 130 404* 373 Q23 412, 44Q 820. 41 '5. Q06 829. 13 416. 306 QOI. ^2^. -57 ^0 712. Q04 951- 38 7'^^. 1^8 951- 217 815. 130 991. 10 968. 2QQ II35- 35 0683 QOO ^^^^^^ 1137- 313 III. 45- 57 69. 425 MANIUUS. i3<^- 363 IV. 641;. 4<o 140. 307 208. 316 214. 294 MARTIAL. 250. 278 Epi^ra m mata . 426. 315 I. 106. <n\ 456. 315 4. 77. S7Q 502. 376 8. 21. 411 529- 317 10. 34. 454 531- 320 36. 571 736. 343 II. 36. 571 772. 160 12. 28. 4^7 776. 515 28. 4.4.2 823. 326 I'^. f^Q. "^78 890. 211 de Spectaculis. 894. 259 3. II. 432 956- 397 2^. "^. ^46 1042. 58 1048. 46 MELA, POM- 1048. 483 PONIUS. IV. 41. 206 12. 418 66. 207 372- 419 394- 278 NEPOS, COR- 545- 306 NELIUS. 554- 300 Preface, i. 379 619. 190 Agesilaus. 716. 264 I. ^17 785- 306 I. 407 855- 322 t;. 466 1 157. 10 6. 478 1079. 83 7« 493 1 186. 251 8. 2Q2 1282. 210 8. 392 V. 13- 278 8. 424 40. 213 8. 463 211. 120 Alcihiades. 754. 299 I. 279 791. 420 I. 408 931- 376 2. 402 T 934. 173 4. 424 997. 259 1139- 225 6. xxxi 1225. 430 6. 382 1332. 299 6. 455 1339- 131 Aristides. VI. 1339. 235 I. 409 160. 483 I. 425 187. 39 3- 156 344» 301 3- 409 Atticus, 8. 462 I. 286 8. 468 I. 313 12. 411 I. 392 13- 407 2. 391 Iphicrates. 2. 392 I. 454 2. 463 3. 409 3- 393 Lysander, 5. 391 jIo 409 5- 397 Mtltiades, 8. 391 I. 446 9. 410 I. 450 13- 466 2. 432 19. 391 2. 482 Chdbrias. 3- 437 3. 410 7. xxxiv Citnon, 7- 313 4. 407 7. 424 3- 466 8. 424 4. 465 Pausamas. Conon, 3. 407 4. 392 3- 464 4. 450 4- 450 5. 431 4. 494 Patames. Pelopidas. 3. 312 4- 154 4- 432 4. 391 5- 288 5- 451 6. 322 Phocton, 6. 491 2. 369 8. 154 2. 500 Dion, 3- 425 3- 410 Tkemistocles. 3- 451 I- 315 3- 460 I. 405 5- 477 2. 382 Epaminondas. 2. 424 I. 450 2. 426 2. 426 2. 444 3- 426 3- 383 3. 433 4. 321 5. 391 6. 407 7- 292 7. 383 8. 494 7. 487 9- 464 8. xxxii 10. 382 8. 283 Eumenes. 8. 492 I. 445 8. 493 2. 375 9- 425 2. 496 9- 437 5- 383 10, 444 8. 379 Thrasybulus. II. 448 I. 448 Hamilcar 3- 434 3- 424 Hannibal. OVID, 3- 409 Amoves . 4- 454 I. 9. 4. 365 6. 375 II. 16. 13. 408 6. 431 III. 4. 17. 369 7- 410 Ars Amatoria. 8. 267 I. 48. 378 8. 391 n. 415. 45<» —PUN. MIN.] Passages in Latin Writers, 613 too JUX TIT 222. •561 406 EpistolcB ex Pnt?to To 0 II. Q. A^. 4.26 TIT /1 HQ 482 8. 24. 42 1; QQJ. I 7t; 216. 0/ / 287. II 128 Q70 DO ' 428 829. q6Q ■360 Ill 21 X X X « ^ X • 163. ■»■0"-' TV cc 55- 270. Q22 ^71 880. V. 176. VI. 298. •360 HcToidcs. II 8q /102 V TO 404 'Z'7'2 1 T2 ^X X .Cr VI IQ V X • X 43^ IX I X V • X • /1 /1 c XI. 109. XII. 84. 281 169. Q78 XVI. 368. ATA ^x^ XVIL 166! 4.78 OSes, T A Co 282 Jit TIT rnc A TO X V/ V. /t QO 433 TQO XjJU. 3/^ 410 IV. 428. AQ2 VII. 647. VIII 681 268 IX t;2 3/4 81 687 3y^ XT orn 706. 478 XII. 7. 154 187. xiir. 141. 439 XIV. 466. 79 Tristia. I. 9. 5. 463 II. 10. 439 57- 449 216. 391 III. 8. 27. 462 14. 23. 475 IV. 3. I. 471 V. 10. I. 462 PERSIUS. I. 122. 427 129. 290 III. 28. 372 31. 326 IV. 30. 423 V, 7. 496 77' 332 153. 427 PHiEDRUS. I. 2. 437 35- 425 III. 2. 337 13. 286 V. 2. 451 PLAUTUS. Aniphitruo. Prol. 19. 390 32. 408 54. 448 I. 3. 6. 407 21. 378 II. 2. 3. 313 IV. I. I. 379 V. 3. 17. 450 222. 370 Asinaria, I. I. 75. 407 3. 89. 478 II. 4. 84. 231 III. 2. 36. xxxii IV. I. 22. 458 V. I. 6. 432 2. 88. 446 Aulularia. II. 3. 4. 341 4. 46. 424 III. 3. 3- 431 IV. 7. 16. 379 10. 16. 478 Bacchides. IV. 3. 23. 420 6. 28. 379 8. 93- 451 9. 5. 313 V. I. 5. 314 Captivi. II. I. 30. 477 2. 39- 330 III. 4. 25. 326 IV. 2, 19. 291 V. I. 15. 392 Casina. Prol. 45. 482 III. 5. 9. 426 V. 4. 18. 406 Cistellaria. I. I. 48. 311 70. 408 100. 286 105. 459 III. 481 IV. 2. 36. 155 Curculio. I. I. 55. 284 EpidicMs. I. I. 49. 370 2. 38. 282 III. 4. 28. 478 V. 2. 29. 182 33- 477 Mencechmi. II. 2. 46. 271 IV. 2. 34. 461 67. 329 3. 26: 383 V. 5. 47. 289 Mercator. I. I. 71. 394 IV. 5. 9. 409 V. 5. 27. 462 Miles Gloriosus. II. 5. 43. 477 III. I. 166. 313 Mostellaria. I. 3. 114. 422 139. 406 II. I. 32. 461 III. I. 98. 156 V. I. I. 424 3. 269 Pcenulus. Prol. 24. 478 Persa. I. I. 33. 409 3- 57. 465 II. 2. 4. 477 IV. 4. 50. 477 9. I. 477 V. I. 20. 394 Pseudolus. I. I. no. 417 3- II- 335 5. 12. 391 II. 2. 40. 483 III. I. 10. 478 2. 66. 337 Rudens. I. 4. 28. 425 III. 5. 16. 424 IV. 4. 20. 188 70. 315 Trinummus. II. 2. 70. 478 IV. 2. 122. 154 Truculentus. V. I. 10. 445 PLINIUS MA- JOR. Htstoria Na- turalis. II. 12. 425 54- 411 68. 411 III. 3- 407 16. 405 V. 26. 383 VII. 16. 156 37. 406 40. 409 VIII. 40- 393 46. 410 48. 425 IX. 20. 291 XI. 8. 381 37- 425 37- 483 50- 425 XIV. 12. 369 12. 406 XV. I. 328 I. 380 I. 477 2. 393 XVII. 4. xxxiii XVIII. 25. 368 XIX. 8. 313 XXV. 4. 292 XXIX. 6. 156 XXX. 10. 156 XXXI. 2. 362 XXXIII. 10. 157 XXXIV. 8. 156 PLINIUS MI- NOR. EpistolcB. I. 8. 447 10. 474 12. 473 18. 341 20. 366 II. I. 408 3- 449 III. 5. 156 5. 406 5- 447 6. 420 16. 448 IV. 27. 322 V. 19. 446 29. 451 6i4 Index III. [PLIN. MIN. VI. VII. VIII. IX. I. 312 16. 496 29. 446 33- 383 16. 483 24. 432 30- 454 PRISCIAN. SALLUST. Catilina. I. 397 I. 464 3- 481 5- 369 6. 430 7- 463 7- 495 9- 426 10. 367 17- 323 17- 455 18. 424 20. 477 25. 341 25- 364 30. 432 33- 408 37- 394 40. 319 48. 380 52. 366 52. 369 52. 424 54- 352 I. 7. 38. 65 ^4. 4-52 PROPERTIUS. 58 xxxvii II. 19. 22. 307 ^8. 284 III. I. 26. 307 30- 74. 480 jfuguTtha. IV. 7. 13- 423 I. q6q I. AXCk I. 460 QUINTILIAN. 4.81 I. I. 5. 426 5- 455 9. 278 2. 22. 481 I A, Q20 3- 12. 433 14.. q6q 4- 6. 342 5. 7- 427 oC- xxxix 18. 514 on ^ Co 7. I. 547 31. xxxvii 4- 551 QI. QI4 20. 552 31- 343 10. 17- 363 31- 395 12. 9- 464 39- 451 16. 459 41. 461 II. 6. 7- 412 46. 492 IV. 3. 10. 392 49- 383 V. 10. 63. 425 49- 393 VII. 3. 27. 369 50. 334 VIII. 3. 45. 41 50- 334 IX. 4. 2. 393 50. 432 44. 417 51- 333 X. I. 4- 428 51- 334 XI. 2. 16. 427 SI- 432 48. 369 53- 470 54. 448 54. 464 57. 362 66. 402 73. 432 83- 451 85. 288 85. 394 S5- 434 89. 407 98. 465 101. 368 102. 425 104. 376 107. 484 Fragmenta. 64. 449 SENECA. de Beneficiis, I. I. 318 1. 407 8. 416 IV. 3. 448 V. 2. 427 19. 447 19. 447 EpistolcB. 9- 450 9. 467 15. 448 17. 406 26. 310 33- 434 39- 441 52. 433 56. 479 58. 411 58. 418 61. 451 65- 369 65- 454 68. 471 70. 448 83. 482 88. 420 90. 423 94. 406 94. 481 95- 376 103. 441 103. 464 108. 283 113. 369 120. 383 de Ira. I. I. 426 2. 424 II. 470 II. 10. 462 Naturales Qucestiones. I. 17- 457 VI. 25. 455 de Providentia. 3- 326 de Trajiquilli- tate Anlmi. II. 427 Tragedies. Thyestes 214. 473 SILIUS ITALI- CUS. Punic a. IV. 160. 423 X. 573- 407 STATIUS. SllvCB. I. 40. 445 V. loi. 93 Thebais. I. 638. 426 V. 134. 450 VII. 605. 269 777- 371 VIII. 50. 444 SUETONIUS. Augustus. 5. 573 33- 326 33- 406 48. 464 63- 431 77. 571 87. 550 88. 547 loi. 409 CcBsar, jfulius. 4- 423 19- 457 21. 409 25. 406 40. 424 52. 470 82. 463 86. 425 Caligula. 16. 370 30. 479 34. 447 48. 451 Claudius. 4- 447 16. 491 24- 393 33. 381 46. 409 Galba. 6. 370 9- 405 14- 454 31- 365 36. 450 49. 366 54- 381 Ofho. 10. 394 Tiberius. 4- 370 Vespasian . 16. 455 TACITUS. Agricola. 4. 315 46. 336 — VELL. PAT.] Passages in Latin Writers, 615 Annales. IV. II. 288 6. 25. 448 1 r Hecyra, T T 20. 479 III. 20. 406 I. 2. 4. 47c 23. 369 2. 4- 450 59- 319 XX. 25. 369 3- 28. 361 III. I. 13. 419 TT I/* 406 34' 369 4- 5. 268 IV. I. 59. 188 XX 46. 410 5. I. 362 4. 21. 425 19. q8q «j ✓ 61. 369 7. 438 23- 383 31- 6c. 268 12. 438 26. 450 32- ICC V. 74. Q16 15- ^70 Phormio. 35« 470 5- 325 V. 18. § I. 2. c. 311 XX 10. xxxiii I. 31- 479 18. 324 366 15. 411 2. I. 450 3- 5- 342 61. 42 c 3- 24. 341 20. 426 428 30- 450 II. I. 35. 473 68 463 Eunuchus. 2. 10. 371 TT T 0 42 T TERENCE. I. I. 16. 451 10. 426 T C XX Adelphi, II. 2. 34. 310 3. 82. QIO T7 ■*•/• 382 T 0 Jl. 2. 23« 3"9 I. 10. 365 4. 14. 287 'SO 267 35- 394 10. 375 III. 2. 43. 330 ^O' 408 46. 369 2. 21. 450 IV. 4. 15. 456 TT 272 46. 411 21. 473 5. II. 425 III. Q 4H 1 II. I. 47- 335 3. 4- 330 V. I. 10. 332 on 424 9. 424 III. 97. 341 18. 458 TV Aft 39"? 10. 391 3- II. 268 3. 3. 312 VI. 19. 424 42. 463 II. 363 7. 47. 42 c 27. 424 43- 370 21. 411 89. 463 46. 315 5. I. 327 8. 27. 426 480 2. 6. 449 30- 450 37. 382 YT 382 III. 2. 32. 382 46. 392 9. 27. 282 5' 447 3- 42. 450 48. 376 39- 312 XII 18 382 61. 311 IV. 2. 10. 478 XIII. 6cr 268 4- 8. 267 II. 478 TIBULLUS. 3- 15. 424 5. 25. 444 65- 451 3. 4- II. 24. "^70 0/ 4 CO I. 4. 63. 473 7. 53- 371 8. 22. 473 10. T. 309 37- 492 IV. I. 19. 329 4- 39- 329 XV. 39- 287 2. 30- 330 6. 19. 326 2. 313 5. 29. 423 7. 21. 309 5. 430 V. 3. 7. 272 V. 4. 25. 327 10. 13. 290 II. 5. 71. 316 113. 269 III. 4. 31. 406 59- 436 20. 477 45. 410 Dialogus de 4- 25. 424 8. I. 327 Oratoribus. 9- I. 268 Ha uton timoru- 7. 271 Andria. menos. Germania, 3- 9- 498 406 Prol. 3. 371 5- 407 I. I. 10. 459 I. I. 2. 28. 54- 28. 407 463 342 VALERIUS MAXIMUS. I. I. 369 T TT T Vll. 2. 444 14. 393 18. 446 3- 8. 311 18. 155 27. 363 II. 2. 35. 461 21. 410 42. 400 3. 24. 312 37. 156 43- 382 III. I. 13- 420 VARRO. HistoricB. 77. 409 43. 325 de Re Rtistica. I. 7- 475 78. 282 54. 423 II. I. QVI 15- 369 97. 367 58. 448 HI. 16- qqc 37. 371 100. 309 97. 438 V. I':^. 411 49. 426 107. 434 98. 486 VII. 26. 65 79- 371 130. 394 2. 38. 413 11. 87. 427 2. 6. 431 50. 281 I. 370 12. 281 3- 50. 330 VELLEIUS 47. 413 15. 444 IV. 2. 4. 267 PATERCU- 48. 426 27. 450 4- 10. 449 LUS. III. 82. 280 3. I. 320 V. I. 31- 329 II. 2. 390 51- 288 5. 17. 320 68. 397 29. 408 59- 271 II. I. 6. xxxi 2. 6. 394 47. 409 74. 382 2. 20. 412 4. 7- 411 ip8. 432 6i6 Index IIL [VERGIL.] VERGIL. 578. 340 X. 273- 382 106. Q82 597- 371 324» 371 III. ^(i^ I. 5. 463 598. 370 439- 451 IV. 21. 280 16. 267 603. 339 707. 281 V. 34. 2Q2 21. 273 625. 339 782. 422 49. 2Q2 37- 438 654. 426 XI. 854. 340 65. Q40 85. 269 683. XX 112. 470 615. ■379 135- 566 V. 6. 500 126. 423 VL 69. 267 308. 329 19. 102 153- 441 VII. Q. 267 313- 155 73. 426 162. 340 VIIL 39- 154 328. 381 200. 565 171. 316 41. 462 335- 407 451- 390 383. 415 IX. 43- 365 347- 405 481. 332 XII. 809. 281 17. 291 367. xxxiii 608. 375 5. 281 44. 471 573« 368 650. xxxiii 508. 383 Georg tea. II. 8. 728. 368 649. 407 I. 8. 406 414 751- 323 649. 426 93. 286 408 VI. 35. 423 736. 465 231. 155 275. 333 78. 425 760. XXXIII 329. 288 282. 372 187. 340 814. 451 330. 333 287. 519 199. xxxiv Bucolica. 430. 109 324- 333 284. 322 I. 9- 450 n. 464. 451 325- 333 332. 423 56. 451 44- 154 353- 565 468. 334 64. 375 104. 417 377. 439 743. 287 80. 336 169. 271 39^- 281 884. XX 83. 565 192. 269 506. 339 VII. 27. 376 n. 6. 519 289. 339 510. 374 55- 418 7- 423 425. 216 538. 448 293- 379 18. 565 463. 271 in. 56. 565 704. 338 20. 408 IIL 2. 403 234- xvi 805. 382 28. 479 147- 390 321. 411 VIII. 84. 320 IIL 40. xvii 207. 278 490. 281 130. XXXV I. 423 300. 340 620. 410 465- 365 49. 479 314- 375 652. xxxi 560. 340 53. 479 329- 340 658. 279 573- 423 55- 459 348. 500 IV. 93. 565 649. xxxiii 74- 332 IV. 538. 278 137. 375 650. 341 77- 337 128. 39c 237- 340 IX. 82. xviii 82. 369 213- 33; 305- 444 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW -STREET SQUARB LONDON V / /