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LATIN GRAMMAR.
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR THE USE OF
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS
BY
BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D.
Nihil ex grammatica nocuerit nisi quod supervacuum est ; neque enim
obstant hae disciplinse per illas euntibus, sed circa illas haerentibus.
QuiNTiL. Inst. Orat. lib. i. cap. iv.
NINTH IMPRESSION
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1900
PREFACE
TO
THE SIXTH EDITION.
§ I. By an agreement between the Proprietors and Mr. John
Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is
arranged that the ^Public School Latin Grammar,' with the books
akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and,
in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and
Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known.
Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with
him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement of
these books, as means of public instruction, could not be
placed in safer keeping.
§ 2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in
January 187 1, was introduced by the following Preface : —
' The " Public School Latin Grammar is simply a develop-
ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those,
who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same
Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between
the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as
might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and
many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar
the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body
of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a
large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does
not appear at all.
DO
vi
Preface.
' Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus-
tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students,
who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac-
tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed
to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power;
but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin,
which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent
scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following
pages.
^At the present time, when the science of Comparative
Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars
know far more of the history and organism of the Latin lan-
guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians,
the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference
to the facts and principles of that science, would be a retro-
gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered
that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is,
to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc-
tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use
Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching
Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the
medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the
Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to
observe ; but he may venture to say that he has not strayed
from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other
places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the
most important affinities between Latin and other Aryan
languages and dialects ; but only with a view to point the path
of future study, not to furnish the student with a sufficient
knowledge of the several subjects there noticed.'
3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to
the Second Edition, published in 1874 : —
^ Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of
this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the
same sense as the Primer and other lesson-books of a similar
kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any
students who are capable of good private reading) masters can
use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional
reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ;
Preface,
Vll
(2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical
examinations conducted on paper as well as orally.
' The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and
improve several departments of the Grammar, especially those
of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of
articulate sound has never entered into liiy plan. Were I
competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should
hardly deem it suited to a book applying specially to Latin,
but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the
Prolegomena to Grammar.
* On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat
more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative
Philology, so far as they concern three kindred languages^ —
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. The Sanskrit words iii this Edition
are generally cited in their modern form. The term Primitive
Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap-
pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix.
* As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was
bound to consult, authorised to attach my name to this Pre-
face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the
books on Latin Grammar with which I have been occupied.
* When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was
right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be
impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be
equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would
choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason
only.
*The chief objection urged agaiiist the Primer was this :
that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children
beginning Latin. There would have been some weight in this
argument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de-
scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for
Elementary Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in
Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass
with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com-
panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children
at home or under private care j and these have since been
published.
' It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and
subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of
the Primer is contained), that they " bristle with nev/, hard, and
Preface.
uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much
persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by
some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a
statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it.
§ 4. ' Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar
is a science; and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments,
there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms.
Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax,
Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names
of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as
Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms,
whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have
struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any
attempt to extirpate them w^ould be quixotic. Many, indeed,
are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine,
Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by
gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is
after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might
at several points have been improved. A few terms, which
are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time
unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among
those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutral ia
Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable
number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea,
Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names
given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little
use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least,
dismissed to some unconspicuous corner.
^This statement affords ample proof that no* disposition
existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar " bristling
with hard and uninviting terms,'' though it is not unnatural
to ask what those " inviting " terms are which, like the
" crustula " of the " blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have
magic power enough to attract young learners, elementa
velint ut discere prima."
' But there is one important truth which many would-be
critics either ignore or forget. Grammar is not only a science,
but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve-
ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino-
logy, or some addition to it. Now, in every division of
Grammar, — Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, — vast
Preface,
ix
strides have been made in this century through the fruitful
labours of scholars, chiefly German, some English ; whom I
would gladly recount here, were I not afraid of omitting some
name or names from so large a list. Accordingly it will be
found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the
terminology in each division has been more or less modified,
more or less enriched.
§ 5. * As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in
the treatment of Soundlore and Wordlore I claim little origi-
nality. If I have compiled judiciously and correctly from the
works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and
illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I
shall be amply satisfied with such credit. Again, in the Prosody
of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres
and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than
tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my
friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar
needs no praise from me to enhance it
' But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound)
which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great
extent, the fruit of personal study, personal thought, personal
labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin
Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness
of perfection, in the present Grammar.
* I speak from long personal experience when I say that any
capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles of those
pages (348-500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), will be able,
in reading any part of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move
through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step,
realising, and, if need be, stating the 7'aison d'etre of every
constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test)
the raison d'etre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb.
The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin,
will be free from the risk of using any wrong construction. Not
that the mastery of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the
student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong
to the vis divinior^ to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from
the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study,
combined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far
the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of
prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student
X
Preface.
cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli-
ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound,
well-arranged, and lucid Grammar.
§ 6. * The study of any language with its grammar contains
more or less, according to the character of the language chosen,
the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language
in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages
(illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for
this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves
grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies
these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a
great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native
language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of
study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co-
ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible.
The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin
Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retamed in the practice
of classical instruction I hold to be this, — that it is a valu-
able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead
languages, but of the learner's native living language at the
same time.
§ 7. ' A book like the " Public School Latin Grammar " does
not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats — subjects
on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written —
but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and
smooths the path of future acquirement.
§ 8. * I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so
far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour
and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction.
' The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century
passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the
treatment of Etymology.
^ The means by which this revolution has been wrought are:
(i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of the cor-
relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject- Object,
with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the
Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several
kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3)
the distinction between Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua, with
the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua receive.
Preface,
xi
'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of
various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin
Syntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote-
fends, Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ramshorn, Kiihner, Madvig,
Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael
Kiihner in the first rank \ and I am much indebted to Grieben's
"Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In cur own country the
scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted
by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold.
' These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin Syntax,
besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per-
haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve-
ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their
subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis
in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts.
§ 9. ^ As regards the new terms which my own improvements
have suggested, three alone have frequent and important prac-
tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great. These
are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced
first in my " Elementary Grammar " ; (3) Suboblique (clause
or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase
Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua."
' Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi-
cation in Grammar required, for its clear statement, the use of
some terminology from which the term predicate itself should
be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by
Mr. C. P. Mason, (predicative) Complement.
* I say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar
is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for
one of three reasons : that it is superfluous ; or that it is in-
adequate ; or because a better term is suggested. As respects
myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use
hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are
unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry
which refuses to facihtate and abridge discourse by the use ot
suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation)
''Collective Subject" rather than "Nominative Singular of a
Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things " :
and "Composite Subject" rather than "two or more sLxigular
Nominatives agreeing with one plural Verb/'
XII
Preface,
§ 10. 'My Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in
1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu-
lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years,
not a single complaint affecting its terminology was heard either
from the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it
in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted
as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their
justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing
the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the
Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief
predecessor, Lilly's Grammar.'
§ 1 1. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain
portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being
of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com-
pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with
partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others.
I. The Doctrine of Predication.
§ 12. This Doctrine is treated (§§ 100-106) in agreement with
the principles now received in all Continental Latin Grammars,
and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some
slight variations in the mode of treatment. Logic and
Grammar are akin to one another ; but their spheres are
different. Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops
' the laws of thought/ Grammar is the Logic of language : it
displays the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation
and the Terms Subject- Predicate are necessary to both sciences.
But the scope of these terms is not the same in both.
If we take a Simple Sentence, such as * beneficium male
collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum societati,' we see that
the Logical Subject of this proposition is 'beneficium male
collocatum,' but the Grammatical Subject of the sentence is
' beneficium,' of which ' male collocatum ' is an adjunct.
Again, the Logical Predicate is ' noxium,' the Grammatical
Predicate ' nocet ' or ' noxium est,' of which ' hominum socie-
tati ' is an adjunct. Hence appears the propriety and necessity
(if confusion is a thing proper and necessary to be avoided) of
distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar
by the epithet ' Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject-
Preface,
xiii
Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the
science of Grammar that they cannot be excluded from it, if
their exclusion were desirable. See * Predicate * in Index I.
The Subject is 'id quod Praedicato subjectum est' : the
Predicate is ' id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est/ The com-
bination of the two (as Kiihner says : * Ausfiihrliche Grammatik
der Lat. Spr.,' Part iii. § i) is rightly called the Predicative
Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel
of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection,
and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the
endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, &c.).
When I was preparing my * Elementary Latin Grammar '
forty years ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic,
I took for my type of simple predication, ' homo est mortalis.'
But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford
scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in
Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo
morilur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form
homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large
exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as
before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers : and
a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is
surely entitled to acceptance.
II. Complement (of Predication).
§ 13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by
Mr. C. P. Mason in his ' English Grammar,' to designate that
which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is
one *of incomplete Predication' (called 'Copulative' in this
Grammar, p. 351).
In sentences such as 'homo moritur (est mortaHs),' we
have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not
'mortalis,' but) 'moritur' or 'est mortalis.' Donaldson's
expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary '
predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades
the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the rules of
Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however
necessary to the preamble of Syntax, as the correlative of
Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb
(or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion
is happily avoided by the term ' Complement,' which is wide
xiv
Preface.
enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing
the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or
infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352.
III. Relations in the Simple Sentence.
§ 14. Mr. Mason, in his ' Engfish Grammar,' following Becker's
^ Organism der Sprache,' treats of the Relations of Words in
the Simple Sentence. The ^ Public School Latin Grammar '
does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as
* spurious children of Logic and Grammar.' But he has failed
to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical
as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian
can now exclude) the correlations Subject-Predicate and
Subject-Object.
Two of Mr. Mason's ' Relations,' the Predicative (I.) and
the Objective (HI.)? ^^e the same, in title and extent, as those
of this Grammar. His ' Attributive ' Relation contains the
Qualitative (IL), but is more extensive: his 'Adverbial'
Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more
extensive.
Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare
inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with
Latin, a largely inflected language. But even in English the
Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and
the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less
in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the
Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives
might be replaced by Preposition with case (i.e. adverbially) ;
still there remain very many examples of each case which
cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that
signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits
distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that
the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate
Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the
* Receptive' (IV.), and the Genitive under the ' Proprietive '
Relation (VI.).
Relation VI L, that of ' the Prolative Infinitive,' appeared
for the first time in the * Pubhc School Latin Primer.' It com-
prises all the instances in which the Infinitive extends (profert)
the construction of words capable of being followed in de-
pendence by a Copulative InfiniUve with Nominative Com-
Preface,
XV
plement. See § i8o. In the 'Elementary Latin Grammar'
the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.)
was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c.) Predi-
cative (/>. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied: for
if, in 'soleo errare/ the Infinitive is Object of ' soleo/ it is an
unique Object : and if, in ' videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi-
catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character
as a ' Complement ' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective
or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and from every other
instance in p. 352. And how, on the same principle, can we
analyse without the most unpleasant confusion such sentences
as these? — •
Marcus putatur velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle
fieri doctiorem.
At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of
Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves
separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun.
Madvig's mode of treating this construction is not essentially
different in principle. Under one head (§ 180) this Grammar
gives what he sets forth in three places (§ 389, § 393, § 400). He
treats in one and the same chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio
Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to
keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in
Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV.
that of Oratio Obliqua. But when Madvig speaks of the
Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs *um den
Begriff zu erganzen und die Handlung zu ergeben ' (to complete
the idea and supply the action)^ this is exactly what is meant by
the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much
the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English,
with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade-
quately called 'auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c.
kommen : I will — shall — can — must, &c. come). The con-
struction belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic)
language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / will
come^ I would come, by 'je viendrai, je viendrais,' it falls in
with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux — ^je veux — ^je
desire — j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after
many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by
anybody who wishes to do so, as in 'vincere scis, tu sais
vaincre/ ' cupis abire, tu desires partir,' &c. The use of the
xvl
Preface.
Verb noun as an Object is recognised in § 179. But the
reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the
test of * esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly
preponderant. If an example be adduced like this in Horace,
C, i. 2. 49 : —
hie magnos potius triimiphos
hie a m e s did pater atque princeps^
and if it be asked whether, as triumphos\% Object of ames,
did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is —
that Latin v/riters, especially poets, often construct one Verb
with dependence of two kinds : so Verg. Aen. iii. 234 : —
sociis tunc arma capessanf
edico et dira bellum cum genlt gerendum,
* Ames,' in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object
frtumphos, and then a Prolative Infin. did^ with its comple-
nients. The example belongs to that kind of construction
which grammarians have called Zeugma. See § 61.
Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIII.), is in kind dif-
ferent from the other seven. It is really no more than a com-
pendious method^ by which a word B is noted as assignable to
the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con-
venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete
rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account
for the cases, moods, &c. of words linked to others by various
conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579.
§ 15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the
student of language should always bear in mind : —
(1) Few Definitions are free from examples which occa-
sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter
those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may
sometimes become an Adjective (rex, regina, raptor, victor,
victrix, &c.) : an Adjective or Participle often becomes a
Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum,
&c.) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun
sometimes takes the functions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes
a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach
V?pon one another ; and so on.
(2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions:
Preface,
xvii
and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal
or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule,
the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended
in order to recognise such instances as normal. See § loi.
Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some
one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement,
belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation
also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 352, the first
six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth
under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples
of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being
attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because thev appear
as caseforms, and not in attributive concord.
§ 16. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of
treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of
Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the
category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri.
bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi-.
native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the
Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as
remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative
depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The
Concords 2, 3, 4, come under II.; the peculiar use of the
Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII.
Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying
out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory
of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view,
throughout.
Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple
Sentence does materially help many students to read with more
profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed
again at the close, will map the subject in their niind3 more
lucidly and more enduringly.
IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of *Sum.'
§ 17. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also
§ 99, Munro on Lucr. ii. i, with the authorities there cited.
The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles
finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles
(Hor. C. i. 37. 25; ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles
having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B. ii. 40 : —
a
xviii
Preface,
praeterea duo nec tuta mihi valle reperti
capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo,
bina die siccant ovis ubera; quos tibi servo.
Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after *albo/ thus
apparently making ' reperti ' finite : but the tenour of the
passage indicates that ^capreoli siccant' is the principal predi-
cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle.
The ellipse of * esse ' in oblique construction, when the par-
ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in
dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in
prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which
the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives
without * esse,' is not by any means so generally and so well
understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to
study with care the note on § i8o in this Grammar, and to
collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in
the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse which are not
duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be
more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative
(Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a
few examples.
a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt,
T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv.
b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . .
Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hon
c. Delectum habendum putant,
Delectus habendus putatur.
d. Omnes secuturos verisimile est,
Omnes secuturi videntur.
e. Graeciam collisam narrant,
Graecia collisa narratur, Hor.
f. Memorant quendam solitum . . .
Memoratur quidam soHtus, . . . Hor.
g. Credimus Athon velificatum,
Creditur Athos velificatus, luv.
h. Perunt genetricem adfatam lovem,
Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82.
In every one of these examples ^ esse ' is to be mentally
supplied — its construction being Oblique (§ 194) in each
former — Prolative (§ 180) in each latter line.
Preface,
xlx
V. § 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over-
looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival
constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive
Clause. See §§ 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the
treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the
title Petitio Obliqua, § 197. A disposition is shewn by some
writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final)
Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance
in Narratio Obliqua (§ 230) prove their just rank as one of the
three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con-
stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In-
finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and
cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage
a sort of rivalry with other constructions of u t, n e, in order to
obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique
* permission, command, or request.' The examples which
Madvig cites in §§ 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio
Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions,
might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought
to be treated.
^ Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn
partem itu7vs atque ibi futuros Helveiios, ubi eos Caesar cpn^
stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret,
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae
virtutis Plelvetiorum . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi
constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . . . nomen caperet.'
— Caes. B, G. i. 13.
' Cum vellet, congrederetur ; tntelkcturiiin quid invicti
Germani .... virtute possent' — Caes. B. G. i. 36.
* Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederct \
illorum esse praedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani
reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimannt,^^' —
Caes. B. G, v. 34.
' Cicero respondit : " non esse consuetudinem populi Romani
accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere
velint, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mittant ;
sperare^ pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos." ' — Caes.
B, G. V. 41.
^ Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita velle ut mea Roma caput
or bis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarem colaiit ; sciantque
2l z
XX
Preface.
et ita posteris tradant^ nullas opes humanas armis Romanis
resistere posse."' — Liv. i. i6.
Exprobrant multitudini : " saginare plebem populares suos,
ut iugulentur. hoccine patiendum fiiisse, si ad nutum dictatoris
non respondent vir consularis ? fingerent mentitum ante, atque
ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo umquam
mendacii poenam vincula fidsse ? " ' — Liv. vi. 1 7.
* Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas
desideria militum ad Caesarem fe7'e?ida,'^ ait ; " neque veteres ab
imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab divo Augusto tarn nova
petivisse \ et parum in tempore incipientes principis ciii-as
onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium
quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, ciir contra morem
obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim 7neditenhir ? decemerent
legatos seque coram mandata dareiitT ' — Tac. An7i. i. 19.
* Eo in metu arguere Germanicum omnt^, quod 7ion ad supe-
riorem exercitum pergeret^ ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi-
lium : " Satis superque missione et pecunia et mollibus consultis
peccatum ; vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi-
dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis humani iuris violatores
haberef^ illos saltem avo et reipublicae reddereV^^ — Tac. Ann.
i. 40. See do. do. ii. 15.
* post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque
esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel toller et omnes.'
Hor. Epist, i. 6. 43.
Compare Verg. Ae7i, iv. 683 :
date volnera lymphis Abluam^ &c.
A en, vi. 884 :
manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargaTn flores, &c.
The true construction, Mate abluam,' g7^a7tt 7?te to wash
away^ ' date spargam,' grant me to scatter^ &c., has in each place
been recognised fully by no commentator except Ladewig.
If commentators v^ho have fallen into error respecting them
had been familiar with the principles of * Petitio Obhqua,' they
would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on
' date,' like ' colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription
to Silvanus found at Aime in France :
tu me meosque reduces Romam sistito
daofi.^ Itala rura te colamus praeside. — Coll. Orell. 1613.
Preface,
xxi
Had ' sinite ^ been written instead of ^ date ' (and there is no
real difference) the mistake would not have been made.
VI. § 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division ii. (§§ 61-99), on
the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read
by those who have already studied Latin Syntax to some extent
in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably
contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions,
Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc-
tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig,
intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly
breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these
latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences,
Simple and Compound.
To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend
the adoption of the following order, in studying the laws of
Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax.
(1) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter VI. , Sections i.-viii.
(§§61-89).
(2) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter II., Section x. (Numerals,
§§ 32-34).
(3) Syntax, Chapters I., II., III., IV., Section i. (§§ 100-189).
(4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, §§ 90-99).
(5) Syntax continued (§§ 190-250).
The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused
with advantage at the close of such a course.
VII. § 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of
Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this
Grammar.
Chapter I. of Part II. (§ 100) sets forth :
(1) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound.
(2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence :
Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio) : Question
(interrogatio).
(3) The forms which these three severally take when, being
subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan-
tival Clauses : —
Oblique Statement : Oblique Will-speech : ObUque Question.
Chapter II. (§§ 101-106) contains :
The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rela-
xxii
Preface,
tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use
of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed.
Chapter III. (§§ 107-188) contains :
Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence
(Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines).
Chapter IV. (§§ 189-240) treats of :
The Compound Sentence, in five Sections.
Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews:
(1) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ;
Substantival (§ 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival :
(2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds :
(3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for
Adverbial (see § 204).
Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to
Oratio Obliqua, actual and virtual, with examples.
Section III. contains :
Rules and Examples of the construction of the three
varieties of Substantival Clauses :
(1) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua).
(2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obHqua).
(3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua).
Section IV. contains :
Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses
stated in connexion with one another.
Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of :
(1) Consecution of Tenses :
(2) Narratio Obliqua :
(3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses :
(4) Participial Construction.
VIII. § 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn
forms an edifice of its doctrine, from which no stone can be
taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric*
* Let me here state my meaning more distinctly.
I. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of
Construction should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential
that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt
before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated in
Appendix IL to the ' Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1878 &c.).
Preface.
xxiii
Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied
by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to
deduce principles from them correctly.
(1) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties :
I. Vales: 2. Vale: 3. Valesne?
Can this be denied ?
(2) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal
change) to a principal Predication ; such junction being a
' Compound Sentence/ the subordinate or dependent member
in which we term ^ the Clause.'
1. Audio (constat) te valere,
2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas.
3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasne.
Can this be denied ?
(3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to
the Verb on which it depends.
1. I hear (it is evident) — What? That you ai'C well,
2. I wish (my wish must be) — What ? That you be well,
3. I ask (it is asked) (say) — What? Whether you are well.
Can this be denied? (See it even in Madvig, § 208b, 398a.)
2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the
three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses
when they become subordinate.
3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound
Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the
rules for the Simple Infinitive, with Gerunds and Supines, should be in-
cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though
it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of
Compound Construction.
4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should
take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival,
Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the
two latter classes
5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan-
tival Quod-clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to the
Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally
imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction.
6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given
to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its
subordinate use
7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some
English grammarians use, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses (§ 100) answers the purpose adecjuately.
XXIV
Preface.
(4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a
Substantive, and is justly termed * Substantival.'
Can this be denied?
(5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the
adverbial questions — ho7v^ for what purpose, why^ when, on
what condition, &c. — are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con-
secutive, Final, &c.). See § 189 B.
There can be no just reason to deny this.
[All Relative Clauses — formed by qui or a particle expli-
cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called
Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in
this Grammar (§ 189 C, § 204, &c.) the term is applied only to
those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc-
tive : such as : Quis est t a m i m p i u s qui parentem feriat ? =
ut feriat ? — Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur : —
Miseret me tui qui tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and
the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging
to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use
is needed here alone to complete the analogy.]
This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial,
and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram-
marians, Kriiger, Kiihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many
others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's
Syntax.
(6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that
€ach of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which
is itself dii'ect, i.e. independent. This indii'ect speech is called
by general consent of grammarians ^ Oratio Obliqua,' and that
on which it depends is called ' Oratio Recta' (direct speech).
Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause
constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly
and inadequately, by Madvig, § 403, Obs. i. The chief
reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been ' specially
called' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose
consists mainly of statements. Another reason is, that the
indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-speech or will-
speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as
the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no
mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The
student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the
term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful
Preface,
XXV
study of Oblique Narration, as used by Livy, Sallust, and
Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syntaxis
Vergiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c.
(7) The Hmits of Oratio Obliqua being thus established as
coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of
Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we
therefore call 'Suboblique,' that is, * Subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in §§ 190-193,
because the constructions resulting from them occur in many
of the examples cited in the sections following.
The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood
of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen-
dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua
in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent
Conjunctive). See Example in § 190 L So also :
Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles aitbestiolas quasdam
nasci, quae unum diem vivant^ Cic. T. D, i. 39. Perspicuum
est, non esse utilia, quae sint turpia, Cic. Off, iii. 32.
With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and
those in ^Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine
is laid down in all Latin grammars.
IX. § 22. So also Rule 193, which states that a subjunc-
tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc-
tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is
not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio
Obliqua. The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere
seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to
understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga-
rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those
who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars
are written for those who are willing to learn, and who
wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems,
therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the
endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing
in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with
the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol-
lowing places in Cicero's Treatise * De Officiis ' :
(1) Cyrenaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau-
dandam, quod efficiens esset voluplatis, iii. 33.
(2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens,
ii. 22.
xxvi
Preface.
We say that ^ virtutem esse laudandam ' (actually) is Oratio
Obliqua, on which ^quod esset' depends, and is therefore
Subjunctive, being ^ suboblique.' We say that ' laudat ' (virtually)
contains Oratio Obliqua, and that * quod fuerit/ depending on
it, is ^ virtually suboblique.'
Such is our proposition. Let us consider it.
First, as to * quod esset' in sentence (i).
^ Virtutem esse laudandam ' is Oratio Obliqua in its principal
form of Accus. with Infin. (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite
Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive
because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well
as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and
for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed.
Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive * actually subordinate to
Oratio Obliqua,' or (for brevity's sake) * suboblique.'
Secondly, as to * quod fuerit,' in Sentence (2).
Do we utter * a mystery ' when we say, that a person who
is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some-
thing ; that * laudat * necessarily contains the meaning * putat
esse laudandum ' with the meaning * ait esse laudandum ' ?
Enough that it contains the latter. Laudat then contains
* virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb
depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a
virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) * virtually
suboblique,' is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming
Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises.
Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio
Obliqu^-.'
X. § 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec-
tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question
the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps
say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests
a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's
understanding and the true logical reason of the Thought-
mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the
Subject?
The answer to this objection has already been suggested in
another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and
learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi-
ness to see that his pupils do learn — do know — the meaning
Preface,
xxvii
and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire
their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one)
or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of
which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark,
and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good
teacher will be always on his guard against this danger. If he
asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is
sure the learner understands, he may say ' quite right,' and pass
on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance,
As to passage (i) :
Q. Why is ' esset ' Subjunctive ?
A, It is suboblique.
Q, How so ?
A, It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua * virtutem esse
laudandam.'
And this Oratio Obliqua itself?
A, It is subordinate to the principal sentence 'Cyrenaici
censuerunt.'
To what then is the Clause ^ quod efficiens esset volup-
tatis' referred?
A, To the mind of the Subject Cyrenaici.
As to passage (2) :
Q, Why is ^fuerit' Subjunctive?
A, It is virtually suboblique.
Q. How so?
A, It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in * laudat.*
Q, How would you express this Oratio Obliqua?
Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent).
Q, To what then is the Clause ^ quod fuerit abstinens '
referred ?
A, To the mind of the Subject Panaetius.
If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to
answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re-
examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood.
If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says :
May not this cross-examination be cut short? is not all con-
tained in the last question and answer ? No, we reply : for we
are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latin construction,
xxvlii
Preface.
Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the
rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double
failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we
believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice.
XL § 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all Hhe
mystery' of such constructions as (2) by saying that * The Sub-
junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an
alleged reason or act.' These words we quote from one such
writer. ^
^ Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious
reasons) supply the most numerous instances of ' virtually
^ It may be instructive to cite this writer's * ipsissima verba,' as an in-
stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says :
*The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de-
note an alleged reason or act, as * ' Laudat Panaetius Africanum, quod
fuerit abstinens," *' Panaetius praises Africanus, because he says that he was
self- restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean ** because he actually was
self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So **iniuria
quae tibi facta est," the injury which has been done you" ; but iniuria
quae tibi facta sit," *' the injury which you say has been done you." Cic.
i7t Caec. 58.'
( I ) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to
the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version
is * alleging that he was ' or (better still) * on the ground that he was.^
{2) ' Fuit ' for * fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such
a context as ' laudat quod,' that is to say, where the principal verb is one
which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio
Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no such
nature, as in the well-known passage * Themistocles noctu ambulabat,
quod somnum capere non posset,' T. D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written
*poterat,' if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement.
(3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic.
in Caec. 18) would perceive at once that it is fallacious; that the context,
when supplied, must account for the use of *quae sit facta.' And such is
the case. Cicero writes : * Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar
et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo.
Deinde de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin-
dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen-
tences later ; * Quid si ne iniiu^iae quidem, quae tihi ab illo facta sit, causa
remanet ? '
It would be quite enough to say that for ^ si iniuriam tibi factam quereris '
Cicero might have used the not less frequent ' quereris quod iniuria tibi
facta sit,' and that * de iniuria quae tibi facta sit ' is a mere abridgement of
Preface.
xxix
suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been
misled by Madvig, who, in his very faulty treatment of Mood,
mentions such examples only. But the principle is general,
and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive
Clauses : as witness the following examples :
Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit, Nep.
Milt 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nisi eam exerceas^ aut
si sis natura tardior, Cic. C 7. Utilitas efflorescit ex
amicitia, etiamsi i\x eam minus secutus sis, Cic. Lael. 27.
This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv.
Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own
indepejident right, ' denotes an alleged reason or act.^ If this
were so, then the compound sentence ' Laudat Africanum
Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens' would be good Latin, and
might express * Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self-
denying ' : quod absurdum est, as geometricians say.
The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this
power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is
truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only/;/ its relation to the
previous predication, which is never to be left out of question.
If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the
thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the
Subjunctive also shares that thought. If the Subjunctive, as in
(2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive,
or otherwise controlled), its presence denotes that in that
principal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied. In
other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then
to be considered, but the principal predication together with its
dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, ' posset ' con-
veys to ^ ambulabat ' the accessary notion of a reason given for
the act by Themistocles : ^ poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat '
to the statement of Cicero.
XII. § 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this
doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be
more instructive if divided into three classes :
* de iniuria, de qua quereris quod tibi facta sit. ' But also * de iniuria, quae
tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua ' neminem . . .
vindicem esse ' : and, when * facta sit ' is afterwards used, Cicero merely
cites his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con-
text. See Example 57, below.
XXX
Preface,
First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal
oratio obliqua ' \ but a slight addition or a slight change of
form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense.
Secondly : Examples where ' oratio obliqua ' is implied in
the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed
feeling : praise^ b/ame, complaint, accusatio?i, reproach, boasting,
giving thanks, promismg, iiidignation, anger, menace, regret, &c.
Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be-
tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a
manifest ' Oratio Obliqua ' ; but we say, on the ground of
analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal
construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause.
Class I.
1. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem,
sed ^uia iucunditatis vel plurimum afferat. — Cic. d. Fin,
i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make
this an example of actual oratio obliqua.)
2. Tefelicemdicis amasque
Quod nusquam tibi sit potandum. — Hor. S, ii. 7, 31.
{Esse te felicem, )
3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? nega bit,
Quod latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. — Hor. S,
ii. 3, 162. {^tg2\A\. recte esse,)
4. Hanc reperiebat causa m, quod apud Germanos ea
consuetudo esset ut &c. — Caes. B, G, i. 50. {Causam
esse.)
5. Cum contemplor animo, reperio quattuor causas, cur
senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus
gerendis ; alteram, quod corpus faciat infirmius ;
tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quar-
tam, quod hand procul absit a morte. — Cic. C, M. 5.
{Esse being supplied with ' causas,' ' unam ' &c., oratio
obliqua exists throughout.)
6. ~ Ille laborem
Excusare Philippo et mercennaria vincla
Quod non mane domum venisset, denique quod non
Providisset eum, — Hor. Ep. i. 7, 66. (Excusare =///V//
in causa esse,)
Preface,
xxxi
7. Bene maiores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum,
quia vitae coniunctionem habe7rt, convivium nomi-
narunt. — Cic. C, M, 13. (Nominarunt=m^ ^/jc^rz/;//.)
8. Caesar sua senatusque in Ariovistum beneficia comme-
moravit, quod rex appellatus esset a senatu, quod
amicus, &c. — Caes. B, G, i. 43. (Commemoravit=
multa esse dixit ^
9. Huic me, quaecumque fuisset,
Addixi. — Ytrg.Aeu.iil 652. (Addixi me=^/jt:/ ad-
haesurum^
10. Videor mihi gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eorum iniurias
meo labore, inimicitiis, periculo sim persecufus, — Cic.
Verr, ii. 6. (Videor m\hx=puto me.)
11. Commodissimum visum est C. Valerium Procillum
. . . quod in eo peccandi Germanis causa non esset^ ad
eum mittere. — Caes. B. G. i. 47. (Visum tst-=putavit
esse.)
12. Mirabile videtur ^//(?^non haruspex cum haru-
spicem viderit ; hoc mirabilius quod vos inter vos
risum tenere possitis, — Cic. N. D. i. 26. (Mirabile vi-
Aetm^mirandum esse putant.)
13. Thucydides libros suos tum scripsisse dicitur, cum a
republica remotus atque in exilium pulsus esset. — Cic. d.
Or, ii. 15. (Th. scripsisse dicitur = scrip-
sisse dicunt.)
14. Quidquid peperisset decreverunt toll ere. — Ter. And.
ii. I, 6. {To\[QXQ^-=ut tollerent.)
15. Helvetii constituerunt ea ^^/(7^ ad proficiscendum pej'-
tinerent comp Sir siVQ. — Caes. B. G. i. 3, (Comparare=
ut compararefit.)
Class II.
16. Nemo extulit eum verbis, qui ita dixisset, ut qui adessent
intellegerent quid diceret. — Cic. d. Or. \. 14. (Extulit
vtxhis-^-laudandum esse dixit )
17. Athenienses Lacedaemoniorum victorias suae culpae
tribuebant, quod Alcibiadem e civitate expulissent,
— Nep. Ale. 6.
18. Caesar temeritatem cupiditatemque militum reprehendit,
quod sibi ipsi iudicavissent quo procedendum aut quid
agendum videretur. — Caes. B, G, vii. 52.
xxxii
Preface,
19. Nec vero quisquam potest iure reprehendere, quodm?iXQ
non transiei'iin, — Cic. Att. viii. 12, 3.
20. Haedui que stum veniebant, quod Harudes, qui nuper in
Galliam transportati essent, fines eorum populare7itiu\
— Caes. B, G. i. 37.
21. Saepe illi deplorare solebant, turn qtiod voluptatibus
carerent . . . turn qt/od spernerejitiir ab eis, a quibus
essent coli soliti. — Cic.
22. Hospitem inclamavit, quods^t^o, absente mihi fidem habere
noliiisset. — Plant. Asin, iii. 2.36.
23. Graviter Haeduos a ecu sat quod . . . non sublevetiir ;
. . . quod sit dcstitutus^ queritur. — Caes. B. G. i. 16.
24. Theophrastus moriens ac cusasse naturam dicitur, quod
hominibus tarn exiguam vitam dcdisset, — Cic. T, D, iii.
28.
25. Vercingetorix proditionis insimulatus est quod castra
propius Romanos movisset^ quod cum omni equitatu
discessissetj quod sine imperio tantas copias reliquisset,
quod eius discessu Romani tanta opportunitate et cele-
ritate venissent, — Caes. B, G. vii. 20.
26. Caesar centuriones incusavit, quod aut quarn in partem
aut quo consilio ducerentur, sibi quaerendum aut cogi-
tandum putafmt. — Caes. B, G. i. 40.
27. Themistocles graviter castigavit Lacedaemonios, quod
non virtute sed imbecillitate sociorum potentiam quae-
rerent. — lust. ii. 15.
28. Cato obiecit ut probrum M. Nobiliori, ^^/^?^ is in pro-
vinciam poetas duxisset. — Cic. T, D. i. 2.
;j9. Litterae ipsae videntur quasi exprobrare quod in ea
vita maneam, in qua nihil insit, nisi propagatio miserrimi
temporis. — Cic. Fam, vi. i^.
30. Non tam exitu bellorum, quod vincatis, quam principiis,
quod non sine causa suscipiatis^ gloriamini. — Liv. xlv.
22.
31. Caesari decima legio per tribunos militum gratias egit,
quod de se optimum indicium fecisset. — Caes. (9. i. 41.
32. Themistocles domino navis quis sit aperit, riiulta polli-
cens si se conservasset, — Nep. Them, 8.
33. Xerxes ei praemium proposuit, qui invenissei novam
voluptatem. — Cic. T. D. v. 7.
Preface,
Kxxiii
24, Beroen digressa reliqui
Aegram, indignantem, tali qu^d sola careret
Munere, nec meritos Anchisae inferret honores* — Verg.
Aen, V. 650.
35. Augebat iras, quod soli ludaei non cessissent. — Tac. H.
V. 10.
36. Atqui voltus erat multa et praeclara minantis^
Si vacuum tepido cepisset villula tecto. — Hor. S. ii. 3^ 9.
37. Aeneas ... minatur
Exitium, si quisquam adeat. — Verg. Aeit, xii. 760. See
viii. 649.
38. Anpaenitet vo^^quod salvum atque incolumem exer-
citum traduxerim% — Caes. C. ii. 32*
Class III.
39. Nec fluminibus aggesta terra semper laudabilis, ^2/«z;2^c?
senescant sata quaedam aqua. — Plin. N, H. xvii^ 4.
(Laudabilis=m quae laudari debeat.)
40. Eo id 1 a u d a b i 1 i u s erat, quod animum eius tanta acer-
bitas patria nihil a pietate ave^-tisset. — Liv. vii. 5. (Eo
laudabilius erat=<f^? magis laudandum esseplebs putavit,)
41. Lycurgus populo creandi quos vellet magistratus potestatem
p e r m i s i t. — lust iii. 3. (Permisit=<7^<zr/ iussit)
42. Conon a colloquio Artaxerxis prohibitus est, quod eum
more Persarum adorare nollet — lust. vi. 2. (Conon
prohibitus ^^t-=-edictum est ut Conon prohibe^-etur.)
43. Unus ex eis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra
iureiurando se exsolvisset — Liv. xxii. 61. (Abiit =^^/r^
licitum esse puiavit.)
44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, ^^/t?^ Car-
thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset — lust,
xi. 10. (Augebat * . . txtm^\\mi==^ammari se dicebant
Didonis exemplo,)
45. Si quis erat dignus describi quod malus aut fur . . ,foret
. . . notabant — Hor. i. 4, 3. ( Describi =^2<f/ desert-
beretur)
46. Mercatique solum, facti de nomine Byrsam,
Taurino quantum possent circumdare tergo. — Verg. Aen.
i. 367. (i.e. mercati sunt, pacti tantiim fo7'e quantum^
b
xxxiv
Preface.
&:c. 'Poterant' might have been written, if the
mere fact, not the thought of the purchasers were
to be expressed.)
47. Pascentes illae tantum prodire volando
Quantum acie possent ocuH servare sequentum. — Verg.
Aen.v'i. 199. (^xodAx^-=prodire se volebant. Again
* poterant ' might have been used of the mere fact. )
48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio monstrai^it locum
quo condi vellet. — Just. vii. 2. (Monstravit imphes the
addition cum esse dicens.)
49. Sapiens non dubi tat, j-/ ita melius migrare de vita.
— Cic. Fm. i. 19. (Non dubitat m\gx^x^'=^7mgrandum
sihi esse decernit.)
50. Tribunos omnes patricios creavit populus contentus eo,
quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset — Liv. iv. 6. (Conten-
tus eo= satis esse putans.)
Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle dese rer e socios,
nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad
dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum afferre posset.
— Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent
here: most simply we may say * deserere '=*se deserere,*
* minuere se minuere.')
52. lUe nescio qui, qui in scholis nominari solet, mille et
octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat. — Cic. Ac. Pr. ii.
25. (i.e. videre dicebatur a nominantibus.)
53. Quonia7n Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posset^ verba
pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. — Nep. Milt. 7.
{YQC\t=facienda a se putavit ; but the example is a daring
one.)
54. Re nuntiata ad suos, quae imperarefitur facer e dixerunt.
— Caes. B. G. ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con-
densed. At full it is : * the envoys of the Aduatuci, after
reporting the matter to their constituents^ came back and
said they ivould do what was ordered them. ' * Facere ' is,
in fact, oratio obliqua, * suos ' being understood as sub-
ject.)
55. Brutus terram osculo con tig it, scilicet quod ea com-
munis mater omnium mortalium m<?/. — Liv. i. 56. (Con-
iigit^contingendam esse putavit.)
Preface. xxxv
56. Alter
S u b 1 e g i t quodcimque iacefet inutile, quodque
/*^^j<?/ cenantes offendere. — Hor. S. ii. 8, 11. (Sublegit
contains the notion, that the slave ^ sublegendum esse
vidit,^)
57. Ex his, qui ^xmdi ferre possent ad milia xcii. — Caes. B,
i. 29. (In the previous sentence we read : ' in tabulis
nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo
exisset eorum, qui arma ferre possent^ This reference
to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates
our general subject here — a Latin author's habit of
adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind,
but only implied in his text* See note at page xxix.)
58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi
concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent — Liv. i. 21*
{^diCY2iVi\.-=saerum esse voluit)
59. Non equidem extimui Danaum quod ductor et Areas,
Quodque a stirpe fores geminis coniunctus Atridis. — Verg.
Aen, viii. 130. (Non extimui =;^^?/^ extimescendum
esse putavi.)
60. Foetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquissef, mihi
d o n a vi t. — Cic. Att. ii. i. (DonsLvit=^donaresedixif. His
words would be : dono tibi libros, quos frater mens re-
liquit.)
XIII. § 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re-
ference to the mind of the subject Foetus is indicated not only
by the subjunctive ^ reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re-^
flexive pronoun * suus/ Cicero might have written, *quos
frater eius reliquerat,' if he had been satisfied with making the
statement his own, as in the sentence ' Themistocles ambula-
bat,' &c., he might have written *poterat' for 'posset,' if he
had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles.
See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see § 231 B. and
Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it
a modern version of the wo famous epigrams respecting
George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry
to Oxford, and gave a library to Cambridge.
Diver sis Dive^'sa, i.
Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas
Mox academias invigilante notat,
b 2
xxxvi
Preface.
Cur equitum mitt it tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam?
Qiwd tu, docta licet, sis male fida sibi.
Idem, Granta, libros mi t tit tibi, praemia iusta,
Quod tu fida sibi sis, male docta lamen.
Diver sis Diver sa, 2.
Cur equitum mitt it tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ?
Quod vis regicolis pro ratione valet.
Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, quod vis
Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est}
In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated,
being referred to the mind of the king. In the second they
are stated as the writer's own observations.
XIV. § 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir-
tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb
in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose, Am. 47, quod viris forti-
bus, quorum opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos
habitus est, laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after
Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person :
gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepisti. But, if the writer
speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the
Subjunctive may follow, as *quod fores' in 59. It must also be
remembered that the Exceptions (noticed § 193, and further
exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but
not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous,
especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with * quod' depend-
ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if the fact in the
Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of
feeling which it arouses : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiratis, quod
^ The English originals are :
Jacobite Epigram.
The king, observing with judicious eyes
The state of both his universities,
To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why ?
That learned body wanted loyalty.
To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning
How much that loyal body wanted learning.
Hanoverian Reply.
The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ;
For Tories own no argument but force.
On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent.
For Whigs allow no force but argument.
Preface.
xxxvii
rocem mittitisy quod formas hominum habetis^ indignantur.
SoCic. Verr, L 47. Utrum reprehendis, ^^/^?^ libertus patro-
num iuvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius
patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat^ a quo summum benefi-
cium acceperat ?
To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on
pp. 437 II., 459 (foot), where *subobHque ' should be * virtually
suboblique ' ; also the examples in the * Public School Latin
Primer,' p. 168.
The construction of Subjunctives in dependence on formal
Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted,
and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. It
appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose
writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound
Construction (§ 194, &c.) in this Grammar.
XV. § 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation
of particular idioms, notices (§ 370), that the Second Person of
the Conjunctive is used (like *man' in German, 'on' in
French) to express an undefined subject {some one^ any one).
Thus often in principal construction : Quem neque gloria nec
pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere, Sail. Cat. 58. Canes
venaticos diceres, Cic. Ve7T. iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses
dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic.
Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil
relinquitur, Cic. T, D. v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegaSy
Sail. lug. 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, tum illud quod
praeteriit effluxit ; tan tum remanet, quod virtute et recte factis
consecutus sis, Cic. d. Or. iii. 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi
tamquam luraini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic.
C M. II. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamst tu id non agas^
consequitur, Cic. T. JD. i. 38. Gerundive and other Imper-
sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used
with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique
utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria Jiaf, serviendum est.
Cic. Tibi ipsidicendumerit aliquid quod non sentias au t f a c i-
endum quod non probes., Cic. Fam, iv. 9. Est enim sapien-
tis, quidquid homini accidere possit, id praemeditari ferendum
modice esse, si evenerit. Maioris omnino est consilii pro-
videre, nequid tale accidat ; animi non minoris fortiter
ferre, si evenerit, Cic. FhiL xi. 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias^
non licet; tacere plane licet, Cic. Fain. iv. 9.
xxxviii
Preface,
XVI. § 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua,
on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say
that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible.
I should have been equally content to call it * contained ' or
^ implied/ or * informal ' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one
and the same thing.
The point at issue is this :
Are they right, who like Madvig (§ 357, § 368-9, § 404) put
forward first the usage
(a) Principal Sentence (Indie.) -f Clause (Subjunct.)
and follow this up with
(^) Princ. Sent. (Indie.) + O. Obliqua + Clause (Subjunct.)
thus making (/?) a corollary or special case of (a) ?
Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make
(a) a corollary or special case of (fi) ?
Having had this question in view for half a century or
more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram-
matical order is that which appears in this book (§§ 1 90-1 91),
from (/?) to (a), not from (a) to (fi) ; that this is the order in
which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of
Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause
(Accus. and Infin.) as its first — most representative — most nor-
mal form (§ TOO, § 190, § 194).
XVII. § ^o. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the
doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages from
his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious-
ness of that order being the true one.
(1) When treating of the Accusative (§ 322) Madvig says :
*In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion
between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the
subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g.
hominem currere, that a man runs \ esse dominum, to be lord.^
This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to
place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compound Construc-
tion. But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second
Part.
(2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his
paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive,
in so far as they are out of place and unsystematic — he says
(§ 348, Obs. 3) ; * The same holds ' — to our mind the connexion
Preface,
xxxix
he suggests has no real existence — 'of other conditional
propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to
the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it,
which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro-
position, so that the co7iditional clause belongs to the oi-atio
obliqua^^^ e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis»
sent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. ii. 67 — minatur se iis malum
daturum nisi — Minatur is stated absolutely without any condi-
tion), lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (Sail
lug, 25 — ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res
quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic.
de Div, ii. i, e.g. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse.)'
Need I say that in this passage — occurring before he has
introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive
clause before referred to — Madvig does, in point of fact, though
but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this
Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been
maintaining and exemplifying, — the doctrine of Virtual Oratio
Obliqua, exhibited in his three cited examples ? He has, un-
happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im-
portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards.
The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar,
in his Latin Grammar (i 201-1204) states first the doctrine of
Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on
the triple form of simple sentences and dependent Substantival
clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the
" Oratio Obliqua,^' a verb in a dependent clause may be in the
Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or
alleged reasons of another.' He then cites the example, Cic. T. Z>.
v. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c. and the two following :
Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos fugnasset^
Liv. vi. I. Aedem lovi vovit, si eo die hostes fudisset^ Li v.
xxxi. 21 : (in which obviously : Fabio dicta dies tsi=Fabius
accusatus est^ and vovit contains se dedicaturum).
Thus, by saying * without a formal use of the Obliqua
Oratio,' Key recognises an informal (or virtual) use of it, as
I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could
cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat-
ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf
and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual
O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago.
xl
Preface.
It rests upon its own fitness : I can but deprecate, if it exist
anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he sa ys
Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse
Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper.
Ep, ii. I, 76.
XVIII. § 31. The question, whether the (independent)
Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive,
stands as follows:
The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term
tyKkidiq vTroraKTiKYj, modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in
Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which
they called evKTiKrj, Optative, the other vworaKTLd], Subjunctive.
Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the
respective orms. The term Optative expresses only one use of
the first: — that of praying or wishing, eXdoi, may it come: but it
has also a dependent use, on eXdoi, that it was come) and by
the convenient accession of the modal particle av it gains an in-
dependent or enuntiative power tXdoi av, like the Latin Weni-
ret,' // would come. The second form (Xdri was called viroraK-
T Ki] because it never did acquire enuntiative power ; the modal
av was not extended to it, but only the conjunction ar, if,
the conjunctional relative og ay &c,, whosoever, &c., in dependent
construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc-
cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur.,
eXdiojjtev, let us come ; and as interrogative, in dubitative sense,
— 71 <j>aj, what can I say ? In spite of these two exceptional uses,
it is manifest that the term vTroraKTiKy, subjunctive, is, for the
Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to
say) normal use is dependence, German grammarians, however,
call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of
analogy
But lor calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally. Sub-
junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason-
able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which,
if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr.
§§ 427-8):
*The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in
secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some
sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then
the Subjunctive Mood seems to signify power^ permission^ duty,
Preface.
xli
wishy purpose, result, allegatio7i, hypothesis \ whereas in fact
these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus
the phrase " quid faciam " is translated by what should I do or
what am I to do ? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ? "
what do you wish me to do? (!) '
This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who
applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to
explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek
Subjunctive: supposing 'iojfxey = aye 'iiofxev, and ri <pQ=(rrifArjyov
or oifK oUa ri This farfetched caprice of an ellipsis is bad
enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the
independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I
think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself I
therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a
name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and unjustifiable
violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt
is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who
take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily,
they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent
use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in
great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method ox
treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro-
pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars.
See Uses of the Verb, §§ 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap-
pendix ii. to the ' Public School Latin Primer/ and the Preface
to my Second Edition of Virgil.
XIX. § 32. The small number of terms for which this
Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care
has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and
useful for their several purposes. On such points I have
always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It
has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from
German \\Titers for that class of verbs which join a complement
to their object, § 106, § 131) — is bad in etymology. I have there-
fore now written Factive : but I feel inclined to prefer the term
* Appositive Verbs': i.e. such as append to their object a
complement resembling an apposition: populus Numam regent
creavit : puto te felicem {philosophum). The point merits further
consideratioa
xln Preface.
XX. § 33. Among the numerous books which in the
course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with
profit, I desire specially to mention the various writings of Mr.
Thring, of Uppingham. His * Elements of Grammar taught in
English ' is an admirable companion book to the ' Public School
Prmier ^ for early instruction in Latin.
Cambridge ; Oct, 5, 1879.
B. H. KENNEDY.
CONTENTS.
f Numerals following § represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without
§ represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the
P'ootnotes."]
§ 1-5, p. I. ..... . INTRODUCTION.
I. Divisions of Grammar ; the Latin Language ; Families of
Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches.
2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from
Latin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3.
Sketch of Latin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4. Abbre-
viatiotis in this Gratmnar.
% 6-99, p. 5. ... PART I.— ETYMOLOGY.
§ 6, p. 5. Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots.
§ 7-12, p. 5. . Division i. — Phonology or Soundlore.
5. i. Alphabet ; Capital and Small Letters ; Vowels ; Consonants.
6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ;
iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua-
tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of
Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ;
the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph,
rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso-
nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and
v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels
a, i, u. II. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara-
tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and
long Vowels, x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian Language ; Classical
Latin a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken-
ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vriddhi ;
full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. Ai (ae) and its changes. 13. Oi (oe)
and Its changes ; ei and its changes ; au, eu, ou. 14-17- xiii. Vowel-
strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv.
Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects ; xv. Compensation. 19.
xvi. Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e
as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel a and its weakenings, A) in Root-
and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases and Personal End-
ings. 21. xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Selection. 21-24.
xliv
Contents,
XX. Weakening into as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use
of 0 and u in final syllables. Formidulosus, ^c. 23. Gerundive forms
ondus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into 6 as influenced by Selection.
29-31. xxii. Selection oft. 30. Vincular I. A^ote. 32. Recapitulation.
32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of
Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second
Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com-
pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37.
a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; a e into I ; o e into I ; o e into u ;
a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplication. 41-44.
xxvi. Changes of concurrent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation
of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of
Consonants. Forniaiiofi of Comparatives and Superlatives. 43. Dis-
similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii.
Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by
Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels
before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus, Elision, Contraction and
Coalition of Vowels. 54. xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants.
55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Ex-
clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar
Contractions in Verbs. 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in
Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q.
59. Labialism and Dentalism. 60. Sound of ce, ci. 61. The Guttural
Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ;
the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the
Sibilant s. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-co7isonans ;
I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. Words which have lost
an iyiitial letter.
% 13-99. P- 69. . DIVISION II.— Morphology or WoRDLORE.
§ 13, p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS.
§ 14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER /.—Words and their Flexion.
69. i. Stem-flexion : Word ; Stem ; Root ; Sufiix. 70. Prefix ;
Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi-
fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun
Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun ; Apposition ; Names, Abstract and
Concrete. Common Names. Collective Nouns. Adjectives for Sub-
stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb
Finite and Infinite; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles;
Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speech ;
Absence of Articles.
§ 17-34. P- 73- • • • CHAPTER //.— NoUNS.
§ 17-21, p. 73 SECTION I.
73. i. Number in Nouns. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct
Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony-
mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76.
Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena. 77-79. Gender shown by meaning.
80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modern lan-
guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v.
Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions.
Contents.
xlv
§ 22, p. 86. . SECTION II.— i. First Declension ; A-Nouns.
86. Nouns contained in First Decl. ii. Table, iii. Cases in First
Decl. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl.
§ 23, p. 89. SECTION III. — i. Second Declension ; O-Nouns.
89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases.
91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi.
Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I.
§ 24, p. 94. . SECTION IV.— i. Third Declension, Consonant and
I-Nouns.
94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii.
Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True
Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders. 95-96.
A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B. Mute Dental Stems. 99. C.
Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and
Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-stems.
104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllaba and Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I-nouns
with Gender. 104-106. A) Parisyllable I-nouns in \s (er). 104-106.
Nature of i. B) Parisyllable I-nouns Fern, in es (!s). 106-107. C)
Neuter I-nouns in e, 2.1, S,r. 107-108. D) Clipt I-nouns Im parisyllable.
108-109. vi. Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. varying with form
of Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. 110-112. vii. Table of
Third Decl. 112-115. viii. Greek Nouns in Third Decl. 114-115.
Greek Table. 115-119. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con-
sonant Adjectives ; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal.
Four Groups. 118-119. Table of these Adjectives.
§ 25, p. 119. . SECTION v.— i. Fourth Declension ; U-Nouns.
119. ii. Table. 120. iii. Confusion of U- and O-nouns. 121. iii.
Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl.
§ 26, p, 121. SECTION VI.— i. Fifth Declension. E-Nouns, Fem.
ii. Table. 122. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies.
§ 27-28, p. 123. . . SECTION viL— Irregular Nouns.
123. i. Irregularity ; Abundance ; Defect. 123-125. ii. Abundance
in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in
Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular
only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which
change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case.
Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ;
Abundance ; Defect.
§ 29-30, p. 131. . . SECTION viiL — Comparison.
131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ;
ii. Examples; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa-
rison. 133-135. V. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of
Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs.
xlvi
Contents.
§ 31, p. 136 SECTION IX. — Pronouns.
136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; their Persons. 136-
137. ii. Classification of Pronouns : A. Substantival : i. Personal ; 2.
Reflexive ; B. 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ;
6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro-
nouns ; 7. PronominaLia ; 138-142. iii. Tables of Declension. 142-
143. Observations on certain Pronouns. 143-145. A?tcient Caseforms
0/ Pronouns. 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns.
§ 32-34, p. 147. . . . SECTION X. — Numerals.
147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these \ iii. Th»;
Four Chief Numeral Series — Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Numerals,
Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v.
Declension of Numerals, i^o-^^'^,. Numeral Table ; Numeral Roots.
153-155. vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compound Numeration.
157-158- viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu*
lation of Inheritance.
§ 35-53. P- 158. . e . CHAPTER Iir.^Tm Verb.
§ 35-40» P- 158- • . . SECTION I.— i. The Verb Finite and Infinite.
ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitive
and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. 160.
v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from
Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods — Indicative, Conjunctive, Im-
perative. 161-164. vii. The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected
or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenses.
164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic,
viii. Number and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ;
Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles.
§ 41-50, p. 166. . . . section ii.— The Conjugation of Verbs.
166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve-
rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum' (esse) ; Forms of sum, esse.
160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regular
Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169.
Quantity of the Vowel Characters. 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs
Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 172-
182. Tables of the Four Conjugations — Active, Passive, and Depo-
nent. 180. Of lo-Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri-
phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb.
183-189. V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185.
Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. i88. Eo, queo, nequeo.
189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri-
tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio, &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191.
Inquam, ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im-
personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Verbs Passive. 194. Imper-
sonals Gerundive.
Contents.
xlvli
§ 51, p. 194. SECTION IV.— The Forms of the Three Stems in Verbs.
194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Affections. 196. Inceptive
or Inchoative Verbs in see. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its
varieties of formation. 199-202. iii. The Supine Stem and its va-
rieties of formation.
§ 52, p. 202. . . . SECTION V. — Composition of Verbs.
202-203. i. Prepositions compounded with Verbs, separable and
inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. Sus, subs.
203. The form obs. 204. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three
Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad-
verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements.
p. 205. SECTION VI. — Syllabus of Stem-formation in Verbs.
205. A) The First Conjugation ; Imitative Verbs ; Frequentative
Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; B) Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con-
jugation. 206. Desiderative Verbs ; D) Third Conjugation. 206-208.
'^iQm'i2ih\QoiA-vexhs\ Compounds ; Deponent A-verbs, 209-214. Stem-
table of E-verbs, Compounds. 214-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com'
pounds. 216-227. Stem-table of Consonant and U-verbs, Compotmds.
zi6-2,ij. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 217-218. With
strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in
ui, vi. 221-224. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 221-223. Gut-
tural Stems. 223. Dental Stems. 224. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid
Stems. 224-225. U-verbs. 225-227. Deponent Verbs in Third Con-
jugation. 226-227. Inchoative Verbs. 227. Homonymous Verb-forms,
§ 54-58. p. 228. . CHAPTER Particles.
228. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate connexion.
§ 55, p. 228. ..... section i.— Adverbs.
228-232. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Number,
Manner, Degree, Cause, Quality, &c. Table of Adverbs correspond iiig
to these severally.
§ 56, p. 232. . . . section ii. — Prepositions.
232. Relations expressed by Prepositions. i) Prepositions which
take Accusative Case. 233. 2) Prepositions which take Ablative
Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case.
§ 57, p. 233. . . . section hi. — Conjunctions.
233. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions
with both uses. List of Coordinative Conjunctions. 234. B. List
of Subordinative Conjunctions.
§ 58, p. 234 section IV.— Interjections.
234. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 235. Inteijectional
Nouns ; Verbs ;^ Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections.
1 • • •
Contents.
§ 59, p. 235-253. . CHAPTER F.— Derivation and Composition of
Words.
p. 235 . . . SECTION I, — Derivation of Nouns.
236. i. Staminal Suffix. ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes.
237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex-
amples. 247. Formation of Deminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics.
249. vii. Names of Countries. 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of
derived Words according to their meanings ; Examples. 252. Ad-
jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives
derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names.
p. 254, . SECTION II.— Derivation of Verbs.
254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived from Nouns.
p. 255-259. SECTION III. — Derivation of Particles.
255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from
Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other
Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases.
257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v.
Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note
on some of them.
§ 60, p. 259-266. section IV.— Composition of Words.
260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ;
Parathetic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition,
Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn^
thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De-
composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded with Prepositions; their
various senses, &c.
§ 61-99, P- 267. . CHAPTER V/.—VsES of Words.
§ 61, p. 267. section I. — i, FiGURATE CONSTRUCTION.
267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma ; Pleonasm ; Examples ; Attraction ;
Synesis. 269-270, lii. Other Variations. 270. iv. Metaphor ;
Metonymy.
§ 62, p. 270. . section II.— Uses of the Substantive.
270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals. 271. ii.
Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose and poetry.
iii. Plural used to express a ' genus, ' when individuals are implied.
iv. Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab-
stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for
Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El-
lipse of Substantives.
63, p. 275. . . section III.— Uses of the Adjective.
275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives used
adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes.
Contents.
xHx
iv. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi.
Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii..
Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense.
§ 64-69, p. 281. . SECTION IV.— Uses of Pronouns.
sS*!. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 282-285. ii. Demonstra-
tive Pronouns h i c, i 1 1 e, i s t e, is, idem. 285-287. iii. The Reflexive
Pronouns s e, s u u s. 287-289. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse.
289-291. v. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qui, aliquis, aliqui,
quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun
quis que. 291. vi. The Universal Relatives quis quis, quicum-
que, &c. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; alter, uter, &c. ; alius, &c.
§ 70-72, 293. • SECTION V. — Uses of Prepositions.
293-299; Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case.
299-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304-
306. Examples of Pl^positions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306.,
Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions.
§ 73*761 P* 307» SECTION VI. — Correlative Construction.
307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of
Manner with ut, &c. 312-313. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un-
likeness with at que, ac, &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree
with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives,,
&c, Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative.
§ 77-8^, p. 316. . . section vii.— Coordination.
316-320. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 316. Annexive Conjunc-
tions. 517. Distributive Association; Ordinative Particles. 318.
Disjunctive Particles x Adversative. 320. Causal ; Illative. 320-322.
ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms
of quod.
§ ^3-85,, p. 323. . SECTION VIII. — Negative Words.
323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives.
325-326. iii. Ne . . . quidem, nedum, non modo, &c,
§ 86-89, P- 326. . section IX. — Questions and Answers.
I. Questions Single or Disjunctive. 326-327. i. Single Interrogation,
without Particle ; ii. withj Particle ; uses of an, nescio an, &c. 328-
329. iii. Disjunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An-
swers, i. Affirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers.
§ 90-99, p. 330. . section X. — Uses of the Verb.
331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela-
tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the
Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in
Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple Future and Future
Perfect; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the,
c
Contents.
Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii.
The Imperative Mood and its Tenses. 338. iii. The Conjunctive
Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ;
Potential. 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340.
Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive
use. 341. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub-
junctive ; Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses. 343-344. vii. Particles
and Pronouns which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution
of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. ix. Ellipses of the Verb.
^ 100-250. p. 348. . . PART II.— SYNTAX.
§ 100, p. 348. CHAPTER /.— The Doctrine of Sentences.
348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple of Compound. In
0 a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence —
Enuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua.
Substantival Clauses ; their Three Kinds — Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe-
titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua*
§ 101-106, p. 349. CHAPTER II.— The Simple Sentence.
349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and
Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the
Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis-
sion of Pronoun Subject, ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which
do not predicate completely. Sum, esse (complete only when
implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement, 351.
Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative
and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms.
352. What the Complement may be. Examples of Copulative Predica-
tion. Phrase, Enthesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple
Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and Pre-
dicate. II. Qualitative Relation — Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of
Substantives. 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation — Epithetic,
Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental. III. Objective Relation ; Ob-
ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs ; Verbs with two
Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one
Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of
Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. Tra-
jective Words. V. Circumstantive Relation ; Adverbs ; Ablative
Case, &c. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro-
lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive
Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative
Case. V. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of
Active Sentences into Passive form.
§ 107-188, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.—Constructions of the Simple
Sentence.
§ 107. I. Agreement. II. Case-Construction. III. Verb-Construc-
tion.
§ 108-114, p. 359. . . . SECTION I.— Agreement.
359. Agreement what. i. The Four Concords : I. Verb with Subject ;
Examples. II. Adjective with Substantive; III. Substantive with
Contents.
Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante-
cedent ; Examples, ii. Ellipsis of Subject. 361-362. iii. Attraction
of Verb. 362. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords ; of Gender ;
of Number ; Collective Nouns. 363. v. Composite Subject. 364-
367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective
agreeing with Verb-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively
used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter
Adjectives Substantival. 366. Number and Gender of Apposites.
Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one
Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vii.
Synesis and EUipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in
Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot.
369. Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of th& Rules of
Agreement.
§ 115-176, p. 370. . . SECTION II. — Case-Construction.
§ 115-117, p. 370. . . The Nominative Case.
370. i. The Nominative as Subject : ii. As Complement. 371. iii.
With Interjections.
§ 118-119, p. 371. . . . — The Vocative Case.
371. i. Vocative without or with Interjection : ii. The Nominative
for the Vocative.
§ 120-132, p. 372. . . . C—- The Accusative Case.
372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer
Object : Agent and Object : Obj ective Propositions, ii. Accusative of
the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373-
374. iii. Contained Object (Cognate Accusative) : its various instances.
374. Part Affected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. v.
Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi. Accus. of Place Whither.
376. vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive
Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com-
pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans-
itive Verb its power of becoming Passive, viii. Personal and Im-
personal Passives. 378. Preposition of Compound Verb repeated
with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio-
matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative.
379. X. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379-
380. xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of asking, teaching,
&c. 380-381. xii. Obhque double Accusative. 381-383. Examples
of Accusative.
§ 132-142, p. 382. . . . D. — The Dative Case.
382-383. i. Three chief uses of Dative — I. As Remoter Object. II. As
Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii.
Dative of Remoter Object. Words which govern it. 386-388. Verbs
which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with
Dative Object. 389-390. iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Corn-
modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394.
Examples of Dative.
In
Contents,
§ 143-161, p. 392. . . . E. — The Ablative Case.
392. i. Uses of Ablative — I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III.
Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393--394. Ablative
of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Gf Price.
396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla-
tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of
Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of
Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Proper. 403. Ablative of Place
Whence : of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the
Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-411. Examples
of Ablative, ^
§ 162-176, p. 407 . . . F.—The Genitive Case.
407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub-
jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun,
409. iii. Subjective Genitive; Possessive; Descriptive; Partitive.
Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive.
411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genetivus
Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus
Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Construc-
tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae, or
Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 420.
Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive
dependent, 421. on Substantives ; 421-422. on Adjectives ; 422-423.
on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive.
.§ 177-188, p. 424. . . Section III. — Verb-Construction.
424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past
as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive :
extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infini-
tives. 428. Use of CO epit &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative
Infinitive extending Adjectives. ^'2&-a^2.c). Cases of the Infinitive,
Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds.
429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend-
ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive
Construction. 430-431, viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431.
The two Supines — Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Note
on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds,
and Supines.
§ 189-240, p. 434. . CHAPTER Compound Construction.
§ 189, p. 434. . . Section I. — Subordination of Clauses.
434. Clauses of three Kinds — Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival
or Relative.
§ 190-193, p. 435. . . ScTioN II. — Suboblique Construction.
435. i. Oratio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. Sub-
oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a
Clause dependent on it {i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub-
junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub-
junctive, v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437.
Examples of Suboblique Construction.
Contents.
liii
§ 194-203, p. 437. . SECTION III.— Substantival Clauses.
437. I) Enuntiatio Obliqua : has three Forms— Infinitive Clause ;
Ut-clause ; Quod-clause. 437-440- i- Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii!
Ut-clause. 441-442. Quod-clause. 442. II. Petitio Obliqua: Verbs
which introduce it. 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with
Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. III. Interrogatio Obli-
qua. 448-449. Dependent Constructionswith various Verbs. 444-451.
Examples of Substantival Clauses.
§ 204-227, p. 452. . . . SECTION IV.— Adverbial and Adjectival
Clauses.
452. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why called
Adjectival ; Particles equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative
Clauses, ii. Consecutive Clauses : why so called ; with u t, u t n o n,
&c., after Demonstratives or without them. 452-453. Adverbial Con-
secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con-
secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :Tantumabesseut...
454-457. Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after what
Predications, &c. 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use
of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456.
Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses : what
they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with ut, ne, &c. 458.
Demonstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458.
Examples of Final Clauses, 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial
Causal Clauses : of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative
usually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, quia, with Indicative, if
not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459-
460. v. Idioms of Causal construction; non quod, &c. ; non quin.
461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal
Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal
Conjunctions. 462-463. When Subjunctive is required in Temporal
Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal
Clauses. 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when. 465-466.
Examples of cum with Indicative and with Subjunctive. 467-479,
vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions ; Normal
Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha,
Sumptio Dati ; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class
Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467-
468. Examples of the three Classes^ Distinctions. 470-472. Conjunc-
tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples.
472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal
Relation of Tenses ; Protasis without si. 473-474. Si in various
senses. 474. Si combined with Pronouns and Particles. 474-475,
Idiomatic uses of Si. 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con-
dition ; Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples. 477-478. Conditional
Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples. 479. Modo, dum, dum-
modo, Conditional ; Examples. ^\.jg. vii. Concessive Sentences ;
Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con-
cessive Clauses. 480-482. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481-
482. Examples of Concessive Sentences. 482-483. viii. Comparative
Sentences ; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative
Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences.
Jiv
Contents,
§ 229-240, p. 483. . . . SECTION v.— Supplement to Compound Con-
STRUCTION. , .
I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution of Present
Past. 484. Of Historic Present ; of Future with Future ; three
varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses ; of
Subordinated Conditional Sentences^ 486. Of wight have, ought,
must have \ Consecution when Infinitive, &c., intervene.
n. 487-489. Narratio Obhqua, how used by Historians ; Examples.
487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Exainples of the Cofiverslon cf O ratio
Recta into O ratio Obliqua.
III. 489-495. i. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus, in Clauses. 489.
Ipse supphes them; se, suus are Subjective ; is, ille, &c. Objective.
Pronominal reference to be interpreted by. 't^e Jleason of the Thing.'
490. Se, suus connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of
the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490-492. In Substan-
tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause
has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively; Vari-
ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &c. 492.
S e, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492-
494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in
Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. iii.
When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one
Subject is referred to. 494-495. Ipse assisting the use of Reflexive
Pronouns in two ways. 495. Its Appositive use ;Interipsos;Interse.
IV. 495-501. Participial Construction. 495-496. Nature of Parti-
ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ;
Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absolute. 497.
Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbreviates,
i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla-
tion of English ' without ' and Verb. 498. Final, by Fut. Participle ;
Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi,
&c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-5QI. Notes on
Participial Construction.
§ 241-250, p. 501. . . CHAPTER V. — Arrangement of Words and
Structure and Connexion of Sentences.
501-502, Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on
the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. 505-510.
The Period in Latin, Simple or Complex. 506-510. Its Style and
Rhythm. 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510, Narrative Style ;
Qualities of Style. 510-51 1. Distinctions of Prose Style. Styles oj
Various Authors.
§ 251-269, p. 511. . . PAR T III.^LA TIN PROSOD Y.
511. Prosody; Quantity and Rhythm. 512-513. Quantity of
Syllables; Position. 512. Syllables long by nature or position.
513-516. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-520. Quantity of Final
Syllables. 520-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 521-522.
Elision. 523-524. Exceptions to the Law of Ehsion ; Hiatus. 524-525.
Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 525-527.
Verses : Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet. 527-531. Caesura:
Synaphea. 527-528. Technical Terms. 531-532. The Elegiac
Distich ; its Rhythm. 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. Catullus,
Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes
of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres ; Three Lyric Types ;
Contents.
Iv
Asclepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catullus ; Sapphic Stanza m
Horace and Catullus. 537-538. The Hendecasyllable of Catullus.
The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus.
539-541. Table of Metres: I. Single Verses; Dactylic Rhythms;
Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythms. 541-
543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic. 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic
Rhythm : Saturnian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha.
544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of
the Comic Poets.
p. 547. APPENDIX.
547-551. A. Latin Orthography. 551-553. B. "Latin Pronunciation.
554-555. C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law.
556-563. D. Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian
Dialect. 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens
of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F.
Supplement to Figurate Construction (§ 61). 566-572. G. Money ;
Weight ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen-
dar. 575-576. Siglarium Romanum (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup-
plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the
Simple Sentence.
p. 583 INDICES.
I. Index of Subjects 583
II. Latin Index 591
III. Index to Passages in Lajin Writers referred to in this
Grammar 600
THE
PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR.
— ♦ —
INTRODUCTION.
1
Grammar has two chief divisions : Divi-
sions of
(1) Etymology {irvfioXoylay true wordformation), ^ram.
the doctrine of Letters and Words.
(2) Syntax {avvra^iSy construction), the doctrine of
Sentences and Discourse.
Prosody (Trpoo-w^m), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and
Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended
to it.
2
The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The
people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- Lan-""
valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- ^""^^^
European or Aryan family.
I. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind
in their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new
seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst
the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less
strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such
kindred languages constitute a Family. Among the families of
human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili-
sation — the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan.
The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic
writing) occupied south-western Asia ; comprising the Aramaic
(Syriac and Chaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches.
The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long
series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe,
and to Various regions of the Asiatic continent. The European
branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic; (2) the Teutonic or
German; (3) the Sclavonic; (4; the Lithuanian; (5) the Italic
(Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : (i)
the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the
Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining
districts.
B
Introduction,
§3-4
2. The Italic branch, like the Hellenic, was from early times
divided into various dialects. The principal of these were the Um-
brian in the north-east of Italy, the SabeUian and the Oscai> in the
central districts, and the Latin in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian,
Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat-
tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be
the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome,
founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C. 754,
became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name
(nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them
to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather
than Roman.
3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex-
tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour-
ing countries. From this source are derived the following modern
languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and 0/7),
Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss
Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance
languages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects
which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern
Europe in the fifth and following centuries.
3
English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely
alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con-
querors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century,
the island, after a brief interval, was overrun by Teutonic hordes
(Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic
natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as
Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis-
tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be
called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the
parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the
Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and
incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the
Norman conquest, A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though
comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power,
and influence. Hence their speech — Norman-French, a Romanic
dialect — became that of courtly society and of law; Latin, its
mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned
intercourse ; whilst English continued to be spoken by the great
bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which
modern English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry
and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the
church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the
number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor-
tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of
Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English.
It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English
has itself a distant kinship to Latin.
Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense.
2nce of Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential
contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was
§5.
Introduction.
when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com-
merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning
about 550 B.C. The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to
have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and
the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps
be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to
derive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans
probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha-
bet, as the letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks
had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae.
5
Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third Sketch
century B.C., Grecian literature supplied most of the forms and Lkera-^"
much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions, ture.
laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse
farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The
credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who
wrote dramas for the stage B.C. 240. He was succeeded by a
crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En-
nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject
and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin
literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The
comedies of Plautus (Plant.) ^ and Terentius (Ten), founded on
those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re Rustica of
the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85
B.C., the date of Cicero's earliest writings. From this time to A.D.
14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most
eminent authors are : —
Prose.
Cicero C. (or Cic.)
Caesar Caes.
Cornelius N epos... N. (or Nep.)
Sallustius Sail.
Livius L. (or Liv.)
Varro Varr.
Vitruvius Vitr.
Poetry.
Lucretius Lucr.
Catullus Cat.
Vergilius V. (or Verg.)
Horatius IJ* (or Hor.)
Tibullus Til>.
Propertius Prop.
Ovidius Ov.
The so-called Silver Age, to a.d. 117, contains among others :
Prose
Seneca Sen.
Quintilianus Qu.
Pliniusthe elder... PI. N. H.
Plinius the younger Plin.
Valerius Maximus V. Max.
Velleius Paterculus Veil.
Tacitus Tac.
Suetonius Suet.
Florus ? Fl.
Q. Curtius? Curt.
Poetry.
Manilius Man.
Phaedrus Phaed.
Seneca Sen. Tr.
Lucanus Lucan.
Persius Pers.
Silius Italicus S. It.
Valerius Flaccus V. Fl.
Statins St.
luvenalis luv.
Martialis Mart.
* The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this Grammar.
B 2
Introduction.
§5.
The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire,
A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come
nearest to the classic style during this period, are : —
Prose.
A. Gellius Gell.
lustinus lust.
Appuleius App.
Eutropius Eutr.
Macrobius Macr.
In the Iron Age, w^hich succeeded, Boethius may be named as
the most successful imitator of classic purity.*
Poetry.
Ausonius Aus.
Claudianus Claud.
* Other abbreviations used in this Grammar :
Pr. Primitive (Sound or Root).
Sk. Sanskrit.
Gr. Greek.
E. L. Early Latin (before 186 B.C.).
R. L. Republican Latin (from 186 to 30
B.C.)
I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from 30 B.C.
to 170 A.D.).
C. L. Classical Latin.
L. L. Later Latin.
U. Umbrian.
O. Oscan.
S. SabelHan.
F. Faliscan.
V. Volscian.
M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius.
C. Corssen (Aussprache). ,
Curt. G. Curtius (Gr. Etymologie).
Three dots (...) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be
included.
In Sanskrit words :
represents the palatal sound ch (as in * church'): ric' is sounded 'rich.' G. Cur-
tius represents it by .
s' represents the slightly aspirated sibilant, which often corresponds to Greek k and
Latin c, q. Sk. c^as'an, Gr. 6e/ca, L. decem. Sk. «TzV, Gr. deiK-, L. doc-eo, 8lc.
G. Curtius represents it by c.
rt is a Sanskrit vowel, which may be written ar. See p. 578.
y is the Sanskrit letter= English j (Curtius^')*
English y-consonant (Curtius j).
Ex.— yuj, to yoke (Curt. jug').
PART I.
LATIN ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology comprises : — Etymo-
logy—
L Phonology or Soundlore, the doctrine of ^l^^^^^'
Sounds.
11. Morphology or Wordlore, the doctrine of
Words. ^
By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in^
duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan
language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is
obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred
languages, especially with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu-
anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix.
DIVISION I.
PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE.
7
i. Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of Sound-
Letters and Syllables. *°*^^*
1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin
same Letters as the English, omitting W. ^^^^*
The Letters have two forms :
1) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form..
2) The Small, or later form, which came into commoa
use in the eighth or ninth century: after which the
Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial
letters of sentences and proper names.
1) ABCDEFGHI(J) KLMNOPQRST
2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst
(U) V X Y Z.
(v) u X y z.
2. Six of the Letters are VocALESy Vowels (self-sound-
ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are ConsonanteSj Con-
sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel.
' The terms Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's Vergleichende
Grammatik der Jndogermanischert Sprachen.
Latin Soimdlore.
§8-9.
Sylla-
bles :
Diph-
thongs.
8
(^)iian-
tit V.
9
Syllaba-
3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids,
Spirants, and Double Consonants.*
The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j,
s, V ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes.
Note I. y and z are only used in words borrowed from the
Greek.
Note 2. l+j and u + v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one
ancient letter in double form. See § 12. viii.
4. A Syllable {avWa^r}) consists of one or more
letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex.
5. A Diphthong (8/^^0770^) is the combined sound
of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae.
There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or ae),
oe (or oe), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui.
ii. Quantity \s thd X.\m^ oi uttering a Syllable.
I. Every Syllable is considered Short {J) or Long (") in
Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord-
ing as it is uttered with a single .or double time (mora) :
/ Short by nature . . a 6 in . . amor.
Long by nature . . e u in . • esu.
Short by position before
another vowel . . It in . . . pTos.
Long by position before
two consonants or a
L double consonant
A Vowel may be •<
e o m .
au, ae in
pernox.
caudae.
Diphthongs are long ....
2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason
of its quantity is other than position.
3. A Syllable is called Doubtful (-) when its Vowel may be
short or long : Sidonius.
4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it
stands before cr, gr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, cl, pi, or fl : tenebrae,
quadrSplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. Id
prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenebrae.
iii. Syllabation is subject to the following
rules:
1. Every syllable must contain a vowel.
2. A word may begin with any vowel but y.
3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con-
sonants, 1, m, n, r, s, t, x. A few words end in b, c, d.
• Checks are another term for Mutes; Trills for Liquids; Fricatives (as gene-
rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max yinWer's Lectures on Langtiage).
Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as distin-
guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous.
Accentuation.
7
4. Priscian's rule is that inner syllables end with a vowel, if a
single consonant follows : cla-ma-tur ; or if two or more conso-
nants follow, which can begin a word : lu-di-crus, e-sca, ma-gnus,
scri-ptus, scri-psi, a-stra. Custom extends this rule to such in-
stances as so-mnus, A-bdera, rhy-thmus, etc. But, if the conso-
nants cannot begin a word, they are divided between the syllables :
gal-lus, punc-tum, of-fen-do, am-plis-simus, ex-per-tus.
5. In compound words a syllable ends with the end of one part :
ab-igo, res-publica.
6. The last syllable is called Ultima, the last but one Penul-
tima or Penult, the last but two Antepenultimaor Antepenult.
An inner syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, close if it
ends with a consonant. A word of one syllable is called Mono»
syllable; a word of two syllables, Di syllable, etc.
vi. Accentuation h^s ihe ioWovjingldcVJsi^ Accent.
uation.
1. The tone of a syllable is called Accent. There are two
strong accents, the Acute (') or sharp quick stress, and the Cir-
cumflex (^) or deep lengthened stress. Syllables without either
are sometimes called Baryton (Grave in tone), sometimes Atonic.
2. Monosyllables, with vowel short by nature, have the Acute
Accent : 6s, vir, dux; those with Vowel long by nature have the
Circumflex : 6s, mo s, lex.
3. Words of several syllables are not accented on the Ultima,
but on one of the two preceding syllables. Only, when a word loses
a final vowel, if the Penult had an accent, that accent remains on
the same syllable : illinc for ilHmce, audin for audisne.
4. Disyllables have the Acute on the Penult, when either both
syllables are short by nature, as b6na, or the first is long by posi-
tion, or the last long by nature or position, as inter, m6res, amant.
5. Disyllables have the Circumflex on the Penult, when the
Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature and not
lengthened by position :mater, musa.
6. Words of more than two syllables have the Acute on the
Antepenult, when the Penult is short, as hdmines, amph'ssimos.
But the accent remains on the Penult in unweakened compounds
pf facio, as benef^cis, and in contracted genitives : ingeni.
7. Words of more than two syllables have their Accent on the
Penult when long ; namely, the Acute when the Penult is long by
position only, clamantur; or when the last syllable also is long,
am a rant ; the Circumflex, when the Penult is long by nature, and
the last short by nature, and not lengthened by position : clamare.
8. Enclitics, que, ne, ve, etc. bring forward the accent of
the word to which they are subjoined : homines, homines que;
pr6na, prondque. Prepositions are Proclitic, that is, with-
out an accent of their own before their cases . circa moenia;
but, moenia circa.
Note, The Accents are not marked on words, but understood.^
' Latin Accentuation is a subject too large, intricate and unsettled to be fully discussed
in a book like the present. Students who wish to pursue it more minutely are referred
to the works of Ritschl and Corssen, and to the Latin Grammars of Kriiger and Kiihner.
Only a few general rules are given here.
* Corssen allows a second accent, which he calls a Middle Tone (i.e. semiacute), to
8
Latin Sotmdlore,
§ II-I2
V. PuNCTA, the Signs of Punctuation, or Stops.
These are the same in Latin as in Enghsh : Comma (,) ; Semi-
colon (;); Colon (:); Full Stop (.) ; Note of Interrogation (?) ;
Note of Admiration (!). The mark ( •• ) is placed over e or l when
it does not coalesce with a preceding vowel: aer, Teius. But
none of these were used anciently except the Full Stop (punctum).
vi. The Relations of the Letters may be thus
shewn :
I. VOWELS.
Standard vowel
a
Sharp medial e o Flat medial
Sharp semiconsonant 1 |- u Flat semiconsonant
Medial (see vii. ii).
II. CONSONANTS.
Note. — T e n u e s and Mediae
are by some called severally
Surds and Sonants.
Guttural mutes are also called
k-sounds, Dental mutes t-
sounds, Labial mutes p-
sounds.
Mutes i
(Momentan-
eous) !
>-
Nasals
Liquids
(Continu
-^
Spirants
ous)
' Double
Tenues
or Sharp
s
f
Sibilant
i)
■«->
rt
>-i
'a,
<
Semivowel
Guttural ^oxT\ixo2X- \
sounds . . .
C
(1^, q)
• >
• •
X
Dental, or Teeth- \
sounds . . . i
t
a
n
1
S
• •
f
j
V
1
z
Labial, or Lip-sounds
p
b
m
1
j
N is guttural when it precedes gr, c, or q. The Spirants f, v, if
sounded as in English, are labiodental.^
certain words of more than three syllables, when there is an interval between the ac-
cented syllables. Such words are —
1) Plurisyllable Compounds, in which the Middle Tone will fall generally on the first
syllable, as in versipellis, misericordia, undeviginti, efifrenatus, sublevare, etc. ; sometimes
on the second, as in superbiloquentia, repandirostrum :
2) Plurisyllables, in which, by Derivation or Flexion, the accent of the primitive
word has been shifted to a suffix. Such a Middle Tone will generally be on the first
syllable ; as in Idngitudo, pdpulabundus, servitutem. This theory implies, in rare
instances, the possibility of two Middle Tones, as in cdnfidentiloquius. See Corssen,
ii. 824.
* Sanskrit has two more classes of Consonants : (a) Palatal, a modification of the
Gutturals ; (b) Cerebral or Lingual, a modification of the Dentals. Thus, in Sanskrit J
is Palatal.
Semiconsonants.
9
vii. Memoranda from the History of the Al- History
u 4- of Al-
pha bet phabet.
1. The Romans modified the form of the third Greek letter from
r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and
letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as
the abbreviation of Gains ; Cn. of Gnaeus.
2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans
almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K.
for Kaeso; Kal. for Calendae and Calumnia: also Kar. for
Kartago.
3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the
Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) was kept by the Romans as
Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic u or v
follows the guttural.
4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob-
taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H.
5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not
exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its
form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al-
phabet it has the form 8 ; but the Romans gave it that of the Di-
gamma, (f) F.
6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as
a semi-vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T.
7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used z (zeta),
but afterwards supplied it by s or ss : so that y, z were added at
the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v,
and are only used in latinized Greek words ; lyra = \vpaj zona
8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in-
scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek £ (cs), it took the
place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtful points. See
Corssen {Ausspr. I. 6).
9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary.
10. The Aspirate sounds x> ^1 0? as foreign to Italian utterance,
were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use
of ch, th, ph, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words :
parochus, thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rh : rhetor.
11. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters :
(i) j to represent u-consonant; (2) 3 (antisigma) to represent
^ (ps) ; (3) h to represent a vowel having a middle tone between 1
and u, as in libet — liibet, gradibus — gradubus, maximus —
maxumus. They did not remain in use ; but the first and last
appear in inscriptions.
viii. The Semiconsonants 1 (j) and u (v).
I. The consonantal character of 1 (j) is shewn by the two facts, I (J),
that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position
in verse after words ending with a consonant, and that it makes no
hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in
Sub loue iam ius est
sub, iam are long by position, and -e, -am are not elided before t.
10
Latifi Soimdlore,
1) 1 is a Vowel (l-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when
it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when
it is a syllable ; ab-i-to.
I is a consonant (l-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a
vowel ; i e-i u-n o ; its sound being that of English y-consonant
( = German j), a faint protraction of^the vowel-sound 1.
2) In Greek words, however, 161 e, iambus, and in a few
Latin words, i-ens, ieram, i-vocalis remains open before a
vowel.
3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent l-con-
sonans, and most editors do not use it. Its English and French
sibilant sounds {John^ Jean) are not classical, but crept in before
the Middle Ages.
4) l-consonans is omitted before 1 by the compounds of lacio,
ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc. ; though the long quan-
tity of the first syllable is kept ; i being =j i. See Munro on Lucr,
i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. eice, reice. But re-icere. Plant.
5) Poets sometimes harden l-vocalis into l-consonans : ab-ie-te,
ar-ie-te, par-ie-te, for ab-i-ete, etc. Sound ab-yete, ar-yete,
etc., trisyll. So Horace has consil-ium ( = consil-yum), Virgil
has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisyll. M. Lucr. ii. 991.
V (u). 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con-
sonant. In a latter age u became the vowel sign, v the consonant
sign. If uva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that u-consonans
( = w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel u ; whence the
modern name Double-u.
1) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum
for favitum, lautum for lavitum, and in auceps for aviceps,
nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus.
2) Poets sometimes vocalize u-consonans before a vowel: sil-u-
ae : sometimes they harden u-vocaHs into u-consonans : gen-ua
for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1157.
3) Parasitic u follows q, ng:, and s : sequor; lingua; suavis.
This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, gv, sv : but as the
sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must
be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between
the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds.^
ix. Sound and Quality of the Vowels.
Sound I. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but
^aiit various shades of these, in close or open syllables,
of ^ ^ (Thus the sound of u varies in the following words : credulus^
Vowels, busy^fiilly use, yune, and in the French words, commiin^ com7nune.)
2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little
from those of the vowels in modern Italian. Proceeding from the
thinnest and sharpest sound i, to the thickest and flattest u, the
following words may represent their general distinction : the first
four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Zuloo.
Quinine, demesne, papa, promote, Zulu.
3. The three primitive vowels are a, i, u. Sanskrit has e and o
only as diphthongs arising from al, au.
* In many modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of con-
sonant and vowel, and U alone as the Cursive form of both. In this grammar v is
retained as a cursive.
Phonetic Decay,
II
1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the
opened mouth : 1 is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the
tongue and the lower palate ; u is the thick flat labial, sounded by
a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long
and short sound, with shades of these.
2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen-
ing of 1 and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use
two subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and 1, and 6 medial
between a and u. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e
sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of
i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its
form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u.^
3) The strongest short vowel is a, into which none other passes.
4) The weakest is 1 : for which reason it often stands as a vin-
cular vowel before suffixes : reg-/-to, fiag-/-to, leg-^-bus : but
sometimes e or u takes its place; soci-/-tas, teg-//-mentum.
5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus
with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with velim, velle.
6) Though u has various shades of strengh, as in put o, siimus,
augur, augurium, declining almost to the weakness of 1, as in
optumus (optimus, vii. 11), yet on the average it is not seen to
be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris
etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re-
membered that this u corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o :
that us is really a weak syllable, and u, like 1, gives a facility to the
rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford.
7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled
in time and strength ; X 1 = i, ee = e, etc.
8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; 1, 6 are rarely
final ; vl never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry.
As final long vowels, i and 0 predominate*: e and a are less
frequent ; and u least frequent of all.
X. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. Pho-
(See Corssen, L 347.) D ^cay
I. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and
weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off" or
assimilate consonants.
. 2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate
dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived
chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma-
rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts.
3. Classical Latin (see § 5) may be regarded as in some measure
a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of
Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto-
nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly
1000 years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged
from the darkness of those centuries.
^ Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue
from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distm-
guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-t-mos, raax-w-mos, max-^-mos*
max-J-mos, max-a-mos.
12
Latin Soundlore.
§12.
Vowel- Xi. VOWELCHANGE.
1. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and
Composition of words.
2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by
Vowelchange.
3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel
sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a
stronger for a weaker vowel. Thus the tonic syllable in toga is
stronger than in teg o.
Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs.
thongs.
1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro-
duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus a by
strengthening 1 produces e ; a by strengthening ii produces 6 ; and
this process is called Guna (distinction). If a strengthens (ai, au),
the process is called Vriddhi (augmentation).
2. In Latin (as in Greek) e and 6 are themselves capable of
strengthening 1 and u. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is
al el ol
au eu ou
3. ui is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui,
huic, hui, phui.
4. Yi in Greek words for vl is very rare : as Hi thy i a (£A\uQv1a).
5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn
by inscriptions : but before the classic age all except au had de-
cayed into other long sounds, namely : —
ai into ae, rarely passing into e (el) i
ol — oe, often — — u (el) i
el — e or i
eu — u
ou — u
Note. Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of al, ol, el, has
peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from
the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which
ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the
progress of phonetic decay.^
6. The diphthong al prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai,
filiai, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C.
200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form.
For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius, is found e : edus,
pretor, Cecilius, &c. ; which became more prevalent in later
Latin, and in modern language has superseded ae : secular,
premium,
i) Examples occur of els for Dat. and Abl. Plur. Ending als,
which in classical Latin became is : tabuleis publiceis = tabulis
publicis.
* This history is gained from the careful comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending
for about 400 years from B.C. 260 to a.d. 150. In the present chapter and in § 20 such
results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which
appear in classical authors.
Formation and Decay of Diphthongs.
13
a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in a-i, dividing it
into two syllables, materia-!. Virgil rarely : aula-i, Aen. iii.
354.
b) The vowels are divided in Ga-i-us, Ga-T, and in the Greek
words Agla-i-a, La-i-us. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Grains,
Maia, and in aio, maior, i is i-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma-
yor, .,.).
7. The diphthong ol (oe) is of much rarer use than ai (ae).
Oi is found as late as the first century B.C. in stem-syllables. But
it passed into oe early, as ai into ae, by strengthening i. Also,
by weakening o, it passed into (ui, ue = ) u. Thus we find moi-
nera, moenera, miinera; loidos, loedus, ludus; Troirrjy
poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ;
oitier, oetier, iiti. M. Lucr. ii. 829.
1) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into (ee) e :
pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more and more
usual, and prevails in modern language : penal^ federal^ &c.
2) In Case-endings, ol from old times was liable to pass into ei
andl: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i ; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is.
a) In proln, proinde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-i-us they
remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia I is i-cons. (Tro-ya).
8. Eiis either a diphthong, as in a few old words, deiva, deicere^
leiber ; in the old Italian Dative ending ei, virtutei ; in Dat.
Abl. PI. endings eis for ois ; and in Nom. PI. ending ei for oi of
Decl. 2 : or it is a middle sound between e and i, as when the form
eis represents a compromise between the Acc. Plur. endings is, es,
of I-nouns : urbis, urbes, urbeis.
i) Ei is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all
ages ; e sometimes taking its place, but i prevailing over both.
In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-i may coalesce in
poetry, or, as some think, e is elided.
b) In names in -eius, i is i-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus.
c) Greek et appears in Latin generally as i: Tydides for
Tvhdhi]^\ but often as e before a vowel ; Alexandrea or Alex-
andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia.
d) In some Greek words e is open before i (Hiatus) : Teius,
Plei'as, Nereides.
»
9. Au was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed
(by the process ou, 00) into 6 : codex, plostrum, Clodius,
Plotius, &c., and (in Italian) oro, toro, iesoro, &c. ; sometimes (by
the process ou, uu) into ii : cliido. M. Lucr. ii. 829.
10. Eu in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are
imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, u is a vocalised v (neve, seve,
ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody.
d) In Greek words eu remains : Euripides, Eurus.
Note, — Greek au and eu before a vowel are written with vowel
or consonant : Agaue or Agave ; Euander or Evander.
11. Ou occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iotiszt, Louceria\ but had
decayed into ii before the classical age.
(On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B,)
14
Latin Soundlore,
Vowel- xiii. VowELSTRENGTHENiNG in Root-syllablcs,
onTnT^' Suffixes, and Endings.
A) Root-syllables (see Supplemental Note6 after Appendix).
d) Primitive or Italian n, strengthened by a (6, e) in the
manner of Guna, or by a, (5, e) in the manner of Vriddhi,
subsides from a diphthongal sound into u or d ; the series
of possible change being u, au, ou, eu, u (d).
jug, to yoke
kru, hear .
kru, be raw
lu, wash .
plu,^^?7£/ .
(pu-s, nur-
iiire^ thrive)
pu, cleanse
pii, stink .
ru, bray
rudh, be red
ruk, give
light
skii, hide
su, sew
(u) iu(n)g-ere ... iug-u-m, iug-are (eu) ^fvy-
(u) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m.
(ii) clu-ere. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (u, o), lu-
s-cin-ia, glo-r-ia
(a) ru-di-s. (au) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (u)
cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta.
(u) lii-ere ... lu-tu-m .... (au) lav-ere with v-
cons. ... lautus. (ou) \ov-ctr, di-luv-iu-m ...
with v-cons. for v-voc. (u, o), l6-tu-s ...
pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are ....
(ii) plu-it. (ou) pluv-ia ... for E. L. plov-ia ...
(u, o), plu-vi ... pl6-r-are ....
(u) pu-er ... pii-ella ... pu-s-illu-s ... disci-pu-lu-s,
pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (au) ttqIc for ira-vg.
(u) pQ-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pii-pa, pu-p-
ula, pii-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes.
(ii) pu-tu-s, pu-t-are ... am-pii-t-are. (au) pa-eni-
t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (ou) po-ena for pov-
ina. (ii) pii-ru-s ... pu-n-ire
(ii) pu-ter pu-tris .... (au) pa-e-d-or ior pav-i-d-or,
(u) pu-s pii-r- ... pu-t-ere ....
(ii) ru-d-ere ... ru-d-en-s. (au) rav-u-s ... rau-
cu-s .... (u) ru-m-or.
(ii) rub-er, rub-ere ... ru-tilu-s ... epvB-pog. (eu)
ip£vd-(o, (u, o) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, ruf-
u-s ....
(u) luc-er-na, \vk-. (ou) E. L. Louc-ina. (eu)
XevKog, (vl) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Liic-ina,
di-luc-ulu-m ....
(u) scu-tu-la ... cu-ti-s. (au) cav-ere, cau-tu-s ...
cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (ou) E. L. cou-r-are
or coi-r-are for cov-i-r-are. (eu) Kev-6w»
(ii) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. cd-r-are, cu-
s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. I. 356.
(u) su-ere. (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Lith.).
(ii)su-t-or, su-bula.
§ 12.
Vowclstrengthening.
15
tu, swell . (u) tu-m-ere, tu-m-idu-s, tu-mu-lu-s. (au in Sk.),
tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O.
tau-ta. (ou) O. tou-to. (u, 5) t5-tu-s, tu-
ber. U. tU'ta, to-ta. These old Italian
words mean ^ a cotnmunityy a people,^
(u) dux due- ... educ-are .... (ou) E. L. done-
* ere. (u) duc-ere ....
(u) flu-ere ... con-flu-g-es. (ou) fluv-idu-s, fliiv-
iu-s (from flou-v-). (u) flu-men, flu-t-are.
(ii) nu-ere. (eu) vevit), (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ...
nu-men.
Add the prim, root dyu, shine ( = div), whence (6 for ii) io-cu-s.
(ou), O. Diouv-ei, whence the weakened words, E. L. Didv-is,
U. Juv-e, I6v-is, iuv-at, .... (u) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s....
' b) Primitive or Italian 1, strengthened by a (6, e), or by a
(o, e), subsides from a diphthongal sound into i or S ; the
series being 1, ai, oi, ei, i (e).
due-, lead
^n-yjlow
nu-, nod
dtk, shew.
div, shine
that
k!, lie down
smear .
spTc( = spak),
spy
trT, three .
fid, to trust
lib, to choose
(1) dic-are ... dic-io, con-dic-io, dic-is, caussi-
dic-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dic-i, dig-
i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dig-iu-m ; ... IXk-y) ... .
(ei) ^eiK'E.L. deic-ere. (i) dic-ere, dix-i ...
(t) re-div-ivu-s, di-u, inter-di-u-s, nu-di-u-s, di-es,
di-ur-nu-s, ho-di-er-nu-s, di-es-piter, nun-di-
na-e. (e = al) Sk. dev-a-s, a god. (ei) 6£7of,
E. L. deivos, deiv-a. (i) div-us, di-us (weak-
ened form de-us), Di-a-na, I-anus for Di-
anus. In bi-du-um, tri-du-um, &c., du is a
weakened form of div.
(1) i-t-er, ad-i-tu-s, &c., in-i-t-iu-m. ... (e = ai)
Sk. e-7ni. (oi) ol-juL-o-g. (ei) el-fx-ij E. L. ei-re,
(i) i-re, I-bo, i-vi. ...
(1) i-s, i-b-i, i-dem... . (ei) E. L. ei-eis. (i) T-dem,
(1) qui-es, qui-e-sc-ere, qm-e-tus .... (ei) Keijjiaif
E. L. cei-vi-s. (i) ci-vi-s.
(1) li-n-ere (-ire), li-tu-s, li-tu-ra. (ei) E. L. lei-
t-er-a. (i) li-mu-s ... li-m-ax, li-n-ea, li-t-
er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleiin^ Engl. sli7Jie.)
(i) -spTc-ere -spec-ere ... (ei) E. L. peic-u-s. (i)
pic-u-s, su-spic-io ? (G. specht. Engl, wood-
pecker ; pie^
(1) tri-bu-s, tri-dens ... ter, tre-centi. (ei) rpelQ.
(i) tri-s, tri-ni, trI-du-um.
(i) fid-es, fid-eli-s, per-fid-u-s (oi) E. L.
Jbid-u-s, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, iriiTOLda. (ei)
TTSLdu), E. L./eidus. (i) fid-ere, fld-us ....
{%) hb-et. (oi) E. L. loeb-er. (ei) E. L. leib-er.
(i) llb-er ....
6
Latin Soundlore.
c) Primitive or Italian a, sometimes represented by e, 6, or
u, is strengthened into a, which sometimes sinks to e or 6.
(i) a (e, 1, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) 6.
ak, sharpen
ag, drive .
bha \throw
bha-s flight
bhrag, break
kar, wa^zt ,
gan, t^<^^/ .
gna, know
kal.
lab, slip
ma, measttre
^diVy fastejt
rag, direct .
sa, j'^?'Z£/
sna,
bathe
l) ctfc- ac-u-s, ac-u-ere. (2) ac-er. (4) aKOJKrj, wk-vq,
oc-i-or
I ) dy- ag-ere . . . ag-i-li-s .... (2) amb-ag-es, ac-tu-s.
(3) ^^-h orTpaTTiyog .... (4) paedagog-u-s.
i) fe-n-es-tra, fa-t-eri, fa-t-uu-s, infi-ti-a-s, fax
fac-, fac-ere ... f ac-ie-s, fa-ber, 0d-oc, 0d-mt.
(i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c-
und-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m. (3) fe-t-i-aU-s,
/e-s-ia-e = {e-r-ia.-e, fe-s-tu-s, ^J//Lte, f^firj,
i) fra(n)g-ere ... frag-ili-s, frag-or, nau-frag-us,
(2) refrag-ari, suf-frag-iu-m ...fr ac-tu-s.
(3) {YQg-'i, Pprjy- .... (4) eppioya.
i) car-ere. (2) car-us.
i) gen-us ... gen-ui, yep- yov- gen-er, pro-gen-
ie-s, gen-iu-s, in-gen-iu-m, indi-gen-a, gen-i-
tor, yvvi]. (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io,
natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .... (3) yvijaiog,
i) no-t-a, no-t-are, c6-gm-t-us .... (2) gna-ru-s,
i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s,
igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... no-bih-s ... no-
men, a-gno-men, i-gno-min-ia ... eynoKa.
1} cle-p-ere (cli-p-eu-s), cel-la, oc-cul-ere, cu-cul-
lu-s, -cil-iu-m, c-la-m, kKotttj, (2) cal-ig-o.
(3) eel-are. (4) KXojxp,
i) lab-are, lab-e-facere. (2) lab-i lab-es.
i) tna-nu-s, juerjoeli^, me-tru-m, me-d-imnu-s, me-
t-ere, mo-diu-s, mo-d-u-s, mo-d-er-ari, mod-
es-tu-s (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu-
ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-iri ... me-n-
sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-b ....
(4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s.
i) pac-i-sc-i. pa(n)g-ere, pe-pig-i, Trdy-. (2) pax
pac-, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ina,
com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, 7r?;y-.
i) reg-ere, reg-io, -ngere, rog-u-s. (2). Sk. rdjan.
(3) rex reg- ... reg-ula (From regere
perhaps rig-ere, rig-i-du-s ... .)
i) sa-tu-s, sa-t-io (se-rere) .... (2) Sa-t-ur-nu-s.
(3) se-vi, se-men ....
f) na-t-are. (2) na-re ... na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nSs-
turt-iu-m (nasum torquens), (3) rfjcroc.
§ 12. Vowelstrcngthening in Root-syllables ^ etc.
sta, stand .
17
star, strew .
(i) sta-tor, sta-ti-m (but E. L. std-ti-m), sta-ti-o,
sta-tu-s, sta-tu-ere, sta-tu-a, sta-bulu-m, sta-
bili-s : ste-t-i, super-sti-t- (2) sta-turu-s,
sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re,
sta-bam .... (3) ori/vai ....
(i) ster-(n)ere (f^rop-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s, stra-
men ... stla-ta, stla-t-ariu-s, (4) GTpio-wi-vat^
arpw-fxa*
d) The following are strengthened from (i) a (e or 1) to (3) e (I).
(i) (h)er-us, (h)er-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-ere, hir-und-o, hir-
ud-o, E. L. Mr (x^p-) (3) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed-
(i) Cer-es, cre-are, cre-sc-ere (3) cre-vi, in-cre-
mentu-m ....
(i) sed-ere ... as-sid-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed-
ulu-s, sid-ere... .
(i) ser-ere ... ser-ie-s, ser-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia,
Pr. har, seize
kar, create
sad, sit
S3x^join
skar, sever
stag, cover
var I cover
val f choose
ser-u-s, ser-iu-s.
(i) cer-(;^)ere ... cer-tu-s, ... scre-are, (3) cre-vi,
dis-cre-tu-s ex-cre-mentu-m, cri-bru-m,
cri-men, dis-crl-men .... Kpivu)'
(i) (TTEyiOj Tey-ocj teg-ere, teg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-i.
(i) val-lu-m, ver-eri, vel-le, val-ere, val-idu-s, (3)'
vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax ... •
From another root val, implying motion, come
(i) vol-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari.
e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. a (6) to (4) 0.
Pr. sar, de whole
svan, sound
svap, sleep
svar, sun
vak, call
(i) sal-us sal-u-t-, sal-u-ber, sal-vu-s... , (4) sol-ari,
sol-a-c-iu-m.
(i) son-u-s, son-are ... (4) per-son-a.
(i) s6p-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire.
(i) ser-enu-s, (reX-a^, aeX-rivrj, ^eip-Log, (4) sol
(Sk. siir-a-s^.
(i) voc-are, (4) vox voc-, v6c-ali-s (con-vlc-iu-m ?).
/) C. cites also many examples of 1 (e) rising to i and of u
rising to u in Latin without diphthongal accretion. Such are
(a) liqu-ere ... liqu-or, (^) liqu-i, liqu-or.
(a) sec-are ... (/6) sic-a, sic-ar-iu-s.
(a) stil-u-s, stim-ulu-s ... instig-are.
(«) i/y-po-c, ifi) u-v-ere, u-m-or ...
* The examples in pp. 14-17 are selected from a large number in Corssen's great work,
I- 348-550- The instances cited are the most important of those in which the short as
well as the long vowel occurs in words of classical use. Forms from old Italian dialects
and from other languages are here given only so far as they illustrate diphthongal
strengthening. Other roots of great interest will be found in Corssen's pages ; as
Par. ■pnYyJill'. whence plere, plus, plenus, populus, plebs.
Mar, glitter ; whence mare, marmor, Mars, Mamers.
Mar,ya^/,?: whence marcere, mors, mori.
Bhu, be horn : whence fu-, fore, fe-, fetus, femina, fecundus, fenus.
C
1 8 Latin Soundlore, * § 12.«
B) Vowelstrengthening in Suffixes, Case-endings, and Personal-
endings, will appear in the Sections which treat of Declension, Con-
jugation, and Derivation :
hon-os honor-is, Cer-es, pulv-Is, nub-es, lig-on-is, matri-mon-
ium, matr-on-a ; — mens-ar-um, de-or-um ; — am-as, am-a-
mus, am-a-ris, fu-e-runt, fu-i.
Disyi- xiv. Vowelstrengthening in Perfects.
Per- i) Most Verbs with vowel character a, 1, o, and some with e,
fects. formed the Perf. in vi, and lengthened the character ;
na-vi, ne-vi, no-vi, li-vi.
2) Of u-verbs, C. says that their Present-stem anciently received
the strengthenings ou, u, before it was weakened into ii ; and that
the Perf passed through the forms -uvi, ul before it was weakened
into ul. Thus plouo, pluo became pluo : and pluvi, plui be-
came plui. The only exceptions are batuo, -gruo, metuo, ruo,
which seem never to have lengthened u before a vowel : and fuo,
which in the Perf. became foul (poet, fovi), fui, and ultimately fui.
3) As to the formations
caveo cavi
faveo favi
paveo pavi
foveo fovi
moveo movi
voveo vovi
C. thinks that (to avoid the concurrence -vui) ii was thrown out,
and the root-vowel then strengthened : cavui, cav-i, cavi.
4) As to the following three —
sedeo sedi ; video vidi (E.L. veidi) ; venio veni
he assumes the existence of old forms sed-ere, vid-ere, ven-ere,
which in the Perfect were strengthened as the following Consonant
Verbs :
fra(«)g- fregi
leg- legi (lexi)
ed- edi
fod- fodi
fu(;/)d- fudi
cap- cepi
rvi{m)^- rupi
scab- scabi
em- emi
fac- feci
iac- ieci
li(;/)qu- iTqui
\i(n)c- vici
ag- egi
He brings reasons against the common assumption that in such
Perfects the long vowel compensates for a lost reduplication. And,
in fact, the practice of vowelstrengthening in Italian Soundlore is
so well established, that no such assumption is necessary to explain
the quantity. Yet fefici (O.fefdci) is known as an older form than
feci, while pegi from pango and tudi from tundo appear as
secondary forms for pepigi and tutudi. We may also compare
Greek forms, as ayriyov or i^yayop with egi, IPiw^rj with edi,
oida with VI di or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some
instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the
root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin.
Com- XV. Compensation.
Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short
vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable
after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, visum. But such com-
pensation is not always made: seget-s, sages.
i
Nasalisaiion, Vowclwcakening.
xvi. Strengthening of the Present Stem in
Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal.
Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem
strengthened by Nasalisa tion ; that is, by adding n to the Stem-
vowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character :
Nasali-
sation*
frag-
lug-
ng-
hqu-
mig-
nigu-
pag-
frango
iungo
ling-
linquo
mingo
ninguo
pango
pig- pingo
pug- pungo
strig- stringo
tag- tango
VIC- vinco
fid- findo
fud- fundo
scid-
lud-
pis-
cub-
lab-
rup-
scindo
tundo
pinso
cumbo
lambo
rumpo
As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was
evidently not so strongly sounded as in modern utterance.
Guttural n is called by grammarians nadulterinum.
(On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see § 52.)
xvii. Vowelweakening.
♦
1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, a, i, u :
but those with a are by far the most numerous.
2. The standard vowel a is weakened into i and u in all Aryan
languages : but in those which have e and 6 the weakening of a
into 1 passes through e, and the weakening of a into u passes
through 6 :
Pr. sama E.L. semo-l C.L. simu-1
3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root-syllables,
in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person.
4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (fv^uu^/a),
the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of speech.
5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among
them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed ; also
Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the
most suitable before a particular consonant. Thus, v has a prefer-
ence for o ; 1 and the labials chiefly for u ; r for e ; n and t for i.
Grouped consonants often prefer e :
liivis
volt
epopa
peptri
becomes
lovis
vult
upupa
peperi
Menerva becomes Minerva
aletem — alitem
voile — velle
faciundus — faciendus
Note, E is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither
so sharp and thin as i, nor so flat and thick as 6 and ii. Hence
it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used
when final consonants are cast off: venere for venerunt ; utare
forutaris; dictatore for dictatore-d or dictatori-d. Also for
1 final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-.
But when Masculine or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the
stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon-,
homin-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-).
c 2
Vowel
Weak,
ening.
20 Latin Sotmdlore, § t2.
Weak- xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings.
enings
of a. A) In Root and Stem syllables.
1) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have
kept Pr. a in the syllable of the root or stem :
acus, aqua, traho, daps, labor, pateo, madeo, maneo, ango,
pando, amo, sal, valeo, palleo, malus, careo, carmen, hasta,
aveo, gravis.
2) He cites about 215 words which have weakened Pr. a to e
in the syllable of the root or stem :
dScem, neco, equos, sequor, tego, tepeo, febris, peto, edo,
senex, fremo, mel, queror, tero, vespa, severus.
And others which have passed from a through e to i :
digitus, ignis, quinque, pinguis.
3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. a into i
o in the syllable of the root or stem :
voco, mox, loquor, rogo, opus, 6b, nota, fodio, tono, vomo,
mola, orior, voro, post, novem.
And others which have passed from a through o to u :
nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus,
a) Pr. & is weakened to e and 6 in some roots ;
nex, neco, noceo ; tego, toga,
bene, bonus ; mens, moneo ; pendo, pondus.
fero, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; volo, velle, volt (vult).
' preces..., procus, posco; cello, coUis, columen.
V) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes S in
fatisco, fessus ; gradior, gressus.
c) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in
apiscor, opus ; scabo, scobs ; pars, portio ; faveo, foveo.
d) Pr. long a becomes 5 in some words and many suffixes :
donum, vox, mos :
-top, -ds, -OP, -mon, -an, and Imperative -to.
In Suffixes.
It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the
vowels e, 1, 6, u, are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a.
Exceptions are very few :
tl- in such words as menti- parti- potJ-.
nl- in such words as igni- pani-.
VI- in words like ovt- avi-.
tii- (sii-) in Supines and Nouns, as statu-, dictu-, casu-.
AH which are in Pr. form.
C) In Cases and Personal Endings.
Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with
vowels e 1, o, u, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms
with a. ' See §§ 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich. Gramm. def
Indogerm. Spr., § 205.
i
g 12. Vowehveakening with Selection, 21
xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Se- ^^^^^^
lection.
1. V following has determined Pr. a to become 6 in
novem, novus, 1 6 vis, ovis.
2. V preceding has probably done this in voco : while in vol
volvo, volnus (vulnus) andvomo, the consonants which
follow may also have had influence.
E. L. has voco for vaco, voto for veto, vorto, voltur. M.
Lucr. i. 20.
3. Pr. sva is changed to so in
soror (for svasar, ^sister'), sopor, socer, sonus, sol,
sodalis;
and has passed to su in su-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. II. 64.
4. It shews a preference for o before it in many words :
dolus, solum, solium, tollo, &c.
but especially in E. L. suffixes :
poC'dl'OMj tab-ol-a, Pseud-ol-us^ po-pol-us,
which afterwards changed 6 into u.
5. Inner r often prefers otoii: fore, forem from fii-o; so
ancora from Gr. ayKvpa (but generally Greek v was kept
before p: pur-pur-a):
especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Nom.
S. us or ur : corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-.
Some keep ur- : fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-ur-, Sulf-
ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-ur-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-.
(But most Neuters in us are inflected by er-. See p. 25.)
6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently ds or-, then or or-,
for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became
M.F. meli-or meli-or-, N. meli-us meli-or-. Note
p. 42.
XX. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- Seiec-
lection.
1. C. says :^In Latin root-syllables, suffixes, and flexional end-
ings, XL has arisen generally from 6.'
a) before s and m final :
deus {Qe6q\ genus (ytvov), bellum (bellom), fihum (filiom).
d) before inner 1, or a labial :
populus, upupa,'columen, Hecuba.
c) before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid,
Nasal or Sibilant :
pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus.
2. About 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally passed into :
hut 6 was kept in some instances :
a) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con-.
22 Latin Sotmdlore. - ^ 542,
/3) after u, v, as late as the Augustan age :
equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom.
The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the
combinations uu, vu, which in Republican times were generally
avoided. See C. 11. 97-101.
3. Rustic dialects kept o frequently : hence it returned into use
in L. L., and reappears in modern Italian : popdlo^ secolo^
4. Selection of u appears
A) before Labials and 1 :
1) in place of o :
hiimanus utrubi consul
umerus bubile adulescens
nummus bubulcus epistula
voliimus bubus exsul
quaesumus riibigo titulus
sumus iipilio singuli
Bovile is another form for bubile.
2) in place of Gr. a, c :
humus (xct/^af) scopulus (aKoirtkoq)
pessulus (Trao-o-aXoc) Siculus (Si/ce\oc)
3) in place of a, e :
a : occupo, aucupor, contubernium ; e : quincuplex.
4) as middle sound, approaching to 1 :
clupeus or clipeus : lacruma or lacrima. See xxi.
Note I. When 1 or e came before the suffix 616- 61-, 6 was not
changed into ii :
(1) fili-61u-s, basi-61u-m, Cori-ol-i, vi-61-entus.
(2) alve-olu-s, lacte-61u-s, laure-ola, Pute-61-i.^
Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au-
gustan age, after which it often became u :
parv-61u-s, parv-ulu-s : serv-61u-s, serv-ulu-s.
But friv-61u-s was never changed.
* As to the dialectic use of O and u in final syllables, C. says :
1) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o.
O. and S. as O inclining to U. ' '
U. as a middle tone, or 11 inclining to O.
2) Lat. changed O to U about 300 . . . 200 B.C.
F. still earlier.
O. about 300 B.C., but before m not till 130 B.C.
S. before 200 B.C.
V. never.
New U. returned from U to O between 300 and 130 B.C.
MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul-entus and sanguin-ol-entus,
vin-ul-entus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul-entus ii
decidedly better than somn-ol-entus.
^12. Vowelweakcning with Selection. 23
, B) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid,
Nasal, or Sibilant :
I. In place of o.
1) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus,
Catullus, Marullus, &c.
But before 11, e is more frequent than u. See xxi. D. 6.
fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher sulcus Vulcanus ;
fulgeo mulgeo..., vulgus ... .
culpa . . . , bulbus.
adultus ... , cultus multa pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur,
vultus, vult : — vulsi.
culmen, fulmen, ulmus ; ulna.
Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva.
Here too ol after v held its ground long :
Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus.
2) amurca, furca, urceus, murmur, furnus, eburnus, purpura,
Surrentum, ursus, rursus.
3) umbo, nummus, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna,
Clitumnus, Vertumnus.
4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis ....
The Demin. suffix -unculo- : ranunculus, virguncula.
5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 5 1 ; nundinae.
The Personal Ending -unt was anciently onti- ont, as
ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con-
sentient^ dederont^ &c., on old inscriptions. The classical
form of 3d Pers. PI. Perfect -runt for -ront first appears
in the Senatusconsult. de Bacc. B.C. 186, consoluerunt;
the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere.
When u or V came before -ont, o was kept to a later
time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per-
pluont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso-
luont, vivont.
The inner suffix -unt- {ovt-) appears in a few words : so
euntem ... , chironomunta (Juv.) ; Acherunta (Plaut.
Lucr.).
The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in
bar-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c-
undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, furi-b-undus, tremi-b-
undus, vaga-b-undus ;
and in Gerundive Participles.*
* Of the Gerundive forms -ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C. (I. 180) shews that
(1) No existing E. L. Inscrr. contain -ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to
resume the o of E. L., and in L. L. appear such forms as secondus, verecondus, while
Italian also has secondo, rotondoy it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first
weakening of Pr. -an-d-ya.
(2) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in E. L. and R. L. to the Christian
era. So in Plant, Ter. Lucr. ; in the Senatuscons. de Bacc, the Lex lulia.
(3) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust likes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy,
use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th Conj. : moriundum, partiundus,
&c. It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases : rerum repetundarum, iurc
dicundo, belli gerundi, agris dividundis.
24 Latin Soundlore. § 12.
Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte,
dupundius for dupondius.
Later language resumed o :
^ It. fronde, fronte, pondo, mondo.
6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumus-
culus.
aplustre, indu-stria (endo) :
also arbustum, onustus, robustus, venustus;
which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus,
robus, venus.
2. The words in which u appears to represent e are few : as
malsum (jjiiXi) ; sepultus from sepel-ire ; urgeo (tjoyo)) ....
Note, Long u for Pr. a or its substitute 5 appears in various
suffixes : -turo-, -tura, -suro-, -sura, -uno-, -una^ -uco-, -uca,
-uceo-, -ucio- :
i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una,
^ cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius.
compared with
prae-tor (anc), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-ox, mer-acus, clo-aca,
gallin-aceus.
xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selec-
tion.
It has been shewn that
A) e has affinity with r,
B) e is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for finai
syllables.
Also it must be noted that
C) e has affinity with the combinations st, ss, U.
Z>) e is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication.
These causes determine a great number of instances in which e
appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings.
A) e chosen with r.
i) In Decl. I and 2, before the suffix po- pa-, e takes the place
of Pr. a or of o, sometimes of u : Examples are-
Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout :
numeru-s, umeru-s, uteru-s ; camera, littera, tessera ;
and the Fern. Adjectives,
lacera, libera, misera, tenera, altera.
• Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc.
Sing. Masc. :
gener, puer, socer (Ifcvpoc), vesper,
lacer, liber, miser, tener, alter.
12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 25
Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and VoCo
Sing. Masc, and drop e in all their other forms :
ager, aper, faber, magister ;
Afer^ ruber, niger, uter.
In some of these (as magister and uter) e represents
Pr. a, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre-
sentant of the dropt 6.
In some words with suffix ro- ra- Greek a was kept befoire r : ,
cantharus, cithara.
2) Similarly, in Decl. 3, e comes before r in many forms :
Words in er er-, which keep e throughout :
career, cadaver, piper, papaver, tuber :
celer, degener, pauper, uber.
Words in ter, cer, ber ; which keep e ( = Pr. a) only in Nonu
and Voc. Sing. Masc, dropping it in the other cases :
frater, mater, pater, venter, imber ;
acer, alacer, saluber, puter, Silvester.
Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. iis ( = ds),
have in the Oblique Cases the suffix er- :
fun-er-is, gen-er-is, op-er-is, Ven-er-is, vet-er-is.
but some keep 6-r- :
corp-6r-is, frig-6r-is, pect-6r-is,
a few use er- and or- :
pign-iis, pign-er-is and pign-6r-is : fenus, fen-er-is and fen-6r-is ;
temperi for tempdri : whence tempero, temperies.
Vomer or vomis, Gen. vom-er-is, points to an original form
in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be-
comes er, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes Is :
see xxii. 2. and compare the forms
Ceres Cerer-, cinis ciner-, pulvis pulver-,
3) Verbs having er in their root do not weaken e into 1 in
compounds :
affero, congero, desero, puerpera.
for the same reason
peperi not (pepiri) ; repperi not (reppiri).
similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iero, pe-iero,
weakening u into e.
When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with p, i is
changed into e or e :
(E. L. dedi-sont dede-ront) dederuntordedere.
(E. L, dedt-so)y dede-ro.
26 ' Latin Soundlore. . - § 12.
B) B has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final
syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t.
1) In Decl. 3, the Norn. S. -en (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in
the Oblique Cases :
pecten, agmen, crimen, oscen, tubicen.
Gen. pectin-is, agmin-is, crimin-is, oscin-is, tubicln-is.
2) a. Septem (Sk. saptan, Gr. tVm) ; novem (Sk. navan^ Gr.
tvvea), decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. Uku).
/3. In Decl. 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns :
reg-em, virgin-em, passer-em.
it prevails in I-nouns against -Im:
civ-em, font-em, serpent-em,
but -Im is retained by some :
bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim,
while others use both forms. See § 24, 5.
febr-im febr-em, messim messem.
Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form :
as ad fatim, partim. But saltem or saltim.
M 2LS 3, final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed
out of use in modern Italian, leaving e final generally : se^/e, nove,
&c.; hut unded, doded, ... from undecim, duodecim, ...
3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see § 20, 24.
Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -is and es :
fel-is fel-es, vall-is vall-es, verr-is verres;
but s, like m, disappeared in L.L. and Italian, leaving e final :
nude, valle, &c.
4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in
Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before
it the Perfect character i was sometimes changed into e :
at a later time to the middle sound ei : finally in classical
times settling into I. Thus are found the various forms :
(dede, dedit, dedet, dedeit), dedit.
In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and s, disappeared
again, leaving final e ; disse^fece,
C) S has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of
other vowels.
1) In the Voc. S. of 0-nouns it supersedes 5 :
domine, lupe, Romule.
2) In the Neut. S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes 1 :
mare, rete ; triste, necesse.
3) When final consonants are cast off:
q\x\ViC{Mc{Sk. panc'Uy Gr. wivri).
§12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 2/
ille, iste, ipse (illus, istus, ipsus).
Abl. S. of Decl. 3: quaestore (quaestorid or quaestored).
-re for runt in Perf. dedere (dederunt).
-rS for -Pis in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris.
-ve for vis in neve, sive.
mage for magi s; pote for potis.
In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for is.
By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system
of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in-
troduced which prevails in modern Italian.
D) s has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before
grouped and double consonants.
1) JB appears before x ( = cs, grs) in the final syllable of Nouns
of Decl. 3 which are inflected with the suffixes ic- ig- ( =
ICO- iffo-, as explained by Corssen) :
codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex.
Gen. codicis, corticis, remigis ; simplicis, suppllcis.
2) S appears before ps, bs in the final syllable of Nouns of
Decl. 3, which are inflected with the suffixes ip- (up-) ib- :
such are
municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps.
Gen. municipis, aucupis, caelibis, participis.
Compounds of caput, with Nom. -ceps for -cipit-s, have Gen.
-cipitis ;
praeceps, Gen. praecTpTtis.
3) When a Noun with that suffix ti- (which appears in
hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante-
penult syllable (ala-ti-, equ6-ti-), the vowel of the penult is
weakened usually into 1 (aliti-, equiti-), sometimes into e
(abieti- segeti-). The i of the suffix being dropt, the forms
then become (alit- equit- seget- abiet-) : and when the Nom.
S. is formed by the addition of -s, they become (alit-s
equit-s seget-s abiet-s) : but, e being preferred to 1 in a
final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After
which, by the rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s,
and the Nominatives then become
ales, eques ; Gen. alit-is, equit-is;
seges, Gen. seget-is; teges, Gen. teget-is.
but abies, aries, paries. Gen. abietis, arietis, pa-
ri etis, on account of i preceding.
Note, In this class, the vowels e, 1 generally represent Pr. or
Latin a (see above), but in a few % is the root- vowel :
comes, comit- (root 1, to go).
28 . Latin Soimdlore, ; - § 12.
In pedes pfedtt-, probably also in seges, teges, the vowel is adopted
by analogy, forming a suffix i-t- or e-t-. See Footnote, p. 30*
4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from
sed- sid-, to sit (Pr. sad) :
(obsed-s) obses obsid- ; (praesed-s) praeses, praesJd-;
(desed-s) deses desid- ; (resed-s) reses resid-.
5) S before nt appears in the suffix mento- :
ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m.
and for Greek a in
talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum.
6) B is frequent before 11 :
cello, pello, vello, velle,
and the Demin. forms : puella:
but in these i is also used : sigillum.
In other groups with 1 the vowel u prevails, see xix. : but
e is not excluded : celsus, excelsus.
7) Equester, pedester, for (equet-ter, pedet-tef).
8) (fat-) fessus ; (grad-) gressus.
9) The Neuter suffix (os) us weakens its vowel into e before
another suffix beginning with t :
fun-US fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tuSc
temp-US temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus.
The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by
mod-es-tus ; mod-er-ari :
so the Masc. Noun honos forms
hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas :
but o becomes u in
ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-ua-tus.
maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas.
C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others
poten(t)s (potent- tas) pot-es-tas %
he cites Prasrn-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae-
no-), meaning * the town on the highest prominence^
10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is-
ter, in L. L. appear with es for Is ; whence \X.2X\2,Ti maestro.
In some other words also, as an teste s, L. L. writes est-
for 1st-.
Modern Italian is not uniform in the choice between e and l.
We find
fermo^ selva^ segno ^ irenti; but
principe, sinistra^ vittoria^ carissimo:
E) On the use of e for fi, 6, u in the reduplicated syllable of Per-
fects see xxv.
g 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 29
xxii. The Selection of i. aonofi.
A) The thinnest and sharpest vowel i has a strong affinity with
dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also with t and d,
E) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem
with suffix and suffix with suffix.
C) The existence of a middle sound between 1 and u caused the
orthography of many words to fluctuate.
A) I. Affinity of i with n.
I represents Greek a before n in
balineum, bucina, fascino, machtna, pattna, trutina,
^ It represents Greek i before n in
adamantinus, coccinus, coccineus, crystallinus.
It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : *
fisclna, fuscina, pagina, sarcina, pampinus, sucmum, fagtnus,
fagineus, geminus, myrrhinus.
In mino- (Pr. mana) and tino- (Pr. tana) :
terminus, femina ; fruimino, amaminor.
crastinus, diutinus, pristmus.
In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. en, en) before vowels :
pect-in-is, sangu-in-is, osc-in-is.
In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. on, on) before vowels :
^ hom-in-is, marg-in-is, ord-m-is, virg-in-is, ApoU-in-is.
In the suffix min- (Pr. man L. men) before vowels :
flu- mm-is, no-mm-is, nu-mln-is.
A striking instance of the affinity of 1 with n appears in the
fact that it was inserted in the Greek word \i'va^ which so
became mina. Similar insertions occur in Daph-i-ne^
luc-i-nus or lych-i-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-i-
nasium probably in Catullus.
So the affinity of u with m is shewn in the occasional
forms drac-u-ma for lpa)^\ir]^ Alc-u-mena, Tec-u-messa,
&c., and with 1 in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-u-les.
Minerva, anciently Menerva.
Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are
many instances of it being sharpened into i before n with
another consonant :
intus, inter, indu- . . . quinque . . . tingo . . . vindico . . .
so when n follows another consonant :
ignis, pignus, signum, tignum.
2. Affinity of i with s is shewn
In the forms cinis (ciner), cucumis (cucumer), pulvTs _
(pul-ver), vomis (vomer), pubis (puber) : also aci-
pensis (acipenser). See C. II. 278.
* In fact the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no short vowel but i before it. Such
words as balanus, cottana, platanus, raphanus, Rhodanus are not native of Italy.
30 Latm Soundlore, ] . §12^
In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as).
In the occasional use of l-sc- for e-sc- in Inceptive Verbs :
lucisco for lucesco,
3. Affinity of 1 with t is shewn
In the adoption of i before many Verb and Noun suffixes
beginning with t :
ag-i-to, ag-i-te, ag-i-tis, gen-i-tus, gem-i-tus, domi-tum, meri-
tum, veti-turus, doli-turus, fru-i-turus, gen-i-tor (but gene-
trix), habi-tare, strepi-tare : — laeti-tia, plani-ties, veri-tas,
alti-tudo, peni-tus, largi-ter, sempi-ternus.
4. Affinity of 1 with d is shewn
In the adoption of 1 before the suffix do- :
candi-dus, torp-i-dus, flu-I-dus, viv-I-dus.
herbi-dus, gravi-dus, morbi-dus, gell-dus.
Note. When an E-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-on-
^'Xn-, the vowel before that suffix is e :
albe-do, dulce-do, grave-do :
but lib 1- do, by assimilation.
B) Use of i as a linking Vowel.^
I. The large use of i before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and
its own aptitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many
other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before co-,
c-un-do-, culo-, cro- ; b-un-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monia.
(Verbalia) ali-ca, velli-co, medi-cus, rubi-cundus, cubi-culum,
ridi-culus, veh-i-culum, pudi-bundus, fur-i-bundus, pati-bulum,
cred-i-bilis, terri-bilis, flexi-bilis, spec-I-men, al-I-mentum, quer-
i-monia.
(Denominativa) auli-cus, belli-cus, annt-culus, ludi-cer, currT-
culus, ani-cula, aegri-monia, caeri-monia.
But Verbal a is kept :
ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men,
sacra-mentum.
Sometimes e : vere-cunduSj fle-bilis.
* Corssen is right in principle, when he considers this T to be a weakening of the final
Towel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in aulT-cus from aula; bellT-cus from belle- ;
ridi-culus from ride- ; am-cula from anu-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314
and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the 1 in regimen as weakened *from the
original final a of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other
Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex-
ample, in ped-es, ped-it- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. ttoS-), and in the use of the
suffix i-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene-
rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a uniform sujffix (einheitliches Suffix) applied,
by linguistic analogy (Sprachbewusstsein), to Consonant stems also. This is, in fact, all
that is meant when the use of vowels (1, u, e) is cited in this Grammar as * vincular : »
and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient.
The same convenience recommends the term * Clipt Stem ' to express a vowel-stem
without its vowel character. But * mord ' is in fact the root of mord-ere. Hence, to
say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-ere, as C. does, and to
say that they are formed from the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways of saying
one and the same thing ; and the latter is the shorter way»
§ 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 31
2. A similar adoption of x is frequent in Compound Words at
the close of the prior element.
(i) terri-gena, silvi-cola, auri-fex, signt-fer, fati-dicus ; corni-ger,
arci-tenens, lucti-ficus ; muni-ceps, sorti-legus ; parrl-cida,
luc-I-fer, rur-i-cola ; (2) horri-sonus, terri-ficus ; miseri-cors ;
(3) undi-que, indi-dem, sici-ne ... hici-ne ....
Ante, bene, male vary :
anti-cipo, anti-stes ; but ante-cedo, ante-venio ...
beni-gnus, beni-volus ; but also bene-volus ...
mali-gnus, mali-ficus ; but also male-ficus ....
E-verbs compounded with die ere, facere keep e or weaken it
to e :
valedicere, arefactus, tepefactus.
3. The Suffixes I0-, ro-, cpo-, bro-, bulo-, tro-, tilo-, &c., often
change their vowel into 1 before the Nom. ending s ; thus causing
Adjectives in us, a, um to pass into the I-declension.
gracil-us, gracil-i-s ; hilar-u-s, hilar-i-s.
steril-u-s, steril-i-s ; indecor-u-s, indec6r-I-s.
seques-ter -tra -trum ; seques-ter -tns -tre.
On this preference of 1 the Adjectival forms in li-s, ri-s, cri-s^
bri-s, bili-s, tri-s are founded.
By the passing also of 6- ii-s into 1- i-s arises a double form of
numerous Adjectives :
imberb-u-s, imberb-i-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-i-s
decliv-u-s, decliv-i-s ; effren-u-s, effren-i-s.
In bicorni-s, u of the stem passes into 1. See § 28.
4. Before the Ending -bus of Dat. Abl. PI. we have
1 for o, in qui -bus, hi- bus (Plant), and other old forms.
I in I-nouns, as navi-bus (nave-bos on the Duellian Column).
\ vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-i-bus, virgin-i-bus.
I foru generally in U-nouns, as canti-bus, corni-bus; except
those in -cu-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep il.
C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between
\ and u, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct
sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect-
ing chiefly such words as the following : —
(i) imo- or iimo- :
lacrima
lacruma
victima
victuma
aesttmo
aestumo
existimo
existumo
legitimus
legitumus
maritimus
maritumus
maximus
maxumus
decimus
decumus
monimentum
monumentum
testimonium
testumonium.
(2) ip- or up-, lb- or iib- :
mancipium
mancupium
recipero
recupero
libet
lubet
ritibus
ritubus.
(3) If- or iif-
aurifex
aurufex
pontifex
pontufex
manifestus
manufestus
sacrifico
sacrufico
1
32
Latin Soimdlore.
Also capi talis or caputalis and a few more words.
Inscriptions shew that the forms with u, prevailed in E. L. and
R. L., those with i in and after the Augustan age, for which the
Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority.
V Recapitulation, The principles thus laid down respecting the ad-
aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup-
ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See
Corssen, II. 60-225.
These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix
vowels more than root vowels ; grave much more than accented
vowels.
The general results are :
A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not
itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural
kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials.
O is appropriate (i) to v, (2) to 1, r.
XT is appropriate to 1 and the Labials,
z: is appropriate to r.
Z is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s.
Again :
E and u are appropriate to grouped consonants,
z: is convenient for final syllables and the end of words.
ZS is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs.
Z is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and
suffixes with each other. IT, e, sometimes take its place.
All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in-
tended to make utterance less troublesome.
Again :
The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to u and through e
to i, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction
occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground,
and in modern Italian o very often appears where u stood anciently :
often e where Latin had i :
motto, mosca^ polvere, sepolcro, fonder romp ere, sono (sum),
&c., bevere (bib ere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde
(viridis),
Assimi- xxiii. Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis-
anTDis- similation of Vowels to each other.
tion?^' By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same
as another, or so as to become more suitable to it.
When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this
change is called Dissimilation.
Every such change has euphony for its object.
Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters.
It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change
the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to
change one which follows.
I
1 12, Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33
1. Assimilation of Vowels. Assimi-
lation of
A) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. Vowels,
(An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same
as its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it.)
a. Regressive.
i) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots !, gOy qut, can^ and
their compounds, 1 before a, o, u is changed into e :
earn ... eo, eunt; queam queo, queunt.
Z before e in their Participles is used rarely : as Nom. S. iens,
qui ens, but in the Oblique Cases usually ie becomes eu :
euntis queuntis
So iendum ... usually passes into eundutn ... .
As ie is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order
of change was i-ont" 1-ond-j then e-unt-, e-und-, which remained
in this old verb after ent- end- had come in generally.
Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio.
2) The Pronoun-root 1 (is), arid its strengthened compound
idem, in the same manner change i to e before a, u:
hence we get
ea, eam, eum, eo, eos ;
eadem^ eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem.
3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pn div), is an assimilation
of the same nature. In Nom. P. di (dei) are used; in
D. Abl. dis (dels) ; but not dii, diis.
But Diana is classical : Dean a L. L.
4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiano- O.
nausea (j/avc/a) ; cachlea {KoyXiaq)*
but 1 remains in pius ... via (veha).
Progressive.
1) By the influence of e or of I preceding it, o is prevented
from passing into u in the suffix 6I0- ; see p. 22.
2) Substantives in -ia, Decl. i., pass into -ies, Decl. 5 ;
avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies.^
3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. 1-yans, comes -lens (-les) :
^ quot-iens (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies).
4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix la becomes le :
(es-ia-m) = siem = sim ;
(ama-s -ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem.
c
a
\ T^f, ^;^^^ Declension is a mere offshoot of the First. The ending a, Decl. i . was
ongmal y long as aqnila in old Latin poetry. Hence came Je by asiimilation from 4
and, with addition of Nom. S. Ending s, les : luxuria, luxurie-s.
D
Latin Sound lore.
EsquTliae (aesculus)
exilium (exulo)
facHis (facul)
Quids (Cures)
B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels.
(Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.)
1) u is often assimilated to a subsequent \ :
Aemilius (aemulus)
consilium (consulo)
-cilium (-culere)
similis (simul) ^
manlbiae (manubiae)
2) O is assimilated to a subsequent 1 in
inquflinus (incolo) | upilio (ploTrokoQ)
3) s is assimilated to a subsequent \ in
Duilius (Duel-l-ius, Bellius), Brundisium (Brundesium) ,
mihi (mehi), tibi (tebi), sibi (sebi) ;
nihil (nehil), ntmius {nQ,-m\-\x-s)y2mme astir ed. See C. 11. 366'
famtlia {0. fa77tel, whence famul, famulus).*
U is assimilated to o in ^
soboles, when written for suboles.
O is assimilated to e in
bene (bono-)
x: is assimilated to u in
tiigurium (tegere).
And long e to o in
socors (secors).
DissimU II. Dissimilation of Vowels.
Vowels!^ i) It has been shewn that in E* L. and R. L. u, v wefe avoided
before u, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servo m, &c.,
antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. Uv
was not so much avoided. We find indeed floviom^ conflovont in
E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius.
2) The concurrence li was avoided in E. L. and R. L. by writing
i-ei ; as fili-ei * sons ; ' peti-ei^ &c., ieis and eeis ; also adi-e^e in
Senatuscons. de Bacc, but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we
find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra.
In C. L. ii is avoided by writing e for i in
anxi-etas, ebri-etas, pi-etas, sati-etas, soci-etas, vari-etas, abi-etis
...,ari-etis pari-etis ... vari-egare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus,
lani-ena,
and in many Proper Names :
Cati^enus, Labi-enus.
* Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography,
than suspTcio (suspltio)and con vicium(con vTtium), Each'form has good documen-
tary evidence in its favour, and perhaps the strongest argument for t is that, while ci often
appears in I. L. and L, L. for ti, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen
is strongly in favour of suspTcio, as an assimilation of a strengthened form s u s p e c i o, and
of c o n vT c i u m, as an assimilated form from convocium. Fleckeisen on the other side
assumes suspitio from suspicitio, and con vltiumfrom convocitium. Subiudice
lis est. There are strong arguments against each view ; but for the present Corssen's
seems the less objectionable.
§ 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words, 35
It is avoided in the compounds of jacio by casting out one i,
and allowing to the other the power of ji. See pp. 10, 38.
Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare pi^y
* injure
In the Pronouns is, idem, the forms li, iis were avoided by writ-
ing ei, eis : but li, lis were tolerated in Imperial times.
• 3) 0-0 was tolef ated in I. L.
But c6-6pia becomes copia ; and
coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-optato. M. Lucr. v. 342.
ing m
Com-
pounds.
xxiv. Vowelweakening iii the Second Member vowe!-
fr^ 1 f T 7 1 weaken
Compound Words.
Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds.
If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro-
clitically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se-
parated, the compound is loose. Thus Mars-pater is a loose
compound ; but becoming Maspiter, it is fast; because the parts
are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a
state of separation : M. Lucr. i. 452.
ob vos sacro (Festus)
sub vos placo „
facit are (Lucn)
per mihi gratum est
per mihi placet
obsecro vos
supplico vos
arefacit
pergratum est mihi
mihi perplacet
Such compounds as satisfacere, circumdare, &c., may be
considered loose ; while proficere, tradere, &c. are fast.
The fast Compounds hitherto cited, Maspiter, proficere, tra-
dere, weaken the root-vowel of the second member. But this
weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast
Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not
weakened.
We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second
member of the composition.
I. d) Numerous words keep their root- vowel a unweakened in
the second member of their compounds ; such are most
Verbs of Conj. i. :
agitare, amare, gravare, vagari;
tnatly of Conj. 2. :
ardere, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere,
valere ;
many Nouns :
animus, avus, faber, palma, par.
Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds,
but not all: from mandare, commendo, but demando.
Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin
which are weakened later : M. Lucr. ii. 951, 11 35.
aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ;
afterwards aspergere, dispergere.
D 2
36 Latifi Soundlore. § 12.
b) A is weakened (through o) into u in the second member of
some compounds :
a. before I :
calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco.
salsus . . insulsus.
saltare . . ex-sulto : de- in-sulto.
saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum.
Note, Salire anciently was weakened by u, dissuluit (Lucr.);
but later it took i by assimilation : de-si lio.
/3. Before Labials :
cap- . . . occupare : nuncupare : aucup- : mancup-.
taberna . contubernium.
lavere . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium.
y. After qu, by assimilation :
quatere. . concutio, de- dis- in* per- suc^cutio -cussi ...
quare . . cur (for quor).
Before ss :
as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis.
Note, O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in
consul, exsul, praesul, insula, consulo.
Long a is weakened into u in the suffix -ugo (-agro) :
aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo.
c) £l is weakened into 6 in the second member of many com-
■ pounds :
tam . . autem, item.
-dam . . idem, itidem quidem, tandem
apisci . . indepisci.
canere . . oscen, corntcen, fidicen accentus ....
bacillus. . imbecillus ...
gradi . . aggredior ... con- de^ di* e- in- prae- pro* trans-
re-gredior : aggressus ....
lacere . . illecebrae, illectus, paelex.
pacisci . . depecisci (or depac-) : but compacisci.
pati . . . perpetior, perpessus.
fatigare. . defetigo (or defat-).
fatisci . . defetisci, defessus.
dare. . . addere, de- e- pro- red- tra-dere ... .
(Sk. dhoi) . abdere, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-dere.
parare . . (impero ... ; pauper propero, aequipero, vitu-
pero ...?) but apparo, com- prae- re- se-paro.
pario . . comperio, reperio : (aperio, operio ?) puerpera,
vipera ....
ager . . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare.
arma . . inermis.
arcere . . coerceo, exerceo ....
ars . . . iners, sollers, quinquertium.
agere . . remex.
annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennis -ennium
aptus . . ineptus ; adeptus.
12. Vowelweakenmg in Compotmd Words, 37
as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis ....
barba . . imberbis.
candere . accendo, incendo ... succendo ....
cantus . . accentus, concentus.
capere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps ... .
captus , . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus......
caput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps ... ..
carpere . . discerpere, con- de- ex-cerpere.
castus . . incestus.
damnare . condemnare ; indemnatus, indemnis.,
facere . . artifex, opifex, carnifex.
factus , . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus
but labefactus ... with many more,
fallere , . refello.
fassus , . confessus, dif- pro-fessus.
farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus*
iacere . . obex (for ob-iex).
iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus
lactare . . delecto, oblecto.
mandare . commendo, but demando.
pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando).
parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit).
pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par-
titus).
partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus).
passus . . perpessus.
patrare . . impetro, perpetro.
raptus . . abreptus, eor- di- sur-reptus.
sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Men. Anc).
scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo.
spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35.
stare . . antistes, supers tes (-stit-).
tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con-
tracto, Lucr.).
Note, O (Pr. a) is weakened into e in
potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos.
Long a is weakened into e in
halare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523).
d) IL is weakened (through e) to 1 in the second member of
many compounds :
agere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-Tgo (but circumago, perago,
satago), nav-ig-o. Part. P. -actus,
apisci . . adipiscor, indipiscor.
amicus. . inimicus....
cadere . . accido, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cido decMuus,
occiduus, . . . stilicidium.
canere . • accmo,concmo,prae-pro- re- suc-cino,vaticTnium,^
luscinia ....
caput . . occiput, sinciput, ancipit- praecipit- ....
capere . , accipio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-clpio^
... praeclpuus, princfpium ... .
datus . , addltus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-dJtus.
38
Latin Soundlore.
Pr. dha . . abdttus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-dttus.
facere . . afficio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-Hcio ;
cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneficium
...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cpp.
difficilis.
superficies,
inficetus.
conf iteor, dif- pro-f iteor, infitiae, inHtior.
adhibeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-hibeo; but
post-habeo.
adicio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-icio. On
forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M.
Lucr. ii. 951.
alllcio, e- il- pel-licio.
delttesco.
comminus, emlnus.
enim, etenim.
luppiter, Diespiter, Maspiter.
displiceo : but perplaceo.
abripio, arrlpio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-ripio.
irritus.
adsilio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-silio.
deslpio, inslpiens ; resTpisco.
institor, iustltium, solstltium.
constituo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stttuo.
destino, obstino, praestino, obstinatus.
efifringo, in- con- per- re-fringo. Part. P. -fractus.
compingo, impingo. Part. P. -pactus.
attingo, con- per-tingo. Part. P. -tactus.
praefisclne (i).
semis, semisses.
Note, o (Pr. a) is weakened to X in
potis. . . hospita, sospita, hospttium ... .
Long a is weakened into i in the suffix -ig:o (-agro) :
fuligo, robigo, uligo, &c.
2. d) s is kept in the second member of many compounds :
edo, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego,
veho, venio, gen-, ped- ;
and those with er,
fero, gero, sero, tero.
1: is weakened into i in the second member of several com-
pounds :
indtgeo, indigus.
adtoo, eximo, per- red-imo, (but coemo).
coUigo, de- di- e- se-ligo. But intell^go, neglego,
sublego. Also perlego, prae- re-lego from legere,
to read,
dimidius.
comprlmo, de- im- op- re- sup-prtoo. ^
arrigo, cor- de- e-rigo.
assldeo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sldeo ;
asslduus, praesidium, subsidium. '
facilis
facies
facetus
fateri
habere
iacere
lacere
latere
manus
nam .
pater
placere
rapere
ratus
salire
sapere
stare
statuere
(stan-) .
frangere
pangere
tangere .
fascinare
as, assis
egere
emere
legere
medius .
premere
regere .
sedere .
§ 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words, 39
tenere • . abstlfneo, attineo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-t!neo ;
continuus, pertinax, protmus, protinam.
dedi . . addidi, &c.
steti . . . adstiti, &c.
In close syllables compounds resume e :
ademptus, coUectus, compressus, directus, consessuSj
retentus.
Long e is weakened into i in
lenire ^ . delinio (also delenio).
tela . . . subtilis.
c) £ is changed to u in
temnere . contumelia (contumax ?)
3. o is kept in the second member of compounds generally:
convoco, abrodo. But
locus , , ilico.
gnotus . . agnitus, cognYtus.
4. IT is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- incubo,
eluceo ; except that u is weakened into e in
iurare . . de-iero, pe-iero.
5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus;
but melts into i in
aequus . . inlquus.
aestumare . existimo.
caedere . , abscldo, accTdo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cido,
homicidium, parriclda ....
laedere . . allido, col- il-lido.
quaerere . acquiro, anquiro, con- dis- in- per- re-quiro, inqui-
sitio ....
6. The diphthong oe (ol) sinks to 1 in
coenum^ . inquinare, coinquinare.
In E. L. it sank to u in ludere, iiti, munus, munio, punio,
etc., and their compounds. See xii.
7. The diphthong au is generally kept : inauro, adaugeo: but
it sinks to 0 in
faux . . . suffocare ;
plaudere . explodo, supplodo (but applaudo) ;
to u in
causa . . acciiso, incuso, recuso ;
fraus , . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare : see M. Lucr. vi,.i87^
claudere . concludo, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ;
and to oe in
audire . . oboedire.
Note, The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws
of Vowelchange as the Latin.
* Obscenus(obscoenus) is usually derived from c o e n u m. This, however, is by
no means certain.
40 Latm Soundlore. § 12.
Redupii. XXV. Reduplication,
cation.
Reduplication in language is a practice as old as language itself.
The infant from instinct or imitation forms words by repeating
the syllables : pa-pa, ma-ma, ta-ta ; often unconsciously weakening
the first : pu-pa, me-ma, ti-ta : and the mother or nurse amuses
or lulls the infant by similar repetitions : ding-dong, by-bye, &c.
Various emotions express themselves in the same manner : aha
oho ! &c. See Pott {Die Doppelitng).
Thus arose the habit of modifying words
A) By doubling a root merely:
B) By prefixing to it its first consonant and vowel.
After which it came to pass, that the reduplicative syllable
might be either strengthened or weakened, and the root
itself weakened (rarely strengthened) after reduplication, in
consequence of accentual change.
A) Reduplication by doubling the Root merely :
d) bar-bar-US (bulbul Pers.), cu-cu-lus, la-la-re, Mar-mar, cin-
cin-nus, tin-tin-nare, ul-ul-are, cur-cul-io, gur-gul-io, fur-
fur, mur-mur, tur-tur. So quisquis, utut, ubiubi, &c.
b) The Root is weakened in
car-cer, mar-mor.
E) Reduplication by prefixing the first two letters of the Root.
(This is specially important in Greek and Latin on account of
its use in forming the Perfect Tense of Verbs.)
d) Without vowelchange :
cd-cul-lu-s, {po-pol-ti-s), su-sur-ru-s, and the following Per-
fects ; cu-curr-i, d!-dic-i, mo-mord-i, pe-pend-i, p6-posc-i,
pu-pug-i (pu-;/-go), scT-cid-i (sci-;/-do), spo-pond-i (spon-
deo), te-tend-i, to-tond-i, tii-tud-i.
b) Redupl. weakened, Root unchanged ; in occasional forms
ce-curr-i, me-mord-i, pe-posc-i, pe-pug-i, spe-pond-i.
c) Redupl. unchanged ; Root strengthened.
pa-pa-ver, tu-tud-i (rare).
d) Redupl. strengthened ; Root weakened.
Ma-mers, Ma-mer-cus, Ma-mur-iu-s, pa-pll-io, p5-pul-ug
{poplar)y pu-bl-icu-s.
e) Redupl. unchanged ; Root weakened^
p6-pul-us {people),
/) Redupl. and Root weakened.
cT-cind-ela (candela), ci-con-ia ; tl-tu-lu-s ; b!-be-re (po Pr.
pd, drink)y gi-gn-ere (Pr. gdn, gen, engender)^ si-ste-re
(sta-), se-re-re (for se-se-re. Root sd).
The reduplicative syllable is weakened in many Perfects by
changing its vowel to 6 (see xxi.) :
§ 12.
Assimilation of Consonants,
At
de-d-i (da-), ste-t-i (sta-) : fe-fell-i (fallo), pe-per-i (pario),
pe-perc-i (parco) : te-tul-i (tol-l-o, Pr. tal) : ce-cid-i
(cado), ce-cin-i (cano), pe-pig-i (pa-;/-go), te-tig-i {tdi-n-
go) : ce-cid-i (caedo).
Obs. A consonant is lost in si-ste-re (for sti-ste-re), sci-cid-i,
usually scid-i (for sci-scid-i), sp6-pond-i or spe-pond-i (for spo-
spond-i or spe-spond-i), p6-pul-are (for spo-spul-are from spolium).
A vowel is lost in de-d-i (for de-de-i) : gi-gn-o (for gi-gen-o).
A vowel and consonant are lost in ste-t-i (for ste-ste-i).
xxvi. Changes of Concurrent Consonants.
(The sign x is used to express ' becomes/)
I. Complete Assimilation of Consonants.
A) Regressive Assimilation :
Assimi-
lation of
Conson-
ants.
(dq) X cq (adquiro) acquiro
„ (quidque) quicque
(dl) X 11 (adludo) alludo
(sed-^-la) sella
(conloco) coUoco
(coron-//-la) corolla
(un-^-lus) ullus
(perlicio) pellicio
(ager-//-lus) agellus
(tn) X nn (pet-na) penna
(dn) „ „ (adnuo) annuo
)9 J7 V
(bm) X mm (submoveo) summoveo
(sub-mus) summus
(flagma) flamma
(inmotus) immotus
(subripio) surripio
(inrideo) irrideo
(&m) ,y
(nm),,
(bp) X
)9
rr
(as)
3> J>
X SS
(ts)
3>
V yy
(merced-narius) mercennarius.
(fod-sa) fossa
(adsurgo) assurgo
(cedsi) cessi
(concutsi) concussi
The following Assimilations also occur in the Composition of
Particles with Verbs :
(be) X CO (obcurro) occurro
(dc) „ „ (adcedo) accedo
(b&) X (obgero) oggero
(dgr) „ „ (adgravo) aggravo
(dt) X tt (adtendo) attendo
(bp) X pp (obpono) oppono
(dp) „ „ (adpeto) appeto
(bf ) X ff (obfero) oflfero
(cf ) „ „ (ecfugio) effugio
(df ) „ „ (adficio) afficio
(sf) „ „ (disfiteor) diffiteor
a) (nd) X nn occurs in Plautus :
dispennite for dispendite ; distennite for distendite.
So in Oscan ; opsannam = op Gra.n dam,
(3) mn, though stable in C. L., often yields to assimilation in
modern language :
L. column a, It. colonna, Fr. colonne,
y) That final m of a proclitic word assimilated itself in utter-
ance to a following n, is testified by Cic. Or. 45 and Quint,
viii. 3. 45. Thus etiam nunc was sounded etian-nunc.^
' The sharpening of an inner syllable by doubling a consonant (relligio,reIliquiae,
millia, querella, bracchium, luppiter, littera) must not be confounded with
Assimilation. See Appendix A. : also C. I. 227. II. 466.
42
Latin Soundlore,
B) Progressive Assimilation :
(ferse) ferre ; (farsis) farris ; (rvpaig) turris.
So C. forms (miser-timus x miser-simus) miserrimus.
(is) X 11 ; (vol-se) velle ; (mel-tis x mel-sis) mellis, &c. (facil-timus
X facil-simus) facillimus (C.).
(st) X ss : (duris-timus) durissimus : where duris is contracted
from durius (C.).^
(This assimilation occurs in some Supines, according to C.'s
view: fissum, fossum, passum, &c. See xxxi.)
II. Partial Assimilation of Consonants (Adaptation).
I. The Sonant g becomes c, and the Sonant b becomes p, before
s or t : (reg-si) x rexi ( = rec-si) (scrib-si) x scripsi
(reg-tum) x rectum (scrib-tum) x scriptum
a) But ab, sub, ob, may remain in composition :
absens, subter, obtineo (but also apsens, optineo)
And bs final may be kept in Nouns :
caelebs, plebs, trabs, urbs (but also pleps, urps, &c.).
Ods. X = cs = any Guttural with s : any Guttural except c being
supposed to become c before and so to form x : '
(dic-si) X dixi (sug-si x suc-si) x suxi
(fac-s) X fax (leg-s x lec-s) x lex
(coqu-si X coc-si) x coxi (ungu-si x unc-si) x unxi
The following Verbs deserve special attention :
trah-ere Perf. (trah-si trac-si) traxi (from a lost Pr. tragk f)
veh-ere — (veh-si vec-si) vexi : Sk. vah (a lost Pr. vagh f),
* The formation of Latin Comparatives and Superlatives may be briefly stated here.
I. Comparatives.
1) (Sk. ydnSy yas) Lat. (-ios) X -ior -ius is added to the Ch'pt Stem :
(dur-ios) dur-ior, dur-ius ; (ingent-ios) ingent-ior, ingent-ius.
(mag-ios, mag-ior, &c.), ma-ior, ma-ius : — magis for mag-ius.
(root min- ; min-ior, &c.), min-or, minus,
(root pie- =Sk. : ple-ior, ple-ius, plo-ius, pious), plus, plur-,
2) (Sk. tard) Lat. tero- is added to Roots and Stems :
al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, in-ter : — pari-ter, ali-ter, &c.
3) Both Suffixes are used in
mag-is-ter, min-is-ter ;— dex-ter-ior, in-ter-ior, &:c.
IL Superlatives.
1) (Sk. ta)X.o-y inquar-tu-s, quin-tu-s, quo-tu-s, &c.
2) (Sk. ma) mo-, in sum-mu-s, i-mu-s, pri-mus, mini-mu-s, pluri-mu-s ; (ex-
ter-mu-s)xextre-mu-s ; (pos-ter-mu-s)x postre-mu-s ; (super-mu-s)
X supre-mu-s.
3) (Sk. tamo) timo- in ci-timu-s, ul-timu-s, op-timu-s, in-timu-s, ex-
timu-s, pos-tumu-s, dex-timu-s, sinis-timu-s.
passes into simo- in (pe-d-timo-) pessi-mu-s, (mag-timo-) maxim-us,
proximu-s.
passes into (simo-) ITmo- in facillimu-s, &c.
— — (simo-) rimo- in miserrimu-s, &c.
In most Adjectives tlmo- is added to the contracted comparative is (iros) and as-
similated :
(dur-is-timo-)x durissimu-s. So tristissimus, felicissim,us, &c.
g 12. Dissimilation of Conso7iants. 43
viv-ere Perf. (vigv-si vic-si) vixi : Sk. jiv (Pr. gvigv-).
flu-ere — (flugv-si, fluc-si) fluxi (from a lost form flug-vere),
stru-ere — (stru-ic-si) struxi (probably from 2iiQxmstru4c-ere),
Add the nasalized ninguere with its Noun nix, s-now (Pr.
snighj Sk. snih^ ' to stick'). Nix (ningv-s) drops v in Nom. Sing,
and in the other cases, forming Gen. niv-is, &c.
2. Liquids and Nasals ^ take Sonants before them in preference
to Surds :
(po-pl-icus) X pu-bl-icus (ili-cn-us) x ili-gn-us
(qua-tr-a) x qua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) x cy-gn-us
(ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (se-cm-entum) x se-gm-entum
Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg-
otium.
3. TX becomes m before the Labials m ; but remains be-
fore f, V :
impleo, imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho.
4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n :
(sop-nus) X somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium.
5. iw: often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ;
and, if kept, is sounded as n :
clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem
clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem.
So quon-iam for quom-iam.
But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam,
unumquemque, namque, numquis.
In others m is better than n : quamquam, tamquam, cumque,
umquam, numquam.
6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes s :
(edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum
(rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum.
In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become s :
(fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-tum) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus.
III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi-
lation of
The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding
syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place.
a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae-
rulus.
b) Palilia is sometimes written Parilia : Remuria x Lemuria.
* The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of g"!! in French -grne final,
as cygne. Its sound in Frenchand Italian before interior vowels=n-y ; thus, agneau,
agnello (=an-yo, an-yello).
44
LatUi Sotmdlore,
§ It.
Trans-
posi-
tion.
Eu-
phonic
Inser-
tion.
1.055
of Initial
Letters.
c) The suffixes all- ell- ill- ull- are chosen for Adjectives de-
rived from Nouns, if the root contains p : and the suffix -arl is
chosen if the root contains l ;
austr-ah-s
cardin-aH-s
liber-ah-s
reg-ali-s
crud-eU-s
puer-iH-s
cur-uli-s
al-ari-s
capill-ari-s
coll-ari-s
sol-ari-s
stell-ari-s
tutel-ari-s
vulg-ari-s
Obs, But in the suffix -ario, p is not changed :
ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s.
Note I. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for
the sake of euphony :
pristis for (pistris) I columns for (corulnus)
extremus „ (extermus) |
Note 2. When m is followed by « or t, p is euphonically inserted
to strengthen the syllable :
hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum.*
The change temfitare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip-
tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological
blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan, L. ten, whence
ten-d-ere, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are.
s seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro,
&c. (from mon-eo).
(On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-t-na, drac-u-ma,
&c., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., see
xxi.)
*
The Loss of Letters will next be considered.
g
xxvii. Loss of Initial Letters {'Acfyaipsaci),
lost by
lamentum...
laus; luscinia ...
vapor ...
nasci, natus ...
noscere, notus ...
narrare
lac
shewn in
c-lamare
c-luere
g-nasci g-natus : Sk. jan Gr. yei/-
g-noscere, i-gnotus : Sk. jnd Gr.
(g-narigare) from g-narus
Gr. ya-Xa/c-r-
* The euphonic insertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r,
occur in Greek (as /Lte>-i3-Aw<ca, ya/x./S-po'?, ai/-5-po9), but not in classical Latin, except in
hi-b-ernus for(hiem-rinus, Gr. x^i\i.^pivQ^\ But they came in later, and exist in
numerous modern words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c.
^ Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the forms g nasci, gnoscere^
and knew so little of etymology, that he treats theginignotus, ignavus, ignarus as
a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus,
cognatus, prognatus, agnomen, cognomen, &c.
?S 12.
Loss of Initial and Final Letters.
45
p
d
St
lost by
vivere
lanx ; latus
viginti
shewn in
luppiter: lanus
rosa (radix, rigo)
lupus
lis, locus
torus
fallere
tegere
taurus
cutis, cavus, caelum, casa,
cavere, causa, cauda, &c.
SV,j'iv (Pr. gviv). See p. 43.
Gr. 7r-\aK-, tt-Xutvc,
for dvi-ginti. In d-vis, d-vellum^
d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis,
bellum, bonus. See Cic. Or.45.
But duellum in Latin poetry :
Eng. duet, M. Lucr. ii. 662.
See p. 1 5.
Gr. f-pohov, Aeol. fipobov,
Sk. v-arka-s, Gr. \vkos.
for st-lis (G. strett, Eng. strife) %
st-lo-cus (Sk. stha4d).
Gr. (T'Top^, Sk. s-tar, ' to strew'
Gr. (T-^aXXeii', Sk. s-phal,
Sk. s-thagj Gr. (rreyeiv,
Sk. S'tMras, ^ strong ' : Eng. steerm
Sk. s^ku, to hide.
for other instances, see Corssen I.: also pp. 14-17.
o) Tuli, fidi, scidi, cast off the syllable of reduplication*
(5) Sum, sumus, sim...cast off the initial vowel c.
y) When the Verb-form est follows a word ending with a vowel
or m or with s after a vowel, it often loses e, and attaches itself
enclitically to the preceding word. This occurs chiefly in the Comic
poets, but also in later writers both of prose and poetry, and on
Inscriptions: itast, ibist, quomst, quidemst, temulentast,
nactust for nactus est, culest for qualis est (Plaut.).
The Second Person, es, is subject to the same change, but not
after m : homos for homo es, meritus for meritus es.
xxviiL Loss of Final Letters (KtroKoirrj).
A) Final e is dropt :
d) By enclitic ne :
men for mene, tun for tune, dixtin for dixtine : quin
(qui-ne), sin (si-ne).
Sometimes the word before ne loses s :
ain for aisne, viden for videsne, satin for satisne :
b) In ceu, neu, seu (ce-ve, ne-ve, se-ve or sive).
c) In the Imperatives
die, diic, fac, fer (dice, &:c.)
So, in poetry, conger for congere ; inger for ingere.
d) Neuter Substantives in ale (ali-), are (ar-i) drop e (i) and
shorten a :
toral for torale ; calcar for calcare.
But they resume a in the increasing Cases : toralis, calcaris.
Loss of
Final
Iietters.
46 Latin Soimdlore. ^ § ^2.
e) Many other I-nouns clip 1 in Nom. Sing., some without
taking s: (par-i-)xpar; others before they take the »:
(stirpi-) X stirp-s, (arci-) x arx.
f) Facul for facile.
g) Acforatque; necforneque: mage for magis.
h) The Pronoun hie, with the Adverbs hic, illic, istic, hinc,
illinc, &c., have dropt e. Thus illinc is for illimce.
l^ote. — Ab (oLTTo), sub (vtto) have lost a final vowel.
B) Final Consonants are sometimes lost :
a) Substantives with final on drop n in the Nom. Sing.,
resuming it in the Obhque Cases :
ratio, virgo; Gen. ration-is, virgtn-is.
b) A final Consonant has been dropt in Acc. and Nom. S. by
the following Neuter Substantives :
cor (cord-) Gen. cordis (Gr. Kapdin)
far (fars-) — farr-is (for fars-is)
fel (felt-) — fellis (Gr. x<^^«c)
lac (lact-) — lactis (Gr. ya-Xa/cr-)
mel (melt-) — mellis (for meltis, Gr. /xfXt fxiXirog)
OS (ost-) — ossis (for ostis, Gr. oartov)
c) The Latin Ablative S. cast off final d :
(praeda-d) x praeda : (Gnaivo-d) x Gnaeo
(dictatore-d) x dictatore : (mari-d) x mari
(senatu-d) x senatu
Also Adverbs in e and some Prepositions :
{facilwne-d) x facillime ; {exstra-d) x extra.
d) On -re for -runt and for -ris in Verbs, see xxi.
vene-re for vene-runt ; uta-re for uta-ris.
e) Particles often drop final letters in composition :
amb- am- for ambi ; co- for com- ; di- for dis- ; pro-
for prod- ; re- for red- ; se- for sed- ; tra- for trans.
So hau for haud or haut : hau-scio for haud scio (Plaut.).
Pos- (pos-t) drops s in pomoerium, pomeridianus.
The Prepositions a for ab, e for ex, are long by Compensation.
C) Consonant and Vowel, or Vowel and Consonant, are dropt.
dein, exin, proin for deinde, exinde, proinde, Cic. Or. 45.
nihil for nihilum : non for (noenum ne-unum) ; sat for satis,
0-nouns with Nom. er have dropt os (us) :
magister for magister-os.
famul {O.famel) for famulus, Lucr. iii. 1048.
Note. The three consonants often est final are m, s, t. All these
fell off frequently in E. L. (Roscio for Roscius and for Ros-
cium), again in L. L., and ultimately in modern Italian. See p. 26.
Loss of Inner Consonants,
A7
Final m, with its vowel, was so weak that poets took no note of
it metrically before a word beginning with a Vowel. Thus in
Virgil's verse
monstr^;;^ horr^ndium informs ingens cui lumen ademptum
the letters printed in italics do not count in the metre, and the
verse runs thus :
monstr orrend inform ingens cui lumen ademptum.
Final s, on the other hand, after a short vowel, was neglected by
poets as late as Lucretius before words beginning with a consonant,
as testified by Cicero in the following passage : ' Ita enim loqueban-
tur : Qui est omnibu' princeps, non, omnibus princeps : et, Vita ilia
dignu' locoque, non, dignus, Or. 48. He also testifies that this
weakness of s had existed in common parlance even when the
vowel before it was long : * Sine vocalibus saepe brevitatis causa
contrahebant, ut ita dicerent, multi' modis ; vas' argenteis ; palmi'
et crinibus ; tecti' fractis,' Or. 45.
Final t also was often dropt in ancient Verb-forms : dede for
dedit. See p. 26, and C. I. 188.
xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by concurrence Loss of
with other Consonants*^ Conto-
When this loss occurs for euphonic reasons, if a syllable pre-
viously long by position alone is left short by the removal of one
consonant, compensation is often made by lengthening the vowel :
(pic-nus) X pinus : but not always ; (lac-nius) x lanius.
The sign of length ( — ) will here shew the compensated syllables.
A) Exclusion of Guttural Mutes.
1. A Guttural Mute is excluded in Verbal formations when it
occurs between a Liquid and one of the letters s, t, m.
(farc-si) x farsi /r^l^"^-\ 1 x fulsi
^ ^ (fulg-si) )
(differc-tum) x differtum (fulc-tum) x fultum
(sparg-si) X spar si (indulg-si) x indulsi
(torqu-tum) x tortum (indulg-tum) x indultum
(torqu-mentum) x tormentum (fulg-iiien) x fulmen
2. Occasional instances of Gutturals excluded :
c between n and a Dental Mute :
quint us (quinc-tus) quindecim (quinc-decim)
But quinctus may be kept, as tinctus, sanctus.
c before m : lama (lac-) ; temo (refc-) ; lumen (liic-).
. c — n : aranea {dpayj-vrj) ; lana (lac-) ; planus (irXaK-) ;
rana (rac-) ; vanus (vac-) ; deni (dec-) ; luna (luc-) ;
quini (quinc-), in which n before c is also cast out.
nants.
* Many combinations are troublesome to litter: guttural with labial mute, or labial
mute with guttural ; surd with its sonant, or sonant with its surd, and so on. When the
addition of a suffix in derivation produces such combinations, they are usually avoided
by excluding the first consonant : scalprum for scalp-brum, ful-crum for fulc-crum, &c.
4^ Latin Soimdlore, ^ § 12.
c before s : ursus (Sk. arkshas, Gr. dpKTOt:).
»
IT — j : aio (ag-io) ; maior (mag-ior) ; Maius (Mag-ius) ;
puleium (puleg-ium).
— 1 : m5les (/^oy-) but molestus ; pila, pillar^ pier (ptg- ?
comp. pepigi).
% — m : contaminare (tag-) ; examen (ag-) ; flamen (flag-) ;
rima (ng-, x\n^\) ; iumentum (iug-, iu;/gere) ; sumen
(sug-).
— V : mavis, mavult (mag-e-) ; levis (leg- vis) ; brevis (breg-
vis),
X — d : sedecim (sex-decim).
z — n : seni (sex-ni).
X — V : seviri or sexviri.
X II m - j ^^^^ subtemen (tex-).^
The same principle applies in ala (ax-); mala (max-); palus, pala,
(pax-) ; talus (tax-). See Cic. Or. 45.
E) Exclusion of Dental Mutes.
I. Dental Mutes often fall out before s.
i) In the Flexion of Nouns.
Dental Mute Stems, including Pres. Participles in ii(t)»,
are by far the most numerous class in the 3rd Declension :
and as all but a few take the Nom. S. ending they drop
the dental t or d before the sibilant :
(virtut-s) X virtu-s; (comlt-s) x com^-s
(custod-s) X custo-s ; (vad-s) x vas
(part-i part-s) x pars ; (dent-i- dent-s) x dens.
The rule of quantity here is, that long stems remain long,
short remain short, in the Nom. S. : excepting
(ped-s) pes with its compounds, (vad-s^ vas,
abies, aries, paries for (abiet-s, &c.)
with a few Greek words which drop n as well as t ;
elephas (elephant-s) ; Simois (Simoent-s)
See § 24. Syllabus.
* Since x=cs or gs, the changes from x to s in Sestius (Sextius), sescenti (sexcenti),
tnistus (mixtus), are really instances of the loss of a guttural mute before s ; of c in the
first two examples, of g in the third (jxiy-). Again
discere (dic-sc-ere), miscere (mig-sc-ete)
are similar omissions before sc.
This seems to justify the assumption that when x falls out before 1, the c departs first,
then the s ;
tex-la, tes-la, tela
and so in the other instances.
That s would fall out before 1 is shewn in qualus (quas-), pTla, mortar (pins-), and in
Fr. Bale (Basle). Corssen however (I. 64) confines himself to saying of these instances
that X falls out before 1, m, and that c does not fall out before 1. The alternative above
stated he does not notice.
§12, Loss of Inner Conso7iants, 49
2) In the Flexion of Verbs.
ci) A certain number of Verbs throw out d, a few t, before the
Perfect Suffix s-i :
ardere (ard-si) arsi ludere (lud-si) lusi
ridere (rid-si) risi radere (rad-si) rasi
sentire (sent-si) sensi flectere (flect-si) flexi
Assimilation occurs in
cedere (ced-si) cessi and its compounds,
decutere (decut-si) d ecus si, with other compouA is of quatio.
Compensation occurs in none but
dividere (divid-si) divisi- ; mittere (mitt-si) misi.
U) In the Supine formation also the Dental is often lost. When-
ever t or d is brought before the suffix tum^ that suffix
is changed to sum. But whether stem or suffix parts
with its dental first, is a disputed point* Corssen's order is
t-tum (or d-tum), -s-tum, -sum.
However this be, t-ttim (or d-tum) usually becomes -sum,
losing the Dental : .
(vert-tum) vef sum ; (cud-tum) cusum ;
(sent-tum) sensum ; (rad-tum) rasum.
But ^ssum by Assimilation in a few Verbs :
sM-ere sessiim ced-ere cessum fod-ere fossum
f^t'^eri fassum fi(;/)d-ere fissum pat-i passum
met-ere messum sci(;^)d-ere scissum grad-i gressum
Also mitt-ere, missuttl, which drops t between two Dentals.
Cbtnpensation occurs in a few Verbs with their Compounds.
Vtd-ere visum ed-ere esum 6d-ere osum
Cad-ere casutti fu(/^)d-ere fusum (also ga visum from
divid-ere divisum tu(;^)d-ere tusum gaudere = ga-vid-ere)
Ohs, I. Observe also that -turn of the Supine becomes -sum after
these combinations, 11, rr, re, rg: :
fall-ere falsum ; curr-ere cursum ;
parc-ere parsum ; sparg-ere sparsum.
Ohs, 2. The euphonic rule for Dentals before the suffix -tum in
Supines appHes equally to Dentals before Noun-suffixes beginning
with t in Derivation :
(tond-tor) tonsor ; (vert-tura) versura; (offend-tio) offensio ;
(cad-tus) casus.
2. Occasional Exclusion of Dental Mutes.
d before c : (hod-ce) x hoc ; (quod-circa) x quocirca.
— =~ grn : a-gnoscere, a-gnatus, &c. '
— m : clvC-mentum (caed-) ; ra-mentum (rad-).
— — n : fi-nis (fid-).
— — V : sua-vis (suad-).
£
50 Latin Soundlore, § 12.
C) Exclusion of n.
n before c : When the Suffix -cin is added to Nasal stems : .
latro-cinium, sermo-cinari.
— — grn : i-gnoscere, i-gnavus, &c. co-gnoscere, &c.
— — s : -es for -ens in Numeral Adverbs ; quoties, de-
cies, milies, (S:c., for quotiens, &c. after the
Augustan age : before which time -ens was used.
(semen-stris) x semestris ; mostellaria from
monstrum ; (formonsus, formossus) x formosus ;
(sanguin-suga) x sanguisuga ; ^ (quam si, quan-si)
X quasi.
Note. US before s was very weak in E. L. and R. L. Inscrr. give
the forms co-sol^ ce-sor, castre-sis^ &c. ; even as, es for the endings
ans, ens: iN/as, dotes. So Ital. 7nese (mensis) ; Yx. peser (pensare).
nt before n : This omission is seen in Numerals when -ceni is
written for -centni : viceni.
— — s : -cesimus -g-esimus for -cent-simus,-grent-slmus :
vice-simus, trige-simus, &c.
nd 1 : scala (scand-la).
Note. The exclusion of p seems doubtful. Corssen cites a-men-
tum, a-mes, as derived from ap-. (Ribbeck has ammentum.)
D) Exclusion of r :
jr before b : fune-bris (funer-) ; mulie-bris (mulier). In fe-bris
(ferv-) rv fall out.
— — j • (per-iuro) x pe-iero.
— — s : pro-sa for prorsa ; pe-stis for per(d)-stis.
— — t : sempl-ternus (semper-).
E) Exclusion of s :
8 before d : iu-dex (ius-dicere) ; (is-dem) x idem.
— — 1 : corpu-lentus (corpus) ; viru-lentus (virus) ; qua-lus
(quas-).
— — m : 6-men (os-) ; re-mus (res-, eper-) ; du-mus (dus-);
Ca-mena (cas-) ; multi-modis.
— — n : ce-na (ces-) ; ahe-neus (ahes-) ; pone (pos-ne) :
audin, vin, potin, satin, &c. for audisne, &c.
Lossof XXX. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants
Inner
Vowels. yZvyKOTTT]),
a : pal-ma (TraXdfxrj, pal-u-ma) ; cup-ressus {tcvizapLaaoQ, cup-
e-rissus) ; nomenc-lator (c-a-lare, c-u-lare).
o : p-te for pote : meopte :
suffix trino- for (-torino -terino) : doct-rina, pist-rinum.
u : i) (man-u-ceps) x man-ceps ; (quat-u-or) x quat-er; (man-u-
suesco) X mansuesco.
* Probably an T-noun sangui-s (shewn in exsanguis) was a byform of sanguis
(sanguen) sanguin-. So anguis, snakCt probably had a byform anguis anguin-
shewn in the Demin. a n g u i 1 1 a.
Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. SI.
2) The suffi-x -culo-, culeo- may exclude u :
orac-lum po6t for oraculum ; vinc-lum for vinculum \
nuc-leus for nuculeus : so fig-linus for fic-u-linus.
The suffix pulo- loses u in some words :
discip-lina, temp-lum^ extemp-lo ;
iso amp-lus, dup-lus, &c.
3) All Deminutive words ending in -llus -Ha -Hum have ex-
cluded u before the second 1 : and then formed the as-
similation 11 :
whether Primary Deminutives :
agellus (ager-u-lus), olla (aul-u-la)'; villum (vin-u-lum) ;
uUus (un-u-lus) ; Stella (ster-u-la) ; hilla (hir-u-^la) ;
or iSfecondary :
porcellus (porcul-u-lus) ; cistella (cistul-u-la) ;
quantillus (quantul-u-lus) ; tantillus (tantul-u-lus).
4) The Verbal suffixes -bam^ -bas, -bo, -bis, &c., have lost .
u : being for fu-am, fu-as, fu-o, fu-is, &c. , '
© : l) The Suffixes bero- beri- feero- ceri- tero- terl often ex-
clude e in flexion and derivation :
creb-ro, celeb-ris, mac-rum, ac-riter, dext-ra, pvit-re.
Hence Nouns with suffixes bro- cpo- tro- form Deminu-
tives regularly in e-llo- :
flab-rum, flabellum ; dolab-ra, Dolabella ; luc-rum
lucellum ; plaust-rum, plostellum ; cast-rum castel-
lum : (for flaber-u-lum, Dolaber-u-la, &c.)w
2) e is often excluded when d, f, gr, p, come before er :
Evand-rus, vaf-re, nig-resco, Ap-rilis, inf-ra.
Hence the regular formation of such Deminutives as
flagellum from flag-rum (flager-u-lum)
capella — cap-ra (caper-u^la).
3) In salictum for salic-etum, carectum for caric-
etum, e has been shortened and excluded.
4) The Suffix greno- excludes e in many words :
benig-nus, mali-g-nus, privig-nus : so g-nascor.
/ 5) E-verbs compounded with face re sometimes exclude e :
cal-facere, ol-facere.
Note, Ferris, 2nd Pers. Pres. Pass, of fero, ferre Infin. (for
fer-se), velle (for vol-se) from volo, and es-se (for ed»se), from
edo, if formed as classical Verbs in general, would be (fer-e-ris,
fer-e-re, vol-e-re, ed-e-re). It cannot be said, however, that they
have lost e, but that, like esse, posse (from sum), they never
took it.
E 2
$2 Latin Soundlore. §12/
1: i) The words nau-ta, nau-fragus, &c., au-ceps, au-
spex, &c., also cau-tum, fau-tum, &c. have excluded i.
But navi-ta, navl-fragus are used in poetry : and cav-
i-tum, fav-T-tum, &c., are found in old Latin.
2) Fero forms fers, fertur, &c. not (fer-!-s, fer-I-tur, &c.).
3) Edo forms es for ed-I-s, est for ed-I-t, estur for
ed-I-tur.
4) Volo forms volt, vult (vol-It), voltis, vultis (vol-I-tis).
The formation of* vis is supposed to be
(volis, vol-s, vil-s) VIS.
5) The vowel \ is lost by
purgare (pur-!g-are), iurgari (iur-Tg-ari) ;
audere (av-Id-ere) ; gaudere (gav-Id-ere) :
also in the suffix mnp- mna for (mSno-) mlno- mlna :
alum-nus, Vertum-nus, colum-na, &c.
6) Corssen derives
iuxta from (iug-ista, in nearest juficticn),
exta — {tx-\si2i, the most oiitward entratis)4
praesto — {^r2iQ,-isio^ in most forwardness),
7) (ced-i-te) x cette ; (opi-ficina) x officina
(bidiv-um, tridiv-um, &c.) x biduum, triduum, &c. :
(posi-v-i) X posui :
(semi-caput, sim-ciput) x sinciput :
(mater-itera, second mother) x matertera :
(nasi-torqu-t-iu-m) x nasturtium : see M. Lucr. ii. 401,
(nep-i-tis weakened from nep-otis) x neptis.
8) Puer-tia is poetic for puerltia : misertus for mis-
erftus : -postus in compounds for-posltus.
Rarer poetic omissions of 1 are
lam-na, cal-dus, sol-dus, strig-libus, &c. for lamina, &c;
Balneum is more usual than baUneum; audacter
than audaclter: vaHde and valde are used, but
with some difference of meaning.
sui. Elision, Contraction and Coalition of
Vowels.
Hiatus. Hiatus (the open concurrence of Vowels) is avoided within
words in three ways.
Elision. i) First : Hiatus is avoided by Elision (Sv va\oi0/y), the cutting
off of the former vowel :
(ne-ullus) X nuUus (ante-ea) x antea
(ne-unquam) x nunquam (quinque-unc-s) x quincunx
(ne-usquam) x nusquam (semi-uncia) x semuncia
In semianimis the i of semi becomes a consonant.
§12, Elision, CoTifraction, etc, of Vowels, 53
a) Elision includes the cutting off of m with its vowel within
a word as well as at the end of a word in metre.
(venum-eo) x veneo; (animum adverto) x animadverto; (septem-
unc-s) X septunx. So sept-ennis, dec-ennis, dec-ussis, &c.
b) The Preposition com (cum) in composition elides m only
before a vowel, leaving the vowel open :
co-emo, co-eo. co-haei'Q.o.
But com^edo..
Circumr does this before i : as circu-it, circu-itus ;
but keeps m before other vowels :
circumago circumerro^
2) Secondly : Hiatus is avoided by Contraction (Svmipceric, Contract.
Kpd(7ic) : by which two concurring vowels unite into one long
vowel, rarely into a diphthong.
If the concurring vowels are the same, the same vowel
lengthened results from, their contraction :
(c6-opis) X copis (tibi-i-cen) x tibicen
(pro-oles) X proles de-eram x deram
(dii) X di de-ero x dero
fihi X fill (Gen. S.) de-esse x desse
b) If the vowels differ^ the former usually absorbs the latter.
c6-alescere x colescere (semi-as) x semis
(pro-emo) x promo, (de4go) x dego fili-e x fill
victu-i X victu si-em x sTm
(indu-itiae) x indutiae (ama-im, ame-im) x amem
In some instances, the latter absorbs the former :
(ama-o) x amo diei x dii as well as die
(fu-io) x fio (glacie-alis) x glacialis.,,
c) Remarkable contraction of a with parasitic u appears in.
cur for (quor) quare ; and culest (Plaut.) for qualis est.^*
(On Contraction after exclusion of Spirants, see xxxiv.)
3) Thirdly : Hiatus is avoided in poetry by Coalition ; which Goalk.
grammarians called ^vvii^riffiQ, ^ settling together,' or Svj/e/j^wj^r/o-ic,
* uttering together ; ' when, without written contraction, vowels were
scanned and uttered as forming one syllable : d8n^ proin^. aur^^
omnia, Peleb, pituita, antehac. See Prosody.
Note, Deero, deeram, deesse, are sometimes ranked her^
* Still more remarkable are the instances (cited by C.) where T, before a vowel,, re-
presents an old i contracted from (like fio ; compare fieri). These are : (i) clTens
(cluTens) ; (2) industrius (endostru-Tus) ; and (3) the word noticed by F^stus,, inciens,
*propinqua partui ' (incu-iens ; compare Kveiu, eyjcuo?) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews
the usually received derivation of the latter word, incincta,incinta (given inDucange's
Glossarium in voce) to be quite erroneous.
54 Latin Soimdlore. ^ § \z,
Lossof xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants.
Vowels
Conson- (homi-ni-cida) x homicida ; (lapi-di-cidina) x lapi-cidina
ants. (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper
(tru-ci-cidare) x trucidare ; (tri-num-nundinum) x trinund]fnum
(no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; (prae-vo-co) x praeco
(ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae.
(vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium.
2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetude ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo;
(hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetudo ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus.
3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae-
ceps, &c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples.
4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim.
5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of
decern, ten^ are often lost in the formation of numeral words:
se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi,
triginta for tria-de-centa, &c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, &c.
6. (per-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ;
sur-pui poet, for sur-ri-pui.
7. possum = potis (pote) sum ; potes = potis (pote) es, &c.
malo, &c. for (mage-volo, &c.).
vendere for venumdare ^ : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are).
(re-ce-cidi) x reccMi or recidi ; (re-pe-peri) x repperi ;
(re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli.
Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica-
tion :
dif-fidi, in-cidi, ob-tigi, pro-tendi.
1
Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro :
dedidici, expoposci, praecucurri.
8. The syllable si is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem
forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the best
age '}
a) Perf. Act. 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur.
dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (due-si-sti)
mist i for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti)
accestis for (acces-si-stis)» ^
Pluperfect Conj. :
exstinxem for (exting-si-sem)
vixet for (vic-si-set)
e r e p s e m u s for (erep-si-semus).
* A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, bu^
many Augustan, are given^ by Corssen, ii. 553. . . .'
Shortening of Vowels.
55
\ c) Infin. Perf. :
surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; tr axe for (trac-si-se)
divisse for (divi-si-se) ; iusse for (ius-si-se).
d) Besides, the Verbs which classically form a Perfect-stem with
the character s, some other Verbs did this ia old Latin : cap -ere,
fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation, of
the Perf Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character s was sl-sim, sl-so,
such Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in sim, so :
fax im for (fac-si-sim) ; fax o for (fac-si-so)
clepsit for (clep-si-sit) ; ausint for (au-si-sint).
e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by
casting out a syllable and then doubling s :
negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit)
servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassint for (loca-vi-sint).
A few such forms are found from E-verbs and I -verbs :
prohibessit = prohibuerit ; ambissint = ambiverint.
Note, This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present,
gave birth to Infinitives in assere, used by Plautus :
impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere.
Sometimes even to Passive forms ;
turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv..
xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten-
ing of
1. Between the First Punic War (B.C. 260) and the Augustan age
(B.C. 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening
process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing
The extant specimens of old Saturnian Verse.
The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets
(Ennius, &c.).
The Comedies of Plautus and Terence;
The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero.
The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus.
The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.).
2. The Comedies of Plautus (B.C. 180) are a most important stage
in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of
long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous
examples of the shortening process always going on : and among
these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets.
Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur-
rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature
these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the study
of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in
Roman antiquity.
56
Latin Soundlore,
3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in
Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age.
§ 12.
Early
E. L.
Plaut,
Aug.
a
a
a
a
&
e
e
e
(s)
a
a
&
e
e
e
e
I
i
\
I
I
I
1
i
1
X
w
1
a
u
U
u
u
u
ii
u
a
a
&
a
a
&
a
0
5
5
5
5
6
5
a
a
1. a Nom. Fem.
2. a Neut. PI. .
3. e Abl. Decl. 3. .
4. e Infin. • • •
5. atj
et ^rd Pers. S. • •
it J
6. is Nom.
7. Pis 2nd Pers. S. Conj.
8. bus Dat. Abl. PI.
9. mus I St Pers. PI.
10. ar in Nouns . •
1 1. ap in Verbs
12. OP in Nouns
13. OP in Verbs
14. al in Nouns
Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many
instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was
adopted to suit metrical convenience: gravia (Verg.) arat (Hon)
videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec-
toribus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) trahor (Tibull.), &c.
4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of common
parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into
pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are
loci, merT, doH, bono, domo, viro, do ml, fores, pedes, heri,
probe, ama, rogS, puta, cave, mane, tace, vale, abl, adi,
bibi, dedi, stett, darl, loqu!.
Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage
(which generally it rejected) in such words as bene, mod 6, nisi,
quasi, mihf, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, puta, cave, vale, &c. : and to
its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as
pal us, polypus in those writings of Horace which he himself
calls * sermoni propiora.' ^
Exciu- xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by
sion of/^ . rTT 1
conso- Contraction of Vowels.
nants
with s : dextans for (de-s-extans) =f of the as : nl for n?-s-T.
Contrac-
tion. 1-consonans : b T g a e for bi-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadrl-i-iigae :
cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ayas),
b: cors for c6-h-ors ; vemens for ve-h-emens; prendo for
pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (ne-h-emo for
ne-homo) ; nllum for ne-hilum; nil for ni-h-il; mi for
m 1 - h - 1 ; 1 m u s for (i-h-tous for in-f-Imus) ; d e b e o for de-h-Jbeo ;
p r a e b e o for prae-h-ibeo.
* On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Ritschl's
Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Miiller's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius;
also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar.
g 12. Exclusion of Consonants with Contraction. 57
q : dodrans (for dequadrans), | of the as, is formed by the
following process, according to Corssen (dequa x dequo x do quo
xdocu- X doc- X do-).^
. ▼ : There are two modes of suppressing v with contraction : and
in some words each mode would lead to the same result. ,
I. The short vowel after v may be excluded, v vocalised (be-
coming u), and then contracted with the preceding vowel.
; 2. V may be excluded and contraction ensue.
1. First Mode.
. This is shewn where the diphthong au results :
a u c e p s (av-i-ceps) ; a u s p e x (av-i-spex)
nauta for nav-i-ta; naufragus for nav-I-fragus
cautumfor cav-i-tum; fautum for fav-i-tum
audeo (av-i-deo) ; gaudeo (gav-i-deo)
and may be inferred (as shewn by lotum, liitum for lautum) in
most instances where 6, u result (for ov = ou or for uv = uu) :
fotum (fov-i-tum) ; fomentum (fov-i-mentum)
motum (mov-i-tum) ; momentum (mov-i-mentum)
iutum {iuv-i-tum) ; iumentum (iuv-i-mentum)
iipilio, opilio (ov-i-pilio) ; prudens for prov-i-dens
curia (co-viria) ; decuria (decu-viria)
lupiter (lov-I-piter) ; bobus or bubus (bov-!-bus)
bruma (brev-I-ma, breuma)
nunc (nov-um-ce) ; nuper (nov^i-per)
iunior (iuv-e-nior) ; udus (uv-i-dus).
In nundlnae (nov-endinae, noundinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun-
tio), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of v seems
to take place before the exclusion of the vowel.
2. Second Mode.
d) (dis, Ter. once) for di-v-es; dltior for di-v-itiorj
ditissimus for di-v-itissimus : oblltus (obli-v-itus) ;
h o r n u s (ho-v-ernus) :
praes (prae-v-i-des, prae-i-des, praeds) :
Cloelius (Clo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) :
malo, malle, &c. for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c,
nolo, nolle, &c., (ne-v-olo, ne-v-olle, &c.) :
sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, elides iv.
b) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun
or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vorsum :
horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us
-um) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior-
sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ;
sursum (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us -um for (intro-vors-
us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45.
' Bes, or bessis, bes-ses (dvi-esses), two thirds of the as, is another curious ab»
breviation ; representing bis trientes, twice one third.
5S
Lathi Soundlorc.
Contrac- This form of Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect-
tion in stem Tcnses of Pure Verbs.
Perf.
Stem.
a. When the Perfect-stem ends in av, ev, 6v, the v may be ex-
cluded before is or er (but not before ere), contraction ensuing :
amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is-
sem ; nosse for nov-isse.
amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero;
norunt for nov-erunt. \
And in Lucr. at for avlt : inritat, i; 70.
These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi,
pavi^ fovi, vovi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes
occur in poetry :
adiiiris for adiuveris ; mostis for movistis ; admo-
runt for admoverunt ; summosses for submo-
visses.
j3. When the Perfect-stem ends in iv, the v is often excluded,
and contraction usually follows before is :
audi-eram for audiveram.; audi-ero for audiv-ero, audisr^
sem for audivissem.
1 So, in eo and its compounds :
ieram, !ero ; issem, isse, &c.
S Iris, is used for siveris from sinere, sivi.
The contraction of -iit into -it occurs ; obi t for obiit.
Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often e»-'
hibited as eit in E. L.^ See M. Lucr. iii. 1042.
Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs.
A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs :
Indie. Mood. Fut. i. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram.
Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m) si em, sim. Imperf.
(esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) e s s e m. Infin. e s - s e.
Forms of fuo (shewn in fore=fure, fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs.
Indie. Mood. Imperf. (fuam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c.
Tenses of a m o (ama-o) :
Ind. M. Fut. I. (ama-fuo) amabo. Imp. (ama-fuam) amabam. Perf. (ama-fui)
amavi. Fut. 2. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam) amaveram.
Conj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) am em. Imp. (ama-esem) amarem. Perf.
(amav-esim) a m a v e r i m. Plup. (amav-esem) amavissem.
Infin. (ama-se) a mare : (amav-ese) amavisse.
/ C) Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding sc
\^el/)t and making euphonic change :
Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ar, &c.
D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari; (regese-se) regi-er, regi.
The Conj. Pres. endings am, as, at, &c. of the Third Conjugation (regam, regas, &c.)
represent the Primitive Conjunctive in d ; and Fut. forms in es, et, &c. (reges, reget,
&c.)are contracted from a-ia-Sy &c., as in (esa-ia-'s) eses. See C. II. 729.
g'i2. Relations of Consonants^ etc. 59
XXXV. Relations of the Consonants in Latin Reia-
and kindred Languages. ^qo^^oL
I. The Guttural Surds c, q. cTut-
1) C corresponds to Sk. /, k^d^ to Gr. fc or tt : c,
L. Sk. Gr.
centum s^ata e-Karop
decern da/an dha
canis yvan Kvdtp (kvv-)
iecur yakart ^irap
voco vac^ p€7r(o.
2) Qu sometimes corresponds to Sk. s^v, Gr. ir (k) t:
L. Sk. Gr.
equos as'vas 'iinrog
i/c/cofi (for *IkFo£.
More frequently qu corresponds to Sk. c', k, Gr. n, r (k) :
L. Sk. Gr.
quattuor c'atvdras reVrapec; (for TiTpapeg)
Trlavpeg {fd, petard)
linquo rid Xitt-
sequor sac' Itt- for c-ctt
que ka Kai re
quis kas rfc (U.//>).
Some think that ^2/ should always be assumed as the primitive
of qu ; but Corssen maintains that c (k) could develop u after it in
Italian language as a transition-step to the labial p : and he thinks
that even in Indie kv is developed from k.
3) The Labialism by which tt and p represent Pr. y^, prevailed in
Umbrian and Oscan. U. /^///^^^//^^^^y-quadrupedibus ; O.
^///// = quidquid. Hence (from O.petora, four) come the names
Petreius, Petronius: and (from O. /^;;^-/-^j' = quinque) Pon-
tius (=Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom-
pilius.^
4) In two instances c, qv seem to correspond to Sk. Gr. tt :
L. Sk. Gr.
coquo pac' TrcV-roi
quinque pane' a ireyrej TrifiTTE,
Here some think the primitive roots were kak or kvak; kanka
kvankva, Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo),
quinque for (pinque), by assimilation.
5) In proof that qu could be developed from c, Corssen cites
huiusque for huiusce ; inquilinus from incolo ; inquinare
fromcoenum; quom = cum; querquetum for quercetum ; Qui-
rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus.
* Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as
lupus {^\i.var-kas, Gr. Avko?) ; popina for coquina ; palumbes = columba : Epona
(forEquona) ; spoiium (Gr. aKvKov) : and one or two more doubtful, as pa vo (Gr. raw?).
Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa,
/S-calpa) : stercus (Gr. o-Koip) ; studeo, studium(Gr. anov^ri).
6o Latin Soundlore. ■ ■ § 12^
6) Q is found in E. L. for qu, chiefly before u, as peqimia^
qum, qur^ quius : rarely before other letters : as neqidem, qe,
7) To avoid quu, before the Aug. age on was often used :
ecus, cocus, anticus, execuntur, secundus.
So locutus, secutus.
Ne-cubi, si-ciibi, ali-ciabi, &c., take the place of ne-quubi, &c.
8) Qu becomes in Greek fcov, fcv^ kt, sometimes ko :
9) Qu was uttered as in English ; c as k.* Their sounds appear
in ' come quicker.^
The assibilation or soft sound of cl, ce did not prevail in Latin
before the 7th century of our era.
* I. The following facts shew that the assibiUted sound of ce,,ci, wa^ not used in C. L.
1. Greek represented c by k before e, tj, t : as
2. Latin represented Greek k by c before e> i» y : as
Cecrops, cerasus, Cilix, Cimon, cithara, Cybelc.
3. Gothic represents c by k before these vowels : as
kerker, keller, kirsche.
4. Quintilian cites chenturiones as a way of spelling centui^loiies.
An Inscription a.d. 326 gives
schenicos for scenicos,. and also sceniconim.
Another, a.d. 408, has p ache for pace.
5. Qu could not represent an assibilated c ; therefore such forms on Inscrr. in L. B.. as
{on the one hand)
h u I u s q u e for huiusce ; r e q u i.e s q u e t for requiescit
and (on the other)
sic is for siquis ; eintus for quintus.
shew that up to their date ce, ci kept the hard guttural sound.
6. In the imitative verbs crocio, glocio, c must have had the hard sound.
7. Finally, no grammarian has told us that c was uttered in one way before e,. i> in
another before the remaining vowels. This silence goes to prove that no such difference
existed in C. L.
In the Umbrian and Volscian dialects there had existed a soft 9, as U. fafid^^ V.
j^jzVi;, for facia t. '
And in the late Imperial times such tendency dawns in a few words on Inscrr. :
provinsia for provincia; Luziae for Luciae ; Felissiosa for Feliciosa.
But it was not until the 7th century a. d. that popular utterance so far relaxed its
energy as to adapt generally the guttural consonant to the palatal vowel, and propagate
that sibilant sound of ce, ci which, for instance, transmutes the classical Kikero into
It. G. Fr. Eng.
Chichero Shishero Sisero.
II. The assibilation of inner ti before a vowel began earlier. It had existed in dialects :
as U. purdinfMst for purdintiust : O. Bansae for Bantiae. The grammarian Pompeius-
in the 5th century testifies that Titius, for instance, was sounded Titsius, Consentius says
that etiam was pronounced eziam. In the next century we meet with a.K7^io for actio.,
Constanzo for Constantio : soon after with iustizia, milizia, preparing the way for modern.
Italian, which writes Firenze (Florentia), Piacenza (FlAcentisi), /alazza (palatium)^
1 Relations of Consonants^ etc. 6i
IL The Guttural Sonant C.
1) G usually corresponds to Sk. J or gr, Gr. 7 : G,
L. Sk. Gr.
gen- jan ytv- yov-
ag-o aj ay-
teg-o sthag oTiy-fa
Sometimes to Sk. s\ Gr. k :
viginti vins'ati feiKOcru
Sometimes to Sk. kk, k, Gr. x^y-
unguis nakhas orvj(-
li(n)go Izk Xei)(u}
ego aham lyw
2) Parasitic u follows gr in anguis, sanguis, unguis, lingua,
linquo, stinguo, tinguo, unguo, urgueo. In pinguis (ttq-
yyc) u is a suffix.
In all these, except urgueo, the guttural n adulterinum
strengthens gr, giving it a nasal twang : as in the Verbs cited p. 19.
3) G was guttural in C. L. ; as in Eng. go, gave, give, get, begety
begin. Its palatal assibilations before e, i, whether hard, as in
Eng. gentle, giant, rage, It. gentil, Ginevra, gioia, ragione, or soft,
as in Fr. gentil, geant, gite, rage, began towards the 5th century
with the use, as in Italian, of gri ( = Eng. j) before another vowel :
Giove, Giulia, giallo,
III. The Aspirates : h, f. 4tet
It belongs not Only to Indie language but also to Greek to
aspirate the medial mutes gr, d, b, as well as the tenues k, t, p.
Thus arise the medial aspirates grli, dli, bli ; to which the partially
corresponding sounds in Greek are 0> severally. Latin has
neither class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose
of correspondence are principally h, f, and the medial
I. K, when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H.
Breathing, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the
Greek : Hebe, Homerus, hora, &c.
d) In some words li corresponds to Sk. h, Gr. : as
L. Sk. Gr.
hiemps M^nam X^'M"
heri hyas y^ic,
veho (via) vah ^X^^
ans-er(for ^ X^>,
h-ans-er) - ( =
* The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander, gos (Anglo-Sax.), gans (Germ.), com-
pared with the Greek xr^v, seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no
doubt that Greek x indicates a Prim, gh ia all these words ; and this is also shewn in
the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for vegh-si.
62
Latia Soundlore.
% 12.
U) B represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, harios*
lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi.
So in Spanish, /^//'^ = filius ; /ladlar = {3,hu\3.r'i.
c) H has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get
rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is manifest
in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the
orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena,
arena; harundo, arundo; haruspex, aruspex ;
have, ave; haedus (aedus) ; ha.Y \ o\u s (arwha) ; Ha-
dria {Adria); heres (eres); hcrus, hera, and erus,
eia;hedera (edera) ; ho lus (olus) ; Hammon (Ammon) ;
Hister (Ister). But the forms humerus, humor ^ &c. for
umerus (^/xoy), umor (from uvere), are not good.
c) The loss of li was propagated in L. L. Hence in modern
Italian it is not sounded, and has generally disappeared as
an initial letter.
F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian
as a very strong rough sound : * 111a quae est sexta nostrarum paene
non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina den-
tium efflanda est/ xii. lo. This description does not seem to imply
that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from
our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds,
that 0 was different from our f, not, like this, labio-dental, but a
pure labial aspirated.
T is seldom the inner letter of a root. As an initial it
corresponds to Sk. bh^ Gr. (^, chiefly : Sk. dh, Gr. 0, some-
times ; Sk. gh^ Gr. rarely.
L. Sk. Gr.
l) fero bhar (p/pa,
fui (fe-, &c.) bhu (f)yu}
flag- (fulg-) bhraj 4^\ty(a
frigo bhrajj ^puyw
fugio bhuj (jifvyto
frater bhrdtar (j^paTrip
See bhay p. i6. To Pr. bh, C. also refers the f in tnaiiy words :
fovere, favilla; favere ... ; famulus (O, /aamay
'house'); fervere furere ... ; fidere ... ; fiber;
forare ; furvus; fundus...; frequens: compare also
fagus ((/)*?7oc); folium (^uWoj^); frango (ppay-) ;
frigus (fplyoQ),
2) foris dvdr Ovpa
fumus dhumas Ovog
rufus (rudh) epvOpog
firmus dhar (da\- deX'Y
From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere,
ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c.
* Lat. -fendo, Gr. detVo) are referred to Sk. Ann. Probably on this account Prof.
Monier Williams, in his Lexicon, refers Aau to a Prim. dAau, though so many of its forms
indicate an original £Aan.
§ 12. Relations of Consonants y etc. 63
The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors-
sen distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhu
L. Sk. Gr.
3) fel (comp. bills) {hari^ ^ greenish yellow ^6Kr)
fu(;^)do Ig^^f) x^f^
To Pr. grh C. refers fulvus (helvus), host is (fostis), hario-
lus (^inspector of the hira or entratP), haedus (faedus),
hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur.
IV. The Labial Mutes p, b. I^abials
P. B.
These were sounded anciently as in modern language.
P corresponds generally to Pr. Gr. tt. But see L
S corresponds often to Pr. Gr. /3 ; but, as already shewn
(L and I XL), it has several other special relations.
Thus it is developed not only from dv (as in bis, bellum, bo-
nus, see p. 45), but also from gv :
L. Sk. Gr.
bos, bov- gaus pov$
faba {d/ias, ^ eat ') ^ay*
(for fag-va)
As an inner Consonant b represents Sk. dk regularly, dk rarely.
L. Sk. Gr.
nubes nahhas vecj^os
uber iidhar ov6ap
So b = <3f) (M) in am bo (aficjico), ambi- (dficjit), glaber (yXa^vp-
off)) nubo (j/v/Lt<j[)7;), scribo (ypdcfxo), sorbeo (po^eco), umbilicus
{ofi(j)aKos) i in the suffixes -bus {-(j^i), -bam, -bo, -bro, -bra, -bulo,
-bill, -bi (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -bis (nobis, vobis)^
Again b = ^ (dk) in ruber {ipvO-), plebs (ttX^^os), and in abies,
arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c.
V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dentals
spending to Sk. t, d (or dh\ Gr. r, h (or B),
d) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius
(Sk. madhyas, Gr. ixea-aos for fxed-yos), vidua (Sk. vidhavd)^ -dere
(Sk. dhd^ Gr. In latere {\a6dv\ pati {nadeLv)^ t seems to re-
present Pr. dk ; but this is very exceptional.
Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (a pud, ad,
haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illud, aliud, quod, quid, quid-
quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and
Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that
final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26.
c) The assibilation of inner di, as of ti, before a vowel, began
in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by zz, as mezzo
for medio.
64 Latin Soundlore. g 12,
Nasals VI. The Nasals correspond in sound to Pr. n and
M. Gr. I/ and yit. ^
tf) w has in Latin a twofold use :
1) As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel :
2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, c, qu. It is weak
and slightly uttered before s and ts, especially when these
are final See p. 50.
b) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which
belongs to v in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant :
(jiovaay) x musam ; ((xtt^v) x aberam.
(jHovttd'iav) X musarum ; (Sd/x(u»^) x domorum.
In the First Pers. Plur. of Act Verbs s corresponds t® v :
{e 'lIoiiev) X vidimus.
In the Third Pers. Plur. nt :
{air f\(Tav) x aberant.
Liquids Vll. The Liquids and the Sibilant.
1) Though t (littera canina, the growimg letter) is one of
the roughest sounds, and 1 one of the softest, they are intimately
related to each other, i is a lisped r : compare barbarus with
balbus, and nopal with KoKa'i (Aristoph.)
Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie,
Greek and Latin. Some roots have 1 in all three : laghj lighy
iu ; many have r in all : bhar^ inar^ sdrp^ siar^ hard^ &c.
2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of 1 from Pr. r is exemplified in
L. Sk. Gr.
linquo tic' Xitt-
luceo i'uc' \v\iL.
cluo ^ru K\vi>»
volo i)ar /3ou\-
ulna aratni Ci\kvr\
sal sara a\c
levis iraghus ^kayiq
See the derivatives of svar^ p. 17.
Lat r from Sk. /is shewn in rump o from lup (old form rup\
3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand,
lacer (joafcoe), lilium (Xc/piov) : so luscinia (Fr. rossignol) :
to the other,
grando (xaXa^ct), hirundo (x^Xl^ujv), arx {aXfc-), vermis
(eXpc), strigilis (orXeyytc) :
with a great number of v^ords in which the letters correspond,
especially those with 1 : as
leo {\eu)v), levis (Xeioo), oleum (eXaiov), silva (vXrf), 8cc.
but also some with r : as
aranea (dpaxvrj), rivus (pooc), taurus (ravpoy), &C,
Relations of^ Consonants^ etc.
4) Ii\ Latin words the order Mute-Vowel- Liquid often appears
where the corresponding Greek forms have Mute-Liquid-Vowel :
bardas (Ppadvs), caro (/cp^as), cerno {Kpivco), dulcis (yXvKvs), pulmo
(irX^vfiodv), sorbeo (/^o(/)ecD), torqueo (rpeTro)), So tri and ter,
trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c.
5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the
Dental d :
d and 1 :
lacrima {bakpv, tear), lingua (E.L. dingua^ * tongue'), levir (Sk.
devar, Gr. 6a7;p), olere {obcoba, odor), Ulixes (Obva-a-evs), adeps
(aXei^o)). Meditor (/ieX^raoj) is not so certain.
d and r :
meridies for (medi-dies) ; and ar- for ad in bid compounds:
arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso).
6) As to the sound of 1, we leaM from Priscian the opinion of'
the elder Pliny : ' 1» triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet t
exilem, qiiando geminatur secundo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus ;
plenum qxiando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet
ante se eadem syllaba consonantem, ut sol, silva^ flavus^ clarus;
medium in aliis, ut lectum, lectus,' L 7. 38.
7) The lightness of inner 1 caused it to be often shai*peried by
doubling :
loquella, querella, &:c.
8) Oh its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goeS so far that
U often takes the place of 1, forming diphthongs <^//, eau, eu, ou :
«(ad illu) X au ; (ad illos) x aux ; (alter) x autre. ;
(cheval-s) x chevaux ; (chevel-s) x cheveux.
(bel) X beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol, sol) x fou^ moUy soit^
a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and
which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant
between vowels into the canihe liquid. Varro mentions it : 'In
multis verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant s postea dictum r, ut in
carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem,
asenam,' vii. 26. In the Carmen Afvale the Lares are called
Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L. Papirius Crassus was the
first to call himself Papirius (B.C. 336) : before which all his clan
were called Papisii. So the Auselli became Aurelii, the Fusii
Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii
Spurii, the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have
Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii ; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria.
Hence in roots these changes appear :
(asa)xara; (asena, fasena) xharena; (fesiae) xferiae ; (nases)
xnares, comp. nasus ; (geso) x gero ; (hausio) xhaurio ; (seso)
xsero; (uso)xuro; (hesi)xheri, comp. ^0fg, hester nus.
So spes andspero; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires; glis,
gliris ; flos, floris, &c. ; nefarius from nefas, &c.
F
66 Latin Sotindlore, § 12.'
Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as er- op- 6p- ur- from
Nominatives in es, is, iis, os (op), us, belong to stems which are
really not p-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are
found in old Inscrr., being, for instance {aesis, foedesis, pignosis
or pignesis, arbosem, Jioses, plushna, maioses)^ &:c.
The Case-endings -apum -opum were {-asum^ -osum).
The Verb-forms -eram -epo were {-esam -eso), -pis -pe -p1 were
(sis -se -si). In the Passive endings -op -up, &c., p represents
the pronoun se.
Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo.
b) The p for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of
Greek o" between vowels :
(ausosa) x aurora (au-wc, Sk. ushas); (ausis) x auris (oJ-a< );
(visus) X virus {fi-oq^ S^.vishas) \ (nusus) x nurus (rvoc, Sk. snushd) ;
(sosor) X soror (o-ap, Sk. s^vasar, * sister'); (genesis) x generis
(yfVf-oc); (musis) x mu-ris (^v-6c) ; (deasum) x dearum (^^fo-wr);
(esam) x eram (e-^i^), &c.
c) R is for s before a consonant in Minerva (Sk. ma7tas,^vomd^) ;
verna {^\i,vas, 'dwell') ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi-
ernus from dies :
And as final in the ending op for 6s : color, honof, labor, &c.,
for colos, honos, labos, &c.
S. na) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub-
stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive c at the begin-
ning of words. Not so the Italians. Hence Latin iniiial s before
a vowel corresponds often to Sk. s, Gf. aspirate :
salix (kXiKY]), sex (e^), sedes (t^oc), semi- (rifJ^t-), serpo (tpTrw), si-
mul (a/x«, ofiov), sollus (oA.oc), silva {v\r}), se (t), suus (^fog), suavis
(//Sue), sub (vTTo), super {virep), sudor (i^ipujc)^ sus (uc), &c.
Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek ' spiritus lenis : *
si (el), sero {^'f-p^o)^ serum (c'ooc).
db) Sc, sp, st initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin,
unless s is dropt, as in tego (nrfyw). See p. 45.
cc) S initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner
letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and
Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found.
dd) S falls out in Cerealis for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (i-ap for
Feaap) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es),
in those of dies, die i for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms.
Jhe VI I L The soft Labial Spirant V.
Spirant
V- d) v-consonans has the same relation to f that b has to p : it
corresponds to Pr. v, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded :
and this sound was probably that of Eng. w.* Corssen thinks its
* That Latin v-consonans had the sound of Engli^ w always, is probable for the
following reasons :
i) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes into
y-cons» By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w.
§12.
Relations of Consonants, etc.
67
initial sound was that of Eng. v, its inner sound that of Eng.
L.
Sk.
Gr.
vomo
vam
r '
rEJJLEb)
volvo
val
r£AV(ji)
voco
vac'
video
vid know')
Pt^-
vestis
vasis
novus
navas
ovis
avis
So vis (F/c), viola {Ptov), vinum (fotvoc), bos bov- (/3ofc /3ovc),
navis (vafc, vavq), ver {Frjp), vespera (fecTrepa, kaTripa)^ Vesta
{FecrTia, eor/a), radix {Pptici, jo/^a, /3pt^a), &c.
As the Greeks lost the use of they represented initial v
sometimes by ov, sometimes by /3,
Vafro (Ovappcov or Bdppcov),
On the vocalization of v see p. 10 5 on its omission, see pp. 57, 58.
IX. X-consonans (J). The
On the sound and uses of i-consonans (j), see viii. i, and xii. 6. jf^^'
It corresponds to Sk. j/, sometimes to Gr. as iugum (Sk. j^uj]
Gr. Cvyov).
a) A form of 1 taller than the adjoining letters (I), appears in
late Republican and Augustan Inscrr. to express
1) long i-voc. : ^
dIvo, eI, stipendIs*
2) i-cons. ; both between vowels and initially :
MAlOR, CViVS, EiVS ; IVS, IVLIA.
A more corrupt form il is also found :
cviivs, coil VOL
3) That which is merely a general fact, has beeii Wrongly set
down as a rule of sound : namely, that a vowel before i-cons. is
long. Corssen has shewn that in all words which can be traced
(for ieiunus is obscure) where a vowel is long before i*cons., it is
so by its own nature :
a-io, Ga-ius, Ma-ius, pe-ior, pe-iero, &c.
2) Greek ov (as in OveXia for Velia in Dion. Hal. ) expi'esses Gr. digaiftnla and Lat. v ;
and this sound cannot be interpreted as Eng. v, but as w. The occasional substitution of
P, by Plutarch chiefly, proves nothing to the contrary : but only means that, ov being a
clumsy representation of f and v, /3 was taken as the nearest labial instead.
3) A. Gellius cites a grammarian, who says that Deus Vaticanus presided over infancy,
and that the two first letters of his name (Va) are that sound which the infant first utters.
The sound then is Eng. wa not v3,, which the infant, having no teeth, cannot utter.
Corssen's opinion is that Latin initial v may have had that middle sound between w
and v, which German w has in some localities ; the upper teeth being brought near to
the lower lip, but not pressed upon it. This view we cannot accept.
* It was shewn (p. 33) that ei was long used to express T with a leaning to e. Lucilius
tried to mark long vowels by writing them twice, as Maarcus for Marcus. This appears
on some Inscrr. but did not last long. It was followed in Cicero's time by the Apex or
mark over a long vowel, like (') or ('), which frequently appears on a, e, o, u ; not on i.
¥ 2
68 Latin Soundlore. § ,2,
Inbi-iugus, quadrt-iugus, tri-iuges, &c., I, being naturally
short, remains so.
c) Progressive assimilation has changed 1-cons. to i in cello,
fallo, pello for (cel-yo, fal-yo, pel-yo), as a\Aoc in Greek for
(aA-yoc), (TCpaWu) for (o'<l)aX-yw).
On luppiter, luno, lanus, &c. for D-iupiter, &c., see
p. 15. This passage from dj to j shews distinctly how the assibi-
lation arose by which i-cons., afterwards taking the sign J, became
a compound palatal sibilant in English and (with gi for Eng. j) in
Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal. So, from Latin
diurnus we get
Eng. It. Fr.
journey giorno journee
X. The Double Consonant x.
X ( = cs) corresponds to Gr. See vii. 8.
RepubUcan as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew xs :
deixserit, duxserit, vixsit.
In L. L. X passed into ss or and appears as ss in ItaHan ; so
disse for dixit.^
* A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters.
1. C. : vapor, vapidus, vappa {kva^ ; vermis ; verrere ; lamentum, laus, luscinia ;
ludere {kri^) ; libum ; raudus (c-rudus, * raw ') ; nidor {kvI<t(to).
G. : lac (-yaAa/cT-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere.
P. : lanx ; latus ; later ; laetus ; livere ; linter.
D. : ruere ; runa ; racemus ; belhim . . . bis . . . bonus ; viginti . . ; ; iuvare . . . ;
luppiter, luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenis ; iam ; iacere.
S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cernere . . . ;
cortex ; culter ; carpere ; cilium ; caedere ; clavis, claudere ; cena ; gradi ; -gruere ;
parcere ; pannus ; picus ; pituita ; penuria ; pellere ; puis ; palpare ; palpebra ; parra ;
pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populare ; fallere ; fides ; fungus ; tofus ; temetum ; tegere ;
tundere ; tonare ; taurus ; tueri ; tergefe ; torpere ; turdus ; turba, turbo, turma ; trun-
cus ; talpa ; turgere ; trux, trucidare ; macula ; mordere ; memor . . . ; mirus . . . ;
mittere ; ninguere ; nex ; nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix ; limus, linere, linea, littera,
limax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate.
St. : lis, latus, locus.
V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus.
2. Observe, on xxix. , that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to
the words from which they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla ; offa ofella ;
quattuor, quater ; villa, vilicus ; in-loco, Tlico ; stilla, stilicidium ; mille, milia (but millia
on the Ancyra monument). See M. Lucr. i. 313, and, on religio, i. 63.
§13-14.
Flexion of Words,
69
DIVISION 11.
MORPHOLOGY,
Morphology or Wordlore treats of Words.
It is subdivided as follows : —
CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general.
— II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension.
— III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation.
— IV. Particles : their Kinds.
V. Derivation and Composition of Words.
— VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words.
1. Words are called in Grammar the Parts of Speech,
Words are either Simple, as flagrare, flam ma, or Compound, as
con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer.
Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine
Meaning.
2. Every Word has Stem and Root,
Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu,
tkou\ 2i(\\x2,^ water.
Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root
differs: flamma,^'?^;;^^ : Root, flag-, (^/^5'^.
Root and Stem are often the same : ag-ere, to act. Such words
are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives.
A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it
has composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con-
flagra-, the two Roots, cum and flag-.
3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a
Suffix: thus in flam ma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag-
rare -r, -a, -re are Suffixes.
Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not
elemental : reg-i-bus, quer-i-monia. The final Suffix, which
converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag-
r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam -ma is not called an Ending,
because flam ma is itself a Word. When it forms flamma-s, s is
an Ending, and, specially^ a Case-ending.
CHAPTER I.
WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION.
i. Stem-flexion,
14
Flexioo
Latin Wordlore.
§15.
4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, not
being a root-word, is called a Prefix, Thus in te-tend-i, cin-
cinnus, -te and cin- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition,
asde- se-re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots.
5. The last letter of a P.oot, as gr in flag-, is the Root-character.
The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and flamma, is the Stem-
character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called
the Character of the Word.
6. Flexion, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem,
that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes
in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suflixing a
Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra-re, flamma-rum. Such
suffixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, as \ in reg-i-bus;
sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-ls for
flamma-ls (which is for flamma-bus). Sometimes change in a
letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flam m ft from flamma.
Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used ; ag-, eg-1.
Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : can-, ce-cin-1.
7. How then is a Stem defined ?
A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in
every change of form, though the character is often liable to be
hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter-
change. So the character of flamma is hidden in the form flam-
m-is ; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the
character of dirig- in the form direxi.
8. And how is a Root defined ?
A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the
word has in comm^on with all other kindred words. Thus, in agito,
the Stem is agita-, but the Root is agr-, which it has in common with
^g-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha-
racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter-
change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root agr- is con-
tained in the words actio, exam en, re di go, but obscured in each
word by some mutation.
Classes Classification of Words.
of
Words. Words are of three kinds :
I. Nouns. II. The Verb. III. Particles.
Nouns. I. A Noun (Nomen) is the name of something per-
ceived or conceived.
Nouns are of three kinds: Substantives; Adjectives;
Pronouns.
I. A Noun Substantive (Nomen Substantivum) is
a name simply denoting something perceived or con-
ceived : psittacus, the parrot\ nix, snow \ virtus,
valoitVy virtue \ Caesar, Caesar.
1 15. Classification of Words. 71
2. A Noun Adjective (Nomen Adjectivum) is a
name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in-
herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom-
panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute,
or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka-
tive parrot \ nix alta, the deep snow \ vera virtus,
true valour \ Caesar inclutus, the renowned Caesar.
In such examples it is also called an Epithet.
3. A P RONOUN (?xorvom^xs)\'5> a relational Substantive
or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the,
repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own
name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an-
other as tu, thou or you, A person once mentioned he
afterwards names as is or ille, he. He speaks of his
own horse as mens equus, my horse ; of his companion's-
dog as canis t\x\\?>y your dog,
1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be
an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax,
the parrot^ a talkative bird, where avis, birdy is an Apposite, or in
Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot.
2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract
(Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis-
tinction to these. Names of things to which such qualities belong
are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, siiow ; v\x, a man.
3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria),
are such as can only be apphed to single persons, places, or objects :
Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, Cerberus.
4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be-
long in common to a number of individuals which thus constitute a
class : vir, a man, urbs, a city, ager, a field, canis, a dog, arbor,
a tree.
5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurahty of things,
are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba,
crowd, popnlvLS, people, gens, clan, exercitus, army.
6) A quality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice
to describe an object. That is. Adjectives may stand as Substan-
tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral,Vegetable,
Annual, Mammal, express sufficiently the things meant. So in
Latin: sapiens, a wise man (vir) ; calida, warm water (aqua) ;
natalis, birthday (dies) ; utile, />^^ useful, convey the^ir meaning
without Substantives.
7) Numerals (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing
Number: unus, one\ duo, two^ &c., centum, a hundred, mi lie, a
thousand., &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub-
stantives : milia mwlidi, many thousands. The ancients marked
them as Pronouns.
72 Latin Word lore, ^ §15,
8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a
Noun-term.
9) Nouns have a Flexion called Declension \ and four Acci-
dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A
Noun inflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined.
II. The Verb (Verbum) is the Word which makes
Predication, that is, which declares or states something
about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : ago, I do ;
dicimus, we say: consul triumpavit, the consul tri-
umphed,
1. The Verb has two parts :
1) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal;
2) The Verb I nfinit e (Verbum Infinitum), consistingof Verbal
Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which
is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia),
which are a kind of Adjectives.
2, The Verb has a Flexion called Conjugation, It has five
Accidents : Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A
Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated.
III. Particles (Particulae) are the uninflected help-
words of discourse ; and are of four kinds : Adverb,
Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection.
1. An Adverb (Adverbium) is a particle which helps
to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes
of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam
turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tarn bonus civis et
vere philosophus; how shamefully zms Socrates put to
dcathy so good a citizen and trtily a philosopher.
1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, ^ when, where,
whence, whither/ &c., are Pronominal Adverbs :
quando ? ubi 1 quo nunc hie illuc
2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question ^how often,' are
Numeral Adverbs : -
quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens
2. A Preposition (Praepositio) is a particle which,
used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to
some other Noun: Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi,
/ stand at the door, you in the apartment.
1) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are,
ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, within.
2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the
Ablative.
,§ i6-i8. Nouns, Nzimber. Gender, 73
3. A Conjunction (Coniunctio) is a particle which
helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen-
tences : Oves et aves, sheep and birds \ edimus
vivamus, we eat that we may live,
4. An Interjection (Interiectio) is an exclamatory-
particle used to express feeling or call attention :
O, O ! heu, eheu, alas / en, ecce, lo /
The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be
1. Substantive 5. Adverb ^p^^^^*
2. Adjective 6. Preposition
3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction
4. Verb 8. Interjection
which are inflected. which are uninflected.
Note. — Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is
to be rendered in Enghsh, the context and collocation alone shew
what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may
mean ' a light,^ or ' the light,' or ' light ^ in general, according to the
place in which it stands.
Parts of
CHAPTER IL
NOUNS.
Section I.
i. Number in Nouns. NuJ^.
The Substantive is dechned by Number and Case ; the
Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in
these with the Substantive which it qualifies.
The Numbers (Numeri) are two: i. Singular (Singu-
laris): mensa, table) 2. Plural (PluraHs): mensae,
tables,
Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number; of which
in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two^ am bo, both,
18
ii. Gender o f N o u n s. Cendei;
The Genders (Genera) are two : i. Masculine (Mas-
culinum) ; 2. Feminine (Femininum). A Substantive
which is neither Masc. nor Fem. is said to be Neuter
(Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two.
A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fem. is called
Common (Commune) of both Genders.
Latin Wordlore.
(The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate
objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &;c. Hence the distinctions of
Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only
in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic
dialects, English alone excepted.)
Distinct
Generic
names.
A, The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin
in four ways.
I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the
most familiar relations :
homo
man
mulier
woman
mas
male
femina
female
maritus )
vir ^
husband
uxor \
femina f
wife
pater
frater
father
brother
mater
soror
motJier
sister
vitricus
gener
patruus
stepfather
so7t-in-law
J { on father^s \
U7icle 1 J-
noverca
nurus
amita
stepmother
daughter-in-law
aunt
avunculus
uncle {'^'^^l^f^^''"}
matertera
aunt
senex
old man
anus
old woman
verna
house slave
ancilla
maid-servant
taurus
bull
vacca
cow
aries
vervex
ram \
wether f
ovis
ewe
catus
he-cat
fel-es(is)
she-cat
verres \
maialis J
boar
scrofa
sow
haedus
kid
capella
Homo {Jiuman being), though never used with a feminine epithet,
may comprehend woman as well as man.
Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for <^ mar-
ried woman, distinct from vir go.
Y QTCiixidi, female [h (j>vov(Ta, genetrix), is applied to all animals,
Maritus and uxor are the law-terms for husband and wife,
Vir is constantly used for maritus, as Mann in German.
Senex (with its comparative senior) is the only word corre-
, sponding to Fem. anus. It occurs rarely as a Fem. Adjective.
Sub- n. Secondly : Many words, called Substantiva Mobilia, have
M^obilia. ^ Masculine and a Feminine form, as in English, lion, lioness, &c.
Such are
l) avus, 2.
nepos, 3.
puer, 2.
socer, 2.
grandsire
grandson
boy
father-in-law
avia, I.
neptis, 3.
puella, I.
socrus, 4.
grandmother
granddaughter-
girl
mother-in-law
So, poeta /<?^/, poetria; aliens client, clienta; rex kingy
regina ; caupo vintner^ cop a; ^dAz^Xi, lute-singer, fidlcina;
Gender.
75
tibicen flute-player^ tibicma; leo lion^ lea, leaena ; gallus
cocky gallTna ; Cres Cretan^ Cressa ; Threx ThraciaUy Thre-
issa; Libys Libyan^ Libyssa; Cilix Cilician^ Cilissa;
Phoenix, Phoenician^ Phoenissa; Laco Laconian^ Lacaena;
Tros Trojan^ Troas : and others.
2) Many Masculines of the Second Declension in -us -er have
Feminines of the First Declension in -a -ra :
a, de-US a
div-us a
fili-us a
nat-us a
marit-us a
spons-us a
privign-us a
domin-us a
er-us a
serv-us a
libert-us a
patron-US a
/3. agn-us a
asin-us a
cerv-us a
equ-us a
iuvenc-us a
lup-us a
mul-us a
porc-us a
simi-us a
urs-us a
vitul-us a
arbit-er ra
magist-er ra
minist-er ra
cap-er ra
colub-er ra
3) Verbals of the Third Declension in -tor -sor often have
Feminines in -trix, as vic-tor, vic-trix. So
adiu-tor -trix moni-tor -trix expul-sor expul-trix
crea-tor -trix fau-tor -trix ton-sor ton-strix, &c.
4) Patronymica, or Names formed from those of parents or
ancestors, have the following Endings :
Ending of
Patronymic Ending
Parent Name
Masc.
Fern.
-US, 2. and some of Decl. 3. .
. -ides
-is
-eus (fvc) ....
. -ides
-eis
-ius, 2. and some of Decl. 3. .
. -iades
-ias
-as, I, and some of Decl. 3. .
, -ades
Examples :
Tantal-ides Tantal-is
daughter
Thest-iades
son
V
son
^t/" Tantalus.
Thes-Ides Thes-eis
son daughter
V ^ *
Thest-ias
daughter
^Thestius.
Anchis-iades, son ^T/Anchis-es.
Aene-ades, son ^t/' Aeneas.
^?/ Theseus.
Other Female Patronymic Endings are -ine, one :
Neptunine, daughter of Neptunus, Acrisione, daughter of
Acrisius.
III^ Thirdly: Substantiva Communia, Words Commoil of Sub-
stantiva
Com-
both Genders, are of two classes.
I. Appellatives used of both sexes. Such in English are the
words parent, child, infant, cousin, companion, guide, guardian^
hostage, witness, &c.
These include names of animals, found Masc. or Fem., without
change of form : gender being shown either by the epithets applied
to them, or by their apposition to other words : bos, s us, &c.
munia.
76 Latin Wordlore, . § is.
2. Words having no relation of sex, but varying their gender
according to sense or usage : dies, dayy czXW^^ path,
I. Appellativa Communia.
i) Appellatives of Common Gender should not be grouped in-
discriminately : community of gender being in some the rule, in
others an exception. When the sexes are included in the Plurals,
the gender is Masculine by the rule which gives priority to that
sex: 'sacerdotescasti,' chaste priests^ in Virgil, including both
sexes.
Coniunx, wife^ is usual ; coniunx, husband^ poetic.
The following words are freely used of either sex :
auctor
author
municeps
burgess
civis
citizen
nemo
nobody
comes
companion
parens
parent
custos
guardian
sacerdos
priest {priestess)
dux
guide, leader
satelles
body-guard
exul
banished one
vates
seer
The following are usually Masculine, but occasionally Feminine :
adulescens you7ig pcrso7i hostis enemy
antistes presidoit infans infant
hospes host {hostess) iuvenis young person
Yet the Feminine forms antistita, hospit% are also found.
The following, usually Masculine, rarely take Feminine epithets^*
affinis akin index judge
artifex artist interpres interpreter
augur augur miles soldier
contubernalis tent-7nate patruelis cousin
heres heir testis witness
incola inhabitant vindex avenger
index informer
The following, usually Masculine, are foimd in apposition to
females, but not with Feminine epithets :
accola dweller-near obses hostage
advena new-comer opifex worker
auriga charioteer praeses president
auspex omen-taker transfuga deserter
homo hu7nan being
Add to these successor, rector, sponsor.
2) Nomina Animantium.
d) an i mans, Masc, a rational being \ Fern, or Neuter, an
ani^naL
quadrupes (properly Adjective) is usually Fem., but in
several places Masc, rarely Neuter,
ales, bird (properly Adjective), is generally Fem., yet
often Masc.
Gender.
b) The following are of both genders, preferring that subjoined :
anguis
anser
bos
camelus
canis
damma
snake (m.)
goose (m.)
ox or cow (m.)
camel
dog
deer
grus crane (f.)
perdix partridge
serpens serpent (f.)
sus swine (f.)
tigris tiger or tigress (f.)
c) accipiter, hawk, Masc, is once Fern, in Lucretius,
bubo, Masc, is once Fern, in Virgil,
elephant us, Masc, is once Fern, in Plautus.
lynx, Fern., is once Masc. in Horace,
talpa, mole, Fern., is once Masc. in Virgil.
2. For Common Nouns of the second kind see the Declensions.
IV. Fourthly : Names of Animals onlyfound in one gender, which Eplcoe-
necessarily comprises both sexes, are called Epicoena (eTriKoipa,
common to both).
Among Masculine Epicoena are :
na.
crabro
cycnus, olor
glis
mugil, mullus
mus
papilio
hornet
swan
dormouse
mullet
mouse
butterfly
pavo
piscis
stelio
vermis
vespertilio
vultur
peacocit
fish
lizard
worm
bat
vultute
with all not before specified in -us, -ex, -er: corvus, rook^
milvus, kite, turdus, thrush, culex, gnat, passer, sparrow.
The reading ' fecundae leporis,' Hon S. ii. 4. 44 cannot be relied
on. Lepus, hare, is therefore a Masculine Epicene.
Among Feminine :
avis bird apis bee
anas duck vulpes (is) fox
with all not before specified in -a, -ix, -do : aquila, eagle, rsina, frog,
cornix, raven, coturnix, guail, hirundo, swallow, &c.
If the sex must be expressed, this is done by using the words
femina, mas (mascula) : ^femina piscis,' Ovid.: ^vulpis
masc u la,' Plin. So in English, he-goat, she-goat, cock-sMrrow,
hen-sparrow, ^z, ^ ^ y s y t y
B, The Gender of Latin substantives which do not imply sex is Gende»'
otten shewn by the meaning or the form of the Word. shewn
I. The general correspondence of Gender with Meaning is as fol- Mean-
lows : —
ing.
(i) Masculine
Males
Months (mensis m.)
Winds (ventus m.)
Mountains (mons m.)
Rivers (fluvius m.)
People (populus m.)
(2) Feminine
Females
Plants (planta f.)
Countries (terra f.)
Islands (insula f.)
Cities (urbs f.)
(3) Neiiter
Indeclinable words.
78 Latin Wordlore. ^ § jg^
Examples
Masc. : lulius, Aprilis, Notus, Haemus, Liris, AcTiivL
Fern. : Andromache, laurus, Germania, Cyprus, Athenae.
Neut. ; fas, instar, alpha, vivere.
Exceptions to the Rules of Gender as shewn by Meaning :
A) Mountains :
Fern. :
DecL I. Aetna ; Hybla ; Ida ; Oeta ; Calpe ; Cyllene ;
Pholoe ; Pyrene; Rhodope.
Decl. 3. Alpis (usually Plur.) ; Carambis.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Pelion ; and Plurals implying mountain ranges
(iuga) : Gargara ; Ismara ; Maenala jTaygeta ;an(l
others.
Decl. 3. Soracte.
E) Rivers :
Fem. :
Decl. i. Allia ; AlbulaJ Druentia ; Duria (the Dora) ; Ma-
trona ; Lethe.
Decl. 3. Styx.
AA) Plants :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. acanthus ; amaracus ; asparagus ; boletus ; ca-
lamus ; carduus ; hyacinthus ; intubus ; iuncus ; mus-
cus ; narcissus ; oleaster.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um: apium;ligustrum;lilium;thymum.
Decl. 3. acer ; cicer ; papaver ; piper ; robur ; siler ;
siser ; suber ; tus.
Common :
Decl. 2. balaniis ; cytisus ; lotus ; rubus ; spinus
Decl. 3. larix ; rumex.
BB) Countries :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. Pontus.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um :
Illyricum ; Latium ; Noricum ; Samnium*
CC) Cities :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. All Plurals in i :
Corioli ; Delphi ; Gabii ; Puteoli ; Veii ; Argi (for Argos). ,
Also, Canopus ; Orchomenus ; Stymphalus.
§ i8. Gender, 79
Decl. 3. Nouns in as ant- : Acragas; Taras ; es, et :
Tunes ; several in o on- : Frusino;Hippo;Narbo
(Martius); Sulmo;Vesontio ; some in on- : Brauron;
us unt- : Hydrus ; Pessinus.
But of this last class most are Fern.: Amathus ; Opusj
Myus; Rhamnus, &c. Selinus is common.
Martial has *Narbo pulcherrima,' of another Narbo.
Croto (also Croton, and Crotona f.), Marathon are
common.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um, on, a (PI.) :
Tarentum ; Tusculum ; llion ; Arbela ; Leuctra ; Susa.
Decl. 3. Most in e, ur, os :
Caere ; Bibracte ; Reate ; Tergeste ; Tibur ; Argos.
Also Praeneste, which Virgil and Juvenal have Fern, in
Abl. by Synesis. Anxur is Masc. in Mart, with reference
to the hill, 'candidus Anxur;' Neut. in Hor. with re-
ference to the town; ^impositum saxis late can-
dentibus Ahxur.'
Amphipolis, Trapezus are Neut. in PHny with re-
ference to * oppidum.'
Some have double form and gender : Sagunt-usf*-um, n.
Note I. Names of precious stones are, some Fern, in reference
to gemma, others Masc. in reference to lapis.
Fem. :
amethystus; sapphirus iaspis; onyx; sardonyx (usually).
Masc. :
beryllus : — adamas.
Common :
chtysolithus ; smaragdus, emerald,
^ Note 2. Synesis (agreement with meaning, not with form) some-
times gives to a Noun an attribute of a different Gender :
^Eunuchus acta est' (i.e. fabula Eunuchus), Ter. ^ Cen-
tauro magna' (i.e. nave Centauro), Verg. 'Alta cre-
mata est llion,' Ov. Met. xiv. 466.
So, Female names in um of Decl. 2 are Fem.: 'Mea Glycerium,'
Ter. ' Mea Silenium,' Plaut.
Note 3. Some Fem. and Neut. words imply men without changing
their gender :
o^exdiQ, workmen', exc\xh\2ie^ night sentinels \ vigiliae,
watchmen \ auxilia, auxiliaries : so mancipium n.
means a slave, considered as a piece of goods.
Similarly, prostibulum, scortum are Neuter words contemp-
tuously applied to profligate women.
2. Correspondence of Gender with Form appears in the De-
clensions.
8o
Latin Wordlore.
§19.
iii. Case in Nouns.
I. The Cases (Casus) in each Number are six:
Nominativus, Vocativus, Accusativus, Genetivus, Dati-
vus, Ablativus. (On the Locative Case see below, and
§ 20.)
Answers the question Example :
1) Nominative . Who or What? Quisdedit? . . iVir,
Who gave? . . S A man.
2) Vocative (Case of one addressed) | ^
3) Accusative . Whom or what ? Quern video ? . ^ Virum,
Whom do I see ?]A man*
4) Genitive • Whose or where- Cuius donum ? ^ Viri,
of? Whose gift? . ]A mans*
5) Dative . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . ^ Viro,
or what ? To whom given ? \ To a mail,
6) Ablative . • By, with, &c., A quo datum ? ^ A viro,
whom or what; ? By whojn given? } By a man.
2. Case (Gr. 7rra)<Ttc) is the form given to a Noun or Pronoun to
shew the relation in which it stands to some other word. Gram-
marians represented that form which a Noun takes when it is the
Subject of a sentence, by an upright hne, and hkened the other
forms to hnes falling away from the perpendicular. These they
called Cases (cado) : and their series, the declension^ or sloping'
down, of the word. Afterwards, the Nominative was called Casus
Rectus, the Upright Case, and the others (except the Vocative)
Casus Obliqui, Oblique Cases] whereas the Stem is more pro-
perly the upright line, and the several Cases, including the Nomi-
native and Vocative, are deflections from it. So, from the Stem
nuc- {walnut-tree) the Cases are : Nom. V. nuc-s ( = nux), Acc.
nuc-em, G nuc-is, D. nuc-1, Ab. nuc^e.
3. The Relations which Cases fail to express are supplied by
Prepositions ; and in the languages of modern Europe the use of
Prepositions prevails^ and Declension is comparatively rare. Thus
the Romanic languages have only one Case-form in each Number
for Nouns ; English, two ; but the Possessive in English is of very
limited use. Sanskrit has the six Latin Cases and two more, the
Instrumental and the Locative. Greek has only five ; but it pre-
serves traces of the Instrumental and the Locative. Latin retains
many fragments of the Locative Case.^
* The 6rder in which the tases were ranked by ancient Grammarians, imitated, as it
has been> by modern writers, is vicious and misleading. The Vocative has been separated
from the Nominative, with which it is almost identical, and has thus assumed an im-
portance which ought not to be given to it. The Accusative, so often concurring with
both, has been separated from both. The Dative and Ablative, so often identical in
form, have been thrown apart. The only motive for this misarrangement was the desire
to place the Genitive next to the Nominative, because its variations indicate those of
Declension. But this is better done by givint^ the Stem and Character, which appear in
the Genitive Plural of Nouns : thus homo^, homin-, shewri in homiN-um.
§ 20.
The Five Declensions.
8i
iv. The Five Declensions.
20
The
There are Five Declensions of Latin Nouns, which ^^l^^""'
shew the Character of their Stems by the letter before
-mm or -urn in the Genitive Plural.
I. A-stems have Character
11. O-stems —
III. Consonant-)
stems I
I-stems —
IV. U-stems —
V. E- stems —
0 .
a Consonant ^
1 .
E .
mensA-rum.
dominO-rum.
virgiN-um.
ovi-um.
gradU-ur
diE-rum.
d) The Declensions fall into two groups : namely
(I) The A- E- and 0-declensions (i. 5. 2.)
(II) The Consonant and Semiconsonant (I, U) declensions (3. 4.)
(I) The primary vowel a is appropriate to Fem. words (Decl. i) ;
weakened to e, it forms another more limited Fem. Decl. (5) ;
weakened to o (which in a later age partly became u), it forms a
Masc. Decl. (2) in o-s (u-s), including also Neuters in o-m (u-m).
(II) In Consonant Nouns the stem and suffix are often linked by
the vowel i : duc-i-bus. Sometimes this happens in the Nom.
Sing.: can-i-s, iuven-i-s, which thus appear like I-nouns. Onthe
other hand, I-nouns often drop that light vowel in the Nom. Sing,
and so wear the appearance of Consonant Nouns : stirp-s, par-s.
These causes made it so hard for grammarians to draw the line of
distinction accurately between these two classes that they included
them in one Decl (3).
U-nouns (4), which contract some cases, escape this confusion,
but are liable to another ; for the affinity of u and o has caused
some of their case-forms to be often mixed up with those of the
O-Decl. (2).
Obs. Pronouns are peculiar and irregularly declined Nouns,
which are with most convenience treated separately.
b) I. In Neuter Nouns, the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusa-
tive are the same in each Number severally ; and in the Plural
they end in a. The A- and E-declensions have no Neuters : the
U-declension has very few.
2. The Vocative in words not Greek is the same as the Nomina-
tive, except in the Singular of Nouns in -us of Decl. 2, which have
Vocative-ending e : domin-e, fili (for fili-e).
3. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
' The Consonant before -um is the Character in Consonant-nouns. This may be any
Mute (except k, q), Nasal, or Liquid ; or the Sibilant represented by r.
G
Latin Wordlore,
Forma- V. ForiTiation of the Cases.
tion of
the The Cases are generally formed by suffixing an Ending to the
La.^es. Stem; a vincular i is sometimes required in Consonant-nouns;
while in many instances Letter-change occurs in the formation.
See Biicheler \Lat. Declension).
Nominative Singular : Primitive ending s.
Decl. I. A-nouns, except Greek Masc. names, do not take s :
mensa: but Gr. Borea-s, alipte-s.
Decl. 2. 0-nouns, not Neuter, take s: dominu-s for domi-
no-s.
But some stems in -ero- drop o, rejecting s :
puer for puero-s, tener for tenero-s.
And nouns, in which -ro follows a mute or f, drop o, reject 5, and
i nsert e before r :
^"■^^^-^ magist-e-r for magistr-o-s, nig-e-r for nigr-o-s.
Decl. 3. Mute Consonant-nouns take s :
iudex for iudic-s ; pes for ped-s ; princep-s.
Liquid and Nasal nouns do not take s : consul, passer, virgo
(virgin-). Hiem-p-s alone takes s, inserting p.
In numerous words with Nom. in s, inflected in ^r-, or-, or-, ur, s
belongs to the stem and is not a Case-endmg; its place in flexion
being taken by r . flos floris for (flosis), aes aeris for (aesis).
1-nouns take s if the vowel is not dropt :
avi-s, nube-s^ for (nubi-s), gravi-s :
also when the vowel is dropt (which happens in many stems) if the
Consonant before the Character is a Mute :
audax for (audaci-s), serpen- s for (serpenti-s).
If the stem ends in ri- after a Mute, i is dropped, and e inserted
before r : imb-e-r for (imbri-s), ac-e-r for acri-s: but the forms
in ris are also used by Adjectives.
Decl. 4. U-nouns take s : gradu-s.
Decl. 5. E-noans take s : die-s.
Accusative Singular : Primitive Ending m, Greek i/ or n.
All Declensions take the Ending m for Masc. and Fem. Nouns,
o passing into u, and i generally into e : Cons.-stems insert e :
1. mensa-m 3. virgin-e-m 4. gradu-m
2. dominu-m for domi- tussi-m 5. die-m
no-m nube-m
o rbe-m
' Corssen, referring to the Noun pu b- es -is, with its byform puber -eris, also to
such Nouns as Cer-es -eris, pulv-is -eris, &c., contends that l-nouns in -es, like
nubes, sedes, were originally S-stems.
§ 20. Formation of the Cases. 83
Obs, In all Neuter Nouns, the Nominative and Accusative have
the same form. See iv. b. This, in 0-nouns, is o-m = uni^
bellum for beil-om.
In Cons-, and U-nouns it is the Noun-stem :
3. siser, marmor, sinapi ; 4. cornu ;
often with vowel-change: genus for (genes), frigus for (frigos)
melius for (melios), mare for (mari-) : or dropping i : animal for
(animaii-), calcar for (calcari-).
Genitive Singular : Primitive Ending generally as.
As the Greek, so the old Latin language weakened as into ds ;
which was further weakened into is This ending is taken by
Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns :
3. virgin-isj tuss-is for tussi^ 4. gradus for gradu-is.
That A-nouns anciently had it, argued from familia-s in
paterfamilias, &c., and similar forms found in E. L. That it
was used in E-nouns is shewn by the form D ie spit er, and rabies
(Gen.) in Lucr. iv. 1079. But the endings (a-i) ae, (o-i) i, and e-i
were afterwards taken by A-, 0-, and E-nouns severally.
A-1 remained long in use, and abounds in Lucretius, as vita-i,
and is used in a few words by Virgil. (O-i) is not found in use ; it
passed into i at an early time, and is also found as (ei) in R. L. till
near the Augustan age. Lucilius proposed to reject Gen. S. (ei) and
write Nom. PL (ei) ; but his distinction was not observed.
In E-nouns e-i remains. Hence
I. mens-ae. 2. domin-i. 5. die-i.
Dative Singular : Primitive ending ai.
This Ending is only taken by A-, and E-nouns \
I. mensae (anc. mensai) for (mensa-ai) ; 2. domino (anciently
dominoi) for (domino-oi) ; 5. diei for (die-ei).
In the rest the Locative i has superseded the Dative Ending :
3. virgin-i tuss-i for (tussi-i) 4. gradu-i
Locative : Primitive Ending i.
The Locative Singular remains in Latin in such forms as
militiae, belli, domi, humi, vesperi, ruri, Tiburi, luci;
the Adverbial forms ubi, ibi, &c.
and in the names of towns, &c., of the A- and 0-declensions :
Romae for Roma-i, Tarent-i, Milet-i, &c.
The Loc. Plur. is confounded with Dat. and Abl. in is or bus.
The Sing. Loc. in Cons.-nouns often passes into the Abl. e ; Car-
thagine for Carthagini, Lacedaemone for Lacedaemoni.
Vespere also is used for vesperi.
Ablative Singular : Primitive ending t.
In Oscan and old Latin this ending became d :
I. sententia-d 2. poplico-d 3. conventioni-d mari-d 4. senatu-d
G 2
84 Latin Wordlore, § 20.
This d (often noticeable in Plautus) was dropped after B.C. 186, and
the Ablative became the Stem of the word, lengthened in the
Vowel-Declensions (though i is often weakened into e : urb-e), and
in the Consonant-Declension ending ine: contion-e.
Nominative Plural : Primitive ending as.
This became -es in the Consonant-, and E-declensions :
3. virgin-es 4. gradijs for (gradu-es)
orb-es for (orbi-es) 5. di-es for (die-es)
Instances of es in the 0-Decl. occur in E. L.
But in the A- and 0-declensions, by dropping s and contracting
vowels, as in the Gen. Sing., the endings ae, i, were obtained :
I. mensae for (mensa-es). 2. domini for (domino-es).
The form (ei) for 1 occurs in Latin as late as the age of Caesar.
Accusative Plural : Primitive ending s, added to the Accu-
sative Singular in Masc. and Fem. Nouns.
The change of m into n before s makes the Latin forms ans,
ons, (e)ns, Ins, uns, ens. Hence, by excluding the weak nasal,
with compensation, are obtained as, os, es, is, us, es :
1. mens-as 3. virgin-es 4. gradus
2. domin-os orb-Is 5. dies
This shews why the Accus. Plural of I-nouns is correctly written
-is, though the analogy of the Nom. has led to the use of es (eis).
The Primitive ending of Accus. Nom. and Voc. Plural in Neuter
Nouns was a, which was weakened into a in Greek and Latin :
2. bell-a. 3. nomin-a, reti-a. 4. cornu-a.
Genitive Plural : Primitive endings am, sam.
The former of these became -um in Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns ;
3. virgin-um orbi-um 4. gradu-um
The latter, as -sum, was adopted in A- O- and E-nouns :
1. mensa-rumfor (mensa-sum) 5. die -rum for (die-sum)
2. domino-rum for (domino-sum)
Dative and Ablative Plural : Primitive ending bbyas.
This, corrupted into bus (for b-ios), became the ending of these
Cases in Consonant- I- U- and E-nouns :
3. virgin-i-bus orbi-bus 4. arcu-bus 5. die-bus
and occasionally in the A-nouns :
6. dea-bus, filia-bus, &c.
But in most A-nouns, it became (ai8)i8 : i. mensTs.
In 0-nouns, (oes, ois)is, usually (eis) before Augustus, after
whose time is prevailed ; 2. dominis; belli s.
■We find ii contracted : pecunis (Cic), provincis (Inscr.).
§21.
Endings of the Declensions.
>
>
O
H
O
in
O
I
H
O
I
o
in
O
I
O
03
o
tfl II S IH |H IH tf)
10) II « O © 14) « iq)
•;j il il
M IN IH
1)3 >0 i|d >^
S II 3
a
)rt IN IN |I4
. II II
>0
>N IN >© |p4
^ Miz; N
•5 II "
■4 ^ 11 Q
S II II
IN lO lO IN
^ u
b )©
^ « a
O
C/3
s
o
a
''^ M II
1« H 1« Il
>J3
a
.fi
)NQ
il i;3
:z;:z;
S,Sq
I© I' IN
a >5Q
? a il
(A II M
^;z;
a
o iS
Q
IN
lO
a o 9 o
^ A ed rce es
(J d -M ^
^ _ CJ (U p3 ^ <^
^ X o Q <
§ 8
03 il ICS
a
S c3 6
o o o
<i>
u
>0
<u bo
0)
o
V)
^ CO
C/1
I
.o
s
'CO
>© >^
• 4-»
o
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P
86 Latin Wordlorc. - §22.
Section II.
i. First Declension: A-Nouns.
The First Declension contains Latin and latinized
words with the Nominative Singular in a. These are
Feminine: Musa, muse, mens a, table \ excepting Male
Names and Appellatives: Messalla, Belga, Belgian,
s c r i b a, secretary, p o e t a, poet ; also H a d r i a, A driatie-
gidf \ which are Masculine.
It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names,
Proper and Patronymic, in es, as, Masculine : aliptes,
a trainer, Aeneas, At rides; in e, a, a, P'eminine :
crambc, Agave, Nemea, Iphigenia.
[In Tables of Declension nnd Conjugation b\ forms of eqiKjI.
authority are placed beside others : an am ; byforms compara-
tively rare are added between brackets ; en (am).]
• •
11.
Table.
Singular.
I. table, f.
2. secretary, m. 3.
goddess, f.
4. son of Atreus, m.
Nom.
mens-a
scrib-a
de-a,
Atrid-es (a)
Voc.
mens-a
scrib-a
de-a
Atrid-e a (a)
Acc.
mens-am
scrib-am
de-am
Atrid-en
Gen.
mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Dat.
mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Abl.
mens-a
scrib-a
Plural.
de-a
Atrid-e a
Nom.
mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Voc.
mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Acc.
mens-as
scrib-as
de-as
Atrid-as
Gen.
mens-Arum
scrib-Arum
de-Arum
Atrid-um
Dat.
mens-is
scrib-is
de-abus
Atrid-is
Abl.
mens-is
scrib-is
de-abus
Atrid-is
p'em. Adjectives in a, as bona, ten era, nigra, are declined as
mensa.
iii. Cases in the First Declension.
d) The old Gen. S. in as remains in the phrases paterfamilias,
materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from
Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. pat res (mat res, filii)
familias. Familiae is also used with pater, &:c., by Livy always :
and familiarum is written with patres, &c.^
b) The old Gen. S. in at appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di-
syllable al by Ennius, Plant. Lucr. Verg. (aulai, aurai, aqual, pictai).
' Alcumena-s (Gen. ) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in a-es, found chiefly in
late Inscrr. of I. T>. or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. -rj?.
§ 22.
The First Declension,
87
c) The Gen. Plur. is formed in -um rather than -arum (which
can however be used), by the following :
1) Patronymic Names in -des,
Aenea-des, Aenea-dum.
2) Many Names of Tribes, People, &c.,
Lapith-ae, Lapith-um.
3) Compounds of col- gen- (in poetry),
caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um.
4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach-
m-a, when used with Numerals :
terna milia amphorum, '^fioo amphors ; milledrach-
mum, 1,000 drachms.
d) The form in abus of Dat. Abl. PI. might serve to distinguish
the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub-
stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians
to numerous words :
filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha,
asina, equa, mula, anima :
and in some of these, especially filia, nata, liber t a, it often occurs
in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority
for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words
but deabus, duabus, ambabus.
»
e) The Locative Case in ae (for a-i) is formed in the Sing, by
militia, and Names of Towns :
militiae, at the wars, Romae, at Rofne,
in is by Plural Names of towns :
Athenis, at Athens.
iv. Greek Nouns in First Declension.
Singular.
Nom.
M. alipt-es .
Pers-es a
Aeet-es a
Aene-as .
Marsy-as (a)
Y. music-a (e)
cramb-e .
Helen-e (a)
Agav-e .
Neme-a .
Iphigenl-a
Electr-S, .
The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mens a.
a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and
seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings oc, a, first
Voc.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
e a
en (am)
ae
ae
e (a)
e a
en am
ae
ae
e a
e a
en (am)
ae
ae
e (a)
a
an am
ae
ae
a
a a
am an
ae
ae
a
a (e)
am (en)
ae (es)
ae
a (e)
e
en
es
ae
e
e a
en am
es ae
ae
e a
e
en
es
ae
e
a
an (am)
ae
ae
a
a
a
an am
ae
ae
a
i.n am
ae
ae
a
Greek
Nouns
in
Decl. X
vS8 Latin Wordlore, §22.
for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for a, following the prac-
tice of the Aeolic dialect :
Masc. pirata (TretparZ/c) Fern, aura {av^ix)
poeta {TToiTjTJji) epistula (cTrtoroX?;)
Such words are :
Masc, like scriba :
athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c.
Fern., like mens a :
ancora, apotheca, aula, bibhotheca, comoedia, tragoedia,
scaena, &c.
d) Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between
the Greek and Latin form; and poetic usage in these often differs
from that of prose. ^ Thus we find :
A) Masc. Greek Nouns :
1) Patronymics, like Atrid-es a :
Aeneades, Pelides, Tydides, &c. (a being rare).
2) Appellatives, Hke aliptes :
anagnostes, geometres, Olympionlces, sophistes.
3) Gentile Names, like Pers-es a :
Scyth-es a, Sauromat-es, Sarmat-a ;
with many in ites ita, otes ota :
Abderit-es a, Epirot-es a.
These sometimes pass to Decl. 3. with Accus. S. em, en.
4) Like Aeet-es ^ :
Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a.
5) Like Aeneas :
Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c.
6) Like Marsy-as a :
Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as Leo-
nid-as a, Mid-as a.
B) Fem. Greek Nouns :
1) Like music-a e :
dialectic-a e, grammatic-a e, physic-a e, rhetoric-a e.
2) Ltke crambe :
aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c.
3) Like Helen-e a :
Alcumen-a, Erigon-a, Hecat-a, Led-d, Nymph-a,
Semel-a; which also take e : Circ-e, Cybel-e, Dirc-e,
Europ-e, Eurydic-e, Penelop-e; which also take a.
* Cicero, as a rule, prefers Latin forms to Greek, and sometimes introduces the latter
with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur'), or with an apology, as
£p^. ad Att. vii. 3 : ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non
i'iraeeum ; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt *
§ 23. The Second Declension, 89
Also local names, Aetn-a, Cret-a, Id-a, Ithac-a, Liby-a^
may take e for a in poetry.
4) Like Agave :
Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone^
Persephone, Procne, &c.
5) Like Nemea :
Malea, Midea.
6) Like Iphigenia :
Medea; and the local Names Aegina, Lerna, Ossa,
7) Like Electra :
Cassandra.
Note, Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First
Decl., having the form of Patronymics without really being such,
pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -is :
Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides.
Yet these and many other names, Greek and barbarian, which
take Gen. is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in
the ending of the Accus. S. (en, em). Such are :
Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes,
Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates,
Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer-
xes, &c.
Section III.
i. Second Declension: 0-Nouns. becona
The Second Declension contains
1) Latin and latinised Nouns in tts (for 6s) chiefly
Masculine: dom inus, /^?r^;
2) Clipt Masculine Nouns in er (for er-6s, r-6s ; see
p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master \ to which add vir
(for vir-os), man ;
3) Neuter Nouns in um: bellum, war.
4) Greek Nouns in 6s, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masc. ;
in on, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets.
ii. Table:
SINGULAR.
lord, m. boy, m. master, m. war^ n.
N om. domin-us puer magister bell-um
Voc. domin-e puer magister bell-um
Ace. domin-um puer-um magistr-um bell-um
Gen. domin-i puer-i magistr-i bell-i
Dat. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o
Abl. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o
Declen?
sion.
90
Latin Word/ore.
§23.
Nom. domin-l
Voc. domin-t
Acc. domin-os
Gen. domin-Orum
Dat. domin-is
Abl. domin-U
PLURAL.
puer-1 magistr-i
puer-i magistr-i
puer-os magistr-os
puer-Orum magistr-Opum
puer-is magistr-ls
puer-i» magistr-i»
SINGULAR.
son, m.
bushel, m.
God, m.
Nom.
fili-us
medimn-us
de-US
Voc.
fil-1
medimn-e
de-US
Acc.
fili-um
medimn-um
de-um
Gen.
fil-i (ii)
medimn-l
de-1
Dat.
fili-o
medimn-o
de-o
Abl.
fili-o
medimn-o
de-o
bell-a
bell-a
bell-a
bell-Orum
bell-is
bell-is
command, n.
imperi-um
imperi-um
imperi-um
imper-i (ii)
imperi-o
imperi-o
Nom.
Voc.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Vir,
And
impen-a
imperi-a
imperi-a
PLURAL.
fili-i medimn-i di (de-i) *
fili-i medimn-i di (de-i)
fili-os medimn-os de-os
fili-Opum medimn-um de-Orum, de-um imperi-Orum
fili-is medimn-is dis (de-i») imperi-ls
fili-is medimn-is dis (de-is) ^ imperi-is
a man ; Acc. S. virum, &c. ; Gen. PI. virorum or virum.
its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c.
SINGULAR (no Plural).
Irregu-
lar
Decl.
sea, n.
N.V.Ac, pelag-us
Gen. pelag-i
D. Abl. pelag-o
venom, n. common-people, n. (m.)
vir-us vulg-us
vir-i (rare) vulg-i
vir-o vulg-o
Pelag-e, seas^ occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Accus. vulg-um, m.
Pelagus (jrikayoc^ PI. TrfXay-ta, rj) is a Greek Neuter Noun.
iii. Cases in the Second Declension.
1) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after
V, u, qu, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-os,
av om, div-om, mortu-os, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c.
2) The Vocative in e is a weakening of 6 (Pr. a), and resembles
English forms in ie, y (Willie, Johnny, &c.).
Male names in ius contract this case into i : Claudi, Mercuri,
Demetri, Vergili. Pompei (from Pompeius) is further con-
tracted by Horace into Pompei. So Vultel, fromVulteius. Filius,
son, is the only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others
are regular : fluvie, O river \ and Adjectives : Cynthie, O Cyn-
thian (Apollo). But me us (for mius), Voc. mi for mi e.
* Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as di, dis.
The Second Declension,
3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. lus, ium, was
contracted into i (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au-
gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius
and Ovid are the first who wrote ii, which then became the usual
form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer i.
4) Humus, ground^ be Hum, war^ vesper, evening, and Sin-
gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in i :
humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus
belli, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus
vesperi (vespere), at evening Tarenti, at Tarentum
Plural names of towns form the Locative in is : Gabiis, at Gabii ;
Veiis, at Veil,
5) The Genitive Plural Ending um is preferred to orum :
a) by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures :
Gen. PI. from Nom. Sing,
nummum . . . nummus, a coin
. denarius, ten-as-piece
. sestertius, sesterce
. talentum, a talent (a sum and weight)
. stadium, y^/r/^?//^
. modius, peck
. medimnus (also um, n.), bushel
d) by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas-
gum, &c. from Argivus, &c.
c) as a licence, chiefly in poetry, by a great number of words,
such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com-
pounds, faber, engineer, socius, rt://)/, liberi, children^
&c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : * denum
talentum'; ^magnanimum Rutulum'j ^omnige-
numque deum monstra.' — Verg.
denarium
sestertium
talentum .
stadium .
modium .
medimnum
iv. Clipt Nouns in 6r. Nojins
^ m er.
1) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in ero-, like puer, are
gener, son-in-law vesper, evening
socer, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus
adulter, paramour (lascivious^ Adj.)
and Adjectives,
asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser^ wretched
lacer, torn prosper, prosperous
lihQYyfree (whence liberi, children of tener, tender
freemen)
with the many compounds offero, gero; imgiiex, fruitful, cor-
niger, horned. Add satiir, satura, saturum, full^ satiated,
Iber (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in er-o- :
Iberum, Celtiberum, &c.
92 Latift VVordlore. §23.
2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in ro- after a mute or f, like ma-
gister :
2igQY,Jield . cancer, crab faber, architect
aper, wild boar caper, he-goat liber, book
arbiter, umpire coluber, snake minister, atte^idant
auster, south-wind culter, knife
With Proper Names, as Ister or Hister, the Danube^ Alex-
ander, Euander, Teucer, &c. ; and these Adjectives :
aeger, sick macer, lean sacer, sacred
Afer, A frican niger, black scaber, rough
2iXtY^ jet-black piger, i-^w simsi&r, on left hand
Calaber, Calabrian impiger, active t?iQiQr, foul
creber, frequent integer, entire vafer, cunniitg
glaber, smooth pulcher, beautiful noster, our
ludicer, sportive ruber, red vester, your
o) Mulciber, Vulca7i^ and dexter, on the 7'ight hand^ are de-
clined with and without e in the other forms :
Mulciber-i or Mulcibri (also Mulciberis, Mulcibris 3.) ;
dexter, dextera or dextra, dexterum or dextrum.
Some Substantives use the form in us as well as that in er :
Euander or Euandrus (whence Voc. Euandre) in Virgil;
Maeander or Maeandrus : ///^r/^j" (anc).
Greetc V. Grcck NouHS ill the Second Declension.
Nouns
in Singular.
Decl. 2. Del-OS, f. Ath-6s, m. Androge-6s (us), m. Peli-6n, n.
Voc. Del-e Ath-6s Androge-os Peli-6n
Acc. Del-6n um Ath-5n (o) Androge-o on (ona) Peli-on
Gen. Del-i Ath-o Androge-o (i) Peh-i
D.Abl. Del-o Ath-o (one) Androge-o Peli-o
a) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local
Names, with a few Appellatives, in 6s, on, Masc. Fem., and on,
Neut., are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose :
Meleagros ; scorpios ; Cnidos ; Troilon ; Samon ; Ilion, &;c.
Virgil has Athon (as from Athos) ; Chaos n. 3., Abl. Chao :
and Panthu, Voc. of PanthCis.
On Nouns in eus see § 24.
/3) The Greek Genitive Plural in on (wv) is found in Latin.
Sallust has ^ colonia Theraeon,' ^Philaenon arae,' for The-
raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum,
from Georgica, the Ge orgies.
Gender Gcndcr in the Second Declension.
in
Decl. 2. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender,
as stated in § 18. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this DecL
are Fem. They are :
§ 2^. Adjectives i7i Dec I, IL and L 93
alvus, paunch humus, ground
colus, distaff' (See Decl. 4.) vannus, winnowing-fan
The following Greek words are Fern. :
arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect
atomus, atoni^ C. Fin. i. 6. pharus, lighthouse, Stat. S.y. ioi.
carbasus, line7i cnrtaiji or sail
and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good
classical authority for their use.
Barbitos, lute, is common.
vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. Table of
Adjec-
Adjectives of three Endings, in -us -a -um, -er -era -erum, tives in
and -er -ra -rum, follow the Second and First Declensions. cond^'
1 Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
1
1
like
like m e n s a
like b e 1 1 u m
dominus . bonus
bona
bonum
good
[ puer . . . tener
*
tenera
tenerum
tender
j magister . niger
nigra
nigrum
black
and
First
Declen-
sions.
SINGULAR.
M.
F.
N.
I) N.
bon-us
bon-a
bon-um
V.
bon-e
bon-a
bon-um
Acc.
bon-um
bon-am
bon-um
G.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-i
D.
bon-o
bon-ae
bon-o
Abl.
bon-o
bon-a
bon-o
PLURAL.
N.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-a
V.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-a
Acc.
bon-os
bon-as
bon-a
G.
bon-orum
bon-arum
bon-orum
D.
bon-is
bon-is
bon-is
Abl.
bon-is
bon-is
bon-is
SINGULAR.
M.
F.
N.
2) N.
tener
tener-a
tener-um
V.
tener
tener-a
tener-um
Acc.
tener-um
tener-am
tener-um
G.
tener-i
tener-ae
tener-i
D.
tener-o
tener-ae
tener-o
Abl.
tener-o
tener-a
tener-o
94
Latin Wordlorc.
§24.
PLURAL.
M.
F.
N.
N.
tener-i
tener-ae
tener-a
V.
tener-i
tener-ao
tener-a
Acc.
tener-os
tener-as
tener-a
VT.
Lciic I ~oruxu
Lciici uruzzi
Lciici -oruizi
XJ.
icnci-is
icilcr-is
icner-is
A hi
Ld 'CI IS
ICllCi 1!»
SINGULAR.
N.
niger
nigr-a
nigr-um
V.
niger
nigr-a
nigr-um
Acc.
nierr-um
niffr-am
nierr-um
G.
nigr-i
nigr-ae
nigr-i
D.
nisrr-o
nigr-ae
nigr-o
Abl.
nigr-o
nigr-a
nigr-o
PLURAL.
N.
nigr-l
nigr-ae
nigr-a
V.
nigr-i
nigr-ae
nigr-a
Acc.
nigr-os
nigr-as
nigr-a
G.
nigr-orum
nigr-arum
nigr-orum
D.
nigr-is
nigr-is
nigr-is
Abl.
nigr-is
nigr-ia
nigr-is
Section IV.
Thp* 1. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns.
Third
Declen-
sion. Xhe Third Declension has two chief Divisions :
I. Nouns with Character a Consonant, either
Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant.
II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis.
A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if
they were I-nouns ; many I-nouns, as parens, cohors, seem
as if they were Consonant-nouns ; and many appear to fluctuate
between the two divisions, as civitas, servitus. The cause of
this uncertainty hes in the unstable nature of i-vocahs ; which,
being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into
e, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class
to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence.
I. CONSONANT STEMS.
ii. Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen-
sion.
i) In thi? Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous ;
the chief being s, n, I, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids), of which s,
including x (cs), is the prevalent ending.
The TJiird Declension.
2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n.
Those in c, t, a, e, are Neuter words without final suffix.
3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun-
stem and the Nominative: dux due-, fax fac-, &c. Sometimes
the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel:
index iudic- (true form die-), comes comit- (true form it-).
Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews in
auspex auspic- (true form spec-) ; obses obsid- (true form sed-;.
Sometimes neither of the two: remex remig- (true form is ag-, of
which the a is weakened into 1 in the open syllable, to e in the
close). So auceps aucup-, princeps princip- (true form in each
cap-), nomen nomin- (Primitive iidrnan).
ac-
ac-
-ax
-ax
iii. Syllabus.
In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with
Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek
stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but
where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek
are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This
stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words.
A. Mute Guttural Stems.
To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural
melts into x, 1 being generally changed into e.
i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked
Stem. Nom. S.
F. fax, torch : "^M. Corax.
F. y^2.y.^ peace \ ioxvi^i^^ furnace-, M. Aiax; Climax,
snail.
"^M. Thrax, Thracian ; Phaeax, Phaeacian, thorax,
breastplate.
F. nex, death ; (prec-),/r^j/^r,has no Nom. G. Sing.
Adj. faenisex, haycutter.
(Variant C. ; senex, old person, inflected sen- for
senec-. Demin. senec-io.)
M. vervex, wether. N. halec, Jish-pickle (also F.
halex).
M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing-
book^ &c. ; cimex, bug ; culex, gitat ; extispex,
entr ail-viewer ; frutex, shrub ; latex, liquid\ mu-
XQ.^, purple-shell, purple-, podex; pollex, /////;//^ ;
\iOXil\{^x, pontiff \ pulex^ffea; pumex, pumice; ra-
mex, bloodvessel ; saurex or sorex, shrew-niouse ;
vertex or vortex, summit, eddy.
F. carex, sedge ; Ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu-
bine ; vltex (a shrub).
C. cortex, bark ; forfex, shears ; illex, decoy er ;
imbrex, tile ; riimex, sorrel ; silex, basalt ; with
words applicable^ to either sex ; artifex, auspex,
carnifex, index, index, opifex, vindex. See p. 76.
ec-
ec-
Ic-
-ex
-ex (-ec)
-ex
Syllabus
of Cons.
Stems.
96
Latin Word lore.
§24.
Stem.
Nom. S.
IC-
-ix
Ic-
-Ix
-vJX
uc-
-ux
uc-
-ux
^0
( -PV
CA.
PP"-
-PV
-1 V
lA.
-ex
og-
-ox
ug-
-unx
ug-
-ux
M. calix, C7ip ; fornix, arch ; "^Cllix, Cilician.
F. appendix ; coxendix, ///}^ ; f ilix, fei^n ; fulix,
^/^// ; natrix, water-snake ; ^^x^^ pitch ; salix, w//-
; struix, heap \ (vIc-is), ^•//<:?;/^^'(noNom. S.) ;
*hy strix, porciipme,
C. larix, ; varix, swoln vein.
F. cervix, ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, raven ;
coturnix, quail ; lodix, blanket ; meretrix ; nu-
trix, nurse \ radix, r^?^?/ ; vibix, weal ; and many
more.
"^M. Phoenix, Phoenicia7t (also a name) ; phoenix
(a fabulous bird).
F. vox, voice.
F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-t7'ec. M. tradux, layef
(of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide.
F. lux, light. M. Pollux.
M. gi'ex, herd ; Lelex (one of the Leleges).
M. rex, ki7ig ; F. lex, law.
Adj. exlex (Acc. exlegem), outlawed.
F. strix, screech-owl; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix^
Biturix, &c. (Keltic names).
M. remex, rower.
M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe).
C. coniunx or coiux, wife ; husband, p. 76.
F. {{x\xg-)^ fruit, produce : no Nom. S.
2) Greek Guttural Stems.
oc-
-ox
j^C-
-yx
yc-
-yx
ych-
-yx
nc-
-nx
yg-
-yx
ng-
-nx
M. Cappadox, Cappadocian,
M. calyx, bi^d, husk ; Eryx.
M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx.
F. onyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones).
F. lynx (M. in Hon).
M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian,
F. Styx (river in hell).
F. phalanx ; syrinx ; Sphinx.
B. Mute Dental Stems.
The Stem adds s in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex-
cluded : aetas for (aetat-s), nox for (noct-s).
Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s).
Short I may become e : miles for (miht-s).
i) Latin, with Greek words.*
Stem. Nom. S.
at- [ -as F. anas, duck (Cic. N.D. ii. 48, anatum ova : var. r.
anitum).
at- -as F. aetas, time, age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas,
calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens^
city ; cupiditas, desire ; pi etas, piety ; tempestas,
§24.
The Third Declension,
97
Stenu
Nom. S.
et-
Jt-
et-
it-
-es
-es
-es
at-
6t-
ut-
ut-
ct-
nt- rt-
ad-
ed-
ed-
aed-
id-
-is
-es
-ut
-OS
-OS
-us
'US
•C -X
•ns -rs
•as
-es
-es
-aes
-es
season^ weather, storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with
many other Derivatives. See p. io8.
M. Maecenas.
M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall. F. dihiQS, fir tree^
M. (indiges), native (no Nom. S.).
F. seges, corn-crop ; teges, mat,
C. interpres, interpreter,
M. ames, pole ; caespes, turf\ codes, one-eyed
person ; caeles, celestial ; eques, horseman, on
horseback ; pedes, foot-soldier, on foot ; fomes,
fuel ; gurges, whirlpool ; limes, boundary ;
^3\.mQS,mne-tendril ; poples, knee\ siv^^s, trunk',
termes, bough (cut off) ; trames, cross-path ; veles,
skirmisher,
F. merges, ^/^^^
C. antistes ; comes ; hospes ; miles ; satelles. See
p. 76.
Adj. ales, winged (Abl. S. i, e), used as Subst.
bird, (Gen. PI. in poetry alituum for alitum);
dives, rich ; praepes, fast-flying ; sospes, safe ;
superstes, surviving. Also Caeres, of Caere,
Mo Dis, Pluto.
F. quies, rest ; inquies, restlessness {only Nom. S.) ;
requies, repose (also declined as an E-noun, Acc.
requiem, Abl. requie). Adj. inquies, restless,
*M. lebes, chaldron ; magnes, magnet ; Cres,
Cretan; also Names of men which have a second
form in es, is : Chremes, DarSs, Thales.
Adj. locuples, wealthy,
N. caput, head', with its compounds occiput, sin-
ciput. See p. 109. 5*
Adj. Compounds of caput in -ceps for -cipes
(-cipit-s), cipit- ; biceps, triceps, praeceps, &c.
M. nepos, grandson ; "^Eros ; *Aegoceros ; "^rhi-
noceros.
F. dos, dowry, C. sacerdos, priest or priestess.
Adj. combos, possessing ; impos, without power,
F. iuventus, youth ; senectus, old age ; salus, weal,
safety, servitus, slavery, virtiis, virtue, valour,
Servitus admits Gen. PI. servitutium.
Adj. intercus, under the skin,
N. lac, milk. See p. 107. M. Astyatiax.
M. Arruns ; Acheruns, Plaut ; Ufens ; Mars,
Mavors.
M. YdiSy personal surety*
M. ipes,foot. F. Its compound (com\)^s), fetter , is
Fem. (with reference to catena). C. quadrupes
(also N.). Adj. bipes, tripes, alipes.
Fo merces, hire, pay. C. heres, heir.
Adj. exheres, disinherited.
M. praes, bondsman (in money).
C. obses, hostage ; praeses, president.
Adj. deseSj lazy ; reses, reposing,
H
98
Latin Wordlore.
§24-
Stem.
Nom. S.
id-
-IS
6d-
-OS
UQ-
w
11c
ud-
-US
aud-
-aus
rd-
-r
M. lapis, stone, F. cassts, heljnet; cuspTs, pointy
promulsis, antepast. Adj. tricuspts.
(On Greek words in is, id-, see below.)
C. CMStbs, guardian.
F. pecus, head of cattle, beast.
F. incxas, anvil ; palus, marsh, pool (Livy has Gen.
PI. paludium).
F. fraus, deceit ; laus, praise,
N. cor, heart. Adj. compounds concors, discors,
excors, misericors, socors, vecors, are I-nouns.
Note. C. vat-es, seer, has the form of an I-
noun ; but its root is vat-, Gen. PI. vat-um.
2) Greek Dental Stems.
at-
ft-
eth-
ant-
ent-
ont-
unt-
nth-
ad-
id-
-a
-is
-es
-as
-IS
-on \
-o i
-us
-ns
-as
-is
N. aenigma, riddle ; emblema, mosaic; epigramma,
epigram ; poema, poem ; toreuma, embossed-work,
&c. Such words are irregularly declined in
the Plural : having G. PI. -t-orum or -t-um, D.
Abl. -t'is (sometimes -t-ibus), as G. PI. emble-
mat-orum, D. PI. emblemat-is. Martial has the
Greek Gen PI. epigrammaton.
F. Char is, a Grace.
M. Parnes, (a mountain).
M. adamas, adamant-, elephas, elephant. The
Names Atlas, Calchas, Pallas (sonof Mezentiusin
the Aeneid), &c. have Voc. a ; Atla, Calcha,
Palla. Corybas, Corybantes (PL), (the priests of
Cybele). — Acc. S. -antem or -antd, Acc. PI. -an-
tes or -antds,
M. Simols, (river of Troy in the Iliad).
M. chamaeleon ; Anacreon, Charon, Creon, Phae-
thon, Xenophon. Attempts were made (Plaut.
Ter. Cic.) to latinize this form by writing o for
on ; Xenopho, Creo, Antipho, Ctesipho, De-
mipho. Terence inflects the three last in 6ni-.
Names of towns : F. Opus, Trapezus, &c. M.
Pessinus. C. Selinus. Sometimes latinized
into 2. n. -untum, -ontum : Hydruntum (Hy-
drus), Liv., Sipontum (Sipus), Cic.
F. Tiryns.
F. lampas, torch (PI. Nom. lampades, Ov.) ; Pallas,
Dryas, Maenas, Naias, &c. Acc. S. d (em),
Dat. t in poetry. D. Abl. PI. -dst, -asm in
poetry, as Troasin, Ov.
M. Arcis, Arcadian. PI. Nom. Arcades, Verg.
Acc. Arcadas, Cic.
This form comprises numerous words. Some are
Appellatives ; F. aegis, amystis, aspis, pyramis,
tyrannis, &c. The rest are Names :
1) Local : (a) towns : F. Aulis, Chalcis, &c. ; {b)
countries : F. Doris, Locris, Persis, &c. (really
Adjectives) ; {c) rivers : M. Phasis, Thybris, &:c.
2) Personal : {a) F. Patronymic : Briseis, Chry-
§24.
Stem.
The Third Declension.
99
Norn. S.
-US
seis, Colchis, Minois, Nereis, Titanis. {b) F.
Amaryllis, Bacchis, Chrysis^ Lycoris, Phyllis,
Semiramis, Thais, Thetis. Classes (^), {p) take
Acc, S. -idem or -ida generally : but some also
take im : Alcestin, I sin, Irim. {c) M. Adonis,
Alexis, Anubis, Busiris, Daphnis, Osiris, Phalaris,
Paris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis. Acc. S. im in ; or idem
idd.
The Voc. S. of all these stems is in i \ ColchJ,
Phylli, Alexi, Osiri.
Many fluctuate between the Cons, and I-declen-
sion : tigris, tigri- or tigrid- ; Thybris Thybri-
or Thybrid-.
M. tripus (rpLTTovc), tripod ; Melampus ; Oedipds.
The last name is variously declined : (i) as an
O-noun, Voc. Acc. Oedipe, Oedipum. (2) as an
A-noun, Oedipod-es, Acc. -en^ Abl. -e. (3) as
here ; Oedip-ias, Acc. Gen. -odem or ddd^ -odis.
F. chlamys, mantle ; pelamys, tunny-fish.
M, lapys, PI. lapydes (an Illyrian race).
C Mute Labial Stems.
The Stem takes s in Nom. S.
i) Latin Labial Stems (Greek marked *).
Stem.
Nom. S.
ap-
-aps 1
ip*
-eps
up*
dp-
-ips
-eps
-ops
F. (daps), banquet (no Nom. S.). M. "^Laelaps
(name of a dog in Ovid).
C. adeps (also adips),^/ ; and the compounds
from capio ; forceps, tongs ; municeps ; parti-
ceps ; princeps. See p. 76.
F. (stips), a small coin, dole.
M. auceps, fowler ; manceps (both from capio).
F. (ops), help (no Nom. S.).
*M. Pelops ; *Aethiops, Ethiopian.
Adj. inops, resourceless^ Abl. S. inopi.
2) Greek Stems.
op-
yp-
ab-
yb-
-ops
-yps
-abs-aps
-ybs
M. hydrops, dropsy ; Cyclops : (Acc. S. PI.
as).
M. gryps, griffin.
M. Arabs (Araps).
M. Chalybs.
D. Nasal Stems.
There is only one m-stem, hiem-p-s ; which takes s in Nom. S.,
inserting euphonic p, according to the best authorities. IT takes
s in one Latin word only, sangui-s for sanguin-s : it remains
the Nom. Ending in all Neuter, and many Masc. words : in all
Fern, and some Masc. words n is dropt, and the Nom. Ending
becomes o ; but in Neuter and some Masc. Nouns la- becomes en.
H 2
100
Latin Wordlore.
§24.
i) Latin Nasal Stems. ,
Stem. Nom. S.
-m-p-s
em-
in-
In-
in-
-en
-IS
-o
on-
-o
F. hiemps, winter,
M. flamen, priest (of some deity) ; pectert, comb^
and the compounds of canere, fidicen, lutist ;
tibicen, flute-player \ liticen, clarion-player \
tubicen, trumpeter ; oscen, ominous (bird).
N. gluten, glue^ and numerous Verbal Substan-
tives : agmen, carmen, culmen, nomen, numen,
regtmen, semen, stamen, tegmen, volumen, &c.
M. sanguis, blood \ {^o\Y\s) 7nill-dust^ powder. Other
forms are sanguen, pollen : and probably I-
stems, sangui- polli-, existed anciently.
M. homo, human being (homon- hemon- are old
forms) : turbo, whirlwind^ top ; Apollo.
C. nemOj nobody,
)^ , Many in -do, -go : grando, hail ; harundo,
reed ; hirundo, swallow^ hirudo, leech^ testudo,
tortoise ; indago, net ; origo, origin ; robigo, 7nil-
dew ; virgo, virgin ; Carthago, &c. : and nume*
rous abstracts : cupido, libido, fortitudo, mag-
nitudo, vicissitudo, &c.
Caro, flesh ; earn- (for carTn- or caron-), be-
coming an I -noun, Gen. PI. carnium.
M. cardo, hi7ige ; ordo, order ; Cupido, the deity
Cupid ; C. margo, margin^
M. Concretes in o on- : agaso, groom ; baro^
simpleton ; bibo, toper ; bufo, toad ; carbo, coal ;
crabro, hornet ; epulo, banquetter ; latro, robber ;
leo, lion ; ligo, spade ; mucro, point (of dagger) ;
upilio or opilio, shepherd ; papilio, butterfly ;
praedo,//r^z/^ ; ^Vig\o,p07tiard; s^rmo, discourse;
stelio, lizard ; tiro, recruit ; vespertilio, bat ; also
unio, pearl ; ternio, tre^ senio, sice^ &c., in dice-
play : Names; Capito, Cicero, Naso, Pollio,
&c., but F. luno.
F. Abstracts in io ion : (ci) from Adjectives : com-
munio, perduellio, treason^ rebellio ; {b) from
Pres. Stem, of Verbs : legio, regio, &c. ; \c) from
Supine Stem, a very large class : actio, dictio,
lectio, positio, &c. Some take concrete mean-
ing : natio, a nation ; oratio, a speech^ &c.
Note, C. Can-is, dog, iuven-is, young person^
are really Nasal Stems (Pr. kvan, yuvan) : but
take i in Nom. S. Their Gen. PI. is in -um.
2) Greek Nasal Stems.
Stem.
an-
en-
Nom.
-an
-en
M. Acarnan, Acarnanian\ Pan; Paean (name of
Apollo : hymn to Apollo) ; Titan.
M. ren-cs, PI. kidneys, reins, loins (Gen. PI. um,
or ium) ; splen, spleen, inilt (for which lien is a
Latin form) : attagen (a bird). The river Anio
ir. ipflected Anien- from a byform Anien.
F. Siren.
24*
The Third Declension.
lOI
Stem,
en-
in-
on-
Nom. S.
-en
-In -Is
-on
on-
-on
M. Hymen ; Philopoemen.
M. delphin, dolphin (also delphin-us, 2.)
F. Eleusis, Salamis.
M. Solon, Telamon, Triton, &c. Cithaeron, Heli-
con. Names of men were generally latinised by
taking Nom. S. o : Hiero, Milo, Plato, Zeno,
&c. But Alcon, Cimon, &c. keep n.
F. Babylon; Calydon ; Marathon, &c,
M. Arion ; Amphion ; lason ; Ixion ; Memnon,
&c.
F. Amazon ; Gorgon ; sindon,^?;^^ linen.
Rarely latinised with Nom. S. in o : M. Macedo,
Macedonian.
Note, Greek Nasal Nouns have Acc. S. d or
em (Pan always Pana) ; PI. as generally.
E, Liquid and Sibilant Stems.
and r proper do not take s in Nom. S. : as consul, aequor.
Sibilant Stems are numerous, many of them retaining their s in
Nom. S. and changing it to r in the inflected cases: Venus,
Veneris ; flos, floris, &c. Others change s to r in the Nom. S.
also: lar, laris; melior, melioris. Vowel-change often occurs
inNom. S. : ebur for ebor.
i) Latin Stems (Greek*).
Stem.
Nom. S.
al-
-al
il-
-il
61-
-61
iil-
-ill
ell-
-el
ar-
-ar
arr-
-ar
er-
-er
M. sal, salt (rarely N.) ; Hannibal, Hiempsal, &c.
M. pugil, boxer ; vigil, watchman ; mugil (also
mugili-s), mullet.
Adj. vigil, wakeful y Abl. S. i.
M. sol, the sun.
M. consul; y^zj^svX^ president C. exul, banished
one.
"N. felf ^all; me\, honey , 8ic.
M. Caesar ;' lar, household-god (anc. PI. Lases).
N. par,/^/r ; baccar (a plant) ; iubar, sun-beam \
instar, likeness (only Nom. Acc. S.) : "'f- nectar,
nectar. (Adj. par, with compounds, is an I-stem.)
N. {"diX^ flour.
M. acipens-er oracipensis, sturgeon ; agger, mound;
anser, goose ; asser, pole ; career, prison (PL
starting place) ; later, brick ; passer, sparrow ;
with the Plurals Celeres, the knightly body-
guards \ proceres, nobles \ see p. 127.
F. mulier, woman. C. tuber (a fruit tree).
N. acer, maple ; cadaver, carcase ; cicer, chickpea ;
papaver, poppy \ piper, pepper ; siler, withy ;
siser, skirret ; siiber, cork ; tiiber, a hump^ a
truffle \ uber, a teat\ also iter or (itiner),y^7^r-
ney^ Gen. itineris ; PI. iugera, acres ; (verber),,
stripe^ Abl. S. verbere,. with full PI.
102
Stem.
Latin Wordlore,
§24.
Nom. S.
er-
or-
-er
-or
or-
-or
(anc.
-or)
or-
ur-
-ur
-ur
ur-
as-
-ur
-as
aer'
er-
•aes
•es
-Is
-us
The M. form vesper-e, i, seems to be of this Decl.,
but its other cases (vesper, &c.) are of the 2nd.
Plautus uses vesperi (and luci, temperi, mani)
with Prep. : ' de vesperi suo,' &c. And Corssen
does not consider them to be Locative but true
Abl. Cases. Virgil has vespere Abl. : ' vespere
ab atro/ Aen. v. 19.
Adj. degener, degenerate ; pauper, /^7^?r.
N. ver, spri7ig.
N. aequor, level surface^ sea ; marmor, marble^ sea ;
ador, spelt (whence F. adorea, i.e. donatio, a
dole of spelt given to victorious soldiers : hence
' victory^ 'glory has only Nom. Acc. S.
M. Archaic words, as Marcipor (Marci puer), slave
of Marcus : Lucipor, slave of Lucius, &c.
M. olor, swan : with a large number of Verbal
Substantives, some formed from root or Pres.
stem : amor, love ; ardor, heat ; calor, ivarmth ;
dolor, grief pain, &c. ; others, very numerous,
from Supine stem : cultor, tiller, worshipper \
domitor, tamer ; victor, conqueror, &c.
F. soror, sister ; uxor, wife.
Adj. Acc.S. primorem, PI. primores, chiefpersons.
ebur, ivory ; femiir, thigh ; iecur, livei' (also
iecinor- iocinor- iociner-) ; robur, hard wood, oak
(old form probably robus, whence robustus).
M. furfur, bran ; (lemur) goblin (chiefly Plur.) ;
vultur, vulture ; turtur, turtle-dove ; *Ligur or
Ligus, Ligurian ; C. augur.
N. guttur, throat ; ixAgxvc, lightning ; murmur; sul-
fur, sulphur. — Adj. cicur, tame,
M. fur, thief
N. vas, vessel (PI. vasa, vasorum, vasis) ; fas,
{divine) right ; nefas, wrong, impiety : (both
words have only Nom. Acc. S. ; but V. uses
fandi, nefandi, as their Gen.).
N. aes, copper, brass, bronze,
F. Ceres (goddess of corn).
Adj. pubes (puberis), of ripe age: impubes (im-
puberis), under age. See p. 115.
M. cucumis, cucumber (also cucumi-) ; vomis (vo-
mer), ploughshare : acipensis.
C. cinis, ashy cinder ; pulvis, dust,
F. Venus.
N. foedus, treaty ; funus, funeral ; genus, race,
kind ; glomus, ball (of thread, &c.) ; holus (olus),
green stuff ; latus, side ; m\xnMS,gift, office (Nom.
Acc. PI. munera or munia) : onus, burden ; pon-
dus, weight ; raudus (rudus), bit (of brass, &c.) ;
scelus, crime, wickedness ; sidus, constellation ;
vtViyx^^fleece \ (viscus, rarely Sing.), ulcus,
sore ; vulnus, wound, Secus, sex (only Nom.
Acc. S.). This us is for anc. os.
§ 24.
Stem.
or-
Tke Third Declension,
103
6r-
or-
Norn. S.
-US
-OS -or
-OS -or
(anc. or)
or-
ur-
tr-
-03
-US
-ter
M. lepus, hare,
N. corpus, body ; decus, grace, dedeCus, disgrace ;
facinus, deed, crime ; fenus, usury, interest (also
er-) ; frigus, cold ; lltus, shore ; nemus, forest,
grove ; pectus, breast ; pignus, pledge (also
er-) ; stercus, dung ; tempus, time; temple (of
head) ; tergus (also tergum 2.), ^/z^:^. This us
was anc. os.
F. arbos or arbor, tree.
M. colos, usually color, colour, complexion ; honos
or honor, honour, office ; labos or labor, toil ; lepos
or lepor, wit, good hmnour. So odor, scent;
pavor, alarm ; rumor, report (rarely odos, &c.).
See p. 102.
M. ^bs, flower ; m5s, custom \ ros, dew,
N. OS, 7nouth,face.
On comparatives melior, melius (anc. melios),
see pp. 21, 42.
F. tellus, land, earth,
N. crus, leg\ ius, right \ ius, gravy, broth ; pus,
foul matter ; rus, country ; tus, frankincense.
M. pater, father ; frater, brother ; accipiter, hawk,
Y, mater, mother.
2) Greek R-Stems.
M. aer, atmosphere (Acc. S. aera or acrem) :
aether, sky (Acc. S. aethera).
M. crater, 7nixing-bowl. (Acc. S. a, PI. as.)
M. rhetor. Castor, Hector, Nestor, &c. (Acc. S. d
or em, PL as). This or is latinized from Gr.
F, u- and v-Stems.
w
er-
-er
er-
-er
or-
-or
u-
ov-
-us
C. grus, crane ; sus, swine (Dat. Abl. PI. subus or
suibus).
M. luppiter I6v-, lupiter.
C. bos bov-, ox or <:^>7e' (Gen. PI. boum ; Dat.
Abl. b5bus or bubus).
G. Greek E- O- and Y- Stems.
e-
-os
N. epos, epic poem ; melos, lyric (Gen. S. -eos^
Nom. Acc. PI. rrele, contracted from melea). So
cete, whales ; pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in
Thessaly). Chaos belongs here : but Virgil
has Abl. Chao, 2.
M. heros hero-, hero (Acc. S. heroa, Nom. PI.
heroes, Acc. heroas).
F. echo (Gen. echus for echo-os ; the other cases
in J ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on^,
M. Cotys Coty- ; Phorcys Phorcy- ; TiphJ^s
Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Acc. S. -a. PI. -as.
(A few Adjective and other I -stems are included in the foregoiAg
tables, on account of their connexion with other words.)
o-
o-
y-
-os
-o
104
Latin Wovdlore.
§24.
iv. I-stem^.
Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba
^unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables
m the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having
the same number of syllables in those Cases.
. Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con-
sonant Nouns : but many are CHpt I-nouns : especially those
which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before s in the Nom. Sing,
as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives,
all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis,
«^enex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c.
Adjectives of both kinds in this Decl. are I-nouns except a few,^
V. Grouping of I-nouns.
I-nouns come under four chief Heads :
A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. I-s (a few er for
-ri-) : Fem. Masc. or Common.
B) Parisyllabic I-nouns in e-s (i-s) perhaps from original
sibilant-stems : chiefly Fem.
C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in e, Im-
parisyll. in al, ar.
D) Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fem. Masc. or Common.
A) I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they
form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in i or e.
I. Acc. S. im : Abl. i,
l) F. *cannabys, hemp (Abl. S in Persius) ; tussTs, cough ;
sitis, thirst (S. only) ; buris, ploughtail (only Acc. S.)
ravis, hoarseness (only Acc. S.) ; * tigris, tiger (also as a
Consonant Noun, tigrid-).
Names of Towns: HispaHs, Seville; Neapolis,
Naples; Amphipolis; Memphis.
Yls, force (an S-stem), Acc. S. vim, Abl. vi, casting out s
(Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing s into r.
Greek I -nouns : p o e s 1 s, poetry ; mathesis, science ;
Charybdis: Voc. S. Acc. tn or im ; pooei, poes-in
(im).
The Greek Gen. in eos is rare : poeseos : and Gen. PI.
eon : metamorphoseon.
' Many Latin I-nouns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovis, ars, dos,
geiiS, mens, and others. In some i represents Pr. a: axis, foris,imbris, nubes
panis, pellis, peiiis» unguis. In others i is a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s
iuven-i-s, lov-i-s, vat-i-s: mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, levis, pinguis,
suavis, tenuis. In m ensis (Gr. /ityji/), si is suffixal. In a few, as arx, daps, there
is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix S. In some of these forms i, not belonging to the original
Nom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-nouns
it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, especially the great bulk, of
Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies.
§ 24*
The Third Declension.
105
Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus-
sim, by rule, accurately, ad fatim, affatim, abun-
dantly \ from disused nouns amussis, fatis. Hence it
is probable that adverbs in tim, sim, partim, sensim,.
&c., are similarly cases of lost I-nouns.
2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun
cucumer-, like Ceres, pulvis, cinis).
Names of Rivers: Albis, Elbe \ Tiberis, Tiber \ Liris,.
P has is, &:c.
2. Acc. S. im or em, Abl. i or e.
This group is wholly Feminine :
F. puppis, /^?^?^ ; i€tyn^, fever ; turris, tower : im (em) ; e^ I.
securis, hatchet ; im (em) ; i restis, rope ; im (em) ; e
messis, harvest ; em (im) ; e clavis, key ; em (im) ; i e
sementrs, seed-time \ em (im) ; navis, ship ; im, em ; 1, 6
i, e pelvis, pan ; im, em ; e 1
3. Acc. S. em ; Abl. € or i.
M. axis, axle; 6 (i) ignis, yfr^; I, e
F. bilis, bile; cXdiSSis, fleet ; avis, bird; e (i)
strigilis, scraper ; i (e)
Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt
in Nom. S. into supellex. In Abl. S. it has i or e.
Finis, originally Fem., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely.
d) M. imber imbri- m. shower, Abl. i, 6.
The Month-names September, October, November,
December ; Abl. i : are used adjectively.
^) Many Adjectives have Substantival use :
M. aedilis, edile, e (i) ; aequalis, contemporary, I ; annalis, I
(chiefly Plur. annals) ; aqualis, water-can, i ; natalis, birth-
day, i (e) ; rivalis, rival, e (i) ; familiaris, intimate friend,
i (e) ; molaris, grinder, 1 (chiefly Plur.).
F. bipennis, double axe, e i ; novdiWs, fallowed field, e i ; trire-
mis, trireme, i e ; volucris, bird, e.
C. affinis, kinsperson, e i ; iuvenis, young person, e ; contu-
bernalis, tentmate, e i ; patruelis, cousin on father'^s sidCy
e, i ; sodalis, companion, i e ; canalis, canal, channel, i.
c) Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have
Abl. Sing, in e : luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense,
Martiale.
fustis, cudgel; e, 1
unguis, claw ; e (i)
C. amnis, river ; e (i)
finis, end ; e {\)
civis, citizen ; i (e)
anguis, snake ; e (i)
io6
Latin Wordlorc.
§24.
d) In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms
of Adjectives in is, is, e, and in er, Is, e : as tristis, is.
e; acer, acris, acre. But the Neuter forms triste',
acre, belong to Head C). All have Abl. S. i, very rarely 6,
4. Acc. em : Abl. e.
M. orbis, circle^ world ; fascis, bundle ; piscis,y£y/^ ; caulis,
stalk ; colli s, hill ; follis, bellows \ vermis, worm ; clunis,
hind-leg \ crinis, hair\ panis, loaf\ torris, brand \ ensis,
sword ; mensis, month ; postis, door-post ; vectis, lever ;
uter, leathern bottle ; venter, belly ; with the Plural words
casses, nets ; ^XiX.^Sy front vine-rows ; manes.
F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,y2?// ; sudis (no Nom.
S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con-
vallis, hollow valey pellis, hide\ Alpis, Alp ; apis, bee;
auris, ear ; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril ; cutis, cuticle ;
n^'^^xs, granddaughter \ ptstis, plague ; ratis, r^/?; vestis,
garment ; vitis, viiie ; ovis, ewe : with the Plur. words
fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, hUestrings (has
Abl. S. fide).
C. corbis, basket ; callis, path ; funis, rape, cable ; torquis
(es), collar ; hostis, ene?ny ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or
scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also
sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble,^
B) Nom. S. es, Acc. em, Abl. e.
All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig,
F. aedes, temple (PI. house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed ;
cautes, rock ; clades, defeat ; compages, structure ; fames,
hunger (Abl. e) ; feles, cat ; indoles, native disposition ;
labes, fall, mischief-, lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles,
pile ; nubes, cloud ; palumbes, pigeon ; plebes, the com-
mons (also plebs : see Decl. 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen.
PI. um) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes,
hedge-, sedes, ^y^^/; soboles or suboles, sordes,
^/r? (PI. meanness) ; strages, slaughter ; strues, ;
tabes, taint, consumption (no PI.) ; valles, vale ; vulpes,
and the Plural words \2LCtes,'small entrails ; ambages,
evasive language or conduct (has Abl. S. e. Gen. PI. um).
Several of these have a byform in is : aedis, caedis, felis,
melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more.
The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into
I-stems by exclusion of staminal s (as puber-is pubes).
C) Neuter Nouns : Nom. S. e (for 1-) ; al (for ali-) ; iir (for
ari-). Abl. i. Neut. PI. ia.
* isolated variations of Case occur in some. See M. Lucr. i. 978. nii. Varro says
that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. Nepti is found in Tac.
§24.
The Third Declension,
107
1} N. mare, sea ; rete, net ; aplustre,_;f^^; conclave, apartment '
m.'SAgXi^, ensign ; praesepe, stall^ crib ; ancile, small shield %
bubile, ox-stall \ caprile, goat-house \ cubile, bedchamber^
couch ; equile, stable ; hastile, spear ; mantile, napkin ;
monile, necklace \ ovile, sheep f old \ focale, neckwrapper;
noY3\Q, fallow ; penetrale^ inner shrine \ cochleare^ spoon ;
altaria (PL), high altar \ talaria ankle-rings. Also
caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i).
Lac, milky IS for lac-te, like rete.
Retis c. is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe.
Some local names ending in te take Abl. e usually: Bibracte,
Reate, Soracte.
Abl. mare for marl is in Lucr. Ov. Abl. rete is frequent.
2) N. animal ; cervical, bolster ; minutal, minced meat ; toral,
sofa-cover; tribunal; vectigal, toll, revenue. See Bac ca-
nal, bidental, capital, Lupercal, Minerval,, puteal
in Dictionary.
3) N. calcar, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laquear,
ceiling; lupanar ; pulvmar, cushioned seat ; torcular, wine-
press.
Observe par, pari-, pair.
Note. Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently
Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have
dropt e : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This
makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival.
D) Clipt I-nouns : Gen. PI. l-um.
The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and
Cons. -nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I-
noun, i before um in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I-noun loses 1 (as
in apum, volucrum), if a Cons.-noun takes i (as in civitatium,
paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly
monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, is ( = es, eis) in Acc. PI. m.
f. or ia n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course,
therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux,
sol, &c.), where no test of an I-noun is ascertained : unless some
strong analogy points to an exception.
Guttural before i :
F. faex faeci-, lees ; (faux) fauci-, jaw ; calx calci-, heel ;
falx falci-, pruning-hooky scythe ; lanx lanci-, dish ; arx
arci-, citadel ; merx merci-, merchandise. Add nix nivi-,
snow,
M. Deunx deunci-, quincunx quincunci-, &:c., (parts
of as).
Labial before i :
F. stirps stirpi- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ;
trabs (or trab-es) trabi-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbi-, f. city.
Nasal before i :
F. caro carm- (for carmi-),y7^^^. See Cons.-Nouns.
iq8 Latin Wordlore. §24.
R (for s) or s before 1 :
M. glis gliri-, dormouse ; mus muri-, mouse \ and^by probable
analogy, mas man-, male \ as assi-,
F. vis N\x\- /force : see p. 104.
N. OS 0SS1-, do7ie (but Nom. PI. ossa for oss-ia).
Dental before i :
These are the most numerous : many being Adjectival.
a) M. Gentile words in as atl-, is Itl- (dipt from ati-s, Ttis) :
Aquinas, man of Aqtcinum \ Arpinas, man of Arpinum ;
Quiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnite, &c. ;
(optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.),
household gods.
Adj. nostras, of our country \ vestras, of your country ;
cuias, of what country,
b) F. lis liti-, strife.
c) Nouns in ans anti<, ens enti-, mostly participial.
M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadrans, sextans, triens
(parts of as) ; aliens, client ; dens, tooth, and compounds,
(but F. bidens, sheep) ; oriens (sol), east ; occidens (sol),
west \ xu^tns, cable 'y torrQns,. torrent.
F. gens, clan, nation ; lens, lentil; mens, mind, intetiecl,
C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76.
All words in d) c) not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i
in Gen. PI. ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for i»-
fantium, parentum for parentium.
d) Nouns in ons onti- :
M. ions, fountain ; mons, mountain; ^ons, bridge.
F. irons, forehead; (s^ons), free choice (only Abl. sponte).
e) Nouns in is Iti-, rs rti-, cs (x) cti- : Fem.
F. puis, pulse; ars, art; pars, part; cohors, cors, cohort,
court ; fors (S.), chance ; mors, death ; sors, lot ; nox,
night.
f) Nouns in ns ndi- : Fem.
F. frons, leaf; glans, acorn ; iuglans, walnut.
Notes vi. Notes on the Cases.
on the
Cases.
I. Instances occur of a Gen. PI. in lum from Cons. Nouns in
as at-, us ut-, us ud- : more rarely from those in x, ps : civita-
tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat-
ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium^
forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um in Virgil is a bold license
for the sake of metre. ^
* Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as
Quid dubitas quin omni' sit haec rationi * potestas ? — Lucr. ii. 53.
On the dropping of final m in Acc. S. anciently, see pp. 28, 46.
§24.
The Third Declension.
109
No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis),
cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pi x,
praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Canis,
iuvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PI. um : also panis, in the
opinion of some grammarians: apis, volucris have Gen. PI. um,
sometimes ium. Sedum occurs from sedes; mensum (rarely
mensuum) from men sis ;^ but also ium.
Some Plural words in alia, ilia, aria, especially names of
festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum ;
vectigali-orum, Suet.; ancili-orum, Hor. ; lacunari-orum,
Vitn
Vas vas- forms its Plural as Decl. 2. vasa, vasorum, vasis.
2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( = es, eis) is proper to I-nouns, as
civis, parentis, and is found side by side with es, eis till the
Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres.
A Nom. PI. in is or eis occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus
and Lucretius ; aedis, auris, familiaris, &c. ; and in old Inscrr.
A Gen. S. in us and es is archaic only, as {patrus, Apolones),
3. The Dat. Sing, had an old form in e, retained in some classical
phrases : ^ triumviri auro argento aere flando feriundo.' See Cic
Fam. vii. 13. ^ lure Romae dicundo,' L. xlii. 28. Virgil has ore
for or i, G. i. 430. Another old form is ei. So urbei, uxorei, &c.
On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is ' forma virtutei parisuma.'
4» On the Locative case in i, see § 20. Instances are luci, ruri,
temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tibure, Abl.), PI. Gadibus.
5. Forms of chpt I-nouns with Abl. S. i are found ; sorti fre-
quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut.) ; parti, Plaut. Ter. : some even of
Cons.-nouns, capiti (Catull. Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others.^
* It is notable that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^ (ducTs) the great
majority take um in Gen. PI. : facum, diicum, crucian, nilcuni, precum, gregum, pedum,
apum, oputh, canum, senum, patrum, Larum, bourn, gruum, suum, struum. But of
those which have Gen. S. of the form - yj, the great majority take ium in the Gen. PI. :
falcium, litium, artium, &c. : exceptions are vocum, legum, regum, and a few others. So
Gen. S. - ^ or ,^ gives Gen. PI. in um : supplicum, princTpum, vigTlum.
(Compes) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with
long penult, gives in most Adjectives Gen. PI. in ium : ferac-ium, felic-ium, &c. ;
and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (i d). Comparatives are
an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is true of io-n-ium.
Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c.
* Gender is shewn in the lists. The general results are (not including those settled by-
meaning) :
F, Mute Latin Cons, stems, and dipt I-stems with mute before i.
N-stems in do ; go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellus ; arbor.
Parisyll. I-nouns in Ts, es ; pp. 105, 106. See Exceptions below and in lists.
M. Most in ex, ic- ; es it- ; ns ; all in unx ; Concreta in o : Nouns in 1 ; er er- ; Ts er- ;
Is Tri- ; ter tri- ; or or- ; os or- ; ur : Greek Appellatives, except those in as, is, ys
(F.): a, OS, e (N,). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, pes, lapis, sanguTs, turbo,
cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtiir, vultur, lepus, mus, as : with the parisyll. I-nouns
marked M. in pp. 105, 106.
N. Nouns in en in- ; e ; ar ; al ali- ; or or- ; ur or- ; ur tlr- ; us er- ; us or- ; us ur-. Alsa
halec, caput, lac, cor, mel, fel, ver, iter, cadaver, uber, verber, papaver, acer,
cicer, piper, &c. (see p. loi), aes, far, os (oris), os (ossis), vas (vasis).
C These will be found in the lists : and many on p. 76.
TIO
Latin Word lore.
§24.
vii. Table:
N.V.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
judge, c.
iudex
iudic-
iudic-
iudic-
iudic-
N.V.A. iudic-
Gen. iudiC-
D.Abl. iudic-
I. CONSONANT-NOUNS.
I. Masculine and Feminine.
l) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.
root, f. voice, f.
radix vox
radic- voc-
radic- voc-
radic- voc-
radic- voc-
PLURAL.
radic-
radiC-
radic-
voc-
voC-
voc-
king,
rex
reg-
reg-
reg-
reg-
reg-
reG-
reg-
em
IS
1
e
es
um
ibus
2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.
summer, f.
companion, c.
virttie, f.
foot, m.
N.V.
aestas
comes
virtus
pes
Acc.
aestat-
comit-
virtut-
ped-
em
Gen.
aestat-
comit-
virtut-
ped-
IS
Dat.
aestat-
comit-
virtut-
ped-
1
Abl.
aestat-
comit-
virtut-
ped-
e
N.V.A. aestat-
Gen. aestaT-
D.Abl. aestat-
PLURAL.
comit-
comiT-
comit-
virtut-
virtuT-
virtut-
ped-
peD-
ped-
es
um
ibus
3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND V- STEMS.
SINGULAR.
chief, c.
beam, f.
lion, m.
virgin, f.
crane^ c.
N.V.
princeps
trabs
leo
virgo
grus
Acc.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
em
Gen.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
Is
Dat.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
I
Abl.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
es
Gen.
princiP-
traB-
JeoN-
virgiN-
grU-
um
D.Abl.
princip-
trab-
leon-
virgin-
gru-
Ibus
* For Nom. S. Endings, see § 20 and p. 94.
§24.
The Third Declension,
III
4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS.
SINGULAR.
levCf m.
dew, YCL
woman, f.
cindeTf c.
father, m.
In. V.
amor
ros
mulier
cmis
pater
Acc.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
Gen.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
Is
Dat.
amor*
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
1
AbL
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
es
Gen.
amoR-
roR-
mulieR-
cineR-
patR-
um
D.Abl.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
ibus
2.
NEUTER.
SINGULAR.
2r if /y/T
fZcllCl-
name
right
N.V.A.
caDut
nomen
ius
opus
corpus
Gen.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
IS
Dat.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
1
Abl.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
a
Gen.
capiT-
nomiN-
iuR-
opeR-
corpoR-
um
D.Abl.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
cough, f.
N. V. tUSS-lS
Acc. tuss-im
Gen. tuss-is
Dat. tuss-i
Abl. tuss-i
II. I-NOUNS.
I. Masculine and Feminine.
SINGULAR.
harvest, f.
mess-is
shi^, f.
nav-is
nav-im em mess-em (im)
nav-is mess-is
nav-i mess-i
nav-i e mess-e
Jlrey m.
ign-is
ign-em
ign-is
ign-i
ign-i e
shower, m.
imb-er
imbr-em
imbr-is
imbr-i
imbr-i (e)
PLURAL.
N. V. tuss-es nav-es
Acc. tuss-es Is nav-es is
Gen. tuss-Ium nav-lum
D.Abl. tuss-ibus nav-ibus
mess-es
mess-es Is
mess-Ium
mess-ibus
ign-es
ign-es is
ign-lum
ign-ibus
imbr-es
imbr-es is
imbr-lum
imbr-ibus
112
Latin Wordlore,
§24.
SINGULAR.
ewe. f.
cloiid, f.
toothy m.
city, f.
ntdusey iii.
N V
\J V lO
mus
Acc.
OV-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
em
Gen.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
IS
Dat.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
I
Abl.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
PLURAL.
N. V.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
es
Acc.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
es IS
Gen.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
Zum
D. Abl.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
Ibiis
The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in
MSS. between is and es, the form is prevailing.
N. V. A.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
net
ret-e
ret-ls
ret-1
ret-i (e)
N. V. A. ret-ia
Gen. ret-lum
D. Abl. ret-ibus
2. Neuter,
singular.
sofa-cover
toral
toral-is
toral-i
toral-i
PLURAL.
toral-ia
toral-lum
toral-ibus
spur
calcar
calcar-id
calcar-l
calcar-i
calcar-ia
calcar-lum
calcar-ibus
lone
OS
oss-lg
oss-i
oss-e
oss-a
oss-Ium
oss-ibus
Greek viiL Grcck Nouns in Decl. 3.
Nouns.
Nominative Sing.
The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping
the V in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in
Apollo Apollin- (Gr. 'A7^oX\w^^-), draco dracon- (Gr. hpaKovr-) :
but Nepos retains n in Cimon, Conon, Dion, Timoleon, &c. :
and it is usually kept in local names: Babylon, Lacedaemon.
Gr. (jjf) becomes or: Hector, rhetor ; Gr. etc becomes is : Simois
Simoent- ; Sardis (Plur.). Other endings are kept.
Vocative Sing.
The Nominatives is, ys, as, eus, es give
Vocatives t, y, a, eii, e (es)
Pari, Daphm, Thybri, Phylli ; Coty, Tiphy ; Atla, Palla ;
Peleu, Theseu ; Chreme (es), Pericle (es), Hercules.
§24.
The Third Declension,
113
Accusative Singular (Greek a, j').
Prose writers, rarely poets, latinise this Case by using the Latin
ending m : Jampadem, tyrannidem, Phrygem, Paridem,
Osirim. But the Greek d is used in some words by both : aether a
(always), aer a (rarely -em). Cicero writes Pan a, hebdomada:
and in poetry names of persons and places in d abound: Aga-
memnona, Hectora, Pallada, Phyllida, Babylona, Sala-
mTna, &c. ; hkewise appellatives: heroa, C5^clopa, lampada,
tyrannida, aegida, &c.
Names in is fluctuate between the formations im in and idem
idd. Patronymics: Briseis, Nais, Nereis, Aeneis, &c., and
many Female names, Amaryllis, Phyllis, &c. have idd : but
exceptions occur; Alcestin, Mart.; Isin, Ov. ; Irim, Verg., &c.
On Nouns in is im {in) see p. 104.
Names in es eti- (or es, 1-) also fluctuate. From Dares Daren^
Dareta (Verg.), Daretem : Chremes, Chremem {en) and
Chremetem {a) ; Thales, Thalen and Thaletem {a).
Similarly Gen. Sing, etis and is.
Many names in es have Acc. S. em {en) : Socratem {eti) ;
Xerxem {en) : others em only : Aristotelem^ Cic.
Names in cles have em or ea^ rarely en : Pericles, Periclem
or Periclea : rarely Periclen.
Of Names in eus see the Decl. below.
See also the Syllabus of Cons. Nouns.
Genitive Singular.
Poets often use Gr. -os for Is : Pallados, Thetidos, PeleoS.
A Gen. in i is taken by many Names in eus, es.
See Table of Declension.
Dative Singular.
The short i is sometimes found in poetry : Daphnidi, Palladi.
Nominative Plural.
Poets sometimes use the Greek es \ Arcades, Phryges,
Naiades, Erinyes (Verg.).
The Neuter Plural words Tempe, cete, mele, pelage (/ for
ed) are occasionally found.
Accusative Plural.
Prose writers sometimes have as \ Arcadas, Cyclopas, Cic. ;
Senonas, &c., Caes. ; Macedonas, Liv. Poets often: as he-
roas, lampadas, lyncas, Naiadas, Nereidas, Erinyas*
Genitive Plural.
Catullus has Chalybdn for Chalybum; Curtius Malieon
for Maliensium; Martial epigrammaton for epigramma-
tum : but Cic. has poematorum, transferring the word to Decl. 2.
Dat. Abl. Plural.
The Greek ending si {sm) is very rarely used by poets : Troasin^
Dryasin, Charisin, Lemniasin, Ov.
Nouns in md are declined in the Plural after Decl. 2 : Cic. uses
poematis, aenigmatis, emblematis, &c.
I
114 Latin Wordlore, ^ §24.
Greek ix. Greek Table. (Greek Endings italic.)
Table,
I) Consonant Stems. See Syllabus.
Sing. Nom. V. — ; Acc. em (a) ; Gen. is {ps) ; D. i Abl. 5.
Plur. Nom. V. ; Acc* as (es) ; Gen. um; D. Abl. Ibus (i"? rare).
Examples :
M. Phryx Phryg-, lebes lebet-, gigas gigant-, aer aer-, heros
hero-. So Atlas Atlant-, but with Voc. S. d. See p. 98.
F. chlamys chlamyd-, lampas lampad-.
C, lynx lync-.
On Neuters in via mat-, as poem a, see p» 98*
On Neuter E-stems and Fern. O- and Y-stems, see p. 103.
II) I-stems. See p. 104.
Sing. Nom. is ; Voc. i ; Acc. im zn ; Gen. Is {eds) ; D. Abl. T.
Plur. Nom. V. es ; Acc. is es ; Gen. ium {eoft) ; D. AbL ibus.
Examples :
F. basis, poesis, Charybdis, Nemesis, Lachesis, Syrtis.
M. Anubis, Albis, Athesis.
Acinaces, m. scimiiar, is declined as nubes : but Names in
es are subject to flexional variations.
III) Heteroclite or Fluctuating Declension.
i) Third Decl. mixed with First and Second.
d) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e\ Acc. em {en) ; Gen. Is, i ; D. i ; Abl. e.
Examples :
M. Aristoteles ; Archimedes; Demosthenes; Euripides; Thucy*
dides ; Xerxes.
Hercules has Voc. es and Abl. S (Hor.).
b) Nom. S. cles ; Voc. cles cle ; Acc. clem {clen), cled ; GeH
clis, cli ; Dat. cli ; Abl. cle.
Examples :
M. Callicles, Damocles, Pericles, Sophocles, Themistocles.
£) Nom. S. eus ; Voc. eu ; Acc. eum, ea ; Gen. ei, ei, i {eds) ; D.
eo, ©b, el ; Abl. eo, eb.
Examples :
M. Nereus ; Orpheus ; Peleus ; Perseus ; Theseus ; Tydeiis*
Acc, ea, eh occur in poetry : Idomenea, Orphe'a (Verg.).
The Greek Gen. eos is confined to poets after the Aug, age.
With this Decl. of Perseus compare Perses, p. 87. Livy
uses the former for the last Macedonian king : Cicero the
latter.
d) The two Masculine names Achilles, Ulixes, have a
peculiar flexion :
Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Acc. exa,m, ea ; Gen. is, eds^ ei, i; D.
5 ; Abl. e e, i.
§ 24.
Adjectives in the Third Declension,
115
2) Consonant Declension mixed with I-declension :
d) Nom. S. es; Voc. e\ Acc. em {en)^ etem^ eta\ Gen. is,
etis ; D. i, eti ; Abl. e, ete.
Examples : M. Chremes, Dares, Laches, Thales.
b) Nom. S. IS ; Voc. i\ Acc. im, in\ idem, idd\ Gen. idis
i^dds) ; D. idi ; Abl. ide.
Plur. Nom. V. es, ides ; Acc. es, is, idds\ Gen. ium, idum; D*
Abl. lb us, idibus {si rare).
Examples : tigris ; Paris, &c. See p. 98.
Fem. names, especially Patronymics, follow chiefly the Cons.-
forms : but with much variance. See Neue {Formenlehre, I. 300^
&c.).
X. Adjectives in the Third Declension.
• Adjec-
tives in
I. The Declension of Adjectives is distinguished from that of Deci. 3.
Substantives only by having Case-endings which represent different
Genders. Therefore Consonant Adjectives which have no distinct
generic Case-forms are merely declined like corresponding Sub-
stantives. They are a very small class, of which the principal are
(caeles) caelit-
dives divit-
sospes sospit-
superstes superstit-
deses desid-
reses resid-
compos compot-
impos impot-
heavenljf
rich
safe
surviving
slothful
reposing
possessing
unpossessing
particeps particTp- sharing
princeps princip- chief
caelebs caelib- m. tunnarried
pauper pauper- poor
pubis ) 1 - r
pubes \ P"^*^""- "/^^^
impubis ) • , ^ . r
impubes \ mpuber- not vf age
An I-noun impubis (ts^ e) is more frequently used.
Sospes is once Neuter in luv.: ^Nec umquam depositum tibi
sospes erit,^ xiii. 177.
Dis (Ter.) contracted from dives, becomes an I-noun, Abl. diti;
Neut PI. ditia ; Gen. PL ditium.
Table
SINGULAR.
N. V.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
dives
divit-
divit-
divit-
divit-
pauper
pauper-
em
pauper-
is
pauper-
1
pauper-
e
ConSi
Adjed'
tives*
N. A. V. divit-
Gen. divit-
D. Abl. divit-
PLURALi
paUper-
pauper-
pauper-
es
Ibus
I 2
Ii6 Latin Word lore. ^ §^4,
I-noun 2. Adjectives and Participles, not purely Consonantal, may be
tiver* classed in four groups, shewn in the following Table : —
Singular.
Norn. Voc.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
I. I.
M. F.
N.
e
M F ti
em e
Is
1
1
2.
CP p-is
p-e
p-em P'C
P IS
p-i
P-i
II.
s(x ns
•■)
em s(x ns ...)
IS
I
i(e)
III.
us
em us
IS
I
e
IV.
P, 1, s ..
•
em —
Is
I
I
Plural.
Nom. Voc.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat. Abl.
M. F.
I. es
N,
ia
M. F. N.
es IS ia
lum
Ibus
II. es
ia
es IS la
ium
Ibus
III. es
a
es Is ^
um
ibus
IV. es
es Is —
um
¥bus
The Ending of Accusative Plural fluctuates between is (for
eis) and es, as in Substantival i-stems. Even Compara-
tives have both forms, though with Abl. S. e : Neut. PL a.
I) Th-e first group contains
1) A large number of Adjectives declined as I-nouns with Nom.
IS m. f.^ e n. : dulcis, sweet \ pinguis, y^z/ ; mitis, vnld\
tristis, sad\ grandis, great \ viridis, ^rtw^ ; turpis, base \
segnis, /(^57 ; sublimis, Lofty \ agilis, ^'Z^r/zV^ ; nobihs, w^/^;
aequahs, equal ; fidelis, faithful ; servihs, slavish ; vul-
garis, common ; levis, light \ levis, smooth^ &c.
Instances of Ablative in e are very rare in this class : ' nobile
viro,' Cic. ; ^ caeleste, bimestre, perenne,' Ov.
2) A small number in er, -ris, -re : as acer, acrfs, acre, keen.
Celer, celcris, celerc, swifts is the only Adjective of this kind
I 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension, i r/
which retains e before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PI. ends
in ium when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the
ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres.
The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r
in the Cases, are
cele-ber -bris -bre fa7nous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse
salu-ber -bris -bre healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot
ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy
volu-cer -cris -ere swifts winged pu-ter -tris -tre putrid
campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land,
silves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth.
The forms in -bris, -cris, -tris, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -cer,
-ter are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common
Gender anciently.
September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but
have no Neuter Cases.
The Masc. and Fem. forms of this group are like igniS;, imber
(Abl. i) ; the Neuter like rete..
II) This group comprises many Adjectives :
1) Adjectives in ax ac2- ; ox 6ci- ; ix Tci- ;
audax, bold^ i^xdiX^ fruitful, &c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift, &c. ;
felix, happy, peYnix,feet : including words in ix, Fem. in Sing,
but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PI. vic-
trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix.
Adjectives under i) rarely take Abl. S. e.
Like these are declined :
a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double \ biceps, twO'headed\
praeceps, headlong, &c. (for -cipes) -cipiti-.
b) Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing', discors, dis-
agreeing', misericors, merciful', socors or secors,
stupid', vecors, insane : -cordi-.
c) par pari-, equal-, hebes hebeti-, dull (no Gen. PI.);
teres tereti- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded praepes
'px2,^'p^X\-, fast-flying', trux truci-, ^r^^/.
But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike, imp SiV, unequal^
take Abl. S. e or i. Gen. PI. um.
2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns nti- rs rti- :
ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; ipv3.esens, present; absens, absent;
YQcens, fresh ; sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in-
nocent ; iners, inactive ; expers, void, &c. In these the Abl.
in e, though less frequent than i, is often found.,
d) So those in as ati- : nostras, vestras, cuias, &c. See
p. 108.
Ii8 Latin Wordlore. §24,
b) Numerals in plex plici- : simplex, duplex, multiplex,
&c.
c) Derivatives of dens : tridens trident three-pronged;
these have no Neut. PI.
d) Locuples locupleti-, wealthy ; Abl. S. e (i) ; Gen. PI. um or
ium.
Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force,
take e in Abl. S, : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante
Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they
usually take Abl. S. i.
But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. i used verbally,
and of Participles with Abl. e used adjectively.
Obs, The Gen. PI. in nti-um, rtl-um, ati-um, eti-um is liable
to an occasional loss of i : recentum, sapientum, locupletum,
amantum, nostratum, &c.
III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in or or- m.f.
us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c.
Abl. S. e as a rule, rarely i.
Vetus veter-, ancient, has the same endings : Abl. 2 (rarely i) -y
Neut. PI. a, Gen. PI. um.
IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. Abl. S. I, Gen. PI. um.
a) Compounds of pes : ahpes, Abl. S. alipedi. As a Neuter
Subst. quadrupes has PI. quadrupedia.
b) Compounds of color: concolor concolor-, ^ />^^? same
colour; discolor dis co\br-y of different colour, Neut.
PI. ia (rare).
c) ales alit-, winged (Ovid has alite).
degener degener-, degenerate uber Mh€r-, fruitful
inops inop-, destitute vigil vigil-, wakeful
memor memor-, mindful
immemor, unmindful
d) redux reduc-, returned I Ahl <^ - "
supplex supplic-, suppliant f • o. i, e.
Obs, The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has Abl. S. plure,
Neut. N. V. A. plura, Gen. PI. plurium.
Its compound complures has complura or compluria.
Adjec Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal :
^ives. SINGULAR.
M, F. N.
N.V. trist-is trist-e
Acc. trist-em trist-e
Gen. trist-is
Dat. trist-i
Abl. trist-i
M. F. N.
felix
felic-em felix
felic-is
felic-i
felic-i
M. F. N.
ingens
ingent-em ingens
ingent-is
ingent-i
ingent-i (e)
§25.
The Fourth Declension.
119
N.Vo trist-5s trist-ia
Acc. trist-es Is trist-ia
Gen. trist-ium
D.Abl. trist-ibus
PLURAL.
felic-es felic-ia
felic-es is felic-ia
felic-ium
felic-ibus
ingent-es ingent-ta
ingent-esis ingent-ia
ingent-ium
ingent-itous
M.
SINGULAR.
F. N. M.
N.V. celer celer-is celer-e | acer
Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis.
F.
acr-ls
N.
acr-e
SINGULAR.
M. F. N.
N.V. meli-6r meli-us
Acc. melior-em meli-iis
Gen. melior-is
Dat. melior-i
Abl. melior-e (i)
SINGULAR.
M. F. N.
N.V. inops
Acc. inop-em inops
Gen. inop-is
D. Abl. inop-i
PLURAL.
M. F. N.
melior-es melior-a
melior-es (is) melior-a
melior-um
melior-ibus
melior-ibus.
PLURAL.
M. F.
inop-es
inop-es is
inop-um
inop-ibu&
Section V.
1. The Fourth Declension: TT-Nouns.
U-Nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc.
(Fem.) words, gradu-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which
are three only : cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit. The endings
of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus,
p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are
used by all U-nouns except grus, sus.
«5
Fourth
DecleD*
sion.
ii. Table.
SINGULAR.
step^ m.
tribe y f.
knefiy n.
N.V. grad-u s
trib-iis
gen-u
Acc. grad-um
trib-um
gen-u
Gen. grad-us
trib-us
gen-u»
Dat. grad-ui u
trib-ui il
gen-u
Abl. grad-u
trib-u
gen-u
PLURAL.
N.V.A. grad-us
trib-us
gen-ua
Gen. grad-TJum
trib-Uum
gen-U"um
D.Abl. gxad-ibus
trib-ubus
gen-ibus
120
Latin Wordlore.
iii. Confusion of 0- and U-nouns.
d) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the
U-declension is invaded by many forms of the 0-declension, 2.
Thus senati, tumulti, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the
earhest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad-
venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti
(frequent), sumpti, victi, &c.
b) Ficus, f. Jig-tree^ an 0-noun of Decl. 2., fluctuates in
Gen. S. i or us, Abl. S. o or u.
Nom. PI. i or us, Acc. PI. os or us.
Laurus, f. bay-tree^ cupressus, cypress-tree^ are similarly declined :
also pinus, pine^ but with Abl. S. in u only : and cornus, cornel^
but with Gen. S. in i only.
Myrtus, f. 7Jiyrtle^ an 0-noun, has Nom. PL i or us ; Acc. PI.
OS or us.
Quercus, f. oak^ is a U-noun, but Gen. PI. quercorum, Cic.
Colus, 2. f. distaffs Gen. S. i or us, D. o, Abl. o or u. Nom. PL
us, Acc. us or OS.
So domus, f. hoiiscy fluctuates between Decl. 4 and Decl. 2.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. V. domus domiis
Acc. domum domos (us)
Gen. domiis domuum, domorum
Dat. dom-ui, o domibus
Abl. dom-o u domibus
Domi (or domui), at home^ is the Locative. It can be used with
an Attribute : domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Caesars
house. Also domui alienae, at another's house.
Pecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris), cases of which
are found : Dat. S. pecui. Abl. pecu. PI. Nom. Acc. pecua (Dat.
AbL pecubus .?).
Gelus, 4. m. frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. AbL gelu.
Gelum, 2. n. is also extant.
Tonitrus, 4. m. AbL S. tonitru. Nom. Acc. PL tonitrus (also
tonitrua from abyform tonitruum 2. n.). Dat. AbL tonitribus.
(Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4. n. = os boney are only found
in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211.
iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension.
i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like
that of others, in uis, though old grammarians held it to be in u.
§26.
The Fifth Declension,
121
2) The Dat. ul is generally contracted into u : usu for usui :
'parce metu * victu invigilant/ Verg. It is much used with esse,
habere, &c., ' usui esse/ to be useful ; ^ derisui habere/ &:c.
3) In the Dat. Abl. PI. iibus is generally weakened into ibus.
The only Nouns which exclude ibus, are acus, arcus, and
tribus : iibus is however usual in artus (PI.), limbs ; lacus; partus,
birtk\ portus, harbour; specus, cave\ veru : and found in genu,
tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have Ibus alone.
V. Gender in the Fourth Declension.
The Feminine Nouns of the U-declension (besides those deter-
mined by meaning as females or plants) are : acus, needle, point ;
domus, house \ manus, hand', ^oxx\c\\s, porch \ tribus, tribe ; Idus
(PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (Pl.)> a byform of
Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva.
Specus, m. is rarely f (PI. specua is found in E, L.).
Obs, Most Nouns of this Decl. are Derivatives ; either from
Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi-
fying office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean-
ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often
correspond forms rather less abstract in -lo 3. f., actio, auditio,
visio, &c. ; and others concrete in um 2. n. : (actum), eventum,
visum, &c.
Section VI.
i. The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns.
26
E-nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative : in the other Fifth
cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. Decien-
sion.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Decl. I. dea dea-m dea-i
Decl. 5. die-s die-m die-i
deae dea-rum dea- bus
die-s die-rum die-bus
- ii. Table.
SINGULAR.
N. V.
dayy c.
thing', f.
faitky f.
di-es
r-es
fid-es
Acc.
di-em
r-em
fid-em
Gen.
di-el
r-ei
fid-el
Dat.
di-ei
r-ei
fid-el
Abl.
di-e
r-e
fid-e
PLURAL.
N. Ac. V.
di-es
r-es
none
Gen.
di-erum
r-erum
Dat. Abl.
di-ebus
r-ebus
122 Latin Wordlore. §26.
iii Cases in the Fifth Declension.
1) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined. Acies,
£dge, ar77ty, fa.cieSj /ace, effigies, v/ia^^e, glacies, ^V^ (Verg.), series,
;specie3,y^r;;^, spes, /lope, have the first three Plural Cases. ^ All
others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col-
lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns :
materia, i., materies, 5., mother-sttiff, matter
mollitia, i., mollities, 5., softftess, effeminacy.
So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria,
<es ; segnitia, es, &c.
Other words are caesaries, (clipt) hair ; caries, rot (in wood) ;
•congeries, mass ; esuries, hunger ; macies, wasting disease ; pau-
peries, poverty ; pernicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies,
.offspring', rabies, fary, madness ; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ;
scabies, the scab, mange, or rot ; superficies, surface ; temperies,
.climate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, h^imoderation (PI. in-
temperiae of the ist. Decl.).
2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confuse some cases with Decl. 5.
Thus fames, hunger, has Abl. fame; tabes, Abl. tabe, in
Lucr. Requies, rest, has Acc. requiem and requietem, Gen.
requietis, Dat. requieti, Abl. requie. Plebes or plebs has
Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat. plebi or plebei.
3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in es survives in Lucr. iv,
1083 : ' Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.'
4) The e of Gen. Dat. ei is long after i : diei, progeniei ;
but short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-ei, rei (spei ?). But
in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei,' Enn., Lucr. ;
rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in rei, spei coalesce
by synizesis.
5) za was also contracted into e, anciently into l, diei, die, dii
plebei, plebi. * Constantis iuvenem fide ' commissa fide,' Hor.
* Munera laetitiamque dii,'Verg. A. Gellius cites from old Latin
authors such instances as acii, fami, luxurii, pernicii, progenii, &c.
6) The phrases ^ die crastini,' ^ die proximi,' * die septimi/ are
examples of the Locative Case in this Decl. So cotidie, postridie.^
iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension.
All E-nouns are Fem. except dies, which, when it means a day,
is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri-
dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means timCy dies is
Fem. : ' Longa dies ilH quid profuit ? ^ luv. x.
^ Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as speres for sp es:
facierum ; specierum, speciebus.
" No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions.
§27.
Irregular Nouns.
123
Section VII.
27
i. Irreefular Nouns. irregu-
^ lar
1) Irregularity (dviOfiaXla) is said to exist in a word if it de-
parts in any respect from the normal constitution of its class.
2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Num-
bers, with six Cases in each, all of the same gender, following one
pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far
as it departs from this constitution.
3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than
usual) or Defect (fewer forms than usual).
A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an-
other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and
two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural.
ii. Abundance in Substantives. ^bun-
dance.
Abundance is shewn in
i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning,
are formed after more than one Declension. See § 25. 6.
a) With difference of Gender :
Decl. I. f. and 2. n.
alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a
um, chaise ; margarit-a um, pearl ; mend-a um, faulty
mulctr-a um, milking^pail.
Note ostrea, oyster^ f. ; PI. ostrea, oysters , n.
Decl. I. f. and 2. m.
vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry.
Decl. I. f. and 3. m.
cratera, crater, mixing-bo wL
Decl. I. f., 2. n., and 3. n.
gausap-a, um, e, frieze cloth or coat,
Decl. I. f. and 3. n.
caepa, caepe, onion (PI. from caepa).
Decl. 2. n. and 5. f.
diluvi-um, es, deluge,
Decl. 2c n. and 3. f.
consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion^
Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f.
praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib^ stall (PI. 3. n.).
Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m.
tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet
124 Latin Wordlore. ^ §27^
Decl. 2. n. and 3. n.
tergum, tergus (or-), hack (rarely 2 m.)
Decl. 2. n. and 4. m.
angiport-um, us, /^;/^ ; Q,on2X-ViVS\jMS^ endeavour \ event-um,us,
issue \ event 121, Ods.); incQst-um, us, tncest ; suggest-
wm,MS, pulpit. F return, yr/V//, has an ancient form fretus, 4.
Obs, The old root pen-, i7iterior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare,
penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all
classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. m., penu-m, 2. n., and penus
penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food \ as, * magna penus,' Lucil. ;
* penus annuus/ Plant. ; * penum erile/ Afran. ; ^ frumenta penus-
que,' Hor.
b) With the same Gender :
Decl. I. and 3. f.
cassida, cassis, helmet \ fulica, fulix, coot\ iuvent-a^ us,^^2^/>^ ;
senect-a, ijs, old age.
Decl. 2. and 3. m.
delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri,
and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio.
Decl. 3. and 5. f.
colluvio, colluvies, conflux-, paupertas, pauperies, /^727^^//.
Decl. 2. and 3. n.
iugerum (iuger), acre-, nihilum, nihil, nothing, Necessus,,
necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, ii., 238.
Decl. I. and 5. (see § 26).
On Greek names of two Declensions, see § 24. ix.
Obs. Names of trees have Norn, us, f., their fruits um, n. Usually.
cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry
prunus plum-tree prunum plum
So malus, apple-tree, malum, apple ; pirus, pear-tree, pirum, pear :
but amygdala, almond-tree, amygdalum, almond,
2) Substantives, chiefly of Decl. 2, which vary their Gender, and
with it their Case-forms, in the Plural.
^) place, m. . . . loci, m loca, n.
(loci often means topics^ places in books, but not exclusively)
iocus,y^j'/, m. ... ioci, m ioca, n.
sibilus, hiss, m. . . . sibili, m. . . ., . sibila, n.
carbasus, canvas, f. . . (carbasi) .... carbasa, n.
Tartarus, hell, m Tartara, n.
Like Tartarus are formed many names of mountains, referred in
Sing, to mons, m., in PI. to iuga, n. :
Ismar*us, PI. -a; Maenal-us, PL -a ; Tayget-us, PI. -a.
Irregular Nouns.
I2S
d) rastrum, harrow, n. . . rastri, m. . . rastra, n.
frenum, bit, n. ... freni, m. . . frena, n.
caelum, heaven, n. . . caeli, m. (Lucr.)
porrum, leek, n. . . . porri, m.
«:) In Decl. 3 :
siser, skirret, n, . « . siseres, m.
Many examples of words in one Decl. which borrow cases from
another are given in §§ 21 ... 26 : plebes, fames, requies, domus,
fraus, &:c. See especially § 25.
Note. The compounds respublica, co7nmonwealth, iusiurandurn,
oath, decline both elements : rempublicam, reipublicae, republica,
&c. ; iurisiurandi, iureiuranda
iii. Defect in Substantives.
Defect is of Number or Case.
A. Defectiva Numero are :
I) Nouns which have no Plural Number (Singular only).
1. Words which seem, by their nature, to need no Plural, are
Nomina Propria, Abstracta, Collectiva, and Materialia.
Yet Proper Names may take a Plural, when several of one name
are mentioned, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars ; Cn. et L.
Scipiones, the Scipios Gnaeus and Lucius ; also if, as types of a
class, they become Appellatives : * Non omnes possumus esse
Cicerones,' we cannot all be Ciceros, * Sint Maecenates, non
derunt, Flacce, Marones,' Mart.
Abstracta take a Plural, when various instances of their occur-
rence are implied : odia, hatreds, amicitiae, friendships, invidiae,
envies, impietates, &c.
So Collectiva may take a Plural, if several instances are implied :
pOpuli,/^^7//<?j-, 'E>^ndX\x's>, senates, mundi, worlds, &c.
Materialia may take a Plural, when more than one kind is im-
plied : vina, wines. Also when objects made of the material are
meant : cerae, waxen tablets or waxen busts ; asra, bronzes ; mar-
mora, works in marble. Other metals, as aurum, gold, argentum,
silver, are not used in the Plural, because objects of show were not
usually made in them. Argentum, Sing., is used for the collective
silver plate of an owner.
As we say fish, meat, lamb, cheese, Sec, so the Romans expressed
objects of ordinary consumption in the Singular : ^ Villa mea
abundat porco, haedo, agn o, gallina, caseo, melle/ C. Faba,
Sing., is used for beans, rosa for roses, glans for acorns, &c.^
Similarly, miles for milites, eques for equites : gemma,
jewelled cups, tegula, tiles.
On the other hand, poets use in the Plural many words which
might appear to confine their meaning to the Singular : mella,
tura, farra, hordea, nives, grandines, rores, soles, rura, corda, colla,
pectora, ora, silentia, crepuscula, hgna, &c. So they pluralize local
* The word/m in English is a modern corruption of the true form '_peas,'' L. pis-um,
Fr. pois. In Shakespere we find ' a peas or a bean.' The plural is pease or peasen.
126
Latiii Wordlore.
§27.^
names : Esquiliae, the Esqiiiline hill; Capitolia, the Capitol^
Palatia, the Palatine, &c.
*
2. Generally, in Latin, the Plural has a large and liberal use.
Yet the following words may be mentioned as Singular only, no
good authority or analogy sanctioning a Plural form :
acetum
vinegar
lac
milk
pus
matter
ador
spelt
letum
death
salus
safety
aether
sky
limus
mild
sanguis
blood
argentum
silver
meridies
noon
supellex fnrniture
aurum
gold
merum )
nectar ^
wine
venia
pardon
fames
hunger
ver
spring
ferrum
iron
oleum
oil
vesper
eveniu!^
garum
pickle
plumbum
lead
virus
venom
humus
ground
pontus
sea
vulgus
populace
It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia, pueritia, ex-
perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any
such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals
are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use
cannot be confidently denied.
Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used irl the
Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension.
II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These
are numerous in Latin.
1) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom
mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome,
Ramnes, Tities, Luceres. But most of such names may occur
as Singular: Arpinas, Samnis, Gallus, Saxo ; thus Hor. * infi-
delis Allobrox ' Marsus et Appulus ' Dacus et Aethiops.'
2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) : Acf ocer-
aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insiilae). So the
street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly).
3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as Consisting of
parts: i. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syi'acusae,
Thebae;^ 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii :
Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from
the name of the people, asLeontini:^ or from a Plural Appellative,
as Aquae Sextiae, Fundi, Ostia, Centumcellae*
4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen-
dae ; Nonae ; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, &:c. :
as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae)) Quinquatrus; nundinae
(feriae), market day, Circenses (ludi) ; Feralia, Floralia, Libe-
ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa-
turnalia (festa). To this class belong n up ti a e (epulae), wedding;
r e p o t i a (festa), feast after a wedding ; sponsalia (sacra or
* Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytilenae for the Greek forms in e.
* Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names from the old
Galhc tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum) ; Amiens
(Ambiani) ; Limoges (Lemovices) ; Bourges (Bituriges) ; Orleans (Aureliani) ; Tours
(Turones) ; Rouen (Rotomagi) ; Soissons (Suessiones) ; Langres (Lingones) ; Sens
(Senones) ; Nantes (NannetesJ ; Treves (Augusta Treverorum), &c.
§27.
Irregular Nouns.
12 f
festa), betrothal ; iusta (sacra), fimeral rites ; parentalia (festa)v
funeral banquet ; i n f e r i a e (epulae), offering to the dead,
5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ;
metaphysica, metaphysics ; Georgica, the Georgics^ &c. (scripta).
6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so
named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a
free Roman; one being un us (una) e liberi s or liberorum : inferi,
dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; Decl. 3.
maiores, ancestors-^ minoxQS, descendants-^ c2iQ\\tQs^ heavenly deities ;
lemures, goblins ; penates, household-gods ; optimates, primores,
proceres, chiefs^ nobles (the last six rarely S. : ^ Agnosco procerem/
luv.) ; manes, ox ghosts.
7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or '
never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3.
neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3. small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en-
trails ; intestina 2. viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) : ilia 3. groin,
bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantices 3. paunch. The
words genae, cheeks ; tempera 3. tanples ; fauces 3. jaws ; renes 3.
kidneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence
gena (Suet.), tempus (Verg.) : Abl. fauce often in poetry (Hor.
Ov. &c.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used ^
technically.
Artus 4. the limbs; Sing, once in Lucan.
S) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished'
thus :
a) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the
Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) :
Decl. I. 2int3ie, pilasters ; clitellae, packsaddle; dirae, curses,
furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) /^«^A^i-^/^i*^ ; habenae, rei7is
(s. in Hor.); plagae, nets\ scalae, J'/^/rj' ; thermae, war7n^
baths \ ^2X^2,^, folding doors .
Decl. 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions; arma, arms ;
bellaria, dessert; crepundia, (rattling) toys; cihRr'm, food ;
munia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta,
second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds.
Decl. 3. antes, m. front viite rows ; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com-
pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f lute-striiigs (s.) ; obices, c.
bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ;
magalia, mapalia, n. htits, village.
b) Plural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable.
Decl. I. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baths) ., higdio,, chariot and
pair; cunae, cradle \ divitiae, riches; epulae, banqtcet; ex-
sequiae, burial ; exuviae, spoils {stript from the dead) ;
induviae, clothes ; lapicidinae, stonequarry ; manubiae
* The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits
were deified under the title ofdi manes or manes; and the word is sometimes used, as
a true Plural , of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular-Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an
individual. Thus, ' Quae vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; ' Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. '
' CaUimachi manes,' Prop. ; *Verginiae manes,' Li v.
128
Latifi Wordlore.
or manibiae, prize 7noney (in war) : phalerae, trappings ;
parietinae, 7'uins ; quadrigae, chariot and four (s.) ; quis*
quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant \ salinae, saltwork ;
scopae, besom, broom.
Decl. 2. cancelli, railing (in court) ; clathri, grating ; codiciUi,
ledger \ adversaria, notebook ; compita, cross-road or roads
(s.) : cunabula, cradle ; donaria, treasury \ multicia, y^;^^
raiment serta, wreath, garland.
Decl. 3. ambages, (circuits) evasive la7iguage or conduct; fraces,
f. oil-lees ; fores, f. ^^^^^^^r (s.) ; pugillares, m. writing-tablet ;
sordes, f. dirt, meanness (s.) ; altaria, high altar ; brevia,
shoals; moenia, town-walls.
c) Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation*
Decl. I. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness \
blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, tithes ; deliciae (s.), de-
light, darli7ig ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasa7itry
(s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae,
enmity insidiae, a7nbush, treachery, minae, threats',
nugae, trifles ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, flrst-
fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, darkness ; vindiciae, claim*
Decl. 2. fasti, annals ; flabra, blasts (also flamina) ; lamenta,
lainentations ; ohV\.w\di, forgetfulness.
Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina,
gripes.
V ana-
tion of
Mean-
ing in
Plural.
Ill) Nouns which vary their meaning in the Plural.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
aedes
temple
aedes
house
aqua
water
aquae
7nineral springs
auxilium
help
auxilia
auxiliary forces
bonum
good (abstr.)
bona
goods, property
career
prison
carceres
starting-place (s)
castrum )
castellum ^
fort
castra
camp
cera
wax
cerae
waxen tablets or busts
comitium
A ssembly-place
comitia
the Assembly at Rome
copia
plenty
copiae
forces, resources
facultas
faculty
facultates
means
finis
an end
fines
boundaries
fortuna
fortune
fortunae
gifts of fortune
gratia
favour
gratiae
thanks (s)
hortus
garden
horti
pleasure-grounds
impedimentum hindrance
impedimenta baggage
littera
a letter
litterae
epistle, literature
loculus
box
loculi
money-case
ludus
play
ludi
public games
lustrum
five years
lustra
lairs, dens
natalis
birth-day
natales
origin
opera
exertion
operae
workpeople (s)
opis (Gen.)
help
opes
power, wealth [faction
pars
a portion
partes
part in a play ; side or
5 27,
Irregular Nouns.
129
SINGULAR.
rostram
sal
tabula
torus
balneum, 2.
epulum. 2.
beak
salt
board
couch
bath
sacred feast
rostra
sales
tabulae
tori
balneae, i.
epulae, i.
PLURAL.
the Roman pulpit
wit (s)
writing tablets
muscles
bath-house
banquet
B, IDefectiva Casibus.
Defec-
tiva Ca-
Pl. vir-es ium, &c.
In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus
^ jportion only of the ordinary Case-forms.^
A) The following Noufls have the full Plural ; but in the Singu-
lar they have only
a) Four Cases :
N.V. vis, Acc. vim, Abl. vi ; force, 3. f.
Nom.
(dap-)
(frug-)
b) Three Cases :
(op-) em is — €
(prec-) em — i e
(sord-) em is — e
(vie-) em is — o
* Visc-us eris
Acc.
em
em
Gen. Dat. Abl.
is i e banquet, 3. f.
is i
e fruit, Z'i, um,^...
help, 3. f.
prayer, 3. f.
dirt, 3. f.
} PI. es
PI. es^
PI. es
um, &c.
ium, &c.
~, &c.
um^ &c.
change, 3. f.
ere entrail, 3. n. PI. a
c) Two Cases :
(verber-) — — g stripe, 3. n. PI. a iim, &c.
d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 :
ambage, f. | casse, m, | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere* n.
E) Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Acc. Plural.
Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &c., 3* n. ; metus, situs,
&t:., 4. m. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5; f.
Astus, cunning, 4. m., has Nom. Abl. Sing, and Nom. Acc.
Plur.
C) The following Nouns, without Plutal, have in the Singular
d) Four Cases:
Nom. V. Acc.
(dicio on-) . em
Gen.
is
Dat.
i
lu-es
man-e
em
e
Abl.
^ Powei^, 3. f.
e wasting disease, 3. f.
e (1) mornings 3. n.
' Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians
MoNOPTOTA ; those with two, Diptota ; those with three, Triptota ; those with
four, Tetraptota : (from tttwo-i?, case, and the several numerals).
K
130 Latin Wordlore. §27.
b) Three Cases : ^
Nom. V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Abl.
fors • • • — — — fort-e chance^ 3. f.
fas , , • fas — — — right {by divine law), 3. n.
nefas . . nefas — — — wrong lpy divine law), -^,11,
c) Two Cases :
Nom.
instar . . instar — — — likeness, 3. n*
nihil, ml . nihil, nil — — — nothings 3. n,
opus . . opus — — — need, 3* n.
— — impetis — impete force, 3. m.
— venum — veno — sale, 2. n.
d) Nouns using only one Case are numerous :
Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law ; inquies, 5. f. restlessness,
Acc. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre^
pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with
Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &:c.).
Gen. die is (causa), 3. for forfn^s sake \ non liauci, 2. not
worth a iiiitshell, worthless.
Dat. despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de-
spise, baffle, ridicule', indutui gerere^ /^? wear; ob-
tentui esse, to be a show, &c., 4.
Abl. sponte (mea, sua, &c.), 3. f by choice, spo7itaneously.
accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu,
hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4.
noctu, by night \ diu, lucu, by daylight, 4.
in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi-
7iess, 4.
natu maior, elder; natu vcivcior, younger, 4.
pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is Used
with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown
of 200 pounds' weight,
D) The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural
a) Two Cases :
N. Acc. suppetiae, -as, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac).
Gen. repetundarum, Abl. repetundis, i. f. extortion (under-
stand rerum, rebus).
Acc. foras, out of doors, Abl. foris, abroad^ i. f.
One Case :
Acc. ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. f.
— infitias ire, to deny, i. f
Abl. (gratiis) 'gxdX\%, freely ; ingratiis, against will ^ I. f.
E) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are
Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c.
Various words from other languages : Adam.
Infinitives: amare, vivere.
* Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Acc), necessitv, Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessum,
i^eccssus. See p. 124, and M.. Lucr, \\. 710, vi. 815.
§ 28-29.
Comparison,
iv. Irregularity in Adjectives.
I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other
like tristis or ingens :
acclivis (us)
biiugis (us)
effrenus (is)
unanimus is
hilaris (us)
steep
two-yoked
unbridled
of one mind
cheerful
imbecillus is
imberbis (us)
weak
beardless
mermus is unarmed
opulentus (opulens) wealthy
violentus (violens) violent
So exanim-us, is ; semianim-us, is ; sublim-is, us ; and others.
The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens.
28
Adjec-
tiva
Abun-
dantia*
11) Some are Defective in Number : Defec
p2i\ici,few, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis, 203).
plerique, niost^ is found Sing, with Collective words :
' pleraque nobilitas ' (for plerique nobiles), Sail
b. Some are Defective in Case and Number :
€1) Two Cases :
Nom. S. pernpx, Abl. pernocte, all night,
b) One Case;
Nom. S. damnas, condemned^ for damnat(u)s, with esto : but
usied also idiomatically as Nom. PI. with sunto;
exspes, hopeless ; pot is, pote, able ^ possible,
c. Of some the Nominatives are not found, but other Cases only:
(sons), guilty ; sontes, the guilty : but insons, innocent, has full
Cases.
Macte, Voc* S., macti, Voc. PL, are used with esto, este, be
blessed, be lucky, &c. : * Macte (macti) virtute esto (este),' good luck
to you for your valour, Liv. See M. Lucr. v. 1339.
d. The dat. S. frugi {for good) is used as an indeclinable Adjec-
tive of all Cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to
this is the indeclinable Adjective nequam, good for nothing \ pro-
bably for ne quam frugem (habet), no good. See pp. 129, 133.
These idioms are drawn from the colloquial language of Italian
farmers in early times.
Section VIII.
i. Comparison of Adjectives. Compa-
rison of
The same quality may be perceived in several ob- twi^"
jects. If three be taken, the quality may be perceived
in the second more than in the first, and in the third
most of all. These relations are expressed by the
flexion called Comparison in Adjectives and Adverbs,
K 2
/32
Lati7i Wordlore.
The Degrees of Comparison are therefore three :
1. The Positive Degree shews quality absolutely
perceived: vir procerus, a tall ma7i\ or
equally in two: vir tarn procerus quam
Lucius, a man as tall as Lucius,
II. The Comparative Degree shews quality per-
ceived more in one of two than in the other :
vir procerior quam Lucius, a man taller
than Lucius,
III. The Superlative Degree shews quality per-
ceived most in one of several : vir omnium
procerissimus, the tallest man of alL
The formation of the Comparative and Superlative is explained
in p. 42, Note,
Com-
parison
of Ad-
lectives.
ii. Examples :
Pes.
Compar.
dur-us hard dur-lor harder
trist-is sad trist-ior sadder
fel-ix happy felic-iop happier
lib-er free lib-er-iop more free
nig-er black nig-r-lor blacker
salub-er healthy salub-r-ior healthier
simil-is like simil-ior 7Jtore like
Superl.
dur-lssimus
trist-lsslmus
felic-lssimus
lib-er-rlmus
nig-er-rimus
salub-er-rimus
simil-limus
hardest
saddest
happiest
77iost free
blackest
healthiest
most like
Like simiiis are formed facilis; gracilis; humilis; diffi-
cilis ; dissimilis. But utilis and others have Sup. -issimus.
Maturus, early, has Sup. maturrimus or matur issimus.
iii. Notes on Comparison,
a) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) :
durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh,
b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very
high degree (Elative sense) : ' vir doctissimus/ a very learned man
(i.e. in the highest grade of learning).
c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally
-iimus, after which -imus prevailed : maxumus, maximus ; optu-
mus, optimus. See p. 31, C,
d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion
like other Adjectives :
amans amantior amantissimus
paratus paratior parat issimus
*
Comparison.
133
iv. Irregular Comparison.
1) Forms from various Roots.
bonus good melior better optimus best
malus bad peior worse pessimus worst
parvus small minor less minimus least
multus much (plus, n.) more plurimus most
The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but
full Plural : plur-es a, plur-ium, plur-ibus.
Lucr. has parvissima, i. 615. See M.
2) Variant Stem-forms.
mag-nus, great ; maior, greater ; maximus, greatest.
frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus*
nequam, worthless ; nequior, nequissimus.
dives ) ^.^j^ divitior divitissimus
(dis) 1 ditior ditissimus
Adjectives compounded with -dicus -ficus -vdlus (from dico,
facio, volo) form their comparison in -entior -entissimus, as if
from Participles in -ens.
maledicus slanderous maledicentior maledicentissimus
magnificus splendid magnificentior magnificentissimus
benevolus benevolent benevolentior benevolentissimus
Similarly :
egenus, needy ^ egentior,
providus, foreseeing^ providentior,
egentissimus
providentissimus.
V. Defective Comparison.
i) Comparison without Positive Form :
d) The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and
is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives :
e, ex
intra
supra
infra
Preposition.
out of
within
above
below
(prae) before
post after
Positive Adj.
(exter)
(inter)
(super)
(infer)
CIS
ultra
prope
de
on near side
beyond
near
down from
(poster)
(citer)
(ulter)
(deter)
Comparative.
exterior
interior
superior
inferior
prior
posterior
citerior
ulterior
propior
deterior
Superlative.
extremus
intimus
supremus, summus
infimus, imus
primus
postremus (postumus)
citimus
ultimus
proximus
deterrimus worst
ad) Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not
used.
Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut. Sing, with mare
(mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in Plun
134 Latiti Wordlore. . §29.
Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur.
Poster(us) is used (but not in Nom. Sing. Masc.) : pos-
tera aetas ; postero die: and Plur. posteri. See
p. 127.
Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive
them from ir^o : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) - primus.
bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some-
thing good, fallen off) ; peior worse (than something
bad).
cc) Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense ''highest \^
or supremus, poet. Onthe other hand, supremus is used
iox'-last^ and summus, poet, : ^venit summa dies,' Verg,
Postremus, hindmost (last) : postumus, coming after, last born,
born after the father'' s death.
Four Superlatives can express the notion * last : ' ultimus (yon-
der most, farthest), extr emus {outermost) \ which are most
usual: also postremus and supremus.
To these Comparisons may be added :
dexter, on the right, dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus,
sinister, 07i the left, sinisterior, (sinistimus)..
b) — ocior swifter, ocissimus swiftest^
— i^oiior preferable, potissimus.
In the Greek wkvq (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis,
pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms,
2) Comparison without Comparative Form.
The Adjectives bellus, consultus, diversus, falsus, in-
clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus,
sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative.
Vetus, Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is
visual).
3) Comparison without Superlative Form.
a) senex old senior —
iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior) —
Senior has a kind of Pos. force : ' one who has become old^
Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior: eldest by
natu maximus, or maxiinus. So younger is natu
minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini-
mus.
b) Adjectives in btlis have Comparative without Superl. :
except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus,
&c.
c) Also the following :
adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater,
caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diuturnus, deses,
exilis, longinquus, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus,
propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnis, serus,
supinus, surdus, tacitumus, teres, vicinus, &c.
Note, (satior) satius, better, fitter, is a Comparative from the Ad-
verbial word satis, enough.
§30-
Comparison^
135
4) Absence of Comparative Flexion.
A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion :
some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) :
merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form
mem or, tre-
mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage.*
Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are
most of those in eus, ins, uus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but
not those in quus : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus).
Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives :
assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has * Egre-
gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12.
Any Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, can be modified Compara-
tively by the addition of the Adverb magis : ^Quid magis est
durum saxo, quid mollius unda,^ Ov. ; and Superlatively by the
Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde^
and others.
vi. Comparison of Adverbs.
Adj.
Adv.
dignus
digne
worthily
digniiis-
dignissime
vafer
vafre
cunningly
vafrius
vaferrime
tutus
tuto
safely
tutius
tutissime (6)
facilis
facile
easily
facilius
facillime
fortis
fortiter
bravely
fortius
fortissime
constans
constanter
firmly
constantius
constantissime
audax
audacter
boldly
audacius
audacissime
But
meritus
merito
deservedly
meritissimo (e)
uber
(ubertim)
abundantly
uberius
uberrime
30
Com-
parison
of Ad-
i) Adverbs in e, o, e, ter, derived from Adjectives, verbs
often follow their C'omparison, with Comparative End-
ing tis, Superlative e (0, um) :
Exam-
ples.
* Adjectiva Incomparabilia are too numerous to be set down at full, and are indeed best
learnt by reading and practice. Among them may be mentioned : (i) those which express
colour, matter, time, place, nationality, descent : a 1 b u s (but v i r id i s has Compar.
flexion), aureus, aestivus, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (2) De-^
minutives, paryulus, vetulus, &c. (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli-
dus, per facilis, subobscurus, vesanus, &c. (many compounds of prae are
comparable, as p r a e c 1 a r i o r). (4) Compounds of animus, a r m a, c o 1 o r, g e n u s,
gradus, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of a r s,
cor, mens are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementior). (5) Com^
pounds of fero, gero: signifer, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -Tcus,
-Tmus, -Tnus, -In us, -or us, -ivus, -bundus, -aris, -alls, -I lis; exceptions are,
divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more.
(7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos,
impos, cicur, dispar, impar, ferus, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, lacer, lassus,
mancus, mediocris, merus, mirus, mutilus, mutus, nefastus,. rudis, sospes, trepidus,
trux, vagus, vivus, volucer, volgaris, &c.
Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison ; exclusissimus, ipsissimus, oculissi-^
mus, patruissimus, ridiculissimus.
136
§31.
2) Irregular Comparison
bially :
Latin Wordlore.
is in most forms represented adver-
Adj. "
Adv.
Compar.
Superl.
bonus
bene
well
melius
better
optime
best
malus
male
ill
peius
worse
pessime
worst
magnus
magnopere^^r^^/Zy
maeis
more
maxime
most
1
parvus -
f paulum
I parum
a little '
too little^
[ minus
less \
f minime
I minimum
very little
least
multus
multum
7nuch
plus
more
plurimum
very much
r — •
ocius
quicker
ocissime
very quickly
prius
sooner \
r primum
I primo
first
at first
potius
rather
potissimum preferably
deterius
worse
deterrime
very badly
intus
within
interius
intime
post
after
posterius —
postremo
prope
nearly
propius
proxime
Also
saepe
diu
penitus
satis
secus
temperi
nuper
often
saepms
diutius
penitius
satius
otherwise setius
betimes temperius
lately
l07lg
deeply
enough
saepissime
diutissime
penitissime
— — nuperrime
Mag is means ^7norein degree \^ plus, ^ more in quantity^
^ Lucio magis carus sum : ' * Lucius me plus diligit.'
Section IX.
Pro- i Pronouns (Pronomina).
nouns. V '
1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be
(i) Substantive: (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being both.
2. A Pronoun may be
(a) 1st Person : (b) 2nd Person : {c) 3rd Person : {d) Of all
Persons.
ii. Classification of Pronouns.
A, The Pronouns purely Substantival are:
1. The Personal Pronouns ego, /, nos, w, of the
First Person ; and tu, thoUy voSyj/e, of the Second.
2. The Reflexive Pronoun, se, himself ^ herself, or
themselveSy which has no Nominative, and is always re-
ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or
Plural.
§31. Pronouns, 137
B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are:
The Possessive Pronouns, which correspond to the
Personal and Relative Pronouns :
meus, my, mine corresponding ta . . . ego
noster, our — nos,
tuus, thy, thine — tu
vaster, j/^^^ — vos,
suus, hisy her, or their own -— se
cuius, whose — qui
with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country, vestras, of your
country ; cuias, of what country ?
Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third
Person,
C The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often
used as Relational Substantives. These are :
1, The Demonstrative Pronouns (of the Third
Person) :
IS, ea, id, that (or he, she, it)
hie, haec, h5c, this (near me)
iste, ista, istud, that (near you)
ille, ilia, illud, that, yon (aloof from us),
2, The Definitive Pronouns (of all Persons) :
ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self
idem, eadem, idem, same.
3. The Relative Pronoun (of all Persons) :
qui, quae, quod, who or which.
Akin to this are :
a. The Interrogative Pronouns :
quis, quid ? qui, quae, quod } who or what ?
uter ? whether of two ?
b. The Indefinite Pronouns :
quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any.
uter, either of two.
c. The various Compounds of quis, qui, uter.
4. Pronominalia, or Adjectives of a Pronominal
nature : as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c., qualis,
quantus, &c., aliquantus, &c. See v.
i38
Latin Wordlore,
§3».
Tables
of De-
clension.
iii. Tables of Declension of Pronouns*
A. PERSONAL (of either Gender),
First Person,
singular. plural,
Nom. ego, / nos, we
Acc, me, 7ne nos, ms
Gen. mei, of me nostri^ or nostrum, of us
Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for ms
Abl. mQj from or with me nohiSy from or with us
Second Person.
N. V. tu, thou \os,ye
Acc. te, thee vos, you
Gen. tui, of thee vestri, vestrum, of you
Dat. tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you
Abl. t.Q,fro7n or with thee vohis, from or with you
Reflexive.
singular and plural.
Nom. (none).
Acc. se, or sese, himself herself itself or themselves^
Gen. sm, of hiinself &:c.
Dat. sibi, to himself &c.
Abl. se, or sese, &c., from himself &c.
B. POSSESSIVE,
l) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus :
meus, mea, meum, my^ mine ;
tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine ;
suus, sua, suum, hisy &c., their ^ owwj,
cuius, cuia, cuium, whose.
meus has Vocative Masc. mi.^
2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger :
noster, nostra, nostrum, our ; | vester, vestra, vestrum, your.
The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ;
but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his {her) cow,
3) Gentilia (of 3rd Decl.) :
nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui-as -ati- ?
The affix met {self) may be appended to all the cases of ego,
tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se,
sibi: egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet :
often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum.
Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tu temet. The affix met is
appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often
follows: Mntra suamet ipsum moenia compulere,' they drove-
him within his own walls, L. vi. 36. Also meamet : Sail, Plant.
The affix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos-
sessives : ^Meopte ingenio,' Plant. ' Suapte manu,' with his
own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr, vi. 755.
* The only Pronouns capable of having a Vocative are tu, vos ; and meus, noster.
Pronouns.
139
C, I, DEMONSTRATIVE.
M.
N. is
Ac. eum
a
D.
Ab. eo
SINGULAR.
F.
ea
earn
eius
ei
ea
a, Unemphatic.
Is, that, or he^ she, it.
N,
id
id
eo
M.
ei (ii)
eos
eorum
PLURAL.
F.
eae
eas
earum
eis (iis)
eis (iis)
N.
ea
ea
eorum
b. Emphatic.
Hie, this (near me), or he, she, it.
SINGULAR,
N. hie haec hoc
Ac. hunc hanc hoc
G. huius
D. huic
Ab. hoc hac hoc
PLURAL,
hi hae haec
hos has haec
horum harum horum
his
his
Iste, that (near you), or he, she, it.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
N. iste
ista
istud
isti istae ista
Ac. istum
istam
istud
istos istas ista
G.
istius
istorum istarum istorum
D.
isti
istis
Ab. isto
ista
isto
istis
I He, that {yonder), or he, she, it.
N.
Ac.
G.
D.
Ab.
ille
ilium
illo
SINGULAR.
ilia
illam
illius
illi
ilia
illud
illud
illo
PLURAL,
illi illae ilia
illos illas ilia
illorum illarum illorum
illis
iUis
2. DEFINITIVE,
i) Idem, same.
SINGULAR.
Nom. idem eadem Idem
Acc. eundem eandem idem
Gen. eiusdem
Dat. eidem
Abl. eodem eadem eodem
PLURAL,
lidem eaedem eadem
eosdem easdem eadem
eorundem earundem eorundem
isdem or eisdem
isdem or eisdem
140
Latin Wordlore.
2) Ipse, self.
SINGULAR.
Nom. ipse ipsa
Acc. ipsum ipsam
Gen. ipsius
Dat. ipsi
Abl. ipso ipsa
ipsum
ipsum
ipso
ipsi
ipsos
ipsorum
PLURAL,
ipsae
ipsas
ipsarum
ipsis
ipsis
ipsa
ipsa
ipsorum
Plautus has the forms eumpse, eampse, eapse, &c. Also reapse,
in reality, for re ipsa.
a) The affix -c (for ce) is added to iste and ille, making a
pronominal declension as follows : —
N. istic istaec
Acc. istunc istanc
Abl. istoc istac
SINGULAR.
istoc or istuc
istoc or istuc
istoc
PLURAL.
N. Acc.
— istaec
il.lic illaec illoc or illuc
illunc illanc illoc or illuc
illoc iliac illoc
^ — illaec
Ce sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &g.
So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine? hocine? &c^
b) The Interjection ecce, lo / coalesces in comic poetry with
cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum,
&c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo / also coalesces with ille into the.
Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas.
3. RELATIVE.
Qui, who or which.
SINGULAR.
Nom. qui quae quod
Acc. quem quam quod
Gen. cuius
Dat. cui
Abl. quo qua quo
a) Interrogative.
Quis ? qui ? who or which f
SINGULAR.
Nom. quis
qui
Acc
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
quem
quem
quo
quae
quam
quam
cuius.
cui
qua
quid )
quod^
quid )
quod>
quo
PLURAL.
qui quae quae
quos quas quae
quorum quarum quorum
quibus or quis
quibus or quis
b) Indefinite.
Quis, qui, anyone,
SINGULAR.
(qua) quid y
quae (qua) quod f
quis
qui
quem
quem
quo
quam
quam
cuius
cui
qua
quid )
quod)
quo
In the Plural like the Relative.
Indefinite PI. Nom. Qui, quae, qua or quae.
The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod^ AdjectivaL
§31. Pronouns. 141
a) Add to these Uter ? whether of the two ?
SINGULAR.
Nom. uter utra utrum
Acc. utrum utram utrum
Gen. utrius
Dat. utri
Ab. utro utra utro
PLURAL.
utri utrae utra
utros utras utra
utrorum utrarum utroriitn
utris
utris
Uter is also Indefinite : either of two.
Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uteir.
c) Compound Pronouns.
1. a) quisnam, quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, whOj
what f
b) uternamj utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two?
2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone f
So numquis, siquis, ne quis. &c.
3. a) aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, some one,
b) alteruter, one or other \ Gen. alterutrius or alteriiis utrius, &C*
4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively)^
5. quisquam, quicquam, ^;^)/^?;^^ ^z// (with non, haud, vix, &c.)rf
6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one.
7. a) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what^
soever. ^
b) utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two.
8. quisquis, whosoever^ quidquid, whatsoever ; Acc. (quemquem),
quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quo-
quo), &c. ; PI. D. Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these
forms are rare.
9. (i) quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any you will.
b) utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will.
50. d) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please,
b) uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please.
II. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each.
b) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each
one : Acc. unumquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen.
uniuscuiusque, &c.
c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two.
Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un-
declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnamy
alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, &c. &c.
* Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque dom'at
Venus, Hor.
14?
Latin Wordlore.
§31.
4. PRONOMINALIA.
Alius, another.
SINGULAR.
Nom. alius alia
Acc. alium aliam
Gen. alius
Dat. alii
Ab. alio alia
aliud
aliud
alio
PLURAL,
alii aliae ali^
alios alias alia
aliorum aliarum aliorunt
aliis
aliis
Alter, one of two {the one, the other).
Nom. alter altera alterum
Acc. alterum alteram alterum
Gen. alterius
Dat. alteri
Ab. altero altera altero
alteri alterae
alteros alteras
alterorum alterarum
alteris
alteris
altera
altera
alterorum
Solus, alone.
Nom. solus sola
Voc. sole sola
Acc. solum solam
Gen, solius
Dat. soli
Ab. solo sola
solum
solum
solum
solo
soli solae sola
soli solae sola
solos solas sola
solorum solarum solorum
solis
solis
Totus, whole, is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, a7iy at
all, nulluSj none. See Numeralia.
Nihil, nothing (N. Acc.) is undeclined.
Nemo, nobody, Acc. neminem ; G. nuUius ; D. nemini ; AbL
Hullo. Plural, nulli, &c.
The Plural word plerique, most ; from an E. L. Adj. plerus.
Nom. plerique pleraeque pleraque
Acc. plerosque plerasque pleraque
D. Abl. plerisque
The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum.
The phrase plerique omnes = paene omnes, almost alL
Also the following words, with their compounds :
qualis, of what kind} talis, such (like tristis).
q u a n t u s, how ^reat ? t a n t u s j-^? great (like bonus),
quot, how many? tot, so many (undeclined).
iv. Observations on certain Pronouns.
I. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui)
differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually the nature,
name, &c. ; qui adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fem. in
the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fem. quae to the form
qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use :
quod vinum ? but quid vini ? what wine?
Pronouns,
143
2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after
a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, &c.; or with a second
case of its own : * siquis quern fraudavit.' It enters into com-
position with the prefix all- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite
affixes -plam -quam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive
-que (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam).
3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal {-soever) by
self-duplication (quis quis), and by taking the affix -cumque or
-cunque (quicumque, quicunque). It is also modified by the
appended Verb-forms, vis, you will, libet, it pleases (quivis, qui-
libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam,
(quisnam ? quinam ?), Some of these affixes are likewise taken by
the Interrogative Pronominals qualis, quantus, quot, and the Inter-
rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c. See v.
4. U t er (for cuter = fcor€poc), whether of two, with its compounds,
forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is
used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui.^
* The following n<)te treats chiefly of the cognate and ancient Case-forms of the Latin
Pronouns.
I. The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive.
1. Nominative Singular,
The Prim, roots of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma, tu
(or sva.
How the root ma connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sk. aham, Gr. eyw, L. ego, is
a doubtful question.
Pr. tu (Sk, tvavt) becomes Gr. tv (av), L. tu.
2. Accusative Singular.
Sk. mam or md, Gr. /xe (ejxe), L. me.
Sk. tvdm or tvd^ Gr. (re for rf e) o-f, L. te.
Or. e (for af e), L. se, point to a Pr. svdm. But Sanskrit has only an undeclined
form svayam, which may be joined to cases of Personal Pronouns.
3i Dative Singular.
Sk. ma-hyam (for Pr. ma-bhyarn) becomes L. mihi (U. mehe, E. mihe, mihei).
Sk. tu-bhyam becomes L. tibf (U. tefe, E. L. tibe, iibei).
Hence sibi (E. L. sibcy sibei) points to a Pr. but not extant {sva-bhyam).
4. Ablative Singular.
Sk. and Pr. ma-t, tva-t and by analogy (Pr. sva-t) become in E. L. iHe-d, fe-d, se-d ;
afterwards me, te, se.
, These forms in -d were also used for the Accus. Sing, in E. L.
5. Nominative and Accusative Plural.
Unaccented Accus. forms in Sk. nas (for masi) and vas (for tvas\ appear to be the
originals of the Latin cases n o s, v o s. See Schleicher, § 266. In the Carmen
Arvale enos appears for Acc. n o s.
6. Dative and Ablative PluraL
Schleicher explains the suffix blS {-bei-s) in nobis, vobTs, as the Plural of "bi (l)ei),
attached to the stems nos- vos- (see above), which become no- vo-. Festus cites
a form {itis).
7. Genitive Singular and Plural.
The Sk. Gen. S. is (i) mama, (2) tava. But Pr. forms mas, ivas, {svas) are trace*
able in very ancient L. forms mis, tis.
The forms classically used for these cases are nothing more than the Neuter Geni-
tives of the Possessive Pronouns : mei, tui, sui ; nostri, vestri ; nostrum (for
nostrorum), vestrum (for vestrorum). Thus * vive memor mei (nostri) ' is lit. live
mindful of what is mine {ours) ; i.q. 0/ me (j4s).
144
Lati7i Wordlore.
§3'.
V. Correlation of Pronominal Words.
A) Certain Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs, ate
correlated to one another in several classes : namely
II. The Possessive Pronouns.
These are derived from the Personal Roots.
TuuS) suus correspond severally to Gr. reos (for rfeo? or Tefo'5), k6% (for o-feo? or (refd?).
L. forms are tovos, sevos. The scenic poets use the cases as monosyllables.
Noster, vester are formed with the Comparative Suffix ter (like dexter, sinister), as are:
Gr. r)fji.€-T€p-09, ujae-Tep-09.
III. The Demonstrative, Relative, &c. Pronouns.
The Flexion of these Pronouns has many features in common.
1. (1) Nominative Singular Masc.
a. The stem I-, as an I-noun, takes the ending S, forming the Nom. Is. It corresponds
to Sk. sa, Gr. 6. In E. L. we find (ets). It has an O-stem (io-) for most cases.
Its comp. Idem has E. L. forms {^isdem, isdem, eideni).
Is-te, another compound (stem isto-), has in Plautus the form is-tus.
I-ps£, also a compound (for is-pse), is found as i-ps-us.
Ille is for oll-us (stem olio- or illo-), from an Italian root.
The stem ho- or hi- takes in most cases the affix -ce (c); becoming in Nom. S. Masfc;
h i c (for hi-ce or his-ce). An E. L. form is (Jiec).
A Qui qui-s Interrog. and Indef. (stem qui- or quo-) corresponds to Sk. Interrog.
ka, ka-s \ Gr. rts, O. pis.
Qui, as the Relative, is peculiar to Latin. E. L. forms are {que^ guei). Quei ton-
tinued in use to the time of Caesar. Queique is an old form of quisque. Quiy-
quir is cited by Varro for quisquis.
c. Alius has an old I -form alis, alid.
Uter (for cuter) corresponds to Pr. katara^ Gr. KOTtpos : quot, tot, to Sk. kati, tatu
(2) Nom. S. Fem.
E a is by assimilation for ia from stem (z*^-) : the same change from 1 to e is tii^de
m most cases of is, idem.
An old form {sapsd) for ea ipsa is cited from Pacuvius.
Ista, ipsa, ilia are regularly formed from the O-stems, but quae (0. pai, E. L. qudi), haec
(E. L. hai-ce) are irregular flexions in which the forms hd qtid are strengthened by the
vowel i. The analogy of these is followed by istaec, ill^ee (for ista-ce, illa-ce). (^u2 is
kept usually in the Indef. Pronoun and its compounds : siqua, numqua, ecqua, aliqua.
(3) Nom. Accus. S. Neuter.
The follovVing Pronouns weaken the Prim. Neuter suffix t into d : id ; idem (for id-deni) ;
qui-d ; quo-d ; and illud, istud, aliud (anc. alid) : in these three O is also weakened into
11. Hoc is for (ho-d-ce). The rest take um ; ipsum, utrum, alterum, &c.
2. Accusative Singular.
E. L. forms of is {em, im from the I-stem ; sumi sam from the Pr. sa) are cited from
the old poets for eum, eam, severally.
Also eumpse, eampse occur for eum ipsum, eam ipsam.
Hunc is for {hom-ce, hone) ; hanc for {kam-ce). Quem belongs to the I-stem qui :
quam and quod to the O-stem quo-.
3. Genitive Singular.
The flexion of this case in all these Pronouns is a Variation of Sk. asya. They
strengthen the stem with i and then take US for the Case-ending. Thus are obtained
{ii-us) by dissimilation eius (in E. L. ei-ius, elus).
(illoi-ns, illei-ns) illlus or iJlTus. So ipsius, istius, unius, nulling, totius ; utrlus ;
alius ; alterius ; sollus : (alterlus, sollus occur rarely)^
{hoi-tis) huius ; {guoi-us) cuius.
In the scenic poets quoius is used as one syllable, suppressing u ; hence the forms quoi-
inodi for (quoismodi), and cuicuimodi far <cuiscuismodi}.
§31. Pronouns. I45
(i) Interrogative; (2) Demortstrative ; {3) Definitive; (4) Inde-
finite ; (5) Relative.
Examples :
(i) quis? q}iUwho^ whati (2) is, he^ that^ Sec. (3) ipse, self;
idem, //i^ same ; alius, another ; (4) quis, qui, any ; quis-
piam, anyone ; aliquis, sojne or other ; quisquam, any at
all (used only with non, haud, si, num, &c.); quidam, a
certain one ; (5) qui, who,
fi) uter? whether of two? (2) is ; (3) alter, one of two, the
other ; (4) alteruter, one or the other ; (5) qui.
(i) qualis ? of what kind? (2) talis, such ; (3) — ; (4) — ;
(5) qualis, as,
(i) quantus ? how great? (2) tantus, so great \ (3) tantusderil 5
{4} aliquantus, ^t/'vS"^?;;/^ j'/^'^ ; (5) quantus, ^zj- (^r^^/);
%. Dative Singular.
The Locative ending i appears to have been generally used instead of the' Dative
ending ei in all these Pronouns ; but the ending ei occurs in old forms.
The forms in use are : i) e-i (also anc. eiei eei) ; illi (for illo-i), &c., huic (for hoi-ce) :
2) cui (for qtio-i, or quo-ei, which is found in E. L.)-
The 0-noun forms of the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of some Pronominal^ occur rarely : as
touUi consili, Ter. ; aliae pecudis, Cic, ; loquitur alterae, Ter. ; toto orbi. Prop. : also
«Qen. illi, illae, isti, ipsi, &c. in Piaut. and Lucr.
5. Ablative Singular.
This case follows the O-stem. But qui is used adverbially {how) ; also when the Pre-
position cum follows it : quicum for quocum : quique for quoque in Lucr.
6. Nominative Plural.
a) From is, E. L. forms before Plautus are (^eeis^ iezs, eis) ': afterwards in R. L. ie'ij ei :
in the scenic poets ei (i). In L L. ii (pronounced i) was allowed.
From idem the forms etsdem, tsdem^ ftdem are found as Nominatives Plural before
Caesar. Once in Plautus eidem. lidem was admitted in I. L.
From hie the forms {keis, heisce, hisce) appear in E. L. ; hei in R. L. to the Aug. age :
then hi ; which, like the irregular Fem. form hae (for kai), rejects c (ce) to avoid con-
fusion. But the forms (^kaec, illaec^ /j/a^^r) are found in E. L. as Fem. Nominative Plural.
The Neut. PI. haec is strengthened with being, as Well as the Fem. S., for {ha-i-ce)i
}}) An old PI. (|ues from quis is found in Senatus-consultum de BacchanaUbus, &c.,
Pacuvius, and Cato : but quei in R. L. is PI. of quis and qui ; also qui, which became
general : and Fem. quae (for quai). The Neut. quae, like haec, is a strengthened form :
qua remains often in the Indef., and always in aliqua.
Grammarians tell us that in plebeian speech the initial vowel was often cast off in such
forms as istae, istuc, &c., which Were sounded stae, stuc, &c.
7. Accusative PluraL
These forms ^re regular from O- and A-steriis Except the Neutei- foriiis haec, quae.
See 6.
8. Genitive Plural.
This Case is formed in all iiS from d-nouns. Horumce, harumce appear in the scenic
poets as horunc, harunc ; once in Plant, quoium seems to be Gen. PI. from qui ; and also
in two andent laws.
Dative Ablative Plural.
a) From ' is ' tke forms are various. Thus, from I-stenl, ibu s, Plaut. i Tb u s, Lucy. ; and
Fem. feabusj Cat From O-stem, (E. L; eieis, eeis) ; ieis in R. L. to Aug. ; eis or Ts in the
scenic pdets and Lucr. ; dhce in Plaut eis. Under Aug. we find Is for iis (ieis) pfo-
«ounced as one syllable.
So, from idem, asdem or Tsdem, dnte in Juv. eisdem : iisdem (disylL) is found.
From hie, hlbus is cited once from Plaut. : usually his (E. L. heisCe).
From ille (E. L, oloes, m. olaes^ f.) illis {olleis, illeis). Old forms in ibus are cited.
h). From qui, quis, the only forms are quTbus (from I-stem) and quis (from O-stem) in
all Genders.
I.
146
Latin Wordlore,
(i) quot ? how many? (2) tot, so many \ (3) totidem, /wj-/
so 7?iany \ (4) 2i\\c\\iot^ so7ne (5) c\yiot^ as {77iany),
Derived from this are :
quotus, one of how manyl (Demonstr. totus, Lucr. v. 652.)
quotusquisque = how few ? Demonstr. ^Tmci, few.
quotiens, how often ? Demonstr. totiens, so often ; Indef. ali-
quotiens, several times : Rel. quotiens, as {pfteji),
(i) ubi, whcrel (2) ibi, there \ hie, here^ &c. ; (3) ibidem, in
the very place ; ahas, elsewhere ; (4) ubi, in any place ;
ahcubi, in some place ; (5) ubi, where,
(l) unde, whence ? (2) inde, thence ; hinc, hence^ &c. ; (3)
indidem,^(?;;2 the sa^ne side ; ahunde; (4) wxid.^^ from any
quarter ; ahcunde, from some quarter ; (5) unde, whence,
(l) quo, whither 1 (2) eo, thither \ hue, hither^ &c. ; (3)
eodem, ///^ j^^;;/^ place ; alio, another place ; (4) quo,
a7iywhither ; aUquo, somewhither ; (5) quo, whither.
So qua^ -z^///^/ direction ? ea, //z^/ ; hac, this d.y &c,
(i) quam, how? (2) tam, ita, j"^? ; (3) itidem, /A^ sa?ne way;
ahter, otherwise ; (4) ahquam ; (5) quam, as.
With other series, as quando, when ? turn, then, 8cc,
B) The Universal Pronouns (6) also are severally correlated to
the above, and to other forms which imply (7) Choice ; (8) Distribu-
tion ; (9) Exclusion ; (10) Inclusion.
Examples :
(6) quisquis, quicumque, whosoever, whatsoever'; (7) quivis,
quilibet, ajiy you will ; (8) quisque, each ; (9) nemo,
nobody ; nullus ; (10) omnes, all.
(6) utercumque, whichever of two ; (7) utervis, uterlibetp which
of two you will ; (8) uterque, each of two ; (9) neuter,
neither; (10) ambo, both.
(6) qualisqualis, qualiscumque, of whatever kind,
(6) quantusquantus, quantuscumque, how great soever; (7)
quantusvis, quantuslibet, as great as you wilL
(6) quotquot, quotcumque, as 7nany as, however 77iany \ (7)
quotlibet (rare) ; (8) unusquisque, singuli, each 07ie ; (9)
nulli, none ; (10) universi, the e7itire number,
(6) ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever; (7) ubivis, ubilibet,
where you will ; (8) ubique, everywhere ; (9) nusquam,
nowhere,
(6) undeunde, undecumque, whencesoever ; (7) undevis, un-
delibet, whence you will ; (8) undique, fro7n every side
(utrimque,yr^;;^ both sides),
(6) quoquo, quocumque, withersoever; (7) quovis, quolibet,
whither you will. (So quaqua, quacumque ; quavis, qua-
libet : usquequaque, &c.)
(6) quamquam, quamcumque, howsoever ; (7) quamvis, quam-
libet, how you will ; (8) — ; (9) neutiquam, in no way ;
(10) omnino, i7i every way,
(6) quandocumque, whe7tsoever ; (7) quandolibet; (8) quando-
que; (9) numquam, ^ievcr; (10) semper always.
gp^33. Numerals. 147
Section X.
i. Numeralia.
Numerals (Numeralia) are Nouns and Adverbs used Nume-
in the expression of Number.
32
Sym-
bols.
ii. Latin symbols of Number:'
I V X L C IDorD CIDorM
I 5 10 50 100 500 1000
By these symbols the Romans exhibited any required Number.
A smaller symbol before a larger is subtracted : IV = 5 - 1»
A smaller after a larger is added : VI = 5 + i.
Equal symbols are added together : II = i + i ; XX = 10+10.
But a smaller symbol before M multiphes M : IIM = 2000.
Usually such a number was expressed by words, not by symbols :
duo milia or bis mille.
The symbol ID is multiplied by ten as often as 3 is subjoined,
thus,
I33 = iox 500= 5,000
As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equaUing the number
of suffixed D, the total is doubled. Thus,
CID = twice 500= 1,000
CCIDD= twice 5,000= 10,000
CCGIDDD =^ twice 50,000= 100,000 &c.
iii. The four chief Numeral Series: Nume-
ral
1. Cardinal Numerals (Cardinalia), which are Series.
Adjectives answering the question QuOt,
how many?
II. Ordinal Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad-
jectives answering the question Quotus,
which in order of number ?
* The Numeral symbols were not originally letters, except, perhaps, M, the initial of
tnillei The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards L The sign of lo was
cruciform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs are
found in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent 50^ looj and loco, the Romans took
three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and Phi. An
old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 5d. 0 was corrupted into C,
the initial of Centum, iGo. which stood for 1000, was broken into the form Cl3 ; and
half of this* lo, was taken for 500, sometimes closing up int6 the form D. (See Momm-
sen, Unteritaliscke Dialekten, pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, i?^^/;^. Museum, 1869, p. 12, &c.)
Ritschl also considers M to be modified from the symbol Cl3. It is generally admitted
that the words decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. fie'/ca) and digitus (Sd*CTUAos) are cognate : and
Curtius adds to these d extera (Sk. dakshinUi Gr. Se^ia), referring to the verb Sexo/otai,
to receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of shewing or teaching, doceo (Sk.
disf , Gr. Set/c-). This points to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers,
and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the unit
sign I represeated the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed.
148
Latin Wordlore.
§33.
III. Distributive Numerals (DistrLbutiva), which
are Adjectives answering the question Quo-
teni, how many each or each time ?
IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering
the question Quotifens, how ofte7i ?
iv. Numeral Series of minor extent:
1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the
suffix plic-. They answer the question quotuplex, how many fold?
and only nine are classically known : though many more might be
formed by analogy :
simplex si7nple triplex quincuplex decemplex
duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex
Also sescuplex or sesquiplex.
2. Proportionalia, formed from a root of nilmber and the
suffix pul-o = plO' {7nore), answer the question quotuplus,^^?^
more f The words in this series classically used are :
simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus
duplus quadniplus septuplus
Also sescuplus, as much a7id half as much more, from sesqui (for
sinsemisque, i^).
Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus.
3. From the Ordinals come
Adjectives in anus, which often imply a soldier of the legion
designated by the Numeral : primanus . . . decumanus
. . . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &c.^ a soldier of the
I si, lo/h, 2olh, 2isl, &^c. legion.
But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartan
ague or fever : decumanus ager, tithepaying land ; decu-
manus, a tithe farmer \ decumanus fluctus, the teitth (i.e.
largest) wave : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp^
the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy).
Adjectives in arlus^ implying class or rank : primarius, secun-
darius, &c.
Qbs. Miharius lapis, a milestones bec^tis^ the RomaH' *mile'
measured ^ mille passus,' 1000 paces = 5000 feet.-
4. From the Distributives come
Adjectives in arius, which mean ^ contai^ting or consisting of
so many each : ' binarius, ternarius, &c. Numerus binarius,
the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a
verse of 6, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius, a coin
of 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used
to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con-
tracted by youths under 25 years of age.
Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable,
5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral
roots exist in great number :
^ It is remarkable that una of unaetvicensima (legio) and analogous Fern, forms
remain in these Adjectives.
§33.
Numeral Series^
149
bimns, two years old \ trlmus, three , . , quadnmus,^/^r . .
from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c.
bimenstris, trimenstris, semenstris, '0/2, 3, 6 months (also
written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c.
biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis , . . decennis, * of
2, 3, 4, 5 ... 10 years ^ from annus with bi- tri- &c. 5
but quinquennahs, ^ happening once in 5 years,''
biennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . . , 2. n.
' a ter7n 0/2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years,'
biduum, triduum, quatriduum , , , ^ a term of 2, 3, 4 . . .
days (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c.
binoctium, trinoctium, &:c. are rare.
bivium, trivium, quadrivium, ^ a place where 2^ 3, 4 roads
(viae) meet'
Compounds of as, assis are tressis [of 3 asses), quinquessis,
octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c,
1 The official terms duumvir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission
of two, three, &c., are used in both numbers : but may
also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c. \
To these may be added a very large Hst of Adjectives simU
larly compounded :
biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . bilinguis, trilinguis ...
bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . o .
bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis , . . biremis, triremis . . .
bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . .
The word ^ balance ' is derived from bilanx (double-dish).
6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series
^f Adverbs implying partition :
bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c. \ \^ ^ ^ . nnrt<=
bipartito, tripartito, quadripartito, &c. i ' ^^* ^^ ^^'
Obs. The words unio (whence Engl, onion), binio, ternio, qua-
ternio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice^
throw (called also Venus) in dice-play.
7. The Ordinals form two series of Numeral Adverbs implying
sequence :
primum . . . tertium quartum ...
primo . . . tertio quarto ...
Primum may mean ' the first place ^ or ^for the first time,':
When it means *in the first place,' it is usually followed by ;
deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, tum, deinceps^
leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine.
When it means 'for the first time,' its sequence is : iX^mm, for the- \
second time, tertium, quartum . . . postremum. \
Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the
second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it : * L. Corn. Scipio
consul iterum . . . tertium consul,' &c.
Primo usually means * at the beginning^ at the first, and may be
followed by dein, next, post, postea, &:c. But primo is sometimes ;
rised hkc primum, in the first place ^ followed by dein, tertio, quarto,
6cc.
ISO
Lati7i Wordlore,
§33.
V. Declension of the Numerals.'
M.
i) Sing. Nom. un-us
Voc. un-e
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
F.
a
a
un-um am
un-ius
un-i
N.
um 07ie,
am
am
Plural
as
bonus.
Abl. un-o a
Like unus : ullus (for unulus), miy ; nullus (for ne unulus), none.
The Ordinalia and Distributiva are declined as bonus.
NUMERAL
Arabic
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
29
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
98
99
100
101
136
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2,000
5,000
10,000
50,000
100,000
1,000,000
Roman Symbols
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
Villi IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XVIIII^rXIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XL
L
LX
LXX
LXXX
xc
lie
IC
c
pi
CXXXVI
cc
ccc
cccc
l3 D
lOCC or DCC
IDCCC ^^DCCC
IDCCCC or DCCCC
CIO or M
CI3CI3 orMyi
I33
CCIOO
ID^3
CCCI3^3
CCCCI3333
Cardinalia
unus, a, um
duo, ae, o
tres, tria
quattuor
quinque
sex
septem
octo
novem
decern
undecim
duodecim
tredecim ; decern et tres ; tres et decern
quattuordecim ; decern et quattuor
quindecim
sedecim ; sexdecim ; decern et sex
decern et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecim
duodeyiginti (decem et octo)
undeviginti (decem et novem)
vigmti
unus et yiginti ; viginti unus
duo et viginti ; viginti duo
duodetriginta (octo et viginti)
undetriginta (novem et viginti)
triginta
quadraginta
quinquaginta
sexaginta
septuaginta
octoginta
nonaginta
nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta
nonaginta novem ; undecentum
centum
centum et unus ; centum unus
centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s.
ducenti, ae, a
trecenti . . .
quadringenti . . .
quingenti . . .
sescenti . . .
septingenti . . .
octingenti . . .
nongenti . . .
mille
duo milia (bis mille)
quinque milia
decem milia
quinquaginta milia
centum milia ; centena milia
deciens centum milia : deciens
' See note on page 152.
Declension of Numerals.
151
2) Plur. Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
D. Abl.
M.
duo
duos (duo)
duorum
duobus
F.
duae
duas
duarum
duabus
N.
duo two,
duo
duorum
duobus
3) Plur. N. tres, tria ; Acc. tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl.
tribus.
4) Plur. Nom. Acc. milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus.
Duo for duos is classical., Duum is a form of Gen. much used
with weights, measures, numbers; as duum nummum ; duum am-
phorum ; duum milium.
TABLE.
L/RDINA1-.IA
-us, -a, -um
T)tstrirutiva.
QUOTIENTIVA
(-iens or -ies)
prinuis
secundus {or alter)
tertius
quartus
quintus
sextus
Septimus
octavus
nonus
decimus
singuli
bini
terni or trini
quaterni
quini
seni
septeni
octoni
noveni
deni
semel.
bis.
ter.
quater.
quinquiens or quinquies.
sex iens.
septiens.
octiens.
noviens.
deciens.
unaecimus
• duodecimus
tertius decimus (decimus et tertius)
quartus decimus (decimus et quartus)
. quintus decimus
sextus decimus
Septimus decimus
duodevicensimus (octavus decimus)
: undevicensimus (nonus decimus)
undeni
duodeni
terni deni
quaterni deni
quini deni
seni deni
septeni deni
duodeviceni
undeviceni
undeciens.
duodeciens.
terdeciens or tredeciens.
quattuordeciens or quater d.
quindeciens <?r quinquiens d.
sedeciens or sexiens deciens.
septiensdeciens.
duodeviciens octiens d.
undeviciens or noviens d.
vicensimus (vigensimus) or vicesimus
unus et vicensimus (primus et vie. ; vie. pr.)
diLcr ci vicciibiiiiuis a« , ciuu ci vic.^
duodetricensimus (octavus et vicensimus)
undetricensimus (nonus et vicensimus)
tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus
quadragensimus
quinquagensimus
sexagensimus
septuagensimus
octogensimus
nonagensimus
nonagensimus octavus
undecentensimus
viceni
viceni singuli
viceni bini
duodetriceni
undetriceni
triceni
quadrageni
quinquageni
sexageni
septuageni
octogeni
nonageni
nonageni octoni
undecenteni
viciens.
semel et viciens or v. s.
bis et viciens or v. b.
octiens et viciens.
noviens et viciens.
triciens.
quadragiens.
quinquagiens.
sexagiens. '
septuagiens.
octogiens.
nonagiens octiensi.
undecentiens ?
centensimus or centesimus
centensimus primus
centensimus trincensimus sextus
duocentensimus
trecentensimus
quadringentensimus
qumgentensimus
scxcentensimus.; sesc.
■ septingentensimus
octingentensimus
nongentensimus
centeni
centeni singuli
centeni triceni seni
duceni
treceni
quadringeni
quingeni
seceni
septingeni
octingeni
nongeni
centiens.
centiens semel.
centiens triciens sexiens.
ducentiens.
trecentiens. ^
quadringentiens.
quingentiens.
sescentiens.
septingentiens.
octinj^entiens.
nongentiens.
millensimus millesimus
bis millensimus
quinquiens millensimus
deciens millensimus
quinquagiens millensimus
ccntiens millensimus
quingentiens millensimus
milieus millensimus
singula milia
bina milia
quina milia
dena milia
quinquagena.niUia.
centena milia
quingena milia
decies centena milia
miliens.
bis miliens.
quinquiens miliens.
deciens miliens.
quinquagiens miliens.
centiens miliens.
quingentiens miliens.
deciens centiens miliens.
152
Latin Wordlore.
§33.
Ambo, both, is declined as duo : but without contraction.
Mi lie, thousand, is undeclined.
* The whole Numeral system contains only 14 roots : those of the ten first Cardinal
Numbers (unus . . . decern); mille; semel; and those of primus, secundus. All
other Numerals come from these.
Formation of Numerals.
A) Cardinalia.
Unity is expressed in Latin by two forms: (i) u-nu-s; (2) sim-, which appears in
singuli, simplex, semel.
- 1) Unus (E.L. ointis) seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai,
oi = u) and taking the suffix no-, so as to imply * consisting 0/ that,' 'that
and no other— one. The Sk. word for one x^ekcis, the same pronoun compounded
with the interrogative Pron. ka, ' who or what/ meaning * that whatsoever' In
Zand the form is aiva or aeva^ corresponding to Gr. otos, otfos, ' alone.*
2) Sim- represents Sk. sa-ina, which is the Superl. of the Demonstr. Pron. sa, thus
expressing * tJtat especially' Singulus(for sim-culus), a deminutive expressing
* that particular' * tliat small 70iit,'\s used as Plural ; very rarely Singular. It
would seem as if s i n g u lu s and unus had changed places in usage : for althouglj^
singulus is well suited to the Cardinal series, it belongs to the Distributive,,
which, having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, terni, &c.), might clainx
u n u s as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are
numbered: is una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (binae, trinae, &c.) lit-
te rae, ae des, &c.
From sim- comes sem-e-1 ; also sim-u-1, sim -ili-s : ^rtw^: is contained also in Or.
et? (er-?), /xia, sV, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so passes into els,
and the Fem. sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so /utia.
For the names of the Cardinalia from 2 to 10 see Table.
The Cardinalia from 11 to 17 are additive Compounds of the first nine with decem, lol
un-decim, duo-decim, &c.
The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive : duodeviginti (2 off" 20); undevi-
ginti (i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39, &c. to 99, undecentum:
98 only being excepted.
The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiplicative Compounds of the Nume-
rals 2 . . . 10 with decent! or degenta (10): — 20 (d-videcenti 2 x 10=) viginti ; 30
(triadecenta 3X io) = triginta ; 40 (quatora decenta 4X 10=) qu'adraginta, &c. ; but in
70, septuaginta, a byform sept uo is used for sept em ; and in9o, nonaginta, nona-
seems to be contracted from novena. It must be observed that all these forms in a are
probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ^ncient long a. Centum alone is
Neut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentiim 10 x 10), dropping the first three syllables, as
in English the word wig has dropt the two first syllables of periwig. The Sk. form is
s'ata {=katd), Gr. kKarov, perhaps for (<5e/ca- 6e'<caT0i/).
The Multiples of centum from 200 to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals
with the form - c e n t i, among which quadr-?«-genti is strangely formed on the analogy
ofquingenti, &c. ; octingenti goes back to the Pr. form («^^^w) ; andnongenti is
for (novingenti). •
The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind.
sahasra : Gr. xi^ioi \ L. mille ; Goth, thusund, &c.
The root of m i 1 1 e is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. mily Gr. b-fjLiX-y to associate,
assemble.
B) Ordinalia:
Primus (Sk. prathamas, Gr. Trpcoros) is Superl, of p rae, pro (Sk. pra, Gr. irpo.
Compare irpLv).
Secundusis Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sad, Gr. err-).
The next four assume the Superl. suffix (/a) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s,
TptTos)j by inserting i. Octa-v-us (oySofos) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. ashtau : and
the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissimilation. Nonus is a
contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi-
nals, as unus (see above) among the Cardinal numerals.
§34.
Use of the Numerals,
vi. Use of the Numerals. Use^f
the Nu-
A) Cardinalia. merals.
a) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other
Numerals alv/ays has emphasis : * Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus
quasi animus fiat ex pluribus,' the essence of friendship is that one
soul as it were is formed of several^ C. Lael. 25. But, 'Matronae
annum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned
Brutus for one year^ as a father ^ L. ii. 7.
Unus niay take a Superlative force, or emphasise Superla-
tives : * Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores/ Z^^;;^^?^-
thenes stands unrivalled among orators^ C. Or, 29. * P. Nigidius,
unus omnium doctissimus,^ Publius Nigidius, the most learned of
men, C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some
Pronouns and Pronominals : * Hoc non quivis unus ex populo
poterat agnoscere,' it was not any individual from aino7tg the
people that could recognise this, C. Br, 93. 'Nemo unus erat vir
quo magis innisa res Roman a staret/ there was no one man on
whom the Roman comfnonwealth more leaned for its support, L. ix.
J 6. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is
used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17.
c) Mi He is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with
Sing. Verb: 'Amplius mille hominum cecidit,' more than one
In the Ordinals of 20, 30 ... . to 90 the Superl. ending -simu-s -sumu-s is taken, form-
ing -ent-simus (or ent-sumus), -en-simus (or -en-sumus), before the Aug. age, after-
wards resimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumus), vicesimus, &c.
This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds,
ducentensimus, &c., and in mill-ensimus.
C) Numeral Adverbs.
Semel: see A): bis for (d-vis) ; ter by transp. for tri: quater (for quat-v-or).
All others are formed with the final suffix -iens : q li i n q u i e n s, &c. In the multiples
of 10, -iens takes the place of -inta : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c. In
100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille,
milieus.
After the Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquies. . . .
milies. So toties, quoties: inR. L. totiens, quotiens.
D) Distrihutiva.
Singuli:see^): bi-ni (for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or trT-ni:quater-ni:qui-ni (for
quinc-ni), se-ni; septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, de-ni (for dece-ni), &c.
Afterwards the suffix -ezii is taken by all Distrihutiva below 1,000,
The form m i 1 1 en i is not used, but instead of it m i 1 i a is multiplied by the previous
Distributives : singula mill a, bina milia, &c. See Numeral Table.
Nii^guluSj an E.L. word (for ne-singulus), =nullus.
The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European
languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithii^nian, Welsh (Cymraeg), Gothic, and German.
Lat.
Sk.
Gr.
Lith.
W.
Goth.
Germ,
unus
ekas
vena
un
aina
eins
duo
dvi
5vo
dva
dau
twai
zwei
tri-
tri
tri
tri
thrija
drei
quattuor
c' at vara s
TeVfape?
keturi
pedwar
fidvor
vier
quinque
pane 'an
irdvTe (Tre^tTTe)
penki
pump
fimf
fiinf
sex
shash
szeszi
chwech
saihs
sechs
septem
saptan
septyni
saith
sibun
sieben
octo
ashtau
OKTU)
asztuni
wyth
ahtau
acht
novem
navan
evvefa
devyni
naw
niun
neun
decem
das'an
deszinti
deg
taihun
zehn
centum
s'ata
iKarov
szimta
cant
hund
hundert
154
Lati7i Wordlore.
§34.
thousand men fell, Nep. Dat. 8 : frequently with Plural verb :
*Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque,' there was an
interval of a mile between the ciiy and the camp, L. xxi. 61. So
mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: 'Mille
rates,' ^1 thousand ships, Ov.. Met. xii. 7.
The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed
usually by a Genitive: ' Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti
Capitolium occupavere, four thousand five hujidred men seized the
Ccipitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia
and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : * Tria
milia et septingenti pedites ierunt/ there marched 3,70q
infantry, L. xxxv. 40.
^ Mille as Abl. is peculiarly used in the following place :
^Cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum,' L. xxi. 61.
d) The Numerals sescenti and mille are idiomatically used
by Latin authors to express indefinitely large numbers : ^ Ses-
centas uno tempore epistolas accepi,' / received 600 letters at oncCy
C Att, vii. 2. 'Aiaxmilies oppetere mortem quam ilia perpeti
maluisset,' Ajax would rather have died 1,000 tijnes than have e^i-
d2ired that treatment, C. Off. i. 31. ^ Mille pro uno Kaesones
exstitisse plebs querebatur/ the plebeians were grumbling that for
one Kaeso there were now 1,000, L. iii. 14.
Poets use centum for this purpose. 'Non, mihi si linguae
centum sint oraque centum,' not if I had a hundred tongues and
a hundred mouths, Verg. G. ii. 44. ^Caecuba servata centum cla-
vibus,' the Caeciiban wine guarded by a hundred keys^ Hor. C. ii.
14. 26.
Tres stands for a few in Plautus. * Te tribus verbis volo. Vel
trecentis,^ / want three words with you. Three hundred if you will^
Trin. iv. 2.
B) Ordinalia.
a) Alter may be used for second : * Alter ab undecimo tum me
iam ceperat annus,' my twelfth year (lit. next from the eleventh) had
then commenced, Verg. B. viii. 39. * Unus et alter,' one or two.
Secundus expresses no more than the numerical order : alter
implies that the second is in kind the same as the first. So, ' De-
nique haec (Pelopidas) fuit altera persona Thebis, sed tamen
secunda ita, ut proxima esset Epaminondae,' in short, Pelopidas
was the second personage in Thebes, but holding the second rank sa
as to be very near Epainifiondas, Nep. Pel. 4. See Hor. C. i. 12. 18..
b) Ordinals are used in computing time : ^ Anno post urbem
conditam septingentensimo quinquagensimo quarto natus
est Christum/ Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of
Rome. ^Ab illo tempore annum iam tertium et quinquagen-
si mum r^gnzXy from that time he has now been reigning 53 years,
Q.p L. Man. 3. Hora quota est } what o'clock is it f Hora prima,
secunda, tertia, &c., 7, 8, 9. &^c. o'clock. Hora nona, at 3 0'' clock.
c) The Ordinals are used with quisque : * tertio quoque anno,'
every third year, &c. But ' alternis diebus,' every other day,
C) Distributiva.
a) These apply the Number they express to each of several
persons or things or times : ^ Data ex praeda militibus aeris
§34*
Use of the Numerats,
155
octogeni bini sagaque et \Mmc2i^^ the soldiers received from the
spoil eighty -two asses each, with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili-
tibus singulis). ^ Germani singulis uxoribus contenti sunt/ the
Germans are satisfied with one wife each, Tac. 6^. 18 (i.e. Germani
singuli). * Ursae pariunt plurimum quinos/ bears bring forth at
most five cubs at a birth, PI. N, H, (i.e. ursae singulae).
b) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one
Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : * Singulis censo-
ribus denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt/ each
censor had 300 denars imposed on hiin for the statue of the praetor^
C. Verr, ii. 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this
position: ^Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos/ they punish
with stripes y 60 soldiers each centurion^ Tac. Ann. i. 32. ^ Antonius
quingenos denarios singulis militibus ddit,^ Antonius gave each
soldier 500 denars, C. Fam, x. 31.
Singuli incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus
eadem hunt, the same happens every day,
Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year;
cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, fnan by man, for any
.Masc. case of singuli.
Plautus has ^ singulum vestigium/ Cist. iv. 2.
c) The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis
bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice two? Cic. ' Decrevere
pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen
canerent/ the pontiffs decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in
each, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37.
d) Uni (not singuli), trini (not terni), and the Distributives
bini, quaterni, quini, &c., are used with Substantives of Singular
sense and Plural form : *Una castra iam facta ex binis videban-
tur,' one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes.
B, C. i. 24 : * trinis castris/ Caes. B. G. vii. 66. So, ^ unae nuptiae/
unae litterae, &c. ; but, ^ tres liberi/ three children. On this principle
the following expressions are legitimate: 'uni Ubii/ the Ubii
alone, Caes. : *unos sex dies,' six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae-
monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus wiwymt,' the Lacedae-
monians have now been living y 00 years with one set of habits, C.p,
Flacc. 26.
e) Bini is used to express a pair \ * Pamphilus binos habebat
scyphos sigillatos/ Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr.
iv. 14. *Bina manu crispans hastilia/ brandishing a couple of
spears, Verg. A en. i. 313.
f) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative
sense : ^ Septeno gurgite/ with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444.
Frequently for the Cardinals : * centenas manus,' a hundred hands,
Verg.
But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus
B.stra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis-
tributive is correct, because each year is implied, 6^. i. 231.
g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con-
tracted into um : * quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septenumve
annorum/
Latilt Wordlore.
134.
Com- "^ii- Compound Numeration.
pound
Nurae- a) In the Table of Numerals the most approved forms are set
down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed.
b) In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number
with et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre-
cedes the smaller: 'Romulus septem et triginta regnavit
annos,' Ro^milus reigned 37 years, C. Rep. ii. 10. ' Macedo Alex-
ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of
Macedonia died in his t hirty -third year ^ C. Ph. v. 17. ' Septuaginta
et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. i. * Pliniiis sc!ripsit sub
Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in
the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of 7iatural history^ Plin. Ep, iii. 5.
* Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thirty-two teeth are as^
signed to a 7?ian, PI. N. H. vii. 16. But *et^ occurs after the larger
Numeral : ^ viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat. M. 9. Also the smaller
occurs before the larger without et : 'Quattuor quadraginta
illi debentur minae/ 44 7ninas are due to him^ Plaut. Most. iii. i.
^Septimo quinquagensimo die rem confeci/ I finished the affair
in 57 days^ C. Fam. xv. 4. Unus, when it occurs with viginti, &c.,
generally stands first, and the Noun last : unus et viginti ho-
mines ; unum et triginta milia. But exceptions occur: * Vi-
ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. * Viginti unam muscas/ 21
flies, PI. A^. H. XXX. 10. ' Diebus viginti uno/ V\. N, H. xxix. 6.
c) In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without
et generally precedes the smaller: 'Leontinus Gorgias cen-v
tum et septem complevit annos,' Gorgias of Leontini co7npleted
loj years, C. Cat. M. 5. 'Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibuS;
planetis in eundem recurrentibus locum, quod fit post duodecimo
milia nongentos quinquaginta quattuor annos,' />^^j/ w^^^/^^^
have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same:
place, which happens after i2,g^/\. years, Cic. 'Sescentensimum
et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primum
Cimbrorum audita sunt arma/ Rome was in its 6^oth year when
the ar7ns of the Cimb7'i were first heard, Tac. G. yj. * Olympiade
centensima quartadecima Lysippus fuit,' Lysippus lived in the
Mj\th Oly77ipiad, PI. N. H. xxxiv. 8. 'Aristidis arbitrio quadrin-
gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata,'
under the control of Aristides ^60 talents were annually contributed
to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar. 3.
d) The multiples of 1,000 are expressed by the Cardinals (or
Distributives) multiplying milia : duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi-
ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, &c.),
milia.
Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c.
with mille : 'bis mille equos,' Hor. ; 'quinquiens mille quad-
ringenta stadia,' PI. A^. H. And so with smaller Numerals : ' Hie
(Caesar) deciens senos tercentum et quinque diebus addidit/
Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F. iii. 163.
e) The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad-
verlDs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the
following passage: 'Non erat apud antiques numerus ultra centum^
Numeral Expression of Fractions. 1 5 7
milia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena
milia aut saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond
100,000 ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied^
so as to use the form * ten times a hundred thousand^ and the like
in progression^ PL iV. H. xxxiii. 10.
Thus we find : * viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 = miles^
Caes. : 'bis ettriciens centum milia passuum,' 3,200,000 miles, Sueti
* quinquiens miliens centum milia/ 500,000,000, PL ; ^ octagiens
quinquiens centena sexaginta octo milia,' 8,568,000 PL In cipher
the thousands were written with a line above them, and the hundred
thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,999 in writing is : noviens
centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in
cipher: | ix | xcix loccccxcix.
aa, Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal
primus: 'Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est/
Plato died while writing in his Sistyear, C. Cat. M. So unetvicen-
simus, unaetvicensima or unetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare^
viii. Numeral Expression of Fractions.
The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : ^
1) If the numerator is i, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars = |,
tertia pars = |, &c.
2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than tTie denomi-
nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing
' partes : ' duae quintae = | ; tres septimae = f , &c.
3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by i only, the
latter may be suppressed, ' partes ' being expressed : duae partes
= I ; tres partes = | ; quinque partes = |, &c.
4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of twa
fractions : dimidia tertia = | x | = | ; quarta septima = | x ^ = i,,
&c.
5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions :
as pars dimidia et tertia = | + 1 = | ; pars quarta et septima = | + 7
~ 28*
6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as.
The ^ as' (unit) of weight, called X\^x2., pound
— — — of length — ipes, foot
— — — of area — iugetum, acre
was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae.^
Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of
unciae they contained, as follows : —
^ Dimidio maior means * half as much larger, altero tanto maior, as large again, i.e.
twice as large. The following passage from PL N, H. vi. (cited by F. Schultz) may be'
a useful exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography
which existed in Pliny's time : —
* Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Asiae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean-
dem altero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Africam.. Quod si misceantur
omnes summae, liquido patebit Europam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam^
paulo amplius, Asiam vero quartam et quartamdecimam, Africa m autem quintam et in-
super sexagensimam.*
* Hence inch as well as ounce is derived from uncia.
Latvi Wordlore.
§ 35-36.
uncia
= I unc.
1
12
of the unit
septunx
sextans
= 2 —
1
6
J)
bes
quadrans
= 3 —
1
J)
dodrans
triens
= 4 —
\
3
dextans
quincunx
= 5 —
5
12
1
2
)>
deunx
semissis
= 6 — •
?>
= 8
= 9
3
3
I
6
11
12
By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,'
universal heir : ^ heres ex semisse/ /leir to half the estate ; * heres
ex dimidia et quadrante/ heir to three-fo2irths^ &c.
The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. : —
scripulum = 2^ unc. = —-^ of unit
_ 1
6
sextula =
2.88
JL
72
sicilicus
semuncia
= \ unc.
_ 1
2
= ^ of unit
24
Sescilncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = \\ uiicia = J of unit.
Sesquialtera ratio = i| : i = 3 : 2.
CHAPTER IIL
THE VERB.
Section I.
Verb The Verb Finite and Infinite. Sde page 72.
Finite
finki"* I. The Verb Finite is so called, because its forms
ai'e limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense.
II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited
by Mood and Person.
Note. Any Finite form is called a PERSONAL Verb, because it
agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person.
36
Voices. ii. The Voices of the Verb.
There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram-
marians have called Voices (Voces, Genera) :
1) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), from agere, to do.
2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati,
to suffer.
i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or
does something :
sum, / a7n amo, / love
valeo, / aju well moneo, / advise
g 36. Transitive and Intransiiive Verbs. 159
2) The Passive Voice indicates generally that a Sub-
ject suffers something (has something done to it) :
amor, / am loved moneor, / am advised
iii. Deponent Verbs.
Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms,
have an Active meaning :
venor, / hunt vereor, / fear
These are called by grammarians, Deponent Verbs
(Deponent ia).*
iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi-
tive and
1) In order that it may be fully conjugated (like amo and sitive
moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs.
Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only.
2) A Verb is called Transitive when its action passes on (tran-
sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo
Lucium, / advise Lucius \ Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me,
A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the
Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares \ lepores nos
verentur, hares fear us,
3) An Intransitive Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no
Object: surgo, I rise ; proficiscor, I go.
Those which express state or condition are called Static Verbs :
aegroto, / am sick ; sto, / stand ; irascor, / am angry.
An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained, may be
joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained
in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty
game ; aegrotare mirum morbum, to be sick of a strange disease.
See Syntax (Accusative).
The construction called Impersonal allows Intransitive Verbs
to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of
the Passive Voice : surgitur (a nobis or ab illis being understood),
we {they) rise (literally, there is rising by us or by them). See § 50*
4) The Subject of a Transitive Verb may become its Object :
(ego) verto me, / turn myself] (tu) vertis te, yot4 turn yourself \
(is) vertit se, he turns himself. This Pronoun Object is sometimes
omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively :
iam verterat fortuna, fortune had now turned^ Liv.
On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has
often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself \ lavor, / wash myself
Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive.
Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, / boast {myself) ;
vescor, I feed {inyself). Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor,
I grudge^ am loth (lit. am grieved).
* The term * Deponent * is bad, though inveterate in Latin grammar.
Would be a better name for these Verbs.
Medial ^Media)
l6o Latin Wordlore. §37.
V. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verb^.
1) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and
are called Quasi-Passive Verbs :
exsulo, I. I am banished,
vapulo, I. I am beaten
fio, / become or am made^ Passive of facio, / niake,
pereo, / am lost or destroyed — perdo, / lose or destroy,
veneo, / a^n on sale — vendo, / selL
liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction).
The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and
vendendus, are in use. Verbero, I beat,h2iS a Passive verberor,
but vapulo often took its place in popular speech.
2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active
meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it :
audeo, 2. I dare ausus sum, I dared
gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced
soleo, 2. / a7n wont solitus sum, / was wont
fido, 3. / trust fisus sum^ / trusted
fio, / become factus sum, / became
These are called Semi-Deponent Verbs.
3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect^ with a Passive Perfect
Participle, active in sense :
ceno, cenavi, / supped cenatus, having supped
iuro, iuravi, / swore iuratus, having sworn
prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined
nubo, nupsi, / was wedded nupta, wedded
Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are :
adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi
cretus, sprung — cresco, crevi
suetus, accusto7ned — suesco, suevi (with compounds)
obsoletus, out of date — obsolesco, obsolevi
^\2j:\\.\xs, pleasing — placeo, placui.
potus, having drunk, from an old stem po-
perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly
pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet.
Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratiis, exoletus, initus, inveteratus,
propensus. See M. Lucr, ii. 383 ; iii. 772.
vi. The Moods of the Verb.
Moods (Modi) express the manner of action in a
Finite Verb.
There are three Moods of the Verb Finite :
i) The Indicative Mood declares a fact or condition
as real or absolute :
gaudeo quod (si) abest, I am glad that (if) he is absent.
§38. The Tenses of the Verb. i6i
2) The Conjunctive Mood states a fact or condi-
tion as conceived or contingent :
gaudeam si dih sit, I shall be glad if he be absent y
velim absit, / would wish he were absent :
vellem abesset^ I conld wish he had been absent
This Mood, in principal construction, we call the PURE Conjunc-
tive, gaudeam, velim, vellem. When it depends on another
Verb, it is called SUBfUNCTlVE, absit, abesset.
The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the
use of an auxiliary Verb, may, might, would, should, shall, &c.
The Subjunctive is often rendered by the English Indicative :
nescio quid velis, I know not what you wish; tarn stulti sunt ut
nihil intellegant, they are so foolish that they understand
nothing', also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num in tell e-
gat, I doubt if he understand but often it must be expressed by
an auxiliary verb may, anight: edimus ut vivamus, we eat that
we may live.
The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but
by exemplification, reading, and practice.
3) The Imperative Mood is for command and en-
treaty : hue cur re, run hither \ memento venias, you
must remember to come. See p. 163.
vii. The Tenses of the Verb. Tenses.
Tenses (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time
of action or state in Verbs.
1. Tense -forms are either I NFLECT ED or Combinate.
An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi-
fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram.
A Combinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par-
ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The
only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical
Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, td be, which, combined
with the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the
Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c.
2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as
Pres. love, lovest, loves ;
Past loved, lovedst :
but its Verb is enlai^ged by combining with Infinitive and Parti-
cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely,
a. be (am, was, &c.) have (had) must
do (did) let shall (should)
can (could) may (might) will (would)
j8. to ; about to ; by ; in.
M
1 62 Latin Wordlore. § 38.
Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than
Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As
grammatical tables cannot supply all the Enghsh equivalents for
each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained
only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating.
3. Time is Present, Past, or Future.
Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future.
For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense-
form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for
the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past.
Thus, in the Indicative Mood,
SmPLE Present. Simple Past. Simple Future,
Active.
amo, / love amavi, loved amabo, shall love
Passive.
amor, / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved
4. But it is often necessary to describe action and state with
more complex relations of time; and this the English language,
by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more fully than Latin,
buch relations are (in the Indicative Mood) :
Active.
L Present in
Present am loving*
Past was loving
Future shall-be loving*
II. Past in
i Present have loved*
J Past had loved
( Future shall-have loved
Passive.
am being-loved*
was being-loved
shall-be (being) loved*
have-been loved*
had-been lovedf
shall-have-been lovedf
III. Future in
Present am about-to-lovef
Past was about-to-lovef
Future shall-be about-to-lovef
am about-to-be-loved$
was about-to-be-lovedj
shall-be about-to-be-loved;t
Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations
in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive :
Indie. Act. amabam, / was loving
— — amaveram, / had loved
— — amavero, / shall have loved
— Pass, amabar, / was being loved
To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are
used: amo, amor; amabo, amabor; amavi, amatus sum (fui).
To express that marked f , Combinate forms are needed : amatus
eram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fui, ero (fuero).
§38-
' The Tenses of the Verb,
163
For the English marked J, and other temporal relations still more
complex, the help of particles is required in Latin :
the woman is about to be killed
in eo est mulier ut trucidetur :
the woman was about to be killed
in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur.
If this be thrown into obhque statement (I think y I thought that,
&c.), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine may be used; or futurum
(fore) ut with Subjunctive :
puto (putavi) mulierem trucidatum iri
puto futurum ut mulier trucidetur
putavi fore ut mulier trucidaretur.
5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta)^
The names of the Finite Tenses are :
1) Of Incomplete Action :
Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect*
2) Of Complete Action :
Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect.
The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods 01
each Voice. (See Scheme.)
Active
Passive
Conjunc. 1
Imper;
Indie.
Conjunb.
Imper.
i) Present
amo
amem
ama
1
1
amor
amer
am are
Fut. S. .
amabo
amato
amabor
amatOi
Imperfect
amabam
amarem
amabar
amarer
2) Perfect
amavi
amaverim
amatus
amatus
Fut. P. .
sum
sim
amavero
amatus
Pluperf.
ero
amaveram
amavissem
amatus
amatuS
eram
essem
The Imperative to4orms are generally regarded as strengthen-
ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz,
&c.) treat them in this sense as = Future forms* We do the same,
but merely for the sake of convenience.
* Gossrau {Laiein. SprachL § 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Teftses are not
temporal in the same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect beirig the only one
which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this
difficulty is so far from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction
used in this grammar, of Pure Conjunctive in a principal sentence, and Subjunctive in a
dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty
still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunctive) forms Dy the names of the
Indicative Tenses, from which some of them diverge in use so v/idely. The only way of
M 2
164
Latin Wordlore.
§ 39-40.
Obs. The defects of this Tense-system are in part supplied by
the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Partir
ciples in -rus, -dus (see § 47) :
amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c.
amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c.
6. Tenses are Primary or Historic.^
The Primary Tenses are the Present and the Futures : the
Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past {I loved).
When Present-Past (I have loved), the Perfect is Primary.
It is a great advantage of Greek, as compared with Latin, that it
has inflected forms for both these relations :
Simple Past (Aorist) . . f ^/Ar^ca, / loved
Present Past (Perfect) . TrecpiXrjKaj I have loved
39
i^umber viii. Numbcr and Person in the Verb.
and
i^crson
The Tenses of the Finite Verb have two Numbers,
Singular and Plural ; with three Persons in each
Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings.
The First Person expresses one or more speaking ;
The Second „ „ „ spoken to ;
The Third „ „ „ spoken of :
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
ego am-0, I love nos ama-mus, we love
tu ama-s, thou * lovest vos ama-tis, ye ^ love
is ama-t, he loves ii ama-nt, they love
The oin amo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha-
racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi-
natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly
omitted : am-o, / love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, he loves, &c.
In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its
Present Tense the Second Person only is used.
40
The ix. The Verb Infinite contains:
Verb
-■'J finite.
1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub-
stantival ;
2. Participles, which are Adjectival.
avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive forms, when cited in Syntax, a
numeral notation easy to be remembered :
amem ; moneam ; regam ; audiam: or
amaverim ; monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : Ca or Sj
amarem ; monerem ; regerem ; audirem : C3 or S3
amavissem ; monuissem ; rexissem ; audissem : C4 or S4.
' English usage has adopted you for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of
thou and ye^ which are now used only in prayer or by poets.
§40.
The Verb Infinite.
i6s
\, A) The Infinitive (Infinitivum) describes action infini-
or state in a general manner, without personal relation.
It has Tense-forms :
1) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) :
Act. ama-re, to tove, be loving^ have been loving
Pass, ama-ri, to be loved,
2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) :
Act. amav-isse, to have loved
Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to have been loved,
3) For Future in Present Action :
Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love
Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum,
being Supine, is invariable).
4) For Future in Past Action :
Act. amat-urus, a, um, fuisse, to have been about to love,
B) The Gerunds (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal
Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n.
The Gerundive (Gerundivum) is a Participle or
Verbal Adjective with the same suffix :
Gerundive.
Nom. S. ama-ndus, a, um {meet)
to be loved
declined as bonus..
Gerunds.
Acc. ama-ndum, loving
Gen. ama-ndi, of loving
Dat. ama-ndo,^^^ loving
Abl. ama-ndo, by or /;/ loving
The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either
impersonally, as eundum est, one must go ; or personally : vita
tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is
added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundum est mihi, I must
go ; vita nobis tuenda est, life should be protected by us.
C) Supines (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supines,
a Verb-noun of Decl. 4, with suffix -tu (su) or -to (sa) :
ama-t-um, to love ama-t-u, in loving
2. Participles (Participia) are so called because they Panics
take part of the properties of Verbs^ and part of the
properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three
other Participles are found in Verbs :
Active Pres. and Imperf. 2imdi-xis,loving . , . . as in gens
— Future .... ama-t-uriis, about to love 1 ,
Passive Perfect .... d.m^,-x-^^yhaving been loved) "^^i^^^
Latin Wordlore.
a) The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied :
Act. Part. Perf. having loved, cum amavisset (or by Abl. Absolute)
Pass, — Pres. being loved, qui amatur, or dum amatur
— — Fut, about to be loved, qui amabitur.
b) Some Verbs form Participials in -bundus or -cundus, express-
ing ' fulness/ as vagabundus, wandering, iracundus, wrathful ;
in -bilis, expressing ^possibility / '^'BiXd^y^ySi, procurable ;
in -ilis, expressing ' capacity/ docilis, teachable ;
in -ax, expressing inclination/ loquax, talkative ;
in -idus, expressing ' active force/ rapldus, hurrying^ cuptdus,
desirous,
c) Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par-
ticiples in -ns, urus, and also use their Perfect Participle in an
Active sense :
Pres. vena-ns, hunting
Fut. vena-t-urus, about to hu7tt
Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted
But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as
well as actively, as polVicitus, promised or havirig promised, from
polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus,
adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di-
mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus-
tratus, imitatus, impertltus, machinatus, meditatus, mentitus, meri-
tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblitus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus,
pactus, partitus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortitus, testatus, testi-
ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c.
Section IL
The' i- The Conjugation of Verbs.
three
st^emsin i) In ordcf to conjugate a Verb of Active form, three
elements must be known :
1. Present Stem. . . ama-
2. Tho Perfect Stem. . . amav-
3. The Supine Stem . . . amat-
2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (v^hich has no
Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must
be known :
1. Pres. Stem . . . vena-
2. Sup. Stem . . . venat-
The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character.
o) From the Present Stem are derived :
Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive
Present, in each Voice ;
Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active
Voice.
§42.
The Conjugation of Verbs.
167
j8) From the Perfect Stem are derived :
Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in
the Active Voice.
7} From the Supine Stem are derived :
Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ;
Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all the Combi-
nate Tenses in the Passive Voice.
42
ii. The Verb of Beinsr? sum,* esse. The
' Verb
Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- ^^^l
Jugation of the irregular Verb of Beings sum, esse,
fui, to be, which enters into their Combinate Tenses as
an auxiliary Verb.
This Verb is formed from two roots :
€s- (Sk. as) to be ;
fu- (Sk. bhu) to be or become.
The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore)
belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par-
ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the
second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both,
^ The Root of Being, Sk. ds Or. k<j- L. es-, is found in all branches of the Aryan
family, variously modified.
1) The root ' es- ' forms
Present Indie.
L. s-«-m es (for es-s) est sumus es-tis sunt
Sk. as-mi as-i as-ti s-mas &-4ha s-anti
Gr. etjxt {e(Tfit) et (etr-at) eo-rt iafxev (eo-jixe?) €0"T€ ettrt (ei/ri)
Fut. Indie. L. ero (for es-w), Gr- l(TO-jM.ai.
Imperf. L. eram (for es-am), Sk. (simple Aor. in am), Gr. iiiv (for eff-Tjv).
Pres. Conjunc. L. (siem) sim (for es-iein)^ Sk. s-ydm, Gr. t-lrji' (for t<T'inv).
The forms siem, sies, siet are occasionally found.
Imperf. Conjunc. L. essem. See p. 58.
Imperative.
Pres.
S. PK
L. es este
Sk. e-dhi i^ox as-dhi) s-ta
Gr. 1<t-9l ecrre
Future
S. PI.
esto estote suntQ
as^u s-antu
e (TTW * (TTWV
The Infinitive es-se is, as that of every Active Verb, the Dative (or Loc.) Case of a
V erb-noun.
2) The Root fu-, Sk. hhu, Gr. ^v- forms
Imperf. Conjunc. forem (for/z^-^^ajf/) : Infin. fore (fory«-5^).
Fut. Partic. fut-urus.
It also forms the Perfect Stem fu- (for fuv-), and its derived Tenses, by agglutinating the
tenses of sum. See p. 58.
The English forms * am,' * art,' ' is,' * are,' belong to the root as\ * be ' to the root ,
ika.
1 68
Latin Wordlore.
O
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C/3
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ll— 1
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S s s
C/J ^ C/3
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o
5 ^
<D «-5
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(A
c«
6 e
crt si;
>2 5 >sj «
.=3 ^
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1^
s
C/5
t/5
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c «c
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(L)
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•5 §
a
«4:^ ^ v2 ^
^ 'H^! ^
■Si
.:3 <^
o
I— t
Q
o
u
5z;
o
u
CJ
Q
o
Q
o
u
in
C/3
(J
Oh
^ CO
- 2
>3
c/:
>
3 m
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"a
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^ -'^ ^
u (D ^
Ph Ph
^ lO
o
b (1)
(U 5-1
CI
CO
.5^ id
i
£PL,
(/) .
03 S
OJ
Oh
;3
C/3
u
t/5
TJ (L)
o ^ .i^
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i5 ;=! CO
lO C
5-1 :ri
Oh
5-<
s
(/)
<u
I— 1 C3 (/)
5-1 t/)
Q
o
o
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Pi
^ g
^
^ ^
^s
a;
S S S
c/i(^
CO Ph
i 3
Oh
§43*
Conjugation of the Verb.
169
iii. Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four conju-
Classes, called Conjugations, ds:zox6\.ng to their Pre- ^^^'''"^*
sent Character, that is, the last letter of their Present-
Stem.
a) One of these Conjugations, haying for its Present-Character
either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant u, is called the Strong
Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present-Stem
forms, without suffering contraction :
reg-^"-re indu-/-re.
Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in
' Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient
' times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title
they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on account of
I the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in
I which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically.
1 b) The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their
i ^Character is a Vowel (a, e, i). They are also called Weak, or Con-
' tracted, because in some Present-Stem Forms the Vowel Character
unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: ama-o, amo;
ama-im, amem, &c. So
ama-/-re, amare ; mone-/-re, monere ; audi-^-re, audire.^
c) A-verbs are called the ist Conjugation,
E-verbs — — 2nd —
I -verbs — — 4th —
Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation, See a),
d) The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands
before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before /-re
in the Strong Conjugation :
Conj. I. am A- re, /^7/^ ^ . (XO^G-eYQ, rule
— 2. monE-re, advise ^' 1 indu-/re, put on
— 4. audl-re, hear
e) In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit t in
many Present-Stem forms : caP-/-o, paT-/-or; this I not being,
however, the Character of the Verb.
^ Although the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for
most of the forms in which the Characters a, G, t are long before a Consonant, it cannot
safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct
to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical
rules are :
1) The Characters e, i are short before a Vowel : moneam, audies. But a with a
following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am-o, ama-im, amem.
2) The Characters, a, 6, i are long when final: am a, mone, audi; or before a
Consonant: amas, amamus; mones, monemus; audls, audimus (an-
ciently amamus, &c.). Exceptions are : (i) before t final, though originally long
(amat, monet, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage : amat,
monet, audit; (2) the Verb da-, £'£ve, keeps a short before a Consonant :
dare, dabo, dabam, dato, but da.
3) The Mood-vowels, a, e, i, follow generally the same law as the Characters :
audias, audiamus; ames, amaremus; veils, vellmu?; but audiat
amare t, vellt (anciently audiat, amaret, vellt).
170
Latin Wordlore.
§43-
/) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows : —
Method
of Con-
juga-
ting.
ACTIVE VERBS.
Present. Perfect. Supine.
1. am A- amav- amaT-
2. monE- monu- moniT*
3. reG- rex- (for reGs) recT-
4. audi- audiv- audiT-
DEPONENT VERBS.
Pres.
venA-
verE-
UT-
partl-
Sup.
venaT^
veriT-
us-
partiT-
The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is
called a Clipt Stem : am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver-, part-.
g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming —
(1) the Present Indie, ist Person;
(2) the Infinitive Pres. ;
(3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ;
(4) the Supine in um :
amo, amare, amavi, amatum ;
but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms.
CONJUGATION
OF THE ACTIVE VOICE.
1st Conj.
2nd Conj.
3rd Conj.
4th Conj.
I Pers. Ind. Pr.
. am-o
mon-eo
reg-o
aud-io
2 Pers. Ind. Pr.
. am-as
mon-es
reg-is
aud-is
Infinitive . .
. am-are
mon-ere
reg-ere
aud-ire
Perfect . . .
, am-avi
mon-ui
rex-i
aud-Tvi
Gerund in dum
. am-andum
mon-endum
reg-endum
aud-iendumf
— di .
. am-andi
mon-endi
reg-endi
aud-iendi
— do .
. am-ando
mon-endo
reg-endo
aud-iendo
Supine in um
. am-atum
mon-itum
rect-um
aud-itum
— u .
. am-atu
mon-itu
rect-u
aud-Ttu
Partic. Present
. am-ans
mon-ens
reg-ens
aud-iens
— Future
. am-aturus
mon-iturus
rect-urus
aud-iturus
CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.
ist Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior
2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-eria aud-iris
Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri i"eg-i aud-iri
Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-itus sum rect-us sum aud-itus sum
Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-itus rect-us aud-itus
Gerundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus^
Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning.
Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs
have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i.
wander, have no Gerundive Adjective.
* The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Voice because none but Transitive Verbs,
can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it maybe ascribed to both voices. If
a horse is * ferox ante domandum,' ivild be/ore being broken in, his rider is * cautus ante
domandum,' cautioics before breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed *amor habendi ; ' of
their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, *ad digitos lentcscit habendo,' it yields
to the fingers in being handled.
§43'
Conjugation of the Verb,
171
1 Pers. Pres. Ind.
2 Pers. Pres. Ind.
Infinitive Pres. .
Perfect ....
Gerund in dum .
— di
— do
Gerundive . . .
Supine in um. .
— u . .
Partic. Pres. . .
^ Perf. . .
— Fut. . .
CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS
htmt fear
ven-or ver-eor
ven-aris ver-eris
ven-ari ver-eri
ven-atus sum ver-itus sum
ven-andum ver-endum
ver-endi
ver-endo
ver-endus
ver-itum
ver-itu
ver-ens
ver-itus
ver-iturus
ven-andi
ven-ando
ven-andus
ven-atum
ven-atu
ven-ans
ven-atus
ven-aturus
use
ut-or
ut-eris
ut-i
US-US sum
ut-endum
ut-endi
ut-endo
ut-endus
us-um
us-u
ut-ens
us-us
us-urus
divide
part-ior
part-iris
part-iri
part-itus sum
part-iendum,
part-iendi
part-iendo
part-iendus
part-itum
part-Itu
part-iens
part-itus
part-iturus
Verbs in i-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem
forms, retain this / generally ; but not before i, final e, and short
fir. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds :
Fug/o, fac/o, and iac/o,
Compounds of spec/o and lac/o,
Par/o, fod/o, and quat/o,
Ciip/o, cap^Q, rap/o, sap/o ;
(Deponents) grad/or, pat/or, mor/or,
And, in some tenses, potior, or/on
Their form of Conjugation is :
Active.
Passive.
Deponent.
I Pers. Pres. Ind.
. . cap-/-o
cap-/-or
pat-/-or
2 Pers. Pres. Ind.
. . cap-is
cap-eris
pat-eris
Infinitive Pres. .
. . cap-ere
cap-i
pat-i
capt-us sum
pass-US sum
Gerund in dum .
. . cap-/-endum
pat-/-endum
— di . .
. . cap-/-endi
pat-/-endi
— do . .
. . cap-/-endo
pat-2-endo
cap-/-endus
pat-2-endus
Supine in um
. . capt-um
pass-um
— u . . .
. . capt-u
pass-u
Partic. Pres. . . .
pat-/-ens
— Perf. . . .
capt-us
pass-US
— Fut. . . .
pass-urus
Note I. — In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the
corresponding Enghsh of one Verb. English must be supplied, on
the same principle, to the other Verbs.
Note 2. — The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c., are
set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle
follows that of the Noun with which it agrees :
is auditus est, ea audita est,
he was heard, she was heardy
And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers.
id auditum est,
it was heard.
172
Latin Wordlore,
§44.
§ 44.
SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
c
<y
o
'a
d
fa
am
mon
reg
aud
Indicative Mood
Singular. ^ Plural.
1. 2. 3. I. 2. 3.
/ thoic he, &c. w they
love lovest loves love love love
-(a)o -as -at ^amus -atis -ant
-eo -es -^et -emus -etis -ent
-o -IS -iX, -2mus -ztis -unt
-10 -Is ■'it -imus -itis -iunt
shall
ama -bo
mone -bo
reg -am
audi -am
wilt
\ -bis
]- -es
will
-bit
-gt
shall will will — love, &c.
-bimus -bitis -bunt
-emus -etJs -ent
o
'Si
u
ama -bam
mone -bam
rege -bam
audie -bam
was were were were — loviftg, Sec.
-bas -bat -bamus -batts -bant
loved
or have
amav -I
monu -I
rex -I
audiv -1
lovedst loves
hast has
-isti -it
loved
have
-imus
loved, loved, &c.
have have — loved, &c.
-istis -erunt
or -ere
0)
3
shall
amav -ero
monu -ero
rex -ero
audiv -ero
wilt will shall will will — have loved^ &c.
-ens -ent
•erimiis -eritis -erint
ft
had
amav -eram
monu -eram
rex -eram
audiv -eram
hadst had had had had — loved
-eras -erat -eramus -eratis -erant
I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods.
A) (Pres. and Fut. Active) : lego, / read : quid agis? what are you doing? lego, / am
reading: lege sis, read, if you please: lego, / do read: iamdiu lego, / have been reading
long: quid facies? what will you do ? legam, / shall read : leges lliadem, you will read the
Iliad, I hope: legam, I will read it: cum legero semel, when I shall have read it once :
relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus non depo-
sueris antequam relegeris, you will not put it out of your hands till you have read it again.
E) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? what were you doing yesterday^, legebam, /
was reading: quid agebas ruri? what did you do in the country '^. \egeha.my / 7ised to read :
legebam dum lux erat, / read while it was light : legere te iusseram, / told you to read :
legebam, I did read : legeres lliadem, you were to read the Iliad: legi heri, / read it yes-
terday : legistine lliadem? have you read the Iliad'? legi, I have read it : legere debuisti,
yoti ought to have read it : legi, / did read it : legeram pridie, / had read it the day before.
§44.
Conjugation of the Verb,
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
Singular.
Plural.
I.
2.
3-
I.
2. 3.
/
thou
he^ Sec,
we
ye they
am
art
is
are
are are — loved. &:c.
am -or
-aris
-atur
-amur
-aminl -antur
mon -eor
-eris
-etur
-emur
-emlni -entur
reg -or
-^ris
-/tur
-2mur
-mimr -untur
aud -iof
-iris
-Ttur
-Tmur
-imini -mxsXm
shall
wilt
will
shall
will will — be loved, &c»
ama -bor)
mone -borl^
-ber-is (e)
-bitur
-bimur
-bimini -buntur
reg -ar )
audi -ar '
-er-is (e)
-etur
-emur
-emmi -entur
was
ama -bar
wast
was
were
mone -bar , . ...
■I ^ r -uar-ib le)
rege -bar [ ^ ^
audie -bar)
were were — being loved
-batur -bamur -bamini -bantur
was wast was
have hast has
amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus
V /
sum es est
(fui) (fuisti (fuTt)
were were were — loved
have have have — been laved
amati, moniti, recti, auditl
V ^ 1
sumus estis sunt
(fulmus) (fuistis) (fuerunt, e)
shall will will
amatus, momtus, rectus, auditus
V )
shall will will — have been
amati, monitl, recti, audit! [loved
— V —
ens
ero ens erit
(fuero) (fueris) (fuerit)
erimus
V
eritis erunt
(fuerimus) (fueritis) (fuerint)
had hadst had
amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus
V . , ^
eram eras erat
(fueram) (fueras) (fuerat)
had had had — been loved
amati, moniti, recti, audlti
V . /
—v
eratis
eramus eratis erant
(fueramus) (fuerat is) (fu erant)
Note I. — In the Second Pers. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write re for rTs, on
account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat. Pass. Cicero has very few instances,
chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re.
2. — Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -ibo, -Ibis, &c.. Pass.
-Tbor, -iberis(e), &c. ; and the Imperfects, Act. -ibam, -Ibas, &c., Pass. -Ibar, -Ibaris (e),
&c. ; as audlbo, audlbor; audibam, audibar. These were the ancient forms. M. Lucr. v. 934.
3. — The Perf. Partic. used with sum expresses that something was and is complete :
with fui, that something was complete at some past time : ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae
promulgatae fuerunt,' C. /. Sest. 25. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. p. 218.
4. — On the exclusion of V, followed by contraction, from Perfect Stemg in av-, ev-,
OV-, UV-, Tv-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -isse, are used in prose as
well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found ; but most disyllabic forms keep V ; as quivi, slvi.
Latin Wordlore.
SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
Present.
S. 2.
PI. 2.
S. 2.
love
thou
ye
thou
am
-a
-ate
am -at5
mon
-e
-ete
mon -eto
reg
-e
-z'te
reg -^to
aud
-I
-Ite
aud -ito
Imperative Mood.
Future.
S. 3.
he^ &G.
-ato
-eto
-^'td
-Ito
PI. 2. 3.
ye they J &c.
-atote -aiito
-etote -ento
-rtote
-Ttote -i//nt5 ^
ft)
let
ID
Conjunctive Mood;
Singular.
Plural.
I.
2.
li
2.
•
3-
am
-em
-es
-et
-emus
-etis
-ent
mone
-am
-as
-at
-amus
-atis
-ant
reg_
-am
-as
-at
-amu^
-atts
-ant
audi
-am
-as
-at
-amus
-atis
-ant
am a
-rem ^
mone
fege
-rem
-rem
-res
-ret
-remus
-retis
^rent
audi
-rem >
amav
-erim^
monu
rex
-erim
-enm
-ens
-erit
-erimus
-erltis
-erint
audiv
-erim ,
amav-\
monu-
rex-
audiv--
Mssem
-isseS -isset -issemus -issetts -issent
II. Pure Conjunctive.
A) (Potential and Conditional uSe) : mirum fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem
nvonderful : ita amicos pares, tktis you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, some one
may ask : dixerit aliquis, somebody may {might) say : pace tua dixerim, / would say
luith your leave : pro certo affirmaverim, / can aver for a fact : crederes victos, you
wojild have supposed them vanquished : velim esse tecum, / ivoidd like to be with you:
nolim te abire, / shoidd not like }>ou to go away : nollem id factum, / could wish it had
not been done : mallem aliud factum, / would rather something else had been done.
B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam? what must {can, shall) I do ? quid facerem? what
shotdd {could) I have done ? faveas tu hosti ? must {should) you favour an enemy ?
C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, sup.
pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fuisset anceps fortuna,
fortune might have been doubtful.
D) (Optative use) : vivas, 7nay you live : valeant cives mei, may my cortntrymen
flourish : di bene vertant, heaven prosper it : moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if
I speak falsely : ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you— upon my life I love
you.
E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bonos, let us imitate the good : desinant furere, let them
(or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, you should have been minding your
own business : mortem pu^rn^ins oppetisset, he shoidd have died fighting.
§44-
Conjugation of the Verb,
175
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Imperative Mood.
Present.
S. 2. PI. 2.
be thou ye — loved, &c.
ama -re -mm!
mone -re -mim
reg -/re -/mini
audi -re -mini
S. 2.
thou
ama -tor
mone -tor
reg -2tor
audi -tor
Future.
S. 3.
he
-tor
-tor
-itox
-tor
PI. 3.
they
-ntor
-ntor
-2/nt6r
-//ntor
^ 1
Conjunctive Mood.
am
mone
reg
audi
1.
-er
-ar
-ar
-ar
Singular.
2.
-er-ts(e)
-ar-is(e)
-ar-ts(e)
-ar-is(e)
Plural.
1.
2.
-etur
-emur
-emim
-entur
-atur
-amur
-amini
-antur
-atur
-amiir
-amini
-antur
-atur
-amur
-amini
-antur
ama
mone
reg-/
audi
-rer-is(e) -retur -remur -remini
-rentur
amatus, momtiis, rectus, auditus
V . ^ f
sim sis sit
(fuerim) (fueris) (fuerit)
amati, moniti, recti, auditi
V ^ ;
simus sitis sint
(fuerimus) (fueritis) (fuerint)
amatus, monitus, rectus, auditus
~v
essem esses esset
(fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset)
amati, moniti, recti, auditi
V
y
essemus essetis essent
(fuissemus) (fuissetis) (fuissent)
III, Subjunctive.
Fit ut a e g r o t e m, it happens that I am sick t evenit ut a e g r o t a r e m, it fell out thai ■
I was sick: necesse est eas (necesse erit eas), j/ou mtist go : opus est ut eas (oportet
eas), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ires), it behoved you to go : metuoJ
ne eas, I fear you will go : mietUebam ne ires^ / feared you would go : metuo ut eas,
/ fear you are not going : metu^bam ut ires, / feared yotc were not going : cura ut
eas (fac eas), mind you go : sine e a m u s, stiffer us to go : oro ut e a s, / beg that you go i
oravi ut ires, I begged yotc woitld go : utinam eas ! O that you may go ! utinam ires ! O
that you had been going I utinam ne isses ! O that yoti had not gone ! scio cur veniat,
/ know why he comes : scio cur venerit, / know why he cajne : sciebam cur veniret,
/ knew why he came : sciebam cur venisset, / knew why he had come : non tarn
amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go: non tani amens fuit ut iret, he was
not so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, / eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederenty
they lived that they might eat : laudant me quod e a m, they praise me because
I go: laudant me quod ierim, they praise me because I went: laudabant me quod
irem, they praised 7ne because I went : laudabant me quod issem, they praised me
because I had gone : quae cum ita sint, ibo, since this is the case, I will go : quae cum
ita essent, ivi, since this was the case, I went : aegrotabam cum irem, / was ill when I
went: convalui cum issem, / got well when I had gone: exspecta dum redeam,
wait till I return: nusquam ibo antequam re de at, I will go 7io%vhere before he returns Z
176
Latin Wordlore,
44.
Active Voice.
SCHEME OF THE
VERB
Pr. Impf.
to love, &.C.
ama -re
mone -re
rege -re
audi -re
Infinitive.
Perf. Plup. Future.
to have loved, &:c. to be about to love, &c.
amav -isse amat -urus \
monii -isse monit -urus
rex -isse rect -urus
audiv -isse audit -urus
-essS
lovzjig,
Gerunds. Supines. Partic. Pres.
of, by, to love, i7i loving, loving,
&c. &c. &c.
amand -um -1 -0 amat -um -u ama -ns
monend -um -1 -o monit -um -u mone -ns
regend -um -1 -6 rect -um -u reg-^ -ns
audiend -um -I -o audit -um -u audi-^ -ns
Partic. Fut.
abotU to love, &c.
amatur -lis -a -urn
monitur -us -a -um
rectur -us -a -um
auditur -us -a -urn
utpeccaverit, carus est tamen, though he has sinned, yet he is dear: quamvis pec-
casset, carus fuit, though he had simied, he 7vas dear : clamas tanquam surdus sim, yo7i
bazvl, as though I were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, you were bawling^ as if I
had been deaf : emo libros quos legam, / bicy books to read : emi libros quos lege rem,
I bought books to read : non is sum qui te deseram, / am not oJie to forsake yoti : non
is fuit qui me desereret, he was ftot one to forsake me : quis est quin fl e a t aliquando ?
who is there that weeps not sometimes? nemo fuit quin fleret, there was no one but
wept : nihil dubito quin gaudeant, I have no doubt they rejoice : non dubitabam quin
gauderent, I had no doubt they rejoiced: nihil obstat quominus earn, nothing hinders
me from govig: per me stetit quominus ires, I was the catise of your not going: ve-
titus est ne iret, he was forbidden to go : dubito an Verum sit, / do7ibt it may be true .*
nescio an verum sit, I rather thi7ik it is triie : felicemesse putoqui rei nullius indigeat,
/ consider him to be happy who wants nothing : ais te cum r ed e am adfuturum, you say
you will be present when I return : ait se cum redierim adfuturum, he says he will be
j>resent whe7i I have returned : aiebant se cum rediissem adfore, they said they would
be present when I had rettirned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non sit honestum, /
say that nothing is expedient which is not morally -right: aedes quas emisset ex-
ornari iussit, he ordered the house which he had bo7ight to be decorated : exprobratur mihi
quod lliadem nondum lege rim, I am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad:
exprobratum est mihi quod lliadem nondum 1 e g i s s e m^ / was reproached with having not
yet read the Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset,
Themistocles used to walk by night, because {he said) he could not sleep.
IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination.
Velim rescribas, / shoidd wish you to write back : vellem adesses, / could wish you
'were here : nollem accidisset, / could wish it had not happetted : mallem quidvis faceres,
I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter i^cisset, I would rather he had done
otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, / would suffer anything rather than
tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, yo7i should perform what you have under-
takett : praestaret quod recepisset, he should perform what he had undertaken : eant
quo velint, they may go where they will : irent quo vellent, they might go where they
would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint ? who can say he wonders that
free men do not wish to be slaves ? earn si iubeas, eam si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, / shall
go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, / would go if you bade me : issem si iussisses, / wotdd
have gone, had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, / should not have been
about to go, unless you had bidden me.
(Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc-
tive Mood, in its various uses, better than Engli.sh given in Tables.)
§44.
Co7ijtigation of the Verb.
177
, FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
Passive Voice.
infinite.
Pr. Impf.
to be loved^ &c.
ama -n
mone -ri
reg -\
audir -1
Perf. PIup.
Future.
amat
monit
w
-us
rect
r
-US
audit
-USi
- esse
amat
monrt
rect
audit
-um
-um
-um i
-um)
iri
Gerundive.
{meef) to he loved, &c.
amand -us -a -urri
monend -us -a -um
regend -us ^a -um
audiend -us -a -um
Partic. Perf. PIup.
loved or having been loved, &c.
amat -lis -a -um
monit -us -a -um
rect -us -a -um
audit -us -a -um
ACTIVEi
legere utile est
to read is useful
librum legere coepi
/ have begun to read the book
memini me legere
/ remember that I read
aio me 1 e g i s s e
/ say that I have read
memineram me 1 egisse
/ remembered tliat I had read
videor mihi lecturus esse
/ think I am going to read
aio melecturumesse
/ say that I ivill read
aiebam me le cturum esse
/ said that I would read
aiebam me lec turum fuisse
/ said that I would have read
V. The Verb Infinite.
Passive.
legi libros utile est
it is useful that books be read
liber legi coepit
the book has begun to be read
memini librum legi
/ r^ineuiber the book being read
aio librum lectumesse
/ say that the book Juis been read
memineram librum lectum ejsse
/ remejnbered the book had b^en react
dicitur liberlectus esse
the book is said to have been read
aio libros lectum iri )
aio fu turum ut libri legantur j
/ say the books are going to be redd:
aiebam fore ut libri kgerentur
/ said that the books woidd be read
aio futurum fu isse ut legerentur
/ say they would have been read
putor lecturus fuisse
it is supposed I shotcld have read
legend um est nobis
we must read
consuetudo legend!
the habit of reading
cupidus sum legendi
/ ain desirous ^ reading
aptusest legendo(ad legendum)
he IS fit for reading
inter legendum
in the course of reading
oblector 1 e g e n d o
/ amuse myself with reading
in legendo versor
/ am engaged in reading
eo lectum Iliadem
/ am going to read the Iliad
lecturus sum Iliadem
/ am about to read the Iliad
Iliadem 1 e g e n s oblector
/ aan charmed with reading the Iliad
lejgendus est Whtt
the book must be read
cupido librorum legendorutn
the desire of reading books
cupidus sum libri legendi]
/ am desirous of reading the book
aptus est libris 1 e g e n d i s )
aptus est ad libros legendos )
he is fitted for reading bodks
oblector libris legend is
/ ainki^ myself with reading books
in libris legendis versor
I am engaged in reading books
librum unicuique legendum
a. book to be read by everybody
librum utilem lectu
a book useful to read
Iliade lecta gaudeo
/ rejoice in having read tJie Iliad
178
Latin Wordlore.
§45,
§45.
SCHEME OF THE
DEPONENT
Indicative Mood.
C5
<L>
(/}
a
Singular.
/ you
ven -or -ar-ts(e)
ver -eor -er-is(e)
ut -or -/r-is(e)
part -ior -lr-is(e)
he^ &c.
-atur
-etur
-Itur
-Itur
I.
we
-amur
-emur
-Imur
-imur
Plural.
2.
ye
-amtni
-emini
-Imini
-imini
3-
they
-antur
-entur
-z^ntur
-i//ntur J
s
in
3
vena -"bori ^g^.jg/g\ -btour -bimini -buntur
vere -bor ) ^ ^ \
ut
-ar
parti -ar
}-er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini -entur
u
s
vena -bar^
vere -bar
ute -bar
partie-bar
--bar-is(e) -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur V ^
P4
venatus, verttus, usus, partitus
venati, veriti, usi, partiti
v_ ■ —
sum es
(fui, &c.)
est
sumus
-V
estis
sunt
u
3
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus^
ero eris
(fuero, &:c.)
erit
venati, veriti, usi, partiti
V_, . V
erimus eritis erunt
3
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti^.
V V — ' ''Tirr' ^
eram eras
(fueram, &c.)
erat eramus eratis erant
Imperative Mood.
Present.
S. 2.
hunt,^c.thou
vena -re
vere -re
ut^" -re
parti -re
PI. 2.
ye
-mini
-mini ^
-/-mini
-mini
S. 2.
thou
vena -tor
vere -tor
vXt -tor
parti -tor
Future.
S. 3-
he
-tor
-tor
-tor
-tor
PI. 3.
they
-ntor
-ntor
AT^^^.-Some Deponents have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare.
§45-
Coitjtcgation of the Verb.
179
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
VERBS.
Conjunctive Mood.
Singular.
Plural.
I.
2.
3-
z.
2.
3.
ven
-er
-er-is(e)
-etur
-emur
-emini
entur
vere
-ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur
-amini
antur
ut
-ar
-ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur
-amini
antur
parti
-ar
-ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur
-amini
antur
C/3
vena-rer\
vere -rer [ _ . ^ »
ut/ -rer[ -rer-is(e) -retur
parti-rerJ
-remur -remini ^rentur
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati^ veriti, usi, partiti
Sim SIS
(fuerim, &c«)
sit
-Y-
CD
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus
V . ^_ — .. ^
essem esses esset
(fuissem, 8ic.)
simus sitis sint
venati, veriti, usi, partiti
essemus essetis assent
Pres. Impf,
vena -ri] c§
vere -ri( -kt
ut -i I
parti -ri J
Pr. Impf.
VERB INFINITE.
Infinitive.
Perf. Plup.
\
Future.
venat-us esse
verit -us esse
us -us esse h*^ ^
partit-us esse *S |
J ^
Participles.
venat-urus esse
verit -urus esse
us -urus esse
partit-urus esse
vena
vere
iit-^
-ns
-ns
-ns
parti-^-ns
^ venand -us
V verend -us
Gerundive.
\
Perf. PIiip.
venat -us
utend -ubj
I partiend-us
J ^ I
y.^S^'^ verit -us
us -us
partit -us
8i
Future.
venat-iirfis
verit -urus
us -urus
partit-urus
Gerunds.
-um -1 -6
-um -i -o
-um -i -o
venand
verend
utend
partiend -um -i -o
o a
^ ^
Supines.
venat-um -u
verit-um -u
us-um -u
partit-um -u
^
N 2
i8o
Laii7i Wordlore.
§ 46-47.
46
Verbs in
i-o.
Indie. Pres.
— Fut.
— Imperf.
Conj. Pres.
— Imperf.
Imper. Pres.
— Fut.
Infin. Pres.
Gerund.
Part. Pres.
VERB in i-o OF CON JUG. III.
(Present-Stem Forms.)
ACTIVE.
cap/-o, cap-Ts, -% -tmus, -ttis, cap/-unt.
cap/-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent. _
cap/-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant.
cap/-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant^
cap-erem, -eres, -eret, -eremus, -eretis, -erent.
cap-e, -ite.
cap-ito, -itote, -/-unto,
cap-ere.
cap/-endum, -endi, -endo.
cap/-ens.
DEPONENT.
I
Indie. Pres. piU-or, pat-eris, -Itur, -Imur, -imTni, -^-untur.
_ Fut. pau'-ar, -er-is(e), -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur. _
_ Imperf. patz-ebar, -ebar-Is(e), -ebatur, -ebamur, -ebamini,
-ebantur. _ . .
Coni. Pres. pat/-ar, -ar-is(e), -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur.
- Imperf. pat-erer, -erer-Is(e), -eretur, -eremur, -eremmi, -eren-^
tur.
pat-ere, -tmini.
pat-Itor, -/-untor.
pat-i.
pat/-endum, -endi, -endo.
pat/-endus. 4
patf-ens.
The Passive of cap/- o is similar, omitting Gerund and Part.
a) Potior follows the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms
wavers between the Third and Fourth: potltur or potitur,
potlmur or potimur, poterer or potirer.
b) In orior the forms orTri and orlrer (rarely orerer) are classi-
cal ; but others (oreris, oritur, &c.) follow the Third Conjugation.
c) Gradior, mo ri or were originally I-verbs ; and exhibit various
i-forms in older Latin (as -grediri -gredirer, moriri). In classical
Latin they became Consonant -Verbs wholly. Honor, orior, have
Future Participles moriturus, orituru?.
Imper. Pres.
— Fut.
Infin. Pres.
Gerund.
Gerundive.
Part. Pres.
pj! iv. Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation.
&Tu-' The Participles in -urus, -dus, may be combined with
all the Tenses of the Verb sum. These forms are
called, i) ^Coniugatio Periphrastica Futuri ^ 2) *Con-
iugatio Periphrastica Gerundivi : ' ^ as
' So also the Passive Combinate Tenses (amatussum, eram, &c.) might be callec
' Coniugatio Periphrastica Praeleriti.*
S47.
Periphrastic Conjugation,
i8l
i) C. p. F.
amaturus, a, um,
&c. &c.
Singular.
2) C. P. G.
amandus, a, um,
&c. &c.
Pres.
0. r ut.
r-
sum
ero
es
eris
_A_.
est
erit
sim
sis
7>
Sit
Imp.
Perf.
Fut. P.
eram
fu-i
fu-ero
eras
-isti
-eris
erat
-it
-erit
essem
fu-erim
esses
-eris
esset
-erit
Plupi.
fu-eram
-eras
-erat
fu-issem
-isses
-isset
T
Indie. M.
Y
Conj. M.
amaturi
J ae, a,
Plural.
amandi, ae,
a,
&c. &c.
&c. &c.
Pres.
S. Fut.
sumus
erimus
estis
eritis
sunt
erunt
simus
sitis
sint
Imp.
Perf.
Fut. P.
eramus
fu-imus
fu-erimus
eratis
-istis
-eritis
erant
-erunt
-erint
essemus
fu-erimus
essetis
-eritis
essent
-erint
Plupf.
fu-eramus
-eratis
-erant
fu-issemus
-issetis
-issent
V
Indie. M.
V —
Conj. M.
Infinite Forms.
amaturus, a, um, &:c.
amaturi, ae, a, &c.
amandus, a, um, &c.
amandi, ae, a, &c.
Pres. Imp. esse
Perf. Plup. fuisse.
' Correspondence of the Latin Verb.
The Latin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek ; but there
are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities.
The points of agreement are chiefly —
1) The Active Personal Endings.
2) The use of Mood Vowels generally.
3) The use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin.
4) The form of the Present Participle Active.
5) The correspondence of many Roots.
But Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects;—
1) It has only two Voices and two Numbers.
2) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of
Optative and Conjunctive Mood.
3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating 'SC'
4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination.
5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it.
E) Personal Endings.
'^thus^^''°"^^ Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
I,
L. m, o ;
Sk. mi, m ;
Gr. V, ui ;
2.
s
si, s
3-
t
ti, t
mus
mas, ma
2.
tis
than, ta
Te
3-
nt
V7%
l82
Latin Wordlore.
§47.
In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the
Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about to
love ; amandus sum, / ain meet to be loved (or, / am to be loved).
So futurus sum, / am about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, &c.
Examples :
Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt).
Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere).
Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit.
Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum esset.
Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus.
Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis.
These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, which are
noticed later.
The Endings of the Imperative Active also coincide :
I 2
L. a, &c. te to tote nto
Sk. a ta tu ntu
Gr. t T« Tea VTttiV
The Ending tO was in E.L. tod ; in Oscan tud ; in Umbrian tu.
The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58.
c) The Imperative Passive Endings are so formed :
amatorforamato-se amantorforamanto-se
Similar agglutination of Passive forms appears in the Umbrian and Oscan dialects ; also
in the Sclavonic and Lithuanian languages.
The Second Persons Plural in -mini are to be regarded as Participles (like Or. -jncroi)
with which the Verb of Being e stis, este, is to be understood: — mino is an old ending
of the Imper. Fut. Pass. 2nd Person, as arbitramino. Plant. Epid. v, 2., where «milior
is called by Ritschl a traditional fiction.
C) Formation of the Tenses.
d) Present Tense Active. I
The Present Stem is prefixed to the Personal Endings ; but
the A-verb contracts ao into O in (amao) amo ;
the I-verb takes vincular u in 3. Plur., audi-»-nt
the Consonant Verb takes a vincular in all persons but i. Sing. ; / in 2. 3.
Sing, and i. 2. Plur. ; « in 3. Plur. : reg-?-s, reg-?-t, reg-/-mus, reg-/-tis,
reg- «-nt.
On the quantities, see p. 169, Note,
b) Future Simple Active.
Here is found variety of formation.
The A- and E-verbs form this tense by agglutinating -t>0, which represents the
Pres. verb f uio. The personal inflexion is like that of the Cons. -Verb in Present
Tense: ama-bo, mone-bo, -bis, -bit, &c.
The Cons, and I-verbs take between Stem and Ending in the 1st Pers. S. the Con-
junctive mood-vowel a (Sk. «) : as veham (Sk. vahdm\ audiam : in the other
Persons they take the Optative mood-vowel e (Sk. e) : vehes, vehet (anc. vehet),
vehemus, vehetis, vehent. So audies, &c.
But I-verbs in E. L. took the forms -"bo, -biS, &c. tasaudfbo, audlbor, &c. :
and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebo, &c.,
appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicem^faciem were written by tho
elder Cato for di cam, faciam.
c) Imperfect Indie. Active.
This Tense in all Conjugations takes the form -bam -bas, &c., representing f u a m,
fuas, &c., the old Imperf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti-
nated to the Present-stem am a-bam, mone-bam; but in the Cons, and I-verbs
6 connects them : reg-e-bam, aud i-e-bam : a formation which seems due to
mere analogy. Here too the form -ibam for -i^bam occurs in old Latin and
in poetry.
§ 48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 183
V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.
Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) :
1) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem :
sum, possum, fero, fio
2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar
changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; edo.
d) Present (and Fut.) Conjunctive.
The E- I- and Cons. -Verbs take the old Sk. Conjunctive vowel a, adding am, aS,
&c. to the Present Stem ; moneam, moneas, &c. ; audiam, audias, &c. ;
regam, regas, &c.
But as ama-am, &c., would be inadmissible, -am in A- Verbs seems to have been
weakened into -im ; whence ama-im, amem, &c.
The a of the Stem is also found in old Latin to be weakened into U in duim (Cic),
for d e m (da-im). Thus, in Plautus, perduim, creduim (also creduam). The
ending im, which appears in sim, velim, is also found in old and poetic forms of
other verbs : edim, Hor. ; comedim, Cic. ; carint ; effodint ; temperint (Plaut.).
e) Imperfect Conjunctive.
Esem (=erem) is agglutinated to the Present-stem : forming (ama-esem)amarem ;
(mone-esem) monerem; (reg-esem) regerem ; (audi-esem) audirem.
y) Perfect Indicative.
Perfect-stem with i, isti, &c. On these end-forms much has been written, and their
origin is still disputed. Curtius (with Schleicher), Corssen, Liibbert, and Herzog
have taken different vieWs, which may be compared in the work of the last-
named scholar {UntersuchMtigen iiber die Bildungsgeschichte der Griech. und
Lutein, Sprache). In so doubtful a matter it may be allowable to surmise that
this tense, like the rest of its Class, is formed by agglutination, the Present forms
of the Verb e s- (sum) being added to the Perfect-stem of each Verb, and synco-
pation ensuing in most Persons. This theory would give :
amav-es-m-i passing into amav-i !
amav-es-s-i — — amav-is-t-i
amav-es-t — — (amav-is-t) amav-It, amav-it
amav-es-mus — — amav-i-mus
amav-es-tis — -r- amav-istis
amav-es-unt — — amav-erunt, -erunt, -ere
Forms in ^for T, elt for It, belong to E.L. and R.L. Poets use -erunt : steterunt,
Verg. ; verte-runt, Hor., &c.
g) The other Perfect-stem Tenses are formed by agglutinating es-im, es-o (ero)
and es(s)em severally to the Perfect-stem :
Perf. Conj. amav-erim; Fut. Perf. amav-ero; Plup. Conj. amav-issem
(sharpened from -esem).
D) The Verb Infinite.
The Infinitive Pres. Act. a m a - r e (for ama-se), Perf. amav-is-se (for amav-i-se),
are Verb-nouns formed by adding the Dative or Locative element -se to the Pre-
sent and Perfect Stems severally.
The Present Active Participle in ns (nt-S) corresponds to the Greek Participle in
VT-i Sk. t {nt when nasalized ; Nom. S. n).
^he Supines and Passive Participle in tU-r tO- (tUS) correspond to the Sk. Parti-
cipial in ta.
The Future Participle in -turus corresponds to the Sk. agentive ending tar (tor) :
amaturus (amator).
The Gerundive in -ndo (ndus) seems to have a double suffix : (i) Pres. Partic. in
nt, (2) do-. The vincular e which connects these with the Present-Stem of Cons.
and I-verbs was anciently u ; which remained in legal documents to the Aug.
age : reg(?ndus, reg^^ndus ; feri^ndus, feriz^ndus : but ori^ndus always.
On the old Passive Infinitive form ier (which passed into i), see p. 58. Gossrau
says that Lange has collected 336 instances of its use in inscriptions', laws, old
writers, and poets : of the latter, 187 are in Plautus, 46 in Lucretius, and 6 in
Virgil. Pure Verbs are those which shew it oftenest.
On the archaic and poetic forms which omit Si, see p. 54.
48
Irre-
gular
Verbs
Latin Wordlore.
§48.
Possvim. !• Possum, / can^ is assimilated from pot-sum = potis (or pote)
sum, I am able, Perf. potui for pote-fui. See p. 168.
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Present.
S. possum
potes
potest
P. possumus
potestis
possunt
possim
possis
possit
possimus
possitis
possint
u
potui
potuisti
potuit
potuimus
potuistis [-e
potuer^unt
potuerim
potueris
potuerit
potuerimus
potueritis
potuerint
3
S. poterq
poteris
poterit
P. poterlmus
poteritis
poterunt
as Pres,
potuero
potueris
potuerit
potuerimus
potueritis
potuerint
as Perf.
Imp.
S. poteram
poteras
poterat
poteramus
poteratis
poterant
possem
posses
posset
possemus
possetis
possent
d
3
*
potueram
potueras
potuerat
potueramus
potueratis
potuerant
potuissem
potuisses
potuisset
potuissemus
potuissetis
potuissent
Infin. Pr. Impf. posse (for pot-es-se) ; Perf. Plup. potui sse.
Pptens is an Adjective rather than a Participle, ^ powerful^ able.'
Some archaic forms are found in the elder po^ts : as poterint,
potessem, potesse, possiem, possies, &c. The Impersonal Passive
potestur is in Lucr. and Plaut. This, and the Passive forms of
queo, nequeo, eoepi, desino, are only used before an Infinitive
Passive. See Munro on Lucr. i. 1045. Potis sum^ es, est, &c. are
found in poetry.^
Fero. n. Fero (Sk. bhar, Gr. </>fp-), brings bear,
The peculiarities of this Verb are :
' i) In the Present-stem forms it easts out vincular \ before s
and t : as fers, fert, fertur, &c. : also e between r and p :
as ferrem, ferrer, ferre. The Imperative fer rejects
final e.
2) It takes its Perfect-stem tul- from the root tol-, and the
Supine-stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the
same root {tal- or tla-). For Cpp. see p. 217. ,
* Potis, pote (originally Adjectives) are also used adverbially. Their origin is Sk. pati,
* Iprd/ whence Gr, Trocrts, -nofv^a (/ord ^ncj /ff<^).
§48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs, 185
SCHEME.
Present-Stem Tenses Active.
Indic.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Infin.
Part.
Present.
S. fero
fert
P. ferlmus
fertis
ferunt
feram
feras
ferat
feramus
feratis
ferant
fer
ferte
ferre
ferens
Fut. S.
S. feram
feres
&c.
as Present
ferto
&c.
laturus
esse
laturus, a,
um
Imperf.
S. ferebam
ferebas
&c.
ferrern
ferres
&c.
■
Present-Stem Tenses Passive.
Present.
S. feror
ferris
fertur
P. ferimur
ferimini
feruntur
ferar
ferar-is (e)
feratur
feramur
feramini
ferantur
•
ferre
ferimini
ferri
latus, a, um
[um
ferendus, a,
Fut. S.
S. ferar
ferer-is (e)
&c.
as Present
fertor
&c.
latum iri
Imperf
S. ferebar
ferebar-is
(e) &c.
ferrer
ferrer-is (e)
&c.
Perfect- Stem Tenses (Active).
tul-i, tuUero, tul-eram, tul-issem, &c. ; tulisse : regularly, as
rex-i, &c.
Supine-Stem Tenses (Passive).
latus , . sum (fui, &c.), ero, eram, sim, essem, &c. : regularly,
as rect-us sum (fui), &c.
III. Fio (Sk. M//, Gr. ^v-), ain made^ become.
The Quasi-passive fio is used as the Passive of facio in the
Present-Stem Tenses.
The Supine- Stem Tenses are formed by factus regularly.
1 86 Latin Wordlore,
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Infin.
Part.
Present.
S. fro
fis
fit
P /'fTmus^
(fitis)
fiant
flam
fias
fiat
f Tamils
fiatis
fiant
ft
(fite)
fieri
factus, a, um
[um
faciendus, a,
Fut. S.
fles
&c.
as Present
(fito)
&c.
fntnfiiQ PQciP
fore
TlltllVllC U
lULUi Us^ <x^
um
Imperf.
S. fiebam
fiebas
&c.
fterem
/teres
&c.
t:
S. factus
sum &c.
factus sim
&c.
factus esse
factus, a, um
The bracketed forms are hardly found.
Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fu-. Hence fore and
futurus may be assigned to this Verb as well as to sum, by which
they are borrowed. This appears from the constant usage of Latin
authors : 'Neque ego ea, quae facta sunt, fore quum dicebam,
divinabam futura,' C. Fam. vi. i. 5 ; ' Quid fidit, factum, futur-
umve sit.' C. d. Or, ii. 26. 113.
The i is long except before er, and in fit. Comic poets often
lengthen i in fie rem, fieri.
Fio, being the Passive of facio, appears as such in many Com-
pounds : liquefio, calefio, satisfio ; with Prepositions only in a
few instances, as in some forms of confieri, defieri, interfieri,
efHeri, superfieri. Also infit,, begins {to speak), Y^xg,
IV. V. VI. Volo, nolo, malo.
Volo, / wish, I will (Sk. var, Gr. /3oX- /3ou\-), has the following
peculiarities :
1) Its stem- vowel fluctuates between o, u, e.
2) It rejects i in three Persons of Pres. Indie. (2. 3 S. 2 PL), and
e in Impf. Conj. and Infin. Pres.
3) It rejects a consonant in Pres. Indie. 2nd Pers. vis. (Corssen says
that this cons, is not 1 but the prim. r. See KriL Nachtrdge, 287.)
4) It assimilates s to preceding 1 in vellem, &c. for vel-sem, &c.
and in vel-le for vel-se.
5) The Pres. Conj. takes the ending im, is, &c. instead of am.
Nolo is compounded of ne (non) with volo : Malo of magis or
mage and volo.
§48.
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 187
Mavelim, mavelle, &c., also nevis, nevelle, appear in E. L.
Volt, volt is were used before Augustus.
Noli is formed from nolis, 2nd Pers. Conj.
SCHEME.
Indicative. 1
Conjunctive.
S. volo
nolo
malo
velim
ndlim
malim
•
Vis
nonvis
mavis
velis
nolis
malis
4-»
CS
milt
nonvult
mavult
velit
nolit
mdlit
to
u
P. volumus
nolumus
malumus
velimus
nolimus
mallmus
r\ .
(-H
It*
vultts
nonvultis mavultis
velitis
nolitis
malitis
volunt
nolunt
malunt
velint
nolint
malint
in
S. volam
voles
noles
males
as Present
&c.
&c.
&c.
S. volebam
nolebam
malebam
vellem
nollem
malle77i
volebas
nolebas
nialebas
velles
nolles
malles
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
S. volui
nolui
malui
voluerim
noluerim
maluerim
voluisti
noluisti
maluisti
volueris
nolueris
malueris
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
S. voluero
noluero
maluero
3
volueris
nolueris
malueris
as Perfect
&c.
&c.
&c.
d
S. volueram nolueram malueram
voluissem noluissem maluissem
volueras
nolueras
malueras
voluisses
noluisses
maluisses
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
Imperative.
(volo and malo, none)
s. 2 3. P. 2. 3.
Pres. noli — nolite —
Fut. nolito nolito nolitote nolunto
Infinitive.
Pres Impf. velle nolle malle
Perf. Plup. voluisse noluisse maluisse
Participles.
Pres. volens nolens (rare)
Gerunds are hardly found.
a) Pervolo, wish muck, h^s pervelim, pervellem, pervelle.
Vin is used for visne, will youf sis for si vis ; sultis for si
vultis, if you please ; caps is for cape si vis.
i88
• Latin Wordlore.
VII. Eo (for io),^^7.
The root is i- (Sk. Gr.), to go, which becomes e before a, o, u.
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Verb Infinite.
c
S. eo
is
it
earn
eas
eat
I
INFINITIVE.
^'Pr Imof)
ire
(Perf. PIup.)
ivisse
or isse
Participles.
^Pres Imnf. ^
iens
euntem
&c.
Pres<
P. imus
itis
eunt
eamus
eatis
eant
lie
Fut. S.
S. ibo
ibis
Ibit
P. ibimus
ibitis
ibunt
as Present
ILO
ito
Itote
eunto
(Future)
iturus esse
(Future)
Iturus
Imperf.
S. ibam
ibas
&c.
irem
Ires
&c.
Gerund.
Supines.
Perf.
S. ivi or li
ivisti, isti
&c.
lerim
leris
&c.
eundum
eimdi
eundo
1. it-um
2. ItU
The remaining Tenses are formed as in aud-ivi. The v is usually
dropt by ivi and its Compounds: ii, iisti or isti, ieram, issem,
&:c. ; redii, rediero, redistis, redisse, &c.
The Impersonal Passive itur, Itum est, iri, &c., is often used^
Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the
Active e o forms a periphrasis with Supine,
iniurias istas ultum eunt
they are going to avenge those wrongs
aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri
they say that those wrongs a7'e going to be avenged
(literally : there is a-tending to avenge those wrongs),
Km\>\o, go round, canvass, follows the Conjugation of audio.
VIII. IX. Queo ; nequeo.
Queo, can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot, are like eo, so far as
their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds,
queo quis quivi quire .... quitum quiens (queuntis)
nequeo nequis nequivi nequire . nequitum nequiens (nequeuntis)
The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo.
Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. :
subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; *quita est,' Ter. Hec, iv. I. 59;
^nequitur,' Plaut. Rttd, iv, 4. 20.
§49.
Conjugation of Defective Verbs,
189
X. £do (Sk. ad, Gr. eat. Edo.
This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of
forms, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d.
2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act es for ed-t-s (ed-s).
3rd „
2nd Pers. PI.
Imperf. Conj.
Imperat Pres.
„ Fut.
Inf. Pres. .
5>
est for ed-i-t (ed-t).
estis for ed-i-tis (ed-tis).
essem for ed-e-rem (ed-sem), &c.
este for ed-t-te (ed-te)
esto, estate for edito, editote
esse for ed-e-re (ed-se)
3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, esttir for ed-i-tur (ed-tur)
The other forms of this Verb are regular; except that e dim,
edis, &c., are sometimes found for edas, edat, &c.
vi. Conjugation of Defective Verbs.
Defective Verbs are without some of the usual
parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of
Verbs are Defective ; but those commonly so called
by grammarians are the following :
L Praeteritiva : Verbs which, having no Present-Stem forms
in use, express these by Perfect forms.
1) coepi,^ {have begun begin^ from co-ap-^-o (Obsolete)
2) odi, {have hated-) hate, from 6d-/-o (Obsolete)
3) memini, {have mi7tded =) re}ne77tber, from men- (Obs.)
SCHEME.
49
Defec-
tive
Verbs.
Coepi,
odi,
memini.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Infin.
Perfect.
coepi
coepisti
&c.
odi
odisti
&c.^
memtni
meministi
&c.
coeperim
coeperis
&c.
oderim
oderis
&c.
meminerim
memineris
&c.
coepisse
odisse
meminisse
Fut. Perf.
coepero
odero
meminero
memento
coepturus esse
osurus esse
Pluperf.
coeperam
oderam
memineram
coepissem
odissem
meminissem
* The obsolete Verb apio, acqtcire^ of which coepio, coepi, is a compound, ap-
pears in the forms a p i s c o r, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also in apis,
190 . . Lati7i Wordlore. ^ §4^.
a) K Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum: as
^comitia haberi coepta sunt/ Cic. Coepturus is used by Pliny,
Quintilian, &c.
The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut. Ten).
Co-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro.
b) The obsolete Verb od/o, odere, probably meant to repel.
Osus sum is a rarer form of odi. Osurus is used.
Exosus, perosus, hating greatly^ have Passive sense in L. L.
c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. of
an obs. verb meno (mano) = Sk. man^ * think/ which appears in
comminiscor commentus ; mens; mentio; mentior, and
numerous Greek and other forms.
Novi. 4) N ovi [Jiave cojne to unow)^ Perfect of nos co, know, is used as
a Praeteritive (/ know), like Gr. oila. Hence noveram, noram,
knew\ novero, shall know novisse, nosse, to know, &c.
Aio. IL Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. agh).
Indie.
Conjunc
Imper.
ai-o
a-i (rare)
«•!
a-is
ai-as
C
V
(A
a-it
ai-at
0)
Pi
ai-unt
ai-ant
Imperf.
ai-ebam
ai-ebas
&c.
The Participle ai-ens is very rare ('negantia sunt contraria ai-
entibus/ Cic).
Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity.
Ain' tu? do you say so ? was a familiar expression.
Inquam. IIL Inquam, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.), for inquio.
op is, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is ap (Pr. af). The kinship of apio,
coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we observe the similarity of
meaning as well as form : for not only is the sense of acquiring in capio, accipio, per-
cipio, &c., but also that of he ginning vol incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi, some-
times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in
Italian speech, as a simple form, of the compound co-ap- {get together ^ and so take),
bearing the same relation to a p - that comprehendo does toprehendo. The old word
remained, in the sense of beginning, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c.), after-
wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own compounds
incipio, incepi, occipio, occepi ; as well as in its derivative occupo : 'interdum ra-
pere occupat,' now and then she is the first to snatch thetHy Hor. The passage of com-
pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances.
§49-
Conjiigatio7i of Defective Verbs.
191
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Present.
lilUUdlll
inquis
inquit
inquimus
inquiunt
inquiat ?
—
Fut. S.
inquies
inquiet
inquito
di
6
inquiebat
Perf. j
inquisti
inquiit?
Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk.
Gr. \xC) in the Pres. Indie.
Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between
parts of construction, as quoth in English.
Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khydmi, ^ I say').
IV. Fari, to speak^ has these forms :
Indie. Pres.
Fut. . .
Perf., &c.
Imperat. .
Infin. . *
Gerund .
Supine
Part. Pres.
Fari.
fatur, speaks
fabor, fabitur
fatus, sum, eram, &c.
fare
fari
fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus
fatu
fantem, fantis, &c. Part. Perf. fatus
Its Compounds af fari, effari, (inter prae pro)-fari, can use the
same forms and a few more : ' affamur,' Ov. ; ^affamini,' Curt. ;
* affabar,' Verg. ; * effabere,' Lucan ; * effabimur,' Cic. ; ' praefantes,'
CatuU. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c.
V. Ovare, to rejoice, triumph, has some Third Persons Sing. o>
(ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic. Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus.
VI. Quaeso, I beg', ist P. PI. quaesumiis.
VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and fnfimtive : impera-
hail! hail! farewell ! come ! be off ! tivc
S. salve have (or ave) vale ag^ apage
PI. salvete havete valefe agile
S. salveto haveto valeto
salvebis valebis
salvere havere valere
Add S. cedo, PI. cedite, cette,jz^r<2y tell me, give me, &c.
Imperative
>vare.
Quaeso.
Forms.
J)
Fut. S.
Infin. .
so
Imper-
sonal
Verbs,
Latm Wordlore.
§ 50.
VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs.
Impersonal Verbs are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin-
gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive.
A, Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice.
i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation :
oportet, taedet, miseret,
piget, pudet, paenitet,
decet atque dedecet,
libet, Hcet, et liquet,
attinet et pertinet,
behoves y disgusts, moves pity
it irks, shaines, repents
it beseems, inisbeseems
it pleases, is lawful, is clear
it relates, belongs.
Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.) :
Indie.
me, te, eum,
nos, vos, eos
mihi, &c. .
ad me, &c.
1. oport
2. taed
3. miser
4. pig
5. pud
6. paenit
7. dec
8. dedec
9. lib
10. lie
11. attin
12. pertin
Conj.
Infin.
-et
-ebit ,
-ebat
-uit
-uerit
-uerat
-eat
-ere
. Pres.
S. Fut.
-eret Imperf.
-uerit -uisse . Perf.
. . . . * . . Fut. Perf.
-uisset .... Pluperf.
The following Perfects are also used: 2. pertaesum est; 3.
miseritumest;4. pigitumest; 5. puditumest; 9. libitum
est ; 10. licitum est.
Mi sere scit is used ; sometimes miseretur.
Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles
miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni-
tens, dec ens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives.
The Persons are expressed by the Case : as
Sing, oportet me ire ^
oportet te ire
oportet eum ire
PI. oportet nos ire
oportet vos ire
oportet eos ire
Sing, licet mihi ire
licet tibi ire —
licet ei ire —
PI. licet nobis ire —
licet vobis ire —
licet iis ire —
And so in the other Tenses.
behoves me
you
him
— — us
— — you
— — the7n ^
it is allowed me
>to go-=^<
I
you
he
you
him
MS
you
them^
'togo^-f,
we
ye
they )
(I
you
he
ought
logo
we
X^they
^fnaygo
^ C. derives oportet (op-portet) from Gr. -nop-, * it is the ^art ;* pudet, paenitet,
from Sk. pu ; taedet, from Sk. (see pp. 14, 15); decet from Sk. dt^. Libet or
lubet: Sk. lu&k, 'desire.* Licet: Sk. ric\ Gr. AtTr- L. liwquere, leave. The same
relation exists between * to leave ' and the noun leave in English. * I give you leave* — ^ I
leave it to yo7i ; * * / have leave '^* it is left to me* Piget is unexplained.
2) Some Personal Verbs are
meaning :
accidit happens
conducit it profits
contingit// befalls
evenit it turns out
convenit suits
expedit // is expedient
placet it pleases
re Stat it remains
succurrit // occurs
vacat there is leisure
So usu venit, in mentem venit, &c.
Impersonal Verbs, 193
used impersonally with special
delectat
iuvat
mihi
fallit
tibi
fugit
ei
interest
nobis
refert
vobis
est
iis, &c.
fit
constat
praestat
me, te,
eum, &:c.
it charms
it delights
it eludes
it escapes
it concerns \ mea, tua,
// imports I eius, &c.
is a fact
it cofnes to pass
it is acknowledged
it is best
3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather!
such are
fulgurat // lightens ningit // snows lucescit it dawns
tonat it thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light
gr3.ndina,t it hails rorat there falls dew vespQYSiScit it gets late
Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog-
nate Noun as Subject: nix ningit, snow snows = nix est, snow
occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti =
pudor facti me pudet = pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and
most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Inlinitive Verb-
noun or a dependent Clause.
B. i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the
Passive Voice ; luditur, from ludo, I play.
Present . .
Simple Fut. .
Imperf. . .
Perfect . .
Fut. Perf. .
Pluperf. . .
Ind.
luditur
ludetur
ludebatur
lusum est
lusum erit
lusum erat
Conj.
ludatur
luderetur
lusum sit
Infin,
ludi
lusum iri
lusum esse
lusum esset lusum fuisse
The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the
Preposition a or ab following the Verb :
Present Indicative.
Sing, luditur a me there is playing by me
luditur a te
luditur ab eo —
PI. luditur a nobis —
luditur a vobis —
luditur ab iis —
And so in the other Tenses.
thee
him
MS
you
them
= I play
— thou play est
— he plays
— we play
=ye play
= they play
The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered
usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play, or
they play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on joue,
o
5^
Stems.
Present
Stem.
194 Latin Wordlore, §51.
2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or
"Necessity, with a Dative or Ablative of the Person :
Present Indicative.
Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me -I
ludendum est tibi — — — thee = thou
ludendum est ei — — — him =he
PL ludendum est nobis — — — us -we
ludendum est vobis — — — you =ye
ludendum est iis — — — them = they
And so in the other Tenses.
In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may
be absent, and we^ they, or one supplied, as in the former instance.
So French, on doit jouer.
Section III.
Three Thc Forms of the three Stems in Verbs.
i. The Present-Stem.
1. The only Verb-roots which have Indicative Present-Stem
forms unchanged immediately before Personal endings are :
The root es (sum, es-mi) in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te,
es - to (es-se).
The root vol in the forms vol-t, vol- 1 is.
The root fer in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te,
fer-to, (fer-re).
The root da, give, in the forms da-t, da-mus, da-tis,
da-nt, da-te, da-to, (da-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this
root is reduplicated.
2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre-
sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per-
sonal endings are :
The root sta, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi-
callysta-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt, sta, sta-te,sta-to,
(sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated.
The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, pie, y^//, in the same forms, fie- s,
ne-s, -pies-, &c.
The root 1, go, in the forms i-s, I-t (classically It), T-mus,
i-tis, 1, i-te, I- to (i-re). In eo, eam, &c., 1 is strengthened,
but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix.
The root qui, can (with its compound nequi), the forms of
which resemble those of 1.
(Note, fl-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an
example here.)
3. In all other A- E- and I-Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel
character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt-
S tern * (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all fiexional suffixes. This
* On the Term Clipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 30.
The Present' Stein,
19s
is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength-
ened in the Present-stem: indu-is, indu-e, indu-ere: but
audi-s, audi, audi-re.
4. With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3),
Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short.
Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs
have the long vowel : die ere (E. L. deicere), ducere (E. L. doucere),
fidere (E. L. /eider e), compared with veridicus, dux ducis,
fides.
These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of
Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie*
Pres. 1st P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi)^
Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd
(Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, comd
into notice here.
A) Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha*
racter (Nasalisation). See § 12. xvi.
To the-examples there given many may be added, tvhieh, though
keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred
forms: fi-;z-g- (fictum) ; fre-^-d- (fressum), -he-;^-d- (x"^~>
-hed^ra) ; iu-;^-g- (iugum) ^l^-m-h- (labium) ; li-^-g- (ligurrio);
mdi-n^d- (mala); mi-;^-g- (mictum) ; mn-n-g- (mucus); ni-;^-g-
(hix); pa-;^-d- (passus) ; ^i-n-s- (pistor); sa-;2-cire (sacer) 5
sca-/^-d- (scala) ; sti-;^-g- (o^WQ ; a-;2-g- (dyiov),
B) Suffix n (Sk. no) joined to a Vowel or Liquid Stem :
Strengthened Stem True Stem Shewn in Perf.
W-n- li- or le- ll-vi or le-vi
81-/2- si- sl-vi
posi-;^- \ . (posi-vi) pos-ui )
pon- i posi- posi-tum (Sup.) >
cer-n- cer' (ere-) cre-vi
sper-;^- Sper- (spre) spre-vi
ster-;^- Star- (stra) stra-vi
tem-;^- tem- tem-si
in £.L. are found siich forms as da-;^-unt fordant, soH-^^-tiiit
for Solent, nequi-;2-Unt for nequeunt, obi-/2-unt for obeunt.
C) the Suffix sc, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb I n- .
ceptive or I ncho a tive (i) when the True Stem ends in a VoweL
Thus : from pa-, pa-j^^-ere; from fati-, fati-J-^-ere ; from ira-,
ira-j'^--i; from na-, na-j'^-i ; from ere-, cre-j-^r-ete; from quie-y
quie-jr-ere; from no-, no-^y^-ere ; from hi-, hi^j-^'-ere.
(2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular / is re-
quired : from ap-^ ap-^'-j-^-i ; from men-, men-i-se-i ; from obliv-,
ohViY-i-sc-i ; from pac-, pac-Z-j'^'-i ; from profic- profic-/-j"^:-i ;
from ulc-, wlc-i-sc-i ; from nac- (also nasalised), Xi2i-n-c-i-sc-i ;
from experrig- (also syncopated), experg-2-^<r-i.
C is excluded by di-j^r-ere for dic-^^r-ere ; d by ve-^^-i for
ved-jc-i.
o 2
196 Latin Wordlore, ^ §51.
Obs, The foregoing examples are mostly from stems which are
not in use as actual words : but Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs
derived from existing Verbs or Nouns are a very large class, all of
the 3rd Conjugation, and express the beginning of action.
Those derived from Verbs add so- or -i-sc- to the Present-stem :
laba-^^-ere from laba-re, i.
palle-J'r-ere — palle-re, 2.
trem-Z-j'^r-ere — trem-ere, 3.
obdormI-j*^:-ere — obdormi-re, 4.
Those derived from Nouns add esc- (rarely a-sc-) to the Clipt
Stem :
dur-^j'r-ere from durus
mit-^i-^r-ere — mitis
macr-^j^-ere — mScer
plum-^i-^r-ere — pluma
vesper-^j-^:-ere — vespera
For a fuller list see Syllabus.
D) A few Present-stems are reduplicated. On Reduplication see
§ 12. xiv. Thus
^/-be-re for pi-pe-re (Stem^^, po)
^/-gn-ere — gi-gen-ere (Stem gen, Sk. jari)
j-Z-ste-re — sti-ste-re (Stem std)
j-^-re-re — si-se-re (Stem so)
E) The Liquid 1 is doubled in the Present-stem of
eel/ere, fal/ere, pel/ere, tol/ere.
F) T is added to the True Stem in
flec/ere, nec/ere, pec/ere, plec/ere.
G) A few Present Stems are written with g or gu indifferently :
nin^ere or nin^//ere, tin^ere or tin^^/ere, un^ere or un^//ere. So
in Conj. 2. ur^ere or urguere.
H) The appearance of in certain Verbs of Conj. 3. (cap/o,
pat/or, &c.), as an extension of the Present-Stem, has been noticed.
(Peculiarities of special Consonant Verbs will be found in the Syl-
labus.)
ii. The Perfect-Stem.
V orma- v
Perfect The Perfect Stem of Latin Verbs is formed in various ways.
Stem
A) By reduplicating the Present-Stem without or with vowel-
change of Stem : the reduplicative syllable being in some instances ^
dropt.
B) By lengthening the vowel of the Present-Stem, without or
with vowel-change.
^ This i represents a Conjugative sufifix ya in Sanskrit, of which the a falls away in
Latin : so that cap-i-o, pat-i-or, &c., may be represented as= cap-yo, pat-yor, &c
See Schleicher, p. 577. v.
The P erf ect'S tent.
197
C) By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem.
D) By suffixing to the Present-stem v or u, representing fu-.
E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing es-.
A) Perfect-stem formed by Reduplication.
d) The Reduphcative syllable consists of the first two letters
of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel-change of
the Stem.
In E-verbs the Chpt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated :
mo-mord-i frommord-e-; pe-pend-i from pend-e-;
sp6-pond-i (for spo-spond-i) from spond-e-; totond-i
from tond-e-.
In Consonant Verbs the True Stem : cu-curr-i from
curr- ; di-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ; pe-pend-i
from pend-; p6-posc-i from pose-; pu-pug-i from
pu-;2-g-; te-tend-i fromtend-; tu-tud-i from tu-;^-d-.
Fid-i is for {fi-ftd-i) from fi-n-d- ; scid-i for (sci-scid-z)
from sci-;/-d-.
The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with e ; in
which case some weakening of the stem-vowel also takes
place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as
above in pependi, tetendi.
The only instances in A- verbs are de-d-i from da-; ste-t-i
from St a- : which seem to cast out the stem-vowel. But
they probably are for dedei, stestei, and so have weak-
ened a into e.
■ In Consonant Verbs the instances are :
pe-perc-i from pare-; pe-plg-i from ipd^-n-g-; te-t!g-i
from ta-;^-g- ; ce-cid-i from cad-; ce-cid-i from caed- ;
ce-cin-i from can-; me-min-i from men-; pe-per-i
■ frompar-^"-; f e- fell -i from fall- ; pe-pul-i from pel-/-.
Tuli from tol-/- is for te-tul-i, which is found in old Latin.
Ce-cul-i is from eel-/- ; but both are obsolete : the Cp.
percell- forms perculi.
Other forms of E. L. are fefici from fac-, tettni from ten-,
B) Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present-^
stem. See § 12. xiv. p. 18.
d) The Vowel of the CHpt Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Pure Verbs :
iuv-ifrom iuva- ; lav-i from lava-; sed-i from sede- ; vTd-i from
vtde- ; cav-i from cave- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from
pave- ; fov-i from fove- * mov-i from move- ; v6v-i from
vove-.
b) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Consonant Verbs :
vic-i from vi-;^-c- ; liqu-i from li-;/-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i
from leg- ; ed-i from ed- ; fod-i from fod-/- ; fud-i from
i\x-n-A- ; rup-i from xxx-m^^^' ; scab-i from scab- ; em-i
from em-.
igS Latin Wordlore. § gi.
c) The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the
following Consonant Verbs :
fec-i from fac-/ ; iec-i from iac-/- ; eg-i from ag- ; freg-i
from fra-;/-g- ; cep-i from cap-/- ; and in -peg-i from some
compounds of pa-;^-g-.
C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem.
a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E-
verbs :
prande- prand-i ; stride- strid-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui).
and in the I -verbs :
comperi- comper-i ; reperi- repper-i ;
miless rep peri is syncopated from repeperi.
b) The Present-stem becomes Peyfect-stem in these Consonant
forms :
bib-i ; cud-i ; ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ;
pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ;
vis-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.).
Likewise in U-verbs classically: ru-i, metu-i.
But on these see § 12. xiv. p. 18.
U) a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing v ( = fu-) to a strengthened
Vowel character.
This is done by most A- and I-verbs :
ama-v-i audl-v-i
and by some E -verbs :
dele-v-i fle-v-i
Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True
Vowel stem. See p. 195.
; cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or li-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ;
pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i.
Likewise a few Verb^ in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine
forms of Conj. 4. :
cup-/- cup-iv-i ; pet- pet-iv-i ; ter- ter-Iv-i or trivi ; quaer- for
quaes- quaes-iv-i ; arcess- arcess-iv-i ; and so capess-
facess- lacess-.
Perfect-stem formed by ^suffixing; u ( = fu-) to the Present
Stem.
d) To a Clipt Stem :
In a few A- verbs :
crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-,
veta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica^ ; neca-, plica-.
But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus.
In most E'Verbs :
mone- mon-u-i
In the I-verbs aperi- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-Uri ; sali- sal-u-i.
Note. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma-
tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in esc- isc- derived from
Nouns, if they haye a Perfect, form it in u-i : obduresc- obdur-
u-i^
151. The Supine- Stem, I99
b) To a True Consonant Stem :
in most Verbs with character 1, m :
al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; &c.
also in
elic-/ elic-u-i ; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ;
stert- stert-u-i ; cnmb- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins- pins-u-i ;
ser-, jozUy ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i ; gign- ( -- gen-)
gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i,
E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing s ( = es) to the Present-
stem.
This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does
the Greek Aorist form in 0*0.
As this formation brings s into concurrence with other conso-
nants, the laws of euphony must be applied as set forth in § 12. xxvi.
^nd § 12, xxix : where it is shewn that
a guttural with s produces x: dixi, rexi ; b before s be-
comes p: scrip si ; dentals are cast out, Compensation or
Assimilation often ensuing: risi, sensi ; and gutturals,
are cast out after r, l: mersi, fulsi. Also p is inserted
between m and s : sum/si.
<?) S is suffixed to the Clipt-stem of many E-verbs and some
I -verbs :
auge- auxi ; luce- luxi, arde- arsi ; &c.
farci- farsi ; vinci- vinxi ; sanci- sanxi, &c.
In iube- iussi the assimilation is peculiar ; mane- mansi
is an unusual formation: in haere- haesi and hauri-
hausi r ( = s) has fallen out before s.
b) S is suffixed to most Consonant Stems with a Mute cha-
racter, and to some with m, p, (s) : due- duxi ; teg- texi ;
sparg- sparsi ; ced- cessi ; nub- nupsi ; com- compsi ;
ur- ussi, &c. See Syllabus.
iii. The Supine-Stem. Format
tion of
This has the suffix t, which is added to the True or Clipt Stem, |^p^»«
without or with i before the ending -um. A Vowel Character
(a, e, i) is, with some exceptions, lengthened.
I. T is suffixed to the Stem without mutation of Consonants, but
with lengthening of a Vowel Character
i) In those Pure Verbs which add v to the True Stem in the
Perfect :
ama-t-um fle-t-um audi-t-um
including some which strengthen the Pres. Stem with a suffix : p. 95 •
cre-t-um quie-t-um na-t-um
spre-t-um ira-t-um no-t-um
stra-t-um
But in the following Supines the Stem vowel is not lengthened 1
li-t-um (lino) si-t-um (sino)
i-t-um (eo) sa-t-um (sero)
Pa»s-t-um (pasco, pavi, from root pa) keeps s irregularly.
1
200 Latin W or More. § 51,
2) In Verbs of Conj. 3., which adopt in the Perfect the Character
i of Conj. 4.: cupi-tum ; petl-tum ; quaesi-tum ; tri-tum ; arces-
sl-t-um ; capessi-t-um ; facessi-t-um ; lacessi-tum.
3) In U-verbs : indu-t-um (indu-ere).
Except ru-t-um or ru-T-t-um (ru-ere) ; lu-t-t-um (lu-ere) ; fru-I-tum
(fru-i).
4) In Consonant Verbs with the Characters c (after a Vowel) x
p, n, m (with euphonic p), r, 1 (after a, u) : dic-tum, duc-tum, nac-
tum, tex-tum, ap-tum, comp-tum, par-turn, al-tum, consul-turn, &c.
Also stru-c-t-um (from stru-ere for stru-ic-ere).
For Exceptions see III.
On the Vowel-change which occurs in the close syllable of many
Supines : affec-tum (afficere), cul-tum (colere). See § 12. xxiv.
5) Insta-t-um (sta-re), sometimes sta-t-um.
But da-t-um (da-re) keeps a short.
II. T is added to the Stem with mutation of Consonants.
1) The Guttural Characters gr, gv, qv, h, in Conj. 3. become o
when t follows (see § 12. xxvi. II.): a-c-t-um (ag-ere) ; fra-c-t-um
(fra;/g-ere) ; un-c-t-um (ungu-ere) ; co-c-t-um (coqu-ere) ; -li-c-
t-um (li;/qu-ere) ; tra-c-t-um (trah-ere) ; ve-c-t-um (veh-ere). Also
vi-c-t-um (viv-ere) ; experre-c-t-um (experg-isci) ; pis-t-um (pins-
ere). See Syllabus.
2) qv is vocalized into -cu in
lo-cia-t-um (loqu-i) se-cu-t-um (sequ-i)
3) The Labial character b becomes p :
nu-p-t-um (nub-ere) scri-p-t-um (scrib-^re)
4) V is vocalized into n in
sol-u-t-um (solv-ere) vol-u-t-um (volv-ere)
5) R (primitively s) becomes s again :
ge-s-t-um (ger-ere) u-s-t-um (ur-ere)
que-s-t-um (quer-i)
6) Exclusion of the preceding Character occurs in
ul-t-um (ulc-isci) obli-t-um (obliv-isci)
III. T is joined to the Stem by /, in the following Verbs of Conj,
3, with Nasal Character : frem-^-trum, gem-z-t-um, gen-^-t-um,
vom-2-t-um.
Also in eUc-2-t-um, fug-^-t-^um, bib-^rt-um, cub-^-t-um, strep-i'-
t-um, mol-2-t-um, coal-i'-t-um (coalesc-ere), pos-^-t-um, lu-^'-t-um,
ru-^'-t-um, fru-^'-t-um.
IV. T is added to the Clipt Stem without mutation of Consonants
in the following :
A- verbs : seca- sec-t-um ; frica- fric-t-um ; eneca- enec-t-um.
E-verbs : doce- doc-t-um; tene- ten-t-um; misere- miser-2-t-um
(or miser-t-um).
I-verbs : amici- amic-t-um ; sanci- sanc-t-um (or sanc-T-tum) ;
vinci- vinc-t-um ; saepi- saep-t-um ; aperi- aper-t-um ; com peri-
Supinc-Stem,
20 r
comper-t-um ; experi- exper-t-um ; opperi- opper-t-um ; ori-
or-t-um ; reperi- reper-t-um; sali- sal-t-um ; sepeli- sepul-t-um
(with vowel-change) ; veni- ven-t-um.
The Participle mor-t-u-us ff om mori-or is an irregular formation,,
in the nature of an Adjective, from mor-s, mor-ti-, death,
V. T is joined to the Clipt Stem with mutation of Consonants :
1) A- and E- verbs in v-a-, v-e-, vocalise v, and form contractions
u-u X u ; a-u x au or o ; o-u x o :
A-verbs : iuva- iu-t-um ; lava- lau-t-um, lo-t-um.
E-verbs : cave- cau-t-um ; fave- fau-t-um ; fove- fo-t-um ; move-
mo-t-um ; vove- vo-t-um.
2) The Consonant is changed by Assimilation in the following :
E-verbs : auge- auc-t-um ; torre- tos-t-um ; sorbe- sorp-t-um.
I-verb : hauri- haus-t-um (hau-sum).
3) The Consonant is excluded in the following :
E-verbs : indulge- indul-t-um ; misce- mis-t-um (mix-turn) ; tor-
que- tor-t-um.
I -verbs : farci- far-t-um ; fulci- ful-t-um ; sarci- sar-t-um.
VI. T is joined to the Clipt Stem by z :
1) In the A-verbs crepa- crep-^'-t-um; cuba- cub-2-t-um ;
plica- plic-^-t-um (or-atum); doma- dom-/-t-um; sona- son-/-t-um;
tona- ton-^'-t-um ; veta- vet-2-t-um.
2) In most E-verbs : mone- mon-2-t-um.
VI L T joined to the True Stem becomes s :
1) In Dental Verbs of Conj. 3. :
a) The Dental is excluded : cs becomes x, and a short Vowel is
lengthened by Compensation :
fleet- flexum ; nect- nexum ; amplect- amplexum ; lit- iisum ; vert-
versum ; pend- pensum ; fu-n-d- fusum ; cad- casum ; caed-
caesum ; divid- divisum.
So clau-sum, cu-sum, -fen-sum, fi-sum, prehen-sum, scan- sum,
&c. But tend- ten-sum or ten-tum; tv-n-d- tun-sum or
tu-sum; nit- nl-sum or nixum.
d) The Dental becomes assimilated to s :
ced- cessum ; fi-;^-d- fissum ; sci-;/-d- scissum ; met- messum ;
fre-;^-d- fressum ; fod-/- fossum ; pat-/- passum ; quat-/- quassum.
Add to these mitt- missum ; pand- passum (or pansum),
and, with vowel-change, fat-/-sc- fessum ; grad-^'- gressum.
2) In Guttural Verbs, the Guttural falling out between r and s :
pare- parsum ; sparg- spars um ; merg- mersum ; terg- tersum.
3) In Verbs with Character rr or 11, dropping one Liquid :
curr- cursum ; verr- versum ; fall- falsum ; cell- celsum.
And, with Vowel- change,
pell- pulsum ; percell- perculsum ; veil- vulsum.
4) The following are special instances :
fig- fixum ; flu- (flugv-)fluxum ; lab- lapsum ; prem- pressum.
202
Latin Wordlore.
yill. T joined to the Clipt Stem becomes s :
1) After Dentals :
d) The Dental being excluded, &c.
E-verbs : arde- arsum; morde- morsum ; pende- pensum ;
prande- pransum ; ride- risum ; suade- suasum ; sponde- spon-
sum ; tonde- tonsum ; vide- visum ; aude- ausum.
But gaude- (for gav-id-e-), gavisum.
In I-verbs : senti-sensum; assenti- assensum ; ordi- orsum. ^
b) The Dental being assimilated to s :
sede- sessum ; fate- fassum,
2) After Gutturals following r or 1 :
mulce- mulge- mulsum ; terge- tersum.
3) In special instances :
iube- iussum ; cense- censum ; haere- haesum ; mane- mansum
meti- mensum (mentior may have been the original Present).
Note. The importance of the Supine-Stem lies in the Participles,
derived from it, not in the Supines themselves, which are com-
paratively little used by Latin authors.
Section IV.
Com! Composition of Verbs.
ofverbs. I. The Prepositions compounded with Verbs are :
A) Separable : —
ab ^
ante
inter
prae
subter
abs
-
circum
ex}
ob
praeter
super
a .
cum
per
pro
trans
ad
de
in
post
sub
B) Inseparable : —
ambi- (amb-), around, about ; sed- se, apart.
dis-, di-, in different parts or ways ; sus,^ (susque deque).,!
red-, re-, back, again ;
To which some add por ( = Gr. irpori), an or in ( = am).
Prepositions in Composition are subject to various mutations.
A) i) A, ab, abs, are written
a before m, v : amitto, avoco.
abs before c, t : abscedo, abscondo, absterreo.
as before p : asporto.
au before f : aufero, aufugio. But afui, afore.
ab before other letters : abeo, abdo, abigo, abiungo, abludo^.
abnuo, abrado, absisto, abundo.
2) Ad remains before b, d, b, 1, m, v, and vowels :
adbibo, addo, adhibeo, adiungo, admitto,^ advoco, adeo,^
adoro.
Becomes a- before gn, sc, sp :
agnosco, ascendo, aspicio (but ad may remain).
* On sus, see Corssen ii. 580. He derives it from sup-us (=
v^t, a, locative form, out of which grew sup-s-i, sup-s, sus.
supinus), related to Creek
Composition of Verbs. 203
Is assimilated before other letters :
accendo, affero, alludo, annuo, appono, acquire, arrideo,
assisto, attendo. But adfero, adnuo, &c., are also used.
3) Cum, in-, are written com-, im-, before p, b, m :
comparo, combibo, committo ; impello, immergo.
Assimilated before 1, r : coUudo, corrodo, illido, irruo.
Cum becomes co- before vowels, ii, and gn :
Coeo, cohaereo, cognosce. So i g n o s c o. Note comedo.
Con-, in-, before other consonants, in- before vowels and li :
concurro, condo, confero, coniungo, connecto, conquiro,
construe, continge, convoco, incumbo, induce, inee, inhie,
infringe, ingero, iniunge, innue, inquire, insisto, intono,
invade. Con-, in-, may remain before p, l : conpono, inludo.
4) Ec, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio.
Ex before vowels, lij c, q, p, s, t :
exeo, exhibeo^ excedo, exquiro, expelle, extrue, extraho.
E before others : educe, elude, emitte, erumpo, evoce.
5) Ob,^sub, are assimilated before c, gr, p, f : eccurro, eggan-
nie, oppeno, effero, succede, suppono, suggere, sufficie.
They remain before ether letters :
ebdo, obee, obicie, eblmo, obrue, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio,
subduce, subiungo, subridee, subside, subtrahe.
Note emitte, eperie, estende, surripie, summevee, summitto,
6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio, pellucee, peiero.
7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-censonans :
trade, trane, traicio.
Tran- before s : transcribe.
Remains before others : transfere, transee, transmitto.
8) Ante de pest prae super
circum inter praeter pro subter
remain in composition with Verbs : except
intel-lego pred-ee prod-igo pred-esse, &c.
Pro, usually long, is sKertened in a few compounds :
profari, profiteri, proficiser.
B) i) A mb - (a/x0t) becomes am- before p : ampute, ampilector.
2) D i s - is assimilated before f : differo.
Remains before gutturals, labials, t, t-censonans, and s with
vowel : discerpe, dispelle, distraho, disicie, dissero. But
diiudice.
Di- before s with consonant, and before ether consonants :
dirue, distringe, divelle.
Observe dir-ibee for dis-hibee, dir-ime for dis-ime.
* The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared
with abstineo, abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a
compound of olesco, iS really (with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo
(solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare ; oscen is from os, for oh
would make it occen ; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch before the
face shew : obtendois itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus,
where (instead of the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here
too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting
food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. i2i.
204
Latin Wordlore. ^
3) Red- stands in redamo, redargue, reddo, redeo, redhibeo,
redimo, redigo, redoleo, redundo.
Re- in other compounds, as remit to.
4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs,
secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco.
5) Sus- is used before ci, t :
suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli.
su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro.
6) For- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol-
lingo, polluceo, polluo, possideo.
7) An- (according to Key) in anhelo, anquiro, intumesco, &c.
Note, The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the
three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See § 12. xxiv.
Simple
Verb
Comp.
Present
Comp.
Perfect
Comp.
Supine.
I. d
i
e
a
2. a
i
t
a
3. a
t
t
e
4. a
i
e
■ e
5. a
I
i/
t
M
6. a
V
t
e
7. e
I
e
8. e
*/
t
e
e
9. e
i
I
Simple Verbs in question.
ago, frango, pango.
tango, cado.
rapio, cano.
facio, iacio, lacio, capia.
salio.
fateor.
teneo..
sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo.
egeo.
Examples :
1) dzo
frango
p^ngo
2) tango
cado
3) rapio
cano
4) facio
iacio
lacio
capio
5) solio
6) fateor
7) tmeo
8) s/deo
sp/cio
l^go
r^go
^mo
pr/mo
/geo
9)
subigo
effringo
compingo
attingo
occxdo
surripio
concino
reficio .
deicio
illicio
accipio
prosilio
confiteor
sustineo
obsideo
perspicio
diligo
dirigo
eximo
reprimo
indigeo
subegi
effregi
compegi
attigi
occidi
surripui
concinui
refeci
deieci
illexi
accepi
prosilui
sustinui
obsedi
perspexi
dilexi
direxi
exemi
repressi
indigui —
Exceptions appear in the Notes to the Syllabus.
subactum
effractum
compactum
attactum
occasum
surreptum
concentum
refectum
deiectum
illectum
acceptum
prosultum
confessus
sustentum
obsessum
perspectum
dilectum
directum
exemptum
repressum
subdue,
break open.
fasten together*
reach,
die,
steal,
sing in unison*'
repair,
throw down.
entice,
receive
spring forth.
confess,
sustain.
besiege,
look through.
love,
direct,
take out.
repress
need.
§ 53. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 205
II. A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, with Nominal,
or with Verbal elements : benefacio, malefacio, satisfacio, satisfio,
satisdo ; venumdo, vendo, veneo, pessumdo, valedico, calefaciOj
«alefio, with a large number of other compounds of facio, fio.
Section V.
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. Syiiabus
^ of Stem-
A) The First or A-Conjugation contains many Sor^'
Verbs, Active and Deponent. Most of the Active are
Transitive ; most of the Deponents Intransitive.
[Many A- verbs are derived from Nouns ; many from Verbs. Ji^e^^*
Among the former are Imitative Verbs in -isso : at tic-is so, Verbs,
graec-isso, com-issor. Among the latter
1) Frequentative Verbs, which express repeated or intense ^'''"e-
action, formed either in -to, -so, from Supine-stems: c a.nt o y smg ^ive"'^*
muck (cano, cantum), cur so, rtm often (curro, cursum) ; so Verbs,
adiuto; apto ; capto ; dicto ; iacto ; gesto; lacto; nuto; occulto;
rapto ; tento ; tracto ; vecto ; voluto ; cesso ; merso ; penso ; prenso ;
presso ; pulso ; quasso ; verso ; grassor ; — or by adding i-to, i-tor
to the Clipt Stem: rog-/-to, ask often (rog-o), min-/-tor, threaten
much (min-or) : (so agito, cogito, mussito, strepito, visito) : some-
times to the Supine Stem: haes-/-to, lus-/-to. Frequentatives
may be formed from Frequentatives : cant-/-to ; curs-/-to ; dict-/-to.
2) D em inutive Verbs in -iiio, from Present- stems : cons crib- Demi-
ill o, scribble ; s o r b - i 1 1 o, ] Verb^
Perf. I Sup,
A-verbs form -avl 1 atum
Variant Verbs are cited in the Syllabus ; Deponents in the Notes.
B) The Second or E-Conjugation contains fewer
Verbs than the First, and very few Deponents. Its
Verbs are principally Intransitive. Several have by-
forms in -ere, 3. used by poets: ferv-ere, frig-ere,
fulg-ere, strid-ere, turg-ere. A large number pass
into the Inceptive or Inchoative form in -sco, 3.
Many Verbs of this Conjugation are without Supine ; some with-
out Perfect also. Inchoatives in Perfect and Supine follow the for-
mation of the Verb from which they spring.
E-verbs should regularly form -evi, etum ; but they usually have
-iil, -itum. Most of them are cited in the Syllabus.
C) The Fourth or I-Conjugation has not a large
number of Active Verbs, and few Deponents. Most
are Trar>«^i^'v<^
206
Latift Wordlore.
§53*
Deside-
rative
Verbs.
[Desiderative Verbs are of this Conjugation, formed from
Supine Stems with Suffix -ur-io :
es-iir-io, desire to eat, am hungry,
script-ur-io, desire to write.^
Perf.
-ivi
Sup.
-itum
I -verbs form -ivi )
Only Variant and Deponent I-Verbs are cited iii the Syllabus.
D) The Third Conjugation contains Consonant
Verbs and U-verbs : Consonant Verbs in eacih class are
placed in the order of their character : Guttural (c, g,
qu, h, &c.) ; Dental (t, d) ; Labial (p, b) ; Nasal (m, n) ;
Liquid (1, r, s).
Nearly all Simple Verbs of this Conjugation are cited;
(Most Compounds of all Verbs cited are mentioned at the foot. .
The formation of Perfect and Supine is the same in the Com-
pounds as in the Simple Verb, unless otherwise stated.
S. means Stem : L. S. lengthened Stem, as in mov-i : Cp. Corny
pound : Cpp. Compounds.)
, A- verbs. A) First Conjugation : A- verbs : ^
(am-are
Redupl. I -atum :
1. dare dedi
2. stare steti
am-avi
am-attim)
LS. I -turn :
3. mv-are
4. lav-are
mvi
lavi
datum
statum
iutum
Igtutn
give, put
stand
kelp, please
wash
* A-Verbs.
I. Dare is the only Verb which keeps short a. (except in da).
The Cpp. circumdare, set round, pessumdare, ruifii venumdare, jset for sale^ Sd.tis-
dare, give security, keep a, and form dedi, datum. All its other Cpp. pass over
to the Cons. Decl. -do -dTs -dere, &c., with meanings of several, which (as in
circumdare) do not represent 'giving,' but 'placing* or 'setting.* Hence it
seems clear that this Verb, whether as dare or - dere, contains within its forms
two Verbs, which in Sanskrit and Greek are distinct : namely, Sk. dd {daddrnz),
Gr. (So) SiSojfxL, give, and Sk. dhd {dadhdmi), Gr. {de) TLOrjfAi, set, put. Some
of the Cpp. must be ascribed to the latt^ Verb: circumdo, abdo, condo,
indo, obdo, &c. : while others, dedo, reddo, trado, &c. may be more easily
assigned to the former. See M. Lucr. iv. 41.
s. Cpp. (ad con ex in ob per prae re)-sto -stiti. See sisto 3. (Ante circum)-sto
-steti. Disto, super-sto, have no Perf. or Sup. The Sup. statum has a. short in
*stata tempora,' also stator, status, statura, statim. But in Cpp.
long quantity prevails: constaturus, exstaturus. Praestitum, L. xliii.
18: praestiturus has some authority. R. Pr. sta^ Sk. sthd, Gr. o-ra.
3. luvaturus. Sail. Cp. adiuvo. R. Sk. dn',*shine.'
4. Lavavi, Ter. lavatum; lautum : whence Adj. lautus, sumptuous. Older
form lave re, Verg. Hor. : still older lu ere (distinct from lu- /f?^?^^). See this
and its Cpp. R. Gr. A.u-. See Curt. Gr, Et. p. 371.
5. Simple necare, -avi -atum: necui, Phaedr. : iiom nex, Violent dcatA ; Gr. v€Kvs,
corpse, R. Sk. nas' , ' perish.'
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 207
-ul I -turn :
5. enec-are
6. fric-are
7. sec-are
-ui I -itum :
8. crep-are
9, cub-are
10. dom-are
11. son- are
12. ton-are
13. vet-are
enecui
fricui
secui
crepui
cubui
domui
sonui
tonui
vetui
enectum
frictum
sectum
crepitum
cubitum
domitum
sonitum
tonitum
vetitum
kill
rub
cut
creaky prattle
lie down
tame
sound
thundey
forbid
6. Cp. perfrico. A vSupine fricatum is used by frico and Cpp. effrico, refrico. R.
Sk. ghar. Gr. XP'-- See Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 203.
7. Secaturusis found. Cpp. (dis ex re sub)-seco.
8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide ; (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum.
9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se)-cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumbere 3. is a
nasalised byform. R. Sk. 5'/, ' lie down* Gr. /cet-.
la Cpp. (e per) domo. R. Sk. damy Gr. fioju,-, tame.
11. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svan^ *to sound.*
12. Cp. intono -ui -atum. Adj. attonitus, R. Sk. tatiy Gr. rei/-, to stretch. Tonere,
sonere 3. are old and poetic forms.
13. Vetavit, Pers. ; but some read notavit.
14 Simple Verb has plicavi; plicui is rare : plicitum and plicatum. Cpp.
applico, complico, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf and Sup, The Verbs
duplico, multiplico, supplico are not Cpp. andhave-avi -atum. Gr. 5rXg««,
See plecto 3.
15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi (*dimicui/ Ov.), dimicatum ; einico, emicui.
^ a) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A- verbs are ;
From gelare : congel-ascere -avi -2X\xm, freeze.
— labare : lab-ascere (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to waver.
— hiare : hiscere . . (no Perf or Sup.), gape, whisker ; M. Lucr. iv. 66.
— .... dehiscere
Deponent A-verbs (all conjugated regularly in -ari, -atus).
Those marked * have also an Active form in -O, -are» in general peculiar to old '
Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to all.
abomin-ari, abhor
*adminicul-ari, pro^, sup-
port
advers-ari, oppose
*adul-ari, flatter
aemul-ari, rival
alucin-ari, dote
*alterc-ari, wrangle
amplex-ari, embrax:e
ampuU-ari, talk big
ancill-ari, act as handmaid
apric-ari, sun oneself
aqu-ari, fetch water
*arbitr-ari, think, deem
architect-ari, build
argument-ari, prove
*argut-ari, quibble
*aspern-ari, despise
assent-ari, comply , flatter
adstipul-ari, support
auction-ari, hold an auction
*aucup-ari, catch
avers-ari, dislike
^augur-ari, | ^^^^^
auspic-ari, )
atixili-ari, aid
*bacch-ari, revel (as a Bac-
chanal) (de)
*bell-ari, make war
*bubulcit-ari, tend kine
*cachinn-ari, laugh loud
calumni-ari, cavil, chicane
cavill-ari, ba7iter
caupon-ari, sell by retail
caus-ari, allege
comiss-ari, revel
*comit-ari, accompany
*comment-ari, remark
""communic-ari, impart
contion-ari, harangue
conflict-ari, contend
con-ari, endeavour
consili-ari, counsel
consol-ari, comfort
*conspic-ari, behold
*contempl-ari, view
convici-ari, revile
*^cony'\v-SLn, feast
cornic-ari, chatter
*crimin-ari, accuse
*cunct-ari, delay
*depecul-ari, pillage
despic-ari, despise
devers-ari, lodge
digladi-ari, combat
^dign-ari, deem worthy
dedign-ari, disdain
*domin-ari, rule
elucubr-ari, work out, com*
pose
e.'p\x\-3ir\, feast
*exsecr-ari, C7irse
*fabric-ari, fashion
*fabul-ari, talk (con-)
famul-ari, serve
f-ari, speak (af- ef- prae- pro-)
*fener-ari, lend on interest
feri-ari, keep holiday
*fluctu-ari, fUictttate
208
Latin Wordlore,
§53-
-avi (ui) I -itum or -atum :
14. p]ic-are plicavi (-ui) plicitum (-atum) fold
-al or -avi { -atum.
15. mic-are micui (-avi) -micatum glitter
fniment-ari, lay in corn
*frustr-ari, baffle
*frutic-ari, sprout
fur-ari, steal
gesticul-ari, make gestures
glori-ari, boast
graec-ari, live sumptuously
{like Greeks)
grass-ari, advance, attack
grat-ari, ) congratulate
gratul-ari, i (con)
gratific-ari, do a kindness
grav-ari, grudge
hariol-ari, divine
helu-ari, eat gluttonously
hort-ari, exhort (ad- ex-)
hospit-ari, lodge
*iacul-ari, dart (e-)
imagin-ari, imagine
imit-ari, imitate
indign-ari, disdain
infiti-ari, deny
insidi-ari, plot
interpret-ari, explain
*ioc-ari, jest
*laet-ari, rejoice
*lacrim-ari, iveep
lament-ari, lament
latrocin-ari, rob
lenocin-ari, pander
licit-ari, bid (in auction)
lign-ari, collect timber
lucr-ari, make gain
*luct-ari, struggle (col- ob-
re-)
*ludific-ari, make mock
*luxuri-ari, wanton
machin-ari, contrive
materi-ari,y^// timber
*medic-ari, heal
*mendic-ari, beg
medit-ari, con, plan (prae)
merc-ari, buy
*meridi-ari, take-siesta
*met-ari, measure
*min-ari, ) threaten
*minit-ari j (com-^
mir-ari, wonder (ad- de-)
*miser-ari, pity (com-)
*moder-ari, rule, restrain.
modul-ari, tune
*moriger-ari, comply
*mor-ari, delay (com- de- im-
re.)
*muner-ari, reward (re-)
■'^mutu-ari, borrow
negoti-ari, do business
*nict-ari, wink
nidul-ari, make nest
*nundin-ari, market
nug-ari, trifle
■^nutric-ari, nurture
obvers-ari, be present (to
sight or mind)
odor-ari, scent out
*omm-a.r'i, jbrebode
oper-ari, work
*opin-ari, think
*opitul-ari, help
*^opson-ari, btiy meat
*oscit-ari, yawn
*oscul-ari, kiss
oti-ari, be at leisure
pabul-ari, forage
*pacific-ari, make peace
*pal-ari, wander
*palp-ari, stroke, flatter
pandiciil-ari, stretch oneself
parasit-ari, play the buflbon
patrocin-ari, patronise
percont-ari,
percunct-ari,
peregrin-ari, dwell as a
stranger
periclit-ari, venture, be in
peril
philosoph-ari, philosophize
*pigner-ari, take-pledge
pigr-ari, be lazy
pisc-ari, fish (ex-)
pollicit-ari, promise
*popul-ari, lay waste (de)
praed-ari, plunder
*praestol-ari, wait for
praevaric-ari, walk crooked,
play the rogtie
prec-ari, pray (com- de-
im-)
inquire
*proeli-ari, fight a battle (de-,
ratiocin-ari, reason
record-ari, re7nember
refrag-ari, vote against, op-
Pose
*rim-ari, rake out^ search
rix-ari, wrangle
rustic-ari, live in the coun-
try
*savi-ari, kiss
scit-ari, ^ Uvi^^^v^
*sciscit-an, )
Ecrut-ari, search out (per-) ,
scurr-ari, play the buffoon '
*sect-ari, follow (as- con*
in-)
sermocin-ari, discourse
sol-ari, comfort
spati-ari, walk (ex-)
specul-ari, look out
*stabul-ari, be in a stall
*stipul-ari, bargain (ad- re-)
stomach-ari, be angry
suffrag-ari, vote with
suspic-ari, suspect
tergivers-ari, shuffle
' call to witnesfSf
bear witness (at-
con- de- ob- pro-
testari)
tric-ari, make difficulties
trist-ari, be sad
trutin-ari, poise in ike
scales
*tumultu-ari, make an up-
roar
*tut-ari, defend
urin-ari, dive
vad-ari, hold to bail
*vag-ari, wander (di- e- per-)
vaticin-ari, prophesy
*velific-ari, sail
velit-ari, skirmish
*vener-ari, venerate (de)
ven-ari, hunt
verecund-ari, be shy
vers-ari, be engaged, dwell
(con- de- di-)
*vocifer-ari, cry out
test-an,
testific-
ari.
Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few from Verbs. Adulare (i) may
be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog, flatterer, &c.); on
aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 253: cunctor, R. Sk. s'ank, * hesitate : ' con-
templari is primarily an augural word, to observe the heavens (templa caeli) : populare
probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. anvAov.
§ S3' Syllabus of Stem-Formatmi in Verbs. 209
B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : ^
(Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed
in itahcs.)
Redupl. I -sum :
1. mord-ere momordi morsum
2. pend-ere pependi pensum
3. spond-ere spopondi sponsum
E-verbs.
4. tond-ere totondi
L. S.
5. cav-ere
6. fav-ere
7. fov-ere
8. mov-ere
9. vov-ere
10. pdv-ere
turn :
cavi
favi
fovi
movi
vovi
pavi
L. S. I sum
Ti. sed-ere
12. vid-ere
1 { sum :
13. prand-ere
1 I no Sup.
14. comv-ere
15. strld-ere
16. ferv-ere
sedi
vidi
prandi
conivi
stridi
ferbui
tonsum
cautum
fautum
fotum
motum
votum
sessum
visum
pransum
bite
hang
contract
shear
beware
favour
cherish
7nove
vow
quake
sit
see
dine
blink
creak
boil
* E-verbs.
I. Memordi is us6d.
B. 430,
See Gorss.
See Curt. Gr^ Et. 324.
Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo -mordi -morsum.
Krit. B. 430. R. Sk. mard.
2. Pendere is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans, pend^re 3. hang', whence
pondus, weighty and Frequent, pensare, j>onder. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo,
(de pro)-pendeo -pendi -pensum.
3. Spopondi) euphonic for spo-spondi ; Spepondi is found. Cpp. despond^o, betroth,
respondeo, answer, -spondi -sponsum. See Corss. Krit, N. ii2i The Verb
means * to give a legal contract,' ' sponsionem facere.'
4. Also tetoridi. Cpp. attondeo, detondeo -tondi -tonsum. The Verbs 1-4 shew that
Compounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. re/u.i'w, Curt. Gr. Et. p. 221.
5. Cp. praecavfeo. R. Sk. sku, ' hide.'
6. 7. See Corss. Krit. B. $6, 57.
8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro re se sum)-moveo.
9. Cp. devoveo.
10. Inchoative expavesco, expavi,
11. Cpp. (circum super)-sedeo. But assTdeo, possTdeo, and (con de dis in ob prae re
sub)-sideo -sedi -sessum. R. Sk. ^ad, Gr. e5-
12. Cpp. (in per prae pro)-video. R* Sk. vid, Gr. Fi^-.
13. Prandeo is * to eat the prandium ' (pri-, dies- ?) or earlier meal (answering to the
present English * luncheon/ French 'dejeuner a la fourchette '), distinguished
from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner/ formerly 'supper.'
14. Also conixi. The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice falling out ; R*
Sk. jdnu, yovv, genu, knee. See C. Krit. B. 56.
15. Byform stridere.
16. Byform fervere, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui is euphonic for fervni,
R. Sk. gkar, Gr. Oep-. See C. Krit. B, 165. 203. Inch, defervesco, deferbui ;
effervesco, efiferbui.
210
Latin Wordlore.
§53
-evl j -etum
17. del-ere
18. fl-ere
19. n-ere
20. -plere
21. vi-ere
22. ci-ere
23. -olere
24. su-ere
-ul I -itum :
25. arc-ere
26. coerc-ere
27. exerc-ere
28. car-ere
29. deb-ere
30. ddl-ere
31. hab-ere
32. iac-ere
33. lic-ere
34. mer-ere
35. mon-ere
36. noc-ere
37. par-ere
38. plac-ere
39. praeb-ere
40. terr-ere
delevi
flevi
nevi
plevi
(vievi)
-olevi
suevi
arcui
coercui
exercui
carui
debui
dolui
habui
iacui
licui
merui
monui
nocui
parui
placui
praebui
terrui
deletum
fletum
netum
pletum
vietum
(olitum)
suetum
(-artum)
coercitum
exercitum
carltum
debttum
dolitum
habitum
iacitum
licitum
merftum
monitum
nocitum
paritum
placitum
praebitum
tern turn
blot out
weep
spin
fill
bind with twigs
stir up
grow, &c.
be wont
Ward off
restrain
exercise
be without^ be in
want of
owe
grieve
have
lie
be bid for
serve, earn
advise
hurt
appear, obey
please
afford
affright
17. Some make this Verb de-olere, comparing abolere. More probably it is a Cp. of
le-, smear, True Stem of lino.
18. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. <^Ae- </)Av-, L. flu-. See Curt. 302.
19. Gr. i/e-. Eng. medley G. nadel.
20. Cpp. compleo, impleo, oppleo, suppleo, (ex re)-pleo, R. Sk. prty Gr. ttAc-.
21. Hence vitis, vimen.
22. R. Sk. ^i, 'sharpen.* The Perf. and Sup. are formed from cire 4.
23. The root of growth, ol-( = Sk. nr, L. al- ar- or-), is distinct from the root of smell,
ol ( = od). Olesco has the Cpp. adolesco, grow up, adolevi, adultum : inolesco
-evi, grow in : whence ind-oles ; and subolesco, whence suboles. The Transi-
tive Verbs adoleo, inflame sacrificially , aboleo, abolish, with their Inchoatives
(adolesco, abolesco), have a distinct sense, and may possibly be derived from the
word oleum, implying an old practice of using oil to make the sacrifices burn
speedily : Verg. iv. 244 : Pingue super oleum infundens ardentibus extis.
24. Suere is found in Lucr., but suesco is the Verb in classical use. Cpp. assuesco,
(con de in)-suesco, suevi, suetum. Also mansuesco -suevi -suetum, grow mild,
tame. See Curt. 251 ; M. Lucr. i. 60, iv. 1282.
25. 26. 27. R. Gr. aA/c-, ap<c-.
30. Inchoatives : (con inVdolesco -dolui.
31. Cpp. debeo (dehibeo) ; praebeo ; (prae-hibeo) ; (ad co ex in per pro red)-hibeo
-hibui -hibitum. But posthabeo.
32. Cpp. (ad circum sub)-iaceo. The intransitive Verb corresponding to iacio, cast.
See this in Conj. 3.
33. See Curt. 456 : and p. 192 of this Gr.
34. See Curt. 332.
35. Cpp. (ad con prae)-moneo. R. Sk. man.
37. Cpp. appareo, compareo, appear.
38. Cpp. displiceo -plicui -plicitum ; (com per)-placeo. Sk. pri.
40. Cpp. absterreo ; (con de ex per)-terreo. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-.
§ 53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 21 1
41. tdc-ere
42. vdl-ere
-ui I -turn :
43. doc-ere
44. misc-ere
45. ten-ere
46. torr-ere
-ui I -sum :
47. cens-ere
-ui I no Sup.
48. eg-ere
49. mm-ere
50. ol-ere
51. sofb-ere
52. stud-ere
53. dc-ere
54. dr-ere
55. cdl-ete
56. call-ere
57. cand-ere
58. darker e
59. flor-ere
60. frond-ere
61. horr-ere
62. langu-ere
63* Idt-^ere
tacui
valui
docui
miscui
tenui
torrui
censui
egui
-minui
olui
sorbui
studui
acui
ami
calui
callui
candui
clarui
florui
frondui
horrui
langui
latui
taciturn be silent
valitum be strong^ be wdl
doctum teach
imixtum \^^ng^e
tentum hold
tostum scorch^ roast
censum value, vote
want
jut
smell
suck up
study
be sour
be dry
be hot
be hard-skinned
glow white
be bright, illustrious
bloom
be in leaf
shudder, be rough
be faint
lie hid
41. Cpp. (con ob re)-ticeo, ticui: no Sup. : usually -tJcesco, -ticui.
42. Cp. praevaleo : others form Inch, (con e in re)-valesco -valui -valitum
43- Cpp. (ad de e)-doceo. R. Sk. dis!, Gr. 5etfc-.
44' For mic-sc-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. mis'r
Gr. juiy. *
45. Cpp. attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk tan
Gr. re I/-. *
46. R. t'n tarsh, *be dry/ Gr. repo-. Inch, torresco, Lucr. iii. 890.
47. Cpp. accenseo, recenseo, succenseo. Censitus occurs on Inscrr. ; hence recensitus^
48. Cp. indig-eo -ui, Gr. a.xr\v.
49. Cpp. emin-eo -ui : immineo, no Perf. ; promineo.
SO* Cpp. (red sub)-oleo. Subst. odor. R. Gr. 6^«, oSwSa.
51. Cpp. (ab ex ob re)-sorbeo. Gr. po<^>e-.
52. Gr. cnr^vhin.
53. Inch, acesco -acui. Cp. coacesco, R. Gr. a/c-, sharpen.
54- Inch, aresco. Cp. exar-esco -ui.
55- Inch, cal-esco -ui. Cpp. (con per)-cal-esco -ui, grow hot.
56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui.
'^' ^''t:r^^\ H in)-cand-esco -ui. Cauda 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Trans.
lorm. bee Corss. JC. B, m.)
58. Indh. claresco, Cp. inclar-esco -ui, decome bright, illustrious.
59- Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bloom.
60. Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-esco -ui, come into leaf again.
61. Cpp. (ab ex in)-horreo. Inch, horresco. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in pet)-horr-esco -ui
shudder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle/ Gr. <^)pto-o-w. *
62. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco -ui, grow faint. R. Gr. Aav-
63. Inch, lat-esco, Cp. delit-esco -ui. Frequent, laiito i. See C. Kr B 79.
PS
212
Latin Wordlore.
§53-
licui
madui
marcui
nitui
palliii
patui
putui
putrui
rigui^
nibui
silui
sordui
splendui^
squalui
stupui
tabui
tepui
timui
torpui
tumui
vigui
virui
melf
be wet
fade
shine
be pale
be open
smell rank
be rotten
be stiff
be red
be silent
be dirty
glitter
be filthy
be amazed
pine
be lukewarm
fear
be torpid
swell
be vigorous
be green
64. Itqu-ere
65. mad- ere
66. marc-ere
67. nit-ere
68. pall-ere
69. pdt-ere
70. put-ere
71. putr-ere
72. rig-ere
73. r lib- ere
74. sil-ere
75. sord-ere
76. splend-ere
77. squdl-ere
78. stiip-ere
79. tdb-ere
80. tep-ere
81. tim-ere
82. torp-ere
83. tmn-ere
84. vig-ere
85. vir-ere
No Perf. I No
86. av-ere
87. claud-ere
88. clu-ere
89. dens-ere
90. foet-ere
91. frend-ere
92. maer-ere
Sup. :
long
limp
be called
thicken
be fetid
gnash teeth
mourn
93. pigr-ere
94. poU-ere
95. veg-ere
96. aegr-ere
97. alb-ere
98. calv-ere
99. cdn-ere
be sluggish
be powerful
excite
be sick
be white
be bald
be grey
64. Inch, liquesco ; Cp. deliqu-esco, delicui, begin to melt.
65. Inch, mad-esco -ui, become moist. Gr. /u.aS-.
66. Inch. niarcesco,y^//^, R. Pr. vtar^ Gr. /xop-.
67. Cp. eniteo. Inch, nitesco, enitesco -ui, shin&forth.
68. Inch, pallesco, Cpp. (ex im)-pall-esco -ui, grow pale. R. Gr. ttcA-
69. Inch, pat-esco -ui. R. Gr. Trera-.
70. Inch, putesco -ui, become foul ) ^
71. Inch, putr-esco -ui, become rotten )
72. Inch, rig-esco -ui, Cpp. (di ob)-rig-esco -ui, grow stiff.
73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub-esco -ui, blush. R. Pr. rudh^ Gr. epud-.
74. Inch, sil-esco -ui, become silent.
75. Inch, sord-esco -ui, becotne mean, worthless.
76. Cp. resplendeo. Inch, splend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out.
78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, See Curt. 218,
79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238.
80. Inch, tep-esco -ui. R. Sk. tap.
81. Cpp. (prae sub)-timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per)-tim-esco -ui.
82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp-esco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438.
83. Inch, tum-esco, Cp. intum-esco -ui, begi7t to swell. R. Sk. tu.
84. Inch, vig-esco -ui. R. Sk. tiksh, 'grow strong,' Gr. vy-. But see Curt. t86.
85. Inch, vir-esco, Cp. revir-esco -ui, become green again.
86. See Curt. 309.
88. R. Sk. ^Yu, Gr. kAv-.
96. Inch, aegresco, become sick.
07. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white.
§53.
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 2 1 3
100. fiacc-ere
10 1. fldv-ere
102. heb-ere
103. lact-ere
lo\. liv-ere
105. muc-ere
-si I -turn :
111. polluc-ere
112. aug-ere
113. indulg-ere
114. mulg-ere
115. torqu-ere
116. lug-ere
-si I sum :
be flabby
be yellow
be dull
be milky
be livid
be mouldy
polluxi
auxi
indulsi
mulsi
torsi
106. renid-ere
107. scat' ere
108. sen-ere
109. um-ere
110. uv-ere
smile
bubble up
be old
be inoist
be dank
polluctum
auctum
indultum
mulctum
tortum
make a feast
increase
indulge
milk
twist
117. mulc-ere
118. terg-ere
119. ard-ere
120. rid-ere
121. suad-ere
122. iub-ere
123. man-ere
124. haer-ere
si I no Sup.
125. alg-ere
J 26. fulg-ere
127. turg-ere
128. urg-ere
129. frig-ere
130. luc-ere
luxi
mourn
mulsi
mulsum
soothe
tersi
-tersum
wipe
arsi
arsum
take fire
risi
risum
laugh
suasi
suasum
persuade
iussi
iussum
command
mansi
mansum
remain
haesi
haesum
stick
alsi
be cold
fulsi
glittef
tursi
swell
ursi
urge
-frixi
be cold
luxi
shine
100. See Corss. Kr. B. 28, Byform scatere, 3. Lucr. v. 40.
T08. Inchoative, sen-esco, consen-esco -ui, grow old.
(The other Verbs from 96 to iii form Inchoatives, which denote beginning of state ;.
but are without Perf, and Sup. except incanesco, which has Perf. incanui.)
112. Cpp. (ad ex)-augeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksh.
113. See Corss. K. Beitr. 382. This derivation from dAeyw is very doubtful.
114. Cp. immulgeo. R. Sk. marjy Gr. a-juteAy-.
115. Cpp. (con dedis ex in re)-torqueo. R. rpeTr-.
116. See Curt. 182. The Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form.
117. Cpp. (de per)-mulceo. See Curt. 327.
118. Cpp. (abs de)-tergeo. See Corss. K. B, 437.
119. Inch, ard-esco, exard-esco -arsi, Corss. derives from aridus, K. B. iii,.
120. Cpp. arrideo, irrideo, (de sub)-rideo. R. Sk. krtd, *play.*
121. Cpp. (dis per)-suadeo. R. Sk. svad, * sweeten/ Gr. aS-.
122. From ius- hibere.
123. Cpp. (per re)-maneo. R. Gr. fxev-.
124. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in)-haereo. Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp.
126. Cpp. affulgeo, effulgeo, refulgeo. Inch, fulg-esco, fulsi. Byform fulgere, 3. R^
Sk. bhraj, Gr. <f>\ey-.
128. Cp. adurgeo. R. Pr. varj, ' to press,' Gr. fetpy-.
129. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refrigesco -frixi. R. Gr. pty-.
^30. Cpp. colluceo (e re sub)-luceo. Inch, lucesco, Cp. illucesco -luxi^ dawn^
R. Sk. ru(^, Gr. \vk-..
Latin Wordlore,
§53.
Semideponent :
131. aud-ere ausus sum — dare
132. gaud-ere gavlsus sum — rejoice
133. sdl-ere solitus sum — be wont
Deponent :
134. lic-eri licitus — hid for
135. mer-eri meritus — deserve
136. miser-eri miseritus — pity
137. tu-eri tuitus — view ^protect
138. ver-eri veritus; — J^^^, respect
139. r-eri ratus — think
140. fat-eri fassus — confess
141. med-eri — — h^al
C) Fourth Conjugation : I-verbs : *
(aud-ire, aud-ivi (ii), aud-itum.)
Variant :
-Ivl (ii) I -turn :
1. sepel-Ire
2. ire (eo)
3. quire
-ni I -torn
4. sal-ire
5. aper-ire
6. oper-ire
-i I turn :
sepelivi
ivi
quivi
salui
aperui
operui
comperi
repperi
7. comper-ire
8. reper-ire
(C. S.-) -turn :
9. ven-ire veni
sepultum
Itum
quitum
(saltum)
apertum
opertum
compertuni
repertum
ventum
bury
go
be able
leap, dance
open
cover
find
discover
come
131
132
133-
134
135
137
Corss. derives from avid-us.
Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. 7a f-.
Probably connected with the forms Sk. sa-rva-s^ E. L. sollus, Gr. o Ao?, &C. Cp.
assoleo. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco, ex-solesco,
ob-solesco -evi (insolens, exoletus, obsoletus).
Cp. poUiceor, promise. See 33.
Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor.
Cpp. (con in)-tueor. See Corss. K. B. 437.
138. Cpp. (re sub)-vereor. R. Pr. mr, * cover.'
140. Cpp. diffiteor, dififessus ; (con pro)-fiteor -fessus. R. Gr. <^a-.
141. Medicatus is used as Partic. of medeor.
» I-Verbs.
2. Cpp. (ab ad ante circum co ex in inter ob per prae praeter prod red sub trans)-eo.
Also ven-eo, ven-Tre (venum ire), to be sold, quasi-passive of vendere (venum-
dare), to sell: has no Sup. : Pass. Partic. venditus, vendendus. Ambio, as audio.
3. Cp. nequeo. See p. 188.
4. Salii is used. Cpp. (ad de ex in pro re sub)-silio -silui or -silii, -sultum.
sar^ Gr. aAA-.
5-8. These Verbs with experior, opperior, peritus, periculiim, belong to a lost verb
perire, try. R. Pr. par^ * accomplish.' Comperior is used by Sallust.
9. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in inter ob per prae pro re super sub)-venio. R. Sk.
gam. S^e Corss. Kr. B. 58.
R. Pr.
§53.
Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 21$
-si I -turn
10. amic-ire
11. farc-ire
12. fulc-Tre
13. sanc-Ire
14. sarc-ire
15. vinc-ire
1 6. saep-ire
17. haur-ire
18. rauc-ire
-si I -sum :
19. sent-ire
amixi
farsi
fulsi
sanxi
sarsi
vinxi
saepsi
hausi
rausi
sensi
amictum
fartum
fultum
sanctum
sartum
vinctum
saeptum
haustum
sensum
No Perf. I No Supine :
20.
21.
22.
23-
24.
25.
caecut-Ire
croc-Ire
dement-ire
fer-Ire
feroc-Ire
gest-ire
26. gann-ire
Deponent ;
-itus :
33. bland-iri
34. '^larg-iri
35. "^ment-iri
36. '^mol-iri
37. ^part-iri
38. pot-iri
SQ.'^un-iri
40. *sort-iri
-tus (from C. S.) :
41. "'^exper-iri
42. opper-iri
43. 6r-iri
be blind 27.
croak 28.
be distracted 29.
strike 30.
be wild 31.
be eager 32.
yelp.
blanditus
largitus
mentltus
molitus
partitus
potitus
punTtus
sortitus
expertus
oppertus
ortus
clothe
stuff
prop
consecrate
mend
bind
hedge in
drain
be hoarse
feel
gl6c-ire
grunn-ire
hinn-Tre
inept-ire
prur-Ire
cluck
grunt
neigh
be silly
itch
singult-ire sob
fawn^ flatter
bestow
speak falsely
plan
divide
get possession of
punish
allots take by lot
experience
wait for
arise
10. Also amicui.
11. Cpp. diflfercio (con in re)-fercio -fersi -fertum.
12. Cpp. effulcio, suffulcio. Derived from iwxc^^proPy C.
13. Sa-«-c-io is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R, Gr. tra-o?.
14. Cp. resarcio.
15. Cp. devincio.
16. Gr. o-rjfcd?. Saepes, praesaepe, saepire, shew the same labialism as lupus. &c., p. 59.
, 17. Also hausum. Cp. exhaurio.
19. Cpp. (con per)-sentio.
21. It is evident that the C in the verbs crocire, croak, glocire, cluck, must have
had the hard k-sound.
33-40. These are derived from Nouns. Cpp. subblandior : (di e)-largior: emen-
tior : (e re)-molior : (im dis)-pertior.
43. Orior, Gr. op- has Cpp. (ad co ex ob)-orior -ortus.
2l6
Lathi Wordlore.
§53.
-SUB (from C. S.) :
44. "'^assent-Iri assensus agree
45. met-iri mensus 7neasure
46. ord-iri orsus begin
Cons,
and
U-verbs,
D) Third Conjugation : Consonant * and U-verbs :
I. Consonant Verbs.
i) Verbs with Reduplicated Perfect-Stem. (Compounds drop
Reduplication; except those of disco, posco, sisto, -dere, and
sometimes of curro.)
Redupl. 1 -turn :
I.
dij*c-ere
didtci
learn
2.
posc-ere
poposci
demand
3.
pa-;^-g-ere
pepigi
pactum
fasten
4.
pu-;/-g-ere
pupugi
punctum
prick
5.
ta-;/-g-ere
tetlgi
tactum
touch
6.
sist-ere
■-sttti
(-stttum)
stop
7.
-d-ere
-didi
-dttum
put^ give
8.
tend-ere
tetendi
tentum
stretch
9.
can-ere
cecini
cantum
sifig
44-46. Assentior from sentire : metior, Sk. md, Suff. -tl : Cpp. (de di e)-metior -men-
sus. This Participle is difficult. Perhaps the Pres. also was nasalised, but dropt
n to avoid confusion with mention Cp. of ordior, exordior -prsus. R. or- with
suff. d-1. Virgil uses nutriri as Depon.: *nutritor olivam,' G. ii. 425.
Inchoative from Verbs of Conj. 4.
edormivi
obdormivi
scivi
conscivi
descivi
rescivi
dormi-
sci-
edormi-sco
obdormi-sco
sci-sco
consci-sco
desci-sco
resci-sco
edormitum
obdormitum
scitum
conscitum
descitum
rescitum
slee/f out
fall asleep
ratify
resolve
revolt
learn
* Consonant Verbs.
1. Cpp. (ad con de e per prae)-disco For dic-sc-o. See p. 195.
2. Cpp. (de ex re)-posco. For porc-sc-o. R. Sk. prac'hy 'ask, pray.' Hence,
prec-ari, procus.
3. Cpp. compingo, impingo -pegi -pactum ; oppango, oppegi. (De re)-pango.
R. Sk. Pasf , Gr. Tray-, whence also pac-i-sc-or, pax, pignus, &c.
4. Cpp. (com dis ex inter)-pungo. On the probable common origin of pungere,
pingere, pix, &c., and Gr. tt^vki], TriKpo?, ttoikiAo?, from a Pr. R. pik, ptck, to
prick, doty &c., see Curt. Gr. Et. I. 133, 4. Compare YjH^. peaky pike, pick,
pecky pokey pock. (Can Sk. Ms^ be cited here ?)
5. Cpp. attingo, attigi, attactum ; (con G.U)rtingo -tigi -tactum. The root-form tag-o
is used by Plautus : also attigo (Gr. ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 217.
6. Sisto, redupl. of sto, is trans, orintrans., but its Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad con de ex
in ob per re sub)-sisto -stiti. Sup. (-stitum, -statum) is very rare.
7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dare) are (ab ad con de e in ob per pro red sub tra)-do
-didi -ditum. Also credo (Sk. s'rad-dadhdmi, ' put trust, believe '), -didi, -ditum,
trust, and vendo -didi -ditum, sell. See dare. The Partic. praeditus, endued,
is a relic of praedere, not otherwise occurring.
8. Cpp. attentio (con \x\ ob prae sub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro re)
-tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. raj/- rei/-, with suf-
fix d.
9. Cpp. occmo, succTno -cinui -centum ; so (con prae)-cino. IntercTno, recino, HO
Perf or Sup. Occecini is found.
§53.
Sj/llabtts of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 21 J
10. par-ere
11. toU-ere
peperi
sustuli
partum
sublatum
bring forth
take Mp
Redupl.
-sum
12. parc-ere
13. cS,d-ere
14. caed-ere
15. pend-ere
16. tu-;2-d-ere
17. curr-ere
18. fall-ere
19. pell-ere
2Q. (-cell-ere)
peperci
parsum
spare
cecidi
casum
fall
cecldi
caesum
cut, beat, kill
pependi
pensum
' weigh
(tutudi)
tusum
thump, pound
cucurri
cursum
run
fefelli
falsum
deceive
pepuli
pulsum
drive
(ceculi)
(-culsum)
push
2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect.
(S-) I -turn :
21. fac-ere (i-6) feci factum make, do
22. iac-ere (2-0) ieci iactum throw
23. li-;^-qu-ere llqui -lictum leave
10. Fut. Part, pariturus.
11. The old Perfect tetuli is used by Plaut. and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication,
is used as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup.
of fero, is for t-latum from Sk. tuly Gr. rXa-, L. tol-, lift^ endure. The Cpp.
of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans)-fero -tuli -laturn ; afifero
attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli collatum ; differo
distuli dilatum ; eflfero extuli elatum ; infero intuli illatum ; offero obtuli obla-
tum ; sufifero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by tollo).
12. Cp. comparco -parsi -parsum : or with e ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr.
13. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -cTdi. So (con de ex in inter pro re)-CKio : occasum
is the only Sup. Recidi for rececidi.
14. Cpp. accTdo, occTdo, succTdo -cidi -cTsum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cIdo.
15. Cpp. appendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus)-pendo.
16. Cpp. (con ob re)-tundo -tudi -tusum or tunsum. R. Sk. tud^ * to strike, push,
bruise. '
17. Cpp. (ante circum in inter pro re super)-curro -curri. So succun:o. Accurro,
occurro and (con de dis per trans)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae)
-curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsh, * draw. '
Cecurri is found.
18. Cp. refello, refelli; no Sup. R. Sk. sphal, Gr. o--<^aAAa> (sphal-yo), make to
fall.
19. Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puli -pulsum. So appello, impello. As-
pello, no Perf. or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli.
20. (Cello ceculi) are not used. Cp. percello, perculi, perculsum, to thrill. R. Sk.
kal, ' to push. '
21. Cpp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-fTcio -feci -fectum ; so afficio, officio, suf-
ficio : but (satis bene male)-facio -feci -factum. Facio is compounded with
many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made
mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -factum,
together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com-
pounds of fio.
22. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iectum. See Munro on
Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403.
533. The Supine is only found in the Cpp. (re dere)-linquo -liqui -lictum. R. Sk. rid,
Gr. AtTT-.
2l8
Latin Wordlore,
\ 53.
24. vi-;^-cere
25. ag-ere
26. fra-;^-g-ere
27. leg-ere
28. cap-ere (2-0)
29. ru-?/2-p-ere
30. em-ere
31. scab-ere
(S-) I -sum :
32. ed-ere
33. fod-ere (^-o)
34. fu-;^-d-ere
Exceptions :
(S-) I 1-tum :
35. fug-ere (2^-0)
(S) I -i-tum :
36. bib-ere
(S) I -turn :
37. Icere
Lost Redupl. |
38. fi-/2-d-ere
39. sci-;2-d-ere
(S.) I -sum :
40. vert-ere
41. -cend-ere
vici
egi
fregi
legi (lexi)
cepi
rupi
emi
scabi
edi
fodi
fudi
fugi
bibi
(ici)
■sum :
fidi
scidi
verti
-cendi
victum
actum
fractum
lectum
captum
ruptum
emptum
esum
fossum
fusum
fugitum
bibltum
ictum
fissum
scissum
versum
-censum
conquer
do
break
readj choose
take
break
buy, take
scratch
eat
dig
four
fiy
drink
strike
cleave
cut
turn
set alight
34. Cpp. (con de e per re)-vinco.
25. Cpp. (circum per)-ago -egi -actum ; (ab ad ex red sub trans transad)-igo -egi
-actum ; coTgo = c6go, coegi, coactum ; deigo=dego degi, prodigo prodegi, no
Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. ; satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. «/, Gr. ay-.
26. Cpp. confringo, effringo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpay-.
27. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, choose : sub-lego -legi
-lectum, (col de e se)-lTgo -legi -lectum ; intellego, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum ; and
di-ligo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Aey-.
28. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re sus)-cipio -cepi -ceptum. So accipio.
But antecapio. See p. jgo. Note.
29. Cpp. corrumpo, irrumpo ; (di e inter per pro)-rumpo. R. Sk. lup, * to tear.*
30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red)-imo -emi -emptum ; coemo, (inter per)-emo. The rest (como,
demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be the
Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo. i
32. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-edo -edi -esum. See Irreqular Verbs, p. 189.
33. Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also effodio.
34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re)-fundo. Also affundo, effundo, offundo, suffundo ; Gr.
yy-y with nasalised suff. d : pointing to a lost root ghu.
35- Cpp. aufugio, difFugio, effugio : (con per pro re trans)rfugio. R. Sk. bhuj, Gr.
</)vy-.
36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbibo. R. Sk. Gr. tto-. Present-stem redupl. ; the,
p being softened to b.
38. Cp. dif-findo.
39. Cpp. (ab di ex re)-scindo. R. Sk. dhid.
40. Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae re sub)-verto. R. Pr. vart*
41. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum.
§53.
Syllabus of Stem
-Formation in
Verbs. 219
42. cud-ere cudi cusum hammer
43. -fend-ere -fendi -fen sum strike
44. mand-ere mandi mansum chew
45. pand-ere pandi pan sum spread
46. prehend-ere prehendi prehensum take^ grasp
47. scand-ere scandi scansum climb
48. sid-ere sidi — settle
49. lamb-ere Iambi — lick
50. verr-ere verri versum sweep
51. vell-ere {vulsil" vulsum rend^ pluck
52. psall-ere psalli — play (^chords)
53. vis-ere visi visum visit
54. f idere fisus sum — trust
3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect-stem in -ui or -vi.
a. -ui I -turn :
55. compesc-ere compescui — restrain
56. rap-ere (/-0) rapui rap turn seise
^^57. dl-ere alui altum nourish
58. col-ere colui cultum till
59. consul-ere consului consultum consult
60. occul-ere occului occultum hide
61. ser-ere serui sertum set in row
62. pins-ere pinsui pistum pound
42, Cpp. (ex in pro)-cudo -cudi -cusum. Hence incus incud-, anvil.
43. Cpp. (de of)-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestus (for -fendtus). Sk.
han (Pr. dhan? ), Gr. 0ei/-.
45. Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -pansum or passum.
46. Also prend-ere, prendi, prensum. Cpp. apprehendo (com de re)-prehendo or
-prendo, &c. Gr. x°-^' x°^^^^^^-
47. Cpp. (ad con de in tran)-scendo -scendi -scensum. R. Sk. skand.
48. See sed-ere, of which sidere is a variant form. Cpp. (ad con in re sub)-sido
-sidi.
49. Latin root lab-.
50. Cp^ everro. See Corss. Kr. B. 403.
51. Cpp. (con di per re)-velli -vulsum : (a e)-velli or -vulsi -vulsum. See Corss.
Kr. B. 325.
53. From Sup. of video. Cpp. (in re)-viso.
54. Cpp- (con dif )-fido, of which the Perfects (con dif)-f idi are in use as well as (con-
diQ-fisus sum.
55. For comperc-sc-ere.
56. Cpp. (ab de di e)-ripio -ripui -reptum. So arripio, corripio, surripio. Pott and
Corssen take rap to be the original form of Sk. luj>, ' to tear,' also shewn in.
ru-m-pere.
57. Al, ol, is the root of growth=Pr. ar : shewn in al-ere al-tus, olescere, and nume-
rous words. Inch, co-al-esco -ui -itum, unite^ curdle. See Curt. 359.
58. Cpp. (ex in re)-colo. See accolo. R. Pr, >^(a:r, 'make.* .
59. Corssen {Nachtr. 280) agrees with Mommsen in adopting Pr. sar, 'move,' L. sal-,
as the root of con-sul-ere, exsul, praesul, &c. He gives consulere a sense = con-
venire, and makes consul (for consul-us) its derivative.
60. Occulo, celare, cella, clam, and Gr. /caAvTrrco (kpvtttco) /caAta, are evidently cog-
nate and point to a common Pr. kal^ * hide/ which appears in Sk. as kills
Curtius compares also clepere and color.
61. Cpp. (con de dis ex in)-sero. So assero. Gr. etpw. See Curt. 355.
62. Sometimes pisere, pisi. R. Sk. /w^, 'crush.'
220
63. tex-ere
64. deps-ere
-ui I i-tum :
65. elic-ere (/-0)
66. stert-ere
67. strep-ere
68. cuwb-ere
69. frem-ere
70. gem-ere
71. trem-ere
72. vom-ere
73- gign-ere
74. ponrcre
75. mol-ere
76. velle (volo)
77. nolle (nolo)
78. malle (malo)
-ui I -sum :
79. met-ere
80. fre/^d-ere
81. (-cell-ere)
b, -vl I -turn :
These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present
Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True
Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms.
a, 82. lT;/-ere levi Htum smear
83. si;/-ere sivi situm allow
84. cer;/-ere crevi cretum sift
63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. ^«/^), * fashion.* Gr,
64. Gr. 84(l)u).
65. See lacere.
67. Cpp. (ob per)-strepo.
68. Cpp. (con de dis in pro re)-cumbo. See cubare.
69. Cp. infremo. R. Sk. bhram» Grr. ppciJL-<t).
70. Cpp. (con in)-gemo. Inchoative : gemisco. Cpp. (con in)-gemisco, gemui.
71. Inchoative tremisco. Cpp. (con in)-tremisco, tremui. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-.
Suff. m.
72. Cpp. (e re)-vomo. R. Sk. z/^;;?, Gr. fe/x-e-.
73. Cp. progigno. Redupl. of gen-. Sk. Jan, Gr. yei/-. Geno is found in old
Latin.
74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pono. See p. 195.
75. Cp. permolo. Gr. /mvA-, L. mola, a mill. Hence malt ?
76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. 186.
79. Cp. demeto. (Sk. md, 'measure'?)
80. The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St. See frendere»
81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-cello cellui. Hence the Adjectives celsus, excelsus, praecel-
sus. R. Sk. kaly 'push,' shewn also in procul, procella, culter, celer, KeWto,
/Sov/coAos, and others. See 20.
82. Cpp. (per ob sub)-lino -levi -litum. Also collino, illTno. Another form, is linire..
R. Sk. It
83. Cp. desino, (desTvi) desii, also desTtus sum.
84. Cpp. (de dis ex se)-.cerno. R. Gr. Kpt-. Hence L. cribrum, stez/e.
Latin Wordlore.
§53-
texui
lexium
weave
depsui
kneady tan
elicui
elicitum
/^f^ forth
stertui
snore
strepui
strepitum
rattle
cubui
cubitum
tie aowftf
iremui
iremiium
roar
gemui
gemitum
groafi
tremui
tremble-
vomui
vomltum
vomit
genui
genitum
beget
posui
ppsitum
place
molui
molltum
grind
volui
wish
nolui
wish not
malui
wish rather
messui messum
fre;/dui fressum
(-cellui) (-celsum)
mow^ reap
gnashy bruise
push
Syllabus
of Stem-Formation in
Verbs. 221
8s.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
r- 99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
sper;^-ere
stem-ere
ser-ere
crej'^-ere
quiej^-ere
suei*^-ere
(g)nosc-QYe
pai-^^-ere
cup-ere (i-o)
pet-ere
quaer-ere
rud-ere
sap-ere (/-o)
ter-ere
arcess-ere
incess-ere
capess-ere
facess-ere
lacess-ere
sprevi
stravi
sevi
crevi
quievi
suevi
(g)novi
pavi
cupivi
petivi
quaesTvi
rudivi
sapivi
trivi
arcessTvi
incessivi
capessivi
faces sivi
lacessivi
spretum
stratum
satum
cretum
quietum
suetum
(g)n6tum
pastum
cupitum
petitum
quaesltum
rudltum
tritum
arcessltum
incessitum
capessltum
facessitum
lacessltum
spurn
strem
sow
grow
rest
be wont
know
feed
desire
demand
seek
bray
savour
rub, bruise
fetch
attack
take in hand
cause
provoke
4) Verbs forming Perfect-Stem with agglutinated -s (for es-).
a. Guttural Stems :
-si I -turn :
104. dic-ere dixi dictum say
105. duc-ere duxi ductum lead
106. -lac-ere (/-0) -lexi -lectum entice
85. Spernere, properly ^zV>^.' Curt. 289.
86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Gr. <rTop-.
87. Cpp. (con in)-sero -sevi -situm.
88. Cpp. (con de ex in)-cresco. Also accresco, succresco. Cresco is Inchoative of
creo, Sk. ^n» 'make.'
80. Cpp. acquiesco, (con re)-quiesco. Sk. 5'i, Gr. jcet-.
90. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadhd, 'self-will.' R. sva, 'self.*
91. Nosco has dropt which reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agnitum ; cognosco, cog-
novi, cognTtum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco, intefnosco have no
Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only remnants of a Latin O-verb.
Sk. jnd) Gr. yvo-.
92. Cp. depasco.
93. Cupiret, Lucr.
94. Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. pat, Gr. Tfiet-,
fly- ^
95. For quaesere or quaesire. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)-quiro -quTsivi -qmsTtum.
So perquiro, conquiro.
96. Sk. ru, rud ; Gr. (opvw. Persius has rudere : but rudens, cable.
97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -ui. Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grow wise again. This
word, compared with sucus, shews labialism, as lupus, popina, &c.
98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Perf. terivi and terui are
found. Connected with Gr. retpw, reprfv. L. tener.
99-103. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action.
Arcess- is for acci-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for inci-ess- :
both from root ci, roj^se : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac-
Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects
incessi, facessi, lacessi, are cited.
104. Cpp. (ad bene contra e in inter male prae vale)-dico. R. Sk. dis', Gr. SeiK-.
105. Cpp. (ab ad circum con de di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra)-duco.
106. Cpp. al-licio, il-licio, pel-licio, pro-licio -lexi -lectum ; but elicio, elicui, elicitum.
222
Latin Wordlore.
§53-
107.
-spec-ere (^-o)
-spexi
-spectum
espy
lOo.
coqu-ere
COXl
coctum
cook
109.
cing-ere
• •
cinxi
cinctum
surround
IIO.
fi;/g-ere
fi//xi
fictum
fashion
III.
-iiig-ere
-nixi
-nictum
smttc
112.
frig-ere
frixi
fnctum
roast ^ jry
113-
lung-ere ,
• •
lunxi
lunctum
join
114.
Img-ere
-linxi
•linctum
115.
mung-ere
•
-munxi
-munctum
wipe
IIO.
• ^
pi;/g-ere
pi^xi
pictum
paint
117.
plang-ere
■1 •
pianxi
planctum
beat
IIo.
reg-ere
rexi
rectum
rule
119.
stri;/g-ere
sin/^xi
strictuni
oinct
120.
— w
sug-ere
suxi
SUCLUIIl
C-IJ /'If
121.
teg-ere
LCXI
ICLIUIII
LU Uor
122.
-stmgu-ere
• •
-stinxi
-stinctum
123.
tingu-ere
tinxi
tinctum
stain
124.
ungu-ere
unxi
unctum
anoint
125.
ningu-ere
• •
ninxi
snow
120.
ang-ere
(anxi)
squeeze
127.
ciang-erc
128.
trah-ere
traxi
tractum
draw
129.
veh-ere
vexi
vectum
carry
130.
viv-ere
vixi
victum
live
131-
stru-ere
struxi
structum
pile
107. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spicio -spexi -spectum. So aspicio, suspicio.
R. Sk. j/a*', Gr. <r/c67r-.
108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coquo. R. Sk. /rt:c', Gr. ttctt-. See p. 59^
109. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So accingo, succingo.
110. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. Qiy-.
111. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligare, routy is of Conj. i.
112. R. ^.hJirajj^ Gr. ^pvy-.
113. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. puj, Gr. ^vy-.
114. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, pollinctum. Sk. rz^ ot lih^ Gr. Aet^-.
115. Cp. emungo, wipe the nose, clean out. R. Sk. viucf.
116. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk.
117. Gr. TrArjy-. L. plaga.
118. Cpp. arrigo, coriTgo, dirigo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also pergo, perrexi, per-
rectum ; surgo, rise^ surrexi, surrectum, with its compounds : (as con ex in
re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectum. R. Gr. opey-.
119. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per prae re sub)-stringo. From praestringere comes
praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. o-Tpayy-.
120. Cp. exsugo.
121. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Latin has dropt s. R. Sk. sthag^ Gr. o-rey-.
122. Stinguo has the sense of pricking and also of quenching. Cpp. : (i) (di in)-
stinguo ; (2) (ex re)-stinguo. Gr. arC^ia.
123. Gr. reyyw.
124. Cpp. (in per)-unguo. Tinguo, unguo maybe written tingo, ungo.
125. A primitive s-nih- must be assumed, from which, by casting off S and nasalizing,
comes the form ningu-, and again nix, nivis, &c. Gr. vC<f><a. Hence Germ,
schnee, Eng. snow. R. Sk. snu.
126. R. Sk. anj, Gr. dyx-.
128. Cpp. attraho ; (con de dis ex per pro re sub)-traho.
129. Cpp. (a ad circum con de e in praeter re sub)-veho. R. Sk. z/ah, Gr. foxe-.
130. Prim, gviv, Sk. j'fv, whence vigv-, the True Stem of vivo, which drops the second
V in Perf. and Sup. Corssen, B. 72. Inchoative : reviv-isc-o, revixi, re-
victum.
131. See Corssen, B. 72. Cpp. (ad con de ex in ob sub)-struo -struxi -structum.
§53.
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 223
-si I -sum :
a, 132. fig-ere fixi ^
133. flu-ere fluxi^
Q, 134. merg-ere mersi
135. sparg-ere sparsi
136. terg-ere tersi
fixum
fluxum
mersum
sparsum
tersum
Jix
flow
drown
sprinkle
wipe
b. Dental Stems :
-si 1 -sum :
ij/* necL-eic
ilCAUlil
uena
138. nect-ere
\ ^^^^ . \
^ iicxu.1 '
nexum
twine
T "^Q DPrf-prp
DGxi
nexum
140. plect-ere
-plexum
Iplait
\ smite
141. mitt-ere
misi
missum
send
142. quat-ere (/-0)
quassum
shake
143. ced-ere
cessi
cessum
yield
144. claud-ere
clausi
clausum
shut
145. divid-ere
divisi
divisum
divide
146. laed-ere
laesi
laesum
hurt
147. lud-ere
lusi
lusum
play
148. plaud-ere
plausi
plausum
clap hands
149. fad-ere
rasi
rasum
shave
150. rod-ere
rosi
rosum
gnaw
151. trud-ere
trusi
trusum
thrust
152. vad-ere
-vasi
-vasum
go
132. Cpi*. affigo, suffigo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figo,
133. Enlarged forms Aug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius.
Cpp. (circum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also
affluo, difiluo, effluo. The noun fluctus points to an older Sup. in -turn.
134. Cpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-mergo.
135- Cpp. conspergo, dispergo ; (ad in re)-spergo -spersi -spersum. In old L. these
keep a>.
136. For stergere. So C. and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, Jlesh-scra^er. See ter-
gere.
137. This and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a suffix t : but, as
t falls out before S, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated
as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (circum de in re)-flecto.
138. Cpp. (ad con in sub)-necto -nexui -nexum. See meto.
139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum.
140. Gr. TrAeK-.
141. Cpp. dimitto, immitto, omitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub
trans)-mitto -misi -missum.
142. Cpp. (con dis ex in per)-cutio -cussi -cussum. So repercutio.
143. Cpp. (abs ante con de dis ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo.
144. Cpp. (con dis ex in inter prae re se)-cludo -clusi -clusum. So occludo, Gr.
KAetw.
146. Cpp. allTdo, collTdo, elTdo, il-lTdo -lisi -lisum.
147- Cpp. alludo, colludo, illudo, (de e) -ludo -lusi -lusum.
J48. Cpp. applaudo -plausi - plausum, (ex sup)-plodo -plosi -plosum.
149. Cpp. (ab e)-rado. So corrado. R. Sk. rad.
150. Cpp. (de prae)-rodo. So arrodo, corrodo. Sk. rad.
151. Cpp. (abs de ex in ob pro)-trudo.
152. Cpp. (e in per)-vado.
224
Latin Wordlore,
§53^
Gk Labial Stems
-si -turn
153. carp-ere
154. clep-ere
- .rep-ere
\ serp-ere
r \ scalp-ere
5 ' tsculp-ere
157. glub-ere
158. nub-ere
159. scrib-ere
d. Nasal Stems :
-si I -turn :
160. c 5m- ere
161. dem-ere
162. prom-ere
163. sum-ere
164. temri-ere
-si I -sum :
165. prem-ere
carpsi
clepsi
repsi
serpsi
scalpsi
sculpsi
glupsi
nupsi
scripsi
compsi
dempsi
prompsi
sumpsi
tempsi
pressi
e. Liquid (Sibilant) Stems
-si I -turn
166. ger-ere
167. ur-ere
gessi
ussi
carptum
cleptum
reptum
scalptum
sculptum
gluptum
nuptum
scriptum
comptum
demptum
promptum
sumptum
temptum
pressum
gestum
ustum
pluck
steal
creep
crawl
scratch
grave
peel
wed
writ6
dress hair
take away
take forth
take up
despise
press
carry on
burn
IL U-verbs :
-ul I -utum :
168. acu-ere
169. argu-ere
acui
argui
acutum
argutum
sharpen
prove
153. Cpp. (con de dis ex)-cerpo -cerpsi -cerptum.
154. Gr. Kkdmo).
155. Gpp. (ad ob per sub)-repo. Correpo, irrepo. Serpsi is not found in Classical
Latin. R. Pn sarp,
156. Cpp. (ex in)-sculpo:
157. Gr. yAv<^(o.
158. Nubo is classically applied to the woman only, except in a'jocular sense : as
Martial viii. 12 : *uxori nubere nolo meae.' It has Perf. nupta sum as well as
nupsi. That the verb is originally transitive, meaning to veil or cover, is shewn
by various passages and by the Compound obnubo. Hence the bride who covers
herself with the flammeum is said nubere (se).
159. Cpp. (ad circum Con de ex in per prae pro re sub tran)-scribo.
160-163 are Cpp. of emo, take, but differing from it in the Perfect. Cpp. of promo :
(de ex)-promd -prompsi -promptum. Cpp. of sumo : (ab as con de in re)-
sumo -sumpsi -sumptum.
164. Cp. contemno contempsi contemptum.
165. Cpp. imprlmo, supprimo ; (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum*
166. Cpp. (con di e in)-gero. So aggero, suggero.
167. Cpp. (ad ex in per)-uro. Corssen {Kr. Nnchtrd^e, 117) derives amburo,
com-buro -bussi -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sk. prushy
phishy ' to burn.'
168. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of U in U-verbs, see p. 18.
169. Cp. redarguo. Sk. arjtma-s, clear, Gr. apyds.
Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Va^bs, 225
17a exu-ere exui
171. indu-ere indui
172. imbu-ere imbui
173. lu-ere lui
174. minu-ere minui
175. nu^ere nui
176. spu-ere spui
177. statu-ere statui
178. sternu-ere sternui
179. su-ere sui
180. tribu^ere tribui
181. solv-ere solvi
182. volv-ere volvi
exutum
put off
indutum
put on
iniDUtUiri
ItflgC
lutum
washy atone
minutum
lessen
nutum
nod
sputuin
Spit
statutum
set up
sternutum
sneeze
sutum
sew
tributum
assign^ pay
solutum
loose ^ pay
volutum
roll
183. ru-ere rui
184. batu-ere batui
1^5. -gru-ere -gnii
186. metu-ere metui
187. plu-ere plui
rutum (ruttum)
beat
fear
rain
Deponent Verbs in Conj. 3 :
a. 188. fung-i functus perform
189. nit-i nisus (nixus) strive
190. plect-i -plexus twine
191. pat-i (/-or) passus suffer
uti usus use
193. grad-i (/-or) gressus step
176-i. Latin -uo in these Verbs corresponds to Gr. 6uw. Curt. 621. But see Corss.
Beitr. 496. Hence, ind-uviae, ex-uviae.
172. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form of p& po-^ * to drink. *
173. Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub)-luo -lui -lutum. Fut. Part, luiturus. Luo is the
weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. Aovce ahd L. lav-ere, Idvare
(see A-verbs). Curt. 370. See solvere.
174. Cpp. (com de di im)-minuo. R. Sk. mt, Gr. /ai-v.
175. Cpp. (ab an in re)-nuo. Gr. i/evw.
176. Cpp. (con de ex re)-spuo -spui. Gr. irrvo), hence p-i-tuTta for s-pituTta.
377. From status. Cpp. (coh de in pro re subVstituo -stitui -stitQtuni.
179. Cpp. (as con dis re)-suo. R. Sk. siv,
180. From tribus, ^rtde : Root tri, tkree. Applied first to the state-payments of the
three original Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo.
181. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solvo. For se-luere, from a verb lu-, /oose=Sk. lii, Gr.
\v-, but not otherwise shewn in L.
183. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. fcX^oa.
183. Cpp. (di e ob pro sub)-ruo -rui -riitum. Sd corruo, irrtio. Fut. Part. rUi*
tiirus.
185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo.
186. MetQtum appears in LuCr. v. 1139.
187. Cp. depluo.
(The word delibutiis, steeped, belongs to a disused Verb delibuo.)
188. Cpp. (de per)-fungor.
189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re sub)-nitor -nixus. J'or g-nitor. R. Sk. jdHU, Or. ydinj,
knee.
190. See plectere. Cpp. amplector, complector, embrace.
191. Cp. perpetior, perpessus.
192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus.
193- Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus.
Q
226
Latin Wordlore,
§53.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
j3. 200.
201.
202.
203.
204,
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
lab-i
mor-i (/-or)
quer-i
fru-i
16qu-i
sequ-i
apisc-i
-menisc-i
expergisc-i
fatisc-i
(g)nasc-i
irasc-i
nancisc-i
oblivisc-i
pacisc-i
proficisc-i
lapsus
mortuus
questus
fruitus
locutus
secutus
aptus
-mentus
experrectus
fessus
(g)natus
iratus
nactus
oblitus
pactus
profectus
glide ^ fall
die
complain
enjoy
speak
follow
obtain
have in mind
wake up
be weary
be born
be angry
find
forget
bargain
set out
194.
195.
Cpp. (de di e praeter pro sub re)-labor -lapsus. So allabor, collabor, illabor.
Cpp. (de e)-morior -mortuus. Fut. Part, moriturus. So imraorior. R. Sk,
viar. Mortuus is an Adj. used participially.
196. Cp. conqueror conquestus.
197. For frugv-i, hence fructus ; but Fut. Part, fruiturus. Cp. perfruor perfruitus.
198. Cpp. (e ob pro)-loquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor.
199. Cpp. (con ex in ob per pro sub)-sequor -secutus. R. Sk. sad, Gr. kit-.
200. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. dp.
201. Cpp. comminiscor commentus ; reminiscor, no Part. R. Sk. man.
202. The Cp. expergisci experrectus is evidently weakened from exporgisci 'expor-
rectus : from exporrigi, to stretch oneself out (on awakening). See rego.
Cp. defetiscor defessus.
Cp. (con e in)-nascor -natus, Fut. Part, nasciturus. Observe cognatus. prog-
natus. See gignere, 73.
Nanctus is also used : and nanciam is cited as an old form.
From liv-ere, to be of a dark colour ; hence oblivisci, to become darkened, to
forget. So Corssen, Nachtr., 34,
See pan go. Cpp. (com de)-paciscor or -peciscor. R. Sk. pasf.
From pro fac- {niake forward).
(Inchoative Verbs derived from other Verbs have been mentioned in the Notes to the
Syllabus.)
A) Inchoatives derived from Nouns are very numerous ; examples are—
i) Having a Perfect, but no Supine.
203.
204.
206.
207.
208.
209.
From vesper
— creber
crudus
durus
— macer
— maturus
— mutus
— niger
— notus
— surdus
— vanus
— vilis
vesperasco
advesperasco
invesperasco
crebresco
increbresco
percrebresco
recrudesco
duresco
induresco
obduresco
macresco
maturesco
obmutesco
nigresco
innotesco
obsurdesco
vanesco
evanesco
vilesco
evilesco
vesperavi
advesperavi
invesperavi
crebui
increbui
percrebui
recrudui
durui
indurui
obdurui
macrui
maturui
obmutui
nigrui
innotui
obsurdui
vanui
evanui
vilui
evilui
(grow towards
evening
I become frequent
become sore agaifC
I grow hard
grow lean
become ripe
become mute
become black
become known
become deaf
I vanish a^vay
I become cheap
§53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs, 2^7 ':
210. ulcisc-i
211. vesc-i
y. 212. liqu-i
213. ring-i
ultus
avenge
feed
melt
grin
s) Without Perfect or Supine :
puer
puerasco (re)
curvus
incurvesco
ignis
ignesco
iuvenis
iuvenesco (re)
integet"
integrasco
mitis
mitesco
arbor
arboresco
mollis
mollesco
diVes
ditesco
pinguis
pingueseo
dulcis
dulcesco
pluma
plumesco
glHandis
grandesco
sterilis
sterilesco
gravis
gravesco (in)
tener
tener-esco -asco (iri)
niger
iiigresco
lentus
lentesco
fatisco (Gr. xa-),fall o^en, &c.
3) Some are of uncertain origin :
glisco, increase
Conquinisco, conquexi, st/^oJ>^ is am old and temarkable Inchoative Verb,
Obs. Other Verbs of Conj, 3. without Perfect and Supine are :
ambigo, doubi ; clango ; furo, rage ; plecto, s^rike^
B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though differiii^ in sense and
gisnerally morigm,
i) Verbs having the «anie First Person Present Ind. in different Conjugations.
„Conj.
I,
appello
compello
colligo
consterno
effero
Conj. 3.
call
address
bind
alarm
appello
compello
colligo
consterno
mAke wild effero
land
compel
collect
strew
bear out
Conj. I. Conj. 3.
fundo found ftindo pouf^
mando entrust mando chew
obsero bolt obsero sow over
volo Jlj^ volo wish
With difference of Quantity :
CcMij. I. Conj. 3.
Colo strain colo till
dico dedicate dico say
indTco point out indico proclaim
praedlco declare praedico foretell
2) The same form df Perfect ;
Cdnj. i. Conj. 3'.
educo train educo lead out
lego bequeath lego read, &C.
with Compounds.
acesco, 3.
cerno, 3.
ffigeO, 2.
fulgeo,
luceo, 2.
mulceo, 2.
paveo, 2.
grow sour
sift
am cold
glitter
shine
soothe
dread
3) Thfe same form of Supine ;
Cerno, 3.
pando, 3.
pango, 3.
teneo, 2.
verro, 3.
video, 2.
vivo, 3.
sift
spread
fasten
hold
sweep
see
live
I'erfect.
acub, 3.
iharpen
acui
cresoo, 3.
grow
crevi
frigp, 3.
roast
frixi
fulcio, 4.
prop
fulsi
lugeo, 2.
mourn
luxi
mulgeo, 2,
milk
inulsi
pasco, 3.
feed
pavi
Supine.
CreSCo, 3.
grow
tretum
patior, 3.
suffer
passum
paciscor, 3.
bargain
pacturrt
tendo, 3.
stretch
fentum
verto, 3.
turn
versunl
viso, 3.
visit
visum
vinco, 3.
conquey
victura
Q 2
228
Latin Wordlvre.
^
% 54-55.
54
Par
CHAPTER IV.
PARTICLES.
verbs.
tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of
Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun-
cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad-
verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul,
s i m u 1) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are
Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re-
lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the
sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a
Noun-case.
Section 1.
Ad-^^ Adverbs.*
i. The relations expressed by Adverbs zx^'^Xz.tt^ Time;
Number ; Order ; Manner ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad-
verbs (which maybe called Logical) are used for questioning, deny-
ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse.
ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to
1. Place :
1. ubi ? where ? 4. qua ? by which way f
2. quo ? whither ? quatenus ? how far ?
3. quorsum? whitherward?
0 The following List contains most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverbs, with
samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs.
The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.)
I. Adverbs of Place :
X. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Ubi? ubinam? tVkere? *Utrubi? In which
place {oi two) t . .
ibi,illic, istic, there; hie, here; hie illic, here and there; mibi, therein; ibidem,
in the same place; alibi, elsewhere; alicubi, somewhere; -ubi, uspiam, a-ny-
where; usquam, anywhere at all; ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever; ubivis,
ubilibet, where you will; *utrulibet, in either place ; *utrubique, in both places ;
*neutrubi, in neither place ; ubique, usquequaque, everywhere ; nusquam, no-
where; prope, near-, procul, aloof, afar; ante, prae, in front ; post, pone, be-
hind; circa, circum, around; cis, citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond; contra, over
against; iuxta, iuxtim, adjoining; intra, within; extra, without ; sm^qv, above;
subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; supeme, above ; inferne, below ; pas-
sim here and there, everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign parts ;
praesto, at hand ; run, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ;
belli, m'ilitiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance.
2. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde ? Whence ?
inde iUim illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc mde, hmc iWxnc, from this
side and that ; indidem, from same place ; aliunde, from another place ; alicunde,
from some place ; -unde, from anyplace ; undeunde, nndecumciue, from whatever
Place • undevis, undelibet, whence you will ; undxque, from all sides; utnmque,
from 'both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; mtus, intnnsecus,
from within, within ; extrinsecus, without ; altrinsecus,/r^w one or other side \
§55-
Adverbs,
229
II. Time :
1. quando ? when? 3. quousque? to what limit f
2. quamdiu? how long f quoad? until when?
Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago f
desuper, JroM. above ; subtus, from beneath ; caelitus, from heaven ; divinitus,
from t)ie deity ; penitus, from far within ; funditus, from the base ; radicitus,
stvr^\X.\xSyfrom the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.)
3. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Quo ? quonam? Whither ^ *Utro2 To which
place (of two)?
eo, illuc, illo, istuc, isto, thither ; hue, hither ; hue illue, hither and thither ;
eodem, to the same place ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhither ; -quo, quo-
piam, anywhither ; quoquam, anywhither at all ; nequoquam, nowhither ; quo-
quo, quocumque, whithersoever', quovis, quolibet, whither you will; *utrovis, to
which place you will {pi two) ; *utroque, to both places ; *neutro, to neither place ;
citro, to this side; ultro, to yon side, farther ; ultro citroque, to and fro ; intro, to
within ; ^oxxo, forward; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, hito the country ;
foras, out of doors.
Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to yon side : idiomatically it gains these senses :
going farther, yet farther, without instigation, of free motion.
The questions quoad ? quousque? how farl are answered by usque» all the way ; ea
usque, that far ; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thus far.
4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? Whitherward'?
illorsum, istorsum, thithenuard ; horsum, hitherward ; aliorsum, to another quar-^
ter; aliquors-um(-us), to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter',
*utroque versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-us), inwards ; sursum, upwards ;
deors-um, downwards ; sursum deorsum, susque deque, up and down ; prors-um
(-us), straightforwards ; rursum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors-um
(-us), rursumC-us), rursum vorsum, backwards ; seors-um(-us), apart ; exadvers-us
(-um), over against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the left ; pessum,
to ruin ; incjissum, to no purpose.
5« Adverbs corresponding to the question Qua? quanam? By which way? in which
direction ?
ea, lUa, iliac, thai way ; hac, this way ; eadem, the same way ; alia, another way ;
aliqua, sojne way ; -qua, any way ; quaquam, any way at all ; quadam, a certain
way ; quaque, every way ; quaqua, quacumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet,
any way you will ; *utravis, *utralibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by
no means ; recta, straight on ; dextra, by the right road ; sinistra, by the left road.
The question Quatenus ? How far ? is answered by
eatenus, that far, so far ; hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua-
damtenus, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent.
Obs. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istic, hie ; inde, illinc,, istinc,
Wnc; eo, illue, istuc, hue, &c., correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is,
ille, iste, hie. In the series of time, nunc corresponds to hie, tune to is.
The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis,
qui, being chiefly used with Particles, as si-c-ubi, si-e-unde, siquo, &e., ne-e-ubi, ne-c-
Unde, nequando, &c., where ubi, unde, resume the e of the Relative.
Uspiam, quopiam, &e., are used, like quispiam, in afiirmative clauses; usquam, quo-
quam, &c., like quisquam, in negative or dubitative clauses.
II. Adverbs of Time :
I. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecquando? When?
turn, tune, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; nunc, now ; etiamnunc or etiamnumj
even now ; inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; hine, abhinc, dehinc,
henceforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time ; ali-
quando, at some time ; umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes;
numquam non, always ; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam,
ohm, some time or other {formerly or hereafter). — lam, now, already ; iam
turn, even then ; iamnunc, nunciam, iamiam, et iam, even now ; diu, long j
230 Latin Wordlore, § 55.
II L Number :
quotiens? how many times f how of ten f
IV. Manner : {how f)
quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qui? ut?)
dudum (for diudum), a while ago ; pridem, at a former time ; iamdiu, iamdu-
dum, iampridem, long ago ; haud dudum, haud pridem, not long ago; interdum,
no%v and then ; nondum, hauddum, not yet ; vixdum, hardly yet \ tandem, at
length ', demum, at last ; mox, by and by, soon ; propediem, presently \ protenus,
protinam, forthwith ', interim, interea, meanwhile ; ante, antea, prius, before;,
antehac, antidhac, heretofore ; post, postea, (postidea), after, afterwards ; post-
hac, hereafter; postilla, after that time; postmodo, soon after. — Modo, now,
lately, soon ; nuper, newly, lately ; TQcens, freshly, lately ; denuo, afresh,^ again ;
commodum, j'tist now ; antiquitus, of old ; primitus, from the first ; simul,
at the same time ; semper, usque, usquequaque, always ; perpetuo, continu-
ally ; sero, late ; cito, speecfily ; actutum, briskly ; confestim, in a trife ; cop-
tinuo, without stop ; extemplo, on the moment ; ilico (in loco), o^t- the spot ;
ilicet, straightway ; statim, instantly ; repente, derepente, subito, ^u^denly ;
quam primum, as soon as possible ; obiter, by the way. — Hodie, to-day ; heri,
here, yesterday ; eras, to-7norrow ; pridie, the day befote ; postridie, the day
after ; perendie, the next day but one ; nudius tertius, the third day back, &c. ;
mane (mani), in the morning ; dilueulo, at dawn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi,
vespere, at eve7i ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytime ; nocti, noctii, in the night-
time. The Abl, brevi, also perbrevi, mefins either in a short time or in a few
words (brevi dictione).
a) The questions quam dudum? quam pridem? how long ago? are answered by diu ;
dudum ; pridem ; iamdiu ; iamdudum ; iampridem ; h^ud dudum ; haud pridem ; haud
ita pridem.
2. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu ? How long ?
(diu, long ; perdiu, very long ; tamdiu, so long,- aliquamdiu, some length of time ;
tantisper, so long ; aliquantisper, for some time ; pjirumper, paulisper, for a
little time ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum, for ever ;
amplius, longer ; non amplius, haud amplius, non iam, no longer.
The questions quousque, quoad, to what limit of time ? are answered by usque, usque-
quaque, cojitinjially ; adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c.
JII. Adverbs of Number :
Answering the question, Quotiens ? How often f
totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, pluriens, several times ; identidem, repeatedly ; inter-
dum, subinde, 7iow and then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepius, often \ per-
saepe, saepissime, very often ; plerumque, generally ; crebro, frequently ; raro,
seldom ; cotidie, indies, daily ; quotannis, annually ; semel, once ; bis, twice ;
ter, thrice, &c. &c, See Numeralia.
a) Ordinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordine ?
primum, frst ; primo, in the first place ; deinde, in the next place ; turn, then,
afterwards ; denique, finally ; postremo, in the last place ; deinceps, next in
order ; secundo, in the second place ; tertio, in the third place, &c. ; porro,
farther ; insuper, moreover ; necnpp, also ; praeterea, besides ; quin, further-
mo7'e.
IV. Adverbs of Manner :
Answering the question Quomodo? quomodonam? quemadmodum? qui? ut? How?
adeo, ita, sic, so ; aeque, adaeque, equally, as much ; item, itidem, pariter, perinde,
proinde, similiter, iuxta, in like mmner; contra, contrariwise; aliter, secus,
otherwise.
1
55. Adverbs, 231
V. Degree :
I. quam? how? 2. quantum? how much?
VI. Cause : {why ? wherefore f)
quare ? cur ? quamobrem ?
VII. Quality:
qualiter ? in what kind of way f
V. Adverbs of Degree :
%. Adverbs answering to the question Quam? How?
tarn, so ; omniho, prorsiis, altogether ; admodum, oppido, penitus, plane, perquam,
sane, sanequam, valde, valdequam, very, quite ; vementer, exceedingly : longe.
Jar; magis, more ; maxime, most, very; minus, less; m\vi\m^, leas*, not at all \
potius, rather; potissimum, chiejly ; in primis, apprime, praecipue, praesertim,
especially ; etiam, vel, even ; fere, almost, generally ; ferme, paenc, almost ;
prope, propemodo, propemodum, nearly, almost ; aegre, vix, scarcely, hardly ;
dumtaxat, merely ; modo, only ; saltern, at least ; solum, solummodS, tantum,
tantummodo, only ; utique, in fact, at all events.
2. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum ? How much ?
tantum, so much ; aliquantum, considerably ; multum, much ; permultum, plurimum,
very much ; plus, more ; satis, sat, eno7igh ; abunde, affatim, plentifully ; nimis,
nimium, too much ; paulum, little ; paululum, very little ; parum, little, too
little ; minus, less ; minimum, least, very little ; quantulum, quantillum, hoiv
little ; tantulum, tantillum, so little,
a) The question Quanto ? By how much ? is answered by tanto, eo, by so much ; ali-
quanto, by a good deal; multo, nimio, by a great deal ; paulo, by a little ; nihilo, &c.
The question Quanto o\)Q.xq.,How gteatly? by tanto opere, so greatly, magnoopere,
greatly ; maximo opere, very greatly.
VI. Adverbs of Cause :
Answering the question Quare ? cur ? quamobrem? Why 1 wherefore ?
eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, on that accoutit ; ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; proin,
proinde, accordingly.
VII. Adverbs of Quality (chiefly formed from Adjectives : but also many
from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles).
Answering the question Qualiter ? In what kind of way ? Examples are :
bene, well ; male, /// ; rite, duly ; iucunde, pleasantly ; gravate, grudgingly ; recte,
rightly ; i)ulch.re, finely ; late, widely ; longe lateque,yrt:r andwide ; publice,/?/^-
licly ; misere, wretchedly ; splendide, nobly, &c. &c. &c. ; audacter, boldly ; feliciter,
happily ; fortiter, bravely ; amanter, lovingly ; decanter, becomingly ; sapienter,
wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim, gradually ;
furtim, stealthily ; paulatim, pedetentim, little by little ; nominatim, by nam^- ;
singulatim, sigillatim, individually ; viritim, man by man ; tributim, tribe by tribe ;
vicissim, by turns ; seorsim, apart, &c. &c. &c. ; consulto, deliberately ; tuto,
safely ; falso, falsely ; fortuito, casually ; gratuito, zvithout fee ; improviso,
inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly ; liquido, clearly ; merito, deservedly, &c. ;
clam, clanculum, secretly ; palam, openly \ una, simul, together ; bifariam, bipartito,
in two parts ; trifariam, tripartito, &c. ; temere, at hazard ; forte, by chance ;
sponte, by choice ; rite, duly ; temperi, seasonably ; frustra, in vain ; perperam,
badly; gratiis, gratis, yr^^/j/ ; ingratiis, unwelcomely ; coram, face to face; alio-
qui(-n), ceteroqui(-n), in other respects ; nequiquam, to no purpose ; incassum,
fruitlessly ; praefiscine, without offence. This adverb is derived from prae,
fascino, barring the evil eye^ under favour, * Praefiscine dixerim,' Plant.
Asin. ii. 4. 84.
For Comparison of Adverbs see § 30,
232
Latin Wordlore,
§56.
VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affirma-
tive or negative answers, are :
-ne (enclitic)? an? anne? num? numne? utrum? utrumne?
nonne? annon?
56
Prepo-
sitions.
Table of
Prepo-
sitions.
Section II.
Prepositions.
A Preposition is an exponent of relation between
one Noun and another.
i. The primary relations are those of Place, Time, Number. From
these spring many others, which are figurative or logical.
The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Place : apud regem, at the king's
court \ ante me, in front of me ; ^d bellum, to the war.
The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the
time of Romulus ; ante tubas ferrumque, ^^r^ the invention
of trumpets and steel.
Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with
Verbs of Rest ; many with both.
Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to forrn Adverbial
Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs: admodun;i, in-
vicern, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c.
ii. Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the
Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative.
i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case : —
ad to^ at, &c. ob over against, on
advers-us(uni) against, toward account of
ante
apud
circum
circa
circiter
cis, citra
contra
erga
extra
infra
inter
intra
iuxta
before
near, at, with
around
around, about
about
on this side of
against
towards
outside of
below
penes
per
pone
post
praeter
in the power of
through
behind
after, behind
beside
prope, near,^ propius, proxime
propter on account of nigh
secundum next, ciccording to
supra aborve
trans across
between, among ultra beyond
within versus, versuni toward^
next to
Logical Adverbs, used to modify Discourse, are
(1) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely y of a sooth \ nimirum, to be sure ; (2) quidem,
equidem, indeed ; certe, certainly, at least ; tamen, attamen, yety nevertheless ;
nihilominus, nevertheless ; (3) fors, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perhaps ;
(4) immo, nay buty nay rather \ (5) certo, assuredly ; ita, etiam, yeSy even so ; ne
(often spelt nae), yea, verily ; plane, evidently ; profecto, doubtless ; sane, ^uite
so ; utique, in sooth ; vero, truly, yes indeed', quippe, to be sure \ (6) non, noty no ;
baud (haut), not, no (the reverse) : minime, by no means ; ne, not, lest ; nedum,
not to say, much less ; ne . . . quidem, not even.
Conjunctions,
233
a, ah^ abs
absque
clam
coram
cum
de
out oj^ front
in sight of
before^ owing to
before for
without
as far as^
Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city.
Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case.
2) The following take the Ablative Case: —
by or from ex, e
without palam
unknown to prae
tn the presence of pro
with sine
from, concerning tenus
Ab stands before vowels and li ; a and often ab before consonants ;
^b5 sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usual.
Ex stands before vowels and li ; ex and e before consionants.
Cilam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets.
Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some-
tiajies to the Relative : as mecum, nobis cum, tecupi, vobis-
cu^, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum,
3) The following take the Accusative or (he Ablative : —
an into, against (Ace), in (Abl.) super over^ upon
sub up to, under (Ace), under (Abl.) subter undeir
In and sub with Accusative imply motion ; \vith Ablative, rest.
junc-
tions.
Section III.
Conjunctions.
57
Conjunctions are of two Classes : co^-
Coordinative, or those which link words and sen-
tences without affection of Mood.
B, Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with
affection of Mood.
The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination :
quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quam-
vis, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu.
A. Coordinative Conjunctions are;—
Annexive : et, -que,^ ^;^^ both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and\
neque, nec, nor, neither : and the adverbial words item,
also, etiam, quoque,^ also, even ; necnon, moreover.
Disjunctive : aut, vel, -ve,^ or, either*; sive, seu, either, or.
Adversative : sed, at (ast), verum, but ; autem,^ but, now ;
ceterum, ; 2it<\m, but yet \ vqyo,^ truly, but ; t3men,yet,
nevertheless ; attamen, verumtamen, however, but yet.
Causal : nam, namque, enim,^ etenim, for ; enimvero, for in
truth.
' -que -ve are enclitics, always attached to the word which they affect, or to some other
in the same clause.
^ Quoque, autem, vero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause,
but usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ;
quoque, quidem, after the word which they affect.
234
Latin Wordlore,
§58.
Illative : ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
Conclusive : quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, w/^^r^m
Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, veluti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem-
admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque, ac, as ;
quam, thaji^ as ; quasi, tamquam, as^ as it were\ utpote, as
being,
B, Subordinative Conjunctions are :—
Consecutive : ut, so that ; (ut non) ; quin, btit that, that not.
Final : ut, /;/ order that ; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), /;/ order that
not ; utinam, O that ; utinam ne, &c. ; quo, /// order that ;
quominus, in order that not.
Causal : quod, quia, because ; quoniam, quando, quandoquidem,
since ; siquidem, inasmuch as ; quom or cum, since.
Temporal : quom or cum, wheri ; ubi, quando, when ; ut,
when, from the time that ; dum, donee, while, whilst ;
dum, donee, tmtil ; quoad, whilst ; quoad, until ; ante-
quam, priusquam, />^^/ ; postquam, after that; simul
ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotiens, as often as ;
and others.
Conditional : si, if; sin (for si-ne), but if ; sive, seu, or if whe-
ther; msi, unless ; ni, unless; si modo, si tantum, if only,
or modo, tantum (omitting si); dum, ^Mva'sxiod.o, provided
that, or modo (omitting dum).
Concessive : etsi, etiamsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, althougJi, even
if; quamquam, utut, howeve?' ; quamvis, although, lit.
how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although.
Comparative : quasi, as if {(or quam si) ; ut si, ac si, velut si,
as if; or velut (dropping si); tamquam, as though (for
tamquam si) ; ceu, as //(dropping si).
Obs. In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included
All Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely :
The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c.,
inasmuch as both these classes link sentences with affection of
Mood.
38 Section IV.
Inter- I n t C f j C C 1 1 0 nS,
jections.
Interjections strictly so called (interiecta, inserted
in the sentence without affecting its form) express :
Invocation : O, heus, oho or ohe, eia or heia; pro (proh),
eho, ehodum, hark, halloa, &c.
Designation ; en, ecce, lo I behold!
Surprise : O, hem, em, e hem, babae, and the comic words au;
hui; va (vah) ; eia; bombax ; at at or attat; at t ate; attat tatae.
Disgust : (comic) phui, 2ih.2i, faugh ; T^}\y,pooh/
Sditi^ty : oYiQ, o\Q\, enough /
Laughter : (comic) aha (ha ha), hahahae.
Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, huzza! joy ! &c.,
and the comic words euax, eugepae (evyeTrai)-
Derivation of Nouns.
235
Praise : eu, euge, eia, bravo ! well done ! Sec,
Pain and Sorrow : heu, eheu, hei or ei, vae, ab or a, alasf
woe / i 1 i c e t, alPs up !
Deprecation : pro (proh), forbid it !
Call to Silence : st, hush!
Several Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs are used in exclamation or
invocation, like Interjections. Such are :
1) Nouns: pax, ^/^j-i^/ malum,//^^//^ / nefas, infandum, ^;^^?;^-
stroits ! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe.
The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used with an Ablative or
Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is
perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb ma cere. M. Lucr. v. 1339.
2) Verbs : quaeso, prithee I precor, oro, obsecro, pray;
2imdiho^ do t please ; sis (si vis), sultis (si Y\x\i\s\ please : sodes
(si audies?), if you'll be so good : agesis, agedum, agitedum,,
come now ; c e d o (PL c e 1 1 e), give me\ a p a g e, away, avaunt,
3) Adverbs : profecto, really \ nae (or ne), i'mhy used with the
Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim . . . nae illi arrant, &:c*
[a) The following expressions are elliptical :
mehercule^ = me, Hercule, iuves, so help me, Hercules.
mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, iuves, so help me. Castor,
edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so help m.e^ Pollux,
medius fidius = me, deus Fidius, iuves, so help me, God of
faith (ZeifQ III(ttiol).
pro luppiter = prohibeas,^ luppiter, J^ove forbid,
pro di immortales = prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven forefend!
{b) O, a, heu, eheu, hem, eia, en, ecce, pro are found with
Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, heus, eho,
and others are often accompanied by a Vocative. The Vocative
itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction
of the sentence.
CHAPTER V,
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
Section L
Derivation of Nouns.
i. The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are suffiLs
shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next vadol?
to sh ew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root,
or one Stem from another.
* Mehercle, hercle, are abridged forms.
' The etymology of pro (proh) here given is not disproved by the phrase ' pro denm
atque hominum fidem,' which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deum atque
hominum ndem violari.'
236
Latin Wordlore.
§59.
That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac-
ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crude lit as, Stem
cru-d-eli-tat-, tat is the staminal Suffix.
It commonly happens that a word comes immediately from an-
other, which is itself derived from a third, and so on, till a root or
rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the
Theme of such as are immediately derived from it. Thus,
Theme of crudelitas : Adj. crudelis ; Stem crudeli-.
Theme of crudelis : Adj. criidus; Stem crudo- for cru-Ido-.
Theme of crudus : Root cru-, Sk. kraviy Gr. icjocf-, raw flesh..
Beginning from the Root, the order is :
cru-, crii-Ido- ( = cru-du-»), cru-Id-ell- ( = cru-d-eh-»), cru-Id-ell-tat*.
( =- cru-d-eli-ta-s).
Here the suffixes are id6 (id-), ell, tat ; to each of which the
ending s is joined to form the Nominative Case.
The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation^
\>Y other suffixes.
Thus from cru- come cru-or,^^7r^, cru-entu-s,^^7r>' ; from
this the Verb cru-ent-a-re : from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s
and cru-d-esc-ere : from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter ;
crudelitas merely forms its own Cases.
ii. Root or Rudiment.
The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Con**
parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand-
ing the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture.
Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; e s, tct>
go^ I, fhat^ da, sta, ag, ap, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cap (see
p. 190): while inf3,c, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin
words, c is now held to be a suffix, added to the root fa = Sk. bhdy
Grv ^a-, to give light, under which stand new groups, including
fax, facies, fateor, fari, fas, &c., with their derivatives. Hence
it is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi-
ment rather than a root.
iii. Suffix.
The derivation and distribution af Latin Suffixes, with their
meaning, when they have one, are a special topic too wide to be
fully treated here. The Syllabus which follows, with the subjoined
examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's
method (Lat. Wortbildung und Composition), though not his order ;
corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher {Com-
pend. §§ 215-231) and Corssen {Ausspr, L 566, &c.). Bopp, Leo
Meyer, and Kick's Lexicon have also been consulted.
Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound
suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, having
been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni-
ence as if it were simple. Such are tudon^ mento^ cundo, bundo,
&c.
§ 59i Derivation of Nouns. 237
iv. Rudimental Words.
Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the
real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are
d) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux, nex, nux,
pix, prec-, die-, grex, pes, vas (vad-), adips, caelebs, dap-,
op-, stip-, with many compound words, auspex, haruspex, obex,
index, iudex, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps,
praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c. lux, pax, vox, lex, r ex,
&c. c) sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos,
ros, flos, OS (or-) : also farr- (far), fell- (fel), melt- (mel), ost-
(os, bone), cord- (cor).
V. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot).
In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations
used are :
S. Substantive. V, Verbalia (words derived from Verbs).
A. Adjective. D, Denominativa (words derived from Nouns).
Unc. (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown.
&c. ) placed after Examples cited, indicate that many
&c. &c. others exist of the same class, and that in
&c. &c. &c. J some instances the number is very large.
Every Suffix ending in 5 must be taken as including the forms
lis, a, um; that is, A-nouns as well as 0-nouns*
I. Vowels and V.^
Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters a, 6, K, ii, e), the most
important is id, including, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub-
stantives in !a, mm, and of Possessive Adjectives in ius.
S. «) a /8) 6 7) e, ie d) u %) t K)
r}) 0) u6, v6, iv6, vi.
I. Vowels and V.
Substantives.
a) Masc. V. scrib-a, adven-a, incol-a, tefrigeii-ai, &c.
V. merg-us, cormorant ; tor-us, couch \ fug-a, Jligkt ; talp-d> Mole ; pronub-a,
bridesmaid ; iug-um, yoke, &c. &c. D. nimb-us, cloud ; nerv-us ; tauf-us ; lup-us ;
or-a, coast ; sal-iim, brine, &.C.
y) V. f Id-es, efifig-ies, spec-ies, &c. D. paut)er-ies . . .
6) V. ac-us, D. nur-us.
0 V. arx, falx, nix, ap-is, rup-es, &c. D. nox, nub-es, mar-e, &c.
^ Mostly D. calc-eus, shoe ; trab-ea, striped robe ; flamm-eum, bridal veil, &c. V,
61-ea, olive.
ri) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, player . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A large number of Fern.
D. av-ia, grandmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audac-ia, boldness ; ignav-ia,
sloth ; victor-ia, znctory ; absent-ia, absence, &c. &c. &c. A large number are
Neut. most K denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, mar-
^age ', gaud-ium, Joy, &c. &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old
age : sav-ium, kiss, &c. &c. Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, &c., should be
ranked as V.
$) Ud : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian-ua, house-door ; v6 : V. D. cer-vus ;
ri-vus ; lar-va, mask, spectre ; zx-SMxa, ploitgh-land \ iv6 : ol-iva, an olive; sal-
iva, spittle ; VI : V. ci-vis.
238'^ Latin W or dlore. §59,
A. a) 6 j3) 1 7) eo 5) 16 €) u6, v6, ivo, tiVo, vi.
II. C.
C is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives :
Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however,
the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind :
as in senex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex ; caecus, flaccus,
luscus, mancus, truncus, &c. So in c-ulo c is deminutive, but
in c-undo it denotes permanent activity.
S. cr) ci ic f3) CO C16 ICO tico 7) ac oc 5) ic ico
i) ucd.
A. a) CO ico tico lico jS) aci oci 7) aco aceo
Adjectives :
a) 6: V. ^A-us,, faithful ; viv-us, alive . . . with Cpp. naufrag-us, shipwrecked;
T^Toing-us, ftigitive . . . D. re-us, accused ; nov-us, new ; me-us, tu-us, su-us . . .
/3) \: I-s ; qui-s ; qui ; iug-is . . . Cpp. bimar-is . . .
y) eo : D. implying * Fo-nned of : ' aur-eus, golden ; argent-eus, of silver ; * Exhibit-
ing'J lut-eus, mtiddy ; lut-eus, of deep yellow ; * Belongi7ig to : ' virgin-eus,
maiden, maidenlike, &c.
Note. — eo represents Gr. €109, Pythagor-eus, El-eus, of E lis.
6) io : D. imply generally * Having the quality ' of, or ' Belonging to : 'mart-ius, patr-
ius, reg-ius, pluv-ius, &c. &c. ; some Cpp. egreg-ius, exim-ius. Aer-ius, aether-ius
are Greek, having the sense of L. eus. Alius, Gr. aAAo?=al-yus ; medius, Gr.
/u.€'<rcro? = med-yus ; 1 being i-consonans. Add plebe-ius = plebe-yus.
0 u6 : V. with some in v6, iv6, chiefly ]^., may imply ^Active quality : ' contig-uus,
adjoi7iing ; contin-uus, &c. ; gna-vus, knowing ; ^ro\.Qr-\\xs, frolicsome ; sae-vus,
raging, &c. ; noc-uus or noc-ivus, hurtful^ &c. : ot may have Passive use ;
divid-uus, parted ; ingen-uus, freeborn ; mut-uus, exchanged (between two per-
sons or parties), mutual ; relic-uus, left ; rig-uus, irHg-uus, watered ; vid-uus,
•widowed ', ca-vus, hollow ; sal-vus safe ; adopt ^ivus, chosen, adoptive ; especially
those in t-iv6, having the Supine or participial suffix t : captivus, captured ; fes-
tWus, festive ; fugi-tivus, na-tivus, praeroga-tivus, vo-tivus, &c. &c. Aes-tivus,
of summer, supposes a verb aedere (Gf. aiB-), to heat ; tempes-tivus, season-
able, is abnormal ; mor-tuus (=mor-tivus), dead ; ann-uusis a rare Denom. ;mens-
tr-uus seems to be for mens-trius from itiensis, month, vi : brevis, Gr. ^paxv^ ;
gravis, Sk. gun^s, Gr. ^apv^ ; le-vis, Sk. laghus, Gr. cAaxv'?, light ; le-vis,
Gr. Aetf OS, smooth ; sua-vis, Sk. svaduSi Gr. tt/Su's.
II. C.
Substantives.
a) ci: lanx, merx (faeci- fauci- . . .): ic (ix). P". appendix : ic (ex), V. vert-ex,
vort-ex, D. ram-ex. See pp. 9^-6 (most uftc).
J3) CO : V. fo-cus, hearth ; fu-cus, drone ; es-ca, food, D. luven-cus -ca ; cio-, V.
sola-cium ; D. un-cia (from unus); iCO : D. vil-icus, steward; vil-ica,
steward's wife \ man-Tea, handcuff ; ped-ica, fetter, springe, &c. ; ticO, V
can-tlcum : D. viaticum, provision for journey.
y) D. forn-ax, furnace ; Yim-ax, snail ; ce\-ox, yacht.
ic, p. 96 (most unc. rad-ix, &c.) : but F. in triC- trlx, Fem. as mere-trix, vic-
trix, &c. (see R) ; ic6 : V. D. mend-icus, -Tea, beggar; \ect-Tca., litter, and
others.
e) lact-uca, lettuce (some unc. ).
Adjectives.
a) CO : V. D. par-cus, pau-cus, pris-cus, rau-cus, sic-Cus, &c. (some unc.) : ic6 :
most D. imply * Pertaining to : ' bell-icus, publ-!cus, &c. : some V. med-Tcus, of
healing (as Subst. physician). Many Gentilia ; ScythTcus, &c. tiCO : D.
rus-tTcus, aqua-ticus, &c. V. vena-tTcus ; lico : D. fame-lTcus.
/3) aci : V. imply * Inclined to,' * Capable of : ' aud-ax, daring ; ed-ax, devouring ;
iox-z-x, fruitful, &c. &c. ; 5ci : V. ' Inclined to : ' fer-ox, haughty ; vel-ox, swift.
y) aco: mer-acus, pure (op-acus, shady, unc); Subst. clo-aca, sewer (clu = lu).
a,ced : D. ' Consisting of : ' farr- aceus, of flour, and some others.
§59'
Derivation of Nouns.
239
5) ic6 Icio tlclo e) Icl uco uceo 17) laco.
III. G,
In many words which have gr before the final vowel or case-end-
ing, this cons, is known to be a root- character : as in lex, rex, strix,
frug-, coniux, angu-is, compag-es, contag-es, merg-us,
rog-us, fug-a, plag-a, plag-a, tog-a, iug-um, and others.
{Pinguis, as compared with Sk. Gr. 7rt-, seems to shew a suffix
but not if compared with Gr. Tra^vc. See Curt. Gr, Ef, 276,)
This suggests the probabihty that in uncertain words, as vag-us,
alg-a, and others, gr is radical rather than suffixal. On the other
hand, it is probable that the root dg is suffixal (ig, ag, ig, iig) in
various words. Its presence in remex (remum agere), auriga
(aureas agere), prodigus, and ambages, is obvious : in con-
fluges, coagulum, strages, stragulus, it may be conjectured :
also in nugae, for nov-ig-ae, novelties = trifles as opposed to sefia
(from serus), long-considered inatter : * hae nugae seria ducunt in
mala.' Valgus, volgus are deduced by some from Sk. roots. (May
not the latter be referred to the former word ?) Finally, the root ag
may be supposed in agron, egron, ug:on : see M". Compare the Greek
odnyo^j Xopriyog, &c.
On fastig-ium, vestig-ium, see C. Ausspr. II. 427, Kr, B, 197, 361.
IV. T.
This is the most efficient suffixal letter in Aryan language. If
we include its representation by s and d, it enters into the forma-
tion of all Participles and Participial Adjectives, and into that of
all Verbal Substantives with Participial theme : by the suffixes to
(so, <16), tu (sii), ti (si), tion (sion), nti, &c. Besides which it
forms important groups of Denominative Substantives ; concrete by
the suffixes it et, abstract by the suffixes tat tut, and others.
(For the suffixes into which n enters, see HT : for do, di see B.
The suffixes so, sii, si are included here.)
S. o) ta ita /6) to (so) ito y) tu (su) itu atu Itii ultii
5) ic6 : V. 2im-\cViS, friendly (Subst. friend') ; pud-icusy modest ; apr-icus, sunny ;
from Particles ; ant-iquus, ancient ; post-Icus, hinder ; iciO : D. imply * Consist-
ing of : ' later-Tcius : brick,' &c. 'Pertaining to ;' natal-icius, belonging to a
birthday, &c. but nov-Tcius, newly arrived {novice')^ Juv. : ticio (sicio) :
V. (Sup. St.) Participial: advec-ticius, imported; Gonduc-ticius, hired', trala-
ticius, transferred, &c. The quantity of ti, si is probably variable.
e) (fel-ix, pern-ix, both una)
i) UCO : V, only ca-d-ucus,, falling; uceo : D. only pann-uceus, ragged,
rj) Greek D. card-iacus, dyspeptic : Aegypt-iacus, &c.
IV. T.
Substantives.
a) D. nau-ta, nav-ita. .
V . numerous : lec-tus, bed ; sec-ta, sect ; fa-tum, fat^ ; cau-sSy cause ; pen-sum,
task ; mer-itum, desert ; ius-sum, command, &c. &c. D. : liber-tus, freedman ;
iuven-ta, yotith ; salic-tum, willow-bed ; carec-tum, sedge-bed ; virgul-tum, thicket,
&c. The last three have turn for etum. See 6) below.
7) tu (su), J tu : V. (Sup. St.) fle-tus, weeping; mo-tus, motion ; ic-tus, stroke;
crucia-tus, torture ; mugl-tus, bellowing ; hab-itus, habit ; strep-itus, noise ;
nex-us, connexion ; vi-sus, sight, &c. &c. (Pr. st.) hal-Ttus, spir-itus, breath ; tum-
ultus, tiproar. But D. in atU denote Office, Position, Corporate Body, &c. :
consul-atus, cojisulship ; sen-atus, senate ; re-atus, state of aocusatio7i ; equit--
atus, cavalry, &c.
240
Latin Wordlore,
§59-
et5 0 it (st) t) et \t ry) tat Itat etat estat
6) tut itut i) tid (sld) Itlo Itie ic) ato uto ltd X) dt
ted.
f A. a) td (sd) \Xo i8) at6 7) et6 8) ito c) dt6
ut5 X) ati Itl f?) tl Stl ft.
V. B.
This cons, is a principal element in several important compound
. Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under w. Be-
sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix ido*
S. a) do Idd /3) di 7) ed od I) ud.
A. a) do id5 6) di.
VL P,
It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except
piilo, in which the root pur^ pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained :
mani^pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c. : du-pl-ex,
&c. in which pi- ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s).
5) ace-tum, vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting * Place of grotuth myrt-etum,
mjrtle-grove ; oliv-etum, olive-yard, &c.
<) gens, mens, sors, &c. ; vec-tis, ves-tis, vi-tis, mes-sis. D. me'n-sis, nep-tis.
K seg-es, ar-ies (see C. Nachtr. 268-270) : and D. in es It-, al-es, equ-£s, ped-es,
&c p. 97.
■»)) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pi-etas, soci-efas (e by dis-
similation after i), &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c., see It : pot-estas, eg-estas
may be for -ent-tas.
<6) Abstract D. iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, serv-itus.
•t) Z>, nun-tius, nun-tia, trist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-'itia, &c. &c.
*) pal-atum, /a/a/^ ; ^zX-Mta., goddess of Morn \ phu-ita., ^pAlegm^
A.) dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson.
|ui) lin-teum, towel.
Adjectives.
a) D. numerous: ius-tus,y?/5/ ; mul-tus, much ; Sex-tus, sixth, &c. &c. V. tac-ifus,
silent', sal-sus, salted', with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of 2. and
others ; tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-itus, atton-itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c. &c. &c.
jS) D. numerous : barb-atus, bearded ; ferr-atus, iron-clady &o. &c. most Parti-
ciples of Conj. I. am-atus, arm-atus, &c. &c. &c.
y) V . fac-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr-etus, &c.
fi) D. crin-ltus, rich-haired ; mell-itus, honied, &c. V. most Participles of Conj. 4.
and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c. &c.
«) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed^ &c. V, Participles of Verbs in UO,
ac-utus, arg-utus, &c.
^ D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, Ztd p. xo8.
17) for-tis, hebes, dives, p. n6, &c.
V. B.
Substantives.
a) V. mo-dus ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae>da ; crep*Idat
V. laus, cla-des.
y) V, her-es, merc-es,(cust-os?)
8) D. pec-us ud-.
Adjectives.
a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, thilly, frosty \ hcrb-idus,
grassy ; morb-idus, diseased \ sol-idus ; suc-idus, juicy , and others : V. many
from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Conj. 2.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av-idus,
call-idus, ferv-idus, pall-idus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, val-idus, um-idus,
&c. &c. ; cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, viv-idus.
/5) D. gran-dis ; viri-dis.
§59.
Derivation of Nou7is,
241
VII. B.
S. o) b6. /3) bi.
A. bo.
on bundo see JJ ; on bili bert^ &c., see :l, S.
VIII.
This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter-
minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of all Masc. and Fern. Nouns,
and the first three cases of Neut. 0-nouns. The Suffix mo enters
into the Superl. form of the Adj. Min (men), mento have con-
crete use, implying Instrument : monio implies Permanent State :
S. ct) mo imo timo /^) min (men) imin (imen) iimini
(umen) y) mento imento iimentd amento /)
mon iimon f) monio imonio l) umno.
A. a) mo /3) imo (iimo) timo (tiimo) simo (siimo) riilio
(riimo) liind (liimo) issimo (issiimd) esimd (esiimd).
VII. B. ^
Substantives,
a) mor-bus, tu-ba, tur-ba, ver-bum.
/3) plebs, pu-bes.
Adjectives :
pro-bus (7rpo-<|)V7?9), super-bus (urrep-^UTjs?).
VIII.
Substantives.
a) V. ar-mus, shoulder-j'dint ; fu-mus, smoke ; ra-mus, hougJi ; a!n-Tfritis, nihid ;
an-Tma, breath ; fa-ma, y^zw^; flam-ma, ; spu-ma,yi7^;« ; vic-tima, victim ;
ar-ma, arms, S:c. D. bru-ma, /;/^V/-'^f^V^^^r (brevi-ma).
/3) V. Neut. (numerous) : imply * Means, Instrument or Concrete Effect : * (i) wheri
the theme has active force : flu-men, stream ; lu-men, light ; lenT-men, leva-meii,
assuagejnent ; nu-men, nod, deity ; nutrT-men, nutriment ; feg-imen, govern-
ment ; sola-men, comfort ; teg-men, covering : (2) when the theme has a pas-
sive sense : ag-men, a marching body (quod agitur) ; no-men, Jtdme (quod nos-
citur) : stra-men, straw (quod sternitur) ; se-men, ^^^^(quod seritur) ; exa-men,
swarm of bees (quod exigitur, which is driven out) or tongue of balance (quod
exigitur, which is adjusted). So crimen, a charge ; doc-umen, lesson, &c. &c. &c.
Some suppose Verbs not in use : albu-men, gra-men, grass (ger-ere or gen-ere ?
Compare ger-men, sprout). (Many unc. abdo-men, bitu-men, iT-men and others.
Flamen, Masc. from flag- </)AeY-, lighter of sacrificidl fire.)
7) this Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and
varieties: V. (i) Act. argu-mentum, /r<?<2/^ ; 2iX-mt.nX.\xm, plo^igh-cattle ; comple-
mentum, what fills up ; fo-mentum, pozdtice (quod fuvet), fer-mentum (quod
fervet) ; nutrT-mentum, orna-mentum, al-Tmentum, teg-umentum. (2) Pass, cae-
lAentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; ra-mentum, shaving (quod
rMitur), testa-mentum, will. Sec. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calcea-men-
tum, shoe ; rudT-mentum, first training, rudiment (compare erudire) ; palud-
amentum, military cloak.
5) sef-mo, discoiirse : (Lucu-mo, prince, priest, in Etruria).
e) jD. acr-imonla, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melancholy ; parc-imonia (rather thart
pars-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint :
al -imonium, nonri^hmeiit, 8lc.
0 V- al -umnus, nui^sling ; eol-umna, column.
Adjectives.
a) V, al-mus, genial ; fir-mus, firm. D. On Superl. suffix mo s€e p. 42. So the
Ordinal Numerals septinuis, decimus, &c. p. 152.
D. plur-Tmus, ci-tTmus, pes-stmus, acer-rTmus, humil-lTmus, dur-issTmus, quin-
quag-ensimus, cent-ensTmus (umus), &c. &c. See pp. 42, 153.
242 Latin Wovdlore, § 59.
y) itimd (itiimd) Imo () mi.
IX. W.
The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in
forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when
n is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (na, no, ind, and, ino,
&c.) or by two vowels (neo, ineo, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub-
stantives, the Stem-character (en, in, en, on, on) ; here it does not,
like t, d, fall out before a Nom.-Ending s, but rejects s, remaining
itself in the form en or en (pecten, tegmen, lien), but rejected by
the stems on on, which become 0 in Nom. Sing, (homo, natio,
Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, d or s
(ento, enti, endo, ensi, &c.), rarely before gr (quadringenti) :
being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (men-td),
sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (ntl, nsi).
S. (i) o) na /3) no ino y) and ond iind end ilend
I) Ino i) nl
(2) Q en (in) men (min) n) on (in) 0) gon agron
Ig^on ugrdn (grin) i) don edon iddn udon (din)
tudon itudon (din) fc) on ion cion tion sion
(3) X) enti anti \i) undon (din).
See mento under »1.
7) D. leg-itTmus, mar-itimus (-umus).
6) D. matr-Tmus, having motJier alive ; patr-Tmus : (op-Tmus, having wealth, rich).
e) co-mis, subllmis {seeti Jrom underneath * limis oculis ? ' i.e. loft^^. Compare obli-
quus).
IX.
Substantives,
o) V. ver-na, houseslave.
/3) V. som-nus, dom-inus, pen-na, pag-ina, feg-'num. ... 2). pi-nus, pine-tree.
■y) and : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parchment ; (gra-num, a
grain) \ ono : V. col-onus, farm-tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ona,
matron ; und : D. trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una> fortune ; end : V. hab-ena,
rein \ D. lani-ena, butchet^s shop ; (ven-enum, poisdn^ ; le-aena, lioness, &c. ;
ilend : V. cant-ilena, ditty.
6) ind : V. inquil-inus, lodger; rn-ina., fall, ruin \ rap-msi, plunder ; cu-lina, kitchen ;
D. gall-ina, hen ; medic-ina, medical art ; discipl-ina,- teaching, school, &c.
e) y. fi-nis, end ; cri-nis, parted hair.
0 V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mm), &.C. see IMt.
7i) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, whirlwind, top.
$) g'dn : X>.vir-go, virgin ; agrdn : V. \or-3igo, gulph ; D. farr-ago, mess of flour',
(im-ago, imagef) ; ig^dn : V. or-igo, origin ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ug^dn : D. aer-ugo,
copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down, &c. (Genitives glnis.)
a) ddn : or-do, order ^ eddn : V. dulc-edo, sweetness'', torp-edo, numbness',
Iddn : V. cup-ido, desire ; uddn : D. test-udo, tortoise , penthouse ; ituddn :
D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, viciss-itudo ; Vale-'tudo (for valent-
udo?), &c. &c. (Genitives dinis.)
k) 5n : m. D. commilit-o, fellow-soldier ; epul-o, ianqueter, ^c. &c. : V. bib-o,
toper ; erro, vagabond ; ion, many masc. D. liid-io, player ; sen-io, sice, &c.
V. pug-io, poniard. Fem. V. (Pres. St.) : condic-io, leg-io, opin-io, suspic-io,
&C. Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. ; cion : homun-
cio ; tion, sion : Fem. V. (Sup. St.), a very numerous class of words : aestima-
tio, admoni-tio, sortT-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c. &c. &c.
A) V. adulesc-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, animrans, inf-ans, &c. D. tri-ens, quad-rans, &c.
hir-undo, swallow;, har-undo, reed.
Derivation of Nouns.
243
A. (i) cx) no ino neo g^ino grno tino /8) ano aneo
taned y) end leno oend uno I) ino, tino i) ni
(3) ento iilentd olento ilento (grinto cento ^ento)
/ ) anti enti ilenti ulentlC 6) ensi lensi ensiii
() undo endo ando k) cundo A) bundd.
X. s.
The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly F., represents the
Dentalt (so, si, sion,sor, sorid, surd). When s is a Stem-charactei-,
in many words, especially in the older, it remains in Norn. Sing, flos,
r o s, o p u s, n e m u s, V e n u s, p u 1 V i s, &c., but oftener becomes r in the
suffix OS or : pudor, auctor, &c. : while in some words both forms
were used : honos or honor, labos or labor, lepos or lepor : so
amos, colos occur. In the Oblique Cases s becomes r : floris,
roris, operis. Veneris, honoris, &c. But if in derivation such
words come before a Mute, then s is resumed : flos-culus, opus-
culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for h€s-i|
Gr. x^^^c) : not before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see
On the falling out of n befoi-e s in various words (quotiens, sem-
enstris, formonsus^ vicensumus, &c.)^ see p. 50.
a) sa /3) so si slid eszd ison
Adjectives.
«) D. mag-nus, sa-nus; va-nus, vfef--hu^, no-hus, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-hus ; acer-niisi'
of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-Tnus; ahe-neus, of brass ;
ebur-neus, of ivory ; (ido-neus, fit) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gntis, kind, boiin-
tifii^ : cras-tinus, of the morrow ; pris-tlnus, of olden time.
D. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain \ quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily ;
s,\xh\xrh-zxvcis,, near the city \ subterr-aneus, imdergrotind ; V. supervac-an6us ;
cijllec-taneus^ gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c.
y) V. eg-enus, needy : D. aili-entis, foreign ; terr-enus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op-
port-unusy at hand ; (amoenus, agreeable^.
5) D. can-Inus, of a dog ; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea^ &c. &c. ;
libert-inus, off^eedman-class ; matut-inus, of morn ; yesper-titius, if evehing, &c.
sfeg-nis, lazy.
O cru-entus, bloody ; vi-oleiitus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, tvdsted \
(corp-ulentus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms vi-gintiy tri-gmta, &c. du-centi,
quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia.
V Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denoting * Pfesent activity : ' abs-ens,
eleg-ans, impud-ens, pf ud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-ens,
audi-^ns,' &c. &c. &c.j (petiil-ans). D. pest-ilens.
6) D. for -^nsis^qftheforuni', Athen-iensis, of Athett^ ut-ensilis,^^??' ; observe
di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questioniible.
0 V. Gerundive Palrticiples in undus (anc), endus, andus ; reg-undue, audi-endu^;
alm-andus, &c. &c. &c. 'Y\\t.y diQXiO\.%^ Present dcttvity.^ See Syntax.
V- CUndd is a suffix compounded of the sufiixes cd and ndd^ and denotes
^ Permanehi action or ^Present activity'.* fa-cundus, eloquent', iu-cundus,
pleasant ; v^fe-cundus, bashful, &c. &c. &c.
^ • bundd is compounded of "bd and ndd, a!nd denotes * ProduciioH of Present
activity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in laying waste \ vaga-bundus^ giveh to wan-
der ; moH-bundus, on the point of dying, &c. It is foand with afl Object : ^vita-
bundus ca;stra hostium,' striving tti dzJoid the enemy s campi LiV.
X. S.
Substantives,
a) V, Hxa, sutler (lic-ere ?).
V. na-sus, nose ; noxa, hartn, &c. (see T) ; mes-sis, harvest ; ama-sius, sweet-
lieart ; Megal-esiajj^^^/ of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom.
R 2
244 Latin Wordlore, § 59.
7) isco isto estro astro es {ts, iis) = er
t) OS {tis) = or I) OS {or) = or »?) used usto
A. o) SO s^6 /3) oso ioso coso ciilosd &c. 7) stri
estri astro Istro c) est! estico t) used estd
usto T]) ids (^'^^r) = lor.
XI. R.
This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes without a second
Consonant in the same Suffix (ro, ari, arid, &c.), often in sequence
of one of the mutes, c, t, b (cro, tro, bro, &c.). On its relations to 1
and to s see pp. 64. 65, and s above.
S. n) TO P) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) bero (bro)
t) t^rd (tro) V) TVL v) ri 9) er erco erto
y) lent-iscus, lentisk ; ar-ista, ear of com ; fen-estra, ivindoiu ; D. in -aster, -astrum
are of a demi native nature : ole-aster, ivild olive ; api-astrum, wild parsley ^
mint ; parasit-aster, a ivould-be parasite.
6 e 0 Nouns increasing in er- from Nominatives in Ts, us, in or- from us, and in or-
from OS, will be found at pp. 25, 102.
rf) moll-usca : (loc-usta).
Adjectives.
a) F. las-sus, anxius, &c. &c. See T.
oso (for onso or ontid, as ouo-ia for ourla), numerous ; D. anim-osus, form-osus,
&c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur-iosus, &c. : belli-cosus, siti-culosus, monstr-uosus, &c.
7) V. illu-stris ; D. palu-stris, silv-estris : sin-ister,
5) D. agr-estis, cael-estis, dom-esticus.
\) D. cor-uscus, glittering.
j) D> funestus from funus, er- ; scelestus from scelus, er— ; honestus from honos, or-
(so tempestas from tempus, or-) ; but onustus from onus, er- ; venustus from Venus,
er- ; vetustus from vetus, er- ; modestus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus
from augur, and robustus from robur, shew that, even in Subst. with Nom. ur,
the original ending was us.
t;) This is the Suffix of Comparatives : mel-Ior (anc. melior, melios). Seep. 21.
XI. R.
Substantives.
a) V. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, lip ; (aurora, morning, p. 66).
/3) V. num-erus, number ; arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, son-in-law ; op-era, aid \ iug-
erum, acre. D. um-erus, shoulder', sat-ura, satire.
y) V. Neuter words implying * That which effects action : ' simula-crum, likeness ;
sepul-crum, a grave ; lu-crum, gain ; ful-crum (for fulc-crum), prop, &c. &c.
Culd (cl6) is another form : cena-culum, dining-room. See Ii. The suffix
comes from the root Sk. kar, L. cre-o, to make.
fi) V. * That which effects action : ' fa-ber, engineer ; dola-bra, hatchet ; late-bra,
hidvig-place ; cri-brum, sieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel). D. candela-
brum, candlestick. Root Sk. bhar, Gr. ^ep-. Biilo is another form : turi-bulum,
cetiser.
e) The Suffix ter (tro) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr.
Top- (shewn in ripixa, terminus, trames, trans, in-tra-re, pene-tra-re, &c.), go
beyond, penetrate, attain, (i) It corresponds to the comparative suffix Sk.
tara, Gr. T^po-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Com-
par. -Tepo5, L. ter : magis-ter, minis-ter, mater-tera, &c. &c. and in Adverbs.
(2) Like cro and bro, it denotes in V. * That which effects the actioji : ' cul-ter,
knife ; mulc-tra, milkpail ; ara-trum, plough ; claus-trum, barrier ; ros-trum, beak
(rod-) ; ras-trum, harrow (rad-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, S is euphonically in-
serted.
^) V. cur-rus, chariot.
7)) V. au-ris, ear; na-ris, nostril,
e) D. ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hausa, Gr. xh^^y ((ander; paes-er, sparrow ; muli-er,
woman; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. it-^r, journey ; cad-av-er, corpse.
g 59. Derivation of No mis. 24 5
i) beri bri fc) teri (tri) X) ter tr /u) iner inor v) bar
i) or iir o) ari tt) ario p) or = or (t) t6r = tor (sor)
trie- t) torio (sorio) v) uro url urio turo (surd),
A, o) ro j8) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) e) bero (bro)
tero (tro) t) esteri (estri) aro oro ero rj) cer» (cri)
G) beri (bri) <) teri (tri) k) ari A) ario p) torio
(sorSo) 1^) turo (surd).
t) V. ie-hris, fever.
k) (linger or lunter, boat ?)
A) See above eX This suffix corresponds to the Sk. tara, denoting chiefly relation-
ships : pa-ter, ma-ter, fra-ter. Observe (Sk. svasar, Gr. oap, L. soror for sosor).
ft) (itiner), journey ; (iociner), liver : (facinor-) facinus, deed, exploit, crime,
i ) iu-bar, sunbeam.
I) D, aequ-or, level surface, sea ; (unc. iecur, ebur, robur. Gen. -oris). V. fulg-ur,
ligtning; Gen. -uris. (Unc. augur, turtur, vultur.)
o) mol-aris (lapis), grindstone: many Neut. from Adjectives : alve-are, ^^W;
calc-ar, sptir, &c. &c.
Tt) Properly Adj . libr-arius, copyer of books ; den-arius, a ten-as piece ; Aulul-aria (name
of a Comedy of Plautus) ; tabul-arium, record-office ; pom-arium, orchard, &c.&c,
p) V. or from prim, rudiment : am-or, love ; cru-or, blood ; clam-or, outcry ; trem-or,
trembling ; um-or, moisture ; (ux-or, ivife ?), Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. Many had
character S originally : umos, lepos, &c. See S.
«r) V. a numerous class, denoting * an Agent : ' ara-tor, ora-tor, pisca-tor, moni-tor»
ac-tor, vic-tor, spon-sor, mes-sor, Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. The Fern, form is
trie trix : moni-trix, vic-trix, tons-trix, &c. &c.
D. gladia-tor, via-tor, fund-T-tor, iani-tor, and some others.
t) From Verbal Adjectives Neut. : denote chiefly locality : audi-torlum, lecture-room ;
dever-sorium, hostel, &c. See below m)-
v) K f Tg-ura, shape ; sec-uris, ci c \ , , i en-uria, petiury ; promunt-urium, promoH"
tory.
</)) V. (Sup. St.) na-tura, nature ; sepul-tura, Imrial ; men-sura, measure ; cae-sura,
cuttiftg, &c. : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tura, quaestorship \
cen-sura, censorship. Others imply ' the work of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura,
painting ; ton-sura, shaving, &c.
Adjectives.
o) V. cla-rus, gna-rus.
/3) V. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, lac-er, sac-er, scab-er, rough : D. satur.
7) ludi-cer.
5) V. cre-h&r, fre(/7(ent.
«) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter,
nos-ter, ves^-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See
above e).
V. av-arus, covetous ; can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aust-erus ; sev-erus ;
sin-cerus, pro-cerus ?).
■)?) V. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer ?).
V. cele-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-brls (drops r). This
suffix is from Sk. R. bhar, Gr. (f)ep-.
0 D. I. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semes-tris (for semens-
tris) : 2. camp-estris, silv-estris, terr-ester (tris).
k) D. in art are a large class and imply * Belonging to ; ' they are used for forms in
all if 1 is before in the word : consul-aris ; famili-aris ; milit-aris ; sol-aris ;
vulg-aris, &c. &c. &c. They form Substantives in ar ari. See above o).
A) The suffix ario is an enlargement of ari. The Adjectives derived from
Nouns and Particles imply character, quality, class. See. : agr-arius, of land ;
greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt»
arius, &c. &c. &c. Hence Substt. See above tt).
m) These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply
* Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, &c. &:c. &c.
v) This is theFut. Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting ' Intended activity :' ama-turus,
da-turus, placT-turus, T-turus, fu-turus, lu-surus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c.
246
Latin Wordlore.
§59.
XII. l.
This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D.
(ulo, 616, eli6, &c.) : and it often denotes weakness^ lightness^ &c.
in Suffixes of Verbaha (ulo, ili, till). But after a long Vowel it
has the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus
the Suffixes ali ari are virtually the same : but the former is always
preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) :
but ario is never changed into alio (agr-arius). The Suffix biilo
is a softened form of bero (bro) ; bili of beri (bri), both from
root bhar^ ^ep- ; ciilo (as distinguished from the double Demin.
c-ulo) is a softened forra of per6 (cro) from root kar.
(i) Not fprmally Deniinutive.
S. a) ^ /3) 15 iilo ule6 7) pul5 (cl6) h) bulo
6) el6 Wo illo 17) n III i)) fill 11| eU.
A. a) ulo uleo /8) \\o
XII. Xi.
(?)
Substantives,
a) V. assec-la, mSi%Q.. follower.
/3) D. vio-la, violet (Gr. \ov) ; pi-lun^, pestle ; neb-ula, cloud- V, cpc-ulus, CK,ckoo ;
ang-ulus, corver ; fig-ulus, potter ; qc-u1us, eye ; cop-ula, link ; spec-ula, watch
tower ; exem-p-lum (for exim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulum), ^c- &c. In these
and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, ^nd in many unc.
(cat-ulus, cum-ukis, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. (rvoTreAo?, stim^ulus. vit-ulus, fist-ula,
ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3). Oi^ rSg-ula, rule-, teg-ula, tiie, see pp. 16, 17.
P6-pul-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the root par {pri) p7il pie. See P.
y) V. (Pres. St.) numerous : implying ' Instrument^ means of action,' are Neut. : gu-
berna-culum, hehn ; ora-culum (-clum), oracle ; specta-culum, sight ; vehi-culum,
vehicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c. &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain ;
torculum, press, C (QU) has fallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the
same occurs in ia-culum, javelin ; spe-cu|um, mirror. Unc. are (graculus,
jackdaw, ^nxzxAw^, shoot baculum, walkiii.g-stick, Gr. /3a-? saeculum, rt« ^^i?,
generatipn, &c.). See cero (cro)in TL.
V. (s^e meaning) : fa-bula, story ; su-bula, awl ; l^ti-bulum, hiding-place ; pa-
bulum, yb^/fj^e-r : voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bu|um, censer.
f) V. (Pre^. St.) cand-ela, candle; (redupl.) cicind-pla, glp'wworjn ; suad-ela, /^r-
snasion : (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St.) corrupt-ela,
corruption ; tut-el^, guardianship or (concrete)^«a?'<^/<^«, "jpard. D. client-ela,
clientage.
{;) (unc. aqu-ila); D. cap-illus, ^<«z> ; anc-illa, maidservant ; arg-illa, clay ; scint-illa,
s^ark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex-illum, banner, &c. (probably deniinutive of lost
forms, or formed by analogy).
17) V. cw.-\\z, stalk ; q.qS,-\\'b,, hill ; %tx\^^X\%, flesh-brush.
D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. all, Masc. : nat-alis, hirth<^ay ; riv-alis,
ifiv^l (unc. can-alis, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c.
Neut. foc-ale, neck'isjrapper ; penetr-ale, inner shrine ; aniri^-al, &c. p. 107, with
Plur. names of Feasts : Consutalia, Luperc-alia, Termin-aha, ^c. &c. p. 126.
ill, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, April, &c. Neut. cub-ile, hast-ile, ov-ile,
sed-ilp, &c. p. 107. Plur. Var-ilia., feast of Pales ; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with
sacrifice of swine, sheep, and steer- eli '• patru-elis, cousin on father's side.
Adjeptives.
a) D. bubtulus, of an ax \ caer-ulps, caer-uleus, sky-blue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V-
(Pres. St.) denoting * Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus,
strid-ulus, sed-ulusj, trem-ulus, &c., all wi^^i demin. characteif : (ui^c. aem-ulus).
/3) D. nub-ili^s, cloudy ; rut-ilus, red^diish.
§ Derivation of Nouns, 247
7) 111 bill ibiu i) tin (sin)
^ Sltm »/) all 111 uli ell,
(2) Deminutive.
S. and A,
I. d) iilo (anc. 615, which remains after e, 1),
ello, 1115, ull5, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal,
but contain the Stem-character 1, n or r assimilated to 1 of the
Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy.
c) ell5, 1115, secondary Deminutives for ul-ul5.
d) ellul5, illul5, secondary Deminutives, when derived from ^),
tertiary, when derived from c).
7) V, (Pres. St.) denoting Tendency or capacity : ag-ilis,- nimble ; hab-ilis, apt ;
tieb-ilis, weak ; fac-ilis, easy ; diffic-ilis, difficult ', nub-ilis, marriageable ; ut-ilis,
usefuly &c, D' hum-ilis, lowly ; sim-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc. grac-ilis,
slender).
5) V. (Pres. St.) denoting chiefly * Passive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderful ; muta»
bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mournful ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis,
credible ; no-bilis, noble, &c. &c. &c. Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force,
(Sup. St.) ^^yi-ihiWs,, flexible ; plaus-ibiHs, commendable ; sens-ibilis, perceivable^
Add poss^ibilis, possible (of the Silver age).
f) V. (Sup. St.) Some denote only ' /*<tj5zW ^«^j/^V^/ differing little from the Perf.
Part. : fattened ', coc-ti!is, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned; fis-silis, cleft; mis--
silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted ; versa-tilis, made to revolve, &c. :
others denote ' Passive capacity : ' flex-ilis, flexible ; diffu-silis, expansive ; t&z-
tilis, that may be touched : others ' A dive quality : * pen-silis hanging ; ses-silis,
squab \\o\-.-d,\S!i\s,, flying, &c. Abnornial : itx-vXis^ fruitful, indicating an old word
fert-us (fut-tiUs,y>^///^?).
^ D, aqu-atilis, fluviratilis, river-dwellins^, SiC.
n) all : Z>. (numerous) denote * Belonging to,' &.C, : aequ-alis, dot-alis, fat-aHs,furi-aIIs,
liber-alis, marti-alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triumph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c.
&c. ill : D. civ-ilis, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilis, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis,
&c. SubtT-lisfor sub-telis, of the zvoof^fitte, subtle. \lXi : D. cur-ulis, like a chariot
(applied to the * sella ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) ; trib-ulis,
of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis, eatable, is abnormal, ell : D. crud-elis, cruel ;
f id-elis, infid-elis. See above ff).
(2) Deminutive Nouns.
I. a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem un-.
less e, 1, 1, n, or r precede the ending :
riv-us, riv-ulus ; frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; scut-um, scut-ulum.
After 6, i, olus (a, um) is used :
alve-us, alve-olus : aure-us, aure-olus ; line-a, line-ola ; horre-um, horre-olum ; <ilj-us,
fili-olus ; glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum.
Guttural and Dental Nouns add uliis (a, um) to the True Stem :
rex, reg-ulus ; cornix, cornTc-ula ; adolescens, adolescent-ulus, g,dolescent-ula
caput, capTt-ulum : lapid-u-lus becomes lapillus.
h) uliis (a), mus (a), Tnus (a), enus (a), become ellus (a) :
populus, popellus ; fabula, fabella ; asinus, asellus ; gemlnys, gemellus ; patina,
patella ; catinus, catellus ; catena, catella.
er (ra or era, rum) become elliis (a,um) :
liber, libellus ; miser, misellus ; capra, capeUa ; oper^, opella ; labium, labellum,
G-nus, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium :
pug-nus, pug-illus ; signum, sigillum ; poculum, pScillum ; (but scamnum, scabeU
lum).
24S
Latin Wordlore.
§59-
e) Substantival Deminutives olio, alo (for axiilo); uleo, and Ad-
jectival aulo (aullo), auliild (aulliild), are rare. ^
II. o) The double Deminutive c-iilo.
/ ) cion is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio.
y) unculo in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not
Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus.
Note I. Care must be t^ken not to class among Deminutives
words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : iaculum,
poculum, &c. It is probable that umbra-culum and taberna-
culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives.
2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogether
from that of its theme : avunculus, U7icle (on mother's side), from
avus, grandfather ; osculum, kiss, from os, inoiUh.
3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes i'r^>r;^ :
usually sniallness only. They keep the Gender of their Primitives.
4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages,
which form many words from them : as L, luscini-ola, It.
Visignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightiiigale \ L. api-cula, Fr. ab-
eille, L. agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb\ L. gem^ellus^ Fr.
jumeau, twin,
vi. Patronymica, Names derived from Parents
or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75.
c) Porcellus from porculus, cistella from cistula, codic-illus from codie-ulus (codex),
pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives.
d) Porcellulus from porcellus, cistellula from cistella, pauxillulus from pauxillus, are ter-
tiary Deminutives.
e) Coron-ula, corolla ; palus for (paxulus) paxillus ; equ-us, pqu-uleus or equ-ulus ;
pauc-ulus, pauUus ; whence pauUulus.
II. a) Other Consonant Nouns add cuius (a, um) to the Stem :
frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; animal, animal-culum ; flos, flos-culus ;
mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum.
And from Comparative Adjectives :
grandius-culus, rather older \ melius-culus, a little better ; plus-culum, somewhat
more.
on becomes un :
homo, homun-culus ; virgo, virgun-cula ; ratio, ratiun-cula.
p$ becomes US in arbos, rumor :
arbus-cula, rumus-culus.
Bos (bovis) forms bucula, heifer, for bovi-cula.
I-nouns take cuius (a, um), and usually shorten i :
piscis, pisci-culus ; levis, levi-culus ; pars, part-Tcula ; rete, reti-culum ; venter, ventn-
culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canicula, cutlcula, febricula.
from anguis, snake, comes anguilla, eel.
U-nouns join i-culus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem :
versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-Icula ; cornu, corn-iculum. Lacus-culus, domun=ciila,
are abnormal exceptions.
E-nouns add ciila to the Stem :
die-cula, re-cula.
Nube-cula, plebe-cula, vulpe-cula, from Nouns of Decl. 3., are formed as though from
p-nouns.
Derivation of Notms.
249
vii. Names of Countries are usually formed
from the name of the people with ending ia.
Ital-i, Ital-ia ; Graec-i, Graeeia ; Gall-i, Gallia ; Arab-es, Arab-ia ;
Arcad-es, Arcad-ia, &c.
Some with the ending is :
Pers-ae, Pers-is ; Colch-i, Colch-is ; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c.
Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, Illyricum, and some others.
viii. Nominative Endings of Derived Words,
according to their several meanings.^
I. Substantives :
(I.) Abstract :
1) Action; Faculty .
K tio, sio ; tus, sus 4 ; io (fem.) ; tura, sura,
2) State; Habit; Effect:
V. or or- ; us or-, us er- ; ies, ium ; ina ; monia j monium ;
ela (ella) ; tela ; ido, edo ; igo.
3) Quality ; Qualified Condition ; Function :
D. ia, ies, ium ; itia, ities, itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo ; ela ;
ma ; io (fem.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, tigo ; atus
4 ; tiara, sura.
(II.) Concrete :
1) Personal Agent ; Individual:
V. tor, sor (masc), trix (fem») ; atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ;
D. tor (masc), trix (fem.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; es, it- ; o, io
(masc).
2) Efficient Thing {Means, Instrument) .
V. en; men; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum, brum,
bra; trum.
Z>. bulum, brum (in a few instances).
^ Exarpples :
I. (I) i) actio, visio ; actus, visus ; oblivio ; sepultura, versura.
2) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ;
suadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo.
3) Concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollities, calvitium ; ignorantia, in-
tellegentia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senectus ; latitudo, mansuetudo ; clien-
tela ; disciplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonium ; pinguedo ; farrago,
lanugo ; consulatus, comitatus ; pictura, censura.
(II) 1) V. doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus; comedo: — Z>. viator, funditor, ianitrix ;
candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio.
2) V. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentum ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulnm,
delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : — D. acetabulum (umbraculum, taberna-
culum may perhaps be taken as Verbalia).
250 Latin Wordlore. §59
3) Thing effected:
K turn, sum.
4) Locality :
D, etum ; ctum ; Itum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri-
num ; ina.
5) Object:
V, ex, Tc- ; D. ale, al ; are, ^r, lie.
Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here.
Obs. Under other Endings, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; um ; is 3 ; es 3,
&:c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but
almost all concrete.
II. Adjectives :
(I.) Verbalia :
1) With Active sense ;
ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cqndus ; bundus ; ax j
idus ; icus, ucus ; uus, Ivus ; ulus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris;
cer, cris ; aneus.
2) With Passive sense :
tus, sus (Perf. Part.) : \\\s ; bflis ; tflis, sflis ; uus ; tlvus ;
ticius ; taneus.
3) With sense Active or Passive .
ndus (Gerundive).
(II.) Denominativa : with the meanings
1) * Belonging to : '
ius ; icus ; ticus ; anus ; iSnus ; aneus ; enus, eneus ; ensis^
iensis ; alis, aris, arius ; ilis, elis, ulis ; atilis ; inus ; Ivus;
ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus.
2) *'Made ' or ^ consisting of: '
eus ; inus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; ilceus.
3) meritum, visum. (Visio, the seeing ; visus 4, the faculty of sights or the fact of
sight: visum, the thing seen.)
4) querqetum ; salictum ; virgultum ; ^^rbustum ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina,.
pistrinum ; officina.
5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare, calcar ; bubile ; but V. sedile.
II. (I) i) constans, fulgens ; dicturus, mansurus ; iracundus, verecundus ; errabundus ;
tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nocivus ; garrulus ; volatilis ;
saluber, lugubrls ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus.
2) notus, fessus ; docilis ; amabilis (terribilis, Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis; mutuus; vo-
tivus ; conducticius ; collectaneus.
3) notandus, delendus, gerundus,.
(II) i) regius, oratorius ; bellicus ; fanaticus, rusticus ; montanus, decumanus ; Caesa-
rianus ; spontaneus ; terrenus ; aeneus ; castrensis, Carthaginiensis ; hiemalis,
Solaris, gregarius, senaHus ; erilis, crudelis, tribulis ; aquatilis ; marinus,
libertinus ; aestivus ; pedester ; caelestis ; maritimus, legitimus ; pater-nus. (Ob-
serve colurnus by transposition for corul-nus, from corulus, hazel. )
?) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; querQUS ; latericius ; hordeaceus ; pannuceus.
g Derivation of Nouns,
3^ ^ Full of;"* ^ abounding in : '
osus ; olentus, ulentus, olens ; idus.
4) ' Endued with ' (analogous to Perf. Part.).
atus, Itus, utus.
5) ^ Having the nature of:^
stus ; gnus.
6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tinus, tlnus; ernus,
umus.
ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles;
some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions.^
perendie ; perendlnus
repente ; repentlnus
siiTiul ; similis
temere ; temerarius
3) frondosus ; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often
implies faultiness : glori-osus, full of (vainy^lory, boastful ; fam-osus, {full of
fame,^ but) illfamed ; mor-osus, (full of moralitieSy but) peevish^ morose. Ul-
entus, ul-ens probably combine the root of growth, Ol, 111;, with ent- the par-
ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody ^ omits Ol.
4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus.
5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus.
6) annotinus ; hornotinus ; serotinus ; ma|;utlnus, vespertlnus ; fiet-ernus, hib-emus,
di-urnus, noct-urnus.
Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives :
diu ; diutlnus hodie ; hodiernu3
diuturnus nimis ; nimius
eras ; crastinus nuper ; nuperus
heri ; hesternus peregre ; peregrinus
Also semp-^i^ternus from semper.
Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi-
ments :
an- an-te (for old Abl. anted or antid).
(anter-us) anter-ior : — antlquus.
pos' pos-t (for pos-te=old Abl. postid). See M. Lucr. iv. 1186.
poster-us, poster-ior, postre-mus : — post-Icus.
ct- ci-s ; ci-tra ; ci-tro :
(citer) citer-ior, citi-mus.
ul- ultra ; ultro :
(ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : — ultroneus.
com contra ; contro- :
(cqnterrus) : — contr-arius.
ec- ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus :
exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : — externus ; extraneus ; extrarius.
in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, (intris) intrin-secus :
(inter-us) inter-ior, inti-mus :— intestinus: — intemus : — infra, inferus, infer-ior,
infimus, imus : — infemus.
pri- prae ; praeter :
prior, primus ; priscu? ; pristmus.
pro pro-pe ; propter :
propior, proximus : — propinquus : — probus : pronus.
sup- sub susr ; super, supra ; subter :
super-US^ super^ior, suprermus : — supinus. See Footnote, p. 202.
de (di-s) :
(deter-us), ^eter-ior, deteyripius.
re- retro.
Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix CO appended to each.
se-
clam
tar- :
sme.
clandestlnus (lost form clan-dus),
appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra.
252 Latin Wordlore. §59.
X. Adjectives derived from Proper Names.
A) From Personal Names :^
1) Suffix ius :
This is the ending of Roman Nomina Gentiha (clan names) :
Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is used sub-
stantively. But it is used adjectively to describe a law brought in,
a road or public edifice made, by a member of any gens, as lex
Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A
law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex
Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus.
2) Suffixes anus, ianus, Inus, imply * belonging to ' the person :
Caesar-/-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August-
janus), (Sec. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and 'oratio Metell-ina,^ C.
■ Ait. i. 13.
3) Suffix -eus is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-eus, Romul-eus,
&c. Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as
domus Augusta ; historia Augusta ; so co lum na Trai9.na,
portus Traianus.
4) Suffixes eus ius, for Gr. -ctoc, and Icus for Gr. -tfcoc, are used
in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aristotclais,
Socrat-icus, &:c.
B) Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c.
These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively.
1) Suffix anus, chiefly from Places in a or ae : Alba-nus,
Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as
Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus.
2) Suffix Inus, from Places in ia, lum : Amer-inus (Amerta),
Aric-inus (Aricia), Clus-inus (Clusium). Observe also Praenest-inus
(Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum).
^ Roman Names. — A Roman of distinction hadat least three names : the Praenomen,
individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Gens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur-
name, shewing the Familia or family. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Lucius of the
Gens lunia and Familia Brutorum. To these were often added Agnomina, titles either
of honour (Africanus, Asiaticus, Coriolanus, Creticus, Isauricus, Macedonicus, Numi-
cjicus, Magnus, Maximus, &c.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from an-
other Gens : Aemjlianus, {adopted from the Gens Aemilia), Domitianus, Licmianv
Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Titianus, and many more. The
full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and
adorned by the Senate with a title, was Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus.
The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia,
Memmia, Coruncania, &c.) : or there might be a patrician and plebeian j^ens of the same
race, as of the Claudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina
give them their titles ; being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes
are derived ivom. Numerals : Quinctia, Quinctilia (Pompeia, Pompilia, Pomponia, Pontia),
Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : soPostumia. Some from Colours : Albia, Caesia,
Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, F-ubria, Rutilia. Some from Animals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap-
ronia, Canmia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porcia, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities :
Caecilia, CaUdia, Catia. Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genucia, Hirtia, Tuventia, Lici-
nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Plancia, Plautia, Silia, Spuria, Stertinia, Turpilia, Varia, Val-
gia, Vcgetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived from OJj/icey business, station, birthplace.
§59.
Derivation of Adjectives,
253
3) Suffix as from. Places in na nae num no : Fiden-as (Fidenae),
Arpin-as (Arpinum), Aquin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena),
Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea).
These are declined in at-, like nostras, vestras, optimates, Pe-
nates.
4) Suffix ensis from Places in o, and from some in a ae um :
Narbon-ensis, Cann-ensis, Mediolan-ensis. Some take i-enfiis :
Athen-i-ensis, Carthagin-i-ensis.
The same Suffix may represent Gr. eur, as Chalcid-ensis (XaXfci-
levc). But eus is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus
or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heracleotes for Heracleensis.
5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are :
Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Gamerinum : Veiens,
from Veii ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the
usual forms are Gaeret-anus, Gamert-inus, Veient-aniis,, Tiburt-
inus.
6) The Suffixes lus (toe), aeus (atoc)j enus (ryvoc) belong to Ad-
jectives derived from the Names of Greek Places : Gorinthius,
Rhodius, Lacedaemonius, Larissaeus, Smyrnaeus, Gyzicenus.
7) The Greek Suffixes ates ites otes are rare in Latin : Spar-
tiates, Tegeates (but the Adjective forms are Spartanus, Tegeaeus)
Abderites (but also Abderitanus) ; Epirotes, Heracleotes.
8) Feminine Gentile Names are in a is as : Gressa, Crefaniy
A\xsom%, Ausonian^ Troas, Trojan woman.
C) Names of People are either derived from Names of Goun tries
and of Gities : Latinus (Latium), Romanus (Roma), Siceliot' ^
(Sicilia), or they are Primitive : Afer, Callus, Syrus, Thrax, Gres
{Creta7i). Such Names form Adjectives in icus ius aeus ens'is,
&c. : Africus, Gallicus, Syrius, Thracius, Gretaeus, Gretensis,. Cre-
ticus, &c.
With Personal Names the primitive is often used adjectively, as
poeta H ispanuS, miles Gallus, &c. Poets use it with Appel-
latives : Marsus aper, venena Go Icha, fl umen Rhenum, flu-
men Medum, Hon; and so Fem. Adjectives: Ausonis ora,
Gressa pharetra, Verg.
or residence, Slg. : Antistia, Aurelia, Cluentia, Coella, Coponia, Cornificia, Curia, Duilia- or'
DuilHa,Falcidia, Flaminia, fonteia, Furnia, Gabinia, Hortensia, Maria, Nautia, Scribonia,
Servia, Silvia, &c. The Gens lulia is tra;ced back to lulus ; Titia to Titus ; Tullia toTullus,
&c.
The Cog no mi na are similarly distinguishable: in the oldest times the birthplace or
residence often gave a Cognomen ; which sometimes descended to the Family, Came-
rinus, Sabinus, but usually not, as Auruncus, Caeliomontanus, Fidenas, Privernas, Siculus,
Soranus, Tuscus, &c.
Colours give rise t6 Cognomina r Albus, Flavus, Niger, Pullus, Rufus, RutilusI
Animals: Asina, Bestia, Biiteo, Canina, Catulus, Catullus, Corvus, Cossus, Galba,
Gallus, Lupus, Merula, Mus, Noctua, Porcina, Pulex, Taurus, Verres, Vitulus. I^egv-
tables : Caepio, Cicero, Piso ; Lactacinus. Parts of the Body : Arvina', Axilla, Barbula,
Crus, Denter, Nerva, Sura, Sulla (for Surula), Scapula : and with Suffix on (o) indi-
cating size or prominence of the feature : Capito {big-head), Fronto {big-brow), Labeo,
{thick lips), Mento {chiimy), Naso( big nose : but Nasica, sharp nose), Pedo {splayfoot),
&c. Implements : Caligula, Carbo, Caudex, Dolabella, Fusus, Malleolus, Marculus, Mar-
cellus, Pera, Pnlvillus, Scipio, Stolo, Spinther, &c. Office, station, business, ability, &c. :
Albinus, Bubuicus, Camillus, Cursor, Cornicen, Cunctator, Figulus, Hortator, Metellus,
254 Latin Word lore, § 55* ;
Section IL
doTof' Derivation of Verbs.
Verbs.
A) Verba Verbalia.
Inchoativa (Inceptiva) in sco 3. § 53, p. 209, &c.
Imitativa in isso i. \
Frequentativa in so, ito i. [§ 53? P'. 205.
Deminutiva in ilio i. J
Desiderativa in uric 4. § 53, p; 206.
B) Verba Denominativa.
Most Verbs in Conj. i and 4 are from Substantives or Adjectives :
the greater number being Transitive.
laud-are i. praise dit-are i. enrich
milit-are i. serve in war liber-are i. set fre>
ee
nomin-are i name sollicit-are i. make anxious
fin-ire 4. eiid insan-ire 4. be mad
vest- ire 4. clothe moll-ire 4. soften
pisc-ari i. fish laet-ari i. rejoice
mol-iri 4. contrive larg-iri 4. bestow
Suffixes ul ol cin it igr- ( = &gr-) Xc- Occuf in Conj. i :
grat-ul-ari congratulate nav-ig-are sail
vi-ol-are do violence mit-ig-are soften
sermo-cin-ari discourse claiid^ifc-are limp
debil-it-are weaken comitlun-ic-are impart
So iur-g-are for iur-ig-are, pur- g- are for pur-ig-are.
Most in Conj. 2 are from Substantives ; a fe\^ from Adjectives ;
the greater number being Intransitive :
call- ere, luc-ere, fiof-efe, flatr-ere.
A few U-verbs 3 are Denominativa :
acu-ere, metu-ere^ minu-efe/ tribu-ere.
Obs, Some Roots have a Trans, and an Intrans. Verb correspond-
ing to each other: fugare, to put to flight • fugere, to fly. So cae-
dere, cadere ; iacere, iacere ; liquare, liqiiere ; pendere, pendere ;
placare, placere ; sedare, sedere and sidere.
, Natta, Paterculus, Rex, Regulus, Sallnator, Vespillo. Per&dniilpeculidrities, characteristics
or accidefits : Ahenobarbus, Ambustus, Balbus, Barbattls, Brutus, Caecus, Caesar, Cato,
Celer, Celsus, Cerco, Cinria, Cincinnatus, Claudus, Cornutus, Crispus, Crassus, Curvus,
Dentatus, Fetix, Festus, Flaccus, Flamma, Frugi, Geminus, Glabrio, Gurges, Lana-
tus, LentuluS, Lepidus, Longus, Nepos, Nobilior, Paetlis, Pansa, Pilatus, Paullus,
f'oUio, Potitus, Plancus, Plautus, Poplicola, Postumus, Priscus, Proculus, Pulcher, Scaeva,
Scaevola, Strabo, Torquatus, Tremulus, Trigeminus, Tubfero, Varro, Varus, Verrucosus,
Vetus, Vulso.
Many Cognomina in anus inus were originally Adjectives derived from an earlier
^ Cognomen : Au2:urinus, Censorinus, Mamercinus, Paetanus, Rufinus, Silanus,
An Agnomen of honour sometimes became a Cognomen of the family. Thus in the
Valerian clan (which had also the Agnomina Poplicola and Maximus) we find a family be-
coming Corvini from Valerius Corvus, and another branch Messallae from the capture of
Messana. Of many Cognomina as well as Nomina the origin cannot be traced.
§59'
Derivation of Particles.
255
Section III.
Derivation of Particles. J?^^^;
Par-
i. Primitive Particles in Latin are few. Of these most tides,
belong also to kindred language. Such are
ab ; ante ; ambi- ; di- dis- ; ex ; in, indu- in- ; pro ; pri- prae ;
per per- (japa and TrepO 5 (cTrt ?) sub ; cum co- [avv ?,
K-oiroc) ; et, at ; aut (?) ; que ; ne ; an ; si ; semi- ; seni-
or sim- ; heri.
A few cannot be traced with certainty beyond Italian language.
Such are
ad ; de ; re- ; se- ; sine ; cis ; uls ; haud ; eras ; sat.
ii. Most Latin Particles are either derived or
compounded.
1) Derived Particles are either
a) Denominative (from Substantives, Adjectives, or Parti-
ciples) ; or
b) Pronominal (from Pronouns).
c) A few only are from other Particles.
Derived Adverbs in general are either Cases of their theitles, or"
formed from them with peculiar Endings, in the manner of Cases.
The Cases which chiefly form Particles are the Accusative, the
\' Ablative, the Locative.
2) Particles may be cortipounded of th€ same or various Parts of
Speech.^
• From the List in pp. 228, &c. the student will be able to select examples of coiiiK
pounded Particles.
I. Relative :
1) with its own Particles and Elements : quamquam, quoquo, ubiubi, utut, &c. : qua-
cumque, undecumque, utcumque, quotiescumque, &c. : quSque, ubique, undiqtie,
utique, usque, usquequaque, umiquam, uspiam,- usquam : quippe : quousque : (with uter)
utrubi, iitrimque, utroque, &c.
2) with Prefix ne : neque ; nec ; nequaquam, nequiquam, neutiquam ; numquam,- nus=
piam, niisquam, neutrubi, necubi.
3) with Prefix ali- ', aliquO', aliquam, aliquantum, alicubi, aliquoties ; with other De-
monstrative Prefixes : tamquatn, sicuti, sicut, namque, nempe, at^ue ; with Prepositions :
antequam, perquam, postquarn, praequam, praeterquam, praeut, prout ; with Conjunc-
tions : at-qui, nun-cubi, si-cubi, si-cunde, &c. : with Adjectives : alioqui, ceteroqui, prius-
quam.
4) with Demonstrative Suffixes : quonam, quanam, ubinam, utinam, &c. ; ^Vith suffixed
Prepositions : quoad, quaprbpter, quocirca, qu^tenus, aliquatenus, &c. ; with Conjunc-
tions: quasi, quin, &c. ; with Verbs : quamvis, quovis, quolibet, ubivis, &c. ; with Nouns :
quomodo ; quare, cur ; qu^ttiadmodum, quamobf'em, quominus, titpote, &c.
II. Demonstratives :
Compounded with each other: hi-c, illi-c, &c. : hin-c, illin-c, &c. ; hu-c, illu-c, &c.,
alibi, aliu-ta, i-ta (for ita-d), i-tem, si-c, e-nim, etenim ; ast (at-s6t C. ?), au-tem, tamen
(tarn in?) ideo : With Prepositions: adeo, adhuc, dein, exin, proin, abhinc, dehinc,
inibi, interibi, postibi ; interim ; antea, aritidea, antehac, antidhac, postea, postidea,
posthac, postilla, interea, praeterea, praeterhac, hacpropter (compare quapropter) ;
hactenus, eatenus ; horsum (hovorsum), illofsum, &c. From' dein is formed dein-ceps'
(capio).
Igitur is of obscure derivation.
2S6 Latin Wordlore.
% 59.
iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of
Cases.
In the form of Accusative :
€1) From Substantives :
1) Uncompounded : (perhaps) parti m, ; foras (pi.), ^;//
of doors ; and (rarely) vicem, in the stead ; diu, a long ii7ne (for
dium).
2) Compounded with Particles, admodum, affatim, comminiis,
eminus, invicem, incassum, obiter, obviam, propcdiem, propemo-
dum, postmodum.
Clam, coram, palam, perperam, saltem or saltimare of question-
able origin.
b) From Adjectives :
1) in am : bifarlam, &c. p. 149 : multifariam. pluvifariam,
in many pLij'ts ; promiscam, protinam (Plaut.): in as : alias.
2) in um : ceterum, circum, clanculum, commodum, demum,
nimium, solum, verum : — multum, pauUum, parum, tantum, quan-
tum, &c., primum, secundum, iterum. Sec, plerumque ; with many
Superl. minimum, plurimum, potissimum, postremum, summum,
ultimum, &c. (Non, 7iot, anc. noen-um for ne-unum).
3) in e (from real or supposed Adj. in is) : abunde, facile, ap-
prime, impune, prope, paene, saepe, &:c. On procliv-i, -e, see Madv.
C. Fin. 14 ; M« Liter, ii. 455.
4) in us, IS (Comparative) : plus, minus, melius, potius, saepius,
magis (nimis?), &c. &c. &c. Also secus, tenus, protenus.
5) Recens for recenter is a special instance.
Obs. I. Add to these the Compounds with vorsunl (versum),
as aliorsum, prorsum, rursum, &c. Some of these often use
the Nom. form : prorsus, rursus, &c.
Obs. 2. Poets freely use Neuter Adjectives Sing, (sofnetirrtes
Plur.) adverbially : ^ perfidum ridens Venus,' Hon ; ^ crassum ridet
Vulfenius,' Pers. ; Mulce loquentem Lalagen,' Hor. ; ^ suave locus
resonat,' Hor. ; ' sedet aeternumque sedebit,' Verg* ; * sera coman-
tern narcissum,' Verg. See p. 374.
-^) In the form of Ablative :
a) From Substantives :
i) in o : modo (o being shortened) ; ergo, numero ; and the
Compounds, extemplo, profecto, postmodo, saepeilumero ; mag-
nopere or magno opere, &c., ilico (in loco), oppido (irri izilip .?).
[The peculiar words antea (forante ea), antehac (for ante haec), &c., have been variously
explained. Some scholars, as Bucheler, take the Pronouns to be Ablatives, dating from
a time when the Prepositions ante, post, inter, praeter, &c., may have been constructed
with that case : and they cite arvorsum ead in the Senat. Cons, de Bacch., also apud sCd
inter sed, which are found. But Corssen, who discusses the matter, At(ssJ>r ii 45.5 &c
takes the Pronouns to be Accus. PI. with the ancient long quantity, and ead, sed,'med,'
ea, hac, to be Accus. also, the d growing out of a temporary confusion of Accus. and
Abl. forms at an era when the Abl. was losing its old final d. This view .seems right ]
§ 59^ Denominative Adverbs, 2$/
2) in e : forte, lure, rite, sponte. ^
3) in is (pi.) : gratis or gratiis ; ingratis or ingratiis ; foris. M.
Lucr, iii. 935.
d) From Adjectives and Participles :
1) in a (orig. Abl. ad, underst. parte or via) : dextra, laeva,
sinistra : the Pronouns ea, hac, alia, &c.
To this formation belong all the Prepositions in a, which are
really Ablatives Fem. (circa, citra, ultra, contra, &c.).
2) in o orig. 6d (but cito) : certo, composito, continue, consulto, '
falso, merito, raro, subito, tuto, vero, &c. &c., bipartite, &c., inopi-
nato, necopinato ; primo, secundo, &c. : immo : Superl. meritissimo^
postremo, supremo, ultimo, praesto : omnino, from a lost omninus :
Cp. denuo (de novo).
To this formation belong the Prepositional Adverbs citro, ultrd,
intro, porro, retro, contro- from Adjectives in -ter (from tara^
comparative suffix).
3) in i : brevi, perbrevi (dicto or tempore).
4) in Is : alternis (vicibus) ; paucis (verbis); imprimis Or iii
primis ; cum ptimis.
Q In the fotm of Locative (Place or Time) ; heri ; domi ; humi ;
ruri ; temperi ; vesperi or vespere ; mane (mani) ; diu, dy dcty ;
noctu or nocti ; ho-die ; pri-die ; postri-die ; peren-die {iripar^
the day after to-morrow ; cotidie. PI. quot-annis.
(The forms diu, long^ perdiu and perdius, all day, ittterdius^
interdiu, Z7t the daytime^ are by C. considered to be Accusative.)
iv. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial
Endings.
These Endings are principally
e (e) ; ter (er), ^ter \ tim, sim ; tiis ; tens or ies.
1) Adverbs in e are derived from Adjectives and Participles of
the O-declerision :
alt-e, caut-e, misfet-e, pulchr-Cj &c. &c. &c.
Bene, male were shortened early, like mo do.
Obs, e appears to be an anc. Abl. for e-d. See p. 46.
2) Adverbs with the Compar. ending ter, iter are derived chiefly
from Adjj. of the Cons, and I-declensions :
audac-ter (audac-iter), difficul-ter, felic-iter, forti-tet, molli-ter,
pari-ter, &c. &c. T'i falls out : decen-ter for decenti-ter, &c.
Ali-ter is from the old form alis.
Some 0-Adjj. form Advv. in ter as well as ifi ^ :
dur-e and dur-iter : hiiman-e and human-iter \ luculent-e and
luculen-ter, &c.
3) Adverbs in tim, sim are derived
d) from Perf Participles :
s
2S8
Latm Wordlore.
§59.
coniunc-tim, minu-tim, praeser-tim, rap-tim ; pede-tentim,
step by step (pedem tendere) ; sta-tim, immediately ; cur-
sim, pas-sim, sen-sim, seor-sim, &c. &c.
h) from Substantives or Adjectives :
fur-tim, uber-tim ; vicis-sim ; singul-tim, &c.
Obs, Some form e as well as im :
gravat-e or -im ; separat-e or im, &C.
4) Adverbs in tus are from (i) Substantives : cael-I-tus; fund-I-
tus ; radic-i-tus ; pen-i-tus : (2) Adjectives : divin-I-tus : (3) Pre-
positions ; in-tus ; sub-tus. Mord-icus, with the teeth^ is peculiar.
5) On the Numeral Adverbs in lens (ies) see § 33.
V. Derivation of Pronominal Particles.
Pronominal Stems give birth to various Case-form Particles
(Conjunctions and Adverbs), and again to various inseparable
Elements, which enter into the composition of other Particles.
1) The Interrogative and Relative Stem quo, qui (Prim, kd) :
whence the Case-form Particles
quom or cum, quam, quod ; quo, qui, qua ; and the Ele-
ments u- um- us- (whence u-bi, un-de, us-que, umquam,
&:c.) ^ -que {-pe ?) -ciimqiie.
The Demonstrative Stems
2) 1, 16 : whence the Particles ea, eo, and (with Suff.) i-bi :
and the Element im which with -de forms the Particle inde.
3) to, ta : whence the Particles tam, tum, and (with Suff. t
for ce) tun-c : also the Elements -tern -td -tiy -to.
By composition of 1 with to is formed the Pronoun iste (for
istus), whence the Particles isti-c, istu-c, istim, istin-c, &c. Also
i-ta, ita-que, t-tem, i-ti-dem, &c.
4) no, na : whence the Particles nam, num, and (with Suff. c)
nun-c ; ne : and the Elements -nam, -num, -ne,
5) ho. Hi (anc. so, si) : whence (with c) the Particles hi-c, hu-c,
ha-c, si-c : and the Elements ho-, him- : whence the Particle hin-c.
6) ol, ul, il, forms the Pronoun ille (for ol-us), and gives birth to
its Particles, illi-c, illu-c, ill-im, illin-c, illa-c, and olim.
7) al, ali : compounded with i, 16 gives rise to the Pronominals
alius (al-is) al-ter, and forms or enters into numerous Particles, alio,
alia, al-ibi, ali-ter, &c.
8) ci forms the Prep, ci-s and the Element (c), which becomes
a Suffix to so many Pronouns and Particles.
Note, Other Particles formed by Pronom. Stems in Composi-
tion with each other, with their own Elements, and with various
Prefixes and Suffixes, are shewn in the Footnote, p. 255.
* Corssen formerly (ICr. B. i.) adopted the common view, that u-bi, un-de, u-ti (ut),
u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rel. quo-, dropping the guttural. But in Kr. N. 26, he
subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demonstr. Pron. u, which as-
sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct Rel.
formations. The question must be regarded as still * sub iudice.*
1 60. The Compositiofi of Words. 259
Obs, I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. noTEpoc or Korepog) forms
Particles of its own and in composition with many above named.
Ods, 2. Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of
the Prim. Pronom. Stem a with the Stem to. This may also be
the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for e-ce).
Obs, 3. The Particles dum, iam, with the Elements -da^n, -dem,
'do, -dey -dmn, also -iam, have been usually assigned to a Prono-
minal Stem; but Corssen {Kr, Beitr, p. 197, &c.) derives all these
forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div^ to shine,
whence dyus = dies. Compare propediem.^
The Elements -pe and -iam form the compound Element -piam.
vi. Some other Particles.
With the suffix per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per,
tant-is-per/ parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for ally
always, from root sama, as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c.
As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c. &c.
C. derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de:
immo froih an Adjective in-mus.
Mox (jjLoy-LQ ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obscure^ Oh
the last see C* Ausspr, i. 205.
The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (irfe liefet),
scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences.
Dumtaxat (dum taxat), ^ while one estimates^ ^merely ^ is a
clause.
Vel, ve is from velle, to choose, Niminjm, no doubt -ri\\x\xm
iest ni. ^
Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance, perchance : and
in fors it, forsitan, ^^r^^/j (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassi^ =
forte an si vis, for which is used fortasse, perhaps.
Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super.
Section IV.
The Composition of Words*
60
i. Composition takes place when two words are so compo-
jbined as to form one word. word°^
* The Particles formed by this class of enclitics are :
a) quon-dam ; /3) quT-dem, ibT-dem, utrobl-dem, iridi^dem, iti-dem, indenti-dem, ^ri-'dem
and Cpp. tarl-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem 17) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-un-de, quam-de ;
fi) quan-do and Cpp. aliquan-do, &c. : e) du-dum (for diu-dum), ne-dum, non-dum, nec-
diirri, hiud-dum, riihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum : also with the
Imperatives age-duni, mane-dum, stay a bit, fac-dum, do just, ades-dum, &c.).
iamiam, fet-iam. nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C. forms qui-a from qui-iam.
On iamiam, see M. Lucr. iii.894.
Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an Adjectival form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr.
V. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum.
Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu> quamdiu, aliquamdiu, pefdiu, interdiu and
interdius, nudius.
The suffix ' is (=ius)' is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-is), Time (patil-is-) or
Place (sin-is-tef). It is found also as us (minus, secus, &c.).
S 2
26o
Latin Wordlore.
§60.
(Only Nouns and Verbs are here considefed : the
Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.)
The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former
Determinative.
Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrees with
the other : ^
res-publica ; ius-iurandum ; tres-viri :
or that the second actually governs the first :
senatus-consultum ; veri-similis*
Such compounds can be severed :
resque publica ; senatusve consulta*
But generally one part or both lose the form of words :
magnanimus; Troiugena; artifex.
ii. Composition of Words may be (i) constrtictivey when
one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of
a Case governed by the other part : (2) attribiitivey
when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies
the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially
modifies the second : (4) possessive^ when Adjectives are
so compounded as to imply 'having' the fundamental
part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it.^
A) Substantives are compounded
i) constriictively \ when the parts are
, S,y.V.\ agri-cola (qui agrum colit) :
^ Parathetic Compounds, in which either the parts actually agree, or the first is governed
by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (2) agricultura ; aufifodinae,
gold-mine; iurisconsultus, civil lau/yer, ludimagister, schoolmaster; pater- mater-
filius-familias ; plebi-scitum ; (3) verisimUis , (4) lucrifacere, pessumdare, venumdare,
vilipendere.
In Pronouns we find such forms as altefuter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. ; and in
Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-decim, tertius-decimus, &c. ; subtractive ; as un-
de-viginti, duo-de-triginta, &c. ; multiplicative : as ducenti, treceni, &c.
^ Examples of Synthetic Composition.
A) Substantives :
S.y^V. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative
Substantives are principally these : ag- caed- capi- can- col- faci- (f Tc-) die- leg-
speci- : asremex, remigium, navigium ; homi-cida, parri-cida (-cidium) ; auceps,
aucupium, manceps (-cipium), municeps (-cipium), particeps (-cipium) ; bucina,
f Idi-cen (-cTna), tlbi-cen (-cTna), tubi-cen, galli-cinium, cock-crowing ; caelicola,
ruricola ; aedificium, arti-fex (-ficium), carnifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrificium ;
veneficium ; causs-idicus,//m^<??'; iudex, indicium ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti-
legium, spicilegium ; auspex, auspicium, exti-spex (-spicium), haruspex. Other
examples are : funambulus, rope-dancer ; nomenclator, namecaller {c.2i\2cc^) ; nau-
c fragium, shipwreck; ca.pnmu\gus, goat-milker ; puer-pera (-perium) from parere,
also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendium), libripens ; faenisex ;
iustitium, stoppage of law-courts (ius sistere), solstitium ; lectisternium ; nas-
turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuens), &c.
g^Q, The Composition of Words, 261
S,xS.: viti-sator (vitium sator).
2) attributively ; when the parts are
A.>^S, or N, (Numeral) x S. : pleni-luTiium : tri-ennium,
3) adverbially ; when the parts are
N. X V. or F, x V, : prin-ceps ; in-edia.
Note. F. X S. may be (i) constructive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad-
verbial : com-mercium ; nihil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516).
P) Adjectives are compounded
1) constructively \ when the parts are
«5". X K : armi^ger ; melli-fluus.
X S., wh^n S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes,
2) adverbially^ when the parts are
X K : iV. X F. : F, x V. : omni-potens ; bi-ftdus ; bene-
volus.
N.xA.: F.xA,: semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor,
SxS. Substantives of this form are few : caprificus, wild Jig', iuglans (lovis gla,ns);
manupretium ; rupicapra, chamois.
Ay.S. Substt. few: latifundium ; privilegium ; viviradix ; medi-astinus,
N. y S. numerous : see § 33 with bi- tri- &c, : as iUbra, biduum, biennium, &c. ;
decempeda, ten-foot pole ; teruncius, three-^unce coin ; also with semi- sesqui- :
sembella (for semi-libella), selibra (for semilibra), semideus, semihomo» semihora,
semivir ; semuncia, sescuncia, sesquihora, sesquimensis, &c.
N.y. V. : P.y. V. '. rare : for such words as aecola, incola, advena, convene, ambages,
coiux, conviva, dedecus, incus, adigen'-, ingenium, indoles, proles, suboles,obiex
or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, praefica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de-
rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c., or, at least, as coor-
dinate with these.
P. X S. (1) constructive : adverbium, ambarvalia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies,
interlunium, internecio, internundinum, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium,
proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super-
cilium. (2) adverbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminiculum, ad-
nepos, agnomen, cognomen, coheres, coinmilito, compes, condiscipulus, con-
servus, consobrinus, contubernium, convallis ; deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im-
pluvium, incuria, intemperies, internuntius, interpres, interrex, interregnum ;
nefas, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro-,
mulsis, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies.
Adjectives.
S. X V. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : cin-dic- fer- f fc- fr3g-
flu- fiig- gen- ger- leg- son- vaga- vom- : faticinus, fatidicus, aurifer, munif icus,
naufragus ; mellifluus, lucifugus, nubigenus, belliger, morigerus, florilegus, fluc-
tisonus, nemorivagus, flammivomus. Add arcitenens, velivoJius, &c. ; armipotens,
caelipotens, &c. See Examples of P. X 6*. in next page.
A.y.V. '. N.xV.: P.x V. : from the following and other Verb-roots : die- f Tc- fid-
flu- loqu- sci- son- vaga- vola- : veridicus, mirificus, multifidus, largifluus, vani-
loquus, dulcisonus, soli vagus, altisonus ; quadrifidus, septemfluus ; conscius, in-
scius, nescius, praescius, benef Tcus, malevulus, necopinus, innuba, &c. Horri-
sonus, terrificus, &c. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs
horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, profiigus, &c., may be regarded as
derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, &c.
jy.y. A. : chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals : semij-
barbarus, s^emihians, seminud;us, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, &c.
262 Latin Wordlore. ' § 60.
3) possessively ; when the parts are
A,y. S, \ N. X S, : magn-animus ; centi-ceps.
X ^5". : ali-pes ; igni-comus.
P, X S, : when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case :
con-cors, in-numerus, prae-ceps.
C) Verbs are compounded
i) constructively ; wh^n the p^rts are
S.y.V, \ belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere).
P.y.A.:
com- implies union : compar, compos, consimilis^ ^c.
ex- intensifies : edurus, efferus, &c.
ob- implies * coming in face : ' oblongus.
per- * throughout, in a high degree : ' pervigil ; perdifficili^.
prae- (i) * excess'.* praelongus, praecelsus; (2) Apriority.* praecanus, prema-
turely grey ; ' praeposterus, last firsts inverse ; (3) * extremity : ' praeustus,
burnt at the tip.
pro- forward : procurvus, propatulus.
re- red- back : recurvus ; again, redivivus.
sub- diminishes : subobscurus, rather dark^ subtristis, somei/uhai ^ad.
ve- = male : vesanus, wai/=malesanus.
ne- is privative : nefandus, nefastus, iinpious.
in- (inseparable negative = Greek a»/-) forms numerous Cp. Adjectives: impar,
impotens, impius, ingratus, insanus, infidelis, inutilis, ignarus, ignavus, ignotus,
ignobilis, illotus, irritus, &c. &c. &c.
A.XS. : N.xS. : S.xS. : unanim-is (us), 'having* one mind, lon^i-msLrxus, 'having*
long hands : tripes, 'having' three feet : anguicomus, snake-haired. So aequa-
evus, longaevus, multiformis, misericors ; soUers ; biennis, b^frons, triceps, tri-
linguis, &c. &c. ; cornipes, sonipes, &c.
P. X vS". (i) When P. is of adverbial nature :
anceps (ambi-ceps), double-headed, doubtful.
coaevus, concurring in time : cognominis, communis, concolor, confinis, consan-
guineus, consonus, consors, conterminus, &c. &c.
discolor, divided {differing^ in colour ; discors, dissonus, &c.
imbellis, unwarlike ; imberbis, beardless ; immanis, implumis, importunus, inanim-
is (us), inerm-is (us), iners, infamis, informis, infrenis, illimis, illunis, inglorius,
iniurius, insomnis, invius (but insignis from in i^^ on)^ &c. &c. 8iG.
obscenus, obscurus, ob.vius.
pervius.
praeceps, praesignis, praevius, &c.
proclivis, profundus, &c.
vecors.
(2) When P. has a prepositional nature : see p. 261. 1),
abnormis, amens, avius, &c,
acclivis, afifinis, &c.
antelucanus, antemeridianus, antesignanus, &c.
circumforaneus.
(:isalpmus, cisrhenanus, cispadanus, &c.
commodus.
^eclivis, decolor, deformis, degener, delirus, demens, devius, &p.
effrenus, efifrons, egregius, elinguis, enervis, enodis, enormis, exanimis, excOVS,
exheres, exlex, exsanguis, exsomnis, exsors, extorris, &c«
obnoxius, opportunus.
perduellis, perennis, perfidus, periurus, pernox, &c.
pomeridianus.
profanus, profestus, prosperus.
§ecurus, sedulus, &c.
subdialis, subdolus, sublucanus, subsignanus, subsolanus, subterraneus, suburbanus,
&c.
transalpinus, tr^nsmarinus, &c.
O Verbs.
S.xy.: aedificare, significare ; litigare ; vociferari, morigerari.
§ 6a The Composition of Words, 263
A^y.V,\ aequi-parare ( = aequum parare).
V.xK: cale-facere ( = calere facere), cale-fieri.
2) adverbially ; when the parts are
F, X V, : bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ab-ducere, and all Verbs
similarly compounded.
F,xS. or F, xA. : ef-feminare : e-rudire,*
Nole. Words which have two Determinative parts are called
Decomposita : im-per-turbatus. On Compound Words in Latin
see M. Li^cr. p. 312-313.
A.x V. : amplificare, gratificari, &c.
V.xV. : These are the Compp. of Verb-roots with facio, fio. See p. 217, and on the
quantity of e see Prosody.
The student may usefully test the force of Verbs compounded with Prepositions by Compo-
comparing, with the help of a good Dictionary, the meanings and uses of the Compounds sition of
of the oldest and most obvious Simple Verbs : such as ago, cado, caedo, cano, capio, cedo. Verbs
curro, dico, do (dha), duco, emo, eo, facio, fero, habeo, iacio, lego, mitto, moveo, nosco,
pleo, pono, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, teneo, tendo^ veho, venio> f^^^'
verto, video, voco. tions.
When compounded with Verbs :
1. Ab, a, abs {from, away) always denotes 'separation ; ' absum, am away, abeo, go
away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, refrain from, &c. Note abdico (me magistratu),
resign office ; abrogo (legem, &c.), repeal. Abundio,yf<?w over, abound ; abutor, use tip,
(^btise, contain the notion of excess,
2. Ad {to, at, near) generally denotes, (i) * approach, presence at or near ; ' adsum, am
Present ; adeo, go to ; advenio, coi7te to ; assideo, sit by ; adsto, stand by, &c. : hence,
(2) * application to : ' adhibeo, apply ; admoneo, admonish ; afificio, affect ; alloquor, ad-
dress, 8cc. : (3) ' acquisition,' a.s Siccipio, receive; adipiscor, gain; arrogo, claim. Sec. :
(4) 'addition,' as addo, add ; adnumero, reckon with ; addisco, learn besides : (5) 'action
to the fill:* admiror, admire; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, recognise; atton-
deo, shear close, &c. : (6) ' response, favotir, sy^npathy : ' acclamo, cheer ; adfleo, weep
with ; arrideo, smile on ; annuo, assent : so affulgeo, shi7ie on, &c. The Verb adimo,
take away (quis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.), cannot be a true form. It is probably a
vocal corruption of abemo, an ancient word cited by Festus, the sound of which would not
be agreeable. Ar- was an old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum.
3. Cum, com-, con-, co- {with, together) implies, (i) 'union, coining, bringing, oracling
together : ' coeo, unite ; concurro, run together ; coUigo, collect ; confero, bring together I
Gonvenio, meet; convoco, call together, &c. For various purposes: (a) ' comparison i*
Gomparo, compono, confero, compare, &c. : (jS) ' constraint : ' cohibeo, restrain ; cogo>
compel, &c. : (y) 'friendly action : ' colloquor, talk with ; concedo, allow ; confido, trust ;
Gonfiteor, confess ; consolor, console ; corrigo, correct : (8) * hostile action : ' confligo, battle
with ; colluctor, struggle with ; so coarguo, convinco, confute. (2) In some words it im-
plies ' combined thought, reflection : ' concipio, conceive ; conicio, guess ; computo, reckon,
up. (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives to
many verbs the sense of completeness or intensity : cognosco, learn ; conficio, complete ;
commoveo, disturb ; compleo, jf// up ; cormo, fall in ; consumo, waste ; contendo, strive ;
converto, turn round : cohorresco, contremisco, shudder all over ; convalesce, get well,
&c. So consterno, bestrew ; collino, besmear.
4. De {down, down from, from) implies, (i) 'action downward; ' decido, fall down ;
deicio, throw down ; depono, lay down : (2) * absence, departtire, removal, prevention*
&c. : decedo, depart ; detineo, detaifi ; demo, take away \ dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo,
deter; depr^cor, pray against ; desum, ajn wanting; deficio, revolt, fail, &c. ; derogo,
abate (a privilege by law ; see word in dictionary), &c. : (3) ' diminutton, subtraction : *
depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as deerro, stray ; de-
cipio, deceive; delude, delude ; detero, rub off; detraho, detract, &c., the preposition
carries a bad sense (deterioration). Debeo (dehibeo), owe, i.e. have a debt or minus
quantity, to be subtracted : (4) 'negation ox retractation;' dedeceo, misbeseem ; dediscQa.
^64 Latin Wordlore, g 60.
unlearn ; dedoceo, unteach ; despero, despair. (5) In numerous words it implies * ««-
tensity ox complete7iess ' (compare the phrase *de haut en bas ') : deambulo, ivaik up and
down ; deamo, love exceedingly ; defleo, weep ititensely ; decerno, decree ; debello, finish
a war; defungor, discharge ; deleo, blot outy destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devenio, arrive ;
devinco, vanquishy &c. (6) Such words as dedico, dedicate \ defero, offer, imply hti-
mility in the agent. Decurro means variously run down, co7nplete a course y or have re-
"Course.
5. Ex, e {put of ) implies, (i) * action out or from : * exeo, go out ; eicio, cast out ; ex-
tendo, stretch out ; eximo, take out, take away : (2) * manifest action : ' edico, proclaim ;
exhibeo, exhibit ; exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand forth, exist : (3) 'achieve-
ment of action : ' edisco, learti by heart ; efficio, effect ; elaboro, work out ; enumero,
count up \ eyenio, happen; ev'mco, prove; existimo, forfn opinion, think: so efFero, i.
drive wild ; effemino, make womanish. Note exaudio, hear from far.
6. In (in J into, against, upon) implies, (i) * action in, being in :' insum, am in ; inam-
bulo, walk in ; incolo, inhabit ; inerro, wander in : (2) * action into : ' ineo, ingredior,
fnter ; immitto, send into, &c. ; (3) * action onward : ' incedo, move on ; impello, urge on,
^c. : (4) 'effective action,' in many Transitive verbs : imminuo, lessen, break; impetro,
obtain by prayer ; impleo, fill ; incendo, set on fire ; inficio, infeci ; instituo, informo,
ijistruct ; instTwo, furf lis h ; irrigo, water, &c. : (5) ' action upon, over, against,' &c., in
many Trajective Verbs : illido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, impart ; in-
cumbo^ le(\n on ;immineo, impendeo, overhang ; insurgo, rise against, &c. : (6) * intensive
q,ction,' especially in Inceptive Verbs: illucesco, dawn, ; incalesco, grow hot ; ingravesco,
grow worse ; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark incipio, begin ; invenio, find (come
upon) ; invideo, envy (look on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was endo, ijndu
(eVSoi/), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endogredi or indu-
gredi = ingredi ; endoperator or induperator = imperator. So inc[-igeo ; ind-oles.
The negative particle in- appears in the compounds ignosqo, excuse^ pardon, and im-
probo, disapprove.
7. Inter {between, among) denotes, (i) * action between : ' jntercido, fall between ; inter-
•pono, place between ; hence, (2) ijiterruption : interpello, i. (ic^dress abruptly ; interrogo,
qitestioji ; 'm\.ex\ex\\o,interve7ie : (2) ' hiiidrajice, stoppage : ' intercedo,yi^r^zV/ (by veto) ;
\x\.X.exo\\xAo,shiU off ; interdico, prohibit, exclude : (3) ' concernru^nt in : ' intersum, am en-
gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has ^ peculij^r use in the words
intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interficio, kill. See Per. Also intellego, perceive,
7C':derstand. Prof Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of 'through ' is often con-
veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius: interfodio, interfugio. See J\I. Lucr.
iv. 7t6.
8. Ob (— cTTt) seems to denote ' occupation of space in front : 'as, obeo^ go, to encounter,
perforin, die, &c. ; obicio, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; pffero, offer, present. This
is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; o.brup, opprimo,
(fverwhelni ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against ; sometimes friendly : as, oboedio,
obsequor, obtempero, ^'^^j. ' Persistence' \?, often implied by ^ihis particlp : pbsfupesco,
^tand amazed ; obdormisco, slumber ; obsolesco, become obsolete. The use qf obs is
■doubtful : obs-trudq in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, show,
may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since pbtendo, streick, toward,
is an existing compound. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob-mitto or om-mitto
(which is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of * persistence.' Qperio,
cover, is not (as a Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its root.
Obs. Note the Adjj. obliquus, athwart; obscurus, (having o-/cta. Prim, sku, in
front).
9. Per h^s the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through hence, thoroughly \
perdisco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undone
(pessum eo) : peremo, kill; perdq, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears
pessum dq. Thes^ uses qf per, inter, may perhaps grow ou^ of some now forgotten cusr
tom or superstition.
10. Prae {before) expresses, (i) 'priority of place or rank ; ' ^s, praeeo, go before ; prae-
fioxo, place in command; praesum, am in command; praepono, prefer; praeluceo, out-
shine. Sec: (2) ' priority of time ;* as, pxsLedico, foretell : pxaemoneo, forewarn ; prae-
video, foresee. : (3) 'action in front ; ' as, praecingo, gird in front ; praebeo (for praehibeo),
hold in front, afford ; praefendq, ho{cL out, &c. : (4) 'passing along : ' praelabor, glide by. \
praetexo, shirty border.
4
The Composition of Words.
265
. II. Pro ^roA- {forth, /onvardy before, for) expresses, (i) ^motion or action forth, pub-
licity : ' prodeo, go forth ; prodo, give forth, surrender, betray ; promo, take forth ; pro-
,fero, bring forth ; provoco, cat/ forth, challenge ; proclamo, proclaim, &c. : (2) * motion or
■action forward:' proc^do, go forward ; procumbo, fall forward ', promoveo, projuote ;
. propello, drive forward, &c. : (3) 'action in front : ' prohibeo, hold aloof , forbid ; pro-
^ngno, fight for ; protego, protect ; protero, trample down (a) with the notion of advan-
tage ; as, procuro, care for ; proficio, prosum, profit ; provenio, come on, prosper, &c. :
(b) of prominence ; as, promineo, jut out ; propendeo, haiig forward ; promereo, deserve
emifiently : (4) 'priority ' (rare) : proludo, prelude ; propino, pledge a health ; provideo,
look out, foresee. The most noticeable verbs compounded with pro are, (a) promitto, Ht.
send forth ; which obtains the meanings let grow {hair, beard, &c.), predict, and hence
its derived but most usual sense, promise : (b) prorogo. Put ojf{\.Q a forward time) by
, legal act ; prprogue.
12. Sub sus- {under) may imply, (i) * being under : ' subsum, am tinder, am at hand ;
subiaceo, lie tmder ; submergo, dip under ; subscribo, write under ; subsisto, stand
wider ; sucpumbo, sink under \ suffulcio, prop ; sustineo, sustain : (2) * viotion under : '
• subdo, subicio, submitto, suppono, put under ; subeo, go under, undergo ; subigo, bring
under, subdue ; sulfundo, pour under : (3) * motion from under : ' subduco, subtraho,
subveho, withdraw ; submoveo, remove (from below) ; subverto, overthrow ; {upward) ;
. sublevo, tc^ise up ; suscito, rouse up ; suspendo, hang up ; suspicio, look upy look up to,
suspect ; suspiro, sigh : (4) ' motion iri close sequence : ' subsequor,y£'//i7w close ; succedo,
. come after, succeed, also means go under, be successful, &c. : {with a view to help or sup-
, ply) subvenio^ succurro, succour ; sufficio, suppeto, suppleo, supply ; subrogo, supply
(a legal successor). Sometimes sub implies * secrecy : * succenseo, am angry (in the heart) :
surripio, stea,l ; sometimes slight action ; subblandior, fawn a little ; subirascor, am
. father angry.
13. Dis- di- (5ta) {apart, asunder) implies ^division, severance, difference, distinction*
&c. : diduco, sever; disto, stand apart, am distant; dido, spread; diffindo, cleave \
dignpsco, distinguo, distinguish ; differo, sunder or differ ; dimitto, dismiss , discedo,
depart ; diribeo, dirimo, divido, divide ; disrumpo, pull in pieces ; discumbo, recline apart
(of guests at tq.]:?le), &c. It is particularly used to express difference in argument, opinion,
action : discepto, disputo, dissero, argue, dispute, discuss ; discrepo, dissentio, dissideo,
differ in sentiment, disagree ; digladior, dimico, contend in co7nbat : hence, diiudico,
judge between contending sides. In some words dis- gives a negative sense : displiceo,
displease ; dififiteor, deny ; diffido, distrust : in some it is intensive : disperdo, ruin
utterly ; dispereo, atn utterly ruined ; discrucio, torture painfully. The verb diligo,
love, implies a choice between different persons.
14. The inseparable particle red- re- {back, again) conveys the two general meanings :
1. 'reciprocated action : ' II. 'repeated action :' but the shades of meaning are nume-
rous, and will repay minute analysis with the aid of the dictionary.
I. If AB be a straight line, with motion from A to B, then red- or re- implies
1) * recurrence from B to A :' redeo, return ; recurro, run back ; reduco, lead back',
relabor, slide back ; remitto, send back ; redhibeo, repono, replace ; refero, reporto, bring
back ; revoco, call back ; reddo, give back, restore ; redimo, buy back, redeem, rattsotn ;
renuntio, tell back, bring tidings ; restituo, restore. Here rank compounds which ex-
press reflected light, echoed or replying sound : respondeo, answer ; reluceo, shine back ;
reboo, remugio, rebellow; tidal reflux : refluo, redundo, ^«^w back, &c. ; but in actions
\*hich by their nature imply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis ; respiro, breathe :
refulgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter, Recaleo, become warm from being cold.
2) ' recuTrrence * from B towards A : i.e. backward action : rqcumbo, lean back, recline ;
resideo, sit back, sit dowjt ; refringo, break open ; repello, drive back ; remaneo, stay
back, remain ; remoror, retardo, retard; relinquo, leave behind ; respicio, lookback; re-
tineo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (b3ic\C)= away : relego, send away ; removeo,
move away, remove : with implied care : recondo, hide away, ^tpw : or force ; revello,
pluck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the particle {against)
implies resistance : rebello, war against, rebel ; reclamo, cry against ; redarguo, refello,
refute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recuso), renuo, refuse ; repugno, resisto, resist.
II. * Repeated action^ {again, anew); recognosco, examine anew; recalesco, grow
warm again ; revalesco, reviresco : so, reparo^ repair ; reficio (make again), repair,
renew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relevo, raise again, relieve. In refercio, cram, repleo,
fill full, &c., the notion is that of repeating tq excess. In recludo, retego, revelo,
uncover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down ; resigno, unseal, re- has a force like that
of de (removal> Iri revereor, reverence ; reticeo, keep silence, it implies bashftdncss :
266
Lathi Wordlore.
in redoleo, smell of, the idea is that of giving back to one who requires, as in renuntio.
In some compounds re- gives various senses, as recipio : for which see dictionary.
15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short notice :
(a) ante {before) : anteire, to go before : (jS) circum {around) ; circumdo, place rotmd '
(■y) post {after, behind) : posthabeo, postpono, place behind : (5) praeter {beside, beyojid) :
praeterlabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pass over, omit :
(e) subter {beneath) : subterlabor, glide wider : in subterfugio, escape, secrecy or slyness is
implied (subterfuge) : {Q super {over, above) : superiacio, throw over : sometimes implies
excess ; superfluo, fioxu over, overfiozu. Note supersum, survive, superstes, surviving
(living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, dispense ivith :
see Ablative Case. (17) trans {across, thro7cgh) is properly used of crossing a river, moun^
tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pass
beyond '. XxdLX\s,itxo, carry across, transfer ; transigo, carry through, pierce, complete, trans-
act, &c. : {&) se- s^d- {apart frotn) : seduco, draw aside : s^iungo, separate ; seligo, select,
&c. : (i) amb- am- an- {around, about, atxi})i) : ambio, go routid, canvass ; ambigo, doubt,
question ; anquiro, question, search, {k) the adverbs bene^ male, satis, intro, retro, in a
few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefacio, do kindness ; maledico, revile ; malefacio, do
harm ; satisdo, satisfacio, satisfy ; introeo, go iji ; retrogredior, retreat.
Obs. I. Many Verbs, of which the first element is a Preposition, are not Compounds in
the same sense as those hitherto named, but belong to one or other of the three follow-
ing classes : —
1) Derivatives of Compourul Adjectives or Substantives : concinno t. arrange (con-?
cinnus) ; concordo i. agree (concors) ; discordo i. disagree (discors) ; indignor i. am in^.
digfiajit (indignus) ; infesto i. make daJtgerous (infestus) ; effero i. drive zuild {efferus) ;
obliquo I. slant (obliquus) ; deliro i. am mad (delirus) ; commodo i. /?«^ (commodus) ;
incommodo i. iticonvenieyice (^ViCommoAw^C) ; praecipito 1. fling headlong {pra.eceps) ; per-
nocto I. pass tJie night (pernox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanus) ; consulo 3. consul^
(consul) ; concilio i. conciliate (concilium).
2) Verbs compounded of Particle and, a Noun which has no derived simple verb : —
recorder i. recollect (re, cor); defaeco i. draijt (de, faex) ; infamo i. dcfajne (in, fama)'i^
so diffamo i. ; effemino 1. 7nake womanish (ex, femina) ; suffoco i. choke (sub, faux) ;
digladior 1. fight %uith sword {6.1-, gladius) ; illaqueo i. ensnare i^m, laqueus) ; enervo i.
•weaken (e, nervus) ; enucleo i. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impedio 4. hinder, entangle-
(in, pes) ; expedio 4. disejitangle {^x, pes) ; irretio 4. ensnare (in, rete); derivo i. draw
off, derive (de, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) ; exstirpo i. root oict (ex, stirps) ; ex-
surdo I. deafen (ex, surdus) ; contemplor i. gaze at, observe (cum, templum augural
division of sky) ; praevaricor i. act dishonestly, deceive (prae, varus); convaso 1. /«f^
up (cum, vas) ; exubero i. abound {^-x., uber).
3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb-stems : —
ad-«/-or \. flatter {or- ?) ; amb-z^/-o i. walk; im-^w-o.j. dye, steep ; com-/;?/r-o 3. buriiv
in-coh-o I. begin ; QC-ciil-o 3. hide ; in-du-o 3./«/ on ; ex-u-o (for ex-duo) -^. put off; de--
fend-o 3. ; oifend-o 3. ; x^-frdg-ox i. oppose by vote ; suf-/nz^-or i. vote for ; con-gru-o 3.
agree ; xxv-gru-o 3. ; m-vit-o. i. invite ; ix-rtt-o 1. provoke ; pxo-mulg-o i. publish ; dis-
sip-o 1. scatter. The verbs oc-cup-o i. anti-cz/>-o i. anticipate, xe-cip-ex-o, xe-cup-ex-o i.
recover, are forms modified from cap-, take. De-stin-o, destine, oh-stin-o, keep firm,
are weakened from stan-, the root sta^- strengthened with suffix H, like da-n-o from dar,
and Gr. (t>Oa-p-u) from (f)9a.
Obs. 2. a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, alj which appears in Latin as ar, al, or,
Ol : sometimes, perhaps, as er, el, Ul. It appears, (i) in alo and its derived words,
<«/tus, co-rt^esco, &c. : (2) in orior and its forms : (3) in -oleo, -olesco and their com-
pounds ad^j/esco, ab^7/esco, inolesco, &c., proles {pxo-olesi), subf/es, ind^7/es. Probably t©
this root may belong many names of common quick-growing, or tall, plants ; as ar-bor,
ar-ista,(h)ar-undo, al-ga, al-nus, al-lium, (h)ol-us, ol-ea (ol-eum), ol-iva (ol-ivum), or-nus,
er-vum, epi/o?, il-ex, ul-va, ul-mus : perhaps, also, ar-duus, ar-dea, Al-pis, op-o?, el-ephas>
and other words.
It must be observed that the root of Smell, olere, has no connection with that of
Growth. In the former I represents d, as shewn in odox (Gr. oSu>Sa), while in the latter
l=r.
b) The root of Solidity appears in Latin chiefly as sol- (= Gr. 6X-), shewn in the words
sol\u& (6A05), solum, solidus, sollexs, soll-\. citus, soleo, with its compounds oh-solesco,
exolesco, insolesco, insolens. Obsolesco and exolesco have often been taken fcr com-
pounds of olesco, the verb of growth ; but this is a mere error of grammarians-
§ 6i. The Uses of Words. 267
CHAPTER VI.
THE USES OF WORDS.
Section I.
i. Figurate Construction. yxIIx^x.^
(In this place it is convenient to describe certain variations of struc-
Construction.) ^^o"-
ii, Ellipsis and Zeugma: Pleonasm: Attrac-
tion: Synesis.
A) Ellipsis (eXXeixl^ig) is the omission of one or more words which
would be used if complete fullness of expression were nectssary.
This may be
1) When what is omitted appears from the conte^^t : * Metuo
tuam iram et patris ' (iram), I dread your (in<^er and
my father'' s. ' Ego amp te et tu me ' {ai^as), I love you
and you me,
2) When usage or the exigence of meaning makes the omitted
word, evident : Falernum (i.e. vinum), Falernian wine ;
gelida (i.e. aqua), cold water : turn ego (i.e. inquam),
the7i said I .
Zeugma^ or the construction ^tto koivov^ is th^ connexion
of one word with two words or with two clauses, to both of
which it does not equally apply : so that for one of them,
another word (to be gathered from the sense of the pass-
age) must be mentally supplied. Zeugma is therefore a
species of Ellipsis : * Ex spoliis et torqueni et cogno-
men induit,' C. ' Querimoniae conventusque h abe ban-
tu r,' c.
The agreement of a Verb or Adjective wUh one only of several
Noufis forming one Subject, is also called Zeugma.^
^ E^llipsis and Zeugma are brachylogical constructions ; that is, they abbreviate dis-
course. (In the following Examples words bracketed in italic type are explanatory merely.)
a) Where the words to be supplied are forms of another word in the sentence, the con-
struction is Ellipsis of the fi;-st kind : *Abi rus ergo hinc ; ibi ego te {feram), tu me feres,'
Ter. Haut. iv. 2. 4. *In Hyrcania plebs publicos alit canes, optimates domesticos '
ialunt)^ C. T. D. i. 45. * Paene ille timore {corruit), ego risu corrui,' C. Qtt. Fr. ii. 10.
* Caper tibi salvus et h^edi' {salvt), Verg. B. vii. 9. *Hic illius arma {fuere), hie currus
fuit,' Verg. Ae. i. 16. ' Hos tibi dant calamos, en accipe, Musae, Ascraeo quos ante
seni ' {dedere)y Verg. B, \\. 69. * Nisi f a c i e n t quae illos aequum est ' {^facere)^ Ter.
Ad. iii, 4, 8.
When the sense requires a different word. Ellipsis becomes Zeugma : * Hoc tempus
praecavere mihi me {iubet), non te ulcisci sinit,' Ter. And. iii. 5. 18. * Fortuna qua illi
florentissima nos duriore conflictati videmur,' C. Att. x. 4. *Aliinau-
fraglo iperiisse), alii a servulis ipsius inter fectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nep.
Hann. viii. 'Quod ar^uum sibi {sjimpsii), cetera legatis permisit,' Tac. A. ii. 20.
* Ne tenues"pluviae {corrumJ>a7it) rapidive potentia solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile
268
Latin Wordlofe.
B) Pleonas7n {j:\iovaG\A6q) is the use of more words than seem
necessary to the expression of a thought : ' Suo sibi gladio hunc
iugulo/ / slay this fellow with his own proper sword, Ter. Ad. v. 8.
So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus ; nihil
quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit
prius.
C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another,
frigus ad u rat,' Verg. G. i. 93. * Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hostem, per-
saepe velut qui lunonis sacra ferret,' Hor. ^S". i. 3. 9 (i.e. saepe currebat velut qui fugiens
hostem curreret, persaepe tardus iyicedebat velut iticederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret).
-y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : * I He quidem baud negat.
Immo edepol negat profecto ; neque se bas aedis Philolachi vendidisse ' Plaut.
Most. v. i. 3. *Stoici negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem auten^
nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere vyluptatem' {dic7int\ C. Fin. i. 18. * N olo existi-.
mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' {^olo exisiimes), C.
N. D. i. 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, nec Graeci Latine {sci7mi), C. T. D. v. 40.
Qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo quam sibi sprtem Seu rs^tio, dederit se^ fors obiecerit ilia
Contentus vivat, laudet ( = j^'^/ ut qiiisque laiidet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. 6'. i. i. i. Com-
pare Hor. Epod. v. 87.
6) Justin bas ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Dar.i
(Corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur,' vi. 9. 14 (i.e. non mortem depre-,
cantur sed .... precantur). And * Et caedem patris {vijidicavif), et se ab insidiis,
vindicavit,' iii. i. 9 (the same verb meaning in the former clause, _/9r^^/ in
(the latter). But such licenses of a l^te age are not to be imitated.
Zeugma qf t|ie second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called avA-
ATjv/zt?, when a Verb, Attribute, Apposite, Relative, &c. stands m relation to several Sub-
stantives oi Pronouns which are often of different Numbers, Genders, Persons, &c.
The rules belong to the Syntax of Agreement (see this) : but examples are :
'Pater mihi et mater mortui,' Ter. E^in. iii. 3. * Cerere nati sunt Liber et
Libera.' C. N. D. ii. 24. 'Attoniti . . . concipiunt Baucisque preces timi-
dusque Philemon,' Oy. Met. viii. 6§i. 'Ptol^maeus et Cleopatra, reges.
Aegypti, L. xxxvii. 3. 'Sustulimu^ manus et ego et Balbus,' C. F'avi. vii. 5.
* E r r a s t i s, Rulle, vehementer et t u e t c o 1 1 e g a e tui, ' C. Z.. Agr. i. 7. * Ipse dux
cum urbe et exercitu deleti,' Sail. * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tact a
erant,' L. xxxii. 29. 'Arbitrum habebimus Civilem et Veledam, apud quos
pacta sancientur,' Tac. H. iy. 65. Fa vent pietati fideique di, per quae P. R. ad
(tantum fastigii venit,' L. xliv. 2.
In these examples the related words are all Plural ; and Gender and Person are deter-
mined by consideration of all the Nouns. Zeugma occurs when the co;istruction agrees
with one of the Nouns only, whether in Number, Gender, Person, or all these : an
Ellipsis being supposed of the other agreeing words. * Filia {captd) atque unus e filiis
captusest,' Caes. B.G.\. id. 'Convicta est Messalina et '^xXxw?,' {convictus), Tac. A.
xii. 65. 'Utinam aut hie surdus {/actus), aut haec muta facta sit,' Ter. And. iii. 4, 5.
* Et genus {viliics) et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior alga est,' Hor. S. ii. 5. 8. * 'PopvM{liberait\
provinciaeque liberatae sunt,' C. Phil. v. 4. * Et tu {sets) et Qmnes homines sciunt,'
C. Fam. xiii. 8. i. * Et ego {Jlagitd) et Cicero mens flagitabit,' C. Att. iv. 17. 3.
In such examples agreement is with the nearer Noun ; and thus it is a kind of Attraction.
Rarer mstances occur of Zeugma,, in which agreement is with the more distant word :
* Ego populusque Romanus populis priscorum Latinoyum bellum in dico facioque,'
L. i. 32. ' Quibus ipse meique ante Larem proprium v esc or,' Hor. S. ii. 6. 65.
B) Pleonasm, which expands discourse, belongs to the domain of rhetoric more than to.
that of grammar, and needs not to be dwelt ou at length here. Periodic style, such as that
of the Ciceronian speeches and treatises, is necessarily, to, some extent, pleonastic : and the
rounded fullness of Cicero's diction exposed him, even in his own times, to the charge of
tumid Asiatic luxuriance. Two ox three sentences will illustrate this tendency.
*Si fructibus et emolu mentis et utilitatibus amicitias colemus, dubium est
quin fundos et insulas amicis antepor|,amus ? ' Fin. ii. 26. * Dicendi facultas non
debet esse ieiuna atque nuda, sed as.persa atque distincta multarum rerum
iucunda quadam varietate,* Or. i. 50. ' Quinctius orat atque obsecrat ut
multis iniuriis iactatam atque agitatam aequitatem in hoc tandem loco con-
sistere et confirmari patiamini,' p. Quinc. 2.
Examples of Attraction, SynQsis, &c. will be found in various parts of the Syntax.
g 6i. Figurate Constrtictio7i. 269
is diverted from the usual construction to a less usual one :
' Hie est quern quaero hominem/ this is the man I seek ; where
the Subst. would usually be Nom., but, attracted by quern,
becomes Accus. ^Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est/ L. for
' Thebae, quae Boeotiae caput sunt;' the Complement caput
(Neut. Sing.) attracting the Relative from its usual agreement in
Gender and Number with the Antecedent (Thebae).
D) Synesis is when words are constructed in accordance with
meaning (avveaLg), not with form: ^Subeunt Tegeea iuventus
auxilio tardi/ the youth of Tegea come slow to the succour, Stat.
Th, vii. 605 : where iuventus (a Collective Noun Feminine and
Singular) has the meaning of the Concrete inw en es, young men
(Masc. Plur.), with which meaning the Verb subeunt (Plur.) and
the Adjective tardi (Masc. Plur.) agree in construction.
iii Other Variations.
a) When a Verb or Adjective agrees with several Substantives-
((TvW-qypLgy see last Foot-note) : ^ Pater, mater et filia capti sunt.'
l?) When words are dislodged from the normal order (hizep-
/3arov) : ^Tu illas abi et traduce.'
An interposed clause is called Trafjevdearic if not in construction^
with the rest : ^At tu — nam divum servat tutela poetas —
Praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro/ Tibull. ii. 5. 113.
c) When a Preposition follows its Case {a^acrrpofri) : Spemque
metumque inter dubii, Verg.
d) When compound words are separated into their parts
(jyLrjfnq) : 'Quae me cum que vocant terrae/ Verg. for quaecum-
que ; disque supatis for dissipatis ; ordia prima, Lucr. for primordia.
e) When one Part of Speech, Number, Case, Tense, &c., is used
for another (traXXay//) : ' Vivere nostrum' for vita nostra ; *Samnis'
for Samnites, ' nos ' for ego : *populus' for popule ; 'expectate' for
0xpectatus ; ' mox navigo ' for navigabo, &c.
/) Interchange of Cases (yiraWayii) : * Dare classibus Austros/
Verg. for * dare classes Austris.' Or attribution of an Adjective to
another than its natural Noun: * Fontium gelidae perennitates,'
C. for gelidorum : * Tyrrhena regum progenies,' Hor. for Tyrr-
henorum.
g) Expression of a complex notion by two Substantives, instead
of Subst. and Adj. {evdia^vfnr) : 'Pateris libamus et auro,' Verg.
ij. G. i()2, for pateris aureis.
h) That kind of Ellipsis which omits Annexive Conjunctions
is called dtrvi'^erov : ^Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit,' C. Cat, i. i.
vfTvvhsTov is a kind of Pleonasm, which multiplies Conjunc-
tions in poetry : * Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque pro-
cellis Africus/ Verg. Ae. i. 85.
i) Archaism is a form, phrase, or idiom borrowed from old
writers {dpyaioC) : ^ animai" ; in cassum magnum,' Lucr.
270
Latin Wordlore.
§62,
k) Graecism {\Xkr]vi(T\x6q) is a phrase or idiom borrowed from
Greek : 'Amplexi habent/ Lucr., for amplexi sunt : 'Metuo fratrem
ne intus sit/ Ten, for * ne frater intus sit/
The foregoing Variations (which grammarians call ^ Figures
belong chiefly to Syntax.
iv. Metaphor and Metonymy.
(These are Figures of Rhetoric.)
I. Metaphor {iieracpoptiy translatio) occurs when a term proper
to one matter is transferred by analogy to another : volnus,
wound, for damnum, toss ; portus, harbotn^ for refugium, refuge ;
sentina reipublicae, si7ik of the coimiionwealth, for turpissimi cives,
vilest citizens ; ardeo, / burn^ for amo, / love, &c.
A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi,
tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : 'In una philosophia
quasi tabernaculum vitae suae coWoc^LXunt,^ ihey have pitched as
it were the te^tt of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or. iii. 20.
* Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auHbus opimum quod-
dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus/ the Carians and
Phrygians cho^e a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction
suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. 'Scopas, utitadicam,
mihi videntur dissolvere/ they seem to me to be untying, so to say,
besoms, C. Or. 71.
II. Metony7ny (luLETwj'vuia) puts a related word for a proper
one: (i) Cause for effect; Mars for bellum ; Ceres for segetes ;
* Bacchus' for vinum ; Manus' for larii vicus or for lani
templum. (2) Material for work: 'argentum' for vasa ar-
gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, 'cor
Enni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete
for abstract : ' Cedant arma togae,' for ' cedat bellum paci.' (5)
Country fot inhabitants : ' Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse :
*In Persas ire/ for in Persiderd, Nep. (6) The part is put for
the whole (fJvvzKloyri) caput ' for homo ; ^ tectum ' for domus.
(7) Sometimes the whole for the part: ^Sal sextante erat/ for
* modius salis/ ^ salt was at two unciae the peck,
Section IL
62
usesof Uses of the Substantive.
the Sub-
stantive. certain classes of Singular and Plui^al Substantives
see § Z7. iii.)
i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for
Plural.
Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or
military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic, Caes. : frequent in
Liv., Tac, Curt, and poets.
g 62. Uses of the Substantive. 271
Ex, rosa = rosae : pedes = pedites : Samnis = Samnites.
The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and
Tacitus often use it : ^ Hispani milites et funditor Baliaris,' L.
xxvii. 2. * Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi/ Tac. H, iii. 59.
ii. Plural words used with Singular collective
sense in prose.
£'.r. aquae, ardores, calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran-
dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C.
In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco-
nita, mella, colla, corda, currus, altaria, numina, litora, capitolia,
tecta, &c.
It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre.
iii. Plural of Appellatives expressing a
*genus' when individuals are implied.
Occasional in prose : * Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is
meant), C. Z. Man, : frequent in poetry: * Quas mulieres,
quos tu parasitos loquere Plant. Men. ii. 2 ; ^ Barbaras regum
est ulta libidines ' (meaning Tereus), Hor. C iv. 12. 7.
iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express
typical characters.
This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ^ Pauli, Csttones,
Galli, Scipiones, Phili,* C. LaeL 6. ' Decii Marii magnique Ca-
milli,' Verg. G, ii. 169.
V. Abstract Substantives,^ Verbal and Deno-
minative, used in Plural.
This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry.
1) When several kinds are implied: *Tres c onstantiae,' C
7*. D, iv. 6 ; * Alia exitia,' C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; * Sapiens nostras am-
bitiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise ma7i despises ouf
ambitious and shallow pursuits ^ C. T. D. v. 36.
2) Several occurrences : * Domesticae fortitudines,' C. Off, i. 22.
So offices in L. and Tac. : ^ Tribunatus et praettirae et consulatus,*
Tac. D, 7.
d) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural orna-
mental objects manufactured from it : ^ Ephyreia aera,'
Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G, ii. 463. * Veteres cerae/ old
waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argeriturri. remain
Singular always.
* Draeger states that there are in Latin 3,814 abstract Sutstantives ; of which 2,889 are
used in the Singular only, 925 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero,
including 36 in Piautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only^ 19, in Caesar, Sal-
lust, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub-
sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Historische Syntax,
der Lat. Spr.^ Part i. p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given.
272
Latin Wordlore,
§62
3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : ' Conscientiae
maleficiorum/ C. Par, 2.
4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : *Tot artes, tantae scien-
tiae, tot inventa/ C. Cat, M, 21.
vi. Abstract Substantives for Con(^rete in
prose and poetry :
This may be in any of three ways :
1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr.. . , , ,
Plun Abstr. for Plur. Concr. I ^^^^^^
Ex. ^ corruptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad. v. 3. 7; Mesiderium' = res
desiderata, Hor. C. i. 14. 18; * servitia ' = servi, C. Flac. 38;
' imperia ' = imperatores, Caes. B. C. iii. 32 ; ' matrimonia ' = uxores,
L. X. 23. * Mea festivitas/ my delight, App. ii. 10; so *scelus' = ^z
wicked wretch, * sQ^lQXdiy scoimdrels ; Wigiliae ' = vigiles ; * excubiae ' =
excubitores.
2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : * amores ' = atilatus or amata :
* Pompeius nostri amores,' C.Att. ii. 19. *Aemen . i suos amores/
Catull. xlv. t. So * deliciae ^Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius/
C. Div. i. 36.
3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry :
'amicitia' = amici,Tac.^. 271 ; ^barbaria' = barbari; ^civitas' = cives;
' coniuratio ' = coniurati ; * iuventus ' = iuvenes; * nobilitas ' = nobiles ;
^societas ' = socii ; ' statio ' or * custodia ' = custodes ; ^ remigium ^ = re-
miges. So * Canes amica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod.6. 6. * In hac
tanta immanitate versari/ C. = inter tam immanis homines. * Cum
vestra aetate/ C. = cum vobis adulescentibus.
O^s. From the Plural use of SulDstantives we can hardly discon-
nect the * Pluralis Modestiae/ which includes also Verbs and Pro-
nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number :
'Imperatores appellati sumuS,' C. Att,v. 20. 'Poscimur, si
quid vacui sub umbra lusimus,' Hor. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and
Sing, occur together : * Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos-
trum scriptis illustretur tuis,' C. FaM, v. 12 ;^Et flesti etnostros
vidisti flentis ocellos/ Ov. I/, v. 45.^
Vii. Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice-
tonian:
i) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : ^ Ora-
toris est languentis populi incitati o et effrenati moderatio,' an
orator's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an infuriated^
populace, C. d. Or, ii. 9.
* The Plural of Majesty (we, our), used in the proclamations of modern princes and
potentates, was unknown to classical Latin ; but it probably grew out of the use of the
* modest ' Plural by Roman Emperors in such phrases as * nostra mansuetudo,' ' nostra
maiestas/ * nostra excellentia,' &c.
Uses of the SiLbstantive,
273
2) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used for a Noun with
Epithet. *Vis flammae aquae multitudine opprimitur' ( = flam-
maviolenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat. M. 19. 'In con-
suetudine sermonis' ( = in consueto sermone), in ordinary con-
versation^ C. Inv. ii. 40.
3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be
Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object. ^ Est
etiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies
ad iocandum/ deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for
banter J C. d. Or. ii. 59.
4) A Noun of quahty or condition is used as Subject or Object
with Genitive of the real Subject or Object, Or with a Possessive
Pronoun. * Pupilh aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor
debuit/ the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan
ward, C. Verr. i. 58. * Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua,'
your preoccupation \ = y on being preoccupied) 7nay refuse me this,
C. Fam, v. 12. 8*
5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors : * Occa-
sionis tarditas ; ' ' Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia fortunae ; ' ' summa
luctus acerbitas:' ^mentis ocuh;' ' philosophiae portusj' ^gloriae
stimuli ; ' ' eius sceleri virtus M. Bruti obstitit*'
6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed hj the
concrete words puer, adulescens, &c., consul, praetor, &c., rather
than by the abstracts pueriti a, consulatus, &c. 'Doctus apuero,'
learned froin boyhood, C. *Ab parvulis,^yr<?;;2 their infancy , Caes.
* Philosophiae multum adulescens temporis tribui,' I gave much
ti7ne to philosophy i7i 7ny youth, C. Off.\\. 4. 'Ante (post) me con*'
sulem,' before [after) 7ny consulship : ' consule Planco//;^ the C07isul-
ship of Plancus, tlor. Biit the abstracts can be used.
7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in -tor-trix^
are used Adjectively. ' Ennius equi fdrtis et victoris senectuti
comparat suam,' Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong
and victo7^iou^ horse, C. Cat. M. 5. 'Art if ex stilus/ an artistic
style, C This idiom is especially poetic. 'Victrix causa deis
placuit, sed victa Catoni,' the conqueri7ig cause pleased the gods, but
the conquered cause Cato, LuCan. i. 128. ' Populum late regem/
a far-ruling people,YQYgi Ae7L I, 22^.
8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : 'nonien
Latinum' ( = Latini), 'res Romanae' ( = Roma). So 'res
repetundae' {extortion), respublica, iusiurandum, &g.
9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons
and Places stand for their works or properties : ' Percipietis volup-
tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nos-
tras leges conferre volueritis,'j)/<?^ will fi7id pleasure in co7nparing
our laws with [those of) the Lycurgiis a7td Dr-aco and Solo7t of the
Greeks, C. d. Or, i. 44.
10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govefn the same cases as
their Verbs : Cicero has ' domum itio ; ^ ' Narbone reditus ; ' ' ob-
temperatio iegibus.' Constructions such as ' receptio virum meum/
' curatio hanc rem,' are used by Plautus, but not subsequently.
274
Latin Wordlore.
§62.
viii. Ellipse of the Substantive:
Omitted Substantives are indicated
i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets :
' ager : in Tiburti, C.
agtm : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta,
Plin., luv.
ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica.
capilli : cani, C. and poets.
caro .* agnina, la^nl^ ; anatina, d2^ck ; aprugna, wild-boa}' ; bu-
iDula, beef', ferina, venison ; suilla, ; vitulina, veal,
castra : aestiva ; hiberna ; stativa : C, Caes., L., Tac. &:c.
dies : natalis ; and in phrases poster o, in poster um, &c.
fabida : togata, with Roman characters ; pal Hat a, with
Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, plays in which cha-
racters with these dresses appeared.
familiaris : ' complexusinde Coriolanus suos dimittit,' L. ii. 40.
febris : quartana, quartan ague^ luv.
feriae : Latinae, tJie Latin holidays.
fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c. C, L.
/ratres : gemini ; trigemini.
funis : cereus, a waxe7i torch.
hora : quarta, 10 o'clock ; octava, 2 dclock^ luv.
lapis : molaris, millstone^ Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fottrth
milestone^ Tac. &c.
liber : 'in T. Livii primo/ Quint. ; *in tertio de Oratore/ do. ; ^ ne
in pontificiis quidem nostris/ C. N. D. i. 30.
ludi : Circenses, luv.
manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra.
mare \ Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profundum, &c.
7iavis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C, L. ; Liburna,
Hon, &c.
nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, &c.
officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C, Plin.
ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in
the Roman theatre, Suet.
ovis : bidens.
partes : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the frst,
second, &c. parts in a drama, C, Hor. &c.
pecuniae-, repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero
usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis.
porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, &c., C, &c.
praedium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, &c., C.
res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c., C.
sella : curulis, Tac.
sol : occidens ; oriens.
spolia : opima, Sen. Tr.
telum : missile, L., Verg.
temptis : brevi ; horno, Plaut.
toga : praetexta, Hor. and later.
tribus : Q. Verres Romilia, C. &c.
usurae ; centesimae ; quincunces, besses, deunces, &c.
vas : aenum ; fictilCi Cat., Ov. &c.
Uses of the Adjective.
27s
ventus : Africus, lapyx. ^
verba : multa, plura, &c.
versus^ senarius.
via : Appia, Flaminia, Latina, &c.
vicibiis : alternis, Lucr., Verg.
vimun : Caecubum, Falernum, Massicum, Sabinum, Surren-
tina (vina), &c. Hor. &c.
Also menstruum (^frumenfum)^ L. ; nullas {epistulas), C. ; molaris
(dens), luv. ; Papia Poppaea {lex),T3.c. Dialia, Liberalia, &c. {festa).
2) By Substantives which depend on those omitted :
aedes or templum : ^ ad ApoUinis ; ' * ad Opis ; ' ^ ad lovis Sta-
toris ; ' ' ad Vestae ; ' * prope Cloacinae ' (aedem), C.j L. &c*
actor : 'Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum/ C. Brut.
69.
iter : ' castra aberant bidui,' C. Att, v. 16.
Jilius^ filia : ^ Faustus Sullae ; ' ' Caeciha Metelli ; ' * Hannibal
Gisgonis.'
uxor : Terenlia Ciceronis ; Apicata Seiani, Tac.
homines : 'pergere ad Treveros etexternaefidei/ Tac*
poculuni : 'da noctis mediae/ &c. Hor. C. iii. 19. \o%
servus : frequent in phrases : 'a manu' or ' ad manum/ amaim-
ensis : ' ab epistulis/ letter-writer ; ' a potione/ cup-bearer ;
' a bibliotheca/ librarian, &c.
3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject. See
§109, §126.
Object omitted : mittere (lijuitiuui) ; agere (vitam) ; obire {ijzo?'-
tem) ; merere {stipendia) ; movere {castra) ; ducere {exercitum) ;
appellere, conscendere (navejn, classein), and others.
Besides Pronoun Subjects, the Nom. homines is constantly
omitted in the phrases aiunt, tradunt, narrant, &d.
ix. Substantives are used with different kinds
of meaning (active or passive).
alumn-us -a (usually qui alituif ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela
[clieniship ; clients ; patronage) : gloria {glory ; boasting, vanity) :
hospes (host; guest) : fuga {flight ; exile) : invidia {envy ; odiuni) :
nuntius {inessenger ; news) : odium {hatred as feeling : hated ob-
ject) : opinio {opinion ; credit) : ruina {ruin suffered or inflicted) :
spes {hope as feeling ; as object) : tristitia {sadness ; gloom inspiring
sadness) : tutela {guardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded,
ward) : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster : qui vehitur, passejiger), &c.
Section III.
Uses of the Adjective. Uses^f
i. Adjectives used as Substantives. See § 15. b). %lttt
A) Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning.
I. Singular :
a) in arius, icus, anus, inus, &c., including Gentile words :
adversarius; consiharius ; librarius ; ostiarius: sicarius ; statuarius;
T z
2/6
Latin Wordlore. §63.
tabellarius; vicarius, &c. ; criticus, rusticus, vihcus, &c ; hortu-
lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; libertinus ; vicinus, &c. ; Romanus,
Sabinus; Atheniensis, &c. Also the terms for legionary soldiers ;
primanus, secundanus, &c.
U\ Words of Kinship and Relation :
amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; affinis ; agnatus, cognatus ; con-
sanguineus; contubernalis ; familiaris; gentilis ; maritus; necessa-
rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius.
c) Various;
aemulus ; conscius ; consularis ; luvenis ; insipiens ; fultus &c
Cicero has, * Meos partim inimicos partim invidos, p. Flanc.^
^ Nonnulli Aostri iniqui/ do. 23. ^Omnibus iniquissimis meis,
Verr, v. 69.
d) Participles : '
a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens.
/3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us (a) ;
spons-us (a).
e) Generally, ' ma7i' may be omitted when any epithet implying
it is used (Ellipsis) : ^ lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui, the ^
body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man, C. Div. 1. 30. Non de
improbo, sed de callido improbo quaerimus/ we are enqiaring ;
not about a knave, bnt abont a cunning knave, C. Fi7i. 11. 17. ' Ne-
He^ere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed
omnino dissoluti/ careless of what others think about him
indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipled, C. UJp. 1. 2i5.
11. Plural :
Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express men \
chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in
these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut* So^
boni, divites, inferiores, infimi, iuniores, magni, maiores, mmores, :
multi, mortales, nulli, optimi, omnes, pauci, plerique, posteri,
proximi, summi, tenues, urbani ; nostri, sui, &c. &c. ; adstantes, dis- ^
centes, legentes, spectantes, &c. ; docti, indocti, imperiti, mortui, &c. ,
Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some
property, classes in natural history: balantes = oves ; natantes =
pisces ; volantes = aves ; laniger = aries ; squamigeri = pisces.
Cicero has ' errantes ' for ' planetae.'
B) Neuter Adjectives and Participles :
I. Singular :
a) It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan-
tives in arium, torium, sorium, turn, sum, ale, lie, are, &c., were
originally Adjectival : as cibarium, deversorium, dictum, respon-
sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c.
b) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut.
Adjective into an Abstract Noun (70 kya^ov, to KciXor). Latin
authors, without this advantage, use a certain number of Neuter
Adjectives Singular in this way : such a*-e
§ 63. Uses of the Adjective. 277
a) Moral Abstracts :
aequum, bonum, commodum, decorum, falsum, honestum,
iustum, malum, nimium, pravum, rectum, ridiculum, utile,
verum, &c.
Physical Abstracts :
album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane,
pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquillum, vacuum, &c.
y) Ordinal Numerals :
primum, secundum, &c. extremum, medium, &c.
c) The most extensive Substantival use of Neuter Sing. Adjec-
tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phrases of an
adverbial character.
Among the most usual phrases of this kind are :
ex adverso ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex
imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; e5^
transverso ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : — in abdito ; in alto ; in
ambiguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ;
in incerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ;
in praecipiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ;
in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tur-
hido ; in tuto : — ab imo ad summum : — pro certo ; pro com-
perto ; pro indigno : — do alieno ; de cetero ; de communi ; de
medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; — in adversum ; in arduum ;
in artum ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in immensum ;
in incertum ; in maius ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in
praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum :
and the temporal phrases, in aeternum; in futurum ; in longum ;
in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : — ad certum,
ad constitutum, ad immensum ; adliquidum ; ad irritum, ad vanum ;
ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum,
ad (in) multum diei, ad ultimum.^
II. Plural :
Neuter Plural Adjectives are freely used in Latin as Abstract
Nouns, signifying ' things.^
bona, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c. &c. ; multa, plu-
rima, omnia, &c. ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc.
Some in local sense :
avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta ;
aperta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, &c. &c. : often with a de-
scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia
montium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c.
^ Draeger cites other instances :
Ex : abdito, alto, affluenti, antique, aperto, arido, communi, composite, conducto et
locate, diverse, facili, patenti, praeparate, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &c.
In (Abl.) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedite, extreme, facili,,
difficili, levi, occulto, pacato, private, profane, promiscuo, summe, &c.
In (Accus.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, centrarium, publicum, sublime,
uuum, &c.
278
Latin Wordlore.
§63.
ii. Adjectives used adverbially.^
(1) ' Senatus frequens convenit/ the senate met in force ^ C. So
^invitus (or libens) veni ^imprudens (or sciens) feci/ &c.
Especially Adjectives of time^ order, &c. : serus, citus, matutinus,
nocturnus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimus,
postremus, supremus, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, &c.
^ Lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat,' the wolf prowls about
the flocks at ni^ht, Verg. G. iii. 538. ^ Sulla multus aderat,' Sulla
shewed himself much, Sail. lug, 9. 'Philotimus nullus venit,'
Philotimus caine not at all, C. Fam. xi. 22.
(2) Virgil has ^ tarda volventia plaustra ' (for tarde), ^ sublimem
expulsum ^ (for sublime), * inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ;
and similar examples abound in poetry.
iii. Partitive Attributes,
Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos-
tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to
designate one part of that to which they are attributed.
* Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur,' at break of
day the top of the mountain was occupied by Labienus, Caes. B. G.
i. 22. ^Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa-
ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit,' Gnaeus
Pompeius prepared a mighty war at the close of winter, comme^iced
it at the beginning of spring, completed it in tkc piiddle of summer,
Q,p, L, Man, 12. See M. Lucr, iii. 250.
iv. Proleptic Attributes.
An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not
existing yet, but about to result from the action contained in the
sentence : * Ingentes toUent animos' (i.e. ut ingentes fiant), Virg.
G, iii. 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry.
V. Multiplication of Attributes,
1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes
to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless
one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea :
^Propter Ennam est spelunca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos
dies anniversarios agunt,' close to Enna is a certain cavern,
where the people of Syracuse hold annual holidays, C. Verr, iv. 52.
^Columna aurea solida sacrata est,' a pillar of solid gold was
dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. ' Verri apud Mamertinos privata navis
oneraria maxima publice est aedificata,' a private yacht of very
heavy tonnage was built for Verres in the Mamertine city at public
cost, C. Verr. iv. 52. Here ^festos dies,' ^ columna aurea,' 'navis
oneraria maxima,' severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucn v.
13 : ' Divina antiqua reperta;' and iv. 394^ *suo corpore claro.'
2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive,
when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive :
* Auribus indicantur vocis genera permulta, candidum, fuscum,
lene, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene,' C. N, D, ii.
Or when intervening Conjunctions are supposed, not expressed :
§63
Uses of the Adjective.
275
^ Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum
rationis et consili, quern vocamus Hominem/ C. Leg. i. 7. ' Mon-
strum horrendum informe ingens/ Verg. Aen, iii. 658.
VI. Possessive Attributes.
The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely,
instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origin, Possession, &c. :
Anacreon Teius, Anacreon of Teos ; Hercules Xenophonteus,
Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis filius, my master^s son ; fraternus
sanguis, a brother's blood ; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage ; bellum
sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, the faults of others ^ &c.
vii. Idioms of the Superlative.
For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the
Syntax of the Ablative.
1) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates
any very high degree, though not the highest : ^ Ego sum mise-
rior quam tu quae es miserrima,' I am more wretched than yoUy
who are very wretched^ C. Fam. xiv. 3,
2) The force of the Superlative is increased by
a) The Adverbs longe, multo, quam, vel : ^Ex Britannis
omnibus longe humanissimi sunt, qui Cantium inco-
lunt,' of all the Britons^ the most civilised by far are
those who inhabit Kent^ Caes. B. G. v. 14. 'Alcibiades
fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,' Alci-^
blades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep.
Ale. I. ^Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostendit
quam brevissime/ definition shews as briefly as may be,
what it is that is trecited of C. Or. 33. Hence, quam
primum {as soon as possible) \ ^ Huic mandat, ut quam
primum ad se revertatur,' this man he directs to return
to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21. ^ In
fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt,' in lute-
playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest
errors, C. Off. i. 41.
The elliptical expressions, tam quam qui, tantum
quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum, cum:
*Tam sum mitis quam qui lenissimus,' / am as mild
as the very gentlest, C. p. Sull. 31. * Commendation!
meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum,' assign
to my recommendation the greatest weight you would to
any, C. Fam. xiii. 22. * Grata ea res, ut quae maxime
senatui unquam, fuit,' that circumstance pleased the senate
as much as atty thing had ever pleased the^n, L. v. 25.
^Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is
thronged to its very utinost^ C. Qu. F. ii. 6.
c) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum : Aves quam
possunt mollissime nidos substernunt, ut quam
28o
Latin Wordlore.
§63.
facillime ova serventur,' birds line their nests as softly
as they can, that the eggs 7nay be preserved with the
greatest ease, C. N. D. ii. 52. * Hannibal quantam maxi-
ma m potest vastitatem ostendit/ Hannibal exhibits tJie
ut7nost desolation in his power y L. xxii. 3. Utpotuib re-
vis si me dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could.
On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 153.
3) The Pronoun quisque {each), attached to the Superlative,
imparts a universal notion: ^ Epicureos doctissimus quisque
contemnit,' all the most learned men despise the Epicureans, C. T.D,
i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force ;
'Maximae cuique fortunae minime credendum est,' all the
greatest fortunes are least to be trusted^ L. xxx. 30.
(i) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, it a following
with another: 'Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi-
me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari,' this is
a special duty, according as men most need assistance^ so
by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other words,
Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est.
b) Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : *Quo
quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira-
cundius et \2^\iOx\o%\\x'^^ the greater a man's skill and
ge7iius, the more fervour and pains he throws into his
teaching, C. p. Q. Rose. 11.
c) Quisque also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque,
decimus quisque, &c. : 'Quinto quoque anno Siciha
tota censetur,' a census of all Sicily is taken every fifth
year, C. Vcrr. ii. 56.
viii. Other Intensive Phrases.
1) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mi rum quan-
tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c. (surprisi7igly,
exceedingly, &c.) : Md mirum quantum profuit ad concordiam
civitatis,' this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the
citizens, L. ii. i. 'Vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane
quantum discrepat,^ ^^/w^^/^ the lamp-lit carouse and the Median
scimitar y vast is the difference, Hor. C. i. 27. 5.
2) Praecipue, sumnie, valde, vementer, admodum, apprime, in-
primis, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfect e,
and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec-
tive or Adverb: 'Praecipue sanus,' eminently healthy, Hor.
f luvenis admodum,' quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and Quam.)
3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense,
like that given by the adverb nimis : ' At ne Ion gum fiat videte,'
mind it be not too long (i.e. tedious), C. Leg. ii. 10. ' Nihil arduum
fatis,' nothing is too hard for destiny ^ Tac. H, ii. 82.
§64.
Xfses of l^ronoims.
281
ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas-
sive and Active sense. Such are
ambiguus (doubted ; doubtmg) ; angustus {narrow ; 7iarrowing)\
anxius {disturbed; disturbing)-, caecus {dark ; blind) \ credulus,
incredulus ; docilis ; dubius ; flebilis : formidolosus ; gnarus, ig-
narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno-
cuus, innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus,
ignotus ; odiosus ; operosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ;
surdus ; suspiciosus ; tristis, and others. See these in Dictionary.
1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Pro-
tised by a single person speaking of himself. ^Norisnos: docti "^""^
swx^yys^ you should know nie^ I am a man of learnings Hor. 6^. i. 9. 7.
See p. 272 Obs,
2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad,
apud, ab, to signify ^ house ^ * abode * Septimo Idus veni ad
me in Sinuessanum/ on the yth of the Ides I caine to my villa at
Sinuessa, C. Att. xvi. 10. * Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio//
hear that Scaurus is at his country seat, C. de Or. i. 49. ^ Quisnam
a nobis egreditur foras ? ' who is coming out of our house? Ter.
Haul. iii. 2. 50.
3) Pronouns of i stand 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an
Apposite Noun; * Hannibal peto pacem/ /, Hannibal, sue for
peace, L. xxx. 30. ^Omnes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all
we conservatives ever regard noble birth with favour, C. p. Sest. 9.
*Soli Tusqulani vera arma invenistis/ only you men of Tus-
culum have discovered genuine warfare, L. vi. 26.
4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly ; thus, for ^ I see
my father^ the Latin is ■ Patrem video,' omitting the Possessive
unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : ' Quid vos uxor mea
violarat?' what wrong had my wife done you? C. p, Dom, 25.
Yet the Possessive is sometimes introduced without obvious
necessity : ^ Cum ita animum induxti tuum,' as you have prevailed
on yourself, Ter. An. i. 2. 12. Pleonasm of other Pronouns occurs
in poetry : ' Nec dulcis amores sperne puer, neque tu choreas,'
despise in boyhood neither sweet loves nor yet dances, Hor. C. i. 9.
15. 'Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat,' thus he used to
carry his eyes, his hands, his countenance, V. Ae. iii. 490. For the
pleonastic use of ille by Virgil in comparisons see Ae, x. 707, xi.
809, xii» 5, and notes there.
5) The Possessive Pronouns are used by poets in the sense
propitious : 'Sedmihi tamfacilis unde meosque deos?' but whence
can I obtain gods so easy and propitious ? Ov. Her. xii. 84. 'Ventis
iturus non suis,' about to sail with unp7'opitious winds, Hor. Epod*.
ix. 30. * Haud numine nostro,' V. Ae. \\. 396.
Section IV.
Uses of Pronouns.
i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns.
64
Personal
and Pos-
sessive
282 Latin Wordlore, § 65.
6) On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Personal, see
Syntax of Genitive. Thus, ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio
id fecit tuo,' this he did neither fro7n disregard nor from hatred
of you, Ter. Ph, v. 9.
ii. Demonstrative Pronouns.
Of Demonstrative Pronouns, hie refers to what is near to the
speaker's person, place, time, habits, &c. : ill e to what is remote
from these : iste to what is in near relation to those addressed.
Hie. i) ^Haec quae videtur esse accusatio mea,' this which seems ta
be my prosecution^ C. in Q. Caec, 2. * His me is litteris,' by this
letter of mine, C. Fam. i. 3. ■ Huic homini^ ( = mihi), Plant, Epid^
i. 2. 38. * Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' my neighbour Chrysis
here died, Ter. An. i. i. 78. * Hoc a te peto, ut subvenias huic
meae sollicitudini ethnic meae laudi studium dices,' what I ask
of you is to relieve my anxiety and study to support 7ny honour in
this 7natter, C. Fam. ii. 6. * His duobus mensibus,' within the last
two months^ C. Fam. vii. i. 'Hie dies/ to-day, Licentia haec/
this modern licence, L. xxv. 40.
Ille. 2) ^Si ill OS, Labiene, quos iamvidere non possumus, neglegis,
ne his quidem, quos vides, consuli putas oportere 1^ if you disre-
ga7'd those, Labienus, whom we can see no longer, do you think 7ia
care should be taken even for these, whom yau do see ? C. p. Rab. 1 1.
^ Q. Catulus non antiquo illo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit eruditus/
Qimitus Catulus was learned not in that ancient 7nanner, but in
this later one of our ow7t, C. Brtit. 35,
a) Ille may refer to what was ere while, or what will be here-
after (hence its locative olim has both meanings) : * 1 11am
veterem iudiciorum vim/ C. ^ Sapiens non pendet ex
futuris, sed exspectat ilia, fruitur praesentibus,' a wise
man hangs not on future things, but looks for them,
while he enjoys the present, C. Fitt. i. 19.
b) When special stress is laid on a proposition or fact, it is
introduced by illud: *Illud animorum corporumque
dissimile, quod animi valentes morbo temptarinon possunt,
/ corpora possunt,' there is this striking difference between
minds and bodies, that healthy 7ninds cannot be assailed
by disease, bodies can, C. T. D. iv. 14.
Ille is used to express fame or dignity : ^ Medea ilia,' the
celebrated Medea, C. p. Z. Man^ 9. 'Veneramini ilium
lovem, custodem huius urbis,' adore that great Jupiter,
guardian of this city, C. Cat. ii. 12. So with an attribute :
* An censes omnium rerumpublicarum nostram veterem
illam fuisse optimam '^. ' do you think that of all common^
wealths that old one of ours was the best? C. Leg. ii. 10.
Or with other pronouns : Mnstat hie nunc ille annus
egregius,' there is coming on now this fine, fa7nous year,
C. Att. i. iS. Mile ego liber, ille ferox, tacui/ /, tha^
free, that haughty one, was 7nute, Ov, Met» i, 757.
65
Demon-
stritive
Pro-
nouns.
§65-
Uses of Pronouns
283
d) Ille, the other (of two named) : ^ Themistocles domino navis
qui sit apcrit : at ille procul ab insula navem tenuit in
ancoris/ Themistocles disclosed to the ship's captain who
he was: whereupon the other kept the vessel at anchor
some way from the island^ Nep. The77t. 8. I Hi, the other
side, the other party : ' Illorum qui disserxtiunt/ C. p, L.
Man, 23.
3) When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either Hic
what is last mentioned, or what is nearer to the speaker's mind :
ille, either what is first mentioned, or what is farther from the *
speaker's mind : * Idem et docenti et discenti propositum esse
debet, ut ille prodesse veht, hic proficere/ the teacher and learner
ought to have the same object ; the former should desire to confer
advantage, the latter to obtain it, Sen. Ep. 108. * Scitum est illud
Catonis, melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos mereri quam eos
amicos qui dulces videantur : illos saepe verum dicere, hos num-
quam,' it is a shrewd saying of Cat 0, that keen-tongued enemies de-
serve better of some men, than those friends who seem sweet-spoken :
the former often tell the truth, the latter never, C. Lael. 24. ^ Me-
lior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haec in tua, ilia in deorum
manu est,' better is sure peace than hoped-for victory ; the one is in
your own power, the other in thej)ower of the gods ^ L. xxx. 30.
The two Pronouns are also used for distribution : hoc et illud,
this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that 7nan, C. p.
Rose. A. 21.
4) Iste has the same relation to tu(vos) that hic has to ego Iste.
(nos). * Quae est ista praetura?' what sof^t of proctorship is
that of yours ? C. Verr, ii. 2. 18. ^De istis rebus exspecto tuas
litteras,' / await a letter from you about affairs in your parts, C.
Att, ii. 5. 'Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefacta sunt,' as soon
as you arrived those benches (next you) were cleared, C. Cat. i. 7. In
Cicero's speeches iste often means *the defendant,' or the person
attacked.
Contempt is not contained in the meaning of the Pronoun iste,
but it is implied somictimes, inasmuch as the speaker seems to repel
what he names from himself to some one else. ^ Quid sibi isti
miseri volunt "^. ' what do those wretches wa7tt ? C. ' Errare malo
cum Platone quam cum istis vera sentire,' I had rather be wrong
with Plato than hold true doctrine with that crew, C. T. D. i. 1 7.
5) Is, the unemphatic Determinative Pronoun, is used
a) In reference to a Noun before mentioned : ' Veientes
regem creavere. Offendit ea res populorum Etruriae
animos, odio ipsius regis. Gravis iam is antea genti
fuerat,' the people of Veii elected a king: that act dis-
pleased the population of Etruria, from their hatred of
the king himself : {for) he had already been oppressive to
the nation at a for7ner time, L. v. i. * Maximum orna-
mentum amicitiae toUit qui ex ea tollit verecundiam,' he
takes away the chief grace of frie7idship, who takes fro77i it
respectfid7iess, C. Lad. 22.
284 Latin Wordlore, § 65.
Its oblique cases are often left to be understood : ^ Eadem
secreto ex aliis quaerit; reperit esse vera/ he asks the
saiJie questio7is privately of otliers^ and finds all trice, Caes.
B, G. i. 18.
/3) In correlation to a Relative, which it usually precedes, but
often, for the sake of emphasis, follows : Is qui hoc fecit,
he who did this. * Magna sunt ea quae sunt optimis
proxima,' great are those things which are 7iext to the best,
C. Or, 2. * Bestiae, in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se
non conimovent,' beasts do not move from the place they
ivere born in, C. Fin, v. 15. It inay be omitted: *Qui
e nuce nucleum esse vult, frangit nucem,' he who wishes
to eat the kernel out of the walnut, breaks the walnut.
Plant. Cure. i. i. 55. * Semper in proeho maximum est
periculum qui maxime timent,' ever in battle their peril is
7nost whose fear is greatest. Sail. Cat. 58. ' Quidquid
non licet, nefas putare debemus,' whatever is unlawful w^
ought to think impious, C, Par. 3.
y) In the sense of ^ one of a kiftd,^ ^ such : ' in which sense it
may relate to any person, and be followed by qui with
Indie, or (more usually) Subjunctive, or by ut with Subj. ;
' Atque haec omnia is feci, qui sodalis et familiarissimus
Dolabellae eram,' a^id I who did all this, was one, who
stood i7i the 77iost i7iti7}iate ajid familiar relations to Dola-
bella, C. Fa77i. xii. 14. * Nequeenim tu is es qui quid sis
n^scidiS,^ for you are not the 7na7i to be ig7wra7itofyour own
powers, C. Fa77i. v. 12. * Matris est ea stultitia, ut earn
nemo hominem, ea vis, ut nemo feminam, ea crudelitas,
ut nemo niatrem appellare possit,' such is that 7nother's
folly that none ca7i call her a hu7na7i bei7ig ; such her vior
le7ice that no7ie can ter77i her a wo7nan ; such her cruelty
that 7t07ie ca7i speak of her as a 77iother, C. p. Clu. 70.
Obs. In such sentenqes as, * The features of the 77tind are fairer^
tha7i those of the body,^ where the Demonstrative {those) is used in
English, the Latin idiom omits it : as ■ Animi lineamenta pulchriora
sunt quam corporis,' C. Fi7i. iii. 22. The use of an e7nphatic pro-
noun (hie or ille) is no real exception to this rule : * Nullam virtus,
aliam mercedem laborum periculorumque desiderat, praeter banc
laudis et gloriae,^ virtue wa7its no other reward of its perils a7id
toils, but this of praise and glory, C. p. Arch. \\. So, 'Those
dwelling at Rome ' is in Latin not, Ei Romae habitantes ; but either-
Romae habitantes, or ^^i qui Romae habitant.
Idem. 6) The Definitive Pronoun idem (is-dem), ' the same ^ is often
aptly rendered 'also ' Quidquid honestum, idem est utile,' what-
ever is morally right is also adva7.itageous, C. Off. ii, 3. ' Non
omnes, qui Attice, eidem bene ; sed omnes, qui bene, eidemetiam
Attice loquuntur,' not all who speak in the Attic fnanner also speak
well; but all who speak well speak also in the Attic manner^ C.
Brut. 84.
Sometimes it implies a contrast but yet') : 'Inventi multi sunt,,
qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, eidem gloriae iac-
turam ne minimam quidem facere vellent/ ma7iy have been foutid
§66.
Uses of Pronotms.
285
who were prepared to yield up life for their counfrv, yet wotild not
choose to make the smallest sacrifice of glory ^ C. Off. i. 24.
It is placed, like ipse, in apposition to other Pronouns: 'Tu
idem dixisti/ also said, C, p. L, Man, 17. So haeceadem, qui
idem, &c.
Note I. Et is, isque, atque is, et is quidem, et hie quidem,
et idem, idemque, atque idem {and that too), nec is {and that
too not), &c., are used to lay stress on some quality of a word
before mentioned: * Homo habet memoriam, et eam infinitam
rerum innumerabilium,' man has memory, and an infinite one too, of
countless things, C. T, D, i. 24. ' Apollonium cognovi optimis
studiis deditum id que a puero,' / have known Apollonitis to be
devoted to sound learning, and that from boyhood, C. Fam, xiii. 16.
Note 2. The Adverb quidem is elegantly joined to Personal
and Demonstrative Pronouns, especially to ille, when a concession
is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (sed) ;
answering to the EngHsh ^certainly . . . but'.'' 'Ignosco equi-
dem (ego quidem) tibi, sed tu quoque velim mihi ignoscas,^ / par-
don you certainly, but I would have you too pardon me, C. Q. Fr.
iii. I, 5. ' Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere
moderandus,' yours is a grief natural to man, I adinit, but cne
which should be considerably modified, C. Att. xii. 10. ^ Ludo et
ioco uti illo quidem licet, sed tum, cum seriis rebus satisfeceris/
you 7nay indulge in sport and ainusement, I grant, bid not till you
have fulfilled serious engagements, C. Off i. 29. The adversative
rclause is omitted in C. Off ii. 6 : ^Quae sordidissima est ilia qui-
dem ratio,' &c., a principle which Is, I admit, of the 7neanest kind.
See § 64 (4).
Note 3. Redundance of Demonstrative Pronouns occurs : ^ Par-
menides, Xenophanes minus bonis quamquam versibus sed tamen.
illis versibus increpant QOx\xTCi2iXxo^d.Xi\\^m^ Parmenides andXeno--
phanes reprove their arrogance in verses, which, though not very
good, are verses nevertheless, C. Ac. ii. 23. Msta animi tranquil-
litas ea ipsa est beata vita,' that tranquillity of mind is itself hap*'
piness, C. Fin. v. 8.
This peculiar redundance is especially remarkable in Relative
clauses : ^ Plato Titanum e genere statuit eos, qui,ut illi caelestibus,
sic hi adversentur magistratibus,' Plato assigns to the Titan race
those mejt who oppose magistrates, as the Titans opposed the gods,
C. Leg. iii. 2. ^ Est istius furor repellendus qui quae maiores volu-
erunt, ea iste labefactavit,' we should put away fro7n us his mad-
ness, who has shaken those ijistitutioTis, which our ancestors thought
proper to establish, C. p. Do7n. 42.
66
iii. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus. TheR
flexive
Personal and Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Per- ^^o-
sons may be used reflexively : that is, they may be referred to a "e^" uu
Subject of their own Person. But se and suus differ from the rest,
inasmuch as they cannot be used unless there be a Noun of their
own (the Third) Person, expressed or understood, to which they are
referred. Although we can say, am at me, he loves me ; amat te,
he loves thee] we cannot say, amo se, amas se, but amo eum, I love
2S6
Latin Wordlore.
§66,
him ; amas eum,you love him ; not culpo suum factum, but culpo
ei us factum, / blame his deed.
The general rules for the use of se, suus are these : —
1) First : they may be referred to a Subject Nominative of the
Third Person in their own Clause. ' Fur telo s e defendit/ the thief
defe7ids himself with a weapon^ Q. p. Mil, 2>' 'Atticus incitabat
omnis studio suo/ At tic us inspired all with his own zeal^ Nep.
Alt. I, * Sentit animus se vi sua moveri/ the soul feels that it is
inoved by its own force ^ C. T, D. i. 23. The Pronoun quisque is
a frequent Subject of se, suus : * Ipse se quisque diligit, quod per
se sibi quisque carus est,* everyone loves hi7nself because every-
one by the law of his own nature is precious to himself C. LacL
21.
2) Secondly : they may be referred to an Object (which usually
precedes) when this reference causes no ambiguity. * Scipionem
impellit ostentatio sui,' ostentation of self sways Scipio, Caes. B.
Ci. 4. 'Caesaremsua natura mitiorem facit,* Caesar's own cha-
racter makes him milder^ C. Fam. vi. 13. * Ei nunc alia ducendast
domum, sua cognata,' he has now to marry another ^ his own kins-
womafiy Plant. Cist. i. i. * Multa sunt civibus inter se com-
niunia,* many things are common to fellow-citizens^ C. Off. i. 17.
* Scipio suas res Syracusanis restituit,' Scipio restored to the
Syracusans their property, L. xxix. i. ^Apibus fructum restituo
suum,' I restore to the bees their produce, Phaed. iii. 13.
3) Thirdly, they may be referred to an Indefinite Object Case
(alicui, aliquem) understood : ^ Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed
etiam aHorum,' 7nen niust take account not of themselves alofie, but
also of others. Especially in conjunction with an Infinitive : * De-
forme est de s e ipsum praedicare,' it is tmsee^nly to vaunt of one-
self C. Off. i. 38. 'Bellum est sua vitia nosse,' it is a fi7ie thing to
know one^s own faults, C. Att. ii. 17.^
' The principles stated above hold good when se, sutis, occur in Participial, Gerundial
and other dependence. *Multa mea in se collata, etiam sua in me proferebat officia,'
he brought forward many services done by me to him, and also those done by himself to
7ne, C. /. Sull. 6, 'Constituit igitur ut ludi, absente se, fierentsuo nomine,'
therefore arranged that in his absence the games should be held in his name, C. A tt.
XV. II. *Tanto gratior populo fuit quanto doctior maioribus suis,' he was more popular
in proJ>ortio7t as he was more learned than his ancestors, lust. xvii. 3. * Si nulla
caritas erit quae faciat amicitiam ipsam sua sponte, vi sua, ex se et propter
se expetendam,* if there is no love to rnake friendship desirable on the first offer, by its
own force, from itself , and for itself, C. Fin. ii. 26. ' Itaque redimendi se captivis
copiam i^zox^' accordingly they gave the prisoners the opportunity of ransoming them-
selves, L. xxii. 58. * M ithri datem Tigranes excepit diffidentemque rebus suis con-
firmavit,' Tigranes received and encouraged Mithridates, who was despairing of his
own resources, C. L. Man. 9. From such bold constructions as those of the three
latter examples, in which the Reflexive is referred to the Object Case by virtue of an
intervening Verb Infinite (expetendam, redimendi, diffidentem), has arisen one yet
bolder, in which the Preposition cum is equivalent to a Relative Clause : 'Dicaear-
chum cum Aristoxeno, aequali et condiscipulo suo, omittamus,* let us pass over
Dicaearchus, and Aristoxeims his contejnporary and fellow-pupil, C. T. D. i. 18, where
cum &c. =quocum coniungimus Aristoxenum . . suum. A similar idiom is extended to
places where the Preposition in (more rarely ad, ab, intra) follows such Verbs as remittere,
retinere, reverti, lubere, cogere, removere, &c. the formula of command being adopted by
the writer from the speaker's mouth. Thus, *Caesar Fabium cum legione sua remittit
in hiberna,' Caesar sends back Fabius and his legion to their winter encampjnent, Caes.
B. G. V. 53, is equivalent to * Caesar imperat, Fabius eum legione sua in hiberna rever-
§67.
Uses of Pronouns,
a) The Cases of is (sometimes those of ipse) are used when
se, suus, would be wrong : ^ Chilius te rogat, ct ego eius
rogatu/ Chilius asks you, and I at his reqicest, C. Att, i. 9.
< Aranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse
factum/ news came to Quinctius while ploughing, that he
was appointed dictator, C. Cat, M. 16.
h) The Reflexive when referred to the Pronoun q u i s q u e (either
Subject or Object) generally stands immediately before
it : ' Mors sua quemque manet/ his death awaits every
man, *Suus quoique mos/ every one has his own
fashion,TeY. Ph. ii. 4. But sometimes after it : ^Quisque
suos patimur Manis/ Verg. Ae7t. vi. 743. So, *Ut quis-
que sibi maxime confidit/ C. Lael. 9.
c) The use of the Adjectival phrase suusquisque (though not
noticed in Madvig's grammar) is explained and illustrated
by him on C. Fi?i. v. 17 : *Quia cuiusque partis naturae et
in corpore et in animo suaquaequevis sit,' because eveyy
part of nature both in body and soul has its own particular
power. So ^suo quoque anno' on an Inscription. See
M. Lucr. ii. 372.
d) The Plural Masculine sui is used for amici, familiares or
milites so idiomatically, that it sometimes appears to
transgress the laws of Pronominal reference : * Is annus
Crassi omnem spem atque omnia vitae consilia morte
pervertit ; fuit hoc luctuosum suis,' that year overthrew
by death all the hope and all the life-plans of Crassus : it
was an event full of sorrow to his friends, C. d. Or. iii. 2.
* lam perventum ad suos est ' ( = iam pervenerant ad suos),
L. xxxiii. 4.
On these Pronouns in Dependent Clauses see § 231 — 236.
iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse.
i) This is of any person, and strengthens any Noun-term,
especially a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun, with which it
is placed in attributive apposition: ^Ipse Pater dextra molitur
fulmina,' the Sire himself wields the lightnings with his right hand,
tantur.' So: * Carthaginienses M a g o n e m c u m classe sua copiisque in Italiam mit-
tunt,' the Carthaginians send Mago with his Jleet and forces into Italy, L. xxiii. 32.
*Corbulo, ut Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, exscindere parat castella,'
Corbnlo, in order to compel the Armenians to defend their possessions, prepares to de-
stroy their forts, Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, where Corbulo may be supposed to say, * Armenios
ad sua defendenda cogam.' In such instances, if the Subject of the sentence is of the
Third Person, the word or words to which the Reflexive suus is referred will be found
immediately before the Reflexive. If the Subject is not of the Third Person, or if re-
ference to it would be absurd, this is unnecessary. * In sua terra cogam pugnare eum,'
/ will compel him to fight in his ozvn land, L. xxviii. 44. ' Suis flammis delete Fi de-
Ti2iS,,' destroy Fidenae with its own flames, L. iv. 33. ' Desinant insidiari domi suae
consuli,' they shonld cease to lay snares for the consul at his own hotise, C. Cat. i. 13.
In constructions, however, like some of those cited in this note, it is optional to use the
Demonstr. instead of the Refl. ; and the following passages (cited by Madvig, Gr. § 490)
shew that ancient writers often did so: * Omitto Isocratem discipulosque eius
Ephorum et Naucratem,' C. Or. 51. *Pisonem nostrum merito eius amo plurimum,'
C. Fam. xiv. 2. 'Deum agnoscis ex operibus eius,* C. T. D. i. 28.
67
Ipse.
288
Latin Wordlorc.
67..
Verg. 6^.1.329. * Tarde nosmet ipsos cognoscimus/ we gain
knowledge of ourselves slowly^ C. Fin. v. 15. ^ Ego ipse cum
eodem ipso non invitus erraverim/ / ?nyself would be wrong with-
out reluctance in that very saine 7nan^s company, C. T, D. i. 1 7.
2) Ipse implies that the notion, which it thus accentuates, is op-
posed to some other, expressed or understood. Cicero writes,
^ Nemo est qui ipse se oderit/ there is no ojiewho hates himself, C.
Fin. V. to. If he had written Nemo est qui se ipsum oderit, the
EngUsh would still be, there is no one who hates himself Yet there
is a difference between the two Latin sentences, for, in the former,
ipse indicates the following contrast, ^utcumque alii eum oderint,'
however others 7nay hate him ; in the latter the following : 'utcumque
alios oderit,' however he may hate others. So, ' Non egeo medicina :
me ipse consolor,' / want no medicine, I comfort inyself C. p.
Cael. 3, where ipse with the subject implies, ' I and no other,' but
me ipsum consolor ' would mean ' I comfort myself but nobody
else/
1) The Pronoun, which ipse emphasises, may be understood :
'Quaeram ex ipsa,' I will inquire of herself ( = ex ea ipsa), Q. p.
Cael. 14.
2) When ipse strengthens the Subject, and a Reflexive Pronoun is
Object, that Pronoun usually stands before ipse: ^Artaxerxes se ipse
reprehendit,' Artaxerxes bla^ned hi77iself Nep. Dat. 5. ' Artes se
ipsae per se tuentur singulae,' the several arts maintain themselves
on their own grou7ids, C. de Or. ii. 2. But after qui, qui dam, &c.,
or for stronger emphasis, ipse may precede the Pronoun Object :
*Non sunt composita mea verba: ipsa se virtus satis ostendit,'
mi7ie is fio set speech : virtue of itself is co7ispicuous enough, Sail.
hicr, 85. ^ Qui ipse sibi sapiens prodesse non quit, nequiquam
sapit,' the wise 7na7i who carmot be7iefit hi77iself is wise i7t vain, C.
Fa77i. V. 6.
3) Ipse strengthens the Object usually, when something in the
context is opposed to that Object. Thus, in the phrase killed him-
self, though ipse generally stands with the Subject lulius Prisons
se ipse interfecit,' Tac. H. iv. 11), yet it may sometimes distinguish
the Object : ' Pompeianus miles fratrem suum, dein cognito faci-
nore s e ipsum interfecit,' a soldier of Pompeius slew his brother,
a7id then, discovering his C7'ime, killed himself, Tac. H. iii. 51.
Cicero writes, ' Sunt qui dicant, foedus quoddam esse sapientum
iie minus ami cos quam se ipsos dihgant,' some say there is a
kifid of cove7ta7it a7no7ig the wise to love their friends not less tha7i
the7nselves, Fin. i. 20. Yet it is a peculiarity of his to connect ipse
with the Subject, and so heighten its force, even when the opposi-
tion lies between the Pronoun and something else : Mste sic erat
humilis atque demissus, ut non modo populo Romano, sed
etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur,' the m-a7i was so lowly
a7id downcast, that not only to the Roman people but even to him-
self he seemed already condemned, C. Verr. Act. i. 6. ^ Non ita
abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, cum ipse me non possim,' I have
710 1 such excess of ability as to co7nfort you when I cannot comfort
7nyself C. Fa7n. iv. 8.
§68.
Uses of Pronouns,
289
4) Ipse is also used
d) For ultro, of one's own accord : ' Ipsae lacte domum re-
ferent distenta capellae ubera/ the she-goats of their own
accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders^ Verg.
B, iv. 21.
b) To define time exactly : *Cum Athenis decern ipsos dies
fuissem,' when I had been at Athens exactly ten days, C.
Fam, ii. 8. So, 'nunc ipsum/ at this very moment, C.
Att, xii. 16. ' Tunc ipsum/ that exact time, G. de Fin.
ii. 20. On the other hand ahquis is used to state time
inexactly: 'Aliquos viginti dies/ some twenty days^
Plaut. Men, v. 5. 47.
c) To express the chief person : ' Pythagorei respondere sble-
bant, Ipse dixit/ the Pythagoreans used to reply, He
himself said so (i.e. Pythagoras), C. N. D. i. 5. Hence
slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa :
and Catullus uses ipsa for era : 'Suamque norat Ipsam
tam bene quam catella matrem,' aftd knew its mistress as
well as a kitten knows its mother, iii. 6.
V. The Indefinite Pronouns.
68
i) The Indefinite Pronouns, quis, qui,^ being Efichtie, canndt inde-
begin a sentence. They Usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne, ^^'^
an, num, ut, &c.) or a Relative. 'Si qUis est sensus in morte,' niuns.
if there is any feeling in death, Qi Phil, ixi 6. 'Si qui etiam
inferis sensus est,' tf even the shades below have any feelings C. Quis,
Fam. iv. 5. ' Oppida coeperunt munire et ponere leges, ne quis Q"^-
fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter,' they began to build towns
and establish laws, that none should be a thief or bandit or adulterer,
Hor. S. i. 3. 105. So numquis, ecquis, &Ci The Particles are
similarly combined^ siqua, siquando, sicubi, necubi, ecquando, &c.
a) Quis Iridef. is often connected with a case of its own : *Si
mala condiderit in quem quis carmina, ius esit,' if 07ie
man has composed libellous verses on another, there is a
remedy at law^ Hor. S. ii. i. 82. Or with Indef. Particle :
*si quando quis faceret/ &c.^ L/
^ It has been stated (p. 140) that the Interrogative and Indefinite forms quis, quid, are
subslantival, qui, quod, adjectival ; and the truth of this assertion is shown by the two
facts, that quis in old Latin is of both genders, and that quid and quod always retained
their distinct cha:raGters as Substantive and Adjective. But it is also true that quis
(quae) is often used adjectively, as quis campus, puer quis in Horace, sensus aliquls in
Cicero ; the reply to which is that Other Substantives are also used adjectivelyi as rex,
regina, incola, indigena, raptor, &c.
Another difficulty is the distinction of the Feminine Singular and Neuter Plural forms
qua, quae, of quis (qui) Indefinite. Some suppose that qua belongs to quis, quae
to qui ; but this is mere conjecture without proof. Both forms are used adjectively*
and both (less often) substantively ; but adjectives may beconie substantives, and occa-
sionally substantives take the place of adjectives. The question thus remains undecided.
Cicero writes : 'ecquae civitas? ecqua religio ? si quae pars ; si qua natio ; si quae prava
sint ; ne quadiscidia fiant ; aliqua significatio virtutis but not 'aliquae,' which occurs in
Lucretius. Upon the whole it may be stated that the form qua (Indef; S. and PI.) is
more usual than qu?^, but that quae is also classical.
U
290 Latin Wordlore, §68.
S) Si quis, si qui, stand for the Relative with a shade of un-
certainty : ^Errant si qui in bello omnis secundos rerum
proventus expectant/ they are wroiig who in war expect
all issues to be prosperous, Caes. B. G. vii. 29.
c) Quis and qui indefinite are sometimes used without a Par-
ticle, but only when the context expresses uncertainty :
^ Potest quis errare aliquando,' a person may err now a7id
then, C. Div, i. 32. * Etiam quis forsitan hostis haesura
in nostro tela gerit latere,^ a7id already perhaps some foe
carries darts that will fasten in my side, Tib. i. 10. 1 3. Here
forsitan favours the use of quis.
2) * Nescio quis, nescio qui (I know not who or what = ) some or
other, ^ are used as Indefinite Pronouns : ^Fortasse non ieiunum hoc
nescio quid quod ego gessi et contemnendum videbitur,' /^r/z^jZ^j*
this so7nething which I have done will see7n not ba?'ren and despic-
able, C. Fa7n. XV. 17. Particles correspond in use, nescio quo,
nescio quando, &:c.
Aliquis, 3) Aliquis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis,
aliqui. qui, and imply a person or thing assumed to exist somewhere.
They do not need a Particle : ' Semper aliqui anquirendi sunt quos
diligamus,' we must always seek so77ie persons to love, C. Lael. 27.
' Sensus morienti aliquis esse potest,' 07ie who is dying may have
so7ne sensation, C. Cat. M. 20. But they can follow a Particle :
'Si est aliqui sensus in morte,' if there is any ki7td of feeli7ig
Z7t death, C. p. Ses. 62. Aliquando, aliqua, alicubi, &c.^ correspond
in use to aliquis.
a) Occasionally aliquis signifies 'a person of importance:'
^Sese aliquem credens,' considering hi77is elf somebody (of
importance), Pers. i. 129.
b) Aliquis itself (with its particles) has always positive force :
but may stand in a Negative sentence or clause : ^Cum
scias . . . sceleri ac furori tuo non mentem aliqua m aut
timorem tuum, sed fortunam populi Romani obstitisse,'
knowi7ig as you do that your wicked madness was not
baulked by any 7'ight feeling or fear on your part, but by
the good fortune of the Roman people, C. in Cat. i. 6.
Draeger {Hist or. Synt. p. 23) exemplifies at great length the
use of this Pronoun and its Particles.
4) Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather
less than aliquis: 'Forsitan aliquis aliquando eiusmodi
quidpiam ^^z^x\\.^ percha7ice so77iebody or other at some ti7ne or other
viay have do7ie a thi7ig of the kind, C. Ve7'r. ii. 32. Quispiam
is used chiefly in positive sentences : quisquam chiefly in negative
and dubitative sentences : nonnullus only in a positive, ullus
only in a negative or dubitative construction. ' Dicat (dixerit)
quispiam,' so7ne one may say, C. ' Hereditas est pecunia, quae
morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit iure,' a7t inheritance is
money which by so7nebodys death has come to any one by right, C.
Top. 6. 'Zeuxis tabulas pinxit, quarum non nulla pars usque ad
Nescio
quis,
nescio
qui.
Quis-
piam,
quis-
quam,
&c.
§68.
Uses of Pronouns.
291
nostram memoriam mansit/ Zeuxis painted pictures, some of which
have reinaiiied to oitr time, C. Inv, ii. i. ' Nihil attinet quicquam
sequi, quod assequi non queas/ avails not to pursue anything
which you cannot attain, C. Off. i. 31. * Heu, cadit in quemquam
tantum scelus ? ' alas, occurs there to any one such great wickedness ^
Verg. B, ix. 17. 'Nihil est quod Deus efficere non possit, et qui-
dem sinelabore ullo/ there is nothing which God cannot effect,
and indeed without any toil, C. A^. D. iii. 39. * Indignor quic-
quam reprehendi non quia crasse compositum illepideve putetur^
sed quia nuper,' I am indignant that any work should be censured^
not because it is supposed to be of coarse or tasteless, but of modern^
composition, Hor. Ep. ii. i. 76. See M. Lucr. i. 1077.
Uspiam corresponds in use to quispiam ; usquam, umquam to
quisquam and ullus ; nusquam, numquam, to non quisquam, non
ullus. Nemo = non quisquam ; nullus = non ullus. Nemo quisquam
is used : also homo quisquam.
Rare instances occur of quispiam with negatives, of quisquani
in positive sense, and of qui, aliqui where ullus would be usual.
5) Quidam, a certain one,2j=> opposed to aliqui s, implies that the Quidam.
subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described : thus we q^ivis,
should say, ^ Quo dam tempore natus sum : aliquo moriar,^ I was
born at a certain time ; I shall die so7ne time or other. ^ Accurrit
quidam notus mihi nomine tantum,' a certain man runs up to 7ne,
whom I only knew by name, Hor. S. i. 9. 3. It is joined with epi-
thets, like the English word ' certain : ' 'Erat spinosa quaedam et
exihs oratio,' his was a certain prickly and lean style^C.d. Or.i.18.
It occasionally means ^some^ as opposed to ^ the whole'' ox ' others
'Nullis piscibus supra quaternas pinnae sunt, quibusdam
binae, aliquibus nullae,' no fishes have jnore than four fins^ some
two, a few no7ie at all, PI. N. H. ix. 20. Hence it is used to quahfy
an expression not meant to be taken strictly : 'In ideis Plato quid-
dam divinum esse dicebat,' Plato used to say that in ideas there
is something divine, C. Ac. i. 9^
Quidam also stands in contrast to qui vis, quilibet, any you will.
' Ut saltatori motus non quivis sed certus quidam est datus,
sic vita agenda est certo genere quo dam non quolibet/ as to a
dancer is assigned not any optional movement, but a certain de-
fiiiite 07te, so 7nust life be passed in a certain defi7iite way^ 7iot in any
we please, C. Brut. 50.
6) Quisque, quaeqiie, quicque, each of any number. Plautus Quis-
uses quisque = quisquis : ' Quemque ofTendero,' who77isoever I findf q^^-
Capt. iv. 2. For its other uses, see pp. 280, 287. On quem quisque,
&c., see M. Lucr. i. 966.
7) The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with ^ctimque Univer-
or of the duplicated form (quisquis, &c.), have no special idioms i^tives"
distinguishing them from other Relatives : 'Quoscumquedete
queri audivi, quacumque ratione potui placavi,' / appeased in
whatever way I could all whojn I heard C07nplai7ii7tg of you, C. Q.
Fr. i. 2. 'Quidquid erit tibi erit,' whatever there is shall be for
you,Q. Fam. ii. 10. ' Q'u ant i quant i bene emitur quod necesse
est,' what is necessary is well purchased at any price, C. Att. xii,
24. On quicquid for quicque, each thing, see M. Lucr. i. 289.
u 2
292
Latin Word/om
§69.
vi. Pronomlnalia.
1) Alter is one of two : the forms in -ter (as -repoQ in Greek)
implying comparison of two. ^Agesilaus claudus fuit altero pede/
Agesilaus was lame of one foot, Nep. Ag. 8. * Epaminondas habuit
collegas duos, quorum alter erat Pelopidas/ Epa7nino7idas had
two colleag7ies, one of who?n was Pelopidas, Nep. Ep. 7. Thus it
answers the question u-ter, which of two ? al-ter qui . . . the one
who, alter qui . . . the other who. * Consules inter se agitabant
uti alter Samnites hostis, alter Etruscos deligeret, et uter ad
utrum bellum dux idoneus magis esset/ the consuls were discuss-
t7ig, how that one of the two should choose the Sanmites for enemy ^
the other the Etruscans ; and which comma7ider was more suitable
for which war, L. x. 14. So, ^quidquid negat alter et alter/
whatever o?ie de?iies, the other denies also, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 4.
a) Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same
clause, distributing ambo, uterque, &c. * Uter que horum
medium quiddam volebat sequi : sed ita cadebat ut alter
ex alterius laude partem, uterque autem suam totam
haberet,' both these men wished to attain a mean ; but it so
fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each
possessed his own entire, C. Brut, 20. Uterque {each of
two) ; alteruter {one or the other of two) : ^ Non est tuae
dignitatis atque fidei ut contra alterutrum, cum sis
utrique coniunctissimus, arma feras,' // squares not with
your dignity and honour, to bear ari7is agai7ist 07ie or the
other, beijig nearly allied to both, C. Att. ix. 10. Alter
alter um amant, they love 07ie a7iother', also expressed,
* amant se invicem,' ' mutuo amant,' * amant inter se/
Alteri . . . alteri, 07ie party . . . the other party,
b) Alter means ^ a seco7id^ ' a7iother^ besides one named or
implied : ' Solus aut cum altero,' alone or with another,
C. Att. xi. 15. ^ Me ipsum accuso, deinde te, quasi me
alterum,' / reproach myself, and theri you, a sort of
second self C. Att. iii. 15. * Alter erit tum Tiphys,' the7i
will there be a second Tiphys, Verg. B. iv. 34. * Alter ab-
illo,' next to him, Verg. B, v. 49. Alterum tantum, as
much again,
2) Alius repeated in successive clauses signifies 07ie , , , a7iother,
&:c., without limit of number. ^Aliud equo est e natura, aliud
bovi, al iud homini,' 07ie thi7ig is natural to a horse, a7iother to an
ox, a7iother to a i7ian, C. Ein. v. 9. Contrast is similarly effected
by the adverbs of alius ; aliter, alias, alibi, alio, &c. Alias con-
tentius, alias remissius, at one ti7ne mo7'e vigorously, at a7tother
77iore slackly. Here too the repetition of alius in the same clause,
or its juxtaposition with one of its adverbs, or two of these adverbs
in the same clause, will denote a difference of the predicate for
different subjects. ^ Duo deinceps reges alius alia via civitatem
auxerunt,' two successive kings i7icreased the civic body in different
ways, L. i. 21. * Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus indicant,' those
77ien judge one thing at 07ie ti7ne, another at another, on the sa77te
questions, C. de Or. ii. 30. ^ Eadem aliter alibi nuncupantur,'
the same things are differe7itly na77ted i7i different places^ PI. A^. H,
XXV. 4. Aliud ex alio, 071c thi7ig after a7iother*
Uses of Prepositions.
Section V,
Uses of Prepositions,
i. Prepositions with an ACCUSATIVE Case.
I. Ad {to, at, 8^c.).
Usque ad is often used : usque ad Numantiam. Hor. has
^adusque supremum tempus/ ^^'^/^ to his last hour. Also the Adv.
usque, omitting ad. * Usque Puteolos/ as far as Pozzuoli, C. * Tar-
sum usque/ C. ^Ab ovo usque ad mala/ yr<?;;^ the eggs to the:
(ipples, Hon, i.e. from the beginning to the end of dinner.
:) Local Use.
a) Ad, to, takes a Case of Place or Person, after a Verb ex-
pressing or implying motion : as ire, adire, accedere, du-
cere, adducere ad urbem, &c. ; mittere, scribere ad ali-
quem, &c. For simple Dat. : ' Dulce rideat ad patrem/
Catull. See M. Lucr. i. 750.
b) Ad, at, takes a Case after a Verb not expressing naotion :
esse ad urbem : ad pedes iacere : ad quartum lapidem ;
victoria ad Cannas ; Curio fuit ad me, at my house ; ad
indices^ before the judges ; ad vinum, over wine ; ad Opis,
at the ternple of OpSy C.
2) Temporal Use,
d) Limit of Time {to) : ad summam senectutem, to extreme old
age ; ad hosce dies, to modern times ; ad ultimum, to the very
last', a mani usque ad vesper um, y^wy/ ^naming to evening) ad
multam noctem, //// late in the night.
b) Point of Time : ad lucem, at daybreak \ ad postremum, at
last ; ad summum, in fine. Time fixed beforehand : exspecto te ad
Kal. Febr., I look for you by the \st of February ; dies praestituta
est quam ad solveres, a day was appointed you for paying,
c) Time within which : ad tempus, for a time, or at the right
time ; ad breve tempus, for a short tijne ; ad decern annos, ten
years hence,
3) Ad marks the limit of Number and Degree : ad octingentos ;
or adverbially, ad octingent^ caesi, about 800 were slain, L. So,
ad unum omnes, to a man ; ad assem, to the last farthing ; ad
summam, on the whole ; ad summam impudentiam, to the, most
^haineless height,
4) The derived uses are :
d) Addition : ad haec vulnera ; ad hoc, moreover,
b) Standard : ad fistulam canere, to sing to the pipe ; ad:
yerbum ediscere, to learn word for word ; ad eum modum,
of that ki7id', ad unguem, to a nicety ; ad amussim, accu-
rately,
c) Comparison : nihil est ad Persium, he is nothing to Persius,
70
Use of
Prepo-
sitions..
294
Lathi Wordlore,
§70.
d) Respect : Insignis ad laudem, honourably distinguished.
Ad speciem ; ad pondus. See M. Lucr. iii. 214.
e) Occasion : Ad famam obsidionis, on report of the siege. Ad
ictum, after the blow. See M. Lucr. i. 185.
f) Reply : Ad ilia respondeo, to this I reply,
g) Purpose : Ad earn rtm, for that purpose : ad praedam,y^r
plunder : especially with Gerund and Gerundive : ad ves-
\:.^Xi6Mm^ for food \ sid 3.gYos colendos, for ag/ic7dture. So
servus ad remum, rower, Liv., ad ma^ium, amanuensis ;
Lygdamus ad cyathos, the cup-bearer Lygdavius, Prop. ;
ad limina custos, a doorkeeper , Verg. And with a Case of
that against which precaution or remedy is used : ad
morsus bestiarum,ybr bites, ad morbos, against diseases.
II. Adversus, adversum (advorsus, advorsum) express
1 ) Place {over against, opposite) : Adversus Py dnam, opposite
to Pydna. Quis haec est quae me advorsum incedit ?
who is this woman coniifig face to face with me ? Plaut.
Ire advorsum alicui, to go to meet some one — obviam ire.
Exadversus is found : exadversus At^ienas, opposite Athens,
2) Relation (towards, against). Amor adversus parentes, love
towards parents, Adversus solem ne loquitor, you must
not speak against the sun,
III. A pud expresses near neighbourhood, generally to Persons,
rarely to Place : Apud oppidum, near the town,
1) With Persons it is used in various senses : Apud Lycome-
dem, hi the house of Lycomedes ; apud nie, at my house,
Apud populum orationemhabuit, he spoke before the people \
apud iudices eosdem reus factus est, he was arraig7ied
before the same judges. Apud priscos Romanos hie mos
erat, this was the custoin among the old Romans. Apud
Ciceronem, in the writings of Cicero ; apud Homerum
(but in Iliade Homeri, in Ciceronis Libro de Officiis).
2) In phrases : Apud animum cogito, / am considering in my
mind, Haec apud me valent, these things have weight
with me. Fac apud te sis, keep your wits about you,
IV. Ante {before) is applied to
1) Place : Hannibal ante portas est.
2) Time : Ante lucem, before daybreak. Ante urbem conditam,
■ before the foundation of the city. Ante tris annos, three
years ago (also tribus ante annis or tertio anno ante).
Multo ante, long before. Paulo ante, a short time before.
Ante domandum, before taming^ Verg.
3) Order and Preference : Hunc ante me diligo, / love him
above myself Ante alios carissimus (or carior). Ante
omnia placent silvae, woods please above everything,
V. Pone (pos-ne) {behind) : Pone castra pabulatum ibant, they
went behiiid the camp to forage. Ante et pone, before and behind.
§70.
Uses of Prepositions,
295
VI. Post (pos-te : see ante) describes
1) Place {behind) : Hostis post montem se occultabat, the
enemy was hiding behind the mountain. Manus eius post
tergum religatae sunt, his hands were tied behind his back,
2) Time iafter^ since) : Post cenam, after supper. Post urbem
conditam, after the foundation of the city. Post Christum
natum, after the birth of Christ. Post hominum memo-
riam, since the memory of 7nan. Post paucos dies (or
paucis post diebus), a Jew days after, Paulo post, soon
after. Longo post tempore, V.
3) Of Order and Dignity {after ^ behind) : ^ Neque erit Lydia
post Chloen,' nor shall Lydia be after Chloe, Hor.
VII. Cis, citra (c it era parte), {on this side of within), is
applied to
I j Place : Cis Alpis, cis Padum, citra Euphraten, citra mare,
2) Time (very rarely) : Cis paucos dies hostis aderit, the enemy
will be here within a few days. Citra Kalendas Octobris,
before the ist of October.
Note. — Hence citra is used of measure in the sense of without
(i.e. without reaching)^ short of\ Citra controversiam,
without dispute. Citra ebrietatem, short of intoxication,
VIII. Ultra, from the root iI = Ql = ul (ultera parte, on yonder
side, beyond) describes
1) Place : Ultra Aethiopiam, beyond Ethiopia, Ultra Gara-
mantas et Indos, beyond the Garainantes and Indians,
2) Measure : Ne sutor ultra crepidam (progrediatur), the cobbler
must not go beyond his last. Ultra puerilis annos est, he
is past childhood. Ultra feminam ferox, fierce beyond the
nature of woman. So, ultra fas ; ultra fidem,
IX. Trans {across, beyond) is applied to seas, rivers, hills, &c. :
Naves trans mare currunt, ships glide across the sea. Trans Eu-
phraten, beyond the Euphrates, Trans Alpis. Trans caput, V.
X. I. Circum {round, about) of Place: Terra circum axem
vertitur, the earth turns about its axis, Circum haec loca com-
moror, / ain staying about these spots, Turba circum regem, a.
crowd around the king,
2. Circa (not used before Livy), describes
1) Place {round) : Urbes circa Capuam occupavit, he seized
the cities _ around Capua. Multos circa se habebat, he
kept many about him. Circa vias discurritur, there is a
skurry about the streets. Circa pectus, round the bosom,
2) Time and Number {about) : Circa Calendas Februarias,
about the ist of February. Circa quingentos capti sunt,
about five htmdred were taken.
3) Respect {about, concerning) in Post-Augustan Latinity :
Varia circa haec opinio est, there is variety of opinion on
this subject.
296
Latin Wordlore,
3. C ire iter {about) denotes extension round, and is used of
Time and Number : Circiter meridiem advenimus, we came about
noon. Decern circiter milia passuum abest, he is about ten mites
away,
XI. Contra (contera parte) denotes a tendency of two things to
Qpme together, and describes
1) Place {over against) : Carthago Itaham contra, Carthage
over against Italy, Aspicedum contra ixie, look 7ne in the
face,
2) Relation {against) : Contra naturam, against nature. Contra
legem, against law. Hoc contra ius fasque est, this is
agaitist law a7id religion. Quod contra fit a plerisque,
most people do just the contrary, Non caru'st auro contra,
hds worth his weight in gold,
XII. Erga (towards) is used of Relation : Tuam erga me li)ene-
volentiam agnosco, / acknowledge your goodwill towards 7ne,
Scio quomodo erga me affectus sis, / know how you feel towards
me, Erga is once used of place by Plautus ( = facing),
XIII. Extra (extera parte) describes
1) Place {outside of without) : Extra urbem, outside the city.
Extra teli iactum, out of range of darts,
2) Relation {without^ beyond, clear of) : Extra culpam, peri-
culum, locum, ordinem, modum, causam, &c.
3) Exception (except) : Nemo extra eum, nobody except him,
XIV. Intra (intera parte) (within) describes
1) Place : Intra urbem factum est, // happened within the city.
Intra montem Taurum, within Mount Taurus (for cis).
2) Time : Intra triginta dies, within thirty days,
3) Extent : Hortensii scripta intra famam sunt, the writings
of Horteiisius are short of their reputation. Intra modum,
intra legem epulari, to feast within measure, within law.
The Adv. intus (within) is also used with Accus. Intus
domum, Plaut. Intus cellam, L.
XV. Inter signifies extension inside, and is used of —
i) Place (between) : Inter urbem et fluvium, between the city
and river,
'i) Time (between, during : Inter horam tertiam et quartam,
between nine and ten o'clock. Inter prandendum (or inter
cenam) curis vaco, at dinner (or at supper) I am free from
cares. Inter tot annos, during so many years. Inter
vias, on the road.
3) Relation (between, among) : Inter hominem et beluam
multum interest, there is much difference between a man
and a brute. Constat inter omnis, all are agreed. Inter
arma silent leges, amidst arms laws are silent. Inter
cetera et illud dixit, among other things he said this too.
§ yo. Uses of Prepositions. 297
And of mutual relation with se ; as Inter se amant^ tJiy
love one another. Inter haec = interea, meanwhile.
XVI. Infra (infera parte) {beneath) describes
1) Place : Infra lunam nihil est non mortale, beneath the moon
there is nothing not mortal.
2) Time : Homerus non infra Lycurgum fuit, Homer was not
after Lycurgus.
3) Number : Non infra novena, not less than nine at a ti7ne.
4) Measure : Uri magnitudine sunt paulo infra elephantos,
buffaloes are of a size rather under elephants,
5) Worth : Infra dignitatem meam, beneath my dignity,
XVII. Supra (supera parte) {above, over) describes
j) Place : Caelurn supra terram est, heaven is above earth,
Saltu supra venabula fertur, he bounds over the hunting
spears. Supra caput. Supra me erat Atticus, infra Ver-
rius, Atticus sat above fne^ Verrius below,
2) Time : Supra banc memoriam vixit, he lived before these
times, Ut supra dixi, as I said above,
3) Number : Caesa sunt supra milia viginti, more than twenty
thousand were slain. Supra belli Sabini metum, over and
above the dread of a Sabine war,
4) Measure : Supra humanam formam altior, taller than,
human form. Supra modum, above measure,
XVIII. luxta (iugista parte, Corss.) describes
1) Place {adjoining) : Hortus meus iuxta viam est, my garden
adjoins tM road,
2) Order (next to, as well as, akin to) : Iuxta deos in tua
manu positum est, next to the gods it lies in your hands,
Inermes iuxta armatos trucidati sunt, unarmed as well as
armed men were slaughtered. Celeritas iuxta formi^inem
est, speed is akin to fear, Iuxta seditionem ventum est,
things almost came to mutiny. Solo caeloque iuxta gravi,
soil and climate being equally unhealthy,
XIX. Ob descjribes
1) Place {before) : Ob oculos mihi mors versata est, death was
before my eyes. Follem sibi obstringit ob gulam, he ties a
bladder on his throat, Ob os trudere, to thrust in one^s
face.
2) Cause (for, on account of with a view to) : Poenas ob stul-
titiam do, / suffer punishment for my folly. Pecuniam
ob absolvendum accepit, he received money to acquit, Ar-
gentum ob asinos, money to pay for the donkeys. Ager
oppositu'st pigneri ob decem minas, the estate is mortgaged
for ten minas. Frustra an ob rem, ineffectually, or to
some purpose. Ob indnstrisixn, studiously, Ob cam cau-
sam, on that account.
XX. Penes (in the pqwer of resting with) : Penes imperatorem
est summum imperium, supreme power rests with the commander-
298
Latin Wordlqre,
in-chief. Deum penes est custodia mundi, the guardianship of
the world rests with God. Servi penes accusatorem sunt, the slaves
are in the prosecutor's power. Culpa te est penes, the fault lies
with yotc. Penes te es ? are you i?i your senses f
XXI. Praeter means extension in front of, and has the uses
1) Along ^ beside^ before : Praeter ripam, along the bank. Prae-^
ter oculos, before their eyes. Via una praeter hostis erat,
the 07ily road was along the eneinys flank,
2) Besides, except : Praeter se nemiinem amat, he loves none
besides himself Quod crimen dicis, praeter amasse,
meum ? what crime do you call 77iine, except having loved f
' 3) Beyond : Praeter modum, beyond meas7ire. Praeter ceteros
clarus, re7iow7ied beyo7id others.
4j Co7itrary to : Hoc praeter opinionem accidit, this happened
co7itrary to ^xpectatio7i. So, praeter spem.
XXII. Prope 7tigJi to) \ Prope viam ^i^^x^z'dX, he builds
near the road. Prope Kalendas Sextilis, near the first of August,
Prope abesse ab aliquo, to be near to some perso7i or place, Prope
secessionem plebis res venit, matters al77iost ca7ne to a secession of
the C0771771071S.
The Comparative propius, and Superlative proxime, also take an
Accusative : Propius urbem, 7iearer the city, Proxime montem,
'very 7iear the 77iou7itai7i,
XXIII. Propter (prope-ter) means * extension near,' and de-
scribes —
1) Place {7iear^ alongside of) : Volcanus tenuit insulas propter
Siciliam, Vulca7i held the isles near Sicily, Propter aquam
ambulavimus, we walked beside the water ^ Propter te
sedet, he sits beside you, Cubantes propter, sleeping near,
2) Cause or Object {on account of) : Sapiens non propter
metum legibus paret, the wise ;na7i obeys not the laws on
accau7tt of fear. Ilia propter se expetenda sunt, those
things are desirable on their own account,
XXIV. Secundum, from sequor, denotes following, and de-
scribes —
1) Place {7iext behi7id) : I secundum me, go next to 7ne. Se-
cundum aurem vulnus accepit, he received a wound behind
his ear, (Alo7tg) : Secundum litus, along the shore,
2) Time {after) : Secundum Idus lanuarias veniam, / will
come after the 13/// of ya7iuary,
3) Rank {next after) : Secundum te nemo mihi amicior, after
you no 77ia7i is 7nore f7'ie7idly to me. Secundum vocem
vultus valet, cou7ttena7tce tells 7text after voice.
4) Agreement {according to, in favour of) : Secundum natu-
ram vive, live according to fiature. Secundum Stoicos
omnia vitia paria sunt, accordi7ig to the Stoics all faults
are equal, Pontifices secundum me decreverunt, the
priests decreed in my favour.
/
g yi. Uses of Prepositions. 299
XXV. Per {through) signifies Passage from one end to another,
or in all directions, and describes —
1) Place : Per Macedoniam, through Macedonia. Sanguis
per venas in omne corpus diffunditur, blood is diffused
through the veins into the whole body.
2) Duration of Time (throughout ^ during) : Per tris annos,
for three years. Per noctem cernuntur sidera, the stars
are seen all night. Per somnum, during sleep.
3) Agency {by^ through) : Per procuratorem non per se ipsum
agit, he acts by an agent, not personally.
4) Manner or Means {by) : Eos per vim eiecit, he turned them
out by force. Per simulationem amicitiae me perdidit, he
ruined me on pretence of friendship. Per litteras certiorem
. te faciam, I will acquaint you by letter. So, per vices, by
turns, per silentium, in silejice, per looMm, jocularly.
5) Motive or Cause : Per avaritiam id fecit, he did that through
avarice. Amicitia per se expetenda QSt, friendship should
be sought for its own sake. Per me licet hoc agas, you
may do this with my free will. Per leges non licet civem
verberare, the laws do not allow beating a citizen. Per te
stetit quominus ego discederem, you were the cause of my
not departing.
(>) Per is used in Prayers and Adjurations (by) : Per deos te
oro, I pray you by the gods.
JVote. Per is sometimes disjoined from the word with which it
is compounded : as, Per mihi gratum est, it is very agree-
able to me. Per ovilia turbans, V. Or from its case : Per
ego te deos oro, I pray you by the gods,
XXVI. Versus, versum (anc. vorsus, vorsum) {towards),
always follow their Case : Hannibal Romam versus contendit,
Haniiibal marched towards Rome. The best writers subjoin it to
a case governed by ad or in : Ad meridiem versus ibimus, we will
go towards the south. \xi Italiam versus se convertit, he turned
towards Italy.
ii. Prepositions governing an Abl. Case.
1. A, ab, abs, express a ^ proceeding from,' and describe —
i) Place : — {a) Motion from : Sidera ab ortu ad occasum corn-
meant, the stars m^ove from east to west. Ab nobis domo'st,
comes from our house.
b) Distance from : Mille passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub-
sedit, he halted six miles from Caesafs carnp. See
Prope. Amilibus passuum esse, to be a mile off. See
M. Lucr. i, 554.
c) Position in regard to {on, on the side of) : A fronte, in
front. A tergo, in the rear. A sinistro cornu, on the
left wing. A Platone {a.cio, I am on the side of Plato.
Zeno et ab eo qui sunt, Zeno and his disciples. Hoc a
me est, this is in 7ny favour. A senatu stetit, he took
the senate's side. See M, Lucr, i. 693, 935 ; v. 754, 1332 ;
vi. 968.
300
Latin Word lore.
§71.
Obs, Procul ab is used : Procul a patria, Verg. And procul
without ab. Haud procul seditione, L. Usque ab. Ab usque, V.
Lucr. has ore foras, out from the motcth^ iv. 554.
, 2) Time {from) : Ab antiquissimis temporibus hie mos in-
valuit, this custom prevailed from the earliest tiines. So,
ab initio, a puero, a pueritia, ab incunabulis, a prima
aetate, &c. A primo,^<?;// the first or froin the beginning,
3) Rank {after) : Proximus a rege, next after the king. Alter
ab illo. Alter ab undecimo, the \2th, Ab hoc sermone
profectus est, after this discourse he set out, Ab exequiis.
Ab igni, after (in consequence of) fire, M. Lucr, vi. 968.
4) Separation {from) : A poena liberi sumus, we are free frojn
punish^nent. Defende te a periculo, defend yourself frojn
danger. Non ab re fuerit ea narrare, it will not be irre-
levant to relate these things, Abhorrere ab aliqua re, to
shrifik fro7n anything ; to dislike.
\ 5) Origin in general (frojn) : Pecuniam a me accepit, he re-
ceived the 7noney from me. Ab Egnatio solvet, he will
pay through Egnatius. A te mihi salutem dixit, he greeted
me fro7n you. A superstitione animi vates adhibuit, he
called in seers from me^itat superstition. M. Lucr. ii. 51.
6) Agent after Verbs Passive and Intransitive {by) : A cane
non magno saepe tenetur aper, a wild boar is often held
by a small dog. Oculi a sole dolent, my eyes are pained
by the sun, Ab hoste venire, to be sold by an enemy,
7) Respect {in^ in point of on the side of) : Ab animo aeger
fui, / was sick in mi?id. Firmus est ab equitatu, he is
strong in cavalry. A doctrina instructus est, he is well
furnished in point of learnmg. A patre- nobilis erat, h^
was noble on the father's side.
To this use belong the phrases for the offices of slaves and
freedmen at Rome, and the modern phrases for the posts
in a royal household, &c. Thus, (servus) ab epistulis,
meant a letter-carrier or estafette ; (servus or libertus) a
manu, an a77ianuensis ; a bibliotheca, a librarian ; a pedi-
bus, a footman ; a potione, a butlet; or cupbearer^ &c. So,
Regi a secretis consiliis, a privy counsellor of the king,
Reginae a saqris, queen's chaplain,
11. De expresses
1) Place {down from, from) : De rostris descendit, he came
down from the rostra, De manibus hostium effugit, he
escaped from the ene^^ys hands, Susque deque, up and
down,
2) Time {ere the close of at) : De prima luce, at daybreak. De
die, in daytime.'^ De nocte, in the tiight. De multa nocte,
in the dead of night. De prandio, after luncheon. Diem
de die exspecto, / am waiting from day to day.
* Cicero's jeu de mots {Phil, ii 34), * non solum de die sed in diem vivere,' links two
common phrases, *de die (potare),' to carouse by daylight, and * in diem vivere,' to live
for the day, so as to suggest that Antonius drank from before the evening of one day to
the dawn of the next (de die in diem).
J Uses of Prepositions, 3^1
3) Origin : De summo loco, of highest rank. De scripto
dixit, he spoke from a written paper, De facie eum novi,
/ know him by sight, Emi domum de Crasso, / bought a
house ofCrassus, Hoc audivi de patre, this I heard from
my father, De marmore signum, a bust of marble. Fies
de Vhetore consul, from a rhetorician you will become
consul,
4) Partition {of) : Una de multis, one of many maidens. Ac-
cusator de plebe, a plebeian prosecutor. De tuo illud
addis, you add of your own suggestion, De meo, at my
expense,
5) Respect (concerning^ of &c.) : Multa de eo scripta sunt,
much was written about him, Legati de pace, envoys to
treat for peace. De captivis commutandis, concerning an
exchange of prisoners. De nihilo irasci, to be angry about
nothing. Quid de me fiet? what will become of me?
De Gallis triumphavit, he triumphed over the Gauls,
6) Cause {for, from, &c.) : Multis et gravibus de causis, for
many important reasons. Hoc de communi sententia fac-
tum est, this was done by common vote, De via langue-
bam, / was ill from the journey,
7) Manner {according to, on) in many phrases : De more, ac-
cording to custom. De industria, on purpose. De im-
-proViso, unexpectedly, novo, anew, De integro, ^r^^-/^,
&c. De gradu conari, to combat on foot, de genu, on the
knees,
in. E, ex, describe —
1) Place {out of, from, on, &c.) : Ex urbe venio. Ex Italia
discessit. Ex arbore pendet, // hangs on a tree. Ex
equis pugnant, they fight on horseback. E longinqtto,
from far. Ex propinquo, near. Ex obliquo, athwart, E
regione, in a direct line with. See M. Lucr. vi. 344.
2) Time {from, since) : Ex illo die numquam eum vidi, since
that day I never set eyes on him. Ex Metello consule,
from the consulship of Metellus, Ex itinere, on arrival,
3) Origin {from, of) : Ex eo audivi. Ex me quaesivit. Ex
Pompeio sciam. Statua e marmore facta. Homo ex
animo constat et corpore, man consists of soul and body.
4) Transition {from, after) : Ex oratore arator factus est. So,
aliud ex alio, one thing after another : diem ex die, from
day to day. Pallidum e viridi folium, a palish green leaf,
5) Partition {of) : Unus ex amicis meis, one of my friends,
6) Cause {from, for, by, &c.) : Ex quo manifestum est, whence
it is clear. Ex lassitudine dormio, / fall asleep from
weariness. E vino vacillat, he staggers from the effects of
wine. Ex vulneribus mortuus est, he died of his woimds,
Vir ex doctrina nobilis, a 7nan renowned for his learning.
Ex pedibus laborat, he has gout in his feet. Illud ex sena-
tus consulto factum est, that was do7ie by vote of the senate.
Hoc mihi ex sententia evenit, this happened to my hearfs
302
Latin Wordlore,
§71.
content. Ex animi sententia loqui, to speak with sincerity.
So, ex ordine, ex composito, by arrangement^ e re mea,
for my interest^ e republica,y^r the good of the state, with
other phrases. See p. 277.
7) Manner, in many phrases : Ex occulto, secretly, ex impro-
viso, ex insperato, unexpectedly, ex parte, /;/ part. Heres
ex asse, heir to the whole property by will ; heres ex
deunce, heres ex semisse, &c.
XV. Cum {with) expresses
1) Company : Cum patre proficiscor, /go with 7ny father.
As a Sociative Particle : Romulus cum fratre Remo, Ro-
mulus and his brother Remus.
d) The Adv. simul is used with Abl. for simul cum. Simul
his, together with these, Hor. Ore simul cervix, Ov.
2) Coincidence of Time : Pariter cum ortu solis, exactly at
sunrise.
3) Community: Nihil mihi cum illo est, I have nothing to do
with him. Bellum gessit cum Helvetiis, he waged war
with the Helvetii. Tecum loquar, / will speak with you.
Conferre, comparare cum, to compare with.
4) Coincident Circumstances : Homines cum gladiis adsunt,
7nen with swords are present. Esse cum imperio, to be in
chief command. Magno cum dolore loquor, / speak with
great pain. Illud cum causa fecit, he acted thus with
reaso7i. Cum pernicie reipublicae, to the ruin of the state.
Cum clamore. Cum silentio. Cum lacrimis. Madida
cum veste, in wet clothes, * as simple AbL' See M. Lucr,
i. 755.
Note the phrase : cum eo ut . . . on condition that . . . Li v.
V. Absque [without) is chiefly found in the Comic poets :
Absque te esset, were it not for you ; sometimes in Cicero. Litterae
absque argumento, a letter devoid of matter.
VI. Sine (without) : Vana est sine viribus ira, anger without
strength is fruitless. Sine dubio, sine ulla dubitatione, without
any doubt.
Lucr. uses seorsum [apart from) with Abl. : seorsum corpora.
VIL Palam {in view of) : Palam populo, in the people's sight.
VI IL Clam, clanculum (without the knowledge of) : Clam
patre, without his father's knowledge. In Comedy with Accusative :
Clam uxorem ; clanculum patrem.
IX. Coram (in the presence of) : Coram populo dixit, he spoke
before the people. Coram loqui cum aliquo, to speak with another
face to face.
X* Prae describes
i) Place (before) : I prae, sequar, go forward, I will follow ;
but generally before a Pronoun, and after the Verbs ago,
g 71. Uses of Prepositions, 303
fero, gero : as Pastores prae se agant gregem, let shep-
herds drive the flock before them, Pugionem prae se fert,
he displays a dagger. Also metaphorically : Speciem
boni viri prae te i^xs^you exhibit the appearance of a good
man,
2) Comparison {compared with, before) : Prae nobis beatus es,
yoti are happy compared with ns, Prae se neminem putat,
he thinks no7ie his superior, Utilitatis species prae hones-
tate recte contemnitur, the show of advantage is properly
despised in comparison with moral rectitude,
3) Cause {owing to, for) : Prae lacrimis scribere non possum,
/ cannot write for tears, Prae multitudine sagittarum
solem non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the Jiumber
of arrows. Prae laetitia lacrimae prosiliunt mihi, tears
start into my eyes for joy, Plant.
XL Pro expresses
1) Place {before) : Pro foribus, before the door, Stabat pro
litore classis, the fleet was lying off the coast. Pro rostris
dicebat, he was speaking from, the rostra. Pro contione
laudatus est, he was thanked in full assembly,
2) Defence {in behalf of for) : Hoc non modo non pro me,
sed etiam contra me est, this is not only not for 7ne, but
is even against me. Pro Ligario dixit, he spoke for Liga-
rius. Pro patria mori, to die for country,
3) Substitution {instead of, equivalent to, &c.) : Mihi pro
parente fuit, he was as a father to 7ne. Vultus saepe pro
omnibus verbis est, countenance is ofte7i equivalent to any
words. Pro praetore fuit, he was propraetor,
4) Retribution {for, in requital of) : Pro istis factis te ulcis-
car, /V/ punish you for that conduct.
5) Resemblance and Respect {in the light of) : Illam educavi
pro mea, / brought her up as 7Jiy daughter. Pro cive se
gerit, he coinports himself as a citizen. Pro certo hoc
habui, / held this as certain. Pro comperto illud afferunt,
they inform me as an assured fact,
6) Proportion {accordiiig to) : Pro tua temperantia vales, your
good health accords with your temperance. Pro viribu?
contendam, / will try my best. Pro re nata me geram, /
will conduct myself as present circumstances dictate. Pro
re et tempore consilium cape re, to take counsel according
to existins" circumstances. Pro multitudine hominum an-
gustos habent finis, their exte^it is small compared with
their population. Proelium atrocius quam pro numero
pugnantium fuit, the battle was more furious than ?night
have been expected from the number of the combatants.
XII. Tenus (^i* far as) ^ from root tan^ ten, ^ stretch^ follows its
Case, and governs Abl. Sing, (rarely Plur.) and Plural Genitive :
Capulo tenus abdidit ensem, he buried his sword to the hilt. Nu-
304
Latin Wor^dlore,
tricum tenus, as far as the breast Crurum tenus. Observe verbo
tenus (as far as words go) ; quadam tenus {a certain way, to some
extent) ; eatenus, hactenus, quatenus, understanding parte. The
Abl. PI. ^ Pectoribus tenus ' is found in Ovid : the Acc. S. ' Tanain
tenus ' in Valerius Flaccus.
72 iii. Prepositions governing an Accusative
or Ablative Case.
1. (^) In with Accusative signifies motion to, and describes
1) Place {into, to, upon, against ) : In carcerem coniectus est,
he was thrown into prison. In aram confugit, he fled for
refuge to the altar. In equum conscendit, he got on horse-
back. Ad urbem, vel potius in urbem, exercitum adduxit,
he led an army up to the city, or rather, into the city.
By a Constructio praegnans (one Verb having the force of
two) in with Accusative sometimes follows a Verb of
Rest : Vitruvium in carcerem asservari iussit, he oi^dered
Vitruvius to be kept in prison. Adesse in senatum iussit,
he bade him attend the senate. Portus in praedonum po-
testatem fuere, the harbours were in the power of pirates.
2) Time {for) : In crastinum diem me invitavit, he htvited 7ne
for the 7norrow. Comitia constituta sunt in Kalendas
lanuarias, the elections were fixed for the ist of January.
In perpetuum [for ever), in praesens [for the present), in
posterum,y^?r the future, &c.
3) Transition [into) : Mutatur in lapidem. In soUicitudinem
versa fiducia est, confidence turned to anxiety,
4) Dimension (to) : In altitudinem pedum sedecim murum
perducit, he carries the wall to the height of sixteen feet.
5) Distribution : Censores bini in singulas civitates descripti
sunt, two ceiisors were appointed for each state. Ad dena-
rios quinquaginta in singulos modios, at fifty de7iars the
bushel, Mutatur in dies et in horas, he changes daily and
hourly. In aestatem, every summer. M. Lucr. vi. 712.
6) Relation {towards, agaifist, &c.) : Liberalis in milites, liberal
towards the troops. Merita in x^m'^\y}cX\c^.vs\, services to the
state. Cicero in Vertem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres.
Viri in uxores potestatem habent, husbands have power
over their wives. In te oculi omnium defiguntur, all eyes
are fixed on you.
7) Manner {in, after) : In hunc modum locutus est, he spoke
after this fashion. In verba imperatoris iuraverunt, they
swore allegiance to the general. So, in universum, in
commune, in vicem {in turn), in numerum, in measured
time, M. Lucr. ii. 631.
8) Purpose {for) : Gladiatores in ludos locavit, he engaged
gladiators for the games. Sontes in poenam dediti sunt,
the guilty were delivered for punishment. Omnia in maius
^2. Uses of Prepositions. 305
celebravit, he exaggerated everything, Dabo tibi pecuniam
in rem familiarem, / will give you money for your house-
hold expenses. Quae in rem tuam sunt, what is for your
interest,
{b) In with an Ablative signifies rest in, and describes
i) Place (in) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium
versaris, you are in everybody s mouth. In Miltiade erat
summa humanitas, in Miltiades there was the greatest
courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est
Vergilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair i^ all smooth.
In incerto. In difficili. In medio delictum eSt, // has
been left unsettled. In luctu et squalore sum^ / a^n in
sorrow and mourning. In manu, in hand,
{On) : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the
brink. Nix est in summo monte, snow is on the summit of
the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was
formed on the river. In equo sedens^^»;/ horseback, Ponere
curam, cogitationem, &:c*^ in aliqua re, to employ the mind
on some object.
{Among) : In magnis viris numeratun Haec in bonis sunt
habenda, these must be counted among blessings,
i) Time (during^ in) : Ter in anno rus imus, I go into the
country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there
is no need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub-
venit, when corn was dear he helped the city. In tempore
veni. Impraesentiarum, tnider present circumstances, is a
corruption of 'in praesentia harum rerum,' chiefly used by
elder and late authors, also by Nepos.
3) Circun) stance {amidst, in) : In tanta perfidia veterum ami-
corum nihil supererat spei, amidst such treachery of old
friends no hope remaified, Etiam in summa bonorum
civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good
citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti sumus, we are
eloquefit over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore,
in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V.
{In the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in
this man's ease I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo
dici solet, the same is said of a good slave.
4) Cause {on the score of) : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus,
for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus,
Pausanias was blamed on that score,
11. {d) Sub with an Accusative describes
i) Place {under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is
implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back
to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub
aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub
iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were 7nade to pass-
under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, he came under my
view. Sub Judicium cades, you will be subject to trials
Sub sensus subiecta, withiii reach of the senses,
X
3o6
Latin Wordlore,
§72.
2) Time {immediately after or before, about, against) : Sub eas
litteras recitatae sunt tuae, 7iext after that letter yours was
read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en-
gaged, Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife
prepares supper agaijtst her husband^s arrival. Sub lacri-
mosa Troiae funera, just before Trofs sad destruction,
{b) Sub with an Ablative is applied to
1) Place {under), rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi-
tant, moles dwell under the groujid, ludaea sub procura-
tore erat, Judea was U7ider a procurator. Sub hac con-
dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub
oculis, in view,
2) Time {about, at) : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year.
Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr, iv. 545-785 ; vi. 413, 416.
III. {a) Super with an Accusative expresses
1) Place {over, above, beyond) : Alii super vallum praecipitan-
tur, others fling themselves over the entrenchinent. Super
navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship.
Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Sunium, Super
ipsum, above the host at table.
2) Number {besides) : Super bellum annona premit, besides
war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super omnia,
over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re-
ceived above three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super
savia, kisses upon kisses,
3) Comparison {beyond) : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro-
ceed beyond our wishes, ^w'^^x, principally, V.
4) Time {during) : Super cenam coUocuti sumus, during supper
we conversed,
Lucan uses desuper {over) with Accus. Desuper Alpis nubi-
ferae col lis, &c. L 688.
{b) Super with an Ablative expresses
1) Place {over, upon) : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword
hangs over his neck. Fronde super viridi requiescimus,
we rest on green foliage,
2) Time {during, at) : Nocte super media, at midnight.
3) Subject Matter {about) : Multa super Priamo rogitans,
super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam, much
about Hector, Verg.
IV. Subter (under, below), signifying extension under, gene-
rally governs an Accusative, but sometimes in poetry an Abla-
tive : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often
pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet,
virtue holds everything subject to itself, Subter densa testudine,
under a compact pent-house.
]\jote I. — The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs ;
ante, citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post,
prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam.
§ 73. Correlation, 307
Note 2. — Comminus ire, ^ to close with, is used by Propertius
with Dat. and Accus. ^Haemonio comminus isse viro,' iii. i,
*Agrestis comminus ire sues,' ii. 19. So Ov. F. v. 176.
Note 3. — Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean-
ing :—
ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super
ad — ab cis — (trans) prope — procul
in — ex citra — ultra clam — palam
Note 4.-— Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose
1) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re ; hanc ob causam ;
magno cum metu, &c*
2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun ; quem contra
dicit ; quos inter, hunc adversus, &c. Not so found are,
ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in.
3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition
and Case : * in bella gerentibus ; ' * in suum cuique tri-
buendo ; ' ^ post autem Alexandri Magni mortem,' &c.
Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, atld sometimes
aloof from them : ^ Vitiis nemo sine nascitur,^ Hor. S, \. 3^ 68i See
M. Lucr. i. 841 ; iii. 140.
(On Prepositions in composition^ see § 52, § 59.)
Section VL
Interr. Deiti. Rel.
quis is qui
ubi 1 ibi ubi
Interr. Dem. Rel.
quare 1 ideo quod
quafido.? tum quum (cum)
Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing
a Subordinate sentence.
Correlative Construction. Con-e-
latioh.
i. Pronominal Correlation^
The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influehtial word in
Latm ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all
Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions.
A) i) Every Interrogative word may question
Directly or Obliquely.
I^ii'ect. Oblique.
quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier
unde estmulier? die unde sit mulier
verumne est illud 1 quaero verumne sit illud
Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a
Subordmate Sentence.
2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has correspondiftg to it at
least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle j and a Relative Pro-
noun or Particle*
X 2
3o8
Latin Wordlore,
§ 73.
B) Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are
Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The
rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival
form : thus ubi = quo in loco ? ubi ... ibi = in eo loco ... in quo.
i) Correlation of Person or Thing.
Direct Interrog.
Oblique Interrog.
Demonstr.
Rel.
1"fs I (est ?)
qui i ^ '
who {is he f)
i"!n (sit)
qui ) ^ ^
who {he is)
is, &C.
he
qui
who
b) quid (est ?)
what {is it ?)
quid (sit)
what {it is)
id, &c.
that
quod
which
(The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used
interrogatively.)
c) uter (est ?) uter (sit)
which of two {is which of two
he ?) {he is)
2) Correlation of Quality.
qualis (est ?) qualis (sit)
of what kijid {is of what kind
he ?) {he is)
3) Correlation of Quantity.
quantus (est ?) quantus (sit)
how great {is
he?)
quot (sunt)
how inaiiy {are
they ?)
is (alter)
that one
qui
which
how great {he
is)
talis
such
tantus
so great
qualis
as
quantus
as
4)
quot (sint) tot quot
how many so many as
they are)
(This includes quotiens ? how many times? totiens . . . quotiens.)
5) Correlation of Place.
d) ubi (est ?)
where {is he f)
b) unde (est?)
whence {is he f)
c) quo (it ?)
whither {goes
hef)
d) qua (it ?)
by which way
{goes he ?)
(These include quorsum, whitherward^ &c., quousque ? quoad 1
quatenus ? how far, Sec. ; compounded with quo, qua.)
6) Correlation of Manner.
ut (flet ?) ut (fleat) ita ut
how {weeps he ?) how {he weeps) so as
(Similarly quomodo .^* ita quomodo
quemadmodum ? ita quemadmodum.^
ubi (sit)
where {he is)
ibi
there
ubi
where
unde (sit)
whence (he is)
inde
thence
unde
whe7ice
quo (eat)
whither {he
eo
thither
quo
whither
goes)
qua (eat)
by which way
{he goes)
ea
by that
way
qua
by which
§73-
Correlation.
309
7J Correlation of Degree.
Direct Intcrrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel.
quam (celer est ?) quam (c. sit) tarn quam
how {sivift is he ?) how s. {he is) so as
(For tarn . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque (ac) and
many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of
Inequahty quam follows Comparatives and some other words which
contain the idea of comparison.)
8) Correlation of Cause.
1"^''^ (venit?) ^"^''n (veniat)'*^^°, ^ ^noA.
cur ) ^ ^ cur i ^ ^ propterea) quia )
why {comes he f) why {he comes) therefore because
9) Correlation of Time.
d) quando (it ?) quando (eat) tum quum
when {goes he ?) when {he goes) then when
b) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam
net Y) neat)
how long {stays how long {he so long as
he f) stays)
So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and
relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ;
usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum fdonec) ;
tamdiu . . . quam, &c.
C) Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation.
1) ' Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it
that first produced dreadful swords? Tib. i. 10. i. *Qui cantus
moderata orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod
carmen artificiosa verborum conclusione aptius ?' what song can we
find sweeter than a well-uttered speech ? what poetry ?ieater than a
skilful period ? C. d. Or. ii. 8. *Ecqui pudor est, ecqua religio,
Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have you any shame ^ Verres? any scruple?
any fear? C. Verr. iv. 8. * Ubi aut qualis est tuamens.^' where or
of what nature is your soul? C. T. D. i. 27. * Ut valet Put me-
minit nostri?' how is his health? how does he keep 7ne in mind?
Hor. Epist. i. 3. 12. (In exclamation :) * Quam non est faci lis virtus,
quam vero difficilis eius diuturna simulatio !' how far from easy is
virtue J how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence ofit! C.
Att. vii. I. * Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what
you^re coming to! Ter. An. i. i. 100. * Gnaeus autem noster ut
totus iacet ! ' how totally prostrate is our friend Gnaeus I C. Att. vii.
19. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom ! Ter. Eun. iv. 7.
2) Several Interrogatives in one Sentence :
'Considera, Piso, quis quem fraudasse dicatur,' consider^ PisOy
who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q. Rose. 7. ^Uterutri
insidias fecit ' which plotted against which ? C. p. Mil. 9.
3) Quotus quisque literally is, ^ each {unit) of what total number '
= ^ one in how many^ and might be answered : centensimus quisque,
one in a hundred; vicensimus quisque, ^?;/^ in twenty, decimus quis-
310
Latin Wordlore.
§74.
que, one in ten^ &c. Hence it came to mean, how small a propor-
tion? how few? ^Quotus enim quisque formosus est?' how
few men are handsome ? C. N. D. i. 28.
4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb :
Quid ? well? how ? &c. quid multa ? why be prolix? quid quaeris ?
what would yoii have inore? Quid t3.ndem? why pray ? So, quid
enim ? quid ergo ? quid tum ? quid quod . . . ? need I add that?
5) Quin for qui non? ^Quin quod est ferendum fers?' wonH
you bear what must be borne ? Ten Ph. ii, 3. 82, Quidni posgim ?
why can 1 7tot ? (^-to be sure I can), Q\ T. D, v. 5. Quippini ? why
not? to be sure, Plaut. On quin with Indie, see M. Lucr. i. 588.
JP) Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative :
1) ^ Fere libenter homines id quod volunt credunt,' men gene-
rally believe with readiness what they wish, Caes. B. G» iii. 18.
<Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat,' let every one
practise the profession he knows. * Non sunt tanti uUa merita
quanta insolentia hominis quantum que fastidium,' none of the
via7i^s deserts are 07i a par with the greatness of his insolence and
pride ^ C, d. Or, ii. 52, * Ubi bene, ibi patria,' country is where we
are well off. Inc. ^ Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' w^i? has
lost his purse will go where you please, Hor. Epdst. ii. 2. 40. * Qu am
audax est ad conandum tam est obscurus in agendo,' is as
secret in action as he is bold i7i enterprise, C. Ve^'r. ii. 2, ^ U t
magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magistratus,' as laws
govern magistrates, so do magistrates the people, C. Leg. \\\, i.
* Quid egeris tunc apparebit gurn animam ages,' what you have
do7ie will appear whe7i you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep. 26.
2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : * I n
ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio
vitae,' you are in that city wherein regulatio7t and govern7nent of
life were born and reared^ C, Fam. vi. i. M bi imperium erit unde
victoria fuerit/ empire will be on the side of victory^ L. i. 24.
3) Demonstrative understood : * Donum redde unde accepisti,
render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun, i. 2. 34. This is the
most frequent form.
4) The Correlation of cum and tum, originally of Time, is em-
ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the
other (with tum) special, to which attention is thus invited. ^ Mul-
tum cum in omnibus rebus tum in re militari potest fortuna,'
fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B, G»
vi. 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem tum inimicum
cenis sumptuosis,' look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but
also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fc(>m» ix, 23.
ii. Correlations of Manner,
Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are :
As Interrogative {how ?).
As a Subordinative Conjunction {that, &c.).
As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison {as).
The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed.
I 74. Correlation, 3 1 r
1) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quo mo do, quemadmodum
{as)^ is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives it a,
sic, also with itidem, item, &c., eodem modo, ad eundem modum,
isto modo, &c. — pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut
(veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative.
A) Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. (M. Lucr, ii. 901.)
'Ut optasti ita est,' it is as you wished^ C. Fam, ii. 10. 'Ut
male posuimus initia, sic cetera sequentur,' accordiiig to our bad
beginnings the rest will follow^ C. Att. x. 18. *Ut vir doctissimus
fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum,' / think I shoiM act
as the learned Plato didy C. p. Clu. 24. ' Non ille ut plerique, sed
isto modo ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat,' he did not speak
as most do, but in that manner of yours, with clearness y power ^ and
elegance, C. N, D. i. 21. 'Quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus,
s i c de amicitia disputa,' argue concerning friendship, as you are
wont to do on other subjects, C. Lael. 4. ' Necesse est, quo tu me
modo esse voles, ita esse, mater,' / jnust be as you wish me^
mother Plaut. Cist. i. i. 48. 'Ita ut fit,' ift the ordinary way,
a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : 'Ita me di ament ut ego
tam meapte causa laetor quam illius,' so may the gods
love vie as I rejoice on my own accoimt as much as hisy
Ter. Haul. i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti-
cally : 'Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo,' your
health, upon my lifCy makes me anxious, C. Fatn, xvi. 20.
See Hor. C. i. 3, i.
b) Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita
following with adversative force in another : ' U t errare,
mi Fiance, potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non
videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Flancus, but deceived
you could not have beeriy C. Fam, x. 20.
E) Without Demonstrative :
' Praesertim ut nunc sunt mores,' especially as fashions now are,
Ter. Ph. i. 2. 5. Ut res dant sese, in the present state of affairs.
These Conjuiictions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod :
as, ut aiunt, as they say ; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you
please ; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c.
Also, ut nunc est, ut nunc quidem est {under present circumstances)^
ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, (as far as possible).
2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like-
ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de
rebus loquor,' / speak on these subjects like any other head of a
family, C. d. Or. i. 29. ' Inspicere tamquam in speculum in
vitas hominum,' to look into men^s lives, as into a mirror ^ Ter. Ad,
iii. 3. 61.
3) Ut is used
a) To introduce a modifying expression, ' considered as being^
^for^ without a Verb : ' Clisthenes multum, ut tempori-
bus ill is, valuit dicendo,' Clisthenes had great powers of
speaking for those times, C. Brut, 7.
/:>) Also with a Causal force {as being) : ' Apud me, ut
bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam testes valent/
313
Latin Wordlore.
§75.
with me, as a discreet judge^ ci/cu7nstantial proofs have
more weight than wit7iesses, C. d. Or. i. 38.
7) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in
conformity with some other: ^ Aiunt hominem, ut erat
f u r i o s u s, respondisse,' they say the tnan^ raging as he was,
replied, C. p. Rose. Am. 12, ^Horum auctoritate finitumi
adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consiha,
Trebium retinent/ the neighbouring tribes^ led on by these
vien^s itifluence^ with the precipitatio7i usual in the inea-
stires of the Gauls, detaiti Trebius, Caes. B. G. iii. 8. This
sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui ( = quia
talis) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same
thing to use any of these phrases ;
Jut es prudens
qua es prudemia I tacebas
-( ^ \ ^ J ^ laceoas - with your usual prudence
quae tua est prudentia [ {were silent
Vpro tua prudentia
You
75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike-
ness.
At que, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like-
ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis,
idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, ae que, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter,
perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness
they follow the Adjectives alius, contrarius, dissimiHs, dispar, di-
versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c. contra, secus.
Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of
the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the
Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in
Livy, aeque, perinde quam in post- Augustan writers.
i) Correlation of Likeness i—^Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri
nostrique apud vos sint ac nos socu^ provided our common enonies
be 7iot on the same footing in your esteem as we your allies, L. xxxix.
37. * Animus te erga idem est ac fuit,' the feeling towards you is
the same as it was^ Ter. Haul. \\. 3. * Pari eum at que illos imperio
esse iussit,' he ordered him to be equal in command with the others,
Nep. Dat. 3. * Ahquid ab illo simile at que a ceteris est factum,'
he did something like what others did, C. Phil. i. 4. * Faxo eum
tali mactatum atque hie est infortunio,' / w/// make hi^n suffer
such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph, v. 9. ^Pa-
riter me nunc opera adjuvas ac re dudum opitulata you assist
me now with your zeal just as you helped me some time ago with
your mo7iey, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. *Hi quidem coluntur aeque atque
illi,' these are worshipped equally with the former, C. N. D. iii. 18.
^Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ ^^j- soo7i as a7i
a7ti7nal is bor7i. it delights i7i pleasure, C. Fi7i. ii. 10. ^ Desiderium
absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit/ nothing sharpens re-
gret for the abse7it like neighbourhood, PI. Ep. vi. i. * Ostendant
milites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse,' let the
troops shew they can wage war in winter as well as in sHi/i77ier,
g Correlation, 3 ^ 3
L V 6. ' Omnia in Themistocle fuerunt paria et Coriolano/ all the
fads in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Corto-
laitus C. Br. II. *Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque
inopia vexavit/ scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as much
as the besieged, L. ix. 13. ' Miltiades totidem navibus atque erat
profectus Athenas rediit/ Miltiades returned to Athens with as
many ships as he had gone out with, Nep. Milt. 7. So, ^Haud
centensimam partem dixi atque possim exprimere/ /
said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut. M. Gl. iii. i.
Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac.
d) Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : ^Eo-
dem mecum patre genitus est,' he has the satne father
as myself, Tac. A. xv. 2. 'Quo in loco res nostrae sint
iuxta mecum omnes intellegitis,' //^^ state of our affairs
you all understand as well as I do, Sail. C. 58.
Horace uses idem with a Dative : * Invitum qui servat iden)
facit occidenti,' one who rescues a man against his will
does the same as one who kills, ad Pis. 467.
b) Pro eo {in proportion) goes before ac, ut, quantum {as).
' Pro eo ac debui,' as I was bound, C. Fam. iv, 5. ' Pro
eo ac mereor,' according to my desert, C. in Cat. iv. 2.
' Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit,' as far as the existing
difficulties allowed, C. Verr. iii. 54. ' Pro eo quanti te
facio,' in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam. iii. 13.
c) Prout {according as). ' Prout ipse amabat litteras,' in ac-
cordance with his own love of learning, Ncp. Att. i.
d) Praeut {compared with), praequam {coinpared with) are
Comic : * Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be,
Plaut. Bacch. iv. 9. 5. ^ Praequam quod molestumst/ com-
pared with the trouble, Plaut. A)nph. ii. 2. 3.
e) Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137.
2) Correlation of Unlikeness :
* Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu,' they are of different temper
from you, C. Leg. ii. 7. ^ Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque
aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur,' the Stoics say many things
are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses, C.
Ac. ii. 31. * Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed
paulo secus a me atque ab illo distributa,' there are the same
members in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat
differently from his method, C. d. Or. iii. 30. ' Vides omnia fere
contra ac dicta sint evenisse,' j^?^ see that almost everything has
turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div. ii. 24. ' Brutus
iuvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu-
erat,' Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he
had assumed, L. i. 56. ^Multiplex quam pro numero damnum
est,' the loss is out of all proportion to the 7iU7nber, L. vii. 8. * Eruca
diversaeest quam lactuca naturae, is of a different cha-
racter from lettuce, PI. A^. H xix. 8.
d) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative : ^ Neve putes alium
sapiente bonoque beatum,' and you will deem none
other happy than the wise and good man, Epist. i. 16. 20.
Latin Wordlof'e.
§76,
Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de-
rivative of alius : * Aliud ratio est, aliud oratio/ reason
is one things speech another = a.li\x d est ratio at que (et)
oratio. See p. 317.
76
Quanu iv. Corrclations of Degree with quam.
The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quem^
ad m o d u m.
As an Interrogative particle {how), it intensifies Adjectives, Ad-
verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80.
Correlative to tarn expressed or understood {as), it compares the
qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309.
Following Comparative words, quam {than) compares things in
a ratio of inequality.
Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions
represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See Syntax
(Compound Sentences of Time).
Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a
Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long
ago, are Interrogative only.
Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam {as).
pfEqua- i) The idioms in which quam {as, how) is attracted to other Ad-
lity. verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus,
it intensifies Positive words of quality ( - very) ; where the full ex-
pression might be tam quam potest. ' Ab eius summo, sicut palmae,
rami quam late diffunduntur,^ the boughs spread very widely from
its summit, like those of the pahn-tree, Caes. B. G. vi. 26. * Cenam
afferri quam opimam imperavit,' ordered a very splendid repast
to be brought in, Caes. B. H. 33. ' Sunt vestrum, indices, quam
multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt,' there are very many of you,
gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr, iv. 25.
2) With a Verb quam = tam (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc-
tions quam-vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will ;
*quamvis multos,' as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So,
^Quamvelitsit potens,' be she as influential as she will C. p. CaeL
26. ^Quam vol en t in conviviis faceti sint,^ be they as witty as
they please at dinner parties, C p. CaeL 28. Quam potest, as much
as possible.
3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla-
tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : ' Relinquebatur ut
quam plurimos colhs occuparet et quam latissimas regiones
praesidiis teneret,' it remained for him to occupy as many hills and
hold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes.
B. C. iii. 44. See p. 279.
4) Tam . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is
an archaic construction. *Magis quam id reputo tam magis
uror,' the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plant. Bac. v.
I. 5. ^ Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxime tutus est,' the
worse any man has acted, the safer he is, Sail. lug, 31.
5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows
a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe-
equality
g , Correlatio7i, 315
daily mire, and, morerarely, admodum, nimis, oppido,per, sane,
valde: Perquam doctus, very learned'. *Mire quam illius loci
cogitatio delectat,' / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought
of the place, Q,Att.\.\\. * Sane quam sum gavisus,' / rejoiced
exceedingly, ' Suos valde quam paucos habet,' C. Fain. xL 13.
E) The Comparison of Inequality with quam {than) is used after Com.
Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. of in°'*
1) Plus, amphus, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non
minus, &c., are used in this comparison, as tam in that of equality :
* Prodest plus imperator quam orator,' a general is of more service
than an orator, C. Br. 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison,
magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison
of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud
amplius, are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible.
2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis
quam may connect the Adjectives. ' Celer tuus disertus magis
est quam sapiens,' friend Celer is fluent rather than wise, C.
Att. xi. 10. Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. *Pauli
Aemihi contio fuit verior quam gratior populo,' the harangue
of Paulus Aemilius was mo7'e truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38.
* Romani bella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt,' the
Roma7ts waged so7ne wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43.
Tacitus has ^vementius quam caute,M^r. 4.
3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive
quality: 'Senectus est natura loquacior,' old age is naturally
somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative), C. Cat. M. 16. *The-
mistocles liberius vivebat,' Themistocles lived too freely, Nep.
Them. i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several. ^ In columba sentio
pluris videri colores, nec esse plus uno,' in the dove I notice a
semblance of several colours^ but not more than one actually, C. Ac.
ii. 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead,
4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and
Pronouns: ' Siculis plus frumenti imperabatur quam quantum
exararant,' the Sicilians were ordered to pay mo7'e corn than they had
harvested, C. Verr. iii. 23. See pro (Prepositions).
5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle: 'Accipere
quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T. D. v. 19.
6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : ^Tacita bona est mulier
semper quam loquens,' a woman is always better silent than
speaking, Rud. iv. 4. 70.
7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius : plus
annum, more than a year \ amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium,
C. * Plus quingentos colaohos infregit mihi,' he inflicted on me fnore
than five hundred blows, Ter. Ad. ii. i. 46.
Obs. In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb
expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui an imam
. . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai
aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iii. 426. See M. Lucr, iii. 456.
3i6
Latin Wordlore.
§77-
Section VII.
Coordination.
i. Coordination by Conjunctions.
Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con-
junctions enumerated § 57, or by the Relative and its Particles.
A) Annexive Conjunctions.
1) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con-
sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nec, neve or neu.
E t associates things of equal importance.
Que appends a usual adjunct ; being attached, as enclitic, to the
word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes.^
Atque (ac) =ad-que, adds something important, as it were by
afterthought.
Neque (nec), nor^ and not, associates negative propositions;
neve (neu) associates prohibitions.
2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati-
cally. Such are etiam = et iam, also^ even, for which et itself is
often used; quoque, also, even, an emphatic que; item = eo
modo, likewise ; necnon, also, moreover* On etiam quoque,
quoque etiam, &c., see M. Lucr. iii. 208.
3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre-
quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms are :
et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : *Et monere et
moneri proprium est verae amicitiae,' both advising and being
advised is the property of true friendship, C. Lael. 25. Mllud
neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest,^ that
7natter can neither by any means be 07nitted fro7n my speech, nor
yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr, ii. i. 34. ' Carthaginiensibus
condicionespacis dictae,bellum neve in Africa neve extra Africam
iniussu populi Romani facerent,' the terms of p^ace dictated to the
Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of
Africa, without authority from the Rofnan people, L. xxx. 37.
Que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, are poetic, but rare in
prose. On et or que in protasis without conjunction in apodosis,
see V. A en. xi. 171.
4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . .
neque, neque . .. et, nec . . . que: Mntellegitis Pompeio et
animum praesto fuisse nec consilium defuisse,' you perceive that
Pompeius had both courage for the occasion, and no lack of counsel,
C. PhiL xiii. 6. ^ Vitia erunt donee homines; sed neque haec
continua, et meliorum interventu pensantur,' vices will exist as long
as men J but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetual, so
also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin^
ciples, Tac. H. iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280.
^ -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first is a Preposition or other
small particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tam variisque, &c. And later still in poetry» to
assist metre : mjiltus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. ii. 5. 71.
§ 77.
Coordmation.
317
5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences,
cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . .
modo; nunc . . . nunc; modo . . . nunc; simul . . .
simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars.
Also by alter . . . alter; alius . . . alius ; and its particles,
aliter . . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . . alibi; &c.
Examples: — ^ Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, tum a
Xenophonte collaudatus est/ Agesilaus has been extolled both by
other writers^ and especially by Xenophon^ Nep. Ag. i. * Hae stellae
tum occultantur tum rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time
hidden^ at another again displayed^ C. N. D. ii. 20. * Socrates non
tum hoc, tum illud, sed idem dicebat semper/ Socrates did not
say one thing at one time, another at another ; but the same thing
always, C. LaeL 4. ^Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consili
summaeque tum benevolentiae tum etiam prudentiae,'/^^ have
written me a letter full of good advice^ and of great kindness as
well as prudence, C. Att, ix. 5. * Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis,
qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit/ all the Fabii, both plebeians and
senators, were men of eminent merit ^ L. ii. 45. ^Animalia cibum
partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium
tenacitate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum ; alia sugunt,
alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt/ some animals take their
food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, so7ne seize it by
their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others
peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N. D. ii. 47. * Natura
alterum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alteri deest
praesto plerumque est alteri/ Nature would have one man stand
in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum.
Pr, 6. ^Aliter cum tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur,' we live
in one way with a tyrant, in another with a frieiid, C. Lael. 2/^, 89.
6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi-
dinative) are, primum (in the first place), deinde {jn the next place),
variously followed by one or more of the words, tum, postea, mox, tides,
praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in
short, finally, or postremo (um), in the last place,
* Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista
sors inaudita Graecis est; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo
versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboliam versus
intellegere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere,' in
the first place Apollo never spoke in Lectin ; in the next the Greeks
never heard of that oracle ; moreover, in the times of Pyrrhus, Apollo
had already ceased to make verses ; in fine, Pyrrhus would have
been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more
in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div. ii. 56.
Sometimes tum precedes deinde ; and denique is followed by
postremo. In Cic. Fin. v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum
. . . tum .... deinde . . . post . . . tum . . . deinde, without
denique or postremo. See also M. Lticr. iii. 529.
In these sequences primum is used; seldom primo, which means
originally, at first, but sometimes itt the first place, deinde fol-
lowing.
318
Lati7i Wordlore.
§ 78-79.
d) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 h),
b) Anaphora is the construction which, instead of using An-
nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more
words : * Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis,
sed malign is verbis,' he promised, but hardly, with knitted
brows, and in spiteful language, Sen. Ben. i. i. * Si recte
Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte
aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit,' if Cato judged rightly,
then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent; nor yet
the vendor of an unwholesome house, C. Off. iii. 16.
dve""*^' -^) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions.
Con- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve ; sive, seu.
tions. Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another.
Vel (ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make
optional distinction {or, if you please).
Sive (seu) sometimes means orif\ but, as here cited, it implies
a distinction of name rather than of fact.
* Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda,'
we must dare something as a body, or individually oidure all things,
L. vi. 16. * Sequimur vel antecedimus,' Curt. ^ loco seriove,' in jest
or earnest, L. 'Discessus sive potius fuga,' departure or rather
flight, C.
2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu-
tion : *Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit,' either no
man or, if aiiy, Cato was wise, C. Lael. 2. ' Vel vi, vel clam, vel
precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, C. p. Lig. 3.
3) Vel may mean ^ even.^ * Per me vel stertas Xxc^iyyou may
even snore if you will for me, C. Ac. ii. 29. And ^for instance,^
^ Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi,' C. Fam. vii. 24.
Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279.
79
Adyer- Q\ Advcrsativc Conjunctions.
sative '
Con- The Adversative Conjunctions are autem, sed ; verum, vero ;
tKns. tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum.
1) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose
strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English
but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after
est, sunt) the second word in its clause : *Magnes lapis est, qui
ferrum ad se trahit : rationem autem, cur id fiat, afferre non pos-
sumus,' the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason
for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 39. * Bonum est autem
recta praecipere,^ Lact.
d) Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re-
peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. * Ferendus
tibi in hoc mens error : ferendus autem .'^ immo vero
etiam adiuvandus,' you must endure my mistake here:
endure, do I say f you must eiien abet it, C. Att. xii. 42.
2) Sed, a form of se- {separate), distinguishes with more or less
of opposition. After a negative, it supphes an adverse or differing
notion: * Oti fructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio,' the
advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but relaxation, C. d»
§79
Coordination,
319
Or, ii. 5. Otherwise it is corrective : * Contemno magnitudinem
doloris. Sed si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae/ &c. I despise
greatness of pain,. But suppose it as great as that of PhilocteteSy &c.
C. T. D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics :
^Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : sed ea quae restant audia-
mus/ / quite differ from our friend Quintus, But let us hear what
remains to be said, C. N. D, ii. i.
3) Verum (but truly) resembles sed in use, but is stronger ;
* Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae-
rimus/ we are not inquiring what is profitable to us, but rather
what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or. i. 60.
Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause.
4) Vero {but in truth) when used as a Conjunction is postposi-
tive, and generally corrects by heightening the previous notion :
* Quidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex-
petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, id gratum
acceptumque habendum,' whatever is good^ is desirable; what is
desirable, is surely to be approved ; again what you approve must
be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C. Z". Z>. v. 15.
5) Tarn en {yet, however, nevertheless) detracts from the force of
a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in
the context. It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be
most emphatic. See Syntax (Concessive Sentences).
Sed tamen, attamen, verumtamen, et tamen {but yet), are used.
6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob-
jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c.
^ Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio,'
&c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was
liked by Publius Servilius, &c. C. Phil. ii. 12. * At te di deaeque
perduint,' may the gods and goddesses destroy thee ! Ter. Hec. i. 2.
59. 'Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice,,
quam copiose!' Aeschines upbraids Demosthenes: aye^ and how
skilfully, how copiously, C. T. D. iii. 26.
d) At = at tamen : ^ Si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e con-
spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt,' if
those champions of our freedom have removed theinselveS'
from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. PhiL
ii. 44.
At enim, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like aXXa
v\] A/a in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be
answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per-
venit. Quae est ista defensio .'^ ' &c. but that money, it is
urged, never reached Verres. What a lame defence is
here? &c., C. Verr. ii. 10. * At vero malum est liberos
amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufiferre et per-
peti,' C. Fam. iv. 5. ' At ego, inquit, vobis rationem osten-
dam, qua tanta mala ista effugiatis,' Sail. Cat. 40.
tf) Atqui {yes but, but indeed) adds an objection which needs
to be considered. * O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex-
plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est,' O what a difficult
and inexplicable matter, yo?i say ? Yes, but it must be ex^
plained, C. Att. viii. 3. See M.Lucr. i. 755.
320
Lati7i Wordlo7r,
§ 80-82.
7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but) is used by historians. ' Qui
Romanomm amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt : cete-
rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt/ Sail. lug. 14. So ceteroqui(n).
D) Causal Conjunctions.
i) Nam {for^ for instance^ to he sure) introduces a cause as ex-
planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second
word of a clause) introduces a proof. Namque is a strengthened
form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first
words in their clause.
d) Nam is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to
the Interrogative (quisnam, curnam, &c.), or, in old Latin
chiefly, preceding it. * Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?'
why what can I now say of my father? Ter. An, i. 5, 17.
b) Enim is hnked with other Particles : etenim, y27r, neque
enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero,
verum enimvero. All these may begin a sentence.
* Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae,' why realty j
DavuSy there is no room for laziness ^ Ter. An, i. 3. i.
c) Enim may be emphatic {yes). * Id enim est, inquies,
ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. *Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno,'
V. Aen. viii. 84.
E) Illative Conjunctions.
1) Igitur, ergo, therefore ^ itaque, proinde (proin).
Igitur expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer-
ence ; itaque iaiid so) an inference arising from the antecedence ;
proinde {so then) an inference proportioned to the antecedence.
2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea {on that account)^ point to a ground of
fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground, M. Lucr, iii. 531.
3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca,
have a Conclusive sense : {wherefore, on which account),^
ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Par-
ticles.
i) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon-
strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autem, enim, igitur, &c.).
* Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum/ />^^
fact itself speaks; and this always has most weighty C. p. Mil. 20.
'Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem)
generis est magna penuria,' and steady friends must be
chosen: but of this class there is a great dearth ^ C. Lael. 17. * Mul-
tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos ( = eos igitur) legite
studiose,' the wo7-ks of Xenophon are useful for many purposes :
read them then^ I beg, with caj-e, C. Cat. M. 1 7.
Note. A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really
to a Demonstrative understood (or expressed in another clause).
*Quod est bonum omne laudabile est; quod autem laudabile
* The uses of Latin Adverbs and Conjunctions are a very extensive subject, whicb can-
not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfinished edition of Turscl-
Unns de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large octavo volumes.
§82.
Coordination,
321
est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,' C.
Fin. iii. 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood.
2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a
frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises.
* Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con-
suli quam inaurari,' upon My life I think^ such is your vanity^ you
would rather be consulted by Caesar than plated with gold, C. JFam,
vii. 13. ^Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio,' L. xlv. i.
3) When a Noun has in Attribute, especially a Superlative, and
a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at-
tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern
habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit,' Themistocles sent to
Xerxes by night the most faithful slave he had, Nep. Them. 4;
4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the
Relative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordi*
nate Clause : *Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset {for quein si
is adesset) non molliter ferret,' all pain was absent, but had any been
present, he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin. ii. 20.
5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial constructioii.
^ Non sunt ea bona dicenda nec habenda, quibus abundantem
licet esse miserrimum,' those things ought not to be called or held
good, amidst the overflow of which one may be utterly wretched, C.
T. D. V. 15.
With an Infinitive Clause. *In eos, quos spe ramus nobis
pfofuturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre,' we do not hesitate
to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage^
C. Off. i. 1 5.
With an Interrogation. * Magnus orator fuit Demosthenes :
quern quis umquam dicendo superavit?^ Demosthenes was a great
orator : for who ever surpassed him in speaking f C.
6) The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen-
tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin-
cipal Sentences, to shid^ \}\e\Y logical connexion with something which
has gone before. Such are the phrases quofacto, qua te cog-
nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c.
Also quod {now, but, in fact^ &c.) stands before Conjunctions,
si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. :^Fit
protinus had re audita ex castris Gallorum fuga : quod nisi ere*
bris subsidiis ac totius diei labore mihtes fuissent defessi, omnes
hostium copiae deleri potuissent,' on this intelligence the Gauls
forsook their camp : in fact, if our troops had not been worn out
by frequent skirmishes and a whole dafs fatigue, the e7itire forces
of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. B. G. vii. 88. See C.
Off. i. 14, Div. li. 63, Fin., i. 20 ; Liv. xxix. 34, xxxvi. 2.
7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr. ii, 248.)
d) as quantum : *Tu, quod poteris, no§ consihis iuvabis,'
you will help me with your advice as far as you can, C.
Att. X. 2. 'Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem pro-
fiteri est ausus,' Epicurus is the only man, so far as I
know, who ventured to profess wisdom, C. Fi7i, ii. 3.
Y
322
Latin Word I ore.
§82.
b) opening a sentence in relation to something about to be
stated {as to) : see M. Lucr. iv. 855 : '(2uod scribis te
velle scire qui sit reipublicae status, summa dissensio est/
as to the wish yotc express in your letter to know the con-
dition of public affairs, all is discord , C. Earn, i. 7.
c) as quare : 'Est quod te visam/ there is so7nething I must
see you for^ Plaut. ' Credo ego vos mirari quid sit quod
ego surrexerim/ / imagine you are wondering for what
reason 1 have stood up, C.
d) occasionally for ex quo (since) : * Dies tertius est quod
audivi recitantem Augurinum/ // is now three days since I
heard Augurinus read, PI. Ep. iv. 27.
So cum : *Multi anni sunt cum ille in aere meo est/ // is
mafiy years that he is in my good books, C. Ea7n. xv. 14.
And tantum quod for vix ubi, vixdum : *Qui tantum
quod ad hostis pervenerat, Datames signa inferri iubet/
he had but just reached the enemy when Datames ordered
the standards to advance, N ep. Dat. 6. 'Tantum quod
ex Arpinati veneram, cum mihi litterae a te redditae sunt/
I had just arrived from my house at Arpinum^ when a
letter from you was delivered to 7ne, C. Ea7n. vii. 23.
Note I. The transition by which the Relative quod {which)hQ-
comes the Conjunction of Fact quod {that) and the Causal Con-
junction quod {because) is apparent from such examples. An an-
alogous transition appears in the English that, and the Greek on.
Concedo quod postulas, I grant (the thing) that you ask.
Rectum est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is right,
Nefas est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is a sin,
Gaudeo quod venisti, I am glad that you are come.
Gratum est quod venisti, // is a pleasure that you are come.
Consolatio est quod venisti, is a comfort that you are co7ne.
Hoc consolatur quod venisti, this comforts, that you are come,
Fugit idcirco quod timet, he flies because that he fears.
Venit ideo quod pactus est, he came because that he agreed,
Felix est quod sapiens est, he is happy in that he is wise.
Note 2. On change of construction after Rel, see M. Lucr, i.
720, and Yerg. Aen. vi. 284.
8) The place of the Relative can be taken by its Particles, ubi,
unde, quo, qua, &c.
Ubi may stand for in quo, in qua, in quibus, of place,
person, or thing : ' Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ( = in qua) inambulamus/
this very colonnade in which we are walking, C. d. Or, ii. 5.
Unde stands for ex quo, qua, quibus, a quo, qua, quibus,
&c., and is also referred to place, person, or thing : * Fontes
unde (ex quibus) hauriretis/ sources fro7n which you might
draw, C. d. Or, i. 46. 'Eloquentia, unde ( = a qua) longe
absum,^ eloquence, from which I am far removed, C. Brut. 92.
Quo for ad quem, quam, quod, quos, quae, &c. ' Dignus
Roma locus quo ( = ad quem) deus omnis ^2i\.^ Rome is a place
worthy to be visited by every deity, Ov. E. iv. 270.
Such Particles are connected with mood according to the same
rules as the Relative Pronoun.
§83
Negative Words,
323
Section VIII.
Negative Words*
i. Ne and its Compounds.
1) From the Negative Root na cdirie the Particles ne, n§.
Ne, the lighter form, is used as an encUtic Interrogative* Ne.
It enters into the composition of many v^ords : ne-que (nec),
ne-uter, ne-utiquam, non, nisi (for ne-si), nihil (for ne-hil)^ nemo
(for ne^homo), nullus (ne-uUus), numqiiam (ne-umqualm), nusquam
(ne-usquam) : ne-queo, ne-scio, nolo (ne-volo), ne-fas and its deri-
vatives: as nec, of nec-dum, nec-rton, nec-opinus, ne^-otium,
ne^^-lego. On nec for non, see M. Lucr. ii. 23.
N e, the strengthened form, is used in prohibitive and findl con-
struction, and in the phrases ne . . . quidem, nedum, &c.
It enters into the composition of words : ne-ve (neu), ne-cubi,
&c. ; ne-quaquam, ne-quiquam, ne-quam ; in old Latin more
largely, as funera ne-funera in Catullus.
On ni, nei, as old forms of ne, see M. Lucr. ii. 734,
2) Ndn, haud (anc. haut), not, deny Predication or Attribution.
Non simply denies : haud somewhat more strongly.
Cicero rarely uses haud with a Verb, except in the phrase^ haud
scio an' (often in MSS. hauscio an). But ' Haud equiderri ^ssen-
tior/ Leg. iii. 11. See also Cat. M. xxiii. 82, Div. ii 39.
The ordinary use of haud is with Adjectives and Adverbs. Thus
in C. haud deterior, haud mediocris, haud sane, haud paulo, haud
facile, haud fere quisquam, haud umquam. Comic poets use haud
with Verbs, especially with possum: Virgil rai'ely with finite
Verbs. Horace has ^ haud mihi dero/
3) Nihil (nil) maybe Used as a Particle [tn no wise) : nihil opus
e^t, nihil moror, nihil me fallis. Rarely with Adjectives and Par-
ticiples : 'Nihil similis,* L. * Senatus nihil sane intentus,' Sail.
Cat. 17. * Animos nil magnae laudis egdntis,' Virg. Ae. v. 751.
4) Soquicquam : ^Nehoc quidettl ipso quicquam opus fuit
iudicid,* even of this judgment there was no need, C. d. Inv. ii. 27.
5) Nullus is used with the force of non. ^Sextus ab armis nul^
lus discedit,' Sextus does not lay down his arfns, C. Att. xv. 22.
6) The Substaintive nemo (ne-homo) is used for nullus : as
'l^emo pictor J no painter, C. * Nemo fere adulescens,V/^r^/y ^;//
young man ; even * hominem neminem,' C. Fam. xiii. 55. * Nemo
\xn\xs^ not one person, L. iii. 12. So quisquam, though Substan-
tival, is found with homo, civis, &c.
On the other hand, Gen. nullius, Abl. nullo, are used as Cases of
nemo, rarely of nihil. 'Si iniuste neminem laesit, si nullius
aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odionec
domi nec militiae fuit,' if he has harined no one unjustly, if he has
done violence to no man, by woj'd or act, if, to say the least, he has
Y 2
83
Nega-
tive
Words.
324 Latin Wordlore. §84.
been disagreeable to 7to?ie at hojne or abroad^ &c., C. p, Miir. 40.
^ Ut quisque sic munitus est ut nullo egeat/ according as each man
is so provided as to wa7it 7iobodys help, C. Lael, 9.
a) Non ita, haud ita, are used as modified Negatives : non
ita pridem, haud ita pridem, {not very long ago).
Neutiquam {iiot at all) is chiefly found in Comedy : also in a
few places of Cicero and Livy. L. has neutique.
Nequiquam, {to no purpose). Nequaquam, haudquaquam, {by
710 7neans).
b) Vix, scarcely, hardly, is a modified Negative.
c) Minus is used as nearly = non. ' Nonnumquam ea, quae
praedicta sunt, minus eveniunt/ so7neti7nes predictio7is fail
to tur7i out true^ C. Div. i. 14. Especially quominus ( = ut
eo minus), and sin minus, but if not.
Minime {least of all=7tot at all) is a strong Negative.
d) The enclitic dum {awhile, yet) is compounded with all the
Negatives except nemo ; also with vix ; nondum, haud'
dum, nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum.
ii. Succeeding Negatives.
1) A Negative precedes the word which it affects ; and if another
Negative follows within the same predication, the negation is an-
nulled, and the predication becomes Affirmative.
Hence arise new Pronominal forms; some Indefinite :
nonnuUus nearly = aliqui
nonnemo — = aliquis
nonnihil — = aliquid
nonnumquam — = aliquando
some Universal : as,
nullus non nearly = omnis
nemo non — omnes or unusquisque
nihil non — = omnia
numquam non — = semper
nusquam non — = ubique
So, neque . . , non is nearly = etiam (also).
2) Non followed by non forms a strong affirmative : thus, non
prossum non = necesse est mihi. *Non potui non dare litteras
ad Caesarem,' I could not but write to Caesar^ C. Att. viii. 2.
So, nemo . . . non : nihil . . . non, &c. *Tuum consilium nemo
potest non maxime l^Md^xe,^ 7tobody ca7t help praising your de-
sig7i highly^ C. Fa7n. iv. 7.
Non modo, non tantum, 7tot only ; modo non, tantum non, only
7tot = all but: ^Modo non montis auri pollicens,' profnising all
but niountains of gold, Ter. Ph. i. 2. 18.
3) If a negative proposition branches into two clauses with
neque . . . neque, the proposition remains negative: * Caesar
numquam neque fecit neque fecisset ea quae nunc ex falsis
eius commentariis proferuntur,' Caesar never did nor would have
done the things which are produced fro7fi his spurious niamiscripts,
C. Fa7n. xiv. 13.
§ 85- Negative Words, 325
d) As the English ^ and not^ is usually expressed by neque ;
and by ^ et non * only when the negative belongs emphati-
cally to the following word ; so ^ and none^ ' and no-
thing^ * and nobody^ * and never^ &c., are expressed by
* neque ullus,' * neque quicquam/ *nec quisquam/ *nec
umquam/ &c. ; not by et nullus, et nihil, et nemo, et num-
quam, &c. : but if the negative is emphasised, the latter
forms must be used: 'Domus temere et nullo consilio
administratur/ the household is conducted in a confused
way, and without any plan, C. d, Inv, i. 34.
b) Neque is used with vero, tamen, enim, rarely autem, to con-
nect Adversative and Causal Sentences negatively.
85
iii. Ne . . . quid em, nedum, non modo, &c. Ne . .
quidem,
1) Ne . . . quidem = ;/<7/ even, takes the emphatic words be-
tween the particles. ' Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo,' /
will not appeal even to Cato, C. Att. iv. i. Another negative
may go before, with the predicative word: *Non fugio ne hos
quidem mores,' I do not shun even these morals^ C. Verr, iii. 90.
Nec is rarely used for ne . . . quidem. ^Esse aliquid manis
et subterranea regna nec pueri credunt,' that ghosts and subter-
ranean realms have any existence not even boys believe, luv. ii. 152.
2) Nedum indicates that a predication is out of the question. Nedum.
Hence with previous negative, it means * much less ; ' with affirm-
ative (usually) ' not to say.^ ' Satrapa si siet amator, numquam
sufferre eius sumptus queat, nedum tu possis,' if a satrap were
her lover, he could not support her expenses, much less can you,
Tqy. Haut.m. 1.43. ^ Nulla simulacra urbibus, nedum templis,
sinunt,' they allow no images to their cities^ much less to their
temples^ Tac. H. v. 5. ' Tu quoniam quartana cares et nedum
morbum removisti sed etiam gravedinem, te vegetum nobis in
Graecia siste,' since you are free from quartan fever, and rid not to
say of disease but even of languor, present yourself to us in Greece
flourishing, C. Att, x. 16.
Sometimes, but not in Cicero, nedum after an affirmative
means ' much more notJ' ' Et consules bellicosos creatos, qui vel
in pace bellum excitare possent, nedum in bello respirare civitatem
forent passuri,' warlike consuls had been elected, who could stir up
war even in peace, much more in war would not sniffer the state to
take breath, L. xlv. 29. See also Hor. ad Pis. 69.
3) When the principal sentence contains not only, an Adversa-
tive clause {but) succeeds. Hence non modo, non solum, are
followed by sed, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam, &c. : *Non
solum verbis arte positis moventur omnes, verum etiam numeris
ac vocibus,' all men are affected not only by words skilfully ar-
ranged, but also by measures and sounds, C. d Or, iii. 50.
a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by
sed, sed etiam, &c., or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed
neque, &c. : ' Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra
me est potius,' this is not only not for me, but even against
me, C. d. Or, iii. 20. 'Ego non modo tibi non irascor,
326
Latm Word lore.
§86.
sed ne reprehendo qui d em factum tuum/ /^ww^j/^^w/V
not angry with you, but do not even blame your deed, C.
p, SulL is.
When both sentences have a common verb, non modo
may be elliptically placed in the former, for non modo
non: *Tahs vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare
quidem quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit'
( = sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man will not
venture, not merely to do, but even to conceive anything
which is not morally right, C. Off. iii. 19. * Nihil eis
Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui-
dem suis reliqui fecit,' Verres left them nothing, I do not
say of their produce, but even of their property, C. Verr.
iii. 48.
c) The sentences are soqietimes inverted, so that non modo =
7nuch less-. *Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse/
7iot even swi?te would desire that, much less himself
C. T. D. i. 38.
d) Non tam, not so much, is followed by sed oi sed magis. See
M. Lucr. iii. 833.
Section IX.
Questions and Answers.
R.T 1. Questions (direct or oblique : see § 73),
An-
swers. Interrogation may be Single or Disjunctive*
imfrf Single Interrogation without a Particle.
tian. An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the
beginning, ' Will you go f ' But in Latin the sense or tone shews
the distinction. * Certe patrem tuum non occidisti?' assuredly
you did not kill your father ? Suet. Aug. 33, which suggests the
reply, Certe non occidi. * Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum
fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dig his ground f Sen.
Prov. 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon-
strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation : *Non pudet ad
morem discincti vivere Nattae ? ' are you not ashamed of living
in the fashion of dissolute Natta? Pers. iii. 31. Or attention is
awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether.-^' seest
thou with scented fires how shines the sky f Ov. i^ i. 75« * Viden
tu hunc?' Plaut. Capt. iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, &g.
ii. Single Interrogation with a Particle.
i) Num expects a negative answer; nonne, an affirmative;
ne asks indifferently: ' Num formidulosus, obsecro, es, mi homo ?
— Egone formidulosus nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus,' are
you in a fright, pray, my good fellow f — / in a fright ? no 7nan
alive is less so, Ter. Bun. iv. 6. 19. * Nonne miseri sumus.'*'
§ 86. Questions and Answers, 327
d) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : ' Deum
ipsum numne vidisti ?' have you seen God Himself? (no),
C. TV. A i. 31. * N umnam ego perii ? ' ain I a lost 7na7i ?
(I hope not), Ter. Eun, v. 4. 25. ^Ecquis mc vivit
hodie fortunatior?' lives there any this day more lucky
than I ? Ter. Eun, v. 8. i. < Numquis hie est? nemo
est: numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one
here ? nobody: is any one following me out ? Ter. Eun.
iii. 5. I.
2) An properly signifies 'or^ and introduces the second and fol-
lowmg members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to
introduce a single interrogation, it really refers to a previous ques-
tion conceived in the mind is this adinitted or,' &c.). Hence it
confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op-
posite notion : * Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de-
decet. An tibi irasci tum videmur cum quid in causis acrius et
vehementius dicimus ' anger is unbecoming in an orator^ the sem-
blance of anger is not unbecoming. (Do you allow this 1) or do you
suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual
vehemence? C. T. D, iv. 25— meaning : 'we are not really angry
when we so speak ; the semblance therefore affords no argument
against the maxim that anger is unbecoming in an orator.'
Sometimes an refers to aliudne understood : 'Quid dices an
Siciliam virtute tua liheratsim?' what will you say? that by your
valour Sicily was freed? C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything
else, or, &c. = will you not probably say that, &c.) See § 87, Foot-note.
An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as
nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in Enghsh we say,'/
know not whether he is coming^ we imply a probability
that * he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat
usually means existimo eum venire. So, 'Nescio an
modum excesserint,' / am inclined to think they have over-
stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost
adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium
praestantissimus,' the wisest and perhaps the most excellent
of all, C. N. D, ii. 4.
b) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc
orationem m Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor-
tuus est an diebus an mensibus,' this speech he entered in
his Origmes a few days (must we say) or months before
he died, C. Brut. 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus.
c) If it were wished to express the meanings ' probably not;
I am mclined to think not,' Sec, a Negative was intro-
duced m the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, f
think he is not coming. ' Quaere rationem cur ita vide-
atur: quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scfo an
non possis, non tu ostenderis,' &c., seek a ground for this
opinion ; but though you be ever so successful in findinp
one, which I rather think you cannot do, you will not have
shewn, &c., C Ac. ii. 25. 'Contigit tibi, quod haud scio
an nemi ni, there has happened to you what I rather think
has befallen no one else, C. Qu. Fr. i. i. It is questioned
Latin Wordlore.
whether the same sense is obtained by using, instead of
Negatives, those Pronouns and Adverbs which are only-
found in negative or hypothetical sentences, quisquam,
ullus, unquam, &c. ; but, as the reading in all the places
cited is doubtful, it is safer to use the Negatives for this
purpose.
d) Writers of the Silver age sometimes give nescio an the
negative force, ^ I think not'
87
Disjunc- iii. Disjunctive Interrogation has four varie-
tiveln-
terroga- w 1 v, o.
tion. In First Member. In Second Member.
i) utrum (utrumne) an
2^ ne •••«•••« an
3) No Particle an (anne)
4) No Particle ne.^
1) ^ Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est ?' is that your fault or
ours? C. Ac. ii. 29. * Quod nescire malum est agitamus, utrumne
divitiis homines an sint virtute beati,^ we discuss^ what it is an
evil to be ignorant of, whether men are happy by riches or virtue^
Hor. S. ii. 6. 73.
2) ' Quod si dies notandus fuit, eumne potius notaret, quo natus,
an eum, quo sapiens factus est V now, if a day was to be marked,
should he have marked that rather, on which he was born^ or that on
which he became wise? C. * Quaeritur virtus suamne propter
dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos expetatur/ // i^ a question
whether virtue be sought for its own worth or for so77ie profits ac-
cruing, C. d. Or. iii. 29.
3) ^ Recto itinere duxisti exercitum ad hostis an super omnes an-
fractus viarum .'^ ' did you march your ar7ny straight to the ene77ty,
or by every windi7ig road? L. xxxviii. 45. * Refert oratorem qui
audiant, senatus an populus an judices, frequentes an pauci an
singuli,' it is of mo}ne7it who a7t orator's audience are, the senate or
people or be7ich of judges ; a crowd or a few persons or a7t indi^
vidual, C. d. Or. iii. 55.
4) ^Albus aterne fueris ignorans,' not knowing whether yoie
were white or black, Q. Phil. ii. 16. ^Tarquinius Superbus Prisci
Tarquinii filius neposne fuerit, parum liquet,' whether Tarquin
the Proud was son or grandson of Tarqui7i the elder, is not certain,
]L. i. 41. This form is only used in Oblique Interrogation.
a) An . . . an, ne . . . ne, are poetic, but rare in prose :
^ Distat an maturitas uvarum in torcularibus fiat an in
ramis,' it makes a difference whether the grapes become
ripe in the press-rooms or on the boughs., PI in. N. H. xv. i.
^Quiteneant . . . hominesne feraene Quaerere consti-
* Madvig {Opusc. 230), witb whom Hand concurs {Turs. iv. 321), denies that the form
num ... an can be classed with the other Disjunctive forms, in which one alternative
must be affirmed. As num always points to a negative answer, an, when annexed to
it becon>es almost = annon. 'Numfuris? an prudens ludis me obscura canendo?' are
you going mad? or do you purposely Receive me with dark oracles? Hor. S. ii. 5- 59»
plying that the latter is the fact,
§88.
Questions and Answers,
329
tuit/ he resolves to inquire who inhabit it , , , whether
men or wild beasts, Verg. A en. i. 308.
b) If in the Second Member there is a Negation of the former,
necne or annon is used, generally without, sometimes
with, the Verb repeated : ^Fiat necne fiat id quaeritur/ the
question is whether it does happen or not, C. Fain. i. 39. ^ Di
utrum sint necne sint quaeritur/ it is in question whether
gods exist or not, C. N. D. iii. 7. * Num tabulas habet
annon ? ' has he the accounts or not? C. p. Qu. Necne is
not used after num ; and only in Oblique Interrogation.
11. Answers.
i. Affirmative Answers in Latin are given in ASirma-
three ways. ^'J^.t"'
1) By repeating the emphatic word of the question in the required
person or case : ^ Abiit Clitipho. — Solus 1 Solus/ Clitipho is gone.
Alone? A lone J Ter. Haul. v. i. 31. ^Virtutes narro. — Meas ?
Tuas.' I talk of virtues. What, mine? — Yours, Ter. Ad. iv. i,
19. ^Tunenegas? Nego hercle vero/ do you deny it? Ves,^
upon my word, I do, Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 67.
2) By some expression equivalent to a repetition of the emphatic
word: 'Die, Chaerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi Factum,^ say,
did Chaerea strip your coat off? He did, Ter. Run. iv. 4 39. Or
increasing the emphasis : 'Pater est Ipsust,' // my father?
Himself, Ter. *An voluptas in bonis habenda est.'^ At que in
maximisquide m,' is pleasure to be reckoned ainong goods ? Ay,
and among the greatest, C.
3) By Affirmative Particles, either alone, or joined to the em-
phatic word. Such are, it a, sane, etiam, verum, utique, vero,
certe, ita plane, ita enimvero, ita prorsus, omnino, admodum, rccte,
profecto. 'Numquid vis ? Etiam,' do you want anything? Yes,
Ter. 'Visne potiora tantum interrogem? Sane,' would you have
me ask only the principal matters? Exactly so, C. ' Fuisti saepe,
credo, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum .^^ Vero, ac
libenter quidem,'jK^>2^ were often, I suppose, when you were at Athens,
in the schools of the philosophers ? Yes, and with pleasure, C. T.
D. ii. II.
d) Nimirum, nempe, quippe, videlicet, scilicet {obviously,
to be sure, why), express irony : ' Quem hunc appellas,
Zeno ? Beatum, inquit. Etiam beatissimum ? Quippe,
inquiet,' what call you this man, Zeno ? Happy, says he. '
Supremely happy, too ? Why yes, he will say, C. Fin. v.
28. 'Tibi ego possem irasci "^. Scilicet,' could I have beefi
angry with you ? Very likely ! C. Qu. Fr. i. 3.
b) Certo always affirms positively {for certain^ : certe some-
times affirms positively, sometimes restrictively (at all
events, at least). Vero affirms positively {of a truth), or it
may be used as an Adversative Particle. Vere means
verily, really, truly.
Latin Wordlore.
% 89-90.
89
^ega- ii. Nesfative Answers are also efiven in three
tive An- *^
swers. ways.
1) By repeating the emphatic word with a Negative Particle :
*Estne frater intus? N on est/ is my brother inf No, Ten Ad,
iv. 2. 30.
2) By Negative Particles alone, such as non, non vero, non ita,
minime, minime vero, nihil sane, nihil vero minus, nequaquam, ne
id quidem, &c. * Cognitorem adscribit Sthenic. Quern? Cogna-
tum aliquem aut propinquum ? Non. Thermitanum aliquem,
honestum hominem ac nobilem? Ne id quidem. At Siculum,
in quo ahquis splendor dignitasque esset ? M inime/ assi^us to
Sthenius a defender. lVho?n f Was it soine blood-relation or kins-
man f No. Some inhabitant of Thermae., a man of honour and
rank ? Not even that. Well, but a Sicilian., possessing some emi-^
7ience and dignity ? Far from it, C. Verr, ii. 43. * Non opus est ?
Non hercle vero,' is there no occasion? None, I assure you, Ter.
Haul, iii. 3. 50.
3) By immo {nay rather = \hQ Greek /ncV ovi^), when the answer
is not simply Negative, but at the same time corrective of the
opinion implied in the question : * Ubi fuit Sulla, num Romae ?
Immo longe afuit,' where was Sulla f was he at Rome? Nay,
he was at a great distance from it, C. p. Suit, 19. ^ Visne adesse me
una? Immo longe abi,' would you like me to attend with you ?
No, keep at a distance, Ter. * Sicine hunc decipis ? Immoenim-
vero hie me decipit,' is it thus you deceive him? Nay, to tell the
truth, he is deceiving me, Ter. Ph. iii. 2. 43. Immo is also used
when the answer admits the fact, but adds some heightening circum-
stance : as * Hie tamen vivit. Vivit ? Immo etiam in senatum
venit,' yet this man lives. Lives ? Yea, even comes into the s.enate,
C. Cat. I. ^Tenaxneest? Immo ^ertmdix,^ is he tenacious/ Yes,
and pertinacious, Flaut. Capt. ii. 2. 39.
a) Recte, optime, are used not only affirmatively, but also
polite Negatives : ^ Rogo numquid velit. Recte, inquit'
J ask if he wants anything. All right, says hCy
Ter. Eun. ii. 3. 4. So, benigne [youVe very kind) is
used as a polite mode of declining : as in French, je vous
remercie. See Hor. Epist. i. 7. 16.
Section X.
Uses of the Verb.^
(In Ch. III. Sections I. — III., Verbal uses have, to some extent,
been explained along with the forms of the Verb. Throughout
Syntax they again appear as affecting construction generally. The
matter of the present Section is therefore limited to a few points.)
' Every finite Verb is a predicative word, having Number, Person, Mood and Tense.
In regard of Number and Person, it is determined by its Subject : in regard of manner
of action (Mood) and Time (Tense), it is determined by its relations to the speaker or
narrator.
Thus when Dido in Virgil says, * Veniet mihi fama,' the report will come to me.
Indicative Tenses.
331
i. The Indicative or Fact-Mood and its 91
Tenses. J"vf*-
A. Mood. See § 37. ^^*""^'
The Indicative is the Fact-Mood, used to declare (state categor-
ically) : scribo, I write ; scribam, I will write, &c.
Such declaration may be
1) Independent, in a principal sentence.
Scribo ad filium, / write to my son : non scripsi ad Lucium ; and
(in the form of Interrogation), scribesne ad patrem ?
2) Subordinate, if the clause in which it stands is purely objective
(independent of mental conception).
Thus the Indicative may be used in clauses of fact (quod), cause
(quod, quia, &c.), condition (si, nisi), concession (etsi, quamquam,
&c.), time (cum, quando, ubi, antequam, postquam, dum, donee,
&c.) : and in clauses introduced by the Relative Pronoun or a
Relative Particle ; whenever such clauses are free from those forms
of thought which require (as hereafter shewn) the Subjunctive.
Examples : Gratum est quod venis (venies, venisti, &c.).
Gaudeo quod (cum, si, &c.) venis, &c. Gaudebo si (cum) venies
(veneris). Non gaudebo nisi venis (venies, veneris). Gaude-
bam cum (quia) veniebas (veneras). Mane dum redeo, Eo
quamquam aeger sum. Ibo etsi tu noles (nolueris).
B. Tenses.
The relations of the Indicative Tenses Active (shewn § 38) may indic.
be thus re-stated. Tenses.
Writing, as an action, is to me
I. a, simply present : scribo, / write,
b, — past : scripsi, / wrote.
c, — future : scribam, / shall write.
II. I. a, now present : scribo, I am writing,
b* — past : scripsi, / have written.
<r. — future : scripturus sum, / am about to write,
2. a. formerly present : scribebam, / was writing,
— past : scripseram, / had written,
c, — future : scripturus eram, / was about to write.
'veniet'is determined in Number (Sing.) and Person (3rd) by its Subject *fama:' its
Mood is Indicative and its Tense Future, because Dido declares what will happen
to her. See § 37.
Had she said, *Veniat mibi fama,' * may the report come to me,' * veniat' would be re-
lated in the same respects to *fama : ' but its Mood (Conjunctive in Optative Sense) and
Tense (Ci) would be determined by the fact that Dido states a conceived wish that some-
thing may happen to her in time coming.
If we suppose the expression to be, *optabat Dido veniret sibi fama,' * Dido wished th&
report might come to her, 'veniret ' again follows the Number and Person of *fama ; ' and
is again Conjunctive in Optative Sense because a conceived wish is expressed ; but its
Tense becomes C3 because (instead of coming directly from the speaker's mouth as
'veniat* did) it depends on the narrator's statement, *optabat,' which, being Past, re-
quires (as hereinafter shewn) the Historic Consecution : and what is stated is, that Dido
ill time past conceived a wish that something might happen in time then future to her.
332
Latin Word lore.
§91.
3. a. hereafter present : (scribam, / shall be writing),
b, — past : scripsero, / shall have written.
c, — future : scripturus ero, / shall be about to
write.
Forms under I. are the Simple or Aorist (indefinite) Tenses.
Forms under II. are the Relative Tenses.
The Passive Tenses correspond similarly.
A^ote. I. The form II. i. a. (Present with Present relation) is seldom
needed except when there is a clause with dum : * Dum tu sectaris
apros, ego retia servo/ while you are chasing boars, I am watching
nets, Verg. B, iii. 74. ' Dum aes exigitur, dum mula ligatur, tota
abit hora/ while the fare is being taketi, and the 7nule harnessed^ a
whole hour passes, Hor. S. i. 5. 13.
The form 3. a. (Future with Present relation) is rarely needed.
A) The Present Tense expresses
1) Momentary Present action. *Procumbit humi bos/ the bull
falls prostrate, Verg. Aen, v. 481. ' Momento turbinis exit Marcus
Dama/ as soon as twirled he comes forth Marcus Da^na, Pers. v.
77.
2) Action or state occasionally, habitually, or permanently pre-
sent. ^ Domesticus otior/ / lounge at ho7ne, Hor. S, i. 6. 127.
* Honos alit artis,' honour nurtures the arts, C. T. D. i. 2. ' Deus
est, qui sentit, qui regit et moderatur, et est aeternus,' there
is a god, who perceives, who rules and governs, and is eternal, C.
Rep. vi. 24.
3) The opinion or statement of an author, who is cited as if still
living and speaking: 'Laud at Africanum Panaetius/ &c., C.
*S crib it Cato/ C. &c.
Peculiar uses of the Present are :
a) The Anticipative Present, sometimes found as an emphatic
substitute for the Future : ' Ni propere fit quod impero,
vinciri vos iam iubeo,' if what I com7nand is not done
with speed, I order you to be put in chains this moinent,
L. xxxvi. 28. ^Abeo an maneo.^' shall I go or stay ? Ten
Ph. V. I. * Imusne sessum 1 ^ shall we go and sit down? C.
d. Or, iii. 5.
b) The Historic Present, used for the Past in animated and
picturesque narrative, whether in history, oratory, or
poetry: ^ Dimisso senatu, decemviri prodeunt in con-
tionem, abdicantque se magistratu, ingenti hominum
laetitia,' when the senate broke up, the decemvirs go forth
to the assembled people, and resign office, to the great delight
of the public, L. iii. 54.
Note 2. Here maybe noticed the idiom of the Historic Infinitive
(Pres. Imperf ) used predicatively for a Finite Verb ; a construction
analogous to the omission of the verb sum, inasmuch as it leaves
out, like this, the expression of time, number, and person. Both
constructions are found occurring together : ' Ceterum facies totius
negotii varia incerta foeda atque miserabilis; dispersi a
suis pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines
91
Indicative Tenses.
333
observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resist ere ac
propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes, cives permixti ; nihil
consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere/ now the aspect of
the whole affair was confused^ indecisive^ shocking and pitiable ;
parties scattered from their comrades were some retiring^ others
advancing ; observing neither standards nor ranks ; where peril
encotmtered each man^ there was he resistifig and repelling : arms,
darts ^ steeds, men, foes, country inen were inter 7ningled, nothing was
proceeding by counsel or command : chance directed alL Sail. lug.
51. This construction, in which the Infinitive maybe considered
Imperfect, is frequently used by poets as well as historians.
c) The Historic Present is commonly used in a Temporal
clause with dum, even when the Principal Sentence is
Past or Future : *Dum obsequor adolescentibus, me
senem esse sum oblitus/ in complying with young men, I
have forgotten that I ain old, C. d. Or. ii. 4.
d) The Present obtains a Past sense also when joined with
iam, iam diu (dudum, pridem) : ^ Annum iam audis Cratip-
pum,' you have now for a year been attending the lectures
of Cratippus^ C. Off i. i. * lamdudum video,' / have
seen it this long time, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 15. ^ lampridem
cupio Alexandriam visere,' / have been long desirous to
visit Alexandria, C. Alt. ii. 5.
e) Poets use the Historic Present with great license for the
Perfect : ' Quantum mutatus ab illo Hectore, qui redit
exuvias indutus Achillis,' how changed from that Hector
who returned clad in the spoils of Achilles, Verg. Aen. ii.
275.
B) The Perfect Tense expresses
1) As Aorist, the simple statement of a past fact : ^ Veni, vidi,
vici,' / came, I saw, I co7iquered, Caes.
2) As Present with Past relation, the statement of a fact com-
plete at the present moment. * D ixi,' I have spoken, Cic. ^ Venit
summa dies,' the last day is come, Verg. Aen. ii. 324.
It is idiomatically used to express:
a) The rapid completion of action (poetic) : ^Fugere ferae,'
beasts have fled, Verg. G. i. 330.
b) Cessation of existence (poetic) : * Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium,'
we Trojans have been, Troy has been (i.e. exists no longer)^
Verg. Aen. ii. 325.
General habit: *(Rege) amisso rupere fidem constructaque
mella diripuere,' if the queen-bee is lost they break faith
and pull down their honey stores, Verg. G. iv. 213.
Prose writers use this idiom in clauses with cum, si, &c.
'Cum fortuna reflavit affligimur,' when fortune blows
contrary, we are flung down, C. Off. ii. 6.
d) Anticipation, for the Future Perfect : * Brutus si conser-
vatus erit, vicimus,' if Brutus shall have been saved, we
have won the day, C. Fa7n. xii. 6,
Latin Wordlorc.
C) The I mperfect expresses
1) Action going on in time past along with other action (Past
with Present relation) : Mbam forte Via Sacra . . . accurrit qui-
dam,' &c., / was walking by chance along the Sacred Road {when)
a certain 7nan ran up to me, &c., Hor. Sat. i. 9. i.
2) Action repeated or habitual in time past : * Dicebat melius
quam scripsit Hortensius/ Hortensius used to speak better than he
has written^ C. Or. 38. * Noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane, diem
totum stertebat/ //5^ used to lie awake whole nights till daybreak,
and snore all day long, Hor. S, i. 3. 17.
3) Action in time past, intended or begun, but not completed :
* Aeneas . . . lenibsit dictis a.nimum,* Aeneas was trying to so/ten
her mind with his words, Verg. Aen. vi. 468. ' Num dubitas id me
imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas?' do you hesitate
to do at my comjnand what you were already on the point of doing
ifoluntarily f C. Cat. i. 5. * Huius deditionis ipse, qui dedebatur,
suasor et auctor fuit,' of this surrender the very man who was to be
surrendered was the mover and adviser, C. Off. iii. 30.
D) The Pluperfect expresses action past in a time itself past,
and often stands in connection with other Tenses : * Cum esset De-
mosthenes, multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant,
nec postea defecerunt,' in the time of Demosthenes there were many
great and renowned orators^ and there had been such before, nor did
they fail afterwards, C. Or. 2. ' Postquam lux ceVtior erat, et
Romani, qui caedibus superfuer ant, in arcem confugerant,
conticescebatque tumultus, turn Tarentinos convocari iubet,'
when the light became stronger, and the Romans, who had survived
the massacre, had escaped into the citadel, and the tcproar was getting
quiet, he then orders the Tarentines to be convoked, L. xxv. 10.
d) As Clauses expressing habit are in the Perfect with cum,
si, ubi, simul ac, when the principal Verb is Present
(see above B c), so they are in the Pluperfect with the
same Conjunctions, when the principal Verb is Imperfect.
'Gyges, cum palam eius anuli ad palmam Converterat,
a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat; idem
rursus videbatur cum in locum anulum inverterat,' as
often as Gyges turned the bezel of that ring towards his
palm, he was visible to none, while he saw everything
himself: moreover he came into sight again, as often as ht
turned the ring back to its place, C. Off. iii. 9. * Si hostis
deterrere nequiverant, disiectos ab tergo circumveni-
ebant,' ^ they could not deter the enemy ^ they surrounded
their divisions in the rear. Sail. lug* 50.
(The relations of the Past Indicative Tenses, also of the Historic
Present and Infinitive, are well exemplified in C. Verr. iv. 27;
Sail. lug. 50-51.)
Tenses A^^?/^ 3- A Roman, writing a letter, arranged the Tenses with re-
in letter- ferencc to the time when the letter would be received. Hence many
wruing. facts, which to the writer were Present, are stated as Past in regard
to the receiver. And other facts, which to the writer were Past, are
§91.
Indicative Tenses.
33?
stated in the Pluperfect, for the same reason. The English practice
being different, a Roman letter must be translated not literally,
but into our idiom : ^ Pridie Idus haec scripsi ante lucem. Eo die
apud Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram cenaturus,' / ^^7/^ wr//-
ten this before daybreak on the day before the Ides, I am going
to dine with Pcmp07tius to-day at his wedding,, C. Q. F. ii. 3.
* Nihil habebam quod scriberem: neque enim novi quicquam
audieram, et ad tuas omnis rescripseram pridie,' / have no-
thing to write about : for I have heard no news, and I repiied to
all your letters yesterday,, C. Att, ix. 10. But matters which will
remain present to the receiver, are stated in the Present : ' Ego hie
cogito commorari, quoad me reficiam,' / think of remaining
here whilst I am recj'uiting my healthy C. Fam, vii. 26.
The Simple Future expresses what its name implies, simple
action in the Future: * Ut voles me esse, ita ero/ / will be as
you shall wish me to be, Plaut. Pseud, i. 3
d) It is often used as a polite Imperative : * Quod superest,
puerum Ciceronem curabis et amabis,' for the rest,
please to treat young Cicero with care and affection, C.
Att, iv. 7. See Hor. Epist. i. 18. 37-40.
F) The Future Perfect expresses action to be fulfilled in Future
time: ^Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit,' he,
who shall have crushed Antonius, will have finished the war, C.
Fam, X. 20.
d) It may be connected with the Simple Future, or used for
the Simple Future, with a view to Emphasis : ' Ut semen-
tern feceris, ita metes,' as you shall have sown, so
will you reap, C. d. Or, ii. 65. ^ Si quid acciderit novi,
facies ut sciam,' should anything new happen, please to
let me know, C. Fam, xiv. 8. *Quid inventum sit, paulo
post videro,' what has been discovered, I shall very soon
see, C. Ac, ii. 24. *A, si pergis, dihiQYo,^ nay, if y(m go
on, I shall be off Ten Ad, i. 2. 47. ' Sitne malum dolor
necne Stoici viderint,' whether pain is an evil or not,
the Stoics will have to see, C. T, D, ii. 1 8.
G) In the Future Periphrastic Conjugation (-urus sum,
eram, fui, fueram, ero, fuero, &c.) the Indicative Tenses are called
Present, Perfect, &c., according to the forms of sum : and the general
distinctions above stated apply to them, but not the idiomatic uses.
This Conjugation expresses
1 ) * Being about to ;^ * being on the point of: ' * Apes evolaturae
sunt,' the bees are about to swarm, Varr. R, R. 16. ^ Vos cum
Mandonio arma consociaturi fuistis,' j/^?/^ were on the point of
allying your arms with Mandonius, L. xxviii. 28.
2) 'Being likely to ; ' '-being sure to :^ ' Haec sine doctrina cre-
dituri fuerunt,' this they were sure to believe without learning,
C. T, D, \, 21 they would have believed.' See the use of this
form, and of the Inf -urum fuisse, in the Apodosis of Condi*
tional Sentences).
336
Latin Wordlor'e,
§91.
3) ^ Being desti7ied to"' (a7n to, are to, &c.) : ' Si una interiturus
est animus cum corpore/ &c., if the soul is to perish with the body,
&c., C. Cat, M. 22. ' Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus manet
mansurumque est in animis hominum/ all that zve have loved
of Agricola abides and is destined to abide iit the inemory of fnen,
Tac. Agr. 46. *Me ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri
sum us,' yoji viiist love 7ne 7nyself if we are to be true frie7tds, C.
Fi7i. ii. 26. See Conditional Sentences : and Consecution of Tenses.
(On the Gerundive Conjugation -ndus sum, -ndum est, &c., see
Syntax of ^ the Verb Infinite.')
Note \. Latin writers often use Verbs and phrases expressing
necessity, propriety, possibility, &c., in the Past Indicative Tenses
instead of the Conjunctive, to indicate that it was proper or possible
at that time to do something which however was not done.
1) Past Tenses of debere ; decere ; oportere ; aequum (aequius,
melius, par, utilius, &c.) esse; posse ; malle ; licere, &c. ^ Omnibus
eum contumeliis onerasti, quem patris loco cole re debebas,' you
have loaded with every insult one whoin you ought to have revered
as a father, C. PhiL ii. 38. ^Ad mortem duci te iam pridem
oportebat,'/<?// ought long ago to have been dragged to death, C.
171 Cat. i. I. * leci fundamenta reipublicae serius quam decuit,'
I laid the foii7idatio7is of the co77i7no7i wealth at a later ti7ne than I
should have do7ie, C. PhiL v. 1 1. * Haec tecum coram malueram,'
/ would rather have discussed these thi7igs with you face to face, C.
Fa7n. vii. 3. ' Quanto melius fuerat promissum patris non esse
servatum,' how 77iuch better had it bee7i that the father'' s proi7iise had
not bee7i kept, C. Off,\\\. 25. * Hie tamen hanc mecum poteras
requiescere noctem,' yet you 77iight have rested here with 7ne this
night, Verg. B. i. 80.
2) Periphrastic Past Tenses, Future and Gerundive : ' Romani
Poenos depoposcerunt, qui Saguntum oppugnassent : deditos ultimis
cruciatibus affecturi fuerunt,' the RoTnans de7nanded those Car-
thaginians who had besieged SaguntU7n ; they would have exe-
cuted the7n, if surrendered, with the utterTnost tortures, L. xxi. 44.
* Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit,' Mure7ia should
not have been reproached with the mention of Asia, C. p. Mur. 5.
a) Analogous idioms are the Indicatives possum, longum est,
infinitum est, &c., where Enghsh idiom would write
could^ Ht were tedious^ &:c. * Possum persequi multa
oblectamenta rerum rusticarum : sed ea ipsa quae dixi
fuisse sentio longiora,' / could detail the 7nany delights of
farTning operations ; but even what I have said I feel to
have bee7i rather tedious, C. Cat, M, 16. 'Longum est
mulorum persequi utilitates et asinorum,' were tedious to
detail the advantages of mules and asses, C. N. D. ii. 64.
See M. Lucr, i. 400.
(On the Indicative in the Apodosis of Conditional Sumptio Ficti,
see Syntax of Conditional Sentences.)
The Imperative.
337
ii. The Imperative or Will-Mood. § 37. impera-
tive.
1) The Imperative Present commands or entreats. *Quae cutn
ita sint, Catilina, perge quo coepisti ; egredere aliquando ex
urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere/ such being the case, Catilina^
proceed on your chosen path ; quit the city at some time; the gates are
open: go forth, C» in Cat. i. 5. ^Pergite, adulescentes, atque in
id studium, in quo estis, incumbite/^d? on^young men, and devote
yourselves to that study, on which you are engaged, Ci d. Or, i. 8.
2) The Imperative forms in ^to -tote may entreat or command :
but they oftener command ; being used in legal forms : ' Cuiti
faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito/ when I shall be sacrificing
a calf for the crops, you must come yourself, Verg. B, iii. 77.
^ Divis omnibus pontifices, singuHs flamines sun to; virginesque
Vestales in urbe custodiunto ignem foci pubhci sempiternum/
all gods in common mttst have pontifices, each particular god a
flamen; and the Vestal virgins in the city must guard for ever
the fire of the public hearth^ C. Leg, ii. 20. * Regio imperio duo
sun to iique consules app ell 201 tor/ there shall be two magistrates
with royal power, and they shall be called consuls^ C. Leg. iii. 3. See
Plaut. Pseud, iii. 2. 66, &c.
3) Ne with Imperative Present (ne crede, ne credite, Verg.) be*
longs to poetry : but is rare in prose. L. has *ne timete.^ (See
Conjunctive Mood.) With Imperative Future it is used in legal
forms, 'Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito/ thou
shall not bury or burn a corpse in the city, C. Leg. ii. 23;
4) A Periphrasis of the exhorting Imperative is made by f a c,
fac ut, cuta ut, velim, with Subjunctive, and in poetry by me-
mento with Subjunctive or Infinitive; and a Periphrasis of th^
forbidding Imperative by fac ne, cave, noli m, with Subjunctive ;
or by noli, and (poetically) parce, mitte, omitte^ absiste, fuge^ &c.,
with Infinitive.
* Magnum fac animum habeas/ mind you have a lofty spirit ^
C. Qu, Fr. i. 2. ^Curaut valeas,' take care of your health, C.
* Aequam memento rebus in arduis serVare mentem,' j/^?^
remember to keep an even mind in difficult circumstances, Hor. C
ii. 3. I. /Cave facias,' beware of doing it, C. Att. xiii. 33. *Hoc
nolim me iocari putes/ I would not have you think I say this in
jest, C. Fam. ix. 15. *Nolite id velle, quod fieri non potest'
do not wish what cdnnot be, C. Phil. vii. 9. 'Mittesectari rosa
quo locorum sera moretur,' search not in what spot the rose lingers
late, Hor. C i. 38. 3. *Vos timere absistite,' cease ye to fear,
Phaedr. iii. 2. 18. ' Fuge suspicari,' do not sitspect, Hof.
5) Imperative forms are modified by the polite phrases sis, suit is,
sodes, amabo, &c., please, pray (see p. 235). Sis is frequent in
comedy (once in Cic.) ; suit is often in Plautus. Sodes, C. (once .^);
frequent in comic and other poets. Amabo, amabo te ( = si me
amas) in comedy often : and in Cic. So, Cave sis, vide sis, &r.
* Refer te sis ad veritatem,' C. 'Hoc agite sultis,' Plaut. 'Scin'
quid te amabo ut facias.'*' j^^// I tell you, please, what to dof
Plaut. Md agite, amabo/ C.
Z
Latin Wordlore.
§ 93-94
Con? iii. The Conjunctive or Thought-Mood.
ju na-
tive. (On the Conjunctive as the mood of mental conception generally,
and on its twofold use, (i) as Pure or independent Conjunctive ;
(2) as Subjunctive or dependent, see § 37. 2.)
P^j^g^ Iv. The Thought-mood is properly termed Conjunctive by all
Con- German scholars, seeing that its use is to join with both the other
live'^' Moods, and assist their power of expressing speech. It joins with
the Indicative so as to state and question in a tone either contingent
on a condition, or modified by mental reserve in the nature of a
condition. It joins with the Imperative, so as to supply its deficient
forms, and also to express the various shades of will-speech in
modified tone. The Conjunctive Mood has four Tenses, called
Present, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect, the powers and uses of
which are best learnt from reading and practice. See p. 163.
Though the Futures are wanting, all the Tenses are capable of
referring to Future time, when required.
I. Pure Conjunctive of contingent or modified Statement (nega-
tion takes non, or baud).
A) When a condition is formally expressed. Earn si moneas
(monueris), / will go, if you advise : irem (issem) si moneres
(monuisses), / would have gone, if you had advised : non eam
nisi tu moneas (monueris), / will not go unless you advise \ non
irem (issem) nisi tu moneres (monuisses), / should not have been
going {should not have gone) if you had not advised, ' Tu, si hie sis,
aliter sentias.^ * Improbe feceris nisi monueris,' Cic. 'Si
luxuriae temperaret, avaritiam non time res,' had he curbed luxury ^
you would not have dreaded avarice in him, Tac. * Si redisset
filius, pater ei veniam daret (dedisset),' had the son coine back,
his father would have forgiven him. 'Si non des, optet/ Hor.
Si non dares (dedisses) optaret (optasset).
B) When a condition is informally expressed : see § 217, 3.
Eam (irem, issem) te monente, if you advise {advised), or a te
monitus, if advised by you : non eam (irem issem) te invito,
against your will, or prohibitus a te, if forbidden by you. ' O p t a n t i
tibi divum promittere nemo auderet,' no god would have ventured
to promise had you expi'essed the wish, V. 'Non illi quisquam se
impune tulisset obvius armato,' no man would have en-
countered him, arjned for battle, with impunity, V. ' S i n e D eo non
esset mundus,' Cic. ' I ta laudem invenias et amicos pares,' Ter.
C) When a condition is implied, especially with Verb in 2nd
Person. 'Migrantes cernas,' you may see them on the move, V.
'Marte videres fervere Leucaten,' >w tnight have seen Leucate
boiling with war (i.e. had you been present). 'Pelago c red as
innare revulsas Cycladas,' V. 'Nec quisquam . . . putet,' &c. V.
A en, vii. 704. 'Crederes victos,' L.
D) When modified to avoid positi veness or blufifness. ' D u b i te m
baud equidem,' V. Velim, nolim, vellem, nollem are frequently
used on this ground. 'Nollem accidisset,' I wish it had not
happened, C. Fam. iii. 10. 'Vellem adesse posset Panaetius,' /
The Conjtmctive.
339
wish Panaetius could have been present^ C. T. D. i. 33. Also with
forsitan or fortasse : forsitan quaeratis ; roges fortasse;
^forsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras/ V. Aen, ii. 506.
* Vix verisimile fortasse videatur,' Cic. Especially is used to
convey assertion or opinion moderately. Crediderim, / am in-
clined to believe', vix crediderim, I can scarcely believe. 'Non
te transierim/ V. *Ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco/
V. G, ii. 289. And with forsitan.
This and the next use are sometimes called Potential.
II. E) Pure Conjunctive of the modified Question (Negation has
non).
d) A direct question of inquiry or of feeling implies more of
mental dubitation when used in the Conjunctive. As in
the Indicative, it may be of single or disjunctive form.
Quid hoc homine faciati s ? what are yotc to do with this man ?
'Quis Troiae nesciat urbem?' V. 'Quid d em, quid non d em,'
Hor. 'Quid faciam? roger anne rogem?' Ov. 'Eloquar an
sileam?' V. *Tibi ego irascerer, mi frater? tibi ego possem
irasci?' Cic. Quid facerem ? quo fugerem ? Iremusne annon ?
quare non iremus? issemne nisi voluissem?
III. Pure ConjunctivQ of modified Will-speech (Negation has
ne).
F) Concessive use : allowing, granting, &c.
* Lu ant peccata,' let them {they may) pay the penalty of their
sinsy V. *Vendat aedes vir bonus,' suppose a good man
has a house on sale, Haec sint falsa sane, granting
this to be quite untrue. *Fuerit mains civis,' suppose he
was a bad citizen. 'Ne sit summum malum dolor,
malum certe est,' allowing pain not to be the greatest evil,
an evil it is at all events^ Cic. 'Verum anceps pugnae
fuerat fortuna: fuisset; quem metui moritura?' but the
chance of war had been doubtful ; stippose it were : whom
could I f^ar with death in view f V. Aen. iv. 603.
d) Ut is used in concession. 'Ut desint vires, tamen est
laudanda voluntas,' though strength be lacking^ yet will-
ingness is praiseworthy^ Ov. Ep. P. iii. 4.
C) Optative and Precative Uses.
i) The Optative use conveys a wish, and (when in direct con-
struction without ' utinam ') by Cj. (Negation has ne.)
Sis felix, 7nay you be happy. ' Valeant cives mei, sint florentes,
sint beati,' Cic. * Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor/
V. Aen. iv. 625.
It is frequently used in imprecation. *Ne sim salvus si
aliter loquor ac sentio,' may I never be saved if 1 speak
other than I think^ Cic. *Moriar nisi vera loquor.'
With ita (sic) . . . ut. * I ta vi vam ut te amo maxima.'
And without ut. * I ta culmo surgeret alto,' Hor. S. ii.
2.124. ' I ta me di ament,' Cic.
Latin Wordlore,
§95.
d) Utinam, utinamne (rarely non) are used with the Optative.
With Cj it expresses a possible wish : Utinam possim,
/ wish 1 may be able ; utinam ne adsit, / wish he may
not be present. With Cg an impracticable one : utinam
possem, / wish I could (but I cannot) ; utinam ne
adesset, / wish he were not prese?it (but he is or waj).
With a bygone possibility : utinam potuissem, /
wish I had been able (but I was not) : utinam non adfuisset,
/ wish he had not been present (but he was).
h) Ut for utinam is sometimes found : Ut ilium di deaeque
p e r d u i n t, may the gods and goddesses destroy hiin^ Ter.
c) O si (rarely si alone) with Opt. is poetic. ^ O mihi prae-
teritos referat si luppiter annos/ O if Jove would bring
back to me the past years, V. Aen, viii. 560. See vi. 187.
O utinam may be used.
2) The Precative use is chiefly in the Second Person, when
a sacred being or a superior is addressed : ^ S i s bonus
o felixque tuis,' V. Buc. v. 65. ^Adsis o placidusque
iuves et sidera caelo dextra feras/ V. Ae7i. iv. 578.
H) Hortative and Jussive Uses : exhorting, commanding, &c.
Negative has ne.
The principal Hortative use is in the First Person Plural.
The Jussive use in the Third Persons conveys a com-
mand more or less stringent. Thus ^ naviget ' (V. Aen.
iv. 237) is a strong mandate : the instructions in the
Georgics given in the Third Persons Conjunctive are
precepts rightly called jussive. See G. iii. 300, 329.
i) ' Surgamus/ V. X. *Eamus omnes,' Hon jE^/. ^Mori-
amur et in media arma ruamus/ V. Aen. ii. *Aegri-
tudinem depellamus/ Cic.
2) 'Ecferant quae secum hue attulerunt/ Ter. 'Vine at
utilitas reipublicae.' 'Sit sermo lenis, i n s i t in eo lepos/ Cic.
'Vilicus ne sit ambulator, sobrius sit semper, ad cenam
ne quo eat,familiam exerceat, ne plus censeat sapere
se quam dominum, parasitum ne quern habeat.' Cato.
'Donis impii ne placare audeant deos,' Cic. Leg. ii. 16.
The most remarkable examples are those which convey this use
of the Will-speech Conjunctive into past time by C3, C^. 'Prae-
diceres/_y^7// should have told me beforehand^ Plaut. 'Rem tuam
curares,' jj/^?// sho7ild have been minding your own business, Ter.
'Dictis, Albane 7Jianeres,^ you should have remained true to your
word, O Alban,N. 'Ne poposcisses^ you ought not to have de-
manded, Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ;
'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non
Pallanta, referret,' V. Aen. xi. 162 ; see x. 854.
a) Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive.
The Second Person of Cj is often supposed to be Pure
where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verb.
Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7 ; dones, i. 31. 18, depend on
precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on die o. ' Sis . . .
Second
Person
Con
junctive.
The Pure Conjunctive.
341
sequare . . . cures/ C. Fa7n. x. 1 6, carry on the construc-
tion after * hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation
should shew this. ^ Sis . . . scias,' L. xxvi. 50, de-
pend on paciscor. ^ Ne pigrere/ C. Att. xiv. i, on
quaeso.
b) Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive.
Terence has 'Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post
culpam conferas in me/ if you are bent on doing it ^ you
may ; but please not afterwards to throw the blame on me,
Eun. ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with
Second Person of Cj) is not used as an independent pro-
hibition, but ne with Second Person of is so used fre-
quently. ^Quod dubitas ne feceris/ what yoic doubt, do
not perform, Plin. Ep, i. 18. 'Ilium iocum ne sis as-
pernatus/ do not conte7nn that jest, C. Qu, F, ii. 12. ' Tu
ne quaesieris/ &c. Hor. C. i. 11. i.
When Horace writes, ' Ne forte credas,' &c., he means lest
perchance you should believe y C, iv. 9. i. And so often.
On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337.
V. Examples of Pure Conjunctive: —
A) See Examples under § 213 /3, y, p. 468.
B) See § 217, 3, p. 473.
0 'Pecuniae an famae minus parceret baud facile disce rneres,* Sail. Cat. 25.
'Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos diceres, ita odora-
bantur omnia et pervestigabant,' C. Verr. iv. 13. * Ilium indignanti similem similemque
minanti aspiceres,' V. A en. viii. 650.
D) *Tu velim sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bonorum in te esse
positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit,' C. Fam, xii. 6. *Malim mihi Crassi
unam pro Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos,' C. Br. 73. * Ego me
Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te
ad Stoicos inclinavisses,* C. Fin. iii. 3. * Hie quae rat quispiam, cuiusnam causa tanta
molitio facta sit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. *Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse
poetas, excerpam numero ; neque enim concludere versum dixeris esse satis,' Hor.
i. 4. 39. 'Forsitan quispiam dixerit; nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur,
abstulerit cibum alteri ? ' C. Off", iii. 6.
'Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam?* C. Pis. 30. * Quid videatur ei
magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitudo?'
C. T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnino
nulla esse potuisset?' C. Off. ii. 4. ' F a v e a s tu hosti ? bonorum spem virtutemque
debilites? et te consularem aut senatorem aut denique civem p u t e s ? ' C. Phil, vii.
7. * Apud exercitum mihi fueris tot annos ? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn
diu? et, cum longo intervallo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de d'gnitate
contendas?' C. Mur. 9. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futurum locum?' C.
Mil. 34. * P u t a r e s n e unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent ? ' C, Fam» ii.
II. ' Corinthiis bellum i n d i c a m u s annon ? * Cic.
F) *At tamen dicat sine. Age dicat, sino,' Ter. An. v. 3. 24. *Fuerint
cupidi, fuerint irati, fuerint pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi,
1 i c e a t Cn. Pompeio mortuo, 1 i c e a t multis aliis carere,' C. Li^. 6. ' Nemo is, inquies,
umquam fuit. N e f u e r i t,' Cic.
G. i) 'Quod bonum faustum felixque sit populo Romano,' L. i. 28. 'Filiam despondi
ego ; di bene vertant !* Plant. AmL ii. 3. * Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto
contingant ut vehementer velim,' C. Fam. v. 21. * Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro,
me tua valetudo,' C. Fam. xvi. 20. * N e v i va m, si tibi concedo, ut eius rei tu cupidior
sis quam ego sum,' C. Fain. vii. 23. *Ne istuc luppiter optimus maximus sir it,' L.
xxviii. 28. 'Utinam tibi istam mentem dii immortales duint?' C. Cat. i. 9.
* U t i n a m, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam habcretis, ut
342 Latin Wordlore. § 96.
V. The Subjunctive.
The Subjunctive is alwaysa Mood of dependence, and, in most
instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin
are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use.
A Subjunctive Clause^ sometimes has no link connecting it
with the prior Verb : ^Sine te ex o rem,' let me prevail on you,
'Vellem adfuisses,' I wish you had been present. But usually it
is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative.
1) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always
Subjunctive, when it contains
cC) A dependent Consequence {so that, such that).
Such a clause may be introduced by ut, quin ; or by the
Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and
Ut-clause Enuntiative.
b) A dependent Purpose {in order that, lest, &c.).
Such a Clause may be introduced by ut, ne, quo, quo mi-
nus ; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle
of Time or Condition; antequam, dum, &c. See Final
Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua.
c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lest^
or u t, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua.
d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative
Pronoun or Particle, See^ Interrogatio Obliqua.
II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when it contains
a mental conception
haec vobis deliberatio difficills esset ! * C. L. Man. lo. * Illud u t i n a m ne vere
scriberem!' C. Fam. v. 17. *Quod utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem
incidisset/ Ter. Pk. i. 3. 5. *Utinara minus vitae cupidi fuissemus/ C. Fam.
V, 17, * Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi : quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut
ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum esset!* C, Att xi. g.
2) * Nihil ignoveris; nihil gratiae causa fe c e r i s ; misericordia commotus ne
sis/ C. Mur. 31. 'Ne fueris hie tu,' Hor. E/t'st. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con-
firmaveris, ad nos venias/ C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Afficias, xxvi.
50. Hor. kS". ii. 3. 326 {j>lease to^ pray),
H. i) 'Meminerimus, etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Off.
i. 13. ' I m i t e m u r nostros Brutos, Camillos, Decios ; a m e m u s patriam, pareamus
senatui, consulamus bonis, id esse optimum put em us, quod erit rectissimum,*
C. Sest. 68.
2) * Orator v i d e a t in primis, quibus de rebus loquatur ; si seriis, severitatem
a d h i b e a t ; si iocosis, leporem/ C. Off. . i. 37. ' S u m a t u r nobis quidam praestans vir
optimis artibus, Isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n ga t u r,' C. T. D. v. 24. * Fortasse
pater Cliniae aliquanto Iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quern ferret, si parentem non
ferret suum?' Ter. Haut. i. 2. 28. * Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris animi
magnique dlxerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses,'
C. Sest. 20. * Ne quis tamquam parva fastidiat grammatices elementa,' Qu. 1. 4.
*Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hor. C. i. 36. 15 * Tu ista ne asciveris neve
fueris commenticiis rebus assensus/ C. Ac. ii. 40.
* The term Clause is used to signify * any member of a Compound Sentence ' which is
not the 'Principal Sentence.' The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called
'Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua, Distinguished from this is *a
Finite Clause ; ' that is, one of which the Verb is Finite.
9«
Sub-
junc-
'ive.
§ 97. ^''^^ Subjunctive. 343
d) Of Cause : introduced by cum, since^ by qui causal (usu-
ally) ; by n on quod, n on quia, &c. See Causal Clauses.
U) Of Condition : after dum, modo; or when si, itisi are re-
lated to a conceptive Apodosis : * s i p o s s i m velim ; '
*si possem vellem,' &c. See Conditional Sentences.
c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum,
quamvis, although. Also when etsi, etiamsi, tametsi
are related to a conceptive Apodosis. ^Etsi possem,
nollem.' See Concessive Sentences.
d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut,
tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences.
Ill) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive when it is really
dependent on
d) An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua).
^ Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.'
b) An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or
speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin-
cipal or prior Verb {virtual oratio obliqua).
' Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens,' Cic.
^Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu-
tem,' Qu. See p. 345.
Obs. The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They
may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative
Pronoun or Particle.
c) A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua).
^Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' ^Vellem omnia
' dixisses quae in animo haberes.'
Note, The following are Idiomatic Uses : —
a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal
Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another
past action (quasi-causal).
*In Cumano cum essem, venit ad me Hortensius,' wheu I
was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me^ Cic.
* Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset,^ Agesilaus
died after coming into harbour^ N ep. Ag,
/3) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle
or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past
time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im-
perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present
in philosophical statements by M. Lucr, iii. 736.
y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in
dependence on a sentence containing a maxim (yi^w^?/).
See Madv. Gr, 370; M. Lucr, i. 327, ii. 36, 41.
* Bonus segnior fit ubi neglegas,' a good person becomes
slacker y when you neglect him^ Sail. lug, 31.
vi. Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97
nouns which introduce Subordinate Clauses,
according to the Mood introduced.
344 Latin Wordlore. § 98.
A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose,
introduce a Subjunctive.
d) Conjunctions :
1) Consecutive : ut ; quin.
2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus.
3) Causal : cum, since,
4) Conditional : dum ; modo, dummodo ; provided that,
5) Concessive : licet, ut ; cum, quamvis (usually),
6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &Q,
b) The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used
i) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally {in order that) ;
3) Causally ( = cum, since) ; 4) Concessively {although),
c) Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are
1) Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; qualis ; quantus ; quot ; quotus,
2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how, quare.
cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ;
unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -ne, num.
d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense
dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on ^
Conjunctive Mood,
See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above. Note /3. y.
B) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum*
stances above named) introduce an Indicative.
a) Conjunctions :
1) Causal: quod; quia; quoniam ; quando; quandoquidem ;
siquidem.
2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut {when, &c.) ; quotiens ; simul
ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst. Also
cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343, a,
3) Concessive : quamquam ; utut.
b) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles.
C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjunctive,
according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency.
1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, until ; antequam, prius-
quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is
contained, or doubtfulness conveyed.
^) Conditional and Concessive : si, nisi ; etsi, etiamsi,
tametsi,
Obs. The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but
Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as
Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns.
vii. Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive
Construction. See § 229.
The General Rule is that
Primary Tenses (S^ So) follow Primary (Present ; Future).
Historic — (S3 SJ — Historic (Past Tenses).
§9».
Conseciitio7i of Tenses,
345
Examples illustrating the Consecution of Tenses.
I.
i) quereris
you complain
qu8rar-is (e)
you may complain
querer-is (e)
you will complain
questus eris | .
questus fueris ] *
you will have complained
questus sis
questus fueris
you may have complained
questurus es (sis, &c.)
you are {may be, &c.) about
to co7nplain
I
2) querebar-is (e)
you were coinplaining
questus es
you complained
questus eras
you had complained
quererer-is (e)
you would complain
questus esses
you would have complained
questurus eras
you were about to complain
quod te deseram
that I forsake you
quod te deseruerim
that I have forsaken you
quod te deserturus sim
that I a7n about to forsake you
quod tui memor non sim
that I am not mindful of you
quod tui memor non fuerim
that I have not beeit mindful of
you
quod tui memor non futurus sim
that I shall not be mindful of
you
quod tibi non succurram
that I do not succour yon
quod tibi non succurrerim
that I have not succoured you
quod tibi non succursurus sim
that I ain not about to succour
you
quod te desererem
that I was forsaking you
quod te deseruissem
that I had forsaken you
quod te deserturus forem
that I was about to forsake you
quod tui memor non ess em
that I was not jnindful of you
quod tui memor non fuissem
that I had not been mindful of
you
quod tui memor non futurus
essem
that I was not going to be mind*
ful of you
quod tibi non succurrerem
that I did not succour you
quod tibi non succurrissem
that I had not succoured you
quod tibi non succursurus fo-
rem
that I did not mean to succour
you
346
Latin Wordlori*,
i) orant ; orent
orabunt ; oraturi sunt
oraverint ; oranto
11.
ne se deseram
ut sui memor sim
ut sibi succurram
2) orabant ; orarent
oraverunt ; oraturi erant
oraverant; oravissent
( ne se desererem
\ ut sui memor ess em
i ut sibi succurrerem
Note. On the Verb Infinite see § 15 and § 40. Its further uses
are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. L II. III.
99
Ellipsis viii. Ellipsis of the Verb.
1) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other
forms of the Verb of Being.
* Summum ius summa iniuria,' C. Off. \. 10 (s. est). * H abenda
ratio valetudinis, utendum modicis exercitationibus,' C. Cat. M.
II (s. est). ' Omnia praeclata rara,' C. Lael. 21 (s. szmt). * lucundi
acti labores,' C. Fin. ii. 32 {s.sujit), ^ Aurum vestibus inlitum mi-
rat a,' Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 (for mirata est). * Sed haec vetera {sunt):
illud recens {est), Caesarem meo consiUo interfectum' {esse)^ but
these are old stories : here is a new one, that Caesar was slain by
vty advice, C. Phil. ii. 11. ^ Ludi Romani biduum instaurati'
{stmt), L. xxix. 38. ' Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis
utrum honestius' {sit), C. Off. i. 43.
a) The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used
in the Nom. Case with an Elhpsis of esse, being really a
Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me-
moratur, narratur, &c. 'Sic miser instantis affatus
dicitur undas,' Mart. d. Spect. 25. 5 (for affatus esse).
* Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par-
ticulam undique desectam,^ Hor. C. i. 16. 13 (for coactus
esse). 'Quidam memoratur Athenis . . , populi con-
temnere voces sic soli t us,' Hor. S.\. i. 64 (for solitus esse).
*Fabulaqua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia
barbariae lento collisa duello,' Hor. Episf. i. 2. 6 (for
collisa esse). And often in prose : ' Q. Fabius Maximus
sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur,' L. xxii. 38 (for
allocutus esse). * Cap t a eo proelio tria milia peditum et
equites trecenti dicuntur/ L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428.
2) Inquit, inquam, &c. are omitted. * At ille' . . . 'tum Brutus'
. . . * tum ego,' &c.
3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus*
{dicit), C. ' Cave turpe quicquam' {facias)., C. * Ne quid crudeliter'
{fiat), C. * Cicero Attico salutem ' {dicit), C. * Crassus verbum
nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit), C. * Expecto quid ad ista *
{dicturus sis), C. ' Quas tu mihi intercessiones ' {narras) ? C.
* Finemille ' {fecit), Q. ' Clamor inde concursusque ' {factus est), L.
Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, ' Quid multa.'^'
' Quid plura ? ' ^ Ne multis,' &c. And forms of fieri in such phrases
as ' Quid tum ? ' * Quid postea ? ' &c.
of Verb.
§99.
Ellipsis of the Verb,
347
Livy often uses the phrases, * nihil aliud quam/ *quid aliud quam,'
in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. ^ Per bid-
uum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum/ /2£/^;
days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle^ L. xxvi. 20.
The phrase becomes adverbial = merely^ only. 'Nihil aliud quam
perfusis vano timore Romanis/ the Romans being tnerely panic-
struck^ L. ii. 63. 'Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it. ' Vin-
cam silentium et, si nihil aliud {faciam), certe graviter inter-
pellabo/ Curt. iv. 28.
4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply.
' Sed haec coram ' {tractabimus)^ C. ' Litterarum aliquid interea '
(dabis)^ C. * A Chrysippo pedem numquam ' {movet)^ C. ' Sed ad
ista ahas ' (respondebo), C. ' Sed non necesse est nunc omnia '
{commemorare), C. ' Di meliora ' {dent). 'A me C. Caesar pecu-
msm^ {postulat)! C 'Ad Tamum cogitabam ' (/r^), C. ' Unde
mihi lapidem' {petam)l Hor. 'Nihil ad rem;' 'Quid ad me'
iattinet) 1 With many more instances.
5) In the phrases, * Quo mihi ? ' 'quo tibi ?' ' usui' is to be supplied,
quo being an old form of cui. * Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas
sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = ' cui usui est tibi ? '). But there is a further
ellipse of habere or consequi : ' Quo mihi fortunam, si non
conceditur uti ? ' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam T),
6) Proverbs, being generally known and understood, are often
cited elliptically : ' Fortuna fortis' (adiicvat). ' Minima de mahs'
{eligenda sunt). 'Sus Minervam ' {docere vult). 'Cuneus cuneum'
{trudit). 'Manusmanum' [lavat). 'Bis ad eundem ' {lapidem
<) * e?idere). ' Nec sibi nec alteri ' {prodcst). 'Cornici oculum'
(io'ijigere). 'Bene tibi' (dico)^ &c. 'Bene Messallam' {^alere
iubeo)y Tib.
>
PART II.
LATIN SYNTAX.
icx>
CHAPTER I.
THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES.
Speech in a connected series forms Discourse,
Sen- As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of
Discourse are Sentences,
1. Sentences are either Affirmative or Negative.
Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,
the parrot speaks, the parrot does not speak,
2. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1) A Simple Sentence is the expression of a single thought,
and contains one Finite Verb :
Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,
the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak,
2) A Compound, ^ENTENCE consists of two or more Simple
Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one
is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses.
d) Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur,
the parrot hnitates man^ aiid so it speaks.
b) Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitur,
the parrot does not speak ^ although it imitates man.
In {a) ^ Psittacus hominem imitatur^ is the Principal Sentence ;
* ItaqiLie loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but
not constructively dependent. In {b) * Psittacus non loquitur' is
the Principal Sentence ; ^Quamvis hominem imitetur' a Subor-
dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent.
3. Every Simple Sentence is in one of three forms :
I. Enuntia tio (statement) :
Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks.
II. Petitio (will-speech) :
Loquere, psittace, speak^ parrot.
Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak,
III. Interrogatio (question) :
Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak?
§ lOI.
Simple Sentence,
349
4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio
pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). OUiqu^
If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the
Principal Verb, it is called Obi i qua (obhque or indirect).
I. Enuntiatio Obliqua (Indirect Statement) is mostly con-
structed as ^ Accusative and Infinitive
(Constat) \
(it is a facty I psittacum loqui,
(Scimus) I that the parrot speaks,
{we know) )
I'l. Petitio Obliqua (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con-
structed as ^ Subjunctive with ut or ne
(Poscitur) \
{it is required) f ut psittacus loquatur,
( Rogamus) [ that the parrot speak,
{we ask)
III. Interrogatio Obliqua (Indirect Question) is constructed
as ' Subjunciive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle
(Incertum est) ^
{it is doubtful) quid psittacus loquatur,
(Narra) [ what the parrot speaks,
{declare)
Obs. Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival,
because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or
Object, or in Apposition.
Note, As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax
chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda-
mental rules are equally applicable to the other two formSt
CHAPTER II.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
101
i. The Simple Sentence has two essential The
members: i'""?^®
ben-
tencc*
1) The grammatical Subject \ that of which the
action or state is predicated or declared ;
2) The grammatical^ Predicate ; that by which the
action or state of the Subject is declared.
Subject. Predicate.
Psittacus loquitur,
the parrot speaks,
* * Grammaticar in contradistinction to 'logical.' A Predicate in formal logic is always
a Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y.
350
Latin Syntax,
§ I02.
1) The Subject must be —
(1) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub-
stantive ; as
(2) a Pronoun \
(3) an Adjective [used Substantively.
(4) an Adverb j
(5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive.
(6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely.
(7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs.
2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state
is declared, the Predicate must be a Verb ; and, as action and
state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb.
Examples : —
Subject. Predicate,
(1) Deus regnat,
God rules,
(2) Nos paremus,
we obey.
(3) Omnia florent,
all thijiQ^s bloom,
(4) Satis temporis datur,
enough time is given,
(5) Navigare dekctat,
sailing gives delight,
(6) Mnstant' \
they come \ clamatur,
* Ad arma ' [ is shouted,
to arms )
(7) Quae sit natura lucis ambigitur,
what is the nature of light is disputed.
Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen-
tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb.
This general truth is not overthrown by the following frequent
exceptions :
I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed :
1) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See § 39.
2) in some of the constructions called Impersonal. See § 50.
II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed when the
mind can be trusted to supply one. See § 99.
III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite :
1) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See
p. 332.
2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in
poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See § 99, i.
Examples of such Exceptions :
I. I. Nec veni, V. Venisti tandem, V.
2. Pudet pigetque facti. Quid agitur ? Statur, Ter.
II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide,
tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed.
III. I. Turn sic affari et curas his demere dictis, V.
2. Fusi hostes, L. Extern plo turbati animi, V.
§ 102.
Copulative Verbs,
351
ii. Incomplete Predication.
Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the
chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi-
cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia
fuit, corn is where Troy was^ Ov.
Usually it is a Copula^ coupling the Subject with another term,
called the Complement^ which qualifies the Subject : the Predi-
cate being then Copula with Complement.
Predicate.
Subject. Copula. Complement.
Seges est matura,
the corn is ripe,
Troia fuit urbs munitissima,
Troy was a strongly fortified city.
Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called
Copulative Verbs,
Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if
their predication is extended (or Extensible) by an Infinitive
(vii.). A few of these are also Copulative.
Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore —
1) Copulative, but not Extensible : (a) sum, forem, fio ; and
(sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic)
audio, be called ; {b) many passive verbs of being called or named ;
appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurpor, scribor, inscribor :
being chosen or declared ; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declaror,
prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted^ found ; cogno-
scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior.
2) Copulative and Extensible : videor {seem), dicor, memoror,
censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor.
3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ;
volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ;
desino ; pergo ; conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive
verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trador. See vii. and § 180, where
it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative* a
nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject.
a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be —
(1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute.
(2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite.
(3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb.
Examples of Copula with Complement.
Predicate.
Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement.
(i) Homo est mortalis
is mortal
Puer fiet doctus
the boy will become learned
Vos habemini prudentes
are held prudent
I
352
Latin Syntax,
% 102.
Examples of Copula with Complement (continued).
Predicate.
Subject.
(2) Homines
men
Mulier
the woman
Isti
those men
(3) Bona
the goods
Facundia
eloquence
Divitiae
riches
Navigare
sailing
Conatus
endeavours
Copul. Verb.
sunt
are
evadit
comes out
appellantur
are called
sunt
are
censetur
is counted
numerantur
are reckoned
est
is
fuerunt
were
\
Complement.*
animalia
animals
victrix
conqueress
philosophi
philosophers
viri
the husband^ s
magni
of great value
in bonis
among goods
voluptati
a pleasure
frustra
in vain
b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive.
Socrates parens philosophiae dici potest, C. Fin. ii. i.
Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut* 56. Cato esse quam
videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat, 54. Xanthippe, Socratis uxor,
Inorosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, GelL i. 17. Ora-
cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe-
runt, C.Z^/V. ii. 57. Brevis esse laboro ; obscurusfio, H.^.P. 25.
Animus hominis dives, non area, appellari solet, C. Par, vi. i.
Tyndaridae fratres victoriae nuntii fuisse perhibentur, C. Tusc,
i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut. 69. Fis
anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C, iv. 13.2, L. Papirius
Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, Q, Fam. \x. 21.
Cum floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. 11 ; vi. 22.
Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vi. i.'^
Add to these the important examples of Participle Perf (passive
or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive^ esse being understood :
§ 99a, and p. 428, Note.
* The term Complement must be understood to mean * Predicative Complement,' that
is, the word or phrase which comJ>letes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. French
writers employ this term to denote the Cases which complete the construction of various
Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Recipient, &c.).
It is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate
name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances.
Some German writers use the term * Nominalpradikat."
' In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called
an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copulative, its Accus. Complement is called an
Oblique Complement. Thus in * Puto psittacum loqui ; * * puto psittacum (esse) loquacem
psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See § io8, p. 360.
(Note on § 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically
used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtual. Thus
in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Csesarcum Balbo venit ; hoc nobis
d e d e c o r i est ; we call * magni ingeni,' * cum Balbo,' and * dedecori,' Phrases.
An Euthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, but con-
vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause ; * ab exilio regressus ; ' 'philosophus
nobilis :' *me absente.' See II. 2) p. 354,
A Clause has beeo explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentence.
Relations hi the Simple Sentence,
353
iii. Relations in the Simple Sentence.
The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words,
Phrases, and En theses used as Adjuncts, and standing
in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen-
tence bear to one another. These Relations are : —
I. The Predicative Relation.
This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject. The Sub«
ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so
related as to agree with it in Number and Person.
d) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a
Collective Subject^ and its Predication may agree with the
sense and not with the form : ^ Pars militum occisi sunt/
part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D),
b) A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annexive Rela-
tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a
Plural Predicate : 'Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti
sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out.
Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which
either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed
Subject : pudet ( = pudor pudet) ; curritur ( = cursus curri-
tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject :
parendum est. See § 50»
II. The Qualitative Relation.
(i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in
Attribution: *magnae ^\w'\\A2iQ.^ great riches \ Mocti
viri/ learned men ; 'iste psittacus/ that parrot.
(2.) Between a Noun Apposite and the Noun to which it
stands in Apposition: * Cicero consul/ Cicero the
consul ; 'rex Croesus/ king Croesus,
The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible.
See § 107. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter.
See Examples on p. 360.^
* In the classifications of Language, each class does not excUide all the members of
every other class. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and Adjective, as
Noun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c. So the classification here given is not
invalidated by the fact that some words, phrases, cases, &c., may be referred to more
than one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and
Qualitative, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c.
■ Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other
qualifying expressions : Genitives Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective ; Ablatives of
Quality and Manner : frequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes Adverbs.
Examples • Sullae exercitus ; vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosophtis
nomine non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domum reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interitus ferro,
fame, frigore, pestilentia : excessus e vita : litterae a Caesare ; liber de Officiis : collo-
quium cum Balbo ; omnia ante bella : tua -temper lenitas, &c.
I. Predicative.
II. Qualitative.
III. Objective.
IV. Receptive.
V. Circumstantive.
VI. Proprietive*
VII. Prolative.
VIII. Annexive.*
354
Latm Syntax,
% 103.
This relation appears in four varieties : '
1) Attribute or Apposite as Epithet : *doGti viri;' 'rex
Croesus.'
2) Attribute or Apposite as Enthesis : 'Cicero, ab exilio tan-
dem regressus, in senatum venit/ Cicero^ having at
length returned from exile ^ ca7ne into the senate (regressus
= ubi regressus erat). 'Socrates, philosophus in primis
nobilis, veneno interiit,' Socrates^ an eminently renow7ied
philosopher J died by poison (philosophus = qui philosophus
fuit).
3) Attribute or Apposite, agreeing with the Noun, but in close
union with the Verb, in the manner of an adverb : ' Cicero
primus in senatum venit,' Cicero came first into the
senate, ' Caesar aedem Fortunae consul vovit,' Caesar
when co7zsul vowed a temple to Fortune,
4) Attribute or Apposite as Complement, already described
and exemplified, p. 352.
III. The Objective Relation.
When the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, the predication is often
without meaning until a word is added expressing that on which
the Verb acts. This is called the Object, and its relation to the
Verb and Subject is the Objective Relation.
Thus, ' Romulus interfecit,^ Romulus slew, is deficient in sense
until we add ' Re mum,' Remus,
*Remum' is in the Accusative Case, as Object of the Verb
interfecit, and in Objective Relation to that Verb and to its
Subject Romulus. See Syntax of Accusative.
a) Anything which may be the Subject of a sentence may also
be the Object : and when a Verb-noun, a Vocable, a
Clause, or an Adverb, is used as Object, it is taken to be
in the Accusative Case.
b) Verbs of asking, teaching, concealing, take two Objects, one
of the Person, the other of the Thing: 'Doceo te litter as,'
I teach you letters. See § 130.
c) Factive Verbs take a second Accusative in attribution or
apposition as complement to the first : ' Socratem s a p i e n-
tissimum puto,' / deejn Socrates very wise, 'Caesar
Octavium scripsit heredem/ Caesar left Octavius his
heir. See §§ 102, 131.
Such an Attribute or Appyosite is called an Oblique Com*
plement. See A^<?/^, p. 352.
IV. The Receptive Relation.
The Dative is the Case of the Recipient, that is, of tne person
or thing interested in an action or state ; for, to, up07i, or against
which the action or state occurs : 'Non nobis sed reipublicae
nati sumus,' we are born not for ourselves, but for the common-
ivealth. 'Do tibi hbrum,' I give a book to you, 'Pax grata
civibus,' a peace welcome to the citizens. ' Poeni bellum inferunt
Rom an is,' the Carthaginians wage war against the Romans,
§ 103. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 355
The Relation of such a Dative to the Verb or Adjective govern-
ing it, and to their Nouns, is the Receptive Relation.^
a) The Dative of some Nouns is used as a Complement (Pre-
dicative Dative or Dative of the Purpose) : See § 142;
*■ Haec mihi voluptati sunt,' these things are a pleasure to
me, * Habet nos derisui,' holds us in derision,
V. The CiRCUMSTANTIVE RELATION.
This limits the Verb and Adjective principally, also the Substan-
tive and Adverb, by Adjuncts, which may be :
(i) Adverbs; (2) Noun-cases or Phrases ; (3) Enthesesi
The chief Case of Circumstance is the Ablative; but also the
Accusative, sometimes the Genitive, may express limiting cir-
cumstances.
Limiting Phrases are especially Prepositions with their Cases,
A frequent limiting Construction is the Ablative Absolute ; that
is, a Noun with Participle (or with a second Noun) in the Ablative
Case.
The Circumstances expressed in this relation are numerous : as,
Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter : — Respect ; Mea-
sure ; Manner ; Condition ; Quahty ; Time ; Place Where : —
Place Whence ; Separation ; Origin ; Comparison, &C*
Examples :
1) *0 dea certe,' O surely a goddess, * Vir longe optitnus,*
a man by far the best, * Vixi hodie/ / have lived to-day*
2) ^Gladiis certant,' they contend with swords. *Vir pro-
cero CO or a man of tall frame, *Fraude non vi
periit,' died by fraud, not by force, 'Centum annoS
vixit,' he lived a hundred years, 'Hie rus in urbe est,
here is country in the city. 'Remus a Romulo occisus
est,' Remus was killed by Romulus, ' Vir nattls ad glori-
am,' ^ man born for glory,
3) 'Occiso Gaio, Claudius imperavit,' Gaius being slain^
Claudius became emperor. 'Solecadente dormitant aves,*
tvhen the sun sets, birds sleep, 'Torquato consule
natus est Horatius,' Horace was born in the consulship of
Torquatus. See §§ 161, 238, 239.
* Verbs or Adjectives which take a Dative for their appropriate dase, as parcere^ to
S^are ; p 1 a c e r e, to please ; i u c u n d u s, pleasant ; o d i o s u s, hateful^ &c. , are called Tr A-
JECTIV6 words.
If the Verb, as dare, to give i takes dn Accusative also, it is a Trajective Verb
Transitive.
Verbs may be classed according to the Cases they take :
Transitive Verbs . . . taking Accusative . * as Quid-Verbs.
Trajective Verbs ... „ Dative ... Cui- Verbs.
Trajective Verbs Transitive „ Acc. and Dative „ Cui-Quid- Verbs.
Transitive Verbs taking Double Accusative . . Quem-Quid-Vetbs.
Factive Verbs ,^ Quid-Quale-Verbs.
The Accusative is often called the Case of the Nearer Object ; and the Dative the Case
of the Remoter Object.
A A 2
«
356 Latin Syntax, § 103.
VI. The Proprietive Relation.
When the Genitive Case of a Noun depends on another Noun
which it has for a possession^ a part, or, generally, as a notion
which it qualifies or determines. See §§ 162-176.
Examples :
* Templum Minervae/ the temple of Minerva. *■ Multi mili-
tum/ many of the soldiers, * Vir magni ingeni/ a man
of great genius, * Cupido pecuniae/ the desire of money,
d) The Proprietive Relation is, in some examples, a special
instance of the Qualitative: thus, Vir magni ingeni
= vir ingeniosissimus; in others it is a special in-
stance of the Objective Relation; thus * Cupido pe-
cuniae' is nearly the same as * cup ere pecuniam.'
b) Genitives of an Objective nature are joined to many Ad-
jectives : ^ Memor leti,' mindful of death ; and to some
Verbs, 'Generis miseresce im,' pity thy offspring,
VII. The Prolaiive Relation.
When Predication is ^;r/<?;/(^d^^ (profertur) by an Infinitive ad-
joined to certain extensible Verbs and Participles or Adjectives.
Examples :
* Noli contendere,' do not contend, 'Ego videor videre
res futuras/ / seem to see futu7'e things, ' lussus con-
fundere foedus,' ordered to break the treaty, 'Ludere
pertinax,' persisting to play.
That such an Infinitive is not an Objective Verb-Noun appears
from the fact that Infinitives of Copulative Verbs, so constructed,
keep the Complement in the same Case with the Subject :
'Puervult fieri doctus,' the boy wishes to becoine learned,
' Non omnes possumus esse philosophi,' w cannot all
be philosophers, 'Homerus caecus fuisse creditur,'
Ho7ner is believed to have been blind.
See § 180.
d) Other uses of the Infinitive in the Simple Sentence fall
under the Predicative or Objective Relation : Supines under
the Circumstantive Relation; the Gerund is ranked ac-
cording to its Case; Participles follow the rules of
Adjectives.
b) Cases of Nouns depend on the Infinite as well as on the
Finite Verb.
VIII. The Annexive Relation.
When a word is annexed to the construction of a similar word
preceding, either by a Conjunction, or the Conjunction being omitted.
Examples :
* Pulvis e t u mbra sumus,' we are dust and shade, ' Non nobis
nati sumus, sed patriae,' are not born for ourselves^
but for our country. ' Patriae nati sumus, non nobis,' we
are born for our country , not for ourselves, * Arma vi-
§ I04-5.
The Relative Fronotm,
4
357
rumque cano/ ar7ns and the ?na7i I si7ig, * Pater et
mater mortui sunt/ my father and mother are dead.
* Pater, mater, fratres periere,' father^ mother ^ brothers
have perished, 'Me amat ut fratrem suum,' he loves
7ne as his own brother,
a) One Finite Verb annexed to another makes, strictly speak-
ing, a new sentence : but is often conveniently ranked
under this Relation:
^ Odi profanum volgus et arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the
profane mob, ' Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit/ he has de-
parted^ gone forth, escaped, burst out,
iv. Interjections and Vocative.
1) To the forms constructed in a Simple Sentence under the
eight Relations heretofore mentioned, must be added Interjections
and Interjectional utterances, especially the Case (of the person or
thing addressed) called the Vocative, which, with or without an
Interjection, is attached to the Sentence, but not constructed with
it; thus, with its adjuncts, forming an appendage, which maybe
called a Vocative Ecthesis. Thus Horace {Carm,\, i. i) begins
with a Vocative Ecthesis of two lines :
Maecenas, atavis edite regibus,
O et praesidium et dulce decus meum,
Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum
Collegisse iuvat, &c.
2) Ecthesis appears also in the Accusative Case, with or without
Interjection; in the Nominative Case, usually with Interjection; in
the Dative, never without Interjection.
V. Notice of the Relative Pronoun.
The consideration of the Relative belongs properly to the head
of Compound Sentences; but it is introduced here so far as to
establish its agreement in Gender, Number, and Person with its
Antecedent, that is, with the Term in the Prior Sentence to which
it stands related. To this extent the Relative Pronoun is Qualita-
tive ; but, as respects Case, it may (in its own clause) be Subject
Nominative or fall under any of the following Relations : Objective,
Receptive, Circumstantive, or Proprietive.
It corresponds to any Person. See §§ 108, 114, 204.
Note, The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, may be explained
as standing between two Noun-terms, with the former of which it
agrees in Gender, Number, and Person; with the latter in Case.
1) Sometimes both Noun-terms are expressed: ' Erant itinera
duo, quibus itineribus exire possent,' there were two roads by
which they might go forth, L.
2) Usually the latter is omitted: 'Animum rege, qui, nisi
paret, imperat,* rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands
(i e. qui animus), Hon
3S8
Latin Syntax.
% io6.
3) Sometimes the former is omitted in poetry : * Sic tibi dent
nymphae quae levet unda sitim/ so may the nymphs give thee what
water may assuage thirst (i.e. undam quae unda), Ov.
4) Sometimes both : ^ Sunt qui bus in satira videor nimis acer/
there are some to whom J seem too keen in satire (i, e, homines
quibus hominibus), Hor.
b) The following scheme illustrates this principle.
1) Vir quern virum vides rex est (full form).
2) Vir quem . ♦ . . vides rex est (usual lorm),
3) . . . quem virum vides rex est.
4) , . . quem . . , , vides rex est.
€) Any Noun-term may be the Antecedent to a Relative.
vi. Rules for the Conversion of an Active
into a Passive Sentence.
1) The Nominative of an Agent becomes Ablative (if expressed)
with the Preposition a^ a D •
Act. Nos currimus, )
■n A u • -4. \ we run.
Pass. A nobis curritur, ^
Or the Person may be suppressed :
Act. Sic imus ad astra, ) ,7 ^ 41 4
c- J 4. r thus we zo to the stars.
Pass. Sic itur ad astra, * s ^ *
Obs, The Ablative of the Agent may also be used with the Quasi-
Passive Verbs fio, vapulo, veneo :
Haec a legionibus fiebant,
these things were being done by the legions.
Testis a reo vapulavit,
the wit7iess was beaten by the defendant,
Nolim ab host e venire,
/ would not be sold by an enemy.
2) The Nominative of an Instrument becomes Ablative without
Preposition :
Act. Flores caput ornant , ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
Pass. F lor lb us caput ornatur, >
3) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject :
Act. Deus mundum creayit, \ God made the world.
Pass. A Deo mundus creatus est, '
4) If there are two Objects (Person and Thing) the Accusative of
the Thing remains :
Act. Rogas me sententiam, \ you ask me my opinion.
Pass. Rogor a te sententiam, ^ - ■
5) Factive construction becomes Copulative:
A. Clodium plebs t r i b u n u m c r e a v i t, \the plebeians elected
P. Clodius a plebe creatus est tribunus,^ Clodius tribune, •
§io7-8. Agreement 359
6) Other Cases remain, and Intransitive Verbs become Imper-
sonal.
Act. Pater librum fi 1 i o dat, > the father gives a book to his
Pass. A patre liber filio datur, ^ soru
Act. Medicinae indigemus, ) we need medicine
Pass. Medicinae a nobis indigetur, >
Act. M i h i isti nocere non possunt, | . ,
Pass. Mihi abistis noceri non potest, i^^^-^ cannot nun me.
Note, On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs see § 50.
CHAPTER III.
CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
These fall into three Sections. 107
I. Agreement.
II. Case-construction.
III. Verb-construction, so far as concerns the Simple
Sentence.
Section I.
AGREEMENT.
108
Agreement, in Syntax, is the assimilation of the Agree,
form of one word to that of another.
i. The Four Concords.
There are four Rules of Agreement, called CON-
CORDS : namely,
Concord I. — A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject-
Nominative in Number and Person.
. Examples :
^ Ego doceo; nos docemus.' ' Tu disces; vos discetis.'
* Magister hortetur; magistri hortentur.^ ' Vivere est cogi-
tare.' ^ Omnia sunt recte.^ ' Quod venisti gratum est.'
Concord 11. — An Adjective agrees in Gender,
Number, and Case with that to which it is in Attribu-
tion.
Concord III.— A Substantive agrees in Case with
that to which it is in Apposition.
Obs. — Concords II. and III. are true for every various position
of the Attribute or Apposite — whether they are Epithets, as in the
360 Latin Syntax, § log.
examples marked (i) of the two lists which follow: Entheses, as in
those marked (2) ; Adverbial, as in those marked (3) ; or Com- '
plements, as in those marked (4) and (5).
Examples.
II. (i) Vir bonus ille bonam hanc uxorem habet, />^^/^^^^
man has this good wife,
(2) hirundo pullis suis orbata queritur, the swallow
bereft of its young complains,
(3) quis vita male acta felix moritur ? who^ after a life ill-
spent, dies happy f
(4) cari sunt parentes; CdiX2Lts\.^2iir\2i, dear are parents ;
dear is country,
(5) pueri discendo fipnt docti, hoys by learning become
learned,
(6) haec est nob i lis ilia ad Trasimenum pugna, this is
that renowned battle at Lake Trasimenus,
(7) quid sit futurum eras incertum est, what will
happen to-morrow is uncertain,
(8) malim pueros esse quam videri bonos, I would rather
boys should be, than seern, good,
(9) tacere aliquando utile putamus, to be silent at times we
deem expedient,
(10) scire tuum nihil est, your knowledge is nothi7ig,
Obs. — In (7) 'incertum' agrees with the Clause 'quid sit futurum
eras.' In (8) * bonos' (Oblique Complement) agrees with 'pueros/
which is Oblique Subject of each Infinitive. Hence it is seen that
Copulative Verbs, Finite or Infinite, have the same case of agreeing
v/ords after as before them. Example (q) is of the same kind,
for esse might be supphed to utile. See III. (6),
III. (i) Nos pueri patrem Lollium imitabimur, w ^^Tyi" 7£////
imitate our father Lollius,
(2) effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum, riches are dug
out, incentives of evil,
(3) Cicero legem Maniliam praetor suasit, Cicero recom-
mended the Manilian law when praetor,
(4) spes est expectatio boni, hope is the expectation of
good.
(5) syllaba longa brevi subiecta vocatur iambus, a long
syllable followi^ig a short one is called iambus.
(6) Athenas omnium doctrinarum inventrices esse cre-
dimus, we believe Athens to be the inventress of all
sciences.
(7) cogita oratorem institui, rem arduam, reflect that
an orator is being formed, a difficult business,
(8) Tungri sunt Galliae ci vitas, the Tungri are a state of
Gaul.
Obs, — In (7) rem is in Apposition to the Clause ^oratorem
institui.'
§ I09-I lo. Agreement, 36 1
Concord IV. — The Relative Pronoun Qui, quae,
quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number,
and Person ; but in Case it follows the construction of
its own clause. See § 105.
1. Tu, filia, quae nos amas, oboedies nobis, qui te
a mam us, you^ daughter, who love us, will obey us,
who love you,
2. Deum veneramur, qui nos creavit, we worship God
who created us,
3. adsum quem (\\xdier\\\s, I am present whom ye seek,
4. habeo quibusrum colloquar, I have so7ne to talk with,
5. in tempore ad eam veni, quod rerum omnium est
primum, / came to her at the right mo7nent, which is
the most important Huug of all,
6. nos, id quod debent, virtutes delectant, virtues delight
us, as they ought,
Obs. — In 3, the Antecedent is ego, in 4, ali quo s, understood ; in
5, the Principal sentence is the Antecedent : in 6, id is in apposi-
tion to the sentence *nos virtutes delectant.' (Id quod = ut.)
ii. Ellipsis of the Subject
1) Pronoun Subjects (ego, nos, tu, vos, is, ei) are omitted, unless
required for emphasis : ' Si vales bene est, ego valeo,' if you are
well, I rpjoice ; I am well, C. Fam, xiii. 6. ^ Odi profanum volgus
et arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the profane vulgar, Hor. C, iii.
I.I. * Poscimur,' we are required, Hor. C. i. 32. i.
2) When a Suljact of the Third Person is omitted, it is generally
known from the context.
On the omission ol homines (Fr. on. Germ, mari) before aiunt,
ferunt, &c., see p. 275. *Teque ferunt irae paenituisse tuae,' and
they say you have repented of your anger, Ov. A, A. ii. 592. The
adverb volgo stuxetimes ?^ ompanies this elHpsis : 'Volgo ex
oppidis gratulabantur Pon peio/ they came in crowds from the
toivns to co7tgratuluCe Fofnpeius, C. T. D. i. 35.
3) Impersonal Verbs have no Substantive or Pronoun expressed
as Subject. But many have a Verb-noun Infinitive: 'Ire iuvat;
fugere dedecet,' &c. Many have a Clausular Subject : ' Oportet
hnec fieri:' interest ut te videam,' &c. The Subject of others is
implied in the Verb itself : Pudet facti ; taedet vitae ; miseret
hominis,' &c. : also in Pluit, tonat, grandinat, &c., and in
Passive Impersonais, Itur, statur, vivitur, &c. See ^ 50.
On Ellipsis, see pp. 267, 274, 346.
iii. Attraction of the Verb.
i) A Copulative Verb sometimes agrees with the Complement.
•Amantium irae amoris integratio est/ lovers^ quarrels are the
renewal of love, Ter. An, iii. 3. 28. ' Ouas geritis vestis <;ordida
lana fuit,' the clothes which ye wear were dirty wool, Ov. A, A,
iii. 222. -
362
Latin Syntax,
§ III.
2) This Attraction may affect Gender. ' Non omnis error stu^ -
titia est dicenda/ not every error must be called folly ^ C. Div,
ii. 43. * Gens universa Veneti appellati/ />^^ entire race were
called Veneti, L. i. i.
3) A Verb sometimes agrees with the Apposite rather than with
the true Subject. * Tungri GalHae ci vitas fontem habet insig-
nem/ Tongres, a city of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain^ PI. TV. H,
xxxi. 2.
I" iv. Synesis in the first and second Concords.
See p. 269.
1) Feminine or Neuter words implying males are found with
Masculine agreement: * Ilia furia qui . . . &c. impunitatem est
assecutus/ the fury who (namely Clodius) &c., obtained impunity,,
C. Fam. i. 9. * Milia triginta capitum dicuntur capti/ thirty thou-
sand prisoners are said to have been taken, L. xxvii. 16. * Ubi
i 11 ic est s eel us, qui . . . ^ where is that villain who . , . ? Ter.
An, iii. 5. Analogous to this is Livy's practice of mentioning
the name of a town, and then continuing the construction as if he
had mentioned the inhabitants: ^Saguntum civitas longe op-
ulentissima ultra Iberum fuit. Oriundi a Zacyntho insula dicun-
tur mixtique,' &c., the city of Saguntum was by far the wealthiest
beyond the Ebro : they (cives) are said to have originated from the
isle of Zante, and to have been mingled, &c., L. xxi. 7.
2) Singular Collective Nouns, pars, multitudo, volgus, turba,
vis, iuventus, nobilitas, plebs, &c., are used by Livy, Sallust, and
the poets, with Plural Predicates, and agreement of Gender Kara
(Tvvfniv. ' Locros omnis multitudo abeunt/ the whole number
remove to Locri, L. xxiv. 3. ^Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Ro-
mam inermes delatisunt,'<i very small portion, having lost their
leader, were brought unarmed to Rome, L. ii. 14. This construc-
tion is rare in Caesar, not used by Cicero.
3) The Distributive words and phrases quisque, uterque,
pars, alius ... alium, alter . . . alterum, vir . . . virum, &c.,
are apparently used as Subjects to Plural Predicates, but may be
explained as apposite to Plural Subjects understood : * Uterque
eorum exercitum e castris educunt/ they both lead out a7t army
from the camp, Caes. B, C. iii. 30. 'At nostri, repentino metu
perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt; alii fugere, alii
arma capere : magna pars volnerati aut occisi,' but our inen,
seized with a sudden panic, provided for themselves according to
their several habits ; some fled, others took arms : a great portion
were wounded or slain, Sail. lug. 57. 'Alius alii subsidium fe-
runt,' they bring support one to another, Caes. B, G, ii. 26. 'Vir
virum legebant,' each 7nan picked another, L. x. 38.
4) The Adverb partim is plurally constructed by Cicero, with
Gender fcaro ai'-rfdii' : 'Eorum partim in pompa partim in acie
illustres esse voluerunt,' some of them chose to be brilliant in pro-
cession^ some on the battlefield, C. d. Or. ii. 94. * Partim e nobis
Composite Subject.
363
timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi/ the one part of us are
cowards^ the other mifriendly to the state ^ C. Phil, viii. 11.
5. Mi lie is generally Plural, sometimes Singular. See § 34.
V. Composite Subject {avXXrjylrisi).
Two or more Subjects united in one Predication are called a
Composite Subject. See p. 268.
A, i) If the Subjects so united form an evidently Plural notion,
the Predicate will be Plural: ^Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio
foede perierunt,' C. J^am. ix. 18. * Castor et Pollux ex equis
pugnare visi sunt,* C. JV, D, ii. 2. ^ lus et iniuria natura
diiudicantur,' right and wrong are naturally distinguished^ C.
Leg.i. 16. 'Aetas, metus, magister, prohibebant,' age, ti-
midity, and a tutor forbade, Ter. An, i. i. 27. Sometimes, when the
Prep, cum unites the Subjects: *Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus
capiuntur,' the commander himself with some leading men were
captured^ L. xxi. 60. 'IliacumLausode Numitore sati,' Ov. F,
iv. 55. But Cicero prefers the Singular in this last construction,
'Tu cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites/ / should like to know
what you and Sextus think, Att. vii. 14.
2) If their union forms one complex Singular notion, the Verb
maybe Singular. ^Tempus necessitasque postulat,' C. Off.i. 23.
'Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae,' C. Off.m. 10. So
' Senatus populusque Romanus ' forms one complex notion, and
usually, but not always, takes a Singular Predicate.
3) If one of the Subjects is ist Pers. Sing, (ego), the Predicate
may be ist Pers. Plur.
If one of the Subjects is 2nd Pers. Sing, (tu) and none ist Pers.,
the Predicate may be 2nd Pers. Plur.
* Si tu et TuUia, lux nostra, valetis, egoet suavissimus Cicero
valemus,' If you and my darling Tullia are well, I arid our sweet
boy are in good health, C. Fam. xiv. 5.
4) If the Subjects are sentient beings and of the same Gender,
the Attributes follow that Gender ; if of different Genders, the At-
tributes are Plural Masculine.
* Non mihi venistis Semele Ledeve docendae,' ye are not
co7ne a Semele or a Leda to be taught by me^ Ov. A, A, iii. 251.
* Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are
dead J Ter. Eun. iii. 3. 11.
5) If they are non-sentient things and of the same Gender, that
Gender may be kept by the Attributes, or these may be Neuter : if
of different Genders, the Attributes are usually Neuter Plural.
* Grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae iutre,^ grammar
and music were formerly combined, Ou. i. 10. 17. ^Ira et avar-
itia imperio potentiora erant,' anger and avarice were more
powerful than authority^ L. xxxvi. 32. * Fregellis murus et porta de
caelo tacta erant,' at Fregellae a wall and gate had been struck by
lightning, L. xxxii. 29. See M. Lucr, iii. 136.
6) If sentient beings and non-sentient things are combined, the
former will sometimes regulate the Gender: 'Rex regiaque
364
Laii7L Syntax,
% 113.
classis una profecti/ the kmg and the royal fleet set out f^*
gether^ L. xxi. 50. But Neuter Attributes are more usual : ' Ro-
mani regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt,' the
Romans know that the kmg and kingdom of Macedonia will be theirs^
L. xl. 10.
B, i) Often, however, the Verb and Attributes are constructed
with only one of the Subjects, and mentally supplied with the rest
(zeugma). That one will be nearest to the Predication, and gene-
rally the most important. * Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, ni-
hil doctrina prodest,' now neither books nor literature nor learn-
ing avail me aught ^ C. Att,x. 10. ^ Homer us fuit et Hesiodus
ante Romam conditam,' Homer and Hesiod were before the founda-
tion of Romey C. T. D. i. i. * Dice bat idem Cotta, Curio,' Cotta
said the safne^ and Curio^ C. Off. ii. 1 7. * Cum quaesturam nos,
consulatum Cotta, aedilitatem peteret Hortensius,' 'Z£/^^;^ I stood
for the quaesturship, Cotta for the consulship^ Hortensius for the
edileshipy C. Brut. 92. So, ^Et tu et omnes homines sciunt/
you and all mankind know^ C. Fam. xiii. 8.
2) The agreement of Gender with a nearer word appears in this
Example : * Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorque caeli/ 7neteors
were seen in the night and a fiery sky, C. in Cat. iii. 8.
3) Singular agreement with the^ more distant Noun is rare :
*Lucus quidem ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur, saepe
a me lectus in Mario,' I recognise yonder grove, and this oak of
the Arpinates, which I have often read of in the Marius, C. Leg,
i, I.
4) ' Unus et alter' takes a Singular Verb: *Unus et alter
assuitur pannus,' one or two patches are stitched on, Hor. ad Pis.
5) When the Subjects are connected by aut, the Predicates
sometimes appear as Singular, sometimes as Plural : *SiAeacus
aut Minos diceret,' C. Off. i. 28. ' Si quid Socrates aut Aris-
tippus . . . fecerint locutive sint,' C. Off. i. 41. But with aut
. . . aut, the Singular alone is used. Et . . . et, neque . . . neque,
usually lead to a Singular Predicate, but sometimes to a Plural.
In short, the construction of a Composite Subject exhibits every
variety of usage.
6) Such instances as the following belong to Attraction : ^ Ei
cariora semper omnia quam decus et pudi citia fuit,' everything
was at all times dearer to him than decency and 77iodestyy Sail. Cat,
25.
vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition.
i) As Complement, the Adjective may be attributed to any
Noun-term; as Epithet, chiefly to a Substantive : but sometimes to
an Infinitive: 'Velle suum cuique est,' everyone has his own
inclination, *Totum hoc displicet p h i 1 o s o p h a r i,' all this phi-
losophising they dislike, Cic. Fin. i. i. *Me hoc ipsum nihil
agere delectat,' /'///i' ^far niente^ itself is to me delightful^ C. d.
Or. ii. 6.
g Attribution a7id Apposition, 365
2) Sometimes, in Copulative construction, an Adjectival Pro-
noun seems to take the place of Subject, and the Substantive, to
which it refers, that of Complement. So placed, the Adjectival
word usually agrees with the Substantive : ' H ae sunt fere de animis
sententiae,'" these are pretty nearly the [current) opinions on the
soul Cic. * Hie murus aheneus esto, nil conscire sibi,' let this be a
wall of brass, to be conscious of nothing {wrong), Hor. Epist. i. i.
6i. But sometimes the Pronoun is substantivally Neuter: ' Quod
ego fui ad Trasimenum, ad Cannas, id tu hodie es,* what I was at
Irasimenus, at Cannae, you are now, L. xxx. 30. ' Nunc scio quid
sit amor,' now know I what love is, Verg. B, viii. 43.
3) The Adverbial and Froleptic uses of the Attribute and Appo-
site are important idioms, noticed p. 278.
d) Attribute : 'Turn tu insiste audax muris,' then do thou
advance on the walls boldly, L. iii. 26. * Castris se pavi-
dus tenebat,' he kept hitnse If within the camp timidly, L.
*Vespertinus pete tectum,' seek the roof at eventide,
Hor. Epist. i. 6. 20. * Aeneas se matutinus agebat,'
Aeneas set himself in motion at morn, Verg. A en. viii. 465.
*Domesticus otior,' / lounge at ho7ne, Hor. S, i. 6. 127.
*Hostes rari se ostendere coeperunt,' the enemy began to
show the77iselves in small parties, Caes. G, v. 17.
* Memini, tametsi null us moneas,' I re7ne7nber, without
any suggestio7t fro7n you, Ter. Eun, ii. i. 10. * Hannibal
princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proeHo ex-
cedebat,' Ha7t7iibal used to be the first to go to battle, a7id
after the engage7nent the last to quit the field, L. xxi. 4.
* Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum,' believe
that every day that has daw7ied on you is your last, Hor.
Epist. i.4. 13. Thus, where the English generally uses a
Relative Pronoun : He was the first (last or 07tly 07te) who
ca7ne, the Lai in more concisely says Primus (ultimus,
solus) venit.
B) Adverbial Apposition limits the agency of the Subject in re-
spect of time, age, office, capacity, &c. : ' Furius, noster
familiaris, puer didicit quod discendum fuit,' inti7nate
friend Furius learnt in boyhood what he had to learn, C.
d. Or. iii. 23. ^ Cato senex scribere historiam instituit,'
Cato began to write history in old age, Suet. Ner. 31. * C.
lunius aedem Salutis, quam consul voverat, censor loca-
verat, dictator dedicavit,' Gains Ju7iius dedicated i7i his
dictatorship the temple of Salus, which he had vowed in
his co7tsulship, and given a co7ttract for i7i his censorship,
L. X. I. Under this head may be placed such phrases as,
Anteme consulem [before 7nv consulship), post me quaes-
tor em [after my quaestor ship). See p. 273.
4) If Neuter Adjectives are so constructed as to qualify Mas-
culine or Feminine Nouns, they must be regarded as words which
have acquired the nature of Substantives, and as standing in ap-
position : * Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor,' unsee77tly is:
an aged soldier, U7tsee7nly an old ma7t^s love, Ov. Am. \.c).^,^yiors
366
Latin Syiitax.
omnium rerum extremum est, death is the final close of all things,
C. Fa7n. vi. 21. ^Turpitude peius est quam dolor/ dishonour is
worse than pain, C. T, D. ii. 13. ' Patres et plebem, invalida et
inermia, ludificatur/ he deludes the Senate and Commons, weak
and defenceless bodies, Tac. Ann, i. 46.
5) The Apposite usually agrees in Number with its Noun, but
not necessarily: ' Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, ^ Tullia, my little
darling, C. Att. i. 8. Substantiva Mobilia, having two forms, Mas-
culine and Feminine, will agree, as far as possible, in Gender with
their Noun: Usus m agister egregius,' experience, an excellent
teacher, VXm, Epist, i. 20. * Vita rustica parcimoniae magistra
est,' a count?y life is the teacher of thrift, C. p, S, Rose. 27. Such
words are also used as epithets, chiefly by poets : * Regina pe-
cunia,' queen Money, Hon Epist, i. 6. 36. An Apposite may seem
to take a different case from its noun: ' Archias natus est Anti-
och i a e, celebri quondam urbe,' Archias was born at Antioch, a
once populous city, C. p. Arch. 3.
6) Peculiar forms of Apposition :
a) Apposition to a Pronoun Subject understood :
^Hannibal peto pacem,' /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx.
30. ^ Qualis artifex pereo!^ what an artist dies in me
(ht. / die) ! Suet. Ner, 49.
b) Apposition of the Part to the Whole :
^ Galli Ruscinonem, aliquot populi, conveniunt,V>^^ Gauls,
a few tribes, 7neet at Ruscino, L. xxi. 24. ^Duae filiae
harum, altera occisa, altera capta est/ the two datighters
of these women^ one was slain^ the other captured, Caes. B.
G. i. 53. * Cetera multitudo sorte decimus quisque ad
supplicium lecti sunt/ the rejnaining crowd were picked,
every tenth ?Jian^ for execution, L. ii. 59. * Vos sibi quisque
consilium capitis,' j/^ consult each for himself, Sail. C. 52.
c) Apposition of the Proper Names of one Person :
P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus. See p. 193.
d) Apposition annexed by Conjunctions, such as ut, velut,
quasi, ceu, tamquam, quamvis :
'Aegyptii canem et felem ut deos colunt/ the Egyptians
worship the dog and cat as deities, C. Leg. i. 1 1. * Herodotus
quasi sedatus amnis fluit/ Herodotus flows as a cabn
fiver, Q. Or. \2. ' Ficta omnia celeriter, tamquam flos-
c u 1 i, decidunt,' all unreal things quickly droop like flowers,
C.0fl'.u.i2. * Manlius filium suum, quamvis vie to ren\
occidit/ Manlius slew his son, though conqim'or, Flor. i.
e) Apposition which requires a Noun answering a question to
be in the same case as the Noun which it answers :
^Quone malo rnentem concussa? Timore deorum/ by what
malady disturbed in mind? — By fear of the gods, Hor. S.
ii. 3. 293. But here, too, the cases may seem to differ:
* Ouanti emptum ? — Parvo. Ouanti ergo? — Octussibus/
Hor. .9. ii. 3. 155.
§114.
Agreement of Relative.
367
7) A single Adjective is seldom referred to more than one Noun
except as Complement. When it is otherwise referred to more
than one, and the Genders differ, it usually agrees with the nearest:
' Romanis cuncta maria terraeque patebant/ all seas and lands
were open to the Rofnans, Sail. C 10.
Sometimes it is Neuter Plural, Hke a Complement :
^Gallorum genti natura corpora animosque magna magis
quam firm a dedit/ nature has given to the Gauls great rather than
strong bodies and minds^ L. v. 44.
8) A Noun subdivided by more than one Singular Attribute is
Sometimes found Singular, sometimes Plural :
' Legio Martia quartaque rempublicam defendunt,' the Martian
legion and the fourth defend the commonwealth^ C. Phil. v. 17. * In
rabiem tractae prima ac vicesima legiones/ the first and twentieth
legions were drawn into the mad revolt, Tac. Ann, i. 31.
A Noun in apposition to several others will be Plural in the same
Case with them :
' Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae/ the poets
Eupolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes^ Hor. S. i. 4. i.
Sometimes the Nomen or Cognomen is in apposition to the
Praenomina of two or more persons :
' M. et Q. Cicerone s/ the Ciceros, Marcus and Quintus : ' C. et
L. Memmii/ the Memmii, Gaius and Lucius,
vii. Synesis, Ellipsis and Attraction in Re- 114
lative Construction.
1. a) The agreement of the Relative may follow meaning:
*Multitudo, qui convenerant . .
b) The agreement of a Relative with a Composite Subject is
in principle the same as that of an Adjective.
* Pater et mater qui mortui sunt ' . . . * Fortuna, decus,
honos, quae fortuita sunt. . .
c) A Personal Pronoun as Antecedent may be implied in a
Possessive :
^ Omnes laudare fortunas me as, qui gnatum haberem tali
ingenio praeditum/ all were extolling my good fortune
in having a son of such a character^ Ter. An, i. i. 97.
2. d) ElHpsis of the Antecedent is frequent. See Concord iv.
Ex. 3. 4. But that of the word or words which govern
the Relative (when they are to be supplied from the ante-
cedence) is less so :
* Nos imitamur quos cuique visum est (i.e. eos quos cuique
visum est imitari)/ we i^nitate those, whom we severally
think proper to imitate, C. Ofi^. i. 32. This idiom some-
times resembles Attraction : * Si aliquid agis eoru m quo-
rum consuesti, gaudeo (i.e. eorum quorum ahquid agere
consuesti),^ if you are pursuing any of your wonted occu-
pations, I am glad ^ C. Fa7n. v. 14.
368
Latin Syntax.
b) When the Relative has been used in one Case, another Case
of it is sometimes suppressed :
* Bocchus cum peditibus, quos filius eius adduxerat, neque
in priore pugna adfuerant, postremam Romanorum
aciem invadunt/ Bocchus and the infantry^ which his son
had brought itp^ and which had not beefi present in the
former battle^ attack the rear of the Romans^ Sail. /. 10 1.
3. d) The Relative may agree with an Apposite, or not :
*Flumen Scaldis quod . . * Flumen Rhodanus qui. .
b) The Relative may agree with the Complement of its own
Clause, rather than with its Antecedent :
* Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est,^ L.
Madvig's rule is {Gr. § 319) that, if the Antec. is defined without
the aid of the clause, the Rel. agrees with its Compl. ; if not, wiih
the Antec. But many exceptions occur.
c) The Antecedent is drawn into the same Clause and Case as
the Relative : ' Quam artem novi, exerceo.^ Or the Ante-
cedent may remain in its own sentence, and be repeated
in the Relative Clause : * Dies instat, quo die . .
Sometimes the attracted Antecedent precedes the Relative :
*Urbemquam statuo vestra est,' V. A en. i. 573.
Horace has a daring Attraction : * Ouis non malarum quas
amor curas habet Haec inter obliviscitur ? ' Epod. ii. 37.
d) An Attribute, especially unus, pauci and Superlatives, may
be attracted to the Relative Case and Clause (§ 82. 3.) :
'Tempestivis conviviis delector cum aequalibus, qui pauci
admodum restant,' I enjoy earty dinners with contempora-
ries^ very few of whom remain^ C. Cat. M, \ 4. * Consiliis pare,
quae nunc pulcherrimaNautesdat senior,' V. Ae. v. 728.
e) Attraction of the Relative to the Case of the Antecedent is
rare : ' ludice quo nosti populo,* in the judgment of that
public with which you are acquainted^ Hor. S. i. 6. 15.
This is sometimes complicated with Ellipsis of the Ante-
cedent or of the governing word, or of both : * Haec cadere
possunt in quos nolis (i.e. in eos in quos nolis ea cadere),'
C. d. Or. ii. 60.
viii. Qualis, quantus, quot.
Qualis {such as)^ quantus {as great as), follow the same rule
as qui only when they are placed between two Cases (expres^^e^l
or understood) of the same person or thing: *Non sum qualis
eram,' I am not what I was, Hor. C. iv. i. 3. * Crocodilus parit ova
quanta anseres,' the crocodile lays eggs as big as geese lay, PL
N. H. xviii. 25. But if they are used to compare two diffe7'ent
Nouns, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case with the latter ;
while their Demonstratives (talis, tantus) agree with the former :
' Talis est, qualem te esse video, he is such as I see you are, C.
Mur. 14. *Dixi tanta contentione quantum forum est,' /
spoke with exertion of voice as great as the forum is, C. Fam. xii. 7-
So tot . . . quot, which are undeclined.
§ 114. Agreement of Relative, , 369
Abnormal constructions are: ^Animae qualis neque can-
didiores terra tulit, neque quis me sit devinctior alter/
Hor. 6^. i. 5. 41. * Nardo perunctum quale non perfectius
meae laborarint manus,' Hon Epod, v. 57,^
• Examples of the Rules of Agreement, for practice.
A. {Subject: Predicate: Complement: Attribution.) 'Menspeccat, non corpus,*
L. i. 58. * Nos consules desumus,' C. Cat. i. i * Nitimur in vetitum semper cu pi-
rn usque negata,' Ov. Am. iii. 4. 17. * Natura tuillipateres, consiliis ego,' Ter. Ad.
I. 2. * Haruspicum munus era t exta inspicere,' Val. M. i. i. *Quidsitoptimum
neminem fug it,* Qu. xi. 2. * Vivitur parvo bene,' Hon C. ii. i6i 13. * lusta omnia
decorasunt: iniusta contra, ut turpia, sic indecora,' C. O^. i. 27. * Catilinae inerat
s a t i s eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,' Sail. C. 5. 'Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,*
C. Att. xiii. 28i 'Dulce satis umor,' Verg. B. iii. 82. ' Omnis ars imitatio est
naturae,' Sen. ^/5. 65. *Terra altrix nostra diei noctisqiie efFectrix eademque
custos est,' C. Univ. 10. 'Servus, cum manu mittitur, fit libertinus,' Qu. vli. 3.
*De Amicitiaeo libro dictum est, qui inscribitur Laelius,' C. Ojff^. ii. 9. * Athenis
tenue caelum, ex quo acutiores etiam putantur Attici,' C. Fat. 4. * Poste-
riores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientioreS esse Solent,' C. Phii. xii; 2. 'Omnia
orta occidunt et aucta senescunt,' Sail. lug: i. * Romam serae avaritia atque luxuria
immigraverunt,' L. Praef. * Scythae perpetuo intacti aut invicti mansere,' lust. ii. 3.
*Marius, Septimum consul, domi suae senex est mortuus,' C. N. D. iii. 32. Apiid
matrem recte ^st,' Q,, Att. i. 7. 'Sum Dyrrachii hoc tempore, et sum tuto,'C.
Fam. xiv. 3; 'Nihil est tarn angusti animi tamque parvi quam arriare divitias,*
C. Off. i. 20. * Libertas et anima nostra in dubio est,' Sail. C. 52. *Ne Pericles
quidem dixit Attice, cui primae sine controversia deferebantur,' C. Or. 9.
B. {Synesis.) 'Pars in crucem acti, pars bestiis obiecti sunt,' Sail. 7«^. 14.
' Volgu s Macedonum Demetrium cum ingenti favo^e conspiciebant,' L. xxxix. 55.
* Samnitium caesi tria milia ducenti, capti quattuor milia ducenti,' L. x. 34.
'Optimus quisque iussis par uere,' Tac. H.vv.2$. 'Dux uterque pari culpa
meritus adversa prosperis defuere,' Tac. H. iv. 34. * Hie uterque me intuebatur,
seseque ad audiendum significabant paratos,' O Fin. ii. i. (Cicero never has a Plural
Verb with uterque : see Madvig ad 1. c.)
C. {Composite Subject.) 'Dant veniam genitor coniunxque,' Ov. P. li. ^29.
* Spectantur in chartis tenuitas, cando r, laevor,' PI. A^. // xiv. 12. ' Per inter-
regem consules creati sunt Valerius et Horatius,' L. iii. 35. ' Ego ac tu
simplicissinie inter nos hodie loquimur,' Tac. H. i. 15. * Haec neque ego neque
tu f ecimiis,' Ter. Ad. i. 2. 23. * Ex eo die ego et leo in eodem specu viximus,
Gell. v. 14. 'Qiiid est quod tu aut ilia cum fortuna hoc nomine queri possitis,'C.
Fam. iv. 5. *Necsenatus gloriari necprincepspoterant,' Plin. Ep. 75. * Effigiem
nullam Vesta nec ignis habent,* Ov. F. vi. 298. 'Demosthenes cum ceteris
populiscito in exsiliura erant expulsi,' Nep. Pkoc. 2. 'Dea Inventus Termi-
nusque deus id non sunt passi,' L. v. 54. 'Serpens, sitis, ardor, harenae,
dulcia virtuti,* Lucan. ix. 402. * Societas hominum et aequalitas et iustitia
per se expetenda sunt,* C; Leg. i. 18. 'Omnibus in rebus temeritas ignora-
tioquevitiosa est,' C. Fin. iii. 21. 'Mens et animus et consilium et sententia
civitatis posita est in legibus,' C. /. Clu. 53. * Bene de republica meteri, laudari,
coli, diligi, gloriosuni est,' C. Phil. i. 14. ' Mihi magnae curae est ut tu ipse
tuique bmnes scire possint me tibi esse amicissimum,' L. xxix. 17. ' Tarquinius
cum prole fugit,' Ov. F. ii. 851. ' lane, face aeternos pacem pacisque minis -
tros,'Ov. F. i. 287. 'O noctes cenaequ^ deum, quibus Ipse tneique ante lares pro-
prios vescor,' Hor. 6". ii. 6. 65.
D. {Apposition.) 'Alexander, victor tot regurii atque populorum, irae succubuit,'
Sen. Ep. 113. 'Quiddicam de thesauro omnium rerum memoria?' C. d. Or. i. 5.
'Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montis pertinet,' Caes. B. G. i. i
'Oppidum Genabum pons fluminis Ligeris continet,' Caes; B. G. vii. 11.
*Hostis hostem occidere volui,' L. ii. 12. 'Duo exercitus Aventinum inse-
distis,' L. ix. 34. 'Duo consules eius anni alter ferro alter morbo perierant,'
L. xli. 18. 'Civilis omnium coniuges parvosque liberos consistere a tergo iubet,
hortamenta victoriae vel pulsis pudorem,' Tac. H. iv. 61. * Batavi machinas
etiara, insolitum sibi, ausi,' Tac. H. iv. 23. 'Numquam ingenium ad res diversissimas,
B B
370
Latin Syntax,
S H5-16.
Section II.
CASE-CONSTRUCTION.
A, The Nominative Case,
i. The Nominative is the Case of the Subject
of a Finite Verb and of those words which
agree in Case with the Subject. See Concords L
11. III.
ii. Thus the Nominative stands as Comple-
ment
1) Of F'inite Copulative Verbs.
2) Of Copulative Verbs Infinite, prolatively used.
1) 'Galba medius inter Neronem et Othonem imperator ex-
stitit/ Galba was the emperor intervening between Nero and OthOy
Suet. '6^. 6. ' Subtilis veterum iudex et callidus audis,'
are called a nice and shrewd critic of ancient authors^ Hor. ii. 7.
parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit,' L. xxi. 4. 'Corioli oppidum
captum est a Marcio,' L. ii. 23. * Ludi Taurilia per biduum facti,' L. xxix. 22.
*Oculi tamquam speculatores altissimum locum obtinent,' C. N. D. ii. 140.
'Dies quo ceperat imperium Gaius Palilia vocatus est, velut argumentum
rursus conditae urbis,' Suet, Cal. 16. * Caelius historiam, ut homo neque doctus neque
maxime aptus ad dicendum, ut potuit dolavit,' C. d. Or. ii. 54. * Cottam cum Titurio
legatos amisimus,' Flor. iii. 10. * Duae urbes potentissimae Carthago atque
Numantia ab eodsm Scipione sunt deletae,' C. /. L. Man. 20. * Soceri tibi
Marsque Venusque contigerunt,' Ov. M. iii. 130. * Duo fulmina Romani imperi
subito in Hispania Cn. et P. Scipiones exstincti sunt,' C. /. ^^/3. 15. *Acernme
deliciae meae Dicaearchus contra immortalitatem dlsseruit,' C. T. D. i.
'Pompeius nostri amores ipse se afflixit,' C. Att. ii. 19. 'Cetera turba, nos,
inquam, cenamus avis,' Hor. 5". ii. 3. 26. 'Hoc dedimus nos tibi nomen eques (for
equites),' Ov. F. ii. 128. * 'Tec multo post diem obiit utroque liberorum superstite,
Tiberio Drusoque Neronibus,' Suet. Tib. 4. 'Corinthi Achaiae urbe Vespa-
sianus certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae,' Tac. H. ii. i. 5. * Quid meritu's ?
Crucem,'Ter. An. iii. 5. 15. ' Cuius es? Amphitruonis,' Plaut. Amph. v. 3. 222.
*Quantiemit? Vili,' Plaut. Ep. i. i. 49.
E. {Relative and Antecedent.) a. * Pax ita convenerat ut Etruscis Latinisque fluvius
Albula, quam nunc Tiberim vocant, finis esset,' L. i. 8. ' Est locus in carcere, q u o d
T u 11 i a n u m appellatur, circiter duodecim pedes humi depressus,' Sail. Cat. 55. * V e i e n s
bellum exortum, qui bus Sabini arma coniunxerant-v' L. ii. 53. ' Habebam inimicum non
C. Marium, sed duo importuna prodigia, quos egestas, quos aeris alieni magnitudo,
quos levitas, quos improbitas tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat,' C. p. Ses. 16.
* Ad quadraginta milia miiitam, quod roboris in Samnio erat, convenerant,' L. x. 38.
*Illud, mi Tiro, te rogo, ne sumptui parcas ulla in re quod ad valetudinem opus sit,'
C. Fa7n. xvi. 4. 'luniores, id maxime quod Kaesonis sodalium fuit, auxere iras in
plebem,' L. iii. 14. * Favent pietati fideique di, per quae populus Romanus ad
tantum fastigi venit/ L. xliv. 2. * Minime miror qui insanire occipiunt ex iniuria,' Ter.
Ad. ii. I. 43. *En dextra fidesque quem secum patrios aiunt portare penatis,' Verg.
Aen. iv, 598. ' Dividebat agros quibus volebat,' C. Off. i. 11. ' Lacedaemonii Agin
regem, quod numquam antea apnd eos acciderat, necaverunt,' C. Off. ii. 23. * Raptim
quibus quisque poterat elatis iam continens agmen migrantium impleverat vias,* L. i.
29. * Pomptinus a te tractatus est praestanti ac singulari fide, cuius tuibeneficii sum
ego testis,' C. Earn. iii. 10. ' Accusator non ferendus est is, qui quod in altero vitium
reprehendit in eo ipso dep»* |henditur,' C. Verr. iii. 2. *Nullo modo animus audientis
. § M7~i9.
Vocative Case.
loi. *Princeps in senatu tertium lectus est P. Scipio Afri-
canus/ Publius Scipio Africanus was for the third time chosen
prince of the Senate^ L. xxxviii. 28. ^Amicitia virtutum adiu-
irix a natura data est, non vitiorum comes,' C. Lael, 22.
2) ^Aristaeus inventor olei esse dicitur,' Aristaeus is said
to be the discoverer of oil, C. Verr. iv. 57. ^ Cato esse quam videri
bonus malebat,' Cato preferred being to see7mng good, Sail. C. 54.
* Socrates parens philosophiae iure dici potest,' Socrates may
justly be called the father of philosophy, C. Fin, ii. i. ' Ad auream
arietis pellem profecti dicuntur Argonautae,' the Argonauts are
said to have gone after the golden fleece^ Varr. R, R, ii. i (esse
being omitted).
iii. The Nominative may stand with the Inter-
jections en, ecce> o, and others*
^En dextra fidesque!' lo the right hand and the pledged
faith! Verg. Aen. iv. 597. ^ Sed ecce nuntii, ecce litterae,
Caesarem ad Corfinium,' but lo couriers and letters stating that
Caesar is at Corfinium, C. Alt. viii. 3^ *0 vir foi'tis atque
amicus !' 0 the brave and friendly man I Ter. Ph. ii< 2* 10.
B, The Vocative Case, ^
n8
i. The Vocative is used without or with an vocative
Interjection : fill, Pompei, luppiter: O fili, O
Pompei; pro luppiten
ii. The Nominative takes the place [of the
Vocative :
1) When the Noun is Collective: * I, pete virginea, populus,
suffimen ab 2iX'3i^ go, people^ seek incense from the virgin^ s altar, Ov.
F. iv. 731. * O Pomp ill us sanguis,' Hor. ad Pis. 292.
2) When the word is an Attribute or Apposite enthetically or
adverbially used: 'Tu quoque Cydon Dardania stratus dextra,'
Verg. Aen. x. 320. *Nudus iaciture sepulcro,' St. Th. vii. 777.
3) Yet poets sometimes keep the Vocative in such circum-
stances : ' Sic venias ho die me,' so mayst thou come to-day, Tib. i.
7,53. *Rufe mihi frustra ac nequiquam credite amice,' O
aut incitari aut teneri potest, qui modus a me non tentatus sit/ C. Or. 38. * Haec
est quam Scipio laudat in libris et quam maxime probat tempefationem reipublicae,'
C. Leg. iii. 5. * Poeta id sibi negoti credidit solum dafi popillo ut placerent quas fecisset
fabulas,' Ter. An. Pf. 3. ' Tullia, qui illius in te amor fuit, hoc certe te facere non
vult,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Cuius lenitatis est Galba, iam fortasse promisit,* Tac. H.
i« 37« 'Qua es prildentia, nihil te fugiet/ C. Fafn. xi. 13. (See p. 312.) * Sarmatis
neque conti neque gladii, quos praelongos utraque manu reg^nty usui erant,' Tac.
H. i. 79. 'Consul, qui unus supererat^ moritur,' L. iii. 7.
b. 'Talis est quaeoumque respublica qualis eius aut natura aut voluntas qui illani
regit,' C. Rep. i. 31. 'Hoc bellum est, quale bellum nulla barbaria gessit,' C. in Cat.
ii. I. 'Videre mihi videor tantam dimicationein quanta numquam fuit,' C. Att,
vii. I.
B B 2
372
Latin Syntax.
§ I20-I.
Rufus vainly and to no purpose believed my friend^ Catull. 77. i.
* Quibus Hector ab oris exspectate w^msl^ from what shores^
Hector, comest thou expected? Verg. A en, ii. 282. See Pers. iii. 28.
Ausonius has * lane, veni, novus anne, veni/ Id, viii* x.
C, The Accusative Case.
120
Accusa. i. The Accusative is the Case of the Attained
else. Nearer Object : also of the Contained Object.
Any Agent may become an Object : a striker may be struck, &c.
But not every Object can be an Agent in a proper sense. There-
fore it is that in Neuter Nouns (as bellum, regnum ; mel, far, &c.),
the Accusative is the primary, the Nominative only a secondary,
form. Therefore also, when a Proposition (as, ' the parrot speaks ')
quits the form of statement, and passes into an abstract notion
(• the parrot's speaking*), while the Finite Verb becomes Infinitive
(loqui), the Nominative becomes Accusative (psittacum) ; that is,
the Subject of an Infinitive is an Accusative in Latin. Such a
notion, 'psittacum loqui,' is essentially Objective, but, like the
Nominative of a Neuter word, it can, by a secondary use, become
the Subject of a Proposition ; ' psittacum loqui credibile est,' the
parrofs speaking (that the parrot speaks) is credible,
ii. Transitive Verbs of any class take an
Accusative of the Attained Nearer Object.
1. mater alit pullos,
the mother nourishes the young ones.
2. in primis venerare Deum,
in the first place worship God,
3. pudetme stultitiae,
/ am ashamed (lit. * it shames me') of my folly.
The First Example, in Passive form, becomes
pulli a matre aluntur.
The Second (where the Verb is Deponent) and the Third (where
it is Impersonal) cannot assume the Passive form.
This is the standard Rule, because Transitive Verbs are so large
a class. But to draw the line which divides Intransitive from
Transitive Verbs is not easy. Intransitive Verbs are often used
with Transitive force: ardere, flere, pallere, sitire, &c. Tran-
sitive Verbs may drop their Object and seem to be Intransitive :
amare, durare, obtinere, &c.
The following considerations may throw light on this subject. ^
121
General
Rule.
- By the Attained Object is meant that wiiich follows Transitive Verbs : by the Coa-
teined Object that which follows lotrans^tive Verbs.
§ 122.
Accusative Case,
373
iii. The Contained Object or Cognate Accu- Con
sative. obj
1) Every Verb has at least one Object, its own Activity, repre-
sented by its most abstract Verbal Noun in (ion-) -lo: agere
actionem, stare stationem, ire itionem, narrare narra-
tionem, 5cc.
This purest abstract form is not, however, used by Latin authors
in connection with Verbs. But other Substantives, more concrete,
are so used with the Verbs to which they belong : the construction
being that called * the Cognate Accusative,' or ' Accusative of the
Verbal Operation,' or ^Contained Accusative.' Such instances
are :
Canere cantilenam, Ter. ; cenare cenam. Plant. ; furere furorem,
Verg. ; gaudere gaudium, C. ; iurare iusiurandum, C. ; insanire
insaniam, Sen. ; ludere ludum, Hor. ; nocere noxam, L. ; ridere
risum, C. ; servire servitutem, C. ; somniare somnium, Plaut. ;
vivere vitam, Plaut. ; moveri motus, Lucr.
When such expressions occur, the Substantive usually has an
epithet: Ludum insolentem ludere, Hor.
2) Instead of the purely Cognate Accusative, Intransitive Verbs
oftener take a Contained Accusative expressing some more limited
operation of the Verb :
Agere {to- pass), aetatem ; agere {to act) partis ; cantare melos ;
coronari Olympia (to be crowned as an Olympian 7/^V/^?r = vincere
Olympia) ; currere stadium ; degere vitam, &c. ; dormire noctem ;
errare litora ; ire viam, &c. ; iurare numen, &c. ; praelucere spem ;
ludere aleam ; ludere carmina ; militare bellum ; mentiri auspicia ;
natare aquas, &c. ; navigare aequor, &c. ;^ prandere holus ; pugnare
proelia ; quadrare acervum ; respondere ius ; resonare Amaryllida
(alcyonen) ; saltare (moveri) Satyrum (Cyclopa) ; sonare vitium
(hominem), &c. ; triumphare hostem ; vagari terras ; vehi maria ;
vivere aetatem (Bacchanalia, Nestora), &c. ; vigilare noctem ;
vincere causam (iudicium), &c.
Especially Verbs which express
CL) Odour or flavour : olere crocos (pastillos, lampadem, anti-
quitatem, &c.), redolere flores ; spirare odorem ; exhalare
mephitim ; sapere mella (aprum, mare, plebeium, &c.).
b) Visible emanation: manare mella; depluere lacrimas ;
spirare flammas ; stillare rorem ; sudare electra ; erum-
pere liquores, &c.
Such constructions are chiefly poetic : but many of them occur
in prose.
3) Other Intransitive Verbs take a Contained Accusative only or
chiefly of Neuter Pronouns and Pronominal words :
Quod, quid, ahquid, quicquam, nescio quid, nihil, hoc, id,
idem, illud, istud, utrumque : quae, omnia, cuncta, eadem, multa,
pauca, &c. See M. Lucr, vi. 404.
Among such Verbs are: cogere, dolere, dubitare, disserere,
374
Latin Syntax.
§123
gaudere, gloriari, laborare, laetari, obsequi, peccare, stomachari,
succensere, &c.
And the expressions : animum advertere, auctor sum (/ advise),
4) Out of this usage have grown a large number of Accusative
phrases, which have an Adverbial use :
Cetera (alia, pleraque), multum, plus, plurimum, summum, aeter-
num, &c. ; suam vicem ; quod genus ; id genus, omne genus ;
magnam partem ; istuc (illud, id) aetatis ; hoc noctis ; id temporis, .
id auctoritatis, &c.
All these belong to prose style,
5) A Contained Accusative of the Neuter Adjective, Singular or
Plural, is used by poets freely in an adverbial manner, especially
with Verbs which express sensitive or sensible action :
Dulce ridere (loqui) ; immane spirare (sonare) ; suave re-
sonare ; perftdum ridere ; turbidum laetari ; lugubre rubere ; im-
mensum attolli (crescere) ; altum dormire ; lene virere ; suave
olere ; lucidum fulgere ; falsum renidere ; acerba tueri ; sera
comare ; vana tumere ; rauca gemere ; crebra ferire ; plura mo-
rari ; insueta rudere ; sollemnia insanire, with many more,
6) A form of the Contained Accusative, largely used by poets,
sometimes by Livy and prose writers of the silver age, is Hhe
Accusative of Respect,' also called *Accusativus Partis,'
because it defines more nearly the part affected of the Object.
Often an Ablative appears with it, sometimes a Dative.
This construction is taken by some Intransitive Verbs : tremere
artus (ossa), torpere nervos, tumere colla, dolere caput (oculos), &c.
Oftener by Passive Verbs : suffundi ora rubore ; expleri men-
tem ; molliri ingenium ; diduci animum; pingi alvum notis ;
* Capita Phrygio velamur amictu,' V, Aen, iii.
Most frequently by Passive Participles and Adjectives :
Tectus cahgine vultum; ornatus crinis apio ; mutata men-
tem ; labefactus animum ; laniata genas, &c. ; madidus unguento
comam; os umerosque deo similis; crura thy mo plenae ; nudae
bracchia et pedes.
Sometimes by Substantives :
Ora puer pulcherque habit um; cetera fossor,
iv. Medial Object.
Different from the Accusative of the Part, and having more the
nature of an Attained Accusative, is that which poets often give to
Passive Verbs and their Participles, used Reflexively, like the Greek
Middle Verb. Thus cingi ( = cingere se), indui ( = induere se),
exui (-exuere se), pasci ( = pascere se), colligi ( = colHgere se),
suspendi ( = suspendere se), &c., take (as it were) a Second Object
of the thing girt on, put on, put off, fed 07i, gathered up, hmtg on,
&c. In prose this is rare, but sometimes found.
* Exuitur cornua,' she puts off her horns, Ov. M. ix. 52. * Inutile
ferrum cingi tur,V/^? girds hirnself with useless steel , Verg. Ae, ii.
§124-5. Accusative Cas^, 375
510. * Pascuntur silvas/ they graze on the forests, Yo^rg. G, iii. 314.
* Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto/ having their
satchel and slate hung on their left arm^ Hor. kS". i. 6. 74. So
* chlamydem circumdata/ having a mantle thrown round her, Verg.
Ae7i. iv. 137.; 'saiurata dolorem/ having her resentment glutted^
Verg. A en, v. 608.
V. The Accusative of Limiting Circum-
stances (Time, Space, Measure), § 103, V.
1) The Accusative of Duration of Time :
'Annum iam audis Cratippum,' you have been a scholar of
Cratippus for a year, C, Off, i, i. * Pericles quadraginta annos
praefuit Athenis,' Pericles was prime minister of Athens forty
years, C. d. Or. iii. 34.
And after natus, expressing age :
* Dionysius quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum
occupavit,' Dionysius seized the government at the age of twenty^
five years, C, T, D. v. 20.
This last Accusative sometimes continues even when the Com-
parative (maior, minor) is introduced :
* Dionysius maior annos sexaginta decessit,^ Dio7iysius died
when more than sixty years old, Nep. Eum, 2.
2) The Accusative of Distance of Time past with abhinc :
' Pater abhinc duo et viginti annos est moYimis,^ the father
died twenty-two years ago, C. Verr, ii. 9.
3) The Accusative of Space traversed and of Distance :
* Milia tum pransi tria repimus,' then after luncheon we crawl
three miles, Hor. S. i. 5. 25. ' Hadrumetum abest a Zama circiter
milia passuum tree en ta,' Hadrumetum is about 300 miles from
Zatna, Nep. Hann. 6.
4) The Accusative of Measure of Length, Breadth, Height,
Depth, with the Adjectives longus, latus, altus : also of Weight
with the word p o n d o :
Longum (latum, altum) ducentos pedes . . . quaterna cubita,
&c., digitos sex, &c. So, libram pondo, a pound weight.
(The Ablative and Genitive are used in Constructions of Time,
Space, and Measure: also Prepositions; per, ad, intra, supra,
in, &c.)
vi. Accusative of Place Whither.
The Accusative of Place whither is chiefly used when the Place
is a town or small island (sometimes, as by poets, more exten-
sively) ; also when it is expressed by domum (home), rus {into the.
country).
' Legati Athenas missi sunt,' L. iii. 31. ^Caesar Narbonem
profectus est,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. Mbimus Afros,' Verg. B. i.
64. 'Veni consulis Antoni dom>um,' C. Fa7n. xi. 28. * Ego rus
ibo,' Ter. Eun. ii. i. 10. So^ domum itio, reditio, reditus. The
376
Latin Syntax,
§ 126-27.
phrases Mre infitias,' to deny, 'ire exsequias/ to attend a
fu7ieral, are constructed on this model. The Prepositions ad, in,
usque, are also much used in expressing Motion to a Place. See
Prepositions.^
126 vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively.
The Subject of a Transitive Verb may be made its Object :
Moveo me, moves te, movet se, &c. ; and some Transitive Verbs
may omit this Pronoun, and so become Intransitive. Such are,
Aequo, ago, abstineo, augeo, deflecto, duro, habeo, inclino,
insinuo, lavo, minuo, moveo, muto, pasco, pono, praecipito, remitto,
turbo, urgeo, verto, averto, vibro, volvo, and others. See M. Lucr,
iii. 502 ; v. 931.
Ex. 'Abstineto irarum,' abstain frorn angry feelings, Hor. C,
iii. 27. 69. *A veritate deflect it,' he swerves froin truth, C. p,
Caec. 51. * Bene habet,' // is well, luv. * Nilus praecipit^t ex
altissimis inontibus,' the Nile dashes from very high mountain^, C.
S, Sc. 13. ^ Ubi nos laverimus lavato,' when we have bathed,
bathe, Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 48. ^ Minuente aestu,' the heat fnoderating,
Caes. B. G. iii. 12. 'Res humanae semper in adversa mutant,*
human affairs always change to adversity, Sail. lug. 104. ^ Re-
miser ant dolores pedum,' the pai7ts of the feet had abated, C. Br,
34. ^ lam verterat fortuna,' had now changed, L. y. 49.
* Venti posuere,' the winds have dropped, Verg. Ae. vii. 27.
Conversely, many Passive forms are used reflexively :
Congregor, delector, effundor, exerceor, fallor, feror, lavor, moveor,'
mutor, oblector, pascor, versor, vertor, avertor, volvor, &c. See iv.
127 viii. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively.
The tendency of Intransitive Verbs to become Transitive is
variously shewn.
i) Many Static Verbs take the cause or motive of the state as
an Object, and so become Transitive. Such are
Doleo, lugeo, maereo, grieve, grieve for', tremo, treinble,
tremble at-, erubesco, blush, blush for', ardeo, burn, burn for',
esurio, hunger, hunger for ', sitio, thirst, thirst for-, lateo, lie hid,
lie hid from ; maneo, re^nain, await ; miror, wonder, wonder at ; ,
pereo, depereo, die or waste away, die or waste for love of-, queror,
complain, C07nplain of-, sileo, taceo, ajn silent, a7n sile7it of ; audeo,
dare ; calleo, a7n e7iured, a77i fa77iiliar with ; fasti dio, loathe ;
horreo, horresco, shudder-, paveo, pavesco, quake ; palleo, pallesco,
turn pale, &c.
Ex. ' Doleo casum tuum,' I grieve for your 77iisfortu7te, C. ^ Pon-
tum palluit,' she tur7ied pale at the sea, Hor. C. iii. 27, 26. ^ Eru-
bescit soloecismum,' he blushes for his solecis77i. Sen. Ep. 95.
* Nutum divitis horret,' he shudde7's at the rich 77ia7i^s 7iod, Hor.
Epist. i. 18. II.
* The Accusatives of Time, Space, ISIeasure and Place, are in the naturfi of thfr
Contained Accusative. Thus * ire Romam ' = * ire iter Romae. '
§127
Accusative Case.
377
2) Verbs of Intransitive action take as Object that which excites
the action : latro, bark, bark at ; sibilo, hiss ; rideo, laugh, laugh
at ; fleo, weep, weep for ; gemo, gemisco, groari, groan for,
^ Populus me sibilat/ the populace hiss me, Hor. i. 1.66.
'Fletnecem fili/ she weeps for her son^s death, Tac.
Note, Most in these classes have no personal Passive : ardeo,
audeo, calleo, lateo, pereo, paveo, palleo, &c. A few are found
Passive: ^ Quo plus sunt potae plus sitiuntur aquae/ water is
thirsted for 77iore, the more it has been drimk, Ov. F, i. 216.
3) Various Verbs, usually Intransitive, take a Transitive force in
certain senses :
Annuere, grant ; adsuescere, consuescere, insuescere, accustom ;
desinere, leave off-, censere, enroll ; cunctari, delay ; deproperare,
festinare, maturare, properare, speed \ iaculari, shoot \ laborare^,
elaborare, work out \ fugere, escape from ; migrare, transgress '\
morari, delay ; pergere, continue ; plaudere, pat ; putare, reckon^
prune ; sufficere, supply ; ruere, proruere, overthrow, rake up ;
surgere, rouse up ; vergere, incline, 8lc,
On the other hand, some Verbs, usually Transitive, have also a
* peculiar Intransitive use : such are, ^
Audire, (hear) be called; differre, (sunder) disagree ; debere, {owe)
be bound [ought) ; superare, {surpass) survive, remain. Credere, '
(entrust) believe, takes Dat. or Acc. of thing, Dat. of person.
Sortiri, allot ^ or take by lot, is Transitive in each sense.
4) Many Compounds of Intransitive Verbs, especially verbs of
Motion, obtain a Transitive or Semitransitive force, chiefly when
compounded with Prepositions governing an Accusative, ad, ante,
circum, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, trans:
Adire, aggredi, allabi, adsilire, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere,
antegredi, antevenire, circumire, circumnavigare, circumvenire,
inire, ingredi, illabi, innare, innatare, insilire, insultare, invadere,
invehi, obire, obambulare, obequitare, perambulare, percurrere,
permeare, praeterire, subire, transcurrere, transire, tranare, trans-
gredi, transilire, transvolare, &:c.
Some which do not contain motion :
Adiacere, accumbere, adstare, adsidere, alloqui, circumsonare,
circumsedere, circumstare, impugnare, inclamare, incubare, insi-
dere, instare, inundare, oppugnare, obsidere, occumbere, &c.
Many of these may take a Dative instead of an Accusative :
' Allabi, illabi, innare, succedere, subrepere, incubare, instare, &c.
Some Verbs of motion, compounded with Prepositions which
govern an Ablative, cum, e, prae, can be used as Transitive :
Coire, con venire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere,
exire, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere, praegredi, praevenire ;
And some not of motion :
Abnuere, aversari, edormire, expugnare, &c.
Most of these also vary their construction.
Note I. We call those Verbs Semitransitive which, though they
take an Attained Object, are not used Passively :
Adiacere, adsidere, and others in the preceding lists.
378
Latin Syntax,
§128.
The test of an Active Transitive Verb is Personal use as Passive :
' Tamesis uno loco pedibus transiri potest/ Thames can be
forded in one spot^ Caes. B. G, v. 18. *Circumsedemur copiis
omnib'.is/ we are beset by all the forces^ C. Att. xv. 9. Therefore
transeo and circumsedeo are used as Transitive Verbs.
So, * Quidam oratores si arriderentur, esset id ipsum Attico-
rum/ if certain orators were smiled on, this would be a true sample
of Attic fashion, C. Opt. G, O. 4.
Note 2. Intransitive Verbs which take a Contained Object are
often used transitively in the third Persons Passive :
*Tota mihi dormitur hiQTsv^s,W sleep the whole winter, M^crt,
xiii. 59. ^ Noctes vigilantur amarae/ there are bitter nights
watches^ Ov. H, xii. 169. ^Tertia vivitur aetas/ a third age of
life is passing, Ov. M. xii. 187. * Multo pisce natantur aquae/ the
waters are swum by 7nany a fish, Ov. A. A, i. 4.S.
Rare instances of Trajective Verbs personally Passive are found :
invideor in Horace; imperor both in Horace and Cicero. But
Impersonal Passive Construction is regular in such Verbs.
5) Sometimes the Preposition is repeated after Compound Verbs,
or another introduced :
^Sestius ad urbem advolavit/ Sestius flew to the city,C,p,
Ses. A' 'Orator peragrat per animos hominum/ an orator
travels through the minds of men, C. d. Or. i. 51. ' Pittacus acce*
dere quemquam vetat in funus ahorum/ Pittacus forbids anyom
to approach the funeral of other people, C. Leg. ii. 26.
This happens also with Prepositions governing the Ablative :
* Excedere ex urbe/ ' eripere ab aliquo pecuniam/ &c.
Hence some Compound Verbs, the Primitives of which are Tran-
sitive, have two Accusatives ; one of which is the Object of the
Simple Verb, the other depends on the Preposition. The Preposi-
tions admitting this construction are trans, ad, circum, praeter:
*Petreius iusiurandum adigit Afranium/ Petrcius makes
Afranius (take) an oath, Caes, B. C. i. 76. * Postquam id animum
ad vert it/ whejt he tur7ted his wind to tins, Caes. B. G. v. 18.
^ Allobroges Pompeius sua praesidia circumduxit/ Pompeius
led the Allobroges roiuid his posts, Caes. J3. C. iii. 6i.
The Passive construction retains the Accusative governed by the
Preposition: *Scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea/ my
speech seems to have cleared the rocks, C. p. Coel. 21.
ix. Idiomatic Uses.
1) The Abstract Verbal Noun itself appears in the Comic poets
with an Accusative: *Quid tibi banc curatio est rem?' what
concern have you with this affair? Plant. Amph. i. 3. 21.
2) The Participial in -bundus is sometimes used with an Accu-
sative : ' Populabundus agros/ laying ^vaste the lands, Cell. xi. 15.
Livy uses perosus, hating, with Accusative. Exosus and pertaesus,
are so used by writers of the silver age*
§ I29-I30-
Accusative Case.
379
3) Comic poetry shews that it was an idiom of Roman conversa-
tion to begin a sentence with an unconstructed Accusative, ante-
cedent to a Relative also in the Accusative :
'Naucratem quern convenire volui, in navi non erat,' Naucrates
whom I wished to meet was not on board, Plaut. Amph. iv. i. i.
'Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis quas turbas that eunuek
whom you gave us, what trouble he has given / Ter. Eun, iv.
3. II.
a) The Greek idiom was also used, by which the true Subject
of a Relative Clause is made the Object of the principal
sentence :
* Scin' m e in quibus sim gaudiis do you know how overjoyed
I am f Plaut. Bac, iv. 6. 28. ' Servum meum Strobilum
miror ubi sit/ / wonder where is my slave Strobilus^ Plaut.
AtcL iv. 7. 16.
Note, Many Verbs take a great variety of Objects, thus forming
an extensive phraseology, which may be studied in good dictionaries
with advantage. Such Verbs are : ago, capio, do, facio, fero,
habeo, volo and their compounds.
129
X. The Exclamatory Accusative. Accusa-
^ tive in
Ecthe-
1) The Accusative may stand with one of the Interjections O, sis.
heu, eheu, pro, en, ecce, &c., or without an Interjection :
'O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam,' O the
deceitful hope of men and frail fortune, C. d. Or, iii. 2. 7. ^ En
quattuor aras! Ecce duas tibi Daphni, duas altaria Phoebo/
lo, four altars / behold two for thee, Daphnis, and two of higher
elevation for Phoebus, Verg. B, v. 65. * Pro deorum atque homi-
num fidem,^ C. T, D. v. 16. 'Heu stirpem invisam!' Verg.
Aen. vii. 293. * Me miserum !^ C. Fam. xiv. i. 'Operam tuam
mult am, qui et haec cures et mea expedias,' how much trouble
you take in both minding these affairs and expediting mine, C. Alt,
xiii. 6.
2) This Accusative may take the form of an Interrogation :
* Huncine hominem? hancine impudentiam, indices, han-
cine audaciam.^' what a man is this? what shamelessness, gen-
tlemen, what audacity ? C. Verr. v. 25.
(On the Government of the Accusative by Prepositions, see § 70.)
xi. Accusative of two Objects. DouWe
Accusa-
i) Certain Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing, sometimes tive.
take two Accusatives, one Contained, of the Matter, the other
Attained, of the Person.
' Quis musicam docuit Epaminondam ? ' who taught
Epa7ninondas music? Nep. Praef ^Numquam divitias deos
rogavi,' I never asked the gods for riches, Mart. iv. 77. i, 'Anti-
gonus iter quod habebat omnis eel at,' Antigonus concealed
from all the road he was taking, Nep. Eimt, 8.
t
Latin Sy7itax,
§ i3»-
Such Verbs are :
Doceo (and its compounds, edoceo, dedoceo), erudio (in poetry)^
rogo, interrogo, oro, exoro, posco, reposco, flagito, percontor,
postulo, celo ; and (in Horace) lacesso, veneror, Consulo with
double Accusative is rare.
2) Moneo and its compounds, cogo, and some other Verbs,
may have this construction when the Accusative of the Matter is a
Neuter Pronoun or Pronominal :
'Illud me praeclare admones,' j/^?^ remind me of that fact
excellently^ C. Att. ix. 9. 2. ^ Mult a extis admonemur,' we are
admonished of 77^any things by entrails', C. N. D, ii. 66. And this
is the most common Accusative after Verbs of asking,
■ 3) Verbs of informing,, warnings enquiring y concealing,, may take
an Ablative of the Matter with de :
*De paratis incendiis senatum edocet,'^^ informs the Senate
of the intended conflagrations ^ Sail. C. 48. * Non est profecto de
illo veneno eelata mdXcXy certainly his mother was not kept in
ignorance of that poison^ C, p, Clu, 66.
4) Pet o, contend o, take an Ablative of the Person with a, ab:
which may also follow rogo, oro, exoro,posco,postulo, flagito :
' Hoc a te peto,' this I ask of you, C.
5) Quaero, scitor, sciscitor, percontor, exigo, take an
Ablative of the Person with ab, ex: 'Zeuxis quaesivit ab iis
quasnam virgines formosas haberent,' Zeuxis enquired of them
what beatttiful maidens they had, C. d. Inv. ii. i.
6) The Contained Accusative of the Matter may remain in the
Passive :
* In primis cultum agrorum docenda est vita,' life 7nust first
be taught agriculture, PI. N, H, xv. i. * Livius est primus ro-
gat us sententiam;^' Livius was first asked his opinion,
xxxvii. 14.
xii. Oblique Double Accusative with Verbs
of making, thinking &c. (Factive).
i) A simple Copulative Sentence, of which the Verb is sum, may
become an Oblique Clause (Accusative with Infinitive), and (the
Infinitive being omitted) the Clause may be made to depend on a
principal sentence with one of these Verbs.
Examples ;
Numa est rex ; Numam esse regem ; Numam regem :
^Populus Romanus Numam regem creavit,'
the Roman people elected Nimia king.
Tu es doctus et prudens; te esse doctum et prudentem; te
doctum et prudentem :
^Puto te doctum et prudentem,'
I count you learned and prudent.
g i^x. Accusative Case. 38,1
Eumenes est sepeliendus ; Eumenem esse sepeliendum ; Eu-
menem sepeliendum :
'Antigonus Eumenem sepeliendum tradidit.'
Antigonus gave Eumenes to be buried,
Numam, te, Eumenem, are Oblique Subjects (becoming Objects).
Regem, doctum, prudentem, sepeliendum, are Oblique Comple-
ments. This use of the Gerundive is very frequent.
2) The Verbs which form this construction are :
d) The Active forms of the Copulative Verbs enumerated
on p. 351.
b) Also many other Verbs :
Adiungo, adscisco, arbitror, constituo, do, facio, impertior,
monstro, peto, pono, praebeo, praesto {exhibit^ make)^
reddo, sumo, tribuo, &c.
3) Instead of an Apposite or Attribute, the Complement in
any such form of Construction may sometimes be one of the Pre-
positions pro, in, with an Ablative Case, inter with Accusative, or
loco, numero, &c., with a Genitive.
Thus the English sentence, ' I hold Gains my friend^ may be
rendered in many ways :
Gaium ami cum habed.
Gaius a me amicus habetur.
Gaium habeo
Gaius a me habetur
pro amico.
in amicis.
inter amicos.
^ in amicorum numero.
Examples of Accusative.
ii. {Attained Acc.) *Ea, quae leviter s e n s u m voluptate movent, facilllme fugi-
unt satietatem,' C. d. Or. iii. 25. * Nulla ars imitari sollertiam naturae potest,'
C. iV^. D. i. 33. 'Solet Dionysium, cum aliquid furiose fecit, pae n i ter e,' C. Att.
viii. 5.
iii. {Contained Acc.) 'Dentatus triumphavit triumphos novem, Gell. ii. ii.
'Magna voce iuravi verissimum pulchcrrimumque iusiurandum, quod
populus idem magna voce me vere iurasse iuravit,' C. Fam. v. 2. * Aquillius iuravit
morbum,' G Att. i. i. * Quomodo tibi placebit lovem lapidem iurare, cum scias,
lovem iratum esse nemini posse?' C. Fam. vii. 12. * Claudius ale am studiosissime
lusit,'Suet. Claud. 2,3' * Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt,' luv li. 2. *Qui
stadium Cufrit, eniti et contendere debet ut vincat,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Tigellius
noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane,' Hon 6". i. 3. 17. * Si Xerxes, cum tantis
classibus tantisque copiis mare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, mel se auferre
ex Hymetto voluisse diceret, certe sine causa videretur tanta conatus,' C. Fin. ii. 34.
'Nero sub exitu vitae palam voverat saltaturilm se Vergilii Turnum,' Suet. Ner. 54.
'Infer alia prodigia carnem pluit,' L. iii. 10. * Magis laudatur unguentum, quod
ceram, quam quod crocum olere videtur,' C. d. Or. iii. 25. 'Definitio genere ipso
doctrinam redolet,' C. d. Or. ii. 25. * In Hispania rAulta in spartariis mella herbam
eam sapiunt,' Plin. N. H. xi. 8. * Hand tibi voltus mortalis, nec vox hominem
son at,' Verg. Aen. i. 328. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et
animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii. i. *De Q. Fratre nihil ego te accusavi,' C. Fam. xiv. i.
* Cetera assentior Crasso,' C. d. Or. i. 9. * Q. Falbius Maximus moritur, exactae
aetatis; si quidem verum est, augurem dous et sexaginta annos fuisse, quod quidam
auctores sunt,'L. xxx. 26. * Stupentis tribunos et suam iam vie em anxios libd-
ravit onere consensus populi Roman i, ' L. viii. 35. ' Siievi non multum frumento, se'd
maximam partem lacte atque pecore vivunt,' Caes. B. G. iv. i. * Scis me orationes
aut aliquid id genus solitum scribere,' C. Att. xiii. 12. ' Si apud te plus auctoritas
3»2
Latin Syntax,
§13^
that which is
It has three
I. As Remoter Object, it completes the construction of many-
Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive ; of many Adjectives, sometimes
of Adverbs, rarely of Substantives :
Dare librum (alicui) ; coronam capiti imponere ; placere,
irasci (alicui) ; vicinus, carus, odiosus (alicui) : convenienier
naturae : utiliter patriae : obttmperatio legibus.
mea valuisset, nihil sane esset quod nos paeniteret,' C. ad Q. Fr. \. 2. Id nobis oneris,
hominibus id aetatis, imponitur/ C. d. Or. i. 47, * Roman orum nemo id auctori-
tatis aderat,' Tac. Ann. xii. 18. * Cometae sanguinei lugubre rubent,' Verg. Aen. x.
273. * Artabanus, ubi data fides a legatls reddendae dominationi venisse, adlevatiir
animum,' Tac. Ann. vi. 43. * Arminius impetu equi pervasit oblitus faciem sue
cruore ne nosceretur,' Tac. Ann. ii. 17. * Hannibal, dum murum Sagunti incautius
subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit,' L. xxi. 7. * Non ilia colo
calathisve Minervae femineas adsueta man us,* Verg. Aen. vii. 805.
iv. {Medial Obj.) * Die quibus in terris inscripti nomina regum nascantur florcs','
Verg. B. iii. 106. * Septem et viginti virgines, longam indutae vest em, carmen in
lunonem reginam canentes ibant,' L. xxvii. 37. * Domitianus sacellum lovi conserva-
tor! aramque posuit casus suosin marmore express a m/ Tac. H. iii. 74.
V. {Accus. of Time^ Space, Measure.) *Multa saeculasic viguit Pythagoreorum
nomen, ut nulli aiii docti viaerentur,' C. Z. D. i. 16. * Duodequadraginta annos
tyrannus Syracusanorum fuit Dionysius, cum quinque et viginti annos natus
doniinatum occupavisset,' C. T. D. v. 20. 'Abhinc triennium commigravit hue
viciniae,' Ter. An. i. i. 43. * A recta conscientia transversum unguem non oportet
discedere,' C. Att. xiii. 20. * Zama quinque dierum iter ab Karthagine abest,' L.
XXX. 29. * Milites aggerem, latum pedes trecentos, altum pedes octoginta
exstruxerunt,' Caes. B. G. vii. 24.
vi. Accus. of Place.) * Athenienses bello Persico sua omnia, qua6 moveri poterant,
partim Salaminem, partim Troezenem asportarunt,' Nep. Them. 2. * Hannibal in
hiberna Capuam concessit,' L. xxiii. 18. * Galli quondam longe ab suis sedibus
Delphos usque ad oraculum orbis terrae spoliandum profecti sunt,* C. p. Fcnt. 10.
* Pompeius Africam exploravit ; inde Sardiniam cum classe venit,' C. L. Man. 12.
* Aristoteles, Theophrastus, Zeno, innumerabiles alii philosophi numquam do mum
' revertere,' C. T. D. v. 37, 'Scipio rus ex urbe, tanquam e vinculis, evolabat,' C. d. Or.
ii. 6. * Helvetii oppida sua omnia incendunt, ut, domum reditionis spe sublata,
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda essent,* Caes. B. G. i. 5. *Magni domum con-
cursus ad Afranium fiebant,' Caes. B. C. i. 53. 'Hoc nemo eat infitias, Thebas,
quamdiu Epaminondas praefuerit reipublicae, caput fuissetotius Graeciae,' Nep. Ep. 10.
* Exequias Chremeti, quibus est commodum, ire tempus est,' Ter. Ph. v. 8. 37.
vii. *Terra dies duodequadraginta movit,' L. xxxv. 40. *Aermovetur nobiscum/
C. N. D. ii. 33. ' Suevi lavantur in fluminibus,' Caes. B. G. iv. i.
viii. 'Nemo tam ferus fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit/ Nep. Ale. 6. *Vel
inagistri equitum virgas ac securis dictatoris tremere atque horrere sclent,' L. xxii.
27. * Nec honores sitio, nec desidero gloriam,' C. Q. Fr. iii. 5. * Commissa
tacere qui nequit, hie niger est,* Hor. S. i 4. 84. * Ea quae disputavi disserere
malui quam iudicare,' C. N. D. iii. 40. *Risi nivem atram,' C. Q. Fr. ii. 13.
*Vigila illud, quod facile est, ne quid mihi temporls prorogetur,* C. Fam. ii. la
'Quisudo deproperare apio coronas curatve myrto ? ' Hor. C. ii. 7. 23. * Quam expedita
tua consilia, quam evigilata tuiscogitationibus ! ' C. Att. ix. 12. * De natura deorum
Cotta sic disputat, ut hominum nondeleat religionem, credo, ne communia iura migrare
videatur,' C. Div.'x. 5. 'Matutine pater, seu lane libentius audis,' Hor. ii. 6. 20. 'Me
miseram ! quid iam credas aut cui credas?' Ter. Ad. iii. 2. * Insepulta membra
different Uipi,' Hor. Epod.x. 99. ' Haec cogitatione inter se differunt, re quidem
D, The Dative Case,
132
Dative i. The Dative is the Case of
interested in an action or state,
principal uses in Latin:
Case.
§ 132-
Dative Case.
383
II. As Recipient or Acquisitive (Dativus Commodi et Incom-
modi) it is added to any Predication to express that for whom or
for which something is, or is done :
Legere virgines Vesta e : esse patrem urbi.
(The Datives I. II. oftener express persons than things.)
III. Idiomatically, the Latin Dative is used to express a Pur-
pose in constructions which generally complete the construction
of sum, do, habeo, fio, verto, venio, and other verbs.
Esse cordi, bono, usui, odio, honori. &c. ; vitio, culpae, crimini
dare ; contemptui, derisui, habere ; auxilio, subsidio, venire, &:c.
copulata sunt,' C. T. D.'w. 11. *Aequalege necessitas sortitur insignis et imos,*
Hor. C. iii. i. 15. * Gens Claudia regnum in plebem sortita,' L. iii. 58. * Hie tibi
rostra Cato ad volat,' C. Att. i. 14. ' Te nunc alloquor, Piirizzxi^,' Ad Herenn. iv.
15. * Appellitur navis Syracusas,' C. Verr. v. 25. 'Dictator triumphans u r b e m
invehitur,' L. ii. 31. * Creati consules Kalendis Sextilibus, ut tunc principiuni anni
agebatur, con su la turn ineunt,' L. iii. 6. * Achaeos Aetoli, navibus per fretum,
quod Naupactum et Patras interfluit, exercitu traiecto, depopulate erant,' L.
xxvii. 29. 'Pythagoras multas re gi ones barbarorum pedlbus obi it,' C. Fin. v.
29. 'Quaeritur, sitne honestum, gloriae causa mortem obire?' C. d. Or. iii. 29.
' Diligentissime semper ilium diem et illud munus solitus es obire,' C. Z^^/. ii. *Ad
Antonium mittuntur qui nuntient ne M u t i n a m o b s i d e a t, ' C. Phil. vi. 2. ' Euphrates
Babyloniam mediam per meat,' Plin. H. N. v. 26. * Non orat Roscius ut earn
HOC tern per vigilet,' Q,. p. S. Rose. 35. * Populus solet nonnumquam dignos prae-
terire,'C. Plane. -^. 'Crassus Euphratem nulla belli causa transire voluit,'
C. Pin. ill. 22. 'Hannibal cum reliquis copiis Pyrenaeum transgreditur,' L.
xxi. 24. * Haec Fetialis, quum finis suprascandit, haec portam ingrediens
peragit,' L. i. 32. ' Germani intra annos quattuordecim tectum non subierant,*
Caes. B. G. i. 36. ' Equites Pompeiani a c i e m Caesaris a latere aperto c i r c u m i r e
coeperunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 93. 'Angustias Themistocles quaerebat ne multitudine
circumiretur,' Nep. Them. ■^. * Eumenes extremo tempore circumventus est,'
"Nep. £um. 5. 'Themistocles adire ad magi' stratum noluit,' Nep. Th. j. ' Ubii
orabant ut Caesar exercitum modo Rhenum tra nsportaret,' Caes. B. G. W.
16. 'Transadigit costas et cratis pectoris ensem,' Verg. Aen. xii. 508.
'Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum duodecim milia equitum Iberum tra-
duxit,' L. xxi. 23. ' Scipio colloquium hand abnuit,' L. xxx. 29. 'Verginius
orabat ne se, ut parricidam liberum, aversarentur,' L. ii. 50. ' Utinam, Cn. Pompei,
cum C. Caesare societatem aut numquam coisses, aut numquam diremisses ! ' C.
Phil. ii. 10. 'Non eos solum con venire aveo, quos ipse cognovi, sed iDos etiam, de
quibus audivi et legi,' C. Cal. M. 23. 'Urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi,'
C. /. Plane. ' Struthiocameli altitudinem equitis insidentis equo e xc ed unt,'
PI. N. H. X. i. * Edormi crapulam,' C. Phil ii. 12. ' Historia non debet egredi
veritatem,' Plin. Ep. vii. 33. ' Decius M. Livium pontificem praeire iussit verba,
quibus se legionesque hostium pro exercitu populi Romani Quiritium devoveret,' L. x. 28.
X. * En miserum hominem!' C. Fin. ii. 30. 'O ho mi n em fortunatum,' C.
Quine. 25. 'Me caecum, qui haec ante non viderim, ' C. A tt. x. 10. ' Di vostram
fidem ! '
xi. {^Double Objeet.^ Eloquentia eflficit ut ea quae scimus alios docere possimus/
C. N. D. ii. 59. -Achaei quoque auxilia PhiHppum regem orabant,' L. xxviii. 5.
'Orationes me duas postulas,' C. Att. ii. 7. 'Pauca milites pro tempore hor-
tat u r,' Sail. 49, ' Rascilius de privatis m e primum sententiam rogavit.'C.
Q. Fr. ii. I. * Verres parentespretium pro sepultura liberum poscebat,' C. Verr.
i. 3. ' Ibo et consulam banc rem amicos, quid faciundum censeant,' Plaut.
iv. 3. 26. ' Non te celavi sermonem Ampii,' C. F'am. ii. 16. ' Scito, me non esse
rogatum sententiam, 'C Att. i. 13. 'Hocnoscelatos non oportuit,' Ter. Hec,
iv. 4. 23. ' Non audimus ea qua e a natura monemur,' C. Lael. 24.
xii. {Factive Construetion.) 'Neminem pecunia divit em fecit,' Sen Ep. 120.
'Interrex creatur M. Furius Camillus, qui P. Cornelium Scipionem inter-
regem prod id it,' L. v. 31. ' Cicerone m universa civitas consulemdeclaravit,*
C. in Pis. I. ' Ubi illi tot di, si numeramus etiam caelum deum? ' C. N. D. i. 13.
Latin Syntax.
§ 133-4.
ii. (I) The Dative of the Remoter Object.
The Words which govern this Dative are Verbs or Adjectives
containing the general notions of
1) Proximity and Remoteness.
2) Demonstration and Obscurity.
3) Gratification and Disfavour.
4) Rule and Subservience.
But many words, having these meanings, either take some other
Case^^ or, while they take a Dative, admit other constructions also.
On this account it is desirable to name first those Verbs which
take a Dative only^ and then to add lists of Verbs with other
varieties of Construction : and so in the Adjectives.
A) I. Verbs with which a Remoter O b j e c t^ if expressed at all,
is always a Dative, are chiefly the following :
The Impersonal Verbs : accidit, conducit, contingit, con-
venit, expedit, libet, licet, liquet, placet, praestat, restat,
usuvenit, vacat : (fas est, necesse est, opus est, usus
est), &c.
Verbs of affirming, relating, shewing, proving, &c. — affirmo,
confirmo, dico, exhibeo, indico, monstro, demonstro, narro,
ostendo, patefacio, praecipio> probo, suadeo, persuadeo,
dissuadeo, auctor sum, &c. (Trans.)
Appearing, being known, being near, &c. — appareo, innotesco,
pateo, videor, obviam eo, praesto' sum, &c. (Intrans.)
Giving, lending, payiiig, owing, entrusting, &c. — commodo,
concedo, credo, divido, do, fero, and their compounds,
mando, ministro, praebeo, praesto, pendo, redhibeo, re-
linquo, solvo, suppedito, trado, tribuo, debeo, committo,
fido, confido, cedo, &c. (Trans.)
Pro7nising, refusing, grudging — polliceor, promitto, reciplo,
spondeo, despondeo ; — nego, recuso, renuo, invideo, &c.
(Trans.)
Congratulating, thanking ; — threatening : gratulor, grator,
gratias (gratiam) ago, (refero, habeo) j — minor, minitor,
&c.
Dedicating, consecrating, sacrificing, vowing — dico, dedico,
sacro^ consecro, operor, immolo, sacrifico, voveo, devoveo,
&c. (Trans.)
Assisting, favouring^ benefiting, satisfying : — injuring, op-
posing : auxilior, benefacio, faveo, gratificor, medeor,
opitulor, parco, patrocinor, prosum, satisdo, satisfacio,
' M o n t e m Vesontione murus circumdatus arcemefficit,' Caes. B. G. i. 38. * Socrates
totius mundi se incolam et civemarbitrabatur,'C. T.D.v.yj. * Nemo credit,
fiisi ei, quern fidelem put at,' Q. p. S. Rose. 39. 'Laelium Decimum co2:no-
vimus virum bonum et non illitteratum,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. * Lentulus attribuit
nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros civis interficiendos Gabinio, urbem inflam-
m an dam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae,' C. in Cat.
iv. 6.
* Thus delecto, iuvo, rego, though resembling in sense some of the Ver]?6 hereafter
fecounted, are always Transitive, taking no Case but the Accusative
Dative Case,
studeo, subvenio, succurro : — adverser, incommodo, in-
sidior, malefacio, noceo, obsto, obsum, officio, repugno,
resisto, &c. (Intrans.)
, Believing^ flattering^ assenting^ pteasing : — distrusting, dis^
pleasing, upbraiding, reviling, being angry, &c. — credo,
fido, confido, benedico, blandior,assentor, assentior, ignosco,
indulgeo, placeo, morigeror, morem gero, convicior, diffido,
obtrecto, displiceo, exprobro, irascor, maledico, stom-
achor, succensco, &c. (Chiefly Intrans.)
Ruling, commanding, obeying, serving — dominor, imperOj
regno : — ancillor, cedo, famulor, oboedio, pareo, servio,
inservio, subservio, suffragor, supplico, &c. (Intrans.)
Observe the expression, dicto audieiis sum, / obey.
On nubo, vaco, see iii.
To these must be added numerous Verbs compounded with the
particles :
Ad, ante, ab, con, de, e, in, inter, ob, post, prae^ proj re,
subj super, bene, male, satis :
Addo, addico, affulgeo, desum, indormio, impendeo^ oppono,
posthabeo, praefero, subiungo, satisfacio, &c.
Among such Compounds, however, some admit an Accusative
where a Dative might stand : many repeat their Preposition with
its Case, or admit another Preposition and Case, where a Dative
might stand. Generally the Dative prevails in poetry, Prepositions
in prose. But this is not true of all such Verbs : and as no Grammar
can exhaust the combinations of Verbs and Cases, the student
should observe these in reading, with the aid of a good Dictionary.
2. d) Verbs used with Dative or Accusative :
Adiaceo, adno, adstrepo, adsulto, adulor, aemulor, allatro, 135
antecedo, anteeo, antevenio, assideo, ausculto, comitor,
decet, deficio, inhio, innato, inno, insto, intervenio, lateo,
medicor, moderor, obambulo, obequito, obstrepo, obtrecto,
obumbro, occumbo, plaudo, praecedo, praecello, praecurro,
praemineo, praesideo, praestolot, supersto, supervenio.
Observe mitto, nuntio, scribo^ alicui or ad aliquem.
b) Verbs implying agreement, commtmion, comparison, &c.,
take either a Dative or, oftener in prose, the Preposition
cum with its Case, or the phrase inter se. Such are
Coeo, cohaereo, communico, comparo, Compono, concilio,
confero, congrego ; also, apto, haereo, iungo, misceo,
necto, socio, and their compounds with cum.
This applies also to Verbs of contention, certo, contendo,
pugno, &c.
c) Verbs which imply disagreement^ disunion, difference, dis-
tance, &c., take either a Dative or, often in prose, a
Preposition with Case, usually ab, sometimes inter.
Such are,
Absum, differo, discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, disto, &c.
c c
386
Latin Syntax.
d) Verbs which imply taking away, defending, protecting
from, &c., take either a Dative of the Remoter Object or,
oftener in prose, a Preposition with Ablative. Such are,
Abstraho, adimo, aufero, detraho, eripio, eximo; arceo,
defendo, depello, propulso, &c.
e) Verbs which may take either a Dative of the Object with
an Accusative of the Thing, or an Accusative Object with
an Ablative of the Thing. Such are,
Adspergere, inspergere, circumdare, circumfuildere, donare,
munerare (i), exuere, induere, intercludere, impertire :
Dono tibi munus ; dono te munere.
f) Interdico is best known in the phrase, ^ iilterdicere alicui
aqua et igni/ to banish by the form of exclusion from fire
and water-, but ^interdicere rem alicui' is a good
Latin construction; also 'interdicere alicui de re.'
Verbs which may take Dative alone or Accusative of Thing
with Dative of Person :
Condonare {remit, forgive); ignoscere {excuse, pardon) ;
credere {believe, lend) ; gratulari {congratulate) ; imperare
{command) ; indulgere {grant, indulge) ; minari, minitari
{threaten) ; probare {prove, make good) ; suadere {recom-
mend) ; per^uadere {persuade^ convince") ; invidere {envy,
grudge). Also fidere, confidere {trust).
Persuadere alten ut, &c., to persuade one to, &c.
Persuasit hoc mihi, he convinced 7ne of this. Persuasum
habeo ; mihi persuasum est, / am convinced : hoc mihi
persuasum est.
Invidere {to grudge) alteri re aliqua is a construction some-
times used.
?ueh Verbs cannot be so used in the Passive as to make that
which was the Dative their Subject, though Horace has imperor;
invideor: Lucr. officiuntur, ii. 156, where see Munro. Regularly,
the Dative remains in the Passive : and, if there was an Accus.,
this becomes the Subject; if none, the Verb is Impersonal : * Id
mihi probatur : ' * Invidetur mihi.'
3. Examples of Verbs which vary construction with meaning :
Accedere {to approach) muris ; muros, poet. ; ad muros ; in
senatum. Accedere {to join, concur with) alicui. Acce-
dere {ta be added) : aliquid accedit (accessit) alicui.
Aequare {to level) agrum. Aequare, aequiparare {to 7nake
equal) hunc illi ; hanc rem illi. So adaequare, exaequare.
Aequare, aequiparare {to be equal to) aliquem.
Cavere {to take caution for) securitati ; agris ; alicui. Cavere
{to beware of) canem. Cavere a veneno.
Cedere {to retire) patria. Cedere {to yield) fortunae. Cedere
{to give tip) aliquid de iure suo alicui, &c.
Constare sibi {to be C07tsiste7it). Constat (// is a7i established
fact). Constare parvo, magno, &c., to cost little, 77iuch, &c.
Consulere : Si me consulis, ego tibi consulam, if you C07i-
sult 77ie, I will co7isult for your i7iterest.
§ 136. Dative Case, 387
Gonvenire {to suit) alicui, in aliquem. Convenire {to meet)
aliquem. Convenit mihi tecum, you and I are agreed.
Inter se convenit ursis, bears agree together, Convenit, //
suits y it is agreed,
Cupere {to desire) aliquid. Cupere {to wish) alicui {in some-
body s interest) k
Deficere {to fail) aliquem; alicui. Deficere ab aliqtib, to
revolt from,
D^re litteras alicui {to giv^ a letter for delivery), rarely
{write to). Dare litteras ad aliquem, to post a letter to
some one,
Dolet mihi {I gHeve) : doko r^m*
Excusare^ purgare {to excuse, clear) se alteri ; se apud alte-
rum. Excusate morbum, to plead the excuse ofill^ies^.
Imponere {to lay on) fern alteri ; rem fei ; aliquid iti ali-
quid; aliquid in aliquo. Imponere alitiii, to cheat a7iy
one,
Ihcumbere {to lean on) rei. Incumber^ {to devote oneself)
ad rem, in rem.
interest inter {there is a difference between) h5c fet illud.
Interest omnium^ nostra, &c., // is the interest of all ^ ofus,
&c. Interesse {to be present at) rei, in r^.
Mactare {to slaughter) deo victimam^ {to sacrifice) victima.
Mactare aliquem honoribus, to grace with honours, Mac-
tare suppliciis, to visit with punishment,
Manere (to remaiii) alicui. Manere {fo await) aliqueiil.
Metuere, timere, &c. {to fear) aliquem; aliquid; alicui {for
somebody),
Moderari, temperare [to curb) rei. Moderati, tertlperare {to
govern) rem. Teitiperare {to refrain) a re. Temperare
{to spare) alteri.
Parceirc {to ispare) alteri. Parcerd {to forbear) a f e. Paf cere
{to spare) aliquid sibi, aliquid alteri*
Petete, precari {to beg) aliquid sibi ; aliquid altefii Petere
{to sue for) consiilatum, &:c; Petere {to entreat) aliquid ab
altero. Petere {to seek) locum.
Pr^eire {to go before) alicui. Praeire {to recite) Verba alteri
{words for another to repeat),
Praestare {to e^cel) alteri aliqua re. Pfaestare {to assure, to
warrant) aliquid alicui. Pfaestare {to prove, exhibit) se
talem.
Praevertere {to prefer) aliqtiid alicui rei. Praevertere {to
anticipate) aliquid or aliquem. Praeverti {to despatch
first) rei.
Prospicere, providere {to provide for the good of) alicui.
Prospicere, providere {to foresee) rem, de re.
Recipere {to give assurance) alicui. Recipere {to receive)
c c 2
Latin Syntdx.
aliquem. Recipere {to betake) se aliqiio. Recipere {to
retake^ recover) res, urbem, &c.
Renuntiare {to mmounce) alicui aliquid (de aliqua re). Re-
nuntiare {to proclaini) aliquem consulem, &c. Renuntiare
{to renounce) alicui rei. )
Solvere {to pay) alicui pecuniam, &c. Solvere {tt) release)
aliquem re.
Succedere {to succeed) alteri, alicui rei ; in locum alicuius.
Succedere {to come up to) portas, muris, &c.
Sufficere {to suffice) alicui ; alicui rei* Sufficere {to supply)
aliquem ; aliquid.
Supersedere {to sit upon) rei; rem. Supersedere {to dis^
pense with) re ; rarely rei.
Velle aliquem, to want sojnebody. Bene velle alicui, to wish
well to somebody. Nolle alicui, to wish ill to,
£) The principal Adjectives used with a Dative Object are :
Cognatus, contiguus, conterminus, finitimus, praesens, pro-
pinquus, propior, proximus, vicinus, &c., assuetus, con-
suetus, &c., acclinis, aptus, accommodatus, commodus,
congruens, consentaneus, conveniens, decorus, habilis, ho-
nestus, idoneus, natus, necesse, necessarius, opportunus,
promptus, proclivis, &:c., aequalis, aemulus, idem, concors,
consors, &c., concolor, &c. : — par, compar, similis, assi-
milis, contrarius, diversus, insuetus, &c., incommodus,
indecorus, inopportunus, turpis, &c., dispar, impar, inae-
qualis, discors, dissimilis, dissonus, discolor, &c.
Apertus, certus, cognatus, compertus, conspicuus, evidens,
liquidus, manifestus, notus, patens : — ambiguus, caecus,
dubius, incertus, obscurus, &:c.
Aequus, amicus, acceptus, benignus, benevolus, blandus,
bonus, carus, clemens, dexter, dulcis, familiaris, fructuosus,
gratus, iucundus, lenis, mitis, propitius, prosper, saluber,
salutaris, secundus, suavis, utilis ; expeditus, facilis, levis,
obvius, pervius : — calamitosus,damnosus, exitialis,funestus,
inutilis, malus, noxius, periculosus, pestifer ; adversus,
amarus, asper, crudelis, fatalis, hostilis, infensus, infestus,
inimicus, iniquus, iratus, laevus, letalis, sinister, saevus ;
tristis, ingratus, invisus, molestus, odiosus, terribilis ; in-
credulus, infidus, infidelis ; contumax, rebellis ; arduus,
difficilis, durus, gravis, invius, laboriosus, &c.
Imperiosus : — dicto-audiens, obnoxius, obsequiosus, simi-
missus, supplex, &c.
a) Adjectives which take Dative or Genitive are :
Aequalis, affinis, alienus, communis, conscius, par, dispar,
proprius, similis, dissimilis, superstes.
The following also may be treated as Substantives, and so
take a Genitive :
§ 139-41. Dative Case. 389
Aemulus, amicus, inimicus, cognatus, necessarius, propin-
quus, socius, supplex, vicinus.
Alien us also takes an Ablative with or without ab.
Proprius is used by Cicero with Genitive only.
Pro pi or, proximus are found with Accusative; also with ab and
its case.
/6) Adjectives of fitness^ aptus, commodus, idoneus, natu^, pro-
clivis, promptus, &c., may take ad (rem),
y) Many Adjectives which express feeling or behaviour may
take in, erga (aliquem) :
Acer, acerbus, crudelis, durus, iniquus, iniuriosus, saevus,
severus, &c. ; benignus, comis, liberalis, mitis, plus, im-
pius, gratus, ingratus, &c.
C) Adverbs derived from Adjectives are sometimes used with a
Dative :
• Constanter sibi, convenienter naturae, utiliter patriae.
D) Verbal Substantives governing Dative rarely occur :
Obtemperatio legibus ; remedia morbis, &c.
But such words as hostis, legatus, &c., being of an Adjectival
nature, are followed by a Dative j and others are so used when the
Dative is Acquisitive.
"r
iii, (II) The Recipient or Acquisitive Dative.
(Dat. Commodi et Incommodi.)
^Pisistratus sibi non patriae Megarensis vicit,' Pisistratus
con(j2ie7'ed the Megarians for himself not for his country^ lust. ii. 8.
'Neque mihi ex cuiusquam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis
aut adiumenta honoribus quaero,' C. p. L. Man. 24. * Filius
Blaesi militibus missionem petebat,' Tac. Ann, i. 19. *Cat6 . . .
urbi pater est urbique maritus,' Lucan. ii. 388. ,
1) Here may be ranked the Datives with vac are, to be at
leisure (alicui rei), nubere, to zued^ properly 'to take the
veil for ^ (viro), and those with Verbs of care^ caution^
fear : consulere, studere, cupere, cavere, prospicere,
providere, metuere, timere, &c. (alicui), to consult^ look outy
fear (for somebody or something).
2) Est, sunt, &c., with a Dative, express * having:' Suus
cuique mos est,' every one has his own custojn, Ter.
* Sex filii nobis, duae filiae sunt,' we have six sons and
two daughters, L. xlii. 34.
3) Facio, fio are used with a Dative :
^ Quid facies huic ?' C. * Quid mihi futurum est ?' C.
Also in the same sense, with de and Ablative :
Quid de me fiet ? what will become of me ? And with Abl.
alone : Quid me fiet ? Quid te futurum'st.^ Ter.
4) The Dative of a Pronoun, loosely added, and expressing
general reference to a person, is called Dativus Ethicus ;
390
Latin Syntax.
§ 142.
^Quid mihi Celsus agit?' how does my Celsus get on? Hor.
Epist, i. 3. 15. ^Quid ait nobis Sannio?' what says our
Sannio f
5) Similar to this is the Dative with the Interjections hem,
ecce: Hem Davum tibi, see^her^s Davus\ Ecce tibi
Antonius, &:c.
6) Hei, vae take a Dative :
^ Hei misero mihi/ alas for wretched me, Ter. Vae victis,
woe to the conquered^ L,
7) A Recipient Dative, instead of an Ablative of the Agent,
may be joined tq Passive Participles, especially to Gerun-
dives; also to Participials in rbilis :
* Forniidatus Othoni,' dreaded of Otho, luy. * Bell^ matri-
bus detestata,' wars abhorred by mothers^ H or. ^ P roe-
lia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of
Hor. * Non ulli affabilis,' Verg.
Poets extend this idiom tq Personal Passive Verbs ; * Non
intellegor ulli/ Ov. ^ Carmina quae scribuntur aquae
potoribus/ Hor. Epist. i. 19, 3.
In prose it is rar^. ' Dissimillimis bestiisi communiter cibus
quaeritur/ C. N, D, ii. 48.
8) To such predications as ^ Cui (huic) nomen est, quibus
(his) nomen datur, damns/ &c., the Name itsel; i§ sorrie^
times joined as an attracted Dative :
^ Volitang, qui nomen asilo Romanum est/ an insect ivhose
Romcin name is asilus, Verg. G. iii, 147. ' In campis,
quibus nomen erat Raudiis, decertavere/ they fought
in plains called the Raudian, Veil. ii. 2.
(But a Nominative or Genitive of the Name is found: ^Ei
morbo nomen est avaritia/ C. ^ Npmen Mercuri est
mihi/ Plaut. A^jt. Prol. 19.)
9) Analogous to this are the attractions : ^ Hoc mihi volenti
est/ Sail. ^ Quibus bellum volentibus erat/ who
wished for war, Tac,
10) When a Copulative Infinitive (esse, fieri, &c.) depends on
a Verb with Dative Object, the Complement is generally
Dative : ^Mihi non licet esse neglegenti,' Q.Att, i. 17.
^Da mihi fallere, da iusto sanctoque videri/ Hor.
Epist, i. 16. 61. But it may be Accusative : ^ Primum ego
me illorum, dederim quibus esse poet as excerpam
numero/ Hor. 6'. i. 4.39 (where Orelli reads poetis without
authority or necessity).
Note, The Dative of Place Whither is poetic : ^ It clamor caelo,'
q shout reaches the sky, Verg. Ae, v. 451.
iv. (Ill) The Predicative Dative of Purpose.
This is usually found with a Second Dative of the Recipient :
Odio esse (cordi esse) alteri, to be an object of hate (liking) to
another ; vitio vertere alteri, to impute as a fault to another. So,
commodo, dedecori, delectationi, emolumento, honori, voluptati,
&c., esse alicui, crimini dare alteri ; auxilio, subsidio venire alteri.
Dative Case.
391
But a second Dative is not always used : Habere aliqucm con-
temptui, derisui, ludibrio ; habere rempublicam quaestui ; poncre
(opponere) aliquid pigneri, to pawn, moi^fgage ; canere receptui, to
sound a retreat.
(Akin to this construction is that of the Dative Gerund and
Gerundive : solvendo esse, to be solvent ; tresviri reipubhcae con-
stituendae, three com7nissioners for settling the gov eminent,)
In Personal Passive construction both Datives remain; Libera
patre filio do no datus est.^
Examples of the Dative Case.
I. [Dative of Remoter Object.) 'Zenoni placuit, bonum esse solum, quod ho-
nestum esset,' C. T. D. v, IX. 'Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam,*
C. Phil. xiii. 8. *Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse lovi,' Ov. Tr. ii. 216. 'Cicero
meus salutem tibi dicit,' C. Att. v. 9. 'Diem mihi dixerat, multam irrogarat,' C.
A Mil. 14. 'Qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,' Enn.
'Angnis Sullae apparuit immolanti,' C. Div. ii. 30. ' Tironem Dolabellae
obviam misi,' C. Att. xii. 5. 'Dionysius nobis praesto fuit,' C. Att. iv. 12.
* Pompeio et Senatui pacis auctor fui,' C. Att. ix. 11. 'Quantum consuetudini
famaeque dandum sit, id curent vivi,' C. T. D. i. 45. 'Is denique honos mihi
videri solet, qui non propter spem futuri beneficii, sed propter magna merita Claris
viris defertur et datur,* C, Fam. x. 10. 'lam non ago tibi gratias; cui enim
re vix referre possum, huic verbis non patitur res satisfieri,' C ad Brut, ii. i,
*Attici neptem Caesar Tiberio Claudio Neroni privigno suo despondit,' Nep,
Att. 19. ' Dissociatis animis civium, alii SuHanis, alii Cinnanis partibus favebant,*
N. Att. 2. 'Omnino irasci amicis non temere soleo, ne si merentur quidem,' C.
Phil. viii. 5. ' Tirones iureiurando accepto nihil iis nocituros hostis se Otacilio
dediderunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 28. ' ludicis est innocentiae subvenire,' C./. Clu.
1. ' Antiochus si parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, propius Tiberi quam
Thermopylis de summa imperi dimicasset,' Nep. Hann, 8, * Imperat aut servit
collecta pecunia cuique,' Hon Epist. i. 10. 47. 'Cur succumbis cedisque for-
tunae?' C. T. D. iii. 17. * Non Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis eius omnibus
pro Ligario exsule Cicero suppUcavit,' C, Fam. vi. 14. 'Cui Gellius benedixit
unquam bono? ' C. /. Sext. 52. *Tu verbis solves numquam quod mi re malefe ceris/
Ter, Ad. ii. i. 10. ' Pelopidas omnibus periculis adfuit,* Nep. Pel. 4. 'Erat
nupta soror Attici Q. Tullio Ciceroni,' Nep. Att. 5. 'Venus nupsit Vulcano ;
Astarten Adonidi nupsisse proditum est,' C. N. D. iii. 23. 'Brutus collegae suo
imperium abrogavit,' C. Br. 14. 'Stheniusest is, qui nobis assidet,' C. Verr. ii. 34.
* Leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt,' C. Fin. iii. 19. 'Dionysius
aureum lovi Olympio detraxit amiculum, eique laneum pallium iniecit, cum id
esse ad omne anni tempus diceret,' C. N. D. iii. 34. ' Est viri et ducis, non deesse
fortunae praebenti se, et oblata casu flectere ad consilium,' L. xxviii. 44. 'Praetor
interdixit de vi hominibus armatis,' C. /. Caec. 8. * Hortensius veritus est ne
Fufius tribunus plebis ei legi intercederet, quae ex senatus consulto ferebatur,' C.
Att. i. 16. 'Ut Thucydidis concisis sententiis officii Theopompus elatione atque
altitudine orationis suae, quod idem Lysiae Demosthenes, sic Catonis luminibus
obstruxit posteriorum quasi exaggerata altius oratio,' C. Br. 17. ' Hannibal A lex^
andro Magno non postponendus est,' lust. xxx. 4. 'Certis rebus certa signa
praecurrunt,* C. Div. i. 52. 'Deus am mum, ut dominum atque imperantem,
oboedienti praefecit corpori,* C. Univ. 7. ' Nihil semper floret: aetas succedit
aetati,' C. Phil. xi. 15. * Numquam Atticus potenti adulatus est Antonio,' N,
Att. 8. * Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius, ut me meae paeniteret, C. Div.
ii. 2. ' Lictores praetoribus anteeunt cum fascibus duobus,* C. d. L. Agr. 11. 34.
*Te semper ante it torva Necessitas/ Hor. C, i. 35. 17. *Iis aemulamur, qui ea
habent quae nos habere cupimus,' C. 7*. D. i. X9. 'Quod me Agamemnonem
aemulari putas, falleris,' Nep. Ep. 5. 'Cui nullum probrum dicere pote rat, eius
obtrectare laudes voluit,' L. xlv. 37. * Non id laboro, ut, si qui mihi obtrecfcent,
a te refutentur,' C. Fam. ix. 11. 'Mihi ausculta; vide ne tibi desis,' C. .S".
Rose. 36. 'Homines auscultant crimina,' Plant. Pseud, i. 5. 12. 'In Formiano
tibi praestolor,' C. Att. ii. 15. ' Curionis adventum L. Caesar Alius ad Clupeam
* The saying ' Cui bono fuit ? * whose interest was it ? deserves special notice, because
it is often erroneously cited in a different sense. See C,/. Mil. 12 ; Phil. ii. 14.
392
Latin Syntax.
E. The A blative Case.
43
'^^^^^ i. The Ablative is the Modal Case, or Case of
Circumstances which modify the predication adverbially.
Besides its proper Ablative functions (taken in Greek by
the Genitive), it comprises those of the Primitive Instru-
mental (partly taken in Greek by the Dative) and most
functions of the Locative Case,
Its uses may be conveniently taken in the following order :
I. Instrumental Ablative : comprising Cause ; Instrument ;
Agent ; Price ; Matter.
II. Locative Ablative: comprising Respect;^ Difference j
Manner; Condition; Quality; Time When; Place
Where and by Which.
III. Ablative Proper : comprising Place Whence ; Separation;
Origin ; Thing Compared.
praestolabatur/ Caes. B. C. ii. 23. * Aucta fama cladis ingens terror Patres
invasit, dictatoremque dici placebat/ L ix. 38. * In Galliam Antonius invasit, in»
Asiam Dolabella/ C. Phil, xi. 2. * Equidem ut veni ad urbem, mirus invaserat
furor non solum improbis sed etiam his qui boni habentur ut pugnare cuperent,' C.
Fain. xvi. 12. * Est mihi magnae curae, ut ita erudiatur LucuUus, ut patri re-
spondeat,* C. Fin. iii. 2. * Respondebisne ad haec?' C. Phil. ii. 43. * Si
inest in oratione mixta modestiae gravitas, nihil admirabilius fieri potest,' C. Off.
ii. 14. *Inerant lunaria fronti cornua,' Ov. M. ix. 687. * Caritati ipsius soli
longo tempore a ssuescitu r,* L. ii. i. *Assuetae sanguine et praeda aves,' Flor.
i. T. ■ In omnia familiaria iura assuetus,' L. xxiv. 5, * Natura vi rationis hominenv
conciliat homini,' C Off. i. 4. *Ratio et oratio conciliat inter se homines,' C.
Off. i. 16. * Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam,* C. Cat. M. 5.
* Quaeso, pontifiees, et hominem cum homine, et tempus cum tempore, et rem cum
re comparate,' C. p. Dojn. 50. * Longe mea discrepat istis et vox et ratio,' Hor,
S. i. 6. 92. * Id a tuis litteris discrepabat,' C. Att. ii. i. *Duae leges inter se dis-
crepant,' C. d. I71V. 2. ^Conexum sit principium consequenti orationi,^ C. d. Or.
ii. 80. * Amicitia cum voluptate conectitur,' C. Fin. i. 20. * Mamertini honorem
debitum detraxerunt non homini, sed ordini,' C. Vcrr. iv. 11. 'Sacerdotem ab
ipsis avis detraxisti,' C. d. Har. 13. * Ille non cessat de nobis detrahere,' C.
Att. xi. II. *Orationi adspergentur etiam sales, qui in dicendo nimium quantum
valent,' C. Or. 26. ' Pythagoras ne Apollini quidem Delio hostiam immolare voluit,
ne aram sanguineadspergeret,' C. N. D. iii. 36. * Dionysius fossam latam cubiculari
lecto cir cum d edit,' C. 7\ Z>. v. 20. ' Deus animum circumd edit corp ore,' C.
Univ. 6. * Equites Hannoni se c rcumfudere,' L. xxix. 34. ' Agesilaum amici,
quod mel non habebant, cera circumfuderunt,' Nep. yi^. 8. 'Atticus Atheniensis
vniversos frumento donavit,' Nep. Att. 2. 'Ciceroni populus Romanus aeter-,
nitatem immortalitatemque donavit,' C. in Pis. 3. 'In deyersorio erant ea
composita, quibus rex te munerare constituerat,' C. /. Deiot. 6. * Di earn potestatem
dabunt, ut beneficlum benemerenti muneres,' Plaut. Capt. v. i. 15. Doctrinis
aetas puerilis impertiri debet,' Nep. Att. i. * Terentia impertit tibi multam
salutem,' C. Att. li. 12. * Sto expectans si quid mihi imperent,' Ter. Run. iii. 5. 46.
* Conon ad mare missus est, ut maritimis civitatibus navis longas imperaret,' Nep.
Q(»t.\. *Matronis Medea persuasit ne sibi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria,'
C. Fam. vii. 6. * Hoc mihi non modo confirmavit, sed etiam persuasit^' C. Att.
xvi. 5. ^ Nihil facile persuadetur invitis,' Qu. iv. 3. * Cato iis solis non invi-
debat, quibus nihil ad dignitatem posset accedere,' C. Att. vii. 3. * Aliorum laudi
atque gloriae maxime invideri solet,' C. d. Or. ii. 51. 'Africae solo oleum et
' Respect, Difference, Manner, Condition, Quality, Time, may be considered Loca-
tive, as logically limiting the position of that which they modify. In many examples it
is not easy to say whether the Ablative should be referred to Cause, Instrument, Matter,
or Manner.
§ 144. blative Case. 393
ii. (I) Instrumental Ablative.
A) The Ablative of Cause answers the question Owing to
what f
i) It chiefly limits state ; and is therefore joined to Verbs
Intransitive or Passive, to their Participles, and to
Adjectives.
vinum natura invidet,' PL N. H. 3?v. 2. *Invidet igne rogi miseris,' Lucan.
vii. 798. * Manus extrema non accessit operibus/ C. Br. 33. * Nondum ad rcm-
publicam accessi,' C. p. S. Rose. i. 'Dolor accessit bonis viris : virtus non
est imminuta,' C. Att. i. 16. * Rumore adventus nostri Cassio animus accessit/ C.
Att.v.io. *Accedam in plerisque Ciceroni/ Qu. ix. 4. 2. * Athenienses consu-
luerunt ApoUinem Pythium, quas potissimum religiones tenerent/ C. Leg. ii. 16.
* Di consulunt rebus humanis/ C. Div. i. 51. * Prudentia numquam deficit ora-
torem/ C. Br. 24. * Cum iam amplius horis sex continenter pugnaretur, non solum
vires, sed etiam tela nostris deficiebant/ C9,es. B. G, iii. 5. * Indulge valetudini
tuae, cni quidem tu adhuc, dum mihi deservis, servisti non satis/ C. Fam. xvi. 18.
* Indulsit ornamenta consularia procuratoribus/ Suet. Clatid. 24. * Praestat
honestas incolumitati/ C. hiv. ii. 58. * Atheniensium civitas antiquitate, humanitate,
doctrina praestabat omnis/ Nep. Att. 3. * Ser. Sulpicius honorem debitum patri
praestitit/ C Phil. \yi. S- * Trebatium obiurgavi, quod parum valetudini par-
ceret/ C. Fam. xi. 27. ' Precantur ut et a caedibus et ab incendiis parceretur/
L. XXV. 25. 'Libros oratorios in manibus habeo, quos, ut spero, valde tibi probabo/
C. Att.iw. 14. 'Atticae meae velim me ita excuses, ut omnem culpam in te trans-
feras,' C. Att. xv. 28. 'Quod te mihi de Sempronio purgas, accipio excusationem/
C. Fai7t. xii. 25. ' Anton ius leges civi tat i per vim imposuit,' C. Phil. vii. 5.
* Metellum multi filii in rogum imposuerunt/ C. T. D. i. 35. * Imposuistis in
cervicibus nostris sempiternum dominum,' C. N. D. i. 20. * Non recuse quin, si cui-.
quam Verresulla in re umquam temperaverit, vos quoqueei temperetis/C. Verr.
ii. 6. * Quis talia fando temperet a lacrimis?' Verg. Ae. ii. 8. * Nobilitas Ser.
Sulpicii hominibus litteratis et historicis erat notior, populo vero obscurior/C.
Mtir.']. ' Voluptatibus maximis fastidium finitimum est,'C. d. Or. iii. 15. 'Audivi
te esse Caesari familiarem,' C. Fam. vii. 14. *Omnis voluptas honestati est
contraria,' C. Off. iii. 33. * Fidelissimi anife omnia homini sunt canis atque'
equus,' PI. N. H. viii. 40. * Nec fertilis ilia iuvencis, nec pecori opportuna
seges nec commoda Baccho,' Verg. G. iv. 128. 'Romulus multitudini gratior
fuit, quam Patribus; longe ante alios acceptissimus militum animis,' L. i. 15.
* Ilia expugnatio fani antiquissimi lunonis Samiae, quam luctuosa Samiis fuit, quam
acerba toti Asiae !' C. Verr. i. 19. * Ea virtus est praestantis viri, quae est
fructuosa aliis, ipsi autem laboriosa, periculosa, aut certe gratuita,' C. d.
Or. ii. 85. ' Sollertia pestifera mult is admodum paucis salutaris est/ C. N. D. iii.
27. ' Falernum mihi semper idoneum visum est deversorio,' C. Fam. vi. 19.
'Verba innocenti reperire facile est; modum verborum misero tenere difficile,*
Curt. vi. 10. 'Senator! necessarium est nosse rem publicam,* C. Leg. iii. 18.
* Epaminondas velut gratulabundus patriae exspiravit,* lust. vi. 8. * Syracusan;
nobis dicto audientes sunt,' C. Verr. v. 32. 'Apud Germanos probrosum est
superstitem principi suo ex acie recessisse,' Tac. G. 14. 'Socrates nec patronum
quaesivit ad indicium capitis nec iudicibus supplex fuit,* C. T. D. i. 29. ' Ennio,
aequalis fuit Livius, qui primus fabulam dedit,' C. Br. 18. 'Aequalis temporum
illorum,' C. Div. i. 20. ' Vetilius id dicit quod illi causae maxime est alienum,' C.
p. Caec. 9. * Ea scripsi ad te quae non alien a esse ducerem a dignitate,' C. Fam. iy.
7. * Alienum dignitatis/ C. Fin. i. 4. ' Nihil est a me commissum, quod esset alienum
nostra amicitia/ C. Fam. xi. 27. 'Omni aetati mors est communis,' C. Cat. UT.
19. * Haec ita iustitiae propria sunt ut sint virtutum reliquarum communia,'
C. Fin. V. 23. 'Studium conservandi hominis commune mihi vobiscum esse
debebit,* C. p. Rab. i. * Natus abdomini suo non laudi atque gloriae,' C. in.
Pis. 17. 'Ad laudem et ad decus nati sumus,' C. Fin. v. 22. 'Thracibus est
ferrum et promptus libertati aut ad mortem animus,' 1^2jc. Ann. iv. 46. * T.
Manlius perindulgens fst in patrem, acerbe severus in filium,' C. Off. iii. 31.
< lugurtha propior montem pedites collocat,' Sail. lug. 49. ' Treviri proximi
Rheno flumini sunt,' Caes. G. iii. 11. ' Ubii proximi Rhenum incolunt,' Caes.
B. G. i. 54. * Summum bonum a Stoicis dicitur, convenienter naturae vivere,' C. Fin.
394-
Latin Syntax.
§ 144.
Plecti neglegentia ; mori senectute ; pallescere culpa ; impe-
ditus morbo ; pallidas ira ; ardens amore ; fessus inedia
et fluetibus, &:c.
It may limit Transitive Verbs, especially when it expresses
feeling or motive :
Hac mente, hoc consilio, laetitia, odio, &c., facere, dicere
aliquid, &c.
2) It includes the phrases : causa, gratia, ergo, nomine,
for the sake of, * Quaestus causa//^?r the sake of gain ; but
mea, tua, &c. causa. * Turpitudinis effugiendae gratia,'/^?;^
the sake of avoiding disgrace, ^ Virtutis ergo (nomine),' on
the score of jnerit.
7. • Elf quibusdam stirpibus et herbis remedia morbisetvulneribus eligimus/
C. N'. D. ii. 64.
II. {Dativtcs Commpdi et Incommodi.) * Non solum nobis divites esse volumus,
sed liberis, propinquis, amicis, maximeque reipublicae,' C. Oj^. iii. 15. * Si
domus pulchra est, intellegimus earn dominis aedificatam esse, non muribus,' C. m
Caecil. 3. *Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi seris, tibi eidem metis,* Pl^ut. Merc. i. i. 71.
* Caesar reperiebat favere Dumnorigem et cupere Helvetiis propter affinitatem,*
Caes. B. G. i. 18. *Tibi favemus ; tibi optamus earn rempublicam^, in qua tuorum
renovare memoriam atque augere possis,' C. Br. 97. * Pro deum fidem, quid vobis
vultis?' L. iii. 67. ^Atheniensis Clisthenes lunoni Samiae, cum rebus timeret suis,
liliarum dotes credidit,* C. Leg. ii. 16. ' Germani ab parvulis labori ac duritiae
stqdent,' Caes. B. G. vi. 21. * Scabien; pecori et iumentis cavetq,' Cato, R. R. 5.
* Bene mihi, bene vqbis, b§ne omnibus nobis!' Plant. Pers. v. i. 20. * Consulite
vobis, prospicite patriae,' C. in Cat. \w. 2. * Numa virgines Vestae legit, Salios
itein Marti Gyadivo,' L. i, 20. *Improbo et stulto et inerti nemini bene esse
potest,' C. Par. *Tibi bene ex animo volo,' Ter. Haut. v. 2. 6. ' Multis de causis
ego huic causae patronus exstiti,* C. p. S. Rose. 2. * Semper in civitate, quibus
opes nullae sunt, bonis invident,' Sail. Cat 37. *An nescis longas regibus esse
manus?' Ov. Ner. xvii. 166. * Filius mens si quid peccat, mihi peccat,' Ter. yi^/. i.
2. 35- * Quid mihi L,. PauU nepos quaerit, quo modo duo soles visi sint ? ' C. Re^.
i. 19. * Ecce tibi, qqi rex populi Romani dominusque omnium gentium esse concun
pierit, idque perfecerit ! ' C. O^. iii. 21. -Audita est Brenni, reguli Gallorum, intolc'i
randa Romanis vox; Vae victis esse,' L. v. 48. *Cui non sunt auditae Demos-.
thenis vigiliae?' C. T. D. iv. 19. * Mihi consilium cap tum iam diu est,' C.
V. 19. * Ut esse possem orator, magno studio mihi a pueritia est elaboratum,' C.
in Caecil. 12, *Legendus mihi saepius est Cato Maior,' C. Att. xiv. 21. * Restat
Chremes qui mihi exorandus est,' Ter. An. i. i. 130. ' Hic tibi sit potius quam
tu mirabilis illi,* Hor. Episi. i. 6. 23. * Vix audior ulli,' Ov. Ep. ex P. \\\. (^.
* Duo sunt Roscii, quorum alteri Capitoni cognomen est,' C. /. S. Rqsc. 6. * Attus
Clausus, cui postea Appio Claudio fuit Romae nomen, ab Regillo magna clientium
comitatus manu Romam transfugit,' L, ii. 16. * Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse ;
vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse,' L. ;^3£i. 44. *Medios esse (nos) iam non
licebit,' C. Att. x. 8,
III. {Predicative Dative. ) * Vitam rusticam tuprobroetcrimini putas esse?' C.
S. Rose. 17. *Otho quidquid epistularum erat, necui periculo aut noxae apud
victorem forent, concremavit,' Suet. Otk. 10. * Spero homines intellecturos, quanto
sit omnibus odio crudelitas, et quanto amori probitas et dementia,* C. Fam.
XV. 19, * Ampla domus dedecori domino saepe fit, si est in ea solitudo,' C. Off:
\. 39. 'Vitio mihi dant quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero,' C. Fam.
?ci. 28. * Pergite, ut facitis, adulescentes, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite,
ut et vobis honori, et amicis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumento esse
possitis,* C. d. Or. i. 8, * Flaminius consul ante signum lovis Statoris sine causa repente
concidit, nec earn rem habuit religioni,' C. i. 35. * Habere quaestui rem-,
publicam turpe et nefarium est,' C. Off. ii. 22. * Virtus sola neque datur dono nequQ
accipitur,' Sail. 7?/^. 85.
§ 145-47« Ablative Case* 395
3) Also the phrases iussu, iniussu, monitii, mandatu, per*
missu, rogatu, &c., ope, opera, beneficio, dolo, &c
4) Cause may be expressed by the Prepositions ab, de, ex,
per, prae.
Ab animi levitate ; per aetatem ; multis de causis ; prae
gaudio.
E) The Ablative of the Instrument answers the question
By what means f
1) It limits Verbs Active or Passive, and their Participles.
Pugnare gladiis ; defendere se cornibus ; lapide ictus ;
veneno exstingui, &c.
2) The Ablative of an Abstract Noun may be Instrumental :
' Forma et moribus conciliare aliquem/
3) The Preposition cum with its Case is sometimes used as
equivalent to a Participle with Instrumental Ablative :
^ Homines cum gladiis ' = homines gladiis armati.
C) The Ablative of the Personal Agent with the Preposi-
tion ab, dyy answers the question By whom ?
1) It is joined to Verbs Passive or Quasi-passive and their
Participles :
* Mundus a Deo administratur ; ' ab hoste venire ; ab improbis
expulsus, &c.
2) The Preposition per is used to express both Instrument
and Agent : Per dolum, per insidias capi ; per bonos
restitui, &c.
3) Abstract terms, though in general Instrumentally used in
the Ablative, are sometimes treated as Agents :
' Piget dicere ut vobis animus ab ignavia atque socprdia
corruptus sit,' is sad to state how your mind has been
corrupted by idleness ajid sloth^ Sail. lug. 31; M. Lucr,
i. 813.
D) The Ablative of Price answers the questions For how
much f At what cost ?
i) It accompanies Verbs of purchase, sale, barter^ hiring,
letting, bidding, costing, &c., or any other with which Cost
or Value can be connected. Such are
Emere and its compounds, mercari, opsonari, vendere,
venire ; conducere, locare, coUocare ; licere, liceri, licitari,
&c., constare, stare, valere, esse, &c., aestimare, &c.
Also Adjectives implying cost, dearness, cheapness :
Venalis, vendibilis, parabilis, carus, vilis, &c.
Emere, &c., venalis esse, &c., pretio, grandi pecunia, centum
nummis, viginti denariis, centum milibus, mille drachmis
(minis, talentis), &c.
396
Latin Syntax,
2) The following Ablatives of Cost are used with such words,
the Noun pretio being understood :
Magno, parvo, minimo, paululo, plurimo, nimio, dimidio,
duplo, vili, &c.
Tanto, quanto may be used ; but Price is more usually
expressed by their Genitives tanti, quanti, also by the
Genitives pluris, minoris, maximi, which Adjectives
are not used in the Ablative of Price without pretio.
d) Valuation is usually expressed by the Genitives magni,
parvi, &c. (pretii), and others. See Genitive.
The Verbs mutare, commutare, permutare, vertere
exchange) y take either an Accusative of the thing parted with,
and an Ablative of the thing taken : ^ Mutare pacem bello,'
to exchange peace for war, i. e. to go to war ; or (especially
in poetry) an Accusative of the thing taken, and an Abla-
tive of the thing parted with : ^ Permutare otio divitias/ to
take wealth in exchange for ease,
E) The Ablative of Matter answers the questions Where-
with f (in a material sense :) Whereof?
It accompanies a great number of Verbs and Adjectives :
\) Transitive Verbs of sacrifici^tg ; adornifig, enduing, arming;
dignifying, afflicting, punishing; nourishing, supporiingi,
delighting ; fashioning^ instructing , furnishing ; binding,
&c. :
Facere, immolare, litare, libare, &c. victima, hostia, agno,
&c. vino, lacte, &c. : — ornare, induere, armare, &c. veste,
corona, ense, &c. : — afficere, mactare, &c. beneficio,
honore, iniuria, poena, &c. : g.fficere admiratione ; affici
morbo, &c. : — alere, pascere, iuvare, delectare, oblectare,
&c. opibus, sermonibus, &c. : — formare, informare, insti-
tuere, munire, &c. doctrina, bonis artibus, subsidiis,
&c . : — obligare, devincire, obstringere, tenere, &c. iure-
jurando, religione, &c.
2) Intransitive Verbs of consisting, being 7nade ; being accus^
torned ; depending; being stro7tg, being distressed ; flour-
ishing, languishing ; rejoicing, boasting, grieving; rely-.
ing, distrusting ; &;c. :
Constare, conflari, contineri, fieri ; suescere, assuescere; pen-
dere ; pollere, valere, vigere, lascivire, laborare ; florere, lan-
guescere ; gaudere, laetari, exsultare, triumphare, gloriari ;
dolere, maerere ; fidere, confidere, niti ; (macte esto) ; dif-
fidere, &c.
Constare also takes ex. ^ Omnis ex re atque verbis con-
stat oratio/ all speech consists of?natter and words , C. d.
Or, iii. 5.
3) Adjectives and Participles in meaning akin to some of these
Verbs :
Compositus, conflatus, concretus, factus; praeditUs {en^
dued), beatus, felix, contentus, fretus (relying)-, laetus,
superbus ; fisus, diffisus, coniunctus, assuetus, assuQfactuS;^
insuetus, &c.
The last six also take a Dative.
§148,
Ablative Case,
397
4) Dignus {worthy)^ xxs^^xz'^ViS {unworthy)'.
Sometimes also with Genitive.
They are appHed either to person or to thing :
Vir dignus est laude : vox indigna est responsione.
Dignari, to deem worthy ^ or to be deemed worthy (honore,
&c.), is always used passively by Cicero; by poets and
later prose writers actively also.
5) Opus est, there is needy opus habere, to have need (con^ilio,
prudentia, duce, &c.)
Generally used with Ablative, or with Genitive by poets.
Opus may also stand as Complement : * Dux nobis et auctor
opus est/ we need a leader arid adviser^ C. Fam. li. 6.
Usus est, there is occasion^ is sometimes found :
* Nunc viribus usus,' fiow there is occasion for strength^Noxg,
Ae, viii. 441.
Opus is used with Passive Participial words :
*Ita dictu opus est,' so must we needs say, Ter. Haut, v.
1.68. * Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est,' ere
you begin, there is need of consultation, Sail Cat. i.
*Opus fuit Hirtio convento,' there was occasion for
an interview with Hirtius^ C. Att, x. 14.
6) Fungi, to perform, fulfil, with compounds defungi, per-
fungi ; frui, to enjoy, with perfrui ; uti, to use, with
abuti; vesci, to feed on, eat\ potiri, to acquire, gain pos"
session of
The Ablative with these Verbs (which is properly instru-
mental) is construed like an Object. They were originally
Reflexive, and are used with Accusative in E. L., hence
they retain the Gerundive : * Vita data est utenda.' * Spes
potiundorum castrorum,' Caes. See M. Lucr, iii. 956.
Utor is found in the sense of possessing :
^Valetudine utor non bona,' I have poor health, C. Fam,
xiv. 5.
Being intimate with'. ^Utebatur intime Q. Hortensio,'
he was intimate with Hortensius, N. Att. v. 4.
Potior also takes a Genitive : sometimes an Accusative.
7) Transitive Verbs of endowing, enriching., filling, increasing,
loading, sating, &c., depriving, despoiling, ernptying, strip-
ping, releasing, &c. :
Donare, munerare, dotare, ditare, locupletare, opulentare,
complere, explore, implere, opplere, replere, augere, cumu-
lare, onerare, farcire, confercire, refercire, satiare, exsa-
tiare, saturare, exsaturare, &c., destituere, fraudare, pri-
vare, orbare, viduare, spoliare, despoliare, vacuare, nudare,
levare, exonerare, laxare, liberare, solvere, exsolvere, expe-
dire, exhaurire, emungere, exuere, &c. (re aliqua aliquem).
Intransitive Verbs of aboundirig, overflowing, Sec, wanting,
being void beijig destitute, &c.
398
Latin Syntax,
§ 149-50«
Abundare, flu ere, affluere, circumfluere, diffluere, exuberare,
exundare, redundare, manare, stillare, pluere, scatere, &c.,
carere, egere, indigere, vacare (re aliqua).
Verbs of this class often take a Genitive in poetry; egere,
indigere, prefer a Genitive in prose also.
Some are followed by the Preposition ab; levare, libe-
rare, vacare (a re).
8) Adjectives of abundance and want :
Abundans, beatus, compos, dives, felix, ferax, fertilis, fecun-
dus, fetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, laetus, largus, lo-
cuples, nimius, onustus, opulentus, plenus, refertus, satur,
tumidus, uber, &c., cassus, egenus, expers, immunis, ina-
nis, inops, liber, mancus, nudus, orbus, pauper, purus,
solutus, sterilis, truncus, vacuus, viduus, &:c. (re aliqua).
Many of these may take a Genitive: compos, plenus, fe-
cundus; expers, inops^ and some others^ especially in
poetry.
Some may take thd Preposition ab : immunis, liber, purus,
solutus, vacuus (a re); the case after such words being a
true Ablative of Separation.
iii. (II) Locative Ablative.
A) The Ablative of Respect answers the question In regard
of what?
It is joined to any predication, especially to Substantives and
Adjectives, denoting that particular in respect of which the pre-
dication is made :
* Nomine grammaticus, re barbarus,' in name a gram-
marian^ in fact a barbarian \ * claudus altero pede,'
lame of one foot\ * virtute et doctrina excellere;'
*contremere tota menite et omnibus artubus:' 'hae
domo Carthaginienses sunt.' So, natu maior, elder
(minor, maximus, mininlus) ; grandis natu, elderly y &c.
E) The Ablative of Measure answers the question By what
measu7'e ?
t) It limits Measurement ol* Conlparison :
* Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra,' the sun is
many times greater than the earthy C. N, D. ii. 36.
2) It includes the Ablative of Space and Distance :
*Trium milium spatio (or tribus milibus passuum) dis-
tare,' &c., to be three unites off, Sic, Ab may be used with
this Ablative of Distance :
'Naves ab milibus passuum octo vento tenebantur,'
the ships were kept by a wind eight miles off, Caes. B, G,
iv. 22.
§ 15 1-53» blative Case. 399
3) The following Ablatives are used with Comparative and
other words implying Comparison :
Hoc, eo, quo, tanto, quanto, aliquanto, multo, paulo, dimidio,
nihilo, nimio, altero, &c. *Eogravior dolor quo culpa
m a i o r,' the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is
greater, Multo optimus; multo praes::are; multo malle,
&c., multo ante (post) ; paulo ante (post) ; tanto ante
(post), &c. Multo aHter, secus, &c. See p. 279.
C) The Ablative of Manner answers the question How?
1) It is eminently adverbial, appearing in many phrases as a
single word :
Ordine, ratione, via et ratione {systematically), dolo, fraud e,
vi, iure, iniuria, vitio {faultily')^ equo {o7i horseback), pedi-
bus {ofi foot), &c. (Per might be used with some of these
words in the same sense : per dolum, per vim.)
2) In some instances an unqualified Ablative may be used with
or without cum :
Clam ore, cum clamore ; silentio, cum silentio.
But cum is generally used with an unqualified Ablative of
Mannar :
Cum dolore ; cum gaudio ; cum fide ; cum cura.
3) Certain Ablatives, more, modo, ritu, take a Genitive if they
have no epithet.
*More Sophoclis' or ^more Sophocleo,' in the manner of
Sophocles-, ^ Herculis ritu,' in the fashion of Hercules, Hor.
4) With an Epithet the Ablative of Manner often stands with-
out a Preposition, in some phrases always :
Hoc (eo) modo, nuUo modo, nullo pacto, nullo ordine, nullo
negotio, &c.
The Preposition seems to be used or omitted at discretion
(on its frequency see M. Lucr, i. 755).
'Magno studio' or ^cum magno studio;' 'magno gaudio'
or ^cum magno gaudio;' *adesse omnibus copiis' or
*cum omnibus copiis,' &c.
D) The Ablative of Condition answers the question On
what terms ?
It is one form of the Ablativus Modi :
Pace tua, by your leave, bona tua venia, with your in-
dulgence, meo iure, by my own right, mea sententia, in
my opinion, 8cc.
E) The Ablative of Quality answers the question Of what
description ?
It always has an Epithet and defines a Substantive, to which
it stands either as an Enthesis or as a Complement:
Murena, vir mediocri ingenio, &c. or^Murena medi-
ocri ingenio fuit.' See Genitive of Quality.
400
Latin Syntax.
% 154.:
F) The Ablative of Time answers the questions When?
Within what time? Hieme, vere, aestate, primo vere, diluculo
{at dawn), prima luce, hora quarta, tertia vigilia,^ Kalendis lanu-
ariis, anno septimo, &c., centum annis, biennio, biduo, paucis
diebus, &g.
1) Recurring solemnities may express Ti7ne when :
Ludis, at the ga^nes ; gladiatoribus, at the gladiators' show ;
comitiis, at the co7nitia ; Liberalibus, at the feast 0}
Liber, &c. ' .--^
Rarer idioms are, Sereno, in a calin ; austro^ in a south
wind, 8cc.
Interdiu, noctu, mane (mani), luci, vesperij heri, pridie,
postridie, crastini die, are expressions of Time represent-
ing old Locatives.
2) The Preposition used to define Time when, is chiefly de
{beginning from, ere the close of, during) ; de nocte, de
multa nocte (long before night ended) ; de media nocte, de
die, de mense Decembri.
I n is used to express tiine within which : and often when
the Ablative has another Numeral, Distributive or Quo-
tientive, connected with it :
Sol binas in singulis annis reversiones faeit,' the sun
makes two turns annually, C. N, D, ii. 40. ' Quidam
oves in anno bis tondent,' some shear sheep twice a
year, Varro. See also intra, sub.
3) The Pronouns hie, ille sometimes emphatically define the
Ablative of Time within which.
H i s annis quadringentis, within these last 400 years ; hoc
triennio, within the next (or last) three years-, hoc biduo,
within the next (or last) two days — the Tense determining
whether hie refers to Future or Past Time.
4) Post is also used in answering the question //(^Te/ soon?
paucis post diebus or paucos post dies, or post
paucos dies, within the next few days,
5) How lo7tg ago IS expressed by ante: paucis ante diebus,
or paucos ante dies, or ante paucos dies. Also by
abhine with Accusative or Ablative of the Time: ^ Ab-
hinc triennium (or triennio) hue commigravit,' she came
here three years ago, Ter. An, i. i.
6) The occurrence of one of two facts before or after the other
is variously expressed.
Thus the English, I saw him three days before he died, may
be rendered by any of the following sentences :
Vidi eum tribus diebus {or triduo) antequam mortuus
est.
Vidi eum tertio die antequam mortuus est.
Vidi eum ante tres dies {or ante triduum) quam mor-
tuus est.
Vidi eum ante tertium diem quam mortuus est.
' The Romans divided the day (from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.) into 12 hours, of whicn 7 a.m.
was the fitst (prima hora). Noon was called meridies or sexta hora. The night (from
6 P.M. to 6 A.M.) they divided into four watches (vigiliae) of three hours each.
55-
Ablative Case,
401
Pridie quam mortuus est, the day before he died ( = ante diem
quam).
Likewise, he died six years after I saw hiin^ may be rendered
by any of the following :
Mortuus est sex annis {or sexennio) postquam eum
videram.
Mortuus est sexto anno postquam eum videram.
Mortuus est sexto anno quam eum videram.
Mortuus est post sex annos (or post sexennium) quanl
/ eum videram.
Mortuus est post sextum annum quam eum videram.
Postridie quam eum vidi, the day after I saw him ( = post
diem quarri).
Cum, quo, quibus, are used for postquam t
'Biduo quo (or cum) haec gesta sunt; two days after these
things were done, CaeSi
On multo, paulo, &c., with ante, post, see § 1 50;
7) The Accusative of Duration shews the space of time through
which an action extends ; the Ablative, that within which
it is contained.
G) The Ablative of Place Where generally takes *ih:'
^ In portu navigo,' I am sailing in harbour, Sen*
1) In is omitted in many instances : loco, multis locis, plu-
ribus locis^ &c. ; hoc libro, alio libro, &c. ; terra, mari ;
tota Asia, throughout Asia ; dextra (parte), on the right
hand ; laeva, sinistra, on the left hand ; media urbe, in the
middle of the city ; medio aedium, in the middle of the
house ; eodem statu (or in eodem statu).
Also with 'se tenere,' ^continere:' ^Pompeius s^ oppido
tenet,' Ponipeius keeps in the town, C. Att. ix. li. 2.
2) Poets are more free in the omission : * Silvisque agrisque
viisque corpora foeda iacent,' in forests and fields and
foads tie revolting corpses, Ov. Met, vii. 647. But this
licence needs discrimination.
3) When a work is quoted, in is used : in Iliade Homeri ; in
Andria Terentii ; in Gorgia Platonis.
But when the author only is cited, apud: apud Homerum;
apud Terentium ; apud Platonem.
4) If the Place is a town or small island, the question. Where?
is answered by a Case in -ae, -i, Singular, -is Plural,
when the Noun is of Deck I. or II. : Romae, at Ro7ne,
Cypri, at Cyprus, Athenis, at Athens^ Delphis, at Delphi;
but by a Case in -e ot -i, Singular, -ibiis, Plural, when the
Noun is of Deck III. : Babylone, at Babylon, Neapoli, at
Naples, Gadibus, at Cadis.
5) The Case of Place in -ae, -i is taken by the words militia,
bellum, humus, domus, rus :
Militiae, belli, at the wars, humi, on the ground^ domi, at
home, ruri (or rure), in the country. Terrae, on the earth,
is used by poets : ' Procubuit terrae,' Ov.
D D
402
Latin Syntax.
6) That the Case in -ae, -1 is not really a Genitive, was known
even to the ancient grammarians, who call it an Adverb.
But as it ends in l (Romai = Romae, militiai =militiae,
domi, ruri, &c.), comparing the older forms of Place in
Decl. III., Anxuri, Carthagini, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi, we
cannot doubt the original existence of a Locative Case
ending in i Sing, s Plur., in Latin as in Sanskrit.
Compare Die septimi, Plaut. ; die crastini, Cell, (so die
pristini, proximi) ; heri vesperi, C.
Some refer here the Case of the Part Affected : animi
pendeo; maturus aevi, &c. Some that of Price.
7) A Gentile Adjective is sometimes found with the name of a
town locatively constructed :
*Teani Apuli/ at Teanum of Apulia^ C. ^Curibus Sabinis/
L. Other epithets are used in poetry : ^ D octas iam nunc
eat, inquit, Athenas,' let hmi forthwith go {says one) to
learned A thens^ Ov. Her, ii. 83.
8) Apposition to a town without Attribute is generally with in:
' In urbe Antiochia.'
But when an Attribute is added, the name of the town usually
precedes : ^Antiochiae^ celebri quondam et copiosa urbe,'
at Aittioch^ a once populous and wealthy city^ C. Arch. 3.
'Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido,' at Naples^ a very
populous tow7t. So, ^ Syracusas in urbem florentissi-
mam,' to Syracuse, a very flourishing city, C.
9) Domi, domum, admit the epithets meus, tuus, suus,
alienus, also a Genitive of the Possessor :
* Nonne mavis sine periculo domi tuae esse quam cum
periculo alienae?' would you not rather be at your own
house without peril than with peril at another'' s? C. Fain,
iv. 7. ^ Clodius deprehensus est domi C a e s a r i s,' Clodius
was caught at Caesar'' s house ^ C. Alt. i. 12. ^ Alius alium
domos suas invitant/ they invite each other to their
houses, Sail. lug, 66.
10) Prepositions are much used with names of towns :
In Epheso est ; in Ephesum abii ; ^ has litteras a Brun-
disio dedi,' C. So ad, apud.
And with humus, domus, rus : ^ Alcibiades educatus est
in do mo Periclis,' Alcibiades was brought up in the house
of Pericles, Nep. Ale. 2.
Usque is joined to names of places with or without Prepo-
sitions : ' Ab Aethiopia est usque haec,' she is as far as
from Ethiopia, Ter. 'Usque Ennam profecti sunt,'
they went as far as Enna, C.
H) The Ablativeof Direction of Motion has no Preposition:
^Ire Via Sacra,' to walk on the Sacred Road, Hon; 'ingredi
urbem p o r t a E s q u i 1 i n a,' to enter the city by the Esquiline gate, L.
§ 157-59- Ablative Case. 4^3
iv. (Ill) Ablative Proper.
^ ' ^ Ablativ<
A) The Ablative of Place Whence, if a town or small island, ^''^op^'^-
or domus, rus, humus, militia, is used without Preposition:
Redire Roma, Athenis, Epheso, Delphis, Tibure, Gadibus, militia,
domo, rure, &c., to return from Rome, Athens, &c.
But Prepositions (ab, de, ex) may be employed.
1) The Ablative of Place Whence is used in dating letters :
^ Litteras dederam Epheso pridie,' / wrote yesterday from
Ephesus, C. ^Ego unas Capua litteras dedi/ / have
written once from Capua, C.
2) Native place is sometimes expressed by this Ablative :
Cn. Magius Cremona, Gnaeus Magius of Cremona^ Caes»
B, C. i. 24 ; but more usually by an Adjective (Cremon-
ensis) ; sometimes by ab : * Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia,'
L. i. 50. * Pastor ab Amphryso,' V. G, iii. 2.
3) The name of the tribe is thus appended in inscriptions to
that of a Roman citizen :
*Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rufus,' Servius Sulpicius
Rufus, son of Quintus, of the Lemonian tribd
B) The Ablative of that From which Separation occurs 158
depends on many Words either without of with a Preposition.
1) The usage of such Words must be carefully distinguished*
Some either omit or take the Preposition in Prose :
Arcere, cedere, exsulare, movere, pellere^ prohibere, sol-
vere^ summovere, removere : procul, alienus, &c*
Others prefer a Preposition (chiefly ab) in prose, but may
omit it in poetry :
Alienare, discedere, disiungere^ dispellere, distare, divellere,
repellere, secernere, segregare, separare, &C. Horace
Writes * alium sapiente bonoque,' Epist, i* 16. 20< On
discrepo^ differo, &:c., see § 135.
2) Verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, can take an Abl. by
means of the Preposition :
^ Detrudit navis scopulo/ Verg.
But most of them^ in prose, repeat their Preposition or add
another :
Excedere ex urbe ; a Roma abesse ; ex equo desilire ; a loco
deicere.
3) Abstinere, abstain, varies its construction thus:
Abstinere vino, &c., abstinere se vino, &:c., abstinere a vino,
&c.
4) Observe the legal phrases : Abdicare se magistratu, to resign
office^ movere senatu, tribu, &c., to expel from the senate,
the tribe f &c. (an act of the Censor) ; ' interdicere aqua et
igni/ to banish by excluding from fire and water.
Supersedere, to dispense with, generally takes an Ablative.
C) The Ablative of Origin is only a special instance of the 159
Ablative of Separation.
D D 2
Latin Syntax,
§ 1 60.
1) It is joined to Verbs and Participles expressing or implying
descent, origination, &c. Such are
Nasci, oriri> gigni, with their compounds : and the Parti-
ciples, editus, creatus, cretus, genitus, natus, prognatus,
oriundus, ortus, satus {born, sprung, descended) :
Nasci familia nobili ; Claris maioribus ortus ; patre genitus
illustri ; sate sanguine divum, &c.
2) The usage of these words must be noted :
Most admit Prepositions (ab, de, ex), and some prefer this
construction even in poetry :
^Prisco natus ab Inacho,' Hon C, ii. 3. 21. 'Ilia cum
Lauso de Numitore sati/ Ov. iv. 54. * Edita de magno
flumine hympha fui/ Ov. Her, v. 10.
D) The Ablative of the Thing Compared may be referred
to the idea of Origin (or, as some think, to that of Respect).
1) It is attached to Comparative Adjectives or Adverbs in place
of qua m (than) with the Nominative or Accusative.
* Nihil est amabilius virtute/ nothing is 7nore amiable
than virtue, C. 'Lacrima nihil citius arescit/ no-
thing dries sooner than a tear, C. Inv, i. 56.
* Puto mortem dedecore leviore m/ / think death easier
than disgrace.
2) In comparing the other Cases quam miist be used :
* Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Vergili/ to none more a cause
of weeping than to thee, Vergilius, Hor. C. i. 24. 10.
^Flagiti magis nos pudet quam erroris/ we are more
ashamed of the crime than of the blunder, C.
And often for perspicuity : ' Segnius homines bona quam
mala sentiunt,* men feel goods less keenly than evils, L. xxx.
21. 'Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixiquam
te/ / love Brutus not less than thou, I had almost said,
than thee, C. Att. v. 20* But poets do not always attend to
this: 'Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat?'
Why does he shun oil more cautiously than viper's blood ?
Hor. C. i. 8. 9. 'Ego possideo plus Pallante et Lici-
nis/ luv. i. 108.
3) If the Comparative itself is in the Genitive or Dative, quam
with a clause generally follows :
'Haec sunt verba Varronis doctioris quam fuit Claudius/
these are the words of Varro, a more learned 7na7i than
Claudius was, Cell. x. i.
4) The Ablatives aequo, iusto, dicto, solito, spe, opinione,
necessario, follow Comparatives:
'Flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri/ ainan^s
grief ought not to be more violent thaii is ri^ht, luv. xiii.
II. ' Caesar opinione omnium celerius venturus est/
Caesar will arrive sooner than is generally expected, C.
Fain. xiv. 23.
§ i6i. Ablative Case. 405
This Ablative elegantly falls out :
Liberius vivebat (i.e. iusto)/ he lived too freely y Nep. Th. i,
^ So, * Res, graviores ' (i.e. solito), matters of tmusual iin-'
portance.
On quam after Comparatives, see § 76.
5) Inferior takes Ablative, and, in the Silver age. Dative:
Sapientia omnia inferiora virtute ducit,' wisdom deems
all things inferior to virtue^ C. T, D, iv. 26. * Padus est
nulli amnium claritate inferior,' the Po is inferior to no
river in clearness^ PI. N. H. iii. 16.
6) The Prepositions ante, praeter, supra, prae, are used in
Comparison :
^Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnis,' Pyg-^
malion more monstrous in wickedness than (lit. before) all
others^ Verg. Aen. i. 347. 'Crux praeter ceteras
altior,' a cross higher than (lit. beyond) the resty Suet,
Galb. 9.
Obs. On several Ablatives with one Verb, see M. Lucr, i. 183.
Madvig cites C. Brut. : 'Menippus meo iudicio tota, Asia
illis temporibus disertissimus erat.'
V. Ablative Absolute. Ablative
Abso-
1) The construction called Ablative Absolute (Ablativus
Convenientiae) occurs when the Ablative of a Substantive or Pro-
noun takes for its adjunct another Ablative, which is either a Parti-
ciple or an Adjective or a Substantive or (rarely) a Pronoun. Such
an expression is equivalent to a Clause, often of Time :
Imperante Augusto, when Augustus was emperor \ Caesare
occiso, when Caesar had been slain ; vivo patre, while my
father is {was) alive ; Camillo duce, when Cainillus is (was)
comma7ider ; Caninio consule, in the consulship of Cani-
nius ; hac iuventute, when our you7tg men are of this
character.
But the clause may express a condition, a concession, a cause,
&c., according to the context. Thus te invito may mean,
in various places, if you are miwilling ; though you are
unwilling ; since you are unwilling ; without your consent.
2) The Absolute Participle is often equivalent to the Gerund or
Ablative of Manner :
^ Tarquinius Turnum oblate falso crimine oppressit,' Tar^
quinius crushed Turnus by impeding a false charge^ L. i.
51. * Aruns Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis,,
magis non prohibente Servio quam approbante,'
Aruns Tarquinius and Tullia the younger marry rather
withotd the opposition than with the approbation of Ser-
vius, L. i. 56.
3) An Impersonal Participle is sometimes absolute:
Mihi, errato, nulla venia; recte facto, exigua laus proponi-
tur,' to 7ne, if I blunder, no indulgence ; if I succeed, small
credit is offered, C d. L. Agr. ii. 2. Errato = si erratum
erit a me ; recte facto = si Vecte factum erit a me.
4o6
Latin Syntax,
§ i6i.
Sometimes a Clause is absolute with a Participle :
'Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus/ cheerful
in all respects^ save that you are not with me, Hor. Epist.
i. 10. 50.
See § 237-240.
I. {Instr.Abl.) A) {Causal.) * Lollius, aetateetmorboimpeditus, ad testimonium
dicendum venire non potuit,' C. Verr. iii. 25. * Noli putare, pigritia me facere quod
non mea manu scribam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. * Consul dictatorem comitiorum causa T.
Manlium Torquatum ex auctoritate senatus dixit,' L. vii. 26. * Has familias honestatis
amplitudinisque gratia nomino/ C. p. S, Rose. 6. * Demosthenes corona aurea
donatus est virtutis ergo,' C, O. G. Or. 7. * Senatus supplicationes consulum
nomine decrevit,' L. iii. 63. ■ Vestra magis hoc causa volebam quam mea,' C.
4. Or. \. 35. * Ad eum ipsius rqgatu aqcersituque veneram,' C. N, Z>. i. 6, ;5,
B) C) {Instr, Agent.) ' Cor nib us tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones se tutantur,"
C. iV. D. ii. 5a * Etesiarum flatu nimii temperantur calores,' C. N. D. ii. 53. * Illud
tibi affirmo, fore ut absens a multis, cum redieris ab omnibus collaudere,' C. Fam.
i. 7. * Nisi iam factum est aliquid per Flaccum, fiet a me/ C. Fam. iii. 11.
' Ingenium placida mollimur ab arte,' Ov. A. A, iii. 545.
D) {Price.) * Plinius commentarios suos vQndere poterat quadringentis mil-
jbus nummum,' Plin. Ep. iii, 5. * Dareus mille talentis percussorem Alexandri
emere voluit,' Curt. iv. i. * Aurea nunc vere sunt saecula ; plurimus auro venit
honos,' Prop. iii. 12. *Mercatur tris libros nihilo minore pretio quam quod erat
petitum pro omnibus,' Cell. i. 19. * Seius in caritate annonae asse modium populo
dedit,' C. Off", ii. 17. * Vix drachmis opsonatum est decem,' Ter. An. ii. 6.
* Sextante sal et Romae et per totam Italiam erat,' L. xxix. 37. * Cum esset fru-
mentum sestertiis binis aut trinis, quibusvis locis provinciae duodenos sestertios
exegisti,' C. Verr. ii. 3. 84. 'Aristidis, Thebani pictoris, unam tabulam centum
talentis rex Attains liqitatus est,' PI. N. H. vii. 37. * Multo sanguine ac vulne-
ribus ea Poenis victoria stetit,' L. xxiii. 30. * Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus
aestimantur,' Tac. An. i, 17. * Notavit aliquos, quod pecunias levioribus usuris
mutuatas graviori fenore collocassent,' Suet. Aug. 33. *Triginta milibus
Coelius habitat,' C. /. Coel. 7. *ParvQ fames constat, magno fasticjium,' Sen. Ep.
17. * El mandasti negotium, cui expediret, illud venire quam pluripio,' C. Fam.
vii. 2. * Ambulatiuncula dimidio pluris constabit,' C. Att. xiii. 29. * Ego quaero,
cur civis optimi bona tantulo venierint,' C. P- S. i?. 45, * Quanti emi potest?
M ini mo,' Plant. * Istuc verbum vile est viginti minis/ Plant. Mpst. i. 3. i39-
* Clodii insula venalis est decem milibus/ C. Coel. 7. * Quod non opus est
asse carum est,' Sen. Ep. 94. * Nefas duco victrice patria victam mutare,*
L. V. 30. * Tellus Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista,* V«?rg. G. i. 8.
*Tauro mutatus membra rebello,' Ov. M. ix. 81. * Fortuna prae&ens supeirbos
vertere funeribus triumphos,' Hor. Od. i. 35. 4.
J^) {Matter.) 'Germani Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus humanis quoquehos-
tiis litare fas habent,' Tac. G. 9. ' Romulum lacte, non vino libasse, indicio sunt
sacra ab eo instituta/ PI. N. H. xiv. 12. * Hoc etiam maiore es malo mactandus,
quod non solum facto tuo, sed etiam exemplo rempublicam vulnerasti,' C. c. Vatin. 15.
* Ad mi rati one afficiuntur ii, qui anteire ceteros virtute putantur,' C. Off. \\. 10.
* Caesar Germanos, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, primus Romanorum maximis affecit
gladibus,' Suet. Caes. 25. * Summa difficultate rei frumentariae afficiebatur
Caesaris ejfercitus, tenuitate Boiorum, indiligentia Aeduorum, incendiis aedificiorum,
Caes. B. G. vii. 17. * Virgo inficitur teneras tota rubore genas,' Tibull. iii. 4. 31.
* Natura oculos tenuissimis membranis vestivit et saepsit,' C. N. D. ii. 57.
* Hippias gloriatus est pallium, quo amictus, soccos quibus indutus esset, se manu
sua confecisse,' C. d- Or. iii. 32. * Bonis artibus aetas puerilis ad humanitatem in-
formari solet,' C. p- Arch. 3. * Caesar Corfinium oppidum vallo castellisque
circumvenire instituit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. * Indignum est in ea civitate, quae legi-
bus tenetur, disced! a legibus/ C. p. Ciu. 53. 'Quid de Tulliola mea fiet?' C.
Fam. xiv. 4. * Quid fecisti scipione?' Plant. Cas. v. 4. 18. 'Quaero, si, qui
vellnt vendere, non fuerint, quid pecunia fiet?' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 27. 'Delicto
dolere, correctione gaudere oportet,' C. Lael 24. ' Ut adulescentibus bona
indole praeditis sapientes senes delectantur. sic adulescentes senum praeceptis
gaudent, quibus ad vjrtutum studia duguntur/ C. Cat. 31. 8. ' Duobus vitiis, ava-
\
§ 162-63.
Genitive Case.
407
F, The Genitive Case,
1^)2
i. The Genitive in Latin has for its main function Gem-
ii. The uses of the Genitive may be considered ^
as twofold :
A) Subjective, when a predication is implied of which the
Genitive word is Subject : hominum timor, mcn^s fear (homines
timent ahquid).
ritia et luxuria, Romana civitas laborabat,' L. xxxiv. 4. * Nemo potest aut corporis
fir mitate aut fortunae stabilitate confidere,' C. T. D. v. 14.40. * Meis consiliis,
monitis, studiis, auctionibus nituntur/ C. Fain. v. 8. * Parvo est natura
contenta,* C. Fin. ii. 28. *Varus est homo summa religione et summa auctori-
tate praeditus,' C. /. Clu. 19. ' Non segetibus solum et pratis et vineis et
arbustis res rusticae laetae sunt, sed etiam hortis etpomariis; turn pecudum
pastu, apium examinibus, florum omnium varietate,' C. Cat. M. 15. * Cimon
Thasios, opulentia fretos, suo adventu fregit/ Nep. Cim. 2. * I, decus Ausoniae,
quo fas est ire superbas virtute et fact is animas,' Sil. x. 573. * Exclusus ab
Antiochia Dolabella, nulla alia confisus urbe, Laodiceam se contulit,' C. Fam. xii.
15. * Curionis patrio fuit institute puro sermoae assuefacta domus,* C. Brtit. 59.
* Excellentium civium virtus imitatione, non invidia, digna est,' C. Phil. xiv. 6.
* Quam multi indigni luce sunt, et tamen dies oritur,' Sen. Ben. i. i. * Descendam
magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum,* Verg. Aen. xii. 649. * Haud equidem
tali me dignor honore,' Verg, Aen. i. 335. * Hi apud maiores nostros tali honore
dignati sunt,' C. Inv. ii. 39. * Nihil opus est simulatione et fallaciis,' C. d.
Or. ii. 46. 'Auctoritate tua nobis opus est et consilio et etiam gratia,' C.
Fam. ix. 25. * Viginti iam usus est filio argenti minis,' Plaut. Asin. i. i. * An
cuiquam est homini usus se ut cruciet,' Ter. Haut. i. i. * Ubi summus imperator
non adest, citius quod non facto est usus fit quam quod facto est opus,' Plaut.
Am. i. 3. ' Si quid, quod opus fuerit, Appio facies, ponito me in gratia,' C, Fam.
viii. 6. *Verres multa sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos circa se
haberet,' C. Verr. i. 48. * Magna Helotarum multitudo agros Lacedaemoniorum colit,
servorumque munere fungitur,' Nep. Pans. 3. * Crassus, cum cognomine dives
tum copiis, functus est aedilicio maximo munere,' C. Oj^. ii. 16. * Hannibal
Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore,' N. Hann. 13. *Cum
Phalerico portu neque magno neque bono Athenienses uterentur, Themistoclis
consilio triplex Piraeei portus constitutus est,' Nep. Them. 6. * Id est cuiusque pro-
prium, quo quisque fruitur atque utitur,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Orgetorix Helvetiis
persuasit, perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totlus Galliae imperio
potiri,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. * Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vesce-
bantur,' Sal. lug. 89. * Ad agrum fruendum etiam invitat senectus,' C. Cat. M. 16.
* Operam abutitur,' Ter. An. Prol. 5.
* Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum,' C. Univ. 3. * Crotoniatae quondam
templum lunonis egregiis picturis locupletare voluerunt,' C. Inv. ii. i. * Satiate
sanguine quem sitiisti,' lust. i. 8. * Te autem quibus mendaciis homines levissimi
onerarunt,' C. Fam. iii. 10. * Abundarunt semper auro regna Asiae,' L. xxxv. 46.
* Met all is plumbi, ferri, aeris, argenti, auri tota ferme Hispania scatet,' PI. N. H.
iii. 3. * Democritus dicitur oculis se privasse,' C. Fin. v. 29. * Gravius est spo-
liari fortunis quam non augeri dignitate,' C. /. Plane. 22. * Murus defenso-
ribus nudatus est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 6. * Non ante abscessum est quam castris
exuerunt hostem,' L. xxix. 2. 'Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur supersti-
tione, liberamur mortis metu,' C. Fin. i. 19. * Cotidie nos ipsa natura admonet,
quam paucis, quam parvis rebus egeat, quam vilibus,' C. T. D. v. 35. * Carere hoe
significat, egere eo quod habere velis. Regno carebat Tarquinius, cum regno
esset expulsus,' C. T. D. i. 36. * Animi, quo maior est in eis praestantia, eo maiore
indigent diligentia/ C. T. D. iv. 27. * Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget,*
tive
Case.
408
Latin Syntax,
% 163.
B) Objective; when a predication is implied ot which the
Genitive word is Object : timor hominum, fear of 77ieii (aliquis
timet homines).
d) One word may have both Genitives dependent on it :
Hominum timor mortis, men^s fear of death ; Ciceronis
defensio Gabinii, Cicero's defence of Gabinius,
Among words capable of taking this double Genitive are :
Amor, desiderium, iniuria, miserat^o^ obsequium, odium, stu-
dium, &c.
U) One Genitive may depend on another :
Africani sororis filius, Africanus's sister^ s son»
C. Fin. iii. 15. ' Gravitas morbi facit ut medicinae egeamus,' C. Fam. ix. 3.
* Plinius plenus annis, plenus honoribus obiit,' Plin. Ep. ii. i. *Habes episT
tulam plenam f e st i n a t i o n i s et pulveris,' C. Att. v. 14. *Amor et melle
et felle est fecundissimus,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. * Dives agris, dives positis in
fenore nummis,' Hor. ad. Pis. 421. * Sum dives pecoris, nivei sum lactis abun-
dans,' Verg. B. ii. 20. * Consules praeda ingonti compotem exercitum reducunt,'
L. iii. 70. ' Numquam animus cogitatione et motu vacuus esse potest/ C. Div.
ii. 62. * Mamertini soli vacui, expertes, soluti ac liberi fuerunt ab omni
sumptu, molestia, munere/ C. Verr. ii. 4. 10. * Plerique patria, sed omnes
fama atque fortunis expertes sumus,' Sail. Cat. 33. ' Caesari tradita urbs est
nuda praesidio, referta copiis,' C. Att. vii, 13. 'Decius, Macti virtute, in-
quit, milites Romani, este,' L. vii. 36. * Nunc cassum lurnine lugent,' V. Aen. ii. 85.
II. {Locative Ail.) A) {Respect.) 'Agesilaus nomine non potestate fuit rex/
Nep. Ag. I. * Cn. Pompeius fuit forma excellens, innocentia eximius, sancti-
tate praecipuus, eloquent ia medius/ Veil, ii. 29. * Uri sunt magnitudine paulo
infra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri,* Caes. B. G. vi. 28. * Q. Maxi-
mum Cato adulescens colere coepit non admodum grandem natu, sed tamen iam aetata
provectum,* C. Cat. M. 4. * Persae mille numero navium classem ad Delum appu-
lerunt,' C. Verr. i. 18. * Cum illius temporis mihi venit in mentem, quo die mihi dicen-
dum sit, non solum commoveor animo, sed etiam toto corpore perhorresco,' C. in
Caecil. 13. ^Medius Polluce et Castore ponar,' Ov. Am. ir. 16. 13. *Verres
pretio, non aequitate iura describebat,' C. Verr. v. 11.
B) {Measure.") ' Messalla consul est egregius ; ille alter uno vitio minus vitiosus,*
C. Att. i. 14. * Aesculapi templum quinque milibuspassuumab Epidauro distat,'
\a. XXV. 28. * Belgae ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, et ab milibus
passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt,' Caes. B. G. ii, 7. * Surculos demittita
ita ut sex digitis de arbore exstent/ Columella, xxvi. 4. * Numa Pompilius annis
permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras,' C. d. Or. ii. 37. * Tribunus anno post fuit
Crassus,' C. Br. 6,0, * Tan to Pompeius superiores duces vioei^at gloria quanta
Caesar omnibus praestitit,' C. /. Deiot. 4, * Meo iudicio muUo stare malo quam
omnium relic^uorum,* C. Att. xii. 2. * Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia,'
Caes. v. 13. ' Nimio plus quam velim nostrorum ingenia sunt mobilia,* L. ii. 37.
'Quinquiens tanto amplius Verres quam quantum in cellam sumere licitum erat
civitatibus imperavit,' C. Verr. iii. 97. * Alcibiades fuit om.nium aetatis suae multo
formosissimus,* Nep. Ale. i.
O {Manner.) 'Iniuria fit duobus modis, aut vi aut fraude,* C. Off. \. 13.
* Pace advenio, et pacem ad vos affero,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 32. * Quod exemplo fit,
id etiam iure fieri putant,* C. Fam. iv. 3. * Arminius equo conlustrans cuncta, ut
quosque advectus erat, reciperatam libertatem ostentabat,' Tac. Ann. ii. 45, * Galli
urbem cum clamore et impetu invadunt ; patentis passim domos adeunt/ Fl. i. 13.
* Cur Pythagoras tantas regiones barbarorum p e d i b u s obiit?' Cic. Fin. v. 29. * Quan-
topere movemur, cum pie, cum amice, cum magno animo aliqnid factum cognos-
cimus,' C. Fin. v. 22. * Cultus deorum est optimus, ut eos semper pura integra
incorrupta et mente etvoce veneremur,' C. N. D. ii. 28. ' Parthi Euphratem
transierunt cunctis fere copiis,' C. Att. v. 18. * Scipio profectus in Siciliam est
trigintanavibuslongiSj'L. xxviii. 46. * Mihi litterae redditae sunt, Pacorumcum
permagno equitatu Parthico transisse Euphraten,' C. Fain. xv. i. * Magna
164.
Genitive Case,
409
iii. A) Subjective Genitive (Possessive; De- subjec
scriptive ; Partitive).
I. Genitivus Auctoris et Possessoris.
II. Genitivus Descriptionis.
III. Genitivus Oualitatis.
IV. Genitivus Rei Distributae et Demensae; with other
Partitive Constructions.
Note I. As Latin has an Ablative, its Genitive is more restricted
than the Greek ; but poets imitate the freedom of the Greek Gen.
In some instances the Abl. and Gen. concur (as in constructions
of Quahty, Price, Matter) ; and Prepositional phrases are substituted
live Ge-
nitive.
cum cura atque diligentia scripsit,* C. Inv. i. 39. * Erit turn consul Hortensius
cum summo imperio et potestate,' C. Verr. i. 13. * In summo apud Graecos
honore geometria fuit,' C. T. D. i. 2. * Plancus in earn urbem rediit armis, e qua
excesserat legibus,' C. Phil. xiii. 12.
D) {Condition.) Optimo iure sunt ea praedia, quae optima condicione sunt,*
C. d. L. Agr. iii. 2. 'Auspicia nunc a Romanis augunbus ignorantur ; bona hoc
^ua venia dixerim; ^ Cilicibus tenentur,' C. Div. i. 15. * Isocratia glojiam nemo,
meo quidem iudicio, est postea consecutus,' C. Br. 8. *Meoiurete hoc beneficium
jrogo ; nihil enim non tua causa feci/ C. Ait. xiv. 13. * lam mater rure rediit?
Responde mihi. — Sua quidem salute ac familiae maxuma,' Plant. Merc. iv. 5. 9.
E) {Quality^ * Fuit quidam summo ingenio vir, Zeno, cuius inventorum aemuli
^toici nominantur,' C. /. Mur. 29. * Iphicrates fuit et animo magno et corpore,
imperatoriaque forma,' Nep. Iph. 3. * Erat apud Heium sacrarium, in quo signa
pulcherrima quattuor, summo artlficio, summa nobilitate/ C. Verr, iv. 2,
* Magno timore sum ; sed bene speramus,' C. Att. v. 14.
F) {Time.) * Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit,' PI. N. H. vii. 40. ' Exc\ir,
remus mense Spptembri, ut lanuario revertamur/ C. Att. i. i. ' Hannibal, in^»
perator factus, proximo triennio omnis gentes Hispaniae subegit/ Nep. Han. 3.
^ Abeunt hirundines hibernis mensibus,' PI. H. N. 24. * Septimo ferme anno
Caesar morabatur in Galliis, cum lulia, uxor Pompeii Magni, decessit,' Veil. ii. 47.
* Erat consuetude, ut quem ordinem interrogandi sententias consul Kalendis
lanuariis instituisset, eum toto anno conservaret, Suet. Caes. 21. * Claudius
ueminem ultra mensem, quo obiit, consulem designavit,* Suet. Claud. 46. * Brutus
consul collegam sibi comitiis centuriatis creavit P. Valerium,' L. ii. 2. ^ Urbes
Afncae post M. Atilium Regulum annis prope quinquaginta nullum Romanum
^xercitum viderant,' L. xxix. 28. ' Nuntius hic decem horis nocturnis sex et quin-
quaginta milia passuum cisiis pervolavit,* C. /. S. Rose. 7. * Ecce autem repente, his
^iebus paucis, eadem ilia vetera consilia pecunia maiore repetuntur,' C, Verr. i. 6.
'Epistulamde nocte daturus eram, sicut dedi ; nam earn vesperi scripseram,' C,
Att. viii. 6. * Lysander Atheniensis in Peloponnesios sexto et vicesimp^inno
bellum gerentis confecit,' N. Lys. i. * Caesar compluris equitum turmas eo 4^ media
nocte misit,' Caes. B, G. vU. 45- * Fac ut naviges de mense Decembri {before the
end of),' C. Qm. Ft. ii, i. * De tertia vigilia castra movit,* Caes. B. C i, 63,
* Artes in omni aetate cultae mirificos efferunt fructus,' C. Cat. M. 3. * I^fummos
tibi reponaminhoc triduo.,' Plant. Pers. i. i. 33. * Fere in diebus paucis quibus
haec acta sunt Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' Ter. An. 1. i. * Ego si semper haberem cui
darem litteras, vel ternas in hora darem,' C. Fa7n. xv. 16. * Testamentura Augusti
ante annum et quattuor mensis quam decesserat factum est,' Suet. Aug. ipi.
* Livius docuit anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius,' C. Brut. 18. * Aristides,
decessit fere post annun; quartum quam Themistocles Athenis erat expulsus,' N.
Ar. 3. * Aristides sexto fere anno postquam erat expulsus, in patriam restitutus
est,* N. Ar. I. 'Undecimo die postquam a te discesseram, hoc litterularum
exaravi,' C. Att. xii. i. 'Dictator die octavo quam creatus erat, magistratu se
abdicavit,' L. iv. 47. *Anno trecentesimo altero quam condita Roma erat,
iterum mutatur forma civ itatis,' L. iii. 33. * Andricus postridie ad me venit quam
exspectaram,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Collegam triduo cum has dabam litteras exspecta-
Latin Syntax.
§164.
for the Gen. : thus, una de multis, una e multis, una multa-
rum, are equivalent.
Hence in French ^ de"* is used as a Gen. and Abl. Preposition;
in Itahan, ' dV is the Gen., ^ da 'the Abl. Preposition.
Note 2. This Genitive is in the nature of an Attribute. Thus it
is the same thing to say, ^Sullan us exercitus' or ^Sullae ex-
ercitus,' ^flamen Martialis' or 'flamen Martis.'
(Even for the Objective Gen. Adjectives are used : ^ Timor ex-
ternus ' for ' timor exterorum.' And Possessive Pronouns : ' Tua
fiducia,' in reliance on you, C. Verr, v. 58. *• Habenda ratio non
sua solum, sed etiam aliorum,' a man should take account not of
himself alone but also of others^ C. Off. i. 39.)
' Native of a place^ is usually expressed by an Adjective derived
from the place : as, ^ Dionysius Halicarnasseus,' for Dionysius
Halicarnassi natus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
bam,* C. Fa7n. x. 23. * Ipse, ut spero, octo diebus quibus has litteras dabam,
cum Lepidi copiis me coniungam,' C. Fam. x. 18.
G) {Place Where.') * Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timo-
theus Lesbi, Chares in Sigeo,' Nep. Chabrias. 3. ' Castra Gallorum opportunis
locis erant posita,' Caes. B. G. vii. 69. * Hi vagantur laeti atque erecti passim toto
foro,' C. A Font. 11. * Ab A«co Marcio career ad terrorem increscentis audaciae
media urbe imminens foro aedificatur,' L. i. 33. * Ut Romae consules. sic Kartha-
gine quotannis annui bini reges creabantur,' Nep. Hann. 7. *Per eosdem dies quibus
haec ilU consuhabant, consilium de iis Carthagini erat,' L. xxviii. 26. * DionysiuSj»
cum fanum Proserpinae Locris expilavisset, navigabat Syracusas,' C. N. D. iij, 34.
* Fuit Arganthonius quidam Gadibus qui octoginta regnavit annos,' C. Cat. 19,
*Scipio, L. Marcio Tarracone, M. Silano Karthagine Nova ad praesidium His-
paniae relictis, in Africam traiecit,' L. xxviii. 17. ' N eapoli in celeberrimo oppido
etiam senatores cum mitella saepe vidimus,' C. /. Rab. Post. 30. 'A Romanis nihil bel U
domique nisi auspicato gerebatur,' L. i. 36. * Manlius Titum filium ruri habitare
iussit,' L. vii. 5. ' Manlius rure iuventam egit,' PL N. H. viii. 46. 'Nihil domi,
nihil militiae per magistratus geritur sine augurum auctoritate,' C. Leg. ii. 12.
* Cadmus spargit humi iussos, mortalia semina, dentis, O. Met. iii. 105. * Antonius
intimus erat Clodio, cuius etiam do mi quiddam moUtus est/ C. Phil. ii. 19.
H) {Place by Which.) Demonstrabo iter; Aurelia via profectus est,' C. Cat. ii. 4.
* Cur non sancitis, ne vicinus patricio sit plebeius nec eodemitinere eat, ne idem con-
vivium ineat, ne in foro eodem consistat?' L. iv. 4. * lam consul via Lavicana ad
fanum Quietis erat,' L. iv. 41. * Lupus Esquilina porta ingressus cum in forum decu-
currisset, Tusco vico atqae inde Germalo per portam Capenam prope intactus evasit,'
L. xxxiii. 26. ' Legiones victrices Penninis Cottianisque Alpibus, pars monte
Graio, traducuntur,' Tac. H. iv, 68.
III. {Ahl. Proper.) A) {Place Whence.) *Roma acceperam litteras, Milonem
queri per litteras iniuriam meam,' C. Att. v. 8. 'Auximo Caesar progressus omnem
agrum Picenum percurrit,' Caes. B. C. \. 15. * Maiores nostri Capua magistratus,
senatum, omnia denique insignia rei publicae sustulerunt, neque aliud quicquam nisi
inane nomen Capuae reliquerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. 1. 6. * Dionysius Platonem Athenis
arcessivit,' N. Di. 3. * Caesaris milites cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania
pabulum supportare,' Caes. B. C. iii. 58. * Princeps Academiae Philo cum Atheniensium
optimatibus Mithridatico bello domo profugit, Romamque venit,* C. Bnit.^ 89.
* Video rure redeuntem senem,' Ter. Ftin. v. 4. 45. 'Vix oculos attollit humo,'Ov.
Met. iii. 448.
B) {Separation.) ' Censores omnis, quos senatu moverunt quibusque equos
ademerunt, aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt,' L. xlii. 10. * Hostis Antonius
iudicatus Italia cesserat,' N. Att, 9. 'Apud Germanos quemcunque mortalium
arcere tecto nefas habetur,' Tac. G. 21. * Adolescentia a libidinibus arcenda
est,' C. Off. i. 34 ' Avocat a rebus gerendis senectus,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Di, talem
terris avertite pestem/ Verg. Aen. iii. 620, 'Nisi is Antonium ab urbe aver-
tisset, perissent omnia,' C. ad. Br. i. 3. 'Romano bello Fortuna Alexandnim
jibstinuit,' Liv. viii. 24, 'Tiberius et Augustus publico abstinuere, inferius
sessoris»
§ 165. Genitive Case. 411
165
I. i) The Possessive Genitive expresses that which stands Genc-
in the relation of Author, Origin, or Proprietor to the Noun Auctoris
on which it depends : et Pos-
Oratio Ciceronis, leges civitatis, fortitudo militum, rex Ponti,
domus PericHs, &c. It may be rendered in English by
the Possessive Case in '^, or by the Preposition of :
Philippi fiHus, Philip* s son, or so7i of Philip,
2) The Dativus Commodi is often substituted for it :
^ In Palatio prima urbi fundamenta ieci,' / laid the first
foundations of {fo7') my city on the Palatine hill, L. i. 12.
^Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ^go^ you are his sire by
nature, I by counsels, Ten Ad, i. 2. 46.
So advocatus, praefectus, legatus (properly Participles)
sometimes govern Gen., sometimes Dat. Likewise affinis,
maiestate sua rati,' Tac. Ann. iii. 3. * Quale beneficium est, quod te abstinueris a
nefario scelere?' C. Phil. ii. 3. * Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus
abstinuit; tanta vis fuit poenitendi,' C. T. D. iv. 37. 'Abhorrent moribus
nostris/ Curt. vii. 8. 'Nostra aetas abhorret a castris, praesertim civilibus,' C.
Att. xiv. 19. * Virtus numquam ulla vi labefactari potest, numquam demoveri loco,'
C Phil. iv. 5, * Miserum est exturbari fortunis omnibus,' C. Quinct. 31.
'Augur potest decernere ut magistratu se abdicent consules,' C. Leg. ii. 12.
•Hominis natura a reliquis animantibus differt,' C. Off. i. 27. * Quindecim
milibus passuum Arabicus sinus distat ab Aegyptio mari,' PI. H. N. ii. 68. ' Exculta
hominum vita distat a cultu et victu bestiarum,' C. Off. ii. 4. ' Temeritas a
sapientia dissidet plurimum,' C. Off, ii. 2. 'Alienum est magno viro, quod
alteri praeceperit, id ipsum facere non posse,' C. ad. Br. i. 9.
C) {Origin!) * Nati sunt Carthagine, sed oriundi a Syracusis,' L. xxiv. 6. * Ex
me is natus est,' Ter. Haul. v. 4. * A parentibus, id quod necesse erat, parvus
sum creatus; a vobis natus sum consularis,' C. post Red. 3. *E principio
oriuntur omnia: ipsum autem nulla ex re alia nasci potest,' C. T. Z>. i. 23.
* Qualis ille tibi videtur Tantalo prognatus Pelope natus?' C. T. D.\\\. 12.
* Quidam parentibus nati sunt humilibus,' C. Lael. 19. * Mq equestri ortum
loco consulem videtis,' C. Rep. ii. 7.
D) {Thing Compared.) *Deus maior est ac potentior cunctis,' Sen. Ep. 58.
* Lux sonitu velocior est,' PI. H. N. ii. 54. 'Villus argentum est auro, virtu-
tibus aurum,' Hor, Epist. 'x. i. 52. 'Quid est melius aut quid praestantius
bonitateet beneficentia?' C. N, D. i. 43. 'Demosthene nec gravior exstitit
quisquam nec c a 11 i d i o r nee temperatio r,' C. Or. 7. 23. * Recte auguraris de me,
nihil a me abesse longius crudelitate,' C. Att. ix. 16. * Herodotum cur vera-
ciorem ducam Ennio?' C. Div. ii. 56. ' Neminem Lycurgo aut maiorem aut
utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit,' Val. Max. v. 13. ' Res aliquanto expecta-
tione omnium tranquillior fuit,' L. iv. 24. 'Voiuptas cum maior est atque
longior, omne animi lumen exstinguit,' C. Cat. M. 12. ' Felix ante alias virgo,'
Verg. Ae. iii. 321. ' Prae nobis beatus videris,' Sulp. ap. C. Fam. iv. 4. ' Minor
quam pro tumultu caedes,' Tac. H. v. 15. * Thais quam ego maiuscula est,' Ter.
Eun. iii. 3. 21.
E) {Ablative Ahs!) * Crastino die orientesole redite in pugnam,* L. iii. 2. * Solon
et Pisistratus Servio TuUio regnante viguerunt,' C. Br. 10. ' Caesare venture,
Phosphore, redde diem,' Mart. viii. 21. ' Caesar inita hieme in Illyricum profectus
est,* Caes. B. G. iii. 7. * Romani, Hannibale vivo, numquam se sine insidiis futuros
existimabant,' Nep. Hann. 12. * Caninio consule scito neminem prandisse ; nihil
tamen eo consule mali factum est,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Nil desperandum est Teucro
duce et auspice Teucro,' Hor. C. i. 7. 27. ' Plebs Romana, Sicinio quodam
auctore, in Sacrum montem secessit,' L. ii. 32. 'Romana respublica, Cannensi
calamitate accepta, maiores animos habuit, quam umquam rebus secundis,'C.
Off. iii. II. ' Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda,* Caes. B. G.
vi. 21. ' Alia causa est eius, qui calamitate premitur, et eius, qui res meliores quaeri^
nuUis suis rebus adversis,' C. Off. ii. t8. ' Proxime, recenti adventu nieoj
rem aliter institutam offendi ac mihi placuisset, si affuissem,' C. Fam. v. 17.
412
Latin Syntax.
amicus, com.es, consors, familiaris, hostis, inimicuSj par,
vicinus, &c., aequalis, communis, proprius, sacer, similis,
dissimilis, &c.
3) This Genitive may depend on Neuter Adjectives and Pro-
nouns used Substantively :
Amicorum omnia, C. ; alio rum non me digna, C. ; prae-
clarum hoc Thrasybuli quod, &c., N. Xerxi maxime
est illustre quod, &:c., the most famous fiat of Xerxes is
that, &c., N.
4) , The Noun is in some instances omitted :
^ Huius video Burriam,' I see this 7nan!s {slave) Burria, Ter.
An. ii. 2. 20. (See p. 275. 2).
Cicero has an ellipse of fundus, estate :
^Tu neque per Locustae neque per Varronis viam ducere
voluisti,' you would not carry a road through either
Locusta^s or Varro^s property, Qu. F. iii. i.
5) Another Ellipse of the governing Noun before the Gen. is,
when that Noun occurs in a previous part of the sentence,
whether in the same or in a different case :
* Meo iudicio. €tare malo, quam omnium reliquorum,' /
would rather abide by my own judgment than by that of all
beside, C. Att. xii. 21. ' Quis est qui possit conferre vitam
Trebonii cum Dolabellae ?' who, can compare the life of
Trebonius with that of Dolabella ? C. Phil. xi. 4.
This takes place when two kinds of the same thing are
spoken of, or where the Noun is first used specifically, thei^
generally : but if first used generally, then specifically,
the Noun is repeated, or an emphatic Pronoun put for it :
* Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate con-
tendere,' there is no speed to vie with that of the mind, C.
T. D. i. 19. ^ Cum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, tum ilia
ingeni atque eloquentiae multo molestissima,' while
all assujnption is odious, that (suggested) of genius and
elogf uence is by far the most displeasing, C. in Caec. 1 1.
0) The Pronouns mens, tuus, suus, noster, &c. must be
used Possessively instead of the Genitives, mei, &c. ; but
with them may stand Pronorninal or Participial Genitives
agreeing with the Gen. which the Possessives virtually
contain. Such are, ipsius, ipsorum, unius, solius. am-
borum, duorum, &c., besides Participles :
Respublic^ mea unius opera salva erat,' the coinmon-
wealth was saved by my single exertion, C. in Pis. 3.
'Aves fetus adultos suae ipsorum fiduciae permittunt,'
birds entrust their grown young ones to their own self-
reliance, On. u.^. ^ N ostros vidisti flentis ocellos,'
saw the eyes of me weeping, Ov. Her. v. 45.
jr) The Possessive Genitive, being of Attributive nature, may
be used in Copulative or Factitive construction :
^ Omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine/
all things that were the womafi's become the husband*^,
§ i66.
Genitive Case,
413
tinder the title of dowry ^ C. Top. 4. Hercules dicebatur
esse Myronis/ C. Verr. iv. 3. ' lam me Pompeii totum
esse you kiiow I am now Pompefs thorough partisan^
C. Fam, ii. 13. * Popillius clavis portarum suae potest-
atis {Qc\t^^ Popillius took possession of the keys of the
gates, L. xliii. 22.
8) Especially when the Subject of the Sentence is an Infin. and
the Gen. may be supposed to depend on a suppressed
notion, such as indicium, token, indoles, nature, munus,
o^^ohyxm^ function, duty,part^ &c., proprium, :
' Cuiusvis hominis est errare/ C. Phil. xii. 2. * Honoris
amplissimi esse puto miseros defendere,' I deem it a
function of highest office to defend the unfortunate, C. in
Caec. 21. * Adulescentis est maiores natu vereri,' C.
Off. i. 34. ^Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habi-
tum,' C. Fa7n, iv. 9.
9) All these words are found before the Gen. :
' Id viri est officium,' C. T. D. ii. 21. * Principum munus
est resistere levitati multitudinis,' C. p^ Mil. 8. ' Sapientis
est proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere/ C. T,
D. V. 28.
Pars itself is so used: as, ^Plura de extremis loqui pars
ignaviae est,' to dwell at length on the closing scene of life
is a coward^ s part, Tac. H. ii. 47.
10) For this Gen. are used Possessive Pronouns or other Adjec-
tives indicating personal character :
* Nostrum est ferre modice populi voluntates,' C p. Plane,
4. ^Et agere et pati fortia Romanum est,' L. ii. 12,
*Non est mentiri meum,' Ter. Haul. iii. 2. 38.
11) The Genitives moris, consuetudinis, arbdtrii, iuris,
tutelae, when Complements, may be explained by reference
to proprium :
* Negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio virorum
accumberent mulieres,' he said it was not a fashion of the
Greeks for women to sit at table in a party of men, C. Verr,
i. 26. * Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis,' Caes. B. G,
iv. 5. ^ Victos tutelae nostrae duximus,' L. X5ii. 41.
166
II. i) The Descriptive Genitive expresses the specific class to Geneti-
which its governing Noun belongs, being often nearly vus De-
equivalent to an Apposite, sometimes to an Epithet : onis.^^"
^ Nomen regis ; vox voluptatis ; virtus continentiae ; vitium
ignorantiae ; flos rosae ; arbor fici ; lauri nemus ; montes
auri ; poena legis ; oppidum Antiochiae ; promunturium
Miseni, &c. See Cic. Off. ii. 5. ' Ceteris causis enume-
ratis, eluvionis, pestilentiae,' &:c.
d) This Gen. may be equivalent to a Preposition with Case :
Pyrrhi bellum = bellum cum Pyrrho or contra Pyrrhum ;
odium inimicitiarum = odium ob inimicitias, &c.
b) A Possessive and a Descriptive Gen. may depend on one
and the same word :
Latin Syntax.
167.
^Exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum mag-na et perni-
ciosa sentina reipublicae/ that great and mischievous
sink of the commonwealth consisting of your companions
shall be drained from the city^ C. p. S. Rose. 5.
2) The Gen. with causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, more, modo
ritu, has been noticed. Observe that with instar.
Instar {linage) is a Substantive used to express likeness,
equivalence, &c., either as Apposite, Complement, or after
habere, obtinere, &c. :
'Instar montis equum,' Verg. Ae. ii. 15. ^ Ille dies mihi
immortalitatis instar fuit,' that day was to me as good
as immortality, C. in Pis, 22. * Unus is innumeri mi litis
instar habet,' he alone is worth cotmtless troops, Ov.
Her. xvi. 368. Ad instar is found in later Latin.
3) Here may be classed the Genitive of the F act after Verbs,
Participles and Adjectives expressing accusatio7i ; convic-
tion; condemnation ox acquittal; criminality ot innocence ;
since it may be regarded as dependent on a suppressed
Ablative such as crimine, nomine, causa, lege, iudi-
cio; which often appear.
d) Such Verbs are : —
Accuso, ago, arguo, coarguo, appello, anquiro, arceSso, capto,
cito, compello, defero, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, postulo,
reum ago, reum facio, &c.
AUigo, adstringo, convinco, obligOj obstringo, prehendo,
deprehendo, teneo, &c.
Damno, condemno, infamo, noto, &c.
Absolvo, libero, purgo ; also iudico, plecto, &c.
. . . (aliquem rei ; crimine rei ; nomine rei alicuius, &c.)
b) The Adjectives are : —
Affinis, reus, suspectus ; compertus, manifestus, noxius ; in-
nocens, innoxius, insons.
c) The principal Genitives, expressing legal offences, which
accompany such Verbs and Adjectives, are :
Ambitus (bribery), caedis, homicidi [murder), furti [theft),
latrocinii [robbery), iniuriarum [wrongs), maiestatis, prodi-
tionis [treason), parricidii [parricide), repetundarum [extor-
tion), sacrilegii [sacrilege), veneficii, veneni [poisoning)^
rei capital is, rerum capitalium, &:c.
The following forms have a Preposition : de vi [violence^
assault, Sec), inter sicarios [assassination).
d) Such cases may be used with the legal terms above : reum
esse, &c., furti, de vi, &c., furti nomine, crimine, &c.
e) Other phrases are : damnare capitis or capite, to co7tdemn
capitally, i.e. to death or disfranchisement : capitis minor,
a disfraiichised person.
Damnari voti, to be conde^nned to pay what was vowed, be-
cause the prayer has been granted.
§ i68.
Genitive Case,
415
Damnare quindecim millibus, to condeinn to a fine of 15,000
sesterces ; damnare octupli, to condemn to a fine of eight
times the mnount, &c. Also with Dat., or with ad : damnare
morti ; damnare ad bestias.
y) Anquirere capitis, capita, pecunia, &c., implies prose*
cution by the Tribunes, who specified the penalty before-
hand.
g) Arguo, insimulo may be used in common parlance:
^ Meque timoris argue tu, Drance,' and do you, DranceSy
undertake to convict me of cowardice, Verg. Ae, xi. 383.
h) Damni infecti promittere, repromittere, stipulari, satisdare,
&c., are legal phrases : ' to give security against damage J'
168
III. A. i) The Genitive of Quality is also Descriptive ; but Gene-
it takes the place, not of an Apposite, but of a strengthened q^" ^_
Attribute, tatis.
Vir excellentis ingeni=vir peringeniosus ; Lucius est excel-
lentis ingeni = Lucius est peringeniosus.
2) The Gen., then, like the Abl., of Quality, is a construction
by which one Substantive (in Latin always with Epithet)
is joined to another, for the purpose of describing it in
some particular :
Vir magni animi, corporis ingentis, spectatae virtutis, trium
litterarum (i.e. fur) ; adulescens bonae indolis, bonae spei,
summae audaciae ; auctor sublestae fidei, an author of
slight credit ; codex optimae notae, a manuscript of the
best authority,
3) This form of description may extend to Number, Measure,
Weight, Age, Time, Value, &:c. :
Classis septuaginta navium ; colossus triginta trium pedum ;
lapis decern librarum pondo ; puer quindecim annorum ;
tempus viginti sex horarum ; gemma maximi pretii.
4) In such examples the Noun which the Gen. qualifies is an
Appellative or Common Noun ; and silch it will be when
the Gen. of Quality is used as an Epithet merely ; but if a
Finite Copulative Verb is joined (vir est, fuit, habetur,
habitus est, &c., magni animi, &c.), the Subject of such
sentence may be a Proper Name :
Lucius est (fuit, &c.) bonae indolis : Claudius erat somni
brevissimi ; Sicilia est magnae fertilitatis, &c.
5) Rare instances occur, in which the Gen. of Quality accom-
panies a Proper Name enthetically :
*Tum T. Manlius Torquatus, priscae ac nimis durae
severi tatis, ita locutus fertur,' then Titus Manlius
Torquatus, a man of antique and over-rugged strictness, is
reported to have spoken thus, L. xxii. 60.
6) A Possessive Gen. and a Gen. of Quality or Description may
depend on one Noun :
^Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio,' Sabinus^s de^
lay of the preceding days, Caes. B, G. iii. 18. x
4i6
Latin Syntax.
§ 169-70.
7) Modi, compounded with Pronouns, is a Gen, of Quality:
Huiusmodi, eiusmodi, istiusmodi, cuiusmodi, cuicuimodi, &c.,
of this ^ that, which, whatever kind, &c.
(It is hardly possible to discriminate nicely the uses of the
Gen. and Abl. of Quality ; the usage of writers differing,
and some phrases being by custom assigned to the one,
some to the other. Upon the whole it seems true that the
Gen« oftener describes essential and permanent, the Abl.
accessory and occasional circumstances. But many ex-
ceptions occur.)
i) The Genitive of Value and Price requires notice,
because, though this is a particular instance of the Gen,
of Quality, pretii is usually suppressed.
2) Price may be described after words which mean or imply
buying, selling, hiring, letting, costing, &c., by the Geni-
tives tanti, quanti, and their compounds, and by the
Comparative Genitives pluri^, minoris (rarely maioris) ;
but other Positive and the Superlative Adjectives (mag no,
&c., plurimo, &c.) describe Price in the Abl. :
* Quanti emptum ? Parvo,' Hor. S, ii. 3. 156. Tanti est,
// is wdrth while » Non tanti est, // is not worth the trouble,
3) Valuation, after ducere, habere, facere, pendere, putare,
taxare, esse, &c., is described by the Gen. of all the Adjec-
tives above named : aestimare takes Gen. or Abl.
Parvi pendere aliquid ; magni (magno) aestimare. See
Madvig on C. Fin, iii. 3. 11.
4) Instead of nullius pretii, of no value ^ the Romans in com-
mon parlance (besides nihili) often, like ourselves, used
such phrases with a Negative as, as sis (unius assis), a
penny {a single penny) ; teruncii, a farthing ; nauci, pili,
flocci, answering to the English phrases, not a fig, not a
rush, &c. The phrase huius seems to imply a gesture,
like snapping the fingers. Non huius facio, / do not care
THAT for it,
5) To the Genitive of Value belong the phrases :
Lucri facere, to make prize of; aequi boni facere, to
take in good part boni Consulere, to 7nake the best of
A Verre omnem illam pecuniam lucri facta m videtis,'
yoic see that all that money has been e77ibezzled by Verres,
C. Verr, iii. 75. ^Animus meus totum istuc aequi boni
facit,' my te77tper takes all that in good part, C. Att. vii. 7.
^ Hoc munus rogo, qualecumque est, boni consulas,' /
beg you will 77iake the best of this present, whatever its
value, Sen. Be7i. i. 8.
C. 1) The Constructions of the Impersonal Verbs,
interest, it i77iportSy concerns, refert, it co7icer7is, are re-
markable.
Interest may take a Genitive of the Person or Thing con-
cerned : interest omnium, interest reipublicae, &c.
kefert does so less frequently; never in Cicero. ^Refert
ipsorum,' L. xxxiv. 27.
Genitive Case.
The ground of concernment is expressed, if at all, either by
an Infinitive, or by an Infinitive Clause or its equivalent,
or by an Oblique Interrogation :
^Interest omnium recte facere,' C. ii. 22. 'Sa-
lutis communis interest, duos consules in re-
publica esse,' C. p. Mur, 2. 'Plurimum refert com-
po siti onis, quae quibus anteponas,' it 7natters much
to periodic co?istructio7t^ what words you place before what^
Ou. ix. 4.
2) But if what is concerned is in the First or Second Person,
or to be expressed reflexively or relatively, then the Pos-
sessive forms mea, tua, nostra, vestra, sua, cuia, are
used with these Verbs instead of a Genitive :
' Et mea et tua maxime interest te valere,' C. Fam. xvi.
4. ' (2uid nostra id refert victum esse Antonium?^
what matters it to us that Anto7tius is conquered? C. ad
Br. i. 17.
3) These Verbs may be qualified by the Genitives of Value,
magni, parvi, pluris, tanti, quanti :
* Utriusque nostrum magni interest utte videam,' C. Att.
xi. 22. ^ Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cri-
brum geras,' this matters no 7nore than if y 021 car^ry water
to a sieve, Plant. Pseud, i. i. no.
Also by nihil, multum, tantum, quantum, quid, parum,
&c., and by Adverbs: valde, magnopere, maxime,
minime, vementer, &c. The Verbs may be used perso*
nally, as in the last example, with a Pronoun.
4) Interest and refert are constructed sometimes with ad,
sometimes with a Dative: * Magni ad honor em nos-
trum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire,' C.
Fam. xvi. i. * Die quid referat intra Naturae finis
viventi iugera centum an mille aret,' Hor. S. \, i. 49.
Refert is often without Case: as, ' Neque enim numero
comprendere refert,' nor indeed is it iinpo7'ta}it to coitJit
them, Verg. G. ii. 104.^
171
YV. A. i) The Plural Genitive of the Thing Distributed Genetl-
is a divisible Whole, and depends on Partitive Words Distri-^^
indicating that one or more Parts (or no Part) of such butae.
Whole are taken :
^Virtutum in alia alius mavult excellere,' 07te prefers to
excel i;i one virtue, another in a7iother, C. Off. i. 32.
*Neque stultorum quisquam beatus neque sapi-
entium non beatus,' C. Fi7i. i. 18. 'Nunc iuvenum
princeps deinde future senum,' Ov. ' Roma regionum
Italiae media est,' L. v. 54.
2) The Partitive Words are :
a) Substantives which express Partition : pars, portio, nu-
^ Interest is perhaps originally corrupted from in re est ; and refert (not from refero)
is from res and fert ; with this Ablative re the Pronouns mea, &c., agree. Some sup-
pose inter e st to be for inter rem est, refert tor rem fert, and mea, &c., to be
corruptions of me am, &c.
E E
8 Latin Syntax. § ,72.
merus, multitudo, nemo, nihil, &c., and the Adverb
partim.
j3) Pronominals : alius, alter, uter and its compounds,
ullus, nullus, plerique, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceteri, solus;
ui, quis, and their compounds: tot, quot, and thek
erivatives.
7) Numerals both Cardinal and Ordinal: also princeps,
medius.
I) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ; the former dis-
tributing two things: ' Maior Neronum or one class
into two parts: * Avium lo qua ci ores,' the noisier sort
of birds ^ PL N, H, Also Superlative Adverbs : ' Mi-
nime omnium.'
() Any Noun which can imply distribution : * Sancte de-
orum ;' Mecti iuvenum ;' ^piscium feminae.'
3) A Partitive Adjective, agreeing with that which is Part of a
Whole,, naturally follows the Gender of the Whole :
Beluarum nulla = beluarum nulla belua ;
yet it is sometimes attracted to the Gender of the Subject.
'Indus est omnium fluminum maximus,' C. N. D. Or
to that of the Person impHed, by Synesis : * Dulcissime
rerum,' tny dearest friend^ Hor. S. i. 9. 4.
4) Partitives sometimes take the Gen. of a Collective Noun :
'Plato totius Graeciae doctissimus fuit,^ C. Rab.
Post. 9. (Graeciae = Graecorum).
5) This Genitive is found in the place of a Complement :
' Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium,' Hor. C. iii. 13. 13.
Qbs, 'Neque ille Sepositi ciceris nec longae invidit
a venae,' Hor. S. ii. 6. 84, is a Graecism {j^ivtiv rov olrov).
6) English idiom uses the Preposition Rafter Numeral words,
when no part is taken, but the whole implied : as, ^ there
are two of ms :' but in Latin this would be, ^Nos duo
sumus.' ^o,' three hundred of them conspired'' is, ' llli
trecenti coniuraverunt ; ' ' kinsmen of who7n I have few^
'Cognati quos paucos habeo.'
7) Distribution is also expressed by Prepositions :
' Nihil ex his, quae videmus, manet,' Sen. 58. 'Thales
sapientissimus in septem fuit,' C. Z^^. ii. 12. 'Inter
Scythiae amnes amoenissimus Borysthenes,' Mela, 12.
' Ante omnis Turnus pulcherrimus,' Verg. Ae. vii. 55.
' Una de multi s/ Hor. C. iii. 11. 33.
B. i) The Genitive of the Thing Measured depends on
Quantitative Words, which imply that so nmch of a Whole
is taken, not so many.
2) Such Quantitative W^ords are :
a) Substantives implying measurement of Quantity :
172.
Genitive Case.
419
Amphora, cask-, medimnus (um), bushel^ modius, /^^rX'
(frumenti, of corn) ; libra, poiuid (casei, of cheese)^ &c. ;
acervuSj copia, numerus, pondus (auri), vis, &c.
/8) Quantitative Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns :
Multum, plus, plurimum, amplius, minus, minimum,
tantum, quantum, aliquantum, nimium, dimidium, nihil,
aliud, id, &c., quod, quid, &c.
y) Quantitative Adverbs ;
Abunde, affatim, nimis, parum, partim, satis.
I) The Adjectives and Adverbs are usually rendered in
English as in agreement with the thing measured :
'Tantum vini,' so mtich wine\ * minus splendoris,' less
brilliance ; * satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,' elo-
quence enough^ little wisdo^n^ Sail. ; * nimium pecuniae/
too much i7iomy 5 * nihil mali/ 710 evil,
3) The Genitive may depend on a Demonstrative Pronoun
understood from a following Relative.
^Medico mercedis quantum poscet promitti iubeto,'
7nust order that as high a fee as he shall ask be proi7tised
to the physician^ C. Fani. xvi. 14. ^ Vastatur agri quod
inter urbem ac Fidenas est/ all the land that is between the
city and Fideiiae is laid waste ^ L. i. 145 Mi Lticr^ iv. 372.
4) Classes /3 and y may also be constructed tvith the Genitive
of a Neuter Adjective of the Second Declensioh ; but an
Adjective of the Third is commonly (but hot always) put
in the same case with the word of Quantity :
* Prima est historiae lex tit ne qttid falsi dicere audeat, ne
quid yeri non audeat/ C. d. Or. \l 15. ^ Si quicquam
in vobis, fton dico civilis, sed humani esset/ L. v. 3.
'Nec viget quicquam simile aut secundum/ a7td
nothing exists like or in second rank^ Hor. C. i. 12. 18.
Note the Ciceronian phrase, 'Qtiod eius facere poteris/ as
far as you can (but quoad for quOd in some MSS.).
* Nihil reliqui facere,' to leave nothing undone; ^nihil pensi
habere,' to have no regard,
5) The Genitive Pronouns nostrtim, testrlim, are used with
Partitive words ; but, if an individual or human nature
itself is quantitatively divided, mei, tui, siii, nostri,
vestri may be used: ^ Multa pars mei/ Hor. C, iii. 30.
6. 'Plus nostri superest rogo/ Sen. Tr.
6) The Genitives loci, locorum, gentium, terrarum, are used
with Adverbs of Place, ubi, quo, unde, hue, eo, aliquo,
usquam, nusquam, &c. :
* Ubi terrarum sumus/ where on earth are we? Q.p. Rab.
Post, 13. 'An quisquam usquam gentium est aeque
miser 1 ' is there anywhere in the world one so miserable ?
Ter. Hec, iii. i. ' Res eodem est loci ubi reliquisti, the
affair is in the same position you left it i7i^ C. Alt, i. 13.
E E 2
420
Latin Sjmtax.
§ 173.
Genitives not local are found with them, but not in Cicero :
'Eo deliciarum pervenimus ut nisi gemmas calcare noli-
mus/ we have reached that pitch of luxury^ that we will
not tread except on jewels^ Sen. Ep, 88. Turn (tunc) tem-
poris occurs in Justin : interea loci {meanwhile^ in the
Comic poets ; minime gentium {least in the worldy by no
means) f postea loci, in Livy ; inde loci, M. Lucr. v. 791.
^Pridie eius diei' (the day before), ^postridie eius diei' {the
day after), &c. Pridie, postridie also take Accus.
7) The Verb satago {I am busy) (sat and ago) takes a Gen. :
* Clinia rerum sua rum satagit,' Clinia has enough of his
own business. Ten Haul. iii. i. 13. * Nunc agitas sat
tute tuarum rerum,' j/^/^ have now affairs enough of your
own in hand, Plaut. Bac. iv. 3. 23.
8) Neuter Adjectives of either Number, put abstractly for Sub-
stantives, sometimes govern a Genitive :
* Adulescens in lubrico aetatis est,' a young man is at a
slippery time of life, Plin. Epist. iii. 6. So medium die i,
serum diei. (On id temporis, id locorum, hoc aetatis,
&c., see Accusative.)
Constructions like ^ Incerta casuum,' ' occulta saltuum,^
^ opaca locorum,' ^ angusta viarum,' * amara curarum,' are
not usual in Cicero ; but they occur in Livy, abound in
Tacitus, and in poetry they are frequent. See p. 278.
C. i) The Genitive of Abundance and Want is Parti-
tive. See Ablative, p. 397.
2) Verbs: egeo, indigeo prefer the Genitive in prose: com-
pleo, expleo, impleo, take it occasionally : abundo, parti-
cipo, saturo, scateo : abstineo, careo, desino, desisto, levo,
libero, solvo, dissolvo, and others, chiefly in poetry.
Mndigere medicinae;' ^impleri veteris Bacchi :' *abstinere
irarum ; ' ' desine querellarum,' &c.
Potior has a Genitive both in prose and poetry: apis cor,
adipiscor, in Tacitus ; regno once in Horace.
3) Adjectives: fertilis, ferax, largus, plenus, refertus : — in-
anis, indigus, inops, ieiunus : often have Gen. in prose and \
poetry; compos, particeps, exheres, expers, exsors,
almost always : potens, impos, impotens, no other Case :
benignus, dives, fecundus, locuples, prosper: pauper,
solutus, truncus, exsul, vacuus, &c., dignus, indignus,
are found in poetry with Genitive.
* Vita plena metus et insidiarum ; ' ^ terra frugum fertilis ; ' ^
^ compos mentis ;' ^voti compos;' * Musa potens lyrae ; ' I
* rationis expers ; ' ' dives opum ;' ^ exsul patriae ; ' * pauper I
aquae Daunus,' &c. V
Z>. Of a Partitive nature also are the Genitive of Respect I
and that of the Part affected, which, in imitation of I
(jreek construction, is very freely used by poets and also I
by prose writers of the silver age. Such phrases are : I
173
Geneti-
vus
Copiae
€t Ino-
piae.
§ 174.
Genitive Case.
421
^Consili certus;' 'militiae impiger, strenuus Wetus
sermonis;' all in Tac. : — ^integer vitae/ Hon; * integer
aevi/ Verg. ; ^ seri studiorum/ Hor. «&c. Especially animi :
* Excruciari animi;' ' angi animi;' * pendere animi/ C. :
^ animi falli/ Lucr., Plaut. (desipere mentis, Plant.) : 'Animi
anxius, aeger, audax, caecus, ferox, ingens, immodicus,
infelix, laetus, promptus, turbidus, validus/ &c.
This Genitive principally depends on Words which contain the Genu
Transitive force of Verbs from which they are derived. Such are : — ^i^e.
1) Substantives: amor patriae; cultus agrorum ; scientia
iuris ; ignorantia recti ; cura peculi ; studium lucri ;
victor hostium.
Note I. The Genitives nostrum, vestrum (in old Latin nos-
trorum, vestrorum) are used in Partitive Construction:
mei, tui, &c., nostri, vestri, Quantitatively or Objectively.
But the phrases ' omnium nostrum,' ' omnium vestrum'
are also used as Possessive Genitives: sometimes nos-
trum, vestrum alone. And mei, tui are sometimes
found where the Possessive might have been expected :
'Fruitur fama sui,' Tac. Ann. ii. 13. Also the Possessives
mens, tuus are sometimes used Objectively. See p. 410.
Note 2. An Objective Genitive (with Substantives derived from
Transitive Verbs) must often be rendered in English by
some other Preposition than of\ 'Coelibis obsequ-
i u m,' attentio7i to an unmarried 7nan^ Hor. 'Praestantia
an i ma rum reliquarum,' superiority over otJier souls ^ Cic.
'Remedium irae,' re^nedy against anger, Cic. * Miseri-
cordia pauperum,' for the poor, ' Quies laborum/ rest
from toils.
2) Adjectives :
a) Verbal Adjectives in ax: capax, edax, ferax, fugax,
pertinax, rapax, sagax, tenax, vorax, &c.
/3) Present Participles used Adjectively: abundans,
amans, appetens, contemnens, colens, cupiens, despi-
ciens, diligens, efficiens, egens, experiens, fugiens, in-
tellegens, metuens, neglegens, observans, patiens, im-
patiens, proferens, sciens, sitiens, timens, tolerant, bene-
gerens, servantissimus, &c.
7) Adjectives of knowledge and ignorance-, assuetus, cal-
lidus, certus, certior, conscius, consultus, docilis, doctus,
expertus, gnarus, memor, peritus, praescius, praesagus,
providus, prudens, scitus, sollers ; alienus, ambiguus,
dubius, inscius, incertus, inexpertus, ignarus, immemor,
imperitus, improvidus, imprudens, indoctus, insolens,
insuetus, nescius, oblitus, rudis.
Here remark the phrase, 'Certiorem i2iC^Ye^ {to inform):
'Pompeius me certior em sui consili fecit,' Pompeius
informed me of his plan, Cic. A it. ix. 2.
IV.
B) Objective Genitive.
174
Objec-
422
Latin Syntax,
% 175.
t^) Care and carelessness : aemulus, anxiiis, curiosus, certus,
formidulosus, parcus, pavidus, sollicitus, timidus, tre-
pidus, impavidus, incuriosus, incautus, intrepidus, inter-
ritus ; profusus, prodigus, securus, socors.
i) Desire and dislike : avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus
fasticjiosus,
t) Ad^i superstes, supplex.
Obs. I. Most of these are rendered with the sign of \ except as-
suetus {accustomed to) ; insuetus, insolens {iinacciistonied to) ; cal-
Hdus, consultus, doctus, peritus, &c. {skilled m) ; indoctus, imperitus,
&c. {unskilled in) ; scitus, prudens, expertus^ &c. {acquainted with) ;
imprudens, rudis^ &c, {iinacquairited with), and others.
Obs. 2. Many such Adjectives also take Prepositions : ^ Calhdus
ad fraudem/ C. * Prudens in iure/ C. * Securus de bello Romano/
L. ^ Certiorern fieri de aliqua/ Some take other Cases : ' Peritus
bello/ Veil. ' Dulcis docta modos/ Hor.
Obs. 3. A list of other Adjectives found with a Genitive is given
in Stallbaum's Ruddiinari^ Pars II. p. 73. None are from Cicero
but Mnvidus laudis a few from Livy ; many from Tacitus.
Virgil has 'fessus rerum ^fidissima tui regina;' ^ vanus veri/ &c.
Lucr. has 'aversa viai/ i. 1081, see M. ; Horace: 'lassus maris ;
divina avis imbrium ; exsul patriae/ &:c. ; but most examples are
from later poets, Statins, Silius, Claudian, &c. The student must
distinguish prosaic from poetic usage, which admits Gen. freely.
3) A Genitive of the Matter, sometimes an Accusative,
depends on Verbs of renieinbering^ forgettiiig^ reminding-, memini
(Gen. or Accus.), reminiscor (Gen. or Accus.), recordor (Accus.,
rarely Gen.), obliviscor (Gen. or Accus.); moneo, admoneo, com-
moneo, commonefacio (Accus. of person, Gen. of thing); men-
tionem facio (Gen.). (See memor, immemor, &c. above.)
'Vivorum memini, nec tamen Epicuri hcet oblivisci/ /
remeinber the living^ nor yet may I forget Epicurus, C. Fi7i. v. i.
^ Res adversae admonent nos religionum,' adversity reminds
tis of religious duties, L. v. 51. -Dulcis moriens reminiscitur
Argos,' Verg. Ae. x. 782.
a) Verbs of Remembering sometirnes take de: 'De Clodio
ne meminisse quidem volo/ C. Fam. v. 3.
b) The phrase 'venit in mentem' is used impersonally,
either with Genitive, or with Preposition: 'Venit mihi
in mentem temporis illius, quo fuimus una/ C. Fani.
vii. 3. 'Astute venit ei in mentem de speculo/ he
craftily re?nembered the ntirror, Plant. Alost. i. 3. Or per-
sonally : ^ Non venit in mentem pugna apud Regillum
lacum V do you not remember the battle at lake Regillus f
L. viii. 5.
4) A Genitive depends on the Verbs misereor 2. miseresco 3.
{feel pity) ; but an Accusative in the best authors on miseror i.
commiscror i. {express pity, bcv^ail),
§ 176
Genitive Case,
^Nil nostri miserere/ Verg. ii. 7. ^Arcadii miserescite regis/
Verg. Ac, viii. 573. ^Sortem miseratus iniquam/ Verg. Ae,
vi. 332.
5) The Impersonal Verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur),
piget, pudet (veretur), paenitet, taedet, take an Accusative
of the Nearer, with a Genitive of the Remoter, Object :
^ Me tuarum miseritum est fortunaru m/ / pitied your for-
ttmes^ Ter. Haut. iii. i. 'Me civitatis morum piget taedetque/
/ ajji weary and sick of the inanners of the state, Sail. lug. 4.
* Pudet me stultitiae/ / ashamed of my folly, C. *Me tui, mi
pater, pudet/ I am ashamed to face you, father, Ter. Ad. iv. 5. 49.
See C. Att. vii. 4 (veritus); Fin. ii. 13.
6) The Genitive of Cause in poetry is a Greek idiom :
Mustitiaene prius mirer belHne laborum?' Verg. xi. 126.
^ Notus in fratres animi paterni/ Hon C. ii. 2. 6. ' Felix, Bolane,
cerebri/ Hor. S. i. 9. 11. ' Laudabat leti iuvenem/ Sil. iv. 160.
^ O mihi nuntii beati/ Catull. ix. 5. 'Foederis heu taciti/ Prop,
iv. 7. 13-
Examples of the Genitive Case.
A ) {Subjective. ) I. {Possessive. ) 'Amore patriae nostrorum maiorum inventa
nosse debemus, C. d. Or. i. 58. * Sullae et Caesaris pecuniarum translatio a
iustis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri,' C. Off. i. 14. * Nihil est quod
multorum naufragia fortunae colligas/ C. Verr. v. 40. * Consul es designatus,
optima aetate, summa eloquentia, maxima orbitate reipublicae virorum talium,'
C. Fatn. X. 3. * Egerius fratris filius erat regis,' L. i. 38, *Polycleti signa
plane perfecta sunt,' C. Br. t8. ' Singulorum facultates et copiae divitiae
sunt civitatis,' C. Off. iii. 15. * Pacis est comes otique socia, et iam bene con-
stitutae civitatis quasi alumna quaedam, eloquentia,' C. Br. 12. ' Omnium est
communis inimicus, qui fuit host is suorum,' C. Verr. i. 15. ' In primis hominis
est propria veri inquisitio,' C. Off. i. 4_ ' Ilia insula eorum deorum sacra
putatur,' C. Verr. ii. 18. * Phoebi Triviaeque sacerdos Deiphobe Glauci,' Verg.
Ae. vi. 35. *Dinomaches ego sum,' Pers. iv. 30. 'Paterae aureae ad Cereris
positae,' L. x. 23. * Quae in nostris rebus non satis honeste, in amicorum fiunt
honestissime,' C. Lael. 16. ' Petulantia magis est adulescentium, quam senum ;
nec tamen omnium adulescentium, sed non proborum,' C. Cat. M. 11. * Id
maxime quemque decet, quod est cuiusque maxime suum,' C. Off. i. 31. * Nolae
senatus Romanorum, plebs Hannibal is erat,' L. xxiii. 39. * Solon capite sanxit,
si qui in seditione non alterius utrius partis fuisset,' C. Att. x. i. 'Hannibal
quod inter Alpis Apenninumque agri est suae dicionis fecit,' L. xxi. 53. *Tardi
ingeni est rivulos consectari, fontis rerum non videre,' C. d. Or. ii. 27. * Qualis
oratorisetquanti hominis in dicendo putas esse historiam scribere?' C. d. Or.
ii. 12. * Est proprium munus magistratus, intellegere, se gerere personam
civitatis,' C. Off. i. 34. * Quae est animo natura? propria, puto, et sua,' C. T. D.
i. 29. ' Nulla mora est operae; vestrum dare, vincere nostrum est,' Ov. F. iv.
889. 'Tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus,' C. Phil. ii. 43. *Noster duorum
eventus ostendet utra gens bellosit melior, L. i. 7. * Solius meum peccatum corrigi non
potest,' C. -(4 xi. 15. 'Die mihi, Damoeta, cuium pecus, an Meliboei?' Verg. B.
iii. I.
II. {Descriptive.") i) * Stella Veneris Lucifer dicitur, cum antegreditur solem,
cum subsequitur autem, Hesperus,' C. A^. D. ii. 20. * Non faciendo id, quod non
decet, impudentiae nomen effugere debemus,' C. d. Or. i. 26. ' Duae sunt huius
obscuritatis causae, una pud oris, altera sceleris,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 24. ' Ea bona
sunt generis, pecuniae, propinquorum, amicorum, opum, valetudinis,
formae, ingeni,' C. d. Or. ii. 11.
2) ' Persuadent mathematici, terram ad universi caeli complexum quasi punctiinstar
obtinere,' C. T. D. i. 17. ' Quidam Romani habebant domos instar urbium,' Sen.
Ep. 90.
Latin Syntax.
Section III.
VERB-CONSTRUCTION.
(On Moods and Tenses see §§ 91-99. On Verb Infinite, § 40.)
infinf- i. I) The Infinitive.
tive.
The Infinitive is at once a Verb and a Neuter Substantive.
As a Verb, it governs Cases. As a Substantive it has Cases ; on
which see § 181 : and on its Tense-forms, § 40.
3) *Labeo arguebatur male administra tae provinciae aliorumque cri-
minum,' Tac. Anii. vi. 27. *Cum capitis a nquisi vissent, duo railia aeris
damnato multam edixerunt,' L. ii. 52. * Caesar Dolabellam repetundarum postu-
lavit,' Suet. Caes. 4. 'Defertur impietatis in Principem,' Tac. Ann. vi. 19.
* Legibus ambitus interrogati dederunt poenas,' Sail. Cat. 18. * Alcibiades, post-
quam se capitis damnatum audivit, Lacedaemonem demigravit,' N. Ale. 4.
* Miltiades, capitis absolutus, pecunia multatus est,* N. Milt. 7. * Recte con-
demnamus haruspices aut stultitiae aut vanitatis,' C. Div. i. 36. ' Coelius
iudex absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium poetam nominatim laeserat,* Auct. ad
Her. ii. 19. * Nomine sceleris coniurationisque damnati sunt multi,' C. Verr. v.
II. * Miltiades crimine Pario est accusatus/ ^g^. Milt. ' Silanus saevitiac
captarumque pecuniarum tenebatur reus,' Tac. Ann. iii. 27. * De mani-
festis rerum capitalium more maiorum supplicium sumendum est,' Sail. Cat. 52.
Q. Sergius senator inter sicarios damnatus est,' C. /. Clu. 7. ' Furius damnatus
voti quum victor Romam revertisset, dictacura se abdicavit,' L. vii. 28.
III. {Quality.) a. * Tune trium litterarum homo me vituperas?' Plant. Aiil.
ii. 4. 46. * Sp. Servilius, fervidi animi vir, periculum audacia discussit,' L. ii. 52.
* Themistocles persuasit populo ut classis centum navium aedificaretur,' N. Th. 2.
* Latini cor on am auream in Capitolium tulere parvi ponderis,' L. iii. 57. * Spes
unica imperi populi Romani L. Quinctius trans Tiberim quattuor iugerum colebat
agrum,' L. iii. 26. * Caesar a fronte castrorum pedum quindecim fossam fieri
iussit,' Caes. B. C. i. 41. * Hamilcar in Hispaniam secum duxit filium Hannibalem
annorum novem,'N. Ham. 3. ' C. lulius Caesar annum ad solis cursum accommo-
davit ut trecentorum sexaginta quinque dierum esset,' Suet. Caes. 40. * Ser-
vius Tullius iuvenis evasit vere indolis regiae,' L. i. 39. *Magni iudicii,
summae etiam facultatis esse debet orator,' C. Or. 21. * Nos in castra propera-
bamus, quae aberant bidui,' C. Ait. v. 16. 'Agesilaus octoginta annorum in
Aegyptum profectus est,' N. Ag. 8. * Admittenda est hominum cuiusquemodi
multitudo,' C. Oj^. i. 39. * Eorum dierum consuetudo itineris nostri exer-
citus perspecta est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 17.
b. * Ego a meis magni pendi postulo,' Ter. Ad. v. 4. 'Est hominis sapientis
maximi aestimare conscientiam mentis suae,' C. Clu. 58. ' Patrem tuum plurimi
feci, meque ille mirifice coluit,' C. Att. xvi. 19. * Vendo meum frumentum non
pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris, cum maior est copia,' C. O^. iii. 12.
' Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit quam ira,' Sen. Ir. i, 2. * Mercatores non
tantidem vendunt quanti emerunt,' C. Verr. iii. 83. * Noli spectare quanti
homo sit ; parvi enim pret ii est qui iam nihili sit,' C. Qu. Fr. i. 2. ' Non quantum
quisque prosit, sed quanti quisque sit, pondera,' C. Br. 73. 'Quanti quisque
amicos facit, tanti fit ab amicis,' C. Lael. 16. 'Qui homo timidus erit in rebus
dubiis, nauci non erit,' Plant. Most. v. i. i. * Sapiens dolorem nihili facit,' C.
Fiyt. ii. 13. 'Ego, quae tu loquere, flocci non facio,* Plant. Rtid. iii. 5. ' Neque
fas neque fidem pensi habet,' Tac. An7t. xiii. 15. ' Te huius non faciam,'Ter.
Ad. ii. I. 'Video quanta tempestas invidiae mihi immineat ; sed est mihi tanti,' C.
Cat. i. 9. * Si vos non movet periculum ne serpat latius contagio eius mali, nos
The Infinitive,
425
Livy (not C. or Caes.) uses a Past for a Present Infin. with such
predications as satis est, mehus est, satis habeo, contentus sum :
also with possum, volo and some Impers. Verbs. ^ Qui esse
melius erit,' L. i. Poets take this license freely : * Magnum si
pectore possit excussisse deum/ Verg. Ae, vi. 78. * Etfugisse
volunt longe longeque remosse,' Lucr. iii. 69. See M.
aequi bonique facimus/ L. xxxiv. 22. * Haec, quaeso, consule missa boni/Ov.
Ep. ex Po7it. iii. 8.
c. * Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn s u a quam reipublicae interesse, uti salvus
esset/ Suet. Caes. 86. ' Epistulis certiores facimus absentis, si quid est quod eos
scire aut nostra aut ipsorum intersit,'C. Fam. ii.4. *Quid refert mea, cui
serviam?' Phaedr. i. 35. * Civitatum hoc mul tar um in terfu it, antiquum vocum
servare modum,' C. Zr^*^. ii. 15. 'Semper Milo, quantum interesset Clodii, se
perire, cogitabat,' C. p. Mil. 21. 'Quid, Chreme, tua, malum, id refert ?—Magni,
Demipho,' Ter. Ph. iv. 4. 'Quid id nostra? — Nihil (i.e. refert),* Ter. Ph. v. 7.
IV. {Partitive.^ a. ( Thing Distributed.) ' Nihil tam absurde dici potest quod non dicatur
ab aliquo philosophorum,* C. Div. ii. 58. ' Incertum est, quam longa nostrum
cuiusque vita futura sit,* C. Verr.\.^^. 'Equitum centum quinquaginta in-
terfecti,' Curt. iii. 11. * Erant Phocionis tempore duae factiones, quarum una populi
causam agebat, altera optimatum,' N. Phoc. 3. * Tarquinius Superbus Septi-
mus atque ultimus regum Romanorum fuit,* Eutr. i. 8. * Rationem defectus
solis apud Graecos investigavit primus omnium Thales Milesius,' PI. N. H. ii. 12.
'Alexander seniores militum in patriam remisit, Curt. x. 2. 'Quadrupedum
talpis visus non est,* PI. N. H. xi. 37. 'Canum degeneres caudam sub alvum
reflectunt,' do. xi. 50. 'Lanarum nigrae nullum colorem bibunt,' do. viii.
48. ' Mardonius erat in primis omnium Persarum manu fortis, N. Ar. i.
* Sulpicius Gallus maxime omnium nobilium Graecis litteris studuit,' C. Br. 20.
' Trevirorum civitas longe plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet,' Caes. B. G. v. 3.
'Aliqui e nostris aliter existimant, quos quidem video esse mul tos sed imperitos,'
C. Fin. \. 17. ' Quaeritur, quot sint species rerum publicarum, quas tris accepimus,
quae populi, quae paucorum, quae uniuspotestate regerentur,' Qu. v. 10. * De vera etper-
fecta amicitia loquor, qualis eorum, qui pauci nominantur, fuit,' C. Lael. 6. * Numerate
quot ipsi sittis,' L. vi. 18. 'Trecenti coniuravimusprincipes iuventutis Romanae,*
L ii. 12. 'Ex qu inquaginta milibus Graecorum supersumus pauci,' Curt. v.
/3. {Thing Measured.) 'Voluisti magnum agri modum censeri,' C. p. Fl. yz.
'In iugere Leontini agri medimnum fere tritici seritur,' C. Verr. iii. 47. * Maxi-
mus vini numerus fuit, permagnum optimi pondus argent i,' C. Phil. ii. 27.
'Tantum quisque se in republica posse postulat, quantum habet virium,' C. ad Btut.
i. 10. ' Rogo, ut de his rebus, quas tecum colloqui volo, annum mihi temporis des,*
N. Them. 9. * Romani castrorum oppugnatione, quia serum erat diei, abstinuere,'
L. vii, 8. 'Ate nihildum certi exquiro, sed quid videatur,' C. Att. vii. 12. * Prae-
missus Caecina, ut occulta saltuum scrutaretur pontisque et aggeres humido
paludum et fallacibus campis imponeret,' Tac. Afin. i. 61. 'Quid mulieris uxorem
habes?' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. * Velim, ut, quod eius fieri possit, praesentiae tuae desi-
derium meo labore minuatur,' C. Fain. v. 8. 'Ut adulescentem, in quo senile aliqui d,
sic senem, in quo est adulescentis aliquid, probamus,' C. Cat. M. 11. 'Ambula-
tionem postmeridianam confecimus in Academia, maxime quod is locus ab omni turba id
temporis vacuus esset,' C. Fin. v. i. 'Dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,' Hor.
Epod. 17. 19. 'Armorum affatim erat Carthagine captorum,' L. xxvii. 17. 'Pa-
rentes abunde habemus, amicorum numquam sat is,' Sail. hig. 102. ' Multis in
locis parum firmamenti et parum virium Veritas habet,* C. Cbi. 2. ' Ubi
terrarum esses ne suspicabar quidem,' C. Att. v. 10. 'Qui virtutem adeptus erit,
ubicumque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur,' C. A^. Z>. i. 44. * Rhodum aut aliquo
terrarum migrandum est,' C. i^^w. xi. 1. ' Mulier quaedam commigravit hue vici-
niae, Ter. An. \. i. ' Populus Romanus eo magnitudinis crevit, ut viribus suis
conficeretur,' Flor. iii. 12. 'Postridie eius diei Ariovistus praeter castra Caesaris
suas copias transduxit et milibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fecit,' Caes.
B. G. i. 48.
y. {Plenty and IVant, ' Celeriter adulescentem suae temeritatis implet,' L. i.
4. ' Me omnium laborum levas,' Plaut. Rttd. i. 4. ' Helvetii totius Galliae se potiri
426
Latin Syjitax,
§ 178.
ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject:
Mnviderenon cadit in sapientem/ C. T, D. iii. 10. Mnge-
nuas didicisse fideliter artes em oil it mores/ Ov. Ep. ex P,
ii. 9.
Especially
1) Of an Impersonal Verb :
' Libet semper disc ere/ C. d. Or, iii. 23
2) Of a Copulative Verb with Adj. or Adv. Complement :
^Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori/ Hor, C iii. 2. 13.
3) Of a Copul. Verb, when the Complement is a Subst. (either
Nom., or Possessive Gen., or Dat. of Purpose) :
^Tempus est maiora conari/ L. vi. 18. * Tempori cedere
semper sapientis est habitum/ C. Div. ii. 60. * Laudi
erit certasse.'
Obs. I. If the Infin. is Copulative, and the principal Verb has an
Accus. Object, the Complement will be Accus. :
^Dedecet hominem esse mendacem.'
If the Object is Dative, the Compl. may be Dat. or Accus. :
^ Licuit esse otioso Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae/ C. Jl
i. 15. 'Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum/ C. ^^/^. 12.
Obs. 2. An Infin. is rarely found as Complement :
'Docto hx)mini et erudito vivere est cogitare,' C. Fa7n. vi. i.
posse sperabant,' Caes. B. G. i. 3. * Regio aeris ac plumbi uberrima,' lust. xliv.
3. 'Plena errorum sunt omnia,' C. T. D. i. 5. 'Gallia adeo frugum homi-
numque fertilis fuit, ut abundans multitude vix regi posse videretur,' L. v. 34.
* Roma externae opis indiga fuit,* Tac. H. ii. 48. 'Vis consili expers mole
niit sua,' Hor. C. iii. 4. 65. *Certe omne» virtu tis compotes beati sunt,' C. T. D. v.
13. 'Postquam Pompeius et consules ex Italia exierunt, non sum, mihi crede, mentis
compos,' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Eripite isti gladium, qui sui est impos animi,' Plaut.
Cas. iii. 5. ' Ira, ut insania, impotens sui est,' Sen, Ir. i. i. 'Descendam magnorum
hand umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. Ae. xii. 649. 'Pacis eras mediusque
belli,* Hor. C. ii. 19. 28. 'Aevi maturus Acestes,* Verg. y^^'w, v. 73. 'Damnatus
longi Sisyphus Aeolides laboris,' Hor. C. ii. 14. 19. 'Fortunate animi,' St. Th. i.
638. 'Antiphome excruciat animi,* Ter. Ph. ii. 2. 10.
B) {Objective.^ * Iram bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae,' C. T. D. iv. 23. Me
tuae dignitatis non modo fautorem, sed etiam amplificatorem cognosces/ C.
Fain. X. 12. 'Epaminondas philosophiae praeceptorem habuit Lysim Tarenti-
num, Pythagoreum,' N. Ep. 2. ' Adhibenda est quaedam reverentia adversus
homines, et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum,' C. Off. i. 28. 'Patria est com-
munis omnium nostrum parens,' C. in Cat. i. 7. *Ais, Habe mei rationem : habe
tu nostrum (i.e. Romanorum : nostri would =■ mei), ' C. Att. vii. 9. ' Habetis dueem
memorem vestri, obi itum sui,' C. hi Cat. iv. 9. 'Nostri nosmet paenitet,*
Ter. Ph. i. 3. * Nihil malo quam et me mei similem esse, et illos sui,' C. Att. ix. 16.
* Magna mei sub terras ibit imago,' Verg. Ae. iv. 65 a. ' Divi quorum estpotestas
nostrorum hostiumque,' L. viii. 9. ' Cogor vest ram omnium vicem unus con-
sulere,* L. xxv. 38. ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit Juo,' Ter. Ph.
V. 8. 'Galba omnium consensu visus est capax imperi, nisi imperasset,' Tac. H. i.
49. ' Natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus,' Qu. i. i.
*Tu me sitientem virtutis tuae deseruisti,' C. p. Plane. 'Epaminondas adeo
fuit veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur,' Nep. Ep. 3. * Cum com-
mode navigare poteris, ad nos amantissimos tui veni,' C. Earn. xvi. 7. ' Romani
semper appetences gloriae praeler ceteras gentis atque avidi laud is fuerunt,
C. /. L. Man. 3. ' Catilinae corpus erat patiens ine diae, vigiliae, algoris,' Sail.
Cat. g. ' Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Atheniensis,' N. Them. 2.
§ I79-80.
The Infinitive,
iii. Infinitive as Object. »79
^Adimam cantare severiV Hor. Epist. i. 19. 9. 'Mori nemo
sapiens miserum dux it/ C. Fam. vi. 3.
Infin. with Attribute :
'Hoc ridere meum, tarn nil, nulla tibi vendo Iliade/ Pers. i. 122,
With Preposition :
'Multum interest inter dare etaccipere/ Sen. Ben. v. 2.
On the Historic Infinitive see p. 332 ; Infin. Clause, § 194.
iv. Prolative Infinitive. (See § 102, § 103.) 180
(i) The 'Extensible' Verbs which take this Infinitive imply:
ability^ learjiing^ knowledge; duty; desire j dislike ; daring, dready
hesitation; custoin; endeavour, purpose, resolve ; omission, neghct;
beginning, eontiiiuing^ ceasing ; hastening, delaying ; deserving.
Also Passive Verbs of seentiiig^ being deemed, said, found, &c. :
with doceor, moneor, cogor, iubeor, vetor, prohibeor, impedior :
Possum (queo, debeo, volo, nolo, audeo, soleo, meditor, certo,
coepi, desino, cogito, propero, moror, animum induco, videor,
putor, dicor, reperior, doceoi', iubeor, &c.) currere, legere, &:c.
If the Infinitive depending on any such Verb is Copulative, the
Complement will agree with the Subject :
Possum (debeo, volo, &:c, ; videor, putor, &c. ; cogor, iubeor,
vetor, &c.) esse tranquillus, esse doctus, esse philosophies, &c.
Obs, I. Verbs of Desire, and oportet, take a Perf. Participle as
Passive Infin. : 'Patriae consultum volo,' / wish my coicntrfs
good to be regarded. ' Mansum oportuit,' we oitght to have re-
mai7ied. See § 203.
*In omnibus rebus est aliquid optimum, etiamsi latet, idque ab eo potest, qui eius rei
gnarus est, iudicari,' C. i/. Or. ii. 2. *Oratornephysicorum quidem sit ignarus,'
C. Or. 34. 'Evander vir erat venerabilis miraculo litterarum, rei novae inter rud is
artium homines,' L. i. 7. 'Pecoris cupidissimi sunt barbari,' Caes. B. G. vi. 34.
* Urbanae militiae Proculus impiger fuit, belloi um insolens,* Tac. H. i. 87.
* Galli homines insueti laboris,* Caes. B. G. vii. 30. * Uti lam te, frater, non solum
vitae sed etiam dignitatis meae sup erst item reliquissem,' C. Qu. F. i. 3. *Mihi
quidem stultius nihil videtur, quam existimare eumstudiosum tui, quem non noris,*
C. d. Pr. C. 7. * Caveant intemperantiam, meminerint ver ecundiae,* C. O^. i. 34.
* Plancii meriti in me recordor,' C. /. Plane. 28. * Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia
cernere, suorum obli visci,' C. 7". Z>. iii. 30. * Neque omnino huius re i meminit
usquampoeta,'Qu. xi. 2. * Admon itus sum huius aeris alieni,'C To^. i.5. 'Gram-
maticos officii sui commonemus,' Qu. i.5. *VenitmihiPlatonisin mentem,'C»
Ftn.\.\. ' Bene fici a debet meminisse is, in quem collata sunt, non commemorare»
qui contulit,' C. LaeL 20. * Est operae pretium diligentiam maiorum recordari,'C.
d. L. Agr. ii, 27. *Obliviscoriniurias, depono memoriam doloris mei,' C. /. Coel. 20.
'Ea potius reminiscere, quae digna tua persona sunt,' C. Fa77t. iv. 5. 'Viveme-
mor let i,' Pers. V. 153. *Omnes immemorem benefi cii od e run t,' C. ii. i8,
' Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere,' C. Att.'w. 5. *Tui me miseret,
mei piget,' C. Z>/V. i. 31. * Numquam in re bona m a 1 i pudebit auctoris,' Sen.
Trajiq. 11. ' Numquam primi consili Deum paen itet,' Sen. Ben. 23. * Me non
solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pu de t,' C. A -^^w. 29. ' Prorsus vitae
taedet; ita sunt omnia miseriarum plenissima,' C. Att. ii. 24. * Postquam Alexander
Clitum trucidaverat, pigere eum facti coepit,' lust. xii. 6. 'Decemvirorum Ro-
manos pertaesum est,' L. iii. 67.
4-28
Latm Sy7itax,
§ i8i.
Obs, 2. Habeo, do, idiomatically take Infin. : 'Tantum habeo
polliceri/ Q. Fam.x, 'Dare bibere,' L. Similarly, * Dederat
comam diffundere ventis, V. (for ad diffundendum).
Obs, 3. Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, potest, solet, are
impersonal with impers. Infinitives: ^ Paenitere eumfacti coepit,'
*Perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest,' Qu. x. i.
'Coeptum est,' desitum est are so used with Pass. Infin.
(Coeptus sum, desitus sum are used personally with Pass. Infin.) ^
Obs, 4. The construction of Infin. with Verbs of inotion is found
in poets : * Ego hue missa sum ludere,' Plaut.
(2) The Infinitive extends also the construction of Adjectives in
poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age, especially in Tacitus.
A few Adjectives are thus used by Cicero, Livy, &c., but the
greatest number appear in poetry, especially in Horace:
^Audax omnia perpeti * impiger hostium vexare turmas.'
Other Adjectives so used are : aptus,blandus, bonus, callidus,catus,
cautus, celer, doctus, durus, efficax, facilis, fortis, idoneus, impotens,
largus, lenis, natus, neglegens, par, pernix, pertinax, potens, piger,
praesens, prudens, segnis, sellers, timidus, &c.
II) Cases of the Infinitive (Geiunds and Supines).
V. Gerundial Construction.
The base of the Latin Gerundial Construction (as of the partially
corresponding Greek) is a Participial Adjective— the Gerundive in
dus^ which, as Pott says, is neither Active nor Passive exclusively :
bibendus, proper for drinking. This serves three uses :
(i) By its Oblique Cases (called Gerunds) it completes (with the
Supines) the Active Infinitive Verb-noun :
Sing. N. bibere, Acc. bibere (ad bibendum, bibitum). Gen. bi-
bendi, Dat. bibendo, Abl. bibendo (in &c. bibendo), bibitu.
* Copulative Verbs Passive are oftener used personally with an Infinitive than with
the Infin. Clause. Videtur errasse Cicero, not, videtur errasse Ciceronem. But nuntior,
dicor, trador, credor can take the Clause. * Nuntiatum est adesse Scipionem,' Caes.
And Cic, once uses * videtur mihi ' with Clause : T. D. v. 5.
A Periphrastic or Combinate Infin. (-us esse, -urus esse, -ndus esse) frequently follows
such Verbs; and esse as often as not is suppressed. 'Titus Manlius locutus
fcrtur,' L. 'Affatus dicitur undas,' Mart. 'Creditur olim velificatus
Athos,' luv. *Secuturi vindicem libertatis videbantur,' L. 'Delectus haben-
dus puCatur.' This idiom has not been adequately noticed by grammarians and
commentators : and hence words have been taken as Participles which are true Infini-
tives. Such in Horace are 'solitus,' S. i. i. 66; 'collisa,' Ep. i. 2. 7. and perhaps
* adfatus,' C. i. 7. 24: especially 'coactus,'C i. 16. 14, where the construction (undi*-
cerned till lately) is, * Prometheus fertur coactus . . . etapposuisse . . . y Pro-
7netheus is reported to have been compelled, &c., and to have attached, &c. This ex-
planation having been questioned by some on account of the coupling of Act. and Pas§.
Infin., the following instances (supplied by Mr. Munro) remove that objection, * Ant
tenui percussum verbere Circes et cum remigibus grunnisse Elpenora porcis.'
luv. XV. 21. ' Bustis exisse feruntur tacitae q u e s t i tempore noctis avi,' Ov. F.
ii. 551. 'Emersisse iam e vadis <?/ scopulos praetervecta vi<ietur oratio mea,
C. i>. Cael. 21. ' Ne aut velificatus alicui dicaris, aut aliquid, quod referret
scire, reticuisse,' Cael. ap. C. Fam. viii. 10. Also L. i. 11 ; Tac. Ann, i. 65. So the
omission of the finite est from Perfects Pass, and Dep., frequent as it is, has sometimes
caused these to be mistaken for mere Participles: 'mirata,' Hor. C. iv. g. 15; ' ausa,'
Hor. C. i. 37» 25. See § 99.
§ l82.
Gerunds,
429
(Its Adjectival origin appears in Gerundial Attraction.)
(2) Its Neuter Nom. with est becomes a Verb Impersonal, signify-
ing necessity y duty^ meetness : ' Nunc est bibendum/
(3) As a Participle, it still signifies necessity^ duty, meetness, but
has the Adjectival Construction of Attribute or Complement :
Aqua bibenda : aqua est bibenda.
vi. The Gerunds.
(i) In the Gerunds, two things are to be considered :
A) The cases which depend on them as Verbs.
B) Their own dependence as Oblique Cases of Nouns.
A) A Gerund may govern the same Case as its Verb :
Spes satisfaciendi reipublicae.
A Transitive Gerund, in classic authors, does not generally take
an Accus., except of Pronouns or Neuter Plural Adjectives : aliquid,
multa, omnia, &c. But it may do so when rhythm or perspicuity
recommends :
^ Salutem hominibus dando.'
The usual construction of a Transitive Gerund is that called
Gerundial Attraction, by which the Gerund assumes the Gen-
der and Number of its Object, and the Object assumes the Case
of the Gerund :
For Huendi urbem' is written 'tuendae urbis/
„ ^ liberandi cives' „ ' liberandorum civium.'
B) Dependence of the four Gerunds :
a) The Accus. Gerund depends on Prepositions: ad, inter,
ob ; rarely ante, circa, post. Ad discendum; ad
agros colendos ; inter ludendum ; ob rem iudicandam.
/9^ The Gen. Gerund depends, as Subjective, Descriptive, or
Objective, on numerous Substantives: amor, ars, causa
(also causa, the sake), &c.
As Objective, it depends on many Adjectives which govern
a Genitive: cap ax, cupidus, ignarus, peritus, &c.
Ars canendi ; studium dicendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ;
cupidus audiendi; conscius delendae tyrannidis; dux
bene vivendi, &c.
7) The Dat. Gerund as Dativus Commodi depends on
Verbs and Adjectives of ability, attention, and adaptation :
praeesse, operam dare, sufficere, esse, &c. ; aptus, utilis, &c.
Substantives : locus, materia, sedes, &c.
(Generally) on any predication implying purpose :
* Operam dedi pingendo ; ' * Aqua utilis (inutilis) bibendo,*
* Studium aptum ingeniis acuendis,' &c. : solvendo non
esse {to be insolvent).
The purpose of an office is stated in this form :
* Tiberius Gracchus triumvir dividendis agris creatus
est,' Tiberius Gracchus was elected one of three commis-
sioners to divide the lands. Flor.
430
Latin Syiitax,
§ 183-85.
I) The Abl. Gerund is of cause, mstruinent^ or 77ia7me7' ; and
with the Prepositions de, ex, in ; rarely pro.
Mens ahtur discendo, audiendis philosophis : in iubendo ; a
acribendo ; de captivis commutandis, &c.
vii. Impersonal Gerundive Construction.
(2) This is not used transitively, but may be without Case :
* Bibendum est/ we 7nust drink^ Acc. bibendum esse :
or it may govern any Case but the Accusative :
^Serviendum est legibus 'utendutn est aefate.'
In old Latin the Accus. was used :
* Aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendtim/ Lucr.
viii. Attributive Gerundive Construction.
(3) This is used by Transitive Verbs only :
^ Aqua bibenda est,^ water shoidd be drunk,
Obs, The Gerundive may be an Epithet :
^Ridenda poemata,' ridiculous podjns^ luv. x.
but oftener takes a Dative Case (see p. 390) :
^ Proelia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of Hor.
For this Dative an Ablative of the Agent with ab may be used
if required for perspicuity.
ix. ~ Notes on Gerund and Gerundive.
1) The Verbs fungor, fruor, utof, vescor, potior, may
be used in Gerundive Construction, both attractional and attri-
butive, because they were anciently Transitive :
* Officii fungendi causa.' ^ Vita non fruenda sed utenda est.^
2) The Genitive Gerund is fotmd with dependent Gen. : ^
* Nobis fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas/ we had the
power of choosing examples ^ C. d. Iiiv. ii. 2.
3) It appears in historians as causal:
' Regium imperium conservandae libertatis fuerat,' the
royal power had existed for the preservatio7i of f7'eedo77i^ Sail.
Cat, 6.
A strange idiom is used by Tacitus : * Vologesi vetus et penitus
infixum erat arma Romana vitandi,' Vologeses had a7i old a7id
deeply rooted practice of shit7i7iing the Ro77ia7i ar77is, xv. 5.
4) The Attracted Abl. is found after a Comparative :
^Nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est,^
710 duty is more 7ieccssary tJian gratitude, C. Off. i. 15.
* Madvig (on Cic. Pin. p. 112) says that this Gen. is always Plural. But this is
disproved by Munro (on Lucr. v. 1225), and Wagner (on Ter. Haiti., Note 29)^
§i86--87. Stipines, 43 1
5) The Gerundive is used as Oblique Complement with do, trado,
conduco, loco, propono, euro, &c., to express purpose :
^Scriba quidam Cn. Flavius ediscendos fastos populo pro-
p o s u i t,' one Flavius^ a clerk ^ published the calendar for the
people to learn by hearty C. p, Mtir, 11. * Conon muros
Athenarum reficiendos curat,^ N. Con. \, See § 131.
(So Pass. : 'Vita data est utenda/ life was given to be used.)
Poets use an Infin. for this Gerundive :
*Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum
p or tare ventis,' sadness and terror I will deliver to the
boisterous winds to carry into the Cretan Sea, Hor. C i. 26. i.
. 186
X. The Two Supines. Supinei
These are Cases of Verb-nouns of the U-declension.
(1) The First or Accus. Supine (-um) implies Purpose after a Verb
of actual or implied motion :
*Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego,' Hor. S. i. 5. 48.
a) It may take a Case :
* Hannibal defensum patriam revocatus est,' N. Han. 6^
b) Sometimes motion is rather implied than expressed :
^Coctum ego, non vapulatum conductus sum/ / was
hired to cook^ not to be beaten, Plaut. Aul. iii. 3. 3. 'Augus-
tus filiam luHam primum MarceliO; mox Agrippae nuptum
dedit,' Suet. Atig. 63.
c) 'Ire' with this Supine means to set about doing a thing'.
Perditum ire, raptum ire, ultum ire, &c.
Hence the use of the Impers. Infin. iri with the Supine to supply
a Passive form for Infin. Fut.
' Audierat non datum iri filio uxor em suo/ Ter. An. i. 2. 6.
d) Other constructions oftener express the purpose of motion :
' Eunt consultum Apollinem. ' For 'consultum' might be used,
'ut consulerent,' 'qui consulerent' 'ad consulen-
dum,' ' consulendi causa less usually, ' consulturi.'
Livy uses this Supine most largely.
(2) The Second or Abl. Supine (-u") limits the undeclined Substan- 187
tives fas, nefas, opus, and Adjectives which signify good or evil,
pleasantness or unpleasantness, fitness or unflt7iess, &c.
' Nefas visu,' horrible to behold. ' Turpe dictu,' sha7neful to say.
a) After some words, ad with the Gerund is more elegant :
' Cibus facillimus ad concoquendum,' C. Fin. ii. 20.
b) In poetry the Infinitive may be used :
' Cereus in vitium flecti,' waxlike in beijig inoulded to vice^
Hor. Pis. 161.
432
Latin Syntax,
§ 1 88.
c) The Supine in -u is rare after Verbs : ' Pudet dictu,' Tac.
d) Anciently it appears as an Ablative of Origin :
* Primus cubitu surgat vilicus, postremus cubitum eat,' the
bailiff should be the first to get up^ the last to go to bed^ Cato.
Note on the Annexive Relation.
A Word is said to be in Annexive Relation to another, when it is
so joined to it by a Conjunction (expressed or understood) as to
take the same construction on the same grounds: * Dis homini-
b usque visum est;' ^non mihi loquitur sed tibi;' ^ Brutum non
minus amo quam tu, paene dixi, quam te:' where tu, by being
Nominative, shows that it is annexed to ego understood: te, by
being Accusative^ shows that it is annexed to Brutum.
Examples of Infinitive.
*Non attinet quicquam sequi quod assequi non queas,' C. Off. i. 31. * Quo
mihi fortunam. si non concedituruti?' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12. * Flaccum numquam pro-
spexisse vestrae saluti paenitebit,' C. /. Fl. 41. * Bene sen tire recteque facer e satis
e s t ad bene beateque vi vendum, ' C. Fa7n. vi. i . * D e c e t verecundum esse adulescentem, '
Plaut. ^j. V. I. * Consul em fieri valde utile Mario V id ebatur,* C. Off.'\\\. 20. * lovis
essenepoticontigit baud uni,* Ov. 71/^/. xi. 219. 'Mihi iurato dicere fas fuit,'
C./. Mtir. 37. * Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,' C. Att. xiii. 28. ' Id primum videamus,
beate vivere vestrum quale sit,' C. ii. 27. * Neque mihi praestabilius quicquam
videtur quam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere quo velit, unde
autem velit deduce re,' C. d. Or. i. 8. * Honeste atque inhoneste vende re mos erat,
Sail. Cat. 30. ' Fas est et ab hoste doceri,' Ov. M. iv. 428.
'Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime vale re et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus
dicebant interesse,' C. Fhi. ii. 13.
* Nondum fuga certa, nondum victoria erat ; tegi magis Romanus, quam pu gn are ;
Volscus inferre signa, urge re aciem, plus caedis hostium videre quam fugae,' L.
iv. 37. See Sail. B. lug. 50. 51. 75.
* Certos mihi finis terminosque constituam, extra quos egredi non possim, si maxime
velim,'C. /. Q7iinct. 10. * Perge reliqua ; gestio enim scire omnia,' C. Att. iv. 11.
* Aelius Stoicusessevoluit, orator autem nec studuit umquam nec fuit,' C. Br. 56.
*Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Sail. C<z/. 54. *Tu animum poteris in-
ducere contra haec dicere?' C. Div. i. 13. * Thraces, navibus comm ittere se non
ausi, domos dilapsi sunt,' L. xliv. 45. * Miltiades Chersonesi manere decrevit,' Nep,
Milt. 2. * Desiderio Romuli populus Romanus regem flagitare non destitit,' C. Rep.
ii. 12. * Spartae pueri rapere discunt,' C. Rep. iv. 5. * Vos sociis prospicere la bo-
ratis,' C. Verr.'xn. 55. * Sestii mortem ulcisceremini, si liberi esse cogitare tis,'
C. Sest. 38. * Datames Aegyptum proficisci parabat,' N. Dat. 4. 'Fortes et
sapientes viri non tarn praemia sequi solent recte factorum quam ipsa recte facta,'
C. /. Mil. 35. * Verus patriae diceris esse pater,' Mart. Sp. iii. 11. 'Amens
mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. lo. 'Barbara narratur venisse vene-
fica tecum,' Ov. H. vi. 19. ' In Graecia primum humanitas, litterae, etiam fruges in-
ventae essecreduntur,' Plin, Ep. viii. 24. 'Existimatur Caelius Catilinae
nimium familiar is fuisse,' C. /. Cael. 4. 'Prometheus affixus Caucaso trade-
batur,'C. T. D. v. 3. 'Commisisse cavet quae mox mutare laboret,' Hor. m
Pis. 168. * Romani peperci sse volunt,* L. xxxii. 21. 'Contenti sumus illud
unum dixi sse, quanti ille fuerit,' Veil. ii. 108. *Si potuit meruisse necem, me-
ruisse putetur,'Ov. //. xi. 109. ' Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum,' C.
N.D. Lii. 39. ' Gallinis meridie bibere dato,' Cat. 89. ' Legati Celtiberorum nihil
prius petierunt a praetore quam ut bibere sibi iuberet dari,' L. xl. 47. * Lucere
coepit,' C. Div. i. 23. 'Non desiit paenitere me suscepti adversus Romanes belli,'
L. xxiii. 13. 'Solet eum, cum aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere,' C. Ait. viii. 5.
' Armis disceptari coeptum est de iure publico,* C. Favt. iv. 4. * lampridem contra
eos desitum est disputari,' C. ii. 13. * Comitia nostra haberi coepta sunt,'
C. Verr. i. 9. ' Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocaridesitus,'C. Fam. Ik. 21.
Gerunds and Supines.
433
'Glebae coepere moverl,' Ov. M. iii. io6. ' Is est maxime docills qui attentissime est
paratus audire,' C. htv. i. i6. * Reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati,'
Hor. C. i. X. 17. 'Maesta civitas fuit, vinci insueta,' T^. iv. 31.
Examples of Gerunds and Gerundive.
I. ^Gerunds and Gerimdial Attraction.') * Fuerunt apud Romanes qui assentando
multitudini grassarentur,' L. xlv. 23. * Diogenes dicebat, artem se tradere bene dis-
ser^ndi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi,' C. d. Or. ii. 38. * Ita nati factique
sumus, ut et agendi aliquid et diligendi aliquos, et libertatis, et referendae
gratiae principia in nobis contineremus,' C. Fin. v. 15. * Nulla causa iusta cuiquam
esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi,*C. Phil. ii. 22. 'Legem doctissimi viri
Graeco putant nomine a suumcuique tribuendo appellatam,' C. Leg. i. 16. 'Cernitur
in delectu bonorum et malorum iustitia, et in sue cuique tribuendo,' C. Fin. v. 23.
' Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, verum etiam ad docendum/ C. /^/«.
iii. 20. ' Oculus conturbatus non est probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum,'
C. T. D. iii. 7. ' Mores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegUnt,' Qu. i- 3.
12. * Flagitiosum est, eum, a quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis, condem-
nare,' C. Verr. ii. 32. 'Homo magna habet instrumenta ad obtinendam adipi-
scendamque sapientiam,' C. Leg. \. 22. 'Eadem precor a dis immortalibus ob
L. Murenae consulatum una cum salute obtinendum,' C. Mnr. i. ' Nihil Xeno-
phonti tarn regale videtur quam studium agri colendi,' C. Cat. N. 17. *Veni
consulis Antoni domum saepe sal ut audi causa,' C. Fa7n. xi. 28. * Reliqua, ita mihi
salus aliqua detur potestasque in patria moriendi, ut me lacrimae non sinunt scri-
bere,' C. Q. Fr. i. 3. 'lustitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges
constituti,' C. Off. ii. 12. ' Pythagoreorum more exercendae memoriae gratia
quid quoque die dixerim, audierimj egerim, commemoro vesperi,' C. Cat. M. 11.
* Epaminondts studiosus erat audiendi,' Nep. 3. 'Demosthenes Platonis
studiosus audiendi fuit,' C. d. Or. i. 20. * Homines be Uandi cupidi magno
dolore afficiebantur,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. ' Multi propter gloriae cupiditatem cupidi
sunt bellorum gerendorum,' C. Off. i. 22. 'Multae res oratorem ab imperito
dicendi ignaroque distinguunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 44. *Mons pecori bonus alendo
erat,' L. xxix. 31. ' Ver tamquam adulescentiam significat ostenditque fructus futures ;
reliqua tempora demetendi s fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt,' C.
Cat. M. xg. ' Tu, Eruci, p raeesse agro c o 1 e n do flagitium putas ? ' C. S. Rose. 18.
' Consul placandis dis dat operam,' L. xxii. 2. 'Galli Transalpini baud procul
inde, ubi nunc Aquileia est, locum oppido condendo ceperunt,' L. xxxix. 22.
* Multarum civitatum principes ad me detulerunt, sumptus decerni legatis nimis magnos,
cum solvendo civitates non essent/ C. Fam. iii. 8. ' Tributo plebes liberata est,
ut divltes conferrent, qui oneri ferendo essent,' L. ii. 9. * Dece mviros 1 egibus
scribendis intra hos decern annos et creavimus et e republica sustulimus,' L. iv. 4.
'Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit/ L. ii. 8. ' Hominis mens
discendo alitur et cogitando,' C. Off. i. 30. ' Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur
legendis oratoribus et poetis,' C. Or. iii. 10. ' Aristotelem non deterruit a
scribendo Platonis amplitudo,' C. Or. i. 5. ' Multa de bene beateque vivendo a
Platone disputata sunt,' C. Fin. i. 2. 'Exprovidendo appellata est prudentia,' C. Leg.
1. 23. 'Saepe plus in metuendo mali est, quam in illo ipso, quod timetur,' C. Fain.
yi. 4.^ 'In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maxime cernitur,' C. Leg. i. 19.
'Rehquorum siderum quae causa collocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit collocatio,
inallum sermonem differendum est,' C. Tijn. 9. 'Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas
detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae
urbis, agrorum suis condonandi,' C. Phil. v. 3. ' Aedui legatos ad Caesareiu
sui purgandi gratia mittunt,' Caes. B. G. vii. 43. ' Kaec prodendi impcri
Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt,' L. xxvii. 9.
II. {Impers and Attrib. Germidive.) ' Hie vobis vi ncendum aut moriendun?,
est, m^ihtes, L. xxi. 43. ' Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano,' luv. x,
^?^;^ 'Noncorpori soli subveniendum est, sed menti atque animo multo magis,
C. Lat. Af. II. 'Suum cuique incommodum ferenduni est potius, quam de alterius
commodis de trahen d um,' C Off. iii. 6. 'Apud Pythagoram disci pu lis quinque
annistacendum erat,' Sen. Ep. 52. 'Tria videnda sunt oratori : quid dicat et
quo quicque loco, et quomodo,' C. Or. 14. 'Semper ita vivamus ut rationem redden-
dam nobis arbitremur,' C. Verr. ii. 11. 'Pietati summa tribuenda laus est,' C
d. Or. n. 40. ' Quaentur, praeponendane sit divitiis gloria,' C. 7^^/ 22 ' Suo
cuique ludicio est utendum,' C N. D. iii. i. 'Sentio moderandum mihi esse
F F
434 Latin Syntax, § 189.
CHAPTER IV.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
Section I.
SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES.
(See Chapter I. § 100.)
189
Subor- Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds :
dinate
Clauses. Substantival ; B) Adverbial ; C) Adjectival or Relative.
A) On Substantival Clauses see § 100, p. 349.
B) An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence
like an Adverb, answering the questions how, whyy
when^ &c.
Such Clauses are of seven kinds :
Consecutive {so that) Conditional unless^ &c.)
Final {in order that) Concessive {although^ &c.)
Causal {because^ since, &c.) Comparative {as if, &c.)
Temporal {when, whilst, &c.)
C) An Adj ecti val or Relative Clause is formed by the Relative
qui or one of its Particles. When this contains some
Adverbial sense {so that, in order that, since, if, although),
it generally exhibits the Subjunctive Mood.
iam orationi meae,' C. F^-rr. iii. 43. * Intelleglte quibus credendum et a quibus
cavendum sit,' L. xxxiv. 39. ' Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis
et ipsorum et reipublicae causa consulendum,' C. p. L. Man. 2. 'Spectandus in
certamine Martio,' Hor. C. iv, 14. 17. 'Thrasybulus legem oblivionis non tantum
ferendam curavit, sed etiam ut valeret efFecit,' Nep. Thras. 3. ' Pueris sen-
tentias ediscendas damus,* Sen. Ep. 33. * Redemptor columnam lovis con-
duxerat faciendam,' C. Div. ii. 2.1.
Examples of Supines.
{First Supine.^ .* Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit,' L. ii. 35. 'Legati ab
Roma venerunt questum iniurias et ex foedere res repetitum,' L. iii. 25.
* Quid est, Crasse, inquit lulius, imusne sessum? Etsi admonitum venimus te,
non flagi ta t u m,' C. d. Or. iii. 5. * Cur te is perditum?' Ter. An. i. i. 107. * Ubi se
flagitiis dedecoravere turpissimi viri, bonorum praemia ere p turn eunt,' Sail. lug. 85.
*In earn spem erecta civitas erat, in Africa eo anno debellatum iri/ L. xxix. 14.
* Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias civitates collocavit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18.
(Second Supine.) * Narratio brevis erit, si non longius, quam quod scitu opus
est, in narrando procedetur,' C. Inv. i. 20. * Humanus animus cum alio nullo, nisi cum
ipso deo, si hoc fas est dictu, comparavi potest,' C. T. D.v. 13. * Quid est tarn
iucundum cognitu atque auditu quam sapientibus sententiis gravibusque verbis
ornata oratio ? ' C. d. Or. i. 8. * Quod optimum factu videbitur, facies,' C. Att. vii.
22. * Ad imitaRdum tarn mihi propositum exemplar illud est quam tibi/ C. p.Mur. 31
§ 190-91.
Siibobliqnc Construciion.
435
Section II.
SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION.
i. Oratio Obliqua. OrX
Obliqua.
1) Oratio Obliqua (in distinction from Oratio Recta, direct
oration) is a term especially applied to Substantival Clauses, and,
above all, to the Infinitive Clause and its substitutes.
2) A subordinate or dependent Clause may have another depend-
ing on it ; and in a long Compound Sentence, or Period, there may
thus be di primary, secondary, &c., dependence of clauses.
If the Verb (whether Infin. or Finite) of a primary dependence
forms Oratio Obliqua, the Verb of a following depe^idence is 'Sub-
ordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (in one word) Suboblique.
ii. The first important Rule of dependent Construction is this :
I) A Suboblique Finite Verb is in the Subjunctive
Mood.
This is seen by comparison of the two following passages :
Oratio Recta : 'Ars earum rerum est quae sciuntur ; oratoris
autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia^ continetur :
nam et apud eos dicimus, qui nesciunt, at ea dici-
mus, quae nescimus ipsi,' C. d. Or. ii. 7.
Oratio Obliqua: (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet :) Artem
earum rerum esse, quae sciantur : oratoris autem omnem
actionem opinione, non scientia, contineri; quia et
apud eos dicat, qui nesciant, et ipse dicat quod nesciati
Here * artem esse,' ' actionem contineri/ form Oratio Obliqua,
and the Finite Verbs in subsequent dependence (sciantur, dicat,
nesciant, nesciat) are therefore Subjunctive.
* .191
iii. But, secondly, a principal Verb often contains more than is virtual
expressed by the mere form^ ; not merely the writer's or speaker's Oratio
declaration, but an implied opinion or assertion of some other; ^^^^^^
upon which the Verb of the primary clause may depend. Such a
principal predication has been called by some writers ' Cogitatio
Obliqua;' but a more convenient term is 'Virtual Oratio
Obliqua:' from which it follows that the dependent Verb is
Virtually Suboblique.
Hence results the second Rule of dependent Construction :
namely,
II) A Finite Verb virtually Suboblique is in the Sub-
junctive Mood.
Laud at Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens.
(' Laudat' implies 'ait esse laudandum.')
Caesar Aeduos frumentum, quod polliciti essent, flagitabat,
(Flagitabat implies that Caesar reminded the Aedui of their
promise. Hence the Mood of polliciti essent.)
F F 2
436
Latin Syntax,
% 192-93.
192
Depen-
dence on
Con-
junc-
tive.
193
Excep-
tions.
A mere change in the Mood of the dependent Verb may cause
a change of reference to, or from, the writer or speaker :
* Themistocles noctu ambulabat in pubhco, quod somnum
capere non posset/
Here the mood of posset (and this alone) refers the clause to
the mind of Themistocles, who alleged inability to sleep as the
reason why he was in the habit of walking by night. Had poterat
been written, the sentence would still be good Latin, but the cause
would then rest on the assertion of the writer (Cicero).
iv. The principle of Rules H. and HI. is, that dependence on a
conception must itself be conceptive ; and, as the Conjunctive is the
Mood of Conception, this leads to the third important rule :
HI) A Verb really dependent on a Conjunctive Verb
is generally Subjunctive :
^Equidem illud molior, ut mihi Caesar concedat ut absim, cum
aliquid in senatu contra Gnaeum agatur/ C. Att, ix. 6. 'Quaerimus
qualis in bello praedonum praedo ipse fuerit Verres, qui in foro
populi Romani pirata nefarius reperiatur .'^' C. Verr, i. 59. * Erat
in Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus
esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogita-
visset,' C. Br, 88.
Agatur is Subjunctive, being dependent on absim; reperi-
atur, on qualis fuerit; c ommentatus esset and cogitavisset,
on redderet.
V. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in Dependence.
1) A Clause which seems, by its position, to depend on Oratio
Obliqua, may be independent ; that is. it may contain a fact in-
troduced by the author : in which case the Mood will be Indie:
^Caesari nuntiatum est, Sulmonensis, quod oppidum a Cor-
finio septem milium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere, quae
vellet, sed a Q. Lucretio senatore et Attio Paeligno prohiberi,
qui id oppidum septem cohortium praesidio te neb ant,' Caes. B> C,
i. 18.
The Clauses quod . . . abest and qui . . . tenebant con-
tain facts stated by the historian, and are not part of the message
received by Caesar. But quae vellet is dependent.
2) A short Relative Clause, especially when it immediately fol-
lows a Demonstrative, is often constructed independently of Oratio
Obliqua, being regarded as a mere epithet :
^ Eloquendi vis efficit ut ea quae ignoramus discere, et ea
quae scimus alios docere possimus,' C. A^. D. ii. 59.
3) Dum [whilst) is sometimes constructed with Present Indie,
even when subordinate to Oratio Obliqua :
* Quanto laudabilius periturum Pisonem, dum amplecti-
tur rempublicam, dum auxilia libertati invocat!' Tac. An)i.
XV. 59.
(Other reasons may occur, inducing an author to exempt a
Clause from the general law and to keep the Indie. Mood.}
§194-
Substantival Clauses.
43;
Section III.
SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES.
I) Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). i
This has three forms : (i) first and principally the Infinitive Jiie
Clause : (2) the Ut-clause : (3) the Quod-clause.
A. The Infinitive Clause, or Accusative with
Infinitive.
1) This is introduced
As Object, by ^ Verba Declarandi et Sentiendi,' Verbs which
state or imply a fact, feelings or opinion.
Such are: a) aio, dico, fateor, nego, scribo, &c., auctor sum;
certiorem facio : b) audio, credo, disco, puto, scio, spero, &c.,
gaudeo, gratulor, &c.
As Subject, by the Passives of such Verbs ; by Impersonal
Verbs of those meanings: apparet, constat, interest, patet,
placet, &c. ; by est with many Adjectives, certum est, credibile
(perspicuum, falsum, probabile, verum» verisimile, utile, &c.) est.
As Apposite, by Substantives and Pronouns : fama (mos, rumor,
spes, fas, &c.) est ; illud certum est, illud nego, and the like.
2) The Tense of the Infinitive Verb will be such as sense and
consecution require.
Dico (dicam, dixero)
eum venire, that he is coming ; eum venisse, that he has come ;
eum venturum esse, that he will come.
Examples of Suboblique Construction.
I) *Cato mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vi-»
disset/ C. Div. ii. 24. *ScIto me, postquam in urbem venerim, redisse cum
libris in gratiam/ C. Fam. ix. i. 'Fateor me oratorem, si modo sim, ex Academiae
spatiis exstitisse,* C. Fin. v. 5. i. * Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod
opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem ; propius aecedere ilium, qui alterius bene in-
ventis obtemperet,' C. /. CIm. 31.
II) *Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart. xii. 28. *Alium rogantes
regem misere ad lovem, inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus,' Phaed. i. 2.
'Darius eius pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit,' N. Milt. 3. * In Hispania
prorogatum veteribus imperatoribus est imperium cum exercitibus quos haberent,' L.
xl. 18. * Cum abessem, quotienscunque patria in mentem veniret, haec omnia
occurrebant, colles campique et Tiberis et hoc caelum sub quo natus e ducat usque
essem,' L. v. 54.
III) *Dici non potest quin ii, qui nihil metuant, nihil angantur, nihil con-
cupiscant, beati sint,' C. T. D. v. 7. *Hirri necessarii fidem implorarunt Pompeii ;
praestaret quod proficiscenti recepisset,' Caes. B. C. iii. 82. 'Miraretur qui
cerneret,' L. xxxiv. 9. * Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras,*
C. Cat. M. 10.
{Exceptions.^ * Themistocles Xerxem certiorem fecit id agl ut pons, quem in Helles-
ponto fecerat, dissolveretur,' N. Th. 9. 'Placet Stoicis eos anhelitus terrae, qui
frigidi sunt, cum fluere coeperint, ventos esse,' C. Div. ii. 19. 'Die, hospes, Spartae
nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur,' ap. Cic.
T. D. i. 42.
43^ Latin Syntax, § 194.
Copias mitti, thai forces are being sent ; copias missas esse, that
Jorces have been sent ; copias missum iri, tJiat forces will be sent.
Dicebam (dixi, dixeram)
eum venire, that he was coming ; eum venisse, that he had
come ; eum venturum (esse), that he would come.
Copias mitti, that forces were being sent ; copias missas esse, that
Jorces had been sent ; copias missum iri (or missas fore), that forces
would be sent.
For copias missum iri may also be used :
^ Futurum (or fore) ut copiae mittantur {will) . . . mitterentur
(ivoidd).^
If the Clause is to express that something would have happened
or not, this is done by using.
For Active sense, the Future Participle with fuisse:
Dico (dixi) . . . eum venturum fuisse, I say {said) that he would
have come (lit. wets about to come).
For Passive sense, futurum fuisse ut with Passive Subjunctive :
Dico (dixi) futurum fuisse ut copiae mitterentur, / say {said)
that forces would have been sent (lit, it was about to happen that
forces would be sent).
3) Verbs, which by their meaning imply that the dependent
action is Future, usually take a Future Infinitive Clause.
Such are Verbs of pronusing, vowing^ threatening, hoping :
Polliceor, promitto, recipio, spondeo, voveo ; minor, minitor ;
spero, despero, spes est :
Pollicentur, minantur se ita facturos.
Spe ramus, spes est eum venturum esse.
a) Such Verbs are also found with a Present Clause :
* Modo sum pollicitus ducere,'/ jtcst 7tow promised to marry
her, Ter. An. iii. 5. 7. ' Haec scripsi ut sperares te assequi
id quod optasses,' C. Fam. ii. 10. See M. Lucr. i. 722.
And when spero implies belief :
^ Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus,' C. Fatn. ii. 2.
b) Posse after a Verb of hoping gives a Future character to the
Clause :
'Velme licet existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere,'
7nay deem that even I have no hope that I can leant those
thifigs thoroughly, C. d. Or. i. 36.
4) An Infinitive Clause, used Interrogatively without a principal
Verb, expresses Indignation :
' Mene incepto desistere victam?' what, I be vanqidshed, and
abandon my design f Verg. Ae. i. 37. ^ O praeclarum imperatorem !
tantumne vidisse in metu periculoque provinciae ?' C. Verr.
V. 5. ' Ita comparatam essehominum naturam !' Ter. H. iii. i.
Ut with a Subjunctive may be used for the same purpose :
^ Te ut ulla res frangat?' the idea that anything will hicmble
you, C. Cat. i. i. ^Tibi ego ut credam, furcifer.^' Ter. An. iii. 5.
§ 194-
Stibstafitival Clauses,
439
5) In the Infin. Clause the following ellipses occur :
a) An Indefinite Subject understood in the Subjective Con-
struction :
^Conveniet in dando jnunificum esse (aliquem)/ C. Off,
ii. 1 8.
b) A Reflexive Pronoun omitted :
'Ferre non posse clamabit/ C. T. D. ii. 17. ^ Id nescire
Mago dixit/ L. xxiii. 13.
Most frequently with the Fut. Infin. :
^L. Caecilius agrariae legi intercessorem fore professus
est/ Caecilius declared that he would interpose to forbid
the agrarian law, C. p. SmU, i 3.
Esse is at the same time often omitted :
^Brutus populum iureiurando adegit, neminem Romae pas-
suros regnare/ Brutus made the people swear they would
allow no one to be king at Rome^ L. ii. i.
(Poets sometimes use the Greek idiom, by which the Nom.
of the principal Verb becomes also the Subject of the
Infin.
^Phaselus ille . . . aitfuisse navium celerrim us/ Ca-
tuU. iv. I. ^Sensit medios delapsus in hostis/ Verg.
Ae,\\. 377. 'Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse pa-
ratus/ Hor. Epist. i. 7. 23. ^Rettulit Aiax esse lovis
pronepos/ Ov. xiii. 141.
A far bolder instance is :
* Acceptum refero versibus, essenocens/ Ov. TV. ii. IQ.
Compare Hor. C i. 37. 31. iii. 16. 32.)
c) A Demonstr. Pronoun omitted if there is no ambiguity :
^ Valerius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam
vicem indignantem magistratu abisse/ Valeritis resigned
the dictatorship : the motive was clear to the plebeians ^
that he quitted office from indignation on their account,
L. ii. 31.
d) A Verb omitted in a Correlative Clause, subordinate to In-
finitive, its Noun being attracted to the Accusative :
^Te suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, interdum
gravius commoveri,' / suspect you are sometimes stirred
too deeply by the same thiiigs which stir 7ne, C. C M, i.
Qu ibusmeipsumis for qui bus ipse commoveor.
6) The ambiguous construction of two Accusatives, Subject and,
Object (as in the famous oracle, ' Aio te, Aeacida, Romanes vin-
cere posse may be evaded by using the Passive Construction.
Thus render, ^ / believe that Marcus loves you^ (not, * Credo
Marcum te amare/ but) * Credo te a Marco amari.'
7) The English, ^it is said of Homer that he was blind,' or ' they
say of Homer that he was blind,' or ' Homer, they tell us (it is said),
was bhnd,' is rendered by one of the constructions, ^Jradunt (tra^
440 Latin Syntax. g i^^^
ditur) Homerum caecum fuisse/ or ' traditur Homerus caecus
fuisse.' But the use of de is not inadmissible :
* De Tirone, video tibi curae esse/ C.
8) On the Personal Construction of Passive Copulative Verbs,
see Note, p. 427.
9) 'Mem ini me videre ' or ^ memini videre,' / reineinber seeing.
* Memini me vidisse,' / i^einember that I saw (at a specific time).
* Memineram me vidisse,' I rejnembered that I had seen,
195
ut- B, Ut-clause for Infinitive Clause,
Clause.
U t {that), with Subjunctive, for the Infin. Clause, is used as Sub-
ject, to express consecutiveness. It depends on
1) Impersonal Verbs: est, esto, abest, accedit, accidit, con-
tingit, evenit, fit, interest, refert, relinquitur, restat, sequi-
tur, superest, usu venit, &c. See M. Luer. i. 442.
2) Est, with an Adj. or Adv. complement: aequum, consen-
taneum, consequens, extremum, iniquum, insitum, inte-
grum, par, rarum, rectum, reliquum, tritum, usitatum,
utile, verisimile, verum, &c. : prope, satis est, &:c.
3) Est, with a Subst. : consuetudo, mos, vitium, and others.
This Ut-clause is often in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun.
Examples: ^Est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta sulcis/
Hor. C. iii. i. 9. 'Ad Appii Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam
ut caecus esset,'C. Cat. M. 6. *Est hoc commune vitium . . .
ut invidia gloriae comes sit,' C. Verr. ii. 65.
Obs. I. Owing to the nature of this clause, it seldom contains a
negative ; but if it does, the negatives are non, nihil, null us, &c.
'Fuit hoc in Crasso, ut non tam existimari vellet non didi-
cisse, quam . . . nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis ante-
ferre,' C.<:/. Or. ii. I. 'Soli hoc contingit sapienti ut nihil faciat
invitus, nihil dolens, nihil coactus,' C. Par. v. i. 'Est ut ple-
rique philosophi nulla tradant praecepta dicendi, et habeant
paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant,' C. d. Or. ii. 36.
Obs. 2. On the other hand, ut, implying purpose (as in Petitio
Obliqua), takes n e^ nequis, &c., in negation. See Examples, p. 446.
Certain predications may sometimes imply consequence only (in-
troducing an Oblique Enunciation), sometimes purpose (intro-
ducing Oblique Petition). Such are facere, fieri, efficere, &c. ;
expedit, interest, refert, placet, prodest, utile est, &c. ; condicio
(consilium, ius, munus) est ; and others.
The following passage shews Obi. Petition and Obi. Enuntiation
dependent on the same word : ^ Ex hoc efficitur non ut voluptas
ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,' ///6»
result of this is not that pleasure will cease to be pleasure., but that
pleasure is not the chief good ^ C. Fi7i. ii. 8. The first result \'6 pur-
posed (ut ne sit), the second consecutive (ut non sit).
See the use of ' ita ne ^ in Consecutive Clauses.
Obs. 3. Ut Consecutive with predications oi affirming, thinking^
or perceiving, is confined to one or two expressions :
§ 196.
Substantival Quod-clause.
441
'Qui probari potest ut sibi animus mederi non possit?' how
can we be satisfied that the 7nind is tenable to heal itself f C. T. D,
iii. 3. Hence it rarely forms Objective Clauses. See V. Aen,
xi. 153.
Care must therefore be taken not to confound it with the Interrog.
Particle ut (Jiow), which often forms such clauses: *Videmus
ut luna sohs lumen accipiat/ C. d. Or, iii. 5. See § 202.
Obs. 4.. Licet, oportet, necesse est, when they take the Sub-
junctive, usually omit ut : ' Licet pauca degustes,' you may taste
a few samples, C. AIL xvi. 8. * Me ipsum ames oportet,' C.
Fin. ii. 28. ^ Oratio, si res non subest, aut nulla sit necesse est
aut omnium irrisione ludatur,' a speech without matter must be
either not delivered or laughed at by everybody^ C. d. Or. i. 12.
Quod, that^ with Indie, (but, if Suboblique, with Subjunctive)
stands for the Infin. Clause, either to mark distinctly that a fact
is expressed, or to shew that the Oratio Recta finds its Cause in a
fact.
1) For the former purpose it appears
As Subject, with accedit, accidit, apparet, evenit, fit, interest,
nocet, obest, occurrit, parum est, prodest, &c. ; or with est and a
Substantive : causa est, consolatio est, vitium est, &c.
As Object, with ad do, adicio, animadverto, excuso, facio, mitto,
nihil moror, non dico, omitto, praetereo, praetermitto, &:c.
And in Apposition to Pronouns.
2) For the latter purpose it is joined to Verbs of Emotion, ex-
pressing sorrow^ surprise^ praise^ blame, indignation^ &c.
As Subject, to do let, iuvat, gratum (indignum, mirum, per-
gratum) est, &c.
As Object, to accuso, admiror, aegre (graviter, indigne, mo-
leste) fero, angor, bene facio, delector, doleo, gaudeo, glorior, gra-
tulor, ignosco, indignor, laetor, laudo, miror, obicio, queror, repre-
hendo, &c.
Examples: 'Accedit hue quod postridie ille venit,' C Fam.
viii. 2. ' Addequod pubes tibi crescit omnis,' Hor. C. ii. 8. 17.
' Magnum beneficium est naturae quodnecesseest mori,' Sen.
Ep. 103. 'Inter causas malorum nostrorum est, quod vivimus
ad exempla.' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Habet hoc optimum in se generosus
animus, quod concitatur ad honesta,'<3: noble mind has this chief
merit, that its impulse is to virtue^ Sen. Ep. 39. 'Benefacis
quod me adiu vas,' C. iii. 3. 'Gratum est quod patriae
civem populoque dedisti,' luv. xiv. 70. ' Dolebam quod socium
et consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram,' C. Br. i. 'Quod spi-
ralis, quod vocem mittitis, indignantur,' L. iv. 3. ' Caesar ad
me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim/ C. Fam,
viii. II.
Obs. I. After predications of Emotion in the ist Pers., the Clause
is often Indie, because the speaker states the ground of his own
feeling. But after 2nd or 3rd Pers., often Subjunctive, when the
writer or speaker ascribes the ground to the mind of another;
C. Quod-clause for Infin. Clause.
196
Quod-
clause,
44^ Latin Syntax, § i^^^
^Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem/ Mart. xii. 28. < Nemo
umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus' C.
d. Or. iii. 14. V *
Obs, 2. Predications of Emotion are connected with the Infinitive
Clause^ or with quod, for which cum sometimes occurs :
te aegrotare \
quod aegrotas
I cum aegrotas
dolet mihi
angor animo
/ am sorry you are ill.
, fte convaluisse
^ quod convaluisti
gratulor
cum convaluisti
• / am glad you are recovered.
Obs. 3. On the use of quod in connecting sentences, see § 82.
* Quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile
dictu est de singulis,' C. Fam, i. 7.
Obs, 4. Quod, that, after a Verb of thinking or declaring (except
in Apposition to a Pronoun) is hardly classical ; but, in later Latin,
it became a common barbarism.^
Petkio II) Indirect Will-speech (Petitio Obliqua).
Obliqua.
1) This Clause is the Oblique form of an Imperative Sentence.
It may be introduced by ut final, ut ne, ne (ne quis, &c.) with
Subjunctive ; depending (as Subject, Object, or Apposite) on pre-
dications expressing :
Concession, permission, demand, entreaty, exhortation j advice y
persuasion, impulsion, compact (paciscor, rarely spondeo,
debeo) ; command, direction, will, or any forms which may imply
these (dico, mitto, monstro, nuntio, respondeo, scribo) ; also, care,
provision, endeavour ; achieving, ej^ecting, conducing, &c. These
include such phrases as condicio (ius, lex, munus, regula, &c,)
est.^
2) Most of these predications can omit ut before the Subjunc«
tive ; but some always keep it :
Cogis (mones, scribis, auctor es, id agis, impetras, &c.) ut earn.
Oravi (suasi, hortatus sum, mandavi, &c.) utadesses; adesses,
3) Such predications point to the attainment of an end. When
they take n e, prevention is implied ; and most can take n e, except
iubeo, nolo, and a few more.
Rogas (imperas, operam das, efficis, &c.) utne(ne) quis eat.
Suasisti (pactus es, misisti, voluisti, &c.) ut ne (ne)abessem.
^ A few words (accidit, evenit, interest, &c.) admit all three Enuntiative Clauses, while
many are used with two of them. Care must be taken to note these uses, and to dis-
criminate them where this is possible. But between some there seems little or no differ-
ence. We may write. * Rectum est maiori parere minorem,' or * Rectum est ut maiori
minor pareat : ' * Gaudeo te salvum redisse,' or * Gaudeo quod (cum) salvus redisti.'
' ( Verbs on which Petitio Obliqua defends) : concedo, do, patior, permitto, sino ; oro,
rogo, peto, postulo, contendo, precor, obsecro ; hortor ; cogo, impello, incito, induco,
moneo, moveo, persuadeo, suadeo, auctor sum ; censeo, decemo, edico, iubeo, impero,
mando, praecipio ; placet ; caveo, euro, facio, id ago, nitor, enitor, operam do, prospicio,
studeo, video, provideo ; adipiscor, assequor, consequor, committo, efficio, perficio, im-
petro, evinco, pervingo ; opto^ volo, nolo, malo, &c. Blandior in L. and Lucr. ii. 173.
§ 198-201. Petitio Obliqna. 443
4) Another Class of Verbs points to the prevention of an end.
Of these caveo, when it means beware^ takes or omits ne:
* Cave ne titubes ^ or * cave titubes.'
Y^to, forbid, takes ne, and very rarely omits it (in poetry).
Prohibeo, forbid, takes ne and quominus ; also deprecor,
deterreo, dissuadeo, impedio, intercedo, interdico, invideo, obsto,
officio, pugno, repugno, recuso, resisto, tempero, teneo, contineo,
terreo, veto, and others of like import. Some of these admit qiiin.
5) Quominus. Quo-
Quominus ( = ut eo minus) with Subjunctive depends on predi-
cations implying hindrance. Such predication is often negative or
interrogative ; but it may be positive.
To the Verbs above cited which take quominus, may be added
abstineo, arceo, cohibeo, defendo, moror, mora est, religio est,
impedimentum est, &c. ; fieri, stare per aliquem.
Nulla religio est quominus adsim, / have no scruple about
coming.
Per te stetit quominus adessem, you stood in the way of my
coming, •
6) Quin : see M. Lucr. \. 58^. Quin.
The Consecutive Conjunction quin, but that (qu?-ne = ut non, cur
non), with Subjunctive depends on predications which de?ty (or go
near to deny) a preventing cause. Such predications are always
either negative (non, baud, nihil, &:c.), quasi-negative (vix, aegre,
minimum, paulum), or interrogative (quid? num? &c.).
Verbs and Phrases so constructed are numerous : a) (Non)
dubito, dubium est, &c. /3) (Non) contineor ; retineor ; resisto ;
tempero ; possum ; facere possum ; fieri potest ; abest ; procul
est, &c. : (nulla) causa (controversia) est, &c. y) Numquam,
with almost any Verb.
a) * Non dubito . . . hand dubium est . . . nullus dubito . . .
quis dubitet.'^ quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae,' no doubt there
were poets before Homer, C.
/3) Aegre retentus sum . . . paulum afuit . . . temperare mihi
vix potui quin fie rem, I could hardly refrain from weeping.
7) Numquam discedis aliquo quin te omnes desiderent,j/<?^
never go away bict that all regret you.
200
7) Predications of Fear. Fear.
Metuo, timeo, vereor, pavidus sum, timor est, periculum est, &c.,
take ne with Subjunctive of that which it is feared will happen ;
ut, ne non, of that which it is feared will not happen.
Metuo (timeo, vereor, &c.) ne pereas, / fear you will perish.
Metui ut (ne non) effugeres, I feared you would not escape.
This ut is the Oblique Interrog. hozu, used idiomatically to avoid
the harshness of a negative form.
8) Predications of Caution, caveo, video, cogito, considero, Caution
have some resemblance to those of Fear, so far as they introduce
ne (which caveo can omit); but when ut follows them, they have
the sense of euro, take care ^provide that. See Examples.
9) Periphrastic phrases : non committere ut (/^ act so that), id
agere, animum inducere, facere, efficere, fieri, fore, &c. ut (ut ne),
ne. See M. Lucr. vi. 412-415.
444
Latin Syntax.
§ 202,
202
interro- HI) Indircct Question (Interrogatio Obli-
Obiiqua. qua).
1) If a Question, formed by an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle
(quis es ?), becomes dependent upon another predication, its Verb
becomes Subjunctive (quis sis). Such Interrogatives are : quis,
qualis, quantus, quot, uter, quotus, unde, ubi, quando, quomodo,
cur, quare, quamobrem, quam, num, ne, ut, an, utrum.
2) Predications on which such a Clause may depend are those
of inquiring^ stating^ hearings knowings perceivings rememberings
doubting^ caring^ considering^ determining^ concerning^ Sec.
Quaero, die, scio, &c., quid facias, feceris, fa cturus sis :
Quaesivi, Sec, quid face re s, fecisses, facturus esses.
Examples of Substantival Clauses.
(Verbs which illustrate the rules of Oratio Obliqua are printed in Italics.)
I) Enuntiatio Obliqua.
(i) Infinitive Clause.
* Fac animos non remanere postmortem; vides nos, si ita «V, privari
spe beatioris vitae,' C. T. D. i. 34. * Sic decet, te mea curare, tua me,' C. Att. xv.
2. 'Aequum est ci vis civibus parcere,' N. Th. 2. * Meum gnatum rumor est
amare,' Ten An. i. 2.
'Solon furere se simulavit,' C. Off. i. 30. * M etellum memini puer bonis
esse viribus extremo tempore aetatis,* C. Cat. M. 9.
* Meministis, me ita initio distribuisse causam,' C. /. 6". Rose. 42. * Thucydides
non negat fuisse famam Themistoclem venenum sua sponte sumpsisse,' N.
Th. TO. *Hunc censes primis, ut dicitur, labris gustasse physiologiam, qui quic*
quam, quod ortum sit^ putet aeternum esse posse? N. D.\. Z.
(See C. Qu.F.x.x.'^. * Ac mihi quidem videtur . . . humanitatis.')
'Memineram, C. Marium, cum vim arraorum/r<2/«^m^/, senile corpus paludibus
occultasse,' C. Sest. 22.
* Plato turn demum beatum terrarum orbem futurum praedicavit, cum aut
sapientes regnare aut reges sapere coepissent,' Ya\. Max. vii. 2. 'Exaudita voxest,
futurum esse ut Roma caperetur,' C. Div. i. 45. * Nisi nuntii de Caesaris victoria
essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur,'
Caes. B. C. iii. 101.
*Lentulus consul senatui reique publicae se non de futurum pollicetur,' Caes.
B. C. i. I. * Si quando parvis ludentes minamur praecipitaturos alicunde, exti-
mescunt,' C. Fin. v. 11. *Ad matrem virginis venit, iurans se illam ducturum
domum.' Ter. Ad. iii. 4. * Magna in spe sum nihil mihi temporis prorogatum iri,'
C Att.\\.'2. * Spes dabatur, pueros mergi posse,' L. i. 4. * Iniecta mihi s p e s
est velle raecum Sulpicium coUoqui. C. Att. x. 7. 'Video te velle in caelum
migrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis,' C. T. D. i. 34.
*Verminae responsum a legatis est : Si quid ad pacis leges a d d i, demi, muta-
tive velleiy rursus a senatu eipostulandum fore,'L. xxxi. ii. * Semper ita vivamus
utrationem reddendam nobis arbitremur,' C. Verr. ii. 11.
* Me non cum bonis esse?' C. Att. ix. 6. *Hasne tibi gratis, haec praemia
digna rependi?' Stat. Th. viii. 50. 'Egone ut te interpellem?' C T. D. ii. 18.
*Utne tegam spurco Damae latus?' Hor. S. ii. 5. 18.
'Confitere hue ea spe venisse,' C. S. Rose. i-z. * Dissimulare etiam sperasti,
perfide, tantum posse nefas?' Verg. Aen. iv. 305.
* Par est, primum ipsum esse virum bonum, tum alterum similem sui quaerere,' C.
Lael. 22. 'Prima sequentem honestum est in secundis tertiisque consistere,'
C. Or. I.
*Tu fac, quod facis, ut me ames teque amari a me scias,' C. Fam. xiii. 47.
* De Antonio tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me conventum,' C. Att. xv. i.
* Platonem ferunt idem sensisse quod Py thagoram,' C. T. D. i. 17.
'Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 62. *Nuntiatur
Afranio, magnos comitatusad flumen cons t it isse,' Caes. B. C. i. 51. * Si Veios mi-
grabimus, non reliquisse victores, sed amisisse victi patriam videbimur,' L. v.
53. 'Non mihi videtur ad beate vivendum satis p osse virtutem,' C. T. D. v. 5.
§ 202.
Interrogatio Obliqua,
44S
3) An Oblique Interrogation must be carefully distinguished
from an Adjectival (Relative) Clause.
The former depends on the principal V'erb, and requires the
Subjunctive: Intellego quae mihi narres, / understand what
things you are telling me ; where quae is from the Interrog. qui.
The latter is referred to a Demonstrative, expressed or under-
stood, and does not require a Subjunctive: Intellego (ea) quae
mihi narras, / understand those things which you tell me, where
quae is from the Relative qui.
(Cp. d. Or, ii. 74. 299 ; T. D. v. 8, in which there is an irregular transition from the
Personal construction to the Clause.)
(2) The Enuntiative Ut-clause.
*Quando fuit ut, quod licet, non liceret?' C. /. Cael. 20. 'Absit a nobis ut
ex incommodo alieno nostram occasionem petamus,' L. iv. 58. 'Reliquum est ut
certemus officiis inter nos,' C. Fain, vii. 21. *Rarum est ut satis se quisqu£ vere-
atur,' C. /. Fl. 27. *Fit fere ut cogitationes sermonesque nostri pariant aliquid in
somno,' C. Soimt. r. 'Fieri potest ut recte quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite
eloqui non possit,' C. 7". Z>. i. 3. * Valde optanti utrique nostrum cecidit ut in
istum sermonem delaberemini,' C. d. Or. i. 21. *Mos est hominum ut nolint
eundem pluribus rebus excellere,' C. Br. 21. *Quam habet aequitatem, ut agrum
multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum qui nullum habuit habeat, qui au tern
habuit amittat?' C Off. ii. 22. * Ut colloqui cum Orpheo, Musaeo, Homero, Hesiodo
liceat, quanti tandem aestimatis? ' C. T. D. i. 41.
{.Inf. Clatise or ut.) * Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, sequitur ut falsa sit,' C.
Fat. 12. * Si, quod honestum est, id solum est bonum, sequitur vitam beatam
virtute confici,' C. T. D. v. 8. 'Restat ut doceam, omnia, quae sint in hoc
mundo, hominum causa facta esse,' C. A^. D. ii. 61. *Restat Bactra novis, restat
Babylona tributis frenari,' Stat. 6". i. 40. 'Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam
esse rempublicam,' C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Expedit omnibus ut singulae civitates sua
iura et suas leges habeant,' L. xxxiv. i. ' Puero opus est cibum ut habeat,'
Plant. True, v, i. 'Nunc opus est te animo vale re, ut corpore possis,' C. Fam.
xvi. 14. * Tris convenit res habere narrationem, ut brevis, ut dilucida, ut
verisimilis sit,'^i///,?r. i. 9. 'Verisimile est, cum optimus quisque maxime poste-
ritati serviat, esse aliquid, cuius is post mortem sensum sit habiturus,' C. T. D. i.
15. 'An verisimile est ut civis Romanus aut homo liber cum gladio in forum
descenderit antelucem?' C. /. Sest. 36. 'Potest illud esse falsum, ut circum-
ligatus fuerit angui,' C. Div. ii. 31. ' Haud falsa sum nos odiosas haberi/
Ter. Run. ii. 2.
(So credibile, aequum, rectum, verum est, and other adjective predications, can take
cither Clause. )
(3) " The Enuntiative Quod-clause.
'Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi quod alienae erat civitatis,*
N. Eutn.i. 'Aristoteles laudandus est in eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura
moveri censuit aut vi aut voluntate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. 'Ex tota laude Reguli unum
illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit,' C. Off. iii. 31.
'Quanta ilia benign itas naturae, quod tarn multa ad vescendum tam varia tamque
iucunda gignit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Mitto quod invidiam, quod omnis meas tem-
pestates subieris,' C. (mitto =dicendum non puto).
(Quod, cum, with Verbs of Emotion.') 'Sane gaudeo quod te interpellavi,' C.
Leg. iii. i. 'Dolet mihi quod tu nunc stomacharis,' C ad.Br.i.xj. 'Gratulor
tibi quod salvum te ad tuos recepisti,' C. Fam. xiii. 73. 'Laudo te cum isto
animo es,' C. A Mil. 36. 'Haec urbs laetari videtur quod tantam pestem e7>o-
muerit,' C. Cat. ii. i. 'Memini gloriari solitum es.se Q. Hortensium quod
nunquam bello civili interfuisset,' C. Fatn. ii. 16.
{Inf. Clatcse with Verbs of Emotion.) 'Gaudeo, id te mihi suadere, quod ego
mea. spontefeceram,' C. Att. xv. 27. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te
fuisse et animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii i. ' Lentulus se alterum fore Sullam
inter suos gloriatyr,' Caes. B. C. i. 4. ' Gratulor Oechaliam titulis accedere
nostris,' Ov. Her. ix. i. * Inferiores non dolere debent, se a suis superari,' C.
Lael. 20.
446
Latin Syntax.
§ 202.
4) Some examples, which at first sight seem to shew Indie, in
Oblique Intern, really belong either to Interr. Recta:
' Quin tu uno verbo die, quid est quod me velis now tetl
me in one word, what do you want with me f Ten A7t. i. 1. 18.
Or to Adjectival (Relative) construction :
'Nihil est admirabiUus quam quomodo ille fill mortem tulit,'
nothing is more admirable than the 7nanner iri which he bore his
son's deaths C. Cat, M, 4.
But the Comic poets use the Indie, in Oblique Interr. as an idiom
of parlance ; and some examples occur in later poets, but not in
good Latin prose ; for examples cited from Cicero are either corrupt
readings or direct Interrogations.
(Curyi?;' quod. ) *Prlmum illud reprehendo et accuse cur in re tarn veteri tarn
usitata quicquam novi feceris/ C. Verr. iii. 7. * Repeto me correptum ab avunculo
cur ambularem: Poteras, inquit, has horas non perdere,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 'Miror
cur philosophiae prope helium indixe ris,* C. d. Or. ii. 37.
(Ut quod. ) 'Accedit ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod nihil est
animo velocius/ C. T. D. i. 19. 'Accedit quod Caesar ingeniis excellentibus delec -
tatur,' C. Fam. vi. 6. 'Accidit ut Athenienses Chersonesum colonos ve llent mittere,*
N. Milt. i. *Accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti,' C. Att. i. 17.
*Evenit inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi,' Hor. 6". i. 3. 28. 'Magna me spes
tenet, bene mihi e venire quod 7nittar 2A mortem,' C. T. D. i. 41. * Invitus facio
ut recorder ruinas reipublicae,' C. in Vatin. 8. * Noli putare pigritia me facere
quod non mea manu scribam,' C. Aii. xvi. 15.
(Interest, refert take all three clauses, besides other constructions. See § 203.)
II) Petitio Obliqua.
* Petes a Crasso ut earn copiam in lucem proferat,' C. d. Or. i. 35. *Ate id,
quod suesti, peto, me absentem diligas et defendas,'C. Fam. xv. 8. ' Non peto
ut decernatur aliquid novi, sed ut ne quid novi decernatur,' C. Fam. \\. 7.
* Magnum documentum ne patriam rem perdere quis velit,' Hor. S. i. 4. iii. *Ex-
ercitus Alexandrum lacrimis deprecatur, finem tandem belli faceret,' lust. xii. 8.
*Alcibiades lacrimans supplex erat Socrati, ut sibi virtutem traderet turpitudi-
nemque depelleret,' C. T. D. iii. 32. 'Id te rogo, ut valetudini tuae diligentissime
servias,*C. Qu. Fr. i. i. ' Cum magnum aliquod munus susceperis, hoc te rogo, ne
demittas animum, neve te obrui tamquam fluctu, sic magnitudine negoti sin as,' C.
Qu. Fr. i. I. 'Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opimius consul videret nequid
res publica detrimenti caperet,' C. Cat. i. 2. * Gabinius egerat aliud nihil nisi ut,
urbes depopularetur,' C. in Pis. 17. 'Qui stadium currit, eniti et contendere
debet ut vincat,' C. Oj^. iii. 10. ' Coeperunt ponere leges ne quis fur esset neu
latro,' Hor. i. 3. 105. 'Vetusest lex ilia iustae veraeque amicitiae, ut idem amici
semper velint,' C. Plane. 1. 'Ariovistus respondit ius esse belli ut qui
vicissent iis quos vicissenty quemadmodum vellent, imperarent. Factum est
senatus-consultum, ut duo viros aedilis ex Patribus dictator populum rogaret,'
L. vi. 42. 'Bene maiores nostri hoc comparaverunt, ut neminem regem, quem
2aTMS, cepissent,V\X.2i priv sirent,' ad Her. iv. 16.
'N untia Patribus, urbem muni ant, et Fabio, Aemitium et vixisse et adhuc mori,*
L. xxii. 49. 'Dicam tuis ut librum tuum describant ad teque mittant,* C. Fajn.
xiii. 17. 'Die ad cenam veniat,' Hor. 'Dicebam tibi ne matri consuleres male,
Plaut. As. V. 2. 'Rogo ergo scribas tuis, ut liberto villa, ut domus pa teat,
Plin. Fp. V. 19. 'Caesar ad Lamiam scripsTt, ut ad ludos omnia pararet,' C. Att,
xiii. 45.
(Auctor sum, / advise, takes ut, ne ; auctor sum, / assure, takes Infin. Clause.)
(Quominus.) 'Quid *obstat quominus Deus sit beatns?' C. .V. D. i. 34.
' I socrati, quominus haberetur summus orator, non ofifecit quod infirmitate
vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Plin. FJ>. vi. 29. 'Nihil ne ego
quidem moror quominus decemviratu abeam,' L. iii. 54. 'Praetor Samnitibus
respondit: Nec quominus perpetua cum eis amicitia esset, per populum Roma-
num stetisse ; nec contradici, quin amicitia de integro reconcilietur ; quod
Interrogatio Obliqua,
447
5) Nesc io quis (qui), &c., followed by Indicative, is a special
exception, being regarded as Pronominal = a liqu is, aliqui. So
mirum quantum, immane quantum, &c.
See § 86-97.
6) By Greek attraction the Subject of the Clause sometimes be-
comes Object of the Principal Verb : (See § 128, 3.)
'Sanguinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa videor posse dicere
unde concreta sint,^ I think I can state what bloody bile, phlegTn,
and bones are formed frojn, C. 7". Z>. i. 24. * R e m f r u m e n t a r i a m
ut satis commode supportari posset timere se dicebant,' //^^j/
they were afraid the supply of corn cotdd not be furnished easily,
Caes. B, G. i. 39.
ad Sidicinos attineat, nihil intercedi, quominus Samniti populo pads bellique
liberum , arbitrium sit,' L. viii. 2. 'Qui domum meam, quominus ruat, fulcit,
praestat mihi beneficium ; ipsa enim domus sine sensu est,' Sen. Ben. v. 19. ' Saepe
accidit in mari, ut naves teneantur quominus in portum pervenire possint,' Caes.
B. G. iv. 22.
(Quominus, being a Final Particle, may also be represented by ne, with prohibeo, im-
pedio, deterreo, deprecor, and many other Verbs.)
(Quin.) *Npn est dubiumquin beneficium sit etiam invito prodesse,' Sen. Ben. v.
19. *Numquam mihi dubium fuit quin ate diligerer,' C. Att. xvi. 19. 'Non
dubito* quin probaturus sim vobis defensionem meam,' C. Mil. 4. 'Quis du-
bitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint ? ' C. Par. 6. 'Nolite dubitare
quin {do not hesitate to) Pompeio uni credatis omnia,' C. /. L. M. 20. 'Tempe-
rare non potuit quin facti reminisceretur,' Suet. Claud. 4. 'Nihil abest
quin sim miserrimus,' C. Att. ii. 15. 'Hand procul erat quin castra turbarentur,'
L. v. 12. 'Vergilii et Livii scripta paulum afuit quin ex omnibus bibliothecis amo-
veret Caligula,' Suet. Cal. 34. 'Nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin
Pompeium a Caesaris coniunctione avocarem,' C. Phil. ii. 2. 'Equidem numquam
domum misi unam epistulam, quin esset adte altera,' C. Fam. ii. lO.
(On *non quin,' see Causal Clauses.)
(Dubito also takes a Prol. Inf. or Inf. Cla^ise, or Interr. Obi.) *Nondubitaviida
te per litteras petere,' C. Fam. ii. 6. ' Pompeius non dubitat, ea, quae de re-
publica nunc sentiat, mihi valde probari,' C. Att. vii. i. (See Interr. Obi.)
{Fear. )*Metuoneid consili ceperimus, quod non satis explicare />ossiniuSy' C. Fam.
xiv. 12. 'Timor Romae grandis fuit, ne iterum Galli Romam redirent,' Eutr. v. i.
'Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis,' L. xxiv. 42. *Non
vereor ne mea vitae modestia parum valltura sit contra falsos rumores,' C. Fam.
xi. 28. 'Omnis labores te excipere video; timeo ut sustineas,' C. Fam. xiv. 2
* Hoc quia vos foedus non iusseritis, veretur Hiempsal ut satis firmum sit et ratum,'
C. d. L. Agr. ii. 21. ' Veremur ne forte non aliorum utihtatibus, sed propriae laudi
servisse videamur,' PHn. Ep. i. 8. 'Nese penuria victus opprimeret metuebat,*
Hor. S. i. I. 98. *Extimui ne vos ageret vesania discors,' Hor. 6^. ii. 3. 174.
{Caution.) ' Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videatar, cogitandum tamen est
re tutior non sit,' C. Fam. iv. 9. ' Videamus ne beata vita ex sui similibus partibus
effici debeat,* C. T. D. v. 15. 'Credere omnia vide ne non sit necesse, C. Div.
ii. 13. *Ad rempublicam gerendam qui accedit, caveat ne id modo consideret, quarn
ilia res honesta sit, sed etiam, ut (=ne non) habeat efficiendi facultafem,' C. Off. i. 21.
(where considero is constructed like vereor). * Haec mea cura est, ne quidtu perdas
neu sis iocus,' Hor. S. ii. 5, 36. (See Hor. Epist. i. 5. 21-28.)
(Caveo, take care, is used with ut : caveo, beware, with ne, or suppressing ne.)
'Caveamus ut ea, quae pertinent ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem, moderata sint,*
C. Off. i. 39. * Lege Cincia cavetur ne quis ob causam orandam pecuniam donumve
accipiat,' Tac. A.^in. xi. 5. 'Cave festines aut committas ut aut aeger aut
hieme naviges,' C. Fam. xvi. 12.
{Verbs which form periphrases.") 'Non committam ut in scribendo neglegen^
fuisse videar/C. Fam. v. 9. * Numquam omnino perlculi fuga committendum est
ut imbelles timidique videamur/ C. Off. i. 24. 'Omne animal id agit ut se con;.
44^ Latin Syntax. § 203.
Note. Many of the Verbs included in II. III. of this Section ad-
mit a variety of dependent constructions.
The range of such variety is :
I. Ut. 2. Omission of ut. 3. Xe. 4, Infin. Clause. \a. That
form of Clause in which the Infin. is Perf. Pass., suppressing esse
(nollem datum). 5. Object-case and Infin.; or Infin., suppressing
Object-case (hortamur fari). 6. Prolative Infin., the Finite Verb
being Active (vult ire). 7. Prolative Infin., the Fin. Verb being
Passive. 8. Oblique Interrogation. 9. Ouominus. <^a. Ouin.
servet,' C. Fin. v, 9. *Potuit animum inducere ut se patrem esse oblivisceretur,*
Q. p. S. Rose. 19. * Faciam {will cause) ex tragoedia comoedia ut sit,' Plaut. Am.
Prol. 54. *Invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eic erem(=invitus eieci),' C. Cat. M. 12.
*Omnes concedant oporter, numquam facturum {allow kiifiself) virum bonum ut men-
dacium dicat,' Qu. xii. 15. Y2.z{s7ippose), quaeso. quiego jzw, esse te,' C. Fam. vii. 23.
* Facut vale as,' C. ' Fac int ellegam, tu quid sentias,' C. N. D. 'Quid a me fieri potuit
aut elegantius aut iustius, quam ut sumptus egentissimarum civitatum minuerem?' C.
Fam. iii. 8. 'Faciendum mihi puta\H ut litteris tuis breviter responderem,' do. * M.
Crassi consilio factum est ne fugiti\i ad Messanam transire possent,'C. Verr. v. 2,
* Clamabant fore ut ipsi sese di ulciscerentur,' C. Verr. iv. 40. * Quibus oculis animi
intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam tanti operis, qua construia deo atque aedi-
ficari mundum facit {proves)''.'' C. -A". D. i. 8. 'PoK-phemum Homerus cum immanem
ferumque finxisset, cum ariete etiam colloquentem facit {makes), eiusque la u da re
fortunas, quod qua vellet ingredi posset et quae vellet attingere,' C. T. D. v. 39. * Nati
me coram cernere letum fecisti {caused),' Verg. Ae. ii. 538. 'Quae est Socratis
oratio, qua facit {f>iakes) eum Plato usum apud iudices iam morte multatum ? ' C.
T. D. i. 40. ' Dolabella plus fecit {-made out) Verrem accepisse, quam iste in suis
tabulis habuit,' C. Verr. i. 39. ' E ffi c i t u r r^-^-i/Z/j) igitur f a t o fieri quaecumque
Jiatit,' C. Fat. 10. 'Fides ut habeatur duabus rebus effici {be achieved) •^ox.&?>x., si
existimabimur adepti coniunctam cum iustitia prudentiam,' C. Off. ii. 9. 'Sol efficit
(causes) ut omnia floreant et in sue quaeque genere pubescant,' C. N. D. ii. 15.
*Vos effici {be brought aboid) negatis sine divina posse sollertia ut innumerabilis
natura mundos efFectura s i t, effici at, effecerit,' C. X D. i. 20. * Potestis efficere
ut male moriar; ne moriar, non potestis/ Plin. Ep. iii. 16.
Ill) Interrogatio Obliqua.
* Istud non est beneficium, sed fenus, rircumspicere, non ubi optlme ponas, sed
ubi quaestuosissime habeas, unde facillime tollas,' Sen. Ben. iv. 3. 'Solon Pisis-
trato t)'ranno, quaerenti, qua tandem spe fretus sibi tam audaciter obsisteret, re-
spondisse dicitur : Senectute,' C. Cat. M. 20. 'Sapiens videbit, ubi victurus sit,
cum quibus, quomodo, quid acturus : cogitat semper, qualis vita, non quanta
sit,' Sen. Ep. 70. ' Si vis gratus esse adversus Deum, recordare, quam multa sis
consecutus; cum adspexeris, quot te antecedant, cogita, quot sequantur»
cogita, quam multos antecesseri.s,' Sen. Ep. 15. ' Vides ut alta stet nive can-
didum Soracte,' Hor. C. i. 9. i. ' Matri denarrat ut ingens belua cognatos eliserit,'
Hor. vS". ii. 3. 315 (see Hor. Epist. i. 8. 3). 'A me consilium petis, quid tibi sim
auctor, in Siciliane subsidas an ad reliquias Asiaticae negotiationis profici.s-
care?' C. Fayti. vL 8. 'Apud Germanos ea consuetude erat ut matres familiae eorum
sortibus et vaticinaticnibus declararent, utrum proelium committi ex usu esset
necne,' Caes. B. G. i. 50. * Non id quaeritur, sintne aliqui, qui deos esse putetit
di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur,' C. N. D. iiL 7. 'Antigonus nondum sta-
tuerat, conservaret Eumenem necne,' N. Eujn. 11. * Di immortales, sit Latium
deinde annon, in vestra manu posuerunt,* L. viii. 13. * Metellus transfugas et alios
opportunos, lugurtha ubi gentium, aut quid ageret, cum paucisne esset an ex-
ercitum habere t, exploratum misit,' Sail. lug. 54. 'Quae parare et quaerere
arduum fuit, nescio an tueri difficilius sit,' L. xxxvii. 54. 'Haud scioan quae
dixit sint vera omnia,' Ter. Aft. iii, 2. 45. *Si per se virtus sine fortuna ponderanda
sit, dub i to an Thrasybulum primum omnium p on am,' N. Thr. i. (See Hor. Epist.
i. 12. 16-20; i. 18. 96-103 ; ad Pis. 114-118. 307-315.)
{Impersonal Verbs: Interest, refert.) ' Illud mea magni interest, te ut videam.'
C. Att. xi. 22. ' Illud permagni refer re arbitror, ut ne scientem sentiat te id sibi
dare,' Ter. Haut. iiL i. 58. ' Epistulae inventae sunt, ut certiores faceremus absenlis, si
•03
Verbs
vari-
ously
con-
struc-
ted.
§ 203.
Various Constructions of Verbs
449
Constructions within this range taken by certain Verbs.
a) Impersonal Verbs :
Interest and refert: i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 8. Licet and necesse
est : (i) 2. 4. 5. 6. Oportet : 2. 4. 4^7. 5.
b) Verbs of Desire :
Volo : I. 2. 3. 4. AfU. 5. 6. Malo : i. 2. 4. 5. 6. Nolo : i. 2.
4. 4^. 6. Opto : I. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. Studeo : i. 3. 4. 4^. 6.
Cupio : 4. 4^. 6.
c) Various
lubeo : i. 2. 4. 5. 7. Cogo : i. 4. 5. 7. Patior : i. 4. 6.
Sino : i. 2. 4. 5. 7. Concedo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Permiito :
I. 2. 4. 5. 8. Impero : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mando : i. 2.
3. 4. Praecipio : i. 2. 3. 5. 8. Veto : 3. 5. 7. 9. Pro-
hibeo : i. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 9^. Impedio : 3. 5. 9. Hortor
and oro : i. 2. 3. 5. Postulo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Suadeo
and persuadeo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Doceo^ i. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mo-
neo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Censeo : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Video : i.
3. 4. 7. 8. Curo : i. 2. 3. 4. (espec. Gerundive) 5. 8.
Statuo : I. 3. 4. 6. 8. Dico : i. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8.
quid esset, quod eos scire aut nostra aut ipsorum interessety C. ii. 4. * Par\-i
refert. vos publicanis amissis vectigalia postea ^*ictoria recuperare,' C. p. L,. Man. 7.
*Theodori nikil interest humine an sublime putrescat,' C. T. D. i. 43. *Aves
pascantur necne quid refert?' C. Div. ii. 35.
(Necesse est, oportet, licet.) ' Qui se metui volent, a quibus metuentiir, eosdem
metuant ipsi necesse est,' C. Oj^. ii. 7. 'Animus oportet tuus te iudicet divitem,
non hominum sermo, neque possessiones tuae,' C. Par. vi. i. ' To lias licet,' Hor. Ep.
i- 16. 76. 'A Deo mundum necesse est regi,' C, N. D. ii. 30. 'Narrationem
oportet tris habere res, ut brevis, ut aperta, utprobabilis sit,'C. hiv. i. 20 'Neque
nos lepore tuo, neque te, si quis est in toe, meofrui licet propter molestissimas oc-
cupationes meas,' C. Fam. vii. i. ' Non dubitabit, quid me sentire conveniat, cum,
quid mihi sentire necesse sit, cogitarit,' C. d. Pr. C. i. ' Ifnpetrabis a Caesare,
ut tibi abesse liceat et esse otioso,' C. Att. ix. 2. ' Is erat annus, quo per leges
ei consulem fieri liceref,' Caes. B. C. iii. i. ' Adulescenfi morem gestumopor-
tuit,' Ter. Ad. ii. 2. 6.
{Verbs of Desire.') ' Maiores vol ue runt, qui testimonium diceret, ut arbitrari se
diceret, etiam quod ipse vidisset \ quaeque iurati iudices cog7wvisse7it, ea non ut esse
facta, sed ut Nnderi pfonuntiarent,' C. Ac. ii. 47. ' Nolo mentiare,* Ter. Eun. v.
2. ' Tu ad me de rebus omnibus s crib as velim,' C. Faui. viii. 13. * Vellem equidem
aut ipse Epicurus doctrinis fuisset instructior aut ne deterruisset alios a studiis,*
C. Fin. \. 7. 'Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stulti cives laudent,' L. xxii.
39- * Caesar studebat maxime ut partem oppidi a reliqua parte urbis excluderet,'
Hirt. B. A. I. * Optandum est ut ii, qui praesunt reipublicae, legum similes sint,
quae ad puniendum non iracundia sed aequitate ducuntnr,'' C. Off. i. 25. 'Optavi
pe teres caelestia sidera tarde,' Ov. Trist. ii. 57. 'Videmini intenta mala, quasi fulmen,
op tare, se quisque ne attingant,' Sail. Fr.
'Ego me Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73.
Cupio, me esse clemente m ; cupio, in tantis rei publicae periculis menondisso-
lutum videri,* C. Cat. L 2. * Quam multa passus est Ulixes in illo errore diutumo,
cum et mulieribus inser%'iret et in omni sermone omnibus affabilem et iucundum
esse se vellet,' C. Off. \. 31. ' Homo tenuis gratum se videri studet,' C. Off. iL 20.
'Te mihi ipsum iamdudum optaram dari,* Ter. H. iv. 4. 10.
'Domestica cura te levatum volo,' C. Qu. F. iii. g, ' Patres ordinem publicanorum
in tali tempore offensum nolebant,' L. xxv. 3. ' Nollem factum,'/';;? sorry for it^
^t.r.Ad. \\. I. ' Duabus de causis a te potissimum petere constitui quod impetratum
maxime cupio,' Plin. Ep. ii. 13.
'Volo is e sse quern tu me es>e voluisti,' C. /^czw. i 7. 'Nolo esse laudator na
G G
4SO
Latin Syntax,
§ 203.
videar adulator,' ad Her. iv. 21. * Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat/ Sail. Cat.
54. * Hunc videre optabamus diem/ Ter. ^^c. iv. 4. 26. * Scire studeo quid egeris,
C. Att. xiii. 20. 'Cupio te consulem videre,'C. Favt. xv. 13.
(lubeo.) * L. Quinctius iussit ut, quae ex sua classe venissent naves, Euboeam pete-
rent,' L. xxxii. II. *Velitis iubeatis Quirites, uti L. Valerius L. Titio iure legeque
filius siet,' Gell. V. 19. ' lube mihi denuo respondeat,' Ter. Eun. iv. 4. 24. 'Dio-
genes proici se iussit inhumatum,' C. T, D. i. 43. 'lubeo gaudere te,' C. Fain.
vii. 2. ' lussi ei dari bibere,' Ter. An. iii. 2. 4. 'Transire in Epirum est iussus,'
L. XXXV. 24.
(Cogo.) 'Quid Paris? ut salvus regnet vivatque beatus cogi posse negat,' H or.
Epist. i. 2. 10. ' Nonne di ipsi cogent ab his virtutibus tanta vitia superari,' C. in
Cat. ii. II. ' Innumerabilia sunt ex quibus cogi {be necessarily inferred) possit nihil
esse, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat,' C. N. D. iii. 13. 'Num te erne re
coegit, qui ne hortatus quidem est,' C. Off. iii. 13. * Neque cogi pugnare poterat
rex,' L. xlv. 41.
(Patior.) 'Nein turpi quidem reo patiendum estut quicquam adversarii se minis
proficere arbitrentur,' C. p. Font. 12. 'Consilium meum a te probari facile
patior,' C. Att. xv. 2. 'Patior vel inconsultus haberi,' Hor. Epist. i. v. 15.
(Sino.) 'Sivi animum ut expleret suum,' Ter. An. i. 2. 27. 'Sine te hoc exo-
rem,' Ter. A71. v. 3. 30. ' Germani vinum ad se importari non sinunt,' Caes.
B. G. iv. 2. 'Sineres tu ilium tecum facere haec?' Ter. Ad. iii. 3. 42.
* Accusare eum moderate a quo nefarie accusatur, non est situs,' C. Sest. 44.
(Concedo.) 'Concedo sit dives,' Catull. cxlii. 5. 'Non concedam ut Attico
nostro iucundiores tuae litterae fuerint quam mihi,' C. Fain. xiii. 18. 'Concede,
nihil esse bonum, nisi quod honestum j// : concedendum est, in virtute sola posi-
tam esse beatam vitam,' C. Fin. v. 28. 'Concedunt plangere matri,' Stat. Th.
v. 134. ' Quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti,' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12.
(Permitto.) ' Quis Antonio permisit ut partis faceret?' C. d. Or. ii. 90.
*Permissum ipsi erat faceret quod e republica ducetet esse,' L. xxxiii. 45. * Ille
meas errare boves, ut cernis, et ipsum ludere quae vellem calamo permisit
agresti,' Verg. B. i. 9. 'Rex Cononi permisit quern vellet eligere,' N. Con. 4.
*Tibi permitto, responderene mihi malis, an universam orationem audire meam,' C.
N. D. iii. I.
(Impero.) ' Senatus imperavit decemviris ut libros Sibyllinos inspicerent,* L.
vii. 27. ' Leto det imperat Argum,' Ov. M. i. 670. ' Mihi ne abscedam imperat,
Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 30. 'Pro serapionis libro tibi praesentem pecuniam solvi impe-
ravi,' C. Att. ii. 4. 'Imperavi egomet mihi omnia assentari,' Ter. Enn. ii. 2. 21.
* Animo nunc iam otioso esse impero,' Ter. An. v. 2. i. 'Haec ego procurare et
idoneus imperor et non invitus,' Hor, Epist. i. 5. 21. 'In lautumias Syracusanas de-
duci imperantur,' C. Verr. v. 27. 'Imperabat coram quid opus facto esset,' Ter.
Ph. i. 4.
(Praecipio.) ' Atheniensibus praecepit, ut Miltiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent;
id si fecissent, incepta prospera futura,' Nep. Milt. i. 'His praecipit omnis
mortalis pecunia aggrediantur,' Sail. lug. 30. 'Haec praecipienda videntur
historiarum lectoribus, ne alienos mores ad suos referant, neve ea, quae ipsis leviora
sunty pari modo apud ceteros fuisse arbitrentur,' Nep. Ep. i. 'Sunt qui p rae ci-
piant herbas satureia nocentis sumere,' Ov. ^4. ii. 415. ' Huic indici qui d fieri
vellent praeceperunt,' N. Paus. 4.
(Veto.) * Pontus erat vetitus ne mergeret aequore terram,' Man. iv. 645.
' Vetabo qui Cereris sacrum vutgarit arcanae sub isdem sit trabibus, ' Hor. C. iii. 2. 26.
* Non ego, avarum cum veto te fieri, vappam iubeo aut nebulonem,' Hor. Sat. i. i.
103. Desperatis etiam Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicinam,' C. Att. xvi. 15.
'Nolani muros portasque ad ire vet iti sunt,* L. xxxiii. i6. ' Sapientia nulla re quo-
minus se exerceat ve tar i potest,' Sen. 9.
Prohibeo.) * Id potuisti prohibere ne fieret,* C. in Caec 10. (One example of
prohibere ut : * Di prohibeant ut hoc . . . praesidium sectorum existimetur,' C.
p. S. Rose. 52.) Ignis fieri in castris prohibet,' Caes. B. G. vi. 29. ' Peregrinos
urbibus uti prohibent,' C. Off. iii. 11. *AIii diurnum victum prohibiti quae-
re re,' Suet. Ner. 36. * Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse quominus de te certum
haberemus,' C. Fain. xii. 5. 'Neque me luppiter neque di omnes id prohibebunt
quin sic faciam uti constitui,' Plant. An. v. 3. 17.
(Trapedio.) * Isocrates infirmitate vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Pliiu
§203.
Various Constn/ctiojis of Verbs.
451
E^. V. 2q, * Cur iudices reipublicae munere impediantur quo setiu s suis rebus ct
commodis servire possint?' C. /wz'. ii. 45. * Aetas no 11 imped it <juonunus,
litterarum studia teneamus usque ad ultiraum tempus senectutis,' C. CaL M. 17.
(Impedire quin is rare and not good). * Quid est quod me impediatea quae mihi pro-
babilia videantur sequi?' C. O^. ii. 7.
(Postulo.) 'Tribuni plebis postulant ut sacrosancti habeantur,' L. Hi. 19.
* Postulo, Appi, etiam atque etiam consideres quo progrediare,' L. iii. 45. 'Legates
ad Bocchum mittit postulatum. ne sine causa hostis populo Romano fie ret,' Sail. Ing.
83. 'Postulant non ut ne cogantur statuere. Quid igitur? ut ipsis ne liceat.*
C. Verr, ii. 60. 'Hie postulat se Romae absolvi,' C. Verr. iv. 60. ' Incerta haec
si tu postules ratione certa face re, nihilo plus agas quam si des operam ut cum
ratione insanias,' Ter. -£"7^. i. i. 16. ' Postulat deus credi,' Curt. vi. 43. (Flagito
has the same construction.)
(Suadeo. Persuadeo.) ' Caesar mihi ut sibi essem legatus non solum sua sit, verum
etiam rogavit,' C. d. Pr. C. 17. ' Dolabellae quod scripsi suadeo videas,' C. Fajn.
ii. 15. 'Pelopidas persuasit Thebanis, ut subsidio Thessaliae proficiscerentur,
tyrannosque eius expellerent,' N. Pe/. 5. ' Huic Albinus persuadet regnum Numi-
diae ab senatu petat,' Sail. /t{£: 39. 'Duo tenipora inciderunt quibus aliquid contra
Caesarem Pompeio suaserim ; unum ne quinquennii imperium Caesari prorogaret;
alterum ne pateretur ferri ut absentis eius ratio haberetur: quorum, si utrumvis per-
suasissem, in has miserias nunquam incidissemns,' C. P/ii/. ii. 19. 'Mihiab adoles-
centia suasi nihil esse in vita magnopere expetendum nisi laudem atque hones-
tatem,' C. Arch. 6. 'Mihi numquam persuade ri potuit animos, dutn in corporibus
essent mortalibus, vivere, cum exissent ex iis, emori,' C. Cat. M. 22. ' Nobis per-
suasum est, fore aliquando, ut omnis hie mundus ardore deflagret,' C. Ac. ii. 37.
' Saepes . . . somnum suadebit in ire,' Verg. .5. i. 56. 'Persuasum est facere
cuius nunc me factipudet,' Plaut. Bacc. iv. 8. 93. ' Dionysio persuasit Plato tyrarinidis
facere finem,' N. Dion, "^^i^rare). See Verg. Aen. xii. 814.
(Doceo.) ' Philosophia nos cum ceteras res, tum quod est difficillimum, docuit, ut
nosmet ipsos nosceremus,* C. Les;. i. 22. 'Orpheum poetam docet Aristoteles nun-
quam fuisse,* C. A^. Z>. i. 38. 'Declamare doces,* luv. vii. 150. ' Graece loqui-
docendus sum,* C. Fin. ii. 5. ' Invideo magistro tuo, qui te tanta mercede nihil
sapere docuit,' C. Phil. ii. 4. *Ne litteras quidem uUas accepi, quae me docerent
quid ageres,' C. Fam. iii. 6.
(Moneo.) ' Hanc habet vim praeceptum Apollinis, quo monet, ut se quisque nosca:t ,
non enim, credo, idpraecipit, ut membra nostra, aut staturam figuramve noscamus,
C. T. D. i. 22. * Caesar legatos monuit ad nutum et ad tempus omnes res ab iis ad-
ministrarentur,' Caes. B. G. iv. 23. 'Caesar cum a summo haruspice moneretur
ne in Africam transmitteret, nihilominus transmisit,' C. Div. ii. 24. ' Caecos in-
stare tumultus sol monet,' Verg. G. i. 464. * Ratio ipsa monet amicitias com-
parare,*C. Fin. i. 20. * Soror alma monet succedere Lauso T u rn u m,' Verg. .<4^«.
X. 439. ' Moneo quid facto opus sit,' Ter. Ad. iii. 5. 65.
{C&n&QO, Judge, vote.) ' Plerique censebant ut noctu iter face ret,' Caes. B. G. i.
57. 'Arcessas censeo omnis navalis terrestrisque copias,' L. xxxvi. 7. 'Stolida
impudensque postulatio visa est, censere ne in Italiam transmittant Galli bellum,*
L. xxi. 20. 'Aristoteles omnia aut natura moveri censet (^judges) aut vi aut volun-
tate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. (The two next examples are idiomatic. 'Quid censes hunc
ipsum Roscium, quo studio esse in rusticis rebus ? ' C. /. 6". Rose. 17. 'Quid cen-
semus superiorem ilium Dionysium, quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum?' C-
Off. ii. 7.) 'Bona regis reddi censuerunt,' L. li. 5. ' Regulus captivos in senatu
reddendos non censuit,' C. Off. i. 13. 'Antenor censet belli praecidere causas,'
Hor. Epist. i. 2. 9.
(Video.) 'Nos id videamus ut, quidquid acciderit, fortiter et sapienter feramu.s,'
Q.Att.xiy. 13. 'Videne,' &c.: see Caution. 'Volucris videmus fingere et con-
struere nidos,' C. d. Or. ii. 6. ' Carneadem videre videor,' C. Fin. v. 2. 'Amens
mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. 10. 'Videamus primum deorumne
providentia mundus regatur, deinde consulantne rebus humanis,' C. N. D. iii. 25.
(Curo, I. 2. 3. 4. 5.) *Cura ut valeas,' C. Fani. xiv. 5. ' Ante senectutem curavi
ut bene viverem ; in senectute ut bene moriar,' Sen. Ep. 6i. * lam curabo sentiat
quos attentarit,' Phacd. v. 2. 6. 'Curanequid mihi ad hoc negoti aut oneris accedat
aut temporis,' C. Fain. iii. 8. ' Non verbum verbo curabis redder e,' Hor. in Pis. 133.
* Tu recte vivis, si curas esse quod audis,' Hor. Epist. i. 16. 17. ' Ex eo auro buculam
curavit faciendam,' C. i. 24. 'Nec herclc magno opere nunc curo quid Aetoli
censeant,' L. xxxvL 28.
G G 2
452
Latm Syntax,
§ 204-5.
Section IV.
ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES.
(These are properly considered in connexion, on account of the
Adverbial character often taken by Adjectival Clauses.)
Relative \. Rclativc OX Adjectival Clauses.
Clauses.
1) A Relative Clause is called Adjectival, because it qualifies,
like an Attribute, the Sentence on which it depends :
Deus est, qui regit mundum, qui creavit omnia, quern
veneramur, = Deus est, mundum regens, creator omnium,
veneratus a nobis.
2) A Clause may be introduced by a Relative Particle, equiva-
lent to Pronoun with Preposition :
Roma est, ubi habito, quo proficiscor, unde venio, &c. = in
qua habito, ad quam proficiscor, ex qua venio, &c.
3) The Mood in a Relative Clause will be Indie, when no reason
exists for another Mood. But the Subjunctive will be required,
(i) if the Clause is actually or virtually Suboblique ; (2) if it is
Gnomic, or, sometimes. Iterative ; (3) if the Clause contains a Con-
sequence {such that^ so that), a Purpose {in order that) ; often
when it contains a conceived Cause {since), a Condition {if), or a
Concession {atthoicgh),
4) In the latter cases (3), as an Adjective may have Adverbial
force (serus venit = sero venit), so an Adjectival Clause may become
Adverbial : as when qui = ut ego, ut tu, ut is, &c. : quo = ut eo or
CO quod : ubi = ut ibi, &c.
Hence, in considering Adverbial Clauses, it is proper, in each
kind, to include those Relative (Adjectival) Clauses which contain
Adverbial force, and always or usually require a Subjunctive.
Con°^ ii. Consecutive Clauses.
Secutive
Clauses. Consecutive Clauses are so called because they express conse-
quence or result.
A) An Adverbial Consecutive Clause is formed by the Conjunc-
tion ut, that, with Subjunctive ; often following some Demonstrative
word, but sometimes without Demonstr. { = so that).
i) Such Demonstratives are :
Adverbs : ita, tam, adeo, sic ; tantum, tantopere, totiens; eo.
hue, illuc.
Pronouns and Pronominals : is, hie, tahs, tantus ; tot, toti-
dem ; eiusmodi ; huiusmodi.
Ut also follows the Adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus,
aptus.
Ut may follow a Comparative with quam {than) : and some-
times ut falls out after quam, the Verb being still Sub-
junctive.
§ 205- Consecutive Clauses, 453
2) If Negation is required, the Negative words used are :
Non, nec, nihil, nemo, nullus, numquam, nusquam.
3) Ita miseri sunt ut fleant, fleverint {have wept)^ fleturi sint.
Ita miseri erant ut flerent, fleturi essent.
Ita miseri fuere ut fleverint (they wept).
Quis tamdurus est ut numquam fleat, fleverit, fleturus sit?
Quis tam durus eratutnon fleret, fleturus esset?
Quis tam durus fuit ut non fleverit?
[In Historic Consecution, if the fact is to be brought out, Sj
(fleverint) is used instead of S3 (flerent). The following examples
unite both constructions : — * Sicilia et classis Marcello evenit.
Quae sors, velut iterum captis Syracusis, ita exanimavit Siculos, ut
comploratio eorum flebilesque voces et extemplo oculos hominum
converterent et postmodo sermones praebuerint,' L. xxvi. 29^
* Usque eo ut compluris dies milites frumento caruerint, et . . .
extremam famem sustinerent,' Caes. B. G, vii. 17. Sg will be
necessary, when the consequence can only be referred to the time of
the writer or speaker : * Hortensius ardebat cupiditate dicendi sic
ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim {have seen), ^ C.
Br, 88.]
4) Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :
a) The phrase Uantum ab esse,' with an Enuntiative Ut-
clause, may take also a Consecutive Clause, the meaning
being so far from . . . that :
^Tantum abest ut enervetur oratio compositione ver-
borum ut aliter in ea nec impetus ullus nec vis esse
p o s s i t,' j'^? far is a speech from being weakened by periodic
arrangement^ that otherwise there can be no movetnent or
force in it^ C. Or, 68.
The Adverbial Clause after tantum abest is sometimes
changed for a Principal Sentence :
^Tantum afuit ut inflammares nostros animos, somnum
isto loco vix tenebamus.'
b The phrase * in eo esse ut ' means to be on the point of :
*Iam in eo erat ut in muros evaderet miles,' L. ii. 17.
5) Ita ut is used with various shades of meaning: {in such
circumstances; on condition; with the understanding;
with the^ feeling ; with the exception) that ; &c. : ^Clodius
Roma ita profectus est ut contionem turbulentam
relinqueret,' Cp.Mil.io. « Huius ingenium italaudo
ut non pert imes cam,' C. in Caec, 13. * Caligula in
adulescentia ita patiens laborum erat ut tamen non-
numquam subita defectione ingredi vix posset,' Suet.
Cat, 48.
6) When ita or sic implies design, the Clause is rather Final
than Consecutive, and, if Negative, takes ne: 'Hoc est
ita utile ut ne plane illudamur,' this is useful with a
view to our being not altogether made a mock of C. p,
Rose. 10. Here ita is equivalent to idcirco.
Latin Syntax,
§ 206.
7) Is ... ut (of the kind that) is often used, though not
so often as is . . . qui in the same sense: ' Ison is sum
ut mea me maxime dele c tent/ C. ad. Br. i. 15.
E) An Adjectival Consecutive Clause with a Subjunctive occurs
when qui or its Particle expresses (not the individual which, but)
the kind which ( = talis ut, ita ut, &c.).
Examples of Consecutive Clauses.
A) {^Adverbial.) * Galli dies natalis et mensium et annorum initia sic observant, ut
noctem dies subsequatur (^^^cc^^d^j- to^ Caes. B. G. vi. i8. * Socratis response sic
indices exarserunt ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent,' C. d. Or.
i. 54. 'Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus ut in vita omnia s i n t (way ^^*) apta inter
se et convenientia/ C. Off. \. 40. * Quis est tarn demens ut sua voluntate maereat
{as to mmcm)t' C. T. D iii. 29. * Decori vis ea est ut ab honesto n on queat
{cannot) separari^' C. Off. i. 27. *Non ita adulatus sum lortunam alterius ut me
meae paeniteret (<t!^ ^-^^^r/),' C. Div. ii. 2. 'Dolores,, si qui incurrunt, numquam
vim tan tarn habent, ut non plus habeat {zoill not have) sapiens, quod gaudeat, quam
quod angatur,' C. Fin. i. 19. 'Hannibal petens Etruriam adeo gravi morbo- adfici-
tur oculorum, ut postea numquam dextro aeque bene usus sij/ Nep. Hann. 4,
* Iphicrates Atheniensis fuit talis dux, ut non solum aetatis suae cun? primis com-
pararetur sed ne de maioribus natu quidem quisquam antepoReretur. Multum
vero in bello est versatus, saepe exercitibus praefuit, nusquam culpa sua male rem gessit;.
semper consilio vicit, tantumque eo valuit, ut multa in re milltari partim nova at tu-
lerit, partim meliora fecerit,' Nep. iph. i. 'Quanta ilia Scipionis fuit gravitas,
quanta in oratione maiestas, ut {so that) farife ducem Romani popuH dice res,' C. LaeL
25. 'Arboribus consjta Italia est, ut tota pomarium videatur {seems),' Varro, i.
'Cuius aures clausae veritati sunt, ut ab amico verum audire nequeat, huius salus
desperanda est,* C. Lael. 24. 'In virtute multi sunt ascensus, ut is maxime gloriaj
excel la t {excels) qui virtute plurimum fraestet,' C. Plane. 25. * Data merces est
erroris mei magna, ut me non solum pigeat stultitiae meae, sed e tiara, pudeat, qui
noxvintellexerim, Q^^}a\X£>, ut ^micis, crederem,' C. p. Dom. 11, 'Maior sum quara»
ut mancipium sim {too great to be) mei corporis,' Sen. Ep. 65. * Hoc videtur esse
altius quam ut nos humi strati suspicere possimus {too high for ns to be able)* C-
d. Or. iii. 6. ' Galba parcior fuit quam conveniret principi,*Su€t. Ga//^. 14^
'Dignus es ut possis {to be able) totum servare clientem,' Mart. x. 34. 'In-
cjigni ut a vobis redimeremur (/"i? he rajisorned) visi sumus,' L. xxii. 59. 'Tan-
tum a fuit ut Rhodiorum praesidio nostram firmaremus cJassem- ut etiam a Rhodiis
commeatu prohiberentur milites nostri,' C. Fam. xii, 15, 'Tantum abest ut
nostra miremur ut usque eq difiiciles ac morosi simus ut nobis non satisfaciat
ipse Demosthenes,' C. Or. 29. 'Tantum abes a perfectione raaxfmorum operum ut
fundamenta nondum ieceris,' C. p. Marc. 8. 'Is, qui occultus et tectus dicitur, tan-
tum abest ut se indices, perficiet etiam ut dolere alterius improbe facto Tideatur,'
C. Fin-, ii. 17. 'Ita {with this exception) probanda est mansuetudo atque dementia ut
adhibeatur reipublicae causa severitas,* C. Off. \. 25. 'Pythagoras et Plato mortem
\t2L {zvith this proviso) \2i\xd:in\. ut fugere vitam vetent,' C. Scaur. 2. ' Aristoteles
ita non sola virtute finem bonorum contineri putat ut rebus tamen omnibus virtutem
anteponat,' C. Fin. iw. 18. 'Ego tibi onus impo*iam, ita {with the nyiderstanding)
tamen ut tibi nolim molestus esse,' C. Fam. xiii. 56. 'Ego a patre ita eram
deductus ad Scaevpl^m ut a senis latere numquam discederem,'C. Lael. i. ' Potest
esse bellum, ut tqjnultus non sit {without insurrection), tumultus esse sine bello non
potest,' C. Phil. viii. i. 'Ita vobiscum amicitiam institui par est ne qua {provided
//za^ vetustior amicitia ac societas violetur,' L. vii. 31. * Minucius sciebat ita se
in provincia rem augere oportere ut ne quid de libertate deperderet,* C. Ver-r. ii. 30.
'Ea {such) invasit hpmines habendi cupido ut possideri magis quam possidere vi-
deantur,' Plin. Ep. ix. 30. ' Ea natura rerum est ut, qui sensum verae gloriae ceperit^
nihil cum hac gloria comparandum putet,' C. Phil. v. 18. 'Non is {the kind o/tnan)
es, Catilina, ut te aut pudor a turpitudiqe aut metus a periculo aut ratio a furore revo-
carit,' C. Cat. i. 9.
B) {Adjectival.) *Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat,' L. ix. 3.
*Non is sum qui, quidquid videtur, tale dicam esse quale videatiir,' C. Ac. it. 7.
'Innocentia est affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini,' C. T. D. iii. 8. 'Est
aliquid quod non oporteat, etiamgi licet,* C. p. Balb. 3. ' Quotusqui sque est
§ 2o6.
Consecutive Clauses,
455
i) This may happen :
After the Demonstratives is, eiusmodi, huiusmodi, talis,
tantus, tam, &c. :
^Habetiseum (eiusmodi, talem, tam bonum) consulem qui
parere vestris decretis non dubitet,' you have such a
consul^ as will not hesitate to obey your decrees^ C. Cat. iv.
II. * Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram
et libertatem/ nothing was so valuable that we should
barter for it our honour and freedom^ C. ad. Br. i6.
Wherever the Predication on which the Relative Clause
depends might be explained by talis or tam : for instance,
when it contains
€) Indefinite, Interrogative, Negative, and other Pronominal
words : aliquis, quidam, &c., quis, quot, quotusquisque,
&c., nemo, nihil, nullus ; unus, solus, primus, ultimus,
&c. ; nonnuUi, multi, pauci, &c.
b) Dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, &c.
c) A Comparative with quam.
d) A Verb, the Subject or Object of which (being the Antece-
dent) is not expressed, but left Indefinite. Such expres-
sions are : est qui, sunt qui, reperitur qui, habeo,
invenio, reperio qui, &c. : and many like phrases.
Even if the Antec. is expressed, the Rel. will take Subjunctive
when it defines the class or kind.
qui voluptatem neget esse bonum?' C. Div.\\.y^. 'Nullum est animal praeter homi-
nem, quod habeat notitiam aliquam Dei,' C. Leg. i. 8. 'Nihil est quod tam
miseros faciat quam impietas et scelus,' C. Fin. iv. 24. 'Multae hodie sunt gentes
quae tantum facie noverint caelum, quae nondum sciant cur luna deficiat,' Sen. N.
Qu. vi. 25. 'Sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nos exhor-
rescere metu non sinat,'C. Fin. i. 13. * Sola est in qua merito culpetur Vespasi-
anus pecuniae cupiditas,' Suet. Vesp. 16. 'Est quod differat inter iustitiam et
verecundiam,' C. Off. i. 28. 'Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse
mortem,' C. T. D. i. 9. 'Est quatenus amicitiae dari venia possit,' C. Lael. 17.
'Fuere qui crederent M. Licinium Crassum non ignarum Catilinae consili fuisse/
Sail. Cat. 17. 'Fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer,*
C. d. Or. \. I. 'Quid est cur virtus ipsa per se non efificiat beatos?' C. T. D. v. 6.
'Livianae fabulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur,' C. Br. 18. 'Men-
tern solam censebant idoneam cui crederetur,* C. Ac. i. 8. ' Campani maiora
deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset,' L. xxv. 12. 'Quid dulcius quam habere
quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut tecum?' C. Lael. 6. 'Non facile est invenire
qui, quod sciat ipse, non tradat alteri,' C. Fin. iii. 20. ' Nihil difficilius quam re-
perire quod sit omni ex parte in suo genere perfectum,' C. Lael. 21. 'Nihil habeo
quod incusem senectutem,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Quid est quod tu cum fortuna queri
possis?' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Non est causa cur Epicurus fatum extimescat,' C. Fat.
9. 'Antonius quo se verteret non habebat,* C. Phil. ii. 25. ' Ne qui infans
quidem est adsuescat sermoni qui dediscendus sit,' Qu. i. i. 'Augusto prompta ac
profluens, quae deceret principem, eloquentia fuit,*Tac. Ann. xiii. 3. ' Paci, quae
nihil habitura sit insidiarum, semper est consulendum,' C. Off. i. 11. 'Quis est quin
cernat quanta vis sit in sensibus?' C. Ac. ii. 7. * Cleanthes negat ullum esse cibum
tam gravem quin is die et nocte concoquatu r,' C. N. D. ii. 9. 'Nemo tam ferus
fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit,* N. Ale. 6. 'Totas noctes dormimus, neque
ulla est fere qua non somniemus,* C. Div. ii. 59. 'Nihil est tam sanctum quod
non aliquando violet audacia,' C. p. S. Rose. 25. 'Nulla tam detestabilis pestis est
quae non homini ab homine nascatur,' C. Off. ii. 5. 'Non possunt una in dvi*
tat e multi rem atque fortunas amittere, ut non pluris secum in, eandem trahant cala-
456
Latin Syntax.
§206.
Examples :
Aliquis (quis? quotusquisque ? nemo, unus, &c.) est qui
sciat, there is somebody {who is there ? how many are
there? there is nobody^ there is one) who knows,
Pignus (indignus, idoneus) est qui imperet, is worthy
{unworthy , fit) to rule.
* Maior fuit quam cui resisti posset/ was too great to be
resisted.
Sunt (reperiuntur, existunt, &c.) qui velint, there are (are
fotmdy exist) those who will be willing, Habui puerum
quern mittere possem, I had such a boy as I could send,
< Sati? est causae cur timeamus.'
2) If a Relative Clause, depending on a Negative or Interro-
gative Predication, requires Negation itseJf, qui non
(numquam, nusquam) may be used, or quin for qui
non :
Quis est (nemo est) quin (qui non) sues habeat? who is
there {there is nobody) that does not keep swine ?
* Nihil est (quid est?) quin (quod non) male narrando
possit depravari/ /A^r^ is nothing {what is there?) that
cannot be spoilt by telling it badly ^ Ter. Ph. iv. 4.
'Nullum intermisi diem quin ( = quo non) scriberem,'
/ let no day pass without writings C.
d) Quin rarely contains any Case of the Relative except
Nom. or Abl. ; but a few exceptional instances are
found :
*Nego in Sicilia tota ullam picturam fuisse quin Verres
conquisierit ( = quam non),^ C. Verr. iv. i.
f)) Quin must be resolved into qui non whenever the Nega-
tive has a distinctive application to a part of the Clause,
requiring special emphasis.
c^ If another Relative Clause intervenes, quin = ut non, and
a Demonstrative Pronoun follows :
^ Nihil est, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat,
there is nothing that has feeling but it perishes^ C. N. D,
iii, 13-
d) In some instances quin consecutive will be resolved into
mitatem,' C. /. L.Man. 7. 'Quod litteris ej^stet, Pherecydes Syrius primus dixit
animos esse hominum sempiternos,' C. T. D. i. i6. ' Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine
alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est,* C. Off. iii. lo. * Refertae sunt Catonis orationes
amplius centum quinquaginta, quasquidem adhuc invenerim et legerim, et verbis
ct rebus illustribus,' C Br. xj.
{Exceptions ivith Indie.) *Tu es is qui me tuis sententiis saepissime ornasti,' C.
Fam. XV. 4, 'Sunt bestiae quae dam, in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis, nt in
leonibus, ut in canibus,' C. Fiji. v. 14. * Interdum volgus rectum videt : est ubi
peccat,' Hor. Epist. ii. i. 63. * Gemmas . . . argentum . . . sunt qui non ha-
beant, est qui non curat habere,' Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 180 (where est qui implies the
poet himself). 'Sunt quibus e ramo frondea facta casa est,' Ov. F. iii. 527. 'Sunt
nonnullae diciplinae, quae officium omne pervertunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'Sunt
multi, qui eripiunt allis, quod aliis largiantur,' C. Off. i. 14. 'Duae sunt artes,
quae possunt locare homines in amplissimo gradu dignitatis, una imperatoris, altera
oratoris boni,' C I\Uir. 14.
1 207. Final Clauses, 457
ut non; if purpose is implied, ne takes its place; if
cause is implied, cur non, quare non, &c. :
^ Quid fuit causae cur in Africam Caesarem non seque-
rere,' what was the reason for your not following Caesar
into Africa f C. PhiL ii. 29.
3) Qui with the Subjunctive is used parenthetically with a
sense of limitation : 'quod sciam,' so far as I know \ in
which use the Relative is often modified by quid em :
' Antiquissimi fere sunt, quorum quidem scripta con-
stent, Pericles et Alcibiades,' Pericles and Alcibiades are
about the most ancient orators of those at least whose
writings are known, C, Or. 2. ^Omnium oratorum,
quos equidem cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q.
Sertorium/ C. Br, 48.
Exceptions, The Demonstr. before a Relative may be so definite,
that the Relative, having no consecutive force, takes an Indicative.
Thus * is est qui ' may mean ' he is the person who ' (fecit, did it).
Even talis qui, eiusmodi qui are sometimes used with that definite-
ness which allows an Indie. : 'Mihi causa talis oblata est in qua
oratio deesse nemini potest,' the case I speak for is of a sort in
which no man can be at a loss for words, C. p. L. Man, i.
Sunt qui, sunt multi qui, sunt quidam qui, &c., are not always
indefinite : 'Sunt qui appellantur alces,' Caes. B, G. vi. 27.
'Sunt quidam qui molestas amicitias faciunt,' C. Lael, 20.
' Multa sunt quae dici possunt' ( = ea quae dici possunt, sunt
muita). So est qui and sunt qui are constructed with Indie,
in poetry, in imitation of Greek idiom : 'Sunt quos curriculo pul-
verem Olympicum coUegisse iuvat,' some there are who delight
with the chariot to raise clouds of Olympian dust^ Hor. C i. i. 3.
iii Final Clauses.^
207
A Final Clause expresses an End or Purpose, and its Verb is Jinai
Subjunctive. ^^""^'^
A) An Adverbial Final Clause is introduced by the Conjunction
ut {in order that), but if Negative by ne {lest, that-not), ut ne, ne
quis, necubi, nequando, &:c. :
Venio ut videam ; veni ut viderem ; abito ne pereas, ut ne pe-
reas, nequando pereas ; abiit ne periret, &c.
^ Examples of Final Clauses (§§ 207-8).
A) {Adverbial^ * Sessum it praetor : quid ut iudicetur ?* C. N. D. iii. 30. *Quidmereas
i^what would you take) ut Epicureus esse desinas?' C. N. D. i. 24. * Condiunt Aegyptii
mortuos ut quam maxime permaneant diuturna corpora,* C. T. Z>. i. 45. 'Platonem
ferunt, ut Pythagoreos cognosceret, in Italiam venisse,' C. T. D. i. 17. 'Inventa
sunt specula, ut homo se ipse nosceret,' Sen. N. Qu. i. 17. *Dionysius, ne tonsori
collum committeret, tondere filias suas docuit,' C. T. D. v. 20. * Hunc librum lege
con vi vis tuis, si me amas, hilaris et bene acceptis, ne in me stomachum erumpant,
cum sint tibi irati,' C. Att. xvi. 3. * Caesar cum Pompeio Crassoque iniit societatem, ne
quid* ageretur in republica, quod displicuisset ulli e tribus,' Suet. Caes. 19. * Tu
quam plurimis de rebus ad me velim scribas, ut prorsus ne quid ignorem,' C. iii.
io. * Silanus signa Ruam maxime ad laevam iubebat ferri, necunde ab stationibud
Latin Syntax,
% 208-9.
1) Such Clauses may follow Demonstrative words or phrases :
Eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob eam rem, ob earn causam, eo
consilio. Idcirco iugit, ut salvus sit. > Ob eam rem
fugerat, ne peri ret.
2) A Final Clause with ut or ne often stands parenthetically
in such phrases as the following :
Ut ita dicam, so to say, ne dicam, not to say ; ne longus sim,
not to be tedious ; ne te detineam, not to detain you, &c.
3) The construction of nedum with a Subjunctive is a pe-
culiar instance of a Final Clause. See § 85.
(The idea of Purpose is often contained in certain Temporal
Conjunctions, donee, dum, antequam, &c. See TEM-
PORAL Clauses.)
208 An Adjectival Final Clause is formed by a Relative or Rela-
tive Particle containing the notion of Purpose, and taking the
Subjunctive :
*Clusini legatos Romam qui auxilium a senatu peterent
misere,' L. v. 35. ' Ne illi sit cera, ubi facere possit litteras,' tet
him have no wax to write upon, Plaut. As. iv. i. 22.
i) Quo is thus used, especially with a Comparative word :
* Medico puto aliquid dandum quo sit studiosior, /
think the physician should have so^nething given to him
that he may be more zealous, C. Fa7n. xvi. 4.
Causal Causal Clauses.
Clauses.
A) Adverbial Causal Clauses are introduced by Conjunc-
tions of three classes :
i) Quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, quandoque (since), siqui-
dem, quatenus {inas?nuch as, seeing that)^ of adinitted
Cause. The Verb is Indicative, if not Suboblique.
Punicis conspicerentur/ L. xxviii. i. *Haec eo scripsi ut potius relevares me,* C.
Att. iii. 10. *Eo perperam olim dixi ne vos forte imprudentes foris effutiretis,' Ter.
Ph. V. I. 18. * Hanc ideo rationem suhiecimus, ut hoc causae genus ipsum, de quo-
agimus, cognosceretur,' C. Inv. ii. 23. * Suscipienda bella sunt ob eam causam
ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur,' C. Off. i. 11. * Legibus idcirco omnes servimus ut
liberi esse possimus,'C. /. Che. 53. 'Quid stultius est quam cetera parare, amicos
non parare, optimam et pulcherrimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellectilem ? ' C. Lael.
15. *A te peto ut huic meae laudi vel, ut verius dicam, prope saluti, tuum stu-
dium dices,' C. Fant. ii. 6. * Moleste ferebam tantum ingenium in tam levis, ne dicam
ineptas, sententias incidisse,' C. N. D. i. 21. 'Ne te morer, audi quo rem deducam,'
Hor. S. i. 1. 14. See Hor. vS". i. 3. 137 ; C. iv. 9. i. * Vix in ipsis tectis et oppidis frigus
hiemale infirma valetudine vitatur, nedum in mari et via sit facile abesse ab iniuria
temporis,' C. Fam. xvi. 8.
B) (^Adjectival!) *Homini natura addidit rationem qua regerentur animi appe-
titus,' C. A^. D. ii. 12. 'Hannibal tripartito Iberum copias traiecit, praemissis, qui
Gallorum animos, qua traducendus exercitus erat, donis conciliarent, Alpium transitus
specular en tur,' L. xxi. 23. ' Subacto mihi ingenio opus est, ut agro non semel arato,
sed novato et iterato, quo meliores fetus pos sit et grandiores edere,' C. d. Or. ii.
30. * In funeribus Atheniensiuin i>ublata eraf celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamcn-
tatio minueretur,' C. Leg. li. 26. (Horace has quo ne,' S. ii. 1. 37.)
§ 209.
Causal Clauses,
459
2) Quod, quia {because)^ ascribe a Cause : with Indie, normally.
But Causal Clauses are often Suboblique with quod, some-
times with quia :
^ Mater irata est quia non re die rim,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. 105,
Quod, quia, maybe strengthened by the same Demonstra-
tive words or phrases as P'inal Conjunctions : eo, ideo,
propterea, &c.
3) Cum [since) expresses, usually, conceived Cause, with Sub-
junctive.
a) While quod and quia (=Greek dn^dioriy and French
parceque) state a Cause ascripiively^ cum ( = Greek cttc/,
and French puisque) states it co7iceptively^ hence taking
Subjunctive.
Hence too, when cum, after emotional expressions of joy^
grief, surprise, praise, congratulation, &c., assigns a fact
as cause, it takes an Indicative. See § 196.
(On cum in correlation with tum, see Temporal Clauses.)
B) The Subjunctive of a Verb of thinking is also used with
quod where the author doubtfully suggests the motive of
an action :
Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanos discedere
a se existimarent, sive eo quod re frumentaria inter-
cludi posse confiderent, nostros insequi ac lacessere
coeperunt,' Caes. B, G, i. 23.
c) And, by a very remarkable idiom, a Verb of assertion fol-
lowing quod is made Subjunctive, when the cause itself
(which is the really SubobHque notion) is contained in
the Infin. Clause dependent on that Verb.
Examples of Causal Clauses (§§ 209-10).
A) Adverbial.
{Admitted Cause.) *Geramus, dis bene iuvantibus, quando ita videtur,
bellum/ L. xlii. 51. * Dicite, quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba,' Verg.
B. iii. 55. *Quandoque hice homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus
ictum iri spoponderunt, atque ob earn rem noxam nocuerunt, ob eam rem quo
populus Romanus scelere impio sit solutus, hosce homines vobis dedo,' L. ix. to. ' Vos,
Quirites, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite,' C. Cat, iii. 12. * Ea divi-
nationum ratio ne in barbaris quidem gentibus neglecta est, si quid em et in Gallia
Druidae sunt,'C. Div. i. 41. *Audeat refrenare licentiam, clarus postgenitis, quate-
nus virtutem incolumem odimus,' &c. Hor. C. iii. 24. 28.
{Alleged Cause.) * Codrus se in medios immisit hostis veste famulari, ne posset
agnosci, si esset ornatu regio ; quod oraculuni erat datum, si rex interfectus esset,
victricis Athenas fore,' C. T. D. i. 48. *Hae sordes susceptae sunt propter unum me,
quia meum casum luctumque doluerunt,' C. p. Sest. 69. *Quia natura mutari non
potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt,' C. Lael. 9. * Feci e servo ut esses
libertus mihi propterea quod serviebas liberal! ter, ' Ter. An. i. i. 10.
{Suboblique.) * Comitiorum i 11 1 habendorum, quando minimus natu sit, munus con-
sensu iniungunt,' L. iii. 35. 'Principes Trevirorum de suis privatis rebus petere coepe-
runt, quoniam civitati consulere non posse nt,' Caes. B. G. v. 3. ' lugurthae
bellum illatum est, quod Adherbalem et Hiempsalem, Micipsae filios, intere-
misset,' Eutr. iv. 11. 'Nemo ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspernatur,' C.
Fin. i. 10. *Nec quia sit honesta atque pulcherrima rerum eloquentia, petitur ipsa,
sed ad vilem usum et sordidum lucrum accingimur,' Qu. i. 12. * Falso queritur de
natura genus humanum quod imbecilla atque aevi brevis forte potius quam virtute
r e gat ur,* Sail. lug. i. * Aristides nonne ob eam causam expulsus est patria, quoc
praeter modum iustus esset?' C. T. D. v. 36, * Plato escam malorum voluptater.
appellat, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur, ut hamo pisces,' C. Cat. M. 13.
460
Latin Syntax,
% 209,
' Ab Atheniensibus locum sepulturae intra urbem ut darent,
impetrare non potui, quod religione se impediri dice rent/
C. Fam. iv. 1 2. ^ Qui e Gallia veniunt, superbiam tuam
accusant, quod negent te percunctantibus respondere/
C. Fam, vii. 16.
d) The ground of a writer's or speaker's present opinion will be
Indie, but that of his former opinion may take the Sub-
junctive, as if he were speaking of another person. See C.
71 D, ii. 3. cited by Madvig.
e) Non quod,non quia, non quo (less often non quoniam),
are used with the Subjunctive when the reason denied is
conceivable^ but not real; sed generally following with the
true reason :
* N on idcirco librorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suc-
censerem; sed quod eorum me suppudebat/ / had
not abandoned the intimacy of my books because I was
angry with them ; but because I was a little ashamed of
my behaviour to them, C. Fam. ix. i. ^Numquam mihi
defuturam orationem, qua exercitum meum alloquerer,
credidi; non quo verba umquam potius quam res exer-
cuerim, sed quiaassueram militaribus ingeniis,' / never
supposed I should lack language to address my army ; not
that I have ever practised words rather than deeds ; but
because I had been accustomed to the tempers of soldiers,
L. xxviii. 27.
f) If the cause denied is one which is not conceivable, non
quod, non quia take the Indicative :
*Ad urbem Scipioni majore resistitur vi ; non quia plus
{Conceived Cause. ) 'Cumsintin nobis consilium, ratio, prudentia, necesse est deos
haec ipsa habere maiora,' C. N. D. ii. 31, 'Cum in communibus suggestis consistere
non auderet Dionysius, contionari ex turn alta solebat,' C. T. D. v. 20. * Cum Athenas
tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum
est,' C. Off. iii. 2.
{Non quody &^c.) ' Mihi apud vos de meis maioribus dicendi facultas non datur ;
non quod non tales fuerint, qualis nos, illorum sanguine procreatos, videtis, sed
quod laude populari atque honoris vestri luce caruerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. i. 'Sta-
dium sapientiae mihi Latinis Uteris illustrandum putavi, non quia philosophia Graecis
litteris percipi non posset;, sed meum semper iudicium fuit, omnia nostros accepta a
Graecis fecisse meliora,' C. T. D. i. i. * Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se
adhuc reperire discipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; non quo non
assent quidam probabiles, sed quia, si aliquid modo esset vitii, id ferre ipse non
posset, C d Or. i. 28. ' Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn
valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed mihi egere commendatione non videbatur,* C.
Fam. xiii. 16. *Ego me ducem in civili bello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed
quia, quod multo rectius fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit,' C. Att. vii. 26.
E) Adjectival.
* Alexander cum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset, O fortunate, inquit, ado-
lescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem in veneris,' C. /. Arch. 10, *Cum
Dion non desisteret obsecrare Dionysium, ut Platonem Athenis arcesseret et eius consiliis
uteretur, ille, qui in aliqua re vellet patrem imitari, morem ei gessit,' N. Di. 3. *0
magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum calliditatem facile se per se ipsam defendat,
C. /, Cael. 16. 'Numquam laudari satis digne philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat omne
tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,* C. Cat. M. i. ' Habeo senectuti magnam
gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis et cibi sustulit,' C. Cat. M.^
14- 'Virtus est una altissimis defixa radicibus, quae numquam ulla vi labefactan
potest, numquam demoveri loco,' C. PkiL iv. 5. ' Callidus adulator non facile cognos-
§210-11. Temporal Clauses, 461
animi victis est, sed melius muri quam vallum armatos
arcent/ L. x. 41. See Hon S. ii. 2. 89.
g) Non quin is used for non quo nonornonquia non:
* Consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ab
eo dissentiam, sed/ &c., / dare not blame your plan ^ not
that I do not differ from it, buty &c., C. Fam, iv. 7.
B) An Adjectival Causal Clause is formed by the Relative 210
qui, or one of its Particles.
Qui causal usually contains conceived Cause, with Subjunctive.
Sometimes it contains quia, and takes Indie.
Quippe strengthens qui, cum, sometimes quod; the Mood
being usually Subjunctive ; but quippe qui is found with Indie.
Ut qui, utpote qui, are rare, but found with each Mood : utpote
cum with Subjunctive only.
citur, quippe qui etiam adversando saepe assentetur,* C. Lael. 26. 'Animus
fortuna non eget ; quippe quae probitatem, industriam aliasque artis bonas neque
dare neque eripere cuiquam potest,' Sail. lug. 1. *Sed de hoc tu videbis, quippe cum
de me ipso ac de meis te considerare velim,' C. Att vii. 13. *Multa de mea sententia
questus est Caesar, quippe quod etiam Crassum ante vidisset,' C. Fam. i. 9. ' Me
incommoda valetudo, qua iam emerseram, utpote cum sine febri laborassem, tene-
bat Brundisii,' C. Att v. 3. *Nero inusitatae luxuriae fuit, ut qui retibus aureis
piscaretur,' Eutr. vii. 9.
Examples of Temporal Clauses (§§ 211-12).
A) Ubi, &c., with Demonstratives, tum, tunc, tum demum, turn denique, ibi, iam,
continuo, extemplo, ilico, ilicet, semel, statim, quamprimum, repente, &c.
(Ubi, ivkeuj ubi primum, as soon as. Sec.) a. ' Miserum est opus fodere, ubi sitis fauces
tenet,* Plaut. Most. ii. i. ' Haec ubi aperuit ostium, continuo hie se coniecit
intro,' Ter. Haut. ii. 2. 35. (Ubi nuntiata sunt, statim,* &c. C. Verr. v. 47. 'Ubi
. . . decessit, ilicet,* &c.. Sail. lug. 41.) *Ubi Syracusanorum dolorem cognovi,
tum eos hortatus sum,' &c., C. Verr. vi. 63. *Ubi primum est licitum, ilico pro-
peravi abire de foro,' Plaut. Men, iv. 2. 34. 'Taleae ubi trimae sunt, tum denique
maturae sunt,' Cato, R. R. 45. /3. Divico ita cum Caesare agit : Si pacem populus
Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futuros Helvetios, u b i
eos Caesar constituisset,' Caes. B. G. i. 13.7. *Idfetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in
finis eorum mittebat,' L. i. 32. * Ubi pretio non aequitate iura descripserat,
Veneri iam et Libero reliquum tempus deberi arbitrabatur,' C. Verr. v. 11.
2ir
Tern-
Clauses.
V. Temporal Clauses.
i) Temporal Conjunctions may be placed in four groups: po^^f
A) Ubi, when, ubi primum, simul ac, simul ut, simul, as soon
as ; ut, when ; from the time when ; ut primum, cum
primum, &c., since; as soon as; quotiens, ^zj often as;
postquam, after that, since.
B) I, Dum, donee, quoad, whilst, as long as; quamdiu, as
long as,
2. Dum, donee, quoad, until,
C) Antequam, priusquam, before that
D) Cum.
With most of these Conjunctions various Demonstrative Adverbs
may be correlated, which are noticed in the Examples.
462
Latin Syntax.
§211
2) Tense and Mood vary much in Temporal Clauses.
Variation of Tense is naturally due to the various combinations
of Time in Clause and Sentence.
As to Mood, there is no Conjunction of Time which does not
normally take the Indicative. But the Subjunctive often is required :
d) In Suboblique, Gnomic, and (in some styles) Iterative
Construction.
b) When the notion of Time is complicated with that of Con-
sequence, Purpose, Cause, or Concession. Thus, cum is
constructed so as to express Consequence (Time of such
z.kind that), Cause [since), Concession {although, whereas) ;
sometimes even Condition. Dum, donee, quoad {until) ^
antequam, priusquam, &c. may imply Purpose.
The two latter sometimes take a Subjunctive which has no
such internal reason ; and which may perhaps be explained
by the Consec. use of quam. See § 205.
(The two last examples shew the difference of Iterative Pluperfect construction in Livy
and Cicero : Subjunctive in the former. Indicative in the latter,)
(Quando, when^qno tempore.) *Ubi satur sum, intestina nulla crepitant ; quando
esurio, tum crepant,' Plaut. Men. v. 5. 27. ' Utinara tunc essem natus quando
Romani dona accipere coepissent,' C. 0_^. ii. 8.
(Quotiens, as often as.^ * Heraclitus quotiensprodierat et tantum circa se male
viveotium, immo male perenntium, viderat, flebat,' Sen. Ir. ii. 10, * Quotiens
patriam vide ret, totiens se beneficium meum videre dice bat,' C. d. Or. ii. 30.
(Ut, when, as soon as', ut primum, cum, cum primum.) *Varro ut advenit, ex-
templo Hostilius legionem unam signa in urbem ferre iussit,' L. xxvii. 24. * U t Hostus
cecidit, confestim Romana inclinatur acies,' L. i. 12. 'Cum primum sapere
coepit, acerbissimos dolores percepit,' C. Fam. xiv. i. * Pompeius ut me primum
Tidit, complexus est,' C. Fam. x. 13. *Ut vidi, ut peril,' Verg. B. viii. 41. *Ut quis-
que me viderat narrabat,' &c. C. Verr. ii.
(Ut, since, from the time when^ex quo.) *Ut tetigi Pontum, vexant insomnia,*
Ov. Tr. iii. 8. 27. *Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Ister,' Ov. Tr. v. 10. i.
See Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. *Ut Athenas veneram, expectabam ibi iam quartum diem
Pomptinum,' C. Att. v. 10.
(Simul, simul ac, simul ut, statim ut, as soon as.) 'Simul ac duraverit aetas
membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice,' Hor. S. i. 4. 119. * Ego statim habebo
quod sentiam, .simul ut videro Curionem,' C. Att. x. 4. * Simul inflavit tibicen,
carmen agnoscitur,' Cic. Acad, ii, 27. 'Statim ut ille praetor est factus . . mira
contentio est consecuta,' C. Fain i. 9. 5. 'Simul ac annuisset, numeraturum se
dicebatj' C. /. Quinc. 3.
(Postquam, posteaquam, after that, since, when.) "Relegatus mihi videor postea-
quam in Formiano sum,' C. Att, ii. 11. 'Postquam nec ab Romanis vobis ulla spes
est, nec vestra iam arma vos defendunt, pacem affero necessariam,' L. xki. 13. 'Quae
postquam sunt audita et undique primores patrum consules increparent . . . tum
T. Quinctius consules immerito increpari ait,' L. iv. 13. (In this place sunt audita simply
marks time as stated by Livy, increparent adds the circumstance which caused Quinctius
to feel and speak.) * Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat, in Africam
venit,' N. Hann. 8. * Hoc scribis post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,' C.
Att. ix. 12. * Scriptum a Posidonio est trigiiita annis vixisse Panaetium posteaquam
illos libros edidisset,' C. Off. iii. 2. (In C. Fain. ii. 19, /. L. Man. 4, instead of
posteaquam, postea cum is the right reading.)
B) I. Dum, donee, quoad {whilst, as long- as), often with Demonstratives, tamdiu,
interea, interim, tantisper.
* Aegroto dum anima est, spes esse dicitur,' C. Att. ix. 10. * Lacedaemoniorum
gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant,' C. T. D. i. 42. 'Tiberius Gracchus
tamdiu laudabitur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum mane bit,' C. Off. ii. la.
\
§211.
Temporal Clauses,
463
c) By Latin usage (cum historic), when, in narrative, an
event is stated in the Perfect or Historic Present, a con-
temporary fact is expressed by cum with Imperfect Sub-
junctive ; a preceding fact by cum with Pluperfect
Subjunctive :
Cum videret, ingemuit ; cum vidisset, ingemuit.
d) The Iterative Subjunctive is used in Temporal, Relative,
and Conditional Clauses, chiefly by historians. It occurs
when an action indefinitely I'epeated in past time is ex-
pressed by the Clause, the Principal Verb being then
generally in the Imperfect.
*Cum cohortes ex acie procucurrissent, Numidae im-
petum nostrorum effugiebant/ Caes. Cii. 41. ' Ignoti,
faciem Agesilai cum intuerentur, contemnebant,'
Nep. Ag. 8. 'Quemcumque lictor iussu consulis pre-
hendisset, tribunus mitti iubebat,' L. iii. 11. ^Nec
quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere
valuit,^ lust. XXV. 4. 'Ut quisque maxime laboraret
locus, aut ipse occur re bat, aut aliquos mittebat,' L.
xxxiv. 38.
And after si •
' Ubi his ordinibus exercitusinstructusesset, hastati omnium
primi pugnam i n i b a n t. Si hastati profligare hostem non
possent, pede prcsso eos retrocedentis in intervalla ordi-
num principes recipiebant. Tum principum pugna erat.
Si apud principes quoque haud satis prospere esset pug-
natum, a prima acie ad triarios sensim referebantur/
L. viii. 8.
*Dum ad Antium haec geruntur, interim Aequi arcem Tusculanam capiunt,' L.
tii. 23. *Duni is in aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant interea qui suis vulneribus
mederentur,' C. 6". Rose. 32. 'Ego te meum esse dici tantisper volo dum quod te
dignumst facies,* Ter. Haut. i. i. 54. 'Sic se quisque hostem ferire, conspici, dum
tale facinus faceret, properabat,' Sail. Cat. 7. 'Donee eris felix, multos numerabis
amicos,' Ov. Tr.i.g.^, 'Volgus trucidatum, donee ira et dies permansit,' Tae. Ann.
i. 68, * Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude erevit,' Nep. A it. 2. *Minueius praefectus
anwonae, quoad res posceret, in ineertum creatus,' L. iv. 13.
(Dum with Historie Present.) 'Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nun-
tiatum est equites Ariovisti propius tumulum accedere,' Caes. B. G. i. 46. * Quidam
tradunt, dum ad palum deligatur, quia parum inter strepitus axidXri possent qn^i^
vociferabatur, silentium fieri Flaccum iussisse,' L. xxvi. 16.
(Subobliqtie.) 'Dum in aestivis nos essemus, ilium pueris locum esse bellissi-
mum duximus,* C. Ait. v. 17. 'Nihil trepidabant elephanti, donee eontinenti velut
ponte agerentur,' L. xxi. 28.
{Purpose.) 'Die insequenti quievere, dum praefectus iuventutem Apolloniatium
inspiceret,' L. xxiv. 40. * Multa quoque et bello passus dum conderet urbem
inferretque deos Latio,' Verg. Ae. i. 5.
(Quamdiu.) 'Tamdiu requiesco quamdiu aut ad te scribo aut tuas litteras
\t%Oy' C Att. ix. 3. ' Deum atque hominum fidem implorabis, eircumveniri Verrem,
quod accusator «i7/zV tamdiu quamdiu liceat loqui,' C. Verr, ii. i. 9,
2. Dum, donee, quoad, until. Demonstratives are eo usque, usque eo, tamdiu,
tantisper.
o. ' Ratine Phormionem, dum hue ego servos evoco,* Ter. Pk. v. 7. * Delibera hoc,
dum ego redeo,' Ter. Ad. ii. i. 42. * Ea mansit in condicione usque ad eum finem
dum iudices reiecti sunt,' C. Verr. i. 6, ' Caesar exanimis aliquamdiu iacuit. donee
leeticae impositum tres servuli domum retullerunt,' Suet. Caes. 82. 'Tarquinii tam-
diu dimicaverunt donee Aruntem filium regis manu sua Brutus in ter fee it,' Flor. i.
Latin Syntax,
§212.
e) The Indicative is so used, by Cicero generally, in the Plu-
perfect. But an Imperfect Subjunctive Clause in Itera-
tive Sense is not unusual in Cicero : * Zenonem, cum
Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter/ / used often to
attend Zend^s lectures^ when I was at Athens (where he
was more than once)/ C. N, D. i. 21. This may happen
even when tum precedes cum : ^ Nos tum, cum maxime
consilio nostro subvenire communi saluti oporteret, in
senatum non vocabamur/ C. Phil, v. i.
Cum. 13) Other uses of the Conjunction Cum:
a) Cum, when^ is the most extensively used Temporal Con-
junction, correlative to the Demonstrative tum, as dum
to interea; and signifying a point of Time, as dum
signifies extension of Time.
b) When the relation between the principal Sentence and the
Clause is merely Temporal, cum takes an Indicative in
the Present, Future (Simple or Exact), or Perfect Tense,
according to the time required :
Cum venio, video ; cum veniam (venero) videbo ; cum veni,
vidi (videbam, videram).
c) The time is more strongly defined by means of a Demon-
strative (tum, eo tempore, nunc, iam, &c.).
* Vos tum paruistis cum paruit nemo/ C. p, Lig. 7.
d) Cum may take an Imperf. Indie, if an Imperf. is in the
principal Sentence :
Cum veniebam, videbam :
Or, sometimes, if the point of time is to be strongly marked,
the principal Verb may be Perfect :
10. * Epaminondas ferrum usque eo in corpore retinuit quoad renuiitiatum est
vicisse Boeotios,' Nep. Ep. 9.
' Expectandum putabant dum se res ipsa aperiret,' Nep. Paus. 3. * Iratis
subtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, dum se ipsi colligant/ C. T.
D. iv. 36. 'Augustus rectorem solitus est apponere regibus aetate parvis ac mente
lapsis, donee adolescerent aut resipiscerent,' Suet. Atig. 48. * Thessalonicae esse
statueram, quoad aliquid ad me scriberes,' C. Att. iii. 13. *T. Quinctio consuli pro-
rogatum in Macedonia imperium, donee successor ei veni s set/ L. xxxii. 28.
C) (Antequam, priusquam.) a. *Antequamde incommodis Siciliae dico, pauca mlbi
videntur esse de provinciae dignitate dicenda,' C. Verr. ii. 2. 'Priusquam de ceteris
rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam,' C. Phil. ii. 3. *Membris utimur pri-
usquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus/ C. Fin, iii. 20. * Non ante
finitum est proelium quam tribunus militum interfectus est,' L. xli. 2. *Dociliora
sunt ingenia priusquam obduruerunt,' Qu. i. 12. 9. * Non defatigabor antequam
illorum ancipites vias rationesque percepero.' C. d. Or. iii. 36.
/3. 'Tempestas minatur antequam surgat/ Sen. Ep. 103. *Tragoedi cotidie, ante-
quam pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant,' C. d. Or. i. 59. * Saepe
magna indoles virtutis, priusquam reipublicae prodesse potuisset, exstincta fuit,'
C. Phil. V. 17. * Numidae, priusquam ex castris subveniretur, in proximos coll is
. discedunt/ Sail. lug. 54. *Appiusnon ante continuando abstitit magistratu quam
obruerent eum male parta, male gesta, male retenta imperia,' L. ix. 34. ' Providentia
est, per quam aliquid videtur, antequam factum sit,'C. Inv. ii. 53. * Nescire, quid
anteaquam natus sis accident, id est semper esse puerum,' C. d. Or. 34. 'In
omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens.' C.
Off. i. 21. 'Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, ubi consulueris, mature facto
©pus est,' Sail. Cat. i. (The three last Examples are Gnomic.)
§ 212.
Temporal Clauses.
46s
' Nuper, cum te iam adventare arbitrabamur, re-
pente abs te in mensem Quintilem reiecti sumus/
Lately^ at the very moment we thought you were corning^
we were thrown over by you suddenly to the month of
July, C. Att. i. 3. See Verg. Aen. xii. 736.
e) Cum may take Pluperf. Indie, when a Demonstrative
marks the time :
^ T u m cumin Asia res magnas permulti a m i s e r a n t, scimus
Romae fidem concidisse/ at the very tiine when 7iunierous
persons had lost great properties in Asia we know that
credit sa7ik at Rome, C. p. L. Man. 7.
f) Cum iterative ( = quotiens) takes Plup. Indie, in Cicero, an
Imperf. being in the principal Sentence, when repeated
action is expressed : in which sense Livy has Subjunctive :
^ Cum ad ahquod oppidum ven erat, eadem lectica usque ad
cubiculum deferebatur/ as often as he came to any town,
he was conveyed to his bed-chamber in the same seda?t, C.
Ve7'r, V. II.
D, I.) Examples of cum with Indicative. (§ 212.)
(Cum = quo tempore.) *De te, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant ; cllm patiuntur,
decernunt ; cum tacent, clamant,' C, Cat. i, 8. * Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn
cum urbem con did it,' C. Div. i. 17. 'O praeclarum diem, cum in illud amicorum con-
cilium coetumque proficiscar,' C. Cat. M. 23. 'Sedplura, cum ista cognoro,' C. Att.
XV. 9. * Regulus, tum cum vigilando necabatur, eratin meliore causa, quam si domi
senex capfivus, periurus consularis, remansisset,' C. Q^. iii. 27. 'Cum Caesar in Galliam
venit, alterius factionis principes erant Aedui, alterius Sequani,' Caes. JS. G. vi. 12.
'Credo, tum cum Sicilia fl ore bat opibus et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula/
C. Ver-r. iv. 21, *Gum Collatino collegae Brutus imperium abfogabat, poterat
videri facere injuste,' C. 0_ff'. iii. 10. 'Aliud est dolere, aliud laborare : cum varices
secabantur C. Mario, dolebat, cum aestu magno ducebat agmen, laborabat,'
C T. D. ii. 15.
(Cum=quotiens, with Pl-u/>.Tncttc.) *Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat,
a nullo videbatur,' C. Off. iii. 9. See Ac. ii. 47. Cum ver esse coeperat (cuius
initium iste non a Favonio neqtie ab aliquo astro notabat, sed cum rosam viderat,
tum incipere ver arbitrabatur), dabat se labori atque itineribus,' C. Verr.
V. 10.
(Cum />ut inversely.) * Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, cum interim
Dyrrachii milites domum, in qua eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt,' C. in
Pis. 38, 'Evolaratiame conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, cumetiamtum ceterae
naves uno in loco moliebantur,' C. Verr. v. 34. * Hannibal iam scalis subibat muros
Locrorum, cnm repente patefacta porta Romani erumpunt,' L. xxix. 7. * Commo-
dum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius,' C. yi/^. xiii. 19. * P. Sestius, fretus
sanctitate trlbunatus, venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli : cum subito
manus ilia Clodiana, in caede civium saepe iam victrix, exclamat. incitatur, in-
vadit/C. /. Sest. 37. * Iam dies consumptus erat. cum tamen barbari nihil remit-
tere, atque, noctem pro se rati, acrius in stare,' Sail. lug^. 98.
(Cum=ex quo tempore.) Permulti anni iam erant cum inter patrlcios magistratus
tribunosque nulla certamina fuerant,' L. ix. 33. * Nondum sex menses sunt cum hue
commigravit,' Plant. Pers. i. 3.
2) Examples of cum with Subjunctive. (§ 211.)
{Iterative cum with Subjimctive.) ' Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vesti-
tum, suum amiculum dedit,' N. Ci^n. 4. ' 'Cum in ius duci debitorem vidissent,
undique con volaban t,' L. ii. 27. (Especiallywith cum diceret, cum dicat, following
audio; an idiom which resembles the Consecutive use.) ' Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio
est; saepe ex eo audiebam, cum se scribere neque consuesse neque posse diceret,*
Cic. Br. 56. 'Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire dis-
cipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem,' C. d. Or. i. 28.
H H
466
Latin Syntax,
§'212.
g) The Inverse Construction with cum occurs in Narrative
when the Clause seems to change places with the Prin-
cipal Sentence, indicating that one action is interrupted
or quickly succeeded by another. '
In this case, cum is often accompanied by such Adverbs as
repente, subito, interim, interea, iam, &c., and the
Verb is frequently Present Historic, now and then His-
toric Infinitive.
* Parata sententia consularis, cum repente ei affertur
nuntius,' the consuVs opinion was just ready ^ when a
sudden message reaches him^ C. Phil, xiii. 9. * Id modo
plebs agitabat, cum interim comitiorum mentio nulla
fieri,' that was what the commons were debating^ while
meantime no mention was being made of comitia^ L.
iii- 37-
(Cum Subobligue.) *Totiensne me litteras dedisse Romam, cum ad te nullas
darem,' C. Att. v. n. 'Qmppe ius Laodiceae me dicer e, cum Romae Aulus Plotius
dicat,' C. Att. v. 15. ' Mihi non videbatur quisquam esse beatus posse, cum in
malis esset,' C. T. D. v. 8.
{Consecutive cum = quali tempore.) * Erit illud profecto tempus, cum tu unius
post homines natos fortissimi viri magnitudinem animi desideres,' C. Mil. 26.
*Fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer,' C.
Or.'x. I. *Ingressus est urbem cum dextra sinistra minaretur domtnis, notaret
domos/ C. Phil. xiii. 9. ( But Indie, if cum =quo tempore.) *Fuit quoddam tem-
pus, cum in agris homines passim bestiarum more vagabantur et sibi victu fero
vitam propagabant,' C. Inv. i. 2.
(Cum causal.^ * Quae cum ita sint, quid est quod de eius civitate dubitetis,
praesertim cum aliis quoque in civitatibus fuerit adscriptus?' C. Arch. 5. (See
Causal Clauses.)
(Cum concessive.^ 'Atticus cum esset pecuniosus, nemo illo minus fuit emax,
minus aedificator, ' N. Att. 13. *Cum multa sint in philosophia gravia et utilia,
latissime patere videntur ea, quae de officiis tradita sunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'His, cum
facere non possent, tamen loqui licebat,* C. /. Gael. 17. (Specially frequent, when
tum follows): ' Cole iustitiam quae, cum sit magna in parentibus et propinquis, tum
in patria maxima est,' C. d. Rep. vi. 15. 'Cum plurimas et maximas commoditates
amicitia contineat, tum ilia nimirum praestat omnibus, quod debilitari animos non
patitur,' Cic. Lael. 7. * Haec urbs cum manu munitissima esset, tum loci natura terra
ac mari claudebatur,* C. Verr. ii. 2.
(Cum conditional is rare) : * Haec neque cum ego d i c e r e m, neque cum tu negRres,
magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur auris index erigeret ani-
mumque attenderet? Cum Dio ipse prodiret, cum reperiretur pecunias sum-
psisse mutuas, cum tabulae virorum bonorum proferrentur,' C. Verr. i. 10.
(Cum historic.') * Agesilaus, cum adversaries intra moenia compulisset, et ut
Corinthum oppugnaret multi hortarentur, negavit id suae virtuti convenire,' N. Ag.
5- 'Socrates, cum paene in manu iam mortiferum illud teneret poculum, locutus ita
est, ut non ad mortem trudl, verum in caelum videretur ascendere,' C. T. D. i. 29.
* Cimon Cyprum cum ducentis navibus imperator missus, cum eius maiorem partem
insulae devicisset, in morbum implicitus, in oppido Citio est mortuus,' N. Cim. 3.
(Cum ^/■y/'<7r/V is found even after tum, where the Indicative might have been used.)
'Neque enim, si tibi tum, cum peteres consulatum, adfui, idcirco nunc, cum Mure-
nam ipsum pet is, adiutor eodem pacto es.se debeo,' C. p. Mur. 3.
(In the following passage, the two Moods are used in succession ; haberent being purely
historic, e rant appealing to later experience, shewn by perspexeratis): ' Unum hoc
certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere : tum cum haberet haec res publica Luscinos,
Calatinos, Acidinos, homines non solum honoribus populi rebusque gestis, verum etiam
patientia paupertatis ornatos ; et tum cum erant Catones, Phili, Laelii, quorum sapien-
tiam temperantiamque in ©ninibus rebus perspexeratis, tamen huiuscemodi res com-
missa nemini est, ut idem iudicaret et venderet,' C. d. L. Agr, ii. 24.
I 213- Conditional Sent a ices, 467
h) Cum for ' ex quo tempore' takes the Indicative.
* Nondum centum et decem anni sunt cum de pecuniis
repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est/ it is not yet 1 10 years
since Lucius Piso brought in a taw concerning extortion^
C Off. ii, 21.
21'
tcnces.
vL Conditional Sentences. Condi-
tional
1) The Conditional (Hypothetical) Conjunctions are: si, //"(si s^^"-^
non, if not) ; nisi, ni, unless ^ if not,
2) In the Compound CONDITIONAL SENTENCE, the Clause
which contains the Condition is called Protasis (quae praetendi-
tur) ; the Principal Sentence is called Apodosis (quae redditur),
the Conclusion.
These terms imply the logical assumption that the condition
comes first, and that the conclusion is in the nature of a reply to
the question, What then 1 But it is equally possible to regard the
Protasis as an adverbial clause limiting a principal sentence : ' Maxi-
mas virtutes iacere omnes necesse est voluptate dominante,' C.
» si voluptas dominetur.
I. Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence^
Protasis. Apodosis.
a. si das negat
if you offer he refuses
si dabis negabit
if you shall offer he will refuse
Normal Examples of Conditional Sentences. (§ 213.)
a. {Sumptio Dati.'\ *Si ariiitti beata vita potest, beata esse non pbtest,* C. -F/^.
ii. 27. *Parvisunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi,' C. Off. i. 22. *Si noles
sanus, curres hydropicus, et niposces ante diem librum cum lumine, si noti in-
tendes animum studiis et rebus honestis, invidia vel amore vigil torquebere/ Hor.
Epist. i. 2. 34. * Si bellum omittimus, race numquam fruemur/ C. Phil. v. i. 6.
*Non si is, qui accepit, bene utitur, idcirco is qui dedit, amice dedit,' C. N. D.
iii. 28. *Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris,
ignoscam,' C. Fam. v, 19. * Nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi
erit omnium artium scientiam consecutus,* C. d. Or. i. 6. *Si in omnibus innocens
fuefo, quid mihi inimicitiae nocebunt?* C. Verr. iii. 69. * Malevolentiae hominum
in me, si poteris, occurres ; si non potueris, hoc consolatere, quod me de
statu meo nullis contumeliis detei"rere possunt,' C. Fam. xi. 11. * Telo si primam
aclem praefregeri s, reliquo ferro vim nocendi sustuleris,' lust. vi. 8. * Haud ergo,
ut opinor, erravero, si a Zenone disputationis principium duxero,* C. N. D. ii. 21.
* Apud maiores magistratum non gerebat is qui ceperat, si patres auctores non erant
facti,' C. Plane. 3. 'Cesseram, si alienam a me plebem fuisse vultis, quae non
fuit, invidiae ; si commoveri omnia videbantur, tempori ; si vis suberat, armis,' C.
p. Sesi. 30. ' Si liciuit, patris pecunlam recte abstulit filius,* C. p. Ftacc. 25.
'Si me amas, paulum hie ades,' Hor. Sat. i. 9. 3^. 'Si vis amari, am.a,'Sen. Ep.
9. Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti; si non> his utere mecum,'
Hor. Epist. i. 6. 67. * Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce,' C. Att. iii. 15. * Caus^.m
Iinvestigato, si poteris,' C. Div. ii. 28.
* Mirer, inquit, si vana vestra ad plebem auctoritas est,' L. iii. 2. * Etenim, si
Lentulus pvitavit suum nomen fatale fore, cur ego non laeter?' C. Cat. iv. i. 'Si
sciens fa Ho, turn me, luppiter optime maxime, pessimo leto afficias, 'L. xxii. 53.
*Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant h©nores, ne attingant rempubli-
cam,' C. Sest. 66. 'Quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo
commoverentur' {they should have been touched — Hortative Past), C Sest. 24.
H H 2
468
Latin Syntax,
§ 213.
/3. si des (dederis) neget (negaverit)
if you were to offer he would refuse
7. I. si dares negaret
(lit.) if you had been he would have beefi refusing
offering
(often = if you offered he woidd 7'efitse)
2. si dedisses negasset
if you had offered he would have refused
3. si dedisses negaret
if you had offered he would have kept refusing
p. {Stimptio Dandi.) * Thucydidis orationes ego laudare soleo ; imitari neque pos-
sim, SI velim, nec velim fortasse, si possim/ C, Br. 83. 'Si exsistat hodie ab
inferis Lycurgus, gaudeat murorum Spartae ruinis, et nunc se patriam et Spartam
antiquam agnoscere dicat,' L. xxxix. 37. *Si gladium quis apud te sana mente de-
posuerit, repetat insaniens : reddere peccatum sit, officium non reddere,' C Off. iii.
25. *Si scieris aspidem occulte latere uspiam, improbe feceris nisi monueris
alterum ne assideat,' C. Fin. ii. 18. *Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur,
abstulerit cibum alteri homini ad nuUam rem utili? Minime vero,' C. Off. iii. 6. See
Hor. Epod. ii. 39, &c. ; Epist. ii. 2. 1-17.
y. {Stimptio Ficti.) i. *Si semper optima tenere possemus, haud sane consilio
multum egeremus,' C. Part. 25. * Si universi videre optimum et in eo consentire pos-
sent, nemo delectos principes quaereret,' C. Resp. i. 34. *Si plane sic verterem
Platonem aut Aristotelem, ut verterunt nostri poetae fabulas, male, credo, mererer de
meis civibus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transfer rem,' C. Fin. i. 3.
2- 'Antiochus si tam in agendo bello parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, quam in
suscipiendo instituerat, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperii dimi-
c asset, N. Hann. 8. ' Glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si
Metellus banc epistulam non misisset/C. Verr. iii. 18.
3. ^ 'Nam si quam Rubrius iniuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate
fecisset, de tui comitis iniuria questum ad te potius quam te oppugnatum venire nt,*
C. Verr. i. 31. 'Esset Antonio certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne
accipere voluisset,' C. Phil. iii. 5. ' Ulla si iuris tibi peierati poena, Barine,
nocuisset unquam, dente si nigro fieres vel uno turpior ungui, credere m,' Hor.
C. ii. 8. I.
4. 'Consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium
maiores nostri appellassent senatum,' C. Cat. M. 6. ' Mortuis tam religiosa iura
maiores nostri tribuerunt, quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbi-
trarentur,' C. Lael. 4.
The following passages also strikingly illustrate the distinction between constructions
/3. and 7. i.
(^.) 'Si vir bonus habeat banc vim ut, si digitis concrepuerit, possit in locu-
pletium testamenta irrepere, hac vi non utatur, ne si exploratum quidem habeat,
id omnino neminem unquam suspicaturum. At dares banc vim M. Crasso, ut digi-
torum percussione posset heres scriptus esse qui re vera non esset heres, in foro,
mihi crede, saltaret,' C. Off. iii. 19. Here the first sentence (3) suggests a case
■which (though imaginary and really impossible) Cicero, by a fabulist's license, is
entitled to represent as possible. The second falls into Construction 7. i., because
Crassus was dead at the time, and the condition, therefore, is a bygone possibility.
Why then is not the Construction of the double Pluperfect Conj. used? Is it that
the floating period of Crassus's public life is contemplated ; or that Cicero, taking
Crassus as a mere type of unscrupulous greed, uses a form which includes an imaginary
Future as well as an imagined Past? Compare Hor. C. iv. 8. 20 : 'Neque, si chartae
si leant quod bene feceris, mercedem tuleris: quid foret Iliae Mavortisque puer, si
taciturnitas obstaret meritis invida Romuli?'
ib.') * Cur igitur Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos et quinguaginta fere annos
eventura putaret; et ego doleam, si ad decem millia annorum gentem aliquam urbe
nostra potituram putem?* C. T. D.\. 37. Here, as the first hypothesis respecting
Camillus belongs to a floating past time, it rig:htly takes the form y. i, while the second,
relating to the present and future of Cicero, takes /3.
§213
Colli iitioual Sentences.
469
4. si civis esses non negasset
if you had been a citizen he would not have refused
1) Class Alpha contains those Sentences with Indic. Protasis, in
which it may be assumed that both Condition and Conclusion are
real, because no suggestion is implied to the contrary. Hence it is
called Sumptio Dati, the Condition of Reality.
The Apodosis is usually either Indicative or Imperative ; but it
may be pure Conjunctive (C^ or Cg) if it conveys a modest as'sertion,
a wish, an exhortation, or prohibition.
The combinations of Tense in Class o. may be as large as the
logic of language allows.
Examples :
si vis, do (dabo) nisi vis, non do (dabo)
si voles, dabo (dedero) nisi voles, non dabo (dedero)
si volueris, dedero (dabo) nisi volueris, non dedero (dabo)
si volebas, dabam nisi volebas, non dabam
si voluisti, dedi nisi voluisti, non dedi
si dedisti, gaudeo si non dedisti, doleo
si voluerat, dederat (dabat) nisi voluerat, non dederat (dabat)
si vis (voles, volueris, voluisti), da (dato)
nisi (si non) vis (voles, &c.), ne dato (ne dederis)
mirer si non vincimus (vincemus, vicerimus)
si potes (poteris), velim adsis
ne vivam nisi te amo
si fas est (erit, fuerit), eamus.
2) In Classes and y. the Condition and Conclusion are more
or less unreal ; but of this unreality there are two kinds : one which
implies a possibility (more or less probable) of immediate or future
realisation ; the other, from which such possibility is excluded.
3) In Class /3. Protasis and Apodosis may be Cj or C2, and the
variation can make no difference in the English rendering. This
Class is called Sumptio Dandi, the condition of Possibility.
4) In Class 7. the Protasis often expresses a Condition which
might possibly have occurred, but did not occur, in time past. It
is therefore purely imaginary ; hence such a Sentence is called
Sumptio Ficti. The Mood of both Verbs is (normally) Con-
junctive ; the Tense of each may be Imperfect or Pluperfect, or
one may be Imperfect, the other Pluperfect : the relations of time
being what these Tenses express, as shewn in the examples.
5) It is, however, proper to observe that in the double Imperfect
form of Sumptio Ficti (y. i), the reference to past time is often
faint, and the distinction between this form and Sumptio Dandi
discernible only in the greater liveliness of the latter : which brings
a Condition before the mind, as the Historic Present brings an
Action, more vividly and picturesquely. Hence Sumptio Dandi is
a favourite construction of the terse and vivacious Horace.^
^ Such a relation of these two constructions is well shewn in a passage of Cicero
{d. Or. i. 48, 49) which treats of the definition of the Orator. He begins by saying,
'Si forte quaereretur quae esset ars imperatoris, constituendum putare m,' &c.
then: 'Sin autem quaereremus quis esset is qui ad rempubiicam . . . studium
470 Latin Syntax, § 214.
6) Thus the Construction of the double Imperfect (y. i.) exhibits
a Condition as Present in Time Past ; but such exhibition may-
take either of two shapes :
d) The Condition may belong only to the Past :
^ Si mehercule ex omni copia conventus Syracusani faceres
potestatem aratori non modo reiciendi sed etiam sumendi
recuperatores, tamen hoc novum genus iniuriae nemo ferre
posset/ if from your whole court at Syracuse you had
allowed the farmer not merely to challenge but even to
choose commissioners^ yet could none have bo7'ne this novel
kind ofwro7igy C. Verr. iii. 13 (said of any time during the
now past government of Verres).
b) The Condition may not only exist in Time Past, but con-
tinue, and be still valid, in Time Present.
*An possem vivere nisi in litteris Yxw^x^m^ could I have
been living at ally if I lived not in literary studies ? C.
Fam, ix. 26. Here Cic. refers not only to a portion of his
life past, but also to his present circumstances and feelings.
214 II. Conjunctive Protasis with Indie. Apodosjs.
i) An Indie. Past Tense is used in Apodosis to express an
action begun, but hindered by another action which appears in a
Conjunctive Protasis with nisi, ni, or si. Such an Apodosis gene-
rally stands before its Protasis.^
* Examples of Idiom i. (§ 214.)
{Im/>erf. in Apodosis.^ * Lab e bar longius nisi me retinuissem,* C. Leg. i. 19.
*Auctoritas tanta plane me movebat, nisi tu opposuisses non minorem tuam,' C.
Ac.xx.Q.o. *Vincebat auxilio loci paucitas, ni iugo circummissus Veiens in verticem
collis evasisset,' L. ii. 50, * lam fames quam pestilentia tristior erat, ni annonae
foret subventum,' L. iv. 52. 'Atrox certamen aderat, ni Fabius consilio neutri
parti acerbo rem expedisset,' L. iii. i. * Germanicus ferrum a latere diripuit elatum-
que deferebat in pectus, ni proximi pressam dextram vi attinuissent,' Tac. Ann.
\. 35. Si in Cic. Verr. v. 49. ^Si per Metellum licitum esset, matres illonim sorores-
que veniebant.' (In the two following places an Indie, of being is understood in the
Apodosis): * Mitis legatio, ni praeferocis legatos habuisset,' L. v. 36. ' Suavis res,
si non causas narraret earum et naturas dominus,' Hor. ii. 8. 92.
{Per/. Apod., usually with paene or prope.) 'Pons Sublicius iter pa en e hostibus
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes/ L. ii. 10. * Prope oneratum est sinis-
trum Romanis cornu, ni referentibus iam gradum consul pudore metum excussisset,'
L. ii. 65. 'Paene imprudentia admissum facinus miserabile, ni utrimque praemissi
equites rem explor^vissent,' Sail. B. i. 53. * Eadem nave pa ene Aethiopia tenus
Aegyptum penetravit nisi exercitus sequi recusasset,' Suet. Caes. 52. Virgil has:
*Nec veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent/ yi^. xi. 112.
{Pluperfect Apodosis.^ ' Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem
Lepidus recepisset Antonium,' C. Fam. xii. to. * Qui ante Latinos ne pro se quidem
ipsis attingere arma passi sumus, nunc nisi Latini sua sponte arma sumpsissent,
capti et deleti eramus, L. iii. 19. * Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi
Faunus ictum dextra levasset,' Hor. C. ii. 17. 28. See iii. 6. 3. 'Perierat imperium,
quod iam in extreme stabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum ira suadebat,
Sen. Ir. i. 11.
suum contulisset, definirem hoc modo,* &c. ; then, * Sin autem quaereretur quis-
nam iurisconsultus vere nominaretur, eum dicerem,' &c., but next, * Atque ... si
musicus, si grammaticus, si poeta quaeratur, possim similiter explicare,' &c.
Here evidently the transition from Sumptio Ficti to Sumptio Dandi is not caused by any
essential distinction in the nature of the hypotheses ; though probably the use of examples
to establish the first three led Cicero to choose the Imperf form as most suitable for the
purpose.
§ 214.
Conditional Sentences.
471
2) An Indie. Pres. Verb of ability or duty (possum, debeo), also
est with longum, immensum, infinitum, or with Gerundive,
may stand in Apodosis with Pres. Conjunctive Protasis.
3) The idiom by which Past Indie. Tenses of Verbs of abitity, duty,
necessity, fitfiess^ &e. (including e s s e with Gerundive and other com-
plements), can be used instead of Conjunctive forms, is noticed in
p. 336. Such Verbs (except convenire, lieere) retain the same
idiom in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence with Conjunctive
Protasis, so far as regards the Imperf. and Perf Tenses (but the
{Verb conditisned a dependent or suppressed Verb.) * Admonebat me res ut hoc
quoque loco interitum eloquentiae deplorarem, ni vererer ne de me ipso aliquid viderer
queri ' (admonebat res ut deplorarem=re admonente deplorabam), C. Off. ii. 19. 'Ob-
sistere ac retinere conatisuntni strictis gladiis viri fortissimi inertes submovissent'
(et retinuissent mentally supplied), L. xxii. 60. * Volsci comparaverant auxilia
quae mitterent Latinis, nimaturatumab dictatore Romano esset '(supply *et misis-
sent '), L- ii- 22.
{^Analogous idiom.) ' Numeros memini si verba tenerem ' (the mind supplies *et
canerem '), Verg. B. ix. 44.
Examples of Idiom 2 ; —
* Hi te homines neque d e b e n t adiuvare si possint, nequepossunt si velin t,'C.
Verr. iv. 9. *Non potest iucunde vivi nisi cumvirtute vivatur/ C. Off. * Immensum
est si velim singula referre,' Sen. Ep. 68. 'Dequo iudicio si velim dicere omnia,
multi appellandi laedendique sunt,' C. Verr. i. 60.
(Similarly) * S i plus tibi promissa noceant quam illi prosint cui promiseris, not>
contra officium est (i.e. potest) mains anteponi minori,' C. Off, i. 10.
(Of like nature are the Gnomic constructions) :
*Si valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet (=iaceat necesse est),' Ov. Tr. iv. 3. i.
* Ista discuntur facile, si et tantum su mas quantum opus sit, et habeas qui docere
fideliter possit, etscias etiam ipse discere (discuntur= disci possunt),' C. d. Or. iii. 23.
*Si ridere concessum sit, vituperatur tamen cachinnatio,' C. T. D. iv. 31.
{Pres. of Periphr. Fut. in Apod, with Conj. Protasis.) 'Quid, si hostes ad urbem
veniant, factu r i estis? quid siplebs mox armata veniat?' L. iii. 52.
Examples of Idiom 3 : —
{Imperfect.) 'Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco, si uUa in te
pietas esset, colere debebas ' (implies *et nunc debes),' C. Phil. ii. 38. *Si mihi
pater succenseret, te maiorem fratrem pro minore deprecari oportebat. Ubi prae-
sidium esse oportebal, ibi exitium est,' L. xl. 15. 'Poterat utrumque praeclare
fieri, si esset fides, si gravitas in hominibus consularibus,* C. Fam. i. 17. 'Si verum
respondere velles, haec erant dicenda,' C. Fin. iv. 23. * Quantus imperator
Aemilius fuerit, si ex alia re nulla aestimari posset, vel hoc satis erat,'L. xlv. 37.
(With concessive meaning of si, although.) 'Quod si liceret, tamen non debebas,*
C. Fam. vii. 27. *Si Romae Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum
bellum is erat deligendus atque mittendus,' C. /. L. M. 17. Nihil est necesse,
et si quid esset, id necesse tamen non erat confiteri,' C. Or. 69.
(Cicero generally prefers the Conjunctive Apodosis when the Protasis is concessive.)
'Quae si maxime meminissem, tamen illius temporis similitudinem iam sequi de-
berem,' Att. ix. 13. (Especially when the Apodosis is posse.) 'Si tibi nemo respon-
surus esset, tamen ipsam causam demonstrare non posses,' Crt^/. 13.
{Perfect.) 'Ne domi quidem, si sui iuris finibus matronas contineret pudor, quae
leges hie rogarentur abrogarenturve curare d ecu it,' L. xxxiv. 2. 'Si ita esset, hac
lege lunium accusatum oportuit, qua accusatur Avitus,' C. p. Clu. 33. 'Ergo si
viri ilH arma habuissent, capi Roma me consule potuit?'L. iii. 67. 'An una fieri
potuerunt, si una tribus non tulissent,' C. p. Plane. 22. ' Hanc urbem vos non
hostium ducitis, ubi, si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit,*
L. ii. 3?.
(With concessive force of si.) 'Debuisti, Vatini, etiam si falso vcnisses in sus-
picionem P. Sestii, tamen mihi ignoscere,' C. in Vat. i.
472
Latin Sy^itax,
§215.
Pluperf. in poetry only: * Si di mihi parcere vellent, perdere de-
buerant/ Ov.). The Indie, lays stress on the duty, &c,, as existing
(Imperf.), or having existed (Perf.), independent of the Condition.
Otherwise the Apodosis will be Conjunctive.
4) Especially, the Past Indie. Tenses of the Periphr. Fut. Con-
jugation are thus used in Apodosis.
215 III. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis.
1) Generally if the Protasis is Indicative and the Apodosis Con-
junctive, this implies that if the former is^ the latter 7nay be.
Such are the instances, already given (p. 469), of modest assertions
(dixerim, &c.), wishes (moriar, peream, ne vivam, &c.), exhortations,
prohibitions, &c., in Apodosis with Indie. Protasis.
2) Some passages occur, in which, though the Verb in the Pro-
tasis is Indie, the true logical Protasis is a Conjunctive Verb im-
plied in some adjunct, or to be otherwise mentally supplied.
^SiCaesaris causa in provinciam veniebatis, ad eum pro-
fecto exclusi provincia venissetis: venistis ad Pompeium,'
you were commg into the province in Caesuras interest, no doubt
when you were shut out of the province you would have come to
him: you came to Pompey^ C. p. Lig. 8. Here veniebatis con-
tains a fact : * You were actually intending to come ; ' but the
logical Protasis lies in the phrase,^ Caesaris causa,' ^had it been ijt
Caesar's interest that you were intending to come.'
* Nisi Deiotarus revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset^
quod proxima nocte corruit. At id neque, si fatum fuerat, effu-
gisset, nec, si non fuerat, in eum casum incidisset,' C. Div. ii.
8. Here the true Protases of the Conjunctive Verbs must be men>
tally supplied : ' had it been so destined, he would not have escaped,
eveii if he had turned back : had it not been destined, he would not
have met with that calamity, even if he had not turned back J
Examples of Idiom 4.
{Imperf. Indie, of Periphr. FtU. in Apod.) ' Conclave Illud, ubi mansurus erat, si
ire perrexisset, proxima nocte corruit,' C. Div. i. 15. ' Illi ipsi aratores, qui remanse-
rant, relicturi agros omnes erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset,' C.
Verr.'ixi. 52. * Quid ? si ego morerer, mecum exspira tu ra respublica, mecum casurum
imperium populi Romani erat?' L. xxviii. 28. * Gravior ultor caedis, si superesset,
rex futurus erat,' L. i. 40.
{Perf Indie, of Periphr. Fut. in Apod. ) * S i P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne
ad arma ituri? fuistisne vos ad patrium ilium animum excitaturi? fuistisne
aliquando rempublicam a funesto latrone repetituri?' C. Sest. 38. 'Quid futurum
fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset tribuniciis procellis?' L. ii. i. ' Furius et
Aemilius currum triumphalem me conscendere prohibent, quos ego, s i tribuni me trium-
phare prohiberent, testis citaturus fui rerum a me gestarum,' L. xxxviii. 47.
{Protasis virtually cojitained iji a word or phrase. ) * Quid tandem i n c e n s i s futurum
fuit ?' ( = si incensae essent), C. Cat. iv. 8. ' Haec sine doctrina credituri fuerunt,' C.
T. D. i. 2T. *Quomodo trucidato te ipsi evasuri fuerunt?' L. xl. 14.
{Duty, &c. strietly depeudin§^ on Cofidition.) * Quod si bona Quinctii possideres,
possidere omnia eo iure deberes' (i.e. nunc non debes), C. ' Omnino si id consilium
placeret, necesse esset ' (sed non placet), C. Att. xiii. 41. * Nisi tiialiquid dixisses,
nihil sane ex me quidem audire potuisses' (sed aliquid dixisti), C. N. D. i. 21. ' Sic
faciendum fuisset si Gabinium accusassem ' (sed non accusavi), C. (?«. F. iii. 4.
§ 2i6-i8
Conditional Sequences.
473
* Si domum tuam expugnaturus, capta domo dominum inter-
fecturus eram, non temperassem vino in unum diem?^ L.xl. 14.
Here 'si expugnaturus (interfecturus) eram 'may be regarded as
equal to ' si voluissem expugnare (interficere)/ because conditional
force may exist in a Periphrastic Future.
IV. Abnormal Relation of Tenses.
Rare forms of Conditional Consecution occur in poetry :
' Carmina ni sint, ex humero Pelopis non nituisset ebur,'
Tibull. i. 4. 63 (where a permanent condition affects a past fact).
'Et faceret si non aera repulsa sonent/ Tibull. i. 8. 22 (where
faciat would be normal ; but the poet wished to mark past time
also as affected by the condition).
V. Protasis without si.
1) The Conjunctive Protasis often suppresses si.
'• Rex velit honesta, nemo non eadem volet/ Sen. Tr. Thy. 214.
^ Unum cognoris, omnis noris/ Ter. Ph. ii. i. 35. 'Dedisses
huic animo par corpus, fecisset quod op tab at,' Plin. Epist. i. 12.
*Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento, quinque
diebus nil erat in loculis,' Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15.
2) A Categorical form takes the place of the Conditional.
Mra exardescit, libido concitatur: in eandem arcem
confugiendum est,' anger flames out ; lust is excited; to the
same stronghold must we fly, C. T, D. ii. 24. *Negat quis ;
nego: ait; aio,'Ter. Eun. ii. 2. 21.
3) Sine with Ablative, or an Ablative Absolute, or some phrase,
may stand as Protasis instead of si with Verb :
'Sine Deo (Deo sublato) non esset mundus ( = si Deum tol-
leres).' ' Neque agricultura, neque frugum fructuumque reliquorum
perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuis-
set. . . nec lapides e terra exciderentur sine hominum labore
et manu (i.e. nisi hominum opera, labor, manus accessissent),' C.
ii. 3. 'Animi magnitudo, r emota communitate coniunc-
tioneque human a, feritas sit quaedam et immanitas (i.e. si com-
munitas remota sit),' C. Off. i. 44.
VI. Si in various senses.
i) The Protasis and Apodosis of a Condition may stand in the
mutual relation of premise and conseqjience, or cause and effect.
Hence si is found in correlation to it a, sic, tum, tum vero ; ideo,
idcirco.
'Hoc ita iustum est, si est voluntarium,' this is just, on con-
dition of its being voluntary, C. Off. i. 9. 'A patribus acceptos
deos ita placet coli si huic legi paruerint ipsi,' C. Leg. ii. 10.
^ Haec si ages et senties, tum eris magnus consul et consularis ;
sm aliter, tum in istis amplissimis nominibus honorum non
modo dignitas nulla erit, sed erit summa deformitas,' C. Earn.
x. 6. 'Non, si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum
civem putabunt,' they will not think you a good citizen because
you defended Opimius, C. d. Or. ii. 40.
474
Latin Syntax,
§ 219-20.
2) Si is used in a peculiar Final Sense ( = /^7 see if ; to try if,
&c.) :
'Ad Gonnum castra movet, si oppido potiri posset/ L. xlii. 67.
* Circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent ( = ut
possent, si possent)/ the enemy swar7ned round to try if they could
find any access^ Caes. B, G. vi. 37. ' Te adeunt fere omnes, si quid
velis ( = ut discant quid velis, si quid velis)/ nearly everybody
calls on you to find out if you want anything^ C. Fam. iii. 9.
'Expectabam si quid ad me scriberes ( = dum scriberes, si
scriberes)/ / was waiting to see if you would write to me any things C.
Poets use a similar idiom with Indie. :
* Inspice si possum donata reponere laelus/ examine me and see
if I can cheerfully restore your xifts, Hor. Epist, i. 7. 39. See
Hor. S, ii. 5. 87,
3) Si is used in a Concessive Sense: si maxime, though ever
so much ; si nihil aliud, though nothing else : which are often con-
nected with the Demonstratives tamen, certe, &c.
'Vivorum memini : nec tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, si cupiam/'
C. Fin, V. I. ' Caelestia si maxime cognita essent, nihil
tamen ad bene vivendum conferrent/ C. Ac. i. 4. *^Si nihil
aliud, gratorum certe nobis animorum gloriam dies haec dederit/
L. xxii. 29.
VII. Si in combination with various Pronouns and Par-
ticles.
1) Si is enclitically followed by many Particles and Indefinite
Pronouns. Such combinations are :
Si quis, si qui, si quando, sicubi, 8cc. (also si quisquam, si aliquis,
si unquam, &c.) ; si quidem, si modo, si tamen, si forte, si maxime^
si vero, &c. ; sin (for si-ne), h^t if: sin autem, sin vero, &c.
2) Si quis = qui or quisquis : si quando =- quandocumque, &c.
* Licet irridere si qui vult, plus apud me tamen vera ratio valebit
quam vulgi opinio: neque ego umquam bona perdidisse dicam, si
quis pecus aut supellectilem amiserit/ C. Far, i. 'Si quod erat
grande vas et maius opus inventum, laeti afferebant ; si minus
eiusmodi quodpiam venari potuerant, ilia quidem certe pro le-
pusculis, patellae, paterae, turibula/ C. Verr, iv. 21.
VIII. Idiomatic Uses.
1) A Clause with si (especially accompanied by an indefinite
Pronoun or Particle) is used to imply that the Apodosis is as
certain or remarkable as any similar case which could be cited :
'Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectat,'
if anything of that kind charms me^ painting does, C. Fam. vii. 23,
'Si quando urbs nostra floruit, nunc maxime floret,' Plin.
i. 10. 'Si tibi umquam sum visus in repubhca fortis, certe me
in causa Clodiana admiratus esses/ C. Att. i. 16.
2) Hence si quidem sometimes becomes C2i\iS2\- inasmuch as:
' Antiquissimum e doctis est genus poetarum, siquidem
Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' of the learned
classes, poets are the inost ancient, seeing that Homer and Hesiod
lived before Rome was founded^ C. T. D. \. i.
But si quidem may also ^ si modo.
§ 221-22.
Conditional Sentences,
475
3) The Protasis with si is sometimes designed to correct the
form of expression in the principal Sentence :
* Romae delectus habetur totaque Italia, si hie delectus appel-
landus est, cum ultro se offerunt omnes,* a levy is going on at
Rome and throughout Italy, if levy it can be called, when all pre-
sent themselves unpressed^ C. Fam. xi. 8.
4) Si modo, si tamen, si vero are used for a similar purpose ;
also si forte.
* Ea diligenter a me expressa acumen habent Antiochi, nitorem
orationis nostrum, si modo is est aliquis in nobis,' C. Att, xiii.
19. * Nunc incorrectum populi pervenit in ora, in populi quicquam
si tamen ore meum est,' Ov. 7V. iii. 14. 23.
5) Often si enforces an entreaty by suggesting a reason.
•Si me diligis, excita ex somno tuas litteras,' if you have
any regard for me, wake tip your correspondeiice, C. Fam. xvi. 14.
^ Nihil amplius oro, Maia nate, nisi ut propria haec mihi mu-
nera faxis, si neque maiorem feci ratione mala rem, nec sum
fac turns vitio culpave minorem,' Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 4.
6) The phrase si quaeris, si quaeritis {if you want to know), also
s i quaerimus, apologises for a possibly superfluous statement :
S i dis placet {save the mark I forsooth) is an expression of slightly
contemptuous surprise.
VEa res, si quaeris, ei magno honori fuit,' C. Off. iii. 20. 'Et,
si quaeritis, is, qui appellatur dicax, in hoc genere maxima
excellit,' C. d. Or. ii. 62. ^ Etiam Latini, si dis placet, hoc bien-
nio dicendi magistri exstiterunt,' C. d. Or, iii. 24.
IX. Sive, Seu.
Sive, seu {whether, or if or), are often used in Distributive con-
struction, sive . . . sive, seu . . . seu, &c. See Conjunctions.
^Sinocte sive luce, si servus sive liber faxit, probe factum
esto,' L. xxii. 10. *Veniet tempus mortis et quidem celeriter ; et
sive retractabis sive properabis,' C. 71 i. 31. ^Mala et impia
consuetudo est contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive
simulate,' C. N. D. ii. 67. ' Inviso semel principe seu bene seu
male facta premunt,' Tac. H. \. 7. < Illo loco Hbentissime soleo
uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut
lego,' C. Z^^. ii. I. ^ I.Ttcumque haec, sive errore humano, seu
casu, seu necessitate inciderunt, bonum animum habe,' L. xlv. 8.
* luxta periculoso Acta seu vera promeret, monuit Liviam,' Tac.
Ann. i. 6.
X. Conditional Negation.
i) Nisi {unless, except if) denies a supposition : si non (// not)
supposes a denial, the emphasis falling on the negative.
' Nemo fere saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit,' hardly any sober
person dances, unless perchance he is mad, C. p. Mur. 6. ' Si non
quaeret, nullus dixeris,' if he shall not ask, you will say nothing,
Ter. Hec. i. 2. 4.
S 1 rninus, sin minus, sin ah ter, sin secus, are used for si non.
Nisi is strengthened by Adverbs: nisi tamen, nisi forte, nisi
vcro, &c.
476
Latin Syntax,
§ 222,
2) One Conditional clause with si or si non following another
without distinct reference to the former may express an alternative
or contradictory hypothesis :
' ludicia non metuis : si propter innocentiam, laudo; si propter
vim, non intellegis ei, qui isto modo iudicia non timeat, quid
timendum sit?^ C. Phil. ii. 45. * Si erunt in officio amici, pecunia
non derit; si non erunt, tu efficere tua pecunia non poteris/ C.
Fain. xiv. i. ^ Quid nos, quibus te vita si superstite iucunda, si
contra gravis ?^ Hor. Epod. i. 5.
3) But sin, sin autem, sin aliter, are used in distinct reference to-
another Condition which has gone before, actually or virtually:
' Mercatura si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et
copiosa, non est admodum vituperanda,' C. Off. i. 42. * Luxuria
cum omni aetati turpis, tum senectuti foedissima est : sin autem
libidinum intemperantia accesserit, duplex malum est/ C. Off. i. 34.
^Velim deinceps meliora sint; sin aliter fuerit, reipublicae
vicem dolebo,^ C. ad Br. i. 10.
4) Sin minus, si minus, sin secus, if 7tot, may follow without
repeating the Verb :
* Senatus consultum si erit factum, scribes ad me; sin minus,
rem tamen conficiam,^ C. Att. v. 4. ' Huic tu libro maxime velim
ex animo, si minus, gratiae causa suffragere,^ C. Fam. xii. 17.
Sin, sin autem, are sometimes used in the same way :
* Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus : sin, quod di omen avertant,
omnis omnium cursus est ad vos,' C. Fam. xii. 6. ' Iniecta mihi
spes quaedam est velle mecum Ser. Sulpicium colloqui. Si vir esse
volet, praeclara avrolia-, sin autem, erimus nos qui solemus,' C.
jA.tv» x* y »
5) Nisi is sometimes used in a sense resembling that of sed
{put) :
* Quid erat quod Capitonem primum scire voluerit ? Nescio ;
nisi hoc video, Capitonem in his bonis esse socium,' why was it
that he wished Capita to be informed first f I can^t say ; but this I
observe^ that Capita is a partner in this property y Q. p.
Rose. 35.
In this sense nisi tamen, nisi quod are used.
6) Nisi is also used to set aside a possible objection :
' Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute,' so far,
certainly y if I am not out of iny wits, all has been do?te foolishly
and unwarily, C. Att. vii. 10.
7) Nisi forte, nisi tamen, nisi vero, have an ironical use :
'Eruci criminatio tota, ut arbitror, dissoluta est, nisi forte ex-
pectatis ut ilia diluam quae de peculatu obiecit,^ C. p. S. Rose. 29.
* Frangetis impetum vivi, cuius vix sustinetis furias insepulti ; nisi
vero sustinuistis eos qui cum facibus ad curiam cucurrerunt,'
C. p. Mil. 33. ^ Equidem nec cur Patro tantopere contendat video,
nec cur tu repugnes : nisi tamen multo minus tibi concedi
potest quam illi laborare sine causa,' C. Fam. xiii. i.
8) On the other hand, nisi si stands for nisi when the excep-
tion is purely conditional ; and often before quis, quando, &c.
^Miseros illudi nolunt, nisi si se forte iactant/ they lu ill not have
§ 223.
Conditional Sentences.
477
the unforttmatc ridiculed^ unless^ indeed, they vaunt themselves:^
C. d. Or, ii. 58. ^ Ambiguum admirationem magis quam risum
mo vet, nisi si quando incidit in aliud genus ridiculi/ C. d. Or.
ii. 62.
9) Nisi, as a mere annexive Conjunction, especially follows
Negatives, Interrogatives, &:c. :
'Nullum imperium^est tutum, nisi benevolentia munitum/
Nep. Di, 5. * Hoc sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse/
C. Lael. 5. ' Oleam Theophrastus negavit nisi intra xL millia
passuum a mari nasci,' PI. N, H. xv. i. ' Quicquamne putas me
curare nisi ut ei ne desim/ C. Att, xii. 4. ' Erat historia nihil
aliud nisi annalium confectio,' C. d. Or, ii. 12.
10) Hand (Tursellinus iv.) denies that ni is a contracted form of
nisi. He regards it as an ancient negative particle, which re-
mains in use only in a conditional sense = si non.
'Neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo pri-
mum proeho cum Romanis bellassent,' that battle wonld not
have been recorded^ had it not been the first in which the Marsi
waged war with the Roma7ts, L. ix. 41. ' Ni virtus fidesque vestra
spectata mihi foret, nequiquam opportuna res cecidisset,' if I
liad not well tried yonr valour and fidelity^ this opportunity would
have occtirred in vain, Sail. Cat. xx. * Respondere vadato debebat,
quod ni fecisset, perdere litem,^ he was bound to appear in
court to one who had taken bail froin him, or, in default of appear-
ing, to lose his cause, Hor. Sat, i. 9. 37.
a) Ni follows Optatives of Imprecation : 'Dispeream ni sum-
mosses omnis/ upon my life you would have supplaiited
all, Hor, Sat. i. 9. 47.
N i is used in the formula of a wager : ' Lutatius, eques
Romanus, sponsionem fecerat, ni vir bonus esset,'
Lutatiiis, a Roman knight, had laid a wager {on condition
of losing) if he were not a good man, C. Verr. iii. 59.
(This was the usual mode of settling disputes of personal honour
at Rome. See Mommsen, Rojn, Hist, B. iii. Ch. 1 2.) ^
XI. The following table shews how to convert Conditional Sen-
tences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infin.
Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it.
' Examples of nisi (ni), si non, &c. (§ 222.)
L a. 'Actum de te est, nisi provides,' C. Fam. ix. i8. * Opprimemini, nisi provi-
deritis,' C. ad Brut. i. 2. *Ni tua custodis, avidus iam haec auferet heres,' Hor. S.
ii- 3- 151-
b. Te nusquam mittam, nisi das firmatam fidem,* Plaut. M. Gl. ii. 5. * Doli non
doli sunt, nisi astu colas,' Plaut. Capt. ii. i.
c. 'Nisi ego ilium hominem perdo, perii,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 9. 'Moriar, nisi facete,*
C. Att. xvi. II. *Mirumni ilia salva est,' Ter. Haut. iii. 5.
d. 'Cogere eum coepit, sponsionem facere cum lictore suo, ni furtis quaestum
faceret,' C. Verr. v. 54. * Da pignus, ni easit filia,' Plaut. Epid. v. 2. * Da hercle
pi gnus, ni omnia memini et scio,* Plaut. Pers. ii. 2.
e. 'Ausculta paucis, nisi molestum est, Demea,' Ter. Ad. v. 3. 20. * Impetrarim
libenter, nisi molestum sit,' C. T. D. v. 29. 'Nisi molestum est, percontari
hanc paucis hie vult,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 4.
4/8
Latin Syntax,
§323.
Conditio Recta.
Si peccas, doles,
peccabis, dolebis.
peccaveris, dolueris.
pecces, doleas.
peccares, doleres.
S
S
S
S
S
01 peccavisses, ) 1 , •
e- f uoluisses.
Si peccares, i t^ioo^c).
•4-*
O
• •— <
<
Conditio Obliqua.
si pecces, dolere,
1 pecces, ] doliturum
si 1 peccaveris, ■ (dolendum)
ipeccaturus sis,/ esse,
si peccares, doliturum (dolendum)
esse
doliturum
SI
( peccavisses,
1 peccares,
(dolendum)
fuisse.^
II. a. * Et certe, nisi is Antonium ab urbe avertisset, perissent omnia,' C. ad Br. i, 3.
*Haec illius severitas acerba videretur, nisi multis condimentis humanitatis miti-
garetur,' C. /. Q7i. i. * Plures cecidissent, ni nox proelio intervenisset,' L. xxiii. t8.
b. * Haec ego non ferrem, nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem,' C. Fain. vii.
30. 'Nam ni vellent di, non fieret, scio,' Plaut, AmI. iv. 10. * Agesilaus talem se im-
peratorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit, nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non
fuisse/ Nep. Ag, 6,
c. *Quod ni ita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamur deos?' C. N. D. \. 44. 'Quod
ni ita se haberet, nec iustitiae ullus esset nec bonitat; locus,' C. Fi7i. iii. 20.
III. \. a, * Si republica non possis frui, stultum est nolle privata,' C. Fam. iv. 9. * Vas
factus est alter eius sistendi ut, si ille non revertisset, moriendum esset ipsi,' C. Off.
iii. 10. *Egovero meum consilium, si praesertim tu non improbas, vehementer ap-
probo,' C. Qn. Fr. iii. 4.
b. *Si mundus universus non est deus, ne stellae quidem,' C. N. D. iii. 9.
*Quod si veri.simile non est, ne illud quidem est, haec unde fluxerunt,' C. A'. D.
iii. 18.
*Si tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umquam movebit,' L. xxii. 60.
'Quae potest esse sanctitas, si di humana non curant?* C. A^. D. 1. 44.
*Si non tangendi copia est, eho, ne videndi quidem erit?' Ter. Em7i. iv. 2,
c. *Si illud non licet, saltim hoc licebit,' Ter. Eun. iv. 2. * Si non urna»
tamen iunget nos littera ; si non ossibus ossa meis, at nomen nomine tangam,' Ov. M.
xi. 706. * Victi sumus igitur, aut, si vinci dignitas non potest, fracti certe et abiecti,*
C. Fam. iv. 7.
'Dolorem iustissimum, si non potero frangere, occultabo,' C. Phil. xii. 8.
2. rt. *0 miserum te, si intellegis, miseriorem, si non intellegis,' C. Phil. ii. 22.
'Bene si amico feceris, ne pigeat fecisse, at potius pudeat, si non feceris,' Plaut.
Trin. ii. 2.
b. *Si mihi veniam, quam peto, dederit, utar condicione ; sin minus, impetrabo
aliquid a me ipso,' C. Att. ix. 15.
*Sume, catelle ; negat : si non des, optet,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 258.
c. *Si aflfers, tum patent, si non est quod des, aedes non patent,' Plaut. As. i. 3.
d. 'Valerium iureconsultum valde tibi commendo, sed ita etiam si non est iurecon-
sultus,' C. Fam. iii. i.
3. a. ' Aes pro capite dent : si id facere non queunt, domum abeant,' Plaut. Poen, Pr.
b. 'Quid, si quis non sit avarus, continuon' sanus?' Hor. S. ii. 3. 159. 'Quid si
non impetraro ? ' C ^ tt. ix. 2.
4. a. 'Koc tamen nuntia, melius me morituram fuisse si non in funere meo nupsis-
sem,' L. XXX. 15.
b. 'Interminatus est a minimo ad maximum, si quis n on hodie munus mi^sset
sibi, eum eras cruciatu maximo perbitere, Plaut. Ps. iii. i.
c. 'Peream male si non optimum erat,' Hor. 6". ii. i. 6. *Peream si non invltant
omnia culpam,' Ov. Her. xvii. 183.
d. 'lubetP. Quinctium sponsionem cum S. Naevio facere, si bona sua ex edicto
praetoris dies xxx. possessa non essent,* C. Qu. 8.
e. 'Volo te verbis pauculis, si tibi molestum non est,' Plaut. E/>. iii. 4.
' Examples of Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua. (§ 223.)
*Omnes intellegunt, si salvi esse velint, necessitati esse parendum,' C. Off. ii.
11. * Equidem putabam virtutem hominibus, si modo tradi ratione possit, insti-
1
§ 224-25.
Concessive Sentences,
479
XII. Modo, dum, dummodo.
Modo (pnly) is used for si modo, if only ; modo ut, provided
that ; with Negative, modo ne, provided that . . . not.
Tan turn is similarly used in poetry.
Dum {whilst)^ dummodo {whilst only), may also signify, pro-
"vided that, provided that only : and, if Negative, take ne.
All these Conjunctions require the Subjunctive.^
viL Concessive Sentences.
These, like Conditional Sentences, have Protasis and Apodosis.
They are called Concessive, because the Protasis concedes an ob-
jection : meaning althoiighy even if, however, granting that, &c.
I. Concessive Conjunctions are of several classes.
(1) The strengthened forms of si (including si itself used con-
cessively), etsi, etiamsi, tamen-etsi (usually written tametsi),
even if although.
The natural Demonstrative of these and of all Concessive forms
is tamen, nevertheless, yet-, certe, at, at certe, sed tamen, tamcn,
saltern, are also used
(2) The Universal Relative Adverbs, quamquam {howsoever =
although), utut [however).
tuendo ac persuadendo tradi,' C. d. Or. i. 58. * M. Claudius vociferatur : ita demum
liberam civitatein fore, ita aequatas leges, si sua quisque iura ordo, suam maiesta-
tem teneat,' L. iii. 63. *Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt ; si veiit suos
recipere, obsides sibi remittat,' Caes. B, G. iii. 8. 'Ariovistus respondit : si ipse
populo Romano non praescriberet, quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oport-
ere se a populo Romano in suo iure impediri/ Caes. B. G. i. 36. * Additum decreto :
si quis quid postea, quod ad notam ignominiamque Philippi pertineret, ferrent,
id omne populum Atheniensium iussurum; si quis contra ignominiam prove honore
eius dixisset fecissetve, qui occidisset eum iure caesurum,' L. xxx. 44.
* (Hasdrubal Carthaginiensibus suadet) si ulla Hispaniae cura esset, successorem sibi
cum valido exercitu mitterent,' L. xxiii. 27. * Batavi praemisere qui Herennio Gallo
mandata cohortium exponerent : si nemo obsisteret, innoxium iter fore; sin arma
occurrant, ferro viam inventuros,' Tac. H. iv. 20. 'Ad ea Epicydes, si qua ad se
mandata haberent, responsum eis ait daturum fuisse: ... si bello lacessant,
ipsa re intellecturos, nequaquam idem esse Syracusas ac Leontinos oppugnare,'
L. xxiv. 33.
' Examples of modo, dum, &c., in Conditional Sense. (§ 224.)
* Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria/ C. Cat. M. 7.
* Mediocritas in puniendo placet Peripateticis ; et recte placet, modo ne laudarent
iracundiam,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Modo ut haec nobis loca tenere lice at, bellissime mecum
esse poteritis,' C. Fain. xiv. 2. 'Oderint, dum metuant,' Suet. Calig. 30. 'Sin
autem ieiunitatem et siccitatem et inopiam, dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum
elegans, in Attico genere ponit, hoc recte dumtaxat,' C. Br. 82. * Mea nihil refert,
dum potiar modo,* Ten An. v. i. 31. 'Ego si cui adhuc segnior esse videor, dum
ne tibi videar, non laboro,' C. Att. viii. 11. 'Aliqui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt,
dummodo potentiam consequantur,' C. Off. iii. 2t. *Sit summa in iure dicundo
severitas, dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequabilis,' C. Qtt.
Fr. i. I. 7.
(Dum non used conditionally by Seneca.^ * Omnia licet foris resonent, dum intus
nihil tumultus sit, dum inter se non rixentur cupiditas et timor, dum avaritia
luxuriaque non dissideant, nec altera alteram vexet ; nam quid prodest totius regio-
nis silentium, si aflfectus fremunt ? * Ep. 56.
(Tantum used by Virgil conditionally, like modo.) * Veniam quocumque voca' is,
audiat haec tantum vel qui venit, ecce, Palaemon,* B. iii. 49. See do. 53, and
B. ii. 28.
Lathi Syntax,
§ 226.
(3) The Verbal forms quamvis, quamlibet, quantumvis {how
you will = howsoever, although), licet (// 7nay be that = although),
for which licebit is sometimes used. See Hor. Epod. xv. 19.
(4) Ut in Concessive Sense ( = concesso granting that, i.e.
although)', with ne ( = concesso ut granting that . . . 7iot).
Also cum {whereas),
11. Mood in Concessive Clauses,
(1) Concessive Sentences which have etsi, etiamsi, tametsi,
or si, in the Protasis, are subject to the same rules of Mood as
Conditional Sentences, of which they are merely special instances.
(2) A Concessive Clause with quamquam, utut, will be Indi-
cative ; but if Suboblique or Gnomic, Subjunctive.
By writers of the Silver Age, as Tacitus and Suetonius, quam-
quam is freely used with Subjunctive.
(3) A Concessive Clause with licet and Subjunctive is a special
instance of Petitio Obliqua, in which ut is omitted.
Quamvis is used with Indicative once by Cicero ; sometimes
by Nepos, Livy, and the poets : usually taking Subjunctive.
(4) Ut, ne, Concessively used, are also special instances of
Petitio Obliqua, in which the Verb is suppressed.
Cum Concessive is found with both Moods. On its use with
Indie, see M. Lucr, i. $66
226 III. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions.
1) Etsi, quamvis, rarely quamquam, are used adverbially
to qualify words without affecting mood. Licet, quamlibet are
so used in poetry only.
^Si mihi obtemperatum esset, etsi non optimam, at aliquam
rempublicam haberemus,' C. Off. i. 11. ' Haec mira quamquam
fidem ex eo trahebant quod,' &c., Tac. Ann. vi. 30. * Res bello
gesserat, quamvis reipublicae calamitosas, attamen magnas,'
C. Phil. ii. 45. * Huic, licet ingratae, Tityrus ipse canam,' Prop,
iii. 30. 74. ^Adiuvat in fir mas quamlibet ira manus,' Ov.
2) Quamvis, quam vultis, quam volet, &c., are so used in the
sense of quantumvis, ever so {much).
* Quasi vero mihi difficile sit quamvis multos {ever so many)
nominatim proferre,' C. p. Rose. 16. ^Exspectate facinus quam
vultis improbum {as dishonest as you please), vincam tamen
expectationem omnium,' C. Verr. v. 5. ^Ouam volet iocetur,'
let him jest as he will, C. A^. D. ii. 1 7.
3) Quamvis licet, quantumvis licet with Subjunctive.
* Quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos ; metuo ne soli philo-
sophi sint,' we may rail at the Stoics as much as we please : I am
afraid they are our only true philosophers, C. T. D. iv. 24.
^Ouamvis licet menti delubra et virtuti et fidei consecremus,
tamen haec in nobis ipsis sita videmus,' we may dedicate temples
as 7nuch as we will to Intellect and Vi7'tue and Faith ; yet these
are things we perceive to he resideiit in ourselves, C. N. D. iii. 36.
'Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, omnis tuos ad
amplissimos honores perducere,' C. Lael. 20.
§ 226.
Concessive Seutcjiccs.
4) The Protasis with etsi or quamqiiam is sometimes added to
modify or correct the Apodosis, and may be rendered and yet.^
' Do, do poenas temeritatis meae : etsi quae fuit ilia temeritas
I pay the penalty of my rashness : and yet what was that rashness /
C Att, ix, 10, ' Puto mea non nihil interesse, quamquam id
ipsum quid intersit non sane intellego/ / think I have some
hiterest in the matter; and yet I don^t quite perceive what that
interest is^ C. Fam^ v. 2 1 .
5) The Protasis of a Concessive Sentence may, without a Con-
junction, be contained
a) In the Pure Conjunctive :
^Naturam expellas furca, tamen Usque recurret/ Hor.
Epist, i. 10. 24.
b) In the Indicative, especially with quidettl :
^Matura res erat, consules tergiversabantur tamen/ L. ii.
45. ^Maxima est ilia quidem consolatio, sed tamen
necessaria/ C. Fam, vi. 2*
€) In an Adjectival or Participial Enthesis i
'Homonatura lenissimus stomachari tamen coepit,' C.
Ae. iL 4. ' A nigro album etiam nullo monente oculus
distinguit/ Sen. Fp. 94.
(On the Concessive use of si see p. 474.)
■I
Examples of Concessive Sentences. (§ 225.)
{Etsiy etiamsiy tametsi.") 'Viri boni faciunt quod rectum, quod honestum est, etsi;
nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident,'C. Fin. ii. 14. 'Cum tuis dare possem
litteras, non praetermisi, etsi, quod scriberem, non habebam,' C. Att. xi. 19.
* Sunt qui, quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant
dicere,' C. Off. i. 244 * Homo quod crebro videt non miratur^ etiamsi cur fiat
nescit,'C, Div. ii. 22. *Cur nolint^ etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt,'C. in Caec. 6.
'Rectum est in contentionibus, etiamsi nobis indigna audiamus, tamen g^ravi-
tatem retinere, iracundiam repellere ' (Gnomic)^ C. Offi i. 38. *Equidem, etiamsi
oppetenda mors esset, domi atque in patria mallem quam in externis atque alienis
locis,' C. Fam. iv. 7. * Mihi quidem, tametsi haudquaquam par gloria sequatur
scriptorem et actorem rerum, tamen inprimis arduum videtur res gestas scribere *
(Virt. Or. Obi. but some edd. have sequitur). Sail. Cat. 3.
{Quamqtianty utut.) 'Quamquam sunt omnes virtutes aequales et pares; sed
tamen est species alia magisalia formosa et illustris,* C. d. Or. iii. 14. *Utut erga me
meritus't, mihi cordi est tamen,' Plant. Cist. i. 1. iii. * Ut tu me carum esse dixisti
senatui, sic ego te, quamquam sis omni civitate taeterrimus, tamen dico esse odio
civitati,' C. /. Vat. 3. * Vi quidem regere patriam, quamquam et possis et delicta
corrigas, tamen est importunum,' Sail. Itig: 3.
{Quamvisy licet.) a. 'Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen
honestum fieri nullo modo potest,* C. Off. iii. 19. 'Licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio,
frequenter tamen causa virtutum est,' Qu. i. 2. 22;. 'Assentatio quamvis perniciosa
sit, nocere tamen nemini potest, nisi ei qui earn recipit atque ea delectatur,' C. Lael.
26. 'Licet irrideat, si quis vult ; plus apud me tamen ratio valebit, quam vulgi
opinio,' C. /'fiA-. I. 'Ilia, quamvis ridicula essent, sicut erant, mihi tamen risum
non moverunt,' C. Fam. vii. 32. * Pompeius multa alia vidit, sed illud maxime,
quamvis atrociter ipse tulisset,- vos tamen fortitcr iudicaturos,' C. p. Mil. 8.
'Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, tamen intellego, te hie ne verbo qui-
dem levare me posse,' C. Att. iii. 12.
b. 'Hoc ille natus, quamvis patrem suum numquam viderat, tamen et natura
ipsa duce, quae plurimum valet, et assiduis domesticorum sermonibus in paternae vitae
J I
482
Latin Syntax,
§ 227.
6) The Protasis is sometimes a Relative Clause, which may be
Subjunctive or Indicative.
'Egomet, qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, cum
Athenas venissem, compluris ibi dies sum commoratus,' C. d.
Or, i. 18. * Oculorum, inquit Plato, est in nobis sensus acerrimus ;
quibus sapientiam non cernimus/ C. Fin. ii. 16.
227 ,
Compa- viii. Comparative Sentences.
rative ♦ i. . . ^
Sen- L These, which, as special instances of conceived Condition,
fences, contain in the Protasis ^ the meaning as if^ require the Verb of the
Protasis to be Subjunctive.
They are introduced by the Comparative Conjunctions quam,
ut, ac (see Correlation) going before (or supposing) si, and are
usually preceded by one of the Demonstratives tam, ita, sic ; vel ;
perinde, proinde, aeque, similiter, &c. : is, idem, itidem.
Hence are obtained Conjunctional forms quasi (for quam si);
quasi si (rare) ; tamquam si ; tamquam (understanding si);
velutsi; velut (understanding si) ; also
non aliter quam si, and similar forms : sometimes proinde ac,
&c., without si; ac si, ut si, without Demonstrative.
similitudinem deductus est,* C. /. Rab. Post. 2. * Miltiades inter suos potestate erat
regia, quam vis carebat nomine,' N. Milt. 2. *Quamvis cecidere trecenti, non
omnis Fabios abstulit una dies,' Ov. Ep. Pont. i. 2.
{Ut, ne, cum.) *Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,' Ov. Ep, Pont.
iii. 4. 79. 'Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me f rangeret,' C.
T. D. i. 21. *Ne sit sane summum malum dolor: malum certe est,' C. T. D. ii. 5.
*Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pyrrho certe aequabitis,' L. xxi. 7.
*Cum omnibus virtutibus me affectum esse cupiam, tamen nihil est, quod malim,
quam me et gratum esse et videri,' C. /. Plane. 33. ' Hoc ipso tempore, cum omnia
gumnasia philosophi teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire quam philoso-
phum malunt,' C. Or. ii. 5.
Examples of Comparative Sentences. (§ 227.)
* Stultissimum est, in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio maeror le vetur,' C.
T. D. iii. 26. * Nisi forte idcirco numen esse non putant, quia non apparet, nee cemitur :
proinde quasi (/«j/ «j nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus,'C. p. Mil. 31.
''Quasi sua res aut honor agatur, ita diligenter Naevii cupiditati morem gerunt,' C.
p. Quinc. 2. * Educavit magna industria, quasi si esset ex se nata,' Plaut. Cas.
Prol. 45. *Sic Plancius quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natus,* C. /.
Plane. 25. *Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimum inspicere
possit,' Sen. Ep. 83. 'Antonius Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et
igni interdictum sit,' C. Phil. vi. 4. *Tu, qui id quaeris, similiter facis ac si me
roges. cur te duobus contuear oculis, quum idem uno assequi possim,' C. N. D. iii. 3,
'Quae perdifficilia sunt, perinde habenda saepe sunt ac si effici non possint,' C.
Part. 24. * Me iuvat, velut ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli
Punici pervenisse,' L. xxxi. i. * Sequani absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem, velut si
coram ad as set, horrebant,' Caes. B. G. i. 32. 'Scipiades belli fulmen, Carthaglnis
* The true Apodosis is a suppressed Conjunctive Verb. Thus, in the sentence Tam
amo te quam si frater esses, the true Apodosis to si e ss es is amarem understood : / love
you as (I should lov« you) if you were my brother.
§ 228-29-
Consecutiofi of Tenses,
483
11. Comparative Idioms.
1) Ceu is used for ceu si (as if) in poetry, and in the prose of
the Silver Age. ^ Natura dedit cornua convoluta arietum generi,
ceu caestus daret,' PL A/". //. xi. 37. Ceu si is used by Lucretius :
*Ceu lapidem si percutiat lapis/ vi. 160.
2) Quasi vero, quasi autem, hke nisi vero, are used ironically
{as if forsooth) : * Quasi vero id cupiditate defendendae nobihtatis
fecerit/ C. /'^?;;^. iii. 7. Mmmo vero quasi tu dicas quasique
ego au tem id suspicer/ Plaut. Pseud, ii. 2. ^<y,
3) Quasi, tamquam, velut, ceu (like ut, sicut, si, nisi, etsi,
quamvis, quamquam), may be used as mere annexive or ad-
verbial Particles, not affecting Mood.
^Litteras Graecas avide arripui quasi diuturnarti sitim explere
cupiens,' C. Cat. M. 8. ^ Servis respublica et quasi {as it were)
civitas domus est/ PI. Ep. viii. 16. 'Ex vita ita discedo tam-
quam {as though) ex hospitio, non tamquam ex domo,' C.
Cat. M. 23.
Sometimes quasi is used forfereorcirciter {almost^ about) :
* Quasi ad duo miha,' aboiit 2,000, L. xxvii. 12.
SECTION V.
SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CONSTRUCTIOI^.
I. Consecution of Tenses*
The Law that Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic
by Historic (see § 98), is illustrated by all the Examples in this
Chapter, especially by those of Petitio and Intetr. Obliqua, Con-
secutive and Final Clauses. On the use of the Tense (-erim),
see § 204.
i) The two following passages shew that a Present Past admits
either Consecution :
^ Non ita generati a natufa sumus ut ad ludum et iocum
facti esse videamur/ C. Of.i.2g. ^Homines sunt hac lege
generati, qui tuerentur ilium globum . . . quae terra dicitur,'
C. Pep. vi. 1 5.
It is, however, the prevailing idiom of Cicero, to construct the
Present Past with Historic consecution :
^Adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus pos-
set is,' I have brought a man before you, in dealing with whom you
may do your duty to foreign nations, Verr. i. 2. * Quemadmodum
officia ducerentur ab honestate satis explicatum arbitror,'
I consider that I have explained enough how duties are derived
from moral principle, Off. ii. i.
horror, ossa dedit terrae, proinde ac famul infimus esse t,' Lucr. in. 1048. * Eius
negotium sic velim cures ut si esset res mea,' C. Fain. ii. 14. ' Egnati absentis rem
ut tueare aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent,' C. Fam. xiii. 43. 'Qua
de re quoniam nihil ad me scribis, perinde habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse,'
C. A it. iii. 13.
I I 2
484 Latm Syntax, § 229.
2) The Historic Present generally takes Historic Consecution :
but sometimes Primary :
^ Sulla suos hortaturuti fortem animum gererent/ Sail. hig.
107. ^ Pompeius, ne duobus circumcluderetur exercitibus, ex
eo loco disc edit/ Caes. B, C. iii. 30. ^ Caesar cohortatur milites
ne labori succumbant/ Caes. B, G. vii. 86.
Transitions occur from the Historic to the Primary Consecution
and conversely :
^Monebant etiam ne orientem morem pellendi reges inultum
sineret: satis libertatem ipsam habere dulcedinis : nisi quanta vi
civitates eam expetant, tanta regna reges defendant, aequari
summa infimis: nihil excelsum, nihil quod supra ceteros emineat
in civitatibus fore/ they warned him also not to leave unpunished
the nascent custom of expelling kings: freedom (they said) was
sweet enough in itself: if kings were not to defend their thrones as
vigorously as states seek freedom^ the highest were levelled with the
lowest ; there would be in communities nothing lofty y iiothing to
rise above the mass, L. ii. 9. ^ Novum in republica introductum
exemplum queritur, ut tribunicia intercessio armis notaretur
atque opprimeretur, quae superioribus annis armis esset resti-
tuta : Sullam, nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate, tamen
intercessionem liberam reliquisse : Pompeium, qui amissa resti-
tuere videatur, ademisse/ he complaiiis that a novel precedejit
has been introduced in the comjnonwealfh, of censuring and putting
dozmi by arms the intercession of the tribunes^ which in the pre-
ceding years had been restored by arms : Sulla (he said) though he
stripped the tribunician power of everything else, had yet left the
veto free : while Pompeius, who seemed to be restoring what was
lost, had taken it away, Caes. B. C. i. 7.
3) When two Future actions are brought into connexion there
are three possible varieties :
a) When both actions commence and continue together, both
Verbs will be in the Simple Future : ^ Profecto beati
erimus, cum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus
expertes/ C. T. D. The English idiom differs : * We shall be
happy, when we are free from desires.' So when we say,
^ I will come if (when) I can/ the Latin construction is,
Veniam si (cum) potero.
b) When one action will commence after the other is com-
plete, one Verb will be in the Simple Future, the other in
the Future Perf : * De Carthagine vereri non ante desi-
nam quam illam excisam esse cognovero,' C. Cat, M. 6.
Cum ego veniam, tu discesseris.
c) When both actions will be complete together, both Verbs
are in the Future Perf. : ^Qui Antonium oppresserit, is
hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit, whoever shall have
crushed Antonius, will have coiicluded this most horrid
war, C. Fam. x. 19.
But if an action going on is the condition of a Future action,
the Protasis may be Present :
'Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsessos/ the war will
he fifiished if we press the besieged, L. v. 4.
§ 229.
Consecution of Tenses.
4) As the Simple Future has no Subjunctive of its own, the
Future Active form used in iinmediate consecution of Primary-
Tenses is -urus sim : that used in im^nediate consecution of Historic
Tenses is -urus essem :
* Non debes dubitare quin ah qua repubhca sis futurus qui esse
debes/ you ought not to doubt that, while there is any republic^ you
will be what you ought to be^ C. Fam, vi. i. * Antea dubitabam
venturaene essent legiones ; nunc mihi non est dubium quin
venturae non sint/ / was in doubt before whether the legions
would come ; now I have no doubt they will not, C. Fam, ii. 1 7.
But, in secondary subordination (futurity being expressed in the
first), S^ or (in Historic Consecution) S3 will represent the Future
Simple : Sg or (in Historic Consecution) S^ will represent the
Future Perfect :
Examples :
(1) Qui hoc dicet errabit, subordinated, becomes :
Non dubito quin, qui hoc dicat, erraturus sit.
Credo eum, qui hoc dicat, erraturum esse.
Non dubitabam quin, qui hoc die ere t, erraturus esset.
Credebam eum, qui hoc die ere t, erraturum esse.
(2) Si ita fecero, me culpabis, becomes :
Non dubito quin, si ita fecerim, me culpaturus sis.
Non dubitabam quin, si ita fecissem, me culpaturus esses,
(3) Id faciemus, cum Lemnum veneris, becomes :
Respondent id se facturos, cum Lemnum venerit:
Respondebant id se facturos, cum Lemnum venisset.
5) If a Conditional Sentence in Sumptio Ficti, with Apodosis S3,
is subordinated by ut, ne, quin, &c., it may remain :
^ Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, vel si
obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset specieque laudabile,'
morality is such that, even if 7nen were unacquainted with it or
had been silent, it would still deserve praise for its own native
loveliness, C. Fin. ii. 15. 'Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei
vis esset illata?' had he rejected it, have you any doubt that
violence would have been offered to him ? C. p. Sest, 29.
6) When S4, in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, is subor-
dinated so as to form a Consecutive Clause or Oblique Interroga-
tion, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Conjugation in -urus takes its
place :
' Hannibal, nisi fugae speciem timuisset, Galliam repetivisset,'
becomes, ' Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi fugae spe-
ciem timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit,' Hannibal was so
pressed by scarcity, that, if he had not dreaded the semblance oj
flight, he would have returned to Gaul, L. xxii. 32. So, ' Die
agedum quidnam facturus fueris si eo tempore censor
fuisses,'//^^"/ tell us what you would have done, had you been censor
at that time, L. ix. 33. ' Nec dubium erat quin, si tam pauci
simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint,' there was
no dotibt that if so srnall a number could have done everything at
once, the enemy would have taken flight, L. iv. 38.
486
Latin Syntax.
Credo me intellegere
7) ^ Might have' is expressed in a Consecutive Clause by potu-
erim : * Captivi tantum timorem fecerunt, ut, si admotus extemplo
exercitus foret, capi castra potuerint^ (the camp might have been
taken)^ L. xliii. 4.
* Ought or must have' is expressed by the Gerundive Perf. Sub-
junctive : 'Adeo aequa postulastis ut ultro vobis deferenda fue-
rint/ you have made such fair demands that they ought to have
been spontaneously offered you^ L. iii. 53. 'In eos versa peditum
acies haud dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata extrema agminis fuis-
sent, ingens in eo saltu accipienda clades iw^xW {great loss
must have been suffered)^ L. xxi. 34.
These Constructions arise out of the idiom by which potue-
runt is used for potuissent, and deferendum fuit for defer-
endum fuisset. Seep. 336.
8) When an Infinitive (Present or Future), a Participle, Gerund,
or Supine, intervenes, consecution is still dependent on the principal
Verb :
quid agas, egeris, acturus sis;
quid agatur, actum sit, agendum
sit.
(quid ageres, egisses, acturus esses;
Credebam me intellegere ] quid ageretur, actum esset, agendum
V esset.
^ Cato mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret haruspex, haru-
spicem cum vidisset,' C. Div, ii. 24. ' Cupido incessit animos
iuvenum sciscitandi ad quem eorum regnum Romanum esset
venturum,' L. i. 56.
But, if an Infinitive Perfect intervenes, the consecution is Pri-
mary or Historic according as the Infinitive is Present Past or
Simple Past: *Ita comparatam esse hominum naturam om-
nium, aliena ut melius videant et diiudicent quam sua,' strange
that the characters of men are so constituted that they see and decide
the^ affairs of others better than their own, Ter. Haul. iii. i. 98.
^Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur
in via Clodio/ Milo is acquitted of having gone with the design of
lying in ambush on the high road for Clodius, C. p. Mil. 18.
But to this Infinitive we must apply what was said above, i) :
* Satis videor docuisse, hominis natura quanto omnes anteiret
animantis,' / thifik I have sufficiently shewn how much the nature
of man surpasses all animals, C. N. D. ii. 61.
The same Rule applies to the Periphrastic Perfect Infin. :
' Quis est qui hoc non sentiat, quidvis prius futurum fuisse
quam ut hi fratres diversas sententias fortunasque sequerentur?'
who can help feeling that anything would sooner have happened^
than that these brothers shoicld follow diverging sentimeiits and
fortmiesf C.
9) As the Infinitive has no Conditional force of its own, it
acquires this by means of the Future Participle.
' I knew that he would come if he could,' Sciebam eum ven-
turum esse, si posset ; ' I know that he would have come if he
could/ Scio eum venturum fuisse si potuisset.
§ 230. Narratio Obliqua, 487
II. Narratio Obliqua. Narra-
When an author relates the speeches or writings of others not, obiiqua.
as the speakers or writers delivered them, in the First Person, but
in a series of Oblique constructions, dependent on his own state-
ment that they so spoke or wrote, such use of Oblique Oration is
called Narratio Obliqua.
Caesar almost always reports speeches obliquely, Sallust di-
rectly; Livy and Tacitus in both ways, often gliding from the
indirect into the direct form. Enunciations are interspersed with
Petitions and Interrogations ; and in general, when transition
takes place from one form of Oratio Obliqua to another, a new
Verb is not introduced, the original Verb (by Zeugma) supplying
its meaning.
i) The Clauses are sometimes carried on in the Infin. Clause :
(1) After a Relative : ' Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum
oppositam esse barbaris, apud quam ( = nam apud
eam) iam bis class is regias fecisse naufragium,' Nep..
Th, 7.
(2) After various Conjunctions (quia, quamquam, cum, nisi
forte, &c.) : Mdeo se moenibus inclusos tenere Cam-
panos, quia si qui evasissent aliqua, velut feras bestias
per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare quodcumque
obviam detur,' they kept the Canipanians shut up within
their walls on this account, that, if any of them got out
anywhere, they wandered over the country like wild beasts,
Examples of Narratio Obliqua. (§ 230.)
*Orat Tarquinius Veientis, ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno Gum
liberis adolescentibus ante oculos suos perire sinerent: alios peregre in regnum
Romam accitos ; se regem, augentem bello Romanum imperium, a proximis scelerata.
conjuratione pulsum : . . . patriam se regnumque suum repetere, et persequi in-
gratos civis velle: ferrent cpem, adiuvarent; suas quoque veteris iniurias ultum
irent, toties caesas legiones, agrum ademptura,' Tarqtunius entreats the people of Veii
not to allow him with his grown-up children to die before their eyes, expelled in desti-
tute condition from a royal station lately so eminent: (he says) that others had been
tnvtted to Rome front abroad to reign : that he, when king, and aggrandising the
Roman empire in war, had been driven out by a wicked conspiracy of his nearest kin;^
that he wished to reclm.im his country and kingdom, and to take vengeance on his un-
grateful countrymen: (he entreats them) to lend their aid, to assist him : to set about
avenging their own ancient wrongs, the frequent slaughter of their legions, the curtail-
ment of their territory, L. ii. 6.
Docebat Caesar, quam veteres quamque iustae causae necessitudinis ipsis cum
Aeduis interced erent ; quae senatus consulta, quotiens, quamque honorifica
m eos facta essent ; ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuissent^
prius etiam quam nostram amicitiam appetissent: populi Romani hanc esse
consuetu dinem, ut socios atque amicos non modo sui nihil deperdere, sed gratia, digni-
tate, honore auctiores velit esse: quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent,
id us eripi quis pati posset?' Caesar shewed, what ancient and just grounds of
friendship existed between themselves (the Romans) and the Aedui ; what decrees of the
senate had been made in their favour, how often, and in what ho7iourable terms ; how
the Aedui from time immemorial had held the first rank in Gaul, even before they had
courted our friendship : (adding) that the custom of the Roman people was to resolve
thai its allies and friends should not only lose nothing of their own, but even he in-
creased in influence, dignity, and honour : but {as to) what they had possessed at tJie
tune of contracting friendship with the Roman people, who could endute that this
sko2ild be wrested from them? Caes. B. G. i. 43.
488
Latin Syntax,
§230.
and tore and slaughtered whatever came in their way, L.
xxvi. 27. See ii. 13, xxxiii. 45.
2) Rhetorical questions belong to the primary clauses of Oratio
Obliqua, and take the Infinitive :
* Plebs fremit : Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri,
si, quod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi
non possint ?' the plebeians 7nurmured : Why were they livings why
reckoned one portion of the citizens^ if what the valour of two per-
sons had wo7iy their entire body were U7table to maintain ? L. vii. 1 8.
But Caesar generally throws such questions into the Con-
junctive.
3) Questions, to which an answer is expected, are regularly put
in the Conjunctive :
^ Docet Caesar, latum ab decem tribunis, ut sui ratio absentis
haberetur, ipso consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri
passus esset? sin probasset, cur se uti populi beneficio prohi-
bu i sset ?^ Caesar informed them^ that the ten tribunes had brought
in a billy allowing him to rank as a candidate ^ though absent , in the
very consulship of Pompeius ; if Pompeius disapproved, why had
he allowed the bill to be brought in f if he approved, why had he
prevented him from taking advantage of the people's boon ? Caes.
B, C i. 32.
4) a. A Potential Sentence may become Oblique by means of
the Verb possum ; an Optative Sentence by means of
volo.
Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua.
A. ENUNTIATIO.
I. Recta.
2. Obliqua post Praesens.
3. Obliqua post Praeteritum.
I. Eo. 2. Ibo. 3. Ivi.
4. Eo quia (cum, quo, si)
iubes.
5. Ibo cum (quo, si) ius-
seris.
6. Ivi quo (cum, quia) ius-
sisti.
7. Faciam quod voles.
8. Feci quod voluisti.
9. Gratum est mihi quod
quievisti.
10. Dummoraris, urbscapta
est.
11. Non recuso quominus
(quin) eas.
12. Edo ut vivam.
13. Expedit civitati ut re-
deam.
14. Quaeras quid agam.
15. Moriar ni gaudeo.
16. Si quid mihi, Caesar, a
te opus esset, ipse ad
te venirem(venissem):
si quid tu me vis, ad
me veni.
Ait
se ire : iturum esse : isse.
se (quia, &c.)ille iubeat, ire.
se (cum, &c.) ille iusserit,
iturum.
se (quo, &c.) ille iusserit,
isse.
se, quod ille velit, facturum.
se, quod ille voluerit, fecisse.
gratum esse sibi quod ille
quieverit,
urbem, dum ille moratur,
esse captam.
se, quominus (quin) ille eat,
non recusare.
se, ut vivat, edere.
expedire civitati ut ipse
redeat.
quaerere ilium posse quid
ipse agat.
velle se mori ni gaudeat.
si quid ipsi a Caesare opus
sit, sese ad eum venturum
esse : si quid ille se velit,
ilium ad se venire oportere.
Dixit
se ire : iturum esse .' isse.
se(quia, &c.)illeiuberet, ire.
se (cum, &c.) ille iussisset,
iturum.
se (quo, &c.) ille iussisset,
isse.
se, quod ille vellet, facturum.
se,quod illevoluisset,fecisse.
gratum esse sibi quod ille
quievisset.
urbem, dum ille moratur,
captam fuisse.
se, quominus (quin) ille iret,
non recusare.
se, ut viveret, edere.
expedire civitati ut ipse
rediret.
quaerere ilium posse quid
ipse ageret.
velle se mori ni gauderet.
si quid ipsi a Caesare opus
esset, sese ad eum ventu-
rum fuisse : si quid ille se
vellet, ilium ad se venire
oportere. - -
§ 231, Reflexive Pronoiuis in Clauses.
489
A An Imperative Sentence may become Petitio Obliqua; or
it maybe expressed by debeo, oportet, &c., or Gerun-
dive Construction.
231
IIL The Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. Se,
suus.
i, Se (Personal), suus (Possessive), are Reflexive Pronouns of
the Third Person ; implying reference to a Subject in that Person ;
which, in general, is the Subject of the Sentence. To supply their
defect, and for distinction or emphasis, ipse is used.
Se, suus, are therefore Pronouns of Subjective Reference al-
ways ; ipse, so far as it is used for them, or with them.
The Demonstratives is, ille, iste, hie, &c., are Pronouns of
Objective Reference. See § 65.
The use of these Pronouns in Clauses is a difficult subject,
respecting which certain general directions may be given.
A) First : Pronominal reference must be interpreted according
to the logic of the passage.
This logical interpretation (the Reason of the thing) must be
applied especially when in the same Clause, or in suc-
ceeding Clauses, Subjective reference is made by the
Reflexive Pronouns to different Subjects.
Thus Caes. B, G. iv. 8', Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum
mittunt : si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat.
Here ^the Reason of the thing' shews that suos must be
Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. — cont.
B. PETITIO.
•1, Recta.
2. Obliqua post Praesens.
3. Obliqua post Praeteritum.
I. Abi quo vis.
z. I quo condlxi.
3. Utere vita dum potes.
4. Ite, create consules ex
plebe ; transferte aus-
picia quo nefas est.
Imperat (orat, hortatur)
abeat quo velit.
eat ille quo ipse condixerit.
vita, dum possit, utatur.
eant, creent consules ex
plebe ; transferant auspi-
cia quo nefas sit.
Imperabat (orabat,
hortabatur)
abiret quo vellet.
iret ille quo ipse condixisset.
vita, dum posset, uteretur.
irent, crearent consules ex
plebe : transferrent auspi-
cia quo nefas esset.
C. INTERROGATIO.
t. Recta.
2. Obliqua post Praesens.
3. Obliqua post Praeteritum.
1. Quid tibi vis ?
2. Num bellum proderit ?
3. Cur facitis quod vetitum
est ?
4. Cur fecistis quod vetitum
est ?
5. Quid deinde restat, si
neque ex equis pepuli-
mus hostem ; neque
pedites quicquam mo-
menti facimus? Quam
tertiam expectamus
pugnam?
.i.
Quaerit
quid sibi velit ille? (velle
ilium ?)
num bellum profuturum sit
(esse) ?
cur, quod vetitum sit, faci-
ant?
cur^ quod vetitum sit, fece-
nnt?
quid deinde restet, si neque
ex equis pepulerint hos-
tem, neque pedites quic-
quam momenti faciant?
quam tertiam expectent
pugnam ?
Quaerebat
quid sibi vellet ille? velle
ilium ?
num bellum profuturum
esset (esse) ?
Gur, quod vetitum esset,
facerent ?
Gur, quod vetitum esset,
fecissent ?
quid deinde restaret, si ne-
que ex equis pepulissent
hostem, neque pedites
quicquam monienti face-
rent? quam tertiam ex-
pectarent pugnam ?
490
Latm Sy7itax,
§ 232.
referred to Crassus (Subject of velit), sibi to Veneti
(the Principal Subject).
E) Secondly : in some Clauses there is an intimate connexion
between the use of the Reflexive Pronouns and that of the
Subjunctive Mood ; both being determined by the same
law of Subjective relation.
Thus, if the following Clauses be compared :
(1) Marcus sal vus rediit, quod ei peperceram:
(2) Marcus gratias mihi egit quod sibi pepercissem:
In (i), the Quod-clause is alleged by the speaker as the
cause of an act on the part of Marcus objectively regarded
(salvus rediit), for which reason the Demonstrative e i and
Indicative peperceram are used:
In (2), the Quod-clause is cited as the cause subjectively felt
and avowed by Marcus for an act of his own (gratias
egit); therefore the Reflexive sibi and the Subjunctive
pepercissem are used.
C) Thirdly : it often happens (principally in Adverbial and
Adjectival Clauses, or in Participial Entheses, which stand
for them) that a Subjective Pronoun is used when the
writer wishes to refer the Clause to the mind of the Sub-
ject : though, if the Clause were only part of his own
statement, he might have used an Objective Pronoun.
^ Africanus, qui suo cognomine declarat, tertiam partem orbis
terrarum se subegisse, tamen, si sua res ageretur, testi-
monium non diceret,' C. S. Rose, 36. Here Cicero
might have written eius for sua, if he had not wished to
continue the Subjective construction, and to place the con-
dition in the mind of Africanus (si mea . . . non dicerem).
ii. The use of Reflexive Pronouns in the various Clauses will
now be noticed.
A) I. In a Substantival Clause standing as Object, while the
Principal Subject is in the 3rd Person, Pronominal reference
to that Subject will be Subjective, unless the Clause has
a Subject of its own, requiring Subjective reference to itself.
"ait sibi et suis commodis serviendum esse (ser-
viri).
putat nos sibi et suis commodis obesse.
queritur quod vos sibi et suis commodis obsis-
tatis.
vult ut se et sua commoda tueamur.
orabat se et suos liberos defenderem.
timet ne ipse et liberi sui neglegantur.
non dubitat quin ipse et sua conxmoda sper-
nantur.
multa obstare putat quominus sibi suis que con-
sulatur.
^videt quanta sibi suisque mala impendeant.
Such examples are frequent, and free from difficulty. As
the Clauses have either no new Subject, or a new Subject
Marcus *
Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses.
491
not of the Third Person, or a new Subject not admitting
Subjective Pronominal reference, there is nothing to dis-
turb the reference of the Reflexive Pronouns to the Prin-
cipal Subject Marcus.
2« But, when a Substantival Clause receives a new Subject
capable of Subjective Pronominal reference, many diffi-
culties arise, the solution of which is generally derived from
' the Reason of the thing,^ sometimes from the character of
the principal Verb, sometimes from that of the dependent
a. The general Rule in such case is, that the Reflexive Pro-
nouns are referred to the Subject, if capable, of the Clause
in which they stand ; but if that Subject is not capable,
then to the Principal (or Prior) Subject.
The capability of the Clausular Subject is tested by seeing if
the Clause, converted into Oratio Recta, gives a good sense.
'Caesar reperit Dumnorigem his rebus suam rem fami-
liarem auxisse,' B. G. i. 18. Here the converted Clause
would be: ^ Dumnorix his rebus suam rem familiarem
auxit/ which gives a good sense, and so determines the
reference of suam to Dumnorigem ; and this ^the Reason,
of the thing' demands.
Obs, Sometimes the reference to the Clausular Subject is
determined by qui s que joined to the Reflexive : * Natura
quidquid genuit in suo quodque genere perfectum esse
voluit,' C. T, D, v. 13.
Sometimes by other Indefinite Pronouns : ^ Nec quemquam
nisi sua voce, utcumque quis posset, ac sine patrono
rationem vitae passus est reddere,' Suet. Claud. 16.
b. On the other hand, conversion of the Clause in such ex-
amples as the following shews that the Reflexive Pro-
nouns cannot reasonably be referred to the Subject of the
Clause, but must go back to the Principal (or Prior) Subject.
'Datames audit Pisidas quasdam copias adversus se
parare,' Nep. Dat. 6. 'Ariovistus respondit, omnis
Galliae civitates contra se castra habuisse,' Caes. B, G,
i. 44. ^Caesar... docebat, ilium (Ariovistum) . . .
beneficio ac liberalitate sua ac senatus ea praemia con-
secutum,' Caes. B. G, i. 43. See i. 33.
B) If the Clause is an Oblique Petition, with a Subject of
its own allowing Subjective Pronominal reference, the
meaning of the Principal Verb will cause a difference. If
that Verb is one of prayer, command, or endeavoicr, the
Subjective reference in the Clause will be to the Principal
Subject; if it is one of exhortation, advice, or persuasioUy
such reference will be to the Subject of the Clause.
Verb.
Marcus
but
Marcus
hortatur (admonet) Aulum ) (ut) sibi consulat (i.e.
Aulo suadet (persuadet) ^ Aulo).
492
Latifi Syntax,
This distinction lies in ^the Reason of the thing that is, in
the assumption that we pray or coimnand another for our
own benefit, that we exhort or advise him for his own.
(1) Iste petit a rege et eum pluribus verbis rogat ut id ad
se mittat,' C. Verr, iv. 28. ' Arverni Vercingetorigem
obsecrant ut suis fortunis consulat, neu se ab hostibus
diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se
bellum translatum/ Caes. G, vii. 8.
(2) Caesar Nervioshortaturne suiin perpetuum hberandi
occasionem dimittant,' Caes. B. G, v. 38. ^ Rex supplicem
non prodidit, monuitque ut consuleret sibi,' Nep. Th. 8.
'Helvetii persuadent Rauracis . . . uti, eodem usi
consiho, oppidis suis vicisque rehctis, una cum iis
(Helvetiis) proficiscantur,' Caes. B, G. i. 5.
(Persuadeo is found with Subjective reference in the Clause
to the Principal Subject) : * Multa polHcendo persuadet
Metellus (legatis) uti lugurtham maxime vivum, sin id
parum procedat, necatum s i b i traderent,' Sail. lug. 46.
Obs. A Case dependent on a Passive Verb or on sum is
sometimes referred to as a Principal Subject, if it appears
such when converted into Active form.
*A Caesare invitor ( = Caesar me invitat) sibi ut sim
legatus/ Caesar iiivites me to be his lieutenant^ C. Att,
ii. 18. Ham inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat ( = '
Faustulus speraverat) regiam stirpem apud se educari,
L. i. 5.
But if it cannot be so converted, the reference will be
Objective :
'L. Quinctio Cincinnato in agro aranti nuntiatum est
eum dictatorem esse factum,' C. Cat, M, 16.
In the following places it might seem that the reference
ought to be Subjective :
*A Cur i one mihi nuntiatum est eum ad me venire,' C.
Att, X. 4. ' Nuntiatum est nobis a M. Varrone venisse
eum Roma pridie vesperi,' C. Ac. i. i.
But the Prep, a means from^ not by : a Curione (M. Varrone)
missi nuntiarunt; the true Subjects, therefore, are the
messengers.
C) Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses :
I. If the Clause is Final, the Pronominal reference to the
purposing Subject will usually be Subjective :
^Cuncti ad me saepe venerunt, ut suarum fortunarum
omnium causam defensionemque susciperem/ C. in Caec.
I. * (Tiridates) mittebat oratores qui suo Parthorumque
nomine expostularent, cur depelleretur,' Tac. Ann. xiii. 37^
Yet we find :
*Pompeius . . . idoneum locum nactus ibi copias collo-
cavit, suosque omnis in castris continuit, ignisque fieri
prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius adventus,' Caes. C.
iii. 30. *Verres Milesios navem poposcit, quae eum
praesidii causa INIyndum prosequeretu r,' C. Vcrr. i. 34.
§ 234«
Refitxive Pronomis in Clauses.
495
2. In Ut-clauses of a Consecutive nature Pronominal reference
to a Principal Subject will usually be Objective, because
(result not purpose being implied) there is so far no sub-
jectivity in the Clause.
* Ligarius in provincia pacatissima ita se gessit ut ei pacem
esse expediret/ C. p. Lig, 2. * Habet hoc virtus ut
viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste
posita delectet/ C. in Pis, 32.
Yet if in a result a purpose is implied, the Subjective Pro-
noun may be used :
*(Agesilaus) locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse
multitudo hostium suae paucitati posset/ N. Ag, 7.
In the following, the Reflexive is necessary for reference to
the Subject of its Clause :
*Is enim sic se gerit ut sibi iam decemvir designatus esse
videatur/ C. d. L. Agr. ii. 19. 'Caput est Heraclides
ille Temnites, homo ineptus et loquax, sed, ut sibi
videtur, ita doctus ut/ &c., C Flacc. 18.
In the sentence, ' Tum mittit rex ad istum, Si sibi
vide at ur, ut reddat/ C. Vefr, iv. 29, the Reflexive seems
strange, when we compare : ' Cum ei scriptam orationem
orator Lysias attulisset, quam, si ei videretur, edisceret,'
C. d. Or. i. 54. ' Reliquum a suis Tyndaridis peteret, si
ei videretur,' C. d. Or, ii. 86. But the direct message
of the king, *si tibi videtur, redde,' is rendered in oblique
form.
Other special causes may make the reference in such
Clauses Subjective : ' Ambiorix ad hunc modum locutus
est : Sese, &c. . . . suaque esse eiusmodi imperia ut non
minus haberet iuris in se multitudo quam ipse in multi-
tudinem,' Caes. B. G. v. 27. The use of se instead of
eum is determined by sese preceding and by the anti-
thesis se . . . ipse.
3. Suboblique Quod-clauses often require Subjective Pro-
nominal reference to the Principal Subject :
' Scipionem Hannibal eo ipso quod adversus se dux
potissimum lectus esset, praestantem virum credebat,' L.
xxi. 39. 'Divitiacus ait, scire se ilia esse vera, nec
quemquam ex eo plus quam se doloris capere, prop-
terea quod per se crevisset,' Caes. B. G. i. 20.
4. Pronominal reference in Conditional Clauses often follows
the same rule: 'Domino navis qui sit (Themistocles)
aperit, multa pollicens, si se conservasset,' Nep. Th. 8.
* Sed ausus est Furfanio dicere, si sibi pecuniam, quan-
tam poposcerat, non dedisset, mortuum se in domum eius
illaturum,' C.p, Mil. 27.
5. The Subjective reference to the Principal Subject is often
kept in a Relative Clause, if * the Reason of the thing '
shews that the Reflexive cannot be referred to the Relative
itself: 'Epaminondas ei, qui sibi ex lege praetor suc-
cesserat, exercitum non tradidit,' C. Inv. i. 33. 'Dexio
494
Latin Syntax,
§ 235-36'
hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sed imicum abs te
filium fiagitat/ C. Verr. v. 49. ^Epaminondas . . . eos
coegit superare Lacedaemonios, quos ante se imperatorem
nemo Boeotorum ausus fuit aspicere/ Nep. Ep, 8.
Yet in such places the Objective Pronoun would not have
been wrong ; and in the last cited example there seems
little justification for se instead of eum.
When Caesar writes : ^ Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant
eius regno finitimi, proficiscitur/ B. G. v. 38, he uses the
Objective Pronoun because the Clause is a statement of
his own, not referred to the mind of Ambiorix.
Obs. But, if the Relative Clause is Suboblique, it will often
happen that Subjective reference is made to the Relative itself or
its immediate Antecedent : ' Commemorant . . . errare eos, si quic-
quam ab his praesidii sperent, qui suis rebus diffidant/ Caes. B.
G. V. 41.
iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes between the Principal Sub-
ject and Pronominal reference to it in a Clause, Latin authors,
having evidently much freedom of choice, often prefer the Objec-
tive reference, as less liable to confusion.
'Quod cum interrogatus esset Socrates, respondit, sese me-
ruisse ut amplissimis honoribus et praemiis decoraretur, et ei
victus quotidianus in Prytaneo publice praeberetur,' C. d. Or. i.
54. ' Tarquinius e suis unum sciscitatum Romam ad patrem misit
quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem, ut omnia unus Gabiis
posset, ei di dedissent,^ L. 54.
iv. When in the Clauses of a Compound Sentence Subjective
reference is made to more than one Subject, ' the Reason of the
thing' must determine to what Subjects the Pronouns are referred
severally.
' Scythae petebant ab Alexandro ut regis sui (i.e. Scytharum)
filiam matrimonio sibi (i.e. Alexandro) iungeret ; si dedignaretur
affinitatem, principes Macedonum cum primoribus suae gentis (i.e.
Scytharum) conubio coire pateretur,' Curt. viii. i. ' Ariovistus re-
spondit, Neminem secum (i.e. cum Ariovisto) sine sua (i.e. con-
tendentis) pernicie contendisse,' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 'Tarquinius
orabat Tarquiniensis ne se (i.e. Tarquinium) . . . ante oculos
suos (i.e. Tarquiniensium) perire sinerent,' L. ii. 6,
V. The Definitive Pronoun ipse, which may qualify Nouns or
Pronouns of any Person, assists in two ways the use of the Re-
flexive Pronouns in Clauses.
(i) By qualifying the Subject of a Clause in which a Reflexive
Pronoun occurs, so as to shew the reference of that Pronoun to the
Subject of the Clause rather than to the Principal Subject.
' Natura movet infantem ut se ipse diligat,' nature prompts
an infant to love itself C. Fin. ii. 11. Without ipse the Pronoun
se might have been referred to natura. ' Clearchus ait . . . proinde
consulant sibi ipsi ; iubeant abire se,' lust. xvi. 4 (sibi is referred
byipsi to the Subject of consulant: se refers to the Principal
Subject Clearchus). ' Neque prius vim adhibendam putaverunt
(Ephori) quam se ipse (Pausanias) indicasset,' Nep. Pans. 4.
§ 237.
Participial Constr2ictio7L
49S
'Flaccus milites portis murisque sibimet ipsos tecta milita-
riter coegerat aedificare/ L. xxvii. 3.
(2) By standing for the Reflexive se, when antithetic to some
other word; whether to a Substantive, to suus, or another Pro-
noun. In such use ipse refers to the Principal Subject, and the
word to which it is antithetic is either the Subject of the Clause, or
referred to the Subject of the Clause.
' Pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam
rediret,' Nep. Ale, 5. ^Caesar quaesivit, cur de sua (i.e. miUtuni
desperantium) virtute aut de ipsius (i.e. Caesaris) diligentia des-
perarent,' Caes. B, G. i. 40.
If no such antithesis exists, ipse refers to the next preceding
Noun :
*Habemus a Caesar e, sicut ipsius dignitas . . . postulabat,
sententiam,' C. Cat, iv. 5.
Obs. The cases of ipse, when they appositively strengthen
and define se, semet, &:c., suus, suusmet, &c., assist Pronominal
reference so far only as, by distinguishing Gender and Number,
they often make the reference more clear and obvious.
* (Rex meminerat hos fratres) nuper praeter consuetudinem . . .
admovisse semetipsos lateri suo . . . seque mirantem quodnon.
vice sua tali fungerentur officio ... ad armigeros recessisse . . .
lam temeritatem verborum, quae in semetipsum iacularentur,
nihil aliud esse quam scelesti animi indicem ac testem/ Curt,
vii. 2.
N'ote I. Inter ipsos, in Cicero, is always preceded by a Case
(Genitive or rarely Dative) dependent on some Noun which admits
the notion of reciprocity: ^ Id iam patebit, si hominum inter
ipsos societatem coniunctionemque perspexeris,' C.Z^^. i. 10.
* Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter omnis,
societas haec est,' C. Off. i. 16.
In other writers inter ipsos appears without the preceding
Case: * Sed gloriae maximum certamen inter ipsos erat,' Sail.
Cat, 7. 'Haec dum in India geruntur, Graeci milites, orta inter
ipsos seditione, defecerant,' Curt. ix. 51.
Note 2. Inter se must be connected either with a Plural Ad-
jective or with a Verb, or Participle, implying likeness or unlikc-
ness^ agreement or disag7'eement^ &c., as, ' Omnes inter se dissi-
miles fuerunt,' C. d. Or, iii. 7.
A Participle is the Attribute of one that acts, or has acted, or
will act ; of one that is being acted on, or has been acted on, or
will be acted on ; to which must be added, of one that is meet for
acting on. As Adjective, it agrees attributively with Nouns and
Pronouns : as a Verb-form, it takes the same Case-constructions
as its Verb.
A) I. The want of a Perf. Participle Act. in Active Verbs is sup-
plied in Latin either by the Finite Verb Active, with Relative or
Particle, or by an Abl. Absolute Passive :
' Tarquinium regem qui non tulerim, Sicinium feram?'
having refused to endure Tarqicin as king, shall I e7idu7'e Sici-
IV. Participial C onstruction.
237
Parti-
ciples.
Latin Syntax,
§238.
niusf L. ii. 34. ^Alexander, eum interemisset Clitum, vix a
se manus abstinuit/ Alexander^ having slain Clitus, hardly re-
frained from suicide^ C. Z". D, iv. 37. ' Pompeius, captis Hiero-
solymis, victor ex illo fano nihil attigit/ Pompeius^ having taken
Jerusalem^ in the very moment of victory^ meddled with nothing
belonging to that temple^ C. p, Flacc. 28.
2. The want of a Pres. Participle Passive is supphed by the
Finite Passive Verb with Relative or Particle :
* Pueri, qui (cum, dum) docentur, discunt = Greek vraTSec
Zi^^arTKoyLtvoL \xavQavovm^ children {by) being taught learn.
Rarely the Perfect Participle Passive takes a Present Passive
sense: 'Sperata victoria' ( = victoria quae speratur), L. xxx. 30.
3. A Fut. Participle Passive is not often used even in Greek.
In Latin the Finite Verb with Relative stands for it: * Grata
superveniet quae non sperabitur hora/ Hor. Epist. i. 4. 14.
4. Some Participles are used as mere Adjectives. Such are,
neglegens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, vene-
randus, &c.
Many appear as Substantives : amans, adulescens, sponsus ;
nupta, sponsa ; coeptum, dictum, factum, praeceptum, &:c.
Neuters such as the last named are sometimes modified by
Adverbs: 'Verum est fortis et sapientis viros non tam praemia
sequi solere recte factor um quam ipsa recte fact a,' C. Mil. 35.
The Nouns, man^ men., things, are frequently understood with
Participles: * Grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto,' they
that would utter a sublime strain must cull mists on Helicon, Pers.
V. 7. ^ Male part a male dilabuntur/ /// gottcii, ill go, C. Phil. ii.
27. 'Beatos puto, quibus deorum munere datum est aut facere
scribenda, aut scribere loquenda,' Plin. Ep. vi. 16.
B) A Participle may often be considered as an Enthesis or
Abbreviated Clause. Such use is of two kinds :
(1) Attributive, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbrevi-
ated is contained (in any Case, and expressed or under-
stood) in the Principal Sentence, and the Participle agrees
with that word in Gender, Number, and Case :
* Alexander moriens ( = cum moreretur) anulum suum
dederat Perdiccae/ Alexander in his dying mo7?ients had
given his riiig to Perdiccas, Nep. Eum. 2. *Spreta( = si
spreta est) in tempore gloria interdum cumulatior
redit,' glory spurned at the right mo^nent now and theft
retu7vts in ampler measure, L. ii. 47. ' Animo nobis opus
est non abhorrente ( = qui non abhorreat) a quietis
consiliis,' we need a temper not averse from peaceful cou/t-
sels, L. XXX. 30. ^Servilius Ahala Sp. Maelium, regnum
appetentem ( = quod appeteret) interemit,' Servilius
Ahala slew Spurius Maelius,for aiming at royal power,
C. Cat. M. 16.
(2) Absolute, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbreviated
is not contained in the principal Sentence, but is placed,
together with the Participle, in the Ablative Case. See
§ 161, and Examples, p. 411.
§ 239-
Participial Constnictio7t
497
1) It appears therefore that the Ablative Absolute must not
generally be used when a Noun-term for the Participle to
agree with can be found in the Principal Sentence. For
instance, we must not write : Nostra te legente, utere tuo
iudicio ; but, ' Nostra legens utere tuo iudicio,' when yon
read my works, use your own judgment, C.
This rule is sometimes, but very rarely, violated, and then
only for the sake of some peculiar emphasis.
' Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile in-
cendit (eos),' Caes. B, 6^. vii. 4. * lugurtha fratre meo
interfecto regnum e i u s sceleris sui praedam fecit,' Sail.
lug. 14.
2) The want of a Copulative Participle (being) enables the Abl.
Abs. to consist of Substantive with Adjective : ' Caesare
vivo,' Caesar being alive, or of two Substantives : ' Caesare
duce/ Caesar being commander : ^ Consule Planco/
3) The Impersonal Passive construction (erratur, litatur, &c.)
enables a Participle alone to be used Absolutely :
Errato (a mistake having been made), litato {sacrifice having
been duly performed), &c.
4) A Clause may be Absolute with a Participle or Adjective.
See § 161. 4.
C The Participial Construction, Attributive and Absolute, is ^39
used to abbreviate
(1) Relative Clauses :
' Peloponnesus est peninsula, angustis Isthmi faucibus con-
tinenti adhaerens,' the Pelopomiesus is a peninsula,
attached to the continent by the narrow pass ofihe Isthmus,
L. xxxii. 21. ^ Sunt divitiae certae, in quacumque sortis
humanae levitate permansurae,' sure riches are those
that will abide in whatsoever fickleness of hmnan fortune,
S^n. Ben. Y\. * Pisistratus Homed libros, confusos
an tea, disposuit,' Pisistratus arranged the books of
Homer, which were heretofore confused, C. d. Or. iii. 4.
(Where adhaerens = quae adhaeret ; permansurae = quae
permansurae sunt ; confusos = qui confusi erant.) ^ Gau-
dentem ' (Hon C. i. i. 11) =^ hominem qui gaudet.'
(2) Adverbial Clauses :
1) Consecutive Clauses are represented by Participial construc-
tion (chiefly where this is accompanied by a Negative) :
^Sapientis est, nihil contra mores, leges, instituta facien-
tem, habere rationem rei familiaris,' it is a wise man^s
duty to have regard to his private fortune, so that he do
nothing contrary to morals, laws, and customs, C. Ofi^.m.
15 (where nihil facientem = ita ut nihil faciat, without
doing anything). ^ Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam
pecuniae, nulla praestituta die,' nature has given the
loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing a7ty day
for repayment, C. T. D. i. 39.^
• Here observe the versions of the English idiom 'without,' followed by a Verb.
K K
498
Latin Syntax,
239*
2) Final Clauses may be abbreviated by the Fut. Participle :
* Catilina ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi/
Catilina goes to the ar7ny, intending to march on the city,
Flor. iv. I. * Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem
Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum/
Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to
get provisions for the winter, Curt. viii. 8. (Where illa-
turus =ut inferat ; paraturum = ut pararet.) See § 186.
3) Causal Clauses: ^ Nihil affirmo dub it an s plerumque et
mihi ipse diffidens/ / affit'm nothing because I gene-
rally doubt and distrust myself, C. Div. ii. 3 (dubitans =
quia dubito, diffidens = quia diffido). ^ Hephaestio longe
omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandre, cum ipso
pariter educatus/ of all his friends Hephaestion was by
far the dearest to Alexander, becatise he had been brought
up with him. Curt. iii. 12 (educatus = quia educatus erat).
^Flaminium Coelius religione neglecta cecidisse apud
Trasimenum scribit/ Coelius says, that Flaminius fell at
Trasimenus, because he had neglected religion, C. A^. D. ii.
3 (i.e. quod religionem neglexisset).
4) Temporal Clauses: * Herculem Germani, ituri in proelia,
canunt/ the Germans, when about to march to battle,
chaunt Hercules, Tac. G. 3 (i.e. cum ituri sunt). * Tar-
quinius Ardeam oppugnans imperium perdidit/ Tarquin
lost his power, while besieging Ardea, Eutr. i. 8 (op-
pugnans = dum oppugnat). ^ Pleraeque scribuntur ora-
tiones habitae iam, non ut habeantur/ most speeches are
written after being delivered, not that they may be deli-
vered, C. Br, 91 (habitae = postquam habitae sunt),
^love tonante cum populo agi non est fas/ when
Jupiter thunders, it is against religion to transact affairs
with the people, C. Phil. v. 3 (i.e. cum luppiter tonat).
5) Conditional Clauses: ^ Epistulae offendunt, non loco red-
di\l2i,^,^ letters annoy, if not delivered in season, C. Fa7n,
xi. 16 (i.e. si non redduntur). ^ Nihil, me sciente,
Marcus entered the city ivitho7it being saluted by any one, may be variously rendered :
(1) Marcus nullo salutante urbem ingressus est.
(2) Marcus a nullo salutatus urbem ingressus est.
(3) Marcus insalutatus urbem ingressus est.
(4) Marcus sine cuiusquam salutatione urbem ingressus est.
(5) Marcus ita urbem ingressus est ut a nullo salutaretur.
(6) Marcus urbem est ingressus neque a quoquam salutatus est.
And, with a Negative, Marcus never entered the city without being saluted —
(7) Marcus numquam urbem ingressus est quin {or ut non) salutaretur.
This force of the Participle with a Negation may be illustrated by a few more
examples: 'Epicurus, non erubescens, voluptates persequitur omnis nominatim,'
Epicurus without blushing details all pleasures by name, C. ^V. D. i. 40. 'Constat Nu-
mam non petentem in regnum ultro accitum,' it ts well known that Numa, without
being a candidate, was solicited to accept the royal office, L. i. 35. * In bello civili nihil
accidit non p r a e d i c e n t e me,' in the civil war nothing has happened without 7ny
foretelling it, C. Fam. \\. 6. * Quis est qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis
philosophum se audeat dicere?' who ivill dare to call hi7nself a philosopher without lay-
ing down iiny rides of duty ? C. Off. i. 2.
§ 240.
Participial Coiisirtiction,
'499
frustra voles/ you shall wish for nothing in vain, if I
know it, Sail. (i.e. dummodo ego sciam).
6) Concessive Clauses: ^ Scripta tua iam diu exspectans,
non audeo tarn en flagitare/ though I have long been look-
ing for your writings, yet I dare not demand them, C. Ac,
i. I. (i.e. etsi exspecto). ^Perditis rebus omnibus,
tamen ipsa se virtus sustentare potest/ though all things
be lost, yet virtue ca7i support herself, C. Fa7n. vi. i. (i.e.
quamvis perditae sint).
Nisi, etsi, quamvis may annex a Participial Clause:
' Etsi aliquo accepto detrimento tamen summa exer-
citus salva locum quem petunt capi posse/ though some
loss would be sustained, yet the spot they ai7ned at inight
be occupied without the main ar?ny being destroyed, Caes.
C i. 67.
7) In Comparative Participial Constructions the Particles are
prefixed to the Participial Clause : * Graecas litteras senex
didici, quas quidem avide arripui, quasi diuturnam sitim
explere cupiens/ I learnt Greek in old age, and grasped
it indeed with 77iuch zest, as if I wished to quench a pro-
tracted thirst, C. Cat, M. 8. ^ Antiochus securus de bello
Romano erat, tamquam non trans ituris in Asiam
Romanis,' A7ttiochus was ca7'eless about the war with
Rome, as i7nagining that the Romans would not come
over to Asia, L. xxxvi. 41.
D) Notes on Participial Construction.
1) The Participle Perfect Passive is used to express a past
action continuing in its consequences, after such Verbs as
habeo, teneo, possideo, &c. : ^Illud exploratum habeto,
nihil fieri potuisse sine causa,' co7isider it clear, that
nothing could have been made without a cause, C. Div. ii.
28. * Hoc tibi persuasum habe,' be persuaded of this,
C. 'Hoc cognitum comprehensumque habeo/
this is thoroughly know7i a7id C07nprehe7ided by me, C.
2) It is used in older Latin with the Verbs do, reddo, euro,
by way of Periphrasis: 'Stratas legiones Latinorum
dabo/ I will lay prostrate the legions of the Latins, L.
viii. 6. 'Hoc tibi e ff e c t u m r e d d a m/ /V/ get this do7ie
for you, Ter. An. iv. 4. 'Inventum tibi curabo et
mecum adductum Pamphilum,' Fit look up Pa77iphilus for
you and bring him with me, Ter. An. iv. 4.
To the same idiom belong the phrases missum face re and
fieri: 'Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant
honores,' if any are seduced by pleasures, they 7nay bid
farewell to honours, C. p. Sest. 68. ' Legiones bello con-
fecto missas fieri placet/ I recom7ne7id that 07i the close
of the war the legions be disbanded, C. Phil. v. 19.
After vol o, nolo, cupio, oportet, a Perf. Participle repre-
sents Infin. Pass., see p. 449. The constructions ' Pro-
perato opus est/ hasty action is needed, C. ;*Liberis
consultum volumus,'w wotdd have the children's good
K K 2
Latm Syntax,
§ 240.
regardedyCr, ^Mansum oportuit/ Ter., arise from the
Impers. use of Passive Verbs.
3) The Participle Perfect is used attributively to supply the
place of a Substantive expressing the action of the Verb :
' Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis etreceptus Han-
nibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motum faciebat/
both the reception of Hannibal and the co7nmencement of
war against Eumenes made King Prusias an object of
suspicion to the Romans^ L. xxxix. 51. * Labeo male
administratae provinciae arguebatur/ Labeo was,
charged with maladministration of the province, Tac.
Ann. vi. 29.
Hence Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the Neuter Participle
Perf Pass, to express the Substantival notion of the Passive
Verb, which the Greeks expressed by the Article and
Infinitive :
*Diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem ne ante meri-
diem signum dare posset,* the lo7ig-continued want of a
well-omened sacrifice had withheld the dictator from being
able to give the signal before noon, L. vii. 8. So, tenta-
tum, L. iv. 49. * Summisque negatum stare diu,' Lucan,
i. 70. ' Notum,' V. Ae. v. 6. ' Expectatum,^ V. G. iii. 348.
€) The Gerundive Construction is more largely used in the
place of Substantives expressing the transitive action of
the Verb :
^Flagitiosum est ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere,'
it is scandalous to take mo7iey to give a verdict in court,
C. Verr. ii. 2,2. 'Temperantia constat ex praetermit-
tendis voluptatibus corporis,' temperance consists in
abstinence from bodily pleasures, C. N. D. iii. 1 5. ^ Pho-
cion cum Demade de urbe tradenda Antipatro con-
sen serat,' Phocio7i had agreed with De7Jiades as to the sur-
render of the city to Antipater, Nep. Phoc. 2.
In Livy's Preface we read ^ ante conditam condendamve
urbem,' which probably means ^ before the actual or de-
signed foundation of the city,' ' before the city was built
or commenced.' See Gerundive Construction.
5) Participles are sometimes equivalent to Gerundive Instru-
mental Construction :
* Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit,' the air, by flowing
hither and thither, causes winds, C. A^. D. ii. 39. * Crescit
indulgens sibi dirus hydrops,' the dreadful dropsy grows
by self-indulgence, Hor. C ii. 2. 13. See § 161. 2.
6) A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two
Verbs :
'Caesar scribit, se cum legionibus profectum celeriter
adfore,' Caesar wrote word that he had set out with his
legions and would soon arrive, Caes. B. G. v. 38. * lure
interfectum Clitum Macedones decernunt, sepultura
quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset,' the Mace-
do niafts voted that C lit us was justly slai?i, and would
§ 241.
Arrangement of Words,
even have denied him burial^ had not the king ordered him
to be interred^ Curt, viii.- 2.
7) A Participle Present after such Verbs as audio, video,
facio, pingo, &c., expresses the action or state of the
Object heard, seen, &c. :
* Audivi eum dicentem, vidi eum ambulantem,' &c.
Analogous to this is the construction, 'Est apud Platonem
Socrates . . . die en s,^ &c., we read in Plato of Socrates
saying, &c. C.
8) The Participle sometimes repeats the preceding Verb :
'Mars videt hanc visamque cupit,' Mars sees, and seeing
desires her, Ov. Fast. iii. 21.
9) A Participial construction is often involved with an Oblique
Interrogation or a Relative Clause :
'Cogitate quant is laboribus fundatum imperium, quanta
virtute stabilitam libertatem una nox paene delerit,' C.
Cat. iv. 9. Such a sentence cannot be rendered in
English without paraphrase : Consider how vast the toil
that founded this empire, how great the valour that esta-
blished this freedom, which a single night all but de-
stroyed.
CHAPTER V.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND STRUCTURE AND
CONNEXION OY SENTENCES.
The Order of Words reflects the progress of a Ar-
writer's ideas. This is true of modern languages, such memoi
as English and French, which, having lost their inflex- Words,
ions, are obliged in the arrangement of words to follow
somewhat definite rules ; but it is worthy of special
attention in languages which, by inflecting the Nouns
and Verbs, can abandon the syntactical order as often
as emphasis or harmony requires. Latin is one of these
languages, which are called Transpositive.
A. Since an unusual order indicates logical or rhetorical em-^
phasis, it is necessary for adequate translation that the ordinary
arrangement should be clearly understood.
We shall consider I. the beginning; 11. the end; III. the
middle of the Sentence.
1. I. The Subject usually stands either first, or after the word
definitive of time, place, or logical connexion :
Verres Siciliam vexavit. At ille in iudicium venit.
2. Everything logically connected with the Subject must be
placed in close connexion with it ;
502 Latin Syntax. ^ 242.
The Aediii, since they were unable to protect themselves a7id
their property^ sent ambassadors to Caesar.
^Aedui legates ad Caesarem mittunt, cum se suaque defendere
non possent/ Caes.
Democritzis was of course unable to distinguish between black and
white, after he had lost his sight.
'Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra
discernere non poterat/ C.
Hence, if emphasis is to be thrown on the Subject, it must be
placed in a striking position. Now the most striking position is
that farthest removed from the ordinary one. Therefore it should
be placed at the end of the Sentence : * Scenicorum mos tantam
habet verecundiam, ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo/
C. ^Hannibal iam subibat muros, cum in eum erumpunt Ro-
mani/ L.
II. The end of the Sentence is occupied in general by the Verb,
because this usually contains the main predication, and unites
together the whole proposition. Such order is frequently observed
throughout long paragraphs, as in L. ix. 40, 41.
This arrangement, however, should be abandoned :
1. If it is inharmonious in sound, as happens whenever several
Verbs come together in a period: ^Constiterunt, nuntios in
castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando praeter spem hostis occur-
risset, faciendum esset consulerent quieti opperientes/ L. xxxiii. 6.
2. If it is necessary to give peculiar importance to the Verb,
which, like other words, acquires emphasis from an unusual posi-
tion: ^Offendit te, A. Cornell, vos, Patres conscripti, circumfusa
turba lateri meo,' C.
3. Or to emphasise a word, which in the middle of the sentence
would not have the requisite stress : * Sicine vestrum militem ac
praesidem sinitis vexari ab inimicis?' L.
4. To prevent the separation of closely connected words :
^Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis,' C.
5. To secure directness of expression in clauses introduced by
enim or autem : ' Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat :
habet enim flebile quiddam in quaestionibus,' C. ^Amicum
aegrotantem visere volebat : habitat autem ille in parte urbis
remotissima,' C.
6. To secure Antithesis by the figure Chiasmus : * Aedes pesti-
lentes sint, habeantur salubres,' C. 'Patriae salutem ante-
ponet saluti patris/ C.
III. The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by the
Adverb and other quahfying words ; and by the Oblique Cases.
The Adverb, however, and the Oblique Cases, like other words,
acquire emphasis from peculiarity of position : ^ His Fabriciis sem-
per usus est Oppianicus familiarissime/ C. ' Secuti estis alium
ducem ; sequemini nunc Cam ilium/ L.
Notes.
i) The Adjective or dependent Genitive usually follows its Sub-
stantive : * Vir bonus. Moderatio animi.' But if it is emphatic
§ 242.
Arrangement of Words,
503
or imparts a specific meaning to an Adjective, or other word, it
precedes it: Magnus Alexander, or Magnus ille Alexander,
luris prudens.
2) Usually Substantives having a Genitive belonging to them all,
should not be separated, but all should follow or precede it:
* Huius autem orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium
invenire,' C. ^ Honestum autem illud positum est in animi cur a
atque cogitation e,' C Similarly several Genitives depending on
a single Noun either follow or precede it : ' Dedicatum est inter
cellam lovis et Minervae,' L. * Haec omnia honoris et am-
plitudinis commodo compensantur,' C.
Yet closely connected words are frequently separated for the
sake of emphasis: Mustitiam cole et pietatem,' C. * Quod et
aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae/ C.
3) An Adjective qualifying a Substantive with dependent Geni-
tive is placed first, the Genitive next: Una litterarum signifi-
catio. Constans omnium fama.
But an Attribute acquires emphasis by separation from its
Noun: In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. ^Unum a Clu-
entio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende,' C.
4) Contrasted words are rendered effective by juxtaposition :
* Ex bello tam tristi laeta repente pax cariores Sabinas viris
ac parentibus fecit,' L. * Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror
contemnendam,' C.
5) Similarly, different cases of the same word, and words having
a common derivation, are placed in juxtaposition :
'Alium alio nequiorem. Sint semper omnia homini hu-
mana meditata. ^ Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc
libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi,' C. Lael,
6) Qui s que should be placed in juxtaposition with suus and
the cases of sui: *Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur/
^Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas dimisit/ L. xxi.
7) The directness of Latin expression requires that in Negative
Sentences the Negative form should be stamped on the sentence at
once :
*Negat Epicurus quemquam, qui honeste non vivat, iucunde
posse vivere,' C. * Nihil est agricultura melius, nihil homine
libero dignius/ C. 'Vet at enim dominans ille in nobis Deus
iniussu nos hinc suo demigrare,' C. ^Nemini quicquam negavit.
Non memini me umquam te vidisse.
Hence non is frequently separated by one or more words from
mo do, solum, tantum, minus, magis :
*Ius bonumque apud Scythas non legibus magis quam natura
valebat,' C.
8) Similarly for the sake of emphasis ante and prius are sepa-
rated from quam, and the Demonstrative from its Relative :
'Ante revertit quam expectaveram/ C. 'Illud quidem post
accidit quam discesseram,' C. 'Hanc esse perfectam philoso-
phiam semper indicavi, quae de maximis quaestionibus, &c., C.
9) The Demonstrative Pronouns usually precede their Substan-
tives .
Latin Syiitax.
§243
*Eius disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi : quas
hoc libro exposui meo arbitrio/ Cic.
Unless it is desirable to bring them into close connexion with the
Relative :
^ Numquam qui iratus accedet ad poenam mediocritatem
ill am tenebit, quae est inter nimium et parum/ C.
10) Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case,
or at least are only separated from it by a Genitive belonging to
the Case they govern :
^Sanguis a corde in totum corpus distribuitur/ C. 'Quid est
tarn inhumanum quam eloquentiam ad bono rum perniciem per-
vertere/ C.
11) Qualifying words, however, which form an essential part of
the word governed by a preposition, may intervene between the
preposition and its case :
Ob non redditos transfugas. De bene beateque vivendo.
' Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et iudicio volumine,' C.
12) Disyllabic prepositions often follow their case, if it is a
pronoun: is quem contra dico; sometimes also ad, de, per,
post, follow their case. This, however, is usually to prevent the
separation of the relative from its antecedent :
lUud, quo de agitur.
Aft Apposition to a Proper Name is commonly placed after the
name, as conveying a subordinate idea :
' Q. Mucius augur multa narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo,
solebat/ C. Agis rex ; Cyprus insula ; Hypanis fluvius ; Orpheus
poeta.
If, however, the Appellative is more important, and requires to
be emphasised, it will precede the Proper Name :
'Obviam ei venerunt duo consules, C. Terentius Varro et L.
Paullus Aemilius,' L.
C. The Connexion of Sentences.
Connex- 0 Latin writers not only paid great attention to the logical
ion of sequence of Clauses and Sentences, but made this logical con-
ce"^^"' riexion obvious by placing a particle as the first or second word in
the sentence. Hence no sentence stands detached unless it is
logically disconnected from what precedes. Senteaces connected
in thought form links of a chain, which only breaks off because the
topic is altogether dismissed.
2) The Relative and its Particles are particularly useful for this
connexion of sentences, and for avoiding monotonous repetition.
The Relative may be used for the Demonstrative with a Particle,
and is therefore found with those Conjunctions which allow of
connexion by means of a Particle. See COORDINATION.
Quod cum audissem ; quod si fecissem ; quod quamvis non
ignorassem ; for Et cum hoc, &c.
From this habit of connexion by Relatives, appears to have
arisen the use of quod before many Conjunctions, as a merely
Sociative Particle. It is most freauent before the conditional
g 244. Periodic Style, 505
Particles, si, nisi, and etsi, and is found also, though more rarely,
before other Conjunctions : so quod cum, quod ubi, quod utinam ;
in all which the Conjunction alone would have been sufficient.
Even before the Relative, we find quod thus used : ^ Quod qui ab
illo abducit exercitum, et respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium
firmissimum adimit reipublicae,' C. See § 82.
3) Another peculiarity, which in Latin helps the connexion of
Sentences, is the use of neque (nec). It stands for et with the
Negation, in whatever form it occurs in the sentence, unless when
it belongs exclusively to a single word in antithesis. This con-
nexion is in Latin so common, that, for the sake of it, neque is
joined to enim and vero, where in English we could not use and,
and are, therefore, obliged to explain it by saying that neque = non.
The Period in Latin.
L i) A Period is a compound Proposition, consisting of at least
two, generally of several Sentences, which are so connected, that
grammatical construction is not complete before the last clause is
added.
A Period {ambitus or circuitus verborum) is so called because
the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses.
2) A Period is Simple, when it does not consist of more than
two such Sentences, related to each other as Antecedent and Con-
sequent (Protasis and Apodosis). It is Complex if it consists of
several Sentences so related.
3) Thus the following sentences do not constitute Periods :
Quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia vel
maximae dilabuntur. Vitis natura caduca est, et claviculis quid-
quid est nacta complectitur. But they may readily be made to
assume a simple Periodic form :
Constat, quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescant, ita dis-
cordia vel maximas dilabi. Vitis, quae natura caduca est, quid-
quid est nacta, complectitur.
The latter sentence, if we add to it, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram
fertur, becomes a Complex Period, in which vitis complectitur
is the principal sentence, quae natura caduca est, nisi fulta sit, ad
terram fertur, quidquid est nacta, are the clauses.
It may be further enlarged as it stands in Cicero :
* Vitis, quae natura caduca est, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur,
eadem, ut se erigat, claviculis, quasi manibus, quidquid est nacta
complectitur,' C. Cat. M. is*
4) If the Subject of two Sentences united by a Conjunction is
one and the same, the almost invariable practice in Latin is to form
them into a Period :
^ Antigonus, cum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret,
in proeho occisus est,' Nep. E7^m. ' Verres, simul ac tetigit pro-
vinciam, statim Messanam Htteras dedit,' C. Verr. i.
So also when the Object is the same for both Propositions :
' Quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus
emissis interfecerunt,' Nep. Ate,
5o6
Latin Syntax,
§ 245.
5) The Clauses of a Period are modifications of the main pro-
position. By being grouped together in due order, they produce
the effect of logical completeness, of sonorous and dignified ex-
pression, which accorded well with the gravity and majesty of tht
Roman character. The Periodic style is admirably fitted for the
great oratorical efforts of an accomplished rhetorician like Cicero;
and for history designed, as was Livy's, to celebrate the greatness
and triumphs of the Roman people. Hence the style of the golden
age of Latinity is essentially Periodic. It is, however, but ill
adapted for an age in which a profusion of new ideas and fresh
information demands the most rapid and facile expression. The
modern style is on this account essentially unperiodic.
It will be easily understood that the Period is not suited for all
subjects. It is out of place in the description of ordinary and
trivial matter, in epistolary composition, in outbursts of passion,
irony and denunciation.
II i) As the dignity of the Roman character delighted in the
sonorous roll and fulness of the Period, so their practical sagacity
and critical ear required that it should be well proportioned, rhyth-
mical, unmonotonous, and above all, perspicuous and clear.
2) To secure the first of these requisites, a Period should consist
of sentences of nearly equal length :
^ Et quisquam dubitabit | quin huic tantum bellum transmit-
tendum sit | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella capienda | divino
quodam consiho natus esse videatur,' C. * Stultitia etsi adepta est
quod concupivit | numquam se tamen satis consecutam putat,' C.
3) Roundness and regularity of sound is chiefly to be obtained
:by correspondence in the structure of sentences. Words, which
are opposed to each other, should, as far as possible, be of the
same kind, so that noun should answer to noun, verb to verb, &c.
If possible, more than one important word should intervene
between a parenthetic Clause and the end of a Sentence :
* Magnitudo maleficii facit, ut, nisi manifestum parricidium pro-
feratur, credibile non sit,' C.
4) All good prose writing is rhythmical, that is, it flows on in
such a manner as to satisfy and dehght the ear. It is, however,
especially necessary to attend to the cadence of a Sentence or
Period, because the necessary pause at the close gives the ear
time to criticise. The following is a table of cadences approved by
Cicero and Quintihan :
Creticus cum Ditrocheo . .
Trochaeus cum Molosso . .
Trochaeus cum PaeoneTertio -v
Creticus cum Cretico . . .
Dochmius ^tui^Scipio.
Tribrachys cum Spondeo . . ^ varietates.
Trochaeus vel Iambus j * pluribus de causis.
cum Dispondeo . . i »^-1 |virum condemnarimt.
Bacchius . ^ videri.
Palimbacchius ^ novisse.
5) As the rhythm of prose is essentially distinct from that of
-w-v^ gloriam comparavit.
membra firmarunt.
esse videatur.
coffitans sentio.
— <^ —
§ 246-47. Periodic Style, 507
verse, all verse-endings should be avoided at the close of a sen-
tence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and
spondee.
Such endings, therefore, as quo me vertam nescio ; esse
videtur; are carefully to be avoided. It should be observed,
however, that the historians were less careful on this point than the
orators and rhetoricians. Hexameter endings are frequently met
with in Livy.
III. To prevent monotony in the periodic style, short detached
sentences {cola or commata) are introduced. Such frequently
occur in periodic style. To secure perspicuity and clearness of
expression in constructing them, the following rules should be
observed :
(1) That no Sentences be admitted into a Period but such as are
logically connected together.
(2) That of these Sentences the leading thought form the main
proposition.
(3) That the limitative and qualifying Sentence be placed in
logical subordination. Hence in a narrative the accessory details
should be arranged in the order of time.
(4) That every Period, indeed every Sentence, commence with
the word in closest logical connexion with the preceding :
^ Bellum propter nos suscepistis : susceptum quartum deci-
mum annum pertinaciter geritis,' L. * Quod si acciderit, facienda
morum institutorumque m u t a t io est. Commutato autem genere
vitae/ &c. C.
(s) Hence the Relative should be placed as near to the Ante-
cedent as possible. To secure this, either the Relative Clause is
introduced parenthetically after its Antecedent :
^Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, pluris ait
fuisse,^ C.
Or the Antecedent is drawn into contact with the Relative by
being placed at the end of the Principal Sentence :
^ Dicebam habere eos actorem Q. Caecilium, qui praesertim
quaestor in eadem provincia post me quaestorem fuerat,' C.
The same remark applies to hie, inde, unde, ibi, &c. :
* Hannibal tris exercitus maximos comparavit. Ex his
unum in Africam misit (not unum ex his)/ L.
Hence quamobrem and quare always begin a sentence.
IV. As, in the construction of a Simple Sentence, minor addi-
tions and circumstances are thrown into the middle, and the Verb
closes the whole, so Clauses containing explanatory matter are
thrown into the midde of the Period :
* Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam
traiecit. Itaque, cum Romam venisset, statim imperatorem
adiit,' L.
So8
Latin Syntax.
% 248.
The usual arrangement of clauses in a Period is analogous to
that of words in a Simple Sentence.
(i) The word or clause containing the Subject, with the words
or clauses immediately connected with it. (2) The words or
clauses explanatory of the time, place, motive, &c. (3) The word
or clause expressing the remoter object. (4) The clause express-
ing the immediate object. (5) The principal Verb.
To this arrangement there are frequent exceptions, particularly
in the position of the principal Verb, for, as was before stated, an
agglomeration of finite Verbs at the end of a Period was especially
distasteful to the Romans. Hence the principal Verb frequently
precedes a Substantival, Final, or Consecutive Clause :
^ Cum C. Licinius sacerdos prodisset, clara voce, ut omnis
contio audire posset, dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peier-
asse,' C.
' Commilitones appellans, orabat ne, quod scelus Ap. Claudii
esset, sibi attribuerent,' L.
* Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens,
confestim Turno necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo
civium animos domi oppresserat, Latinis infer ret,' L.
V. Correlative construction is largely employed in forming
Periods. If emphasis is sought, the Relative is placed before the
Demonstrative :
* Quid ? ii qui dixerunt totam de dis opinionem fictam esse ab
hominibus reipublicae causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad
officium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustule-
runt.'" C. ^ Quod si, quam audax est ad conandum, tam esset
obscurus in agendo, fortasse aliqua in re nos aliquando fefel-
lisset,' C.
So qualis often precedes talis : quidquid id: and quo, hoc or
eo. But this is not the universal practice.
VI. Grammatical Subject and Object in Periods.
t) The literature of the Romans is distinguished above all
others by directness and lucidity of expression. This is mainly
due to the practical sagacity which was their distinguishing charac-
teristic ; but partly also to the conditions under which their literary
works were composed. There was then no eager public, demand-
ing daily information and periodical criticism : consequently there
was no popular literature. As reporters did not exist, we have no
trustworthy remains of spontaneous eloquence. The orations that
have come down to us are either masterpieces redacted by the
orators themselves, or speeches attributed to eminent men by his-
torians. Hence both in matter and form they are the products not
of extemporaneous eloquence, but of literary labour.
Moreover, in the case of the ancients, the limited character of
their scientific and other information, and the comparative want of
fecundity and diversity of ideas, made artistic expression in every
branch of art more easily attainable. The simplicity of conception
and purity and unity of execution, which distinguish the great
works of antiquity, are denied to a modern writer by the very pro-
fusion of thought and material which surrounds him.
Fer iodic Style.
509
2) To secure unity and directness of expression :
(i) The Subject remains in the same Case, as far as possible,
throughout a Period :
When they asked h i m for his opinion^ he replied,
■ Rogatus sententiam respondit.
Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp ; but he soon
' returned, because he said that he had forgotten some-
thing.
' Cum Hannibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paulo
post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret,' C.
* (2) The introduction of several independent subjects in the
same Period is avoided. Hence sentences expressing the
time, condition, or means of accomplishing the main
action, are frequently thrown into the Ablative Absolute
or are introduced in a Subordinate Sentence, not coordi-
nated as they frequently are in English :
This was observed^ and they altered their plan.
Id ubi vident, mutant consilium.
The plan was universally approved^ and the consul was
entrusted with the execution of it.
Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur.
(3) If an Oblique Case of one sentence becomes the Subject
of the next, the change of Subject should be clearly indi-
cated by a Pronoun :
* Huius filiam virginem auro corrumpit Tatius, ut arma-
tos in arcem accipiat. Aquam forte ea tum sacris extra
moenia petitum ierat,' L. i.
'Principium defectionis ab Othone factum est. Is cum
magna popularium manu transfugit,' Tac.
(4) The Subject of discourse, in whatever case it may appear,
should receive prominence by being placed at the begin-
ning of the Period. Four cases require illustration :
d) When the grammatical Subject of the principal sentence
and clauses is the same :
^ Dionysius, cum gravior crudeliorque indies civitati esset,
iterata coniuratione obsidetur,' Nep.
* Ea animi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis, si iustitia
vacat, in vitio est,' C.
b) When the Subject of the principal sentence is the Object
of the clauses :
*Galli, cum eos non caperent terrae, trecenta milia ad
novas sedes quaerendas miserunt,' L.
'Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti de-
pugnari placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohibe-
rent,' C.
c) When the Object of the principal sentence and of the
clause is the same :
*Praemia virtutis communi petitorum consensu tulit,
concessit autem Alcibiadi, quem magno opere dilexit.'
Latin Syntax,
§ 249-50-
^ Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finx-
isset, cum ariete colloquentem facit/ C.
d) When the Object of the principal sentence is the Subject
of the clauses :
apt is, cum paenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur
edixit/ L.
*Midae illi Phrygio, cum puer esset, dormienti formicae
in OS tritici grana congesserunt/ C.
The forms d) and c) are most deserving of imitation, because they
possess greater directness and unity of expression. When, how-
ever, prominence is to be given to the motive or occasion of an act,
it may be necessary to employ the other forms.
«49 VII. Historical narrative requires frequent change in statements
of time : to express which, historians have recourse to two resources
— the Participial construction, attributive and absolute, and the
Conjunctions, cum, ubi, postquam. By these Livy can unite,
without failure of perspicuity, in one Period, what in English must
be broken into three or more :
' Numitor, inter primum tumultum, hostis invasisse urbem
atque adortos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem
praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes per-
petrata caede pergere ad se gratulantis vidit, extemplo advocato
consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut
educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque eius
auctorem ostendit,' L. i.
^ His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore
solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, post-
quam dolo viam obsaeptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus,
circumire supplex Etruriae urbes,' L. ii.^
250
Quaii- E. Poetry and Prose alike require the virtues of Purity, Perspi-
sTyie.^ cuity, Simplicity, and Harmony.
1) Purity is violated by Barbarism or Solecism.
Barbarism is the use of a word not properly Latin, as, confiscare,
^ to confiscate : ' or (what is more to be guarded against as a more
easy error) the use of good Latin words in meanings they do not
bear : as, in ten tio, for ^ an intention,' instead of consilium.
Solecism is a construction not allowed by Syntax : Parce me,
for pare e mihi : Ita graviter aegrotavit ut paene mortuus est, for
mortuus sit
2) Perspicuity of style requires that it be clear and intelligible,
free from confusion and ambiguity.
3) Simplicity of style requires it to be free from affectation, and
unencumbered by tawdry and tasteless ornament.
4) Harmony of style requires that harsh and unmusical sounds
be carefully avoided ; that long and short words be well inter-
mixed, and that grave and important words close the sentences.^
* Compare with these a much less elegantly constructed Period in Caes. B. C. ii. 22 :
* Massilienses . . , constituunt.'
' The style of Prose Composition admits a fourfold distinction : (i) The Didactic ;
(2) the Epistolary ; (3) the Oratorical ; (4) the Narrative or Historic.
5 251-52.
Quantity and Rhythm.
PART III.
sody.
25>
LATIN PROSODY.
251
A. PROSODiAy of which the Latin accentus is a trans- Pro-
lation, denoted in classical Greek the accent of a word.
In later times, when Accent became confounded with
Quantity, the word was sometimes employed in its
modern sense. In English and other languages Prosody
now signifies that part of Grammar which deals with the
quantity of syllables and the rules of metre.
I. Quantity and Rhythm". Quan-
I. In Latin, as in Greek, Verse depended on the Quantity of syl- Rhy."^
lables, every syllable being either long or short ; and the various thm.
metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short
syllables to each other. We therefore first treat of the Quantity of
syllables, so far as it can be reduced to rule ; and then discuss the
most important metres : the Heroic Hexameter first, as the leading
and typical form of verse ; next the Elegiac, and then the Lyric
metres, mainly those of Horace and Catullus.
Of the first three styles, the model in Latin is Cicero, to whom, we may justly say,
non viget quicquam simile aut secundum, (i) His Didactic writings are in the form of
Treatise or of Dialogue. Of the Treatise, his work De Officiis is the best model ; of his
i)ialogues, the Laelius or De Amicitia, and the Cato Maior or De Senectute, are best
adapted to the young student, who may proceed afterwards to the Tusculan Disputations
and the De Oratore (2) Cicero's Letters are either dignified or familiar. Of the dignified
style, the letters to Lentufus and I«ucceius, and the first Ad Quintum Fratrem may be
taken as models ; of the familiar, the First Book of Letters to Atticus. (3) Speeches are
either Forensic or Public. Forensic speeches are for the Prosecution or for the Defence.
Of the former, we have only Cicero's Verrine speeches, of which the Actio Prima may be
taken as a sample. The latter are numerous ; and of these the best samples for early
study are Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Milone, and Pro Murena. Public speeches may be
classed under the three heads of Exposition, Eulogy, or Invective. Hardly any of Cicero's
Speeches belong entirely to the first class ; but some of the Catilinarianand later Philippic
Speeches approach it. Of Eulogy, Pro Lege Manilla is the best example. Of Invective,
the First In Catilinam and the Second Philippic.
In History, the greatest Latin authors are Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. Caesar's
style is the clear, full, and unaffected narrative of an accomplished soldier. That of Livy
is more ornate and picturesque, bespeaking a student of the Greek historians. The
manner of Tacitus, though not without a Thucydidean tinge, is yet peculiar to himself —
terse, vigorous, subjective, sternly moral, sometimes bitterly sarcastical ; often rising to
eloquence, here and there indulging in picturesque description, especially of gloomy and
tumultuous scenes.
The student may further compare the following Periods in Livy and Cicero : Liv. i. 16,
'Romanapubes . . . obtinuit.* xxii. 3, *Flaminius qui . . . proposuit.* xxiii. 25, *Hac
nuntiata clade . . . submitterent»' Cic. p. S. Rose, i, 'Credo . . . comparandus. ' p.
Mil. 4, * Est enim . . . salutis.' /. Caecin. i, *Si quantum . , . audaciae.* p. Mur,
2, * Quod si . . . subeundas,' in Cat. iii. 12, *Sed quoniam . . . providere.' in Cat,
i. 13, 'Ut saepe . . . ingravescet.* See also Off. i. i. i ; Fam. iii. 8. i.
He may also consult with advantage, * Hints towards Latin Prose Composition *
(Macmillan and Co.), by Alexander W. Potts, Esq., Head Master of the Fettes College,
Edinburgh, who has afforded valuable assistance in the present chapter.
512
Latin Prosody,
§252.
We learn from the ancient grammarians (Aristotle, Cicero, and
Quintilian among them) that Rhythm, or a due admixture of long
and short syllables, was of vital moment in prose as well as verse.
As our ears and tongues can at the best discriminate imperfectly
differences of Quantity, it is most important for us to acquire a
mental ear and tongue, to be able to feel the beauty of Plato as
well as Homer, of Cicero as well as Virgil. Cicero's technical
writings will supply an excellent commentary on what is here
meant.
2. Syllables are either Short or Long. A short syllable is tech-
nically denoted by this mark (^), a long syllable by this (").
A short syllable was said to contain one Mora or time^ a long
syllable two Morae or times.
Syllables which at one period of the language were long, at
another were short.
Certain classes of syllables, which might at the same period be
either long or short, are called Doubtful.
In verse a long syllable is exactly equivalent to two short.
3. Long syllables have two main divisions, syllables long by
nature, and syllables whose short vowel is lengthened by Posi-
tion, that is to say by coming before a double consonant, or two or
more consonants, whether in the same word or in two consecutive
words. In the words fat 6, maestis both syllables are long by
nature: in factus subsunt the four syllables, whose vowels are
short by nature, are all lengthened by position.^
4. H does not give position any more than the aspirate in Greek ;
and qu has only the power of a single letter.
5. In the older language final s, preceded by a short vowel, was
slightly sounded, if at all ; was often therefore not written, and
* Technically all long syllables and all short syllables are respectively equal, though
the nature of the case and the testimony of the ancients prove that there is a great diver-
sity in their real length. Fr actus and factus have each their first syllable long, but
the latter is only lengthened by position, the former is long by nature also ; aqua and
neque have each the last syllable short, but the rules of elision, observed by the most
careful poets, shew that e was much lighter than a. We are often ignorant of the natu-
ral quantity of Latin syllables lengthened by position. The n] and (u, and sometimes the
accent, gives us this knowledge in regard to Greek syllables, though we are sometimes
at a loss even there in the case of a, t, v. The poet Accius introduced the practice of
denoting naturally long vowels by doubling them. This was soon laughed out of fashion
by Lucilius. We find some traces of this usage in inscriptions of that time : Maarcus,
paast ores and the like. Later such vowels were often marked by an apex (') ; many traces
of which we find in inscriptions of all ages; a, Marti s, domineis, &c. Quintilian
alludes to both these fashions. Attention to general laws of the language will enable us
to determine the quantity of many vowels. Thus the vowel of the Supine and cognate
parts of the Verb was long by nature (even if the vowel of the Present Indie, was short)
when it was followed by a medial : the a of actus (for ag-tus) was long, of factus
short by nature ; the e of lectus (for leg-tus). Part, was long, of lectus, bed, short.
Again, every vowel followed by ns or nf was long by nature, as in mens, sapiens,
and other cases ; while e was short in mentis, sapientis, &c. This is what Cicero
means when he says in his Orator, 48: 'Inclitus dicimus brevi prima littera, insanus
producta, inhumanus brevi, infelix longa ; et, ne multis, quibus in verbis eae pri-
mae litterae sunt, quae in sapiente atque felice, producte dicitur in.' In many cases
we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek : Sestius
(Srjo-Tios), Roscius ('Ptoa/ctos) and many proper names ; but Mayi^o?, Fpa^cxos and the
like show us that in such words the vowel was short by nature.
§253.
Quantity of Inner Syllables,
513
often with the older poets, including Lucretius and Cicero when
young, did not give position: as, ^infantibus parvis,' 'torvus
draco/
6. An important exception to the rule of position is this :
A vowel short by nature, coming before a mute followed by a
liquid in the same word, may either remain short, or be lengthened
by position : tenebrae or tenebrae, retro or retro, triplex or
triplex. In the same verse Virgil has patris, patrem ; Lu-
cretius patribus, patres; Horace nigris, nigroque ; Ovid
voliicri, volucris.
7. Before g:m, gn, a vowel cannot remain short : tegmen, agnus.
In genuine Latin words not compounded, the other mutes do not
precede m, n. Thus the older writers, such as Plautus, wrote
dracuma, mina, cucinus, lucinus, Alcumena, Tecumessa,
and the like, for the corresponding Greek words. The learned
poets, copying the Greeks, did not object to cycnus, Tecmessa,
Procne, &:c. It is worth noting, too, that Plautus, Terence, &;c.,
following no doubt the usage of common life, seem never to have
lengthened a short vowel before a mute and liquid ; while the
Augustan and later poets preferred to lengthen one, when the mute
was a medial, b or gr; writing labra, nigro rather than lab r a,
nigro. With this we might compare on the one hand the repug-
nance of Aristophanes to lengthen a short vowel before a mute
and liquid, unless he is parodying a serious poet, and on the other
the great frequency with which this is done by the tragedians ;
while Homer nearly always lengthens the vowel in such cases,
unless constrained by the metre.
8. The older poets, among them Lucretius, do not hesitate to
leave a vowel short before a word beginning with sc, sp, sq, st, x,
z, grn. The more careful poets avoid such positions, not choosing
either to lengthen the vowel or to leave it short. Virgil has only one
instance of such a lengthening — ^date tela, scandite and once
only leaves the vowel short — ^ Ponite : spes in each case the
license seems to be used for effect. Horace has no instance of
either license in his Odes or Epistles ; but several in his Satires.
As in the case of mutes and liquids, this would seem to point to a
studied contrast between the usage of common life and the more
stately pronunciation of the higher poetry. In a few Greek words,
such as Scamander, Zacynthus, zmaragdus, some of the
poets follow the Greeks in a rare exceptional license. Catullus in
his two pure Iambic poems three times lengthens a short a before a
mute and liquid of the following word: as, 'impotentia freta :'
^ Propontida trucemque . . . ; ultima Britannia.' The peculiar
metre seems to have influenced him in this.
11. Quantity of Inner Syllables.
The Quantity of Final Syllables may be reduced to rules ; but
chat of Syllables in the body of words is so indefinite, that we must
confine ourselves to pointing out a few general principles, with the
leading exceptions to these.
I. Where two vowels are contracted into one, the syllable is
long: cago, coperio, tibicen, bobus, iunior, bigae, mo-
rn e n t u m.
Latin Prosody,
§253.
In semi, ante, and a few other particles, the vowel does not
coalesce, but is altogether elided, when followed by a vowel in a
compound word. The syllable is therefore not lengthened: semi-
homo, ant(e)eo, antea, &c., whether the vowel be omitted or not
in writing. Forms like ' grave olens,' ^ suave olens/ magno
opere,' ' summo opere,' are better written as two words.
2. All diphthongs are long : Grains, aura, harpyi a.
Except prae in composition before a vowel, as in praeustus,
praeeunte. Ovid once wrote * Maeotis but in exile.
Statins once uses praeiret ; and in Catullus the prae of ^ prae-
optarit ' coalesces into one syllable with the op.
3. A vowel before another vowel in the same word, but a different
syllable, is short: traho, meae, via, 10, boant, tiius.
Exceptions :
(1) Gaius, dius, Rhea (Silvia), but Rhea ('Pea), eheu; aer
is Greek usage: and there are hundreds of other Greek words,
adopted by the poets, chiefly proper names^ which keep a vowel
long before another : io, cycneus, &c. Diana, 6 he are doubt-
ful : also some Greek words: as, daedaleus and daedaleus,
chorea and chore a. ^ Academia, long in Greek and the best
Latin, is shortened by some later poets.
(2) The i of fio is long, except when followed by er, as fieri,
fieret ; though Plautus and Terence sometimes have fieri, &c.
(3) The a of the old Genitive of the ist Declension is long:
terrai, aulai, purpureai.
(4) The e of the Gen. and Dat. of the 5th Declension is long in
diei, fidei (Plautus, Ennius, Lucr.), but fidei in Manilius and
later writers ; rei (Lucr.), rgi (Hon). Lucretius and others some-
times make rei a monosyllable. In Terence, spei seems always
monosyllabic, but spei in Seneca. In Latin poetry no other Gen.
or Dat. in -ei seems to be found, neither specie i, materiei, nor
any such. Lucretius has ei, Catullus ei, for the Dat. of the Pro-
noun is.
(5) The i of Genitives in ius is doubtful: illius or illius, and
so with istius, ipsius, ullfus, nullius, solius (solius, Ter.).
But always alius, which is contracted. In later writers alterius;
but alterius sometimes in Plautus. Utrius, utriusque.
By comparing Cicero {d. Or, iii. 47) with Quintilian (i. 5. 18),
we learn the interesting fact that in the time of the former the
prose pronunciation was illius, unius, &c. ; in the time of the
latter illius, unius, as he with all the later grammarians held the
shortening to be a poetic license.
* In Latin i seems often to have been doubled in pronunciation and to have served for
a vowel and consonant at once : thus in Cicero's time Pompeius and such words were
often written with ii ; and so Troi-ia-nus, ei-ius, cui-ius; and hence perhaps the
quantity of the two last words. In compounds of iacio it was usual to write i only
once, as in e-icit, ab-icit, though the i was equivalent to ji. We can thus account for
the quantity of re-icio, where the i formed a diphthong with the e of re, and also a
separate syllable. On the other hand ei-cit, rei-cit, are sometimes disyllabic, and ab-
Tcit, ad-Tcit are found with their first syllable short. In the older writers, too, eius,
cuius are often monosyllabic, and sometimes have the quantity cuius, eius.
§ 253. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 515
4. Derivatives are said to follow as a rule the quantity of the
words from which they are derived. But this rule has many
exceptions, some systematic, some which seem to be accidental.
(1) Disyllabic Perfects and their compounds, with the tenses
formed from them, have the first syllable long: vidi, invidi,
videram; but video, viderem, &c. ; legi, legissem; but
lego, legam.
Except bibi, dedi, (fidi) diffidi, (scidi) discidi, &c., steti, ,
(stiti) constiti, &c., tiili, attuli, &:c.
But these exceptions are perhaps only apparent, as the Perfects
seem either to be actually reduplicated, as dedi, steti, or to have
once been so, as tuli, &c. (tetuli, Lucr., &:c.).
(2) Some apparent derivatives are illusory: rex regis, regina^
do not come from rego. Coma {kojjlt]) has no connection with
como.
(3) Disyllabic Supines, with the parts of the Verb formed from
them, are also long: visum, visurus, &c. Except datum,
itum, litum, quitum, ratum, (rutum) dirutum, &c., statum
from sisto; but statum from sto; citum from cieo; but
citus from cio.
(4) Other apparent or real discrepancies might perhaps be ex-
plained, if we had the required knowledge : lux, lucis, luceo, but
lucerna; moles, molestus ; sopio,s6por; humanus, homo ;
iuro, peiero.
(5) We find not a few variations of quantity in the same word :
Lucret. has ' llquidis ^ and ' liquida ' in the same verse ; he has
* liquor aquai,' all others liquor (subst.), but liquor (verb) ; he has
^ fiuvidus ^ and * fliividus,' ' glomere,' but * glomero/ &c. with other
instances. Silius derives Sabini from Sabus; Mamurra (CatulL),
Mamurra (Hor., Mart.). Luceres (Prop.), Luceribus (Ov.).
Lemiires and Lemuria (Ov.). Mamuri (Prop.), Mamiirium
(Ov.). Catillus (Verg.), Cfitilus (Hor.), Catillus (Stat.).
Vertragus (Mart.), vertraga (Gratius). Coturnices (Plant,
Lucr.), cdturnices (Ov,, luven,). Vaticanus (Hon), Vatica-
nus later. Palatia, Palatinus, usually, but palatia (luv.).
Often conubia ; often also coniibia, coniibio, conubiis, &c. It is
an error to regard the latter forms as trisyllabic. See Munro o^i
Lucr. iii. 776.
(6) Sometimes the consonant is or is not doubled : vacillo, but
vaccillo (Lucr., Cic). Compare far, farris, farina; mamma,
mamilla ; offa, ofella ; tintino, tintinnabulum, Porsenna, Pors^na ;
and perhaps currus, ciirulis, quattuor, quater ; littera, litura.
(7) The penult of the 3rd Pers. Plur. Indie. Perf, is long : ama-
verunt, legerunt. But the poets not unfrequently shorten it ; and
dederunt (Lucr. Hon), fuerunt (Lucr. Prop.), tulSrunt (Verg.), ver-
terunt (Hon), locaverunt (Plant) prove that this was not done from
metrical necessity merely.
(8) The penult of the ist and 2nd Pers. Plur. of the Fut. Perf.
Indie, and the Perf. Subj. is doubtful : viderimus (Lucn), egerimus
(Verg,), fecerimus (Catull.) ; vider^tis, dixeritis, but dederitis
L L 2
5i6
Latin Prosody.
§254.
(Ov.). The poets appear to have been determined solely by the
requirements of their metre.
As i and u are both vowels and consonants, from necessity of
the verse the vowel sometimes passes into its corresponding con-
sonant : ar-ie-te , for ariete, ab-ie-te for abiete, ten-ui-a for tenuia.
Sometimes without such necessity we have ab-ie-gnus, tenvis for
tenuis, and the like. Trisyllabic in Horace is once princip-ium,
once consil-ium, in Virgil fliiv-iorum ; Lucr. has fiutant. Some-
times the 1 is suppressed between two long syllables : vindem-
iator, stel-io, taen-its. Lucretius once makes 6r-iun-di a trisyllable
with short o. The third syllable of fortuitus, gratuitus seems
doubtful : Statius certainly has gratuitus. Promontorium is an
error : the real form is promuntiirium. On the other hand v some-
times becomes ii : soliio, dissoluo, voluo, &c. : Hor. has slliiae
and miluus. But relicuus is the genuine form (Lucr., Plaut., &c.) :
reliquiis does not appear before the Silver Age. The Augustan
poets abstain from using it, perhaps from a dislike to lengthening
the first syllable.
(9) Vemens, vementer are the only genuine forms : vebemens,
<Scc. never appear in good writers.
(10) Many Crases occur in the poets, like aurei, ferrei, even
omn-ia as disyllabic, precant-ia as trisyllabic.
(11) In words like deinde, dein, deesse, deest, deerrarunt,
the first e is altogether elided, as in antehac, anteactus, &c. ;
so numquam, nusquam, nullus for neumquam, &c. In
neutiquam, neu becomes diphthongal.
(12) Eodem, eaedem, eosdem, are disyllabic or trisyllabic;
but disyllabic only where the second vowel is long by nature :
eundem, eandem, are always trisyllabic. Idem (plur.) and
isdem are disyllabic in the best writers ; eisdem seems to occur
first in Juvenal: ei (nom.) or ii, eis or iis are avoided by the
poets.
(13) A few words like suesco, suetus, deorsum, seorsus are
either disyllabic or trisyllabic : suo is twice monosyllabic in Lucr.,
who has sis for suis after Ennius.
Note, The quantity is doubtful in many Proper Names, adopted
from the Greek, in which short vowels are often lengthened for
metrical reasons, as Priamides. /
III. Quantity of Final Syllables. \
(I) I. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: except the
enclitics que, ve, ne, and qua (Nom. and Accus.), which is also
an enclitic (si qua, nequa).
2. It is perhaps most convenient to say that monosyllables
ending in a consonant are also long.
Exceptions :
(1) Such as end in b, d, 1, t, are short, two only, sal and
sol, being long (aut and baud, as diphthongs, are of course
long).
(2) Fac, nec, an, in, fer, per, ter, vir, cor, bis, cis, is
(Pron.), quis (Nom.).
§ 254.
Quantity of Final Syllables.
517
(3) Also es (sum) : es is found in Plautus, &c. : but es (edo) is
circumflexed and long.
(4) Hic (Pron.) is doubtful : hoc (Nom. and Acc.) is doubtful in
the old scenic, long in the later, poets.
(5) Ac in good writers never comes before a vowel, and its
quantity is uncertain. Very late writers seem to use it both long
and short.
(II) 2. In words of more than one syllable:
«. £L final is long —
(1) In the Abl. Sing, of ist. Decl. : as, mensa.
(2) In the Imperative of ist Conj. : ama, monstra ; but putJt
is used parenthetically.
(3) In the Numerals triginta, &:c.
(4) In Prepositions and Adverbs : circa, contra, erga, frustra,
intra, supra, interea, postea, praeterea, postilla ; which
are really Ablatives, and therefore regularly long, as
may be proved by forms like posthac, antehac, prae-
terhac ; and by the forms extrad, suprad, arvorsum ead
(adversum ea), in old inscriptions. But ita, quia are
short: eia or heia is perhaps doubtful, certainly short.
/3. A final is short in all Noun- Cases but the Ablative : except
(1) In Greek words ending in a, the a is sometimes retained in
Latin, but there is a stiong tendency to shorten it : philo-
mela ; elegia Ov.) ; elegia (Mart. Stat.) ; Electra (Cic.
Ov.), Electra (Sen.). Phaedra and Phaedra (Ov.) ; Phae-
dr^i (Sen.). For Greek Nominative in ar, we find Tiresia
(LuciL), Tiresia, Pelia (Sen.). But when a represents ly,
it is short : as, nympha ; so, Nom. Atrida (Prop.).
(2) In Vocatives of Greek names in as, a is long : Aenea,
Palla ; but doubtful in Vocatives from Nom. in es :
Atrida (Hon), Anchisa ''Verg.), Cecropida (Ov.).
E final is short : except
(1) Abl. Sing, of 5th Decl. : die (hodie, &c.), re (quare) ; so
fame, which in this case at least belongs to this Decl.
(2) 2nd Pers. Sing. Imper. of 2nd Conj. : as, gaude, mone.
But cave (Hor. Ov.) ; though these have also cave ; vide
(Phaedr. Pers.).i
(3) Adverbs from Adjectives of the 2nd Decl. : valde, aegre,
docte ; and in ferme, fere, ohe.
But bene, male, inferne (Lucr.), superne (Lucr. Hor.), are
short.
Temere follows the general rule, as is proved negatively by
^ The Latins had a strong tendency to shorten the final in famih'ar iambic words :
compare puta above, and other examples, ending in i and o ; and this is especially-
true and important in the old scenic prosody. In 'vale vale inquit ' (Verg.), 'mane
inquii' (CatuU.), *fave Ilithyia ' (O v. ), the e is long and only shortened by a vowel
following.
5l8 Latin Prosody, §254.
e being always elided in Hexameter poets ; positively by
its frequently occurring with e in Seneca.
(4) When it represents n : nymphe, Hebe, Antigone, tempe,
&c.
Z final is long : except
(1) i is doubtful in mihi, tibi, sib!, ibi, ubi ; short in nis¥,
quasi, necubi, sicubi.
O^s. The i of uti ( = ut) is always long ; sicuti dactyl is a
fiction ; ibidem always in Hexameter poets ; the second i
is doubtful in the scenic poets ; utique, utinam are short.
So ubinam, ubivis ; but ubique.
(2) The i of Vocatives which represent I is short : DaphnX,
Adoni ; also Thybri.
(3) The i of Datives, representing i, is short in Minoidf,
TethyX (Catull.), lasoni, Palladi (Stat). But Thetidi,
Paridi, &c., have i long ; and these are the more nu-
merous.
O final is long : except ^
(1) The archaic endo is short: also cito (adv.), mode (adv.),
duo, ego, cedo, owing to the tendency to shorten the final
of familiar Iambic words. Yet modo as well as modo is
in Lucr.; ego occasionally in Plautus.
(2) Homo is doubtful, generally short.
(3) Scio and nescio, which have o doubtful in the scenic
writers, for metrical reasons have it short in Hexameter
poets, &c.
XT final is long : except in the archaic indii ( = in), and nenii ( = ne
oenum = ne unum = non).
Y, a purely Greek letter, is short in the few words adopted from
Greek : as, moly, Tiphj^.
C final lengthens the Vowel : except donee.
^ The final o continued always inflexibly long in Datives and Ablatives of the 2nd
Decl., and when it represented a final a> (Clio); but in Verbs and Nominatives of the
3rd Decl. it became doubtful ; though still in most cases generally long. Seneca, indeed,
Juvenal, and others, venture to shorten the Gerund in do (vincendo, vigilando, &c.), and
Juvenal even postremo, though these appear at least analogous to the Dat. and Abl. in o ;
so indeed is quomodo (Hor.).
As might be inferred from the laws of Latin pronunciation, this shortening first took
place in Cretic and Iambic words. Virgil, an anxious metrist, only ventures to shorten
Pollio (three times), nuntio and audeo. In all these instances the o is elided ; but, as
he never elides the final of a Cretic, preferring hiatus, as, insula^ lonio, he evidently
did not regard the o as long. It is probable, however, that the elision was a compromise,
and that the vowel was to him neither precisely long nor short, something, in fact, like a
final m, which he occasionally elides in Cretic words, audiam et, omnium egenos.
Horace, in his Odes as careful a metrist as Virgil, shortens only Pollio, but in his Satires
and Epistles he has, besides this word, eo, rogo, veto, dixero, obsecro, mentio, quo-
modo. But before them Catullus has volo, dabo, and puto, when, like puta, it is a quasi
adverb. Tibullus desino, Propertius caedito, and even findo. Ovid always shortens
Siilmo, Naso ; and we find in him examples of amo, cano, nego, peto, rego, leo, con-
foro, desino, odero, Curio, Gallio, Scipio, esto, credo, tollo, rependo, nemo, ergo. In
most poets of the Silver Age this 6 is frequent enough : we find quando, porro, sero,
amb5, octo, &c. In all ages quandoquidem.
254. Quantity of Final Syllables, 519
B final shortens the Vowel.
final shortens the Vowel.
In nihil it is doubtful; generally short, but occasionally
long in Ov. Lucr. Some only use contracted nil ; Virgil
seems only twice to use the disyllabic, each time before a
consonant: B, ii. 6.; Ae, ii. 287. But there are some 18
instances in which it might be said that he wrote nihil,
not nil.
[m final is treated of under the head of Elision.]
W final shortens the Vowel.
The only Exceptions are Greek words.
Those in en are long, as they represent 7\v : hymen, &c.
Those in on are long, which represent ; short, which
represent ov : Trit5n, Troilon. Those in an, in, yn, are
long or short, as they are long or short in Greek : Elec-
tran, but Iphigenian ; chelyn, but Tethyn.
R final shortens the Vowel : except
(1) Celtiber is doubtful.
(2) Compounds of par are long, as dispar, impar.
(3) When -er represents it is long, as aer. But or, even
when representing u>jO, follows the general rule : Hectdr,
rhetor.
As final is long : except
The Nom. Sing, and Accus. Plur. of Nouns taken from the
Greek, which have -aq : Pallas (-adis), lampadas, &c.
Es final is long : except
(1) penes..
(2) Nouns of Decl. 3 which increase short, as miles milit-,
obses obsid-, seges seget-. But pes and compounds,
Ceres, abies, aries, paries, remain long.
(3) Compounds of es, as potes, ades.
(4) Words representing Greek eg ; as cacoethes (Neut.),
Arcades (Nom. Plur.).
Is final is short : except
(1) Dat. and Abl. Plur. in -Is : terris, dominls, vobis.
(2) Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. in -is ( = es) : omnis, gentls.
(3) 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Subj. in -is : adsis, velis.
(4) Compounds of vis, as mavis, quamvis.
(5) Nominatives which increase long : as, Samnis (-itis) ; and
from Greek Iq : as, Salamis (-inis).
(a) The -is of the Fut. Perf. and Perf. Subj. is doubtful : as,
dixeris (Hon), dederis (Ov.). Compare the quantity oif
the 1st and 2nd Persons Plur. in these tenses.
(d) Sanguis has is always in Lucretius ; though usually short
in and after the Aug:ustan age, it is loner more than once
520 Latin Prosody, §255.
in Ovid, Lucan, Silius ; and once in Verg. TibulL Seneca,
Valerius Flaccus, and in the ^ Aetna.' Virgil has only
pulvis.
Os final is long : except
(1) Exos (Lucr.), compos, impos.
(2) Greek words which end in oy, as Chios, Phasidds.
Us final is short : except
(1) Nominatives in us with u in Gen.; virtus (-utis), tellus
(-uris), (paliis in Horace's Ars P, must be corrupt).
(2) Gen. Sing, and Nom. and Acc. Plur. of the 4th Decl.
gradus.
(3) When -us represents Greek -ovq-, Panthus, Mantus
(Verg.).
Ys final is short, occurring only in a few Greek proper names,
as Tiphys. Except Tethys (Verg. Ov.), and chrysophrys.
T final shortens the Vowel.
Except contracted Perfects, disturbat (Lucr.), petit, obit.
The final of the uncontracted petiit, iit and its com-
pounds, as rediit, is often long ; some say always, and
do not admit exiit and the like.
IV. Quantity of Words in Composition.
Generally words in composition retain the quantity they had in
their simple form.^ Thus : —
(1) Pro is long in composition.
But there are many exceptions : procella, profanus, proficiscor,
profecto, prdffugus, profundus, profiteor, profari, protervus (also
protervus in Plant.), pronepos, proneptis, profundo (but profundo,
Catull.) ; propello twice in Lucr., elsewhere propello ; procuro,
prdpino, propago (Verb and Subst.) are doubtful ; Proserpina, but
Proserpina once in Horace, once in his imitator Seneca. In
Greek words -n^o remains short, as Propontis. Yet prologus in
Plautus and Terence.
(2) Ne- is long ; nequaquam ; but short in neque, nequeo,
nefas, nefandus, nefarius, &c.
(3) Re in composition is short, unless lengthened by position
merely, as rescribo. The four Perfects, reccidi, repperi, reppuli,
rettuli, have always re, as they are really reduplications, and
should have the consonant doubled. As the old quantity was re,
red, generally, redduco or reduco always appear in Lucr. Plant.
^ In many cases, however, compound words have undergone such organic changes as
remove them from the domain of prosody ; they belong to the general grammar and
history of the language. We might ask again why we have omitto, not obmitto, as in
Obmoveo, obmurrauro ; hodie, not hoddie (hoc-die) ; idem (neut.), not iddem, as idem
(is-derh). But as such quantities are invariable in all periods of the language, we must
take them for granted, assuming that the tendency of the language was to shorten such
syllables in familiar words. This tendency, unchecked in old times, was Nartificially
resisted by more educated ages.
§256. Elision. 521
Ter. Compare reddo. Reccido is in Ov. Prop. luv. (Virgil does
not use the word). Isolated cases occur of rellatus, rellictus. The
Hexameter poets always have religio, relicuus, reliquiae from me-
trical necessity ; but also religio, relicuus, reliquiae in Plaut. Ter.
Phaedrus, &c. ; and in later poets always reliquus.
(4) In that peculiar compound Verb, formed with facio an l
words like cale- rare- (where by the way the word had a double
accent, as cdle-f^cit, rare-f^cit), the quantity of the e is very
variable. Lucretius has many of them wuh these quantities:
rarefieri, rarefacere, expergefactus, confervefacit, putre-
factus, vacefit, patefecit once, patefiet once, but oftener
patef., liquefit, but liquefactus, calefecit, cinefactus,
labefacto, tepefactus, timefactus, conlabefactus, conla-
befiunt. It will be seen that the e is always long where a long
syllable precedes ; but generally short where a short syllable goes
before ; and this tendency to shorten the e is even greater in later
poets. We see from the form calfacio how short the e was in
this word, the most usual of the class. Ritschl says that in Plautus
the e is long where the preceding syllable is long ; short, where it
is short. We have thus another instance of the tendency to
shorten the finals of iambic words in common use, the e in all
these words having been originally long. This tendency has a
powerful influence, as will appear, on the old scenic poetry.
Videlicet, long in Hexameter poetry, shortens the e in Plautus
and Terence.
V. Elision.
(i) EHsion, sometimes termed by Grammarians Synaloepha,
sometimes Ecthlipsis, is an important modifying principle of
Quantity. Shortly stated it is this. In a Latin verse, when one
word ends in a vowel or diphthong or m, and the following word
begins with a vowel or h, such final vowel or diphthong or m with
its vowel is elided, that is to say, does not count in the verse.^
* This general principle, however, is subject to many limitations. Much depends on
the age of the writer, much on the style of verse. Plautus, or Ennius himself in his
dramas, will freely employ elisions which the latter, to judge from the fragments, would
never admit in his Annals, written in heroic verse. Virgil has many elisions which Ovid
never admits : nay, Horace in his later Odes abstains from elisions found in the earlier
books, in his Epistles from elisions which often appear in the Satires. We have room
here only for a few remarks. There is not evidence to show in what precise way the
elision took place ; how far the former vowel was modified or destroyed ; whether some
short vowels, as e in indeclinable words, bene, que, atque, &c., disappeared alto-
gether ; whether a long vowel formed a kind of diphthong with a followmg long vowel ;
whether a long vowel, elided before a short, was first shortened, and then formed a kind
of synaeresis with the other ; how it fared with syllables ending in m, and the like. As
elision, especially of long vowels, continued to become rarer and rarer with careful writers,
in the higher kinds of verse, it is probable from this, as well as from other facts, that the
artificial cultivation of the language produced a more distinct sounding of final syllables.
In a single verse of Plautus or Terence five or six elisions, even of long or middle sylla-
bles in m, are usual enough. The quantity of syllables in m is somewhere between that
of a long and a short syllable.
That, as some suppose, the former vowel or diphthong was lost altogether in pronun-
ciation, and the accent thrown a syllable back, seems impossible : for then many verses
of the best poets would cease to be verses at all : such as Virgil's * Sublimem expulsam
eruerent,' ' Insontem infando indicio.' The latter would then be equivalent to * Insons
infans indicio,' which has no rhythm.
522
Latin Prosody.
256.
(2) Elision is very rare when a vowel or diphthong immediately
precedes the elided syllable, though we find in Virgil, * Alpheae ab
origine in Horace's Satires, * ho et mersor/
(3) Monosyllables, long or ending in m, should not be elided
before a short vowel, except a few, such as me, te, se, tu, si, cum,
turn, i am, sum but not sim, qui sing, not plur. Here, and in
what precedes and follows, we are not speaking of the old scenic
poets.
(4) Iambic words (^~) are never elided before a short vowel:
seldom (never by some poets, such as Ovid in his Elegiacs) even
before a long vowel. Lucretius so elides only once, 'equi atque
hominis.' Virgil, however, makes use of this license, but yet
under limitations.
(5) Careful poets, as Virgil, abstain from eliding the ultima of a
Cretic (~ ^ "), because this can be only before a short syllable.
The style of verse, however, makes a difference. Horace does this
in his Satires, as ^ tantuU eget,' not elsewhere ; Catullus in his
Lyrics and Elegiacs, not in his Heroics. So elision of words in m,
like omnium, is rare, yet occurs in the best writers: as, ^omnium
egenos' (Verg.), ^fluminum amores' (Ov.), *principum amicitias'
(Hon).
(6) There are many distinctions in the elision even of short
vowels. Thus e or 1 elide more freely than a or 6 before a short
vowel. Many poets will hardly thus elide a except in the first foot
of a verse or before another ^ : Flumina amem is a much easier
elision than Fliimina erant. The e of indeclinable words, such as
que, ve, atque, neque, bene, male, temere, is the easiest of all
elisions. A poet like Ovid will only admit the elision even of a
short vowel in the last half of the Pentameter with very great
limitation, and such elisions as a rule occur only in the first foot of
this half ; elisions like ' insula habet,' ^ resistere equos,' are quite
exceptional. In the final syllable of the verse Elision is un-
known.
(7) An apparent, not a real, exception to what is said must be
noted. We often see est at the end or in other parts of a verse,
where Elision would be inadmissible : ' dolori est,' ^ laborum est,'
*meo est,' ^ sua est,' and the like. Here est is enclitic, and we
ought to write, or at least pronounce, dolorist, laborumst,
meost, suast. Also es sometimes is an enclitic in the same
way.
Virgil, moved perhaps by his love of the older poets, frequently elides long vowels, but
generally in the first half of the verse or in the middle of the fourth foot ; not at the very
beginning of the line : *Si ad vitulam spectes,' in one of his earliest Eclogues, being a
singular exception.
But between Virgil and Ovid a great change was going on : the latter has hardly one
elision of a long vowel for ten of Virgil's : his elisions too of syllables in m are much
rarer. The most careful poets, such as Martial, follow Ovid ; though Virgil's authority
had weight with some of the later Epic poets. As an illustration of what is said, it is to
be noted that Horace, in the Fourth book of his Odes, only once elides a long syllable :
*Quod spiro et placeo ;' and even here the o may have become doubtful, though spon-
daic words did not so soon begin to shorten the final. Horace, however, freely elides
here syllables in m.
§ 257. Hiatus, 523
A. Exceptions to the law of Elision, forming Hiatus. See Hiatus.
§ 12. xxxi. p. 52.
(a) The monosyllabic interjections a, o, heu, for manifest rea-
sons are not elided by the dactylic poets. Ovid once has
the Greek Interjection ai al unelided ; once, too, he
writes : * Et bis 10 Arethusa vocavit 10 Arethusa,' for a
peculiar effect, and Catullus leaves 10 unelided in his
Epithalamium. Others do not allow a vowel to fol-
low 10.
(^) Sometimes a long vowel is left unelided and long in the
arsis of a foot. Virgil employs this license more than
others, clearly in imitation of the Greeks ; but there is not
more than one instance to several hundred verses. ' Stant
et iuniperi et castaneae hirsutae' gives two in one verse.
Often it occurs in Greek words ; sometimes for poetical
effect : ^ Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam ; ' 'Si
pered, hominum manibus.' Once and once only he leaves
a syllable thus long in the thesis of the foot : ' Glaucd et
Panopeae et Inoo Melicertae a manifest Greek rhythm,
as in Homer a vowel is very often thus left long in the
thesis of the first foot.
Ovid keeps an unelided vowel more rarely than Virgil, and
in deference to him. Many poets abstain from it alto-
gether : Horace has it very rarely : * capiti inhumato.'
* Daedaleo ocior^ is not genuine ; for the o would then
remain long in thesis.
This license is very rare in middle syllables in m, and most
of the examples admit of easy correction, as in Propertius,
* O me felicem, o nox mihi Candida' (read nox o).
(c) In thesis, too, a long vowel is sometimes shortened before
a short vowel, but generally in the case of Iambic or
Cretic words, which would hardly admit of elision, many
of them being Greek or Proper Names. It is sometimes
united with the other kind of hiatus in the same line ; see
some of the examples given above ; and Virgil's ' Hyla
Hyla omne sonaret' Virgil has Wale vale inquit,' Mn-
sulae lonio,' &c. ; Lucretius, ' Remigi oblitae,' * etesiae
esse Ennius has, ' Scipio invicte ; ' Cicero, ' etesiae in
vada,' who in his 'Orator' speaks of it as a license very
rare in Latin, common in Greek.
Such license is scarcely allowable in polysyllables in m,
though Ennius has ' Dum quidem unus homo,' ' militiim
octo,' and Lucilius ' sordidum omne.' Instances given to
Lucretius have no foundation.
Virgil's two examples of such a hiatus with a short syllable,
'Addam cerea pruna honos erit,' and ' patuit dea Ille
ubi,' may perhaps be defended by the pause, but are
almost unparalleled ; for the ' male ominatis ' assigned
by some to Horace, and the 'male, o miselle passer'
given by others to Catullus, are impossible.
{d) Long monosyllables and those in m are sometimes short-
ened in thesis before a short vowel : Virgil has ' qui
524
Latin Prosody.
§258,
amant/ ^ te amice,' ' 6 Alexi Horace ' mg amas,' * num
adest.' Lucretius has eleven instances of this hcense ;
which is frequent in the comic poets, but there only in
arsis.
(e) A license, resembling that of hiatus, is the lengthening of a
short syllable ending in a consonant before a voweL
Virgil has many examples, in imitation of Homer and
Ennius, the license often taking place in or before a
Greek word : ^ Pectoribiis inhians,' * Altius ingreditur et,'
' fultus hyacintho/ Lucretius has only two examples,
* fulget auro,' * sciret animoque ; ' Catullus three, all
coming before the Greek word hymenaeus.
(/) Virgil, if his text is right, thus lengthens a short syllable
ending in a vowel : ^gravia sectoque elephanto ;^ but
* anima atque istius inscia culpae,' where there would be
hiatus alsO; is condemned by all sound critics, as well as
' supervacua aut' in Juvenal.
(^) Virgil, however, has one singular license : sixteen times he
lengthens que in -arsis, though que is one of the shortest
syllables in the language and eminently susceptible of
elision ; and he has induced hardly any one else to follow
his example. But, in fifteen of the sixteen cases, que is
in the arsis of the second foot, as ^ Terraeque tractusque
once in the arsis of the fifth, ^ Noemonaque Prytanimque,'
with Greek words. Clearly it is a mere imitation of
Homer's lengthening of in the second and fifth foot.
In fourteen of the cases, too, the next word begins with a
double consonant.^
B, Having discussed the laws of Quantity generally,
we proceed to apply them to the chief kinds of Verse
employed by the Latin poets, which are all borrowed
from the Greeks.
The poets, however, with whom we need concern ourselves, have
with great tact confined themselves to a few of the simpler kinds of
verse, discarding the more complicated feet, rhythms, and verses, as
unsuitable to their language. Those, however, which they have
selected, they have adapted with great skill to all its peculiarities.
L Verse and Metre.
I. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of
Feet.
A Foot (pes) contains a certain number of morae, three at
least.
* In all the above instances a purely short syllable is artificially lengthened. Virgil
employs this license, so far as we know, much more than his predecessors. It is not,
therefore, a reminiscence of the time when such syllables were long : once on a time
perhaps every final in the language was long. It is manifestly an imitation of Greek
rhythm. When a syllable in Latin is really doubtful, it is used indifferently long or short
in all places of the verse : comp. Virgil's * Ante ora patris patrem qui obtruncat ad aras ; '
Martial's ' Capto tuam, pudet heu, sed capto, Pontice, cenam.' Here lengthening as
well as shortening takes place in thesis.
§ 259- Metre and Vei'se. 525
Each simple Foot has two parts, one of which is said to have
the ictus upon it, and is called arsis (marked £); the other part
is called thesis. The relation of these parts to one another deter-
mines the nature of the Foot, and thereby of the Verse.
2. There are, properly speaking, only four distinct Feet with
which we need concern ourselves. Two of these have the arsis
and thesis equal, each consisting of two morae. Two have them
unequal, the arsis containing two, the thesis one mora.
The first two are,
1. Dactylus . . • « . - ^ ^ « . . iTtora.
2. Anapaestus . . . . ^ - , . . patiilae.
The last two are,
3. Trochaeus (or Choreus) ... arma.
4. Iambus ^ - ... cano.
These are the genuine Feet ; but for the Dactyl often appears in
every kind of Dactylic verse
5. Spondeus ..... — . . , fatd.
Also
6. Tribrachys . . . . ^ , , , temere
can take the place of either the Iambus or the Trochee.
Therefore the Spondee and the Tribrach are representative
Feet.^
In most kinds of Trochaic and Iambic verse, a Spondee may
be used for the Trochee or Iambus in certain parts of the verse ;
and sometimes it may be represented by an Anapaest or a Dactyl.
In Dactylic and Trochaic verse the arsis is on the first part of
each foot : litora, arma. In Anapaestic and Iambic on the last :
patulad, cano.
The arsis therefore falls on a long syllable ; in regular Dactylic
verse invariably. When, however, a Dactyl is used for an Ana-
paest, the arsis falls on the first short syllable, litora : when a
Tribrach or Anapaest takes the place of a Trochee, the arsis is on
the first syllable, tdmere, p^tulae ; when a Tribrach or Dactyl is
used for an Iambus, the arsis is on the second syllable, temere.^
II. Verses.
I. The Dactylic Hexameter occupies as large a space in Latin
poetry as all other Verses together, and is of more relative im-
portance than the Homeric Hexameter is in Greek.
* In Anapaestic verses both the Spondee and the Dactyl may stand for the Anapaest.
A full list of (so-called) Feet is subjoined for reference.
V/ Pyrrhichius: pater
— Iambus : amant
{a) Of two Syllables—
— v-» Trochaeus : vTdTt
— — Spondeus : latos
ib) Of three Syllables.
Tribrachys : regere
— Anapaestus : animos
w Dactylus : corpora
— Creticus : dixerant | _ _ _ Molossus : dTcebas
V-/ — ^ Amphibrachys : latTnus
w — _ Bacchius : regebant
Palimbacchius : rexTsse
—
526 Latin Prosody. §259.
This famous Verse, as well as the Elegiac couplet, was first
adapted from the Greek by Ennius, who died B.C. 169 ; was gra-
dually improved, until it attained an admirable perfection in the
hands of Virgil, Ovid, and others ; and continued for many cen-
turies to be the favourite form, until the total extinction of the old
classical world. It may be defined as a Dactylic Hexameter
Catalectic (catalecticus in disyllabum), the last Dactyl losing its
final syllable. It consisted therefore of five Dactyls and a Tro-
chee.
But as the final syllable of a Verse (except when connected
closely by Synaphea ^ with the following Verse, as in the Anapae-
stic system and the Glyconic of Catullus) was indifferently long or
short, the final Trochee might always be a Spondee. And indeed,
while in Greek the last syllable is indifferent, in all the most careful
Latin writers it is much oftener long than short. For Ennius,
followed by the rest, seems to have thought the last Foot a real
Spondee, and, from mistaking Homer, to have even introduced
occasional Hypermetrical Verses. In this he has been followed by
Virgil and most Latins, though to Homer this licence is unknown.
In him we feel that the last Foot is a Trochee or curtailed Dactyl ;
while the best Latin Verse lets us see that in the writer's mind the
last Foot was rather a genuine Spondee.
Of the five Dactyls which remain, the fifth must, as a rule,
always remain a Dactyl, probably to keep in view the Dactylic
nature of the Verse. The first four may be indifferently Dactyls
or Spondees ; and, contrary to the rule in Greek, in Latin the
Spondees are somewhat the more numerous, owing perhaps to the
character of the language.
Sometimes not only the older poets, but, for poetical effect,Virgil
and, in imitation of him, Ovid and others have a Spondee in the
fifth foot ; but then (to give weight to the exceptional rhythm) the
two last feet are generally contained in a single word, and the
fourth foot is in most cases a Dactyl. Sometimes a purely Greek
rhythm, the words being often Greek, is introduced; in which
cases a Spondee now and then appears in the fourth foot. These
three instances from Virgil will illustrate what is meant :
* Cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.'
' Lamentis gemituque et femineo ululatu.'
' Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo.'
(f) Of four Syllables (compound) —
\j \j \^ \u
^ \j \^ \j
V/ — *W
W — <^
Proceleusmaticus : hominibus
Paeon Primus : condTdTmus
Paeon Secundus : amabimus
Paeon Tertius : nemoralTs
Paeon Quartus : regTminl
lonicus a Minore : metuentes
lonicus a Majore : terreblmus
Diiambus : protervTtas
The Pyrrhich is not properly a Foot.
— —
— —
— V/ ~
— \^ —
_ V-» 1^ —
\J \J
— — —
Ditrocheus : condTdTsse
Choriambus : opposTtTs
Antispastus : regebamur
Epitritus Primus : amavTsti
Epitritus Secundus : audTebas
Epitritus Tertius : audlverant
Epitritus Quartus : rexTssemils
_ _ _ Dispondeus : suspexerunt
The Trochee is also called Choreus, the Cretic
Amphimacer : this has a second arsis. The Ionic a Minore is used by Horace and Catul-
lus. The Proseleusmatic is occasionally put for its equivalent Spondee or Anapaest by
the old scenic poets, and even by Seneca.
* Synaphea (o-vfaTrreiv) is said to exist in any system of Verses, when the last syllable
of each verse is influenced by the first syllable of the following verse, as it would be if
the two words stood in one and the same verse.
§ 26o. Dactylic Hexameter, Caesura, 5^7
The two following :
' Cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis.'
* Cum sociis gnatoque, penatibus et magnis dis/
are reminiscences of Ennius.
These Versus (nzovcELa^ovTf.c, are proportionally more frequent in
Catullus from imitation of the Alexandrine poets.
In the fragments of Ennius we find one or two verses without a
single Dactyl. The only instance in later writers seems to be one
in Catullus :
^ Si te lenirem nobis neu conarere.'
260
But to make a verse it is not enough to place side by side six Caesura,
feet of the kind mentioned ; as in these verses of Ennius :
' Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pelhte tonsis.'
^ Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret.'
Both verses are rude attempts to make the sound point the
sense ; but we might apply to them the ' horret et alget/ which
Lucilius jocularly proposed for the end of the second.
For the beauty and harmony of a verse Caesura is necessary.
(i) Caesura is the technical term for the law that in some part
or parts of the verse the end of a word must coincide with the
middle of a foot.^
^ Explanation may here be given of various technical terms.
A. Hemimeris (T7/Lii/xepts) means
Hence one foot and a half (f) is called Trihemimeris :
two feet (f) Penthemimeris ;
three (f) „ Hephthemimeris ;
feur (f) „ Ennehemimeris.
Hence :
Examples :
(a) Caesura after feet is called Trihemimeral ;
(b) 2^ Penthemimeral ;
(c) 3^ „ Hephthemimeral :
(d) 4^ ,, Ennehemimeral ;
1. udit equi
2. Aut amite
1 magnd
tellus
1 levi
rara
percussa
tendit
tridenti. — ^Verg.
retia. — Hor.
In I (a Dactylic Hexameter) the caesuras a, b, c, being after an arsis, are strong ; but
d, being after a thesis, is weak.
In 2 (an Iambic Trimeter) all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weak.
In contradistinction to Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with
the vtiddle of a foot) the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot may
be called * Dialysis : '
Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum.
B. Metre (ixerpov, measure) is used in two senses.
I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or system of verses used by a poet in any
composition (Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre).
(a) A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monocolum ;
,, two kinds „ ,, Dicolum ;
„ „ three „ „ Tricolum.
(from fxoi^os, single ; KuiXov, member).
(b) When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Distichum (from fit?, twice ; <rn'^,
row\ a Distich or couplet.
Latin Prosody.
(2) The best and most common caesura in the Dactylic Hexa-
meter is the penthemimeral or semiquinarian, where the coinci-
dence takes place after two feet and a half, or five half-feet :
Tityre tu patulae | recubans sub tegmine fagi.
The caesura in question has place after patulae, though the verse
has also two subordinate caesuras, after tu and recubans.
When recurrence takes place after four verses, these form Tetrastichum, a Tetrastich
(stanza).
(c) Thus the Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic), Iambic Trimeter, Trochaic Tetrameter,
and others, are found as Metra Monocola.
The Elegiac Metre and many others are Dicola Disticha.
The Sapphic and some others are Dicola Tetrasticha.
The Alcaic is Tricolum Tetrastichum.
11. Metre, in the second place, is used to express a given portion of a Verse in some
Rhythms ; as the Dactylic, the Trochaic, the Iambic, and the Anapaestic.
(a) In a Dactylic Verse, one foot constitutes a Metre.
In Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic Rhythms two feet (SiTroSta) constitute a
Metre.
(b) A Verse comprised in a angle Metre is called Monometer ; in two, Dimeter ; in
three. Trimeter ; in four. Tetrameter ; in five, Pentameter ; in six. Hexameter.
(c) Wanting one syllable to complete its metres a Verse is called Catalectic (Kara-
Arj/crtKos) ; in syllabam, if the incomplete foot retains one syllable ; in disyllabum, if if
retains two.
Wanting two syllables, Brachycatalectic (/Spaxv/caraA-.^KTog) ;
Having a syllable above its metres, Hypercatalectic (uTrepKaraATj/CTOs) :
Having its metres complete, Acatalectic (a/caraAij/cTOs).
(d) A Verse may also be called according to the number of feet : Binarius (2), as the
Adonian ; Ternarius (3), as the Pherecratean ; Quaternarius (4), as the Trochaic or
Iambic Dimeter ; Senarius (6), as the Dactylic Hexameter or the Iambic Trimeter ;
Septenarius (7), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalecticus ; Octonarius (8), as the Trochaic
Tetrameter Acat. of the scenic poets.
(2) Or a Verse may be called according to the number of its syllables, as Phalaecius
Hendecasyllabus (11). So the Alcaic Strophe consists of two Alcaic Hendecasyllabi
(11), one Akaic Enneasyllabus (9), and one Alcaic Decasyllabus (10).
C. (a) A syllable at the beginning of a Verse before the just Rhythm is called Ana-
crusis (afa/cpovai?, hack-stroke) : as (according to one mode of scansion),
O I magna Carthago probrosis.
(b) Two syllables so preceding the just Rhythm are called a Base, which may be tro-
chaic :
Lute I umve papaver ;
©r spondaic :
Duram | difficilis mane.
(c) A double Base is trochee + spondee, as in the Sapphic Verse :
lUe ml par | esse deo videtur.
This may have Anacrusis before it, as in the Alcaic Hendecasyllable :
Mors I et fugacem | persequitur virum.
D. (a) A Verse is called Asynartete (a(rvi'apTi7T09) which is really composed of two
different verses welded, as it were, together :
Tu vina Torquato move !l consule pressa meo.
(b) A Verse which has one syllable more than its regular constitution, elided before a
vowel at the beginning of the next verse, is Hypermetrical (Hypermeter) :
Sors exitura et nos in aetern | um
Exitium impositura cumbae.
§ 26o.
Caesura.
529
This caesura, however, is so powerful that it is alone sufficient
for a perfectly harmonious verse :
Illius immensae | ruperunt horrea messes.
Or the verse may equally have two or three caesuras, as in the one
quoted, and
Silvestrem | tenui | Musam | meditaris avena.
Caesura after the first half-foot seems to have no force ; and
* Quid faciat laetas segetes' seems equivalent to * Conficiat laetas
segetes/
However, there is a weak trochaic caesura, after the trochee or
second syllable of the dactyl ; so that a verse may in a way have
five caesuras :
Una I salus | victis | nullam | sperare | salutem.
But in all these instances the penthemimeral is the one important
caesura. As a quite exceptional rhythm, we might find ^ viam | vi,'
for instance, instead of * salutem/ which would give one more
caesura. This verse of Lucretius :
Augescunt | aliae | gentes | aliae | minuuntur,
in which are four strong caesuras, is faulty. See (11), p. 530.
(3) But, to avoid monotony, the best poets seek variety of
rhythm by other caesuras. Next in power to the penthemimeral is
the hephthemimeral or semiseptenarian caesura, coming, that is,
after three and a half feet, or seven half-feet. But, to give a proper
verse, this caesura must be combined with one or more others. In
this verse.
Quid faciat | laetas | segetes | quo sidere terram,
it may be said the principal pause is at the hephthemimeris^ But
the verse has its character really determined by the penthemimeral
caesura.
(4) When the latter is absent, the next best form is obtained by
uniting with the hephthemimeral caesura the trihemimeral, in the
middle of the second foot, and also the weak caesura which falls
between the two short syllables of a dactyl in the third foot :
Formosam | resonare | doces | Amaryllida silvas.
(5) Less perfect, though coming perhaps next to the above, is
that form which has only the trihemimeral and hephthemimeral :
Despiciens | mare velivolum | terrasque iacentes.
(6) It is less common to find the caesura at the third trochee
together with only the trihemimeral ; though sometimes a pleasing
effect is thus produced ; as in this verse :
Praecipitat | suadentque | cadentia sidera somnos ;
yet in Greek this is perhaps the normal type of the Hexameter.
(7) The caesura at the third trochee by itself is still rarer and is
usually intended for poetical effect :
Aequora concussitque | micantia sidera mundus.
Falleret indeprensus | et inremeabilis error,
M M
Lati7i Prosody.
(8) This caesura, preceded by one at the second trochee, pro-
duces an unpleasant rhythm :
O crudelis | Alexi | nihil mea carmina curas ;
unless it is designed for effect :
Una Eurusque | Notusque|ruunt creberque procellis
and even Horace's familiar style will not reconcile us to
Dignummente | domoque | legentis | honesta | Neronis.
But the alternation of the trochaic with the stronger caesuras is
often pleasing :
Quantus I Athos | aut quantus | Eryx | aut ipse | coruscis :
Marsa | manus | Paeligna [ cohors | Vestina | virum | vis.
(9) Sometimes, but rarely, the preposition beginning a com-
pound word serves for a quasicaesura ; as in this verse of Horace,
Vestrum praetor, is intestabilis et sacer esto.
Virgil, or Lucretius, would mask the harshness by elision :
Conplerunt, | magno indignantur murmure clausi :
and thus in Virgil's
Magnanimi | lovis ingratum ascendere cubile,
the main caesura is hephthemimeral not penthemimeral ; while in
both verses the rhythm is helped by the trihemimeris.
(10) The effect of Elision generally on the caesuras and rhythmi
of a verse, as was said above, is not easy to determine. It seems
clear that the elided syllable did not disappear altogether, and that
the rhythm of such a verse as this for example :
Monstrum | horrendum j informe | ingens | cui lumen ! ademp-
tum :
was not identical with
Hie I vertex | nobis | semper | sublimis | at ilium.
The elisions, which in this case were designed for effect, must
have had some intermediate influence.
(11) The close of the verse should have a free open movement,
in contrast, as it were, to the involution caused by the caesuras in
the middle of the verse. Good Latin verse indeed exhibits only
two main types of rhythm here: i. where the fifth dactyl is wholly
contained in one word and ends with that word : ^ sidere terram,'
^ adiungere vites ; ' 2. where caesura takes place between the two
short syllables ; ' cultus | habendo,' ' primus | ab oris.'
The verse, as a rule, is faulty, when caesura takes place in the
middle of the dactyl ; as ' aliae | minuuntur' in the verse quoted
above from Lucretius ; unless the dactyl contains two entire words,
as ^ ac tua nautae'* in Virgil. Lucretius and the older writers often
violate this law ; Virgil very seldom, and then with his usual skill
for the sake of effect :
Ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat | sola neve.
Quam pius Aeneas et quam magni | Phryges et quam.
As this rhythm is much more frequent in Greek, Virgil and Ovid
are fond of using it with Greek words, like hymenaeus, hyacin-
thus.
§ 26l.
The Elegiac Distich,
(12) The last foot should be contained in one word; though
occasionally it may consist of two monosyllables, as in the line just
quoted. Here again artists like Virgil use exceptional cadences
like ' procumbit humi bos/ * praeruptus aquae mons/ * atque homi-
num rex/ to produce exceptional effects.
(13) Lucretius often comprises the two last feet in one word,
like principiorum, material ; Virgil and Ovid very rarely, and
then always for a special purpose, as ' perfractaque quadrupedan-
tum or with Greek words in imitation of the Greeks. Elisions
in this part of the verse should be of the easiest kinds : e or 1 :
ergo age in the fifth foot has its special excuse. Virgil has two
or three endings like ' mentem animumque,' ^ hoc animo hauri,'
which strike by their rarity and are perhaps in compliment to
Lucretius. EUsions within the sixth foot are still rarer : Virgil
elides e in *huc turbidus atque hue,' ^hinc comminus atque hinc
Horace in his satires ventures to say, ' iugera centum an.' As
shewn above, est at the end of a verse makes no elision.
(14) Hypermetrical verses were introduced by Ennius, probably,
as wa.s said above, from his misapprehending Homer. A super-
numerary syllable at the end of one verse is supposed to be elided
by a vowel at the beginning of the next, sometim.es even when a
full stop intervenes. Lucretius has only one instance, ^ concurrere
deber|e:' Catullus only one or two Virgil has more of them:
que is generally the superfluous syllable, and a long syllable pre-
cedes. But if his MSS. are to be trusted, he has these two end-
ings: ^vivaque sulpur|a,' 'arbutus horrid | a.'
(15) The part also of the verse which precedes the caesura must
be properly connected with the rest. If there is no trihemimeral
caesura, the end of the second foot should not coincide with the
end of a word. Exceptions to this rule are exceedingly rare in
Virgil ; still rarer in Ovid. In the former we find, ' Scilicet omni-
bus est labor impendendus.' ' Armentarius Afer.' * Sed tu desine
velle.' ' Spargens umida mella.' * Per conubia nostra:' the
second foot being always a dactyl. Lucretius has very many
instance s, and sometimes a spondee in the second foot, if a mono-
syllable follow : ' Sive voluptas est.' Such a commencement as
* Et quaecumque coloribu' sint,' is also very exceptional. Once he
makes sound echo sense by a most exceptional but felicitous
rhythm : ' Et membratim vitalem deperdere sensum.' Horace,
aiming at a conversational style, has a few negligent rhythms.
261
2. The Elegiac Distich^ (Dactylic Hexameter with so-called The ^
Pentameter) comes next in importance. Borrowed by Ennius j^^*^?^
from the Greeks, it passed to Catullus, Gallus, Tibullus and Pro-
pertius, and attained its final polish in the hands of Ovid : he and
the two last mentioned being always looked upon as its greatest
masters.
^ Rhythm of the Elegiac Distich :
(1) Dactylic Hexameter.
(2) - <^ j — V/ I _ II — >^ V I — '
M M 2
532
Lathi Prosody.
§261.
(1) The Elegiac Hexameter is subject to the same laws as the
Heroic. But Ovid indulges in very few licences, fewer even than
in his own Heroic, though there he is stricter than Virgil. He
seldom deviates from one or other of the two best types of caesura ;
and abstains from harsh elisions. Catullus' Elegiacs, on the other
hand, are much harsher in their elisions than his Heroics are.
(2) The second verse of the couplet, called the Pentameter from
a strange fancy of the ancient grammarians, has been brought by
Ovid and others under much stricter rules than the Greek verse
from which it is derived. It consists of two Dactylic Penthe-
mimers, which must be kept quite distinct, and the sentence, or at
least a distinct clause, must close with the couplet.^
The first Penthemimer corresponds precisely with that of a
Hexameter, ending with a distinct, penthemimeral caesura, never
followed by an elision ; for a verse like Propertius's ' Quaerere :
non impune ilia rogata venit,' never occurs in Ovid.
The second of the two Penthemimers gives the Latin Elegiac its
peculiar character. Like the Greek, the two full feet must be
dactyls ; but the Latin, unlike the Greek verse, ought to end with
an Iambic word.^ This restricts the rhythm to very few types,
which do not differ essentially in their general effect. The rest
of the penthemimer must either be contained in one word, like
delituisset; excutiatque; or in two: ut videare; arte
regendus; praebuit ille (excutiat sit would be inadmis-
sible); or in three: tu mihi sola; quo sit amanda ; quisquis
es, adde ; ille vel alter; or in four: as, mens sit et apta.
Ovid's Elisions in this part of the verse are the easiest and
slightest, as of e or 1 ; if a, only before another a. They have
place too only in the middle of the first dactyl, or else between its
two short syllables. Elision between the two dactyls is very rare,
except in the case of que. In the second dactyl it is very excep-
tional, as * insula habet,' * resistere equos.' At the end it is utterly
inadmissible, except before the enclitic est (es) spoken of above.
Ovid in this part of the verse never elides any long or even
doubtful syllable. With him, therefore, Ennius's ^me aequipa-
rare queat,' or Propertius' ' si altera talis erit,' would not be
possible. Catullus, however, has very harsh ehsions in this half
of the verse, especially in his short vituperative Elegiacs : * me
pretio atque malo ;' even ^ ploxemi habet veteris.'
As the Romans definitively accepted the strict Ovidian type for
the Elegiac, we are bound to do the same. It commends itself,
however, by its own intrinsic merits, its marvellous ease and
* Very rarely the Subject is in one distich, and the Verb in the next : as,
Languor et immodici nullo sub vindice somni
Aleaque et multo tempera quassa mero
Eripiunt omnis animo sine vuhiere nervos, Ov.
' In Versus Elegiacus a final trisyllable is rare and ungraceful : a final word of four or
five syllables is less ungraceful, but rare in Ovid : as.
Maxima de nihilo nascitur historia, Prop.
Lis est cum forma magna pudicitiae, Ov.
The final disyllabic should be a Verb, Substantive, or Pronoun ; rarely an Adverb ;
more rarely still an Adjective or Participle, and only when a strong emphasis falls on
it :
Hoc faciei positae te mihi, terra, levem, Ov.
§ 262-63.
Lyric Metres.
533
buoyancy. Propertius in his earlier poems has a very distinct
style of his own : in his later, influenced doubtless by the example
of his younger friend, he approaches much nearer to the Ovidian
movement.
3. Lyric Metres.
(1) The Lyric poetry of the Romans is far less in amount than
their Heroic and Elegiac. It is of much less importance also than
that of the Greeks. The same is true of their Iambic and Trochaic
poetry, if we omit the old scenic verse. The peculiar excellence,
however, of the two chief representatives of these styles, Catullus
and Horace, gives to them an important rank in Latin literature.
Catullus and Horace saw that Latin was unfitted for the rich
and complicated variety of choral rhythm, so brilliantly worked
out by the Greeks, and confined themselves to the simpler and
more manageable melodies of Alcaeus and Sappho, and, in the
case of Catullus, of the Alexandrine school. They subjected even
these to stricter laws, in conformity with the genius of their lan-
guage, as had been done by Virgil, Ovid, and others in the metres
cultivated by them. They also both made use of Iambic measures,
but in different ways.
Horace and Catullus are the only important models in these
styles, with two exceptions. Each had a follower ; Catullus a very
brilliant one in Martial, who has largely employed in his Epigrams
the Phalaecian Hen decasyllabic and the Iambic Scazon, increas-
ing the strictness of their laws on principles of metre akin to those
of Ovid. Seneca in his numerous choruses copies the lyrical mea-
sures of Horace, especially Asclepiads and Sapphics, but with
little skill and often in a very hybrid fashion.
(2) Though it is so much used by the old scenic writers, and was
always the favourite measure in popular chants, and seems so well
adapted to the genius of the language, and is so common in Greek,
the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic is hardly found in the extant
learned poets. Seneca has very few of them : the * Pervigilium
Veneris,' though brightly burnished, is of the copper age. Ana-
paests, too, found little favour, if we except Seneca, Plautus, the
old Tragic fragments and those of Lucilius.
(3) Both Horace and Catullus must have tried many metres, before
they finally decided which were best adapted to their genius and
purpose ; but such they seem to have found at last. The Odes of
Horace are 104 in number: of these, ninety-seven are Alcaic,
Sapphic, or Asclepiad; of which last he employs five different
systems.
But his Epodes preceded his Odes in time; and here the Iambic
is the prevailing type. Only one, however, the 17th and last, is in
continuous Trimeter Iambics. Horace has here imitated strictly
the Greek Trimeter. The caesuras are very precise : generally the
penthemimeral, now and then the hephthemimeral. Of resolved
feet he admits the dactyl in the first, and the tribrach in any of the
next three places. It is remarkable, too, that he observes the law
of the Greek tragic pause in the fifth, with one exception only in
the eighty- one verses, in which the rhythm is designed for a pecu-
liar effect ; in which, too, elision disguises the violation ;
Alitibus atque cdnibus homicidam Hectorem^
534
Latin Prosody,
264.
He must have felt, however, that the regular Greek trimeter was
not effective, alone and unrelieved ; and has not repeated the
experiment.
(4) Catullus, too, with his nice tact, must have felt the same. He
has but one poem (52), of four lines, in ordinary trimeters, two of
the four being pure Iambics. Like Horace, he would not have
liked to recall the old scenic verse with its spondees, effective in
its way, but to them inartistic. He has therefore obviated the
monotony by two opposite methods.
Two of his best poems, the 4th and 29th, are in pure Iambics, to
which his taste and skill give lightness, force, and variety.
In contrast to this, eight of his poems are in the Scazon, or
limping Trimeter (ChoUambus) of Hipponax :
Miser Catulle | desinas indptire,
Et quod vides perisse | perditum ducas.
The peculiar movement produced by the inversion of rhythm at
the end is very effective. The caesura is indifferently penthemi-
meral or hephthemimeral, but always one or other. He has a
dactyl once in the first, once in the third place ; but no other
resolved feet. Martial after him uses the Scazon often and with
equal success.
(5) To avoid the monotony of the continuous ordinary Trimeter,
Horace has composed the first ten Epodes in Iambic couplets, this
Trimeter alternating with a Dimeter, resolved feet being very rare.
In the remaining six Epodes he has sought still further variety by
coupling in five of them the regular Heroic with some other metre
— in two (14, 15) with the Iambic Dimeter just spoken of ; in one
(10) with a pure Iambic Trimeter ; in one (12) with a Dactylic
Tetrameter Catalecticus in disyllabum, in which metre he has also
composed two of his Odes (i. 7 and 28). In the fifth (13) he has
joined the Heroic with an Asynartete verse, the lambelegus, com-
posed of a Dimeter Iambic followed by a Dactylic Penthemimer.
In the remaining Epode (11) he has united a Trimeter Iambic
with the reverse Asynartete, a Dactylic Penthemimer followed by
an Iambic Dimeter.
Besides the above, he has single examples of five other metres
in his Odes: namely i. 4 ; i. 8 ; ii. 18 ; iii. 12 ; iv. 7. The first
contains a peculiar Verse (Dactylic Tetrameter going before three
Trochees) alternating with an Iamb. Trim. Cat. : the second, a
verse consisting of Dactyl and two Trochees alternating with
Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the third. Trochaic Hephthemimer alternat-
ing with Iamb. Trim. Cat. ; the fourth, a pure Ionic a Minore
system; the fifth. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Dactylic
Penthemimer.
Most of the foregoing systems have technical names from their
supposed inventors or chief cultivators. See Table of Metres.
(6) But all these seem to have been but experiments, and he con-
fined himself chiefly to three Lyric types of metre, one which was
mainly Dactylic, one which joined this with the Trochaic move-
ment, and a third which united the Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic
rhythms.
Lyric Metres.
535
(7) Of the first, or Asclepiad, Horace employed five systems,
each consisting of one or several kinds of the following verses.
1. The Glyconic:
/ / / -
Sic te diva pot^ns Cypri.
2. The Pherecratean:
/ / /
— — — V/ — -*
Gr^to Pyrrha sub dntro.
3. The Lesser Asclepiad:
/ / ^ \ ^ /
— — — ^ -~ w "-"
M ascends atavis | edite r^gibus.
4. The Greater Asclepiad :
// ^ \ ^ - \ ^ / ^
Tu ne quaesieris | scire nefas | qu^m mihi, quem tibi.
In all these four varieties, out of which he has composed 34 of
his 104 Odes, Horace tenaciously keeps a Spondee for the base,
with perhaps one exception, ^ Ignis Iliacas domes whereas with
the Greeks and with Catullus the Trochee is the typical base of the
Glyconic verse. But in his one poem, written in the greater
Asclepiad, Catullus also has a Spondaic base.
Horace too in both 3 and 4 is most tenacious of the penthemi-
tneral caesura, as we have marked in our scheme ; not so Catullus
and other Greeks. In the two apparent exceptions :
Dum flagrantia de|-torquet ad oscula :
Arcanique fides | prodiga per|-lucidior vitro :
tne preposition gives a quasicaesura. He has but one real ex-
ception :
Non incendia Car|thaginis impiae,
occasioned perhaps by the proper name.
Out of these four kinds of verse he has composed five different
Asclepiad systems :
1. The Lesser Asclepiad alone, as i. i.
2. The Greater Asclepiad alone, as i. 11.
3. A stanza composed of three Lesser Asclepiad verses, followed
by one Glyconic, as i. 6.
4. A couplet of alternate Glyconics and Lesser Asclepiads, as
i- 3-
5. A stanza of which the first two lines are Lesser Asclepiads,
the third a Pherecratean, in which the last syllable is always long ;
the fourth Glyconic ; as i. 5.
In two of these five systems the metre shews they are in stanzas
of four verses. In the other three kinds, as in the Odes generally
of Horace, the Odes are multiples of four, except in one Ode,
written in the Lesser Asclepiad, iv. 8. But such divisions in the
case of the uniform metres, and of those which run in couplets, is
of no practical importance, as there is no necessary pause at the
end of each fourth, anv more than of the other verses.
53^
Latin Prosody.
266.
Catullus has employed the Glyconic with great happiness in his
long * Epithalamium/ and in one other poem, the 34th. The
stanza in the former consists of four Glyconics. followed by a
Pherecratean :
-^-v/w-^ - (four times)
- c - ^ - (once)
in the latter, of three Glyconics followed by the Pherecratean. But
his rhythm is nearer the Greek than is Horace's, as he prefers a
Trochee for the base ; and in one stanza the four lines are con-
nected by synaphea, the last syllable of the Glyconic being always
long, while that of the Pherecratean is doubtful; in the other
stanza the first three and last two lines are similarly connected.
The light Trochaic base, and the point given by the final long syl-
lable together produce a beautiful and powerful metre, hyper-
metrical syllables sometimes suffering elision at the end of a line.
Horace's earlier Asclepiads seem to suffer from the number of
weak short syllables at the end of verses ; and to a feeling of this
we refer the occurrence of such lines as these in the 4th book :
Cur facunda parum decor |o (hypermetrical)
Sed cur heu, Ligurine, cur;
Lentum soUicitas ille virentis et
Audivere Lyce di mea vota di
and even the Alcaic :
Ne forte credas interitura quae.
266 ^
Sapphic (8) The Sapphic stanza, consisting of three Sapphic Hendeca-
Verses. syllables, followed by a Dactyl. Dim. Catal. in disyllabum (Versus
Adonius) :
- w -
Risit Apollo.
In his first three books Horace rarely departs from the following
rhythm in the Sapphic Hendecasyllable :
/ /1 / -
— v-f — — I v/v^— 'vy — ^
lam satis terris | nivis atque dirae,
differing in this exceedingly from Sappho. The monotony is in-
creased by his always having a Spondee in the second foot. He
seems himself at least to have felt the faultiness of his monotonous
caesura, and in his fourth book and * Carmen Saeculare' often sub-
stitutes the caesura at the third Trochee : as,
Liberum munivit | iter daturus.
But the stiffness is thus increased and the monotony not much
diminished.
He sometimes, like Sappho and Catullus, has hypermetrical
verses ; sometimes too, like them, he has no break between the
third and fourth verse : as,
Labitur ripa love non probante u-
xorius amnis.
Catullus has two Sapphic Odes, one a very early poem, a trans-
lation of Sappho ; the second written with reference to this, and,
a5 it were, a defiant retractation of it. He is less regular in his
Lyric Metres.
537
rhythm than Horace, and three times has a Trochee in the second
foot.
But he seems to have felt the futility of competing with Sappho,
and has with briUiant success made a variation of the Sapphic his
own, by adopting in forty out of fifty-nine of his Lyric and Iambic
poems the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable, which differs from Ihe
Sapphic in this, that the Dactyl forms the second instead of the
third foot. This difference, however, has enabled him to wield it
with marvellous grace and at the same time freedom, as it has no
regular caesura, which is apt in a short verse to cause monotony :
/ / /
Quoi dono lepidum novum libellum
Arida modo pumice expolitum ?
Meas esse aliquid putare nugas.
Martial has adopted it with equal success ; but the first foot with
him is always a Spondee ; and we learn from the elder Pliny that
a Spondee in his time was alone admitted. In his 55th poem
Catullus has tried the experiment of occasionally substituting a
Spondee for the Dactyl, but the result is not happy.
(9) Horace's most successful stanza is that in which he has adapted Alcaic
to Latin forms the famous system called after Alcaeus. It consists Stanza,
of (i. 2) two Hen decasyllabic verses of this form,
267
Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit,
(3) an Enneasyllabic verse of this form,
_ — _ _ — V./ .v^
Dumeta natalemque silvam.
completed by (4) an Alcaic Decasyllabic :
^V^V^j ^ \J \J \ ^ \^ ^ O
Delius et Patareus Apollo.
This varied metre, combining Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic
forms, has gained by the restrictions to which the poet has subjected
it. In the three first verses of the stanza he has admitted an Iambus
rarely in the first foot, and not at all in his 4th Book. The fifth
syllable too of verses i, 2, which Alcaeus uses as doubtful, is always
long, with one single exception :
Si non periret immiserabilis.
In those verses the Penthemimeral Caesura is strictly observed,
with only these two exceptions :
Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico.
Spectandus in certamine Martio ;
though more than once he has the quasicaesura after the Preposi-
tion of a compound word ; as.
Hostile aratrum exi-ercitus insolens.
Verse 3. too gains stateliness and weight by rejecting the most
usual Iambic movements ; thus,
Hunc Lesbio sacrare pkctro
Latin Prosody,
is the only instance of the second Iambus being contained in a
word thus ending in an Iambus ; and only in the earlier books
does it ever end with a word of four syllables, like barbarorum.
Its most normal rhythms are :
Breunosque velocis et arcis.
Commisit immanisque Raetos.
Quantis fatigaret ruinis ;
and next to these :
Vexare turmas et frementem.
In the verse ^Non decoloravere caedes/ there is probably a
pause after the preposition de.
This verse is sometimes hypermetrical : as, ' Cum pace delabentis
Etruscum | In mare/
In Verse 4 these seem the best rhythms :
Vindelici didicere nuper.
Alpibus impositas tremendis.
Auspiciis pepulit secundis;
or modifications of these :
Stravit humum sine clade victor.
268
Gaiiiam- The Galliambus of Catullus is worth considering from the cele-
bus. brity of his sixty-third poem. Varro and others used this metre in
poems now lost. Its nature, often misunderstood, is simple enough.
We may take as its type an Ionic a minore Tetram. Cat. with an
unvarying caesura at the end of the second foot ;
/ / \ / C
No whole verse of Catullus is of this primary form.
Of the first part an example is
Et earum omnia adirem :
of the second,
' stadio et gymnasiis ; ' but Catullus probably wrote guminasiis.
As a rule, in each part what is called Anaclasis occurs, that is to
say, the last long syllable of the first foot changes place with the
first short syllable of the second foot ; and the same occurs
between the third and fourth feet : we then get this form :
/ / / I ^ ^ C
V>/V/_V> \J _ _ _ w _
Aliena quae petentes | velut exules loca.
This is the most common form for the first part ; but usually in
the second part a further change takes place : the second long
syllable is resolved into two short ones ; and we then get the
regular type of the verse :
Super alta vectus Attis | celeri rate maria.
Occasional variations of this type occur.
Tibicen ubi canit Phryx | curvo grave calamo,
gives in one verse three of these variations :
Ibi maria vasta visens | lacrimantibus oculis,
gives the fourth.
269.
Table of Verses and Metres.
539
TABLE OF CLASSICAL LATIN VERSES AND
METRES.
J 1. SINGLE VERSES.
A, Dactylic Rhythms.
(i) Trimeter Catalecticus in Syllabam (Penthemimer) called
Archilochius Minor :
— . v-» V-/ I _ I _
Arbori|busque co|mae, Hor.
(2) Tetrameter Catalecticus in Disyllabum, called Alcmanius :
Mobili|bus po|maria | rivis, Hor.
In the case of a Proper Name Horace has a Spondee in third foot :
Menso|rem cohijbent, Arjchyta.
(3) On the Hexameter and the Elegiac Pentameter, see §§ 259-
261.
B, Trochaic Rhythms.
(i) Dimeter Catalecticus :
Non tra|bes Hyjmettijae, Hor.
(2) The Tetrameter Catalectic or Septenarius was used by the
Greek Tragic and Comic Poets ; also by Plautus and Terence.
The Latin Poem (of uncertain age and author) called Pervigilium
Veneris, is a Monocolum in this metre ; of which the following is
the scheme :
w \^
\J \J ~
_ \J
Cras a I met qui | nunquam a|mavit || quique ajmavit | eras a|met.
Dialysis after the 4th foot is essential.
In Comedy the license of feet is vastly wider (see Note, p. 474) ;
but a Trochee or its equivalent, a Tribrach, must precede the final
syllable. Plautus also uses the Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo-
narius with similar license, but always with final Trochee.
C. Iambic Rhythms.
(i) Dimeter Acatalectus :
— >->
—
Forti I seque|mur pec | tore, Hor.
Canidi|a trajctavit | dapes, Hor.
540 Latin Prosody. §269.
(2) Alcaicus Enneasyllabus : Iamb. Dim. Hyperc,
Periu|ra pu!gn|acis | Achivos, Hor.
Caesura after the 3rd syllable is required. See § 267.
(3) (Trimeter Acatalectus, or Senarius, which sometimes consists
of six Iambic feet (Hexapodia Iambi ca) :
Suis I et i|psa Ro|ma vijribus | ruit, Hor.
Gemel|le Cas|tor et | gemel|le Cas|toris, CatuU.
But usually Spondees are admitted into the first, third, and fifth
places ; a Tribrach may stand in any place but the last for an
Iambus ; a Dactyl in the first place, and an Anapaest in the first
(rarely in the fifth) for a Spondee :
Pater ina ru|ra bo | bus ex|ercet | suis, Hor.
Aliti'bus atlque canijbus homijcidam Hec|torem, Hor.
Pavidumlque lepo|rem et ad|venam | laqueo | gruem, Hor.
A penthemimeral or hephthemimeral caesura is necessary to the
harmony of the Verse. This Verse may form a Metrum Mono-
colum, as Hor. Epod, 17.
Note, The Comic Poets, Plautus and Terence, admit Spondees,
Dactyls, and Anapaests, in every place but the last, sometimes
even Proceleusmatics ; with numerous other licenses.
The Iambic Trimeters of the fabulist Phaedrus resemble these,
but take fewer feet of three syllables and fewer licenses.
(4) Scazon, or Choliambus ; which is an Iambic Trimeter with a
Spondee in the sixth, and an Iambus in the fifth, place ; as,
Miser | Catul|le de|sinas | ine|ptire, CatuU.
Used as a Metrum Monocolum, but not by Horace. The cae-
suras as in (3).
(5) Trimeter Catalecticus :
Mea I reni|det in | domo | lacu!nar, Hor.
Iunctae|que nym|phis Gra|tiae | decen|tes, Hon
The penthemimeral caesura is essential.
(6) Versus Hipponacteus (Dimeter + Hephthemimer).
Depren|sa na|vis in | mari || vesa|nien|te ven|to, CatulL
Dialysis after the Dimeter. This verse forms a Metrum Mono-
colum, not used by Horace.
D, Ionic Rhythms.
(1) lonicus a minore Dimeter Acatalectus :
Patruae ver]bera linguae, Hor. ^
(2) lonicus a minore Tetrameter Acatalectus :
Miserarum est | neque amori I dare ludum, | neque dulci, Hor.
(3) Versus Galliambus. See § 266.
§ 269. Table of Verses mid Metres, 541
E, Mixed Rhythms.
I. Logaoedic. Logaoedic Rhythms are those in which Dactyls
are followed by Trochees.^ A Base often begins them, and some-
times a Choriambus is inserted.
(i) Adonius : Dactyl. Dim. Cat. in Disyll.
— V/ \^ I _ \J
Risit A I polio, Hon
(2) Aristophaneus (Dactylus simplex dupliciter Trochaicus)
_ W I _ S> I — Vm/
Lydia | die per | omnis, Hor.
Dialysis after the Dactyl.
(3) Pherecrateus ; an Adonius with Base, which, in Horace, is
Spondaic, in Catullus, chiefly Trochaic :
Base
. — I . Vi/ V/ I _ ^
Vix du|rare ca|rinae, Hor.
Lute|umve pa | paver, Catull.
(4) Glyconeus ; the Base of which, in Horace, is Spondaic, In
Catullus, usually Trochaic :
Base
_ _ I _ w _ vy O
— v> I
Mater | saeva Cu pidinum, Hor.
Tardat | ingenu|us pudor, Catull.
(5) Asclepiadeus Minor, the Base being Spondaic :
Base
Maece|nas atavis||edite 1 regibus, Hor.
Elision at Penthemimer is rare : as,
Audi|tam modere|re arbori,bus fidem, Hor.
It is used as Metrum Monocolum (Asclepiadeum Primum),
(6) Asclepiadeus Maior, the Base being Spondaic :
Base
II ----II
NullamlVare sacra | vite prius | severis | arborem, Hor.
Caesuras after 6th and loth syllables. This is Metrum
Monocolum.
(7) Alcaicus Decasyllabus :
_ v-' j _ vy j _ vy j _ G
Nec vete|res agi|tantur | orni, Hor.
(8) Phalaecius Hendecasyllabus ; Metrum Monocolum, not
used by Horace.
* As the last syllable of a verse is doubtful, a final Trochee can pass into a Spondee.
In the Pherecrateans of Horace it always does so ; and in his verses generally a final long
syllable is preferred.
542 Latin Prosody. § 269.
Base
Soles I occide|re et re | dire | possunt, CatuU.
Sometimes an Iambus appears as Base, seldom a Trochee :
Minister vetuli puer Falerni, Catull.
Arida modo pumice expolitum, Catull.
A Spondee is sometimes put for the Dactyl, but very inhar-
moniously.
(9) Archilochius Maior : Dactylic Tetrameter with Dactyl in
fourth place, where is Dialysis, and three Trochees :
Solvitur I acris hi[emps gra|ta vice || verisjet Fa|voni, Hor.
(10) Sapphicus Minor, consisting of a Dactyl and two Tro-
chees preceded by Trochee + Spondee (called by some a
double Base) :
^ _ _ I — v> I _ \-/ I — .
Nota quae se|des fue|rat co|lumbis, Hor.
Sappho, the inventor of this verse, as also Catullus, often
began with a double Trochee : but Horace always length-
ens the fourth syllable.
The strong caesura after the fifth syllable is usual ; occa-
sionally the weak caesura is found after the sixth (short)
syllable :
Non semel dicemus !| io triumphe, Hor.
One or other is essential to the harmony of the verse.
(11) Sapphicus Maior: which only differs from the last in
having a Choriambus between the Spondee and Dactyl :
Saepe trans fijnem iaculo | nobihs | expe|dito, Hor.
(12) Versus Alcaicus Hendecasyllabus, in which an Iambic
Penthemimer (g - ^ — ) is followed by Dactyl and
- :
G — _ I ^ v> ^ I _ v> _
Mors et fugacem || persequijtur virum, Hor.
Vides ut alta || stet nive | candidum, Hor.
The first syllable is seldom short. The penthemimeral
caesura is observed. Elision sometimes occurs there :
Regum timendo || rum in proprios greges, Hor.
(13) Versus Priapeius of Catullus : Metrum Monocolum.
O collonialquae cupis||ponte'ludere|longo,
Quendam | munici'pem meum || de tu|o volo | ponte, Catull.
§ 269. Table of Metres. 543
2. Asynartete.
(1) lambelegus Archilochius : Iamb. Dim. Dactyl. Penthem.
Tu vi|na Tor|quato | move || consule | pressa me|o, Hor.
(2) Elegiambus Archilochius, Dactyl. Penthem. Iamb. Dim.
lussus ab|ire do j mum || fere ! bar in|certo | pede, Hor.
There is a Dialysis at the end of the Penthemimer.
Note a. The Anapaestic Rhythm is the converse of the Dactylic.
It admits however Spondees and Dactyls ; in which the arsis falls
on the second syllable. The most usual verse is the Dimeter,
having a break after the second foot :
O va|ne pudor || falsumlque decus.
Decies|nivibus!|canuit|Ide, Sen. Tr.
The Greek dramatic poets used this verse in systems ending
with a Dimeter Catalectic, called Versus Paroemiacus ; but Seneca
has not in this imitated them ; nor does he admit a Dactyl at the
close of a line. A Monometer is sometimes introduced (in Greek
always before the Paroemiacus), called a Base. In Anapaestic
metre the last syllable of the Dimeter is not indifferent, and makes
position with the succeeding verse (Synaphea).
Note b. The Saturnian Verse was an old Roman measure, not
used in the best ages. The following is cited as its purest type :
Dabunt | malum | Meteljli || Naevi]o po|etae.
But great license was taken in its form.
II. STROPHIC METRES.
a. DiCOLA DiSTICHA or DiSTROPHA.
On the Elegiac Distich, see § 261.
(1) Metrum Hipponacteum.
Troch. Dim. Cat. + Iamb. Trim. Cat
Non ebur neque aureum
Mea renidet in domo lacunar, Hor. ii. 18.
(2) Metrum lambicum Senarium Quaternarium.
Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Iamb. Dim. Acat.
Beatus ille qui procul negotiis
Ut prisca gens mortalium, Hor. Epod, 2.
^3) Metrum Archilochium Primum.
Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Archilochius Minor.
Diffugere nives ; redeunt iam gramina campis,
Arboribusque comae, Hor. Od.'w, 7.
(4) Metrum Archilochium Secundum.
Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + lambelegus Archilochius.
544 Latin Prosody. § 269.
Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres
Nivesque deducunt lovem ; nunc mare nunc siluae,
Hor. Epod. 13.
(5) Metrum Archilochium Tertium.
Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Elegiambus Archilochius.
Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, iuvat
Scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi,
Hor. Epod, II.
(6) Metrum Archilochium Quartum.
Archilochius Mai or + Iamb. Trim. Cat.
Solvitur acris hiemps grata vice veris et Favoni,
Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas, Hor. Od. i. 4.
(7) Metrum Pythiambicum Primum.
Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Iamb. Dim. Acat.
Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis
Oblivionem sensibus, Hor. Epod, 14.
(8) Metrum Pythiambicum Secundum. , ,
Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Hexapodia lambica.
Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,
Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit, Hor. Epod, 16.
(9) Metrum Alcmanium.
Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Dact. Tetram. Alcmanius.
Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mitylenen
Aut Ephesum bimarisve Corinthi,
Hor. Od, i. 7 ; Epod, 7.
(10) Metrum Asclepiadeum Secundum.
Versus Glyconeus + Versus Asclepiadeus Minor.
Sic te diva potens Cypri,
Sic fratres Helenae lucida sidera, Hor. Od, i. 3.
Horace has twelve Odes in this measure.
(11) Metrum Sapphicum Maius.
Versus Aristophaneus + Sapphicus Maior.
Lydia, die per omnes
Te deos oro Sybarin cur properes amando, Hor. Od, i. 8.
b, DiCOLA Tetrasticha or Tetrastropha.
(i) Strophe Sapphica Minor.
Terni Sapphici Minores + Adonius.
Integer vitae scelerisque purus
Non eget Mauris iaculis neque arcu
Nec venenatis gravida sagittis,
Fusee, pharetra, Hor. Od. i. 22.
Horace has twenty-six Sapphic Odes.
§ 269.
Tabic of. Metres,
545
The Adonian Verse is so intimately connected with the third
Sapphic hne that Hiatus at the close of the latter is unusual, and
words are sometimes divided between the two verses : as,
Thracio bacchante magis sub inter-
lunia vento, Hor.
An Hypermeter is sometimes found among the Sapphic lines : as
Dissidens plebi numero beator|um
Eximit virtus, Hor.
(2) Metrum Asclepiadeum Tertium.
Terni Asclepiadei Minores + Glyconeus.
lam veris comites, quae mare temperant,
Impellunt animae lintea Thraciae :
lam nec prata rigent, nec fluvii strepunt
Hiberna nive turgidi, Hor. Od. iv. 12.
Horace has nine Odes in this measure.
(3) Strophe Glyconea Catulliana.
Terni Glyconei Catulliani + Pherecrateus Catullianus.
Sis quocumque placet tibi
Sancta nomine, Romulique
Antiquam, ut solita es, bona
Sospites ope gentem, Catull. 34.
Synaphea is kept in this Metre.
Catullus in Poem 61 uses this Metre as Pentastichon.
Namque lulia Maniio,
Qualis Idalium colens
Venit ad Phrygium Venus
ludicem, bona cum bona
Nubit alite virgo.
Here Synaphea is observed between lines i, 2, 3, and between 4,
c. Tricola Tetrasticha.
(1) Metrum Asclepiadeum Quartum.
Bini Asclepiadei Minores + Pherecrateus + Glyconeus.
Prima nocte domum claude : neque in vias
Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae :
Et te saepe vocanti
Duram difficilis mane, Hor. Od, iii. 7 29.
Horace has seven Odes in this Metre.
Although the Pherecratean ends, in theory, with a Trochee, yet
in the usage of Horace a final long syllable is adopted.
(2) Strophe Alcaica.
Bini Alcaici Hendecasyllabi + Alcaicus Enneasyllabus + Alca-
icus Decasyllabus.
546
Latm Prosody,
Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit
Crinis solutos, qui Lyciae tenet ^
Dumeta natalemque silvam
Delius et Patareus Apollo, Hor. Od, iii. 4. 61.
Horace has thirty-seven Odes in this Metre.
NOTE,
The metres of the Comic poets, Plautus and Terence, are too large a sub-
ject to be treated in this grammar. We will merely observe that many
final syllables (ar, or, at, et, it), short in later poets, are lengthened by
Plautus and Terence ; Iambic words, on the other hand (such as h a b e n t,
bonis), are often scanned as Pyrrhichs ; the law of position is often vio-
lated ; and long initial syllables slurred into short quantity, when they
follow monosyllables or elided Pyrrhichs. Add to these licenses the most
extensive synizesis and the free use of Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, even
Proceleusmatic for Iambus or Trochee (always excepting the final foot),
and it will be seen at once in how wide a field of rhythm the old scenic
poets ranged. See p. 56.
1
APPENDIX.
A. LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography is defined by Suetonius {Ocf. 88), as * the form
and method of writing taught by grammarians,' and by Quin-
tiHan (i. 7), more shortly, as *the science of writing correctly/
We may blend the two definitions, and say that Orthography
is *the science of writing in correct form the words of any
language/
The Greeks settled their orthography with reference to four considera-
tions : (i) analogy ; (2) etymology ; (3) dialect ; (4) history. The Latins
left dialect out of question, but had regard to the other three points.
Yet, owing to the fluctuating character of their language, and its many
changes during the seven centuries between the first Punic war and the
fall of the Roman empire, the settlement of a solid Latin orthography is a
work of difficulty. The labours of Ritschl, Lachmann, and others have
indeed during the last few years thrown much light on this subject.
Ritschl justly selects the age of Quintilian's great work (about the close of
the first century, A.D.) as the standard of Latin orthography ; but, un-
fortunately, it is only by an inductive process, often uncertain, that the
forms of words can, generally speaking, be referred to this age. Inscrip-
tions, of course, have the greatest value ; but they are often inconsistent
even when contemporaneous. The earliest MSS. are several centuries
later than the Christian era ; and they also disagree. The opinions of old
grammarians are not less various. Hence it often happens that the
classical form of a word can be determined only by a balance of conflicting
evidence ; and different minds will strike the balance differently. A few
probable results, compendiously stated, must suffice here. The student
may compare Munro's In^rod. to Lucretius, and Ribbeck's Proleg. to Virgil.
H ere forms assumed to be most classical are named first : others of
nearly equal authority are added with 'or:' those of minor authority are
within brackets ; those which seem inadmissible follow 'not,' and are in
italic type.
1) a, e: defatigo or defetigo ; depeciscor (depaciscor).
2) e, ae, oe : caecus, not coecus ; caelum, heaven, not caelum ; also
caelum &c. graving-tool ; caementum (cementum) ; caerimonia,
not ceremonia ; caespes, not cespes ; Camena, not Camoena ; cena
&c., not coena &c.; ceteri, not caeteri\ faenum (fenum?), not
foenum ; fecundus, not foecundus ; femina, not foemina ; fetus &c. ,
not foetus ; fenus (foenus) ; foedus, treaty ; glaeba ; heres, not haeres ;
levis, not laevis \ maerere and maestus, not moerere and moestus ;
cboedire (obedire) ; obscenus, not obscaenus obscoenus ; Paelignus,
N N 2
548
A ppendix.
not Pelignns ; paelex, not pellex ; paenitet, not poe7titet, but poena ;
paenula, not pemda ; pomaerium (pomerium) ; prelum, not praelum ;
proelium, not praelium ; raeda, not reda rheda ; saeculum, not
seculum ; saepes &c., not sepes &c. ; scaena (scena).
3) e, i: benevolus (benivolus) ; deminuere &c., not diminuere &c. ;
di (dei), dis (deis) ; genetrix, not genitrix ; heri (here) ; intellego
(intelligo) ; neglego (negligo) ; protinus or protenus, but quatenus ;
valetudo (valitudo) ; Vergilius, not Virgilius.
As respects -Is (eis) or -es, Accus. Plur. of I-nouns, admitting
that in the republican age -is was the more usual, as it is cer-
tainly truer in formation, yet we believe that, before the age of
Quintilian, -es was in general use ; and this, with its superior con-
venience, has led to its frequent retention. On -e or -i in Abl. of
I-nouns, see § 24. 5«
4) i, u: The middle tone between 1 and u (see § 11. p. 8 ; § 12. p. 33),
led to the existence of a large number of double forms : aestimare
(aestumare) ; Brundisium (Brundusium) ; inclutus (inclitus) ; lubet
&c. or libet &c. ; recuperare (reciperare) ; Dat. PI. of Decl. 4 :
grad-ibus &c. (gradubus &c. § 25) ; maximus (maxumus), and all
Superlatives ; vicensimus (vicensumus), and other Ordinals in -imus
(-umus) ; so maritimus (maritumus) ; monimentum or monumentum ;
tegimen or tegiimen ; and other similar derivatives. But the ii-form
in many of these was archaic in the Augustan and following age,
which wrote carnifex rather than carnufex ; lacrima rather than
lacruma ; clipeus rather than cliipeus ; optimus rather than optiimus,
except perhaps in old formulas ; mancipium, not ma7icupium ;
victima, not victuma.
5) e, u : -endus (-undus) in Gerundive forms : -undus was the ancient
form, but superseded by -endus in the Imperial age.
6^ o, u : adulescens (Noun), adolescens (Part.) ; epistula or epistola;
suboles (soboles). The earlier Latins, even to the Augustan age,
wrote o rather than u when u preceded : but u was received under
the emperors : hence vult (volt) ; avus (avos) ; equus (equos), &c.
But Ribbeck in Virgil almost always avoids uu, vu. See 12.
7) e, o : vertere (vortere) ; versus (vorsus) ; vertex (vortex). The
forms in o are comparatively archaic. But fenoris or feneris,
feneror ; iecinoris or iecineris ; pignoris or pigneris, pigneror.
8) i, y : y is not properly a Latin letter, but introduced in Cicero's
age to represent Greek v. Therefore, such forms as clypeus, hyems,
indytus^ ocyus, satyr a, stylus, sylva, Sylla, are now justly exploded,
the true forms being clipeus (clupeus), hiemps, inclutus (inclitus),
ocius, satira, stilus, silva, Sulla. But, where Greek v is represented
by y, this letter holds its proper place : lyra, Nympha, Syrus, Syria,
Tyrus, &c.
9) guo or go : ling^re (linguere) ; ningit (ninguit) ; stinguere and com-
pounds, not stingere ; tingere (tinguere) ; ungdre (unguere), but
unguentum, unguen ; urgere (urguere).
10) gr or c : vicensimus (vigensimus), trigensimus or tricensimus, but
quadragensimus, &c. ; so ducenti, trecenti, sescenti, but quadrin-
genti or quadrigenti ; quingenti, &c, ; viceni, triceni, but quadra-
geni, &:c. ; duceni, treceni, sexceni or sesceni, but quadringeni,
quingeni, &c. See Numeralia, § 33. Cycnus or cygnus ; Cnosus
or Gnosus.
11) grn or n : nasci not gnasci \ natus (gnatus), but agnatus, cognatus,
&c. ; noscere not gnosca-e ; but agnoscere, cognoscere, &c.
A. Orthography.
549
12) C or q (qu): cotidie or cottidie, not quotidie\ coquus (anc. cocus, coqus);
equus (anc. ecus, equs, equos) ; pecunia (anc. pequnia) ; locutus
(anc. loqutus) ; secutus (anc. sequtus) ; loquuntur, sequuntur (anc.
locuntur, secuntur) ; cui (anc. quoi, quoei) ; cur (anc. qur, quor) ;
quum or cum, conj. (anc. qum, quom) ; cum, prep. (anc. qum,
quom). The form cum is good for preposition and conjunction ;
quom was used for both to the Augustan age : after which the dis-
like of uu seems to have gone out of fashion ; and the form quum is
often used for the conjunction. But qu was uttered as c. Ribbeck
in Virgil commonly edits ecus, ecum (or -quos, -quom) locuntur,
secuntur, &c., instead of the forms with qu.
13) b for V : ferbui or fervi ; to avoid vu.
14) h initial present or absent : Hadria, not Adria ; alucinari (halucinari) ;
Hammon (Ammon) ; harena (arena) ; harundo or arundo ; haruspex
or aruspex ; hariolus, not ariolus ; have (ave) ; hedera, not edera ;
erus, era, or herus, hera; heres (eres) ; herciscere, not e)'ciscere\
holus (olus) ; Hiber (Iber) ; Hister ( Ister) ; umere, umor, &c. ,
rather than humere^ hu?nor, &c. ; umerus, not humerus,
15) li interior: aeneus, &c. (aheneus, &c.) ; cohors or cors ; incohare
(inchoare) ; nihil or nil ; prendo (prehendo) ; vemens, not veheniens.
16) euphonic p : compsi, comptum, &c. (comsi, comtum, &c.), and others ;
hiemps (hiems).
1 7) ci or ti before a vowel. Authority favours dicio, condicio, solacium,
patricius, tribunicius, &c., not ditio^ &c. ; and contio, fetialis, in-
dutiae, nuntius, nuntiare, &c., setius; not concio^ &;c. Also con-
vitium rather than convicium ; suspitio (Subst.), rather than suspicio;
but the forms of these with ci were also used. See Corssen, I. 56.
18) b or p : caelebs (caeleps) : urbs (urps), &c., obsonium, obsonari
(opsonium, opsonari) ; obtulit (optulit) ; subter (supter). But bs
was sounded as ps, bt as pt.
19) d or t final. In Quintilian's time the endings in d, hand, sed, apud,
&c., had become general in preference to the archaic t, haut (hau),
set, aput, &c. But d final was sounded as t.
20) -icere or -iicere. The compounds of iacere have been elsewhere
noticed. To the Augustan age the single i seems to have prevailed :
adicere, deicere, conicere, reicere, &c. But in imperial times it
was at least admissible: adiicere, coiicere or coniicere, &c., the
former i being a consonant. And in adicere, &c. i did double duty
as consonant and vowel = ad-yi-cere, &c.
21) ct or t: artus not ardus ; autumnus, not auctumnus\ but auctor.
22) n kept or omitted : conectere, conexus, coniti, conivere, conixus,
conubium, not connectere^ Sec. (M. Lztcr. i. 633) : coniunx (coiunx
coiux) : n before s was liable to elimination : thus Numeral Adverbs
in -ens passed into -es ; the earlier form being, however, generally
preserved : quotiens (quoties) ; totiens (toties) ; miliens (milies), &c.
So vicensimus (vicesimus). Such omissions of n abound in Inscr.
as cosol for consol, cesor for censor. See Corssen, I. 249, &c.
23) Consonants singled or doubled : on this point documents are especially
discrepant. We find Britannia or Brittannia ; cottidie or cotidie ;
luppiter (lupiter) ; littera (litera) ; loquella or loquela ; querella or
querela: but medela, suadela, &c., also cautela, tutela, reliquiae
(relliquiae), but relicuus (later reliquus) ; religio (relligio) : causa
(caussa) : paulum (pauUum). But nummus (numus) ; bracchium,
not brachium ; Messalla, not Messala ; soUemnis, not solennis ;
Appendix,
sellers, &c., noi solers^ &c. ; sollicitus, not solicitus^ &c. Yetanulus
rather than annulus ; culeus rather than cuUeus, &c. ; litus, not
litius ; ilico rather than illico ; vilicus rather than villicus ; stili-
cidium. Pliny wrote mille but milia ; Augustus, however, writes
millia, milliens ; and Corssen, I. 226, prefers the 11. Reppuli,
repperi, rettuli, seem better than repuli, &c., which are, however,
used.
24) Assimilation : quidquid (quicquid) ; quicquam (quidquam), quicque
(quidque) ; quamquam (quanquam) ; tamquam (tanquam) ; umquam,
numquam (unquam, nunquam) ; -cumque (cunque) ; quendam not
quetndarji ; eundem not eumdem ; tantundem not tantumdem ; quo-
rundam not quorumdam ; eorundem not eormndem. When m
remains before the guttural or dental, it is sounded as n : quamquam
= quanquam when uttered.
25) Assimilation of Compounded Prepositions. This is received or
rejected in MSS. and Inscr. with such apparently free option in
most instances, that no safe rules on the point can be laid down.
Thus we read in imperial times adlectus and allectus, collapsus and
conlapsus, collegium and conlegium, illustris and inlustris, impen-
dium and inpeifidium, irritus and inritus, even imperium and in-
perium, &c. On the whole assimilation prevails. See Brambach,
Neugestaltung der Latein. Orthographie, p. 300, &c.
26) Not less uncertainty exists in regard to words beginning with s, when
compounded with ex (ecs : c. e/c, e|). We find exspectare and
expectare, exspirare and expirare ; exsequi, exsequiae, and exe-
qui, exequiae ; exsecrari, &c. , and execrari, &c. ; exserere and
exerere ; exsilire and exilire ; exsultare ?.nd exultare ; especially
exsul, exsulare, exsilium with exul, exulare, exilium. In some
words, it is perhaps better to retain the s ; but exul, &c. , have
ample authority ; and excidium (from exscindo) is better established
than exscidium.
27) Accessory Note :
* W^e have now (writes Mr Munro) an accurate transcription of the
large fragments of the Ancyra monument, containing no doubt
an exact copy of the Res gestae " of Augustus, which, as
Tacitus (Anil. i. 11) tells us, he had written out with his own
hand, a short time probably before his death. The spelling is
interesting, as Suetonius says that Augustus was a purist on such
points.
' He always admits uu : rivus, vivus, as well as annuus ; but he
writes Phrates, praerant.
* In Gen. Plur. we find denarium, sestertium, deum, nummum ;
triumvirum, but xv virorum. In Gen. Sing, always i, not li ;
proeli, luli, Pompei, congiari. In Dat. Abl. Plur. of Decl. I
and 2, both is and iis : dis, colonis, provincis, &c. ; but also
consiliis, &c. ; both municipis and municipiis. Dalmateis, emer-
iteis, quadrigeis : but oftener is in Dat. and Abl. Plur. Some-
times is, but oftener es in Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. : once
pluris in Nom. Plur.
*Honos, incohare, Messalla, plebis Gen. Sing., but plebei Dat.,
sescenti, valetudo.
* Always i, not u, in the fluctuating instances : legitimus, septimus,
frequentissimus, reciperare, manibiae, &c. Compare what Sueto-
nius (ch. 87) says of his writing simus for sumus. Perhaps it
was this love of consistency which makes him always spell millia,
B, Latin Profiunciation,
milliens ; though he writes militum, militare. He has absens,
not apsens ; adque, apud, sed, aliquod, with d not t ; cumque,
but nunquam. Always quotiens, not quoties ; milliens, vicensi-
mus, &c. Caussa, claussum ; also clausum, inclusum.
* Generally he writes x, not xs, as exilium : compare Quintilian
(i. 7, 4), who speaks of it as an affectation to write exspecto for
expecto. But Augustus has exstinguere and sexsiens.
He writes immortalis, but inmissus ; collaticius ; once collegium,
five times conlega or conlegium ; accipere, oppressus, but ad-
signare ; imperator, impendere ; but inpensa in the heading
written not by Augustus, but probably by Tiberius.'
aese interesting extracts shew that spelling had a large license even
in the Augustan age.
B. LATIN PRONUNCIATION.
In the year 1872, the Latin Professors of Oxford and Cam-
bridge (then Messrs. Palmer and Munro) issued the following
Syllabus, in compliance with request.
* If it were thought advisable to adopt any existing pronunciation, we
should be inclined for many reasons to recommend the Italian with
perhaps a few modifications. But not to speak of other difficulties, the
tyranny of accent over quantity is at least as marked in the Italian as in the
English reading of Latin ; and we hold with the most experienced teachers
that to distinguish between long and short syllables is an essential part of a
reform in pronunciation. At the same time Italian appears to us to offer
many valuable aids which should not be neglected ; as English in its tones
and vocalisation seems so different from old Latin, that often it is not easy
to find in it even single sounds to give as adequate representations of an
old Latin sound. The Italian of literature has been fixed for six centuries,
and manifestly approximates to the Latin of the 7th or 8th century.
* There can be little doubt that during the best ages the writing, as seen
in inscriptions, was meant to represent exactly the sounding of words, and
that a difference of spelling implied so far a difference of pronouncing.
* We propose then that the letters of Latin should be sounded as follows :
' I. Vowels and Diphthongs : —
* <2, as the accentuated Italian a-, i. e. as the middle a of amata, or as the a
of father.
* as the unaccentuated Italian a\ i. e. as the first and last a of amata.
It is not easy to represent this sound in English : we know nothing better
than the first a in away., apart, aha*
* e, as the Italian closed e : arena ; nearly as ai in English pain :
* ae, as the Italian open e : secolo ; nearly as the first e in English there,
or French pere.
* e, the same sound shortened : nearly as in English men, or our sounding
of /xev. A wide induction, extending from classical times to the present,
would support what is said of e, ae : thus Italians represent Latin ae
always by their open e, and as a rule <? by closed e, e by open e.
* f, as accentuated Italian i : i. e. as the first i of timidi, or the / of
machine : as unaccentuated Italian i.e. as the two last 2's of timidi, or
the / of pity. The way in which Latin t is represented in Greek on the
552
Appendix.
one hand, and in Italian on the other, and its history in Latin itself, would
tend to shew that its actual sound approximated to that of and was some-
thing between the i of pity and the e of petty.
' as Italian closed o : nearly as in German ohne^ English more.
^ 0, as Italian open o shortened : nearly as in German gold ; less nearly as
in English com. The English and English-Latin o is very peculiar, in most
cases hardly an o at all ; compare our honos, domos ; and our non^ bos^
pojts on the one hand with nos^ hos, donum on the other.
* Perhaps, comparing Italian, we should pronounce when it precedes
or when it represents au^ as the Italian open o : gloria^ victoria^ plostrum^
Clodius.
* as accentuated Italian u : as the first u of tumulo^ the second of
tumulto^ or as u in rule, lure.
* as unaccentuated Italian u : as the second u of tiimulo^ the first of
tumulto, the u of fruition.
* au^ as Italian au : nearly as oiv in English power.
* In genuine Latin words the other diphthongs are very rare, except in
archaisms where ei, oe, oi, ou are common enough.
' eu, as Italian eu, or Latin e quickly followed by Latin ti. Of Latin
words we find perhaps only heu, ceu^ seti ; and we do not feel competent to
propose a different sound for it in the many Greek words adopted into
Latin.
' oe is also very rare in Latin words : for them, as well as for Greek words,
we should prefer a sound like the German d : as an alternative we propose
the open Italian e for oe, as before for ae.
* ei too as a diphthong is very rai"e : we would give it the Latin e sound
quickly followed by a Latin t sound.
* But in a large class of words containing ae, ei, oi, or ui, the i is a semi-
consonant, and should be sounded like English y : pronounce Graius,
maior, Troia, eius, Pompeius, Seiaitus, cuius, as Grd-yus, 7nd-yor, Trd-ya^
e-yus, Pompe-yus, Se-yanus, cu-yus : eicit, reicit, as e-yicit, re-yicit. The o
or e of proin, prout, dein, deinde, when not forming a distinct syllable, does
not form a diphthong, but is elided, and must be treated as a final vowel is*
treated, when it is elided before an initial vowel : so in neuiiquani e is
elided.
* II. In a fuller Discussion more might be said of the Consonants : a few
Remarks must suffice for the present.
* c, always as : in Cicero, fades, as well as Cacus.
' g, always as g in get : in gero, gijtgiva, gyrus as well as gaudeo.
' s, at the beginning and end of words, and at the beginning of syllables,
and before consonants, is always sharp (as the s of sin) in Italian and
should be so in Latin : sol, stella, de-sero, ni-si, nos, sonus.
s, between two vowels, has in Italian a soft z sound, as in our rose : we
would thus sound in Latin rosa, musa, 7niser. But words of this kind in
Latin are but few : much more numerous are those where s might also be
written ss, a lost consonant having been assimilated and the vowel always
lengthened : causa, casus, visus, odiosus, divisio (see Quintilian I, 7, 20).
Italian is here very suggestive ; and in all these words s should be sharp.
' t is always a pure dental, in ratio as in ratis, in notio as in notus, in
vitiu7n as in vita.
' bs, bt should be sounded (and generally written) as ps, pt : lapsus^ aps^
apsens, optulit, supter.
' y, or consonant /, as y in yard.
B. Pronunciation.
553
"As to consonant or we believe that its sound was as near as
possible to that of the vowel u : i.e. like the on of the French oni^ not differing
much therefore from English w. But as there is great diversity of opinion
on this point, we propose to leave it an open question, whether it shall be
pronounced in this way, or as the English and Italian v,
* z, ch^ ph^ th were brought into the language to represent Greek
sounds : 2, ph, th we propose should be sounded as at present : ch should
never be pronounced as in our charter : it would be better to give it a ^
sound succeeded by an h sound ; but it must follow the fortunes of Greek x.
or Greek v, had some middle sound between Latin u and perhaps re-
sembling either French u or German ii ; but y and y came probably much
nearer to I and t than to ii and ii. ^
' In our Latin pronunciation quantity is systematically neglected : attention
to if seems essential in any reformed method : d and d should be distin-
guished in matris and pat?'is, as in mater and pater. The ancients observed
the natural length of vowels, when the syllable was also long by position :
as in Marcus^ pastor : Cicero tells us that every vowel when followed by ns
or 7tf became long by nature : as in infimus, insanus : gn seems to have
had the same power over the preceding vowel. Often too an extruded
consonant leaves a naturally short vowel long : e from^'jr; es^ est from edo :
Sestius i^'i](T'nos)^ but Sextius (26|Ttos). On the other hand the long vowel
of many final syllables in time became short ; and we can scarcely suppose
that, while the naturally long vowel in amat, docet was shortened, it always
remained long in amant^ docent : it seems certain also, whatever the reason
may be, that the e was short in docentis, etc., as much as in legentis,
audientis.
* Following the tradition of the Italians, we fortunately keep the accent in
most cases on the right syllable, though the loss of quantity has changed
its nature. In a summary like this we cannot dwell on the exceptions.
* In respect of elision we may see, by comparing Plautus and Terence
with Ovid, how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended
to a more distinct sounding of final syllables. We must not altogether
pass over the elided vowel or the elided syllable which ends in except
perhaps in the case of e in common words, que^ neque, and the like. How
far too final m was mute, or nasal, it is not easy to determine. Est ' is '
seems often in pronunciation (and in writing) to have lost its e and become
an enclitic st after a vowel or m : thus tuo est, meum est can end an Ovidian
pentameter, labori est an Hexameter : we must therefore pronounce tuost^
&c.'
To the foregoing suggestions of these eminent scholars the present
Editor assents generally. Only, (i) He cannot conceive that oe ought to be
sounded in the same manner as ae, even alternatively ; (2) It is not to his
mind an open question, whether Latin v had the sound of English v. His
principal reasons for believing that Latin v had always the sound, or nearly
the sound, of English w are given in a foot-note on pp. 66-7.
554
Appendix.
C. AFFINITIES IN THE ARYAN FAMILY.
I. As a stimulus to the interesting study of Comparative
Philology, examples are here given of the affinity between
words in Latin, Greek, and Indie (Sanskrit).
i) Nouns.
L.
aes
aevum
ager
anguis
animus
anser
aurora
bos
can-is
cor(d-)
cuculus
dens
deus \
divus )
dexter
domus
ego
equus
fores
f rater
fumus
genu
gravis
hiem-s
ignis
imber
iecur
aus
evir
upus
ux (luc-)
mag-n-us
Gr.
xnv
av(<r)w5
KapSLa
KOKKV^
o86vT-
Zevs j ^
tTTTTO?
6vpa
SvfJio^
yovv
rjirap
KAe'fos
5ar)p
\VK-
I.
ayas (iron)
ayus {it/e)
ajras
ahis
anilas
hansas
ushas
gaus
svan
hrid, bard
kokilas
dant
div- devas )
dyaus j
dakshinas
damas
aham
asvas
dvar
bhratar
dhumas
janu
gurus
himam
agnis
abhram
yakrit, yakart
sravas
devar
vrikas, varkas
rue'
maha
L.
mater
medius
nasus
navis
novus
nox (noct-)
nubes
oci-or
oc-ulus
opus
OS (oss-)
ovis
pater
pes (ped-)
primus
sal
somnus
Stella )
a-strum J
soror
sua-vis
suus
taurus
umerus
ulna
ursus
ver
Vesta
vestis
vidua
virus
Gr.
pi?^
i/au?
I'VKT-
OTT-
6<TT€^0V
of Is
Tran/jp
TToS-
rrpofAOS
aX-s
a-crrrip )
darpov )
£09
ravpo^
(d/U.09
apKTOS
cap
€(TTia
» /
I.
matar
madhyas
nas, nas
naus
navas
naktam
nabhas
a^us
akshi
apas
asthi
avis
pilar
pad
prathamas
saras
svapnas
star
svasar
svadus
svas
sthuras {strong)
ansas
aratni
riksbas, arksbas
vasantas
vasta, vastu
(vasti)
vidhava
vishas
L.
aest-uo
ait
ago
apiscor
aro
bibo
cano
cio
cluo
coquo
credo
creo
dico )
-dico j
do
(-dere)
domo
edo
i (eo)
fallo
fari
fero
Gr.
ap6a>
iro-
Kl-
TTCTrTW
icpaiVoi
ri-Brj-fxt,
Safidio
I (el/at)
I.
2) Verbs.
L.
indb
aha
aj
A
ap
(dr) ^ ,
pa (pibami)
kvan
si
^ru
pac
(srad-dadhami)
kri, kar
dis
da (da-da-mi)
dha (da-dha-mi)
dam
ad
i (emi)
sphal
bbasb
bhri, bhar
flagro I
fulgeo )
frigo
fu-
fugio
gigno
iungo
linquo
loquor
lubet
luo
men-
moneo, &c.
metior
minuo
misceo
morior
mulgeo
mungo
(g)nosco
pac-iscor
Gr.
4>pvya»
^va>
<})€vy<a
(^evy-vvfit,
AeiTTO)
XaK-
Xvoi
■ flOV-
fiav-
fierpeto
fxLcryu}
ifJLOp-)
dfjidXyui
ftV<T<Tbi
yt-yvu)<TK<ii
nay'
bhraj
bhrajj
bhu
bhuj {bow)
jan
yuj
ric
lap
lubh
lu
man
ma
mi, mi-nami
misr
mp, mar .
mrij , marj
muc
jna
pas
1
C, Affinities in the Aryan Family, 555
2) Verbs — continued.
L.
Gr.
wpleo
quie-sco
scindo
sedeo
sequor
serpo
spec-
sterno
sto
suo
(e)s-um (esse) e<r-ftt
vifJL'irKrifJii,
eVo/xat
epTTw
aTp<avvvfj.t
crra-
I.
pri, par
SI
dhid
sad
sac
srip, sarp
spas
stri, star
stha (sta)
siv
as-mi
T
(jr.
T
tesTO
crreyw
sthag
ten-do
TCI/- rai'
tan
terreo
rpeVo
tras
toUo
TaA- rAa-
tul
uro, ussi
ush
veho
vah
verto
vrit, vart
vestio
vas
video
(vid, know)
volvo
(val ?)
vomo
vam
3) Particles.
L.
ab
ante
at, et
bis
heri
in
in-
intus
ne
Gr.
OTTO
avri
CTt
a- av'
I.
apa
anti
at-i
dvis
hyas
ni (an' ?)
a- an-
antar
ma, na
L.
ob
per
pro
quando
semi-
simul
sub
super
Gr.
«7rt
Trepc
Trpo
Kore
cifxa
viro
vnip
I.
abhi
pari
pra
kada
sami
sam-
upa
upari
4) Numerals. See § 34, vi.
In the Sanskrit words palatal k' is expressed by c' (sounded as ch in
* child ') ; the softly aspirated sibilant (often representing Latin c, Greek k)
by s'. The vowel ri may be rendered by ar (vrit = vart).
II. Grimm's Law teaches that the Mute Consonants of
Latin, Greek, and (generally) Indie, when they pass into Low
Dutch and High Dutch languages respectively, undergo certain
definite changes ; namely : —
When L., Gr., I. have sonant surd aspirate
Low Dutch has surd aspirate sonant
High Dutch has aspirate sonant surd
1. Among Low Dutch languages are Gothic, Friesic, Dutch, English 5
High Dutch are Old, Middle, and present German.
2. The Surds are c, q, k, t, p ; the Sonants, g, d, b, v ; the Aspirates,
ch, th, z, ss, ph, f, pf.
Examples.
I,
L.
egro
Goth, ik
Germ.
icb
L.
cord-
Eng. heart
Germ.
herz
L.
ob
Eng. up
Germ.
auf
2.
L.
tacere
Goth, tliahan
M. G.
dagren
L.
tu
Eng. thou
Germ.
du
L.
pater
Eng. father
Germ.
vater
3.
Gr.
X^Lx^^v
Svydrrjp
Goth, laigron
Germ.
lecken
Gr.
Goth, dauhtar
Germ.
tochter
Gr.
Goth, haubith
Germ.
haupt
(This law is subject to exceptions.)
556
Appendix,
D. THE ANCIENT DIALECTS OF ITALY.
On the ancient races and dialects of Italy, see T. Momm-
sen's History of Rome, bk. i. ch. 2. 3. 9. 13. 14. Mommsen
comes to the following conclusion : * that from the common
cradle of peoples and languages there issued a stock which
embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and the
Italians ; that from, this, at a subsequent period, the Italian
branched off, and these again into the western and eastern
stocks, while at a still later date the eastern became subdivided
into Umbrians and Oscans/ As to the Etruscans, who called
themselves Ras or Ras-ennae, he says they were not, according
to the story, Lydian emigrants from Asia ; they perhaps had
their earlier abode in the Raetian Alps, thence migrating into
Italy and driving out the Umbrians from the land afterwards
called Etruria. Their name (Rasennae) seems to have passed
into Tursennae, Turseni, Tyrrheni, which the Umbrians changed
into Tursci, the Romans into Tusci and Etrusci. Their lan-
guage (he adds) differs as widely from all the Graeco- Italian
dialects as did the languages of the Kelts or of the Sclavonians.
Yet he thinks they may have belonged to the Aryan family.
They received a modification, or rather several modifications,
of the Semitic alphabet, from which their neighbours, the
Umbrians and Sabellians, obtained their oldest letters.
Our knowledge of the early dialects of Italy is chiefly gained
from extant inscriptions, some of which are sepulchral, some
dedicatory, while others contain laws, decrees, or religious
formularies. Besides Latin and Etruscan, the dialects of
which the most specimens survive are the Umbrian and the
Oscan, the former in eastern and north midland Italy ; the
latter chiefly in its south midland districts. Between these the
Sabellian forms a link : while Faliscan (a relic of Umbrian in
Etruria) and Volscian, south of the Roman plain, and cognate
to Oscan, appear in a few remaining fragments.
A) The Umbrian Dialect.
The most important remains are the Eugubine Tables, seven in number,
discovered in the 15th century near Gubbio (Iguvium). They are a code
of rehgious ceremonies, engraved partly in letters of an alphabet borrowed
from Etruria, partly in Roman letters. The ancient letters contain an
older, the Roman a later Umbrian dialect. Old Umbrian is without the
letters o, g, d, q, x. Of these o is represented by u ; d by a peculiar
form of r (here marked r), which in New Umbrian becomes rs. Old Um-
brian has k, but not hard c ; it has a soft c (here marked c), which in New
Umbrian we mark as s. Final z=^ts.
(New Umbrian forms stand between brackets. Latin equivalents
follow =.)
D. Italian Dialects, 557
a) Umbrian Vowels.
Diphthongs faded into long vowels in New Umbrian : as, (questur) =
quaestor. Ai = aj ; ei is medial between I and e ; au between u and 5,
usually becoming o : (toru) = taurus. Sometimes i takes the place of u :
(si-m) = suem ; (mani) = manu. Compounds seldom weaken a into i : thus,
(procrtinurent) = procmuerint. Vowels are dropt by Syncope and Apocope .
thus, pihaz = piatus ; katel = catulus. lu (io) becomes i; tertis = tertius ^
so in old Latin alis = alius, alid = aliud.
b) Umbrian Consonants.
P represents Latin qu : pis = quis: — r (rs)=d : arveitu = advehito, rere
= dedit: — nd is changed into nn or n, (pihaner) for (pihander) = piandi ;
panupei for pandupei — quandoque. B stands for v: benest veniet : for
p : kabru for kapru = caprum. R for s is frequent : eru (erom) for esum
= esse ; -arum for -asum ; (totar) fortutas ; but asa = ara ; fust = fuerit, &:c.
M and s final are weaker than in Latin, and generally fall off : kapru or
kabm = caprum ; puplu (poplo) =populus : also t falls off ; facia = faciat ;
rere for dedet = dedit.
Thus we see in this early language that Italian tendency to reject con-
sonant terminations, which, checked for many centuries by the intervention
of classical Latin, set in again with the decay of Rome, and culminated in
the modem Italian.
The chief final consonants in Umbrian are r, t, s, m (all weak and
perhaps hardly sounded, when written) ; rarely n, z ; f in Accus. Plur. \
k in a few pronouns, p ( = Latin que) in a few particles.
c) Umbrian Nouns.
1) First or A- Declension.
Sing, N. a, u (o). Acc. am. G. as (ar). D. e. Abl. a. Loc.
amem, emem (erne, e).
Plur. N. as (ar), Acc. af. G. arum. D. Abl, es. Loc. afem,
afe.
Examples: tuta (tota) or tutu (toto), a state ^ people \ asa = ara;
(cesna) = cena ; (peica) = pica, &c.
2) Second or O-Declension (regular form).
Sing. N. us (os). Voc. e. Acc. um (om). G. es (er). D. e. Abl.
u (o). Loc. umem (omem).
Plur. N. us (ur, or). Acc. uf (of). G. urn (om). D. Abl. es (er, ir,
eir). Loc. ufem (ofem).
Examples : puplus (poplos) ; kaprus (kapros), &c.
Syncopated forms occur : ins (is) : Ikuvins (Ikovis) for Ikuvi-
nus ; az (os) : pihaz (pihos) for piatus, &c. ; and apocopated
forms: katel = catulus ; (ager), &c. Neuters in um (om)
differ only as in Latin ; having PI. N. Acc. in a, u, o.
3) Third or Consonant and I -Declension.
Sing. N. masc. fem. s or none. Acc. m. G. es (er). D. e. Abl.
e, i (ei). Loc. emem.
Plur. N. masc. fem. es (er). Acc. f. G. um (om). D. Abl. e^
is (eis). Loc efem.
Examples : Cons. Noun, kvestur (questur) ; I -Noun, ukar (okar),
Nom. S. (okris), a 7?iountai?i.
Neuters, which are rare, have a in Accus. PI.
t
558
Appendix.
U-Nouns are few : manu = manus ; vutu •= vultus : D. S. manu ; Abl.
S. mani, for manu,
d) Umbrian Verbs.
Verb of Being : erum (erom) = esse. Besides this form are extant only
est = est ; (sent) = sunt ; (sir) = sis ; (si) = sit ; (sins) = sint.
From root fu- are extant : fuia = fiat ; fuiest = fiet ; fust = fuerit ; furent =
fuerint ; futu = fito ; (fututo) = fitote.
Umbrian has the Consonant, A, and E -Conjugations. Huschke attempts
a paradigm of the Tenses, which Donaldson cites {Varron. p. 104). A
few well-established forms must suffice here.
Pres. Ind. -u = -o : sestu = sisto ; (suboca-u) = subvoco ; stahu = sto.
Pass, emantur.
Pres. Conj. fa^ia = faciat, tera (dersa, dirsa)=det or rather di-det, the
Verb being a reduplicated form of da ; (dirsans, dirsas) =dent, (porta-i-a)
= portet ; (etaians, etaias) = itent ; habia = habeat ; arhabas = adhibeant.
Pass, mugatu = mugiatur.
S. Fut. benes = venies ; ferest = feret ; (eest)=ibit; habiest = habebit ;
staheren = stabunt.
Perf. Indie. -fi = -vi; pihafi = piavi.
Fut. Perf. -ust = -uerit ; -urent = -uerint ; (benust) = venerit ; terust,
(dirsust) = dederit ; (iust) = ierit ; fakust = fecerit ; (andersesust) = inter-
stiterit ; dersikust = dixerit ; (portust) =portaverit ; (habust) =habuerit ; —
ambrefurent = ambiverint ; (procanurent) = procinuerint ; pihaz fust = piatus
fuerit ; cersnatur furent = cenati fuerint.
Imperative : -tu = -to ; -tuta -tutu (• tuto) = -tote ; aitu = aieto ; tertu
(dirstu, ditu) = dato ; teitu (deitu) = dicito ; feitu, fetu = facito ; am-
prehtu = ambito ; enetu = inito ; upetu = obito ; kuveitu = convehito ;
(etuto) =eunto ; aitutu = aiunto ; habetu = habeto ; habetutu (habituto) =
habento.
Partic. Perf. Pass, -tu -to = -tus : declined as noun : (screhto) = scriptum ;
(comohota) = commota.
Gerundive : probably -nus = -ndus : pihaner = piandi.
Infin. Pres. Act. -um = ere ; ferum = ferre ; fa^iu, for fa^iu-m, = facere.
There are also traces of Supines -um -u.
e) Umbrian Numerals.
1) Cardinal: ojie, unu=unus: two^ du = duo ; from which Nom. m.
dur, Acc. m. duf, f. tuf, n. tuva ; Abl. tuves : — three^ Acc. m. f.
tref, tre (trif treif), n. trija, Abl. tris. We find the word (petor-
pursus) = quadrupedibus : therefore petor = quattuor (whenc petor-
ritum, a four-wheeled carriage, Hor.). We find semenies (seh-
menier, sehemenier) =semestribus ; therefore se (sehe)=sex: also
(desendut) = duodecim ; therefore de9en (desen) = decern. Others
are not extant : but, under 1000, a general correspondence with
Latin numerals may be inferred.
2) Ordinal : prumu (promo) = primus : tertiu (tertio) = tertius : tuplu
— duplus. Others are not extant.
f) Umbrian Pronouns.
1) Personal. First* (mehe)— mihi. Second: Acc. S. tiu (tio, tiom)
= te: (tefe)=tibi. Reflex. (seso)=sibi.
2) Possessive. Abl. S. tuer (tover) = tuo: tua = tua; vestra = vestra.
3) Demonstrative. V arious cases occur of the following :
Ere, erek (erec)=is; (esto)=iste; (eso)=hic; (ero) = ille. Pro-
bably also (ho) = hie ; this occurs only in the affix -hunt (-hont)
attached to some forms of erek and ero, like -ce in Latin.
D. Italian Dialects.
559
4) Relative and Interrogative.
Rel. (poe) f. pu = qui, quae; svepu = siqua. Another Rel. is pure
(porse). Of these only a few forms are extant. Pis = quis ? pisi
= quis indef. ; pisipumpe = quicumque.
g) Umbrian Particles.
1) Adverbs: (rehte) = recte ; superne ; (nesimei) = proxime. Eruk,
erak = illic ; esuf = istic ; ife = ibi ; if-ont = ibidem. Enuk, enu (eno) ,
enumek, erek (erse) =•- tunc, turn ; panupei = quandoque ; este, isek,
itek = ita; neip=non, nec.
2) Prepositions : Separable, ar (ars) = ad ; (ehe, eh) = ex ; hutra
(hondra) = infra ; kum (com) ku (co) = cum, con- co- ; pus (post)
= post; pustin (posti) = post-in ; pre = prae; (sei)=se; super;
(subra) = supra ; tra (tref, trahef, traha) = trans : per = irep/, pro, is
appended to its case : tutaper Ikuvina = pro civitate Eugubina.
Inseparable : an in (negative) ; amb- ampr- (ambr-) = ambi : ah
(aha), perhaps = ab ; anter (ander) = inter ; en = in ; up, us (os) re ;
sub for up-s, = ob, os ; pru (pro) = pro ; pur = por- in porrigo, &c.
3) Conjunctions : Coordinative : et ; several others also, ene, enu, &c.
= et ; neife = neque ; ute (ate) = aut ; heris — heris = vel — vel ; (surur,
sururont) = dein, deinde (?).
Subordinative : ape (apei) = ubi ; (arnipo) = donicum, donee (?) ;
prepa = priusquam ; pus-pane = postquam ; pune = quum ; pufe
= ubi ; pere (perse, pirse) = quippe ; (pirsi) = quando ; puze (puse,
pusei) = quasi ; sve = si; (nosve) = nisi ; svepis = siquis ; svepu
(svepo) = siqua.
Note. The follovi^ing Latin Verb-roots occur in Umbrian: (ag-) ; aj- =
ai-ere ; ben- = venire ; der (ders-) or ded- reduplicated from da- ; dik-, deik-
= dicere; i-, e- = ire; em- = emere; es- = esse; fak- = facere; fer-=ferre;
fing- = fingere ; frek- = fricare ; fu- ; gna- =g-nasci ; (gno-) =g-noscere ;
habe- = habere ; hera = velle ; kan- = canere ; cave- = cavere ; krema- =
cremare ; kura- = curare ; ci- = cire ; (loka-) = locare ; mal- = molere ;
(move-) = movere ; muge- = mugire ; ning- = ningere ; ug- (og-) = augere ;
ul- (ol-) ; ur- (or-)=oriri ; par = parere ; penn = pendere ; pese ; ple- =
plere ; (porta-) = portare ; ques- = quaerere ; seka- = secare ; sere- = servare ;
skreh- = scribere, (sona-) = sonare ; stahe- = stare ; sum- = sumere; take- =
tacere ; tene- = tenere ; tenn- = tendere ; terg- = tergere ; trem- = tremere ;
turse- = torrere ; vei- veh- = vehere; vel- = velle; vert- = vertere ; vire- =
videre ; (v-oka) = vocare. Perhaps also the root tu- (to-) represents Indian
dha, Gr. 06-, Lat. -de-re.
B) The Oscan Dialect.
Of the Oscan inscriptions some are in the old Umbro- Oscan cha-
racters borrowed from Etruria, others in the Roman, a few in Greek letters.
The chief fragment is the Tabula Bantina found in 1793, containing
Roman laws for the Apulian town of Bantia.
The old Oscan is without o, q, x : its other letters generally agree in
power, though not in shape, with the corresponding Latin. It had
however two forms of i, and two of u. The second form of i, which in-
clined to e or ei, is here noted as i, and the second form of u, which in-
clined to o, as u. In the Tabula Bantina they are not distinguished
from i, o.
(New Oscan farms stand between brackets.)
Appendix,
a) Oscan Vowels.
The Oscan diphthongs agree generally with the Latin : al = ae, anciently
ai ; ei = ei ; ui = oe, anciently oi.
Weakening of vowels is less frequent than in Latin : thus (fefacust) =
fecerit : Syncope and Apocope often occur, especially in Decl. 2 : tuvtiks
= tuticus ; Bantins - Bantinus ; Pumpaiians = Pompeianus ; cevs = civis ;
hurs = hortus ; Mutil — Mutilus, &c. Also Heirennis = Herennius ; Puntiis
= Pontius, &c. Oscan often inserts a vowel between a liquid and another
consonant : ter-^-mniss = terminos ; ar-^z-getud = argento ; also i before i or
a: tiurri = turrim ; Viinikiis = Vinicius.
b) Oscan Consonants.
Here we find much resemblance to Umbrian. Thus p ^ q : pam =
quam, nfJ/UTrrtes = Quintius ; ben- = ven- : kumbened = convenit ; nn = nd :
upsannam = operand am ; ht = ct, saahtum = san(c)tum ; ehtrad = extra ; ft
= pt; (scriftas) = scriptoe ; multas (moltas) =mult8e. T remains after ns :
(censtur) = censor ; ti before a vowel — s : (Bansae) = Bantiae. S remains
between vowels: asa = ara ; but in Gen. PI. (-azum) =-amm : here and in
-azet for uerit z = soft s ; but in hurz = hortus z = ts ; in (zicolom) = dieculum
z = ds, V may come between u and a consonant : tuvtiks = tuticus. Final
m, s, t, do not fall off as in Umbrian. We find the ending d in Abl. S.,
as in old Latin ; toutad ; suvad = sua ; (dolud) = dolo ; also in some 3rd
Persons of Verbs, as deded=dedit; in the Imperative: likitud = liceto ;
estud = esto ; and in Adverbs : amprufid = improbe ; ehtrad = extra.
c) Oscan Declensions.
1) First or A -Declension.
Sing. N. masc. as, a, fem. u (o). Acc. am. G. masc. ai, fem. as. D.
ai. Abl. ad. Loc. ai (ae).
Plur. N as? Ac. as. G. (azum). D. Abl. ais.
Examples : tuvta (touta) tuvtu (touto), a state or people ; viu:= via.
2) Second or 0-Declension.
Sing. N. us (os, us). Acc. urn (om). G. eis. D. ui. Abl. ud (ud).
Loc. el.
Plur. N. us. Acc. uss. G. urn. Abl. uis (ois).
Example : status ; (dolus).
As in Umbrian, the Nom. S. often takes other forms : ins for inus ; ans
for anus ; is for ius, &c.
The variation of Neuters resembles that in Latin.
3) Third or Consonant and I-Nouns.
Sing. N. s or none. Acc. im. D. ci. Abl. id.
Plur. N. ss or none. Acc. D. Abl. iss.
The Neuters have no distinctive peculiarities.
Note. * Meddis (meddix, medix) tuvtikus' (tuticus) is the Oscan name
for the chief magistrate, or mayor, of a town. See Li v. xxiii. 35, xxiv. 19,
XXV i. 6.
d) Oscan Verbs :
Verb of Being: root es ; sum; lsl=est; (set) = sit; estud = esto:
root fu : (fuid) = fiat: fusid (fust) fiet ; fufans = fuerunt.
The Conjugations are Consonant and A only : Pres. Ind. Act. (anget)
= agit ; amfret = ambit ; (dat) ; faamat = habitat ; eituns = eunt. Pass,
(vincter) = vincitur ; sakaratei* = sacratur.
D, Italian Dialects,
561
Pres. Conj. Act. (angit) = agat ; (hipid) = habeat, (pruhipid) = prohibeat ;
stait = stet ; (dat) = det : Plur. 3rd P. -ins.
Pass, sakahlter = sacretur.
S. Fut. Ind. Act. (didest) = didet, (deivast) = iurabit.
Perf. Ind. Act. prufatted = probavit ; (deicans) =dixerunt.
Fut. Perf. Act. (dicust) = dixerit ; (hipust) = habuerit ; (fefacust) ^
fecerit.
Imperat. Act. Ukltud (licitud) = liceto ; factud = facito.
Infin. Pres. (deicum) = dicere ; (moltaum) = multare ; (censamur) =
censeri.
Part. Perf. P. (censto) censo ; pusst = positus ; (deivatud) = iurato.
Gerundive : upsannam = operandam.
e) Oscan Pronouns.
1) Possessive: suveis = sui; suvad = sua; (sivom, siom) = suum, n.
2) Demonstrative : Izik (izic), iuk, Idik (idic) = is, ea, id : in (ionc)
= eum ; isidum = idem : ekik (exeic) =illud, with other case-forms of
the same pronoun, of which Nom. S. is not extant, but supposed by
Mommsen to be ekus, eksus, by Aufrecht eiso (eizo), Umbr. eso = hie.
3) Relative and Interrogative.
S. Pus (pos) pal (pae) pud (pod) = qui quae quod : (phim) pam pud
(pod) = quem quam quod: puv — quo. PI. pus = qui ; (pons) =
quibus. Pis, pld = quis quid ? (pieis) = cuius ? ; (pitpit) = quidquid ;
-pid = -que ; puturus-pid = utrique, pi.
f ) Oscan Particles :
1) Adverbs: (amprufid) = improbe ; ip = ibi ; (mais) = magis ; (min) =
minus ; pruf = probe ; fortis = forte.
2) Prepositions : Separable : az=antej anter = inter ; ehtrad = extra ;
kum (com) = cum, com; (contrud) = contra ; up (op) = ob, apud ;
(perum) = per ; pust (post) = post. Inseparable : (an- am- a-) =
in- ; (-en) = in ; pru- = pro.
3) Conjunctions : Coord. ; avt (aut) = at ; (auti) = aut ; ekkum = item ;.
inlm (inim), In (in), &c. =et; (-ni)=ne; nep (ne, nei, neip) =
non, ne. Subord. pun (pon)— quom, cum; (pam, pan) = quam;
(pruter-pam pruter-pan) =priusquam ; puf=ubi ; pukkapid (poeapit)
= quandoque ; sva (sve) = si.
Note, The chief Latin Verb-roots found in Oscan are : ag- ; c-ben- =
venire ; kumben- =convenire ; censa- =censere ; da- ; deic- die- = dicere ;
(deiva-) =iurare ; e- i-=ire; em-; es- ; fac- ; fu- ; habe- haf- (hip-) —
habere (pruhip- = prohibere) ; liga- = legare ; (molta-) = multare ; pat- =
pandere ; prufa- =probare ; pus- (pos-) = ponere ; rega- = regere ; sac- =
sancire ; sakara- = sacrare ; sta- ; vine- = vincere.
[The fullest account of the Umbrian dialect will be found in Aufrecht
and Kirchhoff's Uinbrische Dejtkmdler : of the Oscan, Sabellian, &c. in
T. Mommsen' s Die Unteritalischen Dialekte. The student should also con-
sult Schleicher's Vergleichende Grammatik, Corssen's Aussprache^ &c., and
various papers in Kiihn's Zeitschrift by Corssen and other scholars.
Donaldson's Varroniaiius gives much valuable information : but some of its
theories must be cautiously viewed. See Peile's Introduction to Greek and
Latin Etymology. '\
C) Specimens of Ancient Latin, taken from Corpus Inscriptionum
Latinarum (Ritschl and Mommsen).
1. Epitaph of L. Cornelius Scipio Consul B.C. 259.
Hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[omail
duonoro optimo fuise uiro uiroro
O O
562
Appendix.
Luciom Scipione : filios Barbati
consol censor aidilis hie fuet a [pud uos :]
hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe [pucnandod :]
dedit Tempestatebus aide mereto[d uotam.] 32.
[In Classical Latin : Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bonorum
optimum faisse virum virorum Lucium Scipionem : filius Barbati consul
censor aedilis hie fuit apud vos : hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem
pugnando, dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito votam.]
II. Epitaph of another L. Cornelius Scipio.
L. Cornelio Gn. F. Gn. N. Scipio.
Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes
aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum.
quoiei uita defecit, non honos, honore,
is hie situs quei nunquam uietus est uirtutei.
annos gnatus uiginti is Diteist mandatus :
ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 34.
[In Classical Latin ; L. Cornelius Gnaei filius, Gnaei nepos, Scipio t
magnam sapientiam multasque virtutes aetate cum parva possidet hoc
saxum : cui vita defecit non honos honorem (?) is hie situs est qui nunquam
victus est virtute : annos natus viginti is Diti est mandatus, ne quaeratis
honorem (eius) qui non sit mandatus.]
III. The Columna Rostrata in honour of C. Duilius. Consul B.C. 260,
which seems to be an antiquarian restoration of the Empire, is restored and
explained by the learned editors, I. 195. But every line and sentence is
mutilated. No consonants are doubled ; c stands for g, as lenoneis ; exempt
for exemit ; we find max/mosque macistratos, but [maxjwmas copias ;
castreis, soeieis ; numei ; naveis, claseis, but also navales, clases ;
exfociont = effugiunt.
Extract: Ma[celam . .] pucnandod cepet enque eodem mac[istratod
prospere r]em navebos marld consol primos c[eset c]lasesque navales
primos ornavet, cumque eis navebos claseis Poenicas om[nes . . 'max]
umasque copias Cartaeiniensis praesente[d maxumod d]ictatored o[lor]om
in altod marld pue[nandod vieet].
[In Classical Latin : Macelam urbem pugnando cepit, inque eodem
magistratu prospere rem navibus mari consul primus gessit, classesque
navales primus ornavit, cumque eis navibus classes Punicas omnes . .
maximasque copias Carthaginienses praesente maximo dictatore illonim
in alto mari pugnando vicit. ] I = 1.
In the second * navebos ' the stonecutter had engraved u first, then o
over it.
IV. Extract from the Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186.
Haice utei in conventionid exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum ;
senatuosque sententiam utei seientes esetis . . . eonm sententia ita fuit :
sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead feeisent quam suprad scriptum est, eeis
rem eaputalem faciendam censuere . . . atque utei hoee in tabolam
ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit ; uteique eam figier
ioubeatis, ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua
sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei saeri est, ita utei suprad scriptum est, in
diebus X. quibus vobeis tabelae datai erunt faeiatis utei dismota sient in
agro Teurano, I. 196.
[In Classical Latin : Haec ut in contione edicatis ne minus trinum
nundinum ; senatusque sententiam ut seientes essetis . . . eorum sententia
ita fuit : si qui esscnit qui adversum ea feeissent quam (i.e. aliter quam)
E, Poetic Forms and Idioms. 563
supra scriptum est, eis rem capitalem faciendam censuere . . . atque ut
jioc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aequum censuit ; utque earn
figi iubeatis, ubi facillime nosci possit ; atque ut ea Bacchanalia, si qua
sunt, extra quam si quid ibi sacri est, ita ut supra scriptum est, in diebus
X. quibus vobis tabulae datae erunt, faciatis ut dimota sint in agro
Teurano. ]
V. Extract from the Lex lulia Municipalis, enacted by C. lulius Caesar,
B.C. 49.
Queiquomque inmunicipieis colonels praefectureis conciliabuleis c. R,
Ilvir. Illlvir. erunt aliove quo nomine mag. potestatemve sufragio eorum,
quei quoiusque municipi coloniae praefecturae fori conciliabuli erunt,
habebunt, neiquis eorum quern in eo municipio colonia praefectura foro
conciliabulo in senatum decuriones conscriptosve legito neve sublegito neve
coptato neve recitandos curato nisi indemortuei damnateive locum eiusne
quei confessus erit se senatorem decurionem conscreiptumve ibei h. 1. esse
non licere, I. 206.
[Here c. R. =civium Romanorum ; mag. = magistratum ; Ilvir.
duumviri; Illlvir. =quattuorviri ; h. I. =hac lege. Observe ei for 1 in
Abl. and Nom. PI. ; neiquis for nequis ; sii/ragio ; conscr^/ptum ; and the
Prep. *in' proclitically joined to its case: inmunicipieis, indemortuei locum, j
E. POETIC FORMS AND IDIOMS.
Although the general Rules of Grammar are applicable to poetry as well
as to prose, yet poetry has many vv^ords, phrases, constructions, and
collocations peculiar to itself. A few of these will here be mentioned.
I. Etymology and Use of Words.
1) The archaic Gen. of ist Decl. in ai is used by the Epic poets,
Lucretius and Virgil, as, aulai, aquai.
2) Virgil and Horace always contract the Gen. of 2nd Decl. in it : oti,
tuguri, Ingeni, imperi. The elegiac poets retain ii generally.
3) The contraction of the Gen. arum^ orum into is confined to
Masculine Substantives: agricolum, socium; and of Adjectives to a few
polysyllables only : magnanimum heroum.
4) Many Genitives in ium are contracted into um : apum, cohortum.
This may be done m Present Participles : amantum. Words of the form
- -, as nubium, seldom lose i ; but mensum, sedum are found.
5) The Dat. in m, and the Gen. and Dat. in ei, may be contracted into
«, e : victu for victui, fide for fidei.
6) The Imperf. of the 4th Conj. in idam, and the Fut. in tdo, are
archaisms occasionally used by Virgil : vestibat for vestiebat. This is not
done in lyric verse, rarely in elegiac. The Infin. Pass, in ier is an archaism
used occasionally in epic poetry ; not allowable in elegiac, rare in lyric.
Other archaic forms are found.
7) Such forms as amaram amasse, fleram flesse, noram nosse, audieram
audisse are of usual occurrence,
8) Tmesis is frequent, as Q uae me cumque vocant terrae, Verg. ; in que
U g a t u s, Verg. Cum tu argento post omnia p o n a s, Hor.
9) (a) Substantive is used for Adjective or Participle : Victor equus ;
fabulae manes ; populus late rex.
{/>) Participle or Adjective for Substantive : volitans, an insect ;
volantes, birds ; natantes, fishes ; praeceps, a precipice ; planum^ a
002
5^4 Appendix,
level surface ; inane, the (void) air. So, Opaca domorum, strata
viarum, &c.
(c) Neuter Adjective for Adverb ; Lugubre rubens ; perfidum ridens ;
transversa tuentes, &c.
10) The Plural Number for the Singular : as, Tua numina posco ;
sibila colla tumens. And the Singular for the Plural : as, Thyna merce
beatum ; late loca milite complet.
11) Transitive Verbs are used intransitively : Venti posuere, Verg. In-
transitives used transitively: Horret iratum mare, Hor. Even Passives
sometimes assume a Transitive force : Fontis avertitur, Verg.
12) The use of the Simple for the Compound Verb is a poetic idiom :
Pone moras for depone ; tendere for contendere ; tenere for retinere, &c.
13) In regard to tenses, the Historic Present for the Preterite is often
used ; also the Preterite Aorist for the Present to express habit or frequency ;
the Perf. Infin. for the Pres. Infin.
14) Many words are purely poetic, not being used in prose. They are
too numerous to be here specified, but should be noted in reading.
II. Syntax.
1. Agreement. A Neuter Complement with Masc. and Fem. Sub-
fetantives : Turpe senex miles ; and Synesis, are frequent in poetry,
2. Government.
1) The Accusative of Respect after Adjectives and Verbs is very fre-
quent : Cetera laetus ; sibila colla tumens.
2) The Dative after Compound Verbs is favoured by the poets.
Verbs of contending^ repelling^ differing^ uniting, have a Dative in
poetry ; but in prose, for the most part, a Preposition with its Case :
Mihi contendere noli ; solstitium pecori defendite ; scurrae distabit
amicus ; verba sociare chordis, &c.
A Dative after a Verb of Motion is peculiar to poetry, but rare : It
clamor caelo. A Dative after a Finite Passive Verb is poetic :
Neque cernitur uUi.
3) A large number of Adjectives govern a Genitive in poetry only :
Inane lymphae, nimius pugnae, gravis morum, integer aevi, &c.
4) The Infinitive Mood after Adjectives is frequent in poetry, and rare in
good prose : Callidus condere, catus iaculari, audax omnia perpeti, &c.
After some Substantives : Causa perire, tempus abire, &c. After
Verbs of motion : Populare penatis venimus : of entreaty ; Hoc
petit esse suum : of feeling ; Furit reperire, dedignata teneri : of
hastening ; Trepidat claudere, &c. Est is used for licet with Infin. :
Aenean cernere erat : Nec sit mihi credere tantum. The use of the
Participle after Verbs of Sense for the Accusative and Infinitive is
a poetic Graecism : Sensit medios delapsus in hostis. The Infini-
tive Active is used poetically where a prose writer would use the
Participle in dus ; Dat ferre talentum ; quem sumis celebrare, &c.
5) Many instances of Ellipsis and Pleonasm are found in Poetry, too
numerous to be here cited.
Note. — Historians, as Sallust, Livy, above all Tacitus, often heighten
their style by the intermixture of poetic imagery and expression, especially
when a narrative is picturesque, or a speech impassioned.
III. Collocation.
The Collocation of words in poetry is much more free than that of prose,
but will be better learnt by reading and practice than by any attempt to
reduce the subject to rules.
F. Supplement to Figurate Constructio7t. 565
R SUPPLEMENT TO FIGURATE CONSTRUCTION. §61.
1. Anacoluthon is the passing from one construction to another before
the former is completed : *Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios
esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Romulus barbarorum rex fuerit,' C.
'Quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt,
cumque aliqua his ampla et honesta res obiecta est, totos ad se con-
vertit et rapit; tum quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudi-
nemque virtutis ? ' C. Anacoluthon is often due to Attraction.
2. Hysteron-Proteron is when, of two things, that which naturally comes
first is mentioned last: 'Moriamur et in media arma ruamus,' Verg.
Ae. ii. 353.
The following Figures belong to Rhetoric : —
3. Synecdoche puts the part for the whole : * Caput for homo ; tectum
for domus,' &c. Sometimes the whole stands for a part : ' Sal sextante est'
(Liv. ), for modius salis.
4. All^oria is a chain of metaphors : * Claudite iam rivos, pueri, sat
prata biberunt,' Verg. B iii. III. Meaning, 'Cease to sing, O shepherds;
sufficient recreation has been taken.'
5. Hyperbole magnifies beyond credibility : * Sudor fluit undique rivis,'
Verg. Ae. v. 200.
6. Litotes states less than is actually meant : Non laudo, for culpo.
7. Ironia says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real
meaning be understood: 'Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla
refertis tuque puerque tuus,' Verg. Ae, iv. 93.
8. Climax rises by gradations, like the steps of a ladder : ' Quod 11 bet
lis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent,' C.
9. Polyptoton brings together cases of the same Noun : ' lam clipeus
clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide
cuspis,' Stat.
10. Paronomasia is a play upon the sound of words : ' Tibi parata
erunt verba, huic verbera,' Ter.
11. Antithesis contrasts opposites: *Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere
iubemus ruris amatores,' Hor.
12. Chiasmus places a double Antithesis in introverted order: 'Ratio
nostra consentit, repugnat oratio,' C. Fin. iii. 3. 'Non video
quomodo sedare possint mala praesentia praeteritae voluptates,'
C. T. D. V. 26. 'Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur,'
Verg. B. li. 18.
13. Oxymoron unites seeming contraries: ' Temporis angusti mansit
Concordia discors,' Lucan i. 98.
14. Periphrasis describes a simple fact by various attending circum-
stances. Thus, instead of ' now night is approaching,* Virgil says, ' Et
iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de
montibus umbrae,' B. i. 83. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and
death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii.
15. Simile or Parabole illustrates a statement by an apt comparison :
* Per urbis Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas
equitavit undas,' Hor. C. iv. 4. 42.
16. Apostrophe is an appeal to some person or thing: ' Quid non mor-
talia pectora cogis auri sacra fames?' Verg. Ae. iii. 56.
S66
Appendix,
1 7. Prosopopoeia represents inanimate things as living and acting : * Te
Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno,' Hor. C i. 35. 21. * BelJ'
ferrates rupit Discordia postis,' Enn.
18. Aposiopesis suppresses the conclusion of a thought: *Quos ego^
sed motos praestat componere fluctus,' Verg. Ae. i. 135.
Most of these Figures (to which might be added others) are used in
Prose as well as in Poetry.
G, MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE.
1.
•As* was the Roman unit of weight and measure. See its duodt.
cimal division, § 34. viii.
II. Money.
1. Cattle were the earliest Italian medium of exchange. The word
* pecunia ' (from * pecus ') preserved the memory of this fact, as Engl.
chattel and fee^ from Germ, vieh^ point to the same custom in the Teuton
branch. Cattle fines are noticed in ancient laws as commuted for sums
of money ; a sheep being rated at 10 ' asses librales,' an ox at 100.
2. The metals used for agricultural implements, iron and (in Italy)
copper, were the next medium of exchange. These were at first weighed
out roughly (the 'libra' or pound bemg the unit of this ' aes rude'),
then cut in bars of various shapes and sizes, corresponding to the
weights, and bearing generally some mark, as an ox, a swine, &c. This
was called *aes signatum.' Its origin is referred to the reign of Servius,
that is, to a time before authentic history. ' Aestimare,' to value, is de-
rived from * aes ;' and the act of weighing copper continued in later times
to be the legal form of * mancipatio ' in sales, repayments, and in one
matrimonial solemnity (per aes et libram). The bit of unwrought copper
with which the purchaser struck the scale was called 'raudus' or * rodus-
culum. '
3. About the year B.C. 451, u.c. 303, copper money was first coined,
with impressions obverse and reverse, by the Decemviri. Their coinage
comprised the *as libralis,' and some of its fractional parts, * semis,*
*triens,' *quadrans,' *uncia,' and 'semuncia.' It had an alloy of about
7 per cent, of tin, not reducing its intrinsic value ; but, later, another
alloy of about 23 per cent, of lead, by which the value was reduced, lead
being in proportion to copper as i : 2. Varro says : * Libram pondo as
valebat ' : and in theory, this copper * as ' was libral, equivalent to a pound
of 12 ounces : but in practice existing specimens shew variation from 8 or
9 to 14 ounces, giving an average of about 10. Hence this coinage, on a
scale nominally duodecimal, was really decimal.
4. It continued in use nearly 200 years : but shortly before the first
Punic War, about B.C. 269, U.C. 485, a mint was established in the temple
of Juno Moneta, and three commissioners were appointed (triumviri
monetales auro argento acre flando feriundo), who began to coin silver
money ; the coins being the denarius (nominally 10 asses), the quinarius or
half-denar (nominally 5 asses), and the sestertius or quarter-denar (nominally
2^ asses). About the same time, a revolution was made in the copper
money itself. The libral as (nominally of 12, but actually 10 ounces on
the average) was reduced from the libral to the triental standard, that is, to
the weight of 4 ounces. Nevertheless, the old libral standard was occa-
sionally used or referred to, under the title of 'aes grave.' As the
G. Money y Weighty and Measure, 567
denarius represented lo asses of the triental standard, =40 unciae, its
quarter part, the sestertius, was equal to 10 unciae, which was the average
value of the libral as. Thus it came to pass that, in the new monetary
system, the silver sesterce represented the old copper *as,' so that any
numerical sum * aeris gravis ' (as in Livy) may be counted at the
same number of sesterces, under the triental standard.
5. Between the first and second Punic Wars, the value of silver in
proportion to copper fell considerably. In consequence, the triental * as *
sank first to the sextantar, and then, B.C. 217, U.c. 537, by the Flaminian
law, to the uncial standard. At the same time the denarius was raised,
by way of compensation, to the value of 16 (uncial) asses, making the
sestertius equal to 4. The weight of this denarius was ^ of a pound ; that
of the older one, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. Among
these was a coin called * victoriatus, ' from the figure of Victory stamped
on it. The original value of this was f of the denarius ; but by the
Clodian law, B.C. 104, u.c. 650, it was reduced to the same value as the
*quinarius,* or \ of the * denarius.'
6. Although the sesterce, when = 4 uncial or semuncial asses, ceased to
possess the ancient value of the libral as, it still continued to represent the
popular calculation of *aes grave.* During the first Civil Wars, B.C. 86,
U.c. 668, the Marian Consul Valerius Flaccus carried an iniquitous law
(afterwards repealed by Sulla), enabling debtors to clear themselves by
paying one coined * as ' (| of the sesterce) in place of one ancient * as, *
or the sesterce itself. In other words, debtors might discharge themselves
from all liability by paying 25 per cent, of their debts, or, as we com-
monly say, five shillings in the pound.
7. After the second Punic War silver became so abundant that it
thenceforward constituted the chief Roman currency, and copper money
was, as among ourselves, small change only. This led to a further reduc-
tion of the copper *as,' which, by the Papirian Law, B.C. 89, U.C. 665,
fell to a semuncial standard, indicating a rise in the value of copper as
compared with silver. From this date copper coinage ceased for half a
century, being resumed during the second Civil Wars. Besides the copper
coins heretofore mentioned, the follovnng were also in use from time
to time: the *dupondius,' in value 2 * asses'; * tressis,' 3 * asses';
* decussis ' 10, &c. * Centussis ' was not a coin, but a sum ; and when
Persius says, 'Centum Graecos curto centusse licetur,' he means that
the rude centurion would not give an ' as ' apiece for icx) Greek philo-
sophers.
8. Gold coinage in the republican times was occasional but not frequent,
chiefly for the purpose of military donations. The ' aureus ' of Sulla was
^ of a lb. of gold ; that of Pompey ^-^ ; that of C. Julius Caesar ~ ; that
of Augustus This last and most important coin was made equal to
25 denarii or 100 sesterces. Mommsen values it at 1/. \s. 5^/.,
Hultsch at 1/. is, ^d. Thus it corresponds nearly to the English guinea.
This rate makes the Augustan denarius about lO'^d. and the sesterce
2'6d., though before the gold coinage they were severally about 8*4^/.
and 2'id, Some writers have been led into error by confounding the
intrinsic value, or weight, of these two coins with their current or relative
value. Finding the oldest republican denarius to have contained ^ of a
pound of silver, the later republican and Augustan the Neronian
they have fallen into the mistake of assuming a corresponding depre-
ciation of the current value of the coins. As between the older and later
republican coinage, silver being the standard of both, such calculation
would be just ; but, when the Augustan gold standard came in, the current
values of the silver (and gold) denar and of the brass sesterce (its fourth
part) then coined were determined by their several relations to the
568
Appendix,
* aureus' as t5o* '^^^ (see Mommsen, p. 766, &:c.) gold
was not quite ten times as valuable as silver, while now it exceeds silver in
the proportion of more than 15:1. As the relative values changed
derangement of the coinage would result ; but the calculations hert
given hold good for at least two centuries after Augustus (allowing
for the simultaneous reduction of the intrinsic value of the coins by Nero).
For the further details of this intricate subject the student must consult
T. Mommsen's * Geschichte des Romischen Miinzwesens,' of which a con-
venient abridgment is found in Hultsch's * Griechische und Romische
Metrologie,' though with calculations of value sometimes not agreeing
with those of Mommsen. We now set down a few practical rules,
enabling the student to appreciate, at least approximately, the coins and
sums cited by classical authors, especially by Livy, Cicero, and Tacitus.
9. The * sestertius' (* semis-tertius' because 2\ asses originally,
though afterwards = 4) is often called *nummus' (a term borrowed
from the Sicilian coinage, vdfxoi), sometimes * sestertius nummus.'
It forms the basis of all pecuniary calculation after the following
manner : —
(a) Sums under 1,000 sesterces are named in sesterces (* sestertii ' or
* nummi ') : * decem sestertios (nummos) ' = 10 sesteires ; * quinos
sestertios (nummos) ' = 5 sesterces each, &.c.
(5) In sums above 1,000 sesterces, the thousands may be described as
consisting of sesterces : * duo milia sestertiorum (sestertium, num-
mum) ; ' 2,000 sesterces ; * sexagena milia nummum (sestertium),'
60,000 sesterces each.
Or a (supposable) noun sestertium, only found in the Plural
* sestertia,' may be used, where each of the *sestertia' counted
means ^ sum (not a coin) of about 1,000 sesterces. * Sexcenta
sestertia ' = 600,000 sesterces ; * duodena sestertia ' = 12,000 sesterces
each, &c.
Or, again, both * milia 'and * sestertia ' can be used: * dena milia
sestertia' = 10,000 sesterces. And, in poetry, * milia' is used
with ellipse of ' sestertium : ' ' mullum sex milibus emit,' he
bought a mullet for 6,000 sesterces, Juv. Horace has * bis dena ses-
tertia nummum,' =20,000 sesterces.
On the mode of writing compound numerals see § 34, vii. Thus
* sestertia tria milia et quadringenti octoginta nummi ' = 3,480
sesterces', *xxxi milium quingentorum Ix nummorum ' = 31,560
sesterces.
(c) The last mentioned mode of calculation extends to all sums under
a million. For a million, and all higher amounts, must be used
the Numeral Adverbs ; see § 34. vii. e. But the words centum
(centena) milia are frequently understood, not expressed, m
pecuniary calculations, with these Adverbs. Thus may be written
deciens sestertium (sestertii, sestertio) or deciens (understandmg
sestertium), to express 1,000,000 sesterces. In Cicero we also
find * deciens centena milia,' and in Horace * deciens centena ' to
«xpress this sum. The normal sum * centena milia ' is rated by
Hultschat 875/. for the republican age, and 1,087/. 13^. 4^. for the
Augustan. As this is probably a high estimate, we may take
these sums approximately at 870/. and 1,080/. When an amount
is described with more than one Adverb, the numbers they contam
must be added together if the larger Numeral stands first, but
multiplied when the smaller is first ; care being taken not to reckon
the ' centena milia,' which is understood, more than once. Thus
* miliens quingcntiens ' = I 000,000 sesterces, but * quaterdeciens
miliens ' — 1,400,000,000 sesterces.
G, Money, Weight, and Measure, 569
{d) For the Gen. * sestertium ' may be written its symbol HS, for
IIS, 2^ (or, as some say, for LLS), the cross line indicating
the PI. ' asses,' as the PI. ' librae' is indicated by our lb, £.
\e) If the sums are described by cypher, it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish whether sesterces, or sestertia, or centena milia
sestertium are meant, unless the rule mentioned (§ 34, vii. 2) be
observed. Thus, when Livia Augusta bequeathed to Galba
* sestertium quingentiens,' Tiberius reduced the amount to 'ses-
tertia quingenta, quia notata non perscripta erat summa. ' That
is, he chose to read USD for HS|D|.
Examples :—
* HS deciens et octingenta milia ' « 1,800,000 sesterces.
Viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem 'et
septem nummos '=2,235,417 sesterces.
(Hultsch cites a place in which mille is used for deciens.)
10) The following rules, of a roughly practical nature, will enable the
student to calculate approximately the sums which occur in classical
authors : —
1) For sums in 'aes grave ' (often in Livy) count the amount *aeris
gravis ' as the same amount of sesterces, and count the sesterce =
2 '4^/. Thus ' milia aeris gravis ' = 1,000 sesterces = 2,400^/. = 10/.
2) For sums under the silver currency from B.C. 217 — B.C. 30,
u.c. 537 — u.c. 624, cited by Cicero and other writers, count the
sesterce = 2 'i^/.
If 'sestertia' (i.e. 'milia sestertium') are to be regarded as an
exact total of 1,000 sesterces, this would give them the current
value of 8/. 15^-., and this is a convenient figure, though Hultsch
rates it somewhat higher, 8/. 15^-. 6d.
This calculation, as already stated, gives to ' centena milia
(sestertium)' an approximate value of 870/., which will be the
multiple understood with the Adverbs in -iens. Thus * deciens '
= 8, 700/. , ' centiens ' = 87,000/. , ' miliens ' = 870, 000/. , &c. , ap-
proximately.
3) Under the gold standard from B.C. 30 to A.D. 200, count the
sesterce, as above stated, 2'6d.^ * sestertia ' at 10/. i6s., 'centena
milia' at 1,080/. approximately. Thus ' deciens' = 10,800/,
' centiens ' = 108,000/. , ' miUens,' = 1,080,000/. , approximatelv.
III. Interest.
The As and its fractional parts were used to calculate interest. Thus
(interest being paid monthly at the rate of so much per 100 Asses) : —
Unciae usurae = -^^ per cent, per month = I per cent, per annum
Sextantes = i- = 2 „ ,,
Quadrantes = 1 =3 ,,
&c. &c. &c.
Asses usurae = i per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum.
Asses usurae were also called centesimae ; and binae centesimae = 2
per cent, per month = 24 per cent. ; so quatemae centesimae = 48 per cent,
per annum. Horace says: *Quinas hie capiti mercedes exsecat ' (i.e.
quinas centesimas), this man slices off 60 per cent, frofu the capital ; because
in lending money he deducts from it interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per
month ^ 60 per cent, per annum.
570
Appendix.
Unciarium fenus, the yearly interest legalised by the Twelve Tables,
was probably I uncia per As ( = 8^ per cent.) for the old year of lo months!
Note. The silver sesterce of republican times had also the following
fractional parts: *libella = ^ sest. (quinque libellae = |) ; sembella (|H-
bella)=5^5 sest.; teruncius (i sembella) =4^^ sest. Cicero (Att. vii. 2)
uses these terms to express fractional parts of an inheritance (j^^, -^^
severally). See Mommsen, p. 199.
IV. Weight.
The Unit or As of weight was the * libra ' or Roman pound (the sup-
posed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally ex-
tended). It was duodecimally divided (see § 34, viii.), the 'uncia,' ounccy
])eing its 1 2th part, and the scriptulum or scripulum, scruple^ its 288th
part. Its exact relation to English weight is a debated question. See
Smith's Diet. Ant. under Libra and Pondera^ where it is calculated
at about 5050 grains. Hultsch (with ,B6ckh and Mommsen) rates it at
327*453 grammes (French) = 5044 grains English nearly. Metrol. § 21.
V. Measure of Length.
{a) The Unit or As of length was * pes,' the foot : the human body fur-
nishing the first or technical measurement. * Digitus ' was a finger-breadth :
* palmus,' a hand-breadth, =4 digits ; * pes,' a foot^ =4 palms = 16 digits.
{b) In the second, or duodecimal division, of the foot (§ 34, viii. ), * uncia,*
the 1 2th part, was an inch. Hence 3 unciae = 4 digits = i palmus.
We find 2 feet sometimes called *dupondius 2^ feet 'sestertius* (also
'gradus') ; *sesquipes.'
{c) Coming to larger measures,
* Palmipes ' = pes + palmus = 1^ foot = 20 digits.
'Cubitus,' cubit (measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle
finger), = i| foot = 6 palms = 24 digits.
* Ulna, ell, is often a synonym of 'cubitus,* I J foot: but it sometimes
means the full span of the human arms, reckoned = 6 feet.
{d) Land was measured out by the *pertica' or * decempeda,' a mea-
suring rod of 10 feet. An ' actus ' of length = 12 decempedas.
(^) For the measurement of roads the unit was ' passus, ' a pace or double
step = twice 2\ feet or 2 ' gradus ' = 5 feet.
' Mille passus* (or 'miJia passuum' or 'milia'), 1,000 paces, expressed
the Roman mile (miliarium) = 5,000 feet.
' Stadium,' rt; furlong (borrowed from Greece), was | of a mile -625 feet.
The Roman mile was about \ of the geographical mile, and less than an
English mile by about
(/) The relation of the Roman * pes ' to modern feet is a diflEcult problem.
See Hultsch, Metr. § 15. Smith's Diet. Ant. states it as less than the
English foot by ^-^ of an inch.
According to Hyginus, a standard foot (pes monetalis) was kept in the
temple of Juno Moneta.
VI. Measure of Surface.
The As of superficial measure was the * iugeiiim ' or Roman acre : which
Smith's Diet. Ant. states at about \ of an English acre. Hultsch's state-
ment is the same. It contained 2 square 'actus ' = 28,800 square feet. It
G, Moneyy Weighty and Measure, 571
was duodecimally divided, like the * libra' and *pes.' Of the fractions of
the ' iugerum ' the most important is the * scripulum * (scruple) or * decem-
peda quadrata * = 100 square feet. Of these the 'clima' contained 36, and
the * actus* 144. Surfaces exceeding the iugerum were : heredium=s
2 iugera : centuria= 100 heredia ; saltus = 4 centuriae.
All these surfaces were squares, except the * iugerum ' itself, which was
the sum of two equal squares. The sides of these squares were related to
each other as follows, the decempeda here counting as i :
dec. clima actus hered. cent. salt.
I 6 12 24 240 480
The following Table (given by Hultsch) shews the relations fully :
saltus I
centuria 4 I
heredium
400
100
I
iugerum
800
2QO
2
I
actus
1600
400
4
2
I
clima
6400
1600
16
8
4
I
scripulum
2304CX)
57600
576
288
144
36
VII. Measures of Capacity.
i. Liquid Measure.
(d) The Romans took for their standard a vessel of a cubic foot in con-
tent, called * quadrantal, ' afterwards (from the Greek a^uc^opeOs)
* amphora. ' Its parts (which are chiefly Greek) are thus exhibited
by Hultsch, Metr. § 17. 3 :
amphora
I
urna
2
I
V
congius
8
4
I
sextarius
48
24
6
I
hemina
96
48
12
2
I
quartarius
192
96
24
4
2
I
acetabulum 384
192
48
8
4
2
I
cyathus
576
288
72
12
6
3
(b) The * sextarius ' (less than a pint) was an As duodecimally ditided,
like the * libra,' *pes,' and * iugerum,' the * cyathus' being its
*uncia' (not quite half an ordinary wineglass). Hence are to be
understood the following passages, cited by Hultsch :
* Interponis aquam subinde, Rufe,
Et, si cogeris a sodale, raram
Diluti bibis unciam Falerni.'
Mart. i. 106.
• Quotiens largissime se invitaret, senos sextantes non excessit. *
Suet. Aug. 77.
(Seni sextantes, i.e. 12 cyathi, fall short of a full pint of wine.)
*■ Poto ego sextantes, tu potas, Cinna, deunces,
Et quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem.'
Mart. xi. 36.
Martial also speaks of one who was *septunce multo perditus.' In the
following epigram he alludes to the custom of drinking to the health
of a person as many * cyathi ' as there were letters in his name.
Quincunces et sex cyathos bessemque bibamus,
Gaius ut fiat lulius et Proculus. — Mart. x. 36.
572 Appendix.
(c) The *semuncia' was called Migula,' a spoon carrying \ * cya-
thus ; ' the * sicilicus ' was * cochleare ', carrying \ * cyathus.'
{d) * Culeus* (* culleus ') was a wine-vat, holding 20 amphoras. The
'amphora' itself was an earthen vessel with two handles, whence
its name.
(i) ' Cad us ' is sometimes used in the same sense as * amphora ; ' but
usually it means a cask of no definite size.
ii. Dry Measure.
The 'modius' approached 2 gallons (| bushel) English. Its divisions
were —
modius
I
semodius
2
I
sextarius
16
8
I
hemina
32
16
2
I
quartarius
64
32
4
2
I
acetabulum
128
64
8
4
2
I
cyathus
192
96
12
6
3
Again the * sextarius ' is duodecimally divisible, its * uncia ' being
* cyathus,' its * semuncia ' being *ligula.'
Larger measures are * trimodius ' (3 * modii ') and * decemmodius ' (10
^ modii ').
The ' sextarius ' is sometimes called * librarius. '
H. COMPUTATION OF TIME.
A. The Julian Calendar agrees with the English, except in the
manner of naming the days of the month. Every Roman month had
three chief days : Kalendae or Calendae (Calends), Nonae (Nones), Idus
(Ides). The Calends were always the 1st day of the month ; the None?
were on the 5th ; the Ides on the 13th ; except in March, May, July, and
October, in which months the Nones were on the 7th, the Ides on the 1 5th.
March, May, July, October, these, we say,
Make Nones the seventh, Ides the fifteenth day.
These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as points,
from which the other days were reckoned backwards. That is, the
Romans did not say, such and such a day after ^ &c., but such and such a
day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides.
Calendae from calare, to call ; Nonae, ninth before Ides ; Idus from
iduere (=:div-idere), to divide. See Hor. C, iv. II. 14.
B. If January be taken as a sample, the first day was Kalendae
lanuariae. The 2nd must be reckoned l3ackwards from the Nones, which
in January fell on the 5th, Nonae lanuariae. But in this reckoning the
day of the Nones itself must be included. Therefore our 4th of January
was the 2nd day before the Nones, called pridie (ante) Nonas lanuarias.
The 3rd of January was * tertio (ante) Nonas lanuarias ; ' the 2nd, * quarto
(ante) Nonas lanuarias or, abbreviated, 'III. Non. Ian.,' *IV. Non. Ian.'
To obtain the Roman name for the 6th of January, the reckoning must be
made backwards from the Ides, which fell on the 13th, * Idus lanuariae.'
Thus the 12th was * pridie Id. Ian. ;' the nth, * III. Id. Ian ; ' the loth,
* IV. Id. Ian.,' &c. ; the 6th was therefore * VIII. Id. Ian.' To obtain the
name for the 14th of January, the reckoning is back from the Calends of
H. Computation of Time.
573
the next month, Kalenclae Februariae. Thus, January 31st was * pridie
Kal. Feb. ; ' January 30th, * III. Kal. Feb.,' &c. &c. ; January 14th was,
therefore, * XIX. Kal. Feb.'
C. From these observations it appears that the Roman name for any
given English day may be found by the following rules : —
1) If the given day is between the Calends and Nones of the Roman
month, subtract its English number from the English number of the day
on which the Nones fall, increased by one , the remainder will give that
number before the Nones by which the day is called in Latin.
2) Similarly, if the given day is between the Nones and Ides of the
Roman month, subtract its English number from the English number of
the day on which the Ides fall, increased by one ; the remainder will give
tlmt number before the Ides by which the day is called in Latin.
Thus, to find the Roman name for the 4th of June, the Nones of June
falling on the 5th, subtract 4 from 5+1, or 6 ; the remainder is 2 (pridie) ;
therefore the 4th of June is * pridie Non. lun. ' Again ; to find the Roman
name for the loth of May, the Ides of May falling on the 15th, subtract
10 from 15+ I, or 16 ; the remainder being 6, the loth of May is called
* VI. Id. Mai.'
3) But if the given day is between the Ides of the given month and the
Calends of the next, then subtract its English number from the total
number of days in the given month, increased by two ; the remainder will
give that number before the Calends of the next month by which the day is
called in Latin.
Thus, to find the Roman name for the i8th of August ; subtract 18 from
31 + 2, or 33, the remainder is 15, and August iSth is called * XV. Kal.
Sept.' For April 21st, subtract 21 from 30 + 2, or 32, there remains ii ;
and April 21st is called XI. Kal. Mai. For February 25th, subtract 25
from 28 + 2, or 30, there remains 5 ; and February 25th is called * V. Kal.
Mart.'
D. As regards Construction, the forms Kalendis, Nonis, Idibus, are used
as Ablatives of time ; and when tertio, quarto, &c., Kalendas, &c. are used,
the words die ante are understood. But Cicero does not employ these
latter phrases: he writes (for instance) 'ante diem tertium Kalendas
lanuarias,' or, in abbreviated form, * a.d. III. Kal. Ian.,' to express Decem-
ber 30th, and so in every case.
Here the Preposition ante has, by a corruption of custom, quitted its
proper place before Kalendas, to stand before diem, which it does not
govern. So merely idiomatic is this mode of expression, that it is used in
dependence on Prepositions: * Consul Latinas in ante diem tertium
Idus Sextilis edixit,' the Consul proclaimed the Latin holidays fo7' the wth
of August, L. xli. 16. *De Quinto fratre nuntii nobis tristes venerant ex
ante diem iii. Non lun. usque ad pridie Kal. Sept.,' I have sad nnvs
of my brother Quintus from the yd of June down to the 2>^st of Aitgtisty
C. Att. v. 17.
E. The names of the months are all Adjectives agreeing with mens is
understood : lanuarius, Februarius, Martins, Aprilis, Mains, lunius, lulius
(so called from Julius Caesar, but before his time Quintilis), Augustus (so
called from Augustus Caesar, but before his time Sextilis), September,
October, November, December. With the words Kalendae, Nonae,
Idus, they are used attributively, very seldom as Possessive Genitives :
* Natus est Augustus IX. Kalendas Octobres,' Augustus ivas born on
the 2yd of September, Suet. Aug. 5. ' Memoria tenent, me a.d. XIIX
Kalendas lanuarias principem revocandae libertatis fuisse, ' tJieS
remember that on the 20th of December I took the lead in restoring freedom,
574
Appendix.
4>
00
CO
o
CO
T-
^ ^ • > 2 h-;
•J.-'d^
ctf rt Ph ^ ci rt rJ ci cj ri rj c^' ei cj d 03 d ri
OS
tl)
oi O
U
u
Q
O M
o
H
u
O
D
^ >>
3 rt
t/3 M
•D9a -po 'PI 'PH
O
C/3
CO
ci
»— t l-H • ^ „ „
H3.«'d5**'_:'*'dS
•D9Q -Sny -UBj
•uBi -das 'qs^
if)
cS
o
OS
1
I— <
S> »-H HH H-t . t> LJ ^
^ •§ O 'd •§ g ^3 n3 'T3 T3 t3 73 T: -TS -rj T3 ^
•PO 'FI *PH '^-^^M
>•
o
73
■^ r
J5 ,-4 . ,
<; T3 •'c O 13 "d 73 -d !=J 73 -d 73 T3 73 ^3' 73 73 73 'd 73 73 'S
Sxx>ixxxxx£>>>>;is.2^
0^ O
M
N N M
N fO
K, Abbreviations used in Latin,
C. Phil. xiv. 7. * Capuam venire iussi sumus a d Nonas Februarias,'
we were 07'dered to come to Capua by the ^th of February^ C. Ati. v. 1 7.
*VII. IdusMaias aestatis initium,' the ^th of May is the commencemeni
of summer, Colum. xi. 2.
Feast-days are sometimes used to express the dates of letters : * L i b e r a 1 i-
bus litteras accepi tuas,' I received your letter on the day of the Feast of
Liber, C. Att. ix. 5.
In Leap-year, the twenty-fourth of February (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart.) was
reckoned twice over ; hence this day came to be called dies bissextus,
and Leap-year itself was called annus bissextus.
K, SIGLARIUM ROMANUM, OR ABBREVIATIONS USED
IN LATIN.
I. Pr^enomina.
A. Aulus.
C. Gains. *
Cn. Gnaeus.*
D. Decimus.
K. Kaeso.
L. Lucius.
M. Marcus.
M'. Manius.
P. Publius.
Q. Quintus.
Ser. Servius.
Sex. Sextus.
Sp. Spurius. .
T. Titus.
Ti. Tiberius.
Women's names were expressed by inverting the character : as, 0, Gaia.
2. Titles.
Cos. Consul. Coss. Consules or
Consulibus.
Des. Designatus.
D. Divus.
Imp. Imperator.
III. V. R. C. Triumvir Reipublicae
Constituendae.
P. C. Patres Conscripti.
P. M. Pontifex Maximus.
pRC. Proconsul.
S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque
Romanus.
Tr. Pl. Tribunus Plebis.
X. V. Decemvir.
XV. V. S. F. Quindecimviri Sacris
Faciundis.
3. In Voting on Trials and Elections.
A. Absolvo. C. Condemno. A. P. Antiquam (legem) probe.
N. L. Non liquet. V. R. Uti rogas.
4. On Tombs.
F. C. Faciundum curavit. Ob. Obiit.
H. C. E. Hie conditus est. P. C. Poni curavit.
H. S. E. Hie situs est. V. Vixit.
5. Miscellaneous.
A. U. C. Anno Urbis Conditae.
D. D. Dono dedit.
DD. Dederunt.
D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedicat.
D. M. Dis Manibus.
F. Filius.
F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortuna-
tum.
O. M. Optumus Maxumus.
S. C. Senatusconsultum.
S. D. Salutem dicit.
S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit.
S. V. B. E. E. Q. V. Si vales, bene
est, ego quoque valeo.
Tr. Pot. Tribunicia Potestate.
- ■ • T
* These names are written in MSS. Gaius, Gnaeus, but abbreviated Cn.
5/6
Appendix,
6.
A. C. Anno Christi.
A. D. Anno Domini.
A. M. Anno Mundi.
a. C. n. ante Christum natum.
Cf, Confer or Conferatur.
Coll. CoUato or CoUatis.
Cod. Codex. Codd. Codices.
Del. Dele or Deleatur.
Kd. Editio. Edd. Editiones.
e.g. Exempli gratia.
Etc. or &c. Et cetera.
h. e. hoc est.
I. C. lesus Christus.
Ictus. lurisconsultus.
ibid, ibidem.
i. e. id est.
i. q. idem quod.
L. or Lib. Liber.
L. B. Lectori benevolo.
1. c. loco citato.
p. C. n. post Christum natum.
C. P. P. C. CoUatis pecuniis poni
curaverunt
Cet. Cetera.
1. 1. loco laudato,
leg. lege or legatur.
MS. Manuscriptus (Liber).
MSS. Manuscripti (Libri).
N. B. Nota bene.
N. T. Novum Testamentum.
Obs. Observa or observetur.
PS. Postscriptum.
q. V. quod vide,
sc. scilicet,
s. v. sub voce,
vid. vide or videatur.
v. 1. vide locum,
viz. videlicet.
V. Cel. Vir Celeberrimus.
V. CI. Vir Clarissimus.
V. T. Vetus Testamentum.
7. Academical.
A. B. Artium Baccalaureus.
A. M. Artium Magister.
D. Doctor.
LL.D. Legum Doctor.
M. D. Medicinae Doctor.
Mus. D. Musicae Doctor.
S. T. P. Sanctae Theologiae Pro-
fessor (which =^D.D. Doctor of
Divinity).
* * It was always supposed that the Universities gave two kinds of Degrees or Certifi*
cates of proficiency — in Arts and in the Faculties. The inferior or preparatory Degree in
each department was that of ** Bachelor" (baccalaureus), a barbarous title derived from
the French Bas Chevalier, which primarily denoted a Knight Bachelor, one who sat at
tne same table with the Bannerets, but, being of inferior rank, was " mis arriere," 01
** plus bas assis : " hence it came to denote the unfinished apprentice, the unmarried man,
and the semigraduate. The complete degree in Arts was that of Magister, Master — in
the Faculties, Doctor, Teacher ; two titles equivalent to one another and to the common
designation of Professor, or claimant of complete knowledge. The Arts were seven in
number (Grammatica, Grammar \ * Dialectica, Logic ; Rhetorica, RhetoHc — which were
called Trivium ; Musica, Miisic, Arithmetica, Arithmetic'. Geometria, Geometry;
Astrologia, Astrology — which four were called Quadrivium) ; and are summed up in the
technical lines : —
GRAM- loquitur ; DIA- vera docet ; RHET- verba colorat ;
MUS- canit ; AR- numerat ; GE- ponderat ; AS- colit astra.
Music from an Art has passed into a Faculty, and has special Degrees. The older
Faculties are Divinity. Law, Medicine : the first of which was supposed to include all
Arts.* — Donaldson, Lat. Gr. p. 470.
* When Public Schools were first established to prepare boys for the studies of the
University, the subject mainly taught in them was the first and fundamental Art — that of
language— Grammatica. Hence such a school was called Schola Grammaticalis, /7
Grammar School ; and, when founded by Royal Charter, it was declared to be Libera
Schola Grammaticalis, a Free Grammar School, \.^, free from all superiority but that
of the Crown,
577
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.
I. (§ 6, p. 5.) * Primitive Sound or Root.'
It seems necessary to explain more distinctly the sense in which the word
* Primitive ' is here used.
When a root appears with some variety of form in several kindred lan-
guages (as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit), it is natural to ask which of the
forms is earlier than the rest, and whether such earlier form is to be
regarded as 'primitive,' or a still earlier one is to be assumed as once
existing, though disused. To determine these points certainly or with high
probability, the various forms must be carefully compared, and tested by
well-ascertained principles and facts of language. Among such principles
and facts are the following :
(1) Guttural Letters sounded from the throat with the lips apart are pri-
mitive, as compared with all others.
Thus the vowel a, having its proper sound, either from the back of the
throat, as m Indian ak ( = English iik), or from the front, as in English
ak (for the sounds in English *ale,' *all,' are diphthongal), is the great
primitive vowel, into which no other passes by strengthening, though itself
may be weakened into others. Such weakening is either by closure of the
lips, as in the series a, 6, ii, or by employment of the palate and tongue,
as in the series u Hence it follows that
If an a-sound compete with another vowel-sound, the a-sound belongs
to the primitive form.
Example. The Sanskrit stem signifying ' lather ' is pilar, the Latin
pater, the Greek (Trdr-^^) Trarep-. We are hence able to infer that the
primitive stem is patar, of which Sanskrit (in pitar) has weakened the first
syllable, Latin and Greek the second.
(2) A long vowel is the sum of two short vowels.
Hence it appears that a root with long vowel is the development of
another with short vowel, which is therefore the earlier of the two.
Example. The ' foot ' of man or any other animal is expressed in Latin
and Greek by the root ped- 7rd5-, but in Sanskrit the word is pad, nom.
pad-as m. This shews, what we might have been pretty sure of, that the
vowel of the root is a ; but here we find long a ; so we are led to expect an
earlier root with short a, from which a is developed. And this we find in
the Sanskrit verb-root pad, 'to go,' which has derivatives with a, pada/
pada-m, 'a pace,' * a step.' The Latin and Greek Nominatives pes, ttous,
have the same quantity as pad, and so in Compounds Sk. dvipid, Lat.
bipes, Gr. Stirour, &c. But the verb-form pad does not exist in Latin and
Greek (unless bitere and lia-rCLv can be referred to it).
(3) G^ttural Consonants, by (i), antecede the rest. Others are not
changed into them, though they are represented by others.
Hence if a guttural form compete with another, the guttural may be
regarded as primitive.
P P
578
Supplementary Notes,
Examples. In Sanskrit, c' (soft ch) and s' often represent k, c ; sV may
represent kv, qu ; sometimes Lat. p, tt, t, represent a guttural ; Sk. j re-
presents g. See pp. 59-6 1-
(4) Of the Consonant trills r, 1, so often interchanged (p. 64), r must be
considered the earlier.
(5) Sanskrit words beginning with h have lost an initial which preceded it.
(6) The vocalized r-trill is expressed in Sanskrit by the vowel ri (ri), but
this in Latin and Greek is usually represented by ar, er, or. Even in Sk.
ar is the earlier form, and Professor Cowell has pointed out to me (since
this Grammar was reprinted) that the great Sanskrit Dictionary, now
being published at St. Petersburgh by the Russian Government, rejects ri
from verb-roots, and receives ar as the true form, though the ri-form is that
which Indian scholars use. Terminal diphthongs are also rejected. The
words of the editors are : ' Wir haben aus den Verbal -wiirzeln die Vocale
ri, ri und li vollstandig verbannt ; desgleichen die Diphthonge vom Auslaut
derselben ; ri im Auslaut von Nominalthemen haben wir durch ar ersetzt. *
Hence they write bhar not bhri, kart not krit, pitar not pitri, da not
Me' or *do.'
The following instances may suffice to illustrate the principles stated ;
the suggested primitive form being placed in the fourth column :
Lat.
Gr.
Sk.
Pr.
coqu-
TTCTT-
pac'
pak (kak ?)
quinque
panc'an
ric
pankan (kankan?)
li(n)qu-
AtTT-
rik
equ-us
'Ittttos
as'vas
akva-s
gno-
'yvo-
jna
gna
vert
vrit, vart
hrid, hard
vart
cord-
KapB-ia
khard ?
serp-
epir-
srip, sarp
sarp
lup-us
\VK-OS
vrika-s, varka-s
varka-s
urs-us
6.pKT-0S
riksha-s, arksha-s
arksa-s
levi-s
laghu-s, raghu-s
raghu-s
(for leg-vis)
Raghu-s is a derivative of the verb-root ra«h, or ra;^-gh, to move fleetly.
Exemplifying these principles further from other roots and words cited in
P- 554» we are led to infer that the following, among others, are the primi-
tive forms : ag drive-, ap acquire-, kru hear; kar make \ dha, place; da
give-, dik shew; bhar bring; bhu be-, gan produce; man think; ma
measure ; mar fade, die ; sad sit ; sak follow ; star strew ; sta stand ; stag
cover ; tan stretch j vas clothe ; ghans goose ; kvan dog ; dvar- door ; avis
sheep, &c. Many of these forms will be seen to differ in some respect or
other from the Sanskrit, while others agree, as man, sad, tan, vas, avis,
occ. The only two which agree exactly with Greek or Latin are ag, ap.
Thus it is shewn how primitive forms are deduced with probability from a
comparison of kindred languages.
An instructive example may be added : the derivative word Sk. s'ravas,
Gr. KKios, L. laus. The root is (Prim, kru) Sk. s'ru, Gr. k\v-, L. clu-
hear. The derived forms may be compared letter by letter :
Sk. s' r a v a s = s'ravas.
Gr. K \ 6 (f) O S = K\€{f)05,
L. — 1 av — s = laus.
Here it is seen that
(a) in Sanskrit : the primitive k passes (as often) into s' ; r remains ; av
from u is a constant formation ; as is a Noun -ending.
{b) in Greek : k remains in k ; the rough liquid r passes into the soft A ;
Supplementary Notes.
579
av is weakened into ef, and the F (=v) is lost in later Greek ; o$ n. is the
weakened ending for as n.
. {c) in Latin : k falls off (p. 44) ; r passes into 1, av is vocalized into an ;
and as the ending lis is hereby precluded, a suffix d is brought in, and the
num. lau-d-s ( = laus) is formed, which, by Latin analogy, becomes Fem.
A similar word is hravas (clearly for dhravas from root dhvri, or dhurv,
• to bend ' or * make crooked ') = Latin fraus ; fr corresponding to dhr,
the rest as in s'ravas and laus.
The following is a list of Sanskrit roots corresponding to most of thosp
cited on pages 14-17 :
English,
to yoke
hear
Jioat
cleanse
stink
bray, sound
shine
cover
sew
be strong
shew
shine
go
that
lie down
adhere
spy
three
love^ desire
drive
shine
beget
Sanskrit,
yuj
s'ru
plu
A
pu
puy
ru
rue'
sku
siv
tu
dis'
div
i
i
s'i
li
spas'
tri
lubh
aj
bha, bhas
jan
English.
know
hide
slip
measure
fasten
rule
bathe
stand
strew
seize
make, create
sit
cover
cover
move
sound
sleep
the sun
speak
fill
fade^ die
be
Sanskrit.
• A
jna
kul
lamb
ma
pas'
raj
sna
stha
stri, star
hri, har
kri, kar
sad
sthag
vri, var, val
val
svan
svap
svar
vac'
pri, par, pur
mri, mar
bhu
The roots due- lead, nu- nod, fid- trusty ac- sharpen, sa- sow, mar- glitter^
are not represented in Sanskrit.
We find push, nurture, and putra a son in Sanskrit, with which L. puev
and its cognates are probably connected.
Sanskrit has the Adjective rudh-ira red, but not the verb rudh to be red y
yet to such a root we must refer the words ruber, rufus, i-pv6-p6s, Sec.
The Latin verbs luo, lavo to wash, and f-luo to flow, are probably related
to Sk. plu to float.
To break is in Sk. bhanj : if this is the root of Gr. fpa-y, L. frang-, it
has developed r in those languages.
- L. sero, connect, may be from the Causal of Sk. sri sar, to proceed.
That Sk. sarva, all, is of the same family as the Latin words of solidity,
salus, solum, sollus, solus, sollers, &c., appears certain : and they are
referred by some to the root sri, sar.
Sk. svar, the sun, may indicate a verb-root svar or sur, to shine ; but
such root is not extant.
n. ^ Relations in the Simple Sentence, §§ 103-105, pp. 352-8.'
In the belief that the meaning of these sections will be most clearly
shewn by the analysis of a passage according to the principles laid down in
them, the first Ode of Horace ( C. i. I .) is chosen for that purpose.
Horace, presenting three Books of Carmina to his illustrious friend
P F 2
58o
Supplementary Notes.
Maecenas in the year B.C. 19, u.c. 735, places this Ode first by way of
dedication. The outline of what he says is this :
* O Maecenas, my beloved protector, various are the delights of men.
Some ivho, like the Greeks^ love excitement^ display a7id barren honour^ are
glad to win the great Olympian chariot-race.' Romans having large landed
property are overjoyed, one, if the popular vote exalts him to the three offices
of state ; another, if he is enabled to acquire unrivalled wealth. The
yeoman farmer would not be tempted by the riches of Attalus to forsake the
tillage of his hereditary fields. The merchant captain, amidst the perils of
shipwreck, may regret his native village ; but let him return there, and rest-
less greed soon drives him back to sea. The Epicurean quaffs his wine,
and takes life easily from day to day. The soldier is all for camps and
battles ; the huntsman for the hardships of the chase. As for me ^ — at
Rome I enjoy, as a learned man, the society of the great ; elsewhere^ the
haunted forest and the favour of the Muses. But if, after readi7tg what 1
now sendf you rank me among lyric poets, I shall reach the very zenith of
delight.'
Maecenas atavis edite regibus,
o et praesidium et dulce decus meum,
sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum
collegisse iuvat, metaque fervidis
evitata rotis palmaque nobilis. * 5
terrarum dominos evehit ad deos
hunc, si mobilium turba Quiritium
certat tergeminis tollere honoribus,
ilium, si proprio condidit horreo
quidquid de Libycis verritur areis. lo
gaudentem patrios findere sarculo
agros Attalicis coiidicionibus
numquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria
Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare.
luctantem Icariis fluctibus Africum 1 5
mercator metuens otium et oppidi
laudat iiira sui : mox reficit rates
quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati.
est qui nec veteris pocula Massici
nec partem solido demere de die 20
spernit, nunc viridi membra sub arbuto
stratus, nunc ad aquae lene caput sacrae.
multos castra iuvant et lituo tubae
permixtus sonitus bellaque matribus
detestata. manet sub love frigido 25
venator tenerae coniugis immemor,
seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus,
seu lupit teretes Marsus aper plagas.
me^ doctarum hederae praemia frontium
dis miscent superis, me gelidum nemus 30
nympharumque leves cum satyris chori
secernunt populo, si neque tibias
Euterpe cohibet nec Polyhymnia
Lesboum refiigit tendere barbiton.
quodsi me lyricis vatibus inseris, 35
sublimi feriam sidera vertice.
The following Syntactic Analysis is thus arranged : —
In the Predicative Relation (I) both related words, Nominative and
Verb, are placed together. In II-VII, one word is stated ; and that to
which it is related by agreement or government is added within brackets,
Supplementary Notes.
581
sometimes by its initial only, but so as not to be mistaken. With Annexed
words (VIII) the Conjunction, if any, is given, the related words following.
Words to be mentally supplied are in italic type. Numerals by § or page
refer to the Rules, as given in the Syntax or Uses of Words.
1. Predicative Relation. (§ 108. Concord I. § 115.)
3. Sunt homines (§ 114. 2, § 206. note). 4. collegisse iuvat (§ 177-8).
6. iUud Qwehit si, &c. (when si nearly = quod, the Protasis forms a Sub-
stantival Clause which may be, as here, the Subject of the Apodosis).* 7-8.
turba certat. 9. condidit. 10. quidquid verritur. 13. tu dimoveas.
14. z//e secet. 16-17. mercator laudat. 17. t//e reficit. 19. eat homo.
19-21. qui spernit. 23. castra iuvant. 25. venator manet. 27. cerva
visa-est. 28. aper rupit. 29. hederae miscent. 30-2. nemus chorique
secernunt (§ 112). 33. Euterpe cohibet. 33-4. Polyhymnia refugit. 35.
itu inseris. 36. e^o feriam (p. 350, § 1 09).
II. Qualitative.
(1) Attribution (§ 108. Concord li.).
o. As Epithet (p. 354).
2. Meum dulce (d.). 3. Olympicum (p.). 4. fervidis (r.). 5. nobilis
(p.). 7. hunc {dominum, see note). 7. mobilium (Q.). 8. tergeminis
(h.). 9. proprio (h.). 10. Libycis (a.), ii. patrios (agr.). 12. Attalicis
(c). 13. Cypria (t). 14. pavidus (n.). Myrtoum (m.). 15. Icariis (f.).
17. sui (o.). 18. quassas (r.). 19. veteris Massici (vini). 20. solido (die).
21. viridi (a.). 22. lene (c). sacrae (a.). 23. multos (homines), 25.
frigido (I.). 26. tenerae (c). 27. fidelibus (c). 28. Marsus(a.). teretes
(p.). 29. doctarum (f.). 30. superis (dis). gelidum (n.). 31. leves(c.).
34. Lesboum (b.). 35. lyricis (v.). 36. sublimi (v.).
)8. As Enthesis (p. 354. See also § 237-9).
I. Edite (M. =qui editus es). 5. evitata (m. =quae evitata est). 1 1,
gaudentem (virum = c\}x\ gaudeat). 15. luctantem (A. =dum luctatur or qui
luctetur). 16. metuens (mere. = cum metuit). 18. indocilis (mere. = quia
indocilis est). 22. stratus (qui = cum stra vent, ^ij!z^/;^^j/r^/^^^'^). 24. per-
mixtus (s.). 25. detestata (b.). 26. immemor (v.).
(2) Apposition (§ 108. Concord ill.),
a. As Epithet (p. 354).
1. Regibus (atavis, which is the principal noun here : royal ancestors),
/3. As Enthesis (p. 354).
2. Praesidium (M. = qui es praesidium . . . meum). 15. nauta (///i?=
f actus nauta). 29. praemia (h. =quae sunt praemia).
III. Objective. Nearer Object. (§ 120-1. See § 237.)
3. Quos (iuvat). 3. pulverem (coll.). 6. dominos (evehit, see note). 7.
hunc (evehit, see note). 8. eum (tollere). 9-10. friimentum (coadidit).
II. virum (dimov.). 12. agros (f.). 14. mare (s.). 15. Africum (met).
16. otium (laud.). 17. rates (r.). pauperiem (pati). 19. pocula (sp. ).
20. partem (dem.). 21. membra (stratus, § 122. 6). 23. homines (iuv.).
28. plagas (r.). 29. me (misc.). 30. me (sec). 32. tibias(c.). 33. bar-
biton (t.). 35. me (i.). 36. sidera (f.).
IV. Receptive (§ 132-3, &c. See § 237).
15. Fluctibus (1. § 135. b. c). 23. lituo (p. § 135. b.). 24. matribus
(d. § 141. 7). 27. catulis (v. § 134. i). 30. dis (misc. § 135. b.), 35. vatibus
(i. p. 385).
582
Supplementary Notes,
V. Circumstantive. (§ 143, &c. Ablative: Adverbs: Prepositions.)
1. Atavis (ed. § 159). 3. curriculo (coll. § 145). 5. rotis (evit. § 145,
or § 151). 6. ad deos (eveh. § 70. i.). 8. honoribus (tollere, § 151).
9. horreo (c, § 155. 2.). 10. de areis (§ 71, p. 300). 11. sarculo (f.
\ 145). 12. condicionibus (dim. § 145). 13. numquam (d.). 14. trabe
(s. § 145). 17. mox (r.). 20. de die (§ 71, p. 300). 21-2. nunc — nunc
(str. p. 317). sub arbuto (str. § 71, p. 306). ad caput (str. § 70. I.). 25.
Sub love (m. § 71, p. 306). 31. cum satyris (ch. § 71. iv.). 32. populo
(sec. § 158). 36. vertice (f. § 145).
VI. Proprietive (§ 162, &c.).
6. Terrarum (dom. § 174). 7. Quiritium (t. § 166). 16. oppidi (r.
§ 165). 19. vini (pocula, § 166). 22. aquae (c. § 165). 23. tubae (s. §
165). 26. coniugis (i. § 174, 2. 7.). 29. frontium (p. § 165). 31. nym-
pharum (ch. § 166).
VII. Prolative (§ 180).
8. Tollere (c). ii. findere (g.). 18. pati (indocilis). 34. tendere (r.).
VIII. Annexive (§ 188).
2. Et decus (praesidium). 4-5. metaque palmaque (collegisse). 9. ilium
(hunc). 17. et rura (otium). 20. nec demere (pocula). 23-4. et sonitus
bellaque (castra). 31. chorique (nemus).
(A) Vocative (§ 118) Interjections (§ 104) and Conjunctions.
I. Maecenas (§ 104, § 118). 2. O (§ 104. 118) et (§ 77. 3). 7-9. si — si
(see note). 13. ut that he^ &^c.^ § 205 : or, if to dimoveas be given the
sense of persuading, *ut secet 'may be referred to § 197). 20-1. nec— nec
(§ 77- 3)- 27-8. seu — seu (§ 221). 32-3. si neque — nec (§ 77. 3.)
(B) Relative Construction (§ 108. Concord IV. § 105).
3. Quos (agrees with antecedent Aomines, § 108. case is governed by
iuvat, § 121). 10. quidquid (omne frumentum is suppressed antec. On
Case, see I.) 19. qui (agrees with antecedent homo : is nom. subject of
spernit). 35. quod si, but if (=:as to which, i/, See. See § 82. 6).
[Notes. M. 5. A full stop is placed after ' nobilis,' and no stop after
* deos ' in 1. 6, with Macleane and Munro. Horace would tolerate no-
where, much less in the opening lines of his First Ode, such a construction
as * hunc — ilium ' dependent on 'iuvat ' or 'evehit' supplied from a previous
and specially distinct sentence. * Nobilis ' forms a beautiful ending to the
sentence *sunt quos,' &c. ; and * evehit, ' having for its subjects the two
clauses * si mobilium,' &c., *si proprio,' Sic, is an exquisite, though not
frequent construction. As to * terrarum dominos,' opinions will probably be
divided between making it an apposition to * deos ' and taking it as object
of * evehit, ' in the sense of * Roman landlords.' The latter explanation,
supported by Lucan's * terrarum dominos,' Phars. viii. 208, which Orelli
cites, is here preferred.
2 1. 29, &c. The reading *te,' which some suggest for the first 'me,' is
tempting, because Maecenas was learned : see C. iii. 8. 4. But perhaps
Horace in these lines speaks of his own two modes of life, both delightful :
one, which, as a scholar favoured by the great (di superi^ i.e. Augustus,
perhaps including Maecenas: see C. iii. 3, 11. — 5, 2. iv. 5, 33), he en-
joyed at Rome ; the other, in his Sabine villa near Tibur. See iv. 3, the
most exquisite of all his poems, where he expresses similar feelings in
another form, and exults in having gained that which in the present ode he
declares to be the summit of his hopes — to be called ' Romanae fidicen
lyrae.']
INDEX I
SUBJECTS.
[Reference Is made sometimes to Sections, § ; sometimes to Pages. An asterisk marks a
term introduced in modern works on Latin Grammar. Italics with asterisk mark
a term introduced in this Grammar or its companion works. ]
A, the standard guttural Vowel, § 12.
Its sound ; strength, lo, ii ;
forms diphthongs with i, u, 12 ;
weakenings, 20-32. See Contents.
*A-Nouns, Decl. I.. § 22. See § 20-
21.
*A- Verbs, Conj. I., § 43-47. § 53.
Abbreviations (Siglarium Romanum).
Appendix K., 575.
Ablativus Casus (auferre, to take
away), the Ablative Case, so called
from one of its uses (separation),
§ 19. Its form in the Declensions,
§ 20. Governed by Prepositions,
§ 71-72. In Circumstantive JRe-
lation, § 103. V. Syntactic uses,
§ 143-161. See Contents.
Ablativus Absolutus (absolvere, to
release), the Ablative Absolute, so
called because it stands released, as
it were, from government. Also
called *Ablativus Convenientiae,
§ 161. § 238-240.
Ablative Supine, § 40. § 187.
Abstract Names, 71, 125, 272.
Abundance in Nouns, § 27.
AcatalectUS (a, not, KaTaKrjysiVy to stop
short), Versus, 528.
Accentus (accinere, to intone). Accent,
Acute or Circumflex, 7.
Accentuation, § 10. 511.
Accusativus Casus (accusare, to
accuse), the Accusative Case, so
called because the accused is the
Object of prosecution. Gr. atTtartKTj
TTTtoort?, § 19. Its form in the De-
clensions, § 20. Governed by Pre-
positions, § 70. § 72. Objective
Relation, § 103. III. Syntactic
uses, § 119-131. See Contents.
Active Voice (agere, to do), § 36.
Active Sentence, how changed to Pas-
sive Form, § 106.
Adaptation or Partial Assimilation of
Consonants, 42.
Adjectivum. Adjective (quod adicitur
APO
Substantivo). Gr. ^trLQ^rov [epithet),
§ 16. Declension of Adjectives in
Decl. II. and I., 93 ; in Decl. III.,
115-119. Irregularities, § 28. Com-
parison, § 29. Derivation, § 59.
Uses, § 63. In Qualitative Rela-
tion, § 103. II. See Agreement ;
also Contents.
* Adjectival Clause, § 189. Adjectival
(Relative) Clauses, § 204-210.
Adonius Versus, 541.
Adverbium, Adverb (quia ad Verbum
est), § 15. Comparison of Adverbs,
§ 30. Correlation of, § 54. Table
of, 228-230. Derivation of, 255-258.
Strengthen Superlative and other
Adjectives, 279.
*Adverbial Attribute and Apposite,
278, 365.
^Adverbial Clause, § 189. {B.) Ad-
verbial Clauses, § 204-227. See
Contents.
Adversative Conjunctions, § 57. 318;
Affirmative Answers, § 88.
Agreement, § 108-114. See CoN-
tents.
Alcaic Verse, § 267. § 269.
Alphabet, the letters of any language,
so called from Alpha, Beta, the first
two Greek letters. Latin Alphabet,
§ 7. § 12.
Anacoluthon, a Figure of Syntax, 565.
Anapaestus, Anapaest, ^ a me-
trical Foot, 525.
Anapaestic Rhythm, 543.
Anaphora, 318.
Animals, names of, their gender, 76, 77.
nnexive Relation in the Sentence,
§ 103, VIII. 432. Conjunctions,
316.
Answers, Affirmative and Negative,
§ 88-89.
Antecedent, 357, 361. Agreement of
Relative with, § 108. 361, 367, 368.
*Apod6sis (aTToStSoi/ai, to render back).
If a Predication is so limited by a
384
Index I,
APP
Clause, that the Clause can be stated
first, the Predication afterwards,
such Predication is called Apodosis,
while the Clause is called Protasis
(Trporetfcti/, to stretch before). These
terms are chiefly used in regard to
Compound Conditional and Con-
cessive Sentences [ify although) ; if,
although — / Hand (Protasis), I ^ee
(Apodosis). But there would be no
impropriety in applying them wnen
the Clause is Temporal or Causal,
* tvhen — because — / stand, I see, ' or !
when it is Relative, as * whoever \
stands — he will see.* Any such
clause is conditionally limitative,
and is a Protasis ; because a con-
dition precedes in logical order that
of which it IS the condition. But in
grammar the terms Apodosis and
Protasis are applied to the principal
sentence and condition severally, in
whatever order placed.
Appellativa (appellare, to call by
natne). Common Names, 71.
* Apposite (apponere, to place by), a
Substantive attributed to another
Substantive, 71, 353.
Apposition, 71, 353, 359, 360, 364-
367- ^ ,
Arsis (atpeti^, to lift), that Syllable in a
Foot on which ' ictus ' falls, § 258.
Articles (ap0pa), none in Latin. 73.
*Aryan Affinities, Append. C, 554.
*Aryan Family of Speech. § 2.
As, Compounds of, 149 : parts of,
157. Appendix G., 556. &c.
Asclepiad Metres, § 255. ; 544, &c.
•Assimilation of Vowels, 32-35 ; of
Consonants, 41-43.
Asynirtetus (a, not, cwoiprau, to link),
Versus, 528, 543.
Atonic or Baryton Syllables, § 10.
* Attraction (attrahere, to draw to), a
very important usage in Syntax,
§ 61. § 110. § 114.
Attributum (attribuere, to assign), At-
tribute, 71. In Qualitative Rela-
tion, 353, 354. Concord, § 108.
Attribution, Idioms of, § 113.
COM
B, a medial labial mute Consonant,
Relations of, 63. Euphonically in-
serted, 44 (note).
Base in metre, 528 (note).
^ Being, Verb of (sum, esse), § 42.«
C, a tenuis guttural mute Consonant,
modified from r. Sounded as K.,
9, 60 (note). Relations of, 59-64.
Caesura (caedere, to cut), § 260. and
note.
Calendar (Roman), Appendix H., 572.
Cardinalia (cardo, hinge), Cardinal
Numerals, § 33. Uses of. § 34.
Case, § 19.
Cases, Formation of, § 20. See De-
clensions.
Case-construction, § 115-176. See
Contents.
Catalecticus (/caraAT/yetT', to stop short).
Versus, 528.
Causal Conjunctions : Coordinative
and Subordinative, § 57.
Causal Coordination, 320.
*Causal Clauses, Adverbial and Ad-
jectival, § 209-210.
^Character (x«P'"«T>7P, ifnpressed mark)
of a Stem or Root, 70.
* Circumstafttive Relation, § 103. V.
Clause, 352.
'*'Clipt Stem, 30, 170.
*Coahtion, 53.
Collective Nouns or Nouns of multi-
tude, 71. Their construction, 362.
*Combinate Tense-forms, § 38.
Common. Gender, § 18.
Common Names (Appellativa), 71
Comparatives and Superlatives, their
formation, 42 (note).
Comparative Constructions, 314, 315,
404, 405.
Comparative Conjunctions, Coordina-
tive and Subordinative, § 57.
*Comparative Sentences, § 227-228.
Comparison, § 29-30.
*Compensation, 18.
* Complement (complere, to complete)^
the (Predicative), that which com-
pletes the construction of a Sen-
' The term * Substantive Verb,'' as used to denote * sum, esse,' has every disadvantage
which a term can have, (i) It is a false translation of its Greek original, pT)ju,a vnaoKTLKov
(verbum existens). (2) It tends to confuse learners, who ought to consider a Substantive
one part of speech and a Verb another. (3) If any form could claim the term Substan-
tive Verb, it would be the Infinitive, which partakes of each character (Verb-noun).
These evils are aggravated by the modern practice of saying Substantive Verb, not Sub-
stantive, which was the universal pronunciation of the Adjective formerly, in accordance
with Johnson's authority (a substantive proposition). There is no more reason to obliterate
his wise distinction by applying the general rule of pronunciation to this word in both
its senses, than to accent the first syllable in adjacent, subjective, and hundreds more.
Subjects,
585
COM
tence, when the Verb is copulative,
§ 102. Oblique Complement, 351,
360, § 131. See Predicate.
Composite Subject, 268, 353, § 112.
Composition of Words, § 60.
Composition of Verbs, § 52, § 60.
* Com pound Sentence, § 100, § 198-
228. See Contents.
Concessive Conjunctions, § 57.
*Concessive use of Conjunctive Mood,
339-
* Concessive Sentences, § 225-226.
Concords, Four, § 108.
Concrete Names, 71.
Conditional Conjunctions, § 57.
Conditional Sentences, § 213-224.
See Contents.
Conjugation (coniugare, to yoke to-
gether), the Flexion of Verbs, 72.
Periphrastic, § 47.
Conjugations, the four, § 43. Their
Paradigms, § 44-50.
Conjugating, method of, § 43.
Coniunctio (coniungere, to unite), Con-
junction, Gr, avvSeafxa?, 73. § 57.
Coordination by, 77-81. See Cor-
relation and Compound Sen-
tences.
*Coniunctivus Modus, Conjunctive
Mood, § 37. Pure Conjunctive,
Examples of, 174. § 93-95.
*Consecutio Temporum, Consecution
of Tenses, § 98. § 229.
* Consecutive C'onj unctions, § 57.
* Consecutive Clauses, § 205, 206.
Consonants, § 7. Scheme of, 8.
Affections of, 41-58. Relations in
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, § 12.
XXXV. See Contents.
'*Consonant Nouns, § 20. § 24.
"^Consonant Verbs, § 43-47. § 53.
Contraction, 52, 56.
*Coordination by Conjunctions,
§ 77-81. By Relative, § 82.
* Copulative Verbs (copulare, /^? couple).
List of, § 101.
♦Correlation, § 73-76.
♦Correlative Pronouns and Particles,
§31.
D, a medial dental mute Consonant,
63. Sounded as t when final. T
written for final d, 63. Inter-
changed with 1, 65.
Dactylic Hexameter, § 259-260.
Dativus Casus, Dative (Receptive)
Case, § 19, 20. In Receptive Re-
lation, § 103. IV, Constructions,
§ 132-142. See Contents.
Declension (declinare, to slope down),
§ 19. I
Declensions of Substantives, the Five, |
eng
§ 20. Their Case-endings, § 21.
First Decl., § 22. Second Decl.,
§ 23. Third Decl., § 24. Fourth
Decl., § 25. Fifth Decl, § 26.
Declensions of Adjectives, 93, 94,
115-119. Irregularities of Declen-
sion, § 27-28.
Defective Nouns, § 27. Defective
Adjectives, § 28. Defective Verbs,
§ 49.
Deminutiva, Diminutives, 247.
♦Dental Consonants, '8, 63.
Deponent Verbs, § 36. Their Con-
jugation, § 45. Paradigm, § 171.
Deponents of First Conj., 207-208.
Of Second Conj., 214. Of Fourth
Conj., 215. Of Third Conj., 225.
Derivation, § 59. Cf Nouns, 235-253.
Of Verbs, 254. Of Particles, 255-
259-
Desiderative Verbs <desiderare, to
desire^, 206.
Dialects of Italy. Append. D., 556.
Diphthongs (^t?, </>^oyyo5, sound), 6,
12, 13.
Disjunctive Conjunctions, § 57.
Disjunctive Coordination, 318.
♦Dissimilation of Vowels, 34. Of
Consonants, 43.
Distributive Numerals, § 33.
Double Object Verbs, their construc-
tion, 354, 379.
♦Dubitative Sense of Conjunctive, 339.
Duration of Time in Accus. , 375 ;
Abl., 401.
E, medial Vowel between a and i. Its
sound and strength, 11, 19. Forms
diphthongs with i, u, 12. Various
affections of, 24-28, 38.
♦E-Nouns, Fifth Declension, § 20.
21. § 26.
♦E-Verbs, Conj. II., §43-47. §53.
^Ecthesis {kKTiQkvai, to place out), a
word or words standing out of the
predication with which they are in
context ; as, a Vocative Case, or an
Interjection, with their adjuncts,
§ 104.
Elegiac Distich, § 261.
♦Elision (elidere, to strike out), the re-
moval of a final Syllable before a
word beginning with a Vowel, 52,
§ 256.
Ellipsis (eAAetVeti/, to omit), omission
of one or more words in construc-
tion, § 61. 274, 346, 367.
^Enclitic words {tyKhivew, to lean on),
those which throw back accent on
the word which they follow, 7, 259.
Ending, § 14.
English Language, 2.
586
Index L
ENT
"^Enthesis (lvr\.Bivai,^tp place in), 352.
*Enuntiatio (enuntiare, to declare or
state), a statement, § lOO.
♦Enuntiatio Obliqua, the First Class
of Substantival Clauses, § lOO, 189,
194-203. See CONTENTS.
Epicoene words, 77.
Epithet (cTTtdeToi/, placed on to), an Ad-
jective in simple Attribution ; as, vir
b o n u s, § 15. See Attribute.
Et)rmology (Irv/xos Aoyos, true account),
§1. §6.
* Euphonic Insertion of Consonants,
44.
* Euphony, 19.
Exclusion of Consonants followed by
Contraction of Vowels, 56-58.
Extensible Verbs, §102. §103, VII.,
§ 180.
F, an aspirate spirant Consonant ; its
sound uncertain, 9. Corresponds to
bh, dh, gh ; 0, x> 61, 62. Passes
into h, 62.
*Factive Verbs, 351. Their con-
struction with Accusative (Oblique
Clause), 380-381.
Families of Language, § 2.
Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, § 61.
Appendix F., 565.
*Final Conjunctions (finis, end, pur-
pose), § 57.
*Final Clauses, Adverbial and Adjec-
tival, § 207-208.
"^Finite Verb, § 35.
*Flexion (flexio, a bending), § 14-15.
Foot, § 258. List of Feet, 525 (note).
Fractions, how expressed, 157.
Frequentative Verbs, 205.
Futurum Tempus, Future Tense,
Simple and Perfect, § 38. Their
uses, § 90. 229. Consecution, 484,
485. See Periphrastic Conjugation,
§ 47.
G, a medial guttural mute Consonant,
§ 12. 9. Its Relations and utter-
ance, 61.
Galliambus of Catullus, 538.
Gender (genus), § 18.
Generic Names, 74.
Genetivus Casus, the Genitive (Pro-
prietive) Case, Gr. yefiKr/ TTTwo-t?,
§ 19. Formation of, in Sing, and
Plur., §20. Genitive in Proprietive
Relation, § 103. VI. Syntax of
Genitive, § 162-176. See Con-
tents.
Gentile or Clan Names ; also from
People, Cities, &c., 252.
Gerundia, Gerunds, § 40. Construc-
tion, § 181-184.
INF
Gerundive Forms, 23 (note).
Glyconic Metre, 536.
Gnomic Use of Subjunctive, 343.
Grammar, divisions of, § 1.
Greek ; its influence on Latin, 2.
Affinities, Append. C, 554.
Greek Nouns in First Decl., § 22.
In Second Decl., 92. In Third
Decl., 112-115.
*Guna, 12.
*Guttural Consonants, 8, 6i.
H, an aspirate guttural Consonant, 9.
Relations of, 61-62.
Hexameter (Dactylic), § 259-260.
*Hiatus, 52-53, § 257.
^Historic Infinitive, 332-333.
*Historic Present, 332.
^Historic Tenses, 164, § 98.
Homonymous Verb-forms (o/jicGi/v/uia,
having same name), § 227.
* Hortative and Jussive uses of Con-
junctive Mood, § 95.
I (j). Vowel and Consonant, 9, 10.
Its sound and strength as i-vocalis ;
weakest Vowel, 11. Forms diph-
thongs when strengthened by a, e, o,
12. Selection of i, 29, &c. Weakens
a and e, § 12.
I as a vincular or link-vowel, 11, 30-
32. I and u, 31.
*l-Consonans (j), 9, 10-68. Sound, Ap-
P'ind.
*I-Nouns in Third Decl., § 24.
*I- Verbs, Conj. IV., § 43-47. 214-
216.
Iambic Rhythms, § 263. 539-540.
Illative Conjunctions, § 57. Coordi-
nation by, 320.
Imperative Mood (imperare, to com-
mand), § 37. Its Tenses, 163.
How used, § 92.
Imperfect Tense, § 38. Imperfect In-
die, Its uses, § 90. Subjunctive,
§ 229.
Impersonalia Verba, Impersonal
Verbs, so called because they cannot
take a Personal Pronoun as Sub-
ject, § 50. § 109.
Impersonal use of Passive Verbs, § 50.
359. Of Gerundive Construction,
§ 50. § 181.
Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs, 196,
§53.
Indicative Mood (indicare, to shew) in
Verbs, for categorical or absolute
statement, § 37. Uses of, § 90.
^Infinite Verb, § 35. § 40. § 177-
188. See p. 169.
Infinitivum, the Infinitive, § 35. § 40.
Its constructions, § 177-188.
Slibjccts,
587
INF
^Infinitive Clause (Accusative with
Infinitive), § 194.
Interest, Calculation of, Append. G.,
569-570.
Interjection (intericere, to throw be-
tween), Interjection, § 58, 357.
Interrogations, § 86-87.
■^Interrogatio Obliqua, the Third Class
of Substantival Clauses, 100, § 202.
Interrogative Particles, § 86-87.
Intransitive Verbs, 15c, § 122-127.
-io- Verbs of Third Conj., § 46.
Irregular Nouns, § 27-28.
Italian Dialects, Append. D., 556.
* Iterative Construction w^ith Subjunc-
tive, 343, 463 ; w^ith Indie, 464.
K, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant,
gradually disused in Latin, 9.
Kalendae or Calendae, the Calends of
the Roman month. Append. H.,
572-574.
L, a dental liquid Consonant = lisped
r. Its Relations, 64, 65.
* Labial Consonants, 8.
Language, Families of, i. Languages
derived from Latin, 2.
Latin, § 2. Literature, § 5.
Letters, § 7-12.
Letter-change, § 12.
Letter-writing, Tenses in, § 90.
^^Locative Case, § 20, § 155. See
Declensions.
Logaoedic Rhythms, 541.
Loss of Initial and Final Letters, 44-
47. Of Inner Consonants by con-
currence with other Cons., 47-50.
Of Inner Vcwels before Consonants,
50-52. Of Inner Vowels with Con-
sonants, 54.
Lyric Metres, § 262.
M, a labial nasal Consonant. Eupho-
nically inserted, 44. Its Relations,
64.
Metaphor (j«,eTa<^e'peti/, to transfer), a
Figure of Rhetoric, 270.
Metonymy (/Aera, ovo^a)^ a Figure of
Rhetoric, 270.
Metre, § 258.
*Mobilia Substantiva, Substantives
which have Feminine as well as
Masculine Form, 74.
Money, Computation of, Appendix
G., 566.
Month, Roman, Appendix /7., 572.
Moods, § 37. § 90-97.
* Morphology {fj-opi^ri, form, \6yo^, ac-
count), Wordlore, § 8. § 13.
Multiplicative Numerals, 148.
^'Mutation of Letters, § 12.
PAR
N, a nasal Consonant, usually dental,
but before Gutturals becoming
guttural or palatal ; its Relations,
64.
Names (Roman), 252. How abbre-
viated. Appendix K., 575.
*Narratio Obliqua, § 230.
^Nasalization, insertion of n, 19.
Negative Particles and Pronouns,
§ 83-85.
Negative Answers, 330.
Neuter Adjectives, their Substantival
use, § 63. 365.
Nomen, Noun, § 15. Gr. 6»/o/xa.
Nominative Case, 6uo fxaaTLKri tttwo-i?,
§ 19. Formation of, in Sing, and
Plur., § 20. Uses of, § 115-117.
See Predicative Relation.
Number, § 17. § 39. § 62.
Numeralia, Words of Number, § 33-'
34.
Numeral Series, Declension, Table,
§ 33-34.
O, medial Vowel between a and u.
Its sound and strength^ 11. Forms
Diphthongs with i, 12. Weaken-
ing into u, 21.
*0-Nouns, Second Declension, § 20.
§ 23.
*0-Verbs (fragments of), 221.
*Obiectum (obicere, to cast in the way).
Object (correlated to Subiectum,
subject), that on which a Subject
acts. It may be Nearer Object
(Accus. Case), or Remoter (usually
Dative, sometimes Accus.) See
Accusative, Dative, and Objective
Relation.
* Objective Relation, § 103, III.
^Objective Genitive, § 163. § 174.
*Obliqua Oratio, § 190-193.
^Oblique Subject or Complement (the
Subject or Complement of an Ob-
lique Infinitive Clause), 352 (note),
§ 131.
Optative use of Conjunctive, § 95.
Order of Words in a Sentence, § 241-
243.
Ordinaha, Ordinal Numerals, § 33.
Ordinative Particles, 317.
Orthography, Append. A., 547.
^Oscan Dialect, Append. D.
P, a labial tenuis mute Consonant,
§ 12. Euphonically inserted, 59,
63-
■'^Parasitic u (v) joined to q, 10, 58.
Part affected, Accusative of, 374
Participles (partem capere), 165
Participial Construction, § 237-240.
See Contents.
588
hidex L
PAR
Particulae, Particles or Small Parts of
Speech, a name given to the four
undeclined Parts, including some
which are inseparable, or only used
in Compounds : ambi-, dis-, in-, re-,
se-, § 24. § 54-58. 255-259
Prirtitive (partiri, to divide), words
which take a Genitive of the Thing
Distributed, § 171. See Genitive
in Contents.
Parts of Speech or Words, § 14. § 16.
Passiv^a Vox (pati, to suffer), Passive
Voice in Verbs, § 36.
Patronymic (n-arT^p, father, ovofxa,
fi Line), a name expressing descent
from a father or ancestor, 75.
Perfect Tense (perficere, to complete),
§ 33. Disyllabic Perfect, 18. Its
double use in Latin, 164. Its uses
in the Indie. M., 162. In pure
Conjunctive M., § 90. § 95. In
Subjunctive, § 204. § 229.
Perfect-Stem and Character, § 41.
Its Formation, § 51. § 53.
Period (TrepioSo?, circuit) and Periodic
Style in Discourse, § 244-249.
^Periphrastic Conjugation, a term
used to express the forms of predi-
cation obtained by connecting the
Participles with the Verb sum :
especially the Future Active Parti-
ciple in -urus and the Gerundive in
-ndus, § 47. The term would be
equally applicable to the Combinate
Passive Tenses with sum and Perf
Part., but is not usually given to
these. See p. 164, § 47.
Person, § 39.
*Petitio (petere, to seek), that Form of
a Simple Sentence in which the Im-
perative Mood is used, § lOO.
*Petitio Obliqua, Indirect Will-speech,
the second of the three kinds of
Substantival Clauses, 349, § 197.
Phalaecian or HendecasyUable Verse,
537-
Pherecrateus Versus, 535.
Phonetic Decay, 11.
^Phonology {<\>iavf\^ sound, A670?, ac-
count), Soundlore, § 7-12.
Phrase ((|)pa(Tt?, from 0pa^eti/, to speak
intelligibly), 352 (note).
Place, Adverbs of, § 55. Construc-
tions of, § 155-157. See CoN-
tp:nts.
Plautus and Terence, 3. Their Pro-
sody, 56, 546.
Pleonasm (TrAeora^'eir, to exceed), a
Figure of Syntax, § 61.
Pluperfect Tense (plus quam per-
fectum, more than complete), § 38.
Us use in the Indie. M., § 90. Con-
junctive and Subjunctive, § 229.'
PRO
Plural Number (plures, more), § 17.
Peculiar uses of, § 62.
Plural only ; words generally without
Singular, 125.
Plural, variation of meaning in, 128.
Poetic Forms and Idioms, Append. E.,
563.
I Position, a Term used in Prosody to
express that a vowel is long, short,
I or doubtful in quantity by coming
before certain letters, 512.
Potential Use of Conjunctive, 338.
Praeteritiva Verba, Verbs not conju-
gated with Present-Stem, § 49.
* Predicate (praedicare, todeclare), that
member of a Sentence by which
something is declared of the Subject.
Writers on Logic resolve every pro-
position into Subject, Copula, and
Predicate. But in Grammar this
would only mislead, for it is not
in such form that authors write.
Neither sum, nor any other Copula-
live Verb, exactly corresponds to
the logical Copula ; and the word,
which such Verb links to the Sub-
ject, is often not identical with
a logical Predicate. For these
reasons (while Madvig and most
other Grammarians are followed
in allowing the term Predicate in
Grammar to a Finite Verb) the
term Complement is used to express
the word or phrase linked by a
Copulative Verb to the Subject, and
so completing a Simple Sentence,
§ 101-102.
* Predicative Relation, § 103, I.
Prefix, 70.
Preposition (praeponere, to place be-
fori), Gr. irpo^eats, 72. Table of
Prepositions, § 56. Prepositions in
composition with Nouns, § 60. With
Verbs, § 52-^0. Use of Preposi-
tions with Cases, § 70-72.
Present Tense, § 38. Its uses in Indie.
M. , § 90. In Conjunctive M., § 94.
In Consecution, § 229.
Present Stem and Character, § 41.
Affections of Present Stem, § 51.
See Contents.
■^Primary Tenses, §. 38. § 95.
■^Primitive Roots, § 5. Supplementary
Notes, 577.
j *Proclitica (n-po/cAivfir, to lean for-
ward), Particles which merge their
j accent in the following word, 7.
j Prohibition, forms of, § 92. § 95.
j * Prolativc Relation (proferre, to ex-
j tend), that in which Predication is
extended by an Infinitive added to
; Verbs, Participles, or Adjectives, 356,
i "^'Prolafive Infinitive, § 180.
Stibjccis,
589
PRO
Pronoun (Gr. ai'Twi/u^ia), § 15. Pro-
nouns, § 32. Use of. § 64-69.
See Contents.
Pronominalia, 137, 142, 292, 368. § 73.
Pronunciation of Vowels and Diph-
thongs, § 12. Of Latin generally,
Append. B.
Proper Names ; Names peculiar to
Persons or Places, 71.
Proportional Numerals (duplus, &c.),
148.
^Proprietive Relation^ that of the
Genitive to the Noun on which it
depends, 356. § 103.
Prosodia (irpoo-aSeti/, to sing in accord)^
Prosody, i. § 251-269.
^Protasis. See Apodosis.
• Punctuation, § 11.
*Pure or Independent Conjunctive
Mood, § 37. Uses of, § 93-95.
Q, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant,
only used with parasitic u (v), 9, 10.
Its Relations, 59-61. Sounded as
0 before u. Append. A.
^Qualitative Relation, that in which
Attributes orApposites stand to their
Nouns, § 103, II.
Quahty, Ablative of, § 153. Genitive
of, § 168.
Quantitative Words, taking Genetivus
Rei Demensae, § 172.
Quantity of Syllables, § 8. § 252-255.
*Quasi-Passive Verbs, 160.
Questions. See Interrogatio.
R, a dental liquid Consonant, § 12.
Its relations, 64-66. Substituted
for s, 65.
* Receptive Relation, that in which a
Dative Case stands to a Trajective
or other Verb or Noun on which it
depends, § 103, IV.
*Recta Oratio (distinguished from
Obliqua O.), Direct Discourse in a
Principal Sentence, § lOO, § 190.
Reduplication (reduplicare, to re-
double), a peculiar mutation, by
which the form and sense of words
is varied in Greek, Latin, and other
languages, 40. Reduplication in
Present-Stem, § 51. In Perfects,
§ 51. Loss of, 118.
Reflexive Pronouns (reflectere to bend
back), se with its Possessive suus ;
so called because they ' bend back '
their reference to a preceding Subject
of the Third Person, § 32. Their
use, § 66. In Clauses, § 231-235.
* Relations of construction existing
SUB
between words in Simple Sentences,
§103.
Relative Pronoun (referre, to refer)
qui quae quod, so called because
referred to an Antecedent noun-
term, § 32. The root of most Sub-
ordinative Conjunctions and of
numerous Adverbs, § 59. Coor-
dination by Relative, § 82. Agree-
ment of Relative with Antecedent,
§ 108j Concord IV. Notes on,
§114.
*Relative (Adjectival) Clauses, § 204.
Consecutive, § 206. Final, § 208.
Causal, § 210.
Rhythm (pv^/Ltb?), modulated flow or
measure in verse or prose, 512.
Prose rhythm, 506. Rhythms in
Verse, § 269.
*Root, § 14. § 59. Supplementary
Notes, 577.
S, a dental sibilant Consonant. Rela-
tions, § 12. Passes into r, 66.
*Sanskrit, i, § 6. Append. E. Suppl.
Notes, 577.
Sapphic Stanza in Horace and Catul-
lus, § 266.
Sapphic Metres, 542-544.
! Selection, 20-32.
*Semiconsonants, 9-10.
*Semideponent Verbs, 160.
Semitic Family of Language, § 2.
Sententia (sentire, to express thought),
a Sentence, § 100.
Sentences. The Parts of Discourse ;
their kinds, § 100. Order of Words
in a Sentence, § 241.
Shortening of Vowels, 55, &c.
Simple Sentence ; three forms of,
§ 100. Its parts, 101-103. Con-
structions of, § 107-188. See
Contents.
Singular Number, § 17. § 27. § 62.
Singular only, words without plural,
125.
*Soundlore (Phonology), § 7-12. See
Contents.
*Stem, § 14. The three Stems in
Verbs, § 41. § 51. § 53.
^Strengthening, § 12. 12-19.
Strophe or Stanza (<rTpe'</)en/, to turn),
Strophic Metres, 528 (Note), 543-
546.
"'^Subiectum, Subject, that member of
a Sentence of which action or state
is predicated, § 102.
Subiunctivus Modus (subiungere, to
subjoin), the Subjunctive Mood, a
name given to the Conjunctive
Mood when subordinated to an-
Index L
SUB
other Verb, § 37. 175. § 96-98. In
Suboblique Construction, § 190-
193. In Compound Sentences,
§ 194-228. See Contents.
Suboblique Construction, the Con-
struction of Verbs in Subordination
to Oratio Obliqua, real or virtual,
§ 190-193.
^Substantival Clauses, why so called :
their varieties, § 100. Construc-
tion, § 194-203. See Contents.
Substantive (substare, to stand be-
neath), the first of the inflected
Parts of Speech, § 15. Declensions
of, § 17-26. Irregularity in, § 27.
Uses of, § 62.
♦Suffix, § 14. List of Noun-suffixes,
§ 68. Suffixes of Particles, § 59.
Superlativus gradus (superferre, to
carry above), the highest Degree of
Comparison in Adjectives and Adr
verbs, § 29, 30. Idioms of, 279.
Supine, an unmeaning term, applied
to the two Cases of the Verb Infi-
nite which end in um and u, 165.
Their construction, § 185-186.
Supine-Stem, § 41. Its formation,
§51.
Syllaba (<n;AAa/x/3ai/€ii/, to take together),
a Syllable, § 7.
Syllabation, 9.
Synaphea, 520 (note).
*Synesis (awUvai, to understand ;
o-ui/eo-i?, meaning), a Figure of Syn-
tax, by which meaning rather than
form determines the construction,
§ 61. § 111. § 114.
Syntax (o-vfrao-o-eii/, to construct), a
Division of Grammar, § 1. S 100-
250.
T, a dental tenuis mute Consonant,
8, 63.
Tenses, § 38. § 90-98. Consecu-
tion of, § 98. § 229.
Temporal Clauses (Adverbial), § 211-
212. See Contents.
Temporal Conjunctions, § 57. § 211.
Thesis in Verse, § 253.
Time of Syllables (Mora), § 8, § 512.
Time, Constructions of, § 124.
§ 154. Computation of, Appen-
dix H., 572.
Tmesis, 35, 299, 563.
Towns, Names of; their Gender,
§ 18. Their constructions, § 125.
§ 155-157.
ZEU
* Trajective (traicere, to throw over).
Verbs and Adjectives which by
their meaning suggest a Remoter
Object, 355, 384.
Transitive Verbs, 159, § 121-126.
Transposition of Consonants, 44.
U-V, Vowel and (Spirant) Consonant,
its uses in each character, 10.
U as weakening of a, o, 11, 21.
*U-Nouns (Fourth Deal), § 26.
*U-Verbs (in Third Conj.), § 43.
§ 53. 224.
*Umbrian Dialect, Appendix D.
Universal Relatives, 141, 146, 291.
§ 73.
V, a soft Labial Spirant, 8, 10, 67.
Sound of, 66 (note). Appendix B.
Variant meaning of Plural Substan-
tives, 128.
Verb, Gr. pr?^a, § 15. § 35-53. § 59.
254. §60. §90-98.
Verse, § 258. &c.
*Vinculation, 11, 30.
Vocales, Vowels, § 7-12. Scheme
of, 8.
Vocative Case (vocare, to call), §19.
§ 20. Vocative Ecthesis, § io4.
§ 118, 119.
Voice (also called Genus), that form
by which Verbs are marked as
doing or suffering, § 36.
*Vowel-change, § 12. See Cox-
tents.
Vowel-weakening in Compounds, 35-
39. See Contents.
*Vriddhi, 12.
^Weakening, § 12. § 19, &c. See
Contents.
Words, § 14-19.
*Wordlore (Morphology), § 13-99.
X, double Consonant = cs ; not in the
older Latin Alphabet, 9, 68.
Y represents Gr. v, introduced with z
( = ^) in Cicero's age, 9. Its sound,
Appendix B.
Z, introduced with y, only used in
latinised Greek words, 9.
Zeugma, § 61.
591
INDEX II.
LATIN WORDS.
[The reference is to pages. An asterisk calls special attention to the word.^
a, ab, abs, 202, 231, 263,
299-300
abicio, conicio, eicio,
&c., 10, 549
abiete, ariete, pariete,
10, 27
absque, 302
ac, atque, 233, 312, 313,
316
accestis, 55
accipiter, 77
acer, 16
ac si, 482
acetabulum, 571-572
acipens-is, -er, 29
actus, 570-571
acus, acuo, 16
ad, 232, 263, 293
adamantinus, 29
adeps, 65
adfatim, ad - amussim,
26, 105, 256
*adimo (forabimo?), 263
adiuris, 57
admodum, 135, 256, 329
*adolere, abolere,&c.,2io
adorea, 102
adulescens, adolescens,
548
adultus, 160
advers-us, -um, 232, 294
aeque ac, 312
aequi boni facere, 416
aerugo, 36
aes, 56, 566
aes grave, 566-569
Aesculapius, 29
aestimare (aestumare),
548. 566
aetas, 54
Agaue, Agave, 130
age, apage, agesis, &c. ,191
agmen, agmin-, 25
ago, 16, 61
aheneus, aeneus, 50, 549
ai, 12
aidilis, 12
aio, 13, 48, 190
ain tu ? 190
ala, 48
Alcumena, 29
ales, 27
alias . . . alias, 292
aliquis, aliqui, 289, 290
alis, 144
aliter, 292, 314, 421
alius, 142, 292, 314, 362
alter, 42, 142, 144, 154,
292, 362
alteruter, 141, 260, 292
alucinari, 549
alumnus, 23
amabo, 235, 337
amb-, 203, 266
ambissint, 55
ambo, 151
amentum, ames, 50
amphora, 571-572
amphorum, &c., 87
amplus, 50
ampulla (amphorula), 23
an, annon, 326-329
ancora, 21
anguis, anguilla, 50
animans, 76
anser, 61
ante, 232, 251, 255, 294
ante diem, 573
antecedo, anticipo, 31
antequam, priusquam,
464
anulus, 550
apio, 189 (note)
apis, 109
apprime, inprimis, prae-
cipue, &c., 280
Aprilis, 51
apsens, optuli, &c., 42
apud, 232, 294
aquila, 33 (note)
aranea, 47, 64
arbiter, 65
arbos, arbustum, 24
arceo, arx, 4
arcesso, 65
armentum, 28
artus (part.), 549
arx, 46, 64
as, 157, 566-570
asses usurae, 569
at, atqui, 259, 319
Athenis, 87
attinet, pertinet, 192
au, 12, 13
auceps, 27, 52, 57
audeo, 52, 57
audieram, &:c., 58
Aurelii, 63
auris, 66
Aurora, 66
ausim, 55
aut, 259
aut, vel, ve, 318
autem, 259, 314
autumnus, 549
avariti-a, -es, 33
avos, &c., 34
avus, avia, 74
balanus, &c,, 29 (note)
balneum, 52
-bam -bo, &c., 51, 63
barbarus, 40
bardus, 65
belli, humi, &c., 83, 91
belli gerundi, 23
bellicus, 30
bellum, 46, 63
bene, bonus, 20, 34
benigne, 330
benignus, 51
-bero -beri, &c,, 51, 63
bibo, 40
biceps, 54
bicessis, 54
bidens, biennium, bifa*
riam, &c., 149
592
Index IL
biduum, triduum, &c.,
15, 52, 149
bigae, quadrigae, 56
bilanx, 149
bimus, &c,, 149
binarius, &c., 148
bini, 153, 155
bis, 44, 63, 153
bissextus, =^75
bobus, bubus, 57
bonus, 44, 63
bos, 63, 67
brevis, 48
bruma, 57
Brundisium (Brundu-
sium), 548
bubo, 77
bulbus, 23
cadus, 572
caecus, 547
caelebs, 27
caelnm, 45, 547
caementum, 49, 547
caerimonia, 547
caeruleus, 43
caespes, 547
calamitosus, 54
calcar, 45
calfacere, 51, 263
caligo, 16
camena, 50, 547
candidus, 30
canis, 59
canis, iuvenis, vates, log
capella, 51 -
^^^capio, 189 (note)
capsis, 187
carnifex, 548
caro, 65
Carthagini, 83
casa, 45
Cauda, 45
caupo, copa, 74
causa (caussa), 14, 55, 56
causa, 394, 414
cautum, fautum, &c.,io,
57
cave with Subj., cave sis,
vide sis, 337
caveo, 14, 443
cavi, favi, fovi, &c., 18
cavus, 45
cedo, cette, 52, 191
cella, 16
cello, fallo, pello, 67
celo, clam, &c., 16
celsus, 28
cena, 50, 547
cenatus, 160
censeo, 451
centum, 59, 152, 154
centuria, 571
centussis, 36
Cerealis, 66
Ceres, 17, 25
cerno, crimen, cribrum,
&c., 17, 65
certe, certo, 329
ceteri, 547
ceu, neu, seu, 13, 45
Charisin, 43
Chalybon, 113
cicindela, 40
ciconia, 40
cincinnus, 40
cinis, 25, 29
circuit, 53
circum, circa, circiter,
266, 295-296
circumago, 53
cis, citra, 133, 151, 294
cithara, 25
citimus, 42, 151
civis, 15, 76
clam, clanculum, 16, 256
clandestinus, 43, 251
claustrum, 43
clepsit, 55
cliens, clienta, 53, 74
clima, 571
clipeus, 548
cludo, 13
cluo, 14, 44, 64
coalitu*-, 160
cochleare, 572
codex, &c., 13, 27
coemo, 53
coepi, coeptus sum, 189
cogo, 450
cohors, cors, 56, 549
color, colos, &c., 66
columna, 41
colurnus, 44
comedo, 53
comes, 27
commmiscor, 190
con, com, 203, 251, 263
concedo, 450
condicio, 549
conectere, conubium,
&c., 549
congius, 571
conmnx, coiunx, 76
consuetudo, 54
consul, 22, 36
consulo, consilium, 34
contamino, 48
contio, 57, 549
contra, 251, 296
contumelia, contumax, 39
convitium (convicium),
34 (note), 549
copia, 35
copis, S3
coquo, 59, 578
cor, 46
coram, 256, 302
cordi esse, odio esse,
&c., alteri, 390
corpulentus, 50
cotidie, cottidie, 155,
255. 549
creare, crescere, &c., 17
credo, 216
Cres, Cressa, 75
cretus, 160, 404
crudus, crudelis, crus-
tum, &c., 141
cubitus, 570
cuculus, 40
cucumis, 29
cui bono fuit ? 391
cuicuimodi, 144
culest, 53
culeus, 572
cum (prep.), 233, 263, 302
cum, or quum (conj.) :
for quod, 442 ; causal,
since, 449 ; temporal,
when, 463-467 ; con-
cessive, although, 480,
482
cum, quum (quom), 549
cum-tum, tum-tum, &c.,
317
cuncti, 56
cupio, 449
cupressus, 28, 50
cur, quare, &c., 36, 53
cura, 14
cura ut, 337
curculio, 40
curia, 57
euro, 451
custos, cutis, &c., 14
cyathus, 571-572
cygnus, 43
-dam -dem -do -dum,
&c., 259
damnas, 131
Dareus, Darius, 10
de, 251, 263, 277, 300
de, deterior, deterrimus,
133. 251
deabus, filiabus, &c., 84,
87
debeo, 56, 263, 427
decem, 59, 152-153
decempeda, 570
decennis, 53
decenter, 257
decet.dedecet, 192
decies, decies centena,
&c., 156, 568-569
decuria, 57
Latin Words.
593
decurro, 264
decussis, 36
deesse, &c., 53
defetigo (defatigo), 36,
547
deflagratus» 160
deiero, 25, 39
dein, deinde, &c.p 13, 46
deminuere, 548
demum, 259
denarius, 567-8
deni, 47
denique, 259
denuo, 257
depeciscor (depaciscor),
547
deram, dero, 8iCt, 53
deses, 28
deus, divus, &c., 15, 33
dextanSp 56
dexter, dexterior, dex-
timus, 42, 133
di (dei), dis (deis), 548
Diana, 15
die, due, fac, fer, &c., 45
dicare, dicere, 115
dicio, dTcis, 15, 549
die crastini, 120, 400
dies, diu, &c., 15
digitus, 570
dignus, 15
diluvies, 36
diribeo, dirimo, 66
dis- dir-, 203, 265
dis (dives), 57
disco, 48 (note)
diu, by day ; diu, long,
257
diurnus, 66
divisse, 55
dixti, 54
do (Sk. da) J -do (Sk.
dha), 206
doceo, 451
doctrina, 50
dodrans, 57
Dolabella, 51
doleo quod, 441
domi, 83, 120
domine, 26
domus, 120
donee (donicum), 259,
461-463
dracuma, 29
dubito an, 327
duellum, 45
dulcedo, 30
dulcis, 65
dum, 259 ; dum, donee,
quoad, whilst, 461-
463 ; untily 461-464
dum, dummodo, pro-
vided tkaff 479
dumtaxat, 259
dumus, 50
dupondius, 570
dux, duco, educo, &c. , 15
Ci ex, 133, 251» 264, 301
ebur, ebor-, 21
ecce» en, 235» 259
eccum, ellum, &c., 140
ecquis, 141
edepol, epol, pel, 235
edoj 189
edus, &c., 12
ego, 61
eheu, heu, 235
ei, 12, 13
eice, reicep 10
elephus, elephantus, 77
-endus, -undus, 548
enim, etenim, 259, 320
eo (v.), 189
eo (adv.), 229, 308
eo, quo, tanto, quanto,
&c., with compar., 399
epigrammaton, 113
epistula, epistola, 548
Epona, 59 (note)
equester, 28
equidem, 259
equus, 59
erepsemus, 54
erga, 296
ergo, 320
erus, era (herus, hera),
17, 62
es, 52
esse, 51
et is, &c., 285
et, que, 259, 316
et, neque, 316
etiam, quoque, 316
Etrusci, Tusci, 65
etsi, etiamsi, 479-482
eu, 12, 13
examen, 48
examussim, 106
excubiae, 79
exin, 46
existimo, 39
exosus, 160
exspecto, expecto, exsul,
exul, &c., 550
exta, 52
exterior extremus, 42,
133
extinxerti, 54
extra, 296
faba, 63
fac with Infin. Clause,
444
Q Q
fac (ut, ne), 337, 444
facies, 16
faciOp 16
facio, efficiOi 448
facit are, 35
facul, 46
faenum, 547
faginus, 29
Falisci, Falerii, 65
fallo, 45
famulp 46
far, 42, 46
fari, 14, 191
fas, 16
fateor, 16
fax, 16
faxOk faxim, faxitur, 55
febris, 50
fecundus, 23, 547
fel, 46, 63
femina, 29, 547
fendo, 60
fenus, fener- fenor^;,
feneror, 25, 547, 548
ferbui, fervi, 549
feriae, 65
fero, 62, 184-5, 217
ferre, 51
fers, 52
fetialis, 549
fetus, 547
fMes, fido, &c., 15
figlinus. 51
finis, 49
fio, 185-6
firmus, 62
flagro, 62
flamen, 48
flanima, 41
fluo, fluvius, &c., 15
foedus (s.), 15, 547
fomentum, 57
foras, 256
fore, 21
fore ut, futurum ut, with
Subjunctive;, 444
foris, 62
formosus, 50
fors, forte, 259
forsitan, fortasse, 259
fossa, 41
frango, 16
fra(n)go, iu(n)go, &c., ig(
frater, 62
frigo, 62
frigus frigor-, 25
frivolus, 22
•^frugi, 131, 133
frustra, 39
fugio, 62
fui, 58 (notej, 62
fulcrum, 28 (note)
fulgeo, 6a
594
Index IL
fulmen, 47
fumus, 62
fundo, 63
funebris, 50
fungor, fruor, utor, ves-
cor, with Abl., 397
funus, funer-, 25
furfur, 40
Furius, 65
Gaius, 9, 13
gallus, gallina, 75
gaudeo, 52, 57
gaudeo, gratulor quod,
441
genitor, genetrix, 30, 547
gen-va, 10
Georgicon, 92
gero, 65
gigno, genus, &c.,i6, 40,
61
glacialis, 53
Gnaeus, g
gnarus, &c., 16
gnasci, 44
gnatus, &c., 16
gnavus, &c., 16
gnosco, &c., 16, 44
gradior, 180
gradus, 570
grando, 64
gratia, 394, 414
gravor, 159
habeo, with part, perf.,
499
Hadria, 62, 549
Hammon (Ammon), 549
harena (arena), 62, 65,
549
hariolus, 549
harundo (arundo), 62,
549
haruspex (aruspex), 62,
549
haud, haut, hau, 323, 549
haudquaquam, 324
haud scio an, 323
haurio, 65
hauscio, 46
have (ave), 191, 549
hebetude, 54
hedera, 549
hei, vae, hem, 235, 390
hemina, 571-572
herciscere, 549
Hercules, 29
heredium, 569
heres, 17, 62, 158, 547
heri (here), 61, 257, 400,
548
hestemus, 65
Hiber (Iber), 549
hibernus, 44 (note)
hie, 139, 144, 282
hie, ille, 283
hiemps, 61, 548, 549
hilaris, hilarus, 31
hilla, 50
hirundo, 17, 64
hirudo, 17
Hister (Ister), 549
hodiernus, 66
holus (olus), 62, 549
homicida, 54
homo, 19, 69, 76
homullus, 23
honestus, 28
hornus, 57
horsum, 57
I hortor, 442
huiusque, huiusce, 59
humi, humo, 83
iacio, 10
lanus, 45
ibi, illic, 228, 308
id aetatis, id temporis,
&c., 374
idcirco, ideo, propterea,
320, 458. 459
idem, 50, 284, 313
idus, 572
iecur, ieciner- iecinor-,
59. 548
igitur, 320
ignis, 20
ignosco, 50
ihcet, 259
ilico (ilHco), 39
IHthyia, 12
ille, 26, 139, 144, 258,283
illinc, 258
imberbus, imberbis, 31
immo, 257, 259, 330
impedio, 450
impero, 264, 450
impetrassere, 55
impubis, 115
imus, 56
in-, 262
in- (Pr.), 202, 251, 264,
304-305
in eo esse ut, &c., 453
inciens, 53 (note)
incitas, 130
inclutus (inchtus), 548
incohare, 549
induor, exuor, with Ac-
cus., 374, 549
industrius, 53 (note)
indutiae, 53
infimus, 42, 151
infitias ire, exsequias
ire, 376
infra, 133, 297
inger, 45
in promptu, in procinctu,
130
inquam, 188
inquilinus, 34, 59
inquinare, 39, 59
instar, 130, 414
instiej'o, 17
intellego, 203, 264, 548
inter, 42, 265, 296-297
inter ipsos ; inter se, 495
interea loci, &c., 420
intercludo, &c., 264
interdius, interdiu, 257.
400
■'^intereo, interemo, inter-
ficio, 264
interest, refert, 193, 416-
417» 449
interior, intimus, 42, 151
intra, 133, 151, 296
intus, 29, 136
invideo, 264, 384
iocus, 15
ipse, 288-289, 494-495
iracundus, 30
ire, iri, with supine, 186
is, 139, 283-285
is, eiusmodi, talis, &c.,
ut (qui), &c„ 452, 455,
&c.
iste, 140, 283
ita, itaque, 258, 320
ita ut, 452
item, itidem, 258, 312,313
iterum, tertium, &c., 149
itur, 188
iubeo, 450
iucundus, 14
index, 50
iug-, iungere, iiigum,
iugis, &c., 14
iugemm, 157, 570-571
iumentum, 14, 48, 57
iunior, 133
luppiter, 15, 45, 57
iuratus, 160
iurgor, 52
iuvat, 15, 193
iuvenis, 76
iuxta, 52, 297, 313
Kaeso, 9
Kalendae, 9, 527
Kalumnia, 9
Kartago, 9
labare, labi, 16
Labienus, 34
lac, 44, 46
Latin Words.
595
Tilcer, 64
}acrima, 65, 548
lama, 471
lamentum, 44
lamna, 52
lana, 47
lanius, 47
lanx, 45
lapicidina, 54
Lares, 65
latrocinium, 54
latus, 45
laus, 14, 44, 578
lavo, 14
Lemuria, 43
leo, lea, leaena, 64, 75
levir, 65
levis, 48, 64, 578
levis, 64, 547
libella, 570
libera schola, 576
libet, lubet, 9, 15, 192, 548
libido, 30
libra, 566, &c.
librarius, 572
licet, 66, 192, 441, 449
ligula, 572
lilium, 64
Umax, 15
limus, 15
linere, 15
lingo, 61
lingua, 65
linquo, 59, 64
liquere, liquet, liquor,
17, 192
lis, 45
littera, lltura, linea, 15,
549
htus. 550
locuples, 54
locus, 45
loquella (loquela), 549
luci, 83
lucifer, 31
lucinus, 29
lupus, 45
luscinia, 14, 44, 64
lux, luceo, luna, lucerna,
Luci n a, 14, 64
lynx, 77
machina, 29
macte, macti, 131, 235
maerere, maestus, 547
mage, magis, 26, 42, 136
magister, 25
maiestas, 28
maior, 13, 48
Maius, 13, 48
mala, 48
maleficus, malificus, 31
Mamers, 40
manceps, 50
mancipium, 79, 548
mane, mani, 257, 400
malo, 57, 186-187, 449
manibiae, 54
mansuetudo, 54
manus, 16
margo, margin^, 29
maritimus (maritumus),
548
marmor, 40
Maspiter, 35
matertera, 53
maximus, 42
mea, tua, &c., 417
mecastor, mehercule,
medius fidius, 235
medicus, 30
meditor, 65
medius, 63
mel, 46
melior, melius, 21
memini, 189, 422
mensa, 16
mensis, 16
meridies, 65
metior, 16, 216
meto, 16, 220
mi, 56
militiae, Romae, &c., 83,
87
mille, millia (milia), 41,
152, 159
millia passuum, 570
mina, 29
Minerva, 29, 66
minime, 324, 330
minister, 28
minor, minimus, 42
minus ( = non), 324
mirum quantum, &c.,
280
misceo, 48 (note)
misereor, miseror, mis-
eret, 192, 422-423
misti, 54
modestus, 28
modium, medimnum,
&c., 91
modius, 572
modo, 324
modo . . . modo, 317
modo non, 324
modus, &c., 16
moles, mSlestus, 48
momentum, 57
moneo, 451
monimentum, monu-
mentum, 548
monstro, monstrum, 44
morior, 180
mos, &c, , 16
CQOstellaria, 50
mostis, 57
mox, 259
mulsum. 24
multimodis, 50
murmur, 21, 40
nae (ne), nae tu, nae ille,
&c., 235
nam, namque, 258, 320
nare, nS-tare, &c., 16
naris, nasus, &c., 16, 65
narrare, 44, 54
nascor, natio, &c., 16,
44. 548
nasturtium, 5a
nauci, 416
nausea, 33
nauta, 52, 57
navis, 67
-ng, 326
ne, 323
ne prohibitive, 337-34^
neinPet. Obi., 442-443,
446-451
ne in Fin. CI., 457-458
ne . . , quidem, 325
nec, neque, 316, 325
nec ( = ne . . . quidem).
325
necdum, 323
necesse, 26
necesse est, 441, 449
necne, 329
necnon, 316, 323
necubi, 323
nedum, 323. 325
nefas, nefarius, 65
negassim, 55
neglego, 43, 548
negotium, 43
nemo, 56, 323
nemo unus, 268, 323
nemo non, &c., 324
nempe, 255
nepos, neptis, 52, 74
*nequam, 131, 323
nequaquam, 324, 330
nequeo, 188
nequiquam, 324
nescio quis, 290
neuter, 323
neutiquam, 323, 324
neve, 316, 323
nihil, nil, 34, 56, 323, 549
nihil dum, nullus dum.
&c., 324
nihil non, 324
nihil quicquam, 268
nimirum, 259
nimius, 34
ningo, ninguo, nix, 43,
548
nisi, .q23, 475-477
596
Index II.
noli, 337
nolo, 54, 57, 186-187, 449
nomenclator, 52
nomen Latinum, 273
non, 256. 323, 330
non modo, non solum, 325
non modo non, 325
non quia, non quod, 460
nonae, 572
nonne, 323
nonnemo, 324
nonnihil, nonnuUus, &c.,
324
non possum non, 324
nonus, 152
nos, 141
nosco, nota, nomen, 16,
548
nostri, nostrum, 141
novem, 20
nubes, 26, 63 -
nucleus, 52
nudius, 259
nuUus, 142, 323
num, numne, 326, 328
numen, numin-, 29
Numerius, 65
nummus, 568
numquis, 141, 143
nunc, 57
nuncupo, 54
nundinae, 57
nunquam, &c. , 52, 323, 324
nuntio, 57
nuo, numen, nutus, &c. , 1 5
nuper, 57
nurus, 66
O, 235
0, heu, pro, en, ecce,
&c., 379
ob, 203, 264, 297
obit, 58
■^obliquus, obscenus, 39,
264, 547
■'^(obs), 203 (note), 264
oboedire, 39, 547
*obscurus, 14, 39
■^obsolesco, exolesco, in-
solesco, 203, 266
obsoletus, 160
obviam, 256
occulo, 16
Dccupo, 22, 266
ocior, ocissimus, 16, 134
octavus, 152
odi, 189
01, oe, 12, 13
olere, 65
olla, 50
omen, 50
omitto, 264
omnino, 257
onustus, 28
operae, 79
operio, 264
oportet, 192, 446, 449
optime, 331
optimus, 42
opto, 449
opus, usus, 197
orior, 180
oro, 449
OS, 46
*ostendo, 203, 264
ou, 12, 13
ovare, 191
ovis, 20, 21
pS-ciscor, pax, &c., 16
paelex, 547
Paelignus, 547
paenitet, 192, 548
paenula, 548
pala, 48
palam, 256, 302
palma, 50
palmipes, 570
palmus, 570
palumbes, 59
palus, 48
papaver, 40
Papirii, 65
par, pariter, 312
Parilia, 43
parricida, 41
pars, portio, 20
pars, plebs, &c., 362
partim, 105, 256
parum, 136, 256
parvulus, 22
paterfamilias, &c., 86
patior, 450
patricius, 549
patrocinium, 54
pauper, 54
pavo, 59, 77
pecu, 120
peiero, 25, 39
peior, 35
penes, 297
penitus, 136
penna, 41
peperi, 25
per, 299
-per, 259
per-, 262, 299
*perdo, peremo, pereo,54
(note), 160, 264
perendie, 257
pergo, 54
perinde ac, 312
perinde quam, 312
per mihi gratum est,
per mihi placet, 35
permitto, 450
perosus, 160
perperam, 256
perquam, 135
Perses, Perseus, 114
persona, 17
pertaesus, 160
pes, 157' 570
pes monetalis, 570
pessimus, 42
pessulus, 22
pessum, 130
pestis, 50
picus, 15
pietas, 34
piget, 192
pila, 48
pignoris, pigneris, pig-
neror, 548
Pinarii, 65
pinguis, 61
pinus, 47
pistrinum, 50
placitus, 160
plaustrum, 43
plebs, 17, 63
plenus, 47
plerique, 131, 142
plerique omnes, 268
pluo, pluvia, &c., 14
plus, plurimus, 42, 136
poematorum, poematis,
113
poena, 547
pomeridianus, 46
pomoerium, 46, 548
Pompeius, 13, 59
Pomponius, &c., 59
pondo, 130, 575
pone, 50, 294
pono, 50, 220
Pontius, &c., 59
popina, 59
populare, 41
pbpulus (popolus), 17,
21, 40
populus, 40
porro, 65
posco, 206
possum, 54, 184
post, 133, 151, 294
postea, posthac, 256
posterior, postremus,
postumus, 42, 133
postquam, posteaquam,
462
postridie, 257, 400
postulo, 451
potes, 54
potestas, 28
potior (v.), 186
potior, potius, 134, 136
potis, pote, 20, 27, 3I;
I 134. 184
Latin Words.
597
potus, 160
prae, 133, 151. 264, 302-3
praebeo, 56
praeceps, 27
praecipio, 450
praecipue, 280
praeco, 54
praeda, 56
praefiscine, 230
Praeneste, 28, 79
praes, 57
praestigiae, 128
praesto (adv.) 52
praeter. 251, 298
praetor, praetura, 24
praeterea, 256
praeut, 313
pransus, 160
prece, procus, 20
precor, 448
prehendo, prendo, 56,
549
prelum, 548
pridie, 400, 573
primanus, 148
primarius, 148
primo, primum, 149
primum, deinde, &c., 317
prior, primus, 42, 133
princeps, 43
pristis, 44
priusquam, 464
pro, prod-, 251, 265, 303
pro (interj.), 235
pro eo ac, 313
procul, 299
prodeo, prodesse, 203
proelium, 548
prohibeo, 443, 450
prohibessit, 55
proin, proinde. 13,53,482
proles, 53
promo, 53
prope, propior, proxi-
mus, 42, 133, 298
propediem, 259
propter, 298
propterea. 458, 459
prosa, 50, 57
protenus (protinus), 548
prout, 313
prudens, 57
pCibes, 14
pubis, puber, 29
publicus, 40, 43
pudet, 14, 192
puer, 14
puerpera, 25
puertia, 52
pulmo, 65
pulvis, 25, 29
punio, purus, 14
pupa, 14
purgo, 52
pusillus, 14
pusio, 14
piiter, puteo, pus, 14
puto, putus, 14
quadrupes, 76
quaero, quaeso, quae-
sivi, 65
quaeso, 191
qualis, 142, 145
qualis. quantus, &c.,
308, 368, 388
qualus, 48, 50
quam, how, 309
quam, as, 314
quam, than, 315, 404
quamdiu, 461, 463
quamdudum, quam-
pridem, 314
quamquam, utut, 479,
481-482
quamvis, quamlibet,
quantumvis, quamvis
licet, 480, 482
quando, 309, 458
quandoque, 458
quandoquidem, 458
quantillus, 51
quantus, 42, 142, 145, 308
quantuscumque, quan-
tusquantus, 291
quare, cur, 36, 309
quare, quamobrem, &c.,
320
quartarius, 571-572
quasi, 50, 482-483
quatenus, 458, 548
quattuor, 59
que, 59, 316
quemadmodum, quo-
modo, 308
queo, nequeo, 188
querimonia, 30, 69
querquetum, quercetum,
59
qui = ut ego, ut tn, &c.
&c., 452 ; (consec),
454-457
quia (coord.), 320, 459
quicumque, 291
quidam, 291
quidem, 285
quies, 15
quin, 45, in subst. sent.,
443, in adj. sent , 455,
&c.
quina-vicenaria (lex), 148
quindecim, 54
quinetiam, 447
quinque, 26, 59
quippe, 329
quippe qui, 441
Quirites, 59
quis, 59
quis, qui, 140-141, 289-
290, 308
quisnam, uternam, 141
quispiam, 290-291
quisquam, 290-291
quisque, 280, 291, 362
quisquiliae, 130
quisquis, 291
quivis, quilibet, 291
quo, in order that, 458
quo, eo, &c.,3o8, 399
quoad, 461, 463
quocirca, 49
quod, that, 322, 441
quod, quia, because, 459
quoimodi, 144
quom, 59
quominus, 443, 447
quoniam, 458
quoque, 316
quorsum, 230
quot, 308, 368
quotannis, 155
quotiens (quoties). 33,
461, 549
quotus, 42
quotusquisque, 309-310
quousque, 230, 308
quum (j^^cum, conj.)
radix, 45, 67
raeda, 548
ramentum, 49
rana, 47
raucus, 14
raudus, 14
re red-, 204, 265
recidi reccidi, &c., 54
recipio, 37, 266
reciprocus, 251
recte, 329
recuperare (recip-), 548
recuso, 39
redivivus, 15
refert, 193, 416-417, 449-
rego, regio, 16
relligio, &c., 41 (note),
549
remus, 50
repente, subito, &c., 466
repetundarum, 130
repperi, 25,550
res repetundae, res Ro-
mana, res publica, 273-
retro, 251
rex, 16
rima, 48
rogo, 448
rosa, 45
598
Index IL
rostrum, 43
ruber, rubigo.rufus, 14,62
rudis, 14
rudo, rumor, 14
rumpo, 64
rumusculus, 24
rursus, rursum, &c., 51
rus, rure, ruri, 375, 401,
403
saeculum, 548
saepe, 136, 256
saepes, 548
sal, 64
saiix, 66
saltus, 571
saltern, saltim, 26, 256
salus, salve, salvus, 17,
191
Samnium, 43
sane, 329
sanequam, 314-315
sanguis, 50, 99
sanguisuga, 50
satis, abunde, &c., 419
satin? 45
scaena (scena), 548
scala, 50
scilicet, 259
scopulus, 22
scripulum, 158, 571
scutum, 14
se- sed-, 204, 251, 266
se, 136
se, suus, 285-287, 489-
494
seco, 17
secundum, 298
secundus, 154
secus (s.), 130
secus (adv.), 136, 256
sed, 319
sedecim, 48
sedi, vidi, veni, 18
seges, 27
segmentum, 43
selibra, 54
sella, 41
sembella, 570
semel, 152
semestris, 50
semi, 66
semis, 53
semodius, 572
semper, 259
sempiternus, 50
semuncia, 158
senex, senior, 69, 133
seni, 48
septem, 26
sequester, 31
sequor, 59
serenus, 17
ero, series, &c., 17, 66
sero, semen, &c., 16,40,65
serpo, 66
serum, 66
serus, 17
servasso, 55
sescenti, 154
sescuncia, 158
sescuplus, &c., 148
sesqui, 54, 148
sesquialtera ratio, 158
sesquipes, 570
sestertius, sestertium, 48,
566-570
Sestius, 48
setius, 136, 549
sex, 66
sextarius, 571, 572
sextula, 158
si, 66, 467-475
sica, 17
sicilicus, 158
sicubi,si quando, &c.,474
si dis placet, 475
silua, 10
silva, 64, 66
similis, similiter ac, 312
si maxime, 474
si minus, 474
si modo, si tamen, si
vero, 475
simplex, 152
simul, 66, 152
simul, simul ac, 312, 462
singuli, 152, 153
sine, 302
*sinister (next the sinus),
28, 133
sinistimus, 42
si quis, &c., 474
sino, 450
si non, nisi, 475-477
si quaeris, siquaerimus,
475
siquidem, 474
siris, 57
Sirius, 17
sis, sultis, 57, 187, 337
sisto, 40
sive, seu, 318, 475
soboles, suboles, 34, 548
socer, 21, 24, 174
socors, 34
sodes, 235, 337
sol, 17, 21
solacium, 519
*soleo, 214, 266
sollers, 266, 550
sollemnis, 550
sollicitus, 266, 550
sollus, &c., 66, 266
solor, 17
solvendo esse, 391
solus, 142
somnulentus, 23 (note)
somnus, sopor, 17, 43
sonus, &c., 17, 21
sorbeo, 65
soror, 21
spero, spes, 65
spolium, 59
sponsor, 76
sponte, 130
spurius, 65
stadium, 570
stare, statio, &c,, 17
statim, 258
statim ubi, &c., 462
statuo, 448
Stella, 50
stercus, 59 (note)
stemo, &c., 17
sterquilinium, 59
stHus, 17, 548
stipendium, 54
sto, 206
strigilis, 64
studeo, studium, 59
(note), 449
suadeo, persuadeo, 451
suavis, 49, 66
sub, SUS-, 202, 251, 265,
305-306
subtemen, 48
subter, 251, 306
successor, 76
sudor, 66
suffbco, 39
sultis, 187
sum (esse), 58 (note), 167-
168
sumen, 48
suo, sutor, subula,&c.,i4
supellex, 105
super, 66, 251, 306
supersedeo, 265
supra, 133, 251, 297
superior, supremus, sum-
mus, 42, 133. 251
surgo, 54
surpui, 54
surrexe, 55
sus (s.), 66
susurrus, 21, 40
suspitio (suspicio), 34
(note), 549
suus, 66, 489-494
tabuleis publiceis, 12
taedet, 14, 192
talentum, 28
talis, 455
talpa, 59, 77
tam, adeo, sic, 452
tamen, 319, 479-481
Latin Words.
599
tametsi, tamenetsi, 480
tamquam (tanquam), 43,
482
tantum, 452
tantum abesse ut, 453
tantus, 145
taurus, 45, 64
tego, 17, 45, 61
tegula, 17, 45
Terns, 13
tela, 48
temo, 47
temperi, tempori, tem-
perius, 25, 136
templum, 51
ten-via, 10
tenus, 304
terancius, 570
tibicen tibicina, 53, 75
timeo, metuo, vereor (ne,
ut), 443. 447
titulus 40
tollo, 217
-tor -trix (subst.), 75
tormentum, 47
torqueo, 65
torus, 45, 129
tot, 145, 308
totus, 15
trans, 203, 251, 266, 295
traxe, 55
tres, ter, &c., 15, 65, 151,
154
tribunicius, 549
triginta, 54
trinundinum, 54
Troia, 13
Troius, 13
Tros, Troas, 75
trucido, 54
tum-cum, 456
tuber, 15
tugurium, 34
tumeo, &c., 15
turbassitur, 55
turris, 42
turtur, 40
Tydides, 13
uber, 63
ubi, when, 461
ubi, unde, &c., 285,
308 = Relative, 452
udus, 57
ui, 12
Ulixes, 65
udus, 41, 51, 142
ulna, 64, 570
ulterior, ultimus, 42, 133
ultra, ultro, 251, 295
ululo, 40
umere, umor, 62, 549
umerus, 549, 621
uncia, 151, 566-572
unciarium fenus, 570
unde, 308
undecim, 54
ungere, unguere, &c. ,
548
unguis, 61
unus, 150, 152, 153, 157
unus et alter, 364
uni, trini, &c., 155
urbes, urbis, urbeis, 13
urbs, urps, 549
urna, 571
upilio, 57
upupa, 22
uro, 65, 224
ursus, 48
usura, interest, 569
-us -a, &c. (subst.), 75
ut {that) in Subst. CI.,
440-441 ; in Petitio
Obl., 442-451; in Con-
sec. CL, 452-454 ; in
Final CI, 457-458
ut, how, 309, 441
ut, as, 312-313
ut si, 482-483
ut, when, since, 461-462
ut, granting that, 339,
480-482
utare. utaris, 19
utcumque, utut, 479
uter, 230, 259, 308
uterque, 141, 362
utervis, uterlibet, 141
utinam, ut, 339
ut non, 440-441, 452-
455
ut ne, 442-451, 453, 457-
458
ut qui, utpotequi, 461
ut quisque, 280
utrimque, 230
utrum, 328
uxor, 74
valde, 125
vale, 191
Valerii, 65
valetudo (valitudo), 548
vallum, 17
vanus, 47
vapor, 44
vapulo, 160
-ve, 318
ve-, 262
j vehemens, vemens, 56,
t 549
veho, 61
vel, 318
velle, 51
vello, 28
velo, 17
velox, 17
velut si, velut, veluti, 482
vendo, venumdo, 54, 160
veneficium, 54
veneo, 160
venere, venerunt, 19
venio, 18
ver, 66, 67
vere, vero, 329
verecundus, 30
vereor, 17, 443, 447
vermis, 64
vema, 66
versus, versum, vorsum,
299, 548
verto (vorto), 548
verum, vero, &c., 319
verus, 17
vespera, 67
vesperi, vespere, 83, 91,
102, 157, 400
Vesta, 67
vestis, 67
vestri, vestrum, 421
vetemus, 66
veto, 450
vetus, 118
Veturii, 65
via, 33
vicem, 256
vicesimus, 50
victima, 548
videlicet, 259
viden ? , 45
video, 447, 451
vidua, 63
viginti, 45, 541, 61, 152
vilicus, 550
villum, 50
viola, 67
violentus, 22
vir, 69
virus, 66
vis (s.), 65, 67
vis (v.), 52
vivere vitam, &c., 373
vivo, 45, 222
vix, vixdum, 324
voco, vox, 17, 21, 59, 67
volgus, vulgus, 22
volnus, vulnus, 20, 21
volo, nolo, malo, 64,
186-7, 449
volucris, 109
volvo, 67
vomer, vomis, 25
vomo, 67
6oc
[AUCT. adHer,-^
INDEX IIL
PASSAGES IN LATIN WRITERS
referred to in this Grammar.
[The first numbers refer to the Author quoted, the last number to the pages of this work.]
AUCTOR
ad Herennium.
I. 9. 445
II. 13. 424
IV. 15. 383
16. 446
21. 450
AUSONIUS.
Idylls,
VIII. I. 372
C^SAR.
Bellum Civile.
I. I. 444
4. 286
4- 445
7. 484
15. 410
18. 436
24- 155
24. 403
32. 488
41. 424
51- 444
53- 382
62. 444
63. 409
67. 499
76. 378
II, 22. 510
23. 392
32. xxxiii
41. 463
III, I. 449
28. 391
30. 362
30. 484
30. 492
40.
495
14.
279
32. 272
41.
xxxii
17-
365
44. 314
43-
xxxi
18.
378
58. 410
43-
487
18.
378
61. 378
43.
491
27-
493
82. 437
44.
491
34.
xix
93- 383
46.
463
38.
492
loi. 444
47-
xxxi
38.
494
Bellum Galli-
48.
425
38.
500
cum.
50.
XXX
41.
xix
I. I. 369
50.
448
41.
494
2. 407
53.
366
53-
286
2. 433
54.
393
VI. 12.
465
3. xxxi
II. 6.
407
18.
454
3. 426
7-
408
21.
394
5- 382
17-
424
21.
411
5- 492
26.
362
26.
3H
13. xix
32. XXXIV
27.
457
13. 461
III. 5.
393
28.
408
16. xxxii
7.
375
29.
450
18. 284
7-
407
30-
310
18. 394
8.
312
34.
427
18. 406
8.
479
37.
474
18. 434
II.
393
VII. 4.
497
18. 491
12.
376
8.
492
20. 493
18.
310
II.
369
22. 278
18.
415
17-
406
23- 459
IV, I.
381
17.
453
26. 268
. Ir
382
20.
xxxii
29. XXXV
2.
450
24.
382
32. 482
5-
413
29.
290
33- 491
8.
489
30-
427
36. xix
16.
383
43.
433
36. 383
21.
279
45-
409
36. 479
22.
398
52-
xxxi
36. 494
22.
447
66.
155
37. xxxii
23-
451
69.
410
38. 384
V. 3.
425
86.
484
39- 447
3-
459
88.
321
40. xxxii
13.
408
—CICERO.]
Passages in Latin Writers.
Be Hum Hispafn-
ense.
33- 3H
CATO.
de Re Rustica.
5- 394
45- 461
89. 432
CATULLUS.*
in. 6. 289
IV. ~. 534
IV. I. 439
IX. 5. 423
XXIX. — . 534
XXXIV. — . 536
XXXIV. — . 545
XXXVII 17. 153
XLV I. 272
LII 534
LV. — . 537
LXIII. — . 538
LXXVII. I. 372
CXIII. 5. 450
<:iCERO.
Academica.
I. I. 492
I. 499
4- 474
8. 455
9. 291
II. 4. 481
7. 454
7- 455
20. 470
23. 285
24- 335
25. xxxiv
25- 315
25. 327
27. 462
29. 318
29. 328
31- 313
37- 451
40. 342
47. 449
47- 465
i>ro Archia.
3- 366
3. 402
3. 406
5- 466
6. 451
10. 460
11. 284
ad Atticum.
17.
573
8. 394
T
I.
I.
381
17.
575
10. 364
I.
409
10.
400
10. 383
3-
465
20,
272
14- 397
7-
369
20.
393
16. 325
0.
366
20,
404
15. 311
9-
287
V i.
I.
352
V T
Al.
9- 342
II.
315
■\7T T
2.
444
lo- 315
12.
402
I.
309
II. 392
13-
252
I.
371
15. 292
13-
383
I.
447
15- 423
13-
419
2.
154
19. 481
14.
383
2.
570
22. 417
14.
400
3-
88
22. 448
10.
391
3-
392
V TT
Ail.
I. 409
10.
393
4-
423
2. ^Qo
10.
474
7-
410
4- 477
17-
390
9-
420
5- 391
17-
446
10.
476
TT
il.
lo.
202
12.
425
10. 209
I.
XXXV
13-
400
21. 4^2
I.
392
13-
401
24. 291
4-
450
14.
363
42. 318
5-
283
19.
309
VTTT
6. 379
5-
333
22.
434
12. 381
7-
303
VTTT
V 1 11.
20.
400
19. 465
10.
321
324
19« 475
II.
402
3-
319
20. 3^2
12.
392
3-
371
20. 450
15-
391
5-
381
28. 369
15-
447
5.
432
28. 432
17'
2oO
6.
409
29. 406
■rQ
lo.
492
II.
479
33- 337
19.
272
12. XXXll
41. 472
19.
370
TV
lA.
2.
421
45. 446
in.
24.
427
2.
449
V TT7
Al V,
I. 341
10.
457
2.
478
13. 409
10.
450
3.
463
13- 451
12.
401
5.
317
21. 394
13-
404
5-
575
XV.
I. 444
13-
403
6.
426
2. 444
15-
6.
436
2. 450
IV.
15-
407
6.
444
9- 378
I.
325
9.
380
9- 465
5-
427
10.
292
II. 286
7-
<\ f\
335
10.
335
19. 411
1 1.
432
10.
432
22. 323
12.
391
10.
451
27- 445
14.
393
10.
462
28. 393
V
V *
17-
200
10.
481
XVI.
3- 457
3'
II.
391
5. 392
4«
470
12.
382
0. 441
Q
0.
410
12.
462
10. 281
9-
391
13-
471
II. 477
10.
425
15.
478
15. 406
10.
402
16.
411
15. 446
T T
XX.
V
16. 426
15. 450
14.
408
I.
423
19. 424
14.
409
4.
267
19. 447
15-
466
4.
462
pro Balbo,
i6.
275
4.
492
3- 454
16.
424
7.
444
12. 426
17.
463
7.
476
15. 370
* Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to.
6o2 Index
Brutus.
6. 481
I.
441
10. 450
7-
311
II. 412
8.
409
12. 394
lO.
411
13. 408
II.
313
13- 453
12.
423
18. xxvm
14.
391
21. 413
17-
391
pro Cceciiia.
17-
456
I. 511
18.
393
8. 391
18.
409
9. 393
18.
423
pro Ccelio.
18.
455
3. 288
20.
292
4. 432
20.
425
7. 406
21.
445
7. 406
23-
327
13. 471
24.
393
14. 288
33.
393
16. 460
34-
376
17. 466
35-
282
20. 427
48. 457
20. 445
50.
291
21. 378
56. 352
21. 428
56. 432
26. 314
56. 465
28. 314
59-
407
in Catilinam.
60. 408
I.
I. 269
69. 275
I- 330
69- 352
I- 336
73-
257
I. 369
73-
315
I. 438
73-
341
2. 446
73-
341
2. 449
73-
449
5- 334
82.
479
5. 337
83. 468
6. 290
84. 284
7. 283
88. 436
7. 426
88.
453
8. 465
89. 410
9- 341
91.
405
9. 424
91.
498
9- 454
92.
322
13. 287
92.
364
II.
13. 5"
93-
153
I. 371
97.
394
I. 445
ad Brutum
4. 410
£pistol(jB.
II. 450
I. 3.
410
12. 282
3.
478
III.
8. 364
9-
411
12. 459
10.
425
12. 511
10.
476
IV.
I. 467
15.
454
2. 313
17-
417
2. 394
17-
445
5. 495
II. I.
391
6. 384
in C<Bcilium.
8. 472
I.
492
9. 426
2.
282
9. 501
3-
394
///. [CICERO—
Cato Major, or
7. 424
de Senectute.
19. 407
I- 439
24. 311
I. 460
31. 437
3- 409
33« 471
4. 408
53. 369
4. 446
53. 406
5. XXX
53. 458
5- 156
58. 424
5- 273
66. 380
5- 392
70. 284
5- 410
pro Deiotaro.
5. 455
4. 408
6. 440
6. 392
6. 468
de Divinatione,
6. 484
I. 5. 382
7. xxix
13« 432
7. 479
14. 324
8. 406
15. 409
8. 483
17. 465
8. 499
17. 472
9. 156
20. 393
9. 444
23. 432
10. 437
30. 276
II. xxxvii
31- 427
II. 346
32. 290
II. 423
35- 394
II. 425
36. 272
II. 433
36. 424
II. 433
39. 318
12. 411
41. 459
12. 448
45. 444
13. xxxi
51. 393
13. 459
52. 391
14. 368
II. I. xxxix
14. 460
2. 391
15. 407
2. 454
15. 505
3- 498
16. 287
8. 472
16. 315
13. 447
16. 336
19. 437
16. 407
21. 434
16. 492
22. 481
16. 496
24. 313
17. 320
24. 437
17. 433
24. 451
■ 17. 451
24. 486
19. 273
26, 320
19. 393
28. 467
19. 410
28. 499
19- 433
30. 391
20. 290
31. 445
20. 448
35- 449
21. 272
39- 323
22. 336
39. 455
22. 451
43- 362
23. 323
56. 317
23. 383
56. 411
23. 465
57. 352
23. 483
58. 425
pro Clue?ttio.
59. 455
I. 391
60. 426
2. 425
62. 321
CICERO. 1
Passages in Latin Writers.
603
62. 408
7-
402
2,'X.
341
pro Doino Sua.
7-
461
0
448
it
XIII.
I. 476
II.
454
7.
478
2S«
474
6. 361
25.
281
7-
481
24.
318
8. 268
29.
427
8.
288
26.
335
8. 364
42.
285
9. XXXVll
27.
471
16. 28 1;
50.
392
9. xxxvii
30»
407
16. 460
ad Familiares.
Q.
41^^
411
17. 446
I.
282
Q.
447
«J
478
18. 41:0
7.
■522
Q.
478
32.
481
22. 27Q
7.
406
12.
460
VIII.
2.
441
43. 483
7.
442
1 1
V.
6.
407
47. 444
7.
449
2.
q8i
10.
428
55- 323
Q.
Q62
422
II.
441
c;6. 41^4
Q.
461
6.
288
IX.
13-
449
73. 445
9.
462
8.
407
I.
437
XIV.
I. q7Q
II. 2.
438
8.
42^
I.
460
I. 381
4..
42^
9.
447
3-
408
I. 462
4.
449
12.
272
II.
391
I. 476
6.
282
12.
27 Q
15.
337
2. 287
6.
12.
284
18. 363
2. 447
6.
447
IT/
14.
■567
18.
477
2. 479
6.
458
17.
Q42
21.
65
3. 270
7.
446
17.
^42
21.
352
3- 369
8.
289
411
21.
432
4. 406
1 1
10.
2QI
19.
23-
310
5. 36q
10.
QII
19.
467
25.
407
5« 3Q7
10.
q82
21,
X.
26.
470
5. 4^1
10.
438
VI.
21,
481
Q.
42"^
8. qqi;
10.
447
I.
186
6.
47^
12. 447
II.
q4l
I.
310
10.
391
13. 324
41^
I.
426
12.
426
2Q. 404
14.
•
483
I.
432
13-
462
XV.
I. 408
451
I.
485
16.
341
4. ie:;6
16.
^83
I.
499
18.
410
4. 4.'^6
16.
445
2.
481
19.
484
8. 446
17.
485
3-
427
20.
311
13. 4c;o
19.
462
4.
433
20.
335
14. Q22
III. I.
478
6.
446
23-
410
16. 40Q
6.
6.
498
31-
155
17. 290
7.
483
8.
448
XI.
I.
425
10. QQ4
8.
13-
286
8.
475
XVI.
I. 417
8.
4.48
14.
391
II.
467
4. "^70
8.
15. XXXll
13-
315
4. 4.17
8.
19.
393
13-
371
4. 4=^8
474
21.
366
16.
498
7. 426
10.
338
VII.
I.
282
22.
278
8. 4c8
10.
Q70
I.
381
27.
393
12. •3Q2
10.
407
I.
445
27.
393
12. 447
II.
406
I.
449
28.
375
I "5. QA2
313
2.
406
28.
394
IV. 3.
408
2.
450
28.
433
14. 419
4.
411
3-
336
XII.
28.
447
14- 445
4.
432
3-
422
5-
450
14. 475
5.
289
5-
268
6.
333
18. 393
5.
313
6.
392
6.
341
20. 311
5.
319
12.
381
6.
476
20. 341
5.
369
13-
109
7.
368
de Fato.
5.
371
13-
321
10.
470
4- 369
5-
427
14.
393
14.
284
9. 455
5.
455
16.
460
15.
407
10. 448
7.
324
21.
445
15.
454
12. 445
7-
393
23.
322
17.
476
6o4
Index in.
[CICERO—
de Finibus,
I. I. 364
2. 433
3. 468
4- 393
6. 93
7. 449
10. 459
13- 455
16. XXX
17. 425
18. 268
18. 417
19. xxxiv
19. 282
19. 407
19- 454
20. 288
20. 321
20. 392
20. 451
II. I. 352
I. 369
I. 371
3- 321
5- 451
8. 440
10. 312
11. 494
13- 423
13. 424
13- 432
13- 432
14. 481
15- 485
16. 482
17. 276
17- 454
18. 468
20. 289
20. 321
20. 431
22. 417
26. 268
26. 286
26. 336
27. 432
27. 467
28. 407
28. 441
30- 383
32. 346
34- 381
III. 2. 392
3- 341
3. 416
3- 441
3. 565
7- 393
8. 321
15. 408
19- 391
20. 433
20. 455
20. 464
20. 478
21. 369
22. 284
22. 383
IV. 18. 454
23. 471
24- 455
V. I. 422
I. 425
I. 427
1. 474
2. 451
5- 437
8. 285
9. 292
9. 448
10. 271 '
10. 288
11. 444
14. 456
15. 284
15. 288
15- 433
17. 287
22. 393
22. 408
23- 317
23- 393
23- 433
28. 329
28. 450
29. 383
29. 407
29. 408
pro Flacco.
18. 493
25. 467
26. 155
27- 445
32. 425
38. 272
41- 432
pro Font etc.
10. 382
11. 410
12. 450
de Haruspicum
^esponsis.
13- 392
\ad HerenniutTty
seeAtictot' ad
Herennium.^
de Inventiofie
Rhetoric a.
I. 2. 466
16. 433
20. 434
20. 449
33- 493
34. 325
39. 409
56. 404
II. I. 291
I. 380
1. 407
2. 430
23- 458
27. 323
39- 407
40. 273
45- 451
53- 464
58. 393
LcbUus, or de
Amicitia.
1. 454
2. 318
2. 383
4- 311
4. 317
4. 468
5- 477
6. 271
6. 425
6. 455
7. 466
9. 287
9- 324
9- 459
15. 458
16. 423
16. 424
17. 320
17. 455
19. 411
20. 427
20. 445
20. 457
20. 480
21. 286
21. 346
21. 455
22. 283
22. 371
22. 444
24. 283
24- 317
24. 383
24. 406
24. 454
25- 153
25. 316
25. 454
26. 461
26. 481
27. xxix
27. 290
de Leg ibus.
I. I. 364
7. 279
8. 455
10. 495
11. 366
16. 363
16. 433
18. 369
19- 433
19. 470
22. 433
22. 451
23- 433
II. I. 475
7. 313
10. 280
10. 282
lo- 473
12. 410
12. 411
12. 418
15- 425
i6. 340
16. 393
16. 394
20. 337
23- 337
26. 378
26. 458
III. I. 310
I- 445
2. 285
3. 337
5- 371
11. 323
18. 393
de Lege
Agraria.
I. 6. 410
7. 268
II. I. 460
2. 405
19. 493
21. 447
24. 423
24. 466
27. 406
27. 427
34- 391
III. 2. 409
pro Lege
Manilia.
1. 457
2. 434
3. 154
3. 426
4. 462
7- 449
7- 456
7. 465
9. 282
9. 286
10. 342
12. 278
12. 382
17. 285
17. 471
20. 370
20. 447
—CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers,
23. 283
24. 389
pro Ligario.
2- 493
3- 318
6. 341
7. 464
8. 472
pro Mar cello.
8. 454
pro Milone.
3. 286
4- 447
4- 511
8. 413
8. 481
9- 309
10. 453
12. 391
14- 391
18. 486
20. 320
21. 425
26. 466
27. 493
31. 482
33- 476
34- 341
35- 432
35- 496
36. 445
pro Murena.
I- 433
2. 417
2. 511
3. 466
5- 336
6. 475
7. 393
9- 341
II- 431
14. 368
14. 456
29. 409
31- 342
31- 434
37. 432
40. 324
£5?^ Natura
Deo rum,
I. 5. 289
6. 406
7. 268
8. 444
8. 448
13- 383
20. 393
20. 448
21. 311
21. 458
21. 464
21. 472
24- 457
II.
in.
16. xxxi 1
23- 391
30- 433
28. 310
25- 451
30. 444
30. 274
27- 393
31- 154
31- 327
28. 467
31. 291
33- 381
30- 457
31- 423
34. 446
32. 369
31. 432
38. 451
34. 391
31- 449
40. 498
34. 410
32. 367
43- 411
36. 392
32. 417
44. 425
36. 480
34. 410
44. 478
39. 291
34- 413
44. 478
39- 432
34- 423
I- 319
40. 382
34- 427
2. 363
CLC KJJjlCltS,
1- I- 333
34. 476
3- 498
37. 342
4- 327
I- 375
30. 280
9. 455
I. 511
38. 481
12. 458
2. 456
39- 394
15. 448
2. 466
39. 410
16. 445
2. 498
39- 424
16. 451
4- 392
39- 447
17. 480
4- 423
40. 454
20. 317
9- 473
41. 279
20. 423
10. 346
41. 364
21. 467
10. 471
4 . 476
24. 268
II. 370
43- 346
28. 408
II' 455
44- 473
30. 449
II. 458
TT -r
11. I. 403
31. 460
11. 480
2. 411
33. 382
13- 342
2. 451
36. 398
13. 408
3. 284
39. 500
13. 451
3- 473
40. 400
14. 321
4- 273
47- 317
14- 423
4. 341
48. 96
14. 456
4. 411
48. 390
15. 280
5- 413
50. 406
15- 321
5. 455
52. 280
15. 430
6. 285
53- 341
16. 392
6. 333
53- 400
16. 495
7. 449
53- 441
17. 286
7. 451
53- 445
20. 369
8. 462
56. 370
21. 447
9. 369
57. 406
21. 464
9. 448
59- 383
22. 271
10. 406
59- 436
22. 433
12. 366
61. 445
22. 407
12. 433
61. 486
23. 363
12. 462
64. 336
24. 285
14. 392
64. 394
24. 447
16. 407
66. 380
24. 481
17. 364
67. 475
25. 449
17. 406
I. 433
25- 454
18. 411
I. 450
25- 479
18. 427
3. 482
27. 369
18. 439
7- 329
27. 411
19. 471
7. 448
27- 454
20. 449
9. 478
28. 270
21. 467
13- 450
28. 364
21. 478
13- 456
28. 426
22. XXV
15. 500
28. 455
22. 394
18. 312
29. 285
22. 445
18. 478
29. 483
23. 370
6o6
Index III,
[CICERO—
III. 2.
45' 40
15. xxxi
r drCLCLOXa
o
47' 44
15.
419
S toicoru fti .
6
40. 47
25. 381
I. I. 474
6
/fa's
40. 512
26.
186
I. 401
6.
4.68
51. 207
27.
423
II. I. 272
453
30.
292
I- 394
o
69. 471
. 30.
458
111. 2. 204
lO.
71. 270
30. 462
V. I, 44^
lO.
q8i
36. 440
^ 352
lO.
■I» 455
37. 408
I. 449
lO.
I.
37.
446
2. 447
lO.
5- 3"9
38. 433
UiC M drlZltOTlo
lO.
4.78
u, 4 /
40.
433
II.
All
^X X
337
40.
472
T T
394
46. 407
25. 46»
12.
A OA
a. 432
51-
392
£/1 1 i'^PP tCCB
IQ.
A CO
o- 434
52.
310
i J**/T ^-7 /I'M
KJrClllOflcS.
I
9. 301
54.
370
1. 4. 312
TO /1 /1 T
58. 477
'^4- 3"9
1 1^.
i4> XXXI
59.
273
11. 2. 447
i6.
^18
lo. 29X
60. 368
3- 411
lO.
326
62.
475
0 A r\ A
3- 404
TO.
468
20. 433
62.
477
4- 451
TO
481
21. 445
65. 335
io« 303
20, 4^3
74.
445
II. 340
20.
475
80.
392
1^. 319
21.
394
85. 393
TO 080
21.
479
or» 0 T T
29. 311
86.
493
T /1 T
■^4' 39^
25-
336
35. 400
90.
450
25.
468
35« 44^
94.
362
19* 4
27. 465
30. 430
III. 2.
287
TO ACT
19« 451
334
3°- 312
2.
379
22. 433
31.
393
44- 273
4.
497
22. 47^^
31.
445
A^ 000
4^* 0
5-
332
0 C /ICC
25- 455
32.
XXV
47' 3*^-^
5-
396
33-
XXV
40. 4^9
5-
434
27. 490
33.
393
/in (zRt
^y . ^ u X
5-
441
de Ophmo Gen-
6.
4-54
34. 300
eve Oratorum,
5^' 37°
7-
495
oft
3o- 33"^
4-
378
54* 454
10.
433
3°- 47-f
7-
406
54- 493
14.
442
43« 392
Orator.
54. 494
14.
481
43- 423
I.
433
423
15-
393
44- 319
2.
284
50. 479
20.
270
45- 470
2.
334
59. 404
20.
325
^ c Ro
2.
457
DO. 319
23.
365
TTT c ^^S8
7.
411
■ 1 T A Ar\
11. 1. 44^
23-
426
TV C Af,r>
8.
270
23-
471
9.
369
2. 427
24.
475
T A
I. 407
12.
366
4- 333
25.
381
3- 433
14.
433
5- 3^^9
25.
381
0 A riR
3- 49°
21.
424
5" 322
29.
328
26.
392
r /480
5. 402
29.
383
T T
II* 33°
29.
153
Q, 304
30-
313
TT T r6
29.
454
p. 302
32.
406
I7' 3°7
33.
279
f\ o8/4
0. 304
34.
375
17. 404
34-
427
0. 451
36. 464
t8 /1 c 1
454
34-
464
44.
433
IQ. AQO
xy, ^yy
38.
371
8. 309
47.
514
VI. 2. 383
45-
41
9. 272
50.
325
4. 482
45-
45
II. 423
52. XXXVll
VII. 5. 393
45-
46
12. 423
55. 328
7- 341
45-
47
12. 477
9- 337
—CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers,
607
VTTT 1 At^A
I. 446
1 r
5* 39
I. 446
TT ^16*2
I, 479
2. 291
D. iiJoy
2. '^'37
A.i. -s. jy-*
2. q82
0 YVYvil
2. 424
A A TO
"R. ^2Q
15« 39-'-
427
VTT 2 q6q
4'^i
-2. 4iJ
II. I. q8c}
0. 470
I. 40Q
VTTT 6 -316
■^. 3'^'i
0. 1.
6. 279
8 /1/1 c
10. 267
9, 4UU
12. "54.1
9. 466
13- 382
TO A ClC\
III. I. 285
XIV 6 4.07
I. 412
/• o/o
4.. 472
4. 478
I- 383
C Q82
0 ono
Q. 44Q
Q /1T2
Rabirio.
T7 'JO'S
I. '^Q'^
Tn A Ar\
17. 44U
II. 282
ATA
4''-4
O/l T
3"- o4^
PosthuMO.
00 /10Q
2. 482
30. 405
0. di8
4)vn Plnnrio
10. 410
T 4a6
A.
IQ. 419
3- 3°3
post Reditutn
in Senatu.
/1 /1 T Q
2. 411
Republica.
00 /1 Pit
1. IQ. "304
00 /1 ^ T
.«f.^. '^/
OT "371
Q4. 468
II. 7. 411
25. 402
TO T C6
20. 4^7
TO A QO
28 aq6
IV. 5. 432
00 A J?0
33' 4"-^
VI. ic;. 466
4^- 3°o
11;. 48Q
24. '3'32
T A An
CoMoedo.
T /1 07
7. '30Q
TV A
II. 280
■i^yz? 0 iiinctio
pro S. Roscio
T AV8
X. 4/0
y\ insritio
2. 268
"2 /ifis
I. t^I I
2 QQA
8 Z178
C ATA
TO /<00
oy4
21;. ^8^
6. 406
31. 411
7. 409
ad Quintu7n
10. 453
Fratrem.
12. 312
I. I. 327
16. 314
I. 444
16. 480
17- 394
Tusculancp.
17- 451
Disputationes.
18. 433
I, I. 364
19. 448
I. 460
1
21. 283
I. 474
1 / 1
22. 444
III
2. xxxii
25. 455
2. 332
27. 366
2. 4oq
29. 476
44
33. 463
9- 455
35.
12. 352
35- 476
15. 426
36- 391
15- 445
36. 490
16. 382
39. 384
16. 456
42. 444
17. 283
4S. 406
17. 288
47. xxxvi
17. 42Q
52. 450
17. 444
* Ml 1
pro Scaiiro.
17- 457
2- 454
18. 286
13- 376
19 391
^r^? Sestio.
19. 412
4- 378
19. 446
9. 281
21. 335
16. 370
21. 472
1 /
20. 342
21. 482
22. 444
22. 4SI
1 ^
24. 467
1 1 /
23. 286
25. 173
23. 411
29. 48 C
24. 285
30. 467
24. 447
1 1 1/
36. 445
W I I vX
27. 309
37- 465
28. 287
38. 432
29. 393
38. 472
29. 423
44. 450
29. 466
52. 391
31, 280
62. 290
31. q70
66. 467
31- 475
68. 342
68. 499
34. 444
1 1 1 1
69. 459
34. 444
^ 1 III
Sulla.
^"^. "361
6. 286
QK. "203
13- 439
36. 407
18. 326
37. 468
19. 330
'^8. xxxvii
31. 279
38. 326
TimcEus or
qq. xxv
Universo,
QQ. 407
3- 407
40. 448
1 If
6. 392
41. 445
1 1 1 vX
7- 391
41. 446
1 II
9- 433
42. 437
10. 369
42. 462
Topic a.
4q. 449
I. 427
43- 450
4. 413
45. 267
6. 290
45- 391
22. 433
45- 457
48. 459
3- 463
♦
Index IIL
ICICERO—
III.
IV.
V.
5. 482
24.
342
7.
446
II. 329
26. 565
13-
470
13. 366
28.
413
i8.
468
15. 465
29.
477
23-
315
17- 439
35.
407
25-
406
18. 335
36. xxxix
34'
391
18. 444
36.
271
43-
434
19- 319
36. 459
47-
425
21. 413
37.
382
48.
326
24- 473
37.
384
52.
472
3- 441
39.
448
54'
313
7- 433
40.
268
55-
432
8. 454
Z7i Vatinium.
59-
477
10. 426
I.
471
69.
467
12. 411
3-
481
75.
416
17. 391
8. 446
83.
424
26. 319
15-
406
84.
406
26. 482
tn Verrem.
90.
325
28. xxxii
I. 2.
483
97-
408
29. 454
3«
383
IV. I.
456
30. 427
6.
288
2.
409
32. 446
6.
409
3-
413
6. 271
6.
463
8.
309
II. 383
9-
432
9-
471
14. 282
9.
463
10.
408
17. 341
10.
466
II.
392
19. xxviii
13-
409
13. XXXVll
19. 394
15.
423
13.
341
23. 426
18.
407
14.
155
24. 480
19.
393
21.
465
25. 327
26.
413
21.
474
26. 405
31-
468
25.
314
27. 407
34.
316
28.
492
31. 471
34-
492
29.
493
36. 464
39.
448
40.
448
37. 411
47. XXXVll
52.
278
37. 496
48. 407
52.
278
3- 432
58. 273
57-
371
5. xxxvii
58. 425
60.
451
5. 310
59.
434
V. 2.
327
5. 428
60.
470
2.
448
5- 444
II. 2.
310
5-
438
6. 455
2.
464
5-
480
7. xxxii
2.
466
10.
465
7- 437
6.
xxxi
II-
408
8. 445
6.
393
II.
424
8. 445
9-
375
II.
461
8. 466
10.
319
II.
465
II. 391
II.
433
25-
379
13, 426
II.
444
25.
383
13- 434
18.
283
27.
334
13- 491
18.
423
27,
450
14. 407
30-
454
32.
393
15- 319
32.
290
34-
4^5
IS 321
32.
433
40.
423
15- 447
32.
500
47-
461
16. 379
43-
330
49.
470
19- 315
55.
155
49.
494
20. 375
56.
280
54.
477
20. 382
60.
451
58.
410
20. 392
65.
440
69,
276
20. 457
67. XXXIX
2a 460
1 III. 2.
370
COLUMELLA.
Pr. 6. 317
II. 2. 575
26. 4. 408
CURTIUS,
III. II. 425
IV.
VL
VIL
VIIL
12, 498
1. 406
28. 347
lO' 393
43. 451
8. 411
1. 494
2. 501
8. 498
IX. 51. 495
X. 2. 425
EUTROPIUS.
I. 8. 425
8. 498
IV. II, 459
V. I. 447
VIL 9, 461
FLORUS.
1. I. 392
10. 463
13. 408
III. 10. 370
12. 425
IV. I. 498
GELLIUS.
I- 17- 352
19. 406
II. II. 381
V. 14, 369
19. 450
X. 1. 404
XL 15. 378
HIRTIUS.
Be Hum Alex-
cmdrinum.
I. 449
HORACE.*
Carmina,
I.
535
579
582
I,
I.
357
3-
457
II.
497
17.
433
2.
535
537
* Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to.
—HORACE.]
Passages in Latin Writers.
609
2.
3-
3.
4-
5-
6.
7-
7.
8.
8.
9-
li.
II.
12.
14
16.
22.
24.
26.
27.
28.
31-
32.
35.
36.
37.
38.
II. 2.
7-
8.
9.
14.
16.
17-
18.
19.
III. 1.
2.
3-
4.
49. XVI
— . 535
— . 544
I. 311
7. 340
— • 534
— • 544
— . 535
— • 535
— . 534
— . 544
24. 428
27. 411
— • 534
— . 544
9. 404
1. 448
15. 281
— . 535
I. 341
18. 154
18. 419
18. 272
13- 346
14. 428
— • 544
10. 404
i. 431
5. 280
— • 534
18. 340
I. 272
I. 361
4. 406
17- 391
21. 566
15- 342
25. xvii
25. 428
31- 439
3- 337
6. 423
13. 500
I- 337
21. 404
23. 382
I. 468
17. 441
15. xvii
19. 426
26. 154
13- 369
28. 470
— • 534
— • 543
28. 426
I. 361
9. 440
15- 383
13. 426
26. 450
11. 582
61. 546
4. 65.
5- 2.
6. 3.
7. 29.
8. 4.
11. 33-
12. — .
13- 13-
16. 32.
19. 10.
24. 28.
27. 26.
69.
IV.
30.
I.
3-
4.
6.
3
42.
42.
S- 33-
8. — .
20.
9. I
I.
15.
15-
11. 14.
12. — .
7-
13. 2.
14. 17.
EpistolcB,
I. I. 52.
61.
2. 6.
7-
9-
10.
34-
3. 12.
15.
4. 13-
14.
5. 12.
12.
15.
21.
21.
6. 20.
23.
36.
40.
43-
67.
7. 16.
23.
39-
66.
8. 3.
10. 4.
24.
■ 47.
426
582
470
545
582
418
534
418
439
275
459
376
376
419
368
582
462
565
582
534
543
535
468
341
458
346
428
572
545
271
352
434
411
365
346
428
451
450
467
309
390
365
496
432
450
450
447
450
365
394
366
342
XX
467
330
439
474
XXX
448
292
481
391
R R
II.
50.
12. 16
16. 17
20
20
61
18. II
37
96
19- 3
9
1. 63
76
76
2. I
40
180
Epodes.
I- S
2. —
37
39
5. 57
87
99
6
6.
7-
9-
II.
12.
30
406
448
451
313
403
390
376
335
448
390
427
456
xl
291
468
310
456
476
543
368
468
369
268
382
272
544
281
534
534
544
534
544
534
544
534
480
534
544
533
540
19. 425
ad Pisones, or
Ars Poetica.
15- 364
25. 352
69. 325
114. 448
133- 451
161. 431
168. 432
203. 131
292. 371
307. 448
421. 408
467. 313
SatircB,
I. I. I. 268
14. 458
49. 417
64. 346
66. 377
66. 428
13- ~
14. —
15. —
19
16. —
17. —
II. I.
98. 447
103. 450
3. 9. 268
15- 473
17. 334
17. 381
28. 446
68. 307
105. 289
105. 446
137. 458
4. I. 367
3. xxxiii
39- 341
39- 390
84. 382
III. 446
119. 462
5- 13- 332
25. 375
41. 369
48. 431
6. 15- 368
74. 375
92. 392
127. 332
127. 365
9- I. 334
3. 291
4. 418
7. 281
II. 423
15. 333
37. 477
38. 467
47- 477
6. 478
37. 458
82. 289
2. 89. 461
124. 339
3. 9. xxxiii
151- 477
IS5- 366
156. 416
159. 478
162. XXX
174. 447
258. 478
293. 366
315. 448
326. 342
5. 8. 268
18. 444
23- 340
36. 447
59. 328
87. 474
4. 475
20. 382
65. 268
65- 369
Z3. 32S
6.
6io
Index II L
[HORACE—
84. 418
7. 31. XXX
loi. 370
8. II. XXXV
26. 370
92. 470
JUSTIN.
I. 8. 407
II. 3. 369
8. 389
15. xxxii
III. I. 268
3. xxxiii
VI. 2. xxxiii
8. 393
8. 467
9. 268
2. xxxiv
VII.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XVI.
XVII.
XXV.
XXX.
10. XXXlll
6. 427
8. 446
2. 327
4. 494
3. 286
4- 463
4- 391
JUVENAL.
I. 108. 404
II. I. 381
152. 325
VII. 150. 451
VIII. 19. 271
X. 356. 433
XI. 12. 135
XIII. II. 404
177. IIS
XIV. 70. 441
XV. 21. 428
LIVY.
Praef. 369
I. I. 362
4- 425
4. 444
5- 492
7- 423
7. 427
8. 370
11. 428
12. 411
12. 462
14. 419
15. 393
16. XX
16. 511
20. 394
21. XXXV
21. 292
24. 310
28. 341
II.
III.
29. 370
32. 268
32. 383
32. 461
33- 410
35- 498
36. 410
38. 423
39. 424
40. 472
41. 328
50- 403
51- 40s
S4- 494
56. xxxiv
S6. 313
56. 405
56. 486
58. 369
I. 280
I. 392
I- 439
1. 472
2. 409
s- 451
6. 487
6. 494
7- 153
8. 433
9- 433
9. 484
10. 470
12. 369
12. 413
12. 425
13. 488
14. 362
16. 394
17- 453
22. 471
23. 370
27. 465
31- 383
31- 439
32. 411
34. 496
3S- 369
35- 434
37. 408
38. 471
40. 274
45- 317
45. 481
47. 496
50- 383
50. 470
S2. 423
52. 424
S3- 370
S9- 366
63. 347
65. 470
I. 470
IV.
V.
2. 411
2. 467
6. 383
7. 371
10. 381
11. 463
12. 323
14- 154
14- 370
15. IS4
19. 451
19. 470
23. 463
25. 434
26. 365
26. 424
31- 375
33. 409
35- 459
37. 466
45. 451
52. 471
53. 486
54. 332
54. 446
57. 424
58. 383
63. 406
63- 479
67. 394
67. 427
67. 471
70. 408
3. xxxvi
3- 441
4. 410
4. 433
6. xxxiv
13. 462
13- 463
24. 411
31- 433
33. 287
37. 432
38. 485
41. 410
47. 409
49. 500
52. 470
58. 445
I. 283
3. 419
4. 484
6. 313
12. 447
25. 279
30. 406
31- 383
34. 426
35- 458
36. 470
43. 315
44. 367
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XXI.
48. 394
49. 376
51. 422
53- 444
54- 369
54- 417
54- 437
I. xxxix
16. 318
17. XX
18. 425
18. 426
26. 281
36. 138
42. 446
5. xxxiii
5. 410
8. 313
8. 425
8. 500
18. 488
26. 406
27. 450
28. 424
31- 454
36. 408
2. 447
5. 422
6. 499
8. 463
9. 426
13. 448
24. 410
35. 381
3- 454
10. 459
13- 313
16. 153
33- 465
33- 485
34. 369
34. 464
38. 392
40. 502
41- 477
41. 502
I. 365
14. 292
23. 272
23- 423
28. 383
30- 155
34- 369
38. 362
38. 370
41. 461
4.
4.
4-
7-
7-
7-
365
370
383
362
382
482
13. 462
LUCRETIUS.] Passages in Latin Writers. 6ii
20.
451
XXVI.
0,
500
WVTTT
AAAXil.
4«
207
23»
303
20.
347
10.
450
I. 'JO.
23.
450
27.
XXXIV,
45.
450
9°' 505
24»
300
29«
453
I.
445
128. 273
2o.
403
341
2.
471
Ooo. 3^^
34'
40 0
V WTT
342
4.
407
2. 3°°' 3°9
39-
493
2.
271
9-
437
7. 798. 393
41.
413
3-
495
12. XXXI V
c5. 200. 5°2
43-
433
433
22.
425
A A A ^
444« 155
44.
336
12.
fio
4°3
27.
416
9. 402. 409
44.
394
10.
3"2
38.
463
50-
364
17.
425
39-
434
53-
423
0 A
^4*
,4 Ao
XXXV.
I.
156
00.
363
ofio
3^3
24.
450
is 00. 210
154
37«
T
40.
154
03. oo
WTT
2.
433
XXVTTT
37«
302
40.
382
yO* 5°
3-
200
T
45°
46.
407
103. 405
3-
5«
3^3
XXXVI.
2.
321
105. 294
10.
475
17.
7.
451
27.
302
28.
332
29.
474
27.
4CO
28.
451
3^3« "0
32.
485
ofi
2o.
335
32.
363
327« 343
3^-
315
341
41.
499
400« 330
346
20.
472
XXXVII. 3.
268
A A ' A A M.
442. 440
39-
449
44«
207
14.
380
452. 35
49.
■»•50
44.
391
54-
448
554* 299
49.
440
40.
400
XXXVIII. 28. 371
50D. 400
340
XXTX
407
45.
328
500. 310
53-
342
7«
405
47-
472
pfifi A A ^
500. 443
53-
407
14.
434
XXXIX.
I.
286
^-•^O' 133
58.
286
17.
3^9
22.
433
"33- 549
59.
454
370
37.
312
093. 299
60.
415
409
37.
468
720. 322
60.
471
433
51.
500
722. 43s
60.
478
34»
/-» T
321
XL.
55-
369
750. 293
6i. xxxiu
34«
392
10.
364
755* 302
XXIII.
6.
502
37«
400
14.
472
755- 319
13-
432
ofi
3°-
346
15.
471
755- 399
13.
439
I5'
476
18.
437
°^3- 395
18. 478
0 T
404
XLI.
47.
432
841« 307
25.
511
ofir
301
2.
464
935- 299
26.
410
Ort
<69*
302
16.
573
27.
479
30.
2C50
18.
369
970. 100
30.
406
30.
ofir
201
XLIL
10.
410
1045. 184
32. 287
or*
28.
109
J.U^^, loo
35.
560
30«
305
34.
389
1077. 291
39-
423
3°'
300
51.
459
±001» 422
XXIV.
45. 488
00
3°'
490
67.
474
T T T T Ta-\^
.3-
278
30-
496
XLIIL
4.
486
II. I. xvii
3-
362
37.
416
18.
206
23. 323
5.
392
XXXL
44.
479
22.
413
36. 343
6.
411
I.
481
XLIV.
2.
268
41- 343
19.
560
II.
444
2.
370
51» 300
33.
479
21. XXXIX
45-
432
53- loo
40.
463
XXXII.
II.
450
XLV.
I.
321
150. 386
XXV.
42.
447
18.
382
8.
475
173. 442
3.
449
21.
432
22. XXXll
248. 321
10.
334
21.
497
23-
433
o/-^* 207
12.
455
28. 464
29.
325
383. 160
25.
393
29.
368
37-
391
401. 52
28. 408
29.
363
37.
471
455- 256
38. 426
41.
450
631. 304
40.
282
662. 45
* Many of these references are to Mr Munro's notes on the line quoted.
12
Index IIL
CLUCRETIUS—
710.
130
404* 373
Q23
412, 44Q
820.
41 '5. Q06
829.
13
416. 306
QOI.
^2^. -57
^0
712. Q04
951-
38
7'^^. 1^8
951-
217
815. 130
991.
10
968. 2QQ
II35-
35
0683 QOO
^^^^^^
1137-
313
III.
45-
57
69. 425
MANIUUS.
i3<^- 363
IV. 641;. 4<o
140.
307
208.
316
214.
294
MARTIAL.
250.
278
Epi^ra m mata .
426. 315
I. 106. <n\
456. 315
4. 77. S7Q
502.
376
8. 21. 411
529-
317
10. 34. 454
531-
320
36. 571
736. 343
II. 36. 571
772.
160
12. 28. 4^7
776. 515
28. 4.4.2
823. 326
I'^. f^Q. "^78
890.
211
de Spectaculis.
894. 259
3. II. 432
956- 397
2^. "^. ^46
1042.
58
1048.
46
MELA, POM-
1048. 483
PONIUS.
IV.
41.
206
12. 418
66.
207
372-
419
394-
278
NEPOS, COR-
545-
306
NELIUS.
554-
300
Preface, i. 379
619.
190
Agesilaus.
716.
264
I. ^17
785-
306
I. 407
855-
322
t;. 466
1 157.
10
6. 478
1079.
83
7« 493
1 186.
251
8. 2Q2
1282.
210
8. 392
V.
13-
278
8. 424
40.
213
8. 463
211.
120
Alcihiades.
754.
299
I. 279
791.
420
I. 408
931-
376
2. 402
T
934.
173
4. 424
997.
259
1139-
225
6. xxxi
1225.
430
6. 382
1332.
299
6. 455
1339-
131
Aristides.
VI.
1339.
235
I. 409
160. 483
I. 425
187.
39
3- 156
344»
301
3- 409
Atticus,
8. 462
I.
286
8. 468
I.
313
12. 411
I.
392
13- 407
2.
391
Iphicrates.
2.
392
I. 454
2.
463
3. 409
3-
393
Lysander,
5.
391
jIo 409
5-
397
Mtltiades,
8.
391
I. 446
9.
410
I. 450
13-
466
2. 432
19.
391
2. 482
Chdbrias.
3- 437
3.
410
7. xxxiv
Citnon,
7- 313
4.
407
7. 424
3-
466
8. 424
4.
465
Pausamas.
Conon,
3. 407
4.
392
3- 464
4.
450
4- 450
5.
431
4. 494
Patames.
Pelopidas.
3.
312
4- 154
4-
432
4. 391
5-
288
5- 451
6.
322
Phocton,
6.
491
2. 369
8.
154
2. 500
Dion,
3- 425
3-
410
Tkemistocles.
3-
451
I- 315
3-
460
I. 405
5-
477
2. 382
Epaminondas.
2. 424
I.
450
2. 426
2.
426
2. 444
3-
426
3- 383
3.
433
4. 321
5.
391
6. 407
7-
292
7. 383
8.
494
7. 487
9-
464
8. xxxii
10.
382
8. 283
Eumenes.
8. 492
I.
445
8. 493
2.
375
9- 425
2.
496
9- 437
5-
383
10, 444
8.
379
Thrasybulus.
II.
448
I. 448
Hamilcar
3- 434
3-
424
Hannibal.
OVID,
3-
409
Amoves .
4-
454
I. 9. 4. 365
6.
375
II. 16. 13. 408
6.
431
III. 4. 17. 369
7-
410
Ars Amatoria.
8.
267
I. 48. 378
8.
391
n. 415. 45<»
—PUN. MIN.]
Passages in Latin Writers,
613
too
JUX
TIT 222.
•561
406
EpistolcB
ex
Pnt?to
To 0
II. Q. A^.
4.26
TIT /1 HQ
482
8. 24.
42 1;
QQJ.
I 7t;
216.
0/ /
287.
II 128
Q70
DO '
428
829.
q6Q
■360
Ill 21
X X X « ^ X •
163.
■»■0"-'
TV cc
55-
270.
Q22
^71
880.
V. 176.
VI. 298.
•360
HcToidcs.
II 8q
/102
V TO
404
'Z'7'2
1 T2
^X X .Cr
VI IQ
V X • X
43^
IX I
X V • X •
/1 /1 c
XI. 109.
XII. 84.
281
169.
Q78
XVI. 368.
ATA
^x^
XVIL 166!
4.78
OSes,
T
A Co
282
Jit
TIT rnc
A TO
X V/ V.
/t QO
433
TQO
XjJU.
3/^
410
IV. 428.
AQ2
VII. 647.
VIII 681
268
IX t;2
3/4
81
687
3y^
XT orn
706.
478
XII. 7.
154
187.
xiir. 141.
439
XIV. 466.
79
Tristia.
I. 9. 5.
463
II. 10. 439
57- 449
216. 391
III. 8. 27. 462
14. 23. 475
IV. 3. I. 471
V. 10. I. 462
PERSIUS.
I. 122. 427
129. 290
III. 28. 372
31. 326
IV. 30. 423
V, 7. 496
77' 332
153. 427
PHiEDRUS.
I. 2. 437
35- 425
III. 2. 337
13. 286
V. 2. 451
PLAUTUS.
Aniphitruo.
Prol. 19. 390
32. 408
54. 448
I. 3. 6. 407
21. 378
II. 2. 3. 313
IV. I. I. 379
V. 3. 17. 450
222. 370
Asinaria,
I. I. 75. 407
3. 89. 478
II. 4. 84. 231
III. 2. 36. xxxii
IV. I. 22. 458
V. I. 6. 432
2. 88. 446
Aulularia.
II. 3. 4. 341
4. 46. 424
III. 3. 3- 431
IV. 7. 16. 379
10. 16. 478
Bacchides.
IV. 3. 23. 420
6. 28. 379
8. 93- 451
9. 5. 313
V. I. 5. 314
Captivi.
II. I. 30. 477
2. 39- 330
III. 4. 25. 326
IV. 2, 19. 291
V. I. 15. 392
Casina.
Prol. 45. 482
III. 5. 9. 426
V. 4. 18. 406
Cistellaria.
I. I. 48. 311
70. 408
100. 286
105. 459
III. 481
IV. 2. 36. 155
Curculio.
I. I. 55. 284
EpidicMs.
I. I. 49. 370
2. 38. 282
III. 4. 28. 478
V. 2. 29. 182
33- 477
Mencechmi.
II. 2. 46. 271
IV. 2. 34. 461
67. 329
3. 26: 383
V. 5. 47. 289
Mercator.
I. I. 71. 394
IV. 5. 9. 409
V. 5. 27. 462
Miles Gloriosus.
II. 5. 43. 477
III. I. 166. 313
Mostellaria.
I. 3. 114. 422
139. 406
II. I. 32. 461
III. I. 98. 156
V. I. I. 424
3. 269
Pcenulus.
Prol. 24. 478
Persa.
I. I. 33. 409
3- 57. 465
II. 2. 4. 477
IV. 4. 50. 477
9. I. 477
V. I. 20. 394
Pseudolus.
I. I. no. 417
3- II- 335
5. 12. 391
II. 2. 40. 483
III. I. 10. 478
2. 66. 337
Rudens.
I. 4. 28. 425
III. 5. 16. 424
IV. 4. 20. 188
70. 315
Trinummus.
II. 2. 70. 478
IV. 2. 122. 154
Truculentus.
V. I. 10. 445
PLINIUS MA-
JOR.
Htstoria Na-
turalis.
II.
12. 425
54- 411
68. 411
III.
3- 407
16. 405
V.
26. 383
VII.
16. 156
37. 406
40. 409
VIII.
40- 393
46. 410
48. 425
IX.
20. 291
XI.
8. 381
37- 425
37- 483
50- 425
XIV.
12. 369
12. 406
XV.
I. 328
I. 380
I. 477
2. 393
XVII.
4. xxxiii
XVIII.
25. 368
XIX.
8. 313
XXV.
4. 292
XXIX.
6. 156
XXX.
10. 156
XXXI.
2. 362
XXXIII. 10. 157
XXXIV.
8. 156
PLINIUS MI-
NOR.
EpistolcB.
I. 8. 447
10. 474
12. 473
18. 341
20. 366
II. I. 408
3- 449
III. 5. 156
5. 406
5- 447
6. 420
16. 448
IV. 27. 322
V. 19. 446
29. 451
6i4
Index III.
[PLIN. MIN.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
I. 312
16. 496
29. 446
33- 383
16. 483
24. 432
30- 454
PRISCIAN.
SALLUST.
Catilina.
I.
397
I.
464
3-
481
5-
369
6.
430
7-
463
7-
495
9-
426
10.
367
17-
323
17-
455
18.
424
20.
477
25.
341
25-
364
30. 432
33- 408
37- 394
40. 319
48. 380
52. 366
52. 369
52. 424
54- 352
I. 7.
38. 65
^4. 4-52
PROPERTIUS.
58 xxxvii
II. 19.
22.
307
^8. 284
III. I.
26.
307
30-
74.
480
jfuguTtha.
IV. 7.
13-
423
I. q6q
I. AXCk
I. 460
QUINTILIAN.
4.81
I. I.
5.
426
5-
455
9. 278
2.
22.
481
I A, Q20
3-
12.
433
14.. q6q
4-
6.
342
5.
7-
427
oC- xxxix
18.
514
on ^ Co
7.
I.
547
31. xxxvii
4-
551
QI. QI4
20.
552
31- 343
10.
17-
363
31- 395
12.
9-
464
39- 451
16.
459
41. 461
II. 6.
7-
412
46. 492
IV. 3.
10.
392
49- 383
V. 10.
63.
425
49- 393
VII. 3.
27.
369
50. 334
VIII. 3.
45.
41
50- 334
IX. 4.
2.
393
50. 432
44.
417
51- 333
X. I.
4-
428
51- 334
XI. 2.
16.
427
SI- 432
48.
369
53- 470
54. 448
54. 464
57. 362
66. 402
73. 432
83- 451
85. 288
85. 394
S5- 434
89. 407
98. 465
101. 368
102. 425
104. 376
107. 484
Fragmenta.
64. 449
SENECA.
de Beneficiis,
I. I. 318
1. 407
8. 416
IV. 3. 448
V. 2. 427
19. 447
19. 447
EpistolcB.
9- 450
9. 467
15. 448
17. 406
26. 310
33- 434
39- 441
52. 433
56. 479
58. 411
58. 418
61. 451
65- 369
65- 454
68. 471
70. 448
83. 482
88. 420
90. 423
94. 406
94. 481
95- 376
103. 441
103. 464
108. 283
113. 369
120. 383
de Ira.
I. I. 426
2. 424
II. 470
II. 10. 462
Naturales
Qucestiones.
I. 17- 457
VI. 25. 455
de Providentia.
3- 326
de Trajiquilli-
tate Anlmi.
II. 427
Tragedies.
Thyestes
214. 473
SILIUS ITALI-
CUS.
Punic a.
IV. 160. 423
X. 573- 407
STATIUS.
SllvCB.
I. 40. 445
V. loi. 93
Thebais.
I. 638. 426
V. 134. 450
VII. 605. 269
777- 371
VIII. 50. 444
SUETONIUS.
Augustus.
5. 573
33- 326
33- 406
48. 464
63- 431
77. 571
87. 550
88. 547
loi. 409
CcBsar, jfulius.
4- 423
19- 457
21. 409
25. 406
40. 424
52. 470
82. 463
86. 425
Caligula.
16. 370
30. 479
34. 447
48. 451
Claudius.
4- 447
16. 491
24- 393
33. 381
46. 409
Galba.
6. 370
9- 405
14- 454
31- 365
36. 450
49. 366
54- 381
Ofho.
10. 394
Tiberius.
4- 370
Vespasian .
16. 455
TACITUS.
Agricola.
4. 315
46. 336
— VELL. PAT.]
Passages in Latin Writers,
615
Annales.
IV.
II. 288
6.
25.
448
1 r
Hecyra,
T
T
20. 479
III.
20.
406
I. 2. 4. 47c
23. 369
2.
4-
450
59- 319
XX.
25. 369
3-
28.
361
III. I. 13. 419
TT
I/*
406
34' 369
4-
5.
268
IV. I. 59. 188
XX
46. 410
5.
I.
362
4. 21. 425
19.
q8q
«j ✓
61. 369
7.
438
23- 383
31-
6c. 268
12.
438
26. 450
32-
ICC
V.
74. Q16
15-
^70
Phormio.
35«
470
5- 325
V.
18.
§
I. 2. c. 311
XX
10. xxxiii
I.
31-
479
18. 324
366
15. 411
2.
I.
450
3- 5- 342
61.
42 c
3-
24.
341
20. 426
428
30-
450
II. I. 35. 473
68
463
Eunuchus.
2. 10. 371
TT
T 0
42 T
TERENCE.
I.
I.
16.
451
10. 426
T C
XX
Adelphi,
II.
2.
34.
310
3. 82. QIO
T7
■*•/•
382
T 0
Jl. 2.
23« 3"9
I.
10.
365
4. 14. 287
'SO
267
35- 394
10.
375
III. 2. 43. 330
^O'
408
46. 369
2.
21.
450
IV. 4. 15. 456
TT
272
46. 411
21.
473
5. II. 425
III.
Q
4H
1
II. I.
47- 335
3.
4-
330
V. I. 10. 332
on
424
9. 424
III.
97.
341
18. 458
TV
Aft
39"?
10. 391
3-
II.
268
3. 3. 312
VI.
19.
424
42. 463
II.
363
7. 47. 42 c
27.
424
43- 370
21.
411
89. 463
46. 315
5.
I.
327
8. 27. 426
480
2.
6. 449
30-
450
37. 382
YT
382
III. 2.
32. 382
46.
392
9. 27. 282
5'
447
3-
42. 450
48.
376
39- 312
XII
18
382
61. 311
IV.
2.
10.
478
XIII.
6cr
268
4-
8. 267
II.
478
TIBULLUS.
3-
15.
424
5.
25. 444
65- 451
3.
4-
II.
24.
"^70
0/
4 CO
I. 4. 63. 473
7. 53- 371
8. 22. 473
10. T. 309
37-
492
IV. I.
19. 329
4-
39-
329
XV.
39-
287
2.
30- 330
6.
19.
326
2.
313
5.
29. 423
7.
21.
309
5.
430
V. 3.
7. 272
V.
4.
25.
327
10. 13. 290
II. 5. 71. 316
113. 269
III. 4. 31. 406
59-
436
20. 477
45.
410
Dialogus
de
4-
25. 424
8.
I.
327
Oratoribus.
9-
I. 268
Ha uton timoru-
7.
271
Andria.
menos.
Germania,
3-
9-
498
406
Prol. 3. 371
5- 407
I. I. 10. 459
I.
I.
2.
28.
54-
28.
407
463
342
VALERIUS
MAXIMUS.
I. I. 369
T TT T
Vll. 2. 444
14.
393
18. 446
3-
8.
311
18.
155
27. 363
II.
2.
35.
461
21.
410
42. 400
3.
24.
312
37.
156
43- 382
III.
I.
13-
420
VARRO.
HistoricB.
77. 409
43.
325
de Re Rtistica.
I.
7-
475
78. 282
54.
423
II. I. QVI
15-
369
97. 367
58.
448
HI. 16- qqc
37.
371
100. 309
97.
438
V. I':^. 411
49.
426
107. 434
98.
486
VII. 26. 65
79-
371
130. 394
2.
38.
413
11.
87.
427
2.
6. 431
50.
281
I.
370
12. 281
3-
50.
330
VELLEIUS
47.
413
15. 444
IV.
2.
4.
267
PATERCU-
48.
426
27. 450
4-
10.
449
LUS.
III.
82.
280
3.
I. 320
V.
I.
31-
329
II. 2. 390
51-
288
5.
17. 320
68.
397
29. 408
59-
271
II. I.
6. xxxi
2.
6.
394
47. 409
74.
382
2.
20. 412
4.
7-
411
ip8. 432
6i6
Index IIL
[VERGIL.]
VERGIL.
578. 340
X.
273-
382
106. Q82
597- 371
324»
371
III. ^(i^
I. 5.
463
598. 370
439-
451
IV.
21. 280
16.
267
603. 339
707.
281
V.
34. 2Q2
21.
273
625. 339
782.
422
49. 2Q2
37-
438
654. 426
XI.
854.
340
65. Q40
85. 269
683. XX
112.
470
615. ■379
135-
566
V. 6. 500
126.
423
VL
69. 267
308. 329
19. 102
153-
441
VII.
Q. 267
313-
155
73. 426
162.
340
VIIL
39- 154
328. 381
200. 565
171.
316
41. 462
335-
407
451- 390
383.
415
IX.
43- 365
347-
405
481. 332
XII.
809.
281
17. 291
367. xxxiii
608. 375
5.
281
44. 471
573«
368
650. xxxiii
508.
383
Georg
tea.
II. 8.
728. 368
649.
407
I.
8. 406
414
751- 323
649.
426
93. 286
408
VI. 35. 423
736.
465
231. 155
275.
333
78. 425
760. XXXIII
329. 288
282.
372
187. 340
814.
451
330. 333
287.
519
199. xxxiv
Bucolica.
430. 109
324-
333
284. 322
I.
9-
450
n.
464. 451
325-
333
332. 423
56.
451
44- 154
353-
565
468. 334
64.
375
104. 417
377.
439
743. 287
80.
336
169. 271
39^-
281
884. XX
83.
565
192. 269
506.
339
VII. 27. 376
n.
6.
519
289. 339
510.
374
55- 418
7-
423
425. 216
538.
448
293- 379
18.
565
463. 271
in. 56.
565
704. 338
20.
408
IIL
2. 403
234-
xvi
805. 382
28.
479
147- 390
321.
411
VIII. 84. 320
IIL
40.
xvii
207. 278
490.
281
130. XXXV
I.
423
300. 340
620.
410
465- 365
49.
479
314- 375
652.
xxxi
560. 340
53.
479
329- 340
658.
279
573- 423
55-
459
348. 500
IV. 93.
565
649. xxxiii
74-
332
IV.
538. 278
137.
375
650. 341
77-
337
128. 39c
237-
340
IX. 82. xviii
82.
369
213- 33;
305-
444
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW -STREET SQUARB
LONDON
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