, 10,449. Anapa, a seaport town, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, in Russian Caucasia. Its fortifi¬ cations were destroyed by the Russians in the Crimean War, but it was speedily redccupied. Pop. 5,037. Anarchism (Gr. an, not, and arch'd, rule,) properly means the negation of government, and has quite a distinct meaning from Anarchy in the usual acceptation of the word. In its ordinary sense, anarchy is a state of society without any regular government, when social and political confusion prevails in its midst. Anarchism, on the other hand, is a name adopted by a phase of revolutionary socialism. The acknowledged father of anarchism, as a form of recent and contemporary socialism, is Proudhon. Since Proudhon, the most prominent expounder of the anarchist theory has been the Russian Bakunin, who, in various writings, and by an active propa¬ ganda, diffused it in most of the Romance countries. The best-known representatives of anarchism are the Russian scientist, Prince Kropotkine, and the distinguished French geog¬ rapher, Elisee Reclus. Their theory is that when natural laws shall have been understood, and the knowledge of them universally diffused among men, there will be no need for external authority. Anarchism has been imported into the United States by the lowest class of non-English speak¬ ing aliens. An'as, a Linnaean genus (now largely sub¬ divided), including ducks, geese, swans, etc. Anastasius, the name of four Popes, the first and most eminent of whom held that office for only three years (398-401). lie enforced celibacy on the higher clergy, and was a strong opponent of the Manichaeans and Origeu. Anastasius I., Emperor of the East, was born in 430 a. i)., at Dyrrachium, in Epirus, and pro¬ claimed emperor on the death of Zeno in 491. He was anathematized by the Pope for sympathy with the Eutychian heresy, and as a heretic had to contend with a widespread revolt. He died in 518.— Anastasius II., emperor of the East, mounted the throne in 713, but was deposed two years later by his mutinous soldiers, lie retired to a cloister, and an attempt to recover his crown cost him his life in 719. Anastomosis (Gr. the making of a mouth or opening), an anatomical term used to express the union of the vessels which carry blood or other fluids, and also for conven¬ ience the junction of nerves. The veins and absorbents anastomose to form large single trunks, as they ap¬ proach their ultimate destinations. The arteries break up into small branches | foi the supply of the tissues, and each small vessel again communicates with others given off above and below. When tlie main artery has been perma¬ nently obstructed, the anastomosing vessels enlarge, so as to compensate for the loss. Anathe'ma (Gr. a thing set up or hung up), a word originally signifying some offering or gift to the gods, gener¬ ally suspended in the temple. It also signifies a thing devoted to destruction (the equivalent of the Hebrew Chcrem)\ * ’ and was ultimately used in its strongest Arteries sense, implying perdition, as in Rom. anastomos- ix., 3; Gal. i., 8, 9. In the Catholic mg ' Church, from the ninth century, a distinction has been made between excommunication and anathe¬ matizing, the latter being the extreme form of denunciation against obstinate offenders. Anatolia, a Greek name for Asia Minor. The word is derived from the Greek Analole, “ the rising of the sun,” “the east.” Anatomy (Gr. a cutting up or dissecting) is the science of the form and structure of organized bodies, and is practically acquired by separation of the parts of a body, so as to show their distinct formation, and their relations to each other. It is therefore a branch of thescience of Biology, which consists of two great divisions—the anatomy of animals, styled Zootomy, and that of plants, Phy- totomy. It is difficult to determine the date at which this science began to be cultivated, but it is probable that from the earliest times some persons took advantage of favorable circumstances to ac¬ quaint themselves with it. Alcmaeon of Crotona, a disciple of Pythagoras, and Democritus are said to have dissected animals with the view of obtain¬ ing comparative knowledge of human anatomy. Hippocrates, born at Cos about 460 b.c., though the fathef of medicine, is less justly regarded as the father of anatomy, as his views of the structure of the human body are very superficial and incorrect. Aristotle, born 384 b.c., is really the founder of the science. Galen (131 a.d.), dis¬ sected apes as being most like human subjects, though he occasionally obtained bodies of persons found murdered, and his writings show a knowl¬ edge of human anatomy. Anatomy made small progress among the Arabs, as their religion pro¬ hibited contact with dead bodies. The medical school at Bologna became famous in the thir¬ teenth century, as did also those at Padua and Salerno, but no very material progress was made in anatomy. In the seventeenth century progress was rapid. Harvey, in 1619, discovered the circu¬ lation of the blood, and the microscope was em¬ ployed to detect the structure of minute vessels. Aselli in 1622 discovered and demonstrated the existence of the lymph-vessels. The glandular organs were investigated by Wharton, while Mal¬ pighi, Swammerdam, and the illustrious Ruysch, by the use of injections and the aid of the micro¬ scope, gave a new impulse to research in the mi¬ nute structures. Eminent names in the history of anatomy are numerous in the eighteenth century. The necessity of a union of theory and practice has led to the study of Pathological, Anatomy (the dissection and study of structures as modified by diseases). * Theoretical anatomy is divided into general and special. General Anatomy gives a description of the elementary tissues of which the systems and organs of the body are composed, as prelim¬ inary to an examination of them in their com¬ bined state in the various organs; it also investi¬ gates their laws of formation and combination, and the changes which they undergo in various stages of life. Special Anatomy (styled descrip¬ tive by the French writers) treats of the several parts and organs of the body in respect to their form, structure and systematic connection or rela¬ tion with each other. The arrangement of the several parts and organs in an order deduced from their similarity in structure or use constitutes Systematic Anatomy. Comparative Anatomy, the investigation and comparison of the structures of two or more animals, has always preceded anthropotomy, or dissection of the human subject, but was first treated systematically as a distinct science by Cuvier and his pupil, Meckel the younger. Practical Anatomy includes Dissection and the making of Preparations. Preparation con¬ sists in dividing parts or organs, so that their re¬ spective forms and positions may be clearly shown. Organs or parts thus treated are styled Anatomical Preparations of bones, muscles,vessels, nerves,etc. Anatomy, in Law. The difficulty of obtaining a sufficiency of human bodies for dissection for purposes of surgical and medical instruction gave rise, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, to the Resurrectionists, and to the horrible crimes for which Burke was executed in Scotland in 1828. In this country “ subjects” are furnished to the medical schools from the hospitals, the unclaimed dead being utilized for scientific pur¬ poses. In some States there are stringent laws prohibiting the export of dead bodies, but these laws are evaded, and grave-robbing is by no means unknown. Auaxag'oras, one of the most eminent Ionic philosophers, was born in Clazomeme, in Ionia, 500 b. c. He opposed divination and astrology ; and, being accused of impiety toward the gods, was condemned to death. His sentence, how¬ ever, through .the eloquence of Pericles, was com¬ muted into banishment for life. He withdrew to Lampsacus, on the Hellespont, where he died in 428. His most notable work, On Nature, has survived only in fragments, edited by Schaubacli (1827), and by Schorn (1829). Anaximander, a Greek mathematician and philosopher, successor of Thales as head of the physical school of philosophy, was born at Miletus, 611 b. c., and died in 547. He is said to- have discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and he certainly taught it. He appears to have applied the gnomon, or style set on a horizontal plane, to determine the solstices and equinoxes. The inven¬ tion of geographical maps is also ascribed to him. Anaxim'enes, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, was born at Miletus, and died about 500 b.c. lie held air to be the first cause of all things, or the primary form of matter, whence all things were formed by compression. Anbury is a disease in the turnip, which is produced by a fungus Plasmodophora, belonging to the family of slime-fungi, Myxomycetes. There is no cure, but preventive means may be successfully employed; such as planting turnips on the same land only after long intervals; avoid¬ ing treading of the land while wet; working the soil and planting good seed at the proper season, and supplying manures sufficient to make good the soil’s deficiencies. Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Polycar be Fran¬ cois, a French dramatic poet, was born at Havre, Feb. 9, 1794, and died Sept. 7, 1854. Ancestors, Worship of, the chief element in the religions of perhaps the larger half of man¬ kind at the present moment. The universality of ancestor worship has led Herbert Spencer to the opinion that it was the origin of religion every¬ where. He argues that all religious beliefs arose originally out of the erroneous conclusions drawn by primitive man from the ill-understood facts of Ids own nature, especially in the phenomena of sleep and dreams. These have to the savage as much objective reality as those he has seen when awake. Auchitherinm, a noteworthy animal that lived in Europe and North America during Upper Eocene times. It had affinities to the tapir-like Palseotlierium and true horse. Each foot had three hoofs, the middle one being the largest, and all reached to the ground. The ancliitherium was about the size of a small pony, and is looked upon as one of the ancestors of the existing horse. Anchor, an implement for retaining a ship in a particular spot, by temporarily chaining it to the bed of a sea or river. Many forms of anchor were made by the ancients; some were merely large stones ; others, crooked pieces of wood, weighted to make them sink in water, the earlier ones acting niainly as weights, and holding the vessel by their own inertia instead of hooking into the ground. The first iron anchors are supposed to have Iteen used by the Greeks. As originally made, the an¬ chor had only one fluke or arm for penetrating the ground, and no stock. A large-sized modern an¬ chor, irrespective of recent improvements, com¬ prises the following parts: The vertical or support- ingbeamof the anchor is theshank, B; attheupper end of it is a ring, r, or a shackle, and just below the ring is a transverse piece called r the stock, s a; the other ex¬ tremity is the crown, c, from which branch out two arms or blades, g, in directions nearly at right angles to that of the ® stock; each arm spreads out into a broad palm or flake, h, the sharp extremity of which is the peak or bill, k. When the anchor is let go from the ship’s side, the crown first c strikes the ground; it then Anchor of Admi- falls over in such a manner ralt y Pattern that one end of the stock rests upon the ground ; and the subsequent movements of the ship and ANCHORAGE. 53 ANDOVER. the cable cause one or other of the flukes to enter the ground, and take a fast hold. The number of anchors in ships-of-war varies according to the size of vessel, and the character of the service intended. A large ironclad carries 8 anchors—2 “bowers,” 2 “sheet,” 1 “stream,” 1 “stern,” and 2 “hedges.” Smaller vessels have fewer and smaller anchors. Steamers are required to carry only the anchors and cables which belong to a sailing-vessel of two-thirds their total ton¬ nage. Many improvements in the shape and construc¬ tion of anchors of the standard type have been introduced during the past forty or fifty years’ service. One of the most important changes is that effected under Rodgers’ patent of 1838, also known as Ilonibal’s. The arms, instead of being solidly connected to the shank, are movable in re¬ lation to it. They pivot about a bolt passing through the crown-piece of the arms and the end of the shank, the latter being fork-shaped to re¬ ceive the former. An anchor radically different is that patented by Martin, a Frenchman. It is self-canting, and both flukes are utilized at one operation for main¬ taining a hold of the ground. The arms, which are in one piece, are fitted through a hole in the crown end of the shank, which is increased in area for the purpose, and they are free to swing through a range of 30° relatively to the shank. Thus, on whatever side the anchor falls, the arms by their own weight and the pull of the cable are made to take hold of the ground at once. The stock, which is flat and broad, is fitted across the shank in the same direction as the arms. Anchorage is a due or toll levied on the owner or captain of a ship for permission to cast anchor at special anchoring-grounds. In most instances it is payable to the State ; but sometimes the right is vested in corporate bodies or individuals. Anclior-ice, or Ground-ice, a kind of ice which forms upon the beds of rivers, or shallow brackish seas. It only begins to form when the temperature of the atmosphere falls to within 10° F., and it does not adhere strongly to the bottom until zero is reached. Ancho'vy (Engraulis enchrasicholus), a small bony fish of the herring family (Clupeidae), of some importance as a food-luxury. It may attain a length of eight inches, but usually measures only about a finger’s length. The species occurs Anchovy. abundantly round the European coasts, especially in the southern and Mediterranean region, while the genus is represented in all the warmer waters. Three species are found in North American Atlan¬ tic waters, and four on the Pacific side. Anchovy Pear (Grias cauliflora), a tree, the only known species of a genus somewhat doubt¬ fully referred by Lindley to his order Barring- toniaceas (now regarded as a sub-order of Myrta- ceie). It grows in boggy places in the mountain¬ ous districts of Jamaica and other West Indian islands, attains a height of fifty feet, and has great oblong leaves two or three feet in length. Ancillon, John Frederick, was born in Ber¬ lin in 1767. Originally pastor of the French refugees, he was in 1792 appointed Professor of History in the Military Academy of Berlin, and wrote Revolutions du Systeme Politique de l’Europe{iouv vols. 1803-5). In 1814 and 1818 lie held administrative posts, and in 1832 became minister of foreign affairs. He died in 1837. Anco' na, the capital of a province in Italy, of the same name, is situated on the Adriatic coast, 127 miles southeast of Ravenna. It contained (1881), 31,277 inhabitants, of whom above 2,000 are Jews. Ancre, Baron de Lussigny, Marshal d’, originally Concino Concini, was a Florentine by birth, and came to the French court in 1600, in the train of Maria de’ Medici, the wife of Henry IV. After Henry’s death he became chief favor¬ ite and adviser of the queen-regent. He was assassiuated in the Louvre in open day. on April 24, 1617. Ancns Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, was the grandson of King Numa Pompilius. lie died in 616 n. c., after reigning twenty-four years. Anda, a genus of Euphorbiaeea', from the seeds of one of which the A. braziliensis, a fine oil, highly purgative, is obtained. Andalu'sia, (Span. Andaluci'a), a large and fertile region occupying the south of Spain. The Andalusians speak a dialect of Spanish tinctured with Arabic. Andalusia is divided into the provinces of Almeira, Jaen, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordova, and Granada. The chief towns are Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Cadiz. Area, 33,340 square miles. Pop. (1884), 3,370,089. Amlalusite, a mineral, consisting o-f silicate of alumina, occurs in slightly rhombic, four¬ sided prisms, and also in a massive form; pearl- gray or reddish in color. An'damans, a group of thickly ’wooded islands toward the east side of the Bay of Bengal, between 10° and 14° of N. latitude, and 92° and 94° of E. longitude. They consist of the Great and Little Andaman groups, surrounded by many smaller islands. The Great Andaman group is more than 150 miles long and 20 miles broad, and comprises four islands, the North, Middle, and South Andaman, and Rutland Island. The Little Andaman, which lies thirty miles south of the larger group, is 28 miles long by 17 miles broad. The total area is 2,508 square miles. The islands belong to Great Britain. Since 1858, the Andamans have been a penal settlement for Sepoy mutineers and other life-convicts. In 1881 the population of the convict colony was 14,628, of whom 1,988 were women. In 1872, Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India, was assassinated at Hopetown, on Viper Island, by a Mussulman convict. Andan te (Ital.) in Music, implies a movement somewhat slow and sedate, but in a gentle and soothing style. This term is modified, both as to time and style, by the addition of other words. Andelys, Les, a town in the Norman depart¬ ment of Eure, France, consisting of Great and Little Andelys, situated less than a mile apart, and about twenty miles northeast of Evreux. Pop. (1881), 3,883. Andenne, a town of Belgium, twelve miles east of Namur. Pop. (1883), 7,503. Anderab, or Inderab, a town in Afghan Turkestan. It is an entrepot of commerce be¬ tween Persia and India. Pop., 6,500. Audernaeh, a little town belonging to the dis¬ trict of Coblenz on the Rhine, formerly the seat of the Merovingian kings. Andersen, Hans Christian, one of the great story-tellers of the world, the most widely popu¬ lar of Danish authors, was born April 2, 1805. In 1830 he published the first collected volume of his Poems, and in 1831 asecond, underthe title of Fantasies and Sketches. For nearly forty years Andersen continued to pour forth his charming stories and sketches, the delight alike of children and of adults. His style is delightful and his works mark an epoch in the history of literature for the young. His fame has long been more than European. He died at Copenhagen Aug. 7, 1875. Anderson, James, antiquary, was born at Edinburgh, in 1662. In 1705, two years before the Union, he published a treatise vindicating the independence of Scotland. He died in 1728. Anderson, James, a writer on political econ- omyand agriculture, was born in 1739, near Edin¬ burgh. He invented the small two-horse plough without wheels, commonly called the Scotch plough. He died in 1808. Anderson, JonN, founder of the college in Glasgow, Scotland, bearing his name, was born in 1726 and died in 1796. Anderson’s College was opened with a single course of lectures on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, by Dr. Thomas Garnett, in 1796. In 1798 a Professor of Mathematics and Geography was appointed. In 1799 Dr. Birkbeck, the suc¬ cessor of Dr. Garnett, commenced the system of giving a familiar exposition of mechanics and gen¬ eral science, and this was the origin of mechanics’ institutes. The institution gradually enlarged its sphere of instruction, till it came to have a staff of nearly twenty professors and lecturers. Anderson, Mary, a distinguished actress, was born at Sacramento, Cal., July 28, 1859, of Cath¬ olic parentage, her father being a Confederate officer who lost his life in the Civil War. She played for the first time at Louisville, in 1875, in the character of Juiiet. Her success was marked and immediate, and during the following years she played with increasing popularity in the prin¬ cipal cities of the Union, in various roles. In 1883 she appeared at the Lyceum Theatre in London, and speedily became well known in Eng¬ land. Amlersonville, a village in Georgia, noted as having been the seat of a Confederate military prison, which was notorious for unhealthfulness and for barbarity of discipline. Between Feb¬ ruary 15, 1864, and April, 1865, 49,485 prisoners were received, of whom 12,926 died in that time of various diseases. Henry Wirz, the superin¬ tendent, was tried for injuring the health and destroying the lives of the soldiers confined here, was found guilty, and hanged, !Nov. 10, 1865. The long trenches where the soldiers were buried have been laid out as a cemetery. Andersson, Kari. Johan, an African explorer, born in Sweden, in 1827. In 1850 he joined Francis Galton in a journey to the territories of the Damaras and Ovampos, and in 1853-54 con¬ tinued the exploration alone. He died in Africa, July 5, 1867. Andes, the great mountain system of South America, which extends along the Pacific coast from north to south, some 4,500 miles in length. It includes the Cordilleras of Peru and Bolivia, and extends into Patagonia and to Cape Horn, while the coast islands are only partially sub¬ merged peaks. The Andes are of undoubted vol¬ canic origin, and their highest peaks are Acon¬ cagua, Chimborazo, and Sorata, in Chili, their respective heights being given as 22,422, 21,425, and 21,284 feet. Andesite, a group of volcanic rocks, gray, reddish, or dark brown in color. The ground mass of these rocks is usually composed of feldspar microliths, scattered through which are abundant crystals of plagioclase feldspar. Andiron (OklFr.a/idt«i), more generally known as a fire-dog. Andirons were used for burning wood on an open hearth, and consisted of a hori¬ zontal bar raised on short supper's, with an upright standard at one end. The use of and¬ irons has recently been revived in some modern American houses. Amlkhui.a town and khanate in A f g h a n Turkestan. The popu¬ lation is estmated at 15,000, consisting piincipally of Turkomans. Andorra, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, between the French department of Aridge and the Spanish Province of Lerida, part of Catalonia, Its inaccessibility naturally fits it for being the seat of the interesting little republic which here holds a kind of semi-independent position between France and Spain. Area (divided into six com¬ munes), 175 square miles. Pop. 6,800. Andorra is said to have been declared a free State by Char¬ lemagne. The State now stands under the pro¬ tectorate of France and the Bishop of Urgel. An'dover, a municipal borough of Hampshire, sixty-six miles southwest of London, orginally Andeofaran (passage of the river Ande). A Roman villa and other relics of antiquity have been discovered near Andover. Pop. (1881), 5,654. Andover, a village of Essex county, Massachu¬ setts, twenty three miles north of Boston. Settled in 1643 from its English namesake, it is famous for its educational institutions; the Phillips Academy, instituted in 1780, the Andover Theological Semin¬ ary of the Congregationalists, an offshoot from it. founded in 1807, for the purpose of “providing for the church a learned, orthodox, and pious ministry.” Largely endowed, it offers free res¬ idence and instruction. There is a valuable ANDRAL. 54 ANEMONE. library of 30.000 volumes. Pop. of township (1880) 5,169. • Amlral, Gabriel, a celebrated French physi¬ cian and pathologist, born at Paris, Nov. 6, 1797, died Feb. 13, 1876. Andral may be said to have been the first to apply an analytical and inductive method to pathology. Aiulrassy, Julius, Count, a Hungarian states¬ man, was born at Zemplin, March 8, 1823. He was returned by his native town to the Presburg Diet of 1847. He threw himself heartily into the revolutionary movement of 1848, and on its defeat was exiled, until the general amnesty of 1857 en¬ abled him to return to his own country, lie was elected a member of the Hungarian Diet in 1860, and in 1867 was appointed prime-minister of Hungary. The chief event of his administration wais the civil and political emancipation of the Jews. In 1871, Count Aiulrassy became minister for foreign affairs, and in 1878 represented Austria at the Congress of Berlin. In 1879 he retired from public life. Andre, John, a major in the British army, who, while acting as adjutant-general under Clin¬ ton, entered the American lines to confer with the traitor Arnold in reference to the surrender of West Point to the British. He was stopped by some militia men, one of whom wore a coat taken from a Hessian soldier, and, believing them to be British soldiers, he avowed himself an officer in King George’s service. Finding he had made a mistake, he produced a pass signed by Arnold, and, that failing to procure his liberty, he offered heavy bribes to his captors. They searched him, found the evidences of Arnold's treason in his boots, and delivered him to the military authori¬ ties. He was tried by court-martial and hanged as a spy, at Tappantown, Oct. 2, 1780, being only 29 years of age. His high personal character and early death created much sympathy for him, but his ignominious execution was entirely justified by the laws of war, as he was within the lines in disguise, with the plans of an American fort on his person. England gave him a monument in Westminster Abbey, and a few years ago a New York millionaire erected one at Tappantown. The English hanged Nathan Hale, who was cap¬ tured under somewhat similar circumstances four years before, but Hale’s case’differed in that he was not the go-between of a traitor, but a soldier who volunteered to personally enter the enemy’s lines and make drawings of the fortifications. See Sargent, Life of Major Andre (1861); Loss- ing, The Two Sines—Nathan Hale and John An¬ dre (1886). Andrea, Johann Valentin, an original thinker and writer, born in 1586 near Tubingen. He studied at Tubingen, became a Protestant pastor, and died in 1654 at Stuttgart, where he was court chaplain. Andreossy, Antoine Francois, Count, an eminent French general and statesman, was born on March 6, 1761, at Castelnaudary, in Langue¬ doc. He entered the artillery in 1781, joined the revolutionists, rose rapidly in military rank, served under Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, and took part in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. He served as ambassador at London, at Vienna, and at Constantinople, was elected to the Academy in 1826, and died Sept. 10, 1828. lie was a man of eminent scientific attainments. Andrew, the first disciple, and one of the apos¬ tles of Jesus. His career after the Master’s death is unknown. Tradition tells us that, after preach¬ ing the Gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on the cross at Patrce in Achaia, 62 or 70 a.d. The anniversary of St. Andrew falls on Nov. 30. About 740 St. Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland, and he is held in great veneration in Russia, as the apostle, who, according to tradition, first preached the Gospel in that country.— Cross of St. An¬ drew. — A white saltire on a blue ground, to represent the x-shaped cross on which the patron saint of Scotland suffered martyrdom, has been from an early date adopted as the national ban¬ ner of Scotland, The Scottish Order of the This¬ tle is sometimes known as the Order of St. An¬ drew. —The Russian Order of St. Andrew is the highest in the Empire, and was founded by Peter the Great in 1698. It has but one class, and is confined to members of the imperial family, princes, and persons of the rank of general who already hold two other important orders. Andrew, JonN Albion, an American states¬ man, was born at Windham, Maine, in 1818. In 1860 he became governor of Massachusetts, and was four times re-elected, retiring in 1866. He was a prominent abolitionist. He died October, 1867. Andrewes, Lancelot, an English prelate, was born in 1555, was one of the translators of the Bible and became successively Bishop of Chi¬ chester, Ely, and Winchester. He died in 1626. Andrews, Thomas, physicist, was born in Belfast , Dec. 19, 1813, and, in the Queen’s College there, filled, from 1849 till 1879, the posts of Pro¬ fessor of Chemistry and Vice-President. He was President of the British Association in 1876. Andria is a city of South Italy, thirty miles west of Bari. Its cathedral, a fine edifice, was founded in 1046. Majolica ware is made here. Pop. (1881), 36,795. •Audrieux, Francois Guillaume Jean Stan¬ islaus, a French scholar and dramatist, born at Strasburg, May 6, 1759. He was admitted to the Academy in 1816, and made perpetual secre¬ tary in 1829. He died May 10, 1833. Androclus, a Roman slave of the early part of the first century, the hero of a well-known story related by Aulus Gellius. Having attempted to run away from his master, he was sentenced to be torn by wild beasts in the circus, but, to the amazement of the spectators, the lion when let loose rushed up to him and began to lick him fondly. On inquiry it was found that he had once pulled a thorn out of a lion’s foot in a cave in Africa, and that the grateful beast had at once recognized in him his benefactor. Androclus was pardoned by the Emperor, and afterwards led the lion about the streets of Rome. Andro gynous (Gr. male-female), an almost obsolete term applied (1) to plants where the inflorescence is monoecious—i.e ., consists of distinct male and female flowers; and (2) to animals which are hermaphrodite — i.e., possess a distinct male and female generative system in the same indi¬ vidual. This is the case with very many of the low r er animals. Androm'ache, the wife of Hector, was the daughter of Eetion, King of the Cilician Thebes, and is one of the female figures in Homer’s Iliad. During her childhood, Achilles slew her father and her seven brothers. By Hector she had a son, Scamandrius (Astyanax). Andromache is the heroine of one of the tragedies of Euripides. A ndrom'eda, daughter of the Ethiopian King Cepheus and Cassiopeia, like her mother, remark¬ able for her beauty. Cassiopeia having been rash enough to boast that her daughter was more beau¬ tiful than the Nereids, these deities prayed Poseidon to revenge the insult. Accordingly, the territory of King Cepheus was devastated by a flood, and a terrible sea monster appeared, whose wraith the oracle of Ammon declared could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Andromeda. She was fastened to a rock, and left as a prey to the monster, when Perseus, returning from his battle with Medusa, slew the monster, and received Andromeda as his reward. Androni'cus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philos¬ opher, lived at Rome in Cicero’s time, and em¬ ployed himself in criticising and explaining the works of Aristotle, a great number of which he was probably the means of preserving to us. Androni'cus, the name of four Byzantine emperors—Andronicus I., Comnenus, grandson of Alexius I., was brave, profligate and perfidious. In his youth he served against the Turks, in 1141 was for some time a prisoner, and was after¬ wards appointed to a military command in Cilicia, but was unsuccessful. He was imprisoned and exiled for treason by his cousin, the Emperor Manuel. After the death of Manuel in 1182, he was recalled to become first guardian, then col¬ league, of the young Emperor Alexius II. Soon after lie caused the empress-mother to be strangled, and afterwards Alexius himself, with whose youthful widow he cont 1 acted an indecent marriage. He w T as killed by a mob in 1185. Andros, an island of the Greek Archipelago, the most northern of the Cyclades. The island is 25 miles long, and about 10 miles in its greatest breadth, the area being 156 square miles. Pop. (1879), 22,562. Andros is also the name of one of the Bahamas. Andujar, a town of Andalusia, Spain. The Convention of Baylen was signed here on July 23,1808. Pop. 11,974. Anecdote (Gr. an, not, and eledotos, published), a narrative of any single incident or fact of an interesting nature. Anega'da, the most northerly of the Virgin Islands, lying east of Porto Rico in the West Indies. Aueniom'eter (Gr. anemos, the wind, and metron, a measure, Fr. anemometre, Ger. Wind- messer ), an instrument for measuring the pressure. Robinson's Hemispherical Cup Anemometer. or velocity of the wind. The simplest anemometer is that which is generally known as Robinson’s hemispherical-cup anemometer, invented by Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, in 1846. It consists of four hollow hemispheres or cups fixed to the ends of two horizontal iron rods crossing each other at right angles, and supported on a vertical axis which turns freely. Experiments show that the cups revolve with about a third of the wind’s velocity/and the instrument is so constructed that 500 revolutions are made whilst a mile of wind passes over it. The revolutions are registered by a system of wheels similar to those of an ordinary gas-meter. Pressure anemometers are of very great im¬ portance in meteorological observatories and for engineering purposes. Of these, one of the best known is that invented by Osier. In this instru¬ ment the force of the wind is ascertained by its pressure against a disk. In Lind’s anemometer, the wind, entering the mouth of one of two upright glass tubes, con¬ nected below, depresses the column of water con¬ tained in the one tube, and raises proportionately that in the other. Anem'one, a genus of Ranunculacese, charac¬ terized by the acrid¬ ity prevalent in this order. The species are numerous, and generally beautiful. Most of them flower early in spring They are natives of tem¬ perate and cold cli¬ mates, chiefly of the Northern Hemis¬ phere. One speci¬ men, Anemone nem- orosa, the wood an¬ emone, is common in parts of North America. The genus Hepatica is frequent¬ ly included in An¬ emone. An emone triloba (Anemone he¬ patica), with three- lobed leaves, is com¬ mon in America. _ , . , . „„„ , Anemone, Sea, a Wood Anemone U. nemarosa). popular name of Actinia and some allied genera of Actinozoa. Almost cosmopolitan in their distribution, they attain most magnificent devel¬ opment in the warmer seas, such as the Mediter¬ ranean. The sea anemone consists of a muscular lube, fixed by its expanded base, and with a rich. ANEROID. 55 ANGLER. crown of tentacles round the mouth. See monograph by Dr. Angelo Andres in the series A, Anemonia sulcata; B, Cerianthus membranaceus; C, Bunodes gemmaceus (closed); D. the same (open). of reports on the fauna and flora of the Gulf of Naples, the Challenger report, etc. Aneroid (formed from Gr. a, not, and neros, wet), the name given to a barometer invented in 1844 by M. Vitli of Paris, in which the pressure of the air is measured without the use of liquid, as in ordinary instruments. The pressure of the atmosphere acts upon a circular metal box, A A, about three inches in diameter, and one-quarter of an inch deep, which has been nearly exhausted of air, and then soldered air-tight. The sides are corrugab d in concentric rings, so as to in¬ crease their elasticity and strength, and one of them is fixed to the back of the brass case which contains the whole. The amount of exhaustion is such that if the sides of the box were allowed to take their natural position, they would be pressed in upon each other, and to prevent this they are kept distended, to a certain extent, by a strong sp.ing, S, fixed to the case, which acts upon the head of the stalk, B, attached to the side next the face. When the pressure of the air increases the corrugated sides are forced inwards, and when it diminishes again, their elasticity restores them to their former places; and thus the little box becomes a spring extremely sensitive to the vary¬ ing pressure of the external atmosphere. By the mechanism a very small motion of t lie corrugated sides produces a large deviation of the index hand, 1-220 of an inch causing it to turn through three inches. The “Metallic Barometer” of M. Bour¬ don is a modification of the aneroid principle. Aneurin, a Welsh poet (603), was the son of Caw ab Geraint, chief of the Otadini, and author of an epic poem, the Oodoclin. Aneurism (Gr. aneurysma, a dilatation) is a tumor containing blood, and communicating with the cavity of an artery. True aneurism is almost always a result of Atheroma, and is most common in middle life. Aneurisms prove fatal by their pressure on some important part, or by bursting and allowing a sudden escape of blood. Angel. Angels (Gr. dngeldi , messengers) are a class of spiritual beings who appear in the Bible as the attendants of God, and especially as His mes¬ sengers and the medium of communication be¬ tween Him and men. (1) In the earlier historical books, the angel has sometimes no apparent form, but is only a voice, as it were; sometimes there is a form undistinguishable from that of an ordin¬ ary man, except by the conduct (Gen. xviii, xix); although elsewhere at times there is some¬ thing in his aspect that betrays the heavenly messenger (Judges xiii, 6). (2) In the poetical and prophetic books, as “Sons of God,” “Saints,” or “Holy Ones;” to the name of messengers are added new titles, but they continue to discharge the same duties. (3) To express the majesty of the Almighty and His power in executing His will, the poetic imagi¬ nation not only conceived of the angels as exist¬ ing in vast numbers, but ascribed to them a certain warlike character. (4) The belief in guardian angels is merely a particular phase of the general idea. Israel lias a special angel guide (Ex. xiv, 19; xxiii, 20); at a later period Michael is named their “ great prince ” (Dan. xii. 1). Individuals also have their special guardian angels (Matt, xviii). It was believed that they sometimes as¬ sumed the form of their charge, becoming their double, as it were (Acts xii, 15). Not one, but an unlimited number attended on Jesus from llis birth to His Ascension, were throughout His earthly life at His command, and will accompany Him at His second coming. Angels have an im¬ portant place in the Apocalypse. The seven angels (Rev. viii, 2) “which stand before God” are Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, Chamuel, Jo- phiel, and Zadkiel. The first three are the princi¬ pal archangels, and in Christian art are often represented together, while the last three have never been generally recognized either in the East or West. One large sect of the Jews, that of the Sadducees, rejected the belief in the existence of angels as something entirely foreign to the Mosaic system. In the later stages of revelation, a group of angels came to be represented as having fallen from their primitive condition of innocence and taken up a position of hostility to God. Punished by being degraded from their “first estate,” they group themselves under the kingship of Satan, and continue to employ their activity in attempting to frustrate the good purposes of God. Angel-worship is specially condemned by St. Paul (Col. ii, 18), probably with reference to the doctrine of the Essenes. See Oswald Angelolntrie, die Lehre von den guten uvA bdsen Engeln im Sinn der Kalholischen Kirche (Paderborn, 1883); Edersheim’s Life and Times of Jesus, the Messiah (Exc. xiii, 3d ed. 1886); Mrs. Jameson’s Sacred and Legendary Art (9tli ed. 1883). Angel-fish, a quaint and ugly fish belonging to the shark sub-order of Elasmobranchs. Angel ica, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferse, by some botanists divided into two, Angelica and Archan¬ gelica. The species are mostly li e r- baceous and perennial, natives of the temper¬ ate and cold¬ er regions of the Northern H emispliere. Wild Angel¬ ica {A. sylves- tris) is a com¬ mon plant in moist mead¬ ows, by the sides of brooks, and in woods. The garden angelica is a biennial p 1 a n t, b e- coming per¬ ennial when not allowed to ripen i t s Angelica archangelica seeds. The whole plant, and especially the root, is aromatic and bitter, with a pleasant odor. The garden angelica was at one time also much cul¬ tivated for the blanched stalks, which were used as celery now is. The tender stalks and mid¬ ribs of the leaves, candied, are still, a well- known article of confectionery, and an agreeable stomachic; the roots and seeds are employed in the preparation of gin and of “ bitters.” Sev¬ eral species of angelica are natives of North America. Angel'ico, Fra, the commonest designation of the great friar-painter—in full “II bcato Fra Gio¬ vanni Angelico da Fiesole,” “the blessed Brother John the angelic of Fiesole.” Born in 1387 at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, in 1407 he entered the Dominican monastery at Fie¬ sole, but was called to Rome and painted numer¬ ous frescoes and altar-pieces. He died in 1455. Of his easel pictures, the Louvre possesses, “The Coronation of the Virgin,” and the London Na¬ tional Gallery a “Glory,” or Christ with 265 saints. An'gelo, Michael. See Michael Angelo. An'gelus Bell, a bell rung at morning, noon, and sunset, in Catholic Churches to invite the faithful to recite the Angelic Salutation. It gives name to a very famous picture by Millet. See Ave Maria. Angermanlaml, a former division of Sweden, now chiefly comprised in the government of Wes- ternorrland. The river Angerman, 200 miles long, is, in its lower course, navigable for large ships. The chief town of the district is Hernoesand, with a pop. of 5,000. Angcrmunde, a town of Prussia, on Lake Munde, forty-three miles northeast of Berlin. Pop., 6,833. Angers, formerly the capital of the Duchy of Anjou, and now of the French department of Maine-et-Loire, is situated on both sides of the navigable river Maine, 214 miles southwest of Paris. Angina (Lat. an'gina, quinsy, but the term is usually pronounced angi'na) is sore throat. In medical parlance it is customary to append an adjective specifying the nature of the affection ; thus Angina rheumatica is rheumatic sore throat. Angina Pec toris, sometimes called Heart- stroke or Breast-pang, is characterized by intense pain, accompanied by a sense of constriction, which occurs in, paroxysms, beginning at the breastbone and radiating thence in different direc¬ tions, but chiefly towards the left shoulder and arm. The attack gradually passes away, or may end in syncope, which is sometimes fatal. There are at times premonitory symptoms, such as nausea or faintness, but usually these are absent. The affection may be symptomatic of various dis¬ orders. Angiospcrnis(Gr. angeion , a vessel, and sperma, seed), a term applied to Monocotyledons and Dico¬ tyledons, in contrast to Gymnosperms (Conifers and Cycads). Angle (from Lat. angulus, a corner) means, in Geometry, the opening or inclination of two lines that cut or meet one another. If the lines are straight, the angle is rectilinear. A perpendicular line, meeting its horizontal, forms at the junction a right angle. Any angle less than a right angle A, right angle ; B, acute angle ; C, obtuse angle. is called acute, and one greater is called obtuse. Angles are measured by degrees, of which a right angle contains 90. The angle made by two curved lines (curvilinear) is the same as the angle made by the tangents to the two curves at the point of intersection. Angles made by planes with one another can also be reduced to rectilinear angles. When three or more planes meet at the same point, the angular space included between them is called a solid angle. Angler ( Lophius piscatorius), a fish sometimes called" the Fishing-frog; sometimes, from its ugli¬ ness and voracity, the Sea-devil. It usually meas¬ ures three feet or more in length. The head is enormously large, depressed, and spinous ; the mouth is of similar proportions, and furnished with many sharp curved teeth, and with numerous ANGLES. 56 ANILINE. worm-like lip-processes or barbules. The lower jaw is considerably longer than the upper one. Angler-fish. The body is narrow in comparison with the great breadth of the head, and tapers rapidly to the tail. The whole fish is covered with a loose skin, almost without scales. The fish is exceedingly voracious. It is common in all North Atlantic coast waters. Other species are known in Medi¬ terranean, Pacific, and South Atlantic waters. Angles (Angli), a German tribe who occupied the country still called Angela on the east of the Elbe, between Sleswick and Flensburg. Along with the Saxons and Jutes, they passed over in great numbers to Britain during the fifth century, and settled in East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia. From them England derives its name (Lat. Anglia, Anglo-Saxon, Engla-land). Anglesey, or Anglesea (A.S. Angles Ey — i. e ., the Englishmen’s island), an island and county of Wales, on the northwest coast of that principality, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait, which is spanned by the suspension bridge (1826) and by the tubular bridge (1850). The extreme length of the island is 21 miles; its extreme breadth, 19; the coast line measures about 80; and its area is 302 square miles, or 193,453 acres. Anglesey was known to the Romans under the name of Mona. Anglesey, Henry William Paget, Marquis of, born May 17, 1768, served with distinction in Flanders, Holland, and the Peninsular war, and in 1812 succeeded his father as Earl of Uxbridge. For his splendid services as commander of the British cavalry at Waterloo, where he lost a leg, he was made Marquis of Anglesey. In 1828 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and in 1846 was made a field marshal. He died April 29, 1854. Anglia, East, a kingdom founded by the An¬ gles about the middle of the sixth century, in the eastern part of central England, in what forms the present counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Anglican, belonging to the Church of England and the other churches in communion with it in Ireland, Scotland, and the United States. Some¬ times used specially of the High Church party. Angling is the art of catching fish by rod, line, and hook, or by line and hook, the salient feature of the pursuit being the allurement of the prey by an attractive bait. The requisites for a successful angler are, knowledge of the haunts and habits of fish, dexterity in the use of tackle, and a patience much in excess of that required for most out- of-door amusements. The first qualification cov¬ ers a wide field of study, involving, as it does, familiarity with the movements of fish at different seasons of the year, and in varying conditions of water; with the food peculiar to diffeient species; and with the characteristics of the fishes angled for. The first printed English book on angling was the second edition of Dame Juliana Berners’ (or Barnes) Book of St. Albans, in which, to a previous chapter on hawking and hunting, was added a Treatyse of Pysshynge with an Angle. Shortly after this publication, Wynkyn de Worde (probably in 1450) issued the angling chapter as a ■separate book. In 1590 Leonard Mascall pub¬ lished A Booke of Fishing with Hook and Line , and of All Other Instruments Thereto Belonging. John Denny’s poetical Secrets of Angling followed in 1613. Thirty-eight years later Thomas Barker’s Art of Angling appeared, to be succeeded in two years by Izaak Walton’s Complete Angler, of which ninety-two editions have been published. The number of books on angling has marvel¬ ously increased during the last fifty years, and Westwood and Satchell’s Bibliotheca Piscatoria (1883) catalogues 3,158 editions and reprints of 2,148 distinct works on fish and fishing. Anglo-Catholic is a term used of the Church of England generally, but especially of the High Church section, which claims that the national church is Catholic (as opposed to Roman Cath¬ olic), and repudiates the name of Protestant. Anglo-Israelite Theory, an opinion as to the historical origin of the English people held by a considerable number of persons in Britian and America. They contend, without evidence, that the English, and indeed the entire Anglo-Saxon race, are descended from the Israelites who were carried into captivity by the Assyrians under Sar- gon in 721 b.c. Angloma'uia designates among the French and Germans a weak imitation of English manners and customs, or an indiscriminate admiration of English institutions. Anglomania is often limited to trifles such as fashions and society manners, and in this sense is known in the United States, especially in New England and New York. Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature. The term Anglo-Saxon was frequently applied, in the works of the last three centuries, to the earliest forms of the English language, up to the date of the Norman Conquest, and a little later. English, in short, was described as Anglo-Saxon so long as it remained an inflected tongue, and no longer. The word, however, was never used by the people themselves who spoke that language. The Teutonic settlers of Southern Britain, com¬ monly called Anglo-Saxons, were divided into two main branches—one northern, the Auglians or English (in their own dialect, Engle), who oc¬ cupied the eastern coast from the Frith of Forth to the farther limit of Suffolk (see Angles), and one southern, the Saxons (in their own dialect, Scare), who held the portion of the island from Essex to Dorsetshire, extending inland to Oxford and the Severn Valley. The word Anglo-Saxon wjis applied only at a much later date to the early Teutonic inhabitants of South Britain and their language, after the latter had become so far obso¬ lete in form and vocabulary as only to be compre¬ hensible by means of special study. Ango'la, is a name formerly used loosely of the whole West African coast from Cape Lopez to Benguela. But since the establishment of the Congo Free State, in 1885, it should at most be used of the Portuguese West African possessions, extending from the Congo southward to Cape Frio. This region is subdivided into four governments —Ambriz, Angola in the narrower sense (capital, St. Paul de Luanda), Benguela, and Mossamedes. The limit toward the interior is very vague, but the Portuguese influence, represented by military posts, extends some 1,500 miles inland. The area of the whole dependency is stated at 312,000 square miles, and its pop. estimated at 2,000,000. Angora, or Angwireh (anc. Ancyra), capital of a Turkish province in the mountainous interior of Asia Miuor, 220 miles east-southeast of Con¬ stantinople. A great battle between the Turks and Tartars was fought here in 1402. The city has 40,000 inhabitants. Its trade is mainly in the hands of the Armenians, who number 12,000. It is famous for its breed of goats, with beautiful silky hair eight inches long. The annual export of wool from Angora is said to have a value of $1,000,000. The Angora goat is bred for its hair, called Mohair, in the United States and in Cape Colony, and has also been introduced into Victoria. Angostura, or Ciudad Bolivar, a town of Venezuela, on the right bank of the Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouth. The Orinoco is navigable to this point for vessels of 300 tons. In 1819 it was decreed that its name should be changed to Ciudad Bolivar, after the liberator. Pop. (1881), 10,861. Angostura Bark, or Cusparia Bark, is the aromatic bitter bark of the Galipea cusparia. a native of Venezuela and other tropical countries. The Galipea cusparia is a small tree belonging to the natural order Rutaceie, twelve to fifteen feet high, with a trunk three to five inches in diam¬ eter. Angostura bark is a valuable tonic in dys¬ entery, chronic diarrhoea, and dyspepsia, but it is falling into disuse. Under the name of Angos¬ tura Bitters an essence is sold containing angos- tura, canella, cinchona, lemon peel, and other aromatics. Angostura contains an alkaloid called angosturia. Augouleine, the capital of the French depart¬ ment of Charente, and formerly of the Province of Angoumois, eighty-three miles northeast of Bordeaux. It was die birthplace of Marguerite of Navarre, author of the Hep tamer on. Ravaillacwas also a native. Pop. (1886), 34,647. Augouleine, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Due d’, the eldest son of Charles X. of France, and Dauphin during his father’s reign, was born at Versailles on Aug. 6, 1775. At the Revolution he retired from France along with his father. In 1799 he married his cousin, Marie ThtrLse, the only daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoin¬ ette, whom Napoleon called “ the only man in the family.” On the recall of his uncle, Louis XVIII., he was appointed lieutenant-general of the king¬ dom, but surrendered during the Hundred Days. On the revolution in July, 1830, he signed, along with his father, an abdication in favor of his nephew, the Due de Bordeaux, and, when the Chambers declared the family of Charles X. to have forfeited the throne, accompanied him into exile. Died, June 3, 1844. Angra, the capital of the Azores, on the south coast of the island of Terceira. Pop. (1878), 11,070. Angra-Pequena, a bay on the southwest coast of Africa, in 26° 27' S. latitude and 15° E. longi¬ tude. It gives name to the southern littoral of Great Namaqualand. In 1883 Angra-Pequena was ceded by a Namaqua chieftain to Luderitz, a Bremen merchant; and next year it was taken under German protection, with all the coast to the north as far as Cape Frio, except Walvisch Bay, which belongs to England. Angri, a town of South Italy, 17 miles north¬ west of Salerno. Pop. 7,110. Angstrom, Anders Jonas, a Swedish natural philosopher, was born Aug. 13, 1814, and died June 21, 1874. Anguilla, or Little Snake, an English West India Island, one of the Lesser Antilles, lying 160 miles east of Porto Rico. Area, 35 square miles; pop., 2,500. Anhalt, a duchy of the German Empire, almost entirely surrounded by the Prussian Province of Saxony, which breaks it up into two principal and five smaller portions. Area, 869 square miles; pop., (1875) 213,689; (1885) 247,603—nearly all Protestants. Anhydrides is the term now commonly given to the compounds formerly known as anhydrous acids. In some cases they are the result of the dehydration of acids, and in all cases they repre¬ sent in their composition the acid minus water. The most important property of this class is their conversion into the corresponding acids, under the influence of water. Anhydrite, a mineral, consisting of anhydrous sulphate of lime, with some slight addition of sea-salt, appears in several varieties. Anhydrite is converted into gypsum by combination with a certain proportion of water. When burned and reduced to powder, it is used as a manure, resembling gypsum in its effects. Anhydrous is the term applied to a chemical substance free from water. Thus, ordinary quick¬ lime, as it comes from the kiln is simply lime, CaO, without any water, and is called anhydrous lime; but when water is thrown upon the quick lime, the liquid disappears by combination with the lime, which very much increases in volume, and becomes hydratedlime, CaOH 2 0. The “ set¬ ting” of ordinary plaster of paris is another familiar example of the conversion of an an¬ hydrous compound into a hydrate. Ani, a ruined city of Turkish Armenia, about twenty-five miles southeast of Kars. Aniline, or Amido-benzene, was discovered in 1826, as a product of the dry distillation of indigo; hence the name, derived from anil, the Portuguese for indigo. Practically, all the aniline now manufactured is obtained from the benzene of coal-tar. The pure article is a colorless, oily animal. 57 ANIO. fluid, slightly soluble in water, but readily dis¬ solving in alcohol and either. It refracts light strongly, and possesses a weak, aromatic taste. It boils at 360° F. (182° C.), and when pure has a specific gravity of 1.020. It is a well-marked base, producing numerous crystalline salts, al¬ though it has no alkaline action on vegetable colors. It is a powerful narcotic poison. It is, however, as being the source of the numerous aniline dyes, that this body has become of lead¬ ing importance. They may be regarded as amines — i. e., ammonia in which hydrogen has been replaced by one or more radicals. Thus we have diphenylamine, NH(C 6 H 5 ) 2 ; dimethyl aniline, N (CbHs) (CH 3 ) a ; methyl ethyl aniline, N (C 6 II 5 ) (CHs) (C2II5); and so on. The colors produced by tiiese dyes include every shade and tint. The so-called aniline blacks are usually either very intense greens or blues, appearing black through concentration. The aniline dyes are noted for their intense coloring power, one part of a rosaniline salt in a million parts of water still possessing a deep •cHmson color. The chief drawback to their use lies in the fugitive nature of many varieties. The aniline colors areas a whole disapproved from the artistic point of view. Germany is now the headquarters of the industry. See Perkin, “On the Coal-Tar Colors,” in Nature , Vol.XXXII; and The Chemis¬ try of the Coal-Tar Colors , by Beuedikt (Eng. trans. 1886). Animal, The popular classification of all bodies into three “ kingdoms”—the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral—only assumed author ity in comparatively recent times, and has done much mischief in exaggerating the apparent differ¬ ences between plants and animals on the one hand, and in obscuring the fundamental distinc¬ tion between these and minerals on the other. There are in reality only two kingdoms of nature, the living and the non-living—the organic and the inorganic. While living bodies are thus clearly distinguish¬ able from inorganic, every attempt to erect a simi¬ larly sharp distinction between plants and ani mals completely breaks down. Animal Chemistry. The objects of animal or physiological chemistry are, to investigate the composition and properties of protoplasm and its various modifications which form the tissues and organs of living beings, and to ascertain the pre¬ cise nature of the constructive and destructive changes which take place in those tissues and organs during the performance of their functions. Protoplasm is always found to contain much albuminous or proteid matter, together with smaller quantities of amyloids and fats, and its molecule is conjectured to include representatives of all these three classes. Much water is also present, together with small quantities of nume¬ rous products of functional activity. We may briefly refer to these. Pro'eids are at present classified as follows; (1) Native Albumens (egg, serum, etc.); (2) Derived Albumens (acid and alkali albumens, casein); (3) Globulins (globulin, myosin, vitelin, etc.); (4) Fibrin: (5) Coagulated Proteids; ( 6 ) Peptones; (7) Lardacein. Certain nitrogenous bodies allied to proteids are mucin, chondrin, gelatin, keratin, nuclein, etc., which form the principal compo¬ nents of mucus, cartilage-matrix, connective tis¬ sue, epidermic structures, and cell nuclei, respect¬ ively. The Amyloids, or carbo-hydrates, from their far less complex structure, are much better understood. The most important of these are grape-sugar (glucose, dextrose, diabetic sugar), C 6 HuO«+H a O; milk-sugar (lactose), GYjIl^C), ,-j- II 2 0; muscle-sugar (inosite), C(!Hi a O«-|-2H 2 0; glycogen or animal starch, C 6 Hio0 5 ;and dextrine, Cell 10 O 5 . The fats, with their derivatives and allies, form very complete series, acid, neutral, and nitro¬ genous, of which the composition is tolerably well known. The acetic acid series, C?,H a? i0 3 , is best represented, including formic (in blood and many tissues, also secreted by ants, etc.); acetic (in stomach during fermentation of food, in diabetic ur ne, etc.); propinoic (in sweat, etc.); butyric (in milk; also sweat, urine); valerianic (in faeces); caproic, caprylic, and capric (in butter); lauro- stearic and myriotic (in spermaceti, etc.); palmitic and stearic acid (in human fat). Of the oleic series, H(C„H. 2 „- 3 )0 2 , many members are known. Hu¬ man fat is a mixture of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids in combination with glycerine. The glj - colic acid series is represented by lactic acid, the oxalic series supplying oxalic and succinic acids. Cholesterin is abundant in nervous tissue and in bile, etc. The complex nitrogenous fats are lecithin, neurin, cerebrin, e’c. The most important product of nitrogenous waste in mammalia is urea (NII a ) 2 CO, which forms the chief solid constituent of urine, and occurs in traces in blood and most tissues, except muscle, which, however, contains intermediate products of decomposition. Uric acid, C 5 H 4 N a 0 3 , predominates in the urine of birds and reptiles, but it is also present, in small quantities, in that of mammals, and its salts form gouty and urinary concretions. Kretin, kretinin, and sarkin occur constantly in muscle; xanthin, guanin, etc., in urine; glycocoll and taurin in combination in the bile acids, etc ; leucin and tyrosin, as products of pancreatic digestion. Most of the preceding substances, though sel¬ dom constant, appear to be of exceedingly wide distribution throughout the animal kingdom. See Gamgee’s Physiological Chemistry, and Fos¬ ter’s or other modern Text-book of Physiology. Animal 'cule, a term which, although etymo¬ logically applicable to any very small animal, is limited in ordinary language to those which are microscopical. Animalcules exist in prodigious numbers, their size being such that myriads of them find ample space for all the movements of an active life within a single drop of water. Sea¬ water often contains them in enormous numbers, and the luminosity of the sea is often due to this cause (Noctiluca). Although, contrary to a widely diffused belief, they occur only in very small num¬ ber in drinkable waters, they abound wherever water becomes stagnant , or contains decomposable organic matter. The simplest form is a naked lump of jelly-like protoplasm, constantly flowing into new shapes, the amoeba; while other masses of jelly, the foraminifera, may be found possessed of coverings of sand, or even carbonate of lime, and only protruding their irregular processes (pseudopodia) through its openings. See any adequate work on microscopy— e.g ., Carpenter On the Microscope, and the Micrographic Dictionary. Animal Heat. Living protoplasm is con¬ stantly in process of disintegration and oxidation, and these changes are accompanied by evolution of heat. The greater the activity of change, the higher does the temperature tend to become. Even the infusoria evolve heat, as is shown by the slowness with which the surrounding water freezes. The average temperature of the human body is about 98.4° Falir., that of the wolf is 30 or 40 ] ower au q that of the arctic fox 5° or 6 ° higher. In birds, the temperature varies from 100 ° in the gull and other aquatic birds, to nearly 112 ° in the swallow, while a hybernating mammal like the lemming becomes temporarily cold¬ blooded, its temperature during the winter sleep being comparatively little above that of the atmos¬ phere. Animal Magnetism, Mesmerism, or Hyp¬ notism. From time immemorial, Egyptian conjurors and sorcerers have been accustomed to produce artificial somnambulism, usually by inducing their subject to gaze intently for a few minutes at certain cabalistic signs marked on the center of a white plate. About 1774, Mesmer, a Viennese physician, commenced to treat diseased organs by the application of artificial magnets. Four years later, he commenced practice in Paris, with great success. His usual methods were to seat his patient with his back to the north, to press the pit of the stomach, and make passes with his hands in front of his face, meanwhile fixing his patient’s eye, and soothing him by the aid of music. Sometimes, too, he placed his patients in connection with magnetized trees, or set them in a circle around a covered vessel from which he professed to conduct the invisible fluid, thus inducing peculiar nervous conditions. In 1785 a royal commission found that the same phenomena could be produced in Mesmer’s more nervous patients when blindfolded, by merely | inducing them to suppose themselves in the neighborhood of any of Mesmer’s magnetic appli¬ ances, while conversely, magnets and magnetic trees were alike powerless, if the patient were unaware of their proximity. Unfortunately for further investigation, the subject fell into the hands of the arch-quack, Cagnostro, and thus became extremely discredited by physiologists. In 1841 Dr. James Braid proved the absolute dependence of the mesmeric phenomena upon the physiological condition of the patient, not on that of the operator. He proposed the word hypnot¬ ism, which now so advantageously replaces the terms animal magnetism and mesmerism. Since his day the phenomena have been thoroughly investigated and explained. Hypnotism is again coming into use in medical and surgical practice, and its facts have important bearings on the phenomena of reverie, trance, somnambulism, religious excitement, mania, and spiritualism. See Braid’s Magic, Animal Maqnetism, etc., (3d ed. 1852); Figuier’s Histoire du Marveilleux (1860); Heidenhain’s Animal Magnetism (I860); Binet and Fere, Animal Magnetism (International Science Series 1886). , Animals, Cruelty to. England has the honor of first forming societies for its prevention, and of first legislating for its punishment. The English Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was founded in 1824, the Scottish in i839. In the United States above thirty branches of a similar organization were founded between 1866 and 1881 ; and the movement has extended into France and Germany. Animals, AVoRsnip of, according to most students of comparative religion, is a stage in the religious evolution, characteristic of the less cul¬ tured races, which has sometimes held its place in the higher stages of civilization. It originates in Animism, or Spirit Worship, which is a univer¬ sal phenomenon of humanity. Naturally man tries to conciliate the power for evil indwelling in the animal, and thus reaches the stage of full or direct worship, in which he recognizes the animal as the incarnation of a divine soul. But a wider and deeper motive for such worship is his veneration for the animal as a totem, or representative of a tribe-ancestor or protector. Among primitive peoples all animals are supposed to be endowed with souls, which in many cases have formerly animated human beings. Hence a likeness is often recognized between an animal and some deceased friend, and the animal is addressed as the person would have been, and honored with a kind of worship. In the modern world the most civilized people among whom animal-worship vigorously survives lie within the range of Brahmanism, where the sacred cow is worshiped by the pious Hindu. Per¬ haps no worship has prevailed more widely than that of the serpent. It had its place in Egypt and among the Hebrews; in Greece and Rome; among the Celts and Scandinavians in Europe ; in Persia and in India; in China and Thibet ; in Mexico and Peru; in Africa, where it still flourishes as the State religion in Dahomey; in Java and Ceylon, among the Fijians, and elsewhere in Oceanica. See Fergus,son’s Tree and Serpent Worship (1868)\ McLennan in 'The Fortnightly Review for 1869 and 1870; Herbert Spencer in the Fortnightly for 1870; Chap. XV of Tylor’s Primitive Culture (1871); Gubernatis’ Zoological Mythology (18741, for its facts; Robertson Smith in the Journal of Philology (1880); Chap. VI of Dorman’s Origin of Primitive Superstitions (Philadelphia, 1881); two chapters in Lang’s Custom and Myth (1884); and Lang’s Myth, Ritual, and Religion (2 vols. 1887). An'inia Mnndi, according to many of the early philosophers, a force of vital principle immaterial, yet not intelligential ; inseparable from matter, but giving it its form and movement, the source of all physical and sentient life. An ime, a resin exuding from the trunk of the Flymencea courburil, a large tree of the natural order Leguminosie, sub order Caesalimieae, a native of New Spain and Brazil, Animism, a term originally used to denote the theory of Stahl which regarded the vital principle and the soul as identical, but now used in the sense given to it by Dr. Tylor as the general doc¬ trine of spiritual beings. Anio, the ancient name of the Teverone, a tributary of the Tiber, which rises in Monte Can- ANISE. 58 ANNECY. taro, and joins the larger river three miles above Rome. An ise ( PimpineUa anisum), an annual plant of the natural order Umbelliferae. Anise proper is a native of Egypt. It is cultivated in Egypt, Syria, Malta, Spain, and Germany. Anise-seed (aniseed) is used as a condiment and in the prepar¬ ation of liqueurs; also in medicine as a stimulant stomachic, to relieve flatulence, etc., particularly in infants. It has an aromatic, agreeable smell, and a warm, sweetish taste. Its properties are due to a nearly colorless, or sometimes blue, volatile oil, called Oil of Anise Star Anise, or Chinese Anise, is a fruit of lllicium anisatum, a small evergreen tree of the natural order Magnoliaceae, somewhat resembling a laurel. .Anjou, a former province in the northwest of France, of about 3,500 square miles in extent, now forming the department of Maine-et-Loire. Its capital was Angers (Lat. Andegavum). It has given titles to many Princes of France. Ankevstrom, John Jacob, the assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden, born 1702. He formed a plot with a ring of discontented nobles to mur¬ der Gustavus, and the lot having fallen to him, he wounded the king mortally with a pistol-bullet at a masked ball held March 15, 1792. Anker- strdm was executed on the 27tli April, after hav¬ ing been publicly flogged for three successive days. Anker, a Dutch liquid measure, formerly often referred to in England, containing ten wine gal¬ lons. Anklain, a town of Prussia, in the Province of Pomerania. Pop. (1885), 12,784. A nko bar, the capital of the Kingdom of Shoa, in Abyssinia, is built 8,200 feet above sea-level, and consists of 3,000 huts scattered over the summit and western slopes of a mountain. When the king is in residence the population is increased from 6,000 to near 15,000. Ankylo'sis (Gr. ankylosis, bending or crooking; ankyle, stiff-joint) is a term used in surgery to im¬ ply a stiffness arising from adhesions in any joint. It is usually the result of disease. Anua, or Anne, St., according to tradition, wife of St. Joachim, and mother, after twenty years of barrenness, of the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus. The first to mention her is St. Epiplianius, in the fourth century; but towards the eighth, we find her all but universally held in honor. 11er body is said to have been transferred from Palestine to Constantinople in 710. She is the patron saint of carpenters. Her festival falls on the 26th of July; with the Greeks, on the 9tli of December. Anna, an Indian coin, value nominally 1 hi. sterling, but always the sixteenth part of a rupee. Anuaberg, a mining town of Saxony, of Chem¬ nitz. Pop. (1885), 13,822. Anna Carlovna, regent of Russia during the minority of her son Ivan, was the niece of the Empress Anna Ivanovna, and in 1739 married Anton Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. Her son Ivan, born 1740, was nominated by the Empress Anna as her successor; and Anna Car¬ lovna proclaimed herself regent. A conspiracy took place in 1741; the infant Ivan was murdered; and Anna and her husband were imprisoned. She died in 1746; while Anton was confined till his death, in 1776. Anna Comnc'na, a learned Byzantine princess, author of one of the most valuable of the Byzan¬ tine histories, was the daughter of the Emperor Alexius I. (Comenus), and was born on December 1, 1083. On the death of her husband (1137), she retired into a convent, where she died in 1148. Anna Ivanovna, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, was the second daughter of Ivan, elder brother of Peter the Great. She married in 1710 the Duke of Courland, who died in the follow¬ ing year; and she obtained the duchy of Cour¬ land for her favorite, Biron, a Courlander of low birth. The throne of Russia was offered to her by the Supreme Council on the death of Peter II. iii 1730. She declared herself autocrat, and sup¬ pressed an attempt of the nobles to establish a constitutional government; and her paramour, Biron, established a reign of terror. Anna died in 1740, and left the throne to her grand-nephew, Ivan. Annals* These were at first books which con¬ tained a record, in chronological order, of the principal events occurring in one or more years. The name is derived from the oldest historical documents of the Romans, the Annales Pontifi- cum, or Annales Maximi, the duty of drawing up which devolved upon the Pontifex Maximus; but these were all destroyed by the Gauls at the sack of Rome, nearly four hundred years before the time of Christ. At a still later period, the term was applied to any historical work that followed the order of time in its narrations, separating them off into single years—as, for instance, the Annals of Tacitus. Annain, a territory along the east coast of Indo- China, between 10° and 23° N. latitude, forming an empire which, since 1885, has been under a French protectorate. The names Annam and Co¬ chin-China are sometimes used as interchangeable; Cochin-China was the name given by the early navigators to the whole coast from Siam to China. Annam, a name given by the Chinese in the third century a.d., was adopted by the Annamese as the official name for the whole country. The area of Annam is estimated at about 106,000 square miles, and its population at about 21,000,000. French (or Lower) Cochin-China, to the south of An¬ nam, consisting of six provinces, was in 1863 detached from Annam, and is now under the administration of the French Marine Department. Cambodia, occupying the lower course of the Mehkong, to the southwest of Annam, was, till recently, under the vassalage of Siam ; but since the French occupation of Lower Cochin-China, Cambodia too has detached itself from Siam, and declared allegiance to the French. Tongking, placed by the treaty of Hut; (1884) along with Annam Proper under the protection of France, is distributed into three distinct natural divisions. Though Annam lies wholly in the torrid zone, the climate of Tongking is on the whole excellent. During the dry season, from September to April, the thermometer varies between 70° and 40° F. During the hot and rainy season, extending over the other six months, the thermometer seldom mounts from a minimum of 70° to beyond 100° F. On account of the moisture, however, the heats in June and July are sometimes almost in¬ tolerable. In the mountains of Annam, tigers, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, and elephants abound. Much fishing is carried on. The Annamese are mainly of Mongoloid stock. Rice is their princi¬ pal food ; but, like the Chinese, they are omniv¬ orous, and devour snakes, locust, rats, and dogs. The Tongkingese display wonderful skill in build¬ ing dykes. Yet at Haiphong, the Chinese have monopolized all the industries demanding skill and perseverance ; and “lazy as an Annamese” is a common proverb. The speech of the Annamese is monosyllabic, like Chinese, from which they have borrowed many words. The Annamese written character was also derived at an early period from the Chinese alphabet. There is no Annamese literature distinct from the Chinese. The mass of the people worship tutelary spirits ; Confucianism is in vogue with the more culti¬ vated ; the remainder adhere to Buddhism. There are besides about 420,000 Roman Catholics, descendants of emigrants from Macao and Japan (1624), and of Portuguese fugitives from Malacca. See recent works on Annam and French Cochin- China by Bouillevaux, DeRhins, Lemire, Launay; and works on the French colonies by Vignon, Rambaud, and De Lanessan (1886). Annamaboo, a small seaport town, protected by a strong British fort, on the Gold Coast of Africa, ten miles east of Cape Coast Castle. Pop., 5,000. Annap'olis, a seaport of Nova Scotia, on an arm of the Bay of Fundy, ninety-five miles west of Halifax. Annapolis is the oldest European settlement to the north of the Gulf of Mexico, having been established, in 1604, by the French as the capital of their province of Acadia, under the name of Port Royal. Acadia was ceded to Britain by the French in 1713, when Port Royal changed its name in honor of Queen Anne, con¬ tinuing to be the seat of government till, in 1750, it was superseded by the newly-founded city of Halifax. Pop. (1880), 2,833. Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, stands on the south bank of the River Severn, two miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, and forty miles east by north from Washington. Among its edifices are an imposing state-house, St. John's College (1784), a Roman Catholic seminary, a naval hospital (1871), and the United States Naval Academy, established in 1845. Founded as Prov¬ idence in 1649, Annapolis received its present name in honor of Queen Anne. Pop. (1887), about 10,000. Ann Arbor, a flourishing city of Michigan, thirty-eight miles west of Detroit, It was settled in 1824, and incorporated as a city in 1851. The State University, founded in 1837, possesses a good library, a notable observatory, and a labora¬ tory. Pop. (1880), 7,849. An'nates, or First-Fruits, in the ecclesias¬ tical law of England, meant the value of every spiritual living for a whole year, which the Pope, claiming the disposition of every spiritual bene¬ fice within Christendom, reserved out of every living. It was abolished in 1534, and in the fol¬ lowing year the right to annates was annexed to- the crown. Anuatto, or Anatta, also known in com¬ merce as Arnotlo, Roucou, and Orleana, is tJie reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of the Butt i rellana, a medium-sized tree growing in Guiana and other parts of South America. Annatto is- used in the dyeing of cloth, and it also enters into some bright-colored varnishes. It is in the coloring of butter and cheese that it finds its widest application. It is \ cry much adulterated. Aline, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and the last British sovereign of the House of Stuart, was born at St. James’s Palace, London, on Feb. 6 , 1665. She was the second daughter of James II. of England and VII. of Scotland (who at the time of her birth was Duke of York), by his first wife, Anne Hyde, the daughter of the famous Earl of Clarendon. In 1683, Anne was married to Prince George of Denmark (1653-1708). Soon after her marriage, the wife of Colonel Churchill (afterward the famous Duke of Marlborough) was appointed one of the ladies of her bed¬ chamber, and soon acquired great influence over her. Anne had seventeen children, but they all died before she came to the throne, March 8, 1702. Anne died Aug. 1, 1714. The Elector of Hanover succeeded her as George I. Auue Boleyn. See Boleyn. Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, was born in 1601, and in 1615 became the wife of Louis XIII. of France. The royal pair lived for twenty-three years in a state of virtual separation—a result due chiefly to the influence of Cardinal Richelieu. On the death of the king in 1643, Anne became queen-regent and chose as her minister Cardinal Mazarin, under whose management the young king (Louis XIV.) came into possession of a throne firmly established on the ruins of contending parties. On the death of Mazarin, Anne retired to the convent of Val de Grace, where she died in 1666. Annealing is a process of slow cooling of a body from a high temperature, by which there is secured a more or less uniform arrangement of the particles or molecules throughout its mass. Glass in this way is made strong and able to resist changes of temperature. An annealing kiln, or oven, is usually large, and the glass vessels or sheets placed in it are raised to near their melting points at its hottest portion, and then moved away at intervals to cooler and cooler parts of the chamber. Metals under various circumstances require to be annealed. Hollow ware of cast-iron, before it can be turned bright for tinning, must be soft¬ ened by the annealing process. What are called malleable-iron castings are made of cast-iron, which are afterward annealed. They are covered over with powdered haematite ore, and subjected to various degrees of heat for about ten days, when they become quite malleable. Annealing is also used in gold-beating, in wire¬ drawing, in nail-making, and many other arts. Tin, lead, and zinc are annealed by the use of boiling water, and steel tools by immersion in hot oil, both liquids being allowed to cool slowly. Tempering is the process of annealing reversed. Annecy, chief town of the French department of Haute-Savoie, twenty-two miles south of Geneva. The Lake of Annecy, 1,426 feet above the ANNELIDA. 59 ANT. sea, is about nine miles long. Annecy was trans¬ ferred with Savoy to France in 1860. Here Eugene Sue died in exile. Pop. (1881), 10,740. Annelida (Lat. annellus , a little ring), a term due to Lamarck, and definitely applied by Cuvier to the higher red-blooded worms. Annexation is the adding or joining to a State of territory which was previously independent or in possession of another power. Annobon, or Annabon, the smallest of the four islands in the Bay of Biafra, the eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea, now belonging to Spain. Annonay (ancient Annoniacum), a town of the department of Ard&che, France, thirty-seven miles south of Lyons. Montgolfier was born here. Pop. (1881), 14,891. Annual, a term applied to plants which com¬ plete the whole course of their development in one season. Most kinds of corn are the produce of annual grasses, some of which, however, as wheat, in certain circumstances, prove of longer duration. The annuals cultivated in our flower-gardens are very numerous, and many species, both native and foreign, are among our most beautiful flowers. Among them are the cockscomb, China aster, phlox, marigold, lark¬ spur, and candytuft. Annual Register, a yearly record of public events, which was commenced in England in 1759, and has been continued to the present time. Annuals, the name given to a class of sump¬ tuous books, much in demand during the first half of the present century, for Christmas, New Year, and birthday presents. They were usually illus¬ trated with good engravings, and often contained prose and poetry by prominent writers of the day. Atone time over 150,000 copies were sold each year, but the craze died out about 1850. Annuity is the term- employed to describe a payment generally (but not necessarily) of uniform amount falling due in each year during a given term, such as a period of years or the life of an individual, and payable either in one sum at the end of the year, or by half-yearly or other install¬ ments. The first to place the calculation of life annuities on a scientific basis by applying the doc¬ trines of probabilities and of compound interest to a mortality table deduced from the recorded statistics of an actual community (Breslau), was the celebrated astronomer royal, Halley, whose monograph on the subj , t is printed in the Philo¬ sophical Transactions, for Jan., 1693. Annulet, (Lat. annulus , a ring), a term in architecture for a small fillet or band which fre¬ quently surrounds a column. The annulet, a ring, is a charge in Heraldry. Annunciation, the tidings brought by the Angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ. Also the festival kept by the Church in commemoration of this event, on March 25. In England the festival is commonly called Lady Day. The Order of the Annunciation, now the highest Italian order, was instituted in 1360 by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy, and in 1725 was made the first order of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Anode (Gr. ana, up, and hodos, a way), a term in electrolysis introduced by Faraday to des¬ ignate the positive pole, or that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body under¬ going decomposition (electrolyte); as opposed to cathode, the negative pole. An'odjne (Gr. an, not, and odyne, pain), a medicine used to assuage pain. The principal anodynes are aconite, belladonna, cocaine, chloral, Indian hemp, opium, and bromide of potassium. Anomalistic Year is the interval that elapses between two successive passages of the earth through its perihelion, or point of nearest ap¬ proach to the sun. The length of the anomal¬ istic year is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 49 seconds, or 4 minutes, 39 seconds longer than the sidereal year. Anom aly (Gr. anomalia, irregularity), the angle measured at the sun between a planet in any point of its orbit and the last perihelion. Anona ceac, the custard-apple order are Tlial- amifloral, Dicotyledons, closely allied to Magno- liaceae. They are trees and shrubs, mostly trop¬ ical, and usually aromatic and fragrant. Anou ymous (Gr. nameless), a term applied to a book or letter, the author of which does not give his name; when an assumed name is given, the term Pseudonymous is used. Auoplothe'rium (from the Gr. an, not; hoplon, armor; and kerion, a beast), a genus of extinct, even-toed, hoofed animals, established by Cuvier from bones occurring in great abundance in the gypseous strata of the Oligocene formation near Paris. Anquetil, Louis Pierre, a French historian, born in 1723, and died, a member of the Institute, at Paris Sept. 6, 1806. Anquetil-Duperron, Abraham Hyacinthe, brother of the preceding, a French orientalist, was born at Paris, Dec. 7, 1731. He studied in India and his Zend-avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroaster, appeared in 1771, being the find translation ever made into a European tongue. He died at Paris Jan. 17, 1805. Ansars, more correctly Nossairians, an Arab sect living in the mountainous region of Syria, north of the Lebanon Mountains. Their whole number is about 75,000. Ansbach (in England often Anspacii) a town of Bavaria. The margraves of the old princi¬ pality of Ansbach were a branch of the family of Ilohenzollern. The last of them gave up his possessions in 1791 to Prussia; and in 1807 Na¬ poleon transferred Ansbach to Bavaria. Pop. (1885), 14,057. Anstlell, Richard, animal and landscape painter, was born at Liverpool in 1815. He was elected A.R.A. in 1861, and R.A. in 1870. He died April 20, 1885. Anselm of Canterbury, a scholastic philoso¬ pher, was born near Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033. He was distinguished both as a churchman and philosopher, and in 1093 became Archbishop of Canterbury. Exiled by Rufus, Anselm returned at Henry’s request; but the new monarch’s de¬ mand that he should renew his homage, and be again invested with his archbishopric, was met with an absolute refusal, and led to a second exile of two years’duration. In 1105, however, An¬ selm’s threat of excommunication led to the re¬ conciliation of king and prelate, and the com¬ promise was devised which, in 1122, was accepted by Pope and Emperor at Worms. He died April 21 , 1109, and was buried next to Lanfranc at Canterbury. In 1494 he was canonized, but Dante had long before placed him among the greatest saints in Paradise. In 1720 Clement XI. expressly placed him in the list of church author¬ ities. See Rthnusat’s Ansehne (1853; 2ded. 1868); Dean Church’s Anselm (1870); Life and Times of St. Anselm (2 vols. 1883), by Mr. Martin Rule, who has also edited for the Rolls Series Eadmer’s two lives of Anselm (1844). Ansgar ( Anscharius ), the Apostle of the North, was born in Picardy in 801. Under the patronage of Louis le Debonnaire, lie went, with his colleague Autbert, to preach Christianity to the heathen Northmen of Sleswick. He suffered many persecutions, and died in 865 at Bremen. Anson, George, Lord Anson, born April 23, 1697, entered the English navy in 1712, and in 1761 received the dignity of Admiral of the Fleet. He died June 6, 1762. Few works have been so popular as Anson’s Voyage Round the World (1748). See his life by Sir John Barlow. Ansonia, a town within the township of Derby, New Haven county, Conn., noted for clock man¬ ufacturing. Ansted, David TnoMAs, geologist, born in London Feb. 5, 1814. He died May 13, 1880. Ant. Ants ( Formiridee , Myrmicidee) are a group of Hymenopterous insects, in the same order as wasps and bees, which they resemble, not only in general structure, but in the high evolution of their instinctive habits and social life. The word * ‘ ant” is contracted from the old-fashioned Saxon word emmet; and “pismire” is another almost obsolete, originally Danish term. The white ants or termites are members of an entirely different order—Neuroptera. The ant family is repre¬ sented by between two and three thousand differ¬ ent forms, widely distributed in temperate and tropical countries. A Common Ant (Laeius flatus), a , queen; b, worker; c, male; d, larva; e, pupa. (After Lubbock.) Like most bees, ants occur in three different forms— (a) the perfect females or queens, the mothers of new generations; ( b) the short-lived males, which die soon after the “ nuptial flight;” and (c) the great majority of workers, which are predominantly females, though rarely sexual, and often exhibit different forms according to the work which they have to do. In some cases, further, there are distinct classes of workers. As in other insects, the body consists of three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen. The head, which of course contains the “ brain,” is, though minute, yet large in proportion. There are four chapters in the life-history of an ant—viz., egg, larva, chrysalis, and perfect insect. The minute white or yellowish eggs laid by the queen in the ant nest, are hatched in from two to six weeks, and develop into white legless larvae or grubs. Both eggs and grubs are carefully watched, and the grubs fed, by the ever-vigilant workers. After a period varying from a few weeks to as many months, the larvae become pupae or chrysa¬ lids. These may remain naked, or may spin silken robes or cocoons. The nursing care of the workers does not cease; the brood is kept clean, shifted into the sunshine, or carried off in case of danger. After a short while, during which no food is taken, the perfect insects appear, weak and helpless, still dependent upon the kindly aid of the workers, even to free them from their silken birth-robes. For some weeks, in fact, the workers continue to care for them. As in all insects with a similar history, or complete metamorphosis, the insect has attained its full size when it leaves the pupa stage. Left to themselves, the males gene¬ rally die after fertilizing the queens in the nuptial flight, but the queens and workers may live for several years. Great numbers fall victims _ to other animals—insects, spiders, birds, ant-eating mammals, etc.; and, small as they are, ants are not unfrequently attacked by still smaller parasites. The whole food-supply for the inmates of the nest is collected by the industrious workers, or in a few cases by captured slaves of another species. The food chiefly consists either of insects and available animal matter, or of sweet vegetable substances, such as honey, fruit, and sugar. Part of a Gallery, with Ant working on tiptoe. Pogonomyrmex motifaciens, the Agricultural Ant of Texas.. (From M’Cook.) Ants are especially fond of the sweet secretion which flows out from the plant-lice or Aphides; and some species not only tap and tickle the latter to induce them to part with their honey-dew, but keep them, as Linnteus said, as “cows,” protect- ANTACIDS. 60 ANTELOPES. ing them iu sheds, and yet, more marvelously, caring for their eggs. Most ants live in chambered nests. These are of very varied construction, from simple heaps of loose material to houses of more or less elaborate architecture. Some simply utilize the shelter of a large stone, under which they burrow, while others weave a hanging silken nest; some bore into old stumps, which they riddle with their Ant's Nest (a mound disc) with Roads. Pooonomyrmex molifaciens , the Agricultural Ant of Texas (From M'Cook.) tunnels, and others form a house from leaves glued or woven together. The nest of F. rufa exhibits a thatched dome, witli lattice-work shut¬ ters and doors which are closed at night. In South America, the ant-hills are sometimes several feet in height, and exhibit internally a marvel¬ ously complex and orderly arrangement of chambers and galleries. The so-called “mason- ants” use soft clay in forming the roofs and par¬ titions of their neat chambers, while the “car¬ penters” hollow out their houses in trees and shrubs. Roads, tunnels, and covered ways are also frequently formed round about the nest. Many communities live in a large nest, which may contain half a million members. An ants’ nest contains three kinds of individ¬ uals, workers, males, and one or more queens. It is generally supposed that ants, like bees, have the power to determine by differences of food, etc., whether a given egg will develop into a worker or a queen. There is a general division of labor involved in the existence of a caste of workers separate from the males and normal females. But apart from this the workers come to discharge among themselves very different functions. The young and the old, the small and the large, are set apart for different duties. Sanguinary wars between different species of ants have been observed from very early times, and the dates of certain remarkable campaigns gravely recorded. In some ant communities, members of other species are captured when young, and used as slaves. The senses of ants are well developed. Some forms are able to make a rasping noise by means of a structure on the abdomen, and the solitary ant, mutiila, utters when seized a characteristic note between a buzz and a squeak. They are able to recognize the members of their own com¬ munity even when these are intoxicated, or re¬ moved from the nest as larvae and brought up separately. Several naturalists have shown that ants are able definitely to communicate with one another by something approaching to language. See Lubbock’s Ants, Bees, and Wasps (Intemat. Sc. Series, 1882); Rev. W. Farren White’s Ants and Their Ways; M’Cook’s Agricultural Ant of Texas (1880); Bates’ Naturalist on the Amazon; Belt’s Naturalist in Nicaragua. Antacids are drugs used for the purpose of neutralizing or diminishing excessive acidity of the digestive system, or of the different excre¬ tions. Substances which act upon the former are termed direct, and upon the latter, remote ant¬ acids. Many drugs act in both ways, such as potash, soda, lithia, lime, and magnesia, as well as their combinations with carbonic acid. Antic us, in Greek mythology, a son of Poseidon and G5, a huge giant in Libya, who challenged all strangers who came to his country to wrestle with him. No one could throw him, because ev.ery time he touched the earth, his mother, he received new strength. At last, Hercules crushed him, lifting him up so that he could not touch the earth. Antalciilas, a Spartan politician, chiefly known by the celebrated treaty concluded with Persia at the close of the Corinthian war, in 387 b.c., and called by his name, as it was the fruit of his skill¬ ful diplomacy. Antananarivo, or TanaijarIvo, the capital city of Madagascar, and seat of the government, has a population estimated at 80,000. Anta ra, or Antar, a celebrated Arab chief in the middle of the sixth century. Antarctic Ocean. The Antarctic Ocean is situated about, or within, the Antarctic Circle. The Great Southern Ocean, according to modern geographers, is that part of the ocean which sur¬ rounds the world in one continuous band between the latitudes of 40° S. and the Antarctic Circle. This band is only partially interrupted by the southern prolongation of South America. The northern portions of this band are often called the South Atlantic, South Indian, and South Pacific, while the southern portions are usually called the Antarctic Ocean. The average depth of the con¬ tinuous ocean which surrounds south polar land is about two miles; it gradually shoals towards Antarctic land, which in some places is met with a short distance within the Antarctic Circle. The Challenger found 1,800 fathoms near the Antarctic Circle south of Kerguelen, but Ross records a much greater depth in the same latitude south of the Sandwich group. Only three navigators, Cook, Weddell, and Ross, have crossed the 70th parallel south. Of several other expeditions that have crossed the Antarctic Circle, the most nota¬ ble was the Challenger, in 1874, the only steam vessel that had visited these seas. The majority of Antarctic voyagers have discovered land south of the 60th parallel, Cook in 71" S. and 107° W. Bellingshausen discovered Peter Island and Alex¬ ander Land; D’Urville discovered Adelie Land. Wilkes found land extending from the 100th to to the 160th meridian of E. longitude between the parallels of 65° and 67° S. Ross discovered Vic¬ toria Land, and in February, 1841, sailed along its coasts within sight of the high mountain ranges, 7,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea, as far as 78° S. The mountain range here terminated in an active volcano, Mount Erebus, 12,000 feet in height. His farther progress was stopped by an icy barrier 150 to 200 feet in height, along which he sailed to the east for 300 miles. The depth off this ice barrier was 260 fathoms. Ross and D’Urville alone have succeeded in setting foot on land within the Antarctic Circle. This land was of volcanic origin; but there is, no doubt, a large ex¬ tent of continental land around the South Pole, for the Challenger dredged up granitites, mica- schists, sandstones, and other continental rocks close to the ice-barrier. Air. Murray estimates the extent of the Antarctic Continent at 3,000,000 square miles. Whales, grampuses, spals, pen¬ guins, petrels, albatrosses, and other oceanic birds abound. The mean temperature both of the air and sea, south of 63° S., is, even in summer, below the freezing point of sea water. Between 60° and 63° S., a sensible rise takes place, temperatures as high as 38 p Fahr., being recorded both of sea and air in March. Ant-ealers ( llyrmecophagidoe ), a family of South American mammals belonging to the insect¬ eating division of the order Edentata. The ab¬ sence of teeth, the long head, tubular mouth, worm¬ like tongue, the marked development of the third digit of the fore foot, and the insect diet, are prominent characteristics of this small family. Great Ant-eater (Myrmicophagajiibala). (1) The largest form of the great ant-eater ( Myr■ mecophaga jubata), or ant-bear, as it is called in Demerara, which inhabits swampy regions in South and Central America. It measures four feet in length, not including the bushy tail, which is sometimes as long as the body. The long, worm-like tongue may be protruded to a length of eighteen inches from the tubular mouth at the end of the muzzle, and is covered with a viscid secre¬ tion from large glands which extend back over the chest. By this means termites or white ants are caught in great numbers as they issue from the invaded nest, and whipped with extraordinary rapidity into the mouth. Like other insectivorous animals the ant-eater can live for prolonged periods without food. It spends much of its time in sleep. Another much smaller form, the tamandua, (T. tetradactyla), isarboreal. The little two-toed ant-eater (Cyclosurus didac- tyla) is also arboreal. (2) The pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters of the Old World, though closely re¬ lated, belong to a different family. The name ant-eater is given at the Cape of Good Hope to the Orycteropus capensis, the aardvark or earth-hog of the Dutch colonists, a quadruped of about the same size as the great ant-eater of America, and belonging to the same natural order. (3) The Ecliidnce of Australia are sometimes called porcu¬ pine ant-eaters ; but though they agree with the above in the nature of their food, and in the sharp snout and protrusible tongue, their general struct- ture is cjuite different. The Myrmecobius faciatus, a small marsupial of Australia, is also called ant- eater. Antecedent, a term in Logic, Grammar, and Mathematics. In Logic it is a statement or prop¬ osition from which another is logically deduced. In Grammar it is the substantive (word or clause) to which a relative points back. In Mathematics we speak of the antecedent of a ratio— i. e., the first of two terms which compose the ratio; the first and third in a series of four proportionals. Antediluvian (Lat. ante, before; diluvium, the deluge,) is the word used of anything that existed before the flood. Antelopes (Antilopidce); a family of Mammalia belonging to the order of Ruminants and to the hollow horned section of that order—in which the horns consist of a horny sheath, surrounding a bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not annually renewed. In antelopes, however, the bony centre of the horns is solid. They differ ex¬ ternally from goats in their beardless chin, and from them and sheep in the absence of longitudi¬ nal angles or ridges on the horns, which are, how¬ ever. very generally marked with cross rings. The Addax (Antelope adclax.) body is slender and deer-like, the feet small and elegant, the tail short and tufted, the hair gener¬ ally short, and the color often lively. North America possesses two species—the prong-horn (Antilocapra) and the Rocky Mountain goat (Ap- locerus), which depart considerably from the typi¬ cal character of the genus. The prong-horn sheds the horns annually like most species of deer. The addax or Nubian antelope {A. addax), which was known to the ancients and is mentioned by Pliny, has horns similar to those of the Indian antelope. It inhabits the deserts of Central Africa, and, con¬ trary to the usual habits of the genus, is said not to be gregarious, but to live in pairs. The chikara inhabits thick forests and jungles. Like the ad¬ dax, it lives in pairs ; as do also the stein-bok of South Africa and the kleene-bok of the same country ( A. perpusilla), a beautiful and active little creature with very small horns. The gazelle of North Afiica (.4. ' dorcas ), is very frequently domesticated. The South African spring-bok is another very beautiful species, and is frequently domesticated by colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. Still more worthy of notice among the South African species, but in some measure departing from the strict antelope type, is the eland, the ANTENNJ3. 61 ANTHROPOLOGY. largest of all the antelopes. The koodoo is another noble species allied to the eland. Antenna;, or feelers, the anterior appendages on the head of crustaceans, insects and myriapods. The typical crustacean, such as a lobster, has two pairs of feelers, while insects and myriapods have only one pair. The name may also be applied to sensory processes on the head of some marine worms. They are really “head-legs” modified for sensory purposes, and consist of a long series of joints, sometimes over 100 in number. They are supplied with nerve branches, and are used by the animals for feeling their way, for testing sur¬ rounding objects, aud apparently for communi¬ cating with one another. Deprived of its anten¬ nae, an ant, for instance, is peculiarly helpless. Anteque’ra (the Anti^uana of the Romans), an important town in the Spanish Province of Malaga. Pop. (1884), 25,122. Anthe'lia (Gr. anti, opposite, and hellos , the sun Ger. Gegensonnen) are luminous rings seen by an observer on a cloud or fog which lies oppo¬ site to the sun. They are only seen when sun shine and cloud, or fog, occur at the same time. Anthem, a shortened form of Antiphon (Gr. anti, in return, phone, voice; a piece sung in alter¬ nate parts), a species of musical composition introduced into the service of the English Church in the reign of Elizabeth, and appointed to be sung daily, at morning and evening service, after the third collect. Antheridium, the male reproductive organs of many cryptogams (ferns, horsetails, mosses, etc). They may consist of a single cell, but are usually multicellular sacs, within which the thread-like male reproductive elements or antherozoids are produced. Anthol'ogy. from a Greek word meaning liter¬ ally “a collection of flowers,” is a title given to a work consisting of a series of choice thoughts, generally used solely of collections of poems. Anthon, Charles, LL.D., a well-known editor of classics, was born in New York in 1797. Educated at Columbia College, he was admitted to the bar in 1819. In 1830 appeared his large edition of Horace. Five years later he became • head of the classical department at Columbia Col¬ lege. He died July 29, 1867. Anthozoa (Gr. anthos, a flower, and zoon, an animal), one of the three classes of Ccelenterates, including sea-anemones, dead men's fingers, corals, etc. The common term is Actinozoa. Anthracene (C 6 H 4 ) 2 (CH) 2 is a substance ob¬ tained in the distillation of coal-tar. Although long known to chemists, it is as the source of artificial Alizarin that it has become of commer¬ cial value. "When perfectly pure it forms white, pearly scales, melting at about 410° Falir. (210°C.), and at a higher temperature distilling without decomposition. It is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in boiling alcohol, ether, or tur¬ pentine. Anthracite (Gr. anthrax, a coal), or Stone Coal, is black, has a kind of iridescent or metallic lustre, is not readily ignited, and burns nearly without smell, smoke, or flame, giving out an in¬ tense heat. It consists almost entirely of carbon, and contains only a small proportion of the con¬ stituents of bitumen. Soft coal which has been subjected to the action of heat underground loses its bituminous constituents and passes into anthracite. Thus many coals have been rendered anthracitic in the neighborhood of intrusive igneous rocks. It is found largely in South Wales, and here and there in Scotland. The largest field of anthracite is in the coal-region of Pennsylvania. Anthrax (Gr. a carbuncle), the name now gen¬ erally used of a widely-distributed and very destructive disease, most common among sheep and cattle. Besides its practical importance, it has special theoretical interest, because it was the first infectious disease proved to be due to the presence of microscopic vegetable organisms [bacilli), and because it has been more fully studied than any other analogous disease. Anthrax has received many names; the most important are Splenic Apoplexy, Splenic Fever; as it occurs in man, Malignant Pustule, Wool- sorter’s Disease; in French, Gharbon, Sang de Bate, Mai de Sang; in German, Milzbrand. It occurs in most countries of Europe. The Lood- iana Fever and Pali Plague of India, and the disease which was very fMal to horses and cattle in the Zulu war, areclosely allied, if not identical. The disease of cattle called Black-leg or Quarter Evil, though very similar, is now proved to be distinct from anthrax. Cattle and sheep are most commonly attacked by anthrax. Among horses and camels it is also very destructive. Rabbits, hares, mice, guinea- pigs, are readily affected, and probably many other herbivorous mammals. It has been found that rats are susceptible to it when fed on vege tables, but not when on animal diet; and prob¬ ably food has a similar influence in man. Car¬ nivorous animals become affected with difficulty, if at all. Fowls can contract it, but only when their temperature, naturally higher than that of mammals, is artificially reduced. Anthrax does not readily attack man, and is very rarely communicated by one human being to another. It occurs in those whose occupations bring them into contact with diseased animals or their hides, w T ool, etc.— i. e., butchers, farriers, porters, etc. In 1881 Pasteur announced that by cultivating the anthrax bacillus at 42-43° C. (108° Fahr.), he was able to obtain a form which produced a mod¬ ified anthrax in sheep and cattle inoculated with it, much less virulent and fatal than the ordinary disease; and tnat the animals thus treated were proof against the ordinary anthrax poison. Subsequent experimenters have not fully confirmed Pasteur’s results; but his method is largely employed on the Continent, frequently, though not always, with success. He stated in 1886 that half a million animals are inoculated annually for anthrax in France alone. Koch On Traumatic Infective Diseases (1880); Klein in The Practitioner for 1884. Anthropoid Apes, the highest and most man¬ like monkeys, including gorilla, chimpanzee, scribed with more or less definiteness. The family is of special interest and importance in connection with the views held by evolutionists as to the descent of man. In their expressions of cerebral activity, whether intellectual or emotional, the anthropoids come in some respects very near the lowest human tribes. On the other hand, while it is impossible to establish any fundamental distinction in physical structure between Homo and the Anthropo- morpha, there is among evolutionists an equal consensus of opinion as to the impossibility of regarding an ape of any existing anthropoid species as in the direct line of human ancestry. As regards brain-structure, the most man-like ape is the orang, while the champanzee has the most closely related skull, the gorilla the most human feet and hands, the gibbon the most similar chest. The reader should consult Darwin’s Descent of Man, Hteckel’s Anlhropogeny, Huxley’s Man’s Place in Nature, and Hartmann’s A nthropoid Apes (Internat. Sc. Series), where abundant references will be found. AntliropoTatry (Gr. man-worship) the giving of divine honors to a human being, a term always applied in reproach. Anthropology is the science of man, and more especially of man considered as a social animal. As to man’s origin, two main views may be said at present to contest the field. The one, heretofore the usual belief, is based either upon the literal interpretation of Scripture or upon natural theology, and regards him as a distinct creation, separate from and superior to the re¬ maining animals. The other, accepted by many competent biological authorities, regards him as descended from a. hairy quadrumanous arboreal animal, more or less remotely allied to the anthropoid apes. This theory is elaborated in profuse detail by Charles Darwin, whose Descent of Man forms the great storehouse of information and speculation on the question. Huxley’s Man's Place in Nature may likewise be consulted on this branch of the subject, as may also Lyell’s Antiquity of Man, and Dr. E. B. Tylor’s Anthro¬ pology. The other side of the question is ably argued in A. de Quartrefages’ Races llumaines (Par. 1887). When man first appears before us in recogniz¬ able form, he appears as an erect animal, intelli¬ gent and social, endowed with articulate speech, and capable of manufacturing weapons and im¬ plements of stone, bone, wood, and other like materials. All questions as to how, on the evo¬ lutionist theory, he acquired the erect habit, already partially foreshadowed in the anthropoid apes, and how lie lost the hairy covering of his body, belong strictly to the domain of anthropol¬ ogy, and have been argued out by Darwin, Hux¬ ley, Wallace, and others. The unusual intelligence and mechanical ability of man are closely cor¬ related with his large brain; and the oldest skulls yet discovered show that this exceptional devel¬ opment of the brain dates back to a very early o c Go Skeletons of Anthropoid Apes compared with that of Man. G, gibbon (for distinctness, given about twice the proportional size); O, orang-utan; C, chimpanzee; Go, gorilla; M, man (After Huxley. orang-utan, gibbon, and several other species. The anthropoid apes are all arboreal, and inhabit Africa, South-eastern Asia, and the Malay Archi¬ pelago. About a dozen species have been de¬ period. Similarly, it is for the most part by his works and tools, indicating a high degree of in¬ telligence, that we trace the existence of man in geological time. ANTHROPOMETRY. 02 ANTIPERIODICS. According to the biblical theory of creation, man’s first home was in Eden, the position of which has been greatly debated. But if we accept the evolutionary view, man perhaps had his origin in the torrid region of Asia or Africa, still (he home of the anthropoid apes. In the beginning, according to their theory, man was apparently homogeneous, speaking a single prim¬ itive rude tongue. At an early period, however, the species broke up into several races, now in¬ habiting various parts of the world. See the writings of Broca, regarded by many as the real founder of anthropolgy; Lubbock, Prehistoric Times (1865) and Origin of Civilization (1870); Tylor, Researches into the Early History of ..Mankind (1865), Primitive Culture (1871), and Anthropology (1881); Bagehot, Physics and Poli¬ tics (1872); Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociol¬ ogy (1876 et seq.); Letourneau, Sociology (Eng. trans. 1877); Waitz, Anlhropologie der Naturmlker (Vols. I-IV, 1859-65; Vols. V-VI by Gerland, 1867-71); and the Diclionnaire des Sciences An- thropologiques, (1882 et seq.) Special journals are the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic , founded 1868; Revue d’Anthropologic founded 1865. Anthropometry, the measurement of the human body to discover its exact dimensions and the proportions of it* parts, for comparison with its dimensions at different periods, or in different races or classes. Anthropomorphism (Gr. anthropos, man, and morphe, form), the application, in a figurative way, to God, of terms which properly relate to human beings. Anti'bes (anc. Antipolis), a fortified seaport in the French department of Alpes Maritimes, seven and one-half miles south of Cannes. Pop. (1881), 4,565. Auticlilor, was the name formerly applied to commercial sulphite of soda by paper-makers, but now usually restricted to hyposulphite of soda. Antichrist, a name which occurs only in the Epistles of St. John, and is identified by differ¬ ent writers, with more or less probability, with false Christs, and other enemies of Christianity. The Greek preposition anti has the twofold mean¬ ing of substitution and of opposition; and the two meanings of a rival Christ or pretender to the Messiahsliip and an opponent, are mixed up in the early Christian conceptions of Antichrist, in which various stages of development are to be distinguished. Among those to whom the name of Antichrist has been given are Nero, Caligula, Mohammed, and the First and Third Napoleons, while the early followers of Luther characterized each suc¬ cessive Pope by that title. Anticlimax, as opposed to climax, is the addi¬ tion to a statement of a particular which, instead of heightening the effect, renders the whole ludicrous, nearly equal to bathos. Anticline (Gr. anti, against; klino, I bend), in Geology, applied to strata which are inclined in opposite directions/rom a common axis—that is, in a roof-like form. Saddleback is another term used for the same structure. Syncline (Gr. syn. a , Anticline: s, Syncline. together, and klino) is the converse of anticline, and is applied to strata which are inclined in opposite directions toward a common axis. Anticosti, an island in the Gulf of St. Law¬ rence, which it divides into two channels, with lighthouses at different parts of the coast, and about 140 miles long, and 30 miles broad in the centre. The island is attached to the Cana¬ dian Province of Quebec. Anti'cyra, (1) the modern Aspraspitia, an ancient Greek town in Pliocis, built on a penin¬ sula in a bay on the Corinthian Gulf. (2) A town of Thessaly, on the Sinus Maliacus, noted for its hellebore. (3) A town of Locris, at the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf. Antidotes, a term applied to substances given to counteract the effect of poisons. Antietam, a narrow but deep river in Mary¬ land, falling into the Potomac seven miles below Harper’s Ferry. On its banks, near Sharpsburg, was fought a bloody battle between the Union troops under McClellan, and the Confederate army under Lee, in which the former remained master of the field, though at a loss of nearly 13,000 men. Autifcbrin, or Acetanilid, introduced in 1886 as a febrifuge, the cheapness of which, com¬ bined with its rapidity of action and its non- poisonous nature, have brought it rapidly into favor as a substitute for quinine. A white color¬ less powder, witli burning taste, it is almost in¬ soluble in cold water, though readily soluble in alcohol. It is derived from aniline,to which it is closely allied, its chemical formula being GeHsNHCaHsO. Antig'one, daughter of (Edipus by his own mother, Jocasta, and sister of Eteocles, Polynices, and Ismene. AntigonC has been immortalized by Sophocles in his (Edipus at, Golonus and Antigone. Antig'onus, surnamed tlie“One-eyed” {Cyclops), one of the generals of Alexander the Great, received in the division of the empire, after the death of the latter, the Provinces of Phrygia Major, Lycia, and Pamphylia. In 306 he assumed the title of king, but was defeated by Lysima- chus, Cassander, and Seleucus in the decisive bat tle of Ipsus, in Phrygia, in which he was slain, 301 n.c. lie was the father of Demetrius Polior- cetes— Antigonus Gona'tas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, and grandson of the great Antigonus. Driven out of his king¬ dom in 273 by Pyrrhus of Epirus, he recovered it in the following year, and kept it until his death, in 239. Antig'ua, the most important of the Leeward Islands (West Indies), and the residence of the governor-in-chief of the British portion of the group. It is 82 miles long and 14 wide. Antigua was discovered in 1493, by Columbus. It was first settled by a few English in 1632. For a time occupied by the French, it was declared a British possession by the Treaty of Breda (1667). Pop. (1881), 34,964. Antiliegom' ena (Gr. spoken against), a term applied to those books of the New Testament not at first accepted by the whole Christian Church, but ultimately admitted into the Canon —the seven books of II Peter, James, Jude, He¬ brews, II and III John, and the Apocalypse. Antilles, a term applied to the whole of the West India Islands, except the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles are Cuba, Jamaica, Ilayti, and Porto Rico; the others are known as the Lesser Antilles. Anti-Masonry. In the year 1826 one William Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., who had announced his intention of publishing a book exposing the secrets of Freemasonry, he having been a mem¬ ber, mysteriously disappeared, and was never found. It was alleged that he had been thrown into the Niagara River by Masons, and great public indignation was aroused against the Ma¬ sonic body. An anti-Masonic party was formed in New York, and rapidly spread through New •England, New York, and Pennsylvania. State and National conventions of anti-Masons were held, and in 1832 Vermont, gave her seven electoral votes for the anti-Masonic nominees. Antimony —symb., Sb. (Lat. stibium)-, equiv. 122 —is a brittle metal of a flaky, crystalline texture, and a bluish-white color. It readily pulverizes; when heated to 842° Fahr. (450° Cent.), it fuses, and on cooling solidifies in rhombo- liedral crystals, which are isomorphous with those of arsenic. Heated in a retort, with oxygen excluded, antimony volatilizes as the vapor of the pure metal. Native antimony is found but rather sparingly, associated with a few other metals. Antimony is smelted in France, where ore is found abundantly; in Germany, and in England, which receives its supply of ore from Singapore and Borneo. The compounds of antimony are numerous: With oxygen it forms (1) the sesquioxide of anti¬ mony, or while antimony ore, Sb 2 O a , which enters into the composition of tartar emetic; (2) anti- monious acid, Sb 2 0 4 , which forms one of the components of Dr. James’s powders; (3) antimo- nic acid, Sb 2 0 5 , a very insoluble compound, ob¬ tained by acting upon the metal with concen¬ trated nitric acid. With sulphur, antimony forms the sub-sulpldde, Sb 2 S 3 , already referred to as the natural ore of the metal. Autino'mianism (Gr. anti, against, and nomas, law), the doctrine or opinion that Christians are freed from obligation to keep the law of God. It is generally regarded by advocates of the doctrine of justification by faith as a monstrous abuse and perversion of that doctrine, upon which it usually professes to be based. Antin'ous, a youth of extraordinary beauty, a native of Claudiopolis, in Bithynia, the favorite of the Emperor Hadrian, and his companion in all his journeys. He was drowned in the River Nile, near Besa, in 122 a.d., perhaps through suicide. An'tioch, the ancient capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and long the chief city in Asia, lies in a fertile and beautiful plain, on the left bank of the River Orontes, fourteen miles from the sea. The city was erected by Seleucus Ni- cator about 300 n.c., and was the most splendid of the sixteen cities built by him in honor of his father Antiochus. It was one of the earliest strongholds of the new faith—indeed, it was here that the name of Christians was first used. The downfall of the city dates from the fifth century. At present it forms a portion of Syria, in the Province of Aleppo, and has a population of 17,500, mostly Turks. Anti'ochus, the name of thirteen kings of Syria, of the Seleucid dynasty. Antiochus I., surnamed Sotor (reigned 281-261 b.c.), the first of the Syrian dynasty of the Seleucidae, was the son of Seleucus, one of the generals and suc¬ cessors of Alexander.— Antiochus II (261-246), surnamed Theos (God) by the Milesians, whom he freed from their tyrant Timarchus. Anti¬ ochus III., surnamed the Great, the son and successor of Seleucus Callinicus, and grandson of the preceding, was the most distinguished of the Seleucidae. lie reigned from 223 to 187. He failed in his attempts to recover Parthia and Bactria, and waged war with success against Ptolemy Philopater, and though defeated in a great battle fought at Raphia near Gaza (217), he afterward obtained entire possession of Palestine and Ccele-Syria (198). He was killed by his people 187 i?.c. — Antiochus IV. (175-164 b.c.), surnamed Epiphanes, fought against Egypt, and conquered a great part of it. He twice took Jerusalem; and, by his tyranny and sacrilege, ex¬ cited the Jews to a successful insurrection under their leaders, Matthias and his heroic sons, the Maccabees.—The last of the Seleucidae, Anti- oenus XIII., surnamed Asiaticus, was deprived of his kingdom by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman province, (65 b.c.) Antipadobaptist, is a term derived from Greek words for one who objects to infant baptism. Antip'aros (anc. Oliaros), one of the middle Cyclades in the yEgean Sea, close to Paros. Its wonderful stalactite grotto has been well known since 1673. At a depth of 918 feet under the en¬ trance, the chief chamber is reached. It is 312 feet long, 98 wide, and 82 high, and is covered everywhere with the most wonderful stalactite and stalagmite formations. Antip'ater, (1) a general highly trusted by Philip and Alexander the Great, left by the latter as regent in Macedonia when he crossed over into Asia, 334 b.c. He died at an advanced age in 319.—(2) The father of Herod the Great, ap¬ pointed by Julius Caesar procurator of Judaea in 47 b.c. He was poisoned in 43 b.c. —(3) The sou of Herod the Great by his first wife. He was executed in prison five days before Herod died. Antip'athy is the term applied to a class of cases in which individuals are disagreeably affected by, or violently dislike things innocuous or agree¬ able to the majority of mankind. These peculi¬ arities are sometimes innate. Aiitiperiodics are drugs which relieve or cure certain diseases (particularly ague, and some forms of neuralgia and headache) whose attacks occur at regular intervals. The most important are cinchona bark and its alkaloids (especially quinine) and arsenic. ANTIPHLOGISTIC. 63 ANTONIUS. Antiphlogistic (Gr. and?,against, and phlogiso, I burn), a term applied to remedies and to rerimen opposed to inflammation, such as blood¬ letting, purgatives, low diet, etc. An'tiphon, the earliest of the ten Attic orators in the Alexandrine canon, born at Rharnus in Attica, 480 b.c. Antiph'ony, the name of a species of sacred .song, sung by two parties, each responding to the other. Antip'odes, a word of Greek origin, signifying, literally, those who have their feet over against •each other. As applied in geography the term means the inhabitants of any two opposite points of the globe. Autipope, a pontiff elected in opposition to one canonically chosen. Of these there were many in the early and middle ages, but none since 1455 a.d. Antipyrin, an artificial substitute for quinine. It is obtained from coal-tar products by a process of great complexity, its chemical composition be- ing C11EL2N2O. It is a white, crystalline powder, tasteless, colorless, and soluble in water. It is not an antiperiodic. Antique. As the term ancients is commonly applied to the Greeks and Romans, the word an¬ tique is used with reference to their works of art, •especially their incomparable sculptures. Anti-rentism, a term applied to the action of a political party which caused considerable dis¬ turbance in the State of New York (1843-47) in connection with the non-payment of rent. Large tracts of land had been granted in old colonial days by the Dutch West India Company to its members in New York, who had the title or priv¬ ilege of a lord “patroon” or protector, and the colony or manor was governed by feudal tenures. Though the latter were abolished bylaws enacted in 1779 and 1785, yet the proprietors managed to form a deed by which rents and dues should be paid as formerly. Associations were formed in 1839 to get rid of these burdens. Evictions were tried by the proprietors which led to resistance and outrages. Ultimately the Legislature gave re¬ lief of a certain kind to the tenantry, feudal ten¬ ures and incidents were abolished, and agricul¬ tural land was forbidden to be leased for a longer period than twelve years. Antisana, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador. On its slopes are many extinct craters, and at a height of 12,400 feet is the famous Tambo de An¬ tisana, one of the highest inhabited places in the world. Antisemites, the modern opponents of the Jews in Russia, Romania, Hungary, and Eastern Germany. They incited recent massacres in those countries. Antiseptics (Gr. anti, against; septilws, caus¬ ing putrefaction) are substances which prevent or arrest putrefaction and analogous fermentive changes. It has been proved that putrefaction, fermentation of grape-juice (vinous ferment at ion), of milk (luetic fermentation), and many, though probably not all other, fermentations, depend upon the presence of microscopic vegetable organ¬ isms. To prevent these processes, then, it is necessary either to exclude these organisms alto- getlier; to interfere with conditions which permit of their development ; or to destroy their vitality. Their growth may be arrested by dessication, by exclusion of air, and by a low temperature. Of anti¬ septics the most important are common salt and saltpetre, alcohol, sulphurous acid, boracic acid, and arsenious acid; many salts, as chloride of zinc (Burnett’s solution), permanganate of potash (Condy’s fluid), sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver; chlorine (given off by chloride of lime), iodine, iodoform (Cilia), glycerine, boroglyceride, eucalyptus oil, thymol, creosote, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, tannic acid, quinine, charcoal, dry mold, used in the earth-closet system. All these substances act directly or indirectly as poisons to the organisms which produce putrefaction, etc. Most of them are either poisonous or very unpalatable to man, and cannot therefore be used in preserving food. Antiseptic Surgery, or Listerism, is the system of treating surgical wounds introduced by Sir Joseph Lister, based on his clear recognition of the fact that putrefactive processes (sepsis) arc the chief danger which the surgeon has to com¬ bat in dealing with accidental and operation wounds. The system consists essentially in spray¬ ing the wound and everything brought in con¬ tact with it with an antiseptic, the favorite anti¬ septics being carbolic acid and corrosive subli¬ mate. By this practice mortality from injuries and operations has been greatly diminished, the death-rate after major amputations (in 1864 and 1866) having fallen from 45 per cent, to about 12 per cent, (in 1871-77). Antisthenes, founder of the Cynic school of philosophy, fought in his youth at Tanagra (426 b.c.), was first a disciple of Gorgias, afterwards a friend and follower of Socrates, and died at Athens at the age of 70. Antithermin is the popular name applied to a substance derived from coal-tar, and having a very complex chemical composition, introduced by M. Nicot in 1887 as a rival to quinine. Antithesis (Gr. anti, against, and thesis, from tithemi, I place), an opposition or contrast of ideas expressed by bringing words that are the natural opposites of each other close together so as to produce a strong contrast. Antitrinita'rian, one who denies the doctrine of the Trinity. The name is practically synony¬ mous with Unitarian. Antitype, a Greek word, literally signifying a type or figure which corresponds to some other type or figure. ABliuin, one of the most ancient cities of Latium. It was the birthplace of the Emperors Caligula and Nero. Antivnri, a seaport of the coast-district assigned to Montenegro by the treaty of Berlin in 1878. Pop., 8,000. Antlers, bony outgrowths from the frontal bones of almost all the members of the deer family. Except in the reindeer, they are re¬ stricted to the males, and are secondary sexual characteristics used as weapons in fighting for possession of the females. In many cases deer shed their r.ntlers annually. Anl .ion, the larva of an insect (Myrmeleon) of the order Neroptera, remarkable for the ingenu¬ ity of its insect-catching habits. It inhabits sandy districts, and is more common in the South of Europe than in the North. Some species are Ant-lion, showing perfect insect, larva, and excavation. common in North America. The perfect insect is about an inch long, and has a general resem¬ blance to a dragon-fly. It feeds upon the juices of insects, especially ants, in order to obtain which it cleverly excavates a funnel-shaped pit- fall in sandy ground, and lies in wait at the bot¬ tom, often with all but its mandibles buried in the sand. When insects approach too near to the edge of the hole, the loose sand gives way, so that they fall down the steep slope. Antofagasta, a port in the Chilian territory of the same name. Pop. (1875), 5,384. Antommarclii, Francesco, the physician of Napoleon at St. Helena, was a native of Corsica, and was born about 1780. He died in Cuba, April 3, 1838. Antonelli, Giacomo,Cardinal, was born April 2, 1806, at Sonnino, a village situated near the Pontine Marshes. In 1819 Antonelli went to Rome, and entered the Grand Seminary, where he proved himself one of the cleverest students of his time. He gained the favor of Pope Gregory XVI., who named him a prelato, and gave him some excellent ecclesiastical appoint¬ ments. In 1841 Antonelli became Under-Secre¬ tary of State to the Ministry of the Interior; in 1844, Second Treasurer; and in the following year, Finance Minister of the two Apostolic Chambers. Pope Pius IX., having mounted the papal throne in 1846, raised Antonelli, during the next year, to the dignity of cardinal-deacon of Santa Agat ha alia Suburra. In 1848 Antonelli was President and Minister of Foreign Affairs in a Liberal Cabi¬ net which framed the famous Statute or Constitu¬ tion proclaimed in 1848. He accompanied the Pope in his flight to Gaeta, and returned with him to Rome, and supported the reactionary policy. In 1855 an attempt was made upon his life. In the Vatican Council of 1869-70, Antonelli showed great tact and ability. At the date of his death, Nov. 6, 1876, the various posts held by Antonelli made him virtually Prime Minister to the Pope. The vast property, $8,000,000, bequeathed to his three brothers, was vainly disputed by his alleged daughter in a tedious and famous lawsuit (1877-9). Antonello, of Messina, an Italian painter, born about 1414, who introduced into Italy the Flemish methods of oil-painting, which he had learned from the Van Eycks. lie died in 1493. Antoninus Pius, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman Emperor (138-161 a.d.), was born in the reign of Domitian, in the year 86 a.d. Iu 120 he was made consul; afterwards he was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into Asia. In 138 he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian, and came to the throne in the same year. Ilis reign was peaceful and happy. The persecution of Chris¬ tians was partly stayed by his mild measures, and Justin Martyr’s Apologia was received by him with favor. Antoninus died in 161 a.d. By his wife Faustina, lie had four children, three of whom died, but one lived to be the wife of Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son and successor. Antoninus, Wall of, a Roman rampart erected between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, in 140 a.d., during the reign of Antoninus Pius, to restrain the encroachments of the northern tribes. The line of the wall may still be traced to a con¬ siderable extent. Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony), the Roman triumvir, born about 83 b.c., belonged to one of the oldest patrician families, and on his mother’s side was related to Julius Caesar. In the battle of Pharsalia, he led the left wing of Caesar’s army. In 47 B.c. he was made master of the horse by Caesar, who left him to govern Italy during his absence in Africa. Antony disgraced himself. He drank, he divorced his wife, and took up with an actress, Cytheris. In 44 b.c. he was made Consul, and vainly endeavored to prevail on the Romans to recognize Caesar as Emperor. On Caesar’s assassination, by his funeral ora¬ tion he so wrought on the passions of the people that the conspirators were forced to escape from Rome, leaving Antony in possession of almost absolute power. The defeat of Mutina (43 b.c.) drove him a fugitive beyond the Alps; but iu Gaul he visited the camp of Lepidus, and gained the favor of the army, of which he took the command. Plancus and Pollio joined him with their troops; and Antony, who so recently escaped as a helpless fugitive from Italy, returned to Rome at the head of seventeen legions and 10,000 cav¬ alry. He joined forces with Octavian and Lepi¬ dus, forming the triumvirate which was to divide the known world. Among their first victims was Cicero, the orator whose eloquence they dreaded; and, in all, not less than 300 senators and 2,000 equites are believed to have fallen. After securing Italy for themselves, and raising an enormous sum of money to carry on the war abroad, Antony and Octavian led their troops into Macedonia, and defeated Brutus and Cassius. Antony next paid a visit to Athens, and then passed over to Africa, to arrange his dispute with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, whose conduct had offended the triumvirs. The Queen herself appeared to answer his chal¬ lenge, and captivated him by her beauty and address. He followed Cleopatra into Egypt, and lived with her in idleness and luxury, until he was aroused by tidings of a quarrel in Italy be¬ tween his own kindred and Octavian. A new division of the Roman world was now arranged, ANTONY. 64 APHONIA. Antony taking the East, and Octavian the West, while Lepidus had to put up with Africa. Antony had confirmed his friendship with Octavian by a marriage with his sister, Octavia; but, returning now to Cleopatra, he resumed his voluptuous mode of life, and was guilty of acts of the gross¬ est injustice. Meanwhile, at Home, he was de¬ posed from the triumvirate, and war was pro¬ claimed against Cleopatra. Each party collected its forces, and in the naval engagement of Actium • (31 b.c.) Antony was defeated. Deserted by the Egyptian fleet, as by his own army, and deceived by a false report of Cleopatra’s suicide, lie killed himself by falling upon his sword in the year 30 b.c. See Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. Antony. St., surnamed Tite Great, or An¬ ton y of Thebes, the father of monachism, was born about the year 251 a.d. , at Koma, near Heraklea, in Upper Egypt. lie died at the age of 105. St. Antony’s Fire was the name given to a pestilential epidemic, also called the sacred fire, which in 1089 swept off great numbers, especially in France; it being held that many sufferers had been cured through the intercession of St. An¬ tony, especially by prayer before his relics. The disease was commonly supposed to be erysipelas. Antony of Padau, St., was born at Lisbon, Aug. 15, 1195, and on the father’s side was re¬ lated to Godfrey of Bouillon. He was at first an Augustinian monk; but in 1220 he entered the Franciscan order, and became one of its most active propagators. He preached in the South of France and Upper Italy, and died at Padua, June 13, 1231. He was canonized by Gregory IX. in the following year. Antraigues, Emanuel Delaunay, Comte d’, a great politician, with a very ambiguous charac¬ ter, was born at Villeneuve de Berg, in the depart¬ ment Ardfeehe, in 1755. On July 22, 1812, he was murdered, with his wife, at his residence near London, by an Italian servant. Antrim, a maritime county in the northeast of Ireland, in the Province of Ulster, stands second among the Irish counties in population, but in size only ninth. Its greatest length is 57 miles; its greatest breadth, 28; its extent of sea-coast, 90; and its area, 1,192 square miles. The principal towns are—Belfast, Lisbon, Ballymena, Baily- money, Carriekfergus, Larne, and Antrim. Ant-thrusli, a general name applied to birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries, which feed to a large extent upon ants. Antwerp (Fr. Anvers; Flem. Antwerpen , on the wharf), the capital of the province which bears its name, and the chief commercial city of Belgium, is situated on the river Scheldt, fifty-two miles from the sea, and twenty-seven north of Brussels. It is the Liverpool of the Continent, and the tonnage of vessels entering its port has increased tenfold within thirty years', until it stands at about 4,000,000 tons annually A new quay, two miles in length, and docks have been con¬ structed at a cost of nearly $20,000,000, which were opened by the King of the Belgians in July 1885. Antwerp is one of the most strongly forti¬ fied places in Europe. Pop. (1886), 198,174. Antwerp is mentioned as early as the eighth century; in the twelfth and thirteenth it gave signs of considerable prosperity, and in the beginning of the sixteenth century it was the commercial capital of the world. It has been besieged, bom¬ barded, and taken over and over again by French, Spanish, Dutch and others. Anu bis, an Egyptian deity, a son of Osiris, identified by the Greeks with Hermes. Auupshahr, an ill-built, crowded town of India, seventy-five miles southeast of Delhi. Pop., 14,000. Auu'ra. One of the main divisions of Am¬ phibia, containing the frogs and toads. A nus, the term applied by anatomists to the lower, or (in the case of animals) the posterior, aperture of the intestinal canal; the rectum termi¬ nating externally in the anus. Anwari, a celebrated Persian poet who flour¬ ished during the twelfth century, was born in Khorassan, and became a favorite of the Seljuk- ide Sultan, Sanjar, who was also one of the most notable astrologers of his time. He died between 1191 and 1196. Aonlaganj', or Aounlah, a town of India, in the British distric of Bareilly. It has a large bazaar. Pop., 11,000. A'orist (Gr. aoristos, unlimited), a form of the Greek verb by which an action is expressed as taking place in an indefinite time. It cor¬ responds to the simple past tense in English, as “he died.” Aor'ta is the great arterial trunk which, rising from the left ventricle of the heart, sends its Diagram of the Aorta, with its principal Branches. A, ascending part of the arch of the aorta; a, thoracic aorta; bb, abdominal aorta: c, cl, right and left ventricles of heart; e,f, right and left auricles of the heart; g, /<, right and left pulmonary arteries; i, k, right and left common carotid arteries; /, m, right and left subclavian arteries; n, hepatic artery: o, gastric artery; p, splenic artery; q, r, right and left renal arteries; s,t, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries: u, v, right and left common iliac arteries; u\ middle sacral artery; x. phrenic arteries; y, spermatic arteries. 1, superior vena cava; 2, right internal jugular vein; 3, right subclavian vein (the left is removed to show the arch of the aorta): 4, inferior vena cava; 5, C, right and left pulmonary veins; T, hepatic veins; 8, 9, right and left renal veins; 10, 11, right and left iliac veins; 12, trachea. branches ramifying through the whole body. The aorta in man is subdivided by anatomists into the arch, the thoracic aorta, and the abdominal aorta. Aosta, a cathedral city of Italy, on the Dora Baltea St. Bernard was archdeacon of Aosta; and here Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born. Pop. (1881), 5,672. Apa'clies, a tribe of North American Indians, formerly very fierce and numerous, living in portions of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, and belonging to the Athabascan family. The numbers of the Apaches proper within the United States may be put at nearly 7,000. Apatin', a market town of Hungary. Pop. (1881), 11,973. Apatite (Gr. opiate, deception), a mineral so named because it resembles various other miner¬ als for which it might be mistaken, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime. Ape, a term generally applied to the lower Primates or Simiina family, including the vast majority of monkeys, with the exception of the anthropoids on the one hand, and the lemurs, or semi-apes, on the other. Ap'eldorn, a flourishing town of the Nether¬ lands, in the province of Gelderland. Pop. (1883), 16,283. Apelles, the most celebrated painter in ancient times, was the son of Pytheas, and was probably born at Colophon, on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor. He flourished in the latter part of the fourth century b.c. During the time of Philip he visited Macedon, where he became the inti¬ mate friend of Alexander the Great. The most celebrated paintings of Apelles were bis Ana- dyomene, or Aphrodite Rising from the Sea, The Graces, and others on similar subjects. His portrait of Alexander Wielding a Thunderbolt was very famous. Ap ennines (Ital. Appennini, Lat. Mons Apen- ninus; from Celtic pen, a head or mountain- height), a mountain-chain extending 740 miles uninterruptedly throughout the wdiole length of the Italian Peninsula. It belongs to the system of the Alps, from which it branches off near Savona. The average height of the entire chain of the Apennines is about 4,000 feet, which, however, in the north, sinks down to little more than 3,500 feet; and in the mountains of the Abruzzi, rises to 7,000 feet. Here, in Monte Corno, the highest peak of the range known under the name of Gran Sasso d’Italia, they reach an elevation of 9,574 feet, and in Monte Velino, of 7,916 feet. The Apennines are crossed by thirteen princi¬ pal passes; and seven of these are traversed by the railway. Apenra'de, a town in the Prussian Province of Sleswick-Holstein. Pop. (1885), 6,068. Aperients are substances which are employed to cause intestinal evacuations. Many articles of food, such as oatmeal, brown bread, and bran biscuits and fruits, such as figs, prunes, and straw¬ berries, are used for this purpose; but the term is usually applied to denote certain medicines, which act upon the intestines and cause them to expel their contents. Apct'alons (without petals), a term applied somewhat indefinitely to those flowering plants in which the petals are absent . Aphasia is the term originally introduced by Trousseau to denote the inability to express thought by means of speech which follows cer¬ tain diseases of the brain; in recent years, how¬ ever, it has obtained a wider significance, and may now be defined as the loss of the faculty of interchanging thought, without any affection of the intellect or will. In motor aphasia, there is a loss of the memory of the coordinated movements necessary for the formation of symbols, and this usually includes gestures, speech, and writing. The inability to write is commonly termed agraphia. Apbe'liou, that point in the elliptical orbit of a planet which is most remote from the sun. The opposite point, or that nearest to the sun, is styled the perihelion Aplieinia (Gr. voicelessness), a form of Apha¬ sia in which words are understood and remem¬ bered, but the power to utter them is lost. Aphides (Gr.), a family of small “plant-lice” belonging to the order of hemipterous insects. They occur very abundantly in temperate re- Anhis padi. (After Kessler.) The figure represents equally well: 1, the autumn forms— the sexual male and the wingless female, the parents of the spring brood; 2, winged and wingless viviparous parthenogenetie forms occurring in spring; and 3, an autumn winged female appearing after a succession of wingless forms. gions as parasites on the roots, leaves, stems, etc., of plants, to which they frequently do great damage. Apart from the vine insect phylloxera, which does so much damage in the vineyards of the Continent and North America, the aphides of turnip, cabbage, potato, bean, apple, pear, larch, etc., have frequently been the cause of wide¬ spread loss. The reader is referred to G. B. Buckton’s Ray Society Monograph on British Aphides (4 vols. 1876); and Miss Ormerod’s work on Injurious Insects ought to be consulted for practical purposes. Aphonia. This term is applied to loss of voice from whatever cause arising. APHORISM. 65 APOSTOLIC. Aph orism (Gr.), a principle expressed tersely in a few words, or a short and pithy sentence conveying a general truth; such as “ Use is second nature.” The name was first used in the Aphor¬ isms of Hippocrates. Aphrodi te, one of the chief divinities of the Greeks, the goddess of love and beauty, so called because she was sprung from the foam ( aphros) of the sea. She was the wife of Hephaestus, but she loved besides, among gods, Ares and Dionysus, and among mortals, Ancliises and Adonis. The chief places of her worship in Greece were Cyprus and Cythera. Aphrodite not only surpassed all other goddesses in beauty, but she had the power of granting irresistible beauty and attractiveness to others, especially to wearers of her magic girdle. The sparrow, the dove, and the swan were sacred to her, as also the myrtle, the rose, and the poppy. In the later poets, Eros is her son and her constant companion. Aphrodite has had the most import¬ ant place in the history of art as the Greek ideal of feminine grace and beauty. Her most famous statue in antiquity was that of Praxiteles at Cnidus; her most famous picture, the Aphrodite Anadyo- mene of Appelles. The finest statues of the god¬ dess that still exist are those of Melos (Milo) at Paris, of Capua at Naples, and of the Medici at Florence. Apth'tli 8 e are small, whitish ulcers, usually commencing as vesicles, on the surface of a mu¬ cous membrane. The whitish substance generally contains large quantities of minute fungus, Oidium albicans. Infants are liable to an apthouseruption termed Thrush. Aphthae in adults are generally a conse¬ quence of fevers and other diseases, or a symptom of disturbances of the digestive system. In some cases of pulmonary consumption they form a painful addition to the patient’s sufferings. Api'cius, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure, who lived in the times of Augustus and Tiberius, and was celebrated for his luxurious table and his acquirements in the art of cookery. It is said that when he had spent $4,000,000 upon his appetite, and had only some $400,000 left, he poisoned him¬ self in order to avoid the misery of plain diet. Apion, a Greek grammarian, was born at Oasis in Libya, but educated in Alexandria, which he affected to consider his birthplace, from the wish to be thought a pure Greek. Settling at Rome about 30 a. d. , he became famous as a teacher of rhetoric. Apios, a North American plant of the pea order (Leguminosae), with tuburous, starchy, edible rhizomes. A'pis, the bull worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded it as a symbol and incar¬ nation of Osiris, the husband of Isis, and next to Ila, the great divinity of Egypt. Aplodon, the name of a small rodent animal; better written Haplodon or Sewellel. Apncea, an abnormal state of the animal organ¬ ism during which there is a complete cessation of breathing. It is brought about by too vigorous artificial respiration. Apocalyp'tic Number is the mystical number 666 , spoken of in the Book of Revelation (xiii, 18). Among the Greeks and Hebrews the letters of the alphabet were used to denote numbers. Hence such letters must be taken as will, when used as numbers, make up 666 (either in the Greek or He¬ brew alphabet) as the letters of the name in ques¬ tion. The best solution of the riddle is“Neron Kesar,” the Hebrew form of the Latin “ Nero Cae¬ sar.” The vowels e and a are not expressed in the ancient Hebrew writing. The number represented by NeRON KeSaR would be 666, thus : N R O N K S R 50 + 200 + 6 + 50 + 100 + 60 + 200 = 666. Apocalyptic Writings are such as, like the prophecies of Daniel, their prototype, set forth in a figurative and pictorial manner the future prog¬ ress and completion of the world’s history, es¬ pecially in its religious aspects. The two apoca¬ lyptic books received into the canon of Scripture are the books of Daniel and the Apocalypse specially so called, the Revelation of St. John. Apocarpous Fruits, in Botany, are those fruits which are the produce of a single flower, and are formed of only one carpel, or of a number , of carpels remaining free and separate from each ! b other. The term is derived from the Greek apo, implying separation, and carpus, fruit. Apocatas'tasis, in Theology, the final restitu¬ tion of all things, when at the appearance of the Messiah the kingdom of God shall be extended over the whole earth (Acts iii, 21). Apcorenic Acid (Ilumic Acid, Ulmic Acid) is one of the products of the natural decay of wood or other plant textures, and is found where woody fibre is decomposing in soils. It is soluble in water, and is an intermediate step in the assimila¬ tion by living plants of dead vegetable matter. Apoc'rypha (a Greek word meaning hidden, secret) seems, when applied to religious books or writings, to lqive been used ( 1 ) for such as were suitable, not for the mass of believers, but for the initated only ; works containing the esoteric or recondite teaching of the faith or sect; ( 2 ) works, the date, origin, and authorship of which were unknown or doubtful; (3) works which claimed to be what they were not, were spurious or pseu- depigraphic. When the Apocrypha is spoken of, the Apocrypha of the Old Testament is generally meant. Apocyna'ceae, or Apocyne/E, a natural order of corollifioral Dicotyledons, chiefly tropical shrubs and trees, but represented in Britain by the periwinkle, and in South Europe by the olean¬ der. It is a frequent source of caoutchouc. Some yield indigo, and a few (carissa, hancornia) bear edible fruits; but the majority are poisonous. Apodictic (from the Greek verb to prove), a logical term signifying a judgment or conclusion which is necessarily true. No apodictic judg¬ ment can be founded on experience. Ap 'ogee (Gr. apo, from; gc, the earth),the great¬ est distance of the earth from any of the heavenly bodies. Its application, however, is restricted to the sun and moon, the sun’sapogee correspond¬ ing to the earth’s aphelion, and the moon’s apogee being the point of its orbit most remote from the earth. Apogee is opposed to perigee. Apolda, a manufacturing town of Saxe- Weimar. Pop. (1885), 18,061. Apollina'ris the younger, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria (died 390 a.d.), and one of the warmest opponents of Arianism. Apollinaris Water, an alkaline mineral water, containing carbonate of soda, derived from the Apollinaris Spring, in the Valley of the Ahr; in the Rhine Province. Apollo (Gr. Apollon ) may be regarded as the characteristic divinity of thc'Greeks inasmuch as he was the imper¬ sonation of Greek life in its most beau tiful form, and the ideal representative of the Greek nation. Homer and Hesiod mention that he was the son of Zeus and Leto, and twin-broth¬ er of Artemis. He was the god of retrib¬ utive justice, of mu¬ sic, of prophecy, and medicine, the found¬ er of cities and the guardian of flocks and herds. His oracle at Delphi inculcated a really high stand¬ ard of religious life. Apollodo'rns, (1) Apollo Belvedere, an Athenian painter,who flourished about 408 b.c. He introduced improved coloring and distribution of light and shade.—(2) an Athenian grammarian who flourished about 140 b.c. —(3) Another Apollodorus was a celebrated architect in the time of the Emperor Trajan. He was sentenced to death in 129 a.d. by Hadrian, offended at his fearless criticism of a temple designed by the emperor himself. Apollo'nius, (1) Apollonius of Rhodes (born in Alexandria about 240 b.c., but long resident in Rhodes) wrote many books on grammar, and an epic poem entitled the Argonauiica. —(2) Apollonius of Perga, who flourished 250-220 b.c., is classed with Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, among the founders of the mathe¬ matical sciences.— (3) Apollonius of Tya'na in Cappadocia, born three or four years before the Christian era, was, according to Philostratus, a zealous teacher of the neo-Pythagorean doctrines, who claimed a commission from heaven to teach a pure and reformed religion. Voltaire attempted to prove his similarity or superiority to Christ.— (4) Apollonius, surnamed Dyscolos (or ill-tem¬ pered), of Alexandria, lived in the second century. He was the first who reduced grammar to a system. Apollo'nius of Tyre, the hero of a Greek metrical romance, very popular in the middle ages. Shakespeare's Periclts, Prince of 'Pyre, is based on an Italian version of this story. Apollos, an Alexandrian Jew, described in the Acts of the Apostles as an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures, knowing only the bap¬ tism of John, who on coming to Ephesus (54 a. d.) was more perfectly taught by Aquila and Priscilla. He was a distinguished fellow-laborer of the Apostle Paul. Apollyon (Gr. the destroyer), or Abaddon (Rev. ix, 11; cf. Job xxvi, 6 ; xxxi, 12), the same as the Asmodeus of the Book of Tobit (iii, 8 ). Apologetics (a word derived from Gr. apo, from, and logos, speech—something spoken to ward off an attack) technically connotes that branch of theology which is concerned with the defence of Christianity. It is not to be confounded with polemics, which is occupied with the defence of the peculiar doctrines of parties within the Chris¬ tian pale. Ap'ologue, a fable, parable, or short allegorical story, intended to serve as a pleasant vehicle for some moral doctrine. The New Testament par¬ able is a simpler kind of apologue. Apomor'pliia is an alkaloid prepared from morphia by heating with hydrochloric acid. It is a rapid and powerful emetic, but its effects quickly pass off ; and it causes very little depression. Apoueuro'sis (Gr. apo, from, and neuron, a string) is an anatomical term for an expansion of strong fibrous tissue—as the tendon of the external oblique abdominal muscle. Ap'oplexy (Gr. apoplexia —from ple.sso, I strike —disablement from a stroke), a term used in medi¬ cine, from early times, of any sudden and unac¬ countable loss of consciousness, and still popularly employed in much the same way. It is generally applied, however, by modern medical writers to rupture of a blood-vessel, with hemorrhage in the brain or its membranes, whether with or without unconsciousness. Apostate literally designates any one who changes his religion, whatever may be his motive; but, by custom the word is always used in an in¬ jurious sense, as equivalent to one who, in chang¬ ing his creed, is actuated by unworthy motives. The Roman Catholic Church at one period im¬ posed severe penalties on apostasy. A posteriori reasoning is reasoning from ex¬ perience, or backwards from effect to cause. Apostle (Gr. apostohs, one sent forth), a messen¬ ger, but especially used to denote the twelve dis¬ ciples whom Jesus sent forth to preach the Gospel —twelve probably because there were twelve tribes. Their names were Simon Peter, Andrew, John (the son of Zebedee), James (his brother), Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew (identified with Levi), James (the son of Alphaeus), Tliad- daeus, Simon, and Judas Iscariot. (The lists in Matt, x, Mark iii, Luke vi, and Acts i. are the same, with the exception that for Thaddseus in Matthew and Mark, we have Judas in Luke and Acts.) Apostles, Teachings of the Twelve, is the title of a treatise discovered in 1883 by Bryennius, the metropolitan of Nieomedia, and published by him with a Greek commentary (Constantinople, 1883). Apostle Spoons, silver spoons whose handles ended in figures of the apostles, a common bap¬ tismal present in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Apostol ic, or Apostolical, the general term applied to everything derived directly from the apostles, or bearing their character. The Roman Catholic Church declares itself the Apostolic Church, and the papal chair the apostolic chair, on the ground of an unbroken series of Roman bishops from the chief apostle, Peter. The Church of England, in virtue of regular episcopal APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION. 66 APPOINTMENT. ordination from llie pre^reformation church, claims to be apostolic; so likewise do the Protestant Episcopal Churches in Scotland and the United States. Apostolical Succession is a phrase used to de¬ note one or both of two things—the derivation of holy orders by an unbroken chain of transmission from the apostles, and a succession of a ministry so ordained to the powers and privileges of the apostles. The theory of the Catholic Church is that its present bishops have the right to ordain, in virtue of being the representatives of the apostles, who in their turn represented the Lord himself, the fountain of all grace. Apostolic Brethren, the name given in Italy, toward the end of the thirteenth century, to a sect which opposed the worldly tendencies of the church. Its founder was Segarelli, a weaver and palmer. The movement was condemned by Popes Honorius IV. and Nicholas IV., and, in 1300, Segarelli perished at the stake, with many others, both men and women. A Gnostic sect of the third century took the same name, as also a body of persons near Cologne, in the twelfth century. Apostolic Constitutions and Canons, both ascribed by tradition to Clemens Romanus, are notes of ecclesiastical customs held to be apostol¬ ical, written in the form of apostolic precepts. Apostolic Fathers, the name given to the immediate disciples and fellow-laborers of the ■ apostles, and, in a more restricted sense, to those among them who have left writings behind them. Those specially so called are Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hennas, and Polycarp. Apos trophe (Gr. apostrophe a turning away, or breaking off) is a rhetorical figure by which a speaker changes the course of his speech and ad¬ dresses, with greater or less emotional emphasis, persons present or absent, the dead, or inanimate objects, either to invoke them as witnesses, or to pity, praise, or blame them. Apostrophe in grammar, is the sign (’) used to indicate the omis¬ sion of a letter or letters in a word, as in o'er, thro ’, can’t; and as a sign of the modern English genitive or possessive case, as in boy’s, boys’, men’s, conscience’, Moses’. In the latter case, it marked originally merely the dropping of the letter e in writing, as in fox's, James’s, and was equally common in the nominative plural. Grad¬ ually the latter use was dropped, and it was ex¬ tended to all possessives, even where e had not been dropped, as in man’s, children’s, conscience’ sake. Apothecary, the name formerly given in England and Ireland to members of an inferior branch of the medical profession. In America it designates a dispenser and compounder of medicines. Apothegm, a terse, pithy, saying conveying an important truth in few words. Apotheosis (pronounced formerly, Apothe’osis, now Apotheo’sis, from Gr. theos, a god), deifica¬ tion, or the raising of a mortal to the rank of a god. Appalachian Mountains, the great range ex¬ tending from Canada through the New England and Middle Atlantic States to Alabama. It in¬ cludes the White Mountains, the Catskills, the Adirondacks, and the Alleghenies in the north, and the Blue Mountains further south. Its total length is 1,300 miles, extreme width (not includ¬ ing lateral ranges) about 100. The highest peaks are found in the north, but none attain over 7,000 feet. It forms the watershed of many rivers flowing into the Atlantic, of which the Hudson is the most important. Appalachico'la, a river of the United States, Using m Georgia, and flowing through Florida into a bay of the same name, in the Gulf of Mexico. Ap'panage is a technical word in the French law, in which system it signifies the assignment or conveyance by the crown of lands and feudal rights to the princes of the royal family, that they may be enabled to maintain themselves according to their rank. Apparent. This term is used to express a number of important distinctions, especially in astronomy. The upparept magnitude of a heavenly body is tlie angle formed by two lines drawn from the ends of its diameter to the spectator’s eye; this .obviously depends upon the distance of the body, as well as upon its real magnitude. A planet seen from the surface of the earth seems lower than if seen from the centre of the earth—the former is its apparent altitude, the latter its real. Apparent noon is when the sun is on the meridan; true or mean noon is the time when the sun would be upon the meridian if his motion in the heavens were uniform and parallel to the equator. The daily and annual motions of the sun in the heavens are both apparent motions, caused by two real motions of the earth, Apparitions. The belief that the spirits of the departed are occasionally presented to the sight of the living, has existed in all ages and countries, and usually declines only when a people has ad¬ vanced considerably in the knowledge of physical conditions and laws Most authentic apparitions have been due to temporary or permanent mental or visual aber¬ ration, dependent upon a diseased condition of the body, pressure upon the brain, or mere un¬ conscious ratiocination. Apparitor, the general name for the public servants of the magistrates in ancient Rome, so called because they were at hand to carry out the magistrates’ orders. The name is still applied to the lowest officer of an ecclesiastical court, also in a somewhat general sense to an officer of a civil court, and specially to the beadle of a university, who carries the mace. Appeal is the right or process of bringing under the notice of a higher court the judgment of a lower court which the appellant represents as erroneous in fact or law. In the United States, the distinction between an appeal, which originated in the civil law, and a writ of error, which is of common law origin, is that the former carries the whole case for review by the higher court, including both the facts and the law; while the latter removes only questions of law. An Act of Congress of 1875 provides that the judgments and decrees of the circuit courts of the United States shall not be reexamined in the Supreme Court unless the matter in dispute shall exceed the sum or value of $5,000, exclusive of costs. No judgment, decree, or order of a circuit or district court, in any civil action at law or in equity, shall be reviewed in the Supreme Court on writ of error or appeal, unless the writ of error is brought, or the appeal is taken, within two years after the* entry of such judgment, decree, or order; save in the case of infants, insane persons, and impris¬ oned persons, when the period is two years, ex¬ clusive of this term of disability. An appeal from a district court to the circuit court of the United States must be taken within one year. An appeal from the district court in admiralty to the circuit court must be made immediately after the decree, in open court, before the adjournment •sine die; and it should be taken to the next suc¬ ceeding circuit court. An appeal may be taken from the State courts to the Supreme Court of the United States, in cases involving the validity of a treaty or statute of, or authorized under, the United States; on the ground of repugnance to the constitution; and in certain other specified cases. Appeinlieularia, a genus of Ascidians and type of a small but important order, the members of which retain the larval vertebrate characters which are lost in the more or less degenerate adult sea-squirts. Appenzell' (from Abbatis Celia), a double can¬ ton in the northeast of Switzerland. Area, 162 square miles. Pop. (1880), 64,799. The largest^ town is Herisau (pop., 11,082). Appenzell, capital of the canton, is situated on the left bank of the Sittern. Pop. (1880), 4,302. Appetite (Lat. appetitus, from appeto, I desire) is generally used of the natural desire for food experienced in health. Its causes are two: (1) A condition of the stomach, not yet accurately understood, relieved by taking food; (2) a con¬ dition of the system, not relieved till the products of digestion begin to be absorbed into the blood. Appian (Lat. Appianus), a native of Alexan¬ dria, who flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was author of a Roman history in twenty-four books, of which only eleven are extant. Appia'ni, Andrea, styled in his day “the Painter of the Graces,” was born at Milan, May 23, 1754, and died Nov. 8, 1817. Appian Way (Lat. Via Appia), well named by an ancient writer Regina Viarum (the queen of roads), was formed, in part, at least, by Appius Claudius C;ecus, while he was censor, (313 n.c.) It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the Roman roads, and with its branches connected Rome with all parts of Southern Italy. Apple ( Pyrns malm). This well-known fruit has been very long cultivated, and by that means it has been very much improved. It was exten¬ sively cultivated by the Romans, by whom, prob¬ ably, it was introduced into Britain. The apple- tree, even in a cultivated state, is seldom more than 30-40 feet high. It has a large round head; the leaves are broadly ovate, much longer than the petioles, woolly beneath, acute, crenate, and pro¬ vided w r ith glands; its flowers are always pro¬ duced in sessile umbels, and are various in size, according to the variety. The fruit is roundish, or narrowest toward the apex, with a depression at each end, generally green, but also frequently yellow, light red, dark red, streaked, sometimes even almost black, with the rind sometimes downy, sometimes glabrous, sometimes thickish, and sometimes very thin and transparent, vary¬ ing in size from that of a walnut to that of a small child’s head—the taste more or less aro¬ matic, sweet, or subacid. It is produced on spurs which spring from branclilets of two or more years’ growth, and continue to bear for a series of years. The fruit of the apple is, with regard to its structure, styled by botanists a “ pome.” The apple is now one of the most widely dif¬ fused of fruit-trees, and for the general fruit-sup¬ ply is the most valuable of all. It succeeds best in the colder parts of the temperate zone. The varieties in cultivation are by far too numerous. They have been classified with great care by Ger¬ man, French, English, and American writers, by whom the classification and description of apples, pears, and similar fruits have been made quite a matter of science, and entitled Pomology. The various uses of the fruit—for the dessert, for baking, preserving, making jelly, etc., as well as for making the fermented liquor called cider—are sufficiently well known. Vinegar is also made from it; and sometimes a kind of spirit, especially in Switzerland and Swabia, It contains malic act'd,which is extracted formedicin- al purposes. The fermented juice of the crab apple is called verjuice. It is used in cookery, and sometimes medicinally; also for the purify¬ ing of wax. Apples are an important article of commerce. Great quantities are imported into Britain, chiefly from France, Canada, and the northern parts of the United States, The apple keeps better than most kinds of fruit. Appleby, England, the county town cf West¬ moreland, on the Eden, thirteen miles southeast of Penrith. There is a castle, first mentioned in 1088, the keep of which, called Caesar’s Tower, is still in tolerable condition. Pop. (1881), 2,899. Appleton, a city of Wisconsin, 185 miles north of Chicago, and 120 miles from Milwaukee. The city is the seat of Lawrence University (1847), a Methodist institution. Pop. (1887), about 12,000. Appleton, Charles Edward, D.C.L., founder of the Academy was born at Reading, England, March 16,1841. He died at Luxor, in Upper Egypt, in 1879. Appleton, Daniel (1785-1849), the founder of the American publishing house of D. Apple- ton & Co., was born at Haverhill, Mass. The firm issued the New American Cyclopedia, under the editorship of George Ripley and Charles A. Dana, which was completed in 1863, in sixteen volumes. A new edition was published in 1872-76. Appogiatu'ra (leaning note), an Italian mu¬ sical term, designating a form of embellishment by insertion of notes of passage in a melody. Appointment. In a deed or will, power is often given or reserved to a certain person to appoint the uses to which property may be ap- applied. Thus, a marriage settlement may con¬ tain a power of appointment, enabling the' wife to distribute her property among the children of the marriage at her own discretion. The appoint¬ ment when it is made derives its force, and the pujly in whose favor i( is inade derives his title, APPOMATTOX COURTHOUSE. 67 AQUEDUCT. from the instrument in which the power of ap¬ pointment is contained. Appomattox Courthouse, a village of Vir¬ ginia, twenty miles east of Lynchburg. Here General Lee, on April 9, 1865, surrendered the army of Northern Virginia, 27,805 men strong, to General Grant. Apposition, a term in grammar signifying the annexing of one substantive to another, in the same case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first; as. My brother, the physician; Thomas, the rhymer. Appraisement. An appraisement signifies generally any formal valuation of property. Apprentice is a person described in law-books as a species of servant, and called apprentice, from the French verb apprendre, “to learn,” be¬ cause he is bound by indenture to serve a master for a certain term, receiving in return for his services instruction in his master’s profession, art, or trade; the master, upon the other hand, con¬ tracting to instruct the apprentice, and, accord¬ ing to the nature of the agreement, to provide food and clothing for the apprentice, and to pay him small wages. In the United States the system of apprentice¬ ship has largely become obsolete, but most of the States have laws on the subject. Approaches, in Military Language, are the sunken trenches or excavated roads which are constructed by besiegers. Appropriation is the opposite of expropria¬ tion, and means making something the property of a particular person— e.g., game, which is the property of no one, is appropriated by capture; or one man is said to appropriate the ideas of another. The word has various important appli¬ cations in law. Approximation, a term commonly used in Mathematical Science to designate such calcula¬ tions as are not rigorously correct, but approach the truth near enough for a given purpose.— e. g ., the solution of equations beyond the fourth de¬ gree can be got only by approximation. Apraxin, Feodor, Count, the creator of the Russian navy, and long the most powerful man in the court of Peter the Great, was born in 1671, and died in 1728. Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), a species of the same genius with the plum, is a native of Ar¬ menia, and of the countries eastward to China and Japan; a middle-sized tree of 15, 20, or even 30 feet high, with ovate, acuminate, and cordate, smooth, doubly-toothed leaves on long stalks; solitary, sessile, white flowers which Apricot (Prunus armeniaca). appear before the leaves, and fruit resembling the peach, roundish, downy, yellow, and ruddy on the side next the sun, with yellow flesh. Tl;e apricot was brought into Europe in the time of Alexander the Great, and since the days of the Romans has been diffused over all its western countries. April. The Romans gave this month the name of Aprilis, derived from aperire, “to open,” probably because it is the season when the buds begin to open; by the Anglo-Saxons it was called Easter-month. The custom of sending one upon a bootless errand on the first day of this month, lias been supposed to be a travesty of the sending hither and thither of the Saviour from Annas to Caiaphas, and from Pilate to Herod, because during the middle ages this scene in Christ’s life was made the subject of a miracle-play at Easter,' which usually occurs in April. In France, one thus imposed upon is called un poisson d’April (an April fish). In England and America he is an April Fool. A prio’ri. A priori reasoning, in Kant’s use of the term, is that which rests on general notions or ideas, and is independent of experience; which is derived from the constitution of the mind, and is accordingly prior to all experience. Apse (Lat. apsis), a semicircular or semioctag- onal recess, usually placed at the east end of the choir or chancel of all early churches, up to and including those of the Romanesque and Norman styles. Apsheron, a peninsula on the west coast of the Caspian Sea, belonging to the Russian government of Baku. Ap'sides (Gr. apsis, connection), the two ex¬ treme points in the orbit of a planet—one at the greatest, the other at the least distance from the sun. Apt (Apta Julia), a town in the French depart¬ ment of Vaucluse. Pop. (1881), 4,260. Ap'terous Insects are insects without wings. Apteryx (Gr. a. without, pteryx, wing), or Kiwi, a genus of New Zealand birds, belonging Apteryx. to the sub-class Ratitae, in which the breastbone has no keel. It is thus allied to the ostrich-like birds. It is usually about the size of a large hen, but some measure two feet or more in height. Apuleius, or Appuleius, a Latin satirist of the second century, was born at Madaura, in Africa. Apuleius studied first at Carthage, and afterwards at Athens, displaying a special predilection for the Platonic philosophy. His chief work was the Golden Ass, a satire on the priesthood. Apu'lia (modern Puglia), the southeastern part of Italy, comprising the three provinces of Bari, Foggia, and Lecce, with an area of 8,540 square miles, and a pop. (1884) of 1,675,471. Apu're, a navigable river of Venezuela, which rises near the western boundary among the Eastern Cordillera, and flows nearly 1,000 miles eastward, till it falls by six arms into the Orinoco. Apu'rimac, a river of Peru, also called Tambo. It gives name to a province of Peru, with an area of 62,325 square miles, and a pop. (1876) of 119,246. Aqua Fortis (literally strong water) was the term used by the alchemists to denote nitric acid, and is still the commercial name of that acid. Aquamarine, a name sometimes popularly given to the Beryl, as being sea-colored. Some green and blue varieties of topaz have also been so styled. Aqua Regi'nse (literally queen’s water) is a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitre. Either mixture evolves fumes largely, and may be used as a disinfectant. Aqua Regis, or Regia (literally royal water), is the common name applied to a mixture of one part of nitric acid, and two, three, or four parts of hydrochloric acid. The general proportion is one to two. The term aqua regia was given to the mixture from the power it possesses of dissolving gold,which is the king of the metals, i Aqua'Hum, some contrivance on a large or small scale for keeping aquatic animals and plants .alive out of their native habitat, ! Aqua'rius (the Water-Bearer), the eleventh sign of the zodiac, through which the sun moves in part of the months of January and February. Aquatic Plants. 1 he presence of water is not only essential to the active life of all organisms, but is peculiarly necessary for plants, which are for the most part dependent for food supply on matter dissolved in water, as well as on the car¬ bonic anhydride mingled with the surrounding medium. Numerous plants are, moreover, in the A, Ponlederia crassipes of Amazons; ordinary floating form with air-spaces in leaf-stalks, and branched roots. B, a runner which has taken root on land, and accordingly reverted to the ordinary form of root and leaf stalk. strict sense of the word, aquatic, having never acquired or having lost all direct connection with the soil. The simplest plants or algae are almost all aquatic, though many occur in damp situations on land, or on other organisms, while others remain for long periods quiescent in comparative dryness. Aquatint, a mode of etching on copper, by which imitations of drawings in India ink, bister, and sepia are produced. Aqua Tofa'na, a mysterious, poisonous liquid, applied to criminal purposes by a Sicilian woman named Tofana, about the end of the seventeenth century. Aqua Vitas (Lat. water of life) is a common term applied to ardent spirits; especially, in com¬ merce, spirits of the first distillation, or unrect¬ ified. Aquaviva, general of the Jesuits, was born in 1543 of an old Neapolitan family, and died at Rome, Jan. 31, 1615. Aqueduct. This term is most commonly under¬ stood to mean a bridge of stone, iron, or wood, for conveying water across a valley. But a pipe, an open channel, or a tunnel through a mountain is equally an aqueduct, if its function is to convey water from one place to another. All great aqueducts have been constructed for the purpose of conducting water from some more or less distant source to large towns or cities. This term is also properly applied to a bridge carrying a canal for the purposes of navigation. The aqueducts of the Romans were amongst the most magnificent of their works, and the noble supply of water which modern Rome derives from the four now in use, of which three are ancient, gives the stranger a very vivid conception of the vast scale on which the ancient city must have been provided with one of the most import¬ ant appliances of civilization and refinement, when nine were employed to pour water into its baths and fountains. As forming a link between Aqua Alexandrina. the ancient Roman structures and the great aque¬ duct-bridges of modern times, that of Spoleto, about sixty miles to the southeast of Rome, AQUEOUS HUMOR. 68 ARABIAN NIGHTS. should be mentioned. Erected in the sixtli or seventh century, it serves both as a bridge and as an aqueduct, and is a wonderful piece of engi¬ neering for its time. The very tall piers are built of a durable stone, and the pointed arches are of brick. It is about 300 feet high, nearly 700 feet long, and the ten great arches have each a span of GO feet. These are surmounted by a row of much smaller arches carrying the canal of the aqueduct. In 1G84 Louis XIV. set his engineers to con¬ struct an aqueduct to convey the waters of the Eure from Point Gouin to Versailles. Troops to the number of 40,000 were employed in this great undertaking. Thousands of these men died during the progress of the work, which was in¬ terrupted during the war of 1688 and never resumed. The bridge at Maintenon, forming part of this aqueduct, even in its incomplete state, is, in point of magnitude, the grandest structure of the kind in the world. The remains consist of forty-seven arches, each 42 feet wide and 83 feet high. The piers are 25 feet 6 inches thick. New York is supplied with water from the Croton river, which falls into the Hudson. The first aqueduct was constructed between tlie years 1837 and 1842. It is 38 miles long, with a declivity for the greater part of its course of VS}£ inches to the mile. For a length of 33 miles the water- channel is 8 feet 5 inches in height, and 7 feet 8 inches in greatest breadth. Stone, brick, and cement are used for the encasing masonry, which varies slightly as the channel is formed in rock, or earth, or in an open cutting. In flat valleys the built conduit has sloping earth embankments on each side. When it reaches the Harlem river the water is conveyed in iron pipes over a splendid bridge. These large pipes also connect the receiving and the distributing reservoirs, which are two miles apart. The first Croton aqueduct, though justly considered one of the grandest modern works of its kind, has been found to be totally inadequate for New York. Accordingly, a new aqueduct on a more stupen¬ dous scale has been constructed since 1883. A dam of vast size has been built to collect the water of the Croton watershed, and for nearly the whole way—from this to the city, a length of 28% miles —the conduit or water-channel is tunneled through solid rock. For the most part this chan¬ nel is fully 13 feet both in height and width. A certain length of its more southerly portion, how¬ ever, is quite circular in section, with a diameter first of 12 feet 3 inches, and then of 10 feet G inches. Other important aqueducts are the one which supplies Manchester with water from Lake Tliirl- mere, 100 miles long; the Loch Katrine and Glas¬ gow aqueduct, 35 miles long; the Liverpool aque¬ duct which draws its supply from a Welsh river, and the aqueduct which supplies Vienna. Aqueous Humor, the watery fluid which fills the space in the eye between the cornea and the lens. Aqueous Rocks, rocks which owe their origin to the mechanical or chemical action of water. In some systems of classification, the term is synonymous with sedimentary rocks. Aquifolia'ceae, the holly order, are coralli- floral exogens allied to Rhamnacese, Cejastraceaj, and Ebenaceae. They are all shrubs or trees, and are chiefly natives of tropical and subtropical America. Aq Hila, the capital of the Italian province of the same name, situated on the Alterno, near the loftiest of the Apennines, sixty-four miles south¬ east of Terni. P 'p. (1881), 14,720. The Province of Aquila is most picturesque, snow-topped moun- tains and smiling valleys alternating. Area, 2,509 square miles; pop. (1885), 371,332. Aq'uila, Ponticus, a celebrated translator of the Old Testament into Greek, born at Sinope. He is said to have been related to the Emperor Hadrian, and to have been first a Pagan then a Christian, and finally a Jew. Aquilei'a (also Aglar) is a small town in Aus¬ tria, at the head of the Adriatic, twenty-two miles northwest of Trieste. Pop. about 1,400. Aqui'nas, Thomas (or Thomas of Aquino), the prince of scholastic theologians, was born about 1226. He received the rudiments of his educa¬ tion from the Benedictine monks of Monte-Casino, and completed his studies at the University of Naples. He entered the Order of St. Dominic and preached throughout Italy and France. During his life Aquinas enjoyed the highest consideration in the Church. His voice carried decisive weight with it, and his scholars called him the “Angel of the Schools,” or “ Angelic Doctor.” He treated Christian morals with a compre¬ hensiveness that procured him the title of the “ Father of Moral Philosophy.” The definite¬ ness, clearness, and completeness of his method of handling theology were such that his Summa Theologies, which may be said to be the first at¬ tempt at a complete theological system, remains to this day substantially the standard authority in the Roman Church. Another important work of Aquinas is his Summa Contra Gentiles, which deals chiefly with the principles of natural relig¬ ion. His commentaries on Scripture and devo¬ tional treatises also have a high reputation. He died at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa-Nuova, March 7, 1274. Aquinas was canonized by John XXII. in 1323, and proclaimed a “ Doctor of the Church ” by Pius V. in 1567. Aquita'uia, the Latin name of a part of Gaul, originally including the country between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, peopled by Iberian tribes, and by Celtic families who settled among them. Arabesque (Fr.), a pecular kind of fantastic decoration, either sculptured or painted, which the Spanish .Moors are supposed to have in¬ troduced into modern Europe. Arabgir', or Arahiuk (anc. Anahraee), a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the Province of Sivas. Arabia —called by the in¬ habitants, Jezirat-al-Arab (the Peninsula of Arabia); by the Turks and Persians, Arabistan- is the great southwestern pen¬ insula of Asia, and is situ¬ ated 12°40'—34° N. latitude, and 32° 30'—60° E. longitude. Its greatest length from north¬ west to southeast is about 1,800 miles; its mean breadth, about 600; its area, 1,230,000 square miles; and its popula¬ tion conjectured to be not much above 5,000,000 It is Arabesque Panel, bounded on the north by the (From the Mosque at highlands of Syria, and the Cordova.) plains of Mesopotamia; on the east, by the Per¬ sian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; on the south, by the Arabian Sea; and on the west, by the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. Midway between .Mecca and Medina runs the tropic of Cancer. Arabia has, on the whole, an African climate. The terraced districts are more favorable to cult¬ ure, and produce wheat, barley, millet, palms, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, tamarinds, excel¬ lent coffee, senna, and many aromatic and spice plants, as balsam, aloe, myrrh, frankincense, etc. Arabia is destitute of forests, but has vast stretches of desert grass, fragrant with aromatic herbs, and furnishing admirable pasturage for the splendid breed of horses. Coffee, one of the most important exports, is an indigenous product of both Arabia and Africa. The Arab is of medium stature, muscular make, and brown complexion. The history of Arabia properly begins with Mo¬ hammed, born in 571, who converted his country¬ men from paganism to Islam, and whose succes¬ sors created empires in Syria, Persia, Egypt, Northern Africa, and Spain. In the eighteenth century occurred the Wahabi uprising, a relig¬ ious movement aiming at the restoration of primitive Islamism. Arabian Architecture is based upon Byzan¬ tine models, to which a new and fanciful orna¬ mentation known as Arabesque was added. The exclusion of animal figures, which their ab¬ horrence of the very appearance of idolatry ne¬ cessitated, confined the Mohammedan artists to the imitation of vegetable productions, varied by geometrical patterns and inscriptions, of which the letters were woven into forms which suited them for architectural uses. The Alhambra, at Granada, Spain, is the finest Arabic structure in Europe. Arabian Languaffe and Literature. Re¬ garding the oldest literary culture of the Ara¬ bians, we possess but slight information. As far back as Solomon’s time, the Queen of Sheba (prob¬ ably Arabia Felix) was noted for her skill in enig¬ mas. Arabian literature began a new career with Mohammed, though his Koran contains not one precept favorable to literature or science. Under the Abbasides literature, science, and art arose (750 a.d.); when the califate fell (1258), they entered on their decline. They were generously fostered under the splendid sway, first of Almansor (754-75), and afterwards of the celebrated Haroun Al-Rasliid (Harun Al-Rashid, 786-808). Learned men were invited to their courts from many coun¬ tries, and remunerated for their labors with princely munificence; the works of the best Greek, Syriac, and old Persian writers were translated into Arabic, and spread abroad in numerous copies. In mathematics, the Arabs made great advances by the introduction from India of the numerals , and mode of notation now in use, of the sine instead of the chord in trigonometry, and of a more extended application of algebra. While alchemists, searching for the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone, were founding chemistry, astrologers were enriching astronomy, which was zealously studied in the famous schools and ob¬ servatories of Bagdad and Cordova. The Arabic belongs to the so-called Sem¬ itic family of languages, among which it is distinguished for its antiquity and soft, flex¬ ible grace. Through the Koran, the dialect of an Ishmaelitic tribe, the Koreish, became the predominant lan¬ guage of literature and com¬ merce throughout the whole extent of the Arabian domin¬ ions. The Himyaritic from Abyssinia, and closely akin to the ancient Etliiopic, is known as yet only by a few inscriptions, etc. The Arabic, like all Semitic writing, pro¬ ceeds from right to left. It is borrowed from the old Syriac, and was probably introduced into Arabia by Christian mis¬ sionaries about the time of Mohammed. In its oldest form it is called Kufic, from the town of Kufa, on the Eu¬ phrates, where the transcrip¬ tion of the Koran was busily carried on. Its characters are rude and coarse, and it has particular symbols for only sixteen of the twenty-eight Arabic consonants. This writ¬ ing, nevertheless, continued to be employed for 300 years, and for coins and inscriptions even later; but in the tenth century it was displaced for common purposes by a cur¬ rent handwriting, the Neskhi, introduced by Ibn Mokla. This is the character still in use, more or less modified, by all nations that have adopted the Mohammedan religion. In it, the consonants which resemble each other are dis¬ tinguished by points, and the vowels by strokes over and under the line; but in writing and printing, the vowels are commonly omitted. The accompanying illustra¬ tion shows the twenty-eight letters of the Arabic alphabet, Arabic AI P habet - which may be compared with the Greek and Hebrew. Arabian Nights’ Entertainments (Alf Lay- lah wa Laylali, A Thousand Nights and a Night), in Christian lands, the best-known product of Arabian literature. The name and plan of this work are very ancient. The popular story of its origin runs as follows; • A Persian king used to marry a new bride every day, and put 1 Alifi rt-J: ? Be to > Te , • * d_> i The £ ** Jim r Hha, C * Efim DA i Dzal / Be Ze j i M Sin A /. 'LT *** Shin. lU a ,e Sad * Dad b b Ta b b Za t c 'Ain i ' c Ghain 1 i—i '» Fa id 5 Qaf CJ £ Kef a) 1 Lara i r ^ Mira u * Nun is A He ‘Yaw Ye ARABIAN NUMERALS. 69 ARBOIS. her to death next morning. One wife was Shali- razad (Scheherazade), who had understanding and discretion. As they sat together she began a tale, and late at night she broke it off at such an interesting point that the king next morning spared her life, and at night begged her to con¬ tinue her tale. So she did a thousand nights. Meantime she bore him a child. Presenting the child to him, she told him of the craft she had used; and the king, whose love she had now gained, admired her policy and let her live. Arabian Numerals, or Ciphers —the charac¬ ters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Properly, they should be styled Hindu or Indian Numerals, for the Arabs borrowed them, along with the decimal system of notation, from the Hindus, probably in 773 a.d. Arabian Sea, the Mare Erythrceum (Red Sea) of the ancients, is that part of the Indian Ocean which lies between India on the east and Arabia on the west. Its two great arms are the Red Sea proper and the Persian Gulf. Ar'abin is the essential principle of gum- arabic, and is obtained pure by adding alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic in water, when the arabin is precipitated in white flocculi. Ara'bi Pasha, leader of the military and in¬ surrectionary party in Egypt in 1882. He was sentenced to death, but the penalty was changed to exile, and he is now (1889) in honorable cap¬ tivity in Ceylon. Aracli'nida (Gr. arachne, a spider), a sub-class of Tracheate Artliropoda, including scorpions, spiders, mites, etc., and first separated by Lamarck from the insecta of Linnaeus. Arach'noid Membrane, one of three cover¬ ings of the brain and spinal cord, is situate be¬ tween the dura-mater and the pia-mater. It is non-vascular, transparent, and remarkably thin. Arad, capital of a district in Eastern Hungary, is situated on the right bank of the Maros, an affluent of the Theiss, and has a population (1880) of 35,556. Ar'afat, Mount, Orphat or Jebel-er-’rcclnne (mountain of mercy), is a granite hill about fif¬ teen miles southeast of Mecca, visited by the faithful, and believed to be the spot where Adam, conducted by the angel Gabriel, met again his wife Eve, after a punitive sepai'ation of 200 years, on account of their disobedience in Para¬ dise. Ar'ago, Franqois Jean Dominique, a cele¬ brated French astronomer and physicist, was born Feb. 26, 1786, at Estagel. In 1816, along with Gay Lussac, he established the Annates de Chimie et de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the undulatory theory of light. In 1830 he became Chief Director of the Observatory, and received the post of Perpetual Secretary of the Academy. He took a prominent part in the July revolution (1830). Arago opposed Louis Napo¬ leon and refused to take the oath of allegiance after the coup d’ etat of 1852. He died Oct. 3, 1853. Jacques Etienne Yictor Arago, brother of the great savant, was born March 10, 1790. In 1817 he accompanied an expedition round the world. From 1835 to 1837 he managed the theatre at Rouen. His Promenade autour du Monde (1822) and Souvenir dun Aveugle (1838), are well known. In 1849, though blind, he formed a company of speculators, and departed for California, to search for gold. He died in Brazil in Jan., 1855.— Etienne, another brother of the astronomer, was born Feb. 9, 1802, and made himself well known as a popular author. He held an appointment under the Provisional Government of 1848, and was afterwards exiled. In 1859 he returned to France. In 1878 he be¬ came archivist in the Ecole de Beaux Arts .— Emanuel, son of the astronomer, born 1812, be¬ came known as a zealous republican in 1848, and was after 1852 active as a barrister. In 1870 he became a member of the Committee of National Defence, and afterwards held appointments under the Government. Aragon, once a kingdom, now divided into the three Provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, and Teruel, in the northeast of Spain. Greatest length from north to south, 190 miles; breadth, 130. Area, 17,880. Pop. (1884), 925,920. It is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees, and borders on Navarre, the Castiles, Valencia, and Catalonia. The Ebro flows through Aragon in a southeasterly direction, receiving numerous trib¬ utaries both from the lofty regions of the Pyr¬ enees and from the Sierras in the south. The chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, Huesca, and Teruel. Aragona, a town of Sicily, six miles north- northeast of Girgenti, with the old castle of the princes of Aragona. Pop. (1881), 9,571. Aragonite, a mineral essentially consisting of carbonate of lime, and so agreeing in chemical composition with calcareous spar, but differing from it in the form of its crystals, of which the primary form is a rhombic prism with angles of 116° 16' and 63° 44', the secondary forms being generally prismatic and pyramidal. Araguay', a large river of Brazil, rising in the Sierra Sciada, and flowing into the Amazon. Ar'akan ( Arukdn; also spelt Aracan and Arracan), long the most northerly division of British Burmah, is a narrow strip of territory on the Bay of Bengal, between Pegu and Chitta¬ gong, in Lower Bengal. Its length is ab ait 400 miles, its greatest breadth is 90 miles, its narrowest 15 miles. The area is 14,526 square miles. Pop. about 600,000. A'ral, L are, separated by the plateau of Ust- Urt from the Caspian Sea, is the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies wholly within the limits of Russian Central Asia, embracing an area of about 24,000 square miles. It has no outlet, and is generally shallow. Its level is 117 feet above that of the Caspian, which is 84 feet below the surface of the Black Sea. A'ralia, a genus of plants, the type of the Araliaceoe, which are a sub-order of Umbelliferae less developed in inflorescence, which is often racemose-umbellate,and in fruit,which has usually more than two carpels, and is often succulent— witness the berries of the common ivy. The order contains about 160 known species, natives of tropical, temperate, and cold climates, gener¬ ally possessing stimulant and aromatic properties. Poisonous qualities are not developed as in the umbelliferse. The herbage of many species af¬ fords good food for cattle, and some are used for human food. Aram, Eugene, was born in 1704 in Yorkshire, England. Though but the son of a poor gardener he contrived to acquire considerable learning, married early, and became a schoolmaster, first | in Netherdale, and afterwards at Knaresborough, where he became intimate with one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, whom he murdered, in 1745. Fourteen years later the skeleton of Clarke was found in a cave, and Aram was sud¬ denly dragged from his ushership at Lynn Acad¬ emy, in Norfolk, and thrown into prison on a charge of murder. He was tried at York, Aug. 3, 1759, and sentenced to be hanged within three days. At the trial he conducted his own defence, attacking with great acumen, plausibility, and curious erudition, the doctrine of circumstantial evidence. After his condemnation he confessed his guilt, wrote a defence of suicide, but failed in an attempt to illustrate his essay. Interest has been attached to Aram from Lord Lytton’s ro¬ mance, Eugene Aram, and Hood’s powerful bal¬ lad, “ The Dream of Eugene Aram.” Aramse'a (from the Hebrew word Aram, sig¬ nifying the highland, in opposition to the low¬ land of Canaan) includes the whole of the coun¬ try situated to the northeast of Palestine. It embraces the countries known to the Greeks by the various names of Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia. Aran, South Isles of, Ireland. These are three small islands lying northeast and southwest across the entrance to Galway Bay. Total area, 11,286 acres. Pop. (1881), 3,i63. Aranju'ez (probably the Latin Ara Jo vis), a town of Spain, on the left bank of the Tagus, thirty miles south-southeast of Madrid. Pop., 8 , 000 . Arany, Janos, next to Petofi the most distin¬ guished of modern Hungarian poets, was born at Nagy-Szalonta, March 2, 1817. He died Oct. 22, 1882.—His son Lazslo (born March 24, 1844) is also noted as a poet and translator of Shake speare. Arapaim'a, a genus of tropical fishes, includ¬ ing the largest known fresh-water forms. They are found in the rivers of South America, and are sometimes taken in the Rio Negro, 15 feet in length, and 4 cwt. in weight. Ar'arat (Armenian Aira/rai), a general name for the district through which the Aras flows, and never the name by which the Mount of Ararat has been known to the people around it. Associated, however, as the mountains of this district are in Genesis, viii, 4, with the landing-place of the ark after the flood, the name has been, naturally enough, appropriated to the highest peak. The peak is a double one, Great Ararat being 16,969 and Little Ararat 12,840 feet above the sea-level. Aras (the ancient Arax.es), the chief river of Armenia, formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the Kaleh-Su. Ara'tus of Sicyon, a distinguished Greek statesman, was born about 271 b.c. He liberated Sicyon from its tyrant, Nicoeles, 251, and united it with the Achaian League, of which he was ap¬ pointed General in 245. According to Plutarch, lie was poisoned in 213 by command of Philip III. of Macedon. Arauca'nia, the country of the Araucos or Araucanian Indians, in the south of Chili. The Chilian Province of Arauco, lying between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the north by Concepcion, on the south by Valdivia, was formed in 1875, with an area of 8,100 square miles, and a pop. (1885) of 93,565. Arauca'ria, an evergreen genus, of Coniferse, consisting of lofty trees, natives of South America and Australasia. A. imbricata, sometimes called the Chili Pine, or more popularly, from the sharp-pointed leaves, the Monkey-puzzle, is a Branch of Avraucaria imbricata. native of the Andes of Chili, forming forests on their western declivities, where it attains a height of 100 to 150 feet. Aran're, a town of Venezuela, South America. Pop. about 10,000. Araval'li, a range of mountains in Western India, extending for 300 miles in a northeasterly direction through Rajputana. The highest sum¬ mit is Abu, 5,650 feet. Arbe'la, now Erbil or Arbil, a small town of Assyria, east from Mosul, famous as having given name to the battle in which Alexander finally defeated Darius, 331 b.c. Arbitration is the adjudication by private persons appointed to decide a matter or matters in controversy, on a reference made to them for that purpose, either by agreement of the disput¬ ants, or by the order, or on the suggestion of a court of law. The proceeding generally is called a submission to arbitration , or reference; the part¬ ies appointed to decide are termed arbitrators or referees; and their adjudication is called an award. There are State boards of arbitration in some States. International arbitration has been of late repeatedly had recourse to in matters of debate between nations. Thus, as between Britain and the United States, the San Juan boundary question, and the Alabama dispute were so arranged. The dispute between Spain and Germany as to the possession of the Caroline Islands was settled in 1885 by the arbitration of the Pope. Arbo'ga, an ancient town in Sweden, in the Province of Westmanland. Pop., 3,823. Arbois, a town in the French department of ARBOR DAY. 70 ARCHEGOSAURUS. Jura. It was the birthplace of Pichegru. Pop. (1881), 4,639. Arbor Day, in America, a day set apart for the planting of shade trees, shrubs, etc., by school children. The first Friday in May has been selected for this purpose in Canada; in the United States different days are chosen in the several States. Arbores'cent (Lat. arbor, a tree), a term applied to plants to signify that they possess either altogether, or in some measure, "the char¬ acter of trees. Arboricnl'ture, a term literally signifying the cultivation of trees, is in use generally restricted to the planting and management of timber trees, exclusive of the cultivation of fruit trees, which is a branch of horticulture or gardening. Ar'bor Vi'tse (Thuja), an evergreen genus of coniferous trees and shrubs allied to the cypress. The common arbor vitae (T. occidentalis) is a native of North America, especially between latitude 45° and 49°. It is a tree of 20 to 50 feet high; the young leafy twigs have a balsamic smell, and both they and the wood were formerly in great repute as a medicine; the oil obtained by distillation from the twigs, which has a pungent and camphor-like taste, has been employed as a vermifuge. The wood of the stem is reddish, soft, and very light, but compact, tough, and durable, bearing exposure to the weather remarkably well. Arbuth' not, or Arbuthnott, John, physician and wit, the friend of Swift and Pope, was born in 1667. lie died in 1735. Ar'butus, a genus of small trees and shrubs belonging to the order of Ericaceae. Arbutus unedo, the strawberry tree, is a native of the south of Europe, found also in Asia and America. Arbutus unedo. a, fruit; 6, section of fruit. Arc (Lat. arcus, a bow) is any part of a curved line. The straight line joining the ends of an arc is its chord, which is always less than the arc itself. Arcs of circles are similar when they sub¬ tend equal angles at the centres of their respective circles; and if similar arcs belong to equal circles, the arcs themselves are equal. The length of an arc is readily found if the angle which it sub¬ tends at the centre of the circle is known, and also the length of the whole circumference. Let the whole circumference be 100, and the angle of an arc 50°, the length of the arc is 360° : 50° : : 100 : 1Q0 - * 50 = 14 nearly. 3b0 J Area, or Ark-shell, a genus of lamellibranchi- ate molluscs. Arcachon, a bathing-place which lias grown up since 1854, on the south side of the Bassin d’Arcachon, thirty-four miles southwest of Bor¬ deaux. Arcade (Fr.), a row of arches supported by columns, either having an open space of greater or less width behind them, or in contact with masonry. The arcade in Gothic corresponds to the colonnade in classical architecture. The term is also applied, but improperly, to a glass- covered street or lane, with a row of shops or stalls on each side. Arcadia, the central and highest part of the Peloponnesus, was in length about 50 miles, in breadth about 40. The loftiest peak in Arcadia —the loftiest also in the Peloponnesus—is Mount Cyllene, in the northeast (7,787 feet). The chief river is the Alpheus. The modern Province of Arcadia has an area of 2,020 square miles, and a pop. (1879) 0^148,905. Arcadia became both to ancient and modern poets the land of peace, innocence, and patriarchal manners. Arcadius, first emperor of the East alone, was born in Spain, 377 a.d., and was the son of the Emperor Theodosius, after whose death, in 395 a.d., the Roman Empire was divided into East and West, the West falling to Honorius. He died in 408 a.d. Arcanum, The Great. In the middle ages, the Latin word arcanum (secret) was used of any of the most valued preparations of alchemy; but the title was especially applied, as above, to the highest problems of the science, the discovery of such supposed great secrets of nature as the grand elixir. Arcesila'us, a Greek philosopher, founder of the New Academy, was born at Pitanc in vEolia, Asia Minor, 316 b.c. He died in his seventy- sixth year, (241 b.c.) Arch, a concave structure of bricks, stones, or other materials built or turned on a centring over an open space, and so arranged as to support each other by mutual pressure, and to sustain a superincumbent weight. It is to the Romans that the nations of modern Europe are indebted for the use of the arch. The Romans most prob¬ ably derived their acquaintance with it from the Etruscans, who, as well as the Pelasgians of Greece, made their arches pointed. Drop Arch. Segmental Arch. Trefoil Arches. The sides of an arch are termed haunches or flanks, and its highest part is called the crown. The wedge-shaped stones, bricks, or other mate¬ rials of which an arch is constructed, are called voussoirs (a, a, a); the uppermost one of all (b) is called the keystone; the lowest, which is placed im¬ mediately over the impost, the springer, ( c ), or spring¬ ing stone; the under or lower side of the vous- soirs, the inirados; the upper side, the exlrados or back. Arch, Triumphal, a structure erected by the Romans across roads, or at the entrance of cities, in honor of victorious generals. Under the em¬ perors these structures became numerous and magnificent. Of nearly forty that were built during that period, at least three remain, those of Titus (circa 82 a.d.), Septimius Severus (203 a.d.); and of Constantine, (306-337 a.d.) Napoleon pro¬ posed to adorn Paris with four triumphal arches, and erected in 1806 the Arc de Triomphe du Car¬ rousel, between the Louvre and the Tuileries, after the model of the arch of Septimus Severus. The Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile, beyond the Champs Elys )\ 5 , ^ *~*' K A T 'UK f .0 A WWi r * V Different, kinds of Bacteria (mostly after Koch). A, Micrococci, in drinking-water; 15, in splenic fever; C, in cholera (Koch); D, from surface of water; E, in splenic fever (in thread-form, and with incipient spores); F, Spirillum, from putrefaction; G, Spirochiete, from the teeth; H, in relapsing fever, from blood; I, different forms of cholera microbe (Koch). is in process of decomposition, in infusion as above indicated, or in disease or death, or within the living and healthy organism, there these bac¬ teria are to be found. So abundant are they, that in spite of their minuteness they did not es¬ cape the enthusiastic observation of the early workers with the microscope. Not much prog¬ Multiplication of Bacteria (after Zopf). a, b , c, division of Coccus (Credothrixl; d, round zooloea of the same; e, oval zoolaea of Beggiatoa ; /, cubical packets of Sarcina; < 7 , ramified zoolcea of Cladothrix. the bitterness, ropiness, etc., of bad wine are due to the same organisms. A large number of bacteria are known to occur in direct association with pathological processes of decomposition in plants and animals, without apparently having any direct connection wdtli the decomposition. These are saprophytes, like fungi generally. Others, however, have been proved in many cases to be the causes of pathological conditions in men and animals, a profound fact fundamental to the germ theory of disease. As regards the shape of the individual units, four principal forms may be distinguished—viz., spherical, elliptical, rod-like, and spirally curved. See Zopf’s monograph on Bacteria, Die Spult- pilze; De Bary’s Lectures on Bacteria-, Klein’s Mi¬ cro-organisms and Disease-, Trouessart’s Microbes, Ferments, and Moulds-, Loffler’s History of Bac¬ teriology; Grookslianks’ Manual of Bacteriology. Bactria, a province of ancient Persia, lying north of the Paropamisus (Hindu Kush) Mountains, on the Upper Oxus. It corresponds pretty nearly with the modern Balkh. Here many scholars locate the original home of the Aryan or Indo- European family of nations. Its capital, Bactra or Zariaspa, was the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion. Bactrites, a genus of fossil Ammon- itidse, with a straight shell, and indented but not ramified septa. The genus ranges from the Lower Silurian to the Devonian. Bac'ulites, a genus of the family of Ammonitidse, differing from the true Am¬ monites in the straight form of the shell, which tapers to a point, and either is round or compressed. The species, like the other ammonitidse, are all fossil. Baculite. Bac'up, a prosperous town of Lancashire, England. Pop. (1881), 25,030. BADAGRY. Ill BxVGDAD. Badagry, a small British port on the Slave Coast, Upper Guinea. At one time it carried on a large slave trade, and had 10,000 inhabitants. Badajozcapital of the Spanish province of the same name. It is live miles from the Portu¬ guese frontier, 174 miles from Lisbon, and 315 from Madrid. Badajoz is a fortress of the first rank, and the see of a bishop, and has an old cathedral built like a fortress, with a splendid organ, and paintings by Cerezo and Morales. Pop. (1884), 22,376. It was thrice besieged by the English under Wellington; first on April 20, 1811, next in May and June of the same year, and thirdly in the spring of 1812, when he cap¬ tured the city by storm, on the night of April 6. The Province of Badajoz has an area of 8,687 square miles, and a pop. of (1884) 457,365. Badakhshan', a territory of Central Asia, lying between 36° and 38® N. latitude, and 69® and 72® E. longitude, with the chain of the Hindu Kush on the south and the Oxus, or Amu Darya, on the north. Marco Polo was here in 1272-73; and Capt. John Wood in the winter of 1837-38. Matveyeff saw part of the country in 1878. Faizabad is the capital. Pop. of province about 100,000. See Yule’s Marco Polo (1871); Wood’s Journey to the Source of the Oxus (new ed. 1872); and Vambdry’s Central Asia (1874). Badalona, a seaport in the Spanish Province of Barcelona. Pop. (1878), 13,749. Badderlocks, also sometimes Honeyware or Henware ( Alaria esculenta), an olive-colored seaweed belonging to the Phceosporeie and allied to the common Laminaria, which grows on rocks in deep water on the shores of Britain, Iceland, and the northern part of Europe. Baden, The Grand Duchy of, is situated in the southwestern corner of the German Empire between Alsace-Lorraine and Wurtemburg, and is separated from Switzerland by the Rhine. Its area is 5,824 square miles. The pop. of Baden in 1880 amounted to 1,570,- 196, and in 1885 had increased to 1,600,839. The Roman Catholics in 1885 numbered 1,005,704. Protestants numbered 564,S71; Dissenters and Mennonites, 3,212; and Jews, 27,052. The sovereign is limited by a parliamentary constitution. The Parliament consists of two chambers, the second chamber being made up of sixty-three representatives chosen for four years. The highest deliberate and executive body in the country is the Council of State. The military af¬ fairs of Baden are now exclusively regulated by the imperial power; the troops of Baden form the major part of the Fourteenth Corps d’Armfie of the Empire. The effective war strength of the army is 45,000; peace, 15,000. Karlsruhe is the residence of the sovereign; the capitals of the four “ circles” are Constance, Freiburg, Karls¬ ruhe, and Mannheim; and besides, there are four towns each with a pop. of above 20,000. In the conflict between Prussia and Austria in 1866, Baden took her place with Austria, and her troops fought in two ineffective battles against the Prussians. At the peace, Baden had to pay a heavy war indemnity, and reorganize her army on the Prussian model, and in 1867 enter the North German Confederation. In 1870-71 the troops of Baden fought with distinction in the French campaign, and the Grand Duchy became a part of the restored German Empire. The present Grand Duke is Friederich I. (b. 1826; sue. 1852). Baden, a town in the Swiss Canton of Aargau, on the left bank of the Limmat. Pop. (1880), 3,692. Baden, from the fifteenth to the begin¬ ning of the eighteenth century was the seat of the Swiss Diet. Baden-Baden, a town in the Grand Duchy of Baden, situated at the edge of the Black Forest, eight miles from the Rhine, and twenty-three south-southwest of Karlsruhe. Pop. (1885), 12, - 782; but its visitors during the season, which is at its height in July and August, are often four times the number of the settled population. It is chiefly celebrated for its medicinal springs, which were known in the time of the Romans. Baden bei Wien (i.e., Baden near Vienna) a much-frequented watering-place of Austria, on the Schwechat, sixteen and three-quarters miles south-by-west of Vienna. Pop. (1880), 9,645. Ba'denocli, a Highland district in the south¬ east part of Inverness-shire, 45 miles long by 19 broad, and traversed by the Spey. Badge (etymology unknown, sometimes given from Lat. bajulo, 1 carry; more probably con¬ nected with badger), a figure or emblem used, either with or without a motto, as the distinctive cognizance of a family. Bad ger ( Meles ), a genus of carnivores of the Mustelidce or Weasel and Otter family. The skunks ( Mephiies ), sand-bears (Arctonyx), Ameri can badgers (Taxidea), ratels (3Iellivora), etc., are closely related genera in the same sub-family as the badger (Melidce). Badgers, like the rest of the family to which they belong, are almost plant¬ igrade— i. e., they walk on the whole sole of the foot, and not merely on the fore part of it. The Badger (Meles vulgaris). body is thus brought nearer to the ground than it otherwise would be from their length of limb. The lower jaw is locked into its socket in a very remarkable way, which explains their tenacious grip. The common badger ( M. taxus or M. vul¬ garis) is the only bear-like quadruped now found in the British Islands, and that only rarely. It is widely diffused over Europe and the middle parts of Asia. The habits of the badger are extremely cleanly. It is one of the most perfectly omnivor¬ ous of animals, in a wild state as well as in con finement; fruits, roots, beech-mast, eggs, young birds, small quadrupeds, frogs, snails, worms, and insects equally constitute its natural food. A barbarous sport, called badger-baiting, or dra w¬ ing the badger, was formerly common in England, but has been prohibited since 1850. The Ameri¬ can badger, or Taxel ( Taxidea americana), is a distinct, more carnivorous genus, differing in dentition and in some features of the skull. It chiefly preys on small animals, such as marmots, which it pursues into their holes in the sandy plains near the Missouri river and the Rocky Mountains. Badgliis, a region north of Herat, comprising the country between the Murghab and the Hari- rud rivers, as far northward as the edge of the desert. It lies just to the south of the boundary line between Afghanistan and the Russian terri¬ tories, as defined in 1887. Badi'a-y-Lablicli, Domingo, an enterprising traveler, born at Barcelona, in 1766. In 1801 he crossed to Africa, disguised as a Mussulman, under the name of Ali-Bei. From his youth he had been a student of Arabic, and his knowledge of the manners and customs of the people was so intimate that he could escape detection, while to make his conformity complete he had even cir¬ cumcised himself. After a two years’ residence at Morocco, he set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and traveled through Barbary, Greece, Egypt, and Syria. At the Holy City of the Moslems he took his part duly in all the solemn rites, and has the distinction of being the first Christian that had visited it since the institution of Islam. In 1814 he published an account of his travels under the title Voyage d’ Ali-Bei en Afrique et en Asie. He died in Syria Aug. 30, 1818. Badminton, the seat of the Duke of Beaufort, in the south of Gloucestershire, England. From it have been named a kind of claret cup, and a game, a predecessor of lawn-tennis, played with a shuttlecock instead of a ball. Badrinath, a peak of the main Himalayan Range, Garliwal district, Northwestern Provinces, India, 22,901 feet above the sea. Baedeker, Karl, a German publisher, born in 1801, at Essen. He started in business in 1827 at C’oblentz, where he died, Oct. 4, 1859. He is best and everywhere known as the originator of a series of admirable guide-books. Baena, a Spanish town twenty-five miles south- southeast of Cordova. In the castle here, Pedro the Cruel murdered the Moorish King of Granada with all his train. Pop. (1878), 13,336. Baer, Karl Ernst von, a distinguished Rus¬ sian naturalist, who contributed very largely to the progress of natural science, especially of em¬ bryology, was born Feb. 29, 1792, in Esthonia, and died Nov. 28, 1876. His works are distin¬ guished by lucidity as well as keen observation and brilliant speculation. Baeza, a handsome old town of Spain, in the Province of Jaen. The Beatia of the Romans, and the seat of Moorish Califs and Kings, with 150,000 inhabitants, it never fairly recovered from its sack by the Castilians in 1228. Pop. (1878), 14,377. Baffin, William, navigator and discoverer, is believed to have been born in London about 1584. In 1613-14 he served in the Spitzbergen whale- fishery, and wrote an account of this and his previous voyages. In 1615 he took service as pilot of the Discovery in search of a Northwest Pas¬ sage, and made a careful examination of Hudson's Strait; his recorded latitudes and notes of the tides are in remarkable agreement with those of a later date. In the following year, with Caplain Bylot, he discovered, charted, and named Smith’s Sound, and several others, and explored the large inlet now associated with his name. Later investi¬ gation has confirmed his descriptions. His latest voyages, 1616-21, were to the East. At the siege of Ormuz, which the English were helping the Shah of Persia to recover from the Portuguese, he was killed by a shot, Jan. 23, 1622. See Voyages of William Baffin, 1612-22, edited by C. R. Mark¬ ham (1880). Baffin's Bay, a gulf, or rather sea, on the north¬ east coast of North America, extending between Greenland and the great islands northeast of Hud¬ son Bay (one of which is called Baffin’s Island), in 69° to 78® N. latitude. It is about 800 miles long, with an average breadth of 280. Baffin’s Bay com¬ municates with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis Strait; and with the Arctic Ocean by Smith Sound on the north, and Lancaster Sound on the west. Bagamoyo, a village on the east coast of Equa¬ torial Africa, opposite the island of Zanzibar. Bagasse, also called Cane-straw or Cane-trash, is the refuse left after the expression of the sac¬ charine matter from the cane in the manufacture of sugar. Bagatelle (Fr. a trifle), a game somewhat re¬ sembling billiards. A bagatelle-board is usually about 7 feet long and 21 inches broad; it is of slate, and is lined with cloth and cushioned ; and a game is played on jt with nine small ivory balls and a cue or mace. The player’s object is to put the balls down in nine numbered holes at the further semicircular end of the board. Bagdad, the capital of the province of the same name in the southeast of Asiatic Turkey, is situated on the Tigris, about 500 miles from its mouth, in 33® 20' N. latitude, and 44° 23' E. longitude, in a flat, treeless plain of considerable extent, which is dotted with the ruins of ancient buildings. The entire city is surrounded by a brick wall, 5 miles in circumference and 40 feet high, the two parts are connected by a bridge of boats, 220 yards long, and the communication is guarded by a citadel. There are four gates, the finest of which, bearing date 1220, has remained closed since 1638. Bagdad contains upward of BAGEIIOT. 112 BAIKAL. 100 mosques, though barely thirty of them are in use; and a large general hospital has recently been erected. The modern buildings are mean and the streets narrow and crooked. Of the population, variously estimated at from 60,000 to 180,000, the greatest part are Turks and Arabs. Bagdad was generally believed to have been founded by the Abbaside Calif Almansur, 764 a .d. , but Rawlinson, in 1848, discovered below the normal river-level walls of brickwork, each brick bearing the name and titles of Nebuchadnezzar. In the ninth century it was greatly enlarged by Haroun Al-Raschid, and under his son, Al Mamun, it became the great seat of Arabic learn¬ ing and literature. A hundred years later, Bagdad was ravaged by the Turks, and it has repeatedly been besieged and taken by Tartars and Turko¬ mans. The Province of Bagdad, lying between Arabia and Persia, comprises the greater portion of the Basin of the Lower Euphrates and Tigris, and is estimated to have a population of 4,000,000. The part between the two rivers, including ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia, though now mostly a barren wilderness, was in ancient times luxuriantly fertile, the scat of mighty empires, and inhabited by industrious populations. Bagehot, Walter, English economist and journalist, was born at Langport in Somersetshire, England, in 1826, and died in 1877. lie edited the Economist newspaper, and wrote extensively on politics and economics. His English Constitution is a well-known text-book. Baggesen, Jens, a well-known Danish poet, who also has a place in German literature, was born at Korsor, in the Island of Zealand, Feb. 15, 1764, and died Oct. 3, 1826. Baghal, Bagul, oi’Biiagul, one of the Pun¬ jab hill States in Northwest India, with an area of 124 square miles. Pop. (1881), 20,633. Bnghelkliand, the name of five native States, under the political superintendence of the Gov¬ ernor-General’s agent for Central India, lying to the south of the districts of Mirzapur and Allaha¬ bad. The total area is 11,324 square miles; pop. (1881), 1,512,595. Bagheria, or Bag aria, a town of Sicily. Pop., 12,650. Bagimont’s Roll, the name given to a valua¬ tion according to which the ecclesiastical bene¬ fices of Scotland were taxed from the end of the thirteenth century to the Reformation. Bagirmi, or Baghermi, a country in Central Africa, bounded on the west by Bornu and a por¬ tion of Lake Chad, and with the powerful sultanate of Wadai to the northeast. Its area is estimated at nearly 71,000 square miles. The total pop. is about 1,500,000. Dr. Nacliligal describes the natives as of the Sonrhai type, of low stature, and not of pleasant features. The country was first visited by Dr. Barth in 1852, afterward by Dr. Naclitigal in 1872. Bagli'vi, Giorgio, an illustrious Italian physi¬ cian, born at Ragusa, Sep'., 1669, and died in 1707. Bagnacavallo, an old town of Italy eleven miles west of Ravenna. It contains a beautiful cathedral. Pop., 2,843. Bagna'ra, an Italian town, on the Gulf of Gioja, sixteen miles northeast of Reggio. Pop., 6,749. Ba_> neres, the name of two towns in the Pyr¬ enees, France, both well known as watering- places. Bagnes, the convict prisions of France. The name is from the Italian bagno, used originally of a bath in the Seraglio at Constantinople, and then apparently of a prison for slaves in it or adjoin¬ ing it. The bagnes superseded in 1748 the old punishment of the galleys; but in 1852 they were themselves abolished, the Imperial Government substituting for them deportation to Guiana. The latest existing bagnes were those at Toulon, Brest, and Rochefort. Ragni