THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 645 Bei Och Vb The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN L161— O0-1096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2021 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign https://archive.org/details/studyofvariationOObarn A Study of the Variations between the Original and the Standard Editions of Balzac’s Les Chouans THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY NEW YORK THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY SHANGHAI A Study of the Variations between the Original and the Standard Editions of Balzac’s Les Chouans By HELEN ELCESSOR BARNES THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS I CoPYRIGHT 1923 By THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO All Rights Reserved Published January 1923 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. IOC PREFACE In the Lovenjoul Collection at Chantilly, carefully stored away among fifty other such treasures, lies the original manuscript of Le Dernier Chouan (written 1828). Near at hand, behind the curator’s desk, stands that monument of recent critical scholarship, the Conard edition of Balzac. In this edition, Les Chouans (1920) has a fresh, newly minted appearance; but the manuscript too, for all the ninety years that roll between, has a certain freshness and buoyancy— the first-written of the Comédie humaine, the first novel acknowledged and signed by Balzac himself! The bold, cursive handwriting, the comparative freedom from corrections and erasures, the eager forward leap of the pen, betoken the first serious manifestation of that energy which is still shaking the Republic of Letters. During those ninety-odd years, the form of the Comédie humaine, like the reputation of its author, has experienced vicissitudes, and has shown on the whole a decided tendency toward increase in size. From manuscript to first or even fifteenth proof, from placard to book-form, from single edition to the collected Comédie humaine (1842-48), many a novel has undergone far-reaching and multiform changes, significant revelations of Balzac’s literary principles and processes. The writer of this Preface has assumed the task of analyzing Balzac’s method and of examining, within limits, these changes, particularly as recorded on the proofs of certain _ novels preserved at Chantilly. But the differences between 4) various editions also need to be analyzed. It is in this ‘Sedirection that the study by Miss Barnes offers a distinct con- .) tribution. Not only does the princeps of Les Chouans consti- Vv 5202414 vi PREFACE tute a rare and curious subject for investigation, not only should Balzac’s first novel have the primacy in a broad study of variations, but also the differences between this earliest form and the editions of 1834 and later are as salient as they are valuable for anyone interested in the art of fiction. On these several accounts, this volume, which represents much careful and devoted labor, is printed in the hope that it may reach all Balzacians. E. PRESTON DARGAN UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO October, 1922 L II. III. CONTENTS PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS Editions of Les Chouans . Title . Form . A , : Date of Composition Title-Page Dedication Introduction ALL THE VARIATIONS UP TO THE First ATTACK Balzac’s Method Influence of Cooper Definition of the First Attack. Table of Variations up to the First Meee Additions and Omissions in the Michel Lévy Didier Pheisen Additions and Omissions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words Substitutions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Phrases . Substitutions in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words Changes in Position in the Michel Lévy Edition—Phrases Changes in Position in the Michel Lévy Edition—Words . Variations in Spelling Variations in Punctuation Typical Pages . SALIENT VARIATIONS AFTER THE First ATTACK Animalisms Vegetablisms Reappearing Charattems! Minor Variations in Names . Money Variations . Plot of the Story Variations Involving Charieieriea Non vii PAGE INI AF WwW DN H If a iat he I2 1 ip? 14 14 20 23 27 30 30 31 32 32 36 36 39 39 43 44 45 46 viii CONTENTS PAGE Variations Involving Romantic Elements. . . . . 57 Miscellaneous Variations! Uy 0) Sho. i) Se | Variations Facilitating Motivation . : 4 ; ae Variations Involving the Conclusion of the Stony 2 ge les Conclusion 4 CTR MOTORS VAR AVS beni ke 0 tN any re crc BIBLIOGRAPHY Va.) cue in ei eee el eth MES Se I PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS Among the writings of Balzac Les Chouans occupies a unique position in that it is the first story to which Balzac signed his name, the first of the Comédie humaine to be pub- lished, and a monument which marks the transition from the historical to the realistic novel. Furthermore, the book shows the influence of other writers and embodies, in particular, traits decidedly Cooperesque. Since its maiden appearance the work has undergone considerable modification, and it is the purpose here to compare and to analyze the variations between the original and the standard editions with the object of securing specific information relative to Balzac’s method of composition, his style, and his realism. The plan of procedure will be to take into consideration (1) changes in prefatory matter and the more or less mechanical differences, (2) all the variations up to the first attack (the beginning of the action),' and (3) the salient variations existing after the first attack. A word now concerning the editions of Les Chouans. By the “standard edition” is meant the edition published by Michel Lévy Brothers in 1870,? containing Balzac’s final corrections of the story, as made in 1846.3 Prior to this had appeared the original edition in 1829, published by Urbain Canel, the second edition in 1834, published by Vimont, and the third edition in 1836, published by Werdet.4 As our title * This term will be explained later on p. 12. 2 (Euvres completes de H. de Balzac (Michel Lévy ed.), XII, 1-310. 3 See Correspondance de Honoré de Balzac, pp. 418, 425. 4 Maurice Serval, Autour d’un Roman de Balzac: Les Chouans, pp. 50-54. I 2 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” implies, we are primarily concerned with the variations between the first and the Lévy editions. It should be said, however, that the great majority of the changes made were for the second edition in 1834.7 In taking up, first, the mechanical aspects of the two editions under consideration, we note at the outset variations in title, form, and date of composition. The original edition bears the title Le Dernier Chouan ou la Bretagne en 1800; the standard or Michel Lévy edition? is called Les Chouans ou la Bretagne en 1799. ‘The change of date in the title from 1800 to 1799 was evidently made in order to render the time specified historically correct. The reason for the change of Le Dernier Chouan to Les Chouans is more difficult to ex- plain and is of special interest in view of the fact that the story has much in common with Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans or Le Dernier des Mohicans: Histoire de mil sept cent cinquante- sept’ It is probable that, in accordance with Balzac’s growing sociological intention, the collective title Les Chouans seemed the more comprehensive and the more suitable. As to the mechanical form of the original and the standard editions of Les Chouans, the original edition is in some respects * The edition of 1836 is like that of 1834; “‘c’est plutét un tirage nouveau de la précédente qu’une édition nouvelle; car non seulement le texte, mais méme la composition est identique; elle a été publiée par Werdet. I] n’en existe, a notre connaissance, un exemplaire qu’a la bibliothéque de Chantilly, et par une annotation, M. de Lovenjoul la qualifie d’édition inconnue. Le changement d’éditeur s’explique trés bien, car, en 1836, Balzac avait passé un traité avec Werdet, pour la publication de toutes ses ceuvres.”—Serval, op. cit., p. 54. 2 Also the Conard edition. The volume of Les Chouans in the Conard edition became available only after the present study of variations was under- taken, but we are indebted to MM. Bouteron and Longnon for various careful annotations. 3 See Introduction, Vol. I, of the original edition of Les Chouans, pp. x-xi; also the beginning of the story in either edition. 4 The title of Defauconpret’s translation of the Mohicans, the version with which Balzac in all probability was very familiar. PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 3 the superior—a statement which also applies to a number of the works comprising the Comédie humaine. In many in- stances the first editions of Balzac’s novels are divided into chapters, with or without headings. In the Comédie, however, they frequently appear as solid books or are divided into a few long chapters or parts. For example, in the editio princeps of Les Chouans, published in four volumes, the story is divided into thirty-two unnamed chapters; in the standard edition published in one volume, the story is given in three chapters or parts, each bearing a heading. Moreover, the three parts referred to in the latter case vary considerably in length, “the first containing nearly a fifth, the second nearly two-fifths, and the third not much less than a half of the whole work.’” The advantage thus gained by the presence of chapter-headings in the standard edition is overshadowed by the reduction in the number of chapters, and the present division of Les Chouans adds weight to the criticism often made that the story is heavy. As Saintsbury says: Now, everybody who has attended to the matter must see that this absence of chapters is a great addition of heaviness in the case where a book is exposed to the charge of being heavy. The named chapters of Dumas supply something like an argument of the whole book; and even the unnamed ones of Scott lighten, punctuate, and relieve the course of the story. It may well be that Balzac’s sense that ‘‘the story”? with him was not the first, or anything like the first consideration, had something to do with his innovation. But I do not think it improved his books at any time, and in the more romantic class of them it is a distinct dis- advantage.? To the preceding remarks we may add that Balzac’s publishers were often responsible for removing chapter- titles in order to save space. t George Saintsbury, Preface to The Chouans, translated by Ellen Marriage, p. xii. Philadelphia: Avil Publishing Company, rgo1. 2 Ibid., p. xii. 4 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” Concerning the date of composition of Les Chouans there is considerable difference of opinion. In the Introduction found in Volume I of the original edition Balzac says: “ Aujourd’hut, en 1829, un journal annoncait qu’un régiment francais, composé de Bretons, était débarqué 4 Nantes, ...’’? From this statement we might infer, on first thought, that Les Chouans was written in 1829. According to the Michel Lévy or standard edition, however, the time of composition is August, 1827, at Fougéres. To determine the correct date of composition authorities have centered their attention on the actual manuscript of Les Chouans and Balzac’s corre- spondence. The manuscript was first dated by Balzac “Janvier 1828,” later, “Fougéres, aoit 1827.”” Inaletter (No. XXIII) to his sister, Madame Laure Surville, dated Paris, 1827, Balzac says: ‘“‘J’ai encore une quinzaine de jours a passer sur les Chouans. ...”’3 This statement, together with the change in date of the manuscript, has caused some? to believe that Les Chouans was written in the year 1827. As a matter of fact, the story in all probability was largely composed in the autumn of the year 1828. J. Haas, who may be taken as a reliable authority in the matter, substantiates this claim thus: Ich méchte aber zunichst noch zeigen, dass Balzac selbst die Abfas- sungszeit der Chouans in die Zeit von 1827 und das Erscheinen in das Jahr 1828 verlegen wollte. Das Manuskript, das der Ausgabe der Chouans in der Comédie Humaine zu Grunde liegt (1844), ist erst datiert worden “Janvier 1828,” dieses Datum wurde durchstrichen und ersetzt durch Fougéres, August, 1827.5 t Pp. xix—xx. 2j. Haas, “Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” ZfFSL, XXX, 158. 3 Correspondance, p. 53. 4For instance, L. Séché, ‘Balzac 4 Fougéres,” Revue Bleue, II (1901), 357-62. 5 J. Haas, ‘Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” Zf/FSL, XXX, 158-59. PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 5 But in 1827 Balzac was not in Fougéres! Haas continues to the effect that it was evidently the author’s intention to assign an earlier date both to the actual writing and to the publication of Le Dernier Chouan (‘Je publiais les Chouans en 1828’’). Since the last statement is known to be incorrect, it follows that we can hardly trust the date on the manuscript. (It will be remembered that Lamartine and other writers of the epoch had the habit of loosely dating their manuscripts.) Why should Balzac lead us into this error? Probably, thinks Haas, because he wishes to overlay the memory of his bank- ruptcy of that period and to represent that he was engaged in literary as well as printing activities as early as 1827. However that may be, we seem justified in disregarding the date on the manuscript—which had already been once altered. There remains Balzac’s letter to his sister, vaguely dated, “Paris, 1827.’ Now in this letter Balzac alludes to his quarters in the Rue Cassini which he did not occupy (and this is well substantiated) until after April, 1828. Furthermore, as regards this letter, Spoelberch de Lovenjoul wrote to Haas: La lettre soi-disant de 1827 est du samedi, 14 février [1829] et se rapporte uniquement & la correction des épreuves du Dernier Chouan, qui parut en effet en mars suivant. So the fortnight which Balzac needed to ‘“‘passer sur les Chouans” would refer to his customary and numerous proof- corrections—a very plausible supposition. Having demolished, Haas proceeds to reconstruct. In a letter dated September 1, 1828, Balzac wrote to General Pommereul, his future host at Fougéres: Depuis un mois je travaille 4 des ouvrages historiques du plus haut intérét et j’espére qu’a défaut d’un talent tout 4 fait problématique chez moi, les mceurs nationales me porteront peut-étre bonheur. t The italics are ours. The letter is quoted by Hanotaux-Vicaire, p. 115. 6 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” The reference here is unmistakable. Rejecting those things which lay behind—the Ciuvres de jeunesse and his bankruptcy—Balzac was pressing forward to the mark of socio-historical fiction. This interpretation is borne out by the fact that Balzac’s visit to Fougéres really took place in the early autumn of 1828. The passage shows, as Haas concludes: . . . . dass Balzac die Chouans in der zweiten Hialfte des Jahres 1828, jedenfalls nach dem industriellen Zusammenbruch, geschrieben hat. Dass er die historischen und lokalen Studien in so kurzer Zeit zu Ende fiihrte, ist ein Beweis seiner grossartigen Leistungsfahigkeit und Spann- kraft, die sich durch Ungliick nicht beugen liess. Granted, then, that Haas is correct in his opinion that Les Chouans was, for the most part, composed in the latter part of the year 1828, one more remark should be made in passing, namely, that Balzac was a great admirer of Cooper and knew the American author before 1828. The next variation to be mentioned here has reference to the title-pages of the two editions under discussion. In the original edition, upon the title-page of each of the four volumes, the following lines appear from the A pocrypha: Elle était parfaitement belle. Elle lui dit: Qui suis-je pour résister aux désirs de mon Seigneur ? Faire votre volonté sera un sujet de joie jusqu’A ma mort. Elle frappa fortement deux fois son cou et lui sépara la téte du corps.—Judith, ch. 8-12-13. The character of Judith is in many respects much like that of Mademoiselle de Verneuil (the heroine of Les Chouans) and the biblical verses quoted, although they seem appropriate enough to warrant their citation, are not strictly in keeping with the plot of the story; it may be for this reason that Balzac dispenses with them entirely in the standard edition. PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 7 The last two variations to be considered in this chapter concern the dedication of the book and the Introduction. The original edition of the story was never dedicated. The Michel Lévy or standard edition, however, bears the following, A Monsteur THEODORE DaBLiIn, NEGOCIANT Au premier ami, le premier ouvrage. DeE Batzac. In a letter addressed to this old friend at Paris, January, 1845, Balzac speaks of the matter of the dedication in detail. He Says: Mon cher Dablin, voici le manuscrit corrigé et les épreuves des Chouans. Dés que j’ai mis un nom ami en téte de chacune de mes compositions, celle-ci vous était destinée; mais les hasards qui dominent les livres ont fait que, depuis 1834, Jes Chouans n’ont pas été réimprimés, quoique plusieurs personnes aient trouvé ce livre meilleur que sa réputa- tion. Si j’étais de ceux qui marquent dans leur temps, ceci pourrait avoir une grande valeur un jour; mais ni vous ni moi ne saurons le mot de cette énigme; aussi n’y voyez qu’un témoignage de cette amitié qui m’est restée au coeur, quoique vous l’ayez peu cultivée depuis bien des années.* Judging from this letter of Balzac, it would seem that he himself recognized the probable importance of Les Chouans as a turning-point in nineteenth-century French fiction. As to the Introduction, this already has been mentioned as appearing in Volume [I of the original edition.2 The stand- ard edition is published without a Preface, possibly on the ground that the story is sufficiently self-explanatory to render * Correspondance, No. CCLXXVI, p. 418. 2The same preface, slightly shortened, preceded the editions of 1834 and 1836. With the edition of 1846 came a new preface (called the second preface by some authorities and the third by others), which was suppressed in the definitive edition. Still another preface exists in the Lovenjoul Collection, a manuscript of thirteen pages in the handwriting of Balzac, supposedly written in 1828 or 1829, and apparently composed with the intention of presenting to 8 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” a preamble unessential. For the student of Balzac, however, the Introduction is important. In the first place, it gives some conception of the spirit in which Balzac wrote the book and offered it to the public. Thus Balzac says: En prenant le sujet de son ouvrage dans la partie la plus grave et aujourd’hui la plus délicate de histoire contemporaine, l’auteur s’est trouvé dans la nécessité de déclarer ici, avec une sorte de solennité, © qu’il n’a jamais eu l’intention de livrer au ridicule ou au mépris les opinions et les personnes. Il respecte les convictions; et, pour la plu- part, les personnes lui sont inconnues. Ce ne sera pas sa faute si les choses parlent d’elles-mémes et parlent si haut. Il ne les a ni créées nt révélées. Il n’a rien demandé 4 son imagination de tout ce qu’il a traduit sur cette espéce de scéne, la seule ot un auteur puisse trouver la liberté de la pensée pour exposer un drame dans toute sa vérité. Ici le pays est le pays, les hommes sont les hommes, les paroles sont les paroles mémes; et les faits n’ont été reniés ni par les Mémoires publiés aux diverses époques de la Restauration ni par la République francaise. L’Empire seul les a ensevelis dans les ténébres de la censure; et dire que cet ouvrage n’etit pas vu le jour sous le régne de Napoléon, c’est honorer l’opinion publique qui nous a conquis la liberté.t The passages that we have italicized in the preceding excerpt are of special interest in view of the fact that they plainly indicate Balzac’s truth-seeking and realistic intention. How well he carries out this purpose, we shall see as we take up the variations dealing with the story proper. Balzac’s next statements in the Introduction go further into this matter of the vérité of Les Chouans. He says: 1. Concerning the general presentation of the facts: La présence de quelques intéressés lui [i.e., the author] a prescrit d’en accuser la physionomie avec une rigoureuse exactitude et de n’avoir que la passion permise au peintre: celle de bien présenter un portrait, the public not only Les Chouans but an ensemble of the author’s future works. At this period Balzac’s plan appears to have been limited to the roman historique. See Serval, op. cit., pp. 56-59; also, Histoire des Giuvres de H. de Balzac by Spoel- berch de Lovenjoul, pp. 145-46. t Introduction, pp. v-vii. PREFATORY AND MECHANICAL VARIATIONS 9 de distribuer naturellement la lumiére et de tAcher de faire croire a la vie des personnages. Mais ce mot d’exactitude veut une explication. LDauteur n’a pas entendu ainsi contracter Vobligation de donner les faits un @ un, sechement et de maniére @ montrer jusqu’d quel point on peut faire arriver l’histoire a la condition d’un squelette dont les os sont soigneuse- ment numérotés ... auteur a tenté de mettre dans ce livre l’esprit dune époque et dun fait, préférant la discussion au procés-verbal, la bataille au bulletin, le drame au récit. ... Cependant, par respect pour beaucoup de gens dont il est inutile d’indiquer les hautes positions sociales et qui ont miraculeusement reparu sur la scéne politique, /’auieur a eu soin d’atténuer lV horreur dune multitude de faits. Il a singuliérement négligé de montrer la part que le clergé a eue dans ces entreprises désastreuses et inutiles. Cette timidité et ce respect sont nés A la lecture des procédures de quelques tribunaux révolutionnaires de l’Ouest, dont les débats, tout succincts et sommaires qu’ils soient, fourmillent de preuves légales qu’il eit été odieux de faire sortir de l’enceinte des greffes; quoique pour plusieurs familles, certains jugemens soient devenus des témoignages de dévouement et des titres de gloire.* 2. Concerning the ‘‘caractére’’ of the Dernier Chouan: Le caractére donné au Dernier Chouan est tout a la fois un hommage et un voeu ... Si certaines personnes minutieuses veulent rechercher quelle est cette noble victime tombée dans |’Ouest sous les balles répu- blicaines, elles auront a choisir entre plusieurs gentilshommes qui succom- bérent en dirigeant les insurrections de 1799. Mais quoique les qualités privées d’un jeune seigneur et les renseignemens donnés 4 |’auteur sur quelques chefs par un vieillard bien instruit des événemens, aient servi & perfectionner le caractére du Dernier Chouan, il se croit obligé d’avouer ici que le véritable chef ne ressemble pas tout-d-fait au héros de ce livre.? 3. Concerning ‘‘la fable”’ of the book: Quant 4 la fable du livre, il [the author] ne la donne pas comme bien neuve, l’épigraphe en fait foi, mais elle est déplorablement vraie; a t Introduction, pp. vii-x. 2 Tbid., pp. x-xi. (According to M. du Pontavice de Heussey, there is a resemblance between the Dernier Chouan and a young officer by the name of Aimé-Casimir Picquet du Bois-Guy. The matter, however, is subject to debate. See Séché, op. cit., p. 360; Un Chouan: Le général du Boisguy, by Du Breil de Pontbriand; Serval, op. cit., pp. 16-25. IO VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” celle différence prés, que la réalité est odieuse, et que l événement qui emploie ict quatre a cing jours, s’est passé en quarante-huit heures. La précipita- tion de la véritable catastrophe n’aura peut-étre pas encore été assez adoucie; mais la nature s’est chargée d’excuser |’auteur.* 4. Concerning names of characters and of places: Ignorant, au moment ou il écrivait, les destinées de quelques acteurs de son drame, il a déguisé certains noms. Cette précaution, dictée par la délicatesse, a été étendue aux localités. Le disirict de Fougéres ne lui sera pas assez hostile pour ro laccuser de lVavoir rendu le théAtre d’événemens qui se sont passés 4 quelques lieues de 1a. N’était-il pas tout naturel de choisir pour type de la Bretagne en 1800 [1799] un des berceaux de la chouannerie, et le site le © plus pittoresque peut-étre de ces belles contrées ?? Another point of interest in the Introduction is Balzac’s reference to his acknowledgment of the authorship of the story. “Les considérations politiques,” he claims, “... ont engagé l’auteur 4 mettre son nom a un ouvrage qu’une défiance bien légitime pour un premier livre lui etit conseillé de cacher. Sous le rapport littéraire, il a réfléchi qu'il y a peut-étre aujourd’hui de la modestie 4 signer un livre, lorsque tant de gens ont fait de anonyme une spéculation d’orgueil.’”3 The remainder of the Introduction is devoted to matters which either are of little importance or are irrelevant at this point in our discussion, and so nothing more will be said here of the last pages of the Introduction other than that they are concerned largely with the entéiement of the Breton character, the poverty and benighted condition of Brittany, and Balzac’s intention to use throughout Les Chouans the dash (—) not only to indicate a change of interlocutor but to denote the hesitations, gestures, et cetera, which intersperse conversation. Let us pass now to a consideration of our second topic, namely, all the variations up to the first attack. * Introduction, pp. xii-xiii. 3 Ibid., p. xii. 2 [bid., pp. xiii-xiv. ) IT ALL THE VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK Before taking up our discussion of the variations in question, as well as the variations to be considered in the chapter following, two matters concerning the story in general need explanation. In the first place, it is to be noted that in Les Chouans we have the beginning of Balzac’s true method. What, we inquire, is the nature of the method characteristic of Balzac? Briefly, “‘the two mainsprings of his method are accumulation and harmony. In description, character, and plot the novelist accumulates his points along a given line; everywhere he harmonizes his data to accord with a definite keynote, a central unifying trait.”* Furthermore, it should be added that in the case of Balzac’s method the accumulation and harmony involve most, if not all, of the general qualities of realism.? tE. Preston Dargan, ‘Studies in Balzac. III. His General Method,” Modern Philology, XVII, No. 3 (July, 1919), 114. 2 Namely, “Truth, or correspondence with objective reality Materialism: Animalism, money, externality Impersonality The scientific viewpoint The claim to universality The documentary method, or technical erudition Tediousness Representation of mediocrity and triviality Solidity Sympathy with ordinary life Sociological features.” See Dargan, “Studies in Balzac. II. Critical Analysis of Realism,” Modern Philology, XVI, No. 7 (November, 1918), 353. LL 12 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” The second matter requiring explanation is the influence of Cooper on Les Chouans. As previously mentioned, Balzac was a great admirer of Cooper and in all probability knew him about the time of writing Les Chouans (1828)—Cooper was in Paris or in the vicinity of that city from July, 1826, to February, 1828, and from July, 1830, to some time in 1833. This fact, together with the popular enthusiasm aroused by Cooper in France from the time of the appearance of the first translation of The Spy (1822), no doubt did much to increase Balzac’s own admiration for the American and to inspire him to attain in his own writings some of the best qualities of Cooper’s stories, especially of the Mohicans—Cooper’s master- piece in the eyes of many of the French. Balzac himself admits the influence of Cooper in the case of Les Chouans,* and the Cooperesque quality is apparent in a number of his books, commonly in such features as reappearing characters, the repeated tic or “‘gag,’’ explanatory asides, the description of primitive warfare, and certain topographical details. The significance of what has just been said relative to Balzac’s true method and to Cooper’s influence will become more apparent as we progress in our study of the differ- ences between the original and the standard editions of Les Chouans. Let us consider now the variations up to the first attack. By this expression ‘‘the first attack’”’ Is meant that point in our story where the ambushed Chouans (Royalists) for the first time in the narrative open fire upon the small band of French recruits en route from Fougéres (their native place) to Mayenne. Up to this point, it may be recalled, Balzac devotes himself to a lengthy (and as many think, tedious) discourse, which includes among other things: a minute t Lettres a Etrangeére, Il, 246. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 13 account of the French recruits under escort of the Blues (Republicans), the countryside, the prevalent method of warfare, the effects of isolation on the Breton, and the philo- logical history of certain curious words. Although the material up to the first attack may cause unfavorable criticism on the part of those who find it unduly drawn out, it is, nevertheless, decidedly Balzacian both in the choice and presentation of detail. Furthermore, it contains much that is strikingly Cooperesque. Thus, the physical portrait of the groups of French recruits affords an excellent example of accumulation and harmony, rich in animalisms, vegetablisms, and sociological features; the description of the valley of the Couésnon is built on lines similar to those characteristic of Cooper’s nature descriptions, and the charac- ter of the country and its inhabitants gives rise to actual references to the Mohicans, their methods of warfare, and language savoring of the redskin; the mannerisms and con- versation of the Blues illustrate well the use of the tic or “gag”? and a vocabulary adapted to men following a military occupation in life; and finally, the philological expositions and the reasons given for such descriptions as those of the French recruits and the Breton Valley offer good examples of explanatory asides. The fact, therefore, that up to the first attack there is concentrated so much that is characteristic of Balzac’s true method and of Cooper’s influence is one reason for using the first attack as a landmark in our study of variations. The other reason is that by noting all the variations up to this point in the story we shall be enabled to gain a fair conception of the care with which Balzac revised his books and of the number and kinds of changes made. The quantity and general nature of these variations are apparent in the table following. 14 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK Additions in the Michel Lévy (standard) edition: 1s eh: MAD SPU UO NTA Le MRS, Bae a 37 Lt tfc) cal. Mara PN NUN AO Pur WLR NIE E WOM eaStRl yl eu kk 70 Omissions in the Michel Lévy edition: PHASES eset eee Sabu he lhe le toons orate suas taal ee 51 A C0) 6 CORUNA UBER UGA TAG Ae Sa ORM TMCat US IS 75 Substitutions in the Michel Lévy edition: PRTASCS ie eck salah eta his Uke alot Oe cae eee 194 WTS SUS pees a ANU ih conar ng a Sonn Was a ao 165 Changes in position in the Michel Lévy edition: PEEASES TS. WUE Re iwi Piet WRct U's Wile cel Ur penn G Coca ng e 37 WV ORGS CaP al ole le ateilalle tao ptihe vaio ie is ene Ce na 18 TOC elite a elds ele eee a ae nee 647 The figures in the preceding table become impressive when we consider that they represent the number of changes made within a small portion of the story. The infinite care, too, with which these early pages were revised is maintained throughout the entire story. Moreover, the types of variations existing up to the first attack prevail to the end of the book. In noting typical examples of these variations, attention is called to the fact that an example may be illustrative of more than one kind of vartation but that the variation in italics repre- sents in each instance the point under discussion. ‘The abbrevi- ations O. and ML. refer to the original and the Michel Lévy editions respectively. Also, for purpose of contrast, examples of additions and omissions will be considered together whenever possible. Thus we shall begin with: ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION i PHRASES In the case of the addition of phrases in the Michel Lévy edition, the two examples following indicate a conscious effort on Balzac’s part to supply minute information through VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 15 instances of “the additional detail.”’ ‘The additional detail”’ is largely what the name implies, and may be defined simply as an unimportant or unessential item of description or exposi- tion that commonly would not be included. Balzac’s tendency toward the most minute precision in description and in ex- position is too well known to require comment. “The addi- tional detail” is a prevalent trait in his style and frequently adds strength to the local color, but “sometimes results in insignificant, merely photographic representation,” as in the following examples: O. Quelques-uns de ces paysans, et c’était le plus grand nombre, allaient pieds nus, ayant pour tout vétement une grande peau de chévre qui les couvrait jusqu’aux genoux [I, 2-3, ll. 18-21, 1]. O. ayant des bottes ou des souliers maintenus par des guétres {I, 6, ll. 17-18]. ML. Une partie des paysans—et c’était le plus grand nombre— allaient pieds nus, ayant pour tout vétement une grande peau de chévre qui les couvrait depuis le cou jusqu’aux genoux [p. 2, ll. 7-o]. ML. ayant des bottes @ revers ou des souliers maintenus par des guétres [p. 3, ll. 21-22]. As we might suppose, Les Chouans affords several other examples similar to the two just cited. On the other hand, cases occasionally exist where Balzac himself apparently found “the additional detail” cumbersome or unessential and therefore omitted it from his final text. O. petite ville ot les voyageurs qui font ce trajet ont coutume de se reposer [I, 2, ll. 5-7]. O. En entendant des sons qui semblaient partir de la corne de taureau avec laquelle les paysans de ces vallons rassemblent leurs troupeaux [I, 28, ll. 6-0]. For instance: ML. petite ville ot les voyageurs ont coutume de se reposer [p. 1, ll. 6-7]. ML. En entendant des sons qui semblaient sortir de la corne avec laquelle les paysans de ces vallons rassemblent leurs troupeaux [p. 10, ll. 26-27]. 16 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” The next group of examples is chosen not as being typical of any trait characteristic of Balzac’s style but because the variations occur in parts of the story which partake of the Cooperesque. ‘Thus: O. Vabsence complete de nos lois, de nos mceurs, de notre habille- ment, de nos monnaies nouvelles, de notre langage, mais aussi une simplicité patriarcale s’accordent & rendre les habitans de ces cam- pagnes plus sauvages et plus pauvres de combinaisons intellectuelles que les Mohicans et les Peaux rouges de l’Amérique septentrionale [I, 40, ll. 13-22]. O. —Tu demandes pourquoi?... lui répondit une voix rauque et sauvage qui lui était inconnue [I, 28, Il. 3-5]. ML. Vabsence compléte de nos lois, de nos mceurs, de notre habille- ment, de nos monnaies nouvelles, de notre langage, mais aussi la simplicité patriarcale et d’héroi- ques vertus s’accordent 4 rendre les habitants de ces campagnes plus pauvres de combinaisons in- tellectuelles que ne le sont les Mohicans et les Peaux-Rouges de Amérique septentrionale, mais aussi grands, aussi rusés, aussi durs qu’eux [p. 14, ll. 20-26]. ML. —Tu demandes pourquoi? répondit une voix [p. 10, 1. 25]. In the first of the foregoing examples it is to be noted that Balzac adds to his comparison of the Bretons with the Mohi- cans and the Peaux-Rouges. The former, we are further informed, are aussi grands, ausst rusés, ausst durs as the Indians. In the same example and in the one following the omissions of plus sauvages and of rauque et sauvage are of special interest in view of the fact that such omissions are exceedingly rare. In likening the wild peasants of Brittany to Cooper’s Indians, Balzac often has recourse to these descriptive terms. A possible explanation of the omission of plus sauvages in the first example given is that it is made in order to render the comparison more accurate. The cause of the omission of VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK r7 rauque et sauvage in the second instance is probably the desire on Balzac’s part to avoid the frequent repetition of these adjectives which he uses a number of times elsewhere in the story. The next variations evidently are made for the sake of clearness or emphasis. Up to the first attack four other examples are to be found similar to the following: O. cepays ressemble 4 un charbon glacé qui reste obscur au sein d’un brillant foyer [I, 41, ll. 4-6]. O. Aijinsi la guerre renaissait sans doute plus terrible 4 la suite d’une inaction de trois années [I, 46, Il. 12-15]. O. —Tonnerre de Dieu! n’allons pas fumer sur le tonneau citoyens! .. C’est porter de eau dans un panier que d’avoir du courage hors de propos [I, 55, ll. 4-7]! O. —Non, non, commandant, nous n’en viendrons pas 1a [I, 75, ll. 5-6]. ML. ce pays ressemble 4& un charbon glacé qui resterait obscur et noir au sein d’un brillant foyer [p. 14, ll. 29-30]. ML. Ainsi la guerre renaissait, sans doute plus terrible qu’autrefois, & la suite d’une inaction de trois années [p. 16, ll. 27-28]. ML. —Tonnerrede Dieu! n’allons pas fumer sur le tonneau de poudre, citoyens. C’est s’amuser a porter de Veau dans wun panier que d’avoir du courage hors de propos [p. 19, ll. 28-30]. ML. —Non, non, commandant, nous n’en viendrons pas la, di Gérard [p. 26, ll. 14-15]. Glancing back at our list of the general qualities of Balzac’s realism (p. 11), we note among them sympathy with ordinary life. Here, in the example following—the one example of its kind up to the first attack, though several occur later—the added phrase reminds us of Balzac’s sympathy with the peasant: O. La scéne précédente, décrite avec trop de complaisance peut- étre, recevra quelque lumiére d’une courte digression qu’il convient de ML. Il\convient de placer ici une digression pour faire partager les craintes du commandant Hulot a certaines personnes casaniéres habi- 18 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” placer ici. Elle servira 4 mettre dans le secret des craintes du com- mandant Hulot certaines personnes casaniéres habituées 4 douter de tout parce qu’elles ne voient rien, et qui pourraient contredire l’exist- ence de Marche-a-terre et des honnétes paysans de l’Ouest [I, B77 38) Lars eS) tuées & douter de tout, parce qu’elles ne voient rien, et qui pourraient contredire l’existence de Marche-a-Terre et des paysans de VOuest dont alors la conduite fut sublime [p. 13, ll. 21-25]. Often we find examples such as the two below where the added phrases are merely grammatical corrections necessitated by constructions involving comparisons: O. —Nous sommes donc vrai- ment en danger ? demanda Gérard aussi étonné du_ sang-froid de Hulot que de sa passagére terreur [I, 50, ll. 3-6]. O. —Oh! si l’armée ne se méle pas un peu de notre gouvernement, dit Gérard, les avocats nous remettront plus mal qu’avant la révolution [I, 74, ll. 17-21]. ML. —Nous sommes donc vrai- ment en danger ? demanda Gérard, aussi étonné du_ sang-froid de Hulot qu’d lavait été de sa pas- sagére terreur [p. 17, ll. 34-36]. ML. —Oh! si l’armée ne se méle pas un peu de notre gouvernement, dit Gérard, les avocats nous remettront plus mal que nous ne lV étions avant la Révolution [p. 26, ll. 7-9]. Occasionally an addition such as the following occurs. In this instance, on account of the distance between subject and verb, a repetition or a summary of the subject is needed. Balzac supplies this deficiency in the standard edition and, ever thorough in the matter of detail, he adds a fresh com- ponent of the subject: ML. Les efforts tentés par quel- ques grands esprits pour conquérir O. Les efforts tentés par quelques bons esprits pour conquérir 4 la prospérité et a la vie sociale cette belle partie de la France, si riche de trésors ignorés, meurent [I, 41, ll. 7-10]. & la vie sociale et 4 la prospérité cette belle partie de la France, si riche de trésors ignorés; tout, méme les tentatives du gouverne- ment, meurt [p. 14, ll. 30-33]. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 19 The next example to be cited is the addition of a phrase in the case of an animalism—the only example of its kind up to the first attack. Balzac, it will be observed, through haste or oversight, omits an important bit of information in his analogy in the original edition: O. Pendant que les Directeurs se battent entre eux comme des chevaux dans une écurie [I, 72, ll. 8—ro]. ML. Pendant que les directeurs se battent entre eux comme des chevaux sans avoine dans une écurie [p. 25, ll. 10-13]. Up to the first attack we have seven examples where Balzac evidently finds the passages in the original edition too ornate and flowery. For instance: O. attiraient l’ceil comme les fleurs brillantes d’une prairie, en tendant de ces piéges [I, 24-25, ll. 22, 1-2]. O. Les oiseaux chantaient Jeurs hymnes du matin, faisant ainsi rendre 4 la vallée une suave et sourde mélodie qui frémissait dans les airs comme une voix céleste [I, 25, ll. 15-19]. ML. attiraient l’oil par quel- ques-uns de ces piéges [p. 9, Il. 26-27]. ML. Les oiseaux chantaient, et faisaient ainsi rendre a la vallée une suave, une sourde mélodie qui frémissait dans les airs [p. 9, ll. 34-36]. The next group of examples is typical of a long list of phrases omitted for the sake of brevity. As many as thirty- three omissions of this type are to be found up to the first attack. O. Une nouvelle loi promulguée quelques jours avant le commence- ment de cette histoire et rendue le troisiéme jour complémentaire de Van VII qui venait de finir, ordon- nait d’organiser en légions ces faibles levées d’hommes [I, 13-14, ll. 20-21, 1-4]. ML. Donec, une nouvelle loi pro- mulguée quelques jours avant le commencement de cette histoire, et rendue le troisiéme jour com- plémentaire de l’an VII, ordonnait d’organiser en légions ces faibles levées d’hommes [p. 6, ll. 1-5]. 20 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” O. sa verdure rivale de celle des iles d’Angleterre [I, 25, ll. 10-11]. O. Les seules réunions connues sont les assemblées éphéméres que le dimanche ou les fétes de la religion consacrent d@ /’église de la paroisse [I, 42, ll. 8-11]. ML. sa verdure rivale de celle d’Angleterre [p. 9, ll. 31-32]. ML. Les seules réunions connues sont les assemblées éphéméres que le dimanche ou les fétes de la religion consacrent 4 la paroisse [p. 15, ll. 9-11]. Let us now take up the variations under our next heading: ADDITIONS AND OMISSIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION WORDS With few exceptions, the addition and the omission of words are confined to pronouns, adjectives, and conjunctions. The examples following are typical of the changes made in the case of pronouns, not only in Les Chouans but in other stories of Balzac—César Birotteau, for instance. Up to the first attack we find no less than thirty-five such changes, the majority of which consist in the addition of personal pronouns. O. selon certains critiques, nuisent 4 la peinture des senti- mens [I, 2, ll. 15-17]. O. qui garnissaient ses jambes [I, 30, 1. ol. O. Le commandant, regardant tour 4 tour quatre hommes in- trépides dont il connaissait Vadresse et Ilagilité, les appela silencieusement en les désignant du doigt [I, 62, ll. r1-15]. O. et encore nous voila pris, je suis sur, dans un traquenard [I, 74, ll. 14-16]. O. le cri de la chouette se fit entendre [I, 76, ll. 2-3]. ML. selon certains critiques, elles nuisent 4 la peinture des senti- ments [p. 2, ll. 5-6]. ML. qui lw garnissaient les jambes [p. 11, ll. 13-14]. ML. Le commandant regarda tour 4 tour quatre hommes in- trépides dont l’adresse et l’agilité lui étaient connues, 2 les appela silencieusement en les désignant du doigt [p. 22, ll. 9-12]. ML, Encore, nous voila pris, jen suis str, dans quelque tra- quenard [p. 26, ll. 5-6]. ML. le cri de la chouette, qui se fit entendre [p. 26, 1. 27]. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 21 ‘ O. Ce surnom était dai a ces premiers uniformes bleus et rouges dont le souvenir est encore assez frais pour ev rendre la description superflue [I, rz, ll. 6-9]. O. et il ne tarda pas 4 rompre le silence [I, 19, 1. 6]. ML. Ce surnom était di a ces premiers uniformes bleus et rouges dont le souvenir est encore assez frais pour rendre leur description superflue [p. 5, ll. 3-6]. ML. et ne tarda pas 4 rompre le silence [p. 7, ll. 30-31]. In the variations involving adjectives twenty-seven changes are made up to the first attack, fourteen of which are omissions in the Michel Lévy edition. The first example given concerns Hulot, the commandant of the Republican troops, and is of interest from the standpoint of the tic—the physical mannerism expressive of an (or the) outstanding trait in the nature of the character. Thus in the case of Hulot the tic takes the form of a grimace, expressive of severity. Through- out Les Chouans our attention is called time and again to the grimace of this old Republican. Obviously the deux sourcils play a prominent part in such a distortion of the face, and hence the aptness in the standard edition of the word gros in rendering the eyebrows more noticeable and the entire facial expression more severe: ML. et contracta deux gros sour- cils noirs qui donnaient une expres- sion sévére 4 sa physionomie [p. 10, ll. 19-20]. O. et, contractant deux sourcils noirs qui donnaient une expression sévére 4 sa physionomie [I, 27, ll. 15-17]. The next example cited serves to remind us that the word “social” as applied to l’homme had for Balzac a special sig- nificance. As Balzac says: Il n’y a qu’un animal. Le Créateur ne s’est servi que d’un seul et méme patron pour tous les étres organisés. L’animal est un principe qui prend sa forme extérieure, ou, pour parler plus exactement, les différences de sa forme, dans les milieux ot il est appelé 4 se développer. Les espéces zoologiques résultent de ces différences ... je vis que ... la 22 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” société ressemblait 4 la nature. La société ne fait-elle pas de VPhomme, suivant les milieux ot son action se déploie, autant d’hommes différents qu il y a de variétés en zoologie? Les différences entre un soldat, un ouvrier, un administrateur, un avocat, un oisif, un savant, un homme d’Etat, un commercant, un marin, un poéte, un pauvre, un prétre, sont, 9 quoique plus difficiles 4 saisir, aussi considérables que celles qui dis- tinguent le loup, le lion, l’Ane, le corbeau, le requin, le veau marin, la brebis, etc. Ila donc existé, il existera donc de tout temps des espéces sociales comme il y a des espéces zoologiques.* The paragraph from which the following example is taken consists of a physical portrait of Marche-a-Terre, the synthetic details of which stress the analogy between him and un beuf. In fact, Marche-a-Terre is so much of an animal that he is scarcely a “social”’ being. O. enfin l’absence compléte des MZ. Enfin labsence compléte autres caractéres de lhomme des autres caractéres de |’homme rendait sa téte nue plus remar- social rendait cette téte nue plus quable encore [I, 29, ll. 6-o]. remarquable encore [p. 11, ll. 1-3]. As regards the omission of adjectives, we find that they are usually omitted for the sake of accuracy or because they are unessential, as in the two examples below. In the first of these examples the grimace of Hulot, judging from the various descriptions of it throughout the book, is too pro- nounced and self-evident to be accurately designated as petite. In the second example it may be taken for granted that a war of four years is cruelle. O. Hulot, faisant une petite gri- ML. Hulot fit alors une grimace mace qui lui était particuliére qui lui était particuliére [p. 7, [I, ro, ll. ro-rz]. ll. 33-34]. O. aprés,,une guerre cruelle de ML. aprés une guerre de quatre quatre années [I, 12, ll. 13-14]. années [p. 5, l. 21]. As to the addition and omission of conjunctions up to the first attack, nearly all the changes made are in the case of the “ Avant-propos.” (CEuvres complétes (Michel Lévy ed.), I, 2. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 23 word e?. A few variations occur in the use of other conjunc- tions, but their number is so small as to render them of little importance. The conjunction ef, however, commands an astonishing amount of attention on Balzac’s part, and the changes are commonly made for emphasis, brevity, or coher- ence. examples: O. Le mot de harangue suffit a peine pour rendre toute la haine, les regrets et les désirs de vengeance qu’exprim€érent son geste hautain, sa parole bréve, sa contenance empreinte d’une énergie farouche et froide [I, 32, ll. 12-17]. O. Ila passé du bas-breton dans le francais. Ce mot est de notre langage actuel celui qui contient le plus de souvenirs antiques {I, 38, ll. 7-10]. O. leurs gilets rouges ou jaunes et ornés de deux rangées de bou- tons [I, 5, ll. 10-12]. O. Il ordonna, par un autre geste, de reprendre les armes; ef, lorsque le calme fut établi, il porta les yeux d’un coté de la route a Vautre, ... [I, 57, ll. 11-14]. Our next consideration is— Up to the first attack Balzac adds the word eleven times and omits it forty-one times. The following are typical ML. Le mot de harangue suffit 4 peine pour rendre la haine, les désirs de vengeance qu’exprimérent un geste hautain, une parole bréve et la contenance empreinte d’une énergie farouche et froide [p. 12, ll. 3-5]. ML. Ilapassé du bas-breton dans le francais, et ce mot est, de notre langage actuel, celui qui contient le plus de souvenirs antiques [p. 13, ll. 27-20]. ML. leurs gilets rouges ou jaunes ornés de deux rangées de boutons [p. 3, ll. 4-5]. ML. Il ordonna, par un autre geste, de reprendre les armes. Lorsque le calme fut établi, il porta les yeux d’un cdté de la route 4 l’autre, ... [p. 20, ll. 21-23.] SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION PHRASES As indicated in the table on page 14, there are 194 instances up to the first attack of the substitution of phrases in the Michel Lévy edition, and these may be divided into six 24 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” groups. ‘The first group illustrates a very prevalent change, no doubt made for the sake of clearness or emphasis; namely, the substitution of the noun and its modifiers for the pronoun. Thus: O. Il profita des prévisions il- lusoires de la loi [I, 16, ll. 1-2]. O. Ila de l’analogie avec le mot latin vir [I, 38, 1. 16]. ML. Ce militaire dévoué profita des prévisions illusoires de la loi [p. 6, ll. 27-28]. ML. Cemota de l’analogie avec le mot latin vir [p. 13, Il. 32-33]. The second group of examples typifies Balzac’s preference for the finite construction rather than for the participle— rarely does he favor the latter in Les Chouans. O. ils baissaient de nouveau leurs tétes sombres en reprenant leur contenance de désespoir [I, 10, ll, 1-3]. O. II gardait une attitude prophé- tique et apparaissait 14 comme le génie méme de la Bretagne, se relevant d’un sommeil de trois années [I, 33, ll. 1-4]. ML. ils baissaient de nouveau leurs tétes et reprenaient leur contenance de désespoir [p. 4, ll. 26-27]. ML. Il gardait une attitude prophétique et apparaissait la comme le génie méme de la Bretagne, qui se relevait d’un sommeil de trois années [p. 12, ll. 8-10}. The third group of examples concerns details of dress. Balzac’s care in appropriately clothing his characters arouses admiration. The place, the occasion, the person, are all considered in the selection of dress, and the result almost invariably is a consistent, realistic description, rich in wisely chosen details. Here are two interesting examples: ML. Leurs tétes étaient sur- montées d’une sale toque en laine rouge, semblable 4 ce bonnet phrygien que la République adop- tait alors comme embléme de la liberté [p. 2, ll. 20-22]. O. Leurs tétes étaient surmontées d’un bonnet de laine rouge, sem- blable 4 ce bonnet phrygien que la république adoptait alors comme embléme de la liberté [I, 3, ll. 17-22]. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK O. A partir du cou, il était enveloppé dans une espéce de sarreau ou blouse de toile rousse plus grossiére encore que celle des pantalons des réquisitionnaires les moins aisés [I, 29, ll. 15-19]. 25 ML. A partir du cou, il était enveloppé d’un sarrau, espéce de blouse en toile rousse plus gros- siére encore que celle des pantalons des conscrits les moins aisés [p. 11, ll. 6-8]. In the next group of examples we have instances where the same idea may be expressed in more than one way and Balzac shows a preference, possibly through whim, or for the sake of emphasis, or sometimes because of an appreciation of a subtle change in meaning: O. ilse promettait bien d’exécuter la loi 4 sa maniere [I, 17, ll. 14-15]. O. le changement du point de vue [I, 20, ll. 16-17]. O. demanda-t-il de nouveau de sa voix grossie par les fatigues de la guerre [I, 27, ll. 19-20]. O. Ce nom classique est comme un gage de la fidélité avec laquelle ils s’efforcent de conserver les traditions du langage et des meeurs galliques [I, 39-40, ll. 21, 1-3]. O. Marche-a-terre ne laissa pas paraitre Ja moindre émotion [I, 68, ll. 2-3]. ML. il se_ promettait . bien d’exécuter la loi suivant son bon vouloir [p. 7, ll. 9-10]. ML. le changement de perspective [p. 8, 1. x4]. ML. demanda-t-il pour la seconde fois de sa voix grossie par les fatigues de la guerre [p. 10, Il. 21-22]. ML. et ce nom classique est comme une récompense de la fidélité avec laquelle ils s’efforcent de conserver les traditions du langage et des meeurs gaéliques [p. 14, ll. 11-13]. ML. Marche-a-Terre ne_laissa paraitre aucune émotion [p. 24, Il. g-r0]. In the fifth group of examples we have changes (often slight) in passages which are more or less Cooperesque. O. Au milieu de (I, 6, 1. 12]. cetie troupe Thus: ML. au milieu de ces hommes a demi sauvages [p. 3, ll. 18-19]. 26 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” O. II faisait croire &4 une absence si compléte de toute intelligence, que les officiers le comparérent tour 4 tour, dans cette situation, a un des animaux qui broutaient les gras pdturages de la vallée, aux sauvages de l’Ohio et 4 un Hotten- tot du cap de Bonne-Espérance [I, 35, ll. 10-16]. O. tout dans le pays devenait dangereux: le bruit comme le silence, la grace comme la terreur, car il y avait de la gloire a étre traitre & la France pour Dieu et le rot [I, 45, ll. 15-19]. O. il consulta le sable de la route, & la maniére des sauvages, pour tacher de découvrir les traces des pas de ces invisibles ennemis dont il connaissait l’audace et les avantages [I, 57-58, ll. 21, 1-4]. ML. Il faisait croire 4 une absence si compléte de toute intelligence, que les officiers le comparérent tour 4 tour, dans cette situation, 4 un des animaux qui broutaient les gras pAturages de la vallée, aux sauvages de VAmérique ou & quelque naturel du cap de Bonne-Espérance [p. 13, ll. 4-9]. ML. tout dans le pays devenait-il dangereux: le bruit comme le silence, la grace comme la terreur, le foyer domestique comme le grand chemin. J) y avait de la conviction dans ces _ trahisons. C’était des sauvages qui servaient Dieu et le roi ad la maniére dont les Mohicans font la guerre [p. 16, ll. 14-18]. ML. il consulta le sable de la route, 4 la maniére des sauvages, pour tAécher de découvrir quelques traces de ces invisibles ennemis dont l’audace lui était connue [p. 20, ll. 27-30]. The sixth group of examples illustrates the two instances up to the first attack of the substitution of phrases in the case of animalisms: O. Leurs longs cheveux tombant en méches plates s’unissaient avec tant de complaisance et d’habitude aux poils de la peau de chévre en cachant si complétement leurs visages baissés vers la terre, qu’on pouvait facilement prendre cette peau pour la leur, et les con- ML. Les méches plates de leurs longs cheveux s’unissaient si habi- tuellement aux poils de la peau de chévre et cachaient si compléte- ment leurs visages baissés vers la terre, qu’on pouvait facilement prendre cette peau pour la leur, et confondre, 4 la premiére vue, VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 27 fondre, 4 la premiére vue, avec des bestiaux [I, 3, ll. 4-12]. O. 1 pourra défendre les frontiéres --- [L, 72, Il. 20-21]. Let us now take up: ces malheureux avec les animaux dont les dépouilles leur servaient de vétement [p. 2, ll. 11-16]. ML. Ce lapin défendra-t-il les frontiéres? ... [p. 25, ll. 18-10]. SUBSTITUTIONS IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION WORDS Here in the first group of examples we have two variations in the case of animalisms: O. C’était un de ces vieux loups de guérite difficiles 4 surprendre [I, 16, ll. 16-18]. O. —Que diable ont donc tous ces serins-la [I, 19, ll. 12-13]? ML. Mais c’était un de ces vieux chiens de guérite difficiles a surprendre [p. 6, ll. 34-35]. ML. —Que diable ont donc tous ces muscadins-la [p. 7, 1. 35]? The following examples are typical of many up to the first attack, and indicate a preference on Balzac’s part for one of two nouns similar in meaning: O. Ce détachement, divisé en groupes plus ou moins nombreux, offrait une réunion de costumes [I, 2, ll. 8—ro]. O. habillement particulier aux paysans de l’Ouest [I, 4, ll. 15-16]. O. leurs’ bissacs _ paraissaient mieux garnis que ceux des autres [I, 6, ll. 6-8]. O. sur les sentimens qui divisaient cette masse d’hommes [I, 8, Il. II-12]. O. pour recommencer la guerre Berahirsi, ML. Ce détachement, divisé en groupes plus ou moins nombreux, offrait une collection de costumes [p. 1, ll. 7-8]. ML. vétement particulier aux pay- sans de l’Ouest [p. 2, 1. 32]. ML. leurs bissacs paraissaient mieux fournis que ne l’étaient ceux de leurs compagnons [p. 3, IL 14-15]. ML. sur les opinions qui divi- saient ce rassemblement [p. 4, ll. 7-8]. ML. pour recommencer la /utie [pe 5,4. 22]. 28 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” The next examples are typical of numerous instances where Balzac endeavors to be more consistent in his use of military terms. ‘Throughout Les Chouans Balzac has occasion to use such terms frequently, and in the original edition he often confuses the rank and the duties of military characters.' O. —Donnez dix hommes d’élite & un caporal [I, 56, ll. 13-14]. O. L’un deux nommé Larose, sergent connu de Hulot [I, 64, Il. 10-11]. O. répondit le jeune Jieutenant Gérard [I, 73, ll. 7-8]. O. Les conscrits, rassemblés par un lieutenant [I, 76, ll. 8-o]. ML. Donnez dix hommes d’élite a un sergent [p. 20, 1. ro]. ML. WL’un d’eux, nommé Larose, caporal connu de Hulot [p. 22, ll. 36-37]. ML. répondit le jeune adjudant Gérard [p. 25, ll. 23-24]. ML. Les conscrits, rassemblés par un officier [p. 26, ll. 30-31]. In Les Chouans Balzac frequently substitutes one verb for another—usually for accuracy in thought, occasionally for emphasis. variations of this type. O. ils avaient des bottes de di- verses formes [I, 7, ll. 8-o]. O. ils portaient sur leurs figures et dans leurs attitudes cette espéce d’uniforme que donne le malheur [I, 8, ll. 16-109]. O. chaque arbre méditait un piége [I, 45, ll. 1-2]. O. —Oh oui! dit le commandant, il nous’ en a furieusement cotité pour changer de costume [I, 75, ll. 13-15]. Up to the first attack there are thirteen Here are four examples: ML. Ceux-la véritables person- nages, portaient des bottes de diverses formes [p. 3, ll. 29-30]. ML. ils montraient sur leurs figures et dans leurs attitudes cette expression uniforme que donne le malheur [p. 4, ll. 10-12]. ML. chaque arbre masquait un piége [p. 16, 1. 6]. ML. —Oh! oui, s’écria le com- mandant, il nous en a furieusement cotité pour changer de costume [p. 26, ll. 20-21]. tIn the definitive edition Balzac endeavors to indicate the grades charac- teristic of the Republican army. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 29 Balzac also makes many substitutions in the case of adjectives, and up to the first attack there are ten variations of this type. O. de toutes parts, des montagnes de schiste s’élévent en amphi- théatre; elles déguisent leurs flancs grisdires sous des foréts de chénes [I, 22, ll. 14-17]. O. de cette merveilleuse contrée (I, 27) ll. 4-5]. O. un fouet énorme [I, 31, 1. 1]. O. Les efforts tentés par quel- ques bons esprits [I, 41, ll. 7-8]. The following examples are typical: ML. De toutes parts, des mon- tagnes de schiste s’élévent en amphithéatre, elles déguisent leurs flancs rougedtres sous des foréts de chénes [p. 8, ll. 25-27]. ML. de cette belle contrée [p. 10, Eera|: ML. wn gros fouet [p. 11, 1. 21]. ML. Les efforts tentés par quel- ques grands esprits [p. 14, Il. 30-31]. This last group of substitutions, somewhat miscellaneous in character, is typical of a long list of such variations in Les Chouans, and involves the definite article and the possessive and demonstrative adjectives. O. et ces regards, tout en an- noncant JT intelligence humaine, causaient plus de terreur que de plaisir [I, 3, ll. 15-17]. O. Cette face [I, 29, 1. 10]. O. ses jambes et ses cuisses [I, 30, 1. oj. O. comme si /e chouan eit fait une longue route a travers les halliers [I, 36, ll. 4-6]. O. ilse mit 4 examiner la position ou Jes ennemis voulaient le sur- prendre [I, 49, Il. 4-5]. Thus: ML. et leurs regards, tout en annoncant Jl intelligence humaine, causaient certainement plus de terreur que de plaisir [p. 2, Il. 18-20]. ML. La face [p. 11, l. 3]. ML. les jambes et les cuisses [p. 11, ll. 13-14]. ML. comme si ce chouan eit fait une longue route A travers les halliers [p. 13, ll. 14-15}. ML. il se mit 4 examiner la position dans laquelle ses ennemis voulaient le surprendre [p. 17, ll. 22-23]. 30 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” Our next topic is: CHANGES IN POSITION IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION PHRASES The thirty-seven changes in the position of phrases up to the first attack usually involve substitutions of one kind or another. For the most part, as in the three examples following, they are made for the sake of emphasis, or in order to preserve the natural grammatical position of the phrase, or because of change in voice in the case of the verb: O. tandis que d’autres tenaient ML. tandis que, par économie, leurs souliers 4 la main par éco- nomie {I, 4, ll. r9-21]. O. Au milieu de cette troupe, ca et la, les citadins apparaissaient [I, 6, ll. 12-13]. O. dont le paysan garde encore religieusement la forme [I, 6, Il. 2-4]. d’autres tenaient leurs souliers a la main [p. 2, ll. 35-36]. ML. Quelques citadins apparais- salient au milieu de ces hommes @ demi sauvages [p. 3, ll. 18-19]. ML. dont la forme est encore religieusement gardée par nos pay- sans [p. 3, ll. 11-12]. Passing now to the last division of variations as given in the table on page 14: CHANGES IN POSITION IN THE MICHEL LEVY EDITION WORDS With few exceptions, the eighteen changes in the position of words in the Michel Lévy edition are merely corrections of errors due, no doubt, to haste in writing. The two groups following exemplify the most common changes. In the first group the position of the adjective is shifted because its loca- tion in the original edition caused it to modify a word other than the one desired. In the second group attention is called to the change in position of the adverb alors. Of all the words or phrases subject to variation in Les Chouwans, none perhaps VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 31 undergoes so many changes as alors. All through the story Balzac changes the position of this word repeatedly: O. un chapeau de feutre grossier ML. un grossier chapeau de feutre I, 4, 1. 4]. [p. 2, 1. 25]. O. que cette voiite bleue fit MZ. que cette immense votte immense firmament [I, 23, Il. bleue fat le firmament [p. 9, 1. ro]. 10-11]. O. Alors ils examinaient 4 la MZ. Ils examinaient alors A la dérobée les bois [I, 9, ll. 15-16]. dérobée les bois [p. 4, ll. 21-22]. O. Alors chaque champ était une MLZ. Chaque champ était alors forteresse [I, 44-45, ll. 21, 1]. une forteresse [p. 16, ll. 5—6]. The next examples illustrate changes in spelling and in punctuation. In the total number of variations given in the table on page 14, such changes are not included, for the reason that it is not always possible to determine whether the variations in spelling and in punctuation are due to Balzac or to the printer. As many as forty-nine changes in spelling occur up to the first attack. Throughout the book an interest- ing change in French orthography is observed in the case of nouns and of adjectives terminating in -ant and in -eni. In the original edition such words in the plural end in -ams and in -ens respectively, but in the standard edition they regain the ¢.* Thus: O. habitans [I, 4o, 1. 18]. ML. habitanis [p. 14, 1. 23]. O. menagans [I, 209, 1. 3]. ML. menacanis [p. 10, 1. 36]. O. changemens [I, 66, 1. 8]. ML. changemenis [p. 23, 1. 23]. O. mécontens [I, 11, l. rz]. ML. mécontenis [p. 5, l. 7]. Other examples of variations in spelling: O. Suwarow [I, 12, 1. 7]. ML. Souvorov [p. 5, 1. 18]. O. sarreau [I, 36, l. 2]. ML. sarrau [p. 13, 1. 12]. * This is a general change in French orthography effected approximately between the dates of the two editions under consideration. a2 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” Os) Galle [Ty 33.5 a1): O. des meeurs galliques [I, 40, sh ML. Gaéls [p. 13, 1. 20]. ML. des mceurs gaéliques [p. 14, lyri. As to variations in punctuation, more than two hundred changes are made up to the first attack, but a number of these are probably due to successive printers. The last three examples to be cited in this chapter are not given to illustrate any special type of variations but to afford some conception of the frequency and the complexity of the variations as they appear on a single page in the story. In order to facilitate our study, the variations hitherto cited have been removed from their setting and classified. In the examples following’ we have an ensemble of changes typical of the pages up to the first attack and of many pages thereafter: O. les riches accidens d’ombre et de lumiére, les fantastiques per- spectives qui naissaient des places ou manquaient les arbres, ou s’étendaient les eaux, ov s’élevaient des tertres, oU s’abaissaient des sinuosités coquettes gui gardaient leurs trésors pour une seconde vue, et les horizons vaporeux des mon- tagnes; si le souvenir colorie, pour ainsi dire, ce dessin aussi fugace que le moment ou il est pris, les personnes, pour lesquelles ces ta- bleaux ne sont pas sans mérite, auront une image imparfaite encore du magique spectacle dont l’Ame assez peu impressionnable des officiers fut comme saisie. ML. les riches accidents d’ombre et de lumiére, Jes horizons vaporeux des montagnes, les fantastiques per- spectives qui naissaient des places ou manquaient les arbres, ow s’étendaient les eaux, ot fuyaient de coquettes sinuosités; si le souvenir colorie, pour ainsi dire, ce dessin aussi fugace que le moment ou il est pris, les personnes pour lesquelles ces tableaux ne sont pas sans mérite auront une image imparfaite du magique spectacle par lequel Ame encore impressionnable des jeunes officiers fut comme surprise. t Attention is called to the fact that in these examples only the pages from the editio princeps are given in their entirety—the average page in the original edition contains approximately 130 words, that in the Michel Lévy edition, 400 words. VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 33 Ils pensérent alors que ces pauvres réquisitionnaires abandon- naient leur pays et leurs chéres coutumes pour aller mourir peut- étre en des terres étrangéres, ils leur pardonnérent involontaire- ment un retard qu’ils comprirent [I, 26]. O. [secré]tes et critiques, les deux officiers gui savaient que leur com- mandant ne s’alarmait jamais en vain, prirent alors cette contenance grave qu’ont les militaires au fort du danger, lorsque ce sont de ces hommes puissans qui voient un peu loin dans les affaires humaines. Gérard voulut répondre, afin de continuer une conversation féconde en nouvelles politiques dont le commandant paraissait taire une partie; mais un signe de Hulot arréia sa langue, et ils regardérent tous les trois Marche-a-ferre. Ce dernier ne donna pas la moindre marque d’émotion en se voyant surveillé par ces hommes redoutables d’intelligence et de force corporelle. La curiosité des deux officiers, pour lesquels cette sorte de guerre était nouvelle, fut vivement excitée par le commence- ment d’une affaire qui offrait un I, 54]. O. Hulot ayant jeté sur Beau-pied un regard sévére, le silence exigé sous les armes régna tout-d-coup. Pensant alors que ces pauvres gens abandonnaient @ regret leur pays et leurs chéres coutumes pour aller mourir peut-étre en des terres étrangéres, ils leur pardonnérent involontairement un retard qu’ils comprirent [pp. 9-10, ll. 36-37, I-11]. ML. secrétes et critiques, les deux officiers, sachant que leur com- mandant ne s’alarmait jamais en vain, prirent alors cette contenance grave qu’ont les militaires au fort du danger, lorsqu’ids sont forte- ment trempés et habitués @ voir un peu loin dans les affaires humaines. Gérard, que son grade, supprimé depuis, rapprochait de son chef, voulut répondre, e/ demander toutes les nouvelles politiques dont une partie était évidemment passée sous silence; mais un signe de Hulot lui imposa silence; et tous les trois ils se mirent a regarder Marche-a- Terre. Ce chouan ne donna pas la moindre marque d’émotion en se voyant sous la surveillance de ces hommes aussi redoutables par leur intelligence que par leur force corporelle. La curiosité des deux officiers, pour lesquels cette sorte de guerre était nouvelle, fut vive- ment excitée par le commence- ment d’une affaire qui offrait un [p. 19, ll. 12-25]. ML. Hulot ayant jeté sur Beau- Pied un regard sévére, le silence exigé sous les armes régna tout & 34. VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” Au milieu de ce silence solennel, les pas tardifs des conscrits, sous les pieds desquels le sable criait sourdement, rendaient un son régulier qui, mélé @ la voix har- monieuse de la vallée, ajoutait une émotion écrasante 4 cette anxiété générale. Ce sentiment inde- scriptible ne peut étre compris que de ceux qui, en proie 4 une attente cruelle dans un profond et nocturne silence, ont senti redoubler les sourds et larges battemens de leur coeur en entendant quelque bruit monotone et répété verser l’angoisse comme goutte 4a goutte dans leur ame riche et forte. Le commandant se replagant au milieu de la route, commengait a se demander: Me trompé-je? I regardait déja avec [I, 60]. coup. Au milieu de ce silence solennel, les pas tardifs des con- scrits, sous les pieds desquels le sable criait sourdement, rendaient un son régulier qui ajoutait une vague €émotion & cette anxiété générale. Ce sentiment indéfinis- sable sera compris seulement de ceux qui, en projie 4 une attente cruelle, ont senti, dans le silence des nuits, les larges battemenés de leur coeur redoublés par quelque bruit dont le retour monotone semblait leur verser la terreur, goutte 4 goutte. En se replacant au milieu de la route, le com- mandant commencait 4 se de- mander: “Me trompé-je?” I regardait déja avec [p. 21, Il. 16-26]. As we look back now over all the variations given, several facts stand out clearly. First, the number of variations, as formerly mentioned, cannot fail to impress us with the infinite pains which the writer took to perfect the story—and if we compare the original and the revised editions of other stories of Balzac, we shall often find a similar painstaking scrupulous- ness. Secondly, when we bear in mind the characteristics of Balzac’s method as given on page 11 and consider the different types of variations cited, we see that the changes foreshadow the permanent traits which prevail in all of Balzac’s later writing. Furthermore, the examples quoted afford a fair conception of Balzac’s command of his mother- tongue—the range of his vocabulary, his consciousness of subtle distinctions in language, and his appreciation of the VARIATIONS UP TO THE FIRST ATTACK 35 possibilities and effects of various modes of expression. Lastly, the Cooperesque touches indicate no tendency to break away from the influence of the American author, but rather zealous efforts to maintain the atmosphere of The Last of the Mohicans. Our next chapter will throw more light on some of these points. Il SALIENT VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK The first variations to be considered are further changes in the use of animalisms. After the first attack fourteen varia- tions of this nature are to be found, two of which concern Marche-a-Terre whom we have formerly mentioned.* As an example of the ‘‘bestial”’ type, Marche-a-Terre is a masterpiece, always cleverly delineated and always consist- ently drawn. Like an ox in appearance, he is “‘large des épaules,” with “une téte presque aussi grosse que celle d’un boeuf, ... ses Jarges lévres retroussées par des dents blanches comme de la neige, ses grands et ronds yeux noirs garnis de sourcils menacants, ses orezlles pendantes et ses cheveux roux appartenaient moins a4 notre belle race caucasienne qu’au genre des herbivores.’ In nature he resembles the dog. His ruling passion is fidelity to God and to his king, ‘‘a dog-like fidelity which, guided by instinct rather than by intelligence, [asks] no questions, follows blindly on with unswerving tenacity of purpose, knowing neither fatigue, disappointment, nor defeat.’’ Marche-a-Terre is thus typical of the domestic animal, and the occasions when he is compared to animals of a fiercer ™ According to Serval, Marche-a-Terre is the surname of Tréhard, a Chouan. The man actually existed, but in the story “le personnage est un agrégat””—a composite of the real Marche-a-Terre and various other individuals whose misdeeds are attributed to him (Serval, of. cit., pp. 28-29). 2 Elizabeth Dall, ‘““Animalism” in Balzac. A Master’s dissertation (not printed). University of Chicago (1918), p. 6. 3 [bid., p. 8. 36 VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 37 kind are exceptions, not the rule. In the first example following, Marche-a-Terre is, in the original edition, likened to a wolf by his sweetheart Francine, whom he has been severely catechizing. Balzac eliminates this analogy, possibly because lowp is neither in keeping with the character of Marche-a-Terre nor conveys in any way the idea desired; namely, un confesseur. In the second example Balzac omits the animalism in the standard edition, obviously for the reason that in the sentence following the example in question he compares Marche-a- Terre to un de ces gros chiens de roulier and considers the latter analogy sufficient and more appropriate. Thus: O. Or, comment veux-tu que ML. Or, comment veux-tu que jaille encore mettre un gros loup j’aille encore mettre aprés moi un comme toi aprés moi [I, 185, confesseur aussi rigide que toi ll. 12-14.] ? [p. 65, Il. 26-28] ? O. Elle l’apercut indistinctement, a travers l’obscurité de l’écurie, se coucher dans la paille @ la maniére des bétes et y prendre une position d’ou il pouvait voir tout ce qui se passerait dans l’auberge. II s’était ramassé de telle sorte que, de loin comme de prés, l’espion le plus rusé l’aurait facilement pris pour un de ces gros chiens de roulier, tapis en rond et dormant les pattes placées sous leur gueule [II, 6-7, Il. 15-21, 1-3]. ML. elle Vexamina, mais _in- distinctement, A travers l’obscurité de l’écurie, oti il se coucha dans la paille en prenant une position d’ou il pouvait observer tout ce qui se passerait dans l’auberge. Marche- a-Terre était ramassé de telle sorte que, de loin comme de prés, Vespion le plus rusé l’aurait facile- ment pris pour um de ces gros chiens de roulier, tapis en rond et qui dorment, la gueule placée sur leurs pattes [p. 70, ll. 1-8]. The next variations illustrate instances where Balzac again omits animalisms—sometimes because they do not convey the thought desired, often for the reason that the too frequent use of such analogies detracts from their value or importance in the story: 38 O. —Ce jeune homme est un aigle!... se dit mademoiselle de Verneuil [II, 12, ll. 14-15]. O. Une trentaine de chouans qui dormaient sous les rateliers et dans la paille, levérent la téte comme une meute de chiens [II, 81-82, Il. 21, 1-2]. O. mais ses yeux perdaient in- sensiblement la rigueur de ceux d’un chat [III, 1o2, ll. 5-7]. O. —Savez-vous, ma jolie co- lombe, que le marquis [III, 105, ll. 14-15]. O. et 1a, ses yeux de lynx aper- curent Marie, s’enfuyant avec la légéreté d’un oiseau 4 travers les sentiers [IV, 60, ll. 1-4]. O. et s’élancant hors de la chau- miére avec la légéreté d’une biche [IV, 97, ll. 2-3]. In the next two examples for another: O. C’était en effet un de ces voyageurs incommodes et peu sociaux qui sont dans une voiture comme un pourceau résigné que lon méne les pattes liées au s il ee marché voisin [I, 128, ll. 17-21]. O. La ils virent une centaine de chouans ajuster, comme s’lls ti- raient des Japins, les derniers VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” ML. —Ce jeune homme est singuliérement distingué pour un républicain, se dit mademoiselle de Verneuil [p. 72, ll. 5-6]. ML. Une trentaine de chouans qui dormaient sous les r&teliers et dans la paille levérent la téte [p. 96, ll. 33-34]. ML. mais en méme temps ses yeux arides [p. 186, ll. 19-20]. ML. Savez-vous que le marquis [p. 187, l. 25]. ML. Corentin courut vers la Promenade, et y arriva mal- heureusement assez 4 propos pour apercevoir de 1a les moindres mouvements de Marie [p. 256, ll. 22-24]. ML. et s’élanca hors de la chau- miére [p. 266, 1. 7]. Balzac substitutes one animal ML. C’était, en effet, un de ces voyageurs incommodes et peu sociables qui sont dans une voiture comme un veau résigné que |’on méne, les pieds liés, au marché voisin [p. 45, ll. 9-11]. ML. ia, ils virent une centaine de chouans qui ajustaient quel- ques soldats survivant a leur VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK soldats qui survivaient a leur premiére décharge et les faire tomber [II, 208-0, ll. 20, 1-4]. 39 premiére décharge, et qui tiraient sur eux comme sur des Jiévres [p. 146, ll. 24-27]. The last two variations in the case of animalisms are additions of appropriate comparisons: O. —Eh bien! vieux sac 4 cidre, reprit le guide farouche, marche comme sur du beurre, sinon, nous allons laisser 14 nos carcasses plus t6t qu’il ne le faudra [IV, 183, ll. 12-15]. O. Le chemin du chateau jusqu’a la porte Saint-Sulpice était occupé par une armée [IIT, 120, ll. 7-0]. ML. —Eh bien, vieux sac a sous, reprit le chef, glisse sur ton ventre comme une anguille de haie, sinon nous allons laisser ]4 nos carcasses plus tdt qu’il ne faudra [p. 295, ll. 14-16]. ML. Sept 4 huit cents chouans armés s’agitaient dans le faubourg Saint-Sulpice comme des fourmis dans une fourmiliére [pp. 191-92, ll. 37, 1-2]. Closely allied to this subject’of animalisms is the use of what we may call vegetablisms. Analogies between man and the vegetable kingdom occur time and again in Les Chouans, though variations in their use are exceedingly rare. examples following are typical: O. il lui répondit en la regardant avec des yeux semblables 4 des prunelles sauvages [II, 188, Il. 5-8]. O. Francine tremblait comme /es feuilles mobiles du bouleau sous Veffort d’une brise [II, 190, ll. 6-8]. The two ML. et lui répondit en la re- gardant avec des yeux ferribles [p. 139, ll. 17-18]. ML. Quoique Francine e#t peur [p. 140, l. ro]. The third type of variations to be considered—changes in names—brings up the subject of reappearing characters. Cooper employed this device with admirable success, and, as already mentioned, it is quite possible that Balzac owes his idea of reappearing characters to the American writer. At the time of writing Les Chowans (1828), however, Balzac had not yet planned to link the characters in his novels—not until 40 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” 1833 did that idea occur to him.’ The carrying out of such a plan in the case of the story under consideration therefore involved (1) the repetition in other stories of names of charac- ters found in Les Chouans and (2) the change of certain names in Les Chouans to those of characters created during or after 1833. Thelatter principle accounts, as we shall see, for many | of the variations in names. In the standard edition of Les Chouans there are twenty- two reappearing characters, as shown in the following list: (1) Bauvan, le comte de (14) Leroi, Pierre (Marche-a- (2) Berthier, Alexandre Terre) (3) Castéran, Blance de (15) Loudon, le prince de (4) Brigaut, le major (16) Montauran, le marquis Al- (5) Cibot, Jean (Pille-Miche) phonse de (6) Corentin (17) Montauran, la marquise Al- (7) Esgrignon, le marquis d’ phonse de (8) Falcon, Jean (18) Montauran, le marquis de (9) Fontaine, le comte de (frére cadet d’Alphonse de (10) Fouché, Joseph Montauran) (11) Guénic, le baron du (19) Troisville, le vicomte de (x2) Hulot, le commandant (20) Valois, le chevalier de (13) La Billardiére, le baron Fla- (21) Verneuil, le duc de met de (22) Vissard, le chevalier du t Surville, Balzac, Sa Vie et Ses GEuvres, p. 95. 2 The list includes characters mentioned in other novels, regardless of whether they do or do not actually participate in the action. See Balzac’s Reappearing Characters, by Ethel Preston; Repertoire de la Comédie humaine de H. de Balzac, by Cerfbeer and Christophe; and annotations to the Conard edition of Les Chouans. Balzac’s attempt to make Mme du Gua a reappearing character was not wholly successful. According to MM. Bouteron and Longnon: “Il est clair que Balzac cherche ici 4 opérer la fusion de Mme du Gua avec la fille de Mme de la Chanterie, Henriette Bryond des Tours-Miniéres, qui, maftresse du chevalier du Vissard, périt en 1810 sur l’échafaud, victime de sa complicité dans l’affaire des Chauffeurs de Mortagne. Malheureusement pour l’exactitude de cette identification, Mlle de la Chanterie, selon Balzac lui-méme, ne pouvait avoir que dix ans en 1799 (L’Envers de l’histoire contemporaine).”” Les Chouans, Conard edition, p. 410. VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 41 As many as sixty-nine variations in names occur in the two editions with which we are concerned, and among these changes fifteen reappearing characters are represented. In the first group of examples following, it is to be observed that Balzac adds the names of reappearing characters in the standard edition. Thus: O. [The entire sentence is omit- tee Leeysr lL r3.] O. —Elle a péri avec son pére, dit-elle brusquement [II, 10, ll. 1-2]. O. [The entire sentence is omit- ted.] [II, 173, 1. 12.] O. —Voici la-bas deux nouveaux chefs de la Vendée ?>—Celui-ci est le marquis de P... l’agent de VAngleterre, je le crois de bonne foi [II, 179, ll. 17-20]. ML. Le chevalier de Valois, le marquis d’Esgrignon et les Trois- ville étaient, disait-on, leurs cor- respondants dans le département de Orne [p. 53, ll. 16-18]. ML. —Elle a péri sur l’échafaud aprés l’affaire de Savenay, elle était venue au Mans pour sauver son frére le prince de Loudon, lui dit brusquement sa mére [p. 74, Il. 17-19]. ML. Le baron du Guénic, sur- nommé l’Jntimé, qui, parmi tous ces hommes rassemblés par de graves intéréts, paraissait autorisé par son nom et par son rang & traiter familiérement Montauran, le prit par le bras et l’emmena dans un coin [p. 131, ll. 20-24]. ML. Voici la-bas deux nouveaux chefs de la Vendée. Le premier, que vous avez entendu nommer le Grand-Jacques, est le comte de Fontaine; Vautre est la Billardiére, que je vous ai déja montré [p. 136, ll. 16-19]. The next group of examples illustrates substitutions in thejcase of names. Again, with few exceptions, we have the insertion of reappearing characters in the standard edition. 42 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” O. Ces menées coincidaient avec les nouvelles venues de la Vendée ou des intrigues semblables agi- taient la contrée, sous l’influence de quatre chefs célébres: MM. Vabbé Bernier, d’Autichamp, de Chatillon et Suzannet [I, 151, ll. 8-13]. O. —Oui, dit-il je suis émigré et condamné 4 mort. Je suis le marquis de Marigny [II, 108, Il. 16-17]. O. —C’est le chevalier de Renty LE erates, O. Je me nomme Beau-pied [nom de guerre of Jean Falcon] [III, 27, ll. 14-15]. O. chez maitre Douleure, le no- taire de Fougéres [III, 113, ll. 13- T4]. O. Je crois que ce diable de Cot- tereau, le contrebandier, est cause de tout le tumulte [ITI, 222, Il. 18- 20]. O. —Vous parlez admirablement bien, monsieur de Longuy [III, 228, ll. 18-10]. O. Au milieu d’eux, l’abbé Gudin, le comte de*** et le chevalier de Renty se consultaient pour aider le marquis 4 repousser des préten- tions ‘aussi exagérées [III, 234, Ihige7|. O. Le jeune chevalier de Renty, impatient de se faire pardonner la plaisanterie qui avait donné le ML. Ces menées_ coincidaient avec les nouvelles de la Vendée, ou des intrigues semblables agi- taient la contrée, sous |’influence de quatre chefs célébres, MM. Vabbé Vernal, le comte de Fontaine, de Chatillon et Suzannet [p. 53, ll, 13-16]. ML. —vVous avez presque deviné, dit-il; je suis émigré, condamné a mort, et je me nomme le vicomie de Bauvan [p. 107, ll. 4-5]. ML. —C’est le fameux major Brigaut [p. 132, 1. 36]. ML. Je me nomme Jean Falcon, dit Beau-Pied [p. 161, 1. 5]. ML. chez maitre Patrat, le no- taire de Fougéres [p. 190, 1. 20]. ML. Je crois que ce diable de Rifoél (le chevalier du Vissard) est cause de tout le tumulte [p. 224, ll. 24-25]. ML. —Vous parlez admirable- ment bien, monsieur du Vissard [Die27 ile Ele ML. Au milieu d’eux, l’abbé Gudin, le comte de Bauvan, le baron du Guénic, se consultaient pour aider le marquis 4 repousser des prétentions si exagérées [p. 228, ll. 32-35]. ML. Le jeune et beau chevalier du Vissard, impatient de se faire pardonner la plaisanterie qui avait VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 43 signal des injures 4 la Vivetiére, s’avanca vers elle [IV, 6, ll. 6-o]. O. —Marie Nathalie, fille de mademoiselle Blanche d’Haute- feuille et de Victor-Amédée, duc donné le signal des injures A la Vivetiére, s’avanca vers elle [p. 234, ll. 7-9]. ML. —Marie-Nathalie, fille de mademoiselle Blanche de Castéran, décédée abbesse de Notre-Dame de de Verneuil [{IV, 213, ll. 19-21]. Séez, et de Victor-Amédée, duc de Verneuil [p. 305, ll. 1-3]. Attention is called to the fact that the abbé Bernier, d’Autichamp, the marquis de Marigny, and maitre Douleure (properly spelled Deleurme) were real people.? It is to be observed also that three different characters substitute for the suppressed chevalier de Renty. In addition to the variations involving the names of reap- pearing characters, there are many minor changes in the use of names. Thus, for the sake of clearness or emphasis Balzac uses the name of a character rather than a pronoun or some other part of speech: O. Ces éloquentes allocutions adressées aux masses et dont il ML. Ces éloquentes allocutions adressées aux masses, et que était, pour ainsi dire, l’inventeur, produisaient, dans ces temps de patriotisme et de miracles, des effets prodigieux [I, 154, ll. 3-8]. O. lasainte vierge d’Auray [I, 185, ]. 18]. Bonaparte avait, pour ainsi dire, inventées, produisaient, dans ces temps de patriotisme et de miracles, des effets prodigieux [p. 54, ll. 16-10]. ML. sainte Anne d’Auray [p. 65, Lyk This latter variation occurs numerous times in Les Chouans. In the standard edition Balzac invariably seems to prefer “Anne”’ to verge. Balzac also has a tendency to confuse characters and their names—a practice which gives rise to such variations as are in the next two examples: t Serval, op. cit., pp. 52-53- 44. VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” O. Merle se hasarda 4 lui de- mander [I, 164, l. 17]. O. —Portez arme! par file a gauche, en avant, marche! ... dit Merle [I, 165, ll. 3-4]. ML. Gérard se hasarda aA lui demander [p. 58, 1. 20]. ML. —Portez armes! Par file 4 gauche, en avant, marche! dit Gérard [p. 58, ll. 25-26]. Cases of the omission of names in the Michel Lévy edition are very rare and ordinarily involve other types of variations. In the example following Balzac evidently finds the sum in the original edition too exorbitant. ‘‘Thomas,’”’ the name omitted in the Michel Lévy edition, was the owner of a large house in Brittany—the home purchased by Mlle de Verneuil for Francine, her maid. ‘The latter was a niece of Thomas. O. —Veux-tu, dit Marche-a-terre en poussant un soupir, veux-tu deux cents livres de bonne rente censive et la maison de Thomas a ML. —Veux-tu, dit Marche-a- Terre en poussant un soupir, veux- tu trente livres de bonne rente [p. 156, ll. 15-16] ? Ernée [III, 13, ll. 12-15] ? The fourth type of variations has to do with money. Plots in which money is a major factor are numerous in Balzac’s stories, and his reputation for piling up enormous sums in his novels is too well known for comment. The plot of Les Chouans, however, is not a money plot, though money is often mentioned in the story, and at least a dozen variations occur in connection with the amounts involved. These va- riations, with few exceptions, are slight, as is apparent in the typical examples following: O. —Il n’y a plus de danger, monsieur d’Orgemont; cette fois-ci j'ai bén gagné mes dix écus [III, 111, ll. 11-13]. O. Si Galope-chopine vous dé- couvrait, ou il vous prendra pour Vesprit s’il fait nuit, ou ces quatre ML. —Il n’y a plus de danger, monsieur d’Orgemont. Mais, cette fois-ci, j’ai bien gagné mes frente écus [p. 189, ll. 27-28]! ML. Si Galope-Chopine vous dé- couvrait, ou il vous prendra pour Vesprit, s’il fait nuit; ou dix écus VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 45 écus l’attendriront s’il fait jour... V’attendriront, s’il fait jour [p. 190, [IIT, 112-13, ll. r9~21, 1]. ll. ro—-12]. O. Tenez, voild trois cents écus, ML. Tenez, voila deux cents écus, — gardez-les-lui. En les ménageant, gardez-les-lui; en les ménageant, il ira loin avec ¢a,—puisque son il ira loin avec ca, puisque son pére a été douze ans 4 les amasser_ pére a été douze ans A les amasser {IV, 147-48, ll. 21, 1-3]. [p. 282, ll. 25-27]. In the first and second examples just given, the changes are made for the sake of consistency. Balzac refers to the same sums elsewhere in the story and in so doing is inaccurate in repeating the correct figures. As to the third example, he evidently considers the amount in the original edition to be too large. The next type of variations is different from anything we have observed so far. In the examples cited hitherto, the alterations have been concerned primarily with style. As previously explained, these variations are representative of changes made throughout Les Chouans. After the first attack, however, instances occur where certain variations involve not only matters of style but changes in ideas and substance. It will therefore be our aim henceforth to make a study of this last type of variations with the object of ascertaining Balzac’s purpose in making such revisions. Also, by keeping the plot of the story always in mind, we shall be enabled to determine whether the variations constitute actual changes in the plot or provide the means of facilitating its motivation. Les Chouans, it should be observed at this point, is based on a double plot of the conflict type. The story, briefly, is as follows: In the autumn of the year 1799 the inhabitants of Brittany uprise in rebellion against the Republic. Marquis Alphonse de Montauran (the “Gars,”’ as he is called), their young chief, 46 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” leads them in an attack against the Blues (Republicans) on the plateau of La Pélerine, an elevated plain between Fougéres and Mayenne. Accompanying the young nobleman on the expedition and posing as his mother is a Mme du Gua, a woman still young, striking in appearance, and much enamored of the marquis. While on the way to La Pélerine, mother and son share the coach of Mlle de Verneuil, a beautiful spy sent by the police to frustrate the plans of the Breton leader. Mlle de Verneuil is accompanied by an escort of Blues under the command of Corentin, a wily police-agent of considerable talent. During the journey the marquis de Montauran and Mile de Verneuil fall in love with each other. Their love gives impetus to jealousy and treachery on the part of Mme du Gua and Corentin. Influenced by the actions and attitudes of these two people, the lovers mistrust each other and seek revenge. ‘Their misunderstandings and lack of confidence in each other finally result in Mlle de Verneuil betraying the marquis on the eve of their wedding. Regretting her deed when too late, the sorrowful wife attempts to save her husband from the onslaught of the Republican guard. Her efforts are futile, and both she and her husband perish within a few hours after their marriage. Let us now begin with the variations concerning chiefly the characters in the narrative. In Les Chouans Balzac desires the reader to form a definite conception of certain individuals in the book, and when oversight on his part or the exigencies of the plot tend to mar the moral portrait he invariably seeks to remedy the situation. Take, for example, Mile de Verneuil. As we read, we are exceedingly impressed with the girl’s charm, her surpassing beauty, and her manly courage. We are conscious too of her womanliness, her high ideals, her depth of character. These latter qualities Balzac considered salient in her nature, and that he desired us to VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 47 form a similar opinion is apparent in many of the variations following. Thus in the first example the matter of the heroine’s attitude toward the political parties in power arises in connec- tion with her invitation to the Gars and Mme du Gua to share the coach. The possible danger involved in accepting such an offer causes the Gars to question Mlle de Verneuil concern- ing the safety of the journey and her relations with the escort of Republicans. In both the original and standard editions the girl explains to him that the condition of the times renders all occurrences unnatural and that one can always accept without scruple what is offered with bonhomie. In the standard edition, however, she adds: “Et surtout ... vous n’avez a craindre aucune trahison dans une offre faite avec simplicité par une personne qui n’épouse point les haines politiques” (O., II, 42, 1.2. ML., p. 82, ll. 26-29). Remembering that Balzac desires the reader to keep in mind the finer side of the heroine, the purpose of this brief addition becomes obvious. The fact that Mlle de Verneuil does not share political hatreds enables us to excuse much in her future actions which savors of disloyalty to the political party of which she is a representative. The second example consists of the addition of a long passage in the Michel Lévy edition. In both editions, during the early stages of their journey together, the hero and the heroine, weary of riding, dismount to take a short walk. The pleasant trend of their conversation is suddenly broken when the question of the identity of the Gars is raised. The hesitancy of the young man to disclose his real name grieves the girl. She suspects that her companion is not, as his attire would indicate, a pupil of the Ecole Polytechnique, but rather, the Royalist chief, the marquis de Montauran. In the original edition the matter of identity is then soon brought to a 48 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” harmonious conclusion by subterfuge on the part of the Gars who claims, among other things, that he is the marquis de Marigny,* that he is condemned to die, that love of country brings him to France, and that if death awaits him, he would like to die fighting near Montauran, his friend. But at this point in the story Balzac lengthens the conversation between the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil in the standard edition. In the added passage Mile de Verneuil admits when questioned by the Gars that she does not hate Montauran and that she intends to afford the latter protection. Her remarks lead the Gars to confess his love for her. She then takes the oppor- tunity to tell him how his appearance and actions reveal his true identity. She points out also the traits in herself which disprove her to be a woman of the streets and makes it clear that she is to be won by love only. She confides that she would like to share in the larger life of a man. She touches on the subject of unfaithfulness and says that it is impossible to noble hearts. She makes it evident that she always would stand ready to help the man who held her affections, to sacrifice herself for him, to love him always—even when he no longer cared for her. Lastly, she explains that she has never told the longings of her heart to another and that she does so now for the reason that the Gars and she will separate as soon as the former is in safety. To this remark the Gars emphatically replies that such a separation will never occur (OST 00) ais AL pp. 107-9; 16-29) 17a From the contents of the addition just summarized we may infer that Balzac has a threefold purpose in inserting the passage ,in the standard edition; namely, to emphasize the fact that the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil are falling in love with each other, to give some notion of their social status, and «In the standard edition the Gars says instead that he is the vicomte de Bauvan (p. 107). VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 49 to stress the nobler and more feminine side of the heroine’s nature. Considering the space devoted to the girl’s conversa- tion and the nature of her remarks, the last of these reasons in all probability is the one which Balzac especially desires to emphasize in this instance. The heroine’s whole conception of love in general and her confession as to what love in particular would mean in her own life reveal aspects of her nature rich in womanly desires. Despite a life fraught with adventure, it is apparent withal that Mlle de Verneuil has retained her femininity and possesses much in common with the type of woman to whom love is the greatest thing in the world and her husband the dominant force in her existence. Variations especially involving romantic elements in Les Chouans will be considered later in a group by themselves. We may note in passing, however, that in the preceding example Mlle de Verneuil’s idealization of love has not a little of the flavor of romanticism. The next example is a case of substitution. During the journey en voiture the coach is attacked. Mlle de Verneuil springs from the vehicle and is about to run away from the scene of the fray. Ashamed of her fright and desirous of appearing brave in the eyes of her lover, she checks her flight. Montauran takes her hand and holds it to his heart. Smiling, she says: O. —Vous voyez? ... je pense, ML. —J’ai eu peur; ... mais commel’empereur romain,qu’ilfaut maintenant ... [p. 113, ll. 33-34]. mourir debout! ... [II, 123, ll. 4-6]. It is to be noted that in the original edition Mlle de Verneuil’s remark is a bit pedantic and that her bravery partakes of masculinity. In the standard edition, however, her response is more in keeping with her true nature; her confession of fear and of a feeling of security in the protection 50° VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” of the man she loves is quite natural under the circumstances and constitutes another subtle touch in the narrative indicative of her femininity. We must not lose sight of the fact that the heroine’s per- sonality is more or less complex and that there are other aspects to her nature which have a bearing on many of her future actions in the story. She is quite feminine as we have already seen. Notwithstanding this fact she possesses the spirit of adventure to a degree unusual in a person of her type—a spirit which accounts, no doubt, for her courage and poise under the most trying circumstances. Balzac brings out very clearly this adventurous side of Mlle de Verneuil in connection with the lovers’ quarrel in the coach. Having been warned during an attack upon the coach to beware of Mlle de Verneuil, the Gars has ceased to regard her ina kindly light. Miserable, the two young people ride on in silence. At last the girl remarks: O. Vous plantez des chardons MLZ. Vous avez une trop mau- et récoltez des roses! ... [II, 149, vaise téte, les bourreaux n’en Il. 19-20]. voudraient pas, je la garde [p. 123, ll. 4-5]. Her winning ways and her assurance that she does not intend to take his life cause the Gars to relent and to yield to her charm. It is at this point in the narrative that Balzac takes the opportunity in the standard edition to speak in particular of Mlle de Verneuil’s adventurous spirit: ‘‘Elle était si belle! elle savait si bien triompher des obstacles en amour! elle était si fort habituée a se jouer de tout, 4 marcher au hasard! elle aimait tant l’imprévu et les orages de la vie!” (O., IT, 150, ase AM L., p.4225 117-70.) In the standard edition Balzac again further elaborates on the character of the heroine. This time he reveals the girl’s inherent pride and the extent to which it may lead her in VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 51 maintaining her self-respect. It will be recalled that, while on the way to La Pélerine, Mlle de Verneuil accepts the invitation of the Gars to stop off at the chateau of La Vivetiére, and that, during her brief sojourn there, cruel gossip causes her to be scorned by the Gars. Speaking of the incident to her maid, Mlle de Verneuil remarks, in the two editions under consideration, that one lives to love but that one can die to avenge one’s self. ‘Then she adds in the standard edition: “Oui, pour l’aller chercher 14 oti il sera, pour de nouveau le rencontrer, le séduire et avoir 4 moi, je donnerais ma vie! ... Mais, si je n’ai pas, dans peu de jours, sous mes pieds, humble et soumis, cet homme qui m’a méprisée, si je n’en fais pas mon valet, mais je serai au-dessous de tout, je ne serai plus une femme, je ne serai plus moi! ...” (O., III, 33, 1. 9. ML., p. 163, ll. 9-14.) It is to be noted that the preceding example not only makes us aware of one more quality in the heroine’s character but that it serves to motivate the plot by suggesting additional moves in the story. In the next example Mlle de Verneuil again refers to her unpleasant experience at La Vivetiére. This time she is talking to the commandant Hulot and says in regard to the Gars: ‘‘—Je vais pécher aux flambeaux. Je serai moi-méme le phare allumé sur le rivage pour attirer la proie du pécheur. ... Ah! ah! ah! ce ne sera pas le premier poisson amorcé par une femme!” (O., III, 38, ll. 10-15. ML., p. 165, l. 6.) In the standard edition Balzac omits this remark of Mlle de Verneuil, obviously because her analogy is vulgar and detracts from her character. Still referring to her experience at the chateau of La Vive- tiére and to her intention to take vengeance on the Gars, Mlle de Verneuil continues the conversation thus: 52 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” O. —Je ne me reconnais pas, dit- ML. —Je ne me reconnais pas, elle d’un ton d’homme; pourquoi dit-elle d’un ton d’homme. Pour- parler [IIT, 40, ll. 11-12] ? quoi parler ? il faut l’aller chercher! —L’aller chercher? dit Hulot; mais, ma chére enfant, prenez-y garde, nous ne sommes _ pas maitres des campagnes, et, si vous vous hasardiez 4 sortir de la ville, vous seriez prise ou tuée & cent pas.—Il n’y a jamais de danger pour ceux qui veulent se venger! répondit-elle en faisant un geste de dédain ... [p. 165, ll. 30-37]. As far as the character of the heroine is concerned, the added material in this instance in the Michel Lévy edition strongly emphasizes her great courage—a trait in her nature of which we are conscious again and again in the story. The addition likewise renders the conclusion of her discussion more vivid and more dramatic. It also intimates, as in an example previously cited, a possible development of the plot in the direction of revenge. The next variation takes the form of new material in the Michel Lévy edition, and occurs in connection with the delay of the Gars a few hours before his marriage to Mlle de Verneuil. While waiting in vain for a prearranged signal from her lover assuring her that he is on the way, the heartsick girl has a premonition that her happiness is imperiled. Balzac adds at this point: oy Depuis deux jours, ses idées s’étaient étrangement modifiées. L’4preté, les éclats désordonnés de ses passions avaient lentement subi Vinfluence de l’égale température que donne 4 la vie un véritable amour. La certitude d’étre aimée, qu’elle était allée chercher 4 travers tant de périls, avait fait naitre en elle le désir de rentrer dans les conditions sociales qui sanctionnent le bonheur, et d’ou elle n’était sortie que par VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 53 désespoir. N’aimer que pendant un moment lui sembla de l’impuissance. Puis elle se vit soudain reportée, du fond de la société ot le malheur Vavait plongée, dans le haut rang ot son pére l’avait un moment placée. Sa vanité, comprimée par les cruelles alternatives d’une passion tour a tour heureuse ou méconnue, s’éveilla, lui fit voir tous les bénéfices d’une grande position. En quelque sorte née marquise, épouser Montauran, n’était-ce pas, pour elle, agir et vivre dans la sphére qui lui était propre ? Aprés avoir connu les hasards d’une vie tout aventureuse, elle pouvait, mieux qu’une autre femme, apprécier la grandeur des sentiments qui font la famille. Puis le mariage, la maternité et ses soins étaient pour elle moins une taéche qu’un repos. Elle aimait cette vie vertueuse et calme entrevue 4 travers ce dernier orage, comme une femme lasse de la vertu peut jeter un regard de convoitise sur une passion illicite. La vertu était pour elle une nouvelle séduction [O., IV, 132, 1.6. MZL., pp. 278-79, ll. 23-37, 1-8]. hoe Again Balzac emphasizes the finer side of the heroine in the preceding addition. The girl’s dreams of the future show that with the coming of love into her life she has main- tained her ideals and her desire to lead a virtuous life. Her vanity on this occasion is but the natural expression of a feeling of self-respect, and explains her satisfaction in the fact that marriage with the marquis will in no way detract from her social status in life but will, instead, elevate her to a position which is rightfully hers. Summarizing now the examples of variations dealing in particular with the character of the heroine, we find that all are for the purpose of calling attention to the more or less admirable qualities in her nature. Thus, in the first example (an addition) Balzac endeavors to show that disloyalty to her country is not characteristic of Mlle de Verneuil; in the second example (an addition) he stresses the nobler and more feminine qualities of her nature; in the third example (a substitution) he again emphasizes her femininity; in the fourth example (an addition) he calls attention to the adventurous side of her nature which accounts, in a large 54 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” measure, for her extraordinary courage; in the fifth example (an addition) he reveals her inherent pride, based on a feeling of self-respect; in the sixth example (an omission) he does away with an indelicate analogy which gives a touch of vulgarity to her character; in the seventh example (an addition) he again stresses her courage; and in the eighth and last example (an addition) he expounds at length her desire to lead a virtuous life and to find her rightful position in the social scale. Of the four variations which remain to be considered from the standpoint of characterization, three concern Mme du Gua and one has reference to Corentin. Mme du Gua, it may be recalled, plays the réle of villainess in Les Chouans. Her unrequited love for the hero gives rise to intense feelings of suspicion, jealousy, and antagonism toward her rival, Mlle de Verneuil. The first of the variations mentioned occurs early in the story. Before undertaking the journey in the coach, Mlle de Verneuil breakfasts with the Gars and Mme du Gua in a wayside inn. On this occasion Mlle de Verneuil asks Mme du Gua if her maid Francine may dine with them. She excuses her request on the ground that in such stormy times devotion can be repaid only by friendship and that her maid is more a friend than a servant. After this explanation Mme du Gua whispers in the ear of the Gars: | O. ...c’est peut-étre mademoiselle ML. ... ce ne doit pas étre de Verneuil!—mais pourquoi n’a-t- mademoiselle de Verneuil, mais elle pas de poudre [II, 31, ll. une fille envoyée par Fouché t1-13] ? [p. 78, Il. 25-26]. This, brief substitution in the standard edition is but one of many ‘taps’ revealing the unpleasant traits in the charac- ter of Mmedu Gua. In this instance it indicates her suspicion. t A “tap” may be defined as one of a number of points reinforcing a definite idea or making progress in a definite direction. VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 55 The variation serves the purpose also of suggesting, a little more, the police atmosphere in the narrative. The second variation, an addition in the standard edition, occurs shortly after the example just cited. Mme du Gua observes that the heroine carries a letter which gives her authority over the Republican escort, and she insinuatingly remarks in a whisper to the Gars that: ‘‘C’est une de ces mauvaises créatures 4 l’aide desquelles Fouché veut s’emparer de vous, et la lettre qu’elle a montrée est donnée pour requérir les bleus contre vous” (O., II, 61, 1. 9. ML., pp. 89-90, ll. 36-37, 1-2). This short addition is another “tap” further disclosing the unpleasant traits characteristic of Mme du Gua. Itisa subtle touch revealing her suspicion and jealousy. It suggests also a possibility as to the identity of the heroine, and thus arouses curiosity and suspense. It constitutes, too, another point in the development of the police atmosphere. The third variation is likewise an added passage in the standard edition. During their journey together Mlle de Verneuil accepts the invitation of the Gars to attend a recep- tion at the chateau of La Vivetiére.t Her beauty and charm excite the admiration and curiosity of the other guests, where- upon (in the standard edition) Mme du Gua takes occasion to say to some of the people present that Montauran has fallen in love with the girl at first sight, that advice from her lips was unwelcome to him, that he has had sufficient warning, and that the girl has taken a noble name only to tarnish it (O., II, 169,1.7. ML., p. 129, ll. 25-33). t An interesting fact arises in connection with this chateau. The points of similarity between the chateau of Marigny, which Balzac visited, and that of La Vivetiére strongly indicate that the two places are the same. On account of the exigencies of the story, however, Balzac locates the chateau of La Vivetiére between Mayenne and Fougéres rather than to the west of Fougéres. See Serval, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 56 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” These sarcastic remarks of Mme du Gua are quite typical, and bring out still more clearly her jealousy and antagonism toward Mlle de Verneuil. They serve also to create suspense by implying that the heroine is traveling under an assumed name. The variation referring to Corentin consists of a substitu- tion in the standard edition. In this case the police-agent has just endeavored to arouse the suspicion of Hulot, the Republican Commandant, by telling him that Mlle de Verneuil’s love for the marquis will interfere with her promise to deliver the Gars into the hands of the Republicans. Corentin then says to himself: O. —Oui, l’heure est venue, Vargent sera ma foi bien gagné, car ma faction peut étre longue ML, —Oui, le moment est venu, cette femme sera donc 4 moi! Depuis cinq ans, le cercle que je [IV, 48, ll. r2—-r4]. trace autour d’elle s’est insensible- ’ ment rétréci, je la tiens, et avec elle j’arriverai dans le gouverne- ment aussi haut que Fouché ... Oui, si elle perd le seul homme qu’elle ait aimé, la douleur me la livrera corps et 4me. II ne s’agit plus que de veiller nuit et jour pour surprendre son secret [p. 248, ll. 26-31]. In the foregoing passage in the Michel Lévy edition we perceive a number of traits especially characteristic of Coren- tin. Shrewdness, cunning, and tenacity of purpose, for instance, are apparent in his reference to the years spent in encircling Mlle de Verneuil; time and trouble are no obstacles in carrying out his base aims. His reference to the possible opportunity for advancement in the government shows him to be a man not without ambition. And finally, his speech in- dicates both his past as a mere spy and his more brilliant future as a reappearing character. VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 57 In Les Chouans we have still another group of variations dealing with characters in the narrative, but since the purpose of these changes is primarily that of motivation, we shall reserve them for later consideration. In passing now to the subject of romanticism in Les Chouans we find that the story embodies many romantic qualities but that variations involving such traits are rare. The addition in the standard text relative to Mlle de Verneuil’s idealization of love has already been pointed out as being a romantic touch in the story. In the variations following three other romantic elements are apparent. Thus, the first example deals with the matter of the dual personality—a prevalent idea in romanticism. ‘The variation referred to, a short addition, occurs in connection with the lovers’ discussion of love. The Gars, charmed with Mlle de Verneuil’s bewitching ways, inquires, among other things, if she is an angel ora demon. She in turn replies: Ange et démon, vous l’avez dit. Ah! ce n’est pas d’aujourd’hui que je reconnais ma double nature. Pourtant, nous autres femmes, nous comprenons encore mieux que vous notre insuffisance. N’avons-nous pas un instinct qui nous fait pressentir en toute chose une perfection 4 laquelle il est sans doute impossible d’atteindre. Mais, ajouta-t-elle en regardant le ciel et jetant un soupir, ce qui nous grandit & vos yeux ... —C’est ? dit-il. —Eh bien, répondit-elle, c’est que nous luttons toutes, plus ou moins, contre une destinée incomplete [O., II, 100, l. 15. ML., p. 103, ll. 25-35]. The occasion of the second variation in question is when the lovers fully realize for the first time their affection for each other. Spellbound, they ride along in the coach in silence, wholly oblivious of their surroundings, dreaming sweet dreams of a glorious future which they hope to share together. In the standard edition Balzac pauses at this point in the story to generalize on the state in which the lovers find 58 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” themselves. He calls attention to the fact that they probably have arrived at that strange condition of mind when, either from fatigue or by way of a challenge to fate, one refuses to ponder seriously over the course one is pursuing and yields one’s self up to the caprices of fortune. He raises the question as to whether there are not abysses and declivities in the moral as in the physical world, wherein vigorous natures like to plunge and endanger their existence with the joy of a gambler who stakes his whole fortune. He stresses the fact that the more inevitably Mlle de Verneuil and the young nobleman feel themselves drawn toward each other, the more they become absorbed in unconsciously calculating the amount of their future happiness (O.,II,112,1.3. ML.,p.110, ll. 7-22). In making this lengthy addition, Balzac obviously is endeavoring to impress the reader with the fact that what is taking place between the lovers is a strange but not impossible or improbable experience. His whole discourse, moreover, comprises a discussion of fatal love—a second romantic touch in Les Chouans. The last variation available in connection with the subject of romanticism is an omission in the standard edition. Mlle de Verneuil on this occasion is dancing, and Balzac describes her thus: Elle déploya les mystérieuses richesses d’une danse prestigieuse, imprimant a sa voluptueuse tunique rouge de molles ondulations et des torsions rapides qui attestérent la rare perfection du corps. Ses mouve- mens eurent une pétillante vivacité, une grace sylphique, qui firent croire qu'elle se balangait dans une atmosphere magnétique ot son passage excitatt des étincelles, car ses vétemens semblaient jeter de la lumiére. Elle attirait comme l’espoir, elle échappait comme un souvenir. La voir ainsi, c’était ne jamais l’oublier! Elle le savait, et la conscience qu’elle eut alors de sa beauté répandit sur sa figure un charme inexprimable [O., IV, 11-12, ll. 11-20, 1-7. ML., p. 235, l. 33]. VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK — 59 In the foregoing description the information in italics affords a third romantic touch in the story; namely, the mesmeric quality. Balzac’s frequent use of such material is well known. In this instance, however, he omits the part in question in the standard edition for the reason, perhaps, that it is not in keeping with so short a description. The next group of variations is quite miscellaneous in character and concerns a variety of subjects. The first of the examples following is a long digression in the conversation between the Gars and Mlle de Verneuil during the reception at the chateau of La Vivetiére. In discussing the social status of some of the guests the conversation of the two young people suddenly turns to Mlle de Verneuil herself, and we have an insertion in the standard edition. She asks what the people are saying about her, and the Gars answers that he would offend her if he told her. She then tells the Gars that she will depart immediately if he allows her to be insulted without taking vengeance. He in turn explains that the guests consider her a Judith of the streets sent by Fouché to entrap him. Deeply hurt, Mlle de Verneuil remarks that. she deserves these insults and that she would like to see the Gars persuaded that she is a “‘méprisable créature’’ and yet have him love her still. He then tells her that his life belongs to her, and she replies that he is offering himself in a moment of passion and of desire. He answers: ‘‘—Sans regret, et pour toujours” (O., II, 174,1. 10. ML., pp. 133-34, ll. 4~37) TG I The major purpose of the preceding insertion is apparently to lengthen the love scene and consequently to hold or to further stimulate the interest of the reader. The example, moreover, is still another tap in the development of the police atmosphere. 60 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” The second example, a case of substitution in the standard edition, is largely an elaboration of specific details. O. —Elle [Mlle de Verneuil] a péri avec son pére, dit-elle [Mme du Gua] brusquement. Thus: ML. —Elle a péri sur l’échafaud aprés l’affaire de Savenay, elle était venue au Mans pour sauver son frére le prince de Loudon, lui dit brusquement sa mére. —Vous vous trompez, madame, dit avec douceur Corentin en appuyant sur le mot madame; il y a deux demoiselles de Verneuil, les grandes maisons ont toujours plusieurs branches [p. 74, Il. 17-22]. —Vous vous trompez, Madame, reprit avec douceur Corentin en appuyant sur le mot madame; elle a été sauvée au 9g thermidor {II, ro, ll. 1-6]. The third variation, an omission in the standard edition referring to Mlle de Verneuil, is as follows: ‘‘Les deux petites narines, dont le joli nez grec de la jeune fille s’embellissait, fidéles organes de la passion, s’enflérent comme de petites voiles, et leur courbure voluptueuse donna un charme inex- primable 4 cette figure ot le dépit et mille sentimens irrités et combattus déployérent des beautés inconnues” (O., II, 50-51, Il. 17-20, 1-4. ML., p. 86, 1. 5). In Les Chouans we hear much concerning les deux petites narines of Mlle de Verneuil. In thisinstance Balzac, no doubt, omits this physiological detail for the reason that he employs it a number of times elsewhere. The fourth example, another omission in the standard edition, has reference to a gruesome incident in the story. After the insult at the chateau of La Vivetiére, Mlle de Verneuil resolves, it may be remembered, to take vengeance on the Gars. Going forth into the night to ponder over the matter she wanders along, wholly engrossed with her thoughts. At last she comes upon a cave—the treasure house of D’Orge- mont, a wealthy and avaricious banker. She arrives just as the latter is being tortured by Chouans who seek to force him VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 61 to give up his wealth by burning his feet. Startled by the unexpected presence of the girl, the tormentors flee. Fearing their return, the miser and Mlle de Verneuil conceal themselves in a secret chamber in the cave where, among other things, is secluded the skeleton of a Breton priest, the brother of D’Orgemont. Mlle de Verneuil says: O. —Je ne suis pas morte, mon enfant! mais il me semble que je viens d’entendre lire un chant du Dante &@ mon maitre dItalien.— J’ai été cette nuit en enfer.—Ah! je Speaking of the horrible affair to her maid, ML. —Je ne suis pas morte, mon enfant,—Ah! je désirais des émo- tions en partant de Paris, ... j’en ai eu! ajouta-t-elle aprés une pause [p. 200, ll. 29-31]. voulais des émotions en partant de Paris!—J’en ai eu, ajouta-t-elle avec gaieté [III, 147, ll. 1-7]. As to the purpose of the brief omission in the foregoing example, Balzac evidently makes the revision for the sake of rendering the conversation less pedantic and more natural. The early reference to Dante is of special interest in view of later proof that Balzac gained inspiration from the Divina commedia for his own Comédie humaine." The fifth example concerns the long description of Fougéres and its environs. “Le Fougéres de Balzac est le vrai Fougéres ... 2 In both texts the major features of the description are the same. The difference lies in the quantity of detail and in the manner of presentation. ‘“[La description] de Fougéres a été trés développée 4 partir de 1834, et surtout détachée de Vaction: en 1829, elle se lie aux impressions éprouvées par Mlle de Verneuil lorsqu’elle contemple le panorama qu’on | découvre de la promenade; elle est ainsi plus vive, tout en étant moins compléte.”3 (O. III, 47-60. ML., pp. 167-72.) t See Balzac’s Reappearing Characters, by Ethel Preston. 2 Serval, op. cit., p. 6. 3 Ibid., p. 53. 62 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” Our next consideration is the variations which especially facilitate motivation in Les Chouans. A few examples bear- ing on the subject have already been mentioned in connection with characterization. The first of the variations in question is an addition in the standard text, made chiefly for the purpose of linking two characters together in the reader’s mind; namely, the Gars and Mme du Gua. At this point in Les Chouans the reader is unfamiliar with the relations existing between these two people. Balzac gradually leads up to the matter, however, by subtle hints, as in the example following, the occasion of which is a conversation between the Gars and Mme du Gua relative to plundering the stage coach between Mayenne and Fougéres: —Pourquoi ne restez-vous pas avec moi? [asks Mme du Gua] en lui lancant le regard 4 demi despotique, 4 demi caressant par lequel les femmes qui ont des droits au respect d’un homme savent si bien exprimer leurs désirs. —N’allez-vous pas piller la voiture ? —Piller? répliqua-t-elle, quel singulier terme! lLaissez-moi vous expliquer ... —Rien, dit-il en lui prenant les mains et en les lui baisant avec la galanterie superficielle d’un courtisan—Ecoutez-moi, continua-t-il aprés une pause, si je demeurais l4 pendant la capture de cette diligence, nos gens me tueraient, car je les... —Vous ne les tueriez pas, reprit-elle vivement, car ils vous lieraient les mains, avec les égards dus 4 votre rang, et, aprés avoir levé sur les républicains une contribution nécessaire 4 leur équipement, 4 leur subsistance, 4 des achats de poudre, ils vous obéiraient aveuglément. —Et vous voulez que je commande ici? Si ma vie est nécessaire a la cause que je défends, permettez-moi de sauver l’honneur de mon pouvoir. En me retirant, je puis ignorer cette lAcheté. Je reviendrai pour vous accompagner [O., I, 118, 1. 10. ML., p. 41, ll. 16-36]. Although the main purpose of the addition just cited is to link the two characters together, it will be observed that VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 63 the added lines give some conception of Mme du Gua’s un- scrupulous nature and of the Gars’s high sense of honor. In the next example, likewise an addition, Balzac endeavors to provide a natural situation for the meeting of characters who later are closely associated in the story—the Gars, Mme du Gua, and Mlle de Verneuil. The arrival of the coach at the Trois Maures, ‘‘l’hétel situé au milieu de la grande rue d’Alengon,”* gives Balzac an excellent opportunity to carry out his purpose. While on their way to La Pélerine the Gars and Mme du Gua stop at the Trois Maures. Mlle de Verneuil, traveling in the same direction, also stops at the inn. The presence of such distinguished guests is a great event in the history of the Trois Maures, and creates much bustle and excitement on the part of the innkeeper and his wife. Eager to please and to render satisfaction, the host seeks to make the best of his meager facilities. The question of properly serving the guests arises, and the good man adds (in the standard edition): —Comment allons-nous faire, ma femme? Qui diable pouvait croire que nous aurions tant de monde par le temps qui court? Avant que je puisse lui servir un déjeuner convenable, cette femme-la va s’impatienter. Ma foi, il me vient une bonne idée: puisque c’est des gens comme il faut, je vais leur proposer de se réunir 4 la personne que nous avons la-haut, hein [O., II, 3, 1.9. ML., p. 68, ll. 31-36]? Thus it is that the bonne idée of the innkeeper of the Trois Maures affords a natural and effective means of bringing the Gars and Mme du Gua in contact with Mlle de Verneuil. The third example in the group of variations under discus- sion concerns the attack upon the coach. In order to account for the hostile change in manner of the Gars toward Mlle de Verneuil, it is essential that the author provide some reason t This inn really existed in the place mentioned. Its authentic name, however, was the Maure. See Serval, op. cit., p. 11. 64 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” for such an unpleasant transformation. In the original edition Balzac tries to enable the reader to account for this change by implying that during the skirmish the Gars has received a warning relative to Mlle de Verneuil. The gist of the message is left to the reader’s imagination. In the standard edition, however, Balzac is more specific, and as a consequence we understand more clearly the cause of the hostile change referred to. We learn that a mysterious Chouan has ridden up to the Gars and whispered: “‘—Dé€fiez- vous de la fille que vous avez rencontrée a Vhétel des Trots Maures”’ (O., TI, 127, 1. 10. ML., p. 115, ll. 6-11). The last variation to be mentioned in connection with the subject of motivation refers to a ruse successfully carried out by Corentin. The police-agent, relentless in his endeavor to place Mlle de Verneuil in his power, has delivered to her on the eve of her wedding the following note penned by himself, but supposedly written by the Gars and addressed to Mme du Gua: Non, mon ange, je n’irai pas ce soir 4 la Vivetiére. Ce soir, vous perdez votre gageure avec le comte, et je triomphe de la République en la personne de cette fille délicieuse, qui vaut certes bien une nuit, convenez-en. Ce sera le seul avantage réel que je remporterai dans cette campagne, car la Vendée se soumet. Il n’y a plus rien 4 faire en France, et nous repartirons sans doute ensemble pour l’Angleterre. Mais & demain les affaires sérieuses! This ruse on the part of Corentin is one of many dramatic incidents in the story, and constitutes the final tap in the destruction of the heroine’s faith in her lover. In the original edition, however, Balzac omits a bit of information essential to the, success of the artifice; namely, that Mlle de Verneuil is unfamiliar with the handwriting of the Gars. In the standard edition he remedies this defect, explaining: ‘“‘Elle ne connait pas lécriture du marquis” (O., IV, 165, l. 5. ML., p. 288, 1. 17). VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 65 Three more variations remain for our attention, all dealing with the conclusion of the story. The occasion of the first two variations is the death of the hero and the heroine. In the original edition, immediately after the death of Mlle de Verneuil, Corentin gives orders to remove the wounded couple to the hospital. Prior to this command, however, Balzac inserts the following passage in the standard edition: —Commandant, dit le marquis en rassemblant toutes ses forces et sans quitter la main de Marie, je compte sur votre probité pour annoncer ma mort 4 mon jeune frére, qui se trouve 4 Londres. Ecrivez-lui que, sil veut obéir 4 mes derniéres paroles, il ne portera pas les armes contre la France, sans néanmoins jamais abandonner le service du roi.—Ce sera fait, dit Hulot en serrant la main du mourant [0., IV, 230, 1. 13. ML., pp. 309-10, ll. 35-37, 1-4]. The object of the preceding addition obviously is to lengthen the death scene, to render it more dramatic, and perhaps to indicate the author’s disapproval of civil warfare. The second variation in question is another addition, and serves also to lengthen the death scene. Following Corentin’s command relative to the removal of Mlle de Verneuil and her husband to the hospital, Hulot (in both editions) angrily dismisses the police-agent, saying: ‘“‘—Puisque ta besogne est finie par ici, fiche-moi le camp! et regarde bien la figure du commandant Hulot, pour ne jamais te trouver sur son passage, si tu ne veux pas qu'il fasse de ton ventre le fourreau de son bancal.”’ Corentin in turn replies: “—Voila encore un de mes honnétes gens qui ne feront jamais fortune.’’ Here the story ends in the original edition. In the standard text, however, Balzac adds: ‘“‘Le marquis put encore remercier par un signe de téte son adversaire, en lui témoignant cette estime que les soldats ont pour de loyaux ennemis” (O., LV, 231,16. ALL., p. 310, Il. 15-17). The last variation to be mentioned is that of the epilogue in the standard edition. In the editio princeps Balzac leaves 66 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” us in a state of doubt as to the fate of certain outstanding minor characters—Marche-a-Terre and Francine. In the standard edition, however, he satisfies our curiosity, and in the form of a short epilogue gives us a charming glimpse of these two people as they go through life together, industrious, content, and apparently oblivious of the crimes committed in the years gone by. In recapitulating now the numerous variations existing between the original and the standard editions of Les Chouans, we may sum them up thus: First, there are the prefatory and the mechanical variations involving the title of the story, its form, the date of composition, the quotation from the Apocrypha, the dedication of the book, and the Introduction which gives some conception of the spirit in which Les Chouans was written, together with information relative to the authen- ticity of the narrative, the characters, and the setting. Secondly, there are the variations up to the first attack, illus- trative of ‘‘the additional detail,’’ many Cooperesque touches, the tic, the addition, omission, substitution, and change in position of various parts of speech, as well as changes in spelling and in punctuation. Thirdly, there are the salient variations after the first attack which include (besides minor touches such as animalisms, vegetablisms, money variations, et cetera) reappearing characters and variations dealing with characterization, romantic elements, description, motivation, and the conclusion of the story. As stated in chapter i, the object of our study of the variations in question has been to secure specific information relative to Balzac’s method of composition, his style, and his realism. It is already evident from the number of changes made that Balzac’s method of composition is characterized by infinite pains to attain perfection, by laborious efforts to VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 67 take into consideration the most insignificant details. Brunetiére sums up the whole matter in Honoré de Balzac when he says: “... comme Moliére, nous venons de le voir, il écrit vite, mais, de plus que Moliére, il se corrige [156 typical variations have been quoted, mentioned, or dis- cussed in our study, and they, as we have seen, constitute only a small proportion of the total changes in Les Chouans]; il refait jusqu’a douze ou quinze fois ses romans sur épreuves [Les Chouans, like other novels, was much revised in proofs]; il ajoute, il retranche, il transpose, il superpose 4 la premiére expression de sa pensée ce qui lui semble en étre une expression ‘plus écrite’ [up to the first attack there are 107 additions, 126 omissions, 55 transpositions, and 359 substitutions (see p. 14), not to mention those which come later in the story]. ... il oublie parfois le sens propre des mots, souvent les régles de la grammaire, et les lois mémes de la syntaxe frangaise’’ [the examples on pp. 28, 18, 20, 29, for instance].7 Furthermore, the general principles of Balzac’s method— accumulation and harmony—are illustrated in a number of variations. Take, for example, the Indian characteristics of the Breton peasants; their savage nature, their wild and rugged appearance, their courage, their cunning, their treach- ery, their primitive method of warfare—all are given added weight in the changes cited above (pp. 16, 25-26). And in the variations concerning Mlle de Verneuil, we again see instances of accumulation and harmony. Balzac’s desire to emphasize the more attractive side of the heroine causes him to adopt essential womanliness as the central keynote of her complex nature. The result is the addition, on the one hand, of many passages calling attention to her femininity and the omission, on the other hand, of certain portions of the story which smack of vulgarity or masculinity (pp. 46-54). t Brunetiére, op. cit., p. 294. 68 VARIATIONS IN BALZAC’S “LES CHOUANS” As to Balzac’s style, whatever may be our personal opinion of the matter, from the standpoint of the variations under consideration its good points rather than its flaws are in evidence. It is occasionally true that certain modifications which he deemed essential must, at times, render his style heavy and laborious. But on the whole Balzac’s omissions and substitutions have the opposite effect. The criticism also is often advanced that Balzac “tombe dans un langage prétentieux ot abondent les métaphores_ recherchées.’’ Balzac himself is aware of overelaboration in this respect, and in Les Chouans we have observed several cases where he endeavors to be less florid (pp. 19, 29). The distinctive features of his style, however, as evinced by our study, are precision and clearness. No less than a third of the changes are made with these two requisites constantly in mind. Accuracy (truth) is the propelling idea of his art. And if at times errors creep into the narrative and the discourse seems a bit clouded, the fault is rarely due to negligence on Balzac’s part, but rather, to the fact that the hugeness of his ‘‘ creative vision”’ often transcends his power of expression. Concerning Balzac’s realism, the variations dealing with this field are of much interest in view of the fact that Les Chouans is the bridge between the historical and the realistic novel. As we might expect, the story contains many romantic elements, and some of these we have observed in the case of certain variations (pp. 49, 57-59). On the other hand, practically all of the general qualities of realism are to be found, and we have perceived in the changes cited many realistic traits, principally truth, materialism, and sociological features. The importance of truth in Les Chouans has already been emphasized, and especially is this quality apparent in such * Abry and Audic, Histoire illustrée de la Littérature frangatse, p. 562. VARIATIONS AFTER THE FIRST ATTACK 69 changes as those concerned with details of costume, physi- ognomy, references to geographical locations, military terms, and money matters. As to materialism, its extent in the story as a whole is admittedly great. Aside from Balzac’s propensity to give a graphical representation of externalities, the nature of the story itself—the portraiture of a people living in a primitive and isolated state—obviously requires considerable attention to materialistic things. In accurately depicting the external world, however, there is nothing in the variations to indicate that Balzac is sacrificing form to matter; there is no real tendency to “pile on sensations, colors, coarseness of language and treatment.’’ Nor, as we have noticed in the case of the salient variations after the first attack, does the materialism debar psychological insight into the more intellectual characters of the story. In Les Chouans, therefore, Balzac is not open to the charge of persistent externality. As to the sociological features, such aspects of the story find their best expression in the variations dealing with Marche-a-Terre and with reappearing characters. In his distribution of mankind into species Balzac has, we repeat, achieved a masterpiece in the case of Marche-a-Terre as a bestial type, and the changes made further emphasize this type. With the inclusion of reappearing characters in the standard text, we say in conclusion, Balzac has adopted a unique realistic device which, carried to a remarkable degree of perfection in the Comédie humaine, gives life and continuity to the whole social organism. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abry and Audic. Histoire illustrée de la Littérature frangaise. Paris, Henri Didier, 1918. Albalat, Antoine. Le Travail du Style. Paris, Armand Colin, 1ort. Balzac, Honoré de. Céuvres Compléies. Paris, Michel Lévy Fréres, 1869-76. Avant-propos, Vol. 1; Les Chouans, Vol. XII. ——. Cuvres Complétes. Paris, Calmann-Lévy. Correspondance, Vol. XXIV. ——. Le Dernier Chouan ou La Bretagne en 1800. Four volumes. Paris, Urbain Canel, 1829. ——. Les Chouans. Revised text, annotated by Marcel Bouteron et Henri Longnon. Paris, Louis Conard, 1920. ——. Lettres 4 L’Etrangére. Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1899. Brunetiére, Ferdinand. Honoré de Balzac. Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1906. Cerfbeer and Christophe. Répertoire de la Comédie humaine de H. de Balzac. Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1893. Dall, Elizabeth. “Animalism” in Balzac. A Master’s dissertation (not \ printed). The University of Chicago, 1918. Dargan, E. Preston. “Balzac and Cooper: Les Chouans,”’ Modern Philology, Vol. XIII, No. 4, August, rors. ——. “Studies in Balzac. II. Critical Analysis of Realism,” Modern Philology, Vol. XVI, No. 7, November, 1918. ——. ‘Studies in Balzac. III. His General Method,” Modern Phi- lology, Vol. XVII, No. 3, July, roro9. Du Breil de Pontbriand (Vicomte). Un Chouan: Le général du Boisguy. Paris, Honoré Champion, 1905. Du Pontavice de Heussey, Robert. ‘‘Balzacen Bretagne. Cinq lettres inédites de l’auteur des Chouans.” Rennes, 1885. Reprinted from Le Livre, September to, 1885. Faguet, Emile. Balzac. Paris, Hachette, 1913. Haas, J.!! ‘‘Die Abfassungszeit der Chouans,” Z/FSLZ, Vol. XXX, 1906. Hanotaux and Vicaire. La Jeunesse de Balzac. Balzac Imprimeur. Nouvelle éd. augmentée. Paris, Ferroud, 1921. James, Henry. The Question of Our Speech: The Lesson of Balzac. Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1905. 7° BIBLIOGRAPHY 71 Kérigant. Les Chouans, épisodes des guerres de l'Ouest dans les Cétes-du- nord, de 1792 4 1800. Dinan, Bazouge, 1882. Lanson, Gustave. Histoire de la Liliérature francaise. Paris, Hachette, 1921. Lovenjoul, Vicomte Spoelberch de. Histoire des Giuvres de H. de Balzac. Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1879. Maigron, Louis. Le Roman Historique @ ’ Epoque Romantique. Paris, Honoré Champion, 1912. Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature. New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1922. Preston, Ethel. Balzac’s Reappearing Characters. ‘To be published. Sainte-Beuve. “M. de Balzac,” Causeries du Lundi, September 2, 1850. Saintsbury, George. Preface to The Works of Honoré de Balzac, Vol. I. Philadelphia, Avil Publishing Company, 1oor. Séché, Léon. “Balzac 4 Fougéres,’”’ Revue Bleue, Vol. II, 1901. ——. ‘La Genése des Romans de Balzac. I. Les Chouans,” Les 4 Annales Romantiques, Vol. II. Paris, 1905. 4 Serval, Maurice. Awutour d’un roman de Balzac: Les Chouans. Paris, Louis Conard, 1921. “ Surville, Mme L. Balzac: Sa Vie et Ses Geuvres. Paris, 1858. VTaine, Hippolyte. Nouveaux Essais de critique et @histoire. Paris, Hachette, 1865. Thiers, M.A. The History of the French Revolution, Vol, 1. Translated, with notes and illustrations from the most authentic sources, by Frederick Shoberl. Philadelphia, Cary and Hart, 1845. Wright, C. H. C. A History of French Literature. New York, Oxford University Press, 1912. ee ee ee a > ~~ ee te cr " ih ) g Ate ta AU Aang hy V Ages Alby Vi Ate ® ban Hevan | Hi ae ay mf v4 M f us WO ee BNR RoC eT fu" sy i. a , i, # AA # Wy id ai 4 A is ATi 4 ie » 4 oie Pedy ‘tr: Nee) a, is ' NG f y Waters | | | ! i | | Hit | | 1 | HII | U | il | | 3 0112 001339982