OAK ST. HDSF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918, Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/worldinstereoscoOOunse / THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE : -A. . SERIES OP 3I^H3TO]E5:H33, Original and Selected, INCLUDING Descriptions of Famous Mountains , Glaciers , Volcanoes, Valleys , Plains and Deserts, Rivers, Water-falls, Springs and Lakes, with Cities, Palaces, Castles and Forts, Temples and Churches, Mon- uments, Ruins, Ac., dec,, with notices of Climate, Races and Architecture. WRITTEN AND COMPILED TO ACCOMPANY SETS OF Stereoscopic Jllustrations, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. ©EOOINTX} EDITION. PUBLISHED BY HART & ANDERSON NEW YORK, 187 * Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1872, by A. Hart, Jr., in tho office of the Librarian of Congress. CONTENTS. £/ Vi INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Book Illustrative Instruction, Photographs Methods and Difficulties Practical Suggestions I.— HISTORY AND EXPLANATION OF THE STEREOSCOPE AND PHOTOGRAPH... The Stereoscope History of the Stereoscope Photography : Its History, Methods and Appli- cations Stereoscopic Photography II. — The Yo Semite Yalley — Whitney III. — Rome: The Lateran and the Vatican IY. — Restoration of Works of Art to Italy— Ilemans . . . V.— JEtna, and the Eruption of 1865 — Rectus. YI. — Famous European Churches VII.— The First Conquest of Mont Blanc — Figuier VIII. — Alpine Scenery — Byron XI. — Chicago Before the Fire — Lakeside Monthly X. — The Chicago Conflagration — Lakeside Monthly .... XI. — The Story of the Fire — ( Continued) — Lake. Monthly XII. — Chicago — Whittier XIII. — Disentombed Pompeii. . . XIY. — Pompeii — Atherstone XY. — A Visit to Mammoth Cave — Keeler . .. . . XYI. — Scenes in the Holy Land XVII.— Palestine — Whittier XVIII. — Italy: Florence and Pisa XIX. — The Japanese and their Customs XX. — Glaciers and Ice Caves — Compiled XXL — Hymn in the Vale of Chamouni — Coleridge XXII. — Athens and Ancient Greece 'T 'iK PAGE. ix ix X xii xiii 17 17 19 21 24 26 29 32 35 40 45 49 62 54 57 59 61 03 65 71 74 75 78 80 87 89 iy TABI iE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. XXIII. — Greece in 1809 — Byron 92 XXI Y. — The Mountain Heights of Europe — Reclus 94 XXY. — He Sassure’s Ascent of Mount Blanc — Figuier 99 XXVI.— The Alps — Clark 104 XXVII. — Yale and Mount 105 XXVIII. — The Giants’ Causeway 107 XXIX. — The City of Washington — Trollope 109 XXX. — The Pyramids and Sphinx 112 XXXI. — Reflections from the Summit of a Pyramid 114 XXXII. — Sinai and Nubia 116 XXXIII. — Heights of the Holy Land 118 XXXIY. — 'The Christian Tourists — Whittier 121 XXXV .— 1 The City of Venice 123 XXXVI. — Volcanoes and Volcanic Regions — Compiled 126 XXXVII. — Destruction of Pompeii — Macauley. . . , \ 132 XXXVIII. — Ascents of Mount Chimborazo — Humboldt 135 XXXIX. — Ancient Rome 141 XL. — Temples of India 144 XLI.— -Water-falls in the Yo Semite Valley — Whitney .... 146 XLII. — The Big Trees of California — Compiled 148 XLIII. — Scenes in the Far West. 150 XLIV. — The River Saco — Lyons 152 XLV. — The White Mountains — T. Starr King 154 XLVI. — The Gray Old Man of the Mountain — Hibbard 156 XLVII. — London Sights and Scenes 157 XLVIII.— Paris 160 XLIX. — Paris After the War — Brockett 162 L. — Paris and Chicago ... 168 LI. — Edinburgh 169 LII. — Edinburgh After Flodden — Aytown 171 LIII. — Old Scottish Castles. 174 LIV. — Battle of Flodden Field — Scott 176 LV. — Constantinople 182 LVI. — Cairo 184 LVII. — Egypt and The Nile 186 LVIII. — Ancient Religious Ruins 188 LIX. — The Ravages of Time 190 LX. — Picturesque Scenes in the British Isles 191 LXI. — Helvellyn — Scott 195 LXTI. — Convents, Monasteries and Mosques 196 LXIII. — Egyptian Ruins 200 LXIV. — St. Peter’s Church in Rome . . 202 TABLE OF CONTENTS. V PAGE. LXY. — Home 203 LXYI. — Caves and Gorges . . 205 LXYIL— New York City. . . . 207 LXYIII. — Balls of Niagara — Ilowison 209 , LXIX. — Niagara 215 LXX. — American Water-falls 215 LXXI. — Sk etches in Palestine .* . 218 LXXII. — The Power of Ar t — Sprague 220 LXXXII. — Temples in India 222 LXXXY. — Famous Cathedrals in Europe 224 LXXY. — Old European Castles 227 LXXYI. — The Prisoner of Chillon — Byron 230 LXXYII. — Adventures on a Yolcano — Babbage 235 LXXYIIL — Palaces in Prussia 241 LXXIX. — Palaces in Spain 243 LXXX. — The Alhambra by Moonlight — Irving 245 LXXXL — Gibraltar 247 LXXXII. — Battle of Beal’ An Duine — Scott 248 LXXXIII. — The Chinese 252 LXXXIY. — Scenes in Japan. 254 LXXXY. — Sketches of Races . 255 LXXXYI. — Mountain and Gorge. 258 LXXXYXI. — The Prairies — Bryant. 2G0 LXXXYIII. — South American Landscapes £62 LXXXIX. — Scenes in Mexico 263 XC. — City of Washington 265 XCI. — The Dying Gladiator — Byron 268 XCII. — Statues and Statue Making — Once a Month 269 XCIII. — The Sculptor Boy — Hohnes 272 XCIY. — Monuments of Paris 273 XCY. — Apine Glaciers 276 XCYI. — Yalieys and Gorges . . - 278 XCYXI. — The Soldier’s Rest — Scott 281 XCYIII. — Ruins in Ilindostan. . . * 252 XCIX. — Egyptian Ruins 284 C. — Address to Egyptian Mummy — IT. Smith 286 CI. — Quito and South American Scenes 288 CXI.-— The Andes — Hine 2S9 CIII. — Among the Mountains 290 CIY.— The Mountains of Life . 293 CY. — The Mountains of Scotland. 293 CYI. — The YvTdow of Glencoe, , 296 VI TABLE OB CONTENTS. CVIL— Russian Palaces CYIII. — Mammoth Cave CIX.- — The Mammoth Cave — 'Prentice, CX. — European Water-fails . CXI. — British Churches CXIX. — Lake and River CXIIL— The Soldier of Bingen — Norton CXIV. — Hudson and James Rivers CXY. — Boston. CXYI. — Old Ironsides — Holmes. CXYII. — North American Indians CXYIII.— The Northwest CXIX. — The Indians — Sprague CXX. — rSinai and Palestine CXXI. — Burial of Moses — Anon CXXIX. — Churches and Temples CXXIIL— - New Orleans CXXIY.— An Evening Reverie — Pry ant CXX Y.— The Destruction of Pompeii — Pliny CXXYI. — English Colleges CXXYII. — Christiania and Stockholm CXXYIIL — Scenes About Jerusalem CXXIX. — The Mountains of Asia — Adapted CXXX. — Avalanches and Land-falls- — Adapted CXXXI. — Ode to the Moon — Hood CXXXXX. — An Adventure at the Natural Bridge — Piirritt. . . . CXXNIXI. — Description of the Pyramids — Clarke CXXXIY. — The Parthenon of Athens CXXXY. — Yiew of the Coliseum CXXX VI.— Bridges CXXX VII. — Landscape Beauty — Selected CXXXY III. — Vegetation in the Tropics CXXXXX.— 1 The Moon— Chambers CXL. — The Yale of Avoea — Selected CXLI. — Approaching the Alps — Felton CXLII. — English Scenery CXLI II. — A Crain Elevator — Trollope CXLI Y. — Sketches of Caverns — Adapted CXLY. — The Great Deserts — Reclus CXL VI. — Hot Springs and Geysers CXL VII. — Valleys, Passes and Ravines — Adapted CXLYHI. — Lakes and Ponds — lledus PAGE. 208 300 302 804 806 800 811 313 315 816 317 319 321 323 325 328 330 331 333 335 838 841 345 349 356 358 362 366 367 368 371 374 375 888 889 392 896 400 403 406 Noth.— A largo number of authors have been consulted and used in the pre- paration of many of these sketches, whom it is impossible to name in the table of contents. The aim has been to bring together illustrative matter upon the stereo- scopic views, not to form complete or original articles. Most of the sketches are purposely made brief to afford time to examine the views in recitation. Some subjects are taken up again in different parts of the book to afford reviews of the illustrations from different points of view. INTRODUCTION This book, with the illustrative apparatus accompanying it, aims to secure a new educational advantage by introducing into the school-room the systematic use of one of our most important and popular inventions. It is not intended to displace other school studies, but to increase their interest and usefulness. The book contains a large number cf geo- graphical descriptions which increase the interest in that study, especially as they are accompanied with picturesque and accurate views of the places described. The volume includes sketches of some of the most famous scenes of history, explaining photographs which, of themselves, would be attractive ; thus it can readily be used to creede more vivid ideas of historical places and events; yet it is not a mere dry chronicle of names and dates. Though it is not a mere school reader, perhaps its most profitable use will be found in the reading classes. Competent teachers will appreciate the difficulty of teaching pupils to read naturally and correctly those selections which are read merely for the sake of readme). It is a great gain to have the scholar interested in what he reads. The heavy, lifeless pronunciation of each word separately, without natural inflection, emphasis or connection, can be met best by arousing a new interest in the passage, thus making it something more than a mere collection of sentences to be pronounced correctly. This interest can not be more easily and fully awakened than by putting before the eye the very scenes, the actual places described in the reading lesson. Successful teachers attempt to do this by verbal descriptions, by question and answer and remark. But it can be done much better by letting the scholar examine the actual appearance of every place described in his lesson. This is what these selections, with their accompanying stereo- scopic views, afford the teacher an opportunity of doing. If our system had no other excellencies, it would amply reward attention in this single 1 * X INTRODUCTION. department of instruction in reading, which involves perhaps more re^i difficulty than any other in the school-room. There is hardly any one branch that parents and teachers value more highly than that by which their children and pupils may be made natural, correct, easy and interest- ing readers. And no one thing is a greater aid in the labor of making them such than a series of fresh and lively reading lessons, which have the added advantage of being accompanied with illustrations mirrored from the very scenes they describe, by the unerring pencil of the sun- light itself. But this system of bringing into our schools well-selected stereoscopic views, with a volume explaining them, has other advantages. It wonder- fully enlarges the scope of the pupils’ knowledge of the world we live in. The stereoscopic views seemingly bring the scholars into the very presence of the objects represented, as no ordinary flat and imperfect pictures can. A picture must be imperfect ; it cannot give accurately and minutely the wonderful variety of nature. Two equally good artists, working from the same point of view, will bring in two unlike pictures of the same scene. But the photograph mirrors every object, every line and shade and shape, with perfect accuracy, and the stereoscope gives the scene its natural depth and perspective. Now all teachers of ability well understand the difficulty of describing outward objects of distant places so that the young mind can get any really correct ideas from their words. They paturally introduce outward objects to make their explanations clear. A pupil may be told that the earth is round and believe it ; but he will understand it far better by being shown a geographical globe. A class may be instructed in the relative size of the planets and their motions about the sun ; and they may learn and recite correctly the statements of the book. But no competent instructor needs to be informed of the pleased surprise, increased interest, and far more correct conceptions they will derive from the sight of an orrery in operation. It would be possible to communicate a certain amount of knowledge of botany by the use of the text-book alone ; but that knowledge is greatly increased, and cleared, and fixed in memory by the actual sight and examination of real plants and flowers. Such facts as these are recognized and acted upon by the most efficient teachers. The words of the text-book, with verbal XNTXiODUOTXOH. £1 explanations, are not relied upon as the sole means of communicating knowledge and arousing interest. Object-teaching in its different forms is a feature of instruction in the best schools. When the objects them- selves cannot be presented, pictures of them are frequently used. These pictures, though often inadequate and imperfect, are found to do valuable service. And they are constantly being increased in geographies, his- tories, readers, dictionaries, books of reference, and all the text-hooks where it is possible to introduce them. But the photograph is superior to any other picture, and the stereoscope adds wonderfully to the value of the photograph. Already a few of our leading teachers, alive to the im- mense advantage of accurate representations of the objects they wish to describe, have brought into the school-room their private photographic collections ; and, in one or two instances, photography has been sum- moned to make its contribution to the school apparatus. This enterprise and foresight have been amply rewarded by the increased interest and more rapid advancement of the pupils who have had these aids. Now what these few leading teachers have done partially and privately, with the chance photographs they could happen upon in their own neighbor- hood, we desire to do systematically and thoroughly. We believe that, under a good teacher, a great deal of profitable knowledge can be gained from the full and carefully collected sets oi stereoscopic illustrations which are accompanied by this manual. The teacher’s ordinary labors are not increased by the task of searching out explanations and descriptions from various sources, a work which would often have to be performed during scanty intervals of time and with insufficient libraries at hand. These are ail furnished in this single volume, which represents long, careful, and laborious effort to bring to- gether the best materials in the best form for the purpose. Our plan has been to make such a selection of views, and furnish such descriptions of them as can be used in connection with other school studies as well as independently. We have imposed upon ourselves the primary duty of avoiding the usual track of information in school geo- graphies, histories, readers, and hooks of reference. But, on the other hand, we have desired so to connect these illustrations and explanations INTRODUCTION* xii with other studies as to supplement them and increase their interest and usefulness. The accumulation of objects which lie within such a plan as this is immense, and the task of selecting has been proportionately difficult. A vast multitude of interesting objects must be left unmentioned. It would be comparatively easy to add an explanatory catalogue to the illustra- tions, or to gather into a volume a large number of geographical and historical facts connected in a mere general way with these particular views. But it was thought essential that such a manual should actually describe scenes and places shown in the views. A book consisting of a mere aggregation of names and facts geographically arranged would, in fact, not explain any illustrations at all. On the other hand, a mere catalogue of the views, numbered and described in detail, could not be used practically in the school-room. The present series of sketches, independent of one another, written or selected to explain the views, embracing a large amount of geographical and historical information, yet possessed of independent interest, and arranged for use as a separate study, or in the reading classes, seemed to meet all the requirements of the case. To give variety to the descriptions, and especially to the exercises, when the volume is used in the reading classes, a large num- ber of poetical selections, descriptive generally of the same scenes, have been introduced in the appropriate connections. For some time the idea was entertained of attempting to illustrate a single country or group of countries with some degree of thoroughness ; but its realization was found to be impracticable, and it was reluctantly abandoned. Plans were also formed of making a general geographical distribution of the illustrations, and also of forming the selection accord- ing to a scientific method of classifying into objects of nature and art with appropriate subdivisions. Hundreds of pages were written and printed on these methods, but, at last, they had to he given up on account of practical obstacles to common school use which need not be detailed here. At length, after extended consultation with leading teachers, and a thorough examination of the whole matter, the present system has been adopted. Great care lias been taken to make this compilation accurate, full, and INTRODUCTION. xii trustworthy. The accompanying sets of stereoscopic views, which are all prepared and published expressly for this work, have been deliber- ately selected from over ten thousand subjects. They are gathered at large expense from all parts of the world-— from South America, Africa, and Asia, as well as in Europe and the United States. Persons who. have had no experience in making such a collection have little idea of the difficulty of securing good stereoscopic views in such countries as India, Japan, Egypt, and Mexico. These views are prepared in the highest style of photographic art ; and the stereoscopes are manufactured ac- curately and scientifically. No intelligent teacher needs to be informed that a large majority of the views on sale are “ stereoscopic ” only in name, and yield only confused and imperfect results in place of the clear and solid pictures, in true perspective, which ought to be attained. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1. These illustrations, with a proper use by the teacher of the accom- panying manual, can be made quite as interesting and profitable for the youngest scholars as for those- who are older. One of the earliest points to which a good teacher directs his efforts is that of training his pupils to observe. The eye is but the instrument of the mind ; and it is sur- prising to notice how soon and how thoroughly the mind can be brought into the habit of careful and close observation. Show one of these stereoscopic illustrations. Tell the pupils to find cut and remember everything they can in the illustration. They may be formed into a “ stereoscopic class,” or not, at the discretion of the teacher. Y/hen the class is called, let each one tell all he can about the picture. One will observe and remember five points, another eight, an- other more. It will often be found that each one has seen something which no one of the others had noticed. Usually the teacher can add several particulars to all the points mentioned by the class. Sometimes several things can be brought out by questioning. The first lesson with young pupils should not be carried too far. But little time need be taken by the recitation. Then another illustration can be given out; and the next day more points will be brought out. Questions for information INTRODUCTION, xiv -will be asked by the pupils, affording opportunity for other explanations. The faculties of observation and memory are trained, and great interest excited, even among scholars too young to read. The illustrations should be shown one by one ; and the pupils should not be permitted to turn the views over carelessly, at will, until they have become familiar with them all. After a few days, comparison can easily be made of features in the different pictures already examined, and their resem- blances and differences noted. Of course, with the youngest pupils, the book will be used by the teacher only, and explanations will be made orally, not by reference to the explanatory sections of the manual. Wo desire to emphasize the use of stereoscopic illustrations for the youngest scholars, because it is often found the best preparation for inciting in- terest in some of their other studies, as they advance to them. The boy who has already studied a scene in the streets of Paris till the name is fixed in his mind, will he much more likely to remember and be in- terested in all geographical or historical information about the city, than another to whom the name “Paris” is but an empty word on the pages of the school text-book. 2. With older classes, the manual can be used by the pupil personally. The earlier lessons ought to include full explanations of the stereoscope and the photograph. Afterward, the teacher can take up those exercises in the book which seem best suited to the pupils. It is not at all necessary that the order of sections should be followed in course. If the classes are also pursuing geography, those illustrations which represent scenes in the countries they are studying about, may be used in the order in which they come up for geographical description. The same plan can be pursued with scholars in history. . A full alphabetical index is added to the book, so that all its descriptions of scenes in any single country or city can readily be found. 3. A great many of the illustrations can be studied by classes. For example, the teacher may take up a series of lessons on “Mountains,” embracing every mountain view in the collection. Then another series can be taken on “Water-Falls,” another on “ Churches and Temples,” an- other on “ Ruins,” another on “ Great Cities,” <&c. In this way, it is sur- INTRODUCTION. sv prising how much interest will be awakened and how rapidly information is gained concerning different classes of objects. 4. The book can be used to give an agreeablo variety in training the reading classes, with the advantages mentioned above. Many of the sec- tions will be found peculiarly well adapted for use as reading exercises. It will also often happen that the ordinary school readers present selec- tions which these stereoscopic views vividly illustrate. 5. In some schools this apparatus will be found to furnish a pleasing means of rewarding industry among those pupils not directly concerned in its use. Where this is advisable, care should be taken not to give ac- cess to the illustrations too frequently or freely ; and a full opportunity should be afforded for learning about the views from the manual and other sources of information. A general and miscellaneous use by the school of the illustrations should never be permitted. The stereoscope should always be kept in the possession of the teacher, and used with care and caution. The plan of forming the four hundred illustrations into four separate series, exchangeable among neighboring schools, offers great advantages in each of these methods of using the book, and especially in review courses of study and reading. It increases the general profit and usefulness of the system four-fold without additional cost. L — HISTORY AND EXPLANATION OF THE STERE- OSCOPE AND THE PHOTOGRAPH. THE STEREOSCOPE. ITS PRINCIPLES. ITS INVENTION AND HISTORY. WHEATSTONE, ELLIOT, AND BREWSTER. THE DIFFICULTY. PHOTOGRAPHY. TALBOT AND DAGUERRE. METHODS. APPLICATIONS IN SCIENCE, ART, £ND EDUCATION. Before entering upon the general descriptions of the world of nature and of man, which this volume is intended to outline, it may be useful to give a sketch of the inven- tions and discoveries by which so many distant objects of art and nature can be so accurately mirrored for the uses of the school-room. Successful educators have always been prompt to seize on every new invention, and press it into the service of instruction. The art of printing gave a valuable impulse to popular teaching, and removed many of its greatest difficulties. Maps and engravings found their place and use in the work. Globes, geometrical solids, orreries, &c., have all been brought into service. Lately, some of our most successful instructors have taken advantage of the wide scope of instruction and illustration which is opened by THE STEREOSCOPE. Within a single generation, this interesting instrument has gained a world-wide reputation, not only in the fields of popular recreation and instruction, but also in the realms of science and art. The name “ stereoscope ” (derived from two Greek words, “ stereos ” solid, and “ scopein ” to see) shows the most remarkable feature of the instrument, 18 THE WOULD IN THE STETHOSCOPE. that of combining into a single image two plane pictures, seen separately by each eye, and giving to the image the apparent depth and solidity of nature itself. The principles on wdiich it acts have long been known. One of them was mentioned by Euclid two thousand years ago, and the other was described in a work published at Naples in 1593. We condense from various sources the following explanation of the principles and history of the stereoscope, together with a brief outline of the art by which it has been made available for general use. The chief principle on which, this instrument depends is, that a solid object shows a slightly different image to each of the two eyes, and its appearance of solidity is due to the combination of these two images. If a school slate or a thin book be held upright before the eyes, with the back or edge toward the face, and looked at with the right eye only, the back and much of the right side are seen, and the eyesight is directed not straight forward, but inward in a line from the book to the right eye. If now the right eye be closed, and the object looked at by the left eye only, the edge and loft side are seen, and the whole object seems to lie slightly toward the closed eye. It will be noticed that the object offers a slightly different shape to each eye. The second principle is, that these slightly unlike flat pictures of the same object, when united in the act of seeing with the two eyes, become one image, which has the appear- ance of the solid object itself. Therefore, any two such pictures, seen by each eye at the same instant, and united by any method, will appear in relief as a single solid object, the seeming situation of which is between Ihe two images seen separately by each eye. If the back of the upright book mentioned above be carefully looked at with both eyes, its apparent place is between the two former images seen by the eyes separately. Only the right or the left side was then seen ; now both sides are beheld, and the whole object stands out before the vision in distinct relief. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 19 This relief and apparent solidity are produced by the use of both eyes, forming a single image which combines the two images seen by each eye separately. This is true of all solid objects, near or distant. The right eye sees more of the right side of every solid object than the left eye does ; and the left eye sees more of the left side of the same object than the right eye. In common vision, these right and left eye pictures are united into one. Now, when the object seen is a flat surface, the parts of which are nearly at the same distance, the two eyes see it so nearly alike that there is no such combination of their images as when solids or objects at different distances are looked upon. Hence the flat object, like a painting or engraving, is seen as a plane surface. Any notion of depth in such a picture is by a mere act of imagination. The depth or relief is not seen at all ; and the imagination acts more or less feebly in different persons, in some hardly at all. Such persons behold in an engraving or painting a mere flat surface, shaded or colored, but without the depth of apparent' solidity. To others, the notion of depth and solidity, the apparent varying distance of the different ob- jects in the picture, is much more vivid. Now, the stereo- scope is th’at invention by which separate flat pictures of the same object can be seen with the same appearance of solidity which the object itself has. Shape, distance, and perspective no longer have to be imagined or guessed at ; they are seen . It is an ingenious application of the method of nature itself in manifesting the forms and distances of visible objects. HISTORY OF THE STEREOSCOPE. In 1838, Professor Wheatstone, of England, first showed to the Eoyal Society of London his “ reflecting stereoscope.” By combining mirrors, he contrived that two drawings on separate slips should he so reflected to the eyes that the, images seemed to come from a single object placed between £0 THE WOULD IN TKE STEREOSCOPE. the mirrors. Thus the two views, carefully drawn, one as seen by the right eye, and the other as seen by the left eye, would seem a solid form in space. The figures which Mr. Wheatstone drew for his instrument were pairs of cubes, pyramids, and cones. But he could not secure pictures of natural objects as seen by each eye, exact enough to blend in the common image. The instrument was known only to his personal and scientific friends, and excited no public interest, giving no promise of general usefulness. In 1839, Prof. Elliot, of Liverpool, who had for several years been studying into the uses and relations of the two eyes in seeing, made a simple stereoscope, without mirrors or lenses, which consisted of a wooden box six inches long, at the end of which were placed two sketches of a leaning cross, with the moon and the stem of a small tree nearly in line. These pictures were united, and appeared in relief by di- recting the eyes to a central point beyond the pictures. Here was the stereoscope in its main features. But Prof. Elliot also found it impossible to obtain right and left eye pictures of landscapes, buildings, or figures which were drawn with sufficient truth to be accurately combined. This prevented his proceeding further with his invention, and hindered its use, except to illustrate some principles of optics among scientific men. In 1859, Sir David Brewster noticed the imperfections of Wheatstone’s instrument, and contrived the more con- venient form now in general use, which is called the “ lenticular stereoscope.” In this, two convex lenses, or, commonly, two parts of a single iense, are employed. The thin edges of the lense are set together, the centers of the glasses used being about two and a half inches apart. A thin partition stands out from the inner edges of the semi- lenses, so that each eye shall see only the picture directly before it. Mirrors are not needed. If the double views are opaque, they are seen by ordinary reflected light; if they are on glass, the light is transmitted through them. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 21 But the difficulty of securing pairs of accurate pictures still remained. No artist could make views sufficiently true to nature and minute in execution, yet possessing these deli- cate but exact differences which are found in the vision of the two eyes. And slight errors in the pictures were found to be exaggerated by the stereoscope, and spoiled the result. As long as the views were confined to single and simple objects, by great care a stereoscopic effect could be produced, though often imperfectly. But no extensive landscape, large buildings, groups of persons or animals, could be drawn to secure a perfect effect, even at the cost of great pains and expense. The stereoscope seemed destined to be only a curious toy, or a costly optical instrument for the scientific. But, as in the case of the printing press, and the manufacture of linen paper, an ally was found, in com- bination with which the instrument was to become famous in name, and invaluable in use. photography: its history, methods and applications. In 1839, the very year in which Professor Elliot made his simple stereoscope, the French government granted to M. Daguerre an annual pension of 6,000 francs on account of an ingenious invention by which he could make exact pic- tures of natural objects without the aid of artist’s pencil or brush, by means of the sunlight itself. On January 30, 1839, six months before Daguerre published his process, Mr. H. E. Talbot, of England, explained a similar discovery of his own to the Boyal Society, and, a little later, published the process of making paper so sensitive to the light, by the use of nitrate of silver, that it would receive images of visible objects ; and afterward fixing the images by ap- plying common salt. Mr. Talbot followed this with similar discoveries, which were added to by many others. For some time, only artificial views and interiors could be pictured • but Dr. Draper, of New York, made a very valuable improve- ment by which portraits from life could be taken. In 1850, 22 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Mr. E. Scott Archer, of England, introduced the collodion process, the easy and practical method now in universal use, which we will briefly describe. A clean glass plate is coated with a chemical solution. A delicate film adheres to the glass. The plate is then im- mersed in another solution, enclosed in a frame to protect it from the light, and placed in the camera, the lenses of which have been previously adjusted to the object to be taken. An invisible image, is formed on the glass by ex- posure to the light. This image is developed and fixed by flowing the plate with different chemical solutions; and, after receiving a coat of some proper varnish which will not soften in the sunlight, the negative, as it is called, is ready for printing. This is accomplished by placing prepared paper beneath the plate, and exposing it for a certain time in the sunlight. The rays of light, passing through those parts of the glass which are transparent, blacken the sensitive paper. Those rays which strike the dark portions of the glass are absorbed, leaving the paper beneath white; and this process is carried all through the delicate intermediate shades. An absolutely perfect transcript of the picture on the glass is thus secured, except that the lights and shades are transposed. The paper is then taken from under the negative, and subjected to several other processes before the picture can be retouched and mounted. We cannot fully recount the numberless applications of this beautiful art of photography. Its usefulness in art and science can hardly be overrated. The engineer, the archi- tect, the inventor, and the artist, employ it largely. The astronomer with its aid delineates the forms of the heavenly bodies by their own light. All forms of human and animal life, or of inanimate existence, can be accurately and per- manently pictured. The geologist has secured exact repre- sentations of formations which defied the best efforts of his pencil ; and the botanist has made imperishable record of the delicate and beautiful vegetable forms, which rise only THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. 23 to fade and die. Changes of weather, variations of the earth’s magnetism, are made to record themselves. We hardly need mention the immense advantage gained to the social affections by this art, in the easy multiplication of accurate portraits of families and friends. The poorest home can now be made happy by the possession of pictures superior in fidelity to those which were once the exclusive property of great wealth. In place of the old, costly, im- perfect, slow processes, of portraying face and form by the use of pencil and brush, often in unskillful hands, always with a certain degree of change by the artist’s idealizing appearances which he wished to imitate, we have the exact reflection of the sitter’s form and features, as in a mirror, a portrait which is absolute truth, and which can be copied repeatedly with perfect fidelity — and all this at the trifling expense of time and money which places it within universal reach. More than this, by means of the instantaneous process, perfect pictures can be taken of momentary actions, attitudes and expressions of a busy crowd in a city street, the mobile face of a restless child, or the changeful play of nature. This art also multiplies true pictures of the world’s famous historic places, its celebrated structures, its sublimest and loveliest natural scenery, its varieties of race and cos- tume, thus preserving and popularizing some of the finest results of travel, without its fatigue and expense. Ail things of interest, which the eye can look upon, mountains, lakes, cities, ruins, deserts, temples, palaces, statues, noted books, famous faces, great inventions, antique inscriptions, even the gloomy grandeur of caverns far under ground, are brought accurately before us in home or school by this won- derful art of photography. Its power is already recognized in the popular diffusion of knowledge, once limited to very few minds. Its usefulness for purposes of education has begun to attract general attention ; and its future expansion is likely to be as great as its rapid development and progress hitherto. 24 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY. It will be seen that the art of photography supplied for the stereoscope the one thing needed to complete its popular usefulness. The difficulty of taking right and left eye pictures with perfect accuracy was entirely removed. The objects were made to picture themselves, with the exact resemblances and differences of appearance which they pre- sent to the eyes. The illusion of the stereoscope, acting upon the perfect truth of the photograph, gives a beautiful and striking effect of solidity and relief to the pictures. Portraits, landscapes, buildings, statues, seem no longer plane assemblages of lines, lights, and shades, on flat sur- faces. They come out in depth and relief ; we look among and beyond them, as solid objects, just as we would in nature itself. In order to secure this important and beau- tiful result, the stereoscopic photographs are made by a camera constructed with a pair of lenses purposely. If the pictures are taken by a single camera, the instrument must be set in two positions successively to get true right and left eye pictures. In order to give the proper relief, the centers of the lenses should be placed two and a half inches apart, the average distance between the centres of two eyes. The distances seem unnaturally drawn out in the stereoscopic view if the angle at which its pictures are taken is greater than that of natural vision. Very few artists employ the proper angle, some using six or eight inches, or even ten or twenty. The result is, that millions of stereoscopic photo- graphs are circulated which have no real artistic value. Streets are seen twice as long as in nature, buildings are enormously increased in depth ; in portraits, the head seems protruded from the neck, and the nearer parts of the figure stand out from the others unnaturally. Sometimes, on the other hand, no change whatever of the position of the camera is made. The same picture is printed for each eye. The result is, a loss of the true stereoscopic effect, as THE WOELD IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. 25 well as injury of the vision in the effort to produce this effect. Great care should be taken in the selection of views ; for a great number of the pictures published are stereo- scopic in name only. It is the combination , therefore, of the invention of the stereoscope with the art of photography which has given us a new educational advantage in the attainment of more extensive and accurate knowledge of distant countries, cities, and all visible objects, than was possible before. The mind is trained by the introduction into the school-room of results, once secured only after long travel and at great expense. A more correct conception of visible nature in different parts of the earth, and of the products of human skill and labor is imparted, than was formerly attainable through the imperfect method of verbal descriptions. Every school can be made to include a valuable gallery of whatever is most useful and interesting in the visible world. The stereoscope, once a costly toy of science, afterward an in- strument of popular entertainment, thus becomes a valuable means of education, an important adjunct to the most use- ful studies. 2 26 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / II.— THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. The wonderful Yosemite Valley is nearly in the center of California, north and south, and just midway between the east and west base of the Sierra, here a little oyer seventy miles wide. The Valley is nearly level, about six miles in length, and from half a mile to a mile in width, sunk almost a mile in depth below the general level of the neighboring region. It may be roughly likened to a gigantic trough hollowed in the mountains. This trough is quite irregular, until we arrive near its upper end, when it turns sharply, at right angles almost, and soon divides into three branches, through either of which we may, going up a series of gigantic steps, as it were, ascend to the general level of the Sierra. Down each of these branches descend streams, forks of the Mercede River, coming down the steps in a series of stupendous waterfalls. The principal features of the Yosemite, and those by which it is distinguished from all other known valleys, are : first, the steepness of its walls ; second, their great height ; and finally, the very small amount of fragments at the base of these gigantic cliffs. Besides these, there are many other striking peculiarities, and features both of sublimity and beauty, which can hardly be surpassed, if equalled, by those of any mountain valleys in the world. Some of these may be briefly mentioned. Among its grand mountain domes is El Capitan, an immense block of granite, projecting squarely out into the Valley, and presenting an almost upright sharp edge, 3,3()0 feet high. The sides or walls of the mass are bare, smooth, and entirely without vegetation. It is almost impossible for the observer to comprehend the enormous size of this THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 27 rock, which in clear weather can be distinctly seen at a distance of fifty or sixty miles. Nothing, however, so helps one to realize the greatness of these masses about the Yosemite as climbing around and among them. El Capi- tan imposes on us by its stupendous bulk, which seems as if hewn from the mountains on purpose to stand as the type of eternal massiveness. It is doubtful if anywhere in the world there is presented so squarely cut, so lofty, and so im- posing a face of rock. At the angle where the Yosemite branches, we have the dome-shaped mass called the North Dome. This rounded mass of granite rises to an elevation of 3,568 feet above the Valley. Such dome-shaped masses are somewhat peculiar to granitic regions, but are nowhere developed on so grand a scale as in the Sierras. On the left hand or north side of the river is a massive rock, solitary and nearly perpendicu- lar on all sides, rising perhaps 2,000 feet above its base, and little inferior in grandeur to the North Dome. This has borne, at different times, a great variety of names ; but is best known, at present, as the “Cap of Liberty.” It has been climbed, and has on its summit, according to Mr. Hutchings’ statement, a juniper tree of great diameter. The Half Dome (South Dome) is the loftiest and most imposing mass of those considered as part of the Yosemite. It is a crest of granite rising to the height of 4,737 feet above the Valley, perfectly inaccessible, being probably the only one of all the prominent points about the Yosemite which never has been, and never will be trodden by human foot. On one side it is absolutely upright for 2,000 feet or more from the summit, and then falls off with a very steep slope to the bottom of the gorge. On the opposite face the Half Dome is not absolutely vertical ; it has a rounded top and grows more and more steep at the bottom. This moun- tain has not the massiveness of El Capitan, but is more astonishing, and probably there are few visitors to the Val- ley who would not give it the first place among all the won- 28 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. ders of a region which is rapidly becoming famous and drawing crowds of visitors from all parts of the world. A very prominent object, in going up the Yosemite Val- ley, is the triple group of rocks known as the Three Broth- ers. These rise in steps one behind the other, the highest being 3,830 feet above the Valley. From its summit there is a superb view of the Valley and its surroundings. The peculiar outline of these rocks, as seen from below, resem- bling three frogs sitting with their heads turned in one direction, is supposed to have suggested the Indian name Pompompasus, which means, we are informed, “ Leaping Frog Bocks.” Nearly opposite the Three Brothers is a point of rocks projecting into the Valley, the termination of which is a slender mass of granite, having something the shape of an obelisk, and called, from its peculiar position, or from its resemblance to a gigantic watch-tower, the “ Sentinel Bock.” The obelisk form of the Sentinel continues down for a thou- sand feet or more from its summit ; below that it is united with the wall of the Valley. Its entire height above the river at its base is 3,043 feet. Further up the canon of the Tenaya is a beautiful little lake called “ Mirror Lake,” an expansion of the Tenaya Fork. It is frequently visited for the purpose of getting the reflection from its unruffled sur- face of a noble overhanging mass of rock, to which the name of Mount Watkins has been given as a compliment to the photographer who has done so much to attract attention to this region. Still further up the Tenaya Fork, on the right hand side, is “ Cloud’s Best,” the somewhat fanciful designation of a long, bare, steep and elevated granite ridge, which connects the valley with the high Sierra. This point is perhaps a thousand feet higher than the Half-Dome, or/ nearly 10,000 feet above the sea level. This whole general region abounds in strange and curi- ous forms of rock, mountain-side, and valley. Among them is a natural curiosity which has been discovered on the line THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 29 of the Union Pacific Railroad, It is a cut or cleft in the earth, with sides as perpendicular as if fashioned by man, and a smooth bottom running at an equal grade from the top of a lofty hill to the Weber riyer at its foot. The coun- try round is desolate and uninhabited, and there is positive- ly nothing to indicate the presence of a human agency. This is one of the strangest works of Nature in the Western States, and is appropriately termed the “ Devil's Slide." III. — ROME : THE LATERAN AND THE VATICAN. The city of Rome, famous in ancient and modern times, is situated in Italy, and near its western coast. Its history is commonly dated back to 753 B. C. At that time Romulus, who gave his name to the city, is said to have become its king and founded the Roman Empire. Eor the space of about a thousand years Rome was the chief city in the world. With the fall of the Roman Empire, it ceased to be of importance politically and commercially. It’ has been since then the central seat of the Roman Catholic religion, the Popes having resided there ever since the year 1277. The principal interest centering in the city to-day is in its historic associations, and the vast remains of its former greatness which are strewed around in the shape of buildings, aqueducts, and relics of the fine arts which once flourished to a great degree. The structures which are left to us prove more surely, by their massiveness and symmetry, the power of ancient Rome, than we can learn from the pages of history or from tradition. 30 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Rome is situated on both sides of the river Tiber* which divides it into two unequal parts* the larger being on the eastern bank. There are seven hills in and about the city* which have always been identified with its history. It was Cicero who said that Rome was well adapted for human habitation* from the healthiness of its situation in the midst of an unhealthy country. This is true at the present day* some parts of the city being remarkably free from the malaria infesting the neighborhood. It is prob- able that partly on this account and partly from its strength as a tract of rocky hills in the midst of a large plain* that the spot was first settled. The streets of modern Rome are narrow and unattractive, and there is only one, the Corso* which possesses a side- walk. The Corso is the principal street* and is about a mile in length. It divides the town into two parts* the upper and more aristocratic part* and the poorer district. The Rome of to-day is* excepting the ruins and a few prominent buildings* an entirely different city from the Rome of the 16th century. It has been rebuilt several times* and each time has it departed more from the original beauty of the world’s mistress. Among the most interesting religious structures in the city is the church of St. John Lateran* which has a historic interest of its own. It was founded in the fourth century by the Emperor Constantine* and called by the Romans “the mother of all the churches in the city and in the world.” It has five entrances and is surmounted by twelve great statues. In its cloisters are shown many relics to curiosity hunters* among which may be mentioned the mouth of a well* called the Well of the Woman of Samaria* two columns of Pilate’s house* and a column said by tradi- tion to have been split when the vail of the temple was rent in twain. There is no palace in the world which approaches the Vatican in interest* whether we regard its important place THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 31 in the history of the Church, or the influence of its museums on the learning and taste of Christendom for nearly 300 years. It is an immense pile of buildings, irregular in shape, and built at different times, without a due regard to the general harmony of the whole. It was first made the residence of the Popes in the year 1377. Since then every successive papal ruler has vied with his predecessor in making it the largest and most beautiful palace of the Christian world. The space that the buildings occupy is immense; its length is said to be 1,151 feet, and its breadth 767 feet. The number of its hails, chambers, galleries, etc., almost exceeds belief. It has 8 grand staircases, 200 smaller stair- cases, 20 courts, and 4,422 rooms. The Vatican Library contains the choicest collection of works, in book and manuscript form, that there is in the world. It was founded over 400 years ago by Nicholas V., and at his death contained 9,000 volumes. The present building, in which the library is situated, was erected in 1588, and at present contains over 50,000 manuscripts and printed books. The Great Plall, which forms the chief body of the library, is divided into two portions and is decorated with historic frescoes. From this we enter the immense double gallery. Attached to its columns and walls are the painted cabinets and presses which contain the books ; these are shut with close doors, so that a stranger might walk through the entire suite of apartments, and have no suspicion that he is surrounded by the first literary treasures of the world. Nothing meets the eye but bright frescoes and Etruscan vases, and the effect which might be produced by the appearance of the books is entirely lost. The galleries con- tain the presses with the manuscripts. In a museum of Christian antiquities, are different instruments of torture by which many of the early Christians suffered martyrdom. Since Victor Emmanuel made Rome the capital of united 32 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Italy, in the latter part of 1871, the Vatican palace has become the sole remaining center of Papal rule. It is occupied by the aged Pope, who has guaranteed to him the right of supreme jurisdiction over it. The city, under the new adminstration of its government, is likely to have in- creased political importance. IV.— RESTORATION OF THE WORKS OF ART TO ITALY. Land of departed fame ! whose classic plains Have proudly echoed to immortal strains ; Whose hallowed soul hath given the great and brave — Day-stars of life — a birth-place and a grave ; Home of the Arts ! where glory’s faded smile Sheds lingering light o’er many a mouldering pile ; Proud wreck of vanished power, of splendor fled, Majestic temple of the mighty dead ! Whose grandeur, yet contending with decay. Gleams through the twilight of thy glorious day ; Though dimmed thy brightness, riveted thy chain, Yet, fallen Italy ! rejoice again ! Awake, ye muses of Etrurian shades, Or sacred Tivoli’s romantic glades ; W ake, ye that slumber in the bowery gloom ; Where the wild ivy shadows Virgil’s tomb ; If yet by classic streams ye fondly rove. Haunting the myrtle vale, the laurel grove ; Oh ! rouse once more the daring soul of song, Seize with bold hand the harp, forgot so long, And hail with wonted pride, those marks revered ; Hallowed by time, by absence more endeared. Ye, at whose voice fair Art, with eagle glance, Burst in full splendor from from her death-like trance ; Whose rallying call bade slumbering nations wake, And daring Intellect his bondage break ; Beneath whose eye the lords of song arose, And snatched the Tuscan lyre from long repose, THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 33 And bade its pealing energies resound, With power electric, through the realms around, 0, high in thought, magnificent in soul ! Born to inspire, enlighten and control ! O, rise and view your glorious reign once more, The shrine where nations mingle to adore ! There, thou fair offspring of immortal Mind ! Love’s radiant goddess, idol of mankind ! Once the bright object of Devotion’s vow, Shalt claim from taste a kindred homage now. Oh ! who can tell what beams of heavenly light, Flashed o’er the sculptor’s intellectual sight ; How many a glimpse revealed to him alone, Made brighter beings, nobler worlds his own, Ere, like some vision sent the earth to bless, Burst into life thy pomp of loveliness ! Young Genius there, while dwells his kindling eye On forms, instinct with bright divinity, — While new-born powers, dilating in his heart, Embrace the full magnificence of Art ; From scenes by Raphael’s gifted hand arrayed, From dreams of Heaven by Angels portrayed ; From each fair work of Grecian skill sublime. Sealed with perfection, “ sanctified by time,” Shall catch a kindred glow, and proudly feel His spirit burn with emulative zeal ; Buoyant with loftier hopes, his soul shall rise. Imbued at once with nobler energies ; O’er life’s dim scenes on rapid pinions soar, And worlds of visionary grace explore ; Till his bold hand give glory’s day-dream birth, And with new wonders charm admiring earth. Venice exult ! and o’er thy moonlight seas, Swell with gay strains each Adriatic breeze ! What though long fled those years of martial fame, That shed romantic lustre o’er thy name ; Though quenched the spirit of thine ancient race, And power and freedom scarce have left a trace Yet still shall Art her splendors round thee cast, And gild the wreck of years forever past. 3 * 34 THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. And thou, whose Eagle’s towering plume unfurled, Once cast its shadows o’er a vassal world, Eternal City ! round whose curule throne, The lords of nations knelt in ages flown ; Those whose Augustan years have left to time Immortal records of their glorious prime ; When deathless bards, thine olive shades among. Swelled the high raptures of heroic song ; Fair, fallen Empress ! raise thy languid head From the cold altars of th’ illustrious dead. And once again, with fond delight, survey. The proud memorials of thy noblest day. Lo ! where thy sons, O Rome ! a godlike train, In imaged majesty return again ! Bards, chieftains, monarchs, tower with mien august, O’er scenes that shrine their venerable dust ; Those forms, those features, luminous with soul, Still o’er thy children seem to claim control ; With awful grace arrest the pilgrim’s glance. Bind his rapt soul in elevating trance, And bid the past, to fancy’s ardent eyes, From time’s dim sepulcher in glory rise. Souls of the lofty ! whose undying names, Rouse the young bosom still to noblest aims; Oh ! with your images could fate restore Your own high spirit to your sons once more, Patriots and heroes ! could those flames return, That bade your hearts with freedom’s ardor burn, Then, from the sacred ashes of the first, Might a new Rome in Phenix grandeur burst ! With one bright glance dispel th’ horizon’s gloom ; W ith one loud call, make Empire from the tomb ; Bind round her brows her own triumphal crown. Lift her dread ^Egis with majestic frown, Unchain her Eagle’s wing, and guide his flight. To bathe his plumage in the fount of light. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 35 V. — iETNA, AND THE ERUPTION OE 1865. One of the most famous mountains is the central volcano of iEtna, in the northeastern part of Sicily. It is an active volcano, and we have the account of its tremendously violent eruptions both in ancient and modern times. The country about the mighty base of iEtna is everywhere covered with lava, and the mountain sides are furrowed with its broad black currents. The lower region of the moun- tain presents a scene of fertility and loveliness ; its middle belt consists of vast, deep forests and ample, grassy glades ; while the upper region is a wild and dreary waste, covered with rocks and ashes, buried during several months of the year under the snow. There are eighty craters on the flanks of the mountain. On the eastern side lies a deep valley, between four and five miles in diameter, with ridges of hard lava encrusted into its wall, which rises from 1,000 to 3,000 feet high. The aspect of the summit is terrible. One can reach the very brink of the crater and look down into its awful depths, to survey its chaos of black rocks, fragments of lava and sulphur, the lava boiling and seething below like oil in a gigantic caldron. The blue, green and white lava, stained here and there with broad patches of black or streaks of bloody red, contrasts strongly with the livid color of the rocks around. The last great eruption of HCtna is one of the most magnificent examples which can be brought forward of volcanic eruptions. The explosion had been heralded by signs for some long time. In the month of July, 1863, after a series of convulsive movements of the soil, the loftiest cone of the volcano opened on the side which faces 36 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. the south. After this explosion, the mountain never became completely calm ; numerous cracks, which opened on the outer slopes of the crater, continued to smoke, and the hot vapor never ceased to jet out from the summit in thick eddies. Often, indeed, daring the night, the reflection of the lava boiling up the central cavity lighted up the atmosphere with a fiery red. The liquid, being unable to rise to the mouth of the crater, pressed against the outer walls of the volcano, and sought to find a vent through the weakest point of the crust by melting gradually the rocks that opposed its passage. Finally, in January, 1865, the wall of the crater yielded to the pressure of the lava ; some roaring was heard ; slight agitations affected the whole eastern part of Sicily, and the ground was rent open for the length of a mile and a half to the north of one of the secondary cones which rise on the slope of AEtna, and the pent-up lava vio- lently broke through to the surface. Soon after the commencement of the eruption, the two upper craters, standing close together on a single cone, vomited nothing but lumps of stone and ashes, while jets of liquid lava were emitted by the lower craters, which were arranged in a semicircle round a sort of funnel-shaped cavity. The cone, on a lower part of the fissure, was not in a constant state of eruption, and rested after each effort as if to take breath. A crash like that of thunder was the forerunner of the explosion ; clouds of vapor, rolling in thick folds, gray with ashes and furrowed with stones, darted out from the mouth of the volcano, darkening the atmosphere, and throwing off their projectiles several hundred yards round the hillock. Then, after having discharged their burdens; the dark clouds giving way before the pressure of the winds, mingled far and wide with the mists on the horizon. The lower cones, which rose immediately over the lava source, con- tinued to rumble and to discharge molten matter. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 37 The vapor which escaped from the seething well of lava crowded in dark contortions rottnd the mouth of the craters. Some of it was red or yellow, owing to the reflection of the red-hot matter, and some was variously shaded by the trains of fragments thrown out with it; but it was impossible to follow them with the eye, so rapid was their flight. A tumult of harsh sounds burst forth ; they were like the noises of saws, whistles, and of hammers falling on an anvil. Sometimes one might have fancied it like the roar- ing of waves breaking upon the rocks during a storm, if the sudden explosions had not added their thunder to all this uproar of the elements. One felt dismayed, as if before some living being, at the sight of these groups of hillocks, roaring and smoking, and increasing in size every hour, by the matter which they vomited forth from the interior of the earth. The volcano, however, then commenced to rest. On the 2d of February, the principal current, the breadth of which varied from 300 to 500 yards, with an average thickness of 49 feet, reached the upper ledge of Colla-Vecchia, three miles from the fissure of eruption, and plunged like a cataract into the gorge below. It was a magnificent spectacle, especially during the night, to see this sheet of molten matter, dazzling red like liquid iron, making its way in a thin layer from the heaps of brown ashes which had gradually accumulated above ; then carrying with it the more solid lumps, which dashed one against the other with a metallic noise, it fell over into the ravine, only to rebound in stars of fire. But this splendid spectacle lasted only for a few days : the fiery fall, by losing in height, diminished gradually in beauty. In front of the cataract, and under the jet itself, there was formed an inces- santly increasing slope of lava, which ultimately filled up the ravine, and, indeed, prolonged the slope of the valley above. From the reservoir, which was more than 160 feet deep, the stream continued to flow to the east, filling up to the brink the winding gorge of a dried-up rivulet. 38 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, By the middle of the month of February, the fiery stream, already more than * six miles long, made but very slow progress, and the still liquid lava found it difficult to clear an outlet through the crust of stones cooled by their contact with the atmosphere ; when, all of a sudden, a break- ing out took place at the side of the stream, at a point some distance up, not far from the source. Then a fresh branch of the burning river, flowing toward the plains, swallowed up thousands of trees which had been felled by the wood- men. This second inundation of lava did not, however, last long. A number of farm-houses were swept away ; vast tracts of pasturage and cultivated ground were covered by slowly hardening rock, and a wide band of forest, comprising, from 100,000 to 130,000 trees, was completely destroyed. When seen from the lower part of the mountain, all these burning trunks borne along upon the lava, as if upon a river of fire, singularly contributed to the beauty of the spectacle. During the earliest period of the eruption, whilst the villagers of H5tna looked at it with stupor, and were bitterly lamenting over the destruction of their forests, hundreds of curious spectators, brought daily by the steam- boats, from Catania and Messina, came to enjoy at their ease the contemplation of the splendid horrors of the con- flagration. The aspect of the current of lava, as it appeared covered with its envelope of ashes, was scarcely less remarkable than the sight of the matter in motion. Its black or reddish aspect was all roughened with sharp edges which resembled steps, pyramids, or twisted columns, on which it was a dif- ficult matter to venture, except at the risk of tearing the feet and hands. Some months after the commencement of the eruption, the onward motion of the interior of the molten stone which, by breaking the outer crust in every direction, had given it this rugged outline, was still visibly taking place. Here and there cracks in the rock allowed a THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 39 view, as if through an air-hole, of the red and liquid lava swelling np as it flowed gently along. A metallic clinking sound was incessantly heard, proceed- ing from the fall of the rocks, which were breaking under the pressure of the liquid matter. Sometimes, on the hardening current of lava, a kind of blister gradually' rose, which either opened gently, or, bursting with a crash, gave yent to the molten mass which formed it. Bound the yery mouths of the yolcano, a yast glade was formed in the forest; the ground was covered everywhere with ashes, which the wind had blown up into hillocks, like the dunes on the sea-coast. The nearest trees that we met with, at unequal distances from the mouths of eruption, had had their branches torn off by the falling lumps of stone, or were buried in ashes. A spectator might have walked among a number of yellow branches which were once the tops of lofty pines. And yet this last eruption, one of the most important in our epoch, is insignificant in the history of the mountain; it was but a mere pulsation of zEtna. During the last twenty centuries only, more than seventy-five eruptions have taken place, and in some of them the flows of lava have been more than twelve miles in length, and have coy- ered areas of more than forty square miles, which were once in a perfect state of cultivation, and dottqd over with towns and villages. In former ages, thousands of other lava-flows and cones of ashes have gradually raised and lengthened the slopes of the mountain. The mass of Mount iEtna, the total bulk of which is three or four thousand times greater than the most con- siderable of the rivers of stone vomited from its bosom, is, in fact, from its summit to its base, down even to the low- est submarine depths, nothing but the product of successive eruptions throwing out the molten matter of the interior. The volcano itself has slowly raised the walls of its crater, and then extended its long slopes down to the waters of the 40 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Ionian Sea. By its fresh beds of lava and ashes, incessantly renewed, one upon the other, it has ultimately reared its sum- mit into the regions of snow, and has become the great “ pillar of heaven .” VI.— FAMOUS EUROPEAN CHURCHES. Among the most imposing and costly structures of the world, are buildings for religious worship, churches and temples. Some of the finest of these buildings in Europe are the four great churches or cathedrals of Strasbourg, Cologne, Notre Dame, in Paris, and St. Mark’s, in Venice, brief descriptions of which have been gathered below. The Minster of Strasbourg is considered to have been, before its injuries in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, one of the finest Gothic buildings in Europe. Its spire was, probably, the loftiest in the world, reaching the height of 466 feet, 16 feet above the present top of the great pyra- mid. The front of the church is of imposing magnitude, its massive walls being relieved by small pillars and in- numerable statues, all wrought to great perfection. These statues now blackened by the centuries that have passed over them, have a stern appearance ; many of them are of gigantic size. The tower, supporting the spire, consists of strong buttresses adorned with small columns and stat- ues, and having very high and large windows which take nearly the whole breadth of the four sides. Winding stairs rise to the base of the spire, from which the visitor climbs to THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 41 a massive spot called “ the lantern,” commanding a magnifi- cent view of the city, the castles, mountains, and numer- ous villages around. The interior is lighted by magnificent painted windows, and supported by 14 large pillars. Over the principal porch is a beautiful sculptured round window, back of which is a glass gallery. On the left side of the nave stands the organ, a master-piece of work. The pulpit is a work of delicate sculpture adorned with fifty little statues. This Cathedral has long been noted for its wonderful as- tronomical clock, which was begun in 1352. It has lately been rebuilt, and is a beautiful piece of mechanism. This clock indicates the movements of the heavenly bodies, their eclipses, &c., and presents figures of Christ, the apostles, childhood, youth, manhood, old age, striking the quarters and the hours, and also gives the ecclesiastical days. It is impossible to describe its elaborate machinery. Tradition says that from one hundred to two hundred thousand men were employed in the construction of the Cathedral, which has been repeatedly rebuilt from the time of Clovis, thirteen and a half centuries ago, till 1015, when the present foundation was laid. It has been many times struck with lighting and considerably injured. But it has suffered still more from the violence of war, both in ancient and in recent times. The Cathedral of Cologne, though begun in 1248, still remains unfinished. The contributions of over a million of dollars have been chiefly employed in repairing dilapida- tions and preserving what is built from ruin. On the top of the highest tower (not one-third completed) the crane employed to raise building stones has stood for centuries. This church is one of the purest Gothic monuments of Europe. The two chief towers are to be 500 feet in height, and the entire length of the church will be 511 feet. The choir only is finished, and, from its size, height, and dis- position of pillars, arches, chapels, and beautifully colored 42 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. windows, resembles within a splendid vision. Externally, its huge flying buttresses, intervening piers, bristling with a forest of pinnacles, strike the beholder with admiration. The church contains monuments to the Archbishops of Cologne, and the celebrated Shrine of The Three Kings, which is richly adorned with gold and precious stones. Those who show the shrine assert (with exaggeration, un- doubtedly) that its treasures are worth over a million of dollars. If this great cathedral were completed, it would be at once the most regular and the most stupendous Gothic edifice in the world. The Cathedral Church of Notre Dame is, perhaps, the most prominent in Paris. This superb building was begun about the year 1000, and completed in a little over 300 years. The building is nearly 400 feet long, and its lofty square towers rise 204 feet. The spires for which these towers were intended have never been built. Behind them there is now a new spire, adorned with statues and sur- mounted by a gilt cross. The western front is the finest. Three ample portals, divided by square pillars, lead into the church. The interior is rich with sculptures and paintings, and the arches are adorned with figures of angels and saints. Between the towers is a large rose window of exquisite coloring. The organ is remarkably fine, containing 3,484 pipes. This church has recently undergone extensive re- pairs ; and many of the altars and paintings are not in place. It is a gratifying fact, that in the ravages by fire of the Communist Rebellion, Notre Dame escaped with but few injuries, none of these affecting the outside of the edifice. The singular but splendid church of St. Mark, at the eastern end of St. Mark’s Square, in Venice, is a rich and strange building, which has attracted universal admiration. In its principal front there are set 500 columns of precious marbles, green, purple, orange, some with oriental inscrip- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 43 tions. Oyer the central yault of the portal stand the cele- brated gilt bronze horses, brought anciently from Constan- tinople. The recesses oyer the doorways are filled with rich mosaics, and the front is crowded with statuesque figures. Crossing the threshold below, one finds a rich and yariegated payement; around are spread gold-grounded mosaics oyer roof and wall; while aboye, spread the re- splendent cupolas. Perhaps the best impression to be con- yeyed in words of this wonderful structure is that given by Ruskin’s celebrated description, which is as splendid an achievement in language as the church is in architecture. “ All the great square seems to have opened from it in a kind of awe, that we may see it far away ; a multitude of pillars and white domes clustered into a long, low pyra- mid of colored light ; a treasure heap, it seems, partly of gold, and partly of opal and mother-of-pearl, hollowed beneath into five great vaulted porches, ceiled with fair mosaic, and beset with sculpture, of alabaster, clear as amber and delicate as ivory — sculpture, fantastic and involved, of palm leaves and lilies, and grapes and pomegranates, and birds clinging and fluttering among the branches, all twined together into an endless network of buds and plumes ; and, in the midst of it, the solemn form of angels, sculptured and robed to the feet, and leaning to each other across the gates, their figures indistinct among the gleaming of the golden ground through the leaves beside them, interrupted and dim, like the morning light as it faded among the branches of Eden, when first its gates were angel-guarded long ago. And round the walls of the porches there are set pillars of variegated stones with interwoven tracery, rooted knots of herbage, and drifting leaves of acanthus and vine, and mystical signs, all beginning and ending in the Cross ; and above them, in the broad archi volts, a con- tinuous chain of language and of life — angels, and the signs of heaven, and the labors of men, each in its ap- pointed season upon the earth; and above these, another 44 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. range of glittering pinnacles, mixed with white arches, edged with scarlet flowers, — a confusion of delight, amidst which the breasts of the Greek horses are seen blazing in their breadth of golden strength, and the St. Mark’s Lion, lifted on a blue field covered with stars, until at last, as ii in ecstasy, the crests of the arches break into a marble foam, and toss themselves far into the blue sky in flashes and wreaths of sculptured spray. “ Let us enter the church itself. It is lost in still deeper twilight, to which the eye must be accustomed for some minutes before the form of the building can be traced; and then there opens before us a vast cave, hewn out into the form of a cross, and divided into shadowy isles by many pillars. Round the domes of its roof the light enters only through narrow apertures like large stars; and here and there a ray or two from some far away casement wanders into the darkness, and casts a narrow phosphoric stream upon the waves of marble that heave and fall in a thou- sand colors along the floor. “ What else there is of light is from torches, or silver lamps, burning ceaselessly in the recesses of the chapels ; the roof sheeted with gold, and the polished wall covered with alabaster, give at every curve and angle some feeble gleaming to the flames ; and the glories around the heads of the sculptured saints flash upon us as we pass them, and sink into the gloom. Under foot and over head a continual succession of crowded imagery, one picture passing into another, as in a dream ; forms beautiful and terrible mixed together, dragons and serpents, and ravening beasts of prey, and graceful birds that, in the midst of them, drink from running fountains, and feed from vases of crystal ; the passions and the pleasures of human life sym- bolized together, and the mystery of its redemption ; for the mazes of interwoven lines and changeful pictures lead always at last to the Cross, lifted and carved in every place and upon every stone ; sometimes with the serpent THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 45 of eternity wrapt around it; sometimes with doves against its arms, and sweet herbage growing forth from its feet; but conspicuous most of all on the great rood that crosses the church before the altar, raised in bright blazonry against the shadow of the apse. It is the cross that is first seen, and always burning in the center of the temple ; and the hollow of its roof has the figure of Christ in the utmost height of it, raised in power, or returning in judgment.” VII— THE FIEST CONQUEST OE MONT BLANC. Mont Blanc, the monarch of the snowy Alps, is the highest peak of Europe.* Eor a long time, this lofty fast- ness was supposed to be inaccessible to man. It was not even known whether the rarefied air at its top could sup- port human life. Saussure, in 1760, imagined its ascent possible, and offered a reward to any of the Swiss moun- taineers who would accomplish it. Various daring attempts were made during the next twenty-five years; but none were successful. The wastes of snow and ice, the immense crevasses, the steep and terrific slopes, the dazzling reflection of the smfig rays, the intense cold, the storms and fatigue, all conspired to make success seem impossible. In 1785, Saussure him- self made the attempt; but after great exertions and fatigue, it was found that a fresh fail of snow rendered fur- ther progress impossible, and the adventure was given up 14739 above the sea level. Mt. Rosa is 15,210,* 46 THE WORLD IK THE STEREOSCOPE. at an elevation of 11,250 feet. It was reserved for one of the guides of this expedition to succeed in an attempt so often attended with failure. Pierre Balmat took to himself two other guides, and on the sixth of July, 1786, they went to pass the night in the hut of the Pierre Ronde. They started at daybreak, and ascended to the “ Needle,” as it is called, and finally to the Dome du Gouter, but not without severe suffering from the rarefaction of the air. It was then believed that this was the only way by which Mont Blanc could be approached ; therefore some of the Chamounix guides had divided into two troops, to test the comparative facilities of the differ- ent routes leading to the Dome. They were joined by another guide, Jacques Balmat, who for some years had been independently seeking the road to Mont Blanc, and for whom was reserved the glory of first discovering it. The two groups of guides, having reunited, traversed a vast snow field, and gained the long ridge which connects the Dome du Gouter to Mont Blanc. But this ridge, which strikes between two precipices, each 6,000 feet in height, is so narrow and of so abrupt an ascent, that it proved utterly impracticable to reach Mont Blanc by it. The guides only acknowledged this evident fact with much reluctance. Jacques Balmat, however, persisted in continu- ing the adventure. He risked his life on the narrow ridge, and to move forward was obliged to place himself on all- fours upon the species of ass’s back formed by this terrible escarpment. His companions, frightened at his temerity, abandoned him, and re-descended. After brave but fruitless efforts, Jacques Balmat was forced to desist from his impossible enterprise. He retraced his steps, still straddling along the ridge, like a child on its grandfather’s stick. But he found himself deserted by his companions, who felt no sympathy for him, because he had followed them without their consent. The gallant moun- taineer, piqued by their cowardly abandonment, resolved to THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 47 remain alone in these frozen wastes and desolate wilder- nesses until he had discovered a practicable mode of ascend- ing Mont Blanc. He descended to the Grand Plateau, where he resolved to pass the night. The Grand Plateau of Mont Blanc is a slightly inclined plane of about 2,000 square acres, nearly 10,000 feet above the sea; swept by continual avalanches, and exposed to the most biting winds ; for it is surrounded on all sides by peaks of snow, where the traveler can find neither rock nor stone to serve as a shelter or resting place. Even during the summer, and in the sun, the thermometer here marks always zero. In this awful desert Jacques Balmat, without covering, having only his mantle and alpen stock, spent the night, crouching under a crag, and but poorly defended against a small, drizzling, frozen snow, which fell incessantly. At daybreak, he resumed his explorations of the moun- tain. It was thus that he discovered the proper direction in which to climb the “ sovran peak,” namely, by following up the valley of snow which stretches from the point now known as the Grands Mulets and ascending from thence to Mont Blanc by a moderately steep acclivity. The bad weather, snow, excessive cold, and want of provisions pre- vented him from pushing forward to the goal ; but, in re-descending the valley, he ascertained the actual course to be pursued in order to gain the summit. On returning home, he slept for eight-and-forty hours without once awaking. The incessant refraction of the sun’s rays upon the snow had so fatigued his sight, that he suffered severely from diseased eyes. A physician named Paccard, who resided in the village, relieved him. In grati- tude for his cure, and acknowledgment of his skill, Balmat revealed to him his great discovery, and proposed to him to share the glory of accomplishing the First Ascent of Mont Blanc. Dr. Paccard accepted the proposal joyfully* On the 8th of August, 1786, the two adventurers com- menced their daring expedition. They had only confided 48 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / - to two persons the secret of their project before carrying it into execution. So they accomplished alone this lengthened and dangerous route. All their stores consisted of a couple of woolen coverlets, in which to wrap themselves at night, under the shelter of a projecting rock. It is difficult to understand how these two men, reduced to their own resources, in the midst of these desolate wastes, these ice- bound deserts, which had never before been trodden by human foot, could reach the goal they had proposed to themselves, in spite of the snows and the precipices, the cold, and the rarefaction of the atmosphere. But it is cer- tain that, after passing the night under a rock on the plateau of the Grands Mulcts, they ascended on the follow- ing day to the “ Monarch of the Mountains.” The inhabitants of Chamounix meanwhile had assembled in crowds, and, by means of their telescopes, could perceive the two heroes on the topmost peak of Mont Blanc— that is, of the loftiest mountain in Europe, which had hitherto been considered utterly inaccessible to man. Jacques Bal- mat and Paccard remained for half an hour on the horse- shoe ridge, which forms the actual summit. But, owing to the continued refraction and dazzling gleam of the sunlit snows, Paccard, when he regained the valley, was almost blind ; while Balmat's face was swollen, his lips were con- gested with blood, and his eyes were sorely fatigued. “It is strange,” said Paccard to his companion next morning, “I hear the birds sing, and it is not day!” “That is because you cannot see,” replied Balmat; “the sun has risen, but the swelling of your eyelids renders you temporarily blind.” Happily this accident had no fatal consequences. Dr. Paccard died in 1830, at the ripe age of seventy-nine.. As for Jacques Balmat, he perished miserably, in 1834, at the bottom of a precipice. Some vague rumors had induced him to believe that a vein of gold existed on the flank of one of the lofty peaks which shut in the valley of the Sixt THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 49 on the northeast, and he started in search of it. But the place indicated proved inaccessible; it was necessary to advance along a narrow cornice, beneath which descended, sheer and somber, into the abyss, a precipice nearly 400 feet in depth. The sight froze his blood with terror. But, sometime afterward, accompanied by a chamois hunter, as rash and as intrepid as himself, he renewed the attempt. He ventured on the narrow cornice — a few steps — and he disappeared in the abyss ! His body was never found. VIII. — ALPINE SCENERY. Adieu to thee, fair Rhine ! how long, delighted, The stranger fain would linger on his way ! Thine is a scene alike when souls united Or lonely Contemplation thus might stray ; And could the ceaseless vultures cease to prey On self-condemning bosoms, it were here, Where Nature, nor too sombre nor too gay. Wild, but not rude, awflu, yet not austere. Is to the mellow earth as Autumn to the year,. Adieu to thee again, a vain adieu ! There can be no farewell to scenes like thine; The mind is colored by thine every hue; And if reluctantly the eyes resign Their cherished gaze upon thee, lovely Rhine, ’Tis with the thankful glance of parting praise; More mighty spots may rise — more glaring shine, Bnt none unite, in one attaching maze, The brilliant, fair, and soft — the glories of old days. 3 50 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. But these recede. Above me are the Alps, The palaces of Nature, whose vast walls Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, And throned eternity in icy halls Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls The avalanche — the thunder-bolt of snow ! All that expands the spirit, yet appals, Gather around these summits, as to show How Earth may pierce to Heaven, yet leave vain man Delow. Clear, placid Leman ! thy contrasted lake With the wide world I’ve dwelt in is a thing Which warns me with its stillness to forsake Earth’s troubled waters for a purer spring. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing To waft me from distraction ; once I loved Torn ocean’s roar ; not thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet as if a sister’s voice reproved That I with stern delights should e’er have been so moved. It is the dark of night ; and all between Thy margin and the mountains, dusk yet clear; Mellowing and mingling, yet distinctly seen. Save darkened Jura, whose capt heights appear Precipitously steep ; and drawing near, There breathes a living fragrance from the shore. Of flowers yet fresh with childhood ; on the ear Drops the light drip of the suspended oar. Or chirps the grasshopper one good-night carol more. He is an evening reveller, who makes Plis life an infancy, and sings his fill ; At intervals, some bird from out the brakes Starts into voice a moment, then is still. There seems a floating whisper on the hill ; — But that is fancy ; for the starlight dews All silently their tears of love distil. Weeping themselves away till they infuse Deep into Nature’s breast the spirit of her hues. Ye stars which art the poetry of heaven. If in your bright leaves we would read the fate Of men and empires, — ’tis to be forgiven That in our aspiration to be great, THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 51 Our destinies o’erleap their mortal state, And claim a kindred with you ; for ye are A beauty and a mystery, and create In us such love and reverence from afar, That fortune, fame, power, life, have named themselves a star. The sky is changed ! and such a change ! Oh, Night, And Storm, and Darkness, ye are wondrous strong, Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light Of a dark eye in woman ! For along From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, Leaps the live thunder ! — not from one lone cloud, But every mountain now hath found a tongue ; And Jura answers through her misty shroud, Back to the joyous Alps who call to her aloud. And this is in the night : — most glorious night : Thou wert not sent for slumber ; let me be A sharer in thy fierce and far delight, — A portion of the tempest and of thee ! How the lit lake shines — a phosphoric sea — And the big rain comes dancing to the earth ! And now again ’tis black — and now, the glee Of the loud hills shakes with its mountain mirth As if they did rejoice o’er a young earthquake’s birth. Sky, mountains, river, winds, lake, lightnings ! ye, With night and clouds and thunder, and a soul To make these felt and feeling, well may be Things that have made me watchful ; — the ftir roll Of your departing voices is the knoll Of what in me is sleepless, — if I rest. But where, of ye, O tempests, is the goal ? Are ye like those within the human breast ? Or do ye find, at length, like eagles, some high nest ? The morn is up again, the dewy morn, With breath all incense, and with cheek all bloom, Laughing the clouds away with playful scorn, And living as if earth contained no tomb, — And glowing into day, we may resume The march of our existence; and thus I, Still on thy shores, fair Leman, may find room, And food for meditation, nor pass by Much that may give us pause, if pondered fittingly. U. Of ILL Lie, 52 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. IX.— CHICAGO BEFORE THE EIRE. A fire, unrivaled for extent and destruction of property in the annals of history, visited the city of Chicago, Octo- ber 8th, 1871. Other great conflagrations, like those o London and Moscow, swept away districts but imperfectly built, which subsequent enterprise beautified and adorned ; but this fire wiped out the most substantially built and beautifully adorned portion of the city. To comprehend the magnitude of the disaster it is necessary to recur to the earlier history of the city and trace her progress from small beginnings until she attained her late commanding posi- tion — the fourth city in population, and the third city in commercial importance, in the United States. The site of Chicago was first visited by Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, in 1672; but there was no regular occupancy of the place until m 1804, when the United States Government estab- lished a military post at the mouth of Chicago River, called Eort Dearborn. At the close of the Black Hawk War, in 1832, the country was thrown open to settlement; and emigration soon began to flow in with an uninterrupted tide, which has continued up to the present hour. A ham- let clustered around Eort Dearborn which took the name of Chicago ; and in 1839 the first shipment of wheat was sent from this port, which is now the world’s great port for breadstuffs and provisions. In 1840 Chicago contained a population of 4,470 ; in 1860, 109,263 ; and at the time of the fire, hardly less than 350,000 souls. Nothing could have been more uninviting than the origi- nal site of the city. Ridges of shifting sand bordered the lake shore ; while inland, and stretching beyond the range of vision, was morass supporting a rank growth of blue-joint THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 53 grass, with here and there a clump of jack oaks. Through this morass wound the sluggish river, only flushed by the spring and fall freshets. In 1833 a post-office was established, and the mail was brought weekly, on horseback, from Mies, Michigan. In 1837 Chicago became incorporated as a city, and William B. Ogden was chosen as its first mayor. From that time to the present, the history of the growth of the city becomes too complex to be traced, except in a comprehensive form. A series of public improvements was devised which made Chicago one of the pleasantest and healthiest cities in the Union. A system of sewerage was established for under- ground draining, which required that the original surface in many places be raised eight feet. This change of grade involved the necessity of raising many of the largest struc- tures in those streets adjacent to the river. Such immense buildings as the Tremont and Briggs Houses, the Marine Bank, and in fact entire blocks, were. lifted up with little or no interruption of business. To supply the city with pure water, Lake Michigan was resorted to as an unfailing reservoir. A “ crib,” 40 feet in height and 98-J- feet in diameter, was floated to a site in the Lake, two miles from shore, and there sunk. From this a tunnel was built to the shore. By means of enormous pumps, the water is forced up a tower, 130 feet high, whence its own pressure distributes it to different parts of the city. The intercourse between the three divisions of the city, up to a recent time, had been effected wholly by swing bridges, which were a serious impediment to navigation, and equally so, by their continuous turning, to vehicles and pedestrians. To obviate this, two tunnels were constructed under the river, one at La Sale and one at Washington streets. It is not surprising that a place built up so rapidly as Chicago should present a somewhat incongruous ap- pearance. The rapid increase of the population required a hasty erection of buildings, and landlord and tenant alike 54 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. concurred, the one in erecting, the other in occupying, tenements of the most unsubstantial character. These structures received the very appropriate name of “ balloon ” houses. As business increased, and more massive and less inflam- mable structures were required, these houses were moved to the less populous districts. At the date of the fire there was no city in Christendom which contained such a vast mass of combustible materials. No restrictions had been placed on the erection of two-story wooden buildings in the most valuable portions of the city. The consequence of this was, that while a large part of the South Division was built up with magnificent blocks which, if left to them- selves, would escape wholesale destruction by fire, scattered among them were many wooden buildings, which were nothing less than tinder-boxes, requiring but the slightest touch to enable them to flare up and carry destruction to their neighbors. X.— THE CHICAGO CONFLAGRATION. The burning of Chicago probably began with the over- turning of a lamp in an obscure stable. A combination of circumstances helped on the subsequent horrors. There had been a baking of earth, trees, and dwellings in the dry air of a rainless autumn, until everything had been cooked to a crisp igniting point. There was a fire department, wearied with the labor of subduing a conflagration which, twenty hours before, had been thrown out as a skirmish THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 55 line for the mighty hosts of flame that were to follow. Worse than all, a driying gale of wind was surging up from the* southwest, — a gale so violent as to threaten disastrous hurricane, and to whip the waters of the lake into the white frenzy of a storm. Against this combination of evils there was no force at hand strong enough to prevent the destruction of the sheds, dilapidated houses, and shaky structures that comprised the “built up” portion of the city. That the fire must sweep away all the many wooden buildings in that quarter of the town was obvious from the outset ; but everybody supposed that the fire department could easily control the flames, after they had exhausted their strength on that class of structures. The drenchings of the engines, however, availed nothing toward checking the progress of destruc- tion. The flames certainly were taking to themselves mightier proportions. In less than one hour the flames had seized upon the planing-mills, furniture shops, and other manufactories, situated a little west of the river. From them it was only a vigorous stride to the elevators in that neighborhood, and before midnight the flames had destroyed more in value than had ever before been sacrificed in the history of the city. The conflagration now hung upon the verge of the last night’s work of ruin, and all hoped that here it would rest. Beyond the open space of the old burnt area was the river, and beyond that were the proud edifices of the business heart of Chicago. Here all thought the fire-wraith would bow to circumstances too powerful for its fury. But this was not to be. Hardly pausing to take breath, the allied terrors of tempest and flame leaped in fell carnival over into the South Division. From this time onward there is but one sad story of destruction. Ail the grand blocks of stone and marble crumbled away into dust at the breath of the destroyer. Palaces of trade, hotels, halls, theatres and churches alike swelled the volume of flame that 56 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. seemed to reach the sky. It not only traveled almost as fast as a man can walk, but it leaped whole blocks, and sent its emissaries before it, on the wings of the wind, in the shape of sparks and burning embers. Following in its track, or rather giving way to its encroachments, the first great pang of sorrow came to the despairing spectators when the flames stormed up to the Pacific Hotel. This superb edifice occupied the whole block in which it was situated, and had just been erected at immense cost, some of the heaviest railway lines centering in the city furnish- ing a large proportion of the means. The building had just received its roof, and, by its imposing dimensions and fine architecture, was one of the chief ornaments of the doomed city. The intense heat was now continually creating new wind centres, by the rarefaction of the air ; so that although the main course of the tempest was still toward the northeast, whirlwinds of fire were formed, which gave the conflagra- tion abundant opportunities of beating up against the gale. Thus it was, that almost at the same time the Pacific Hotel was consuming, the vast railway depot of the Michigan Southern road was burned. This was (with a single ex- ception) the finest structure devoted to railway purposes on this continent. It was built of Athens marble and extended along several blocks. The massive passenger depot toppled into ruin ; but the long brick freight-house saved everything east from them to the lake. For some time it was thought that the elegant buildings near and including the Honore Blocks, Palmer and Bigelow Houses, and the Academy of Design, would escape. But the flames swept through the depot, and flung a shower of brands over De Haven Block, upon the roof of the Bigelow House, and the flames spread thence with new rapidity and fierceness, enveloping the Honore Buildings and the Palmer House with its eight lofty stories, and sweeping down churches, business blocks and palatial residences in one avalanch of fire. Gun-pow- THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 57 der was called into requisition, and the most substantial and ornate trade palaces were hurled into the air; but human agency was now of little avail, and one by one the old landmarks of Chicago passed out of existence. XL— THE STORY OF THE FIRE— (Continued). It was about four o’clock in the morning when the an- nouncement was made that the flames had crossed into the North Division. Then the terrible tidings were whispered that the Water Works were in ruins, and that the only friend man had found among the elements was taken from him in this his hour of necessity. Upon Wabash and Michigan Avenues was now to be witnessed the frenzied stampede of thousands, breaking in mad haste to escape from the heat and from the sight of the horrible scenes which had grown so familiar. Some were on foot, staggering along under the weight of rich packs, and tugging at the hands of halting relatives. Others were piled with stock from their stores, furniture, wives, and children, into vehicles of every conceivable class, many of which had been hired at fabulous prices. The streets were almost totally impassable, and so frantic was the struggle of teams and pedestrians, that there were often complete dead-locks, during which not the least progress was made by any one. Old men were thrown down and trampled upon ; children were lost from their parents ; and the parents were, in many cases, parted from each other never to meet again. 3 * 58 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. All this time the fire was leaving behind, in fantastic mould, the hot evidences of its withering strength. Al- though the destruction proper did not commence until shortly before six o’clock in the North Division, the work of ruin in that section of the city ante-dated this time, in that a part of Dill’s Brewery and the Water Works were consumed between four and five o’clock. At about six o’clock the flames passed over the river, via the Bush street bridge, and rushed upon the Galena Elevator, which was soon enveloped in fire. The lighter structures with which this Division abounded, gave the hideous legions a glorious opportunity of keeping their lurid ranks unshaken, and the wall of fire never presented an opening until the wooded confines of the extreme north of the Division were attained. It was a phalanx of fire, extending as far as eye could reach to the east and west, and to those who were fleeing before it, possessed a certain terrible grandeur that was not to be observed in the detached work of devasta- tion in the West or South Divisions. Behind it none could see, and as to what might be its solid thickness, the stricken ones had no means of determining. To them it appeared as if the world itself must be on fire, and that the flames were swiftly following the course around the entire globe. By night-fall of Monday, a great number of refugees had collected in the cemetery at the south end of Lincoln Park, and many had endeavored to dispose themselves as comfortably as possible until the light of another morning should enable them to make their final escape. But the fire-wraith hesitated not at the pollution of the quiet homes of the dead, and was soon curling the leaves and snapping the brush at the cemetery’s entrance. Another stampede was all that was left to the heart-sick multitude of living ones who had vainly sought to catch a few hours of fitful -rest upon the graves of the sleepers below, whom even this tyrant conflagration could not disturb. Out from the cemetery swarmed the stricken ones, and into the park, THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 59 from which they were again routed by the untiring pursuit of the wind and the flames. The only rest was upon the chilly margin of the lake and the bleak wilderness of the open prairies. The edge of the lake was lined with its dreary quota of those who, twenty-four hours before, had gone to rest in happy homes at the close of a Sabbath differing to them from no other Sabbath which had preceded it, but which was the dividing line between prosperity and utter ruin. The fire, after ploughing away every vestige of the North Division, ceased not in its work of ruin until Fullerton Avenue, the extreme northern limit of the city, was attained. Here, with nothing further upon which it could riot, it at last died away in the second night of its carouse ; and just as the long-prayed-for rain came pattering coolly down, the Chicago fire passed into history. XII.— CHICAGO. Men said at vespers : “ All is well !” In one wild niglit the city fell ; Fell shrines of prayer and marts of grain Before the fiery hurricane. On three score spires had sunset shone, Where ghastly sunrise looked on none. Men clasped each other’s hands and said : “ The City of the West is dead ! ” Brave hearts who fought, in slow retreat. The fiends of fire from street to street, Turned, powerless, to the blinding glare, The dumb defiance of despair. 60 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. A sudden impulse thrilled each wire That signaled round the sea of fire ; Swift words of cheer, warm heart-throbs came, In tears of pity died the flame ! From East, from West, from South and North, The messages of hope shot forth, And, underneath the severing wave, The world, full-handed, reached to save. Fair seemed the old ; but fairer still The new, the dreary void shall fill With dearer homes than those o’erthrown, For love shall lay each corner-stone. Rise, stricken city ! — from thee throw The ashen sackcloth of thy woe ; And build, as to Amphion’s strain, To songs of cheer thy walls again ! How shriveled in thy hot distress The primal sin of selfishness ! How instant rose, to take thy part, The angel in the human heart I Ah ! not in vain the flames that tossed Above thy dreadful holocaust ; The Christ again has preached through thee The Gospel of Humanity ! Then lift once more thy towers on high ! And fret with spires the Western sky. To tell that God is yet with us, And love is still miraculous ! THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, 61 XIII. — DISINTOMBED POMPEII. This lovely city was entirely destroyed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the year 79 A. D., which suddenly buried the whole place in a storm of volcanic cinders and ashes. It was not until 1748, when a peasant, in sinking a well, discovered a painted chamber containing statues and other objects of antiquity, that anything like a real interest in the locality was excited. In 1755 the amphitheatre was cleared out, and from that time to the present the works have gone on, with more or less activity, sometimes aban- doned for several years together, and sometimes resumed for a few months; so that not more than half of the an- cient city has yet been uncovered. The number of skele- tons hitherto discovered has not been considerable, consid- ering the population, a fact which would prove that the inhabitants succeeded in escaping. In some instances the houses have since been found dis- turbed, and it is supposed from this that many of the citizens revisited the site and removed such property as could be easily reached. The walls of the city have been traced throughout their whole extent. They are about two miles in circuit. The amphitheater is more ancient than the Coliseum of Eome, which was not opened till the year after the destruction of Pompeii. The masonry is of rough work ; the marble plates must have been removed after the erup- tion, and nothing of a decorative kind is now visible except a few sculptured keystones. The interior contained twenty- four rows of seats, separated into different ranges, according to the rank of the occupants. The entrances at each end of the arena, for the admission of gladiators and wild beasts, and the removal of the dead, are still perfect. It is said that 62 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. at the time of the eruption the citizens were assembled here to witness the games. The temple of Augusta is a small Corinthian temple, and was discovered in 1823. The steps in front are broken by a low wall, supporting an altar, which was formerly pro- tected by an iron railing. The portico had four marble columns in front and two at the sides, but they were destroyed by the eruption. Several statues have been found here. The entrance to the Civil Forum was under a tri- umphal arch built of brick and lava, covered with slabs of marble, and still retaining its massive piers, each decorated with two fluted Corinthian columns, with square niches between them, which are supposed to have contained statues and fountains. Large stones were placed across the street, showing how the approaches to the Forum were closed to wheeled vehicles. The Forum contained the principal temples, tribunals, and other public buildings of the ancient city. It is one of the most spacious and imposing spots in Pompeii, occupy- ing the most elevated point of the city, most of the streets that lead to it ascending from the gates. It is surrounded on three sides by columns of grayish-white limestone, twelve feet high. Above this colonnade there appears, from the traces of stairs, to have been a terrace. The entire area is paved with slabs of limestone. In front of the columns are pedestals for large statues. Among the ruins an immense number of utensils have been found, consisting of vases, basins, bells, ear-rings, spoons, caldrons, sauce-pans, and lamps. Besides these, im- plements both warlike and industrial have been disinterred. But the relics most calculated to interest our feelings are the remains of human beings who perished in the great catastrophe. In the vaults of a house in the suburbs were found the skeletons of seventeen persons who sought in vain an asylum. Casts have been taken of the spaces, flowed about with lava, once occupied by these bodies ; and they THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 63 present strange and ghastly resemblances to the human form in various positions. In all, the ruins of Pompeii are among the most interesting relics that we possess of an- tiquity. XIV.— POMPEII. Pompeii ! disentombed Pompeii ! Here Before me in her pall of ashes spread — Wrenched from the gulf of ages — She whose bier Was the unboweled mountain, lifts her head. Sad but not silent ! Thrilling in my ear She tells her tale of horror, till the dread And sudden drama mustering through the air, Seems to rehearse the day of her despair ! Joyful she feasted ’neath her olive tree, Then rose to “ dance and play;” and if a cloud O’ershadowed her thronged circus, who could see The impending deluge brooding in its shroud ? On went the games ! mirth and festivity Increased — prevailed ; till rendingly and loud The earth and sky with consentaneous roar Denounced her doom — that time should be no more. Shook to its centre, the convulsive soil Closed round the flying; Sarno’s tortured tide O’erleaped its channel — eager for its spoil ! Thick darkness fell, and, wasting fast and wide. Wrath opened her dread floodgates ! Brief the toil And terror of resistance ; art supplied No subterfuge ! The pillared crypt and cave That proffered shelter, proved a living grave I 64 : THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Within the circus, tribunal, and shrine, Shrieking they perished ; there the usurer sank Grasping his gold ; the bacchant at his wine ; The gambler at his dice ! age, grade, nor rank, Nor all they loved, revered, or deemed divine, Found help or rescue ; unredeemed they drank Their cup of horror to the dregs, and fell With Heaven’s avenging thunders for their knell. Their city a vast sepulchre — their hearth A charnel-house ! the beautiful and brave, Whose high achievements or whose charms gave birth To songs and civic wreath, unheeded crave A pause ’twixt life and death ; no hand on earth, No voice from heaven, replied to close the grave Yawning around them. Still the burning shower Rained down upon them with unslackening power. ’Tis an old tale ! Yet gazing thus, it seems But yesterday the circling wine-cup went Its joyous round ! Here still the pilgrim deems New guests arrive — the reveler sits intent At his carousal, quaffing to the themes Of Thracian Orpheus ; lo, the cups indent The conscious marble, and the amphorae still Seem redolent of old Falerno’s hill ! It seems but yesterday ! Half sculptured there. On the paved Forum wedged, the marble shaft Waits but the workman to resume his care. And reed it by the cunning of his craft. The chips, struck from his chisel, fresh and fair, Lie scattered round ; the acanthus leaves in graft. The half-wrought capital ; and Isis’ shrine Retains untouched her implements divine. The streets are hollowed by the rolling car In sinuous furrows ; there the lava stone Retains, deep grooved, the frequent axle’s scar, Here oft the pageant passed, and triumph shone, Here warriors bore the glittering spoils of war, And met the full fair city smiling on With wreath and poean ! — gay as those who drink The draught of pleasure on destruction’s brink. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 65 The frescoed wall, the rich mosaic floor. Elaborate, fresh, and garlanded with flowers Of ancient fable ; — crypt, and lintelled door Writ with the name of their last tenant — towers That still in strength aspire, as when they bore Their Roman standard — from the whelming showers That formed their grave— return like spectres risen. To solve the mysteries of their fearful prison ! XV.— A VISIT TO MAMMOTH GAVE. Our party, after leaving the coach and registering their names, were requested to get ready for the cave. In the course of twenty minutes or a half-hour, the lady from Baltimore came forth in bloomer, leaning on the arm of her husband; and the guides, with their peculiar lamps, appeared and took charge of the party. Passing out through the back garden of the hotel, we came to a stile from which the path leads down into a wooded ravine ter- minating at Green River. We came suddenly upon the mouth of the cave, — a dark archway cut out of the lime- stone at the bottom of a natural shaft. Vegetation flour- ishes in all manner of trailing vines about the entrance. A few lichens wander a little way in with the light, and then all vegetable life abruptly ceases. The old entrance is further down the ravine, near the Green river, where the cave may still be entered and explored as far as the breach forming the present mouth. At the old entrance, no descent is required ; one walks into the cave on a horizon- tal line, as into any artificial tunnel. 66 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. The good-natured Garvin, the colored guide, lighted the lamps and handed one to each of us, and taking up his own with a bundle of paper saturated in kerosene, he called out in a grave military voice “ Forward,” warning us at the same time to keep our lamps before us, for the cave was “ breathing in.” The cave exhales or inhales as the tem- perature of the outside is above or below a uniform stand- ard. At the mouth, and for a little distance into the dark- ness, we could feel the chill of the cold air coming in from the damp ravine. We held our lamps before us to keep them from, blowing out. Coming out in the afternoon, the current was going just in the opposite direction. This phenomenon is called “ the breathing of the cave.” It was not long before we got beyond the effect of this current, and found the dry, still air of the rocky chambers and ave- nues very pleasant. The guides, who spend most of their waking hours in these silent depths, wear flannel clothes of equal thickness summer and winter. Not far from the entrance we came to “The Rotunda.” It is a large cavern, over seventy-five feet high and one hun- dred and sixty feet across being, as the guide informed us, directly under the dining-room of the hotel and the begin- ning of the main cave. Besides the bats, and the well-known eyeless fish and craw-fish of the subterranean rivers, the only living things, I believe, yet found in this mysterious region are some large, sluggish crickets which do not chirrup ; a few liz- zards with great prominent eyes like the crickets, and like them, also, slow in their movements ; and some light-gray rats, with head and eyes somewhat resembling those of the rabbit, but they are much larger than their cheese-loving kindred of the upper world, though equally shy. We saw traces of these last wherever we sought for them, miles from the entrance of the cave. They, however, kept well out of sight, much to the relief of the lady irom Baltimore. Leaving the “Rotunda” we took our way through a THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 67 winding avenue to the next grand chamber in the rock. This is called the “ Kentucky Cliffs,” from the resem- blance which is traced between the rough, beetling crags here to the cliffs on the Kentucky River. Passing by the cluster of holes in one of the walls, called “The Pigeon Boxes,” we came to “ The Church,” a vast, irregular room, with a Gothic roof. A solid stone projection in the shape of a platform, about three feet above the main floor, forms “ The Pulpit.” Here divine services have been held. An elevated gallery, rude but unmistakable, extends around a part of this chamber. Further along we ascended some wooden steps, and having gone but a little way, the military Garvin ordered us to halt. Then he disappeared, and the next we saw of him he was standing on a projecting crag, with a great threatening shadow behind him on the wall, mocking every motion he made. Several avenues lead from the “ Rotunda,” as from most of the other large chambers. There are said to be about one hundred and fifty avenues in the entire cave which have been explored. The total length of these is estimated at one hundred miles. The real extent of the cave is much greater than this, for there are hundreds of avenues which have not even been entered, and many of which are reasonably thought to be as exten- sive as any hitherto explored. From the “Rotunda” the guide led through “Audubon’s Avenue” to “The Great Bat Room.” Here countless thou- sands of bats cling to the walls and ceiling. They have taken full possession of this particular cavern. They nes- tle together like huge swarms of bees, in bunches of many bushels. The guide does not know what they feed upon, or how long they stay there dozing away. Few are ever seen outside the cave at once. My memory is hopelessly lost in these vast labyrinths. I cannot recall half that we saw or the order in which the wonders were shown us. The next halt of the guide which I recollect was in a great irregular room in the middle of 68 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE . which rests an immense rock in the exact shape of a sar- cophagus. This is called “ The Giant’s Coffin/’ and nowhere else in this dark realm is a name as appropriately chosen. While we were marveling at the perfect resemblance, Garvin had stolen from us and mounted the coffin. Light- ing a roll of his saturated paper, he stood with the gigantic shadow on the dark wall above him and the white sar- cophagus beneath his feet. Our guide led on, through more avenues and halls than I shall try to remember, right into the “ Scotchman’s Trap.” This is a great flat stone which inclines across the way, almost shutting it up. It must have fallen ages ago, but if it had not been caught and held just where it is, it would have closed the rivers and many of the glories of the cave from human sight. From here we went on through the “ Yalley of Humility,” stooping very low till we came to “ Fat Man’s Misery.” This is a narrow, winding path, worn evidently by water. In width and depth it is won- derfully uniform for the length of one hundred and five yards, running right through the solid rock. It is between three and four feet deep, and from eighteen to twenty inches wide. The champion fat man, the largest one ever known to pass here, is said to have weighed two hundred and sixty pounds. Considering the trouble of the stout Englishman of our party, we are led to suppose this his- toric gentleman must have had a hard time of it. Then he had to go back the same way, just as we did. At the end of “ Fat Man’s Misery” there is a large room very happily called “ Great Relief.” Passing under the three large “ Odd Fellows’ Links” stretched fantastically in the rock across the ceiling, we came to the “ River Hall ” and the “ Dead Sea.” The latter was to us the most im- pressive scene in the cave. Down to one side went the road which in the season leads to the “Styx” and “Echo” rivers. We could see the ruined steps that, in the lan- guage of the guide, had been “ washed up.” TheSriver had THE WOULD IN THE STEKEOSCOPE. 69 risen till its waters reached those of the “ Dead Sea.” A gloomy, sullen sort of thnd came hack to us as we threw stones oyer into the depths. Far away in the darkness below we could hear the soughing of the water in the swollen stream. It added to the impressiveness of the scene, I think, to know that we could go no farther,— that the mysterious forces which hold these regions of eternal night had risen up to bar our way. Leaving “River Hall,” we took a side avenue, and fol- lowing it three-quarters of a mile, we came to the “ Mam- moth Dome.” This is considered one of the principal won- ders of the cave, but owing to the difficulty and danger which we encountered in clambering to it, it has not left a very pleasing effect on our minds. To one visiting it when the crags over which he clambers are dry, it must be a mag- nificent sight. Think of a natural underground cathedral two hundred feet in diameter, and two hundred and fifty feet high ! There were only two of us besides the guide who were foolish enough to risk life and limb by climbing the slippery rocks over the precipice leading to it. The Englishman went up, and national pride took your present chronicler after him ; but he would not attempt it again for ten times that inducement. It is consoling to think that the Briton was about as badly scared as any one. All muddy and wet, we escaped back into the dry avenues of the cave, and retraced our steps for two or three miles, perhaps, till we turned into the path leading to the “Star Chamber.” This is a vast avenue running through the rock. The concave ceiling is covered with a dark incrusta- tion of iron and manganese, says the guide-book, inter- spersed with shining crystals of gypsum, giving the whole, in the dim light of our lamps, a striking resemblance to the starry sky. Here the guide took our lamps away from * us and disappeared in the darkness. We had time to think of the stories of people who had been lost in the cave and had been found raving mad shortly afterward, before a dim 70 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. light began to steal oyer the miniature sky oyer our heads. Then the guide gaye a very fair imitation of cock-crowing, and treated us to all manner of illusions more or less won- derful, beginning with dawn, taking us through a thunder storm to clear starlight, and ending with the uncertain twilight made by the reappearing of the lights in our midst. These effects are produced, of course, by manipu- lating the light through the aperture leading into the chamber. It was on our return journey, I think, that we passed through the “ Ball Room,” where in the summer time the Hotel Band occasionally plays, and where the dance must become exceeding mazy in underground “ hops.” On our way out we stopped at one of the little stone houses built oyer a quarter of a century ago by a number of consump- tives, who some way got the idea that the atmosphere of the cave would cure their disease. Several died in the cave, and the rest went outside to die. Some of them are said to have lived five months at a time in the dark. The story of the poor fellow who died while his servant had gone for assistance, and of the terrified expression on his face when found, is only a little more ghastly to think of than the business and other cards which are now stuck up ten deep on the walls that heard his last faint cry for help. Going forth from the cave, one becomes strangely sensi- tive to the odors of vegetation, but what struck us most was the relaxing effect of the sunshine. This, however, was of short duration, and none of our party complained of the fatigue of the nine mile journey under the earth. Mr. Graves’s dinner, at which we soon all assembled, was some- thing memorable in its way. Graves himself stood by and watched us at our meal, and when our overburdened souls broke forth in praise, he afforded us the spectacle of six and a half feet of stout human joy. Indeed such a degree of hilarity and mutual confidence was established between our- selves and our honest host that we did not look kindly on THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 71 the stage coach which was to take lis back to Cave City. The red-faced driver had performed two or three different Kentucky break-downs upon the porch, and had mounted his box and cracked his whip impatiently several times before we bade adieu to the Cave Hotel and were whirled away again over the wooded hills. XVI.— SCENES IN THE HOLY LAND. The well of Jacob is situated near the ancient town of Shechem, afterwards the Roman Neapolis, and now called Nabulus. Here the Saviour rested at noon-day, wearied with the long journey from Jerusalem. There is little to be seen at the well ; and the traveler may either satisfy his curiosity by a passing look, or he may return, in the still evening or quiet morning, and read the strange story of that interview between our Lord and the Samaritan woman. The well is situated in a valley, not far from the village. Formerly there was a hole opening into a vaulted chamber, about ten feet square, in the floor of which was the mouth of the true well. The well is deep — seventy-five feet when last measured — and there is a considerable accumulation of rubbish at the bottom. Sometimes it contains a few feet of water, but at others is quite dry. The situation of the City of Samaria, if less beautiful, is more commanding than that of Shechem. In the centre of a basin rises an oval-shaped hill, on one side of which is built a modern village on the site of Old Samaria. The 72 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. houses are substantially built of old materials, and in their under walls may be seen many a remnant of ancient taste and splendor. The first object we see on entering the vil- lage is the Church of St. John, perched on the brow of an eastern declivity. It is, on the whole, one of the most pic- turesque ruins in Palestine, and attracts the traveler’s at- tention long before he reaches it. It is now a mosque, and, as the inhabitants of the village are secure and isolated, they are always unwilling to let travelers enter, and some- times prevent them by force. The entrance to the build- ing is from a narrow, sunken court on the west, through a low door. The roof is gone, but the walls remain entire to a considerable height, and the eastern end is almost perfect. There can be little doubt that the Church, as it now stands, is of the time of the Crusaders. In the Church is the reputed sepulchre of St. John the Baptist. It is a grotto, to which there is a descent of twenty-two steps. Aside from the Church, the modern village contains little of interest to the traveler or the student. Almost every spot along the shores of the “Sea of Galilee ” is holy ground. A great part of our Lord’s public life was spent here. After his townsmen at Nazareth had ejected and sought to kill him, he came down from the hill- country of Galilee and took up his abode on the shores. But the shores were not then silent and desolate as they are now. They were teeming with. life. The new capital of Galilee had recently been built by Herod Antipas. Many prosper- ous towns, such as Capernaum and Bethsaida and Chorazin, stood upon its beach. Prom the mouth of the Jordan to the site of Chorazin, the ground rises from the lake with a slope so gentle as scarcely to be perceptible ; then the ascent becomes steeper and the surface more rugged, covered here and there with black stones and projecting crowns of rock. After passing Chorazin, the heights approach the shore, exposing at intervals a rich bank, with tangled thickets of thorny THE WOEED IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. 73 plants. The modem village is situated in a nook close upon the shore. No site along the shore is so well adapted for a fishing town. Here is a bay, sheltered by hills behind and projecting bluffs on each side; and here is a smooth, sandy beach, such as fishermen delight in. In Bethsaida dwelt the fishermen, Peter, Andrew, Philip, James and John. The cedars of Lebanon are mentioned so often in Scrip- ture that the phrase is familiar to all readers. We all know how the cedars were used in the construction of the temple at Jerusalem. The mountains of Lebanon are not, in them- selves, of much interest. The central ridge is smooth and bare ; grand in its vastness, but without beauty. The sides are destitute of verdure, and covered with fragments of whitish limestone. Here and there is a stunted pine. The ascent is steep and tiresome. Having once gained the sum- mit, there is a good view of the Mediterranean, 7,500 feet below. The cedars are situated on the mountain side, about 1,000 feet below the top. At the head of the Kadisha Valley there is a vast recess in the central ridge of Lebanon, some eight miles in diameter. Above it rises the loftiest summit of Syria, streaked with perpetual snow. In the center of this recess stand the cedars. They are alone. Not another kind of tree is in sight, and there is scarcely a brush or patch of verdure on the surrounding declivities. From a distance the prospect of them is rather disappointing, as they seem like a speck on the vast mountain. But on entering the grove such feeling disappears. Then the beautiful fan-like branches and graceful pyramidal forms of the younger trees ; the huge trunks of the patriarchs ; and the sombre shade they make in the midst of a blaze of light — all tend to ex- cite feelings of admiration. This grove contains about 400 trees, and there are others of about equal size at different parts of the mountains. . 4 74 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. XVII. — PALESTINE. Blest land of Judea ! thrice hallowed of song, Where the holiest of memories, pilgrim-like, throng. In the shade of thy palms, by the shores of thy sea. On the hills of thy beauty — my heart is with thee. With the eye of a spirit I look on that shore. Where pilgrim and prophet have lingered before; With the glide of a spirit I traverse the sod Made bright by the steps of the angels of God. Blue sea of the hills ! in my spirit I hear Thy waters, Gennesareth, chime on my ear ; Where the Lowly and Just with the people sat down, And thy spray on the dust of His sandals was thrown, Beyond are Bethulia’s mountains of green, And the desolate hills of the wild Gadarene ; And I pause on the goat-crags of Tabor to see The gleam of thy waters, O dark Galilee ! There sleep the still rocks and the caverns which rang To the song which the beautiful prophetess sang, When the princes of Issachar stood by her side, And the shout of a host in its triumph replied. Lo ! Bethlehem’s hill-site before me is seen, With the mountains around and the valleys between ; There rested the shepherds of Judah, and there The song of the angels rose sweet on the air. And Bethany’s palm-trees in beauty still throw Their shadows at noon on. the ruins below ; But where are the sisters who hastened to greet The lowly Redeemer, and sit at His feet ? I tread where the twelve in their wayfarings trod; I stand where they stood with the chosen of God: Where His blessings were heard, and His lessons were taught Where the blind were restored and the healing was wrought. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 75 Oh, here with His flock the sad Wanderer came, — These hills He toiled oyer in grief are the same, — The founts where He drank by the wayside still flow, And the same airs are blowing which breathed on His brow ! And throned on her hills sits Jerusalem yet, But with dust on her forehead, and chains on her feet ; For the crown of her pride to the mocker hath gone. And the holy Shechinah is dark where it shone. But wherefore this dream of the earthly abode Of Humanity clothed in the brightness of God ! Were my spirit but turned from the outward and dim. It could gaze, even now, on the presence of Him ! Not in clouds and in terrors, but gentle as when In love and in meekness He moved among men ; And the voice which breathed peace to the waves of the sea, In the hush of my spirit would whisper to me. XVIII.— ITALY: FLORENCE AND PISA. Italy is equally rich in beautiful scenery and in attractive historic associations. . Its skies are soft* its mountain slopes clothed with verdure, its valleys fruitful, and its cities are treasuries of art. The whole land has become the resort of visitors from all parts of the world. Among its cities, two of the most attractive are the neighboring Tuscan towns of Florence and Pisa. It is impossible to imagine anything more lovely than the view of Florence from the heights around which command the city. But within, the feeling is different. Florence 76 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. lacks the palatial splendor of Genoa, or the cheerfulness of Milan, or the aristocratic luxury of Venice. The gene- ral aspect of the streets and buildings is that of thought- ful, sober dignity. The streets are narrow, shaded by lofty, solid palaces. Modern Florence is of an irregular shape, unequally di- vided by the Arno, now shallow and sluggish, now swelling, now rushing down from the mountains with' irresistible fury ; three-quarters are on the north, and one on the south side of the river. The first distinct historical notice of Florence is the men- tion of an embassy sent by the Florentines to Rome, A. D. 10. Remains of Roman buildings have been discovered, but rude and poor, and indicating the happy obscurity and insignifi- cance which the city enjoyed. Of the modern city, the Lungo TArno is that part which first offers itself to the view of the stranger. The buildings crowd upon it in lofty groups, some with the elegance of beauty, some towered like castles; all with the charm of variety. Whether in the early morning, when the mosses are purpled in the light of the yet unrisen sun, or in the bright, pale glow of day, when the heavy shadows are cast at the foot of the edifices, or in the sweet, genial evening, it is at all times a scene of unrivaled pleasantness. Of the palaces of Florence none has acquired such fame as the Pitti Palace. This splendid structure, lately the resi- dence of the sovereign, has from its beginning been most intimately connected with the fates and fortunes of Flo- rence. It was commenced in 1440, and came into the hands of the Medicis family by purchase in 1559. The exterior elevation, presenting a vast, extended, but not very lofty, front, is solid, massive, almost colossal. It is generally com- plained of that the aspect is more like a prison than a palace, and the rough masses of stone employed in the basement are too sternly strong for a palace where ornament and finished beauty should prevail. The interior of the palace is a re- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 77 pository of all that is- excellent in Florentine, and in fact Italian art. Here are preserved some of the most valuable paintings of the old masters. If the traveler from England were to merely see the city of Pisa, and then return home immediately, seeing nothing else, the time, trouble, and expense of the journey would be well bestowed. The noble groups formed by the Duomo, the Baptistery, and the church of the Campo Santo, rise in solemn tranquility from the green meadow of close-shaven turf, apart from all the ordinary habitations of mankind. The tower, the temples, and the sepulchre, form a city of their own; their forms standing out in the yellow -glory produced by the full effulgence of the Italian sun and sky. There are few buildings of which the forms are more familiar to us than those of the leaning tower and dome of Pisa; yet there are also few which can be so little understood or appreciated until the reality has been seen. The Duomo stands upon a terrace ascended by steps, adding much to its majesty ; and with the exception of the light and elegant Gothic arches which encircle the cupola, forming as it were, a crown out of which it rises. Passing from the brightness of the outward scene, in which the golden glow of the mar- ble shining in the mid-day sun is almost overpowering, one is hardly prepared for the coolness and sweetness of the subdued air, and the dim light magically pervading the inte- rior of this impressive sanctuary. The windows of stained glass give great completeness to the view. The Duomo was once very rich in monuments, but some were destroyed by the fire in 1596, and others have been removed. The Campanile is more usually called the “ Leaning Tower ; ” but this name does not convey anything like a real notion of the bearing and form of the building. It is not a leaning tower, but a contorted or twisted tower. Like a tree, which, springing out of the shelving side of a rock, strives to become perpendicular, and bends its trunk by force of vegetation ; so accordingly have the architects, as 78 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. they proceeded in their work, after the first sink, endeavored to right the building. The consequence has been an ir- regular curvature in this great trunk. The Campanile not only leans, but has also sunk down into the ground. The foundation appears to have cut into a vein of quicksand, and it has sunk so much that you could not see the base, were it not for the excavations around it. XIX.— THE JAPANESE AND THEIR CUSTOMS. The empire of J apan consists of a chain of islands lying off the eastern coasts of continental Asia. The largest of these islands is called Nipon, and it has a length of more than 900 miles. Besides Nipon there are two other large islands, and a multitude of smaller ones. Although the history of the Japanese, as an organized and civilized peo- ple, extends back beyond the Christian era, the ancient geo- graphers were ignorant of the very existence of the empire. The first notice of Japan was given to the w^orld by Marco Polo, who heard of the country under the name of Zipangu, while in China near the close of the thirteenth century. This was followed up by its actual discovery in the year 1542, fifty years after the discovery of America. A Portu- guese vessel, bound for Macao, was driven far out of her course by a tempest, and landed on one of the J apanese islands. The foreigners were well received, and a trade was established which was long monopolized by the Portuguese. Missionaries were also sent and were very successful in their THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 79 efforts at conversion, until by inward contentions they at- tracted the attention of the government, who began a series of persecutions, terminating in the expulsion of all Portu- guese from the empire. For two hundred years the Japanese had absolutely no intercourse with any other nation ; and it is to America that the credit belongs of re-establishing commercial rela- tions with Japan. The increased traffic between Eastern Asia and Northwestern America, and the importance of the whale-fishery in the Japanese seas, had rendered it very de- sirable to have free access to at least some of the ports oi Japan. Repeated attempts had been made by England, Russia, and the United States, but without success, when at length the latter government resolved to fit out an expe- dition that would be worthy of the object. Commodore Perry sailed in command from Norfolk, November, 1852, and in 1854 concluded a treaty, by which the ports of Japan were to be open to American vessels. The same privilege has since been accorded to Great Britain. The traditional or fabulous portion of J apanese history extends far beyond the Christian era ; though the empire does not claim such extravagant antiquity as do the Hin- doos and Chinese. The first emperor, and the civilizer of the Japanese, is said to have ascended the throne 660 B. C. The first of the noted historical personages, after him, is Yamato, who is supposed to have lived during the second century. He was a famous military chieftain, belonging to the imperial family, and achieved the conquest of the east- ern and northern portions of the Island of Nipon. Buddhism was introduced in the reign of Osin, about a century afterwards ; and its introduction by way of China brought with it various Chinese customs, such as the de- grees of rank among government officials. The Emperor Yoritomo died in 1199 A. D., and is generally regarded by the Japanese as the greatest hero in their history. In the latter part of the thirteenth century, there was a war with 80 THE WORLD IH THE STEREOSCOPE. China, which was governed at that time by the great Knbla Khan. The next few centuries were occupied with civil strife, in the midst of which Christianity was introduced into the country. It was owing to this lack of central power, and the very general conflict of rival interests at the time, that the Jesuit missionaries were allowed so much freedom at first. The policy of the present government of Japan is to pre- serve the friendship of other nations, and employ the science and skill of modern times in developing the resources of J apan. Hundreds of intelligent young J apanese, some of them belonging to the best families of the Empire, have been sent to the United States to be educated. The com- mercial relations between the countries are constantly growing more extended and important, and former restric- tions are gradually relaxing, as the people become familiar with the new order of things. Ko oriental race shows such capacity for progress as the Japanese. One of their charac- teristics is a restless curiosity, which assists them in rapidly acquiring a knowledge of science and the mechanic arts ; and the eagerness which the government now exhibits to avail itself of all modern discoveries is all the more re- markable,* since the opportunity was so long and so stub- bornly resisted. XX.— GLACIERS AHD ICE CAVES. The glaciers, one of the most sublime and wonderful features of nature, are formed from the gathered snow which falls on the higher summits and valleys, and which THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 81 remains for several months a dry and loose powder, until the heat of the summer sun begins to melt and consolidate it. Under the influence of the sun’s warmth, the snow first softens ; and to pass over it in that state is like walk- ing among rice or peas, in which the foot sinks up to the knees. Lower down, or as the heat increases, so as to melt a considerable portion, and cause the water to percolate it, it becomes a compact mass. The frosty temperature of the night hardens that which has been dissolved in the day; and thus, after repeated thawings and freezings, the whole undergoes a fresh crys- tallization, being converted into ice of a coarser grain and less compact substance than common ice. Thus, by a suc- cession of partial changes of the millions of frozen particles, the snow of the high mountain summits is made into ice, and the white flakes falling on the peaks become those rivers of bluish crystal, which slowly make their way down between the sides of the gorges. Imperceptibly the field of snow is changed into glacier. The newly-fallen flakes begin by first settling down and har- dening. Then, when the rays of the sun have warmed the snow-field to melting point, a number of small drops pene- trate into the lower layers, and, freezing again into small envelopes, become cemented all together into a compact mass. The snow may thus become very hard, and on the edge of many of the precipices it forms a kind of overhang- ing penthouse, which resists for a considerable time the effects of the weather without giving way. In the end the entire thickness of the snow-field changes its structure. Particles of ice approach one another, and unite across the little veins of water which fill it in every direction; fresh liquid films are formed under the pressure above ; fresh unions take place between the divided morsels of ice; and by this continual process of change, the air contained in the mass of that which once was snow is gradu- ally expelled. Thus it happens that the whole mass at last 4 * 82 THE WOIiLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. assumes an almost perfect transparency, and a beautiful azure color. It is, however, the case every winter that the clefts on the surface of the glaciers are filled up with fresh masses of snow. These new layers, to which an intermix- ture of air-bubbles gives a whitish tint, are dragged and thrown forward by the general movement. In several glaciers, where mighty cracks or crevices (called crevasses ) disclose the inner structure of the whole mass, it is wonderful to see the layers of gray snow and the blue belts of ice, just like the beds of a formation of rocks. The snows which are thus transformed into ice by the effects of pressure form the enormous masses which cover the mountain sides, and fill up whole valleys. Some of these glaciers — those of the Pyrenees, for instance — only extend over the upper slopes of the mountain, and do not descend through the gorges as far as the cultivated grounds at its base. There are other fields of ice which also take their rise on lofty peaks, and, flowing out into the moun- tain amphitheaters, make their way into the lower valleys, uniting, on each side of their beds, with the ice of other gorges; these are glaciers of the first order. There are some which extend to a length of twelve, eighteen, or thirty miles, and attain a thickness of several hundred yards. There are two distinct and different snowy coverings of the high Alps. The term glacier is given to the lower limbs of more solid ice, which stretch down into the valleys. The upper part presents a smooth, hollow surface of daz- zling white, while that of the glacier is convex ; its cre- vasses are wider, and are thinly covered over w r ith treacherous snow. It is a region of complete desolation. On the upper part the snow which falls in the winter does not entirely disappear in the course of the following year; while that which falls on the lower glacier is almost always melted in the course of the summer, and never combines with the ice. Mountaineers, for a long time, have been aware of the fact that glaciers move onward, and convey masses of rock •THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 83 from the mountain summits down into the valleys. The motion is found to be the more rapid in the central portion of the field of ice. The mass of the glacier occupying the centre of the bed descends more quickly than the parts near the two sides. The real cause of the onward motion of rivers of ice lies in the formation of innumerable cracks, and in the re-gathering of all the broken fragments into a fresh mass. Under the pressure of the enormous weight w T hich pushes it forward, the ice ultimately becomes so moulded as to fit perfectly into its channel of rocks, just as if it were a pasty mass. If the gorge becomes narrow, the glacier lengthens, in order to make its w^ay into the defile ; if the mountain sides widen out in a basin, the glacier spreads out like a lake in the broad hollow. Spring time is the season when the river of ice descends toward the valley with the greatest rapidity. The blocks of ice, glued to the sides of their bed by the frosts of winter, regain their liberty. It is probable that in summer the progress of a glacier is at least double as fast as it is in the cold season. Not only does the river of ice act exactly like a liquid watercourse, by its waves rolling on with much more rapidity in the central portion than at the edges, but, like all other rivers, it assumes the greater amount of force in its current at the outer side of its successive windings. The same cause which impedes the motion of a glacier at the edges — that is, the friction of the sliding mass against the rocks — makes its current slower along its bed. Glaciers are thus always being renewed and destroyed. The arms or skirts descending into the lower valleys are gradually melted by the increased warmth. The summer sun, aided by particular winds, acts upon the surface, so that, in the middle of the day, it abounds in pools and rills of water. The constant evaporation from every part ex- posed to the air greatly lessens the upper beds ; but, above all, the warmth of the earth is constantly melting away its lower surface. 84 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. The vacancy thus caused from below is entirely filled up from above by the winter’s snow falling upon the mountain- tops, and on the whole upper region, which is drifted into the higher valleys, and pressed down by its own weight. After it has hardened into ice, the slope of the mountain sides, and the descent of the valleys in which the glaciers lie, serve as inclined planes, down which the ice slides, as- sisted by the melting on its under surface, which prevents any adhesion to the rock below it. Hugi, in one of his journeys, found his way under a glacier by following the bed of a dried-up torrent which passed below it. He wandered about beneath the ice for the distance of a mile. The ice was everywhere eaten away into dome-shaped hollows, varying from two to twelve feet in height, so that the whole mass of the glacier rested at intervals on pillars or feet of ice, irregular in size and shape, which had been left standing. As soon as any of these props gave way, a portion of the glacier would of course fall in and move on. A dim twilight, coming through the mass of ice above, prevailed in these caverns of ice, not sufficient to allow one to read, except close to the fissures which directly admitted the daylight. The intense blue of the mass of the ice contrasted remarkably with the pure white of the icy pendants descending from the roof. The water streamed down upon him from all sides, so that after wandering about for two hours, at times bending and creeping to get along under the low vaults, he returned to the open air, quite drenched and half frozen. The sur- face of the mountain, however hard, is subjected to an ex- traordinary process of grinding and polishing from the vast masses of ice constantly passing over it. The harder frag- ments act like diamonds on glass, and scratch deep and long grooves on the surface. The seat of ancient glaciers, which have now entirely disappeared, may still be discovered by the furrows left behind them on the rocks. The nature of the upper surface of the ice depends upon THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 85 that of the ground on which it rests ; where it is even or nearly so, the ice is smooth and level ; but whenever the supporting surface becomes slanting or uneven, the glacier begins to split and gape in all directions. As it approaches a steeper slope or precipice, the layers of ice ^re displaced, upheaved, and squeezed one above another; they rise in toppling crags and towers of the most fantastic shapes, vary- ing in height from twenty to eighty feet. Being unequally melted by the wind and sun, they are continually tottering to their fall, either by their own weight or the pressure of other masses, and, tumbling headlong, are shivered to atoms with a roar like thunder. The crevasses, or fissures, which traverse the upper por- tion of the glacier .before it becomes entirely broken, run crosswise, never extending quite across the ice-field, but narrowing out at the ends, so that when they gape too wide to leap across, they may always be turned by following them to their end. These rents and fissures are the chief source of danger to those who cross the glaciers, being often con- cealed by a treacherous coating of snow, and many a bold chamois-hunter has found a grave in their recesses. Ebel mentions an instance of a shepherd who, in driving his flock over the ice to a high pasturage, had the misfortune to tum- ble into one of these clefts. He fell in the vicinity of a tor- rent which flowed under the glacier, and, by following its bed under the vault of ice, succeeded in reaching the foot of the glacier, with a broken arm. The waters collected by the melting of the ice from all parts of the surface of a glacier often accumulate into torrents, which, traversing the glacier, at length precipitate themselves into a hole or fissure in its surface in the form of a cascade. A singular circumstance occurs when a single large mass of rock has fallen upon the glacier ; the shade and protec- tion from the sun’s rays afforded by the stone prevents the ice on which it rests from melting, and, while the surface around is gradually lowered, it remains supported on a pil- 86 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. lar or table, like a mushroom 911 a stalk, often reaching a height of several feet. At the lower end of almost all gla- ciers a high cross ridge of rubbish, called the terminal moraine, exists. It consists of the fragments of rock which have fallen from the surrounding mountains, and of masses detached by the glacier itself. These are heaped up some- times to a height of eighty or one hundred feet. Not unfrequently there are three or four such ridges, one behind the other. The broken stones, mud and sand, mixed with shattered fragments of ice, of which they are composed, have an unsightly appearance. The glacier, in- deed, has a natural tendency to purge itself from impurities, and whatever happens to fall upon it is gradually discharged in this manner. It likewise exerts great force, and, like a vast millstone, grinds down not only the rock which com- poses its channel, but all the fragments interposed between it and the rock, forming, in the end, a sort of stone-meal. It is highly interesting to consider how important a ser- vice the glaciers perform in the economy of nature. These dead and chilly fields of ice, which prolong the reign of win- ter throughout the year, are, in reality, the source of life and the springs of vegetation. They are the locked-up reser- voirs, the sealed fountains, from which the vast rivers tra- versing the great continents of our globe are sustained. The summer heat, which dries up other sources of water, first opens out their bountiful supplies. When the rivers of the plain begin to shrink and dwindle within their parched beds, the torrents of the mountains, fed by melting snow and glaciers, rush down and supply the deficiency. During the whole summer, the traveler who crosses the glaciers hears the torrents melting and running below him at the bottom of the azure clefts. These plenteous rills gushing forth in their dark beds are generally all collected in one stream, at the foot of the glacier, which, in conse- quence, is eaten away into a vast dome-shaped arch, some- times 100 feet high, gradually increasing until the constant THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 87 thawing weakens its support, and it gives way and falls in with a crash. Some caverns of ice are seen in great perfec- tion, in some years, at the source of the Arveyron, in the valley of Chamouni, and in the glaciers of Grindenwald. The streams issuing from glaciers are distinguished by their turbid, dirty-white, or milky color. XXI.— HYMN BEFORE SUNRISE IN THE VALLEY OF CHAMOUNI, SWITZERLAND. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star In his steep course ? So long he seems to pause On thy bald, awful head, O sovereign Blanc ! The Arve and Arveyron at thy base Rave ceaselessly : but thou, most awful form, Risest from forth thy silent sea of pines, How silently ! Around thee and above. Deep is the air and dark, substantial, black. An ebon mass ! methinks thou piercest it As with a wedge. But when I look again, It is thine own calm home, thy crystal shrine. Thy habitation from eternity. 0 dread and silent Mount ! I gazed upon thee Till thou, still present to the bodily sense, Didst vanish from my thought : entranced in prayer 1 worshipped the Invisible alone. Yet, like some sweet beguiling melody, — So sweet we know not we are listening to it, — Thou, the meanwhile, was blending with my thoughts. Yea, with my life and life’s own secret joy ; Till the dilating soul, enwrapt, transfused, Into the mighty vision passing — there As in her natural form, swelled vast to heaven. 88 THE WOULD IN THE STEKEOSCOPE. / Awake, my soul ! not only passive praise Thou owest ! not alone these swelling tears. Mute thanks, and secret ecstacy ! Awake, Voice of sweet song ! Awake, my heart, awake ! Green vales and icy cliffs ! all join my hymn. Thou first and chief, sole sovereign of the vale ! O, struggling with the darkness of the night. And visited all night by troops of stars, Or when they climb the sky, or when they sink, — Companion of the morning-star at dawn, Thyself earth’s rosy star, and of the dawn Co-herald — wake, O wake, and utter praise ! Who sank thy sunless pillars deep in earth ? Who filled thy countenance with rosy light ? Who made thee parent of perpetual streams ? And you, ye five wild torrents fiercely glad ! Who called you forth from night and utter death, From dark and icy caverns called you forth, Down those precipitious, black, jagged rocks, Forever shattered, and the same forever ? Who gave you your invulnerable life. Your strength, your speed, your fury, and your joy. Unceasing thunder, and eternal foam ? And who commanded, — and the silence came, — “ Here let the billows stiffen and have rest ?” Ye ice-falls ! ye that from the mountain’s brow Adown enormous ravines slope amain — Torrents, methinks, that heard a mighty voice. And stopped at once amid their maddest plunge ! Motionless torrents ! silent cataracts ! Who made you glorious as the gates of heaven Beneath the keen full moon ? Who bade the sun Clothe you with rainbows ? "Who, with living flowers Oflovliest blue, spread garlands at your feet? God ! let the torrents, like a shout of nations, Answer ! and let the ice-plains echo, God ! God ! sing, ye meadow-streams, with gladsome voice ! Ye pine groves, with your soft and soul-like sounds ! And they, too, have a voice, yon piles of snow, And in their perilous fall shall thunder, God ! THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 89 Ye living flowers that skirt the eternal frost ! Ye wild goats sporting ronnd the eagle’s nest! Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! Ye signs and wonders of the elements ! Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise ! XXII.— ATHENS AND ANCIENT GREECE. The historical associations of Greece are mainly clustered around Athens, the metropolis of the country, as well as the former center of refinement and culture in the world. While Rome was in its infancy, the Greeks had carried art to an extent of perfection that has hardly been equaled since. The small peninsula of Greece was divided up into petty states, each jealous of the other, though necessarily leagued together in war against foreign invaders. Among these states, the republic of Athens early acquired a prominence. Being situated near the sea, and having a good harbor, the Athenians were always active in commercial pursuits. By the acquaintance that they thus gained with the institu- tions of other countries, and especially those of Egypt and Syria, at that time the birth-places of learning and intelli- gence, the Athenians improved their manners far in advance of the other states, which had little outside communication. Athens produced many of the great poets, painters, sculp- tors and orators whose names are quoted familiarly in our -schools to-day. Of their works, many have lived after them. The writings of some authors have been preserved entire, and of others a great part has been saved. Sculpture, archi- 90 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. tecture, and painting fared worse, and we have few monu- ments of their genius left. After the overthrow of Greek independence, Greece rapidly degenerated, and until within the last half-century very little was known of the country or its inhabitants. The common belief was that modern Greece was inhabited by rude tribes, governed by fanatical Turks, whose barbarous rule exposed travelers to insult and robbery. Besides, the country was not known to be distinguished by its natural beauties. In the beginning of the present century the coun- try was more visited by travelers, and by these much infor- mation was given to the world in respect to modern Greece. It is now found that the modern Greeks, instead of being a mixed and barbarous people, possess a respectable degree of civilization. Athens now contains about 40,000 inhabitants. The streets are not regularly laid out, nor are they carefully leveled, and a great open sewer traverses it throughout. Yet at every step are to be seen pretty houses ornamented with columns, and standing in the midst of gardens. There are above three hundred churches in Athens, but only five or six are habitable : the rest are mere sheds or ruins. The most ancient part of Athens is the Acropolis. It is in general form a rocky platform, about 1,100 feet long and 45 feet broad. It was of old a citadel, but after the invasion of Xerxes became one great sanctuary. On it were built the magnificent temples and other works of art which did more than anything else to preserve the Athenian love of beauty and religion in the latter days of the state. The only approach to it was from the Agora, or Senate house, on its western side. At the top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the Tropykea, constructed^ under the direction of Pericles, and which served as a suitable entrance to the exquisite works within. They were entirely of the finest and whitest marble, and covered the whole of the western THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 91 end of the Acropolis, haying a breadth of 168 feet. The central portion of them consisted of two porticos, of which the western one faced the city, and the eastern one the inte- rior of the Acropolis. Each portico consisted of a front of six columns. The central part of the building just described was 58 feet in breadth, but the remaining breadth of the rock at this point was covered by two wings which projected 26 feet in front of the western portico. Each of these wings was in the form of a Doric temple. The northern one was hung with paintings, while the southern one consisted only of a porch or open gallery. On passing through the Propolaea, all the glories of the Parthenon, the most perfect production of Grecian archi- tecture, became visible. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, the invincible goddess of war. It was completed in 438 B. C. The Parthenon stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near the centre. Its dimensions were 228 feet in length, 101 feet in breadth, and 66 feet in height. It was divided into two chambers, the ceilings of which were supported by rows of columns. The whole building was adorned with the most exquisite sculp- tures. The chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the virgin goddess which stood in the eastern cham- ber of the building. The Areopagus (Mars’ Hill) was a rocky height opposite the western end of the Acropolis, from which it was separ- ated only by some hollow ground. This was the spot where the Apostle Paul preached to the men of Athens. Of all the temples and works of art that once adorned the Acropolis, nothing remains but ruins. The western front of the Parthenon is partly standing, as well as some of the Propykea, but they only serve to faintly shadow forth their former magnificence. “ Lovely wert thou, Athens, in thy classic grace ! The very dust of thy marbles is precious in our eyes; for the feet of those have walked upon it who have been the friends 92 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. of pleasant hours in the morning dream, or when the mid- night lamp shed its light upon the yellow page their genius made real with thought and the melody of numbers.” XXIII.— GREECE IN 1809. Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth ! Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great ; Who now shall lead thy scattered children forth. And long accustomed bondage uncreate ? Hot such thy sons who whilom did await, The hopeless warriors of a willing doom — In bleak Thermopylae’s sepulchral strait : O ! who that gallant spirit shall resume. Leap from Eurotas’ banks, and call thee from the tomb ? Spirit of Freedom ! when on Phyle’s brow Thou sat’st, with Thrasybulus and his train, Could’ st thou forbode the dismal hour which now Dims the green beauties of thine Attic plain ? Hot thirty tyrants now enforce the chain, But every carle can lord it o’er thy land ; Hor rise thy sons, but idly rail in vain. Trembling beneath the scourge of Turkish hand, From birth to death enslaved : in word, in deed, unmanned. In all, save form alone, how changed ! and who That marks the fire still sparkling in each eye. Who but would deem their bosoms burned anew With thy unquenched beam, lost Liberty ! And many dream withal the hour is nigh That gives them back their father’s heritage ; For foreign arms and aid they fondly sigh, Hor solely dare encounter hostile rage, Or tear their name defiled from Slavery’s mournful page. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 93 Hereditary bondsmen ! know ye not, Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow ? By their right arms the conquest must be wrought ; Will Gaul or Muscovite redress ye ? No ! True, they may lay your proud despoilers low; But not for you will Freedom’s altars flame. Shades of the Helots ! triumph o’er your foe ! Greece ! change thy lords ; thy state is still the same: Thy glorious day is o’er, but not thy years of shame. When riseth Lacedaemon’ s hardihood, When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, When Athens’ children are with hearts endued — • When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men r— Then thou mayst be restored ; but not till then. A thousand years scarce serve to form a state ; An hour may lay it in the dust ; and when Can man its shattered splendor renovate ? Recall its virtues back, and vanquish Time and Fate. And yet how lovely, in thine age of woe, Land of lost gods, and godlike men, art thou ! Thy vales of evergreen, thy hills of snow, Proclaim thee Nature’s varied favorite now. Thy fanes, thy temples, to thy surface bow. Commingling slowly with heroic earth ; Broke by the share of every rustic plough ; So perish monuments of mortal birth : So perish all, in turn, save well-recorded worth ! Save when some solitary column mourns Above its prostrate brethren of the cave ; Save where Tritonia’s airy shrine adorns Colonna’s cliff, and gleams along the wave ; Save o’er some warrior’s half forgotten grave. When the gray stones and unmolested grass Ages, but not oblivion, feebly brave While strangers only, not regardless, pass, Lingering, like me, perchance, to gaze, and sigh “ Alas !” Yet are thy skies as blue, thy crags as wild, Sweet are thy groves, and verdant are thy fields, Thine olive ripe as when Minerva smiled, And still his honeyed wealth Hymettus yields. > 94 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. There the blithe bee his fragrant fortress builds, The freeborn wanderer of thy mountain air, Apollo still thy long, long summer gilds, Still in his beams Mendeli’s marbles glare ; Art, Glory, Freedom fail, but Nature still is fair. Where'er we tread ’tis haunted, holy ground; No earth of thine is lost in vulgar mould ; But one vast realm of wonder spreads around, And all the Muse’s tales seem truly told, Till the sense aches with gazing, to behold, The scenes our earliest dreams have dwelt upon, Each hill and dale, each deepening glen and wold, Defies the power which crushed thy temples gone ; Age shakes Athena’s tower, but spares gray Marathon. Long to the remnants of thy splendor past. Shall pilgrims pensive but unwearied throng, Long shall the voyager, with th’ Ionion blast. Hail the bright clime of battle and of song. Long shall thine annals and immortal tongue, Fill with thy fame the youth of many a shore ; Boast of the aged ! lesson of the young ! Which sages venerate and bards adore, As Pallas and the Muse unveil their awful lore. XXIV.— A BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE MOUNTAIN HEIGHTS OF EUROPE. The mountains of Europe have been divided into several different groups, among which those of the British Islands are least important. These lie chiefly in Wales and Scot- land ; and, although they present scenes of beauty and rug- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 95 ged grandeur, they are not of such height and extent as to merit extended notice. The hills are wild, but the valleys are cultivated. Snowdon is the loftiest summit in England and Wales, and rises, in the center of a chain about 35 miles long, Lo the height of 3,571 feet. Wales presents a variety of fine mountain scenery, with rich historic associations. The highest mountain in Scotland is Ben Nevis, about 4,400 feet high, and 24 miles in circumference. Its northern front consists of two faces, and on the level top of the lowest of these is a wild mountain lake, where a strange scene of desolation presents itself. The higher part of the mountain shoots up its black rocks, strewed with great fragments of stone, and forming a bare and rugged covering for the mass beneath. A terrific precipice on the northeastern side makes a sheer descent from the summit of 1,500 feet. The pass in the neighborhood is magnificent in its outlines of mountain slope and valley. The Spanish peninsula is a table-land crossed by ranges of mountains, and nearly surrounded by the sea. The Atlas and Spanish mountains were at one time united, but are now cut apart by the Straits of Gibraltar, a sea-filled chasm nearly 1,000 feet deep, on the European side of which rises the fortress rock which is so famous in history. Its cannon- guarded precipices form a mountainous height which is very picturesque in appearance. The interior table-land of Spain is guarded on the west by the Iberian range, from which spring three other chains, with the Sierra Nevada, the finest range in Europe, except the Alps. The Pyrenees, averaging about 8,000 feet in altitude, rise at the eastward to the Malahite, 11,170 feet above the sea. The snow lies on these mountains the greater part of the year, and is always found on the highest parts, but the glaciers are not large or numerous. The range is very steep on the French side, and ragged, so that its peaks look notched like the teeth of a saw. The Pyrenean range is subdivided from the ridge to right and left into knots and side chains, as a stalk of fern 96 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. is divided into small branches, leaves, and leaflets. The passes are high and few. For more than 180 miles in one place the ridge is not crossed by a single carriage road. The interior of Norway is almost one entire mass of mountains and rocky highlands. But the mountains do not form continuous chains, and there are no prominent summits, though deep and narrow valleys are not infre- quent. The highest land is the mass named Sulitelma, 6,000 feet above sea level; and there is only one summit which exceeds 8,000 feet. The Apennines traverse the Italian peninsula. They nowhere reach to the snowline; although they present scenes of wildness and beauty, they are inferior in grandeur to the rocky cliffs of the Jura, the sharp peaks of the Pyrenees, and lofty crests of the Alps. The Carpathian mountains are about 1,200 miles long, and are steepest on the southern side ; their loftiest summit is only 8,460 feet high. A long mountain range curves from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, with an average eleva- tion of less than 5,000 feet, but broken frequently by deep and narrow ravines of terrific appearance. It connects southward with the mountains of Greece, encircled with zones of wood, and covered with snow. The suddenness of their elevation, their magnificent outlook upon shel- tered plains, beautiful inland bays broken by picturesque headlands, and their rich historic associations, combine to make these heights among the most impressive in the world. The Alps are by far the most interesting of European mountains, or indeed of the world. They extend over a considerable part of the continent, and include its highest point. They sweep in a vast semi-circle round Northern Italy, and link themselves to the Apennines. On the west they send out spurs into France, and on the north descend into the landes of Prussia. To the east, they reach to Servia and the Danube, and finally, through the Balkhans, they branch out to the shores of the Black Sea and the iEgean. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 97 This great system of mountains, which forms, as it were,, the hack-bone of Europe, and the branches of which, like the limbs of a body, shape the continent itself, is varied in the richness and variety of its forms, the joining of its ridges, the number of its separate groups, and its frame- work of secondary chains. To the Alps, the glaciers of which supply, whilst they moderate, the water-courses of Western Europe, the nations which inhabit the latter country owe, indirectly, much of their life and civilization. Standing up, like the bastions of a fort, the chief Alpine groups form a protection to the brave Swiss people. The central mass, which is also the most important, is that of the St. Gothard, situated between Switzerland and Italy; it is the knot where the gathering ridges of the surround- ing groups unite like branches. On the northeast stands the group of Todi; on the east, that of Rheinwald; on the west and south, the much more considerable clusters of the Einsteraarhorn and Monte Rosa. The latter group is linked on to Mont Blanc, rising more to the west ; but at this point the Alpine system changes its direction, and, as a whole, bends round toward the south. The Eastern Alps, lying to the east of the St. Gothard, also show this arrangement in groups. The summits of all these groups are more than 9,900 feet in height, and are clad with snow; like the western chains, they well deserve the name of Alps (white), which the Celts gave to these mountains. The true citadel of the Alps— that which, by the form of its mountains, the number of its peaks, and the importance of its glaciers, deserves more than any other the title of the crowning group — is the mighty rampart of Monte Rosa, the mean height of which is not less than 13,457 feet. The supreme diadem of this association of mountains is at a height of 15,216 feet, whilst Mont Blanc rises to 15,780 feet; but the group of summits which surround this highest point/ of Europe averages only 12,657 feet in height, 800 5 98 THE WOULD IN TEE STEREOSCOPE. feet less than the heights of Monte Rosa. Next follow in order of elevation the groups of the Jungfrau, 12,312 feet; the Bernina, 11,345 feet; the Grison Alps, 10,583 feet, and the Todi, 10,311 feet. Mont Blanc is the highest point of a chain of peaks, whose pinnacles pierce the clouds, and many of which are named “ Needles,” from their spiry, needle-like summits. Some of them are points of bare and almost perpendicular rock, soaring upward 14,000 feet from snow fields and gla- ciers. Other Alpine peaks,, from their shape, receive the name horn , like Mount Cervin or the Matterhorn, which Byron called the ideal shape of a mountain. This bold mass is about forty miles from Mont Blanc, and rears its lofty pillar of rock above the glaciers to an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet. In the whole chain of the Alps not one object offers so striking an appearance as this remarkable mountain. It is called Monte Silvio by the Italians. The Wetterhorn, the Wellhorn, the vast mass and snowy head of the Glarnisch, are similar summits. The vast masses of Monte Rosa pre- sent a scene of savage grandeur, its deep rifts marked by lines of snow, and its steely glaciers streaming down to the icy cave, whence flows the torrent of Anza. Taken as a whole, the various groups of the central Alps decrease in height from west to east and from south to north ; their southern slope is uniformly more abrupt than the northern, which descends in long branches toward the valleys of the Rhone and the Rhine. Twelve carriage roads, some of which may be reckoned among the triumphs of human industry, cross the ridges of the Alps, and form the means of communication between France, Switzerland and Germany; a railway, also, now some years finished, passes to the east of the Greater Alps, through the Loemmering chain. Finally, four other rail- way lines are gradually pushing their way into the depths THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 99 of the lofty central mountains, and, ere long, free commu- nication will be established under the rocks and glaciers of these once dreaded summits and precipices. XXV.— DE SATJSSTJRE’S ASCENT OP MONT BLANC. Horace De Saussure, the distinguished naturalist, was not twenty years old when he first dreamed of attacking the giant of the Alps. He is the first person known who cher- ished the thought of climbing to its summit. After waiting twenty-seven years, crowded with daring but fruitless at- tempts, the dream of his life was realized, under the guid- ance of Jacques Balmat. It was on the 1st of August, 1787, that De Saussure, accompanied by eighteen guides and a servant, accomplished the first ascent of Mont Blanc under- taken for scientific purposes. The first day was spent in climbing the Montagne de la Cote, and they passed the night on its summit. The difficulties of our adventurers did not begin until the second day; for, on setting out from the Grand Mulets, they were compelled to traverse the ice and snow. On this second day they commenced by traversing the Glacier de la Cote, a glacier whose passage is often attended with much danger. It is intersected with deep, irregular crevasses, often of great width, and which are only passable upon bridges of frozen snow suspended over the abyss. We give the rest of the account in De Saussure’s own language : 100 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. On the 2d of August, despite the great interest we all had in starting at an early hour, the guides raised so many dif- ficulties in reference to the distribution and arrangement of their various burthens, that we were not in full march until about half-past six. Each was afraid of overloading him- self, less through dread of fatigue, than from an apprehen- sion that he might sink in the snow under too heavy a weight, and so fall into a crevasse. We entered the gla- cier, face to face with the blocks of granite under whose shelter we had slept. The approach to it is easy, but travelers soon find them- selves entangled in a labyrinth of ice rocks, separated by crevasses, here entirely covered, there only partially con- cealed by the snows which frequently accumulate in fan- tastic arches, hollow beneath, and yet very often the sole means of crossing ; in other places a sharp ridge of ice serves as a bridge for crossing them. Occasionally, where the crevasses are wholly unfilled, you are compelled to de- scend to the very bottom, and afterward to remount the op- posite wall by steps hewn with a hatchet in the living ice. But nowhere do you ever see the rock ; the bottom is al- ways ice or snow ; there are moments when, after having descended into these abysses, surrounded by nearly perpen- dicular walls of ice, you cannot conceive in what manner you shall escape from them. While progressing on the living ice, however narrow may be the ridges, however steep the de- clivities, our intrepid mountaineers, whose heads and feet are equally sure, seem neither terrified nor disquieted ; they gossip, laugh, jest at one another; but in passing along those frail vaults, suspended above profound abysses, one sees them march in the profoundest silence, the first three bound together by cords at a distance of five or six feet from each other, the remainder supporting themselves, two by two, by their staves, their eyes fixed on their feet, each person endeavoring to plant himself firmly and lightly in the -track of his predecessor. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 101 When* after crossing one of these suspicions snow tracts, my caravan found themselves on a rock of living ice, an ex- pression of joy and serenity brightened every physiognomy ; the babble and the jokes recommenced ; then they consulted what route it were best to follow, and, reassured by past suc- cesses, exposed themselves with the greatest confidence to new dangers. Thus we spent nearly three hours in travers- ing this formidable glacier, although it was scarcely a quarter of a league in breadth. Thenceforth our progress was wholly on the snows, fre- quently rendered very difficult by the rapidity of their in- cline, and sometimes dangerous when these inclines termi- nated upon precipices, but where, at all events, we had no dangers to dread but those we saw, and where we incurred no risk of being swallowed up without either skill or strength being of any service. On the second day, after a thousand perils, the summit was reached, and the wife and sister at Chamouni waved a flag of greeting to the triumphant ex- plorer. I could there enjoy, without any feeling of regret, the great spectacle displayed before me. A light vapor, floating in the lower regions of the atmosphere, concealed, it is true, the lowest and most distant objects, such as the plains of France and Lombardy; but I did not much lament this loss ; for what I had come to see, and what I saw with marvelous clearness, was the grand whole of the lofty peaks whose or- ganization I had so. long desired to know. I could not be- lieve my eyes — it seemed to me a dream, a vision — wdien I beheld beneath my feet those majestic summits, those formidable spires, whose very bases had been so very diffi- cult and dangerous of approach. I seized upon their posi- tions, and a single glance dispelled the doubts which years of labor had been unable to solve. Meanwhile, my guides were raising my tent, and prepar- ing the little table on which I intended to experiment with boiling water. But when I set to work to arrange my in-. 102 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, struments and take my observations, I found myself every moment compelled to interrupt my work and give all my thoughts to the actual labor of breathing. If the reader re- flects that the barometer was here at 16 inches 1 line only, and that the air was not at above half its ordinary density, he will understand how I was forced to supplement the density by frequency of respiration ; while at the same time, this frequency so accelerated the movement of the blood that the arteries were no longer counterbalanced externally by a pressure equal to that which they usually experience. Therefore we were all attacked with fever. While I remained perfectly tranquil, I experienced but a slight uneasiness, a tendency to pain about the heart. But when I used any exertion, or when I fixed my attention for a few consecutive moments, and especially when in stooping I contracted my chest, I was obliged to rest, and take breath, for two or three minutes. My guides experienced similar sensations. No sign of animal life was apparent near the frozen peak of the Alpine giant. Two butterflies which fluttered across the last incline of the mountain, about 650 feet beneath its summit, were the only living creatures which our explorers encountered in those silent and lonely deserts. It is probable that a gust of wind from the plain had carried them to this unwonted elevation. The slight intensity of sound on lofty mountains is easily explained by the rarefaction of the air; this rarefaction, diminishing the mass of the air, necessarily diminishes the intensity of its vibrations. On an isolated peak, the absence of echoes is another cause which reduces the force of the sound. The human voice consequently seems very feeble on Mont Blanc ; the discharge of a pistol makes no greater report than a small cracker. The intrepid explorers of Mont Blanc were incessantly in a feverish condition, which explains the thirst that tor- mented them, as well as their antipathy to wine, strong liquors and even to any kind of food. They longed only for THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 103 cold water, and nothing else would they endure; eating snow did but increase their pain. However, when they kept themselves perfectly tranquil, they did not suffer seriously. Some of the guides and men engaged in the expedition could not endure so many varieties of torture ; they were compelled to descend to a more condensed air. I quitted, with great reluctance, at half-past three, this magnificent place. We passed near the spot where, on the preceding night, we had, if not slept, at least reposed, and we pushed forward another league to the rock in whose vicinity we had halted in our ascent. I determined to pass the night there. 1 caused my tent to be raised against the southern extremity of the rock, in a truly singular situation. It stood on a snowy declivity overshadowed by the Dome du Gouter, with its crown of pinnacles, and terminating southward in the peak of Mont Blanc. At the bottom of this declivity yawned a broad and deep crevasse, which separated us from the valley, and swallowed up everything that fell in the neighborhood of our tent. We had chosen this position in order to escape the peril of the avalanches, and because, the guides finding shelter in the gaps of the rocks, we were not crowded within the tent as on the preceding night. We supped merrily and with a good appetite; after which I passed an excellent night on my little mattress. It was then only that I enjoyed the pleasure of having ac- complished the design which I had formed twenty-seven years previously — namely, on my first visit to Chamouni, in 1760; a design which I had so often abandoned and re- sumed, and which had been a continual source of anxiety and disquietude to my family. It had, indeed, become with me a species of disease ; my eyes never rested upon Mont Blanc, which was visible from so many points near my dwelling, without my undergoing a fresh attack of melan- choly. At the moment that I attained the summit, my gratifica- 104 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. tion was not complete; it was still less so when I was about to commence my descent, for, until then, I only realized how much I had been unable to complete. But, in the silence of the night, and after thoroughly recovering from my fatigue, when I recalled the observations I had made, and especially when I retraced the splendid picture of the mountains, eternally imprinted on my brain. XXVI. — THE ALPS. Proud monuments of God ! sublime ye stand Among the wonders of His mighty hand ; With summits soaring in the upper sky. Where the broad day looks down with burning eye. Where gorgeous clouds in solemn pomp repose, Flinging rich shadows on eternal snows ; Piles of triumphant dust, ye stand alone. And hold, in kingly state, a peerless throne ! Like olden conquerors, on high ye rear The regal ensign and the glittering spear ; Round icy spires the mists, in wreaths unrolled. That ever near, in purple or rn gold ; And yoicefnl torrents, sternly rolling there. Fill with wild music the unpillar’d air ; What garden, or what hall on earth beneath, Thrills to such tones as o’er the mountains breathe ? There, through long ages past, those summits shone, When morning radiance on their state was thrown ; There, when the summer day’s career was done. Played the last glory of the sinking sun ; THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 105 There, sprinkling lustre o'er the cataract’s shade, The chastened moon her glittering rainbow made, And blent with pictured stars, her lustre lay, Where to still vales the free streams leaped away. Where are the thronging hosts of other days. Whose banners floated o’er the Alpine ways ; Who, through their high defiles, to battle wound, "While deadly ordnance stirred the heights around ? Gone; like the dream that melts at early dawn, When the lark’s anthem through the sky is borne ; Gon® ; like the wrecks that sink in ocean’s spray, And chill oblivion murmurs, where are they ? Yet “ Alps on Alps ” still rise ; the lofty home Of storms and eagles, where their pinions roam ; Still round their peaks the magic colors lie, Of morn and eve, imprinted on the sky ; And still, while kings and thrones shall fade and fall. And empty crowns lie down upon the pall, Still shall their glaciers flash ; their torrents roar, Till kingdoms fall, and nations rise no more. XXVII.— VALE AND MOUNT. While all human structures crumble away and disappear, many of the works of nature live on changeless and inde- structible forever. There is, moreover, a beauty in the rugged variety of natural scenery which the skill of man can never successfully imitate*. Some of the European moun- tain scenery has justly acquired the admiration of rnanv 5 * 106 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. generations, and particularly is it the case with some regions in the neighborhood of the Alps: “The palaces of Nature ! whose vast walls Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, And throned Eternity in icy halls Of cold sublimity ; where forms and falls The avalanche — the thunderbolt of snow .! All that expands the spirit, yet appals. Gather around these summits, as to show How Earth may pierce to Heaven, yet leave vain man below !” Descending the Alps on the Italian side, through the pass of the St. Bernard, beautiful, indeed, and rich in all the glo- ries of picturesque grandeur, is the scenery of the country we pass through. The vale of Aosta, with its treliised vine and luxuriant vegetation, relieved by the back-ground, filled with the beautiful forms reflected by the snowy tops-of the mountains, render interesting and delightful our entrance into the city of Aosta. This contains about 7,000 inhabi- tants, and is remarkable for its antiquities and historical recollections, and for the beautiful scenery surrounding it on every side. Its foundation is set down as being 406 years earlier than that of Borne. Twenty years before Christ, its inhabitants were reduced to captivity by the Emperor Augustus, who gave his own name to it— a name which has been softened by the Italians into the present one of Aosta. The valley of Lauterbrunnen is remarkable for its depth, its contracted width* and for the precipices of limestone, nearly vertical, which enclose it like walls. Its name, literally translated, means “ nothing but fountains,” and is derived no doubt from the number of streamlets which cast themselves headlong from the brows of the cliffs into the valley below, looking at a distance like so many pendulous white threads. Here is the Staubbach, the most celebrated of European waterfalls. There are other cascades that are worthy of note* and among them the Schmadribach. This is a large THE .WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 107 body of water which, issuing from a glacier, throws itself over a precipice of great height, and after two more leaps of great beauty, reaches the bottom of the valley. Not far from here the Yungfrau veils its lofty summit in eternal snows. In a secluded valley near Appenzell, Switzerland, stands the singular hermitage and chapel of Wildkirchlein. It is reached by crossing an Alpine pasture which, in spite of its elevation of 5,000 feet above the sea, is in summer a perfect garden, unfolding a treasure to the botanist and affording the sweetest herbage to the cattle. In a recess scooped out of the face of a precipice, 170 feet above these pastures, a little chapel has been perched. It was built in 1756 and dedicated to Saint Michael. A bearded Capuchin occupies the hermitage adjoining, and willingly conducts strangers through the long caverns, hung with stalactites, which per- forate, the mountain behind his dwelling. The Sarnthal is a very picturesque little valley in the Tyrolese Alps, down which rushes the brook Talfer. At one end of the valley is the important commercial town of Bozen, delightfully situated at the confluence of the Eisack and the Talfer, which descends from the Sarnthal from the north. A very interesting walk is by the Sarner road through the Sarnthal. It passes a number of old feudal castles, partly in ruins, that lend an air of romance to the quiet scene. XXVIII. — THE GIANT’S CAUSEWAY. On the northern coast of Antrim, in Ireland, at a point about fifteen miles from Coleraine, a species of pier, or mole, of basalt projects into the stormy ocean, as if origi- 108 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, nally intended to connect the Irish shore with that of Scot- land. It is. in reality, but a part of the extensive basaltic mass, from 300 to 500 feet in thickness, which overspreads almost the whole county of Antrim and* the east of Lon- donderry for a total extent of 1,200 square miles. Three layers of the basalt, where it touches the coast, bear a re- markable columnar appearance. The first is seen at the promontory of Fair Head, where the massive pillars are truly cyclopean in character, and upwards of 2,000 feet high. The other two rise above the sea-land at Bengore Head; the lower forming the Causeway, and exhibiting above the surging waters and the shining diamond-spray, an irregular pavement — fit place for sea-nymphs to disport — composed of the tops of many sided columns, fitted to- gether with such admirable exactitude that the blade of a knife can scarcely be thrust between them. The average diameter of each pillar is from twelve to fifteen inches. The Causeway is divided into the Large, Middle, and Little Causeways ; the former is the lowest of the three columnar beds, about 30 feet wide and 600 feet in length. The Mid- dle Causeway, commonly called the Honey Comb, lies back of the Little Causeway. The chief object of attraction is the Grand Causeway, which is formed of the upper surface of the first or lowest range of columnar basalt laid bare. The ends of the pillars may be distinctly traced, both on the east and west ends of the Causeway, resting on an ochre bed. The Causeway, properly so-called, consists of three piers jutting out into the sea, the greater being visible to the extent of 300 yards at low water ; the other two not more than half that distance. The cliffs connected with the Causeway, especially in the bay to the eastward, exhibit in many places the same kind of columns, shaped and jointed in all respects like those of the Grand Causeway. Some of them are seen near the top of the cliffs, which, in those bays to the east and west of the Causeway, range from 140 to 490 feet in height; others again are observed about midway, and at different elevations from the strand. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 109 Some of the columns are between 30 and 40 feet high, and, being longest in the middle of the arrangement, and shortening on either hand, they have obtained the appella- tion of “ Organs/ 5 from a rude likeness to the frontal tubes of those instruments. To the geologist, the mineralogist, or the observer of nature in her more singular and fantastic moods, the Giant’s Causeway and its neighborhood is of sur- passing interest. XXIX.— AN ENGLISHMAN’S VIEW OF THE CITY OF WASHINGTON. The City of Washington is something more than four miles long, and is something more than two miles broad. The land apportioned to it is nearly as compact as may be, and it exceeds in area the size of a parallelogram four miles long by two broad. These dimensions are adequate for a noble city, for a city to contain a million of inhabitants. It is impossible to state with accuracy the actual population of Washington, for it fluctuates exceedingly. Three ave- nues sweep the whole length of Washington : Virginia Ave- nue, Pennsylvania Avenue, and Massachusetts Avenue. But Pennsylvania Avenue is the only one known to ordi- nary men, and the half of that only is so known. This avenue is the back-bone of the city, and those streets which are really inhabited cluster round that half of it which runs westward from the Capitol. The eastern end, running from the front of the Capitol, is again a desert. 110 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / The plan of the city is somewhat complicated. It may truly be called “ a mighty maze, but not without a plan.” The Capitol was intended to be the center of the city. It faces eastward, away from the Potomac — or rather from the main branch of the Potomac, and also, unfortunately, from the main body of the town. It turns its back upon the chief thoroughfare, upon the whole place. Of course it is generally known that in the Capitol is the chamber of the Senate, that of the House of Representatives, and the Supreme Judicial Court of the Union. It may be said that there are two centers in Washington, this being one and the President’s house the other. At these centers the main avenues are supposed to cross each other, which avenues are called by the names of the re- spective States. At the Capitol, Pennsylvania Avenue, New Jersey Avenue, Delaware Avenue, and Maryland Ave- nue converge. They come from one extremity of the city to the square of the Capitol on one side, and run out from the other side of it to the other extremity of the city. Pennsylvania Avenue, New York Avenue, Vermont Ave- nue, and Connecticut Avenue do the same at what is gene- rally called President’s Square. All these avenues have a slanting direction. They are so arranged that none of them run north and south, or east and west ; but the streets, so called, all run in accordance with the points of the com- pass. Such is the plan of the city, that being the arrange- ment and those the dimensions intended by the original architects and founders of Washington; but the inhabit- ants have hitherto confined themselves to Pennsylvania Avenue West, and to the streets abutting from it or near to it. The streets of "Washington, such as exist, are all broad. Throughout the town there are open space — spaces, I mean, intended to be open by the plan laid down for the city. At the present moment it is almost all open space. There are six principal public buildings in Washington, as to which no expense seems to have been spared, and in THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Ill the construction of which a certain amount of success has been obtained. In most of these this success has been more or less marred by an independent deviation from recognized rules of architectural taste. These are the Capitol, the Post- office, the Patent-office, the Treasury, the President’s house, and the Smithsonian Institution. The five first are Gre- cian, and the last Romanesque. Going west, but not due west, from the Capitol, Pennsylvania Avenue stretches in a straight line to the Treasury chambers. This reach of Pennsylvania Avenue is the quarter for the best shops of Washington — that is to say, the frequented side of it is so, that side which is on your right as you leave the Capitol. The Post-office and Patent-office lie a little way from Pennsylvania Avenue, in P Street, and are opposite to each other. The Post-office is certainly a very graceful building. It is square, and hardly can be said to have any settled front or any grand entrance. It is not approached by steps, but stands flush on the ground, alike on each of the four sides. It is ornamented with Corinthian pilasters, but is not over ornamented. It is certainly a structure creditable to any city. Opposite to the Post-office stands the Patent-office. This also is a grand building, with a fine portico of Doric pillars at each of its three fronts. The whole structure is massive and grand, and, if the streets round it were finished, would be imposing. The utilitarian spirit of the nation has, however, done much toward marring the appearance of the building, by piercing it with windows altogether unsuited to it, both in number and size. 112 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. XXX.— THE PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX. The pyramids of Egypt have been frequently mentioned by ancient and modern writers ; but the statements of the former respecting their founders are far from satisfactory, and no conjectures seem to explain the object for which they were erected. According to Herodotus, the founder of the great pyramid was Cheops, a prince whose crimes and tyranny made his name odious even to posterity. He compelled 100,000 men to work on the pyramid until its completion, which was not for 20 years. This pyramid was built in steps, and, as the work pro- ceeded, the stones were raised from the ground by means of machines made of short pieces of wood. The ascent of the pyramids is by no means difficult, though fatiguing to some unaccustomed to climbing, from the height of the stones. On the summit is a space about 32 feet square, which is much larger than formerly, having been increased when the casing and outer tiers were removed by the Ca- liphs, to serve for the construction of mosques at Cairo. The mania for writing names is abundantly manifested in the number inscribed on the top of this monument. The view from the summit is extensive, and, during the in- undation, peculiarly interesting and characteristic of Egypt The masonry over the entrance of the great pyramid is re- markable; two large blocks resting against each other form a pent-roof arch, and serve to take off the superincumbent weight from the roof of the passages. The principal apart- ment in the interior is the great gallery. Its dimensions are 34 feet long, 17 feet broad, and 19 feet high. The roof is flat and formed of simple blocks of granite resting on the side walls, which are built of the same materials. Towards THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 113 the upper end is a sarcophagus of the same kind of red granite. On being struck it emits a fine sound, as of a deep-toned bell. Besides the great gallery, there are the King’s Chamber, and four smaller ones directly oyer it. At the bottom of the great gallery is a passage partly vertical, called “the well,” which is, now closed. It connects the gallery with the lower passage, and is supposed to have been the means of egress to the workmen who had stopped up all other passages. The pyramid is remarkably free from any relics of interest, which is the more remarkable on account of its having been carefully sealed up by its founders. It was first opened by Caliph Mamoon, in the year 820 A. D.; and the long forced passage to the west, below the level of the present entrance, is supposed to have been made at that time. The object of the Caliph was the discovery of treasure. Tradition says that after long and patient labor, they gained access to the place of the wished-for trea- sures, and great hopes were entertained of finding a rich reward for their toil. But these hopes were doomed to end in disappointment. The pyramid was empty; and the Caliph, in order to appease the disappointment of the peo- ple, secretly placed a bag of gold in the pyramid; and the subsequent discovery of the supposed treasure satisfied the people. The Sphinx, situated near the great pyramid, is a stu- pendous figure cut in solid rock, part only of the back being cased with stone, where the rock is defective. The whole is solid with the exception of the forelegs, which, with the small portion above mentioned, are of hewn stone; nor is there any pedestal but a paved platform on which the paws rest. They extend to the distance of 50 feet. An altar, three tablets, and a lion were discovered there ; but no entrance could be' discovered in that part. The altar stands between the two paws; and it is evident, from its position, that sacrifices were performed before the Sphinx in remote times. 114 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / The pyramids of Lakkara are worthy of a visit, and hold a conspicuous position among the “many pyramids on the brow of the hills,” mentioned by Strabo. The largest pyra- mid of Lakkara has its degrees, or steps, stripped of their triangular exterior. It measures about 350 feet square. Within, it resembles a hollow dome, supported here and there by wooden rafters. At the end of the passage is a small chamber, reopened about 35 years ago, on whose door- day were hieroglyphics containing the banner or title of some very old king. All had been carefully closed and con- cealed by masonry, but the treasures it contained, if any, had long since been removed. The stone pyramids of Dashoor have their entrances on the north. The peculiarity about one of them is that it was finished at a different angle from the lower part ; and this being the only pyramid of this form, it is supposed that the builders depressed the angle in order more speedily to complete it, for had it retained its original form it would have been considerably higher. XXXI. — REFLECTIONS FROM THE SUMMIT OF AN EGYPTIAN PYRAMID. Throned on the sepulchre of mighty kings, Whose dust in solemn silence sleeps below, Till that great day, when sublunary things Shall pass away, e’en as the April bow Fades from the gazer s eye, and leaves no trace Of its bright colors, or its former place ; — THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 115 I gaze in sadness o’er the scenery wild, — On scattered groups of palms, and seas of sand, — On the wide desert, and the desert’s child, — On ruins made by Time’s destructive hand On Temples, towers, and columns now laid low, — A land of crime, of tyranny, and woe. O Egypt ! Egypt ! how art thou debased ! — A Moslem slave upon Busin’s throne ! And all thy splendid monuments defaced ! Long, long beneath his iron rod shall groan Thy hapless children ; thou hast had thy day. And all thy glories now have passed away. Oh ! could thy princely dead rise from their graves, And view with me the changes Time has wrought, A land of ruins, and a race of slaves, Where Vvdsdom flourished, and where sages taught, — A scene of desolation, mental night !— How would they shrink with horror from the sight ! * Ancient of days ! nurse of fair science, arts ! All that refines and elevates mankind ! Where are thy palaces, and where thy marts. Thy glorious cities, and thy men of mind ? Forever gone ! — the very names they bore, The sites they occupied, are now no more. But why lament, since such must ever be The fate of human greatness, human pride ? E’en those who mourn the loudest over thee Are drifting headlong down the rapid tide. That sweeps, resistless, to the yawning grave All that is great and good, or wise and brave. E’en thou, proud fabric ! whence I now survey Scenes so afflicting to the feeling heart, Despite thy giant strength, must sink the prey Of hoary age, and all thy fame depart ; In vain thy head, aspiring, scales the sky, — Prostrate in dust that lofty head must lie. 116 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / The soul alone, — tiie precious boon of Heaven, — Can fearless brave of time and fate the rage. When to thy deep foundations thou art riven ; Yea, Egypt ! blotted from th’ historic page, She shall survive, shall ever, ever bloom. In radiant youth, triumphant o’er the tomb. XXXII.— SINAI AND NUBIA. Among the most attractive points of interest in the East is Mount Serbal in the Sinaitic peninsula, which is consid- ered by many scholars and travelers to be the true Sinai of the Bible. The mountain itself is even more grand and striking in outline than its honored neighbor. It rises high above the neighboring summits, — “all in lilac hues and purple shadows, ” — as the morning sun sheds upon it his bright beams. It is a vast mass of peaks, which, in most points of view, may be reduced to five. These are all of granite, and rise so precipitously, so column-like, from the broken ground which forms the roots of the mountain, as at first sight to appear inaccessible. They may be best likened to a cluster of stalactites inverted. The peaks are divided by deep ravines filled with huge fragments of shattered rock; by the central ravine the active traveler may gain the summit in less than four hours. The glorious view will amply repay the toil. The highest peak is a huge block of granite ; on this, as on the back of some petrified tortoise, you stand and overlook the whole THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 117 peninsula of Sinai. The Red Sea, with the Egyptian hills opposite, and the wide waste of the desert on the south ; on the east the vast cluster of what is commonly called Sinai, and towering above all, the less famous but most magnifi- cent of all, the Mont Blanc of those parts, the unknown and un visited Um Shaumer. Every feature of the extraordinary conformation lies before you. Near this point is the delicious valley Eeiran, with its bushy palms. The road winds through the “Wady Mukat- teb” or written valley, and a lofty sandstone cliff stands at the entrance. Its breadth is about 400 yards, and it has at first but little vegetation. After about three hours of travel, however, the valley contracts and the eye is refreshed by the sight of palm groves and verdant gardens. About a mile further the ruins of an ancient village may be seen on a mountain to the left. Half an hour after passing this place we enter another and much larger palm grove,, with whose graceful branches the tamarask mingles. A little streamlet winds through the thicket ; hoary tottering ruins cling to the rugged acclivities around ; and the dark open- ings of rock-hewn hermitages dot the cliffs overhead. Ezion-geber is mentioned in the Bible as being on the route of the Israelites on their return from Kadesh (Deut. 11, 8). It was chiefly remarkable afterward from the im- portance attached to it in the time of Solomon, and from having been the channel by which the treasures of Arabia and India flowed to Syria. It was the possession of this point that led to the wealth of Solomon ; and it is curious to observe how every place has successively risen to impor- tance the moment it enjoyed the benefits of the Indian trade. Solomon is said to have “made a navy of ships at. Ezion-geber, which is beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom.” The ships were navigated by the Phoenicians in the service of the Jewish king, whose friendship with Hiram secured for him the aid of those skill- ful navigators. The city afterwards lost its importance 118 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / under the Greeks and Romans. The country thereabout is very rocky and most of the travel is done on dromedaries. The country of Nubia, though little explored, has been found to contain many ruins of a remote date. Those of Sabooa are of the early epoch of Ramases the Great. They consist of sculptures and monuments and the remains of a temple, the latter of which is built of sandstone, with the exception of the altar, which is excavated in the rock. There are besides eight sculptured sphinxes and two monu- ments with statues partly sculptured from them. Much of the temple is covered by the drifted sand. XXXIII.— HEIGHTS OF THE HOLY LAND. The mountains of Palestine are interesting more from their sacred associations than from their height and gran- deur. The Galilean hills show a jagged outline of varied vegetation and high upland hollows; they often contain green basins of table land just below their topmost ridges. In such a position stands Nazareth, encircled by its rounded hills. Mount Tabor towers like a dome above the surrounding country, with an oval plain for its summit. About six miles southward lies the ridge of little Hermon, a desert, shapeless mass. Further south we come upon the elevated tract of Gilboa. Many of the hills of Samaria are beautifully wooded, and Ebal and Gerizim, its chief mountains, are separated by a THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 119 narrow and deep valley, at the end of which lies the white town of Nablous (Shechem) embosomed in verdure. The Judean mountains are rugged, and the ancient terraces have been washed down, leaving the dry rock bare and desolate. Through the wild and melancholy region of the Dead Sea, the mountains seem to have been loosened from their foundations, and rent in pieces by some terrible con- vulsion, and the look of the whole region is peculiarly sav- age and dreary. Further south, the desolation increases, the valleys are narrower, and the hills more bare and rug- ged, till their dreary aspect shows the approach of the desert. ' The famous mountain group of Sinai lies beyond the desert where the Israelites wandered, in the peninsula between the gulfs of Akabah and Suez. This celebrated region is of the utmost interest, both from, its history and its wonderful scenery; and we gather from Stanley and others a somewhat detailed description of its appearance. The peninsula of Mount Sinai is one of the most remark- able districts on the face of the earth. It combines the three grand features of earthly scenery — the sea, the desert, and the mountains. The great limestone range of Syria, which begins in the north from Lebanon, and extends through the whole of Palestine, terminates on the south in a wide table-land, which reaches eastward far into Arabia Petraea, and westward far into Africa. At the point where the rocky mass descends from Pales- tine, another element falls in, which at once gives it a char- acter distinct from mountainous tracts in other parts of the world — namely, that waterless region which extends from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Persian Gulf, under the familiar name of the Desert. However much the other mountains of the Peninsula vary in form or height, the mountains of the Teh are always alike ; always faithful to their tabular outline and blanched desolation. The plateau of the Teh is succeeded by the sandstone mountains, which form the first approach to the highest Sinaitic range, called 120 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. by the general Arabic name for a high mountain, the “Tor.” One narrow plain, or belt of sand, divides the table land of the north from these mountains of the south. This brings us to the heights which form the mountain land of the Peninsula. This mass of mountains, rising in their highest points to the height of more than 9,000 feet, forms the southern tower of that long belt or chain of hills,' of which the northern bulwark is the double range of Lebanon. The cluster itself consists of two formations — sandstone and granite. To these it owes the depth and variety of color which distinguish it from almost all other mountainous scenery. Sandstone and granite alike lend the strong red hue, which, when it extends further eastward, is, accord- ing to some interpretations, connected with the name of “ Edom.” It was long ago described as of a bright scarlet hue, and is represented in legendary pictures as of a bril- liant crimson. But viewed even in the soberest light, it gives a richness to the whole mountain landscape which is wholly unknown in the gray and brown suits of our north- ern hills. It was the soft surface of these sandstone cliffs which offered ready tablets to the writers of the so-called Sinaitic inscriptions and engravings, and to Egyptian sculptors ; the continuation of the same formation, far away to the south- west, reappears in the consecrated quarries of the gorge of Silsilie, whence were hewn the vast materials for the tem- ples of Thebes. So, too, the granite mountains, on whose hard blocks were written the Ten Commandments of the Mosaic Law, and whose wild rents and fantastic forms reappear in Egypt at the * First Cataract, in the grotesque rocks that surround the island of Philac, and in the vast quarries of Syrene. The general characteristics of these respective clusters may be best given in common. Bed, with dark green, are the predominant colors. These colors, especially in the THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 121 neighborhood of Serbal, are diversified by the long streaks of purple which run over them from top to bottom. An- other feature, less peculiar, but still highly characteristic, is the infinite complication of jagged peaks and varied ridges. It is as if Arabia Petrasa were an ocean of lava, which, whilst its waves were running mountains high, had suddenly stood still. This — their union of grandeur with desolation — is the point of their scenery absolutely unri- valed. They are the “Alps” of Arabia — but the Alps planted in the Desert, and, therefore, stripped of the varie- gated drapery of oak, and birch, and pine, and fir; of moss, and grass, and fern, which, to landscapes of European hills, are almost as essential as the rocks and peaks themselves. XXXIV.— 1 THE CHRISTIAN TOURISTS. No aimless wanderers, by the fiend Unrest Goaded from shore to shore ; No schoolmen turning, in their classic quest. The leaves of empire o’er. Simple of faith, and bearing in their hearts The love of man and God, Isles of old song, the Moslem’s ancient marts. And Sythia’s steppes, they trod. Where the long shadows of the fir and pine In the night sun are cast, And the deep heart of many a Norland mine Quakes at each riving blast ; Where, in barbaric grandeur, Moskwa stands, A baptised Sythian queen. With Europe’s arts and Asia’s grizzled hands. The North and East between 1 6 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. "Where still, through vales of Grecian fable, stray The classic forms of yore. And beauty smiles, new risen from the spray, And Dian weeps once more ; Where every tongue in Smyrna’s mart resounds ; And Stamboul from the sea Lifts her tall minarets over burial-grounds. Black with the cypress-tree ! From Malta’s temples to the gates of Rome, Following the track of Paul, And where the Alps gird round the Switzer’s home Their vast, eternal wall ; The.y paused not by the ruins of old time, They scanned no pictures rare, Nor lingered where the snow-locked mountains climb The cold abyss of air ! But into prisons, where me lay in chains, To haunts where Hunger pined, To kings and courts forgetful of the pains And wants of human-kind ; Scattering sweet words, and quiet deeds of good, Along their way like flowers, Or pleading, as Christ’s freemen only could. With princes and with powers. Their single aim the purpose to fulfil Of Truth from day to day, Simply obedient to its guiding will, They held their pilgrim way. Yet dream not, hence, the beautiful and old "Were wasted on their sight, Who, in the school of Christ had learned to hold All outward things aright. • Not less to them the breath of vineyards blown From off the Cyprian shore, Not less for them the Alps in sunset shone, That man they valued more. A life of beauty lends to all it sees The beauty of its thought ; And fairest forms and sweetest harmonies # Make glad its way, unsought. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 123 In sweet accordancy of praise and love, The singing waters run ; And sunset mountains wear in light above The smile of duty done ; Sure stands the promise, — ever- to the meek A heritage is given ; Nor lose they earth who, single-hearted, seek The righteousness of Heaven ! XXXV.— THE CITY OF VENICE. As a general description of Venice, none is more vivid than that which we owe to Rogers “ There is a glorious city in the sea, The sea is in the broad, the narrow streets, Ebbing and flowing ; and the salt sea-weed Clings to the marble of her palaces. No track of man, no footsteps to and fro. Lead to her gates. The path lies o’er the sea, Invincible ; and from the land we went, As to a floating city — steering in. And gliding up her streets as in a dream. So smoothly, silently — by many a dome. Mosque-like, and many a stately portico. The statues ranged along an azure sky ; By many a pile, in more than Eastern pride. Of old the residence of merchant -kings ; The fronts of some, tho’ Time had shattered them, Still glowing with the richest hues of art, As tho’ the wealth within them had run o’er.” It is not necessary to describe minutely the general as- pect of this city* familiarized as it is to every one by prose, poetry and painting. Yet Venice to-day is not the proud 124 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. city that it was in the time of its maritime supremacy. Sky, air and water continue the same, hut all the actors who peopled the scene are gone ; for the Venetians have cast aside in despair all the peculiarities that marked them in the days of their independence. The masks, the saltin- vauks, the soothsayers, the motley crowds that enlivened the piazza, have followed the fate of Doge and Senator. The gondolas alone linger in their ancient form, gliding as in days of yore on the canals in ghostly silence. The palaces of Venice may he considered as the monu- ments of her aristocracy. The number now occupied by the families who reared these sumptuous piles is exceed- ingly small — not more than one-twentieth. Of the rest, some are turned into hotels, others into public offices. Of their architecture, lightness and fancy are the chief charac- teristics, though never devoid of needful strength and solidity. The principal palace and the chief pride of Venice is the St. Mark’s. This is the structure in which the old Doges dwelt, and in which are preserved the treasures of architec- ture and painting, which once made the city as famous as did its maritime successes. The main part of the palace was built in the tenth cen- tury, and the exterior decorations were completed under the Doge Marino Faliero. The interior of the building was exceedingly damaged by two successive fires in the sixteenth century, in which the great paintings of Titian and others, representing the triumphs of the republic, perished in the flames. The plan of the palace is an irregular square and is surrounded by galleries. The compass and -spread of its chambers, the rich adornments, the paintings and every accessory, all unite in breathing, as it were, a character of pride — almost of arro- gance. The building is a personification of the State by whose majesty it was inhabited. The library of St. Mark was founded by Petrarch and by Cardinal Bersorione. Some THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 125 manuscripts were given by tire former ; the latter bequeathed to the republic his library, then so choice and rich in Greek manuscripts as to be unequaled in Europe, and these still constitute its chief pride. An outside view of the palace is very striking ; in fact, more so than can be inferred from any picture of it. The long rows of light arches, supported by pillars seemingly so slender, yet so substantial ; the rich Gothic windows, and the beauty of the material, all combine to impress its beholder with an elevated sense of Venetian art. Inside of the palace there is a court, or open space, in which is a fountain. A better view of the building as a work of art could hardly be obtained at any other point. The sculp- ture and the rich tracery of the arches, balustrades and staircases are most beautiful. The Bridge of Sighs is celebrated in history and poetry. It unites the dungeons of the ducal palace with the public prisons which extend their walls in a long and gloomy range along the narrow canal. “ That deep descent (thou canst not yet discern Aught as it is) leads to the dripping vaults, Under the floods, were light and warmth were never ! Leads to a covered bridge, the Bridge of Sighs; And to that fatal closet at the foot, Lurking for prey, which, when a victim came. Grew less and less, contracting to a span. An iron door, urged onward by a screw, For<5ing out life. But let us to the roof, And when thou hast surveyed the sea, the land. Visit the narrow cells that cluster there, As in a place of tombs. There burning suns, Day after day, beat unrelentingly, Turning all things to dust, and scorching up The brain, till Reason fled, and the wild yell And wilder laugh burst out on every side ; Answering each other as in mockery ! ” This gives the darkest side of Venetian policy, and, per- haps is a little exaggerated. It is to be remarked that the 126 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, tortures, so thrillingly described above, ended with the end of the Doges of Venice. XXXVI.— VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LEGIONS. A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust, from which come torrents of melted rock, called lava, with steam, flam- ing gases, hot ashes, and often large red-hot stones. It* is usually a vast heap of matter which has flowed out of the earth, and hence is commonly called a burning mountain . But the vent may remain for a long time at a low level, and is sometimes formed beneath the sea itself. An earthquake is a shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust by movements of the seas of fire which compose the interior of the globe. The solid ground on which we live, is but a shell, probably about twelve leagues thick, of the great liquid fiery mass, the lava ocean within. This thin crust floating on this fiery ocean is shaken, and sometimes broken, by its currents and waves. When it is shaken, we have an earthquake. When there is an opening into the liquid depths below, so that their melted rocks and heated gases and steam flow forth upon the surface, we have a vol- cano. Volcanoes, earthquakes, hot springs, and other heated eruptions to the earth’s surface are due to the same general cause, viz., the hot and melted mass of fire beneath the crust on which we live. Considered singly, each volcano is nothing but a mere opening through which a furnace of lava is brought to the surface of the globe. The matter THE WOULD IN THE STETHOSCOPE. 127 thrown out is heaped together outside the opening, and forms a cone more or less regular in its shape, which at last attains to considerable size, sometimes becoming many thousand feet high. One flow of molten matter follows another, and thus is gradually formed the skeleton of the mountain ; the ashes and stones thrown out by the crater gather in long slopes ; the volcano at the same time grows higher and wider. After many eruptions, it at last mounts up into the clouds, and then into the region of perpetual snow. At the first out- break of the volcano, the mouth of the opening into the fiery seas below is on the surface of the ground ; it is then pro- longed like an immense chimney through the center of the cone, and each new river of lava which flows from the sum- mit increases the height of this chimney. Volcanoes are either central or lie in chains. A central volcano is one that stands alone, separate from all others. A volcanic chain is a line of openings, lying in the same di- rection, and connected with the same great fissure into the depths of the earth. As, when the burning matter seeks an outlet, the earth is generally cleft open in a straight line, the volcanic openings are frequently distributed somewhat regularly along a fissure, and the heaps of matter they throw out follow one another like the peaks in a mountain chain. In other places, however, the volcanic cones rise without any apparent order on ground that is variously cleft ; just as if a wide surface had been softened in every direction, and had thus allowed the molten matter to make its escape, sometimes at one point, sometimes at another. The common form of volcanoes in which the work of eruption takes place is that of a slope of earth, ashes, and stone, arranged in a round form about the outlet. Whether the volcano be a mere cone of ashes or mud only a few yards high, or rises into the regions of the clouds, vomiting streams of lava over an extent of ten or twenty miles, it none the less keeps to the regular form so long as the erup- 128 THE WORLD IH THE STEREOSCOPE. tive action is maintained in the same channel, and the mat- ter thrown out falls equally on the external slopes. The beauty of the cone is increased by that of the crater. The bowl-like mouth, from which the laya boils out, well de- serves, from the purity of its outline, its Greek name of “ crater,” or cup ; and the harmony of its curve contrasts most gracefully with the descent of the slope. The lava, swelling up in enormous blisters about the fis- sures from which it flows in a current over the slope, is, as we have said, far from being the only substance thrown out of volcanic mountains. When the pent-up vapor escapes from the crater with a sudden explosion, it carries with it lumps of molten matter, which describe their curve in the air, and fall at a greater or less distance on the slope of the cone, according to the force with which they were thrown out. These immense showers, traced in lines of fire on the dark sky, add much during the night-time to the magnifi- cent beauty of volcanic eruptions. In most eruptions, these balls of lava, still in a fluid and burning state, constitute but a small part of the matter thrown out by the mountain. The largest proportion of the stones come from the walls of the volcano itself, which break up under the pressure of the gas, and fly off in volleys mingled with the products of the new eruption. This is the origin of the dust t * ashes which some craters vomit out in such large quantities, which, too, are the cause of such terrible disasters. The chief theater of volcanic action on the earth is in and about the Pacific Ocean. Two-thirds of all the active volca- noes are on the shores or islands of the Pacific. This vast ocean is circled round by a series of volcanic mountains, some ranged in chains, and others very distant from one another, but still maintaining an evident mutual connection, consti- tuting a “ circle of fire,” which is about 22,000 miles in length. The region of the Sunda Islands, where the earth is so often agitated by violent shocks, maybe considered as the great center of the lava streams of our planet. On the kind THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 129 of broken isthmus which connects Australia with the Indo- Chinese peninsula, and separates the Pacific Ocean from the great Indian seas, one hundred and nine volcanoes are vomiting out lava, ashes or mud in full activity, destroying, from time to time, the towns and villages which lie upon their slope; sometimes, in their more terrible explosions, they ultimately explode bodily, covering with the dust of their fragments areas of several thousands of miles in ex- tent. From Papua to Sumatra, every large island, includ- ing, probably, the almost unknown tracts of Borneo, is pierced with one or more volcanic outlets. The great center of volcanic energy on the earth seems to be about and upon the island of Java. It is, as one has said, “ dowered with fire.” Notwithstanding its compara- tively small size, it has as many volcanoes as all America, and each more terrible than /Etna. All these “ giants of fire ” differ from one another. They have, too, their sepa- rate names ; some borrowed from the Hindu gods ; others, apparently, the names of the divinities of the island. One yawns with a monstrous crater, 20,000 feet in diameter, where four /Etnas smoke and vomit, at the bottom of a frightful precipice. Another kindles its flames in a strange desert, encrusted by salt springs. One belches periodically ; another boils with sulphurous waters, which, even after they have cooled in little lake-like basins, exhibit a feverish agitation. Another pours out a milky flood of ghastly whiteness. The central crest of Java is formed of a range of volcanic mountains, from 5,000 to 13,000 feet in height, which ends on the east in a series of thirty-eight separate volcanoes, rising into cones from colossal bases. They are all situated on a plain of no great elevation above the sea, and each in- dividual mountain has apparently been formed in entire independence of its neighbors. Most of them are very ancient, and their flanks labor with a rich, dense vegeta- tion. Some are extinct, or only emit smoke; others eject, G* 130 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / with great fury, clouds of sulphurous vapor ; the crater of one is filled with boiling water ; a few, even of recent years, have broken into violent eruption. Among the most re- markable of the Javanese volcanoes must be named Guevo- Upas, or the Valley of Poison, a half extinct crater, which seems to have originated the fable of the Upas Tree. It measures about 800 yards in circuit, and sends forth a quan- tity of poisonous gas, which proves fatal to every living thing that ventures within its reach. The valley is said to be strewn with the blanched skeletons of the animals that have fallen victims to its deadly effects. Northward, the volcanic ring curves gradually, so as to follow a direction parallel to the coast of Asia, to the Kam- tchatkan peninsula, which supports fourteen fiery peaks in full activity of eruption. Eastward of the peninsula, the volcanic chain extends along the sea coast of the continent. Mount St. Elias, one of the highest summits in America, often vomits lava from* its crater. Farther to the south rises another active volcano, Mount Fair Weather. Next comes the volcanic region of British Columbia. The whole chain of the Cascades, in Oregon, as well as the parallel ranges of the Sierra Nevada and the Iiocky Mountains, are overlooked by a great number of volcanoes ; but only a few of them continue to throw out smoke and ashes. There a series of volcanoes, arising over a fissure crossing the con- tinent, extends over the whole plateau of Anahuac, from the Southern Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. Tolima is the most northern of the active volcanoes of South America, and is also one of the most distant from the sea among all the fire-vomiting mountains. South of Tolima, and the great plateau of Pasto, where there like- wise exists a crater, stands the magnificent group of sixteen volcanoes, some already extinct and still smoking, over which towers the proud dome of Chimborazo. The whole range of the Andes furnishes a grand example of linear volcanoes or a volcanic chain. This is specially THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, 131 true in the neighborhood of the city of Quito. On the east rises the snow-shrouded summit of Cotopaxi, one of the most superb of active volcanoes, whose dazzling cone soars to a height of 18,775 feet. Close to the city the lofty vol- cano of Pichincha rises to the greater altitude of 19,553 feet. It was ascended by Humboldt, who approached the very edge of the crater, and saw the curdling lava boiling in the black depths of the dreaded abyss. He had advanced, in the midst of a thick fog, to within a few feet of the rapid slope which descends into the crater, and with difficulty saved himself from plunging headlong into the burning, seething gulf, South of Sanguay, which is, perhaps, the most destructive volcano on the earth, there are no volcanoes for nearly 1,000 miles. Then the smoking peaks appear again, more or less frequently, extending down the coast to the rocky shores of Terra del Fuego. Within this immense amphi- theater of volcanoes, a multitude of those charming isles, which are scattered over the ocean, are also of volcanic origin, and many of them can be distinguished from afar by their smoking and flaming craters. Round the circum- ference of the Indian Ocean the border of volcanoes is much less distinct than round the Pacific ; still it is possible to recognise some of its elements. To the north of Java and Sumatra, the volcanoes of which overlook the eastern por- tion of the basins of the Indian seas, stretches the volcanic archipelago of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, in wdiich there are several cones of eruption in full activity. On the west of Hindostan, the peninsula of Kutch and the delta of the Indus are often agitated. Many mountains on the Arabian coast are nothing but masses of lava; and, if various travelers are to be believed, the volcanic furnace of these countries is not yet extinct. The Kpnia, the great mountain of Eastern Africa, has on its own summit a crater still in action — perhaps the only one which exists on this continent. Lastly, a large number of islands which sur* 182 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. round the Indian Ocean, on the west and on tho south, are nothing but cones of eruption, which have gradually emerged from the bed of the ocean. The Mediterranean is not surrounded by a circle of volcanoes ; but there, as else- where, it is from the midst of the sea, or immediately on the sea coast, that the burning mountains rise — iEtna, Vesuvius, Stromboli, Epomeo, and Santorin. XXXVII.— DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII. Sad city, gayly dawned thy latest day, And poured its radiance on a scene as gay. Then mirth and music through Pompeii rung; Then verdant wreaths on all her portals hung ; Her sons with solemn rite and jocund lay, Hailed the glad splendors of the festal day. With fillets bound the hoary priests advance ; And rosy virgins braid the choral dance. The rugged warrior here unbends awhile His iron front, and deigns a transient smile ; There, frantic with delight, the ruddy boy Scarce treads on earth, and bounds and laughs with joy. What Vails it, that where yonder heights aspire, With ashes piled, and scathed with rills of fire, Gigantic phantoms dimly seem to glide, In misty files, along the mountain side, To view with threatening scowl your fated lands, And toward your city point their shadowy hands? pi vain, through many a night, ye view from far The lneteor flag of elemental war Unroll its blazing folds from yonder height, In fearful signs of earth’s intestine fight. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 133 In vain Vesuvius groaned with wrath suppressed. And muttered thunder in his burning breast. Long since, the eagle from that flaming peak, Hath soared with screams a safer nest to seek. Awed by the infernal beacon’s fitful glare, The howling wolf hath left his wonted lair. Man only mocks the peril. Man alone Defies the sulphurous flame, the warning groan ; While instinct, bumbler guardian, wakes and saves, Proud reason sleeps, nor knows the doom it braves. The hour is come. Even now the sulphurous cloud Involves the city in its funeral shroud, And, far along Campania’s azure sky, Expands its dark and boundless canopy. The sun, though throned on heaven’s meridian height, Burns red and ravless through that sickly night. Each bosom felt at once the shuddering thrill, At once the music stopped, — the song was still. None in that cloud’s portentous shade might trace The fearful changes of another’s face. But through that horrid stillness, each could hear, His neighbor’s throbbing heart beat high with fear. A moment’s pause succeeds. Then wildly rise Grief’s sobbing plaints and terror’s frantic cries. The gates recoil ; and toward the narrow pass, In wild confusion, rolls the living mass. Death ! — when thy shadowy sceptre waves away From his sad couch the prisoner of decay, Though friendship view the close with glistening eye. And love's fond lips imbibe the parting sigh, By torture racked, by kindness soothed in vain, The soul still clings to being and to pain. But when have wilder terrors clothed thy brow, Or keener torments edged thy dart than now, — When with thy regal horrors vainly strove The law of Nature and the power of Love ? On mothers babes in vain for mercy call ; Beneath the feet of brothers, brothers fall. Behold the dying wretch in vain upraise Toward yonder well-known face the accusing gaze. 134 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Vain is the imploring glance, the frenzied cny, All, all is fear; — to succor is to die. Saw ye how wild, how red, how broad a light Burst on the darkness of that mid-day night, As fierce Vesuvius scattered o’er the vale Her drifted flames and sheets of burning hail, Shook death’s wan lightnings from his blazing cone^. And gilded heaven with meteors not its own ? The morn all blushing rose ; but sought in vain The snowy villas and the flowery plain, The purple hills with marshaled vineyards gay. The domes that sparkled in the sunny ray. 'Where Art or Nature late had deck’d the scene With blazing marble or with spangled green. There, streaked by many a fiery torrent’s bed, A boundless waste of hoary ashes spread. Along that dreary waste, where lately rung The festal lay which smiling virgins sung, Where rapture echoed from the warbling lute, And the gay dance resounded, — all is mute. Mute ! — Is it Fancy shapes that wailing sound, Which faintly murmurs from the blasted ground; Or live there still, who, breathing in the tomb, Curse the dark refuge which delays their doom, In massive vaults, on which the incumbent plain And ruined city heap their weight in vain ? Go seek Pompeii now ; — with pensive tread Roam through the silent city of the dead ; Explore each spot, where still, in ruin grand, Her shapeless piles and tottering columns stand, — * Where the pale ivy’s clasping wreaths o’ershade The ruined temple’s moss-clad colonnade; Or violets on the hearth’s- cold marble wave. And muse in silence on a people’s grave. Fear not. — No sign of death thine eyes shall scare. No, all is beauty, .verdure, fragrance there. A gentle slope includes the fatal ground, With odorous shrubs and tufted myrtles crowned; THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 135 Beneath, o’ergrown with grass, or wreathed with flowers, Lie tombs and temples, columns, baths, and towers ; As if, in mockery, Nature seems to dres3 In all her charms the beauteous wilderness, And bids her gayest flowrets twine and bloom In sweet profusion o’er a city’s tomb. Advance, and wander on through crumbling halls. Through prostrate gates and ivied pedestals, — Arches, whose echoes now no chariots rouse, — Tombs, on whose summit goats undaunted browse. XXXVI1L — ASCENTS OP MOUNT CHIMBORAZO. The neighborhood of Quito in South America is rich in magnificent mountain scenery, looking out upon thirteen lofty summits. On the east rise the snow-shrouded sum- mits of Antisana, Cotopaxi, an active volcano whose daz- zling cone soars to the height of nearly 20,000 feet, and Tungurago. On the west is seen Xllinissa, the wreck of an ancient volcano, and close to the city the vast slope of Pi- chincha ; while in the north appears the Cayambi, a beau- tiful snow-clad mass ; while Chimborazo, the loftiest sum- mit ascended by man in America, lies off to the southeast. It was in the summer of 1802 that Humboldt undertook to plant the standard of geographical discovery on the snowy crest of Chimborazo. Early in the morning, Hum- boldt and Bonpland quitted the village of Calpi to attack Chimborazo on the southeast side. The summit of its peak is surrounded by plains, which rise one above another in a 136 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. series of terraces. These plains, blooming with vegetation, surpass in height the peak of Teneriffe. These plains may be compared to the bed of a dried up lake, and remind the traveler of the steppes of Central Asia. The snowy crest of Chimborazo here reveals itself to the traveler in occasional flashes of white light through the clouds and dense mist that closely embrace it. At this elevation Humboldt dismounted from his mule, the snow having fallen heavily on the preceding day. Bonpland and Montufar also left behind their horses, to re- mount them on their return. The vegetation nourished by the meager soil ceased at about 950 feet above the lake Yana-Concha. From that point there was nothing but som- bre walls of rocks reared upon foundations of eternal snow. At certain points these rocks arranged themselves in masses of slender and irregular columns, which, from afar, produced all the effect of a forest of trees, dead, but still standing. This avenue of black trunks leads directly to a very narrow ridge, the only road by which the summit could be attained, for the snow lying on the other parts of the mountain was too new and too soft to bear the weight of a single person. The ridge narrowing as it ascended, offered but a perilous path, and grew steeper and jet steeper. At the elevation of 16,600 feet all the guides abandoned the enterprise, daunted by its difficulties, and only one native, a half-breed of San Juan, remained faithful to the travelers. Despite the fog which surrounded them/they mounted to a greater altitude than they had hoped for, though not without incurring the most alarming dangers. The ridge (or knife-back, to adopt the expressive word of the Span- iards) along which they passed was only from eight to twelve inches in width. I*t terminated, on the left, in an inclined plane of thirty degrees, formed of congealed snow, which glittered like a mirror ; on the right yawned an abyss, nearly 1,000 feet in depth, wherein the sharp rocks rise vertically like spires or pinnacles. “ We moved forward, THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 137 however/’ says Humboldt, “ leaning ourselves on this side ; the peril appeared to us far more formidable on the left, because we had not there even the slight resource of cling- ing to the projections of the rock, and the sloping stratum of ice would not have saved us from being buried in the snow.” The difficulty of ascent continued, nevertheless, to in- crease. The rock became more and more brittle, and the incline so steep that the travelers were fain to crawl on their hands and feet, at the risk of wounding themselves every moment. They advanced in single file, exploring the path ' before them at every step, for frequently the huge stones, which seemed a compact portion of the soil, became detached, and rolled from under the foot instead of serving it for a support. Everybody then began to feel the moun- tain sickness — that is, a desire to vomit, and a kind of diz- ziness. The native who had agreed to share the fatigues of the ascent suffered far more than the European travelers. All bled from the gums and lips, and their eyes were ter- ribly bloodshot. All at once the veil of clouds which drooped over the crest of Chimborazo seemed torn aside as if by enchant- ment, revealing its rounded summit. The road growing somewhat wider, the travelers advanced with surer step, when a deep crevasse, 500 feet deep and 70 broad, suddenly arrested them with an insurmountable obstacle. The path was continued beyond, but it was equally impossible to * flank the abyss or descend into its shades, on account of the softness of the snow which filled it. They were compelled to abandon all hopes of ascending higher. It . was not possible for them to remain long in this gloomy desert. The fog had again thickened, and neither the peak of Chimborazo nor any of the neighbouring mountains was now visible. The sky grew more and more cloudy, and the adventurers addressed themselves to a speedy downward journey, which they accomplished by the same route, but 138 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. not without the greatest precautions. They had scarcely begun their descent when a thick hail, soon followed by snow, came down in heavy showers. The ground was soon covered ankle-deep, a circumstance which rendered the de- scent doubly perilous. However, about two p. m., Hum- boldt and Bonpland rejoined their guides, whom they had left with their horses on the borders of the perpetual snow. In 1831, a French traveler named Boussingault, with his companion, Colonel Hall, attempted this ascent again, with better results at their second trial, the story of which is given below. At 7 a. m. on the 15th December, they set out on their journey. At nine they breakfasted on an enormous block of trachyte, 14,150 feet in altitude, which Boussin- gault named “The Breakfast Stone.” Nineteen hundred feet higher, the mules refusing to proceed on account of the rarefaction of the air, the travelers quitted their steeds and began to climb on foot a slope of rocks resting upon ice, a mass which seemed the result of some recent landslip, a kind of stony avalanche Jet loose from the mountain sum- mit. Toward noon they traversed a sheet of ice of such ex- treme slipperiness that they were obliged to excavate holes with a hatchet in which to plant their feet. Already the air was so rarefied that they stopped at every six or eight paces to draw breath. In this position they made their way to some blocks of trachyte not covered with snow. The “ forlorn hope ” marched in single file, Bous- singault at the head, Colonel Hall and his negro servant 1 placing their feet in Boussingault’s footprints. While on tlie march they preserved an absolute silence, and during their halts exchanged but a few words in a low voice — a very essential precaution in an enterprise of this kind, where nothing is so fatiguing as a sustained conversation, and where the agitation of the air resulting from shouts or other noises will often induce the most terrible avalanches. It was not long before they gained, in this fashion, a ridge THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 139 wliicli ascended directly to the summit of Chimborazo. There was little snow on it, but it was dangerous to climb ■ on account of its exceeding steepness. After incredible gymnastic efforts, they found themselves at the foot of a wall of trachyte nearly perpendicular, and some hundreds of feet in height. Resting themselves in front of this “ Red Rock,” they quenched their thirst by sucking small lumps of ice. It was then three-quarters past noon. Everybody was frozen with .the cold, for the, thermometer had sunk to zero. The mist which had en- shrouded the travelers finally cleared away, revealing on their right a horrible abyss, and on the left a projecting rock, which formed a kind of observatory. With the assist- ance of his companions, Boussingault contrived to climb it. Looking around, he ascertained that it was possible to ascend much higher if they succeeded in scaling a slope of frozen snow, which W'as supported against the opposite side of the Red Rock. He ordered the negro to test the strength of the snow ; fortunately it proved of sufficient density to bear them all. Colonel Hail and the negro then passed round the rock, and Boussingault rejoined them by sliding along its icy incline. At this stage of the journey everybody began to feel the effects of the thin mountain air. Every moment they were compelled to pause, and frequently to prostrate themselves on the ground for a few seconds ; but the suffering ceased when they were at rest. Suddenly a new danger was added to their previous trials ; the soft snow was no longer more than three or four inches deep ; beneath it lay a hard, slip- pery ice, and to cross it without falling they were compelled to cut holes for their feet. For this purpose the negro went foremost ; but his strength was soon exhausted. Boussin- gault, endeavoring to pass him and take his place, slipped on the very edge of the precipice. Very fortunately, his two companions caught hold of him and held him suspended. All three incurred the greatest danger; but having sue- 140 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. ceeded in recovering their place, they bravely resumed their progress along the perilous path. By a last effort they suc- ceeded in reaching, at three-quarters past one p. m., the end of this most formidable ridge. It proved impossible, however, to advance beyond. They found themselves at the foot of an enormous trachvte ram- «/ part, whose upper portion, shrouded in eternal snow, formed the actual summit of Chimborazo. The ridges leading to its crest are the flying buttresses visible from the plain, which seem to support on different sides, as if to steady it, this mighty mass of rock. The ridge at whose extremity stood the three adventurers was scarcely a yard in width. On every side it was surrounded by precipices and rocks, contrasting strangely with the dazzling whiteness of the snow. Long stalactites of gleaming ice, suspended over their heads, might be compared to a cascade suddenly frozen in its descent. The weather was magnificent ; the air calm and pure; the eye embraced, a boundless horizon; in a word, the entire situation was one of surpassing sublimity. Up to three o’clock the weather continued beautifully fine and clear. But after this hour, dense clouds began to accumulate at the base of the mountain, and a storm rolled and roared beneath the feet of our aerial spectators. The growl of the thunder rose toward them, but much weak- ened, as if it came from a distance. It was time to begin the descent, before it was made impossible by snow or cold, and they had no provisions for a sojourn upon the glacier. After descending some thousand feet with exceeding diffi- culty, they entered the region of the clouds. Lower down a little hail fell. Afterward, as they continued their descent, having regained and remounted their mules, an icy rain mingled with the hail shower. Nevertheless, they arrived safe and sound, about eight o’clock p. hi., at the farm r Chimborazo. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 141 XXXIX.— ANCIENT ROME; THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO, TRAJAN’S PILLAR, AND THE COLI- SEUM. Rome is a city of picturesque ruins, to describe which would fill volumes. A few of the most interesting are briefly sketched below. The Castle of St. Angelo is the celebrated fortress of Papal Rome. It was erected by Ha- drian, about the year 130 A. D., on the right bank of the Tiber. It is a massive circular tower, 188 feet in diameter, and standing on a square basement, each side of which is 253 feet in length. It was originally built of Parian marble, and the square blocks fitted into each other without any cement. In height, it rose above the walls of the city, and on the summits were statues of men and horses in Parian marble. It was converted into a fortress about the sixth century, and in the different sieges of the city was battered and its beauty destroyed. There is a church tradition, that while Gregory the Great was offering up a solemn service to avert a pestilence which threatened the city, the Arch- angel Michael appeared to him in a vision standing on the summit of the fortress, in the act of sheathing his sword to signify that the plague was stayed. The name of St. Angelo was derived from this circumstance, but it was not applied for some centuries afterwards. About the year 1500 the fortress was reduced to its pres- ent form, the base being strengthened by erecting a bul- wark between it and the bridge. The covered gallery from the castle to the Vatican was also completed about this time. From the summit of the castle the view is one of the finest on this side of Rome; there is no point from which the gigantic mass of St. Peter’s and the Vatican is seen to 142 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. so much advantage. The Castle of St. Angelo was for many years the principal state prison of the Papal Government, and has held as many as 150 at a time. Trajan’s Pillar, the most beautiful historical column in the world, was dedicated, as the inscription tells us, to the honor of the Emperor by the Senate and the Roman people (A. D. 114). For seventeen centuries this noble column has been regarded as a triumph of art ; and there can be no doubt that the great architect, Apoliodonis, in con- structing such a monument to his benefactor, created at the same time the best memorial of his genius. It is com- posed of thirty-four pieces of white marble, nine of which form the basement, and twenty-three the shaft. The re- maining two form the moulding and capital. The pedestal is covered with bas-reliefs of warlike instruments, shields and helmets, and bears an inscription supported by two winged figures. These matchless sculptures are in a high state of preservation and in the best taste. Their nature will be better appreciated by the simple fact that they con- tain no less than 2,500 human figures, besides a large num- ber of horses, fortresses, etc, than by any minute description. In the interior is a winding staircase of 184 steps, lighted by 42 loop-holes, and leading to the summit, on which stood a colossal statue of Trajan holding the gilded globe which is supposed to have contained his ashes. A statue of St. Peter, in bronze, 19 feet high, was placed in its stead by Sextus Y. The height of the column, exclusive of the statue, is 126 feet. There is no monument of ancient Rome which artists and poets have made so familiar to readers of all classes as the Coliseum. The amphitheater was founded by Vespa- sian, A. D. 72. The gladiatorial spectacles of which it was the scene for nearly four hundred years, are matters of his- tory. It is said that, at its dedication, 5,000 wild beasts were slain, and the games, in honor of the event, lasted 100 days. During the Christian persecutions, the amphitheater THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 143 was the scene of fearful barbarities. The first mention of the name Coliseum in connection with it, occurs in the writings of the Venerable Bede, who records the famous prophesy of the Anglo-Saxon pilgrims: “While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand; When falls the Coliseum, Rome shall fall ; And when Rome falls, the W orld.” The amphitheater is built in a circular form and consisted of four stories ; the three lower being composed of arches supported by half columns, and the fourth being a solid wall pierced with forty square windows. The height of the outer wall is stated to be 157 feet, and its diameter about 600 feet. In its interior, of course, the 'center is occupied by the arena. Around this were arranged, upon walls gradually sloping down towards the center, the seats for the spectators. There were four tiers of seats corresponding with the four external stories. The amphitheater is said to haye a capa- city of holding 87.000 people. The scene from the summit of the Coliseum is one of the most impressive in the world, and there are few travelers who do not visit the spot by moonlight in order to realize the magnificent description in “ Manfred,” the only descrip- tion which has ever done justice to the wonders of the Coliseum: “ I do remember me, that in my youth, When I was wandering, — upon such a night I stood within the Coliseum’s walls, ’Midst the chief relics of almighty Rome ; The trees which grew along the broken arche3 W aved dark in the blue midnight, and the stars Shone through the rents of ruin ; from afar * The watch-dog bayed beyond the Tiber ; and More near from out the Coesar’s palace came The owl’s long cry, and, interruptedly. Of distant sentinels the fitful song Began and died upon the gentle wind. 144 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Some cypresses beyond the time-worn breach Appeared to skirt the horizon, yet they stood Within a bow-shot where the Csesars dwelt, And dwell the tuneless birds of night, amidst A grove which springs through leveled battlements. And twines its roots with the imperial hearths, Ivy usurps the laurel’s place of growth ; — But the gladiators bloody circus stands, A noble wreck in ruinous perfection ! While Caesar’s chambers and the Agustine halls Grovel on earth in indistinct decay,— And thou didst shine, thou rolling moon, upon All this, and cast a wide and tender light. Which softened down the hoar austerity Of rugged desolation, and filled up, As ’twere anew, the gap of centuries ; Leaving that beautiful which still was so. And making that which was not, till the place Became religion, and the heart ran o’er With silent worship of the great of old ! — The dead but sceptered sovereigns who still rulo Our spirits from their urns.” XL.— INDIAN PAGODAS, TEMPLES AND RUINS. The style of architecture is essentially the same in all Hindoo temples. The body of the structure is square and massive, enclosing the shrine of the god. From a cornice of great breadth, and often covered with sculptured orna- ments, rises a tall spire of parabolic outlines, which has the look of being formed by smaller spires. At Tinnevelly there is .a magnificent temple, now partly ruined, the entrance gateway of which gives an example of these great pyramidal towers. This richly adorned structure is probably over five hundred years old, though it has been so frequently and carefully whitewashed that there is some difficulty in deciding the age of the temple. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 145 On tlie island of Seringham are two celebrated pagodas, that have always commanded the veneration of the Hin- doos. The principal of these has an outer wall nearly four miles long, and with four great entrances or gateways. The ancient city of Vijianuggur (usually pronounced Beejnuggur), or City of Victory, shows some of the grand- est ruins of India. To attempt to give any description of this enormous ruined city seems hopeless. Among the most extraordinary relics of India are the huge monolith raths of Mahavellipore. It is doubtful if the world can produce anything more remarkable than the monoliths here to be found. The <*nore w^e examine them the greater is our astonishment at the amount of time and labor spent in forming these marvelous structures in such a desolate and dreary spot. One of the Hindoo legends, accounting in a manner for the unfinished state in which nearly every part of these structures is now left, is as follows : Many hundred years ago a certain king in some distant land being about to build a large temple, brought together some 1,200 stone-cutters, and attempted to force them to work in the erection of his temple; they all rebelled, and escaping with their wives and families to the seashore, seized some boats, in which they put to sea, and were cast by the winds and waves ashore here. Not caring to remain idle, and to keep them- selves in practice in their handicraft, they set to work to carve the rocks into the temples, caves, &c., here to be found. They were so occupied for twelve years, when the king, hearing where they had gone to, came with an army and fleet to take them back to his kingdom, and thus the natives account for the fact, which cannot'fail to be obvious to all, namely, that the work, by whomsoever undertaken, must have been most suddenly stopped long before it was completed. 7 146 THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. XLL— WATER - FALLS IN THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. Among the beauties of this strange and lovely valley, not the least are its wonderful water-falls. Their height, slenderness, and the sublime scenes around, conspire to in- vest them with peculiar interest. One of the finest is the Bridal Vail Fall, which Js formed by the creek of the same name, which rises a few miles east of Empire Camp, runs through the meadows, and finally falls over the cliff, on the west side of Cathedral Rock, into the Yosemite, in one leap of 630 feet. The water strikes here on a sloping pile of loose rocks, down which it rushes in a series of cascades for a perpendicular distance of nearly 300 feet more, the total height of the edge of the Fall above the meadow at its base being 900 feet. The effect of the Fall, as everywhere seen from the Valley, is as if it were 900 feet in vertical height, its base being concealed by the trees which surround it. The quantity of water in the Bridal Vail Fall varies greatly with the season. In May and J une the amount is generally the greatest, and it gradually decreases as the summer advances. The effect, however, is finest when the body of water is not too heavy, since then the swaying from side to side, and the waving under the varying pressure of the wind, as it strikes the column of water, is more marked. As seen from a distance at such times, it seems to flutter like a white vail, producing an indescribably beautiful effect. The name Bridal Vail is poetical, but fairly appro- priate. The Yosemite Fall is formed by a creek of the same name, which heads on the west side of the Mount Hoffman Group, about ten miles northeast of the Valley. The ver« THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 147 tical height of the lip of the fall above the Valley is, in round numbers, 2,600 feet. The lip, or edge of the fall, is a great, rounded mass of granite, perfectly smooth, on which it is found to be a very hazardous matter to move. A dif- ference of a hundred feet in a fall of this height would be entirely unperceived by most eyes. The fall is not in one perpendicular sheet. There is first a downright descent of 1,500 feet, when the water strikes on what seems to be a projecting ledge, but which, in reality, is a shelf or recess^ almost a third of a mile back from the front of the lower portion of the cliff. From here the water finds its way, in a series of cascades, down a descent equal to 626 feet, and then gives one final plunge of about 400 feet to the rocks at the base of the cliff. One of the most striking features of the Yosemite Fall, as in the Bridal Vail Fall, is the swaying of the upper por- tion from one side to the other, under the influence of the wind, which acts with immense force on so long a column. The descending mass of water is too great to allow of its being entirely broken up into spray, but it widens out very much towards the bottom, probably as much as 300 feet at high water, the space through which it moves being fully three times as wide. The river descends, in two miles, over 2,600 feet, making, besides innumerable cascades, two grand falls, which are among the greater attractions of the Yosemite, not only on account of their height and the large body of water in the river during most of the season, but also on account of the stupendous scenery in the midst of which they are placed. The first fall reached in ascending is the Vernal, a perpen- dicular sheet of water with a descent varying greatly with the season. The path up the side of the valley, near the Vernal Fall, winds around and along a steeply sloping mountain-side, always wet with the spray, and, conse- quently, rather slippery in places. A remarkable parapet of granite runs along the edge of the Vernal Fall' for some 148 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, distance, just breast-high, and looking as if made on pur- pose to afford the visitor a secure position from which to enjoy the scene. The Nevada Fall, the last great one of the Merced River, is, in every respect, one of the grandest water-falls in the world, whether we consider its height, the purity and vol- ume of the river which forms it, or the stupendous scenery by which it is surrounded. The fall is not quite perpendic- ular, as there is near the summit a ledge of rock which receives a portion of the water and throws it off with a pe- culiar twist, adding much to the general picturesque effect. There are numbers of other falls, each surpassing in lofti- ness and beauty anything else known on the globe, but the above are some of the most noted, and will illustrate the superiority of some of our American scenery to much that has become famous in other lands. XLII.— THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. These giants of the vegetable kingdom were first discov- ered in the year 1852. The genuine Big Tree differs but little from its brother, the Redwood, the difference consist- ing for the most part in its size, its more limited range, and the fact of its being found in less numbers at any one place. A few of the Redwood may be found just across the border in Oregon, but the Big Tree has never been found outside of California, and probably never will be. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 149 In size the Redwood falls but little below the Big Tree, and in general effect the forests of Redwood surpass even the groves of Big Trees. Let one imagine an entire forest, extend- ing as far as the eye can reach, of trees of from eight to twelve feet in diameter, and from two hundred to three hundred Let high, thickly grouped, not branching until they reach from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet above the ground, and then forming a dense canopy which shuts out the view of the sky, the contrast of the bright cinnamon-colored trunks with the sombre, deep, yet brilliant green of the foliage, the utter silence of these forests where often no sound can be heard except the low thunder of the breaking surf of the distant ocean, — let one picture a scene like this, and he may perhaps receive a faint impression of the ma- jestic grandeur of the Redwood forests of California. The Big Trees occur always in groves, or scattered among a much larger number of trees of other kinds. The area in which they are found may be roughly stated at about fifty square miles, most of this being in one patch, between King’s and Kaweah rivers. The most extensive grove yet found is that called Calaveras Grove. The exact measure- ment and age of one of the largest trees of this grove was made possible by cutting it down. This was done soon after the grove was discovered, and is said to have occupied five men during twenty-two days. The felling was done by boring through the tree with pump-augurs, and it was no small matter to persuade the trunk to fall, even after it had been completely cut from its base. It was done, however, by driving in wedges on one side, until the ponderous mass was bent over enough, which was not done until after three days of hard labor. Its diameter was found to be twenty- four and a half feet without the bark, which was eighteen inches thick. Its age was computed by the rings extending from its center, which denoted its annual growth, to be about thirteen hundred years. The largest tree in the lower, or Mariposa grove, is the 150 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. one known as the “ Grizzled Giant,” which is ninety-three feet and seven inches in circumference, and thirty feet in diameter, at its base. The tree is very much injured and decreased in size by burning, yet some of its branches are fully six feet in diameter, or as large as the largest elms in the Connecticut valley. The “ Grizzled Giant” has long since passed its prime, and has the battered and war-worn appearance conveyed by its name. One tree, which is fallen and partially rotted away, is appropriately called the “ Father of the Forest,” since its dimensions are the largest of any yet discovered. It mea- sures four hundred and fifty feet in length, and its diameter at the base is thirty-seven and a half feet. On account of its rottenness its age cannot be computed, but it must be considerably greater than that of the tree mentioned above, whose age is thirteen hundred years. XLIII.— SCENES IX THE FAE WEST. This portion of the United States has received a great impetus in settlement and is becoming better known, through the rapid extension of facilities for travel afforded by the Union Pacific Eailway. This great thoroughfare connects almost in a direct line the two important points of San Francisco and Chicago. Other roads are being pro- jected north and south of this, which will, in time, bring the whole of this vast and hitherto isolated region into communication with the sea both ways. The history of the THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 151 construction of the Union Pacific Railway is one of unusual interest, from the magnitude and importance of the work. Its passage of the Rocky Mountains was a bold and success- ful feat. Here, as well as at other parts of the route, the com- pany have been obliged, during the winter months, to erect sheds in order to prevent the snow from blocking up the track. These long buildings, sometimes stretching for miles in a direct line, present a curious appearance. The scenery along the railway is varied, of course, from the different regions through which it passes. Along the plains of the Missouri valley there is little to break the monotony of the landscape; but in the mountains the scenery often attains a grandeur and magnificence. Among the curiosities of this region may be mentioned Lighthouse Rock, an immense mass rising to a height of two hundred and fifty feet. A tuft on its summit resembles somewhat the top of a lighthouse, whence its name. Salt Lake City, the head-quarters of that class of religion- ists known as Mormons, is situated on the Jordan river, which connects the two lakes of Utah. It was founded in 1847, and is laid out in fine streets and squares, the latter of which are well supplied with trees and fountains. The houses are all built of adol o, or sun-dried bricks. Its popu- lation is nearly 20,000, of which three-fourths are Mormons. Latterly, actions have been commenced in the United States Courts of Utah against leading Mormons on account of their practice of polygamy ; and there is little doubt that ere long this feature of their religion will be abolished. Among the curiosities of California must be included its celebrated Thermal Springs, situated in a gorge of the valley of Napa, and called the “Devil’s Canon.” The nar- row ravine, filled with vapor rising in eddies, opens on the side of a red and bare mountain, that one might fancy was scorched by fire. The entry to the ravine follows the course of a rivulet, the boiling waters of which are mingled with a chemical substance horrible to the taste. Innumerable 152 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. springs — some sulphurous, others charged with alum or salt — gush out at the base of the rocks. There are both warm and cold springs, and hot and boiling ; some are blue and transparent, others white, yellow, or red with ochre. In a cavity which is called the “ Sorcerer’s Caldron,” a mass of black and fetid mud boils up in great bubbles. Higher up, the “ Devil’s Steamboat” darts out jets of gaseous matter, which issue puffing from a wall of rock ; fumerolles may be seen by hundreds on the sides of the mountain. All these various agents either murmur, whistle, rumble or roar, and thus a tempest of deafening sounds inces- santly fills the gorge. The burning ground, composed of a clayey mud — in one spot yellow with sulphur, and in an- other white with chalk — gives way under the feet of the traveler who ventures on it, and gives vent to puffs of vapor through its numberless cracks. The whole gorge appears to be the common outlet of numerous reservoirs of various mineral waters, all heated by some great volcanic furnace. XLIY. — THE RIVER SACO. Forth from New Hampshire’s granite steeps Fair Saco rolls in - chainless pride, Rejoicing as it laughs and leaps Down the gray mountain’s rugged side ; The stern, rent crags, and tall, dark pines, W atch that young pilgrim passing by. While close above them frowns or shines The black, torn cloud,. or deep-blue sky. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 153 Soon, gathering strength, it swiftly takes Through Bartlett’s vales its tuneful way. Or hides in Conway’s fragrant brakes, Retreating from the glare of day ; Now, full of vigorous life, it springs From the strong mountain’s circling arms, And roams in wide and lucid rings, Among green Fryeburg’s woods and farms. Here, with low voice, it comes and calls For tribute from some hermit lake ; And here it wildly foams and falls. Bidding the forest echoes wake : And sweeping on, it run3 its race. By mound and mill, in playful glee ; Now welcomes with its pure embrace The vestal waves of Ossipee. At last, with loud and solemn roar, Spurning each rocky sledge and bar. It sinks where, on the soundiug shore. The broad Atlantic heaves afar. There, on old ocean’s faithful breast. Its wealth of wares it proudly flings ; And there its weary waters rest, Clear as they left their crystal springs. Sweet stream ! it were a fate divine, Till this world’s tasks and toils were done. To go, like those bright floods of thine, Refreshing all, enslaved by none ; To pass through scenes of calm and strife, Singing like thee, with holy mirth, And close in peace a varied life. Unsullied by one stain of earth. 4 * 154 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, / XLY.— THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. One of the most interesting features of the White Moun- tains in New Hampshire is Franconia Notch, a pass about five, miles in extent between Mount Lafayette and Cannon. Its width is about half a mile ; and the narrow district thus enclosed contains more objects of interest to the masses of travelers than any other region of equal extent within the compass of the usual White Mountain town. In the way of rock sculpture and water-falls, it is a huge museum of curiosities. There is no spot usually visited in any of the valleys where the senses are at once impressed so strongly and so pleasantly with the wildness and freshness which a stranger instinctively associates with mountain scenery in New Hampshire. There is no other spot where the visitor is domesticated amid the most savage and startling forms in which cliff and forest are combined. And yet there is beauty enough intermixed with the sublimity and the wild- ness to make the scenery permanently attractive, as well as grand and exciting. Large portions of the mountain wall opposite the hotel are even more abrupt than in the great Notch ; but it bends in a very graceful curve ; the purple tinge of the rocks is always grateful to the eye ; and the forest foliage that clam- bers up the sharp acclivities, fastening its roots in the crev- ices and resisting the storms and torrents, relieves the som- breness of the bending battlement by its color, and softens its sublimity with grace. The great curiosity of the Franconia Notch is the “ Great Stone Face,” or, as it is often called, the “ Old Man of the Mountain,” that hangs upon one of its highest cliffs. If its THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, 155 inclosing walls were less grand, and its water gems less lovely, travelers would be still as strongly attracted to the spot, that they might see a mountain which breaks into human expression, — a piece of sculpture older than the sphinx, — an intimation of the human countenance, which is the crown of all beauty, that was pushed out of the coarse strata of New England thousands of years before Adam, The marvel of this countenance, outlined so distinctly against the sky at an elevation of 1,500 feet above the road, is greatly increased by the fact that it is composed of three masses of rock which are not in perpendicular line with each other. On the brow of the mountain itself, standing on the visor that covers its face, or directly underneath it on the shore of the little lake, there is no intimation of any human fea- tures in the lawless rocks. Remove but a few rods -either way from the guide-brand on the road, when you are advised to look up, and the charm is dissolved. The whole profile is about eighty feet in length ; and of three separate masses of rock, which are combined in its composition, one forms the forehead, another the nose and upper lip, and the third the chin. The best time to see the profile is about four o’clock in the afternoon of a summer day. The expression is really noble, with a suggestion partly of fatigue and melancholy. He seems to be waiting for some visitor or message. Those who can see this? rock with a thunder-cloud behind, and a slaty scud driven thin across it, will carry away the grandest impressions which it ever makes on the beholders’ mind. And many, doubtless, have looked up with awe to the great Stone Face, with a feeling that it possessed a higher expression of infinite power and art than any mortal countenance. In the Saco valley the Notch has attained a deserved reputation for the wildness and majesty of its situation. In the Notch you stand between walls two miles long, and there are no ragged, nervous lines of rock running down 156 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / from a cloud, or lying sharp against the blue distance. But to know the Notch truly, one must take a drive to the top and look down into it. A man stands then as an ant might stand on the edge of a huge tureen. He is lifted twelve hundred feet over the gulf, on the brink of an almost per- pendicular wall, and sees the mountains rising on either hand, eight hundred feet higher still. Those who love mountain cascades will find a new temp- tation to a visit to the Notch. The Flume and the Silver Cascade, pouring down from Mount Webster, have glad- dened the eyes of all visitors to the hotel, for they are visi- ble from the road. The Flume is an exceedingly narrow gorge, with perpendicular walls, so close that two could hardly walk abreast in its bed, down which murmurs a lit- tle stream to the Saco, or some one of its tributaries. At one point in the Flume is a huge boulder, caught in its jaws while trying some time to fall. The source of the Saco, not far from here, is a wildly romantic spot among the hills, and carefully guarded by a thick growth of pine and oak. XL VI.— -THE GRAY OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN. Where a tall post beside the road displays Its lettered arm, pointing the traveler’s eye Through the small opening mid the green birch trees, Toward yonder mountain summit towering high. There pause. What doth thy anxious gaze espy ? A crag abrupt hung from the mountain’s brow ! Look closer ! scan that bare, sharp cliff on high ! Aha ! the wondrous shape bursts on thee now — A perfect human face, — neck, chin, mouth, nose, and brow THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 157 And full and plain those features are displayed, Thus profiled forth against the clear, blue sky ; As though some sculptor’s chisel here had made This fragment of colossal imagery, The compass of his plastic art to try. From the curved neck up to the shaggy hair That shoots on pine trees from the head on high, All, all is perfect ; no illusions there To cheat the expecting eye with fancied forms of air Most wondrous vision ! the broad earth hath not, Through all her bounds, an object like to thee, That traveler e’er recorded ; nor a spot More fit to stir the poets phantasy. Gray Old Man of the Mountain, awfully There from the wreath of clouds thou dost uprear Those features grand, the same eternally ! Lone dweller ’mid the hills ! with gaze austere Thou lookest down, methinks, on all below thee here ! And curious travelers have descried the trace Of the sage Franklin’s physiognomy In that most grave and philosophic face. If it be true, Old Man, that we do see Sage Franklin’s countenance, thou, indeed, must be A learned philosopher most wise and staid. From all that thou hast had a chance to see. Since earth began. Here thou, too, oft hast played With lightnings, glancing round thy rugged head. XLVIL— LONDON SIGHTS AND SCENES. In speaking of particular localities in the metropolis, we shall necessarily be limited to a very few of the most remarkable. 158 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Trafalgar square, called by Sir Bobert Peel the finest site in Europe, is situate at the turning-points from West- minster Bridge and various parts of the West End to the city. It is decorated with a superb fountain ; here also is the famous Nelson monument. The square is surrounded by some of the finest buildings in London, and, from its proximity to the club-houses and the houses of Parliament, is one of the most busy localities in the metropolis. Charing Cross, in the vicinity, is almost as important a center for its busy crowds as Trafalgar, and during what is called “ the season,” cabs start thence in all directions in such numbers that Charing Cross has often been called the center of cabs. The royal palaces, are Buckingham Palace, the only town residence of the sovereign ; St. James’ in Pall Mall, por- tions of which are inhabited by the Cambridge branch of the royal family; and Kensington Palace, in which Queen Victoria was born. Buckingham Palace, from its cost and magnitude, com- mands attention. The body of the palace forms a parallel- ogram containing an inner court. The internal arrange- ments are unworthy of royalty, the corridors being dark and low-roofed. The grounds behind the palace are beau- tifully laid out, and the west side of the building, which fronts them, is much admired. The palace of Westminster, occupying the site on the banks of the Thames of the old houses of Parliament, is a most imposing structure. It has an entire length of 900 feet, and its southern end is surmounted by the great Vic- toria tower, 300 feet high. On the river front the richness of tracery and endless variety of minute and labored orna- ment is astonishing to a close observer. Built of a York- shire stone, this front rests on a foundation of granite, and has a long terrace nearly on a level with high water. The majestic proportions of this fine structure are very imposing, and the historical associations connected with it give it additional interest. the 'Would in the stereoscope. 159 The Tower of London, so intimately connected with the history of England itself, was begun by William the Con- queror, in 1078. For many centuries this fortress was used as a palace and a state prison, and contained the chief mint of the kingdom ; but it is no longer used for any of these purposes. The only portions to which the public are admitted are the armories, the jewel-house, containing the regalia and coronation plate, and the Beauchamp Tower, in which Lady Jane Grey was confined. Crystal Palace is the name of the structure in which the great exhibition of works of industry of all nations was held in London, in 1851. This was taken down and a new and permanent building has since been erected, at a cost of about $8,000,000. It has splendid gardens and water-works, and arrangements for musical and other public entertain- ments, and containing, besides industrial exhibitions, an extensive museum of ancient and mediaeval art, and speci- mens in all branches of botany, zoology, and other depart- ments of science. The town of Greenwich, situated about five miles south- east of London, has for its great objects of attraction, its hospital for aged and disabled seamen, and its observatory, whence longitude is generally reckoned. The hospital, first opened in 1705, occupies the site of an ancient royal palace which was the birth-place of Henry VIII and Queen Eliza- beth. This institution generally supports about 3,000 pen- sioners in the building. 160 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / XLYIIL— PARIS. Within the last few years, this city has undergone- so many changes of estate as to be at present scarcely recogniz- able. Many of the old thoroughfares and places of resort have been disfigured or destroyed by the hand of war, and those that remain, are sadly altered ; yet we hope that ere long Paris will reappear in the garb which has for so long a time delighted the civilized world. In describing the prin- cipal features of the city, we shall speak of them as they were before the Prussian invasion, when Paris was resplen- dent — the seat of beauty in architecture, as well as of gaiety and fashion in society. Hereafter will be found a sketch of Paris as it appeared shortly after the siege. The streets of Paris are in themselves a wonder, not more from the fine buildings with which they are lined, and the cleanliness in which they are kept, than from the gay throngs of equipages and pedestrians that frequent them at all hours of the day. The Eue de Eivoli has acquired a wide reputation from its length and beauty. It is one of the great arteries of Paris, and extends for two miles in one straight line, connecting the utmost limits of the Tuileries with the Eue St. Antoine. It was begun in 1802, and con- tinued with a uniform system of arcades to the northern pavilion of the Tuileries, thus opening the noble garden of the palace to public view on the northern side. The menacing prospect of serious danger to the State, roused the Government of 1848 to provide work for the laboring classes at any cost, and it resolved to continue the Eue de Eivoli. During the reign of Louis Napoleon, this street has been much prolonged and the arcades extended. In the building of the street a vast sum of money has been expended, and over 1,000 houses demolished. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 161 Among other famous architectural works, the Pont Neuf, a bridge connecting one part of the city with an island in the Seine, is conspicuous. It was begun in the reign of Hejiry III, in the year 1578, and was reconstructed in 1852. It consists of two parts : the northern one contains seven circular arches ; the southern one only five. Its total length is 1,020 feet, and its breadth 78. It has semi-circular re- cesses, with stone seats, and 42 ornamental lamp-posts. On the square area, at the junction of the two parts of the bridge, a bronze statue was erected to Henry IV by his widow, Maria de Medicis. It consisted of a bronze horse, surmounted by a figure of the king. This was afterward destroyed, and the present statue erected by Louis XVIII. The height of this beautiful statue is 14 feet, and its weight 30,000 lbs. The pedestal of white marble is approached by seven steps of the same, running all round and enclosed by a railing. The merchants and stock-brokers of Paris meet for the transaction of business in a fine building called the Bourse. Such meetings were first regularly held in 1724, at the resi- dence of Law, the originator of the great South Sea hum- bug. The present building was erected in 1808. It is a parallelogram of 212 feet by 126, and surrounded by sixty Corinthian columns, the whole approached by a flight of steps extending along the entire western front. The roof is entirely of iron and copper. At the corners of the edifice are four statues, representing Commerce, Justice, Industry, and Agriculture. The hall where the merchants and stock- brokers meet will contain 2,000 persons, and is paved en- tirely with marble. The palace of the Corps Legislatif was first erected in 1722 for a private residence, but was appropriated during the revolution of 1789 by the Council of Five Hundred for their meetings, who in turn rendered it up to the Corps Legislatif. An iron railing, with two gates, gives access to the edifice, the front of which consists of twelve Corinthian 162 THE WOELD IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. columns resting on a broad flight of steps. At their foot are colossal statues of Justice and Prudence, eighteen feet high. The Legislative hall is of a semi-circular form, and is ornamented with twenty-four columns of single blocks of white marble, having capitals of gilt bronze. The Presi- dent’s chair is situated in the center of the axis of the semi-circle, around which rise in gradation five hundred seats for the members. The whole is fitted up in crimson velvet and gold. XLIX.— PARIS AFTER THE WAR. The great events of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 are well-known, as are also the long train of terrible circum- stances following the first defeat of the French army. The declaration of the Republic and the ravages of the Com- mune, occupied for six months the attention of the world. An eye-witness thus describes the appearance of the city after the war. The aspect of the Boulevards is the strangest sight imaginable. I followed them from the Porte St. Martin to the Rue de la Paix. Strewn over the streets were branches of trees and fragments of masonry that had been knocked from the houses. Bricks and mortar, torn proclamations, shreds of clothing half concealing blood stains, were now the interesting and leading features of that fashionable resort; foot-passengers were few and far between ; the shops and cafes hermetically closed, except- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 163 in g where bullets had made air-holes ; and during my whole afternoon’s promenade, I only met three other car- riages beside my own. The Place de l’Opera was a camp- ing-ground of artillery, the Place Vendome a confusion of barricades guarded by sentries, and the Rue Royale a mass of debris . Looked at from the Madeleine, the desolation and ruin of that handsome street were lamentable to be- hold. The Place de la Concorde was a desert, and in the midst of it lay the statue of Lille, with the head off. Near the bridge were twenty-four corpses of insurgents, laid out in a row, waiting to be buried under the neighboring paying- stones. To the right, the skeleton of the Tuileries reared its gaunt shell, the frame-work of the lofty wing next the Seine still standing; but the whole of the roof of the cen- tral building was gone, and daylight visible through all the windows, right into the Place du Carrousel. I passed the Corps Legislatif, also uninjured by fire, but much marked by shot and shell, and so along the whole way to the Mint, at which point General Vinoy had estab- lished his head-quarters. At the corner of the Rue de Bac, the destruction was something appalling. The Rue de Bac is an impassable mound of ruins, fifteen or twenty feet high, completely across the street, as far as I could see. At this point, in whichever direction one looked, the same awful devastation met the eye; -to the left, the smouldering Tuileries, to the right, the long line of ruin where the fire had swept through the magnificent palaces, and overhead again, to-day, a cloud of smoke, more black and abundant than even yesterday, incessantly rolling its dense volumes from behind Notre Dame, whose two towers were happily standing uninjured. In another direction the Arsenal was also burning. On the other side of the river were the smoking ruins of the Theatre Chatelet, and the Hotel de Ville. A large part of the Palais Royal is burned. Of the public buildings burned, some, identified with the 1G4 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. / 1 past history of the nation, cannot be replaced. Among them, the Tuileries takes rightfully the first place. Its history ex- tends oyer centuries. The exterior of the palace was grand and imposing. The extreme length of the front was 336 yards ; its breadth, 36 yards. All that wealth and taste could accomplish was employed, under successive monarchs, to embellish its interior. The Emperor’s private apartments were gorgeously decorated. The theater could accommo- date 800 spectators, and was used as a supper-room when balls were given at Court. The Chapel of the Palace was rather plain, and had a gallery and ceiling resting upon Doric columns of stone and stucco. The Peace Saloon was used as a ball-room, and was 140 feet long by 35 feet broad, and contained splendid statuary. The Hall of the Mar- shals was remarkable for its splendor. The names of the great battles fought under the First Empire were inscribed on its walls, and around the hall were busts of distinguished generals and naval commanders, while portraits of the great marshals of France adorned its panels. The furniture was ornamented with green velvet and gold. This was used as a ball-room on state occasions. Four other magnificent halls were conspicuous features. The Throne Hall, a splendid apartment, contained the im- perial throne. The hangings were of dark velvet of Lyons manufacture, with palm leaves and wreaths wrought in gold. The throne, facing the windows, was surmounted by a canopy of the same, and the drapery depending from it was studded with bees, embroidered in gold. The Louvre, which fortunately was only partially des- troyed, was mainly constructed by Louis XIV, but was left in a comparatively unfinished condition until 1802, when Napoleon resumed the works, and under him the Louvre was finished and the surrounding streets and places cleared. Its internal arrangements were made principally by Char- les X and Louis Philippe. Since the time of Louis XV, it has been devoted to the reception of the various museums THE WOULD IN THE STEBE09C0PE. 165 of the fine arts, and was occasionally used for great ceremo- nies of state. The eastern front of the Louvre was one of the finest pieces of architecture of &ny age. The grand colonnade was composed of 28 coupled Corinthian columns, fronting a wide gallery. The central part of the building, forming the gateway, was crowned by a pediment, the raking cornices of which were each of a single piece. The gates themselves, made by order of Napoleon, were of magnificently worked bronze. This front was 528 feet long and 85 feet high. The southern front was decorated with 40 Corinthian pilasters, and, like the eastern, had a richly adorned pediment over the central compartment. The northern front consisted of a central and two side pavilions projecting from the main body. Almost all the interior of this palace was devoted to the museums for which it was so celebrated. These consisted of magnificent apartments, filled with the rarest and most valuable antiquities and artistic productions that France could secure through the reigns of successive sovereigns, who made additions to it a subject of pride and emulation. Besides these, however, there was a library of great value, containing two choice collections of American books, and books on the discovery of this country, and many other valuable works, and vast collections from America, China, India, and Europe, which were entirely destroyed. The Hotel de Viile was the place of assembly of the Municipality of Paris, and was erected and embellished at an expense of upward of $4,000,000. It contained several magnificent state apartments, decorated in a highly artistic manner, and furnished at immense expense. All the revo- * lutions of France were associated with the Grand Hall of this building. From it Louis XYI spoke to the populace with the cap of liberty on his head. It was in this edifice also that Eobespierre held his council and afterward at- tempted to destroy himself; and it was at one of these 166 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. •windows that General Lafayette embraced Louis Philippe and presented him to the people. The Palais Royal, which has shared in the general destruction, was one of the most remarkable palaces of Paris, and was fitted up in splendid style for Prince Jerome and Prince Napoleon. Historical associations of deep in- terest were connected with it. One of the most absurd and insane acts of the Commune was the destruction of the Napoleon Column in the Place Vendome. The following graphic description is by an eye- witness of the scene : The street was so crowded that it was with the greatest difficulty that I and two friends elbowed our way through the densely packed masses of people. No one was admitted on the Place Vendome itself without a special ticket issued by the Committee of Public Safety. Furnished with such a ticket, I was able to penetrate to the Place Vendome, and observe the preparations which had been made for the fall of the famous column. They seemed at first sight totally inadequate for so vast an undertaking. A large cable had been passed around the top of the column just below the statue; this rope (or rather these ropes, for there were four of them) was attached to an anchor and capstan in the Rue de la Paix. But the anchor and capstan were both so ex- ceedingly badly fixed in the ground that it was evident to the most inexperienced observer that, unless the column fell of its own weight, something was sure to give way in the tackling. The engineer, however, like most French- men, was wonderfully self-confident, and assured every one yho chose to listen to him that the column would fall whenever he gave word for the ropes to be tightened. At about 3 o’clock we, in the Place, were all driven back on to the sidewalks by a line of guards. Colonel Mayer, who commanded in the Place Vendome, then ascended the column in full uniform of the National Guards, with a small tricolor flag in his hand. , After walk- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 167 ixig around the gallery at the top of the column, and waving his flag to all the quarters of the heavens, Colonel Mayer then tore the bunting and proceeded to tie it, point down- ward, to the rails surrounding the crowning gallery. He then came down, and the order to tighten the ropes was almost immediately given by a member of the Commune standing in the balcony of the Ministry of Justice, just above where I was stationed. Rapidly the big ropes became as rigid as bars of steel ; all eyes were turned toward the column, and we all thought its hour had come, more especially be- cause a rapidly passing cloud made it look as if it already trembled on its base. But the capstan turned without effect, when suddenly a loud crack was heard, and a block attached to the capstan gave way, knocking over several sailors. Nobody, however, was badly hurt, but we were told that nothing could be done for two hours, as a new block must be obtained. About 5 o’clock it was announced that all was ready, and two new ropes were attached to the top of the column in order to shake it so as to add to the steady tension of the ropes already described. At 5.20 the six ropes began to tighten, amid breathless expectation from the assembled thousands. For nearly fiye minutes no effect whatever seemed to be produced on the majestic column, which still rose against the bright blue sky as bold and majestic as ever, and seeming to defy fate and the Commune. The men at the capstan strained and sweated, and the engineer ran about from capstan to column and from column to capstan like one demented. Suddenly there was a cry, and surely and slowly the huge bronze mass bowed and tumbled toward the Rue de la Paix, and fell on its bed of fagots, sand and dung. Strange to say, as it fell it burst into three or four pieces before it touched the ground. Striking the bed with a loud report, it hurled the fagots, and even pieces of the bas-reliefs, right and left. A huge cloud of dust arose at once, but the crowd rushed madly forward to secure relics 168 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. of the fallen monument. Like flies on a carcass, we were all busy in ten seconds after the column had fallen in secur- ing pieces of its remains. L.— PARIS AND CHICAGO. O bird with a crimson wing, And a brand in thy glowing beak ; Why didst thou flutter o’er seas to bring A woe that we dare not speak. By the light of a flaming sword, Did the beautiful Queen of the East Behold the awful, avenging word. And drink the blood of the feast. Her fires went out on the hearth, And the glory of Paris has fled ; Could her maddening wiles and unseemly mirth. Unstop the ears of the dead ! Did out of her ashes arise, This bird with a flaming crest ; That over the ocean unhindered flies, With a scourge for the Queen of the West? See homes at its bidding fall ! At its fiery fierce attack ! While the fiends of the air hold carnival, In the light of its lurid track. The joys that were held so dear. On the glow of its breath expire ; While treasures and palaces disappear. Consumed by its vengeful ire. Ely hence on thy wing of flame, O bird ! for thy work is done ; And the queens of a different clime and name, In their ruin and grief are one. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 169 LI. — EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland is situated in the county of Mid-Lothian and about two miles from the Firth of Forth. Its length and breadth are about two miles in either di- rection. In panoramic splendor, its site is generally ad- mitted to be unequaled in Europe, and the prospects from the elevated points of the city and neighborhood are of sin- gular grandeur and beauty. To most of the great cities of the kingdom, the approaches lie through mean. and squalid suburbs, by which the stranger is gradually introduced to the more striking streets and public edifices. The avenues to Edinburgh, on the contrary, are lined with the abodes of a highly respectable class, the abodes of the poor being, for the most part, confined to the gigantic piles of building in the center of the city. The resemblance between Athens and Edinburgh, which has been remarked by most travelers who have visited both capitals, has conferred upon the Scottish metropolis the title of “ The Modern Athens.” The natural or artificial beauties of the place, however, are not its only attractions, for many of its localities teemwith recollections of the past, and are associated with events of deep historical import- ance. A view of the city from the southwest embraces almost all the prominent points of interest in town. Directly in front of us is the building known as the Royal Academy. This institution, founded in 1823, occupies a conspicuous position at the foot of the mound. Its architecture is Greek, having a portico surrounded by columns, and long ranges of pillars on each flank. The interior accommoda- tions consist of the galleries, of the valuable and interesting museum of the Society of Antiquaries, and a noble collec- 170 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. tion of casts from the best ancient works of sculpture. There is also a School of Design in the building, in which instruction is given in drawing, with reference to manu- factures. Beyond the Academy is the monument to Sir Walter Scott, erected in 1844, which is one of the principal attractions of the city. The Post-office, a fine square build- ing, stands on Prince’s Street, on the site of the old Theatre Eoyal. Edinburgh Castle stands at the head of High street, on a precipitous rocky eminence, which is the culmination of the ridge of High street. Its origin is unknown, but there is no doubt that it is the oldest part of the city, and that it formed the nucleus around which Edinburgh has arisen. It consists of a series of irregular fortifications ; and although before the invention of gunpowder it might be considered impregnable, it is now a place of more apparent than real strength. Its elevation is 383 feet above the sea, and from various parts of the fortifications a magnificent view may be obtained. The esplanade, one of the earliest promenades of the citi- zens, still forms a most agreeable resort. On the highest point of the rock is situated the ancient royal palace in which are yet preserved the regalia of Scot- tish royalty, consisting of a crown, a sceptre, and a sword of state. High street was long considered one of the finest in Europe ; and, though advancing years have swept away many of its relics, it nevertheless has a few memorials of the glory departed. Many quaint old houses still remain that have been the residence of rank, wealth, and fashion in the time of the Stuarts. THE WORED IN THE STEREOSCOPE, 171 LIL— EDINBURGH AFTEK FLODDEN. News of battle ! news of battle ! Hark ! ’tis ringing down the street ; And the archways and the pavement Bear the clang of hurrying feet. News of battle ! — who hath brought it ? News of triumph ! — who should bring Tidings from our noble army, Greetings from our gallant King ? All last night we watched the beacons Blazing on the hills afar ? Each one bearing, as it kindled, Message of the opened war. All night long the northern streamers Shot across the trembling sky ; Fearful lights, that never beckon Save when kings or heroes die. News of battle ! who hath brought it ? All are thronging to the gate ; " Warder — warder ! open quickly ! Man — is this a time to wait ? ” And the heavy gates were opened ; Then a murmur long and loud, And a cry of fear and wonder Bursts from out the bending crowd, 4 For they see in battered harness Only one hard-stricken man. And his weary steed is wounded, And his cheek is pale and wan ; Spearless hangs a bloody banner In his weak and drooping hand — What ! Can that be Randolph Murray, Captain of the city band ? 172 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Round him crush the people, crying, il Tell us all — O, tell us true ! Where are they who went to battle, Randolph Murray, sworn to you ? Where are they, our brothers — children ? Have they met the English foe ? Why art thou alone, unfollowed ? Is it weal or is it woe ? ” Like a corpse the grisly warrior Looks from out his helm of steel — But nc word he speaks in answer — Only with his armed heel Chides his weary steed, and onward Up the city streets they ride ; Fathers, sisters, mothers, children, Shrieking, praying by his side. u By the God that made thee, Randolph ! Tell us what mischance hath come.” Then he lifts his riven banner, And the asker’s voice is dumb. The elders of the city Have met within their hall — The men whom good King James had charged To watch the tower and wall. Then in came Randolph Murray — His step was slow and weak, And as he doffed his dinted helm, The tears ran down his cheek ; They fell upon his corselet, And on his mailed hand, As he gazed around him wistfully, Leaning sorely on his brand. And none who then beheld him But straight were smote with fear, For a bolder and a sterner man Had never couched a spear — They knew so sad a messenger Some ghastly news must bring, And all of them were fathers, And their sons were with the King. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 173 And up then rose the Provost — A brave old man was he. Of ancient name, and knightly fame. And chivalrous degree. O woful now was the old man’s look, And he spake right heavily : “ Now, Randolph, tell thy tidings. However sharp they be ! Woe is written on thy visage, Death is looking from thy face ; Speak ! though it be of overthrow— It cannot be disgrace ! ” Right bitter was the agony That wrung that soldier proud ; Thrice did he strive to answer. And thrice he groaned aloud. Then he gave the riven banner To the old man’s shaking hand. Saying, “ That is all I bring ye From the bravest of the land ! Ay! ye may look upon it — It was guarded well and long, By your brothers and your children^ By the valiant and the strong. One by one they fell around it, As the archers laid them low. Grimly dying, still unconquered, With their faces to the foe. u Ay ! ye well may look upon it — There is more than honor there. Else be sure I had not brought it From the field of dark despair. Never yet was royal banner Steeped in such a costly dye ; It hath lain upon a bosom Where no other shroud shall lie. Sirs ! I charge you keep it holy. Keep it as a sacred thing, For the stain ye see upon it Was the life blood of your King !** 174 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE* Woe, woe and lamentation ! What a piteous cry was there ! Widows, maidens, mothers, children, Shrieking, sobbing in despair ! # * * * * “O, the blackest day for Scotland That she ever knew before ! O our King ! the good, the noble, Shall we see him never more ? Woe to us, and woe to Scotland ! O our sons, our sons and men ! Surely some have ’scaped the Southron, Surely some will come again ? ” Till the oak that fell last winter Shall uprear its shattered stem — Wives and mothers of Dunedin — Ye may look in vain for them I LIIL— OLD SCOTTISH CASTLES. The building of castles in Scotland dates back as far as the tenth century. Before the accession of James VI to the throne of England, the situation of Scotland was such that every baron’s house was more or less fortified, according to the power or consequence of its lord, or according to the situation of the castle. Near Edinburgh, where the in- habitants WTremore influenced by government, no more were necessary than towers capable of resisting robbers. But where more remote, the unsettled state of the country, and THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 175 feuds between rival clans, caused the erection of those noble structures which have endured to our time. One of the most interesting of these is Stirling Castle, in the town of Stirling. The castle is built on the western end of the ridge on which the town is situated, and is of much greater age than the town itself. It is defended on three sides by steep rocks, and on the fourth — or town side, by a deep ditch, crossed by a draw-bridge, and two strong walls. In the center of the castle stands the old Parliament House, built by James III. Many interesting facts are con- nected with this stronghold, and its history is really the his- tory of Scotland. The ruins of Dunnottar Castle stand upon a lonely rock. The area of the castle measures about three acres of land, and it is separated from the land by a deep chasm, the only approach being up a steep path winding round the body of the rock. During the time of the Commonwealth, this castle was selected as the strongest place in the kingdom for the preservation of the crown jewels. The garrison made a vigorous resistance to the Cromwellian troops, but were at length forced to surrender, not, however, until the royal treasures had been secretly conveyed away, and hid under a pulpit in KinnefF, by the wife of the minister at that place. During the reign of Charles II, Dunnottar Castle was used as a state prison for confining Covenanters. The prisoners were, without distinction, packed into a dungeon, having a window open to the sea, in front of a huge preci- pice. They were allowed neither bedding nor provisions, except what they bought, and were treated by their keeper with the utmost rigor. The walls of the place, still called the Whig's Vault, bear evidence of the severities inflicted on those unhappy persons. Drummond Castle, a few miles south of the town of Crieff, is the original seat of the noble family of Perth. Immediately in front of the principal face of the castle lies 176 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. the flower-garden of Drummond, noted throughout Scot- land. The view from the battlements exhibits the renowned gardens immediately below, while, for nearly thirty miles around, there is an unbroken sweep of forest and moun- tain, over which the dark gray turrets alone appear to rule. Near where the turbulent Cluny clatters down to join the Dee, by a deep rocky ravine, stands Braemar Castle, a bare and plain-looking tower, celebrated as having been the resi- dence of Malcolm, King of Scotland. The stream is fringed with copse, which forms almost the only vegetation in the neighborhood, except the short grass that covers the Scotch moors. The solid walls of the castle, broken only by small narrow windows, and topped with heavy turrets, made it a place of great strength in those days when arrows and spears and swords, were the chief weapons of attack ; but they would stand only a few hours before the cannon of our day. All these buildings are relics of another age and forms of warfare, as well as of social and political life, which are now quite extinct. LIV.— THE BATTLE OF FLODDEN FIELD. Blount and Fitz Eustace rested still With Lady Clare upon the hill ; On which (for far the day was spent) The western sunbeams now were bent ; The cry they heard, its meaning knew. Could plain their distant comrades view : Sadly to Blount did Eustace say, THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 177 “ Unworthy office here to stay, No hope of gilded spurs to-day. — But see ! look up — on Flodden bent The Scottish foe has fired his tent.” And sudden as he spoke. From the sharp ridges of the hill, All downward to the banks of Till, Was wreathed in sable smoke. Yolumed and vast, and rolling far. The cloud enveloped Scotland’s war. As down the hill they broke Nor martial shout, nor minstrel tone, Announced their march ; their tread alono, At times one warning trumpet blown, At times a stifled hum, Told England, from his mountain-throne King James did rushing come. — Scarce could they hear or see their foes, Until at weapon-point they close. — They close in clouds of smoke and dust, W ith sword-sway, and with lance’s thrust ; And such a yell was there. Of sudden and portentious birth, As if men fought upon the earth. And fiends in upper air ; O life and death were in the shout, Recoil and rally, charge and rout, . And triumph and deepair ; Long looked the anxious squires ; their eye Could in the darkness nought descry. At length the freshening western blast Aside the shroud of battle cast ; And, first, the ridge of mingled spears Above the brightening cloud appears ; And in the smoke the pennons flew, As in the storm the white sea-mew. Then marked they, dashing broad and far. The broken billows of the war, And plumed crests of chieftains brave, Floating like foam upon the wave ; But naught distinct they see. Wide raged the battle on the plain, 178 THE! WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, Spears shook, and falchions flashed amain; Fell England’s arrow-flight like rain ; Crests rose, and stoop’d and rose again Wild and disorderly. Far on the left, unseen the while, Stanley broke Lenox and Argyle ; Though there the western mountaineer Rushed with bare bosom on the spear, And flung the feeble targe aside, And with both hands the broad-sword plied ; ’Twas vain :-r— But Fortune, on the right, With fickle smile cheered Scotland’s fight. Then fell that spotless banner white, The Howard’s lion fell ; Yet still Lord Marmion’s falcon flew With wav’ring flight, while fiercer grew Around the battle yell. The border slogan rent the sky, A Home ! A Gordon ! was the cry : Loud were the clanging blows ; Advanced, — forced back, — now low, now high. The pennon sunk and rose ; As bends the bark’s mast in the gale. When rent are rigging, shrouds and sail, It wavered ’mid the foes. Ho longer Blount the view could bear: “ By Heaven and all its saints, I swear I will not see it lost ! Fitz Eustace, you, with Lady Clare, May bid your beads and natter prayer,-— I gallop to the host.” And to the fray he rode amain. Followed by all the archer train. The fiery youth with desperate charge. Made, for a space, an opening large, — The rescued banner rose, — But darkly closed the war around, Like pine-tree, rooted from the ground, ) It sank among the foes. * * * * * * * THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 179 With that, ^straight up the hill there rode Two horsemen, drenched with gore, And in their arms, a helpless load, A wounded knight they bore. His hand still strained the broken brand,; His arms were smear’d with blood and sand: Dragg’d from among the horses’ feet, With dinted shield, and helmet beat, The falcon-crest and plumage gone, Can that be haughty Marmion ! When, doffed his casque, he felt free air, Around ’gan Marmion wildly stare : — “ Where’s Harry Blount ? Fitz Eustace, where? Linger ye here, ye hearts of hare ! Redeem my pennon, — charge again ! Cry — ‘ Marmion to the rescue ’ ! — vain ! Last of my race, on battle-plain That shout shall ne’er be heard again ! — Y et my last thought is England’s — fly. To Dacre bear my signet-ring : Tell him his squadrons up to bring. — ■ Fitz Eustace, to Lord Surrey hie ; Tunstall lies dead upon the field, His life-blood stained the spotless shield : Edmund is down : — my life is reft ; The Admiral alone is left. Let Stanley charge with spur of fire, — With Chester charge and Lancashire, Full upon Scotland’s central host, Or victory and England’s lost. — Must I bid twice ? — hence, varlets ! fly ! Leave Marmion here, alone — to die !” They parted, and alone he lay : Clare drew her from the sight away, Till pain rung forth a lowly moan, And half he murmurred — ' “ Is there none Of ail my halls have nurs’t, Page, squire, or groom, one cup to bring Of blessed water from the spring To slake my dying thirst !” O, woman ! in our hours of ease, Uncertain, coy, and hard to pleaso 180 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. And variable as the shade By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou ! Scarce were the piteous accents said, When, with the Baron’s casque, the maid To the nigh streamlet ran : Forgot were hatred, wrongs, and fears ; The plaintive voice alone she hears, Sees but the dying man. She fill’d the helm, and back she hied. And with surprise and joy espied A monk supporting Marmion’s head ; A pious man whom duty brought To dubious verge of battle fought, To shrive the dying, bless the dead. The war, that for a spaee did fail, Now, trebly thundering, swell’ d the galo, And — Stanley ! was the cry ; — A light on Marmion’s visage spread, And fired his glazing eye : With dying hand, above his head. He shook the fragment of his blade, And shouted, “ Victory ! — Charge, Chester, charge ! On, Stanley, on {” Were the last words of Marmion. By this, though deep the evening fell, Still rose the battle’s deadly swell, For still the Scots around their king. Unbroken, fought in desperate ring. The English shafts in volleys hail’d, In headlong charge their horse assail’d, Front, flank, and rear, the squadrons sweep, To break the Scottish circle deep, That fought around their king. But yet, though thick the shafts as snow, Though charging knights like whirlwinds go, Though billmen ply the ghastly blow, Unbroken was the ring ; The stubborn spearmen still made good Their dark impenetrable w~ood, Each stepping where his comrade stood, The instant that he fell THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE* 181 No thought was there of dastard flight ; Linked in the serried phalanx tight. Groom fought like noble, squire like knight As fearlessly and well ; Till utter darkness closed her wing O’er their thin host and wounded king, Then skillful Surrey’s sage commands Led back from strife his shattered bands; And from the charge they drew, As mountain- waves, from wasted lands. Sweep back to ocean blue. Then did their loss his foeman know ; Their king, their lords, their mightiest, low, They melted from the field as snow, When streams are swoln, and south winds blow Dissolve in silent dew. Tweed’s echoes heard the ceaseless plash. While many a broken band, Disorder’d, through her currents dash. To gain the Scottish land ; To town and tower, to down and dale, To tell red Fiodden’s dismal tale And raise the universal wail. Tradition, legend, tune and song, Shall many an age that wail prolong ; Still from the sire the son shall hear Of the stern strife and carnage drear Of Fiodden’s fatal field, Where shivered was fair Scotland’s spear, And broken was her shield. 182 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. LV.—CON ST ANTING PLE, The capital of the Turkish empire is situated on a tri- angular promontory, of which the base is toward, and is bounded by, the sea of Marmora on the southeastern, and the harbor or Golden Horn on the northern side. The city stands upon seven hills or risings, and w r as defended, in early times, on the side of the land, by a wall from fourteen to twenty feet high, beyond which was a ditch twenty-five feet broad. There are extensive suburbs, the largest of which is Scutari, situated on the other side of the Bosphorus. Another one, Galata, on the northern side of the harbor, has gradually become the principal seat of mercantile enterprise. The gentle undulations on which the town stands, and the great number of whitewashed minarets, give a magni- ficent appearance to Constantinople, as seen from the water ; and the view is particularly grand from the opening of the Bosphorus and harbor ; but the internal by no means cor- responds with the external appearance. The streets are most irregular, and badly paved, and the houses are wretch- edly built of wood. There are neither names to the one nor numbers to the other. Of late years more attention has been paid to the keeping of the streets. The vulture, which once was common, has disappeared, and the number of kites and dogs, which live on the offal, is rapidly diminish- ing; yet, even now, few towns can compete with this in filthiness and defective draining. Conflagrations are com- mon, and said, indeed, to be frequently willful. In the absence of facilities for street travel, there are a vast number of caiques, or small boats, which ply, for moderate fares, on the harbor and Bosphorus. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 183 Notwithstanding the insignificance of much of Con- stantinople, there are a few buildings which deserve notice from the beauty of their architecture. The mosque of St. Sophia is the most celebrated of that class of structures in the world, as it is one of the finest. Originally a Christian church, it was converted into a Mohammedan place of wor- ship some time after its erection. It is in the form of a Greek cross, 269 feet in length by 143 in breath, and sur- mounted by a flattened dome 180 feet above the ground, besides several minor cupolas, and four minarets added to it by the Turks. In its interior are numerous large columns, a floor of variegated marble, and some magnificent bronze gates, but most of the ancient Byzantine paintings and decorations hare been hidden by Turkish inscriptions, and the general effect of the building is injured by the presence of a multitude of lamps, globes, and other ornaments, de- pending from the dome. Some of the pillars of the dome are of green jasper, and are reported to have been the sup- ports of the ancient temple of Diana at Ephesus. In the neighborhood of the mosque is an open space called the At-Meidan (horse place), about 500 feet in length and 300 feet in breadth. This was the Hippodrome, in which the old game of throwing the jereed was practiced by the Turks. Along the center line of it are placed an Egyptian obelisk, the remains of a small column composed of three twisted serpents in bronze, and a tall obelisk, much decayed. The mosque of Soleyman the Magnificent, is another of the city’s celebrities. This is a large structure, in the general form of a square, from which rise a succession of domes, minarets, and towers, of extreme beauty. The mosque is a masterpiece of Saracenic architecture. The Seraglio, forming a distinct quarter of the town, is seldom visited by the Sultan, who stays in his private palace most of the time. It was formerly closed to the public, and the mystery which surrounded it gave rise to 184 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. the most fabulous accounts of the splendor and magnifi- cence of this imperial residence, all of which have vanished since it has been thrown open to visitors, who could not fail to see that the Sultan’s palace stands far below the residences of other European monarchs in sumptuousness. The new palace, however, at Dobna Baghtshe, where the Sultan passes his time at present, is of great magnificence, and was erected at an enormous cost. The grand gateway is a beautiful piece of architecture, with marble pillars and the most exquisite and ornate decorations. LYL— CAIRO. This city, the capital of Egypt, was founded in 969 A. D. The walls of Cairo, built at first of brick, were afterwards laid of stone by the celebrated Saladin. One of the chief objects of interest in the city is the Citadel, which contains several things worthy of a visit, among which may be men- tioned the Pasha’s Palace, the new Mosque, built by Mo- hammed Ali, and the Arsenal. The palace contains some handsome rooms, and the view from it is very fine. The Mosque consists of an open square, surrounded by single rows of columns. The columns have a fancy capital, sup- porting round arches, and the whole, with the exception of the outer walls, is of Oriental alabaster. But it excites ad- miration for the materials, rather than for the style of its architecture. From the platform is a grand and commanding view of the city and the surrounding country, taking in the arsenal immediately below, the fine mosque of Sultan Hassan, just THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 185 outside the gates of the citadel, the numerous minarets of Cairo, and, in the distance, the Pyramids. Parts only of the old citadel walls now remain, the others haying been re- placed by bastions and curtains of European construction. On the western wall of the citadel is an eagle in high relief, supposed to be an emblem or banner of Karakoosch, the minister of Saladin ; and the credulous believe that it for- merly uttered a cry when any calamity was about to hap- pen to the city. The narrowness of the streets of Cairo, and their great irregularity, strike a European strangely; but their Ori- ental character fully compensates for this objection, and of all Eastern towns, none is so' interesting in this respect as the Egyptian capital. Nor is this character confined to the bazaars, to the mosques, or to the peculiarities of the exte- rior of the houses ; the interiors are of the same original style, and no one can visit the harems and courts of the private dwellings without recalling the impressions he re- ceived on reading the Arabian Nights. The picturesque style of the courts, the inlaid marble, the open fonts, the elaborate fretwork of the projecting windows, with their panes of stained glass, have a pleasing effect, and remind us of the descriptions of old Saracenic mansions. Cairo is said to contain about 400 mosques. Many of them are in ruins, but the great number of those that are still in repair, and used for their daily prayers, must be ap- parent to any one who passes through the streets, or sees their numerous minarets from without. The finest mosque in Cairo is the mosque of the Sultan Hassan. Its beauti- fully ornamented porch, the rich cornice of its towering walls, its minarets, and the arches of its spacious court, must delight every lover of architecture. And so impressed are the Cairenes with its superiority, that they believe the king ordered the hand of the architect to be cut off, in order to prevent his building any other that should vie with 186 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. it. The blocks used in the erection of this noble edifice were brought from the Pyramids. Some of the ornamentations of the ancient buildings are extremely elaborate, and as fine a piece of work as is to be found in Cairo, is a latticed window on Mushreebab, a di- lapidated mosque. Part of the lattice itself has fallen to decay ; but there is left enough to show the delicacy and beauty of its architecture. LVII.— EGYPT AND THE NILE. The general appearance of Egypt is remarkably uniform. The Delta is a plain richly cultivated, and varied alone by the lofty dark-brown mounds of ancient cities, and the villages in groves of palm-trees, standing on mounds, often if not always ancient. In Upper Egypt the valley is in as rich a state of cultivation, but very narrow and bounded by mountains of no great height, which hem it in a confined space. They constitute the edge of the desert on either side of the valley, which appears as though it had been cut through a rocky table-land, for they rarely take the form of peaks. The features of the country, therefore, vary little, nor is there great difference in the color. The bright green of the fields, however, the reddish brown color of the rivers, the tints of the bare yellow rocks, and the deep blue of the sky, always form a pleasant view, and often one of great beauty. The climate of Egypt, being remarkably equable, is healthy to those who can bear great heat, and who avoid the THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 187 unwholesome tracts of the country. The atmosphere is dry and clear, except on the sea-coast; and even the dampness, which is the inevitable consequence of the inundations of the river, is scarcely felt, except in rendering the heat more oppressive. On the coast of the Mediterranean rain is fre- quent, but in other parts of Egypt very unusual. At Cairo there is generally one heavy storm in winter, and a shower or two besides, white at Thebes a storm occurs but once in about four years, and light rain almost as rarely. The present population of Egypt is between two and three millions, and of these seven-eighths are Moham- medans. The men and women are generally well-propor- tioned. In Cairo and the northern provinces, those who have not been much exposed to the sun have a yellowish but very clear complexion ; the rest are of considerably darker and coarser hue. The principal feature of dress with the men is a long vest of silk, called kaftan , which has hanging sleeves and reaches below the ankles. In going abroad the ladies always wear a veil which entirely con- ceals the features, except the eyes; it is along and narrow piece of thick white muslin, reaching a little below the knees. The chief characteristic of Egyptian scenery is the Nile. This river is all that makes Egypt. Its waters fertilized the desert through which it passes, and made it fit for habita- tion. It is the chief channel of communication in the country. Without it, Egypt could not exist as an inhabited land. The scenery along the banks of the Nile is seldom beautiful. There is little variety of landscape, and, what there is, is interesting mostly on account of some clustering associations. Near the first cataract lies the town of Assonan, the ancient Syene. It presents few ruins of the ancient city, except some granite columns of a late date and a small temple. This was the place to which the poet Juvenal was banished. The first cataract is merely a rapid, formed by 188 THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. the rash of water through a mass of rocks, and its highest fail does not exceed five or six feet. The two last or southern- most falls are the greatest, but they are passable at all times of the year. The boats are towed up by ropes, and there is little fear of accidents. The island of Philse stands a short distance above the cataract, and is no less interesting from the subjects con- tained in its sacred buildings than for the general effect of the ruins. The principal building is the temple of Isis, which is decorated with fine sculptures and curious in- scriptions. At Syeopolis there are several pits cut in the rock, the burial places of the inhabitants of that old city. Though not containing a great profusion of sculpture, they are of considerable interest from their antiquity, and some have the names of very old kings. The view over the town and the green plains in the spring is very beautiful from their tombs. LVIIL— ANCIENT RELIGIOUS RUXUS. Scattered over the world’s surface are fragments and relics of edifices that have existed long after the sentiment that gave them birth has passed out of sight and memory. Among these none are more interesting than the remains of temples, altars, and religious structures, generally. From these we are able to form ideas not only of the religious customs and observances of the people who erected them, but also of the people themselves. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 189 The celebrated ruins of Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, England, are a fine example of this class of structures. They consist simply of enormous stones set in an upright and horizontal position. When seen from a distance, their appearance is somewhat insignificant, on account of their position on a wide unbroken plain. On a near approach, however, their magnitude can be duly appreciated. Stone- henge is enclosed by a double mound and ditch, circular in form, the whole 1009 feet in circumference. The stones, which are arranged in order, have a length of from 15 to 20 feet, and in the center is a large slab of coarse blue marble, 16 feet long and 4 broad, supposed to have been a part of the altar. It seems most likely that Stonehenge was erected by the ancient Britons for solemn religious rites; and, from the art displayed in their construction, it could not have been much earlier than the time of the Roman conquest. The island of Java, belonging to the system geographically called Malaysia, is situated near the south-eastern coast of Asia. It is a country but little known, though it is of great importance commercially to the world. The present religion of the people is Mohammedan, that faith having been established by their Arab conquerors in the 15th cen- tury. Buddhism and Brahminism were the ancient religions of the Javanese, and there are yet many ruins of their old temples standing throughout the country. Their style of architecture is much like the Chinese and Japanese, having, in fact, been modeled from them, though they are perhaps a little less elaborate. In the temples and pagodas of India and China are found the clearest traces of antiquity in architecture. The most common Hindoo pagoda of the present day is composed of a rectangular mass, surmounted by a graduated truncated pyramid. That- this species of structure is of very con- siderable antiquity, may be concluded from the fact that everything in its composition and arrangement is deter- mined by immutable precepts of a religious nature. __ The 190 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Chinese pagodas are often rich in ornamentation, both externally and internally, though the effect is generally moved by their very incongruity of structure. Many pogodas are found in China which are asserted by the inhabitants to be a thousand years old, but their habit of exaggerating everything renders their word not very trust- worthy. LIX.—THE RAVAGES OF TIME. I saf Grenada. These foreigners, however, left their mark on the country and on the Spanish people. One of the finest relics in the world is the Alhambra, the palace of the old Moorish kings. It stands on a lofty emi- nence, between the rivers Darro and Jenil. It was built by Mohammed II, about 1273 A. D. It is surrounded by 244 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. a strong wall flanked by square towers, and inclosing* an area of 2,500 feet in length and 650 in breadth. The walls of the palace follow all the windings of the mountain. The ascent to the palace is between the hills of the Alham- bra, through a yery thick wood of lofty elms, the branches of which are so interleayed, that the rays of the sun never penetrate their thick foliage. Innumerable clear rivulets glide through the forest, irrigating the ground, wdiich is covered with verdure, or fall from rock to rock, forming a number of beautiful cascades. At the palace, you enter first into an oblong court of 150 by 90 feet in length, with a basin of water in the midst. Hence, you pass into the Court of Lions, which may be considered as the type of Arabian architecture. It is 100 feet by 60, and is paved with white marble. In the center is a large basin of alabaster supported by twelve lions. Over this basin rises another smaller one, from which a large body of water spouts into the air, and, falling from one basin into the other, is sent forth through the mouths of the lions. This court is surrounded by a gallery sup- ported by a great number of slender and elegant columns. The Avails are covered Avith blue and yelloAV mosaics. The ceiling is beautifully ornamented with arabesque and fret- Avork in the most exquisite taste. Around the upper face of the fountain of the lions are some Arabic verses which describe, in a style of Oriental hyperbole, the wonders and beauty of the fountain. Over the entrance to the Hall of Justice is inscribed the folloA\ r ing sentence : “ Enter, fear not, seek justice, and justice thou shalt find.” This hall is one of the richest in the Alhambra, and still possesses traces of its past splendor. The walls are richly stuccoed, and ornamented with ara- besques of such exquisite workmanship, that the most skillful artist Avould be greatly embarrassed to imitate it. The Escurial, the royal palace of Spain, was erected by Phillip II, in 1557. Its situation is rocky and barren, de- THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 245 void of all vegetable matter, except that conveyed thither by man, and appears to have been chosen for the advantage of procuring stone. By a fantastical conception, in accord- ance with the ideas of the times, the ground-plan was laid out in the form of a gridiron. The gardens, which are extensive, and the parks formed by art, are decorated with fountains. The stone of which the building is constructed is white with dark-gray spots. The palace contains vast galleries, ornamented with tapestry, and some paintings. The Escurial is probably the greatest architectural under- taking ever conceived and 'executed by one man- yet in spite of its colossal proportions, the building oilers an aspect by no means imposing. The windows have been considered too small and the projections deficient in boldness. The Boyal Palace at Madrid, a magnificent building of white stone, is considered one of the finest royal residences in Europe. It stands on the site of the old Alcazar, a palace inhabited by Philip II, which was burnt to the ground in 1734. The interior is decorated in a style of costly magnificence. On the south side of the palace is the royal armory, which contains the greatest treasures of his- torical weapons in the world. The building is 470 feet long and 100 feet high. LXXX.— THE ALHAMBRA BY MOONLIGHT. I have given a picture of my apartment on my first taking possession of it. A few evenings here produced a thorough change in the scene and in my feelings. The moon, which then was invisible, has gradually gained upon the nights, and now rolls in full splendor above the towers, 24 G THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. pouring a flood of tempered light into every court and hall. The garden beneath my window is greatly lighted up; the orange and citron trees are tipped with silver ; the fountain sparkles in the moon beams ; a^nd even the blush of the rose is faintly visible. I have sat for hours at my window, inhaling the sweet- ness of the garden, and musing on the checkered features of those whose history is dimly shadowed out in the elegant memorials around. Sometimes, I have issued forth at mid- night, when every thing was quiet, and have wandered over the whole building. Who can do justice to a moonlight night in such a climate and in such a place ? The temperature of an Andalusian midnight in summer is perfectly ethereal. We seem lifted up into a purer atmos- phere ; there is a serenity of soul, a buoyancy of spirits, an elasticity of frame, that render mere existence , enjoyment. The effect of moonlight, too, on the Alhambra, has some- thing like enchantment. Every rent and chasm of time, every mouldering tint and weather-stain, disappears ; the marble resumes its original whiteness ; the long colonnades brighten in the moonbeams ; the halls are illuminated with a softened radiance, until the whole edifice reminds one of the enchanted palace of an Arabian* tale. At such a time, I have ascended to the little pavilion, called the queen’s toilet, to enjoy its varied and extensive prospect. To the right, the snowy summits of the Sierra Nevada would gleam, like silver clouds, against the darker firmament, and all the outlines of the mountain would be softened, yet delicately defined. My delight, however, would be to lean on the parapet of Tecador, and gaze down upon Grenada, spread out like a map below me ; all buried in deep repose, and its white palaces and convents sleeping, as it ivere, in the moonshine. Sometimes, I would hear the faint sounds of castanets from some party of dancers lingering in the Alameda; at other times, I have heard the dubious notes of a guitar, and THE WOULD IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. 247 the notes of a single voice rising from some solitary street, and have pictured to myself some youthful cavalier serenad- ing his lady’s window ; a gallant custom of former days, but now sadly on the decline, except in the remote towns and villages of Spain. Such are the scenes that have detained me for many an hour loitering about the courts and balconies of the castle, enjoying that mixture of reverie and sensation which steal away existence in a southern climate, and it has been almost morning before I have retired to my bed, and been lulled to sleep by the falling waters of the fountain of Lindaraxa. LXXXL— GIBRALTAR. The town of Gibraltar, as well as the fortress, promontory, and bay of the same name, belongs to Great Britain. Originally in the hands of the Moors, the place was wrested from them by the Spaniards, from whom it was taken by the English in the year 1704. Since then many attempts have been made by the Spaniards to regain its possession, but ail have failed. The promontory is a vast rock, consisting principally of gray, compact marble, rising from 1,200 to 1,400 feet above the level of the sea; it is about three miles in length, from half to three-quarters of a mile in width, and is joined to the mainland by a low, sandy isthmus, about one mile and a half in length. On the north side, fronting the isthmus, the rock is almost perpendicular; the east and south sides are also 248 THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. steep and rugged; but on the west side it slopes downward to a fine bay, nine miles long by four and a half broad. On this slope lies the town, containing a mixed popula- tion of 16,000, and above rise the principal ramparts of the rocky fortress, generally garrisoned by upward of 3,000 troops. The rock abounds with caves, some of which are very spacious and picturesque. The Spanish lines, which extend across the isthmus, are defended by two forts ; and the space between these lines and the foot of the rock is called the neutral ground. The most interesting parts of the place are, of course, the fortifications. These are very extensive. From the signal tower and batteries there is a magnificent view. The cli- mate of Gibraltar is temperate, and on the whole healthful. In summer the African heat is tempered by a refreshing sea-breeze, which blows from about ten A. M., and ceases be- fore sunset. During the other seasons, however, fogs and mists are common. There is a magnificent tank for supply- ing the navy. It generally contains from 9,000 to 10,000 tons of good water, which is that which falls on the moun- tain during the rainy season. LXXXII.— BATTLE OF BEAL’ AN DUINE. The minstrel came once more to view The eastern ridge of Benvenue, For ere he parted, he would say Farewell to lovely Loch Achray. "Where shall he find, in foreign land, So lone a lake, so sweet a strand ? THE WQELD IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. 249 There is no breeze upon the fern, No ripple on the lake, Upon her serie nods the erne, The deer has sought the brake ; The small birds will not sing aloud. The springing trout lies still, So darkly glooms yon thunder-cloud. That swathes, as with a purple shroud, Benledi’s distant hill. Is it the thunder’s solemn sound That mutters deep and dread, Or echoes from the groaning ground The warrior’s measured tread ? Is it the lightning’s quivering glance That on the thicket streams. Or do they dash on spear and lance The sun’s retiring beams ? I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the Moray’s silver star, Wave o’er the cloud of Saxon war. That up the lake comes winding far ! To hero bound for battle strife, Or bard of martial lay, ’Twere worth ten years of peaceful life. One glance at their array ! Their light-armed archers, far and near, Surveyed the tangled ground, Their center ranks with pike and spear, A twilight forest frowned, Their barbed horsemen in the rear, The stern battalia crowned. No cymbal clashed, no clarion rang, Still were the pipe and drum ; Save heavy tread and armor’s clang, The sullen march was dumb. There breathed no wind their crests to shake. Or wave their flags abroad ; Scarce the frail aspen seemed to quake, That shadowed o’er their road; 11 * 250 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Tlieir vanward scouts no tidings bring. Can rouse no lurking foe, Nor spy a trace of living thing, Save when they stirred the roe. The host moves, like a deep sea-wave, Yfhere ride no rocks, its pride to brave. High-swelling, dark, and slow. The lake is passed, and now they gain A narrow and a broken plain, Before the Trosach’s rugged jaws : And here the horse and spearmen pause, While to explore a dangerous glen, Dive through the pass the archer-men. At once there rose so wild a yell Within that dark and narrow dell, As all the fiends from heaven that fell. Had pealed the banner cry of hell ! Forth from the pass in tumult driven. Like chaff before the wind of heaven. The archery appear ; For life ! for life ! their flight they ply ; While shriek, and shout, and battle-cry. And plaids and bonnets waving high. And broad-swords flashing to the sky. And maddening in the rear. Onward they drive, in dreadful race. Pursuers and pursued; Before that tide of flight and chase, How shall it keep its rooted place, The spearmen’s twilight wood ? “ Down ! down ! ” cried Mar, “ your lances down Bear back both friend and foe ! ” Like reeds before the tempest's frown, That serried grove of lances brown At once lay leveled low ; And closely shouldering side to side, The bristling ranks the onset bide. “ We’ll quell the savage mountaineer, As their Tinchell cows the game ! They come as fleet as mountain deer, W e’ll drive them back as tame. ” THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 251 Bearing before them in their course The relics of the archer force, Like wave with crest of sparkling foam, Right onward did Clan-Alpine come. Above their tide, each broadsword bright Was brandishing like gleam of light. Each targe was dark below ; And with the ocean’s mighty swing, When heaving to the tempest’s wing, They hurled them on the foe. I heard the lance’s shivering crash As when the whirlwind rends the ash ; I heard the broadsword’s deadly clang. As if a hundred anvils rang ; But Moray wheeled his rearward rank Of horsemen on Clan- Alpine’s flank, “ My banner-man advance ! I see,” he cried, “ their column shake: Now, gallants ! for your ladies’ sake, Upon them with the lance ! ” The horsemen dashed among the rout As deer break through the broom ; Their steeds are stout, their swords are out, They soon made lightsome room. Clan-Alpine’s best are backward borne ; Where, where was Roderick then ? One blast upon his bugle horn Were worth a thousand men. And refluent through the pass of fear, The battle’s tide was poured ; Yanished the Saxon’s struggling spear, Yanished the mountain sword. As Bracldinn’s chasm, so black and steep Receives her roaring linn, As the dark caverns of the deep Suck the wild whirlpool in. So did the deep and darksome pass Devour the battle’s mingled mass ; None linger now upon the plain, Save those who ne'er shall fight again. 252 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. LXXXIIL— THE CHINESE. 'Tlie great empire of China occupies one-tenth of the habitable part of the globe* and its area is double that of the United States. Its population may be approximately stated at 500*000*000. About one-third of the empire is a level* fertile* and highly-cultivated country* while the re- mainder is studded with mountains* which* rising higher and higher toward the interior* ultimately tower up in the gigantic glaciers of the Yun-ling* a prolongation of the Himalayas. The rivers of China are her glory* and no country can compare with her for natural facilities of inland navigation. There are tw~o large river systems — that of the Hoang-ho* or Yellow river* and of the Yang-tse-Kiang* or Blue river. Of these the latter is far more important than its rival* since its tranquility of current renders it superior for navi- gation purposes. This majestic stream* with a length of nearly 3*000 miles, and a breadth* above Nanking, of three to four miles* is the main artery of the empire. Tens of thousands of boats and barges continually crowd it. The country lying between the Yang-tse-Kiang and the Hoang-ho is* by its fertility* general prosperity* and the high state of its inhabitants 5 education* the most influential p^rt of the Chinese empire. There are* however* many cities of importance outside of this district; and among these, perhaps* the one best known to foreigners is Canton. This is a' great commercial place* and is situated on the Pekiang river* not far from its mouth. When viewed from the hills on the north* Canton appears to be little more than an expanse of reddish roofs* relieved by a few large trees. THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 253 These hills rise 1,200 feet above the river, and little or no vegetation is seen on them. The circuit of the city is about ten miles, and a part of it is surrounded by walls. The houses stretch along the river for four miles, and the banks are everywhere nearly * concealed by boats and rafts. The streets, amounting in all to upward of 600, are long, straight, and very narrow, paved with little round stones, and flagged at the sides of the houses. The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but none of them present features worthy of special remark. The houses of the native Cantonese are generally comfortable, and those of the upper classes luxu- rious. They are made so as to admit plenty of air, and are always partially surrounded by a verandah. The Chinese themselves are ready imitators of European art, but cannot appreciate the beauty of the work when completed. They show great appreciation, however, of landscape gardening, and in this they even excel the Europeans. The houses of the wealthier classes are surrounded by vegetation in luxu- riance. At Macao there is a larger foreign population, in propor- tion, than in any other city of China, The foreigners are mostly Portuguese, and they comprise fully one-sixth of the inhabitants. The city is situated on the island of Heang- shang, and is built on the acclivity of two hills around a large semicircular bay. Its white-washed houses make a very pretty appearance from the roadstead, but the streets are narrow, and the dwellings of the natives are mostly in a wretched condition. The travel, as is the case in fact throughout all China, is entirely on foot or in sedan-chairs, the latter being used only by the upper classes. The best part of the town consists of a long line of well-built houses on the beach, in front of which is a promenade called the Praya Grande. 254 * THE WOULD IN THE STEEEOSCOPE. LXXXIV.— SCENES IX JAP AX. Tiie Japanese are of middling size, and generally of a yellow color, though some are brown and others nearly white. Their eyes are small, oblong, and deeply sunk in the head. Their noses are short and thick, and their hair thick, black and glossy. The men are vigorous and active, and the women well formed and graceful, while both sexes exhibit a higher degree of intelligence than is common among Asiatic nations. Society in Japan has been carried to a great degree of refinement. The manners of the Japanese men and ladies are as cul- tivated as are those of our own country. The Japanese gentleman is invariably described as a person of pleasing address and polished manners. The rules which govern social intercourse are formed into a regular system, and published in books which are diligently studied at school. Xearly everybody learns to read and write, though, beyond that, little is done in the way of education. The dwellings of the Japanese are built of wood with a thatched roof. In the interior, the matting of rice-straw, which is four inches thick, renders all other furniture un- necessary. It is on the mattress that the Japanese sleeps, enveloped in an ample gown and a wadded quilt, with his head upon a little wooden pillow. The mattress is the table cloth whereon he sets the lacquered dishes which contain his repast; it is a carpet for the bare feet of his children, and a divan when, squatted on his heels, he invites his friends to squat in like manner and give themselves up to the interminable gossip, with the never-failing accompani- ments of tea and tobacco. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 255 When night comes, the screens of the dwellings are closed, the chambers are put in order for sleeping, and a single lamp is lighted in a lofty wooden frame, covered with oiled paper, giving hardly more light than that of the stars. But with morning, all the furniture belonging to slumber is taken away and put into a closet. The screens are opened on all sides, and the dwelling is swept from one end to the other. The air circulates everywhere, and the sun- shine falls in broad bars on the matting. Then during the hot hours of the day, the house is again so thoroughly closed that it seems like a gloomy cavern, and becomes the abode of the most absolute indolence and repose. As horses are rarer in Japan than in Europe and America, most of the travel is on foot or in sedan chairs, as in China. Heavy burdens are generally borne by two men, one before the other, the burden being fastened to a long pole, whose ends rest on their shoulders. Much of the country is so densely populated, that the roads connecting the large cities are lined with houses their entire length. Inns occur very often, and are there called tea-houses. The agriculture of the Japanese is conducted with dili- gence and skill. With the exception of the roads, and of the woods required to supply timber and charcoal, hardly a foot of ground, to the very tops of the mountains, is left uncultivated. Irrigation is judiciously applied, and manure of all kinds is carefully collected and used in the production of generally abundant harvests. The grain principally raised is rice, which is said to be of a very superior quality. The Japanese machinery is of the most primitive descrip- tion. The enormous rice-crop of the empire is hulled en- tirely by hand, or by a rude mallet propelled by the feet. The people are passionately fond of acting, and Japanese juggling has long held a world-wide fame. The dramas are generally founded on national history or tradition, or the exploits, lives, and adventures of Japanese heroes 256 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. and gods. Their general tendency is said to be elevating and patriotic, though some are strongly tainted with the national passion for revenge, and have horrible exhibi- tions of cruel punishments. Only two actors are usually upon the stage at a time, and the female parts are per- formed by boys, as was formerly the case in Europe. LXXXY.— SKETCHES OF RACES. The study of the manners of different races of men forms a delightful and instructive occupation ; at the same time it is exceedingly comprehensive. Great diversities neces- sarily exist in the habits and characters of different races. We can not, of course, expect to do more than introduce the subject in our short space, with a few of its most strik- ing illustrations. In Arabia there have existed for many centuries a class of people called Bedouins, who are the aborigines of the desert and the descendants of Ishmael. Their essential character- istic is that they are dwellers in tents, live by their flocks and herds, and that their hand is against every man. They are ignorant, fierce, and revengeful, unscrupulous in honor or honesty, and of depraved morals. Their greatest virtue is their hospitality, and even this is very questionable ; its inviolability has been greatly exaggerated. In personal appearance- they are under middle size, spare and wiry, and capable of sustaining great fatigue and con- tinued exposure to the fiery sun of their native clime. Their clothing is often reduced to a single garment, — a woolen gown bound round his waist with a girdle, in which THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 257 lie carries his weapons and his pipe. The better class wear a head-covering, consisting of a handkerchief folded corner- wise, or a woolen head-piece bound round the top of their heads with a cord. Their religion is the Mohammedan, and their government patriarchal. The Indian tribes of North America possess many pecu- liarities of custom. In another article we have alluded more particularly to the great mass who have repelled all efforts at civilization, preferring the freedom of their original state. There are, however, quite a number of tile race who have become partly civilized, who have assumed the dress and religion of the whites, and in a measure have taken up their occupations. In part of Minnesota and Wisconsin the Indians have cultivated the soil, and in this way and in hunting manage to derive a subsistence. That they are capable of further improvement is a question which has yet to be proved. In the Caucasian race is found the highest development of mental power; and, consequently, those countries in- habited by the race have attained the greatest degree of civilization. It may safely be said, that all which the world knows it learned from Europe or America. The customs of the different sections of the Caucasian race vary greatly, and are influenced by climate, religious and political law, inheritance, and a vast number of minor causes. In America there is a more general diffusion of in- telligence among all classes, from the greater liberality of all surrounding influences. Those inhabiting the rural dis- tricts are generally far beyond the European farmers in edu- cation and methods of labor. The peasantry of continental Europe are more dependent on the richer classes of the community; while in America it is to the farmers that society looks for support. 258 THE WOULD IN THE STEBEOSCOPE. *> LXXXYL— MOUNTAIN AND GORGE. There is much that is beautiful in the scenery of our country, from the White Mountains to the yalley of Yo Semite, with which we are yery little acquainted. There is no more interesting resort than the Natural Bridge of Virginia, situated in the midst of the wild scenery of the Blue Ridge region, and almost under its shadows upon its western side. Passing round the foot of a hill upon a rapidly descending road, the traveler suddenly finds himself upon a narrow track like a lane, between two high wooden fences. From his horse he may look oyer these fences into open space ; but nothing would suggest to him that he is upon the great Natural Bridge so celebrated in the history of our country, and associated with the names of our most revered statesmen who have visited and de- scribed it. A view from the outside of these barriers down the deep gorge is necessary to open to him the sublimity of this grand natural structure. He finds himself suspended over the center of a narrow chasm, not quite 100 feet wide, but 213 feet deep, its two smooth parallel walls of stratified lime- stone inclining at the same angle, which varies but a few degrees from the vertical. The arch is of such irregular form, so that a view of its solid dimensions is easily obtained from various points upon its edge. The thickness of the center of the arch is 40 feet ; toward its sides this thickness greatly increases with a graceful curve, as in an artificial structure, conveying an idea of strength and solidity. And when its breadth is found to be fully 60 feet, and the stone is proved to be of the most substantial character, then it THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 259 becomes evident that the insignificant little stream which now runs in this deep gorge has had no agency in shaping and producing this wonderful channel. From below, the bridge is seen to great advantage along the course of the little stream called Cedar Creek, which flows under it. But away from this gorge it is not a con- spicuous object in the scenery, as it does not rise above the general level around it. At the base of the ridge many names are carved upon its steep walls ; and every American has learned from his school books to look among them for the initials of George Washington, who is said to have climbed to a good height, and cut them conspicuously upon the rock. Inquiry at the spot, however, does not confirm these early lessons, the residents near the bridge having no tradition or other know ledge of this interesting event in the life of Washington. Near the town of North Adams, in Massachusetts, there is much rugged and bold mountain scenery. Here is another natural bridge, not by any means so conspicuous an object as the one we have just described, but noted through- out the country round about as being situated in the midst of scenery of great beauty. It crosses a deep and narrow gorge and is almost unnoticeable in the confusion of rock and foliage around. One of the wildest and most romantic spots in the South- ern States is Lookout Mountain, near the confines of Georgia and Tennessee. Here was fought one of the hard- est contested battles in the war of the Rebellion. Its sum- mit is clothed with a heavy growth of trees and underwood ; and in a rocky hollow lies the beautiful little pond called Lulu Lake. In the White Mountains there are many points of inter- est to the reader as well as the sight-seer. One of . the attractions in the Pemigewasset Valley is the Flume and its vicinity. There the traveler can thoroughly enjoy a day, and taste with eye and ear the freshness of the forest, the 260 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. glancing light t>n a mountain stream, the occasional rare beauty of the mosses on its banks, the colors at the bottom of its cool, still pools, the overarching grace of its trees, or the busy babble of its broken sparkling tide. “ The Pool” is one of the wonders of this region. This is a natural well in the solid rock, 60 feet in diameter and 190 feet deep, of which 40 is water. “ At noon-day here ’Tis twilight, and at sunset blackest night.” If this was hollowed out for hlaiads, they must be of a very sullen temper, nymphs of the Stygian order, that love “ Some uncouth cell, Where brooding darkness spreads his yellow wings, And the night raven sings.” LXXXVIL— THE PRAIRIES. These are the gardens of the desert, these The unshorn fields, boundless and beautiful, For which the speech of England has no name — The prairies. I behold them for the first, And my heart swells, while the dilated sight Takes in the encircling vastness. Lo ! they stretch In airy undulations far away, As if the ocean, in his gentlest swell, - Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed And motionless forever. Motionless ? No ! they are all unchained again. The clouds Sweep over with their shadows, and,. beneath. The surface rolls and fluctuates to the eye; Dark hollows seem to glide along and chase The sunny ridges. Breezes of the south ! THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 261 Who toss the golden and the flame-like flowers, And pass the prairie-hawk that, poised on high, Flaps his broad wings, yet moves not — ye have played Among the palms of Mexico and vines Of Texas, and have crisped the limpid brooks That from the fountains of Sonora glide Into the calm Pacific — have ye fanned A nobler or a lovelier scene than this ? Man hath no part in all this glorious work. The hand that built the firmament hath heaved And smoothed these verdant swells and sown their slopes With herbage, planned them with island groves. And hedged them round with forests. Fitting floor For this magnificent temple of the sky — With flowers whose glory and whose multitude Rival the constellations ! the great heavens Seem to stoop down upon the scene in love— - A nearer vault, and of a tenderer blue, Than that which bends above the eastern hills. As o’er the verdant waste I guide my steed, Among the high, rank grass that sweeps his sides. The hollow beating of his footstep seems A sacrilegious sound. I think of those Upon whose rest he tramples. Are they here — The dead of other days ? — and did the dust Of these fair solitudes once stir with life And burn with passion ? Let the mighty mounds That overlook the rivers, or that rise In the dim forest, crowded with old oaks, Answer. A race that long has passed away Built them ; a disciplined and populous race Fleaped, with long toil, the earth, while yet the Greek * Was hewing the Pentelicus to forms Of symmetry, and reaMng on its rock The glittering Parthenon. These ample fields Nourished their harvests; here their herds were fed; When haply by their stalis the bison lowed, And bowed his maned shoulder to the yoke. All day this desert murmured with their toils, Till twilight blushed, and lovers walked and woed In a forgotten language, and old tunes, From instruments of unremembered form. Gave the soft winds a voice. 262 THE WOULD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, LXXXVIIL— SOUTH AMERICAN LANDSCAPES. The whole of the interior country of South America, north of the Amazon river, is a comparatively unknown region. There are few parts of the world that have been less visited, both from the difficulty and danger of travel. Of the descriptions that have been given to the world of these regions, none have conveyed more than the faint impres- sions of a hasty voyage through certain parts of the country; and, therefore, they do not comprise an accurate nor a general picture of the manners of the inhabitants. There are in New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador many towns of a. respectable size, of which little is known beyond their existence. This, however, is due greatly to the lack of com- mercial enterprise which precludes their taking advantage of the country’s natural facilities. Their industry amounts to little. In the llanos or plains, toward the Orinoco, the people are wholly occupied with the rearing of cattle and horses. The Llaneros are mostly Creoles. Agriculture is chiefly in the hands of the converted Indians, who evince a decided predilection for these tranquil labors. Manufactures can hardly be said to exist. Straw hats, carpets, and some other articles are, indeed, made in some of the principal towns, but in no case does native industry satisfy the demands of the country, and nearly all the manufactured articles in use are imported. The cultivated land of Ecuador lies chiefly in the valley which extends along the summit of the Cordilleras. There are few haciendas of any size or degree of cultivation ; those in the neighborhood of Quitumvita being the best. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 263 The population of Venezuela, like that of the other Span- ish- American colonies, exhi bits a singular mixture of the Spanish, Indian, and African races. Their occupation is mostly agricultural. In the cities there is very little busi- ness done, except at Caracas and Maracaibo. At the latter places, merchants are more energetic and many of them accumulate considerable wealth. The country-houses of this class are models of comfort and convenience for that region. The scenery in many parts of these regions may be favor- ably compared with that of any other part of the world. The variety of the plants, the richness of the herbage, and the luxuriance of the foliage combine to make a most attractive scene. In the neighborhood of the little town of Eio Negro, in New Granada, many of these features are pre- sented. The mountain-road winding down to visit the vil- lage/passes the rustic tavern around which graze the mules and horses of the llaneros and farmers who are partaking of the rude hospitalities within, and overlooks the spires and roofs of Eio Negro itself in the distance. LXXXIX.— SCENES IN MEXICO Mexico is divided climatically into three regions, called the hot, the temperate, and the cold lands. The former comprise the coast lands ; the temperate lairds lying at a con- siderable elevation ; and the cold lands comprising the mountainous districts rising above the temperate lands to the limit of constant snow. In the second of these divisions 2G4 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. are included all the great centers of population of the republic. The great wealth and dependence of Mexico is in its mines ; and though under a new order of things agri- culture and manufactures may receive greater attention, still the abundance of minerals is so great that its mines must always constitute the leading interest. The minerals chiefly worked as yet have been gold and silver ; the latter predominating, and forming the principal article of export. It also forms the greater part of the national currency. From the conquest of Mexico in 1521, to the year of independence, 1821, a period of three centu- ries, the business of mining was in most respects brought to such perfection that during the space of forty years, in which it may be said this branch of labor has been open to the science of foreign nations, no very material improvement has been effected on the old system, except in the introduc- tion of steam-engines for clearing deep mines of water. The kings of Spain held the mines of Mexico as royal property, but any citizen was allowed to work them by paying over to the royal treasury one-fifth of the product thereof. At present any citizen or foreigner can, by right of discovery, denounce or record a mine, and obtain the right to work it free of all tribute. Mining in Mexico, though not partaking of all the exciting characteristics that mark the occupation in Cali- fornia, is yet possessed of the same inevitable features which distinguish camp-life from home-life. The mines are usually in some unsettled district, so that the miners are shut out from the world and form a world of their own. Some mines are actually walled in, though that generally occurs only in isolated instances, where the mine is near some town. As an instance of this we may mention the silver mine near Zacatecas, which is surrounded by a lofty wall. The miners are as a general thing negroes, or low whites, and are ignorant and lazy, forming a contrast to the California miners who are ignorant, but active and indus- trious. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 265 The city of Mexico is the capital of the republic. It occupies a part of the site of the ancient city destroyed by Cortes, and is consequently much smaller than the capital of the Montezumas. It is, however, a large and splendid city, inferior to few in the world in the magnificence of its appearance and site. There are many public buildings, some of which, and especially the cathedral, are unsur- passed on this continent. In the center of the city is a great square paved with marble, and covering an area of twelve acres. The national form of religion is Roman Catholic, and the cathedral, on the Plaza Mayor, is well worthy to be the chief church of a national form of worship. Some three miles from the city are the ruins of the Bishop’s Palace, which was destroyed by the United States army during the Mexican War. XC.— THE CITY OF WASHINGTON. Washington was founded in 1790 by the first President of the United States, whose name it bears, and was occupied as the seat of government in 1800. It is a very fine-looking city, situated on the left bank of the Potomac river, and contains many beautiful buildings, most of which are occu- pied for government purposes. Of these the Presidential Mansion and the Capitol are the most prominent. The former, generally called, from its color, the “ White House,” is m the western part of the city, and is surrounded by the War, Navy, Treasury, and State Departments. It is two stories in height, is built of freestone, and is 170 feet long by 86 deep. 12 266 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. Pennsylvania avenue, the main line of communication between the Presidential Mansion and the Capitol, is, for that distance, well filled with buildings; but few other streets are seen without frequent spaces, which are yet to be covered with houses. The Capitol is commandingly situated upon the brow of a plateau in the eastern part of the city. It is surrounded by a beautiful park of thirty-five acres, containing a variety of trees, both indigenous and foreign. The walls of the central building are constructed of white sandstone, and those of the wings of fine white marble, slightly variegated with blue. The main entrances are by three eastern porticos, which are made easy of access by broad flights of stone steps. But as the most populous part of the city is in the rear of the Capitol, the most usual entrances are on that side. Exactly in the center of the Capitol rises a cast-iron dome, surmounted by a bronze statue of Liberty, rising to the height of 300 feet above the basement floor. The circular room in the center of the Capitol, and underneath the dome, is called the Eotunda. In the center of the north wing is the Senate Chamber, of rectangular form, and 112 feet long, 82 in width, and 30 in height. The ceiling is of cast-iron, deeply paneled with stained glass sky-lights, and is ornamented in the richest style. The hall is surrounded by galleries capable of seating 1,000 persons, which are reached by magnificent marble staircases. The Hall of Representatives is larger than the Senate Chamber, and is highly decorated with frescoes and paintings. The library of Congress occupies a fine room, 91 feet long and 34 feet high, on the west of the Eotunda, fronting upon the western park and the city, of which it commands a charming view. The collection now numbers upwards of 70,000 volumes, exclusive of documents, which, to the num- ber of 80,000 volumes, are kept in separate apartments Under the Representative Hall is a fine row of monolithic columns, with capitals representing the tobacco and thistle- THE WOULD IN THE STEKEOSCOPE. 267 The 24 columns and 40 pilasters of the Senate and Members’ Hall are entirely original, containing imitations of corn- leaves, tobacco, and magnolias. The gilded ornamentations of the ceilings and cornices of the two Houses are all drawn from the natural produc- tions of the country. The grounds around this fine build- ing are being gradually extended, it being intended that they shall reach to the Potomac, with the occasional inter- ruption of city streets. That part of the grounds imme- diately in front of the Capitol is being converted into a botanical garden, the basis being a collection of plants brought out by the South Sea and Japanese exploring ex- peditions. A striking feature of Washington is exhibited by the great hotels, which are all on Pennsylvania avenue, and are densely crowded while Congress is in session. Although most of the State departments are clustered around the White House, the Department of the Interior forms a notable example to the contrary. This occupies a magnificent marble edifice, in the center of the business portion of the city. It is generally known as the Patent Office, from one of its principal bureaus, and is built in the Doric style of architecture, having a length of 406 feet and a width of 275 feet. The saloons devoted to the models of patents are altogether 1,800 feet in length. The building has a conspicuous front, consisting of an elegant central portico with eight massive Doric columns. There are seve- ral magnificent halls in the Patent Office, among which are the National Gallery, containing cabinets of natural history, relics of Washington and Franklin, etc., and the Blue Cor- ridor. One of the noblest institutions and finest structures in Washington is the Smithsonian Institute, situated on a gently-rising ground, west of the Capitol, and surrounded by extensive grounds laid out in gardens and parks. It originated in a bequest of more than half a million of dollars left by an Englishman named Smithson, “ to found £68 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE, at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Insti- tute, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The building, which is of a red- dish freestone, is Romanesque in style, and is 450 feet in length by 140 in width, and has nine towers varying in height from 75 to 150 feet. It consists of a central com- partment, 205 feet by 55, two connecting ranges of 60 feet, and two wings. It has a lecture-room capable of contain- ing nearly 2,000 persons, a museum for objects of natural history, a library capable of containing 100,000 volumes, a gallery for painting and statuary, and one of the best fur- nished laboratories in the United States. The entire cost of the building and grounds was $325,000. Near the Patent Office is the General Post Office build- ing, a beautiful marble structure in the Italian palatial style, which contains the Post Master General’s Department and also the city Post Office. It is in the Corinthian order, three stories in height, 204 feet long, and 102 deep, contain- ing in all eighty-one rooms. XCI.— 1 THE DYING GLADIATOR. The seal is set. — Now welcome thou dread power ! Nameless, yet thus omnipotent, which here Walk’ st in the shadow of the midnight hour, With a deep awe, yet all distinct from fear; Thy haunts are ever where the dead walls rear Their ivy mantles, and the solemn scene Derives from thee a sense so deep and clear, That we become a part of what has been, And grow unto the spot, all seeing, but unseen. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 269 And here the buzz of eager nations ran, In murmured pity or loud-roared applause, As man was slaughtered by his fellow-man. And wherefore slaughtered ? wherefore, but because Such were the bloody circus’ genial laws, And the imperial pleasure. Wherefore not? What matters where we fall to fill the maws Of worms — on battle-plain or listed spot ? Both are but theaters where the chief actors rot. I see before me the gladiator lie : He leans upon his hand ; his manly brow Consents to death, but conquers agony. And his drooped head sinks gradually low ; And through his side the last drops ebbing slow From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one, Like the first of a thunder shower ; and now The arena swims around him : lie is gone, Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won He heard it, but he heeded not ; his eyes Were with his heart, and that was far away: He recked not of the life he lost, nor prize . But where his rude hut by the Danube lay, There were his young barbarians all at play ; There was their Dacian mother — he, their sire, Butchered to make a Roman holiday. All this rushed with his blood. Shall he expire, And unavenged ? Arise, ye Goths, and glut your ire ! XCIL— STATUES AND STATUE-MAKING. Statues made of marble and of bronze, each require an entirely different process. Bronze statues are cast ; marble statues are chiseled. The mere cost and labor of making 270 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. either is far greater than is supposed. When an artist thinks of executing a statue in marble, his first step is usually to make a drawing of what he has planned. No one who has not studied sculpture can realize the arduous problems involved in this operation. A line out of place, a curve too hastily drawn, and the effect of the whole work may be marred. After the work of sketching has been happily ended, the sculptor begins modeling, either in clay or wax, one or more miniatures of the statue, and has them cast in plaster. Too frequently he finds that the figure which looked so well on paper will not do for a statue, and that the whole course of planning and sketching must be gone through again. Canova is said to have been so discouraged by the result of his first attempt at modeling as to have exclaimed “ that moulding pats of butter was all he should ever be fit for.” When the sculptor has obtained a miniature that satisfies him, and has got a plaster cast of it, he sets to work again with his clay, and fashions another model of the exact size of his proposed statue. Of this, a new plaster cast is taken, while the clay is still moist, and the artist can at last judge of the effect of his future statue, for this plaster cast is the exact prototype of it. He can fold his arms, too, for a while, since the next steps to be taken do not concern him, but are the business of another artist, known technically as the “ statuary.” The “ statuary,” who is often an artist of as much talent in his way as the sculptor in his, sets the plaster model on a platform, measures it, and places it side by side with a block of marble of the requisite height and width. This done, he applies to the model an instrument of mathemati- cal precision, by which he obtains the detailed measure of every part and angle of the statue. Keturning to the marble, he roughly sketches on the outside of it, by means of points, a sort of outline of the figure or group. Upon THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 271 each of the spots where he has marked a point with his pencil, a workman carefully bores a hole with an awl ; and when all the holes have been bored according to direction, the marble looks as though it had been riddled with bullets. A second workman now appears with a chisel and hammer to hew away the fragments of marble between the different holes and along the pencil lines. This work is more or less easy, according as the attitude of the statue is simple or fanciful. The • appearance pre- sented by the marble when the preparatory hewing is ended is that of some person or persons thickly wrapped in a shroud. The outlines of head and body can be vaguely detected under the white covering, but nothing more ; and it is not until the statuary himself has set to work with his finer chisel and more delicate hand, that a tangible form begins to emerge from the hard mass. First, the head, then the shoulders and trunk, then the legs, and then the arms and hands appear. When the statue is handed over again to the sculptor, that he may give the final touches to it, there remains but little for him to do, except to bestow upon it enough finish- ing labor to entitle it to be called his own. For this the most delicate of tools are employed; slender chisels with the finest points ; toy hammers with scarcely a weight to them ; little graters that fit on, something like thimbles, to the top of the forefinger; and to polish the marble and smooth it, tripoli, lead, chamois-leather, sand-paper, sponges steeped in oil, and the palm of the hand are used. In bronze sculpture the preliminaries, as regards sketch- ing and modeling are identical. When a clay model is finished, it is not cast in plaster, but is covered with a coating of wax of the intended thickness of the metal. A peculiar preparation is wetted to form a paste, which is thickly plastered .on the wax coating, and set in a warm place to dry. When the drying is completed, the wax be- tween the interior of the mould and the outside of the 272 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. model is slowly melted by fire. By a most tedious and painstaking process the melted brass is then poured into the space lately occupied by the wax, and the statue is cast. XCIXL— 1 THE SCULPTOR BOY. Chisel in hand stood a sculptor boy, With his marble block before him ; And his face lit up with a smile of joy, As an angel dream passed o’er him. He carved that dream on the yielding stone, With many a sharp incision ; In heaven’s own light the sculptor shone,— He had caught that angel vision. Sculptors of life are we, as we stand With our lives uncarved before us, Waiting the hour, when, at God’s command. Our life-dream passes o’er us. Let us carve it, then, on the yielding stone. With many a sharp incision ; — Its heavenly beauty shall be our own, — Our lives, that angel vision. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 273 XCIV.— MONUMENTS OF PARIS. The Place Vendome was begun in 1699. The buildings are uniformly of the Corinthian order of architecture. In the middle formerly stood a colossal equestrian statue of Louis XIV, in bronze, which was demolished in 1792. The mutilated pedestal was replaced in 1806 by the Colonne Vendome, erected by Napoleon to commemorate his success in the German campaign of 1805. This column, 135 feet high by 12 in diameter, was an imitation of the pillar of Trajan at Rome, on a somewhat larger scale. The pedestal and shaft were of stone, covered with bronze bas-reliefs (fan- ciful mouldings) cast out of 200 pieces of Austrian and Russian cannon. Four eagles stood at the corners of the pedestal, supporting wreaths of oak. The spiral bas-reliefs of the shaft displayed in order the principal actions, from the departure of the troops from Boulogne to the battle of Austerlitz. The figures, 2,000 in number, were three feet high; the length of the scroll, 840 feet; a spiral thread divided the lines and bore the names of the actions repre- sented. Above the capital was a gallery approached by a winding staircase of 176 steps. The column stood upon a base of polished granite, surrounded by an iron railing. The Place de l'Etoile is a vast circular space in one of the most fashionable quarters of Paris. It is partly sur- rounded by a series of elegant houses of uniform design. From the Place twelve magnificent avenues branch out in different directions. In the center rises the Arc de Tri- omphe. The idea of this proud monument originated with Napoleon, who decreed its erection in 1806. In 1814 the works were entirely suspended, until, in 1823, after the 12 * 274 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. campaign of the Duke d’Angouleme in Spain, it was deter- mined to finish the arch in honor of his victories. The whole was not completed until 1836. The monument consists of a vast central arch, 90 feet in height by 45 feet in width, over which the massive stone- work rises considerably higher. Each pier of the principal fronts is ornamented with a projecting pedestal, supporting groups of figures in sharp relief. The northern pier of the eastern front bears a group representing the departure of the army in 1792; the Genius of War summons the nation to arms. The dimensions of this and the other groups are in total height 36 feet, and each figure 18 feet. The next group represents the triumph of 1810, Victory crowning Napoleon. Fame surmounts the whole, and History re- cords his deeds; vanquished towns are at his feet. The groups on the other arches represent the conquests of the armies of the North, East, West, and South ; the names of the generals are placed beneath, numbering alto- gether 384. Winding staircases in the interior of the two eastern piers lead to several halls. From the platform at the top of the arch one of the finest views of Paris and its environs may be enjoyed. Place de la Concorde was, until the reign of Louis XV, a waste, irregular space. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the city obtained leave of .the king to form a square here, adorned with a statue in his honor. The works were not finished until 1772. In the middle' stood a bronze equestrian statue of Louis in a Roman costume. This was destroyed, and followed by several other monuments, which followed its fate in the revolutions. The present column was fin- ished in 1836, and stands outside of the square, so-called, and in one corner of the Place. The square itself is enclosed with balustrades, along which are placed 120 ornamental lamp-posts. In the center stands the Obelisk of Luxor. This magnificent relic of Ancient Egypt is one of the two obelisks that stood in front THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 275 of the great temple of Thebes, where they were erected 1,550 years before* Christ. It was given to France by the Viceroy of Egypt. It is covered on each face with three lines of hieroglyphic inscriptions, containing 1,600 charac- ters. On either side of this venerable monument are two foun- tains, 80 feet in diameter, out of which rise two smaller basins, the upper one being inverted. Six figures, nine feet in height, are seated around it, with their feet on the prows of vessels, and separated from each other by spouting dol- phins. Six larger dolphins, held by as many Tritons and Nereids, sporting in the large and highly ornamental basin below, spout water into the second one. The Bastile, the famous prison of France, was attacked and captured by the jeople in the revolution of 1789. Its site now forms the 1 lace de la Bastile. In the center of the place the construction of a fountain was begun by order of Napoleon, but was afterwards abandoned. On the site of this fountain now stands the Column of July, its pedestal standing immediately on a basement of white marble, sup- ported by blocks of granite. Surmounting the capital is a gilt globe, and on it stands a colossal figure, representing the “ Genius of Liberty in its right hand is a torch, in its left a broken chain. It stands on one foot, with wings ex- panded, as if in the act of taking flight. The height of this column is about 154 feet, and its diameter 12 feet. This monument was inaugurated with great ceremony in 1840, when the remains of the victims of the revolution of 1830 were deposited in the vaults underneath. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 276 & • / XOY. — THE ALPINE GLACIERS. The glaciers of Europe are principally confined to the great mountainous districts, the Alps and the highlands of Norway. Wherever (in Europe) any considerable area of mountainous country rises above the snow-line, there glaciers are found in more or less abundance. In the Alps, this level is, on an average, about 7,200 feet, including glaciers of all descriptions. The best known and most im- portant glaciers are the Mer de Glace of Chamouni, the Corner (or Korner) glacier, near Zermatt (Monte Rosa), the lower glacier of the Aar, a.nd glacier of the Rhone. Glaciers among the Swiss Alps vary from a few square yards to acres and miles in extent, covering, in some in- stances, whole districts, filling up entirely the elevated hol- lows and basins between the peaks and ridges of the Alps, and sending forth arms and branches into the inhabited valleys, below the regions of forests, and as far down as the level at which corn will grow. It is such offsets of the glacier as these that are presented to the view of the traveler from the villages of Chamouni and Grindelwald. These, however, are, as it were, but the skirts and fringes of that vast, everlasting drapery of ice which clothes all the upper region of the Alps. These fields or tracts of uninterrupted glacier have been called “ Seas of Ice,” and there are three such among the Swiss and Savoyard Alps which merit special attention, one of which sends out no less than thirteen branches, and its extent has been estimated at 125 square miles. The greatest thickness of the glaciers has been commonly esti- mated at between 600 and 800 feet. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 277 The glaciers of Grindelwald descend into the very bottom of the valley, almost within a stone’s throw of the cottages. They flow from between three mountains — the Giant, the Middle Mountain, and the Wetterhorn — and are branches of that vast ocean of ice which fills the high valleys of the Bernese Alps. The lower glacier, which is the larger, forces its way out between the mountain walls of a narrow valley. It gradually -widens above, and spreads out into a sea of ice, which is shattered into the wildest confusion of peaks and crevices. At its foot are found gloomy and irregular caverns, from which pour forth cold streams of water. Tne upper glacier offers the same wild and broken sur- face, with cliffs and gorges of ice, and often has a larger vault at its end. It is impossible to imagine a stranger scene than that of these rivers of ice crushing their way slowly down the valley, with the enormous mountain sum- mits frowning above. The Rosenlaeir glacier is noted, above all others, for the purity of its white surface, and the clear, transparent azure of its icebergs. It falls, like a mountain torrent, down between the dark rocks, and seems like a frozen waterfall arrested in its descent. The Aar glacier is remarkably even in surface, and is broken rarely into cavities. It is eighteen miles long, and two broad. The Rhone glacier, from which the Rhone river issues, is one of the grandest in Switzerland. It fills the head of the valley, from side to side, and seems piled up against the shoulder of the mountain, whose tall peak overhangs it. The Rhone springs from an icy cavern, into which a water- fall rushes from a height of 150 feet. The Glacier de Rossgg exhibits those sharp edges and deep precipices of ice, piled together in savage grandeur, which render it one of the most striking scenes among all glacial formations. The Glacier des Bossons reaches further into the valley than any other, and forms at its foot a huge embankment 278 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. of rocks and stones, above which lie enormous masses of ice, split into a thousand strange shapes, some forming pin- nacles sixty or eighty feet high, others immense broken or melted blocks so overhanging that they excite a shudder of fear. The deep, blue color of the ice in its depths is inde- scribably beautiful. The Mer de Glace is the name which is given to the great glaciers which form the source of the Arveyron in the vale of Chamouni. The view of this enormous sea of ice, which extends two leagues up the valley, is one of the most striking in these scenes of wonder ; and its vast extent and steep fastnesses make it as attractive to the daring visitor as it is dangerous to the unpractised and incautious. It terminates in the Glacier du Bois, which ends in a vault of ice, whose arch varies from thirty to one hundred feet in height. The scenery around this vault, from which spring the rapid waters of the Arveyron, is very grand ; the deep blackness of the depth of the cave offers a fine contrast to the beauti- ful azure where the light is transmitted through the ice, and the dark forest and broken trunks of the pines add to the wild character of the scene. XCYL— VALLEYS AND GORGES. Depressions of the earth’s surface, occurring between mountains, hills, or neighboring plateaus, .form what are called valleys. These are almost everywhere exhibited in a remarkable variety of shape and origin. Valleys become gorges where the mountains which inclose them approach THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 279 each other very nearly ; when they are separated by a wide interval they are called plains. The formation of valleys is due to the action of earthquakes — that is, to the great oscil- lations which in former ages convulsed the earth — and to the gradual loss or wearing away of a bed of earth. The lat- ter is caused by glaciers and surface waste. Valleys may also be formed by the violent and. sudden action of the waters which have laid the lower strata of the soil by car- rying away the upper. Gorges and ravines are very numerous in hilly countries, and they invariably lead to the most open valleys. Their origin is always violent, and it is due to the destructive action of a torrent or to a sudden fracture or convulsion of the soil. These arbitrary depressions are of great interest to the geologist, because they reveal sections of strata and exhibit the character of the rocks composing the mountain mass. The Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Andes are furrowed in every direction by profound ravines. Those of the Alps are best known to the world, and p£bhaps a description of a few of them may not be uninteresting. The gorge of the Simplon is traversed by a carriage-road constructed by Bonaparte, which is one of the greatest of modern works of art. On the Italian side of the mountains the road passes through the gorge of Gondo, one of the grandest and most savage in the Alps, which narrows and deepens at every step until its precipices in some places actually overhang the road. It is bounded by slate rocks whose smooth, vertical sides deny support to any vegetation. The basin of the cliffs and the bed of the stream are often heaped up with vast shattered fragments, ruins of the mountains above, while loosened masses, still hanging on the slope, seem to threaten the passenger below. The Gorge de Pfeifers, one of the most extraordinary spots in Switzerland, is made accessible by a road cut in the rocks at the side of the gorge. On a narrow ledge, a few feet above the roaring Tamina, and so deeply sunken be- 280 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. tween the rocks as to be half buried, are the Baths of Pfeifer. These are large, gloomy buildings, affording ac- commodations for a limited number of bathing guests who come to bathe in the hot springs that here gush from the rocks. A few yards above the bath-house, the sides of the ravine contract so as to approach within a few feet of each other ; a little farther up they even close over and cover up the river, which is seen issuing out of a chasm. A bridge of planks leads to the entrance, which is closed by a door. Within, the river pursues a subterranean course for several hundred yards. The Via Mala, extending a distance of four miles, is one of the most tremendous and sublime defiles in the Alps. The precipices often rise perpendicularly on both sides to a height of 1,600 feet, and in many places are not more than ten yards apart. The river Rhine, compressed within this narrow stony bed, is barely audible as it rushes through the depths below the road. When the traveler enters the mouth of the defile, the suddert transition from the glare of sun- shine to the gloom of a chasm, so narrow that it leaves but a strip of sky overhead, is exceedingly striking. The walls of rock on both sides afford, naturally, not an inch of space along which a goat’s foot could clamber. The peasants gave the name to this pass of Trou Perdu (the Lost Gulf ), because it was for a long time believed to be utterly inaccessible. For more than 1,000 feet the road is carried along beneath a stone canopy, artificially hollowed out, and protected by a parapet wall, below which, at a depth of many hundred feet, the contracted Rhine frets the foot of the precipice. A little higher up, the gorge bulges out into a sort of basin ; but it soon contracts again, and the scenery of the pass may.be said to attain the height of grandeur beyond the first of the three bridges, by means of , which the road is conveyed, from side to side of the Rhine. THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE. 281 XCYII. — THE SOLDIER’S REST. Soldier rest ! thy warfare o’er, Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking ; Dream of battle-fields no more, Days of danger, nights of waking. In our Isle’s enchanted hall, Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, Fairy strains of music fall, Every sense in slumber dewing. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o’er, Dream of battle-fields no more, Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking, Morn of toil, nor night of waking. No rude sound shall reach thine ear, Armor’s clang, or war-steed champing, Trump nor pibroch summon here, Mustering clan, or squadron tramping. Yet the lark's shrill fife may come, At the day-break from the fallow, And the bittern sound his drum, Booming from the sedgy shallow. Ruder sounds shall none be near, Guards nor warders challenge here, Here’s no war-steed’s neigh and champing. Shouting clans or squadrons stamping. Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done; While our slumb’rous spells assail ye, Dreani not with the rising sun, Bugles here shall sound’ reveille. Sleep ! the deer is in his den ; Sleep ! thy hounds are by thee lying; Sleep ! nor dream in yonder glen. How thy gallant steed lay dying, Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done, Think not of the rising sun, For at dawning to assail ye, Here no bugle sounds reveille. 282 THE WORLD IN THE STEREOSCOPE* XCYIII.— RTJTNS IN HIND 0 STAN. The ancient city of Yijianngger was formerly a magnifi- cent metropolis on the banks of the river Tumboodra, and is said to have contained within its walls an area of seven square miles. All that now remain of its grandeur are two miserable hamlets and almost indistinguishable ruins. So little is known of the ancient city, that even the names and uses of the different buildings still standing are in many instances only conjecture. The most interesting and, at the same time, the best identified relic is the Harem. This building is surrounded by a high wall, whose angles are surmounted by curious towers. The construction of the wall is wedge-shape, the base being very broad and tapering at the top to a sharp edge, while the center is left hollow. The enclosure is cultivated with standing corn, so thick and high that nothing can be seen, an