581.1 K33a : ENI ALL . ; I SSI ■ ELC AND !U ITS IN Ti!E SOLANACEAE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://www.archive.org/details/abscissionofflowOOkend UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN BOTANY Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 347-428, 10 text figs., plates 49-53 March 6, 1918 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS IN THE SOLANACEAE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NICOTIANA JOHN N. KENDALL UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS Note. — The University of California Publications are offered in exchange for the publi- cations of learned societies and Institutions, universities and libraries. Complete lists of all the publications of the University will be sent upon request. For sample copies, lists of publications and other information, address the Manager of the University Press, Berkeley, California, U. S. A. All matter Bent in exchange should be addressed to The Exchange Department, University Library, Berkeley, California, U. S. A. BOTANY.— W. A SetcheU, Editor. Price per volume, $3.60. Volumes I (pp. 418), II (pp. 360), III (pp. 400), IV (pp. 379), completed. Vols. V, VI and VII In progress. Cited as Univ. Calif. PubL Bot. VcL 1. 1. A Botanical Survey of San Jacinto Mountain, by Harvey Monro* Hall. Pp. 1-140; plates 1-14. Jane, 1902 . 81.00 2. Two new Ascomycetous Fungi Parasitic on Marine Algae, by Minnie Beed. Pp. 141-164; platss 15-16. November, 1902 .. . .25 8. Algae of Northwestern America, by William Albert SetcheU and Na- thaniel Lyon Gardner. Pp. 165-418; plates 17-27. March, 1903 — 8.25 Vol. 2. 1. A Beview of Calif oroian Polemoniaceae, by Jessie Mi Hilton. Pp. 1- 71; plates 1-11. May, 1904 .78 2. Contributions to Cytologies! Technique, by W. J. V. Osterhout. Pp. 73-90; 5 text-figures. June, 1904 _.. .25 3. Limu, by William Albert SetcheU. Pp. 91-113. April, 1905 .25 4. Post-Embryonal Stages of the Laminariaceao, by William Albert SetcheU. Pp. 115-138; plates 13-14. AprU, 1905 ._. .26 6. Begeneration among Kelps, by WiUiam Albert SetcheU. Pp. 139-168; plates 15-17. July, 1905 -.. - JW 6. A New Genus of Ascomycetous Fungi, by Nathaniel Lyon Gardner. Pp. 169-180; plate 18. July, 1905 — — J5 7. Teratology in the Flowers of some Califomian Willows, by WiUiam Warner Mott. Pp. 181-226; plates 16-20. December, 1905 J50 8. 9, 10. 11. (In one cover.) The Resistance of Certain Marine Algae to Changes In Osmotic Pressure and Temperature. The Bdle of Os- motic Pressure in Marine Plants. On the Importance of Physiolog- lcaUy Balanced Solutions for Plants. The Antitoxic Action of Potassium on Magnesium. By W. J. V. Osterhout. Pp. 227-236. March, 1906 ........ . = .25 12. Cytological Studies in Cyanophyceae, by Nathaniel Lyon Gardner. Pp. 237-236; plates 21-26. November, 1906 LOO IS. On a Small Collection of Mosses from Alaska, by J. Cardot and T. Theriot Pp. 297-308; plates 27-28. December, 1908 JO 14. Some Unreported Alaskan Sphagna, together with a Sumicary of the Cryptogamic Work of the University of California Botanical Ex- pedition to Alaska in 1899, by WiUiam Albert SetcneU. Pp. 309- 315. September, 1907 _. M 15. On Nutrient and Balanced Solutions, by W. J. V. Osterhout. Pp. 317- 318. October, 1907 .06 16. A Synopsis of the North American Godetias, by WUlis Linn Jepsoa. Pp. 319-354; plate 29. December, 1907 AD Index, pp. 355-360. VOL t. 1007-1909. 1. Compositae of Southern CaUfornla, by Harvey Monroe Hall. Pp. 1- 302; plates 1-3, with a map. December, 1907 8.00 2. The Origin, Structure, and Function of the Polar Caps in fimtfocifwj amplexxcavlis Nutt, by H. D. Densmore. Pp. 303-330; plates 4-8. December, 1908 .38 8. *. (In one cover.) The Value of Sodium to Plants by Reason of Its Protective Action. On the Effects of Certain Poisonous Gases on Plants. By W. J. V. Osterhout. Pp. 331-340. June, 1908 JO 6. Contributions to the Knowledge of the CaUfornla Species of Orasta- eeoas Corallines. I. by Maurice Barstow Nichols. Pp. 341-348; plate 9. December, 1908 .19 . - UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Y3 J ^ AGRICULTURE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN BOTANY Vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 347-428, 10 text figs., plates 49-53 March 6, 1918 ABSCISSION OP FLOWERS AND FRUITS IN THE SOLANACEAE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NICOTIAN A JOHN N*. KENDALL CONTENTS PAGE I. Introduction 348 II. Summary of the literature 350 III. Technique 361 IV. Histology and cytology of the pedicel 363 1. Histological and cytological condition of the mature pedicel 363 2. Development of the separation zone in Nicotiana and Lycoper- sicum 367 3. Increase in size and development of mechanical tissue in the pedicel of Nicotiana and Lycopersicum 369 V. The process of abscission 371 1. General description of the process in several genera 371 2. Method of cell separation 376 VI. Abscission of the style and corolla 383 VII. Time of abscission 385 1. Eeaction time 385 2. Abscission time 396 VIII. Experimental induction of abscission 397 1. Induction by illuminating gas 397 2. Action of acids on the separation layer of Nicotiana 404 3. Induction by mechanical injury 406 4. The ability of certain species to throw off pedicels from which all the floral organs have been removed, as related to the induc- tion of abscission by mechanical injury 410 IX. Summary 411 X. Conclusion 415 XI. Literature cited 418 XII. Plates 420 f 41939 348 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 INTRODUCTION Although it is a matter of common observation that many plants are capable of detaching portions of the bod}', the underlying cause and the actual mechanism which bring about such separation are only slightlj' understood. The process has often been described as one of self-pruning by which the plant rids itself of useless portions of its bod}'. Since abscission is sometimes confused with exfoliation, it seems desirable here to distinguish definitely between these two phenomena. It can be said that, in general, exfoliation is preceded by drying and death of the part to be cast off and that actual separa- tion of the organ is accomplished by a mechanical break through dry, dead tissues. Abscission, on the other hand, is usually not preceded by drying and death of the organ concerned and its detachment is accomplished by a separation along the plane of the middle lamellae of active living cells. Abscission may be either axial or lateral. Axial abscission includes the abscission of portions of stems, shoots, entire flowers or fruits. Lateral abscission includes the abscission of leaves, petioles, sepals, petals or styles. Considerable attention has been given by investi- gators to the abscission of flowers because of the theoretical detriment to crops caused by the fall of the flower before the fruit is formed. The cause of leaf-fall in deciduous species is connected with peri- odic changes in the physiological condition brought about by changes in the environment. In the case of some herbaceous plants and occa- sionally in trees, sudden changes in environmental conditions result- ing in a loss of physiological equilibrium often cause the throwing off of leaves, flowers or even small shoots. In certain species, any- thing which tends to loss or completion of function within or peculiar to an organ causes the organ to be thrown off. Thus, staminate flow- ers are commonly thrown off soon after anthesis and pistilate flowers generally fall when fertilization is prevented. Similarly, certain species — e.g., lm/patiens Sultani and Mirabilis Jalapa — throw off por- tions of their stems which have been rendered useless as a part of the conducting system because of injury or removal of distal buds or leaves. The following definitions of terms, which will be used throughout this paper, are made necessary because of a notable lack of uniformity in their usage by various investigators who have dealt with abscission. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 349 1. Abscission is the detaching of an organ by the separation of actively living cells at or near its base. 2. The separation layer (Mohl's Trennungschichte) is the layer of cells the components of which will separate from one another at abscission. 3. The separation cells or absciss cells are the cells that make up the separation la.yer. 4. The separation zone is the general region through which abscis- sion takes place and usually is largely proximal to the separation layer. A preliminary account of abscission in Fj species hybrids of Nico- tiana has already appeared (Goodspeed and Kendall, 1916). The present study represents an amplification of this investigation and its extension to other species of the Solanaceae. It is particularly con- cerned with the following : ( 1 ) the position of the separation layer ; (2) the origin of the separation layer; (3) the cytology of the separa- tion layer; (4) the process of abscission, including (a) a description of the appearance of the separation layer in consecutive stages of the process and (6) the method of cell separation; (5) the time occupied by abscission, including (a) the time between the application of the stimulus and fall (reaction period) and (b) the time involved in the actual process of cell separation (abscission period) ; (6) experimental induction of abscission. Although the investigation reported here is largely a morpholog ical one, the results of the experiments on the method of cell separa- tion, the time of abscission and the induction of abscission seem to have a distinct physiological significance as well. 350 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE Since the literature on abscission is rather voluminous, it seems best to present the following discussion under several different head- ings corresponding, to a certain extent, with the six main topics of interest mentioned in the introduction. The summary below is largely confined to the literature on axial abscission, although that on lateral abscission is considered in so far as it has a direct bearing on the most important aspects of the abscission problem. 1. Histology of the Pedicel a. POSITION OF THE SEPARATION LAYER Hoehnel (1880), discussing the fall of catkins in Populus and Salix, locates the separation layer at the base of the catkin. The gen- eral region at the base of the catkin, in the distal part of which the separation layer is located, he calls the "separation zone." In Salix, actual separation occurs in the separation layer, but in Populus it occurs in the parenchyma entirely outside the separation layer. According to Balls (1911), the separation layer in the cotton flower is located at the base of the pedicel. The layer is located by Hannig (1913) at the base of the pedicel in Nicotiana Tabacum, N. rustica, N. accuminata, N. sylvestris, Datura, and Atropa, and at the tip of the pedicel in Nicotiana Langsdorffii, Salvia Aloe, Cuphea, and Gasteria. He finds it occurring at the middle of the pedicel in Impatiens Sultani, Solan um tuberosum, Lycopersieum, Asparagus, and Begonia. Gort- ner and Harris (1914) and Lloyd (19146), working on the abscission of internodes as the result of injury in Impatiens Sultani, locate the separation layer at the first node below the injury and just above the axillary bud. Occasionally, according to the latter investigators, ab- scission may occur at the second or third node below the injury and in these cases the buds at the first or second nodes seem to be abortive. The separation layer, according to Hannig (1913), may occur at the base of the complete inflorescence in Impatiens and Oxybaphus. According to Lloyd (1914a), the separation layer occurs at the base of the pedicel in cotton and at the base of the ripened ovary in grape "shelling." In the abscission of internodes and tendrils in Vitis and Ampclopsis, Lloyd (1914a) locates the layer near but not exactly at the base of the internode. A peculiar case illustrating the result of displacement of the stem on the location of the separation layer is 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solan-aceae 351 discussed by Lloyd (1914a) for Ampelopsis and Gossypium. In the latter, abscission, in the abnormal case, occurred down the internode at the base of the pedicel. This is explained as the result of a dis- placement during growth by which part of the pedicel becomes united to the stem. Occasionally, grooves or swellings are noticed at the base of the organ being abscissed where they correspond more or less exactly to the general position of the separation layer. Examples are given by Hannig (1913) for Lycopersicum and Solatium tuberosum and by Balls (1911) for Gossypium. Abscission may occasionally occur, according to Lloyd (1914a), above a small bract. According to these latter investigators, there is more often no external indication of the layer. Frequently, grooves bear no relation to the layer because in many cases of this kind (Hannig, 1913, for Brunfelsia) separation occurs a short distance distal to the groove. From the above brief summary it is evident that in the case of axial abscission the separation layer is located at or near the base of an internode. Apparent exceptions are reported by Hannig (1913) in which it is seemingly located at the middle of an internode. It seems probable that a more critical re-examination might reveal the fact that even these exceptions accord with the general rule. In these cases, for example, the pedicel of the flowers in question might be composed of two internodes. 6. ORIGIN OF THE SEPARATION LAYER Kubart (1906) states that the occurrence of the separation layer in all tyes of abscission may be explained in one of the three following- ways: (a) the separation layer is preformed and represents simply a portion of the primary meristem which has remained in its original active state; (6) it represents a secondary meristem; (c) the primary meristem may function directly as a separation layer. The differ- ence between a and c is only a difference in time, c being added to explain the origin of the separation layer in abscission of very young, embryonic tissues. In a, the separation layer is present at the base of the organ from the start of its development, but in b this layer has to be formed by a secondary meristem before abscission can occur. In a, cell divisions are not normally found preceding abscission, but in b and c they are. Mohl (1860), working on the fall of the flower in Aesculus, Pavia, Lagenaria, Cucumis, and Ricinus, states that the separation layer in these forms is of type b. Throughout his entire UNIVERSITY Of ILLINOIS LIBRARY 352 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 work Mohl gives the general impression that it is necessary for a sep- aration layer to be formed from a secondary meristem before abscis- sion can occur. Wiesner (1871), working on leaf-fall in general, observes that the separation layer is not generally of type b, as Mohl believes, but more often of type a. According to Becquerel (1907), the separation layer is formed in the pedicel of Nicotiana from a sec- ondary meristem (type b). In the cotton flower Balls (1911) finds that the separation layer is of type b, but according to Lloyd (1914> XIII i cut i cut o XIV t i < t ' no fall { 4 XIII-XIV slit to base slit to base t < flO II slit to base it 1 3 IX 1 1 (i ,|. I -VIII 1 cut i through it !" 1I-XII 2 cuts i through 1 1 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solcmaceae 393 allowance must be made for the approximate number of days preced- ing anthesis. Thus, if a flower of the above species is injured three days before anthesis, tbe fall can not be assigned to the injury unless it occurs before ten days have elapsed. The minimum time for F 1 H179 is about five days; thus, any time of five days or more recorded on a flower, injured near anthesis, was considered as "no fall." The minimum time for Lycopcrsicum is about six days. Finally, it is necessary to state that the process of reaction to the different types of injury recorded in the following tables was by no means impeded by low temperatures. Xicotiana Langsdorffii was tested out in a greenhouse where the average temperature approxi- mated 75° F. The tests on F 1 H179 and Lycopcrsicum were per- formed in the botanical garden of the University during July and August, when the temperature was also comparatively high. The following statement of results is derived in great part but not entirely from the foregoing tables. It has been noticed that cutting off the freshly opened flower at the tip of the pedicel causes the remainder of the pedicel to be thrown off >n from ten to fifteen hours, but after the same operation on developed capsules the pedicel re- mains firm from thirty-six to ninety-six hours after the injury. Removal of the calyx causes the fall of buds in two or three days, depending upon the age of the bud. Removal of half the calyx together with two-thirds of the corolla and all the stamens causes fall in one to four days, depending upon the age of the flower. A TABLE 3 Effect of Pollination of Flowers of N. Langsdorffii var. grandiflora on Reaction to Injury No. Avg. No. flowers Pollination Injury days before fall / 2 a { 2 pollinated when injured calyx and stamens cut no fall not pollinated t ( 10 '{1 pollinated when injured calyx " i corolla cut no fall not pollinated 1 1 8 No. days after pollination when injured r 2 1 all organs cut at tip of pedicel 2 1 2 2-6 i t o e-j 2 7-8 t c 2 1 3 2 i calyx, s corolla, stamens, 4 L style cut r 3 4-5 t t 5 1 o "ii 6-7 1 1 2 fi i t 3 !> i < no fall 394 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 transverse cut through the entire flower which passes through the middle of the ovary causes fall in one to two days. A similar oper- ation in the ease of maturing fruits changes the date of fall to four to eight days. Removal of half the corolla and all the stamens causes fall of buds in one day and the fall of young flowers in two to three davs. Removal of the stamens or stvle in buds causes fall in TABLE 4 Effect of Different Types of Injury in Causing Flower fall in F^lTfl Avg. No. No. flowers Size or Injury to days before condition fall of of flowers remaining Calyx Corolla Stamens Pistil Pedicel organs / 9 a { 6 1I-VIII i cut 1 cut all cut style cut 1 XI-XV i I l ( (( tt no fall *>« III -VII £ cut 1 ( 1 VIII -IX ( ( tt no fall c 10 V-VIII i I " " 9 I all cut o 7 II ( t 2 3 II 1 1 no fall d- 4 III-IV 1 1 3 6 III -IV 1 1 no fall 1 V t t 2 4 V-VII i I no fall . 2 IX " 1 1 ' 7 III-IV 1 1 o 1 V 1 1 5 e- 3 6 V VI-VII t i I i no fall '" f 5 II-VIII 1 1 2 I 4 VH-VIII 1 1 no fall ' 1 II 1 slit on 2 sides to base 1 slit on 2 sidus to base 5 1 II t < 1 1 no fall 9 IV-VII i t tt " g< 9 2 II II-IV 2 slits on 2 sides to base 2 slits on 2 sides to base 1 1 1 4 5 V-VII 1 1 1 1 no fall 5 II-V punctured on both sides punctured on both sides ovary punctured, small hole o h- 3 3 3 L 3 15 VI-VII VII -XI Il-III VI -X III-XII 1 1 1 1 i t ( i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slit to base no fall 2 Q no "fa 11 i ■ 5 I punotur'd many times 1 f G XIV i cut capsule 4 ,i [. XIV " i cut no fall 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solcmaceae 395 two to four days. Severe injury of any kind to the ovary causes fall in one to two days. The figures given above for the reaction time in cases of abscission following mechanical injury, together with a more detailed considera- tion of the tables, indicate that the reaction time, in general, does not depend so much on the type of injury as on the age of the flower concerned. What connection there is between the type of injury and the reaction time seems to be based, except in cases of injury to the ovary, on the relation of the amount of material removed to the amount remaining. Thus, cutting off the flower at the tip of the pedicel causes abscission of the remaining pedicel more quickly than any other type of injury. One exception to this statement is seen, as TABLE 5 Effect of Different Types of Injury in Causing Flower fall in Lycopersicum esculentrtm Avg. No. No. tiowers Size or Injury to days before condition of flowers fall of remaining Calyx Corolla Stamens Pistil Pedicel organs J ' 4 I all cut no fall 4 II -VIII " " . 6 XII 1 1 " ' 3 XII entire ovary cut 2 3 XII1-XIV ovary punctured 4 times on no fall b- top 1 XII 1 1 3 4 XII ovary punctured 4 times on side o . 3 XIV " no fall ' 4 II punctured at base punctured ovary punctured 9 " once on side l 4 VIII 1 1 " " 4 ' 4 n-vm i cut i cut no fall 4 VIII-IX " (< " 5 a. 3 I i-ii VIII " 1 1 ovary i cut 1 3 IX 1 1 " i < 2 e 5 I-IX " all cut no fall <{t VIII style cut 5 XXI " no fall g 5 VIII -XIV slit 1 1 r 3 VIII all cut ( I 4 h- 5 4 II-VIII it no fall 396 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 indicated above, in the case of injury to the ovary in which this organ may be merely punctured, without necessarily removing any material, yet abscission occurs in one to two days after the injury. It has, on the other hand, been evident throughout all the abscis- sion experiments that age of flower is the important factor in deter- mining the reaction time, older flowers nearly always responding more slowly to stimulation by injury than younger ones. It will be seen, however, from the tables that there are occasionally individual excep- tions to the general rule. These exceptions might be explained in a number of ways. For example, it is possible in the case of older flow- ers that the ovary, having increased in size, was accidentally cut in the operation of injury, thus adding the extra factor of stimulation of the ovary which in younger flowers would not be present. In gen- eral, such exceptions to the general rule indicate to what extent the normal or abnormal physiological conditions of the plant enter into the problem. 2. Abscission Time The abscission time, or the actual time involved in the process of cell separation, was considered in a preliminary paper (Goodspeed and Kendall, 1916) wherein the minimum time in which abscission was known to have occurred was stated to be from four to eight hours in normal abscission and from one to four hours in "spontaneous" abscission. A few additional data are now at hand in the case of F x H179 and Nicotiana Tabacum "Maryland." These two forms, as has already been noted, are a little more sensitive than most Nicotiana varieties and normal abscission was found to take place in from three to six hours. The time of cell separation in " spontaneous "' abscission can be more exactly determined than that in normal abscission because of the regularity with which the plants respond to certain conditions of injury or to the presence of narcotic vapors. Data on this point were obtained in the following manner. Flowering shoots with flowers of different sizes were cut, placed in water and inserted under a bell-jar. Enough illuminating gas was then introduced under the jar to make 1.5 per cent approximately. The temperature during the experiment was practicall}' constant at 19° C. After the shoot had been left in this abnormal atmosphere for five hours a few flowers were picked off at fifteen-minute intervals and free-hand sections made of their pedicels until flowers about the size of those which were being sec- 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 397 tioned began to fall. It was found that signs of abscission hardly ever appeared until thirty to forty minutes before actual fall occurred. This indicates that the actual process of cell separation in F x H179 takes place in from thirty to forty minutes. Experiments carried on in the same manner with N. Tdbacum "Maryland" indicate that abscission here takes place in from forty-five to sixty minutes. Both the reaction time of abscission and the actual abscission time are profoundly influenced by temperature and by humidity. Varia- tion in the intensity of the illumination, however, seems to have no direct influence upon abscission. In comparing the effect of changes in temperature and humidity it was found that the results of experi- ments intended to show the time of abscission are far more dependent upon temperature than upon humidity. This is not because changes in humidity have little influence upon abscission but because such changes have to be very great indeed before bringing about any appre- ciable effect. Very slight changes in temperature, on the other hand, often influence abscission to a marked degree. Abscission goes on very actively under high temperatures and converselj' very slowly under low temperatures. It starts in the case of F 1 H179 about seven hours after insertion in 1.5 per cent illuminating gas at a temperature of 19° C. If the same experiment be repeated in a temperature of approximately 9° C. abscission may hot occur for fifteen to twenty- four hours. Drought has to be quite severe before retarding abscission. There is no doubt, however, that wilted shoots will not drop flowers as quickly as fresh ones and if the wilting proceeds far enough no abscis- sion will occur. This effect is all the more noticeable if the air around the wilted shoot is kept free from moisture. EXPERIMENTAL INDUCTION OP ABSCISSION 1. Induction by Illuminating Gas The first subject to be considered under this heading is the com- parative effect of illuminating gas in causing abscission in several species of the Solanaceae. The method of determining this consisted largely in placing flowering shoots of the different species in water under bell-jars and introducing enough illuminating gas under the jars to make the percentage of narcotic vapors in the air around the plant 1.5. The temperature during the experiments was compara- 39S University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 tively high, ranging from 15° to 20° C. The results, which were recorded approximately fifteen hours after subjection to the gas, are given in the following table : TABLE 6 Species, variety, or Amount of abscission, expressed almost entirely hybrid in terms of size of flowers thrown off N. Tabacum var. macrophylla all buds up to anthesis. N. Tabacum "Maryland" all flowers up to 4 or 5 days past anthesis. F, H154 all buds up to opening of corolla. F, H36 all buds and flowers. F, H179 all buds and flowers. N. glauca young buds. N. rustica var.? buds up to anthesis. N. rustica var.? buds, flowers, and fruits. N. Bigelovii var. Wallacei no abscission. N. Bigelovii "Pomo" no abscission. N. quadrivalvis no abscission. N. multivalvis no abscission. N. Sanderae buds up to anthesis. N. suaveolens buds up to anthesis. N. plumbaginifolia buds up to opening of the corolla. Solanum umbelliferum ., small buds. S. jasminioides buds and flowers. S. verbaseifolium no abscission. S. nigrum small buds. Iochroma tuberosa no abscission. Cestrum faseiculatum buds and flowers. Lycopersicum esculentum var. pyriforme no abscission. L. esculentum var. vulgare small buds and occasional flowers. Petunia hybrida no abscission. Salpiglossis sinuata .no abscission. Datura sanguineum -buds and flowers. Salpichrora rhomboidea no abscission. Lycium australis - no abscission. As might be expected, most of these varieties react to laboratory air in the same manner that they do to illuminating gas. In the case of laboratory air a longer time and higher temperature is generally required before the reaction occurs. All the species, with the excep- tion of those which throw off only young buds, detach most of their flowers when left in laboratory air overnight. If a window or two is left open, allowing fresh aid to enter and at the same time lowering the temperature! no abscission occurs. It was found that several of the species recorded above, in which no abscission or very little abscission occurred, detached more flowers when a larger percentage of gas was used or when subjected to 1.5 per cent gas for a longer time. Thus, both varieties of Lycopersicum 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 399 esculentum, Iochroma tuberosa, Solanum nigrum, and S. verbasci- folium, upon subjection to 3 per cent illuminating gas for twenty hours, throw off all flowers up to those two or three days past an thesis. No abscission occurred, however, in any concentration of gas, in Nicotiana Bigelovii, N. quadrivalvis, N. multivalvis, Lycium australis. Petunia hybrida, Salpiglossis stinuata, or Salpichrora rhomboidea. A peculiar condition exists in Solanum umbelUferum, which throws off buds in the illuminating gas but never under any conditions, in- cluding temperature or the presence of narcotic vapors, throws off flowers in which the corolla has fully opened. A corresponding con- dition seems to exist in Nicotiana Tabacum var. macrophylla, FiHloi, N. Sanderae, N. rustica var. brasilia, and in one other variety of JV. rustica, all of which seldom under any conditions detach fully opened flowers, although flowers up to that stage are freely abscissed. Thus there seems to be, in certain species and at about the time of the open- ing of the corolla, a sudden increase in resistance to the external stimulus which is causing abscission. In other species this sudden increase in resistance does not take place, abscission commonly occur- ring at any stage in the development of the flower or fruit and the increase in resistance taking place very gradually. In addition, there seems to be an intergradation of forms between those in which the increase in resistance takes place suddenly and those in which it takes place gradually. The next subject to be taken up is a consideration of experiments 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 on the induction of abscission in small isolated pieces of the pedicel. The main purpose of devising these experiments was to throw some light, if possible, on the direct or indirect action of the external factor in causing "spontaneous" abscission. The pedicel of Fj H179 was again chosen as material for the following experiments, Fig. 9 400 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 largely because of the ease and regularity with which abscission is induced in this hybrid by sudden changes in the external environment. Experiment 5. — This experiment was devised to discover the effect of reducing the volume of material proximal to the separation layer on the abscission of flowers of Nicotiana as induced by illuminating gas. Two series of flowers were cut as in figure 9. In the last two flowers represented on the right the cut was made less than 0.5 mm. from the separation layer. These flowers were then rolled in damp filter paper and left in 1.5 per cent illuminating gas overnight. After fifteen hours, abscission had occurred in all the flowers except the one represented on the extreme right in the figure. Abscission had occurred in one flower in which the cut had been made less than 0.5 mm. from the separation layer. The control to this experiment showed that abscission does not occur for several days in a series of flowers cut as in figure 9 and kept under normal conditions. Experiment 6. — This experiment was devised to show the effect upon abscission of reducing the volume of material distal as well as proximal to the separation layer. In this case the flowers were cut off at varying distances from the separation layer, making the series shown in figure 10. The last two pieces on the right in this series were cut less than 0.5 mm. on each side of the separation layer so that the total length of the pieces was not much above 1 mm. In this experiment and in similar ones which follow it was necessary to keep E3 Pic. 10 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruils in Solanaceae 401 the material moist. This was accomplished in various ways, but the best method was found to consist in placing the pieces on a long strip of filter paper one end of which rested in water. In this experiment abscission occurred after ten hours subjection to 1.5 per cent illum- inating gas in all except the two pieces represented in the extreme right of figure 10. Abscission here took place in several pieces rang- ing from 1 mm. to 2 mm. in length. A microscopic examination of the separation surfaces indicated that the process of abscission corre- sponded entirely with normal abscission as it occurs in plants in the field. Experiments made in a similar manner upon N. Tabacum "Maryland" and Lycopersicum gave similar results. In the control, which consisted in keeping pieces of the pedicel as shown in figure 10 under normal atmospheric conditions, abscission occurred after about twenty hours, evidently as the result of no other stimulus than that caused through cutting off the flower by severing the pedicel. The reaction in the control, however, is much slower than in the case in which the added effect of the illuminating gas is operative, indicating that the latter factor, although it here serves merely to hasten the abscission process, has an effect of some kind on the tissues at the base of the pedicel. Following these two experiments, a number of attempts were made in the same way to induce abscission in longitudinal free-hand sections of the pedicel cut for microscopical examination. It was soon discovered that the abscission process could be induced in the separation zone in thick longitudinal sections of the pedicel by subjecting them to high percentage (5 to 7 per cent) of illuminating gas. Cell separation in cross-sections through the separation zone could not be induced by any means at hand. The following experiments give more detailed results in this connection. • Experiment 7. — In this experiment, median, longitudinal sections of varying thickness were cut through the pedicels so that the plane of the sections corresponded with the plane formed by both the pedicel and the main axis of the inflorescence. These sections were subjected to 7 per cent illuminating gas, care being taken to keep them moist, but not submerged, throughout the entire experiment. The best arrangement was found to be one in which the sections rested in a thin film of water on one side but were exposed to the air on the other. After several hours in the 7 per cent illuminating gas, abscis- sion started in the thicker sections but not in the thinner ones. The extent to which abscission proceeded depended upon the thickness of 402 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 the section. Abscission became complete in sections 0.3 mm. or more in thickness, the separation taking place in such a way that a slight bending or pulling motion sufficient to break the trachea? divided the section into equal halves. In thinner sections, ranging from 0.3 mm. to 0.17 mm., abscission starts in the normal position but does not pro- ceed to completion, the extent to which the process takes place depend- ing, as has been said, upon the thickness of the section. In sections much below 0.17 mm. no signs of abscission appear. Also, if the thicker sections are shortened in length to any considerable extent by cutting off portions of the tissues from either side of the separation layer, abscission will not occur. The process of abscission as it occurs in these sections corresponds exactly to the process in an entire pedicel. Cell separation starts independently in the pith and in the cortex, appearing first in that part of the cortex corresponding to the ventral region of the pedicel where, it will be remembered, abscission starts in the entire flower. When mounting the sections on an object slide for microscopical examination, the isolated cells in the pith lie in position but can be easily washed out with a small jet of water. In the cortex a break soon appears in the epidermis as the result of manipulation in mount- ing and a cavity is formed at that point as the result of the isolated cells of the cortex floating out in the water. Experiment 7 was repeated in the case of Datura with similar results, except that in this case abscission was more active since it involved more cells, a situation which one might be led to expect because of the differences between the two species in the normal abscis- sion of entire flowers. It will be remembered that the separation cells of the cortex in Datura are in no way distinguishable from other cortical cells ; yet even in these sections separation occurs in a definitely predetermined position corresponding entirely with the position in abscission of the entire flower. It was even noticed that abscission started in these sections in the same tissues and in the same manner as in normal floral abscission. After the thickness of the sections best adapted to obtaining results had been determined, the following experiment was performed on sections cut from different parts of the pedicel. Experiment 8. — In this experiment a series of longitudinal sections of the pedicel were cut so that the plane of the sections was at right angles to that of the sections cut in Experiment 7. The first section was tangential, on the ventral side of the pedicel, and contained only the epidermis and a few tiers of cortical cells. Section 2 was also 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Floivers and Fruits in Solanaceae 403 tangential but contained a few tracheae on one surface. Section 3 was more or less radial, containing two strands of vascular tissue on either side. Sections 4 and 5 were similar to sections 1 and 2. On subject- ing these sections to illuminating gas it was noticed that abscission started first in sections 1, 2, and 3, appearing last in sections 4 and 5. This result is exactly parallel with the process as it occurs in normal abscission, where the process starts first in the ventral cortex and in the pith. In passing, mention might be made of the peculiar reaction of the tangential sections 2 and 4, which were made up almost entirely of cortical cells with a few vascular elements on one side. When abscis- sion occurred in these sections, a bending or bowing of the section was always noticed. This bending was always such that the tracheal tissue was on the concave side, as if the cells of the cortex had undergone considerable expansion while the cells of the vascular tissue retained their original size. From the work of Richter and others, it may be expected that subjection of portions of plant tissues to illuminating gas would cause an increase in turgor in the cells concerned. Thus, it is probable that the bending of the sections, as described above, is due to the increase in turgor of the cortical cells caused by the narcotic effect of the illuminating gas. The extent of the bending was such that most of the cells in the cortex as well as the separation cells must have been involved in the process. On repeating the above experiment with Datura, a similar bending of the tangential sections was even more pronounced than in Nicotiana. Experiment 9. — As mentioned above, efforts to induce abscission failed in thin sections. The sections in Experiment 9 were cut so that they were thin in the separation layer but thick on either side. Both surfaces of these sections were thus cut slightly concave so that the sections were thickest at the ends and thinnest in the middle, where the separation zone was located. The sections were then subjected to 7 per cent illuminating gas as in Experiment 7. It was not possible to cut very thin free-hand sections of the shape described, but it was demonstrated without a doubt that abscission occurred in sections of this peculiar shape which were thinner in the separation zone than those in Experiment 7 where abscission had failed to occur. Certain conclusions which can be drawn from experiments 5. 6, 7, 8, and 9 are given below. 1. Abscission can be induced by allowing the external factor to act directly upon the cells in the vicinity of the separation zone (Expts. 6. 7, and 8). 404 University of California ftiolieati-ons in Botany [Vol. 5 2. Abscission induced by the above methods in isolated pieces must be independent of transportation of material from the rest of the plant. 3. The fact that abscission cannot be induced in thick cross-sections of the separation zone shows that cell separation cannot be induced by the action of the external factor directly on the separation cells. 4. It is necessary that a certain proportion of the tissues of the pedicel be in intercellular connection with the cells of the separation zone before cell separation will occur, but this proportion is surpris- ingly small (Expts. 7, 8, and 9). 5. There is evidently increase in turgor in all the cortical cells of the pedicel during abscission induced by the above method (Expt. 8). 2. Action of Acids on the Separation Cells op Kicotiana Under this heading a description will be given of the effect of mineral acids on small isolated pieces such as were used in experiments 6, 7, 8, and 9. It was stated above (page 364) that by the use of two mineral acids together with several stains, no chemical difference could be detected between the cell walls of the separation cells and those of normal cortical cells. The present work represents an attempt to determine, by experimental means and by watching through the micro- scope the action of acids on cell walls, whether the cell membranes of the separation cells are more subject to hydrolysis than those of normal cortical cells. Experiment 10. — Small pieces of the pedicel were prepared as in figure 10. These pieces were boiled for one or two minutes in 4 per cent hydrochloric acid and then washed in water. Upon examination it was found that the pieces could be separated into halves through the separation zone by a slight pulling or bending motion. Microscopic examination of the separation surfaces showed that the break through the cells of the separation zone had taken place along the plane of the middle lamellae of their walls. This same type of separation was brought about without boiling when 10 per cent nitric or hydrochloric acid was allowed to act on the pedicels for approximately five minutes. When longitudinal sections are used in place of entire pedicles, the same results are obtained but much more rapidly. It was also noticed that separation under these latter conditions takes place more quickly in younger pedicels than in older ones. In the pedicels of fully developed fruits no separation could be induced, but in those of 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 405 immature fruits separation occurred in the cortex but failed to take place within the vascular cylinder. Experiment 10 at first glance would seem to indicate that the cell walls of the separation cells are more subject to hydrolysis than normal cortical cells. Another interpretation is possible, however. Actual separation which takes place through the separation zone may be due to the fact that the cells in this zone are small and have a tendency to be isodiametric, whereas the remaining cells of the cortex are larger and are elongated parallel to the long axis of the pedicel. Hydrolysis of the cell walls may go on with equal rapidity in all the cortical cells at the base of the pedicel, yet upon bending or pulling separation may take place through the region of isodiametric cells because of the inter- locking of the elongated cells in the rest of the cortex. An attempt was made to gain further evidence on this point by observing through the microscope the action of acids on the cell walls of the tissues con- cerned. When the action of the acids is thus observed, the walls are seen to soften and to swell to two or three times their normal thick- ness. This effect is all the more noticeable if the walls initially are comparatively thick. Now, since the cells of the separation zone are small and somewhat collenchymatous, or at least have thicker walls than normal cortical cells, the process of swelling in the cell wall is most conspicuous in that region. Indeed, hardly any swelling can be perceived as a result of the acid treatment in the cell walls of normal parenchyma cells of the cortex. However, when a form such as Lycopersicum is examined hi which there is a distinct layer of eol- lenchyma beneath the epidermis for the entire length of the pedicel, this collenchyma appears to be affected at the same time and in the same maimer as the cells of the separation zone of Nicotiana. Also in Nicotiana there seems to be a certain amount of similarity in reaction to acids between the smaller cells of the cortex just beneath the epidermis and those of the separation zone. The conclusion can thus be drawn that the cell walls of the separation cells are no more readily hydrolyzed than those of normal collenchymatous tissues. Of course, the fact still remains that the collenchyma of the cortex may be more subject to hydrolysis than the cortical parenchyma. Now the small cells of the separation zone not only extend across the base of the pedicel but also spread throughout the general region at the base of that organ; it was therefore noticed that the swelling of cell walls was by no means confined to cells of the separation layer but was more or less prominent throughout the whole general region at the base of the pedicel. 406 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 The general results of these observations are in a sense negative and seem to indicate that the walls of the separation cells are no more subject to hydrolysis than the walls on either side. This, of course, does not preclude the possibility that a difference exists which is too slight to be detected. It appears, however, that the general region at the base of the pedicel may be more subject to hydrolysis than the more distant portions. 3. Induction by Mechanical Injury The results of experiments on the induction of abscission by mechan- ical injury are recorded in tables 2, 3, 4, and 5, which have already been considered under the heading, "Time of Abscission" (page 384). Several facts of interest brought out by table 2, which deals with Nicotiana Langsdorffii var. grandiflora, are summarized below. 1. It appears that removal of or injury to the capsule does not cause abscission in mature fruits (table 2, a, b, and h; table 3, c and d) . The same types of injury generally do cause abscission in im- mature fruits. 2. It seems that a transverse cut completely through the flower at the distal end of the calyx causes abscission only in buds or flowers near anthesis (table 2, c). It appears, however, that such a cut proximal to the distal end of the calyx causes abscission in flowers several days past anthesis as well as in buds (table 2, a, b). 3. Removal of the entire calyx causes fall in very young buds only (table 2, d). 4. It seems that slitting both the corolla and calyx longitudinally on both sides from tip to base does not induce abscission even in young buds (table 2, e). 5. Entire removal of the style or stamens causes fall only in young buds (table 2, / and g). 6. It appears that injuries to the pedicel do not cause abscission, provided the flower is not entirely cut away (table 2, z). Just here it is worth mentioning that two of the pedicels cut transversely as recorded in table 2, i, were cut so deep that the flowers bent over and hung only by a few vascular strands and cortical cells. The wound healed over, however, and the two flowers matured with the rest. 7. It is evident that injuries which reach the ovary are much more effective in causing abscission than injuries affecting the other parts of the flower (table 2. b and e). 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Floivcrs and Fruits in Solan-aceae 407 8. Fertilization lias no influence whatever in preventing abscission when the latter is induced by a transverse cut completely through the tlower at the base or middle of the calyx (table 3, c and d). 9. Certain types of injury, such as entire removal of the calyx and stamens or removal of the entire calyx and half the corolla, evidently cause abscission only by preventing fertilization (table 3, a and b). Taking up now the results given in table 4, which dealt with F t H179, it will be seen that this hybrid is more sensitive to injury than is N. Langsdorffli. Nevertheless, it is very plain that the general conclusions announced above for this latter species hold for F x H179 also. There follows a partial summary of the results in table 4 and a comparison of these results with those obtained in the experiments on N. Langsdorffli. 1. It seems that removal of the calyx causes fall of much larger buds than in N. Langsdorffli (table 4, d). 2. Fj H179 is evidently much more sensitive in its abscission re- action to a transverse cut through the flower at the middle of the calyx than A'. Langsdorffli (table 4, a). 3. It would seem that slitting the calyx and corolla even to the extent of dividing these organs into four longitudinal strips does not, as a general rule, cause abscission. Such an injury does cause abscis- sion only in extremely small buds (table 4, g). 4. It appears that puncturing the calyx, corolla and ovary so that a hole is formed about 2 mm. in diameter in the latter organ causes fall in flowers of all sizes up to two or three days past anthesis (table 4, h). Since it is evident that such a hole through the calyx and corolla alone would not cause abscission (table 4, g), abscission in this case must be induced by injury to the ovary. 5. It is evident that a slit completely through the pedicel for its entire length fails to cause fall in buds or open flowers, but where an effort is made to destroy completely the connection between the flower and stem abscission will occur (table 4, i). 6. Removal of the style or stamens, as a general rule, causes fall only in young buds, but removal of the former organ is probably more effective in causing flower-fall than removal of the stamens (table 4, e and /). On the other hand, where half the corolla is removed along with the stamens fall occurs in larger buds than where only the latter organs are removed (table 4, b). 7. Removal of only half the corolla apparently does not induce abscission (table 4, c). 408 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 8. Mature capsules of F 1 H179 are apparently more sensitive to injury than those of N. Langsdorffii (table 4, j). The table dealing with the experiments on Ly coper sicum indicates that flowers of this genus are remarkably resistant to injury, fall occurring only as the result of stimulation when the ovary is injured (table 5, c and d). Since a large number of tomato flowers are nor- mally abscissed from the different inflorescences on a plant, the sev- eral exceptions to the above statement noted in the table probably demonstrate to what extent the normal physiological condition of the plant affects the matter. It seems to be the opinion of most gardeners who are familiar with the tomato plant that floral abscission in this species is more dependent upon soil conditions than upon injury or sudden changes in climatic conditions. It would seem, however, that injuries to very young fruits normally cause fall, but in this case a stage of development is soon reached at which injury to the berry has no effect in inducing abscission (table 5, /). Taking the general results of all the experiments into consideration, it is seen, in the first place, that where injury of a certain type causes fall, a stage of development of the flower is soon reached beyond which the injury no longer causes fall. The increase in resistance to the stimulus of mechanical injury takes place gradually in the species investigated, but some of the species are much more resistant than others. In the second place, injuries to the ovary generally cause flower-fall. Thirdly, whether or not flower-fall occurs as a result of injury to other flower parts depends in some way upon the quantity of material removed. Fourthly, injury to the pedicel does not cause abscission unless it breaks entirely the cellular connection between flower and stem. Lastly, it is improbable that fall induced by injury is due to checking the transpiration stream, since injury to the ovary could have no such effect. Also, a cut across the pedicel so that the flower hangs by only a few tracheae must check transpiration from the flower considerably, yet in this case no abscission occurs. It was suggested by Bequerel that injury might cause abscission by checking the transpiration stream which passes up through the pedicel. Considerable doubt has already been cast on this point in the above discussion. In order to throw more light on this question the following experiment was performed in an effort to determine whether checking the transpiration stream of itself and unaccompanied by mechanical injury would cause abscission. Experiment 12. — As a means of checking transpiration from the flower a coating of paraffin seemed desirable because it hardens 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solmiace-ae 409 quickly, thus permitting several eoats to be applied. It was doubtful whether other substances, such as lard, cocoa butter or vaseline, which might have been used, would not have been prevented from completely covering the flower in one coating by the presence of numerous hairs and glandular fluid on the calyx. In this experiment flowers were immersed in melted paraffin to within a millimeter of the separation zone and allowed to stand in water under normal atmospheric condi- tions. As a test for abscission, the shoot was shaken or individual flowers tapped from time to time. It was found that several Nicotiana varieties and hybrids differed in their reaction to this treatment as they did in their reaction to illuminating gas. In X. Tabacum "Mary- land," for example, paraffining the flowers failed to cause abscission for six days, at the end of which time the flowers began to fall, as did those of the control. Some varieties, however, under such treatment, throw off buds at the end of twenty-four hours, but open flowers of the same varieties are never shed. "Whether or not the buds fell in these varieties depended largely on the temperature, at lower tempera- tures no fall occurring. Also, in cases where abscission of buds did occur it was evident that something was actually impeding the pro- cess ; none of the white substance formed by the isolated cells was seen at the base of the pedicel and the buds had to be shaken or tapped quite severely before they fell. The results of Experiment 12 and the various observations on the induction of abscission by mechanical injury render it extremely unlikely that checking the transpiration stream is ever a direct cause of abscission. The few cases recorded above in which such a condition seems to cause abscission can be better explained by the action of some other factor than that of interference with transpiration. In connection with these experiments upon the effect of checking transpiration the results of Lloyd and Balls on the effect of root pruning, etc., in cotton must be mentioned. It was found that a pre- mature shedding of flowers and young bolls followed root pruning and further that, in general, there is a relation between boll-shedding and the rise and fall of the water-table. Proof positive is not sup- plied that root pruning causes fall of flowers by reducing the water supply of the plant body, and any number of other factors may enter in after such mutilation to bring about, in part at least, such a result. Experiments reported in the present paper seem to leave no doubt that, in Nicotiana at least, temperature is a more important factor in controlling abscission than water supply. 410 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 4. The Ability of Certain Species to Throw off Pedicels from which All the Floral Organs Have Been Removed, as Related to the Induction of Abscission by Mechanical Injury It was soon noticed in the experiments that all plants of a species in which floral abscission occurs throw off the remains of the pedicel when this organ is severed at any point distal to the separation layer. If after such an operation no abscission occurs, it can be safely con- cluded that floral abscission never occurs in that species. Petunia hybrida, Salpiglossis sinuata, Salpichrora rhomboidea, and Lycium australis are the only species of the list in table 6 which do not absciss flowerless pedicels in this way. Nicotiana Bigelovii, N. quadrivalvis, and N. multivalvis occasionally do not throw off pedicels under such conditions. The reaction time in cases where the last three species do absciss severed pedicels is very slow (four to fourteen days). Turning now to the relation of these observations to the induction of abscission by mechanical injury, it is first necessary to recall the controls used in Experiments 5 and 6 (cf. pages 399 and 400). A fur- ther consideration of the reaction of these controls will suggest that mechanical injury can induce abscission by the action of the stimulus directly on the cells in the vicinity of the separation zone. The con- trol used in Experiment 5, it will be remembered, showed that abscis- sion does not occur under normal conditions in a. series of flowers cut as in figure 9. Prom the control used in Experiment 6 it is evident that merely cutting off the flower at varying distances from the sep- aration layer, forming pieces as represented in figure 10, causes ab- scission to occur, evidently as the result of no other stimulus than that of severing the pedicel. Now, if the cut be made through the pedicel at a point approximately 1 mm. distal to the separation layer in flowers, as represented on the extreme right of figure 9, abscission will occur in the remaining piece, which is now scarcely 2 mm. in length. It is evident that the stimulus caused by severing the pedicel must act directly on the cells in close proximity to the separation zone. Practically the same results are obtained when the transverse cut is made through the base or middle of the calyx. There is no reason to suppose that the stimulus set up by cutting through the flower near the base or middle of the calyx differs in any fashion from that offered by a cut severing only the pedicel. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 411 Several interesting conclusions are brought out by an examination of the above facts. In the first place, the abscission of the remains of severed pedicels is probably independent of the transportation of materials from the rest of the plant to the separation zone. It may result from the action of the stimulus directly on the cells in the vicinity of the separation layer and is, therefore, largely independent of such physiological processes as transpiration which might conceiv- ably enter in. In the second place, abscission induced by mechanical injury is probably of the same nature as that of severed pedicels and therefore probably results from the action of the stimulus directly on the cells in immediate proximity to the separation layer. SUMMAEY The final summary of results given below is presented under several headings corresponding to those of the main body of the paper. Unless otherwise stated, the results given may be taken as applying to all the species of the Solanaceae in which abscission was found to occur. First is presented a complete list of the species which were investigated, indicating by 1 those in which floral abscission never occurs, by 2 those in which it very seldom occurs, and by 3 those which were actually examined microscopically to determine the histological structure of the separation zone and the method of abscission. 3 N. Tabaeum var. maerophylla 3 N. sylvestris 3 N. Tabaeum "Maryland" 3 F,H154 (N. sylvestris X N. Tab. var. maerophylla) 3 F.H179 (N. sylvestris X N. Ta- baeum "Cuba") 3 F,H36 (N. sylvestris X N. Tab. var. angustifolia) N. glauea 3 N. rustica (2 varieties — not bra- silia) 2, 3 N. Bigelovii (3 varieties) 2 N. quadrivalvis (2 varieties) 2 N. multivalvis N. Sanderae N. rustica var. brasilia N. suaveolens 3 Solarium umbelliferum S. tuberosum S. jasminioides 3 S. verbascifolium S. nigrum 2, 3 Ioehroma tuberosa 3 Cestrum fasciculatum Lyeopersieum esculentum var. vul- gare 3 L. esculentum var. pyriforme 1, 3 Petunia hybrida 1, 3 Salpiglossis sinuata 3 Datura sanguineum 1 Salpichrora rhomboidea 1 Lvcium australis 412 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 Histology and Cytology of the Pedicel 1. The separation layer arises in all the species listed above, except Lycopersicum and Solawwm tuberosum, at or near the base of the pedicel. In the latter two species the layer is located near the middle of the pedicel, but even in these cases, if one considers the pedicel to be composed of two internodes, the layer occurs at the base of the most distal internode. 2. The separation layer is preformed, ready to function at any stage in the development of the flower and represents (cf. Kubart's first type, page 350) a portion of the primary meristem which has retained some of its originally active condition. 3. In all the species except Datura the separation cells are char- acterized by their small size, isodiametric shape, large amount of protoplasm and somewhat collenchymatous appearance. A stud}' of the early histological development of the pedicel indicates that the small size of the separation cells does not necessarily bear any relation to abscission. This statement is supported by the fact that in Datura there is absolutely no visible difference between the separation cells and any other cells of the pedicel. 4. Various tests with stains, acids, and alkalis fail to indicate any chemical difference between the cell walls of the separation cells and the walls of neighboring cortical cells which do not separate. How- ever, the middle lamellae of cell walls in the general region at the base of the pedicel seem somewhat more easily hydrolysed by acids than in the more distal portions. 5. A study of the early histological development of the pedicel in Nicotiana and Lycopersicum shows that the grooves near which the separation zone arises do not necessarily bear any relation to abscis- sion. The grooves are formed because, in the development of the pedicel, certain cells do not increase in size so fast as the neighboring cells on either the proximal or distal side. 6. The development of mechanical tissue in the pedicel of Nicotiana continues through the separation layer, thus frequently holding the fruit on the plant in spite of the fact that abscission commonly occurs in the cortex. In most of the berry-forming species of the Solanaceae this mechanical tissue does not become continuous through the separa- tion layer and thus offers no impediment to fall when abscission occurs in that region. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Sokmaceae 413 The Process of Abscission 1. The process of abscission conforms to the usual type, which involves the separation of cells along the plane of the middle lamella of the cell wall separating them. 2. No cell divisions or elongations were observed to accompany abscission. 3. All the cells across the pedicel in the region of the separation layer take part in separation except the trachea? and cuticle, which must be broken mechanically. The total number of cells which may be involved is greater in some species than in others. This number maj - also vary in the same species because of changes in the external conditions. 4. Cell separation is brought about by the hydrolysis and conse- quent dissolution of the middle lamella (primary cell membrane) or perhaps both the primary and, in part, secondarj 7 cell membranes. The agency active in the hydrolysis of the cell membranes is probably an enzyme. 5. An increase in cell turgor frequently occurs during abscission, but probably serves merely to hasten and facilitate the process. Mast of the frequently observed expansion and the turgid appearance of the separation cells during abscission are probably due to the natural release of pressure caused by the dissolution of the middle lamellae. 6 : Abscission of the style and corolla in Nicotiana and Datura resembles, to a large extent, abscission of the flower. Time op Abscission 1. The length of time between anthesis and normal flower-fall due to lack of fertilization differs among the varieties of Nicotiana. This variation was found to range between an average of five to eighteen days in some fifteen species and varieties of Nicotiana. A much smaller range of variation (0.7 to four days, with the largest fre- quency in the three day group) was noted for the time between an- thesis and fall of the corolla after pollination. 2. The stimulation of the stylar tissues by the growth of the pollen tubes tends to shorten the time between anthesis and fall of the corolla, this effect being independent of fertilization. Such stimula- tion of the stylar tissues has no appreciable effect upon floral ab- scission. 3. Floral abscission occurs in F x H179 seven hours after subjecting shoots of the plant to 1.5 per cent illuminating gas at a temperature 414 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 of 19° C. It occurs in Xicotiana Tabacum "Maryland" in eight hours under the same conditions. The actual time involved in the process of cell separation in the above-mentioned cases lies within thirty to forty minutes in the hybrid and within forty-five to sixty minutes in the Tabacum variety. Normal abscission in these forms is much slower 4. The length of the reaction time in cases of flower-fall due to mechanical injury shows that this length of time depends more on the age of the flower than on the type of injury. 5. Temperature is the most important conditioning factor in esti- mates of the time of abscission. Experimental Induction of Abscission 1. Floral abscission is induced, in a large number of the species investigated, by illuminating gas or laboratory air. The increase in resistance to abscission stimulated in this manner takes place suddenly in some species, since abscission will not occur after the opening of the corolla. In other species this condition does not exist. 2. It is possible to induce the process of abscission with illuminat- ing gas in small isolated pieces of the pedicels or in longitudinal sec- tions of the pedicel cut free-hand from fresh material. 3. Abscission in Nicotiana and Lycopersicum is induced by certain types of severe injury and not by others. Injury to the ovary seems more effective in causing abscission than injury to other parts of the flower. In the case of these other flower parts, it seems necessary that a certain amount of tissue be actually removed or destroyed before fall occurs. Injury to the pedicel does not cause abscission unless it breaks entirely the connection between floral organs and stem. Flower-fall in Lycopersicum is not readily induced by injury. Floral abscission in this genus is more dependent upon physiological condi- tions brought on by abnormal soil conditions. 4. Experiments on the induction of abscission in small isolated pieces and in flowers with only a small portion of the stem proximal to the separation layer attached indicate that the stimulus produced by the action of external factors such as illuminating gas and mechan- ical injury can cause abscission by acting directly on the cells in close proximity to the separation zone. The action of external factors is thus largely independent of such physiological processes as transpira- tion which might enter in. This statement is supported by experi- ments which show that abscission is not necessarily induced by checking transpiration from the flower. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 415 CONCLUSION It is proposed in what follows to take up consideration of such phenomena in connection with abscission as are still but slightly understood. One of the most perplexing of these is undoubtedly the definitely predetermined location of the separation layer when no morphological and sometimes no physiological (Datura) difference can be detected between the cells that separate and those that do not. There need be no doubt, however, that such a difference does exist and that a sufficient refinement of technique will serve to detect it. In considering this matter further it may be recalled that the separation layer in axial abscission is located at or near the base of an internode. There is undoubtedly some connection between this fact and the fact that the cells most active physiologically are often found in this region. The growth of an internode may be brought about by the action of an intercalary meristem located at the base of the organ and a meristem so located in some cases retains its original activity in the mature internode. Now it is well known that the walls of young active cells are more readily subject to hydrolysis than the walls of older cells, because of the fact that the former contain more water. If we assume, then, that the internode is a metabolic gradient with the most active cells at the base, it would be expected that the walls of these cells would be more subject to hydrolysis than any other cells of the internode. If some hydrolysing agency becomes active throughout the pedicel, it might be expected that the 'walls of the cells at the base of the internode would react first, causing their sep- aration and thus cutting off the flower or internode. By assuming in this way that separation always takes place through the most active cells of the internode it seems possible to explain the predeter- mined location of the separation layer. There is undoubtedly some connection between the above problem and the fact that some plants must perfect a separation layer before detachment can take place. In such cases the tissues at the base of the organ are too old for separation. The same stimulus which causes abscission in some species causes a renewal of activity at the basal region of an organ, resulting in cell divisions and new cells. These new cells may, under a continuation of the stimulus, separate one from another. Another perplexing problem, which also includes many subsidiary problems, relates to the exact course taken by the stimuli in causing 416 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol. 5 abscission. Experiments described in the present paper have indi- cated that this course may be direct as well as indirect. Assuming for the present that some of the factors bringing about abscission always act directly while others act indirectly, we might classify the general factors operative in the case of the Solanaceae as follows : Direct 1. Narcotic vapors. 2. Injury to floral organs. 3. Sudden rise in temperature. 4. Lack of fertilization. Indirect o. Changes in soil conditions. 6. Factors evident in normal physiological development. The direct factors act directly on the cells at the base of the pedicel and consequently the reaction time must be comparatively rapid. The indirect factors act indirectly through the general physiological con- dition, which in turn furnishes the direct stimulus for cell separation. In the latter case the reaction time must, as a general rule, be slow. The nature of factors under 6 are most difficult to understand. An example of the action of these factors would be given in those cases where most of the flowers of an inflorescence are normally abscissed leaving only one or two to continue development, and in those species which absciss male flowers after anthesis. A further analysis of the course of the abscission reaction intro- duces another unsettled problem — the nature of the agency which is directly responsible for the dissolution of the middle lamella. It has been pointed out before that an enzymatic body of some kind is prob- ably involved. The following discussion brings out certain facts which it is necessary to take into consideration when speculating as to the nature of this supposed enzyme. The activity of the enzymatic body must be subject to both internal and external conditions. The enzymatic material must also be extremely sensitive to slight changes in the normal environment. It must be continually present in the cells of the separation zone and ready at any moment to react to such changes in the environment. A comparison of several species in regard to their abscission reactions to the factors listed above indicates that this supposed enzj-me must be more sensitive in some species than in others. Indeed, in certain species in which no abscission occurs the enzyme must be absent from the region of the separation zone or entirely inactive. Finally, it seems necessary to assume that in certain species the action of the enzyme is suddenly inhibited at about the time of the opening of the corolla. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceac 417 It has been noticed in all the experiments detailed above that older flowers are less subject to "spontaneous" abscission than younger ones. The transition line as to size or age beyond which no abscission occurs can not in most cases be definitely drawn ; that is to saj T , the development of a resistance to stimuli takes place grad- ually. This is probably explained by the fact that cell walls gradually become less subject to hydrolysis with age. The celluloses and pec- toses lose water with age and it is well known that these compounds are subject to hydrolysis in proportion to the amount of water they con- tain. In those cases where the increase in resistance to stimuli takes place suddenly it is necessary, as suggested above, to assume some kind of inhibitor of the enzymatic action. The effect that pollination has in hastening abscission of the corolla is a subject which is related to the phenomena described by Pitting (1909) for orchids. The phenomena are as yet only slightly understood. The explanation seems to involve some relaying of stimulus from cell to cell. This is also involved in the explanation of floral abscission induced by injury to the ovary. These two cases and others indicate that in some instances, at least, abscission responses are related to tropistic responses as Fitting (1911) has suggested. Finally, attention may be called to the fact that the most pressing need in connection with all the problems mentioned above is, in the first place, to establish by some experimental means a definite connec- tion between some enzymatic body and the process of abscission and, in the second place, more definite knowledge as to the role which cell turgor plays in cell separation. Taking all the facts into considera- tion, it is evident that abscission is fundamentally a physiological problem, the crux of which lies, as in all such problems, in the bio- chemistry of the cell. The studies reported upon above were carried on under the direc- tion and supervision of Professor T. H. Goodspeed and I am under deep obligation to Professor F. E. Lloyd for many valuable sugges- tions both throughout the course of the experiments and during the preparation of this report of them. 418 University of California Publications in Botany [Vol.5 LITERATURE CITED Atkins, W. B. 1916. Some recent researches in plant physiology, p. 64. Balls, W. 1911. Cotton investigations in Egypt, 1909-1910. Cairo Sci. Jour., vol. 5, p. 221. Becquerel, W. 1907. Sur un cas remarquable de autotomie de pedoncle floral de tabac provoque par le traumatisni de la corolla. C.-R. Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. 245, p. 936. Brown, H. T., and Escomb, F. 1902. The influence of varying amounts of carbon dioxide in the air on photosynthetie process of leaves and the mode of growth. Proc. Roy. Soe. London, vol. 70, p. 97. Correns, C. 1899. Vermehrung der Laubmoose. Jena, 1899. Quoted from Lloyd (1914a). East, E. M. 1915. Phenomenon of self-sterility. Am. Nat., vol. 49, p. 77. Fitting, H. 1909. Die Beinflussung der Ochideenbluten durch die Bestaubung und durch andere Umstande. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 1, p. 1. 1911. Untersuchung iiber die vorzeitige Entblatterung von Bliiten, Jahrb. wiss. Bot., vol. 49, p. 187. Goodspeed, T. H., and Kendall, J. N. 1916. An account of the mode of floral abscission in the F, species hybrids of Nicotiana. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 5, no. 10, p. 293. Gortner, R. A., and Harris, J. A. 1914. On axial abscission of Impatiens Sultani as the result of traumatic stimuli. Am. Jour. Bot., vol. 1, p. 48. Hannig, E. 1913. Untersuchung iiber das Abstossen von Bluteji u.s.w., Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 5, p. 417. Hoehnel, F. R. 1878. Ueber den Ablosungvorgaug der Zweige einiger Holzegewachse und seine antomischen Ursachen. Mitteil. forstl. Versuch. Oester., vol. 1, no. 3; vol. 3, no. 2. Kubart, B. 1906. Die organische Ablbsung der Korollen nebst Bemerkung iiber die Molsche Trennungschichte. S.-B. AUad. Wien, Math-nat. Kl., vol. 115.1, p. 1491. Lloyd, F. 1914a. Abscission in flowers, fruits and leaves. Ottawa Nat., 1914. 1914b. Injury and abscission in Impatiens Sttltami. Quebec Soc. f. protection of plants, 19] 4, p. 72. 1916a. Abscission in MirabUis Jalapa. Bot. Gaz., vol. 61, p. 213. 19166. Abscission of flower buds and fruits in Gossypium and its relation to environmental changes. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 10, p. 55. 1918] Kendall: Abscission of Flowers and Fruits in Solanaceae 419 Lee, E. 1911. Morphology of leaf-fall. Ann. Bot., vol. 25, p. 51. Loewi, E. 1907. Blattablossung und verwandte Erscheinungen. Proc. Akad. Wien, Math-nat. KX, vol. 166, p. 983. Morn,, H. 1860. Ueber den Ablosungsprozess saftiger Pflanzenorgane. Bot. Zeit., vol. 18, p. 273. Reiche, C. 1885. Ueber anatomisehe Veranderungen welche in den perianthkreisen der Bliiten wahrend der Entwicklung der Fruclit vor sieh gehen. Jahrb. wiss. Bot., vol. 16, p. 630. Richter, O. 1908. Ueber Turgorsteigerung in der Atmospher von Narkotica. Lotos, vol. 56, p. 105. Richter, O., and Grafe, V. 1911. Ueber den Einfluss der Narkotika auf die cheinisehe Zusammensetzung von Pflanzen. S.-B. Akad. Wien, Math-nat. KL, vol. 120.1, p. 1187. Strasburger, E. 1913. Das botanische Praktikum, p. 349. Tison, A. (quoted from Lloyd 1914a). 1900. Reeherches sur la chute des feuilles ehez les dicotyledones. Mem. Soc. Linn. Normandie, vol. 20, p. 125. Quoted from Lloyd (1914a). Wiesner, J. 1871. Untersuchung fiber die herbstliehe Entblatterung der Holzgewachse. S.-B. Akad. Wien, Math-nat. Kl., vol. 64, p. 456. 1905. Ueber Prostlaubfall. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., vol. 23, p. 49. PLATE 49 Fig. 1. Base of pedicel of Nicotiana bud showing groove, separation zone, and process of abscission well under way in dorsal cortex. Fig. 2. Portion of cortex in the separation layer of Nicotiana showing the bulging of the epidermis, one of the first signs of abscission. [420 UNIV. CALIF, PUBL. BOT. VOL. 5 [KENDALL] PLATE IH3 i i i . . yr •> } I' M§1 - i... : ■' . 'j V;.: >>:•■'■ ;. 'If- \'<-;- ' - ' & \u» ■ _■ •. ■■■■.■;. - w- U ; Fiji. 1 * 3 i Fig. 2 PLATE 50 Fig. 1. Portion of the base of the pedicel of Nicotiana at a late stage in the process of abscission showing the independent origin of the process in the pith. Pig. 2. Portion of the cortex in the separation layer of Nicotiana showing separating cells next to the vascular system. [422 1 UNIV. CALIF. PUBL. BOT. VOL. 5 [KENDALL] PLATE 50 l»i tea- Fig. 1 ^ vy > / ** Fig. 2 PLATE 51 Portion of the separation layer of Nicotiana showing cells in the process of separation in the upper part of the section. [ 424 | UNIV. CALIF, PUBl. BOT. VOL. 5 .» « ■„ * < [KENDALL] PLATE 51 i ■ - » ► ** , .4 >^ . PLATE 52 Fig. 1. Portion of dorsal cortex near the groove in the pedicel of Nicotiana, showing the abscission process well under way. Fig. 2. Group of isolated cells washed off from end of a freshly abscissed pedicel of Nicotiana. Fig. 3. Single isolated cell showing the thinness of the remaining cell membrane. [ 421! ] UNIV. CALIF. PUBL. BOT. VOL. 5 LKENDALL] PLATE f \ i i I PiS- 3 \ \ Fie. 2 Fig. 3 PLATE 53 Fig. 1. Portion of pedicel of Lycopersicum, showing groove and separation zone. Fig. 2. Portion of cortex of pedicel of Lycopersicum, showing groove and abscission process fairly well along; cell separation first takes place between only two tiers of cells before spreading to others. 428 UNIV. CALIF. PUBL BOT. VOL. 5 [KENDALL] PLATE 53 ^ s'" .