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 OF THE 
 
 U NIVLRSITY 
 
 Of ILLINOIS
 
 
 MEMOEANDUM 
 
 ox 
 
 POPULAE EDUCATION 
 
 BY • 
 
 SIR JAMES KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, Bart. 
 
 LONDON: 
 RIDGWAY, PICCADILLY. 
 
 PRICE ONE SHILLINa.
 
 LONDON S PBINTED BY W. CLOWES AKD SONS, STAMFOED STBKET AND CHARING CK09S.
 
 NOTICE TO THE READER. 
 
 The author of the enclosed Memorandum has hoped 
 that he might, without presumption, contribute towards 
 the impending discussions on Popular Education in 
 Parliament a faithful analysis of the present state of 
 that question, stripped of those technicalities which have 
 served to obscure it, and to make legislative and admi- 
 nistrative error more practicable. If he has succeeded 
 in accomplishing this task in a calm and judicial spirit 
 and with due respect to the great ability and patriotic 
 motives of those whose measures he has without reserve 
 examined, he has also recorded the results without 
 deference to any authority or force but that of truth. 
 
 38, Gloucester Square, Hyde Park, W. 
 January 2i th, 1868. 
 
 B 2

 
 MEMOKANDUM 
 
 ON THE 
 
 PKESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION 
 
 OP 
 
 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 The attention of both Houses of Parliament has recently been 
 called in an emphatic manner to popular education. 
 
 Her Majesty, in opening Parliament at the commencement 
 of the session recently adjourned, said, ** The general question of 
 " the education of the people requires your most serious attention, 
 " and I have no doubt that you will approach the subject with a 
 " full appreciation both of its vital importance and of its acknow- 
 ** ledged difficulty.'* And the Chancellor of the Exchequer, re- 
 ferring to this portion of the Queen's Speech, is thus reported : — 
 " The passage referring to education is not a mere rhetorical 
 " flourish. Her Majesty's Government have given their most 
 ** earnest attention to the subject, but as Parliament has been 
 " called together in November, we should not feel justified in 
 " referring more specifically to our efforts and intentions in that 
 *' direction." 
 
 Lord Kussell, to whose foresight and perseverance this great 
 question owes so much, after a speech in the House of Lords, in 
 which he reviewed the whole subject, moved a comprehensive 
 series of resolutions, giving an outline of the principles of future 
 legislation. 
 
 The announcements of the intentions of the Government are 
 a natural consequence of the recent great extension of electoral 
 power among the classes supported by manual labour. The 
 beneficial exercise of that power will be a measure of the intelli- 
 gence and virtue of the classes who are most to be influenced 
 by primary education. All are agreed that a well-ordered system 
 of national education, reaching to the most ignorant and desti- 
 tute, would be the firmest foundation on which our widely-spread 
 electoral power could rest. 
 
 Up to this time, the Government has promoted the founda- 
 tion and improvement of schools by the administration of public
 
 6 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 grants, but has left the initiative to the churches and congrega- 
 tions of religious communions. While the Committee of Council 
 have encouraged the extension of this system, they have devoted 
 by far the larger part of their grants to ensure the efficiency of 
 the schools thus founded. That efficiency, as the experience 
 of Europe and America proves, must be directly proportionate to 
 the character, skill, and number of the teachers. The creation 
 and employment of a body of trained teachers and assistants 
 have therefore been regarded by the Government as indis- 
 pensable conditions, without which the building of schools could 
 have little effect. 
 
 Whatever may be the sources whence the income of the 
 schools may be derived — how abundant soever that income may 
 be — under whatever management each school may be placed — 
 by whatever local or central administration the inspection and 
 regulation of schools may be conducted — and whatever may be 
 the course of instruction intended to be given — all must fail to 
 exert a civilizing influence on the people, unless the teachers are 
 in numbers, skill, and knowledge equal to the duty they have 
 to dis(^harge. 
 
 Various powerful motives have promoted the growth and 
 improvement of primary education, especially since 1846. But 
 the recent extension of the franchise superadds one which has 
 never before operated with the same force. There is now a 
 clear political necessity to fit the electors for the right exercise 
 of their power. 
 
 Kecent opportunities for the comparison of our own inven- 
 tive, constructive, and decorative arts with those of foreign 
 counl-ries, have inspired a conviction that the more thorough 
 primary instruction of such countries as Prussia, and the oppor- 
 tunities afforded to their artisans for that superior education 
 which leads to a knowledge of the technical relations of science 
 and the arts, afford to foreign workmen advantages which ours 
 must have in order to maintain a successful competition. 
 
 The anti-social doctrines held by the leaders of Trades' Unions 
 as to the relations of capital and labour, and their consequent 
 organization to limit the freedom of workmen and masters by a 
 system of terror, have been again exposed by inquiries under 
 the Trades' Union Commission. Parliament is again warned 
 how much the law needs the support of sound economic opinions 
 and higher moral principles among certain classes of workmen, 
 and how influential a general system of public education might 
 be in rearing a loyal, intelligent, and Christian population. 
 
 Whatever has been hitherto done towards this result has 
 been accomplished in spite of controversies so formidable, that 
 the whole national power has never been employed, but only
 
 THE QUESTION OP POPULAR EDUCATION. 7 
 
 partial, yet great forces have been combined, and the foundation 
 of a national system has slowly been laid. 
 
 It may therefore be useful to glance rapidly at the succes- 
 sive steps by which the Government has availed itself of what- 
 ever spontaneous zeal existed, and endeavoured so to guide the 
 voluntary associations as to render their co-operation with the 
 State consistent with its paramount duty to secure for every 
 child that education, without '>vhich life itself is a doubtful 
 blessing. 
 
 The Government commenced its work timidly, and continued 
 it feebly for several years. 
 
 The Grants of the Treasury to the National and British and 
 Foreign School Society, from 1832 to 1839, provided simply for 
 the extension of education by the building of schools connected 
 with those two societies. The Government did not even inter- 
 fere to secure the improvement of the character of the school 
 buildings — an object to which they have devoted so much 
 attention since that time. 
 
 Lord Kussell's letter to Lord Lansdowne in 1839 first intro- 
 duced the idea of the improvement of the methods of instruction, 
 and the qualifications of schoolmasters. It proposed to form a 
 Model School, to provide for inspection, and to increase the 
 number of teachers. It also defined the basis of a system of 
 public education in the expression of " Her Majesty's wish that 
 *' the youth of this kingdom should be religiously brought up, 
 ** and that the rights of conscience should be respected," and 
 pointed to " the neglect of this great subject among the enact- 
 ** ments of our voluminous legislation." 
 
 From 1839 to 1846 strenuous efforts, many of which were 
 baffled, were made to carry out these proposals. Owing to these 
 failures, only 305,000Z. were expended in these seven years by 
 the Committee of Council, in promoting by grants the building 
 of schools, on improved plans and with better internal arrange- 
 ments, and in founding and extending inspection. 
 
 In the interval, successive ministries had been defeated, 
 once in an attempt to found a Normal College — again in the 
 provision of schools for children employed in factories — and in 
 various subordinate efforts. Thus checked, the Government 
 acted on the principle of stimulating and aiding the efforts of 
 voluntary associations, but up to 1846 they had made no grants 
 to promote the efficiency of instruction. The obstacles to this 
 efficiency were — the want of competent teachers, and of any 
 sufficient means for their training — the absence of any staff of 
 skilled assistants — and of suitable books and apparatus. 
 
 The Committee of Council therefore submitted to Parliament
 
 8 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 their Minutes of 1846. The intention of these Minutes was to 
 give an impulse to the growth and improvement of the 
 system founded by the religious communions, and the efficiency of 
 which had been increased by the Government Grants and by 
 inspection. 
 
 Henceforth the Education Department directly encouraged 
 the introduction of a more adequate staff of more skilful 
 teachers. It made the schools the scenes of the first ^ye 
 years of the teacher's training. It selected from the classes 
 immediately in contact with the people, and generally from 
 children of the manual-labour class, their future instructors — 
 ensuring an identity of interest and harmonious sympathies. It 
 confided the completion of their training to the religious com- 
 munions, who founded numerous colleges in which the approved 
 candidates spent two years. It strove to employ the energy of 
 religious zeal, by liberal encouragement from the Parliamentary 
 Grant, in rearing and training a body of highly instructed 
 teachers, who throughout their experience should breathe the 
 air of the school and be in contact with the humblest classes. 
 The extension of popular education would thus proceed ^ari 
 jpassu with its improvement. A few years would prove how far 
 the voluntary initiative would suffice, with the aid of the Govern- 
 ment, to reach the degraded classes of the great cities and the 
 apathetic parishes of remote rural districts. The Department 
 would ascertain whether any other expedient was necessary to 
 rescue children who were doomed to ignorance by the poverty 
 or vices of their parents in cities, or by their apathy and helpless- 
 ness in farming districts. 
 
 A great impulse was thus given to the exertions of the 
 religious bodies. The majority of them entered earnestly 
 into this co-operation. The whole sum of the Parliamentary 
 Grants, which had amounted in the seven years between 1839 
 and 1846 to only 3O5,O00Z., rose to an outlay of 6,405,862Z. in 
 the sixteen succeeding years.* 
 
 The Grants of the Committee of Coimcil were at the 
 average rate of about one-thirdt of the local outlay on building 
 and supporting elementary schools. Bearing this in mind, a 
 brief analysis of the distribution of the Parliamentary Grant 
 will give some impression of the influence of the Minutes of 
 1846 on the extension and improvement of primary education. 
 
 The sum of the grants for building, enlarging, and furnish- 
 
 * See Minutes, 1862-63, p. 1., where the whole expenditure from 1839 to 31st 
 December, 1862, is stated to be 6,710,862Z. 14s. \0d. If 305,000Z. be deducted from 
 this, the remainder, 6,405,862Z., represents the outlay in the period intervening 
 between 1846 and 1862. 
 
 t See p. 67, Report of Royal Commission on State of Popular Education.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 9 
 
 ing schools amounted in 1866 to 1,608,100?.,* and with this 
 aid 6,801 schools, capable of accommodating 915,516 scholars, 
 had been built.t The annual grants t towards the expenses of 
 maintaining elementary schools since 1839 had become in the 
 aggregate 5,297,210?., of which 3,714,899?. had been directly- 
 applied to the keeping up of an efficient staff of teachers. These 
 aggregates represent only one-third of the actual expenditure, 
 which exceeded twenty millions. At the last annual inspection, 
 1,234,491 scholars were present. The grants towards the sup- 
 port of training colleges — which were in the ratio of two-thirds of 
 the annual outlay — amounted in 1866 to 1,046,443?.§ All notice 
 of some small subordinate objects of expenditure is omitted. The 
 cost of administration had been 912,647?., of which the greater 
 portion arose from the Inspection and Examination Departments, 
 by which the efficiency of schools was so greatly promoted. 
 
 This outlay of upwards of twenty millions drew every reli- 
 gious communion, except the Congregational Dissenters, and 
 bodies allied with them, into co-operation with the Government. 
 It created a vast denominational system, which firmly esta- 
 blished popular education on a religious basis. All efforts to 
 promote a secular, or purely civil system, supported by rates, 
 and governed solely by rate-payers, outside the pale of religious 
 organization, failed. But the Government did not procure the 
 recognition of religious rights in all these schools. The idea of a 
 school founded for national objects, and working in harmony with 
 civil and religious liberty, was of slow growth. Thus, much 
 resistance was offered to the association of the lay members of 
 congregations with the clergy in the management of schools. 
 Still greater difficulties have prevented the legal recognition, in 
 the Trust Deeds, of the rights of Dissenters to have their children 
 educated in schools supported by public money without any sacri- 
 fice of religious feeling^ or opinion. The time had approached 
 when it was necessary that this vast denominational system should 
 be made to work in harmony with civil rights, and with. the 
 political wants of the State. 
 
 Several objects not recognized In the Minutes of 1846 had 
 become the subjects of grants. A Capitation Grant, introduced 
 by a Special Minute in 1853, and intended only to apply to 
 purely rural parishes, had been extended to the urban districts. 
 The individual examination of the scholars in the three rudi- 
 ments, by which the distribution of this grant was to have been 
 regulated, had not been carried out. No measures had been 
 
 * Minutes, 1866-67, p. civ. t Ibid., 1866-67, p. ex. 
 
 I Ibid., 1866-67, p. civ. § Ibid., p. civ.
 
 10 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 adopted to restrain the excess of the grants above the legitimate 
 claims of certain classes of schools. Generally the administration 
 had a tendency to become lavish and indiscriminating. These were 
 faults which ought to have been corrected by the department. 
 
 Moreover, rapidly as the tide of education had advanced, 
 the apathy of certain districts presented obstacles not to be 
 removed by a system which depended on a voluntary initiative. 
 In its flow, this tide also had broken upon barriers of resistance. 
 The young and raw teachers had a task which would have 
 baffled the wisest. They had to train a migratory, ignorant, 
 and rude population. That civilization which can only be the 
 result of generations of culture was expected from their hands 
 in a few years. The acknowledged imperfections of the schools 
 were attributed, rather to the incapacity of the teachers, than 
 to their inadequate numbers, and to the extreme difficulties of 
 their work. On these, and on many other accounts, it was con- 
 ceived, in 1859, that the time had arrived when a Koyal Com- 
 mission might with advantage examine the whole operation of 
 this system. This Commission, composed of men of great 
 ability, representing every phase of political and religious 
 opinion, devoted nearly three years to a faithful and exhaustive 
 inquiry, and presented in 1861 a Keport, in which, with judicial 
 calmness, they approve the main features of the operations of 
 the Committee of Council, and especially those which provided 
 for the training of a body of teachers by means of the five 
 years' apprenticeship, and of two years' College education. 
 
 In this Keport, suggestions were made in the hope of secur- 
 ing the civil rights of minorities : — of gradually introducing the 
 spirit and power of local action, in aid of the central administration, 
 and of simplifying the action of the Education Department. For 
 this purpose, a County Board was to be appointed, and to have 
 charge of one form of capitation grants to be derived from the 
 county rates. It was thus intended to relieve the pressure on 
 the central administration and the Parliamentary Grant. The 
 distribution of this County Capitation Grant was to be deter- 
 mined by the results of an examination of the scholars in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, to be conducted by County Examiners. 
 These provincial grants were also intended to provide for the 
 extension of the system into the poorest and most apathetic 
 districts. 
 
 On the other hand, the Central inspection was to be con- 
 tinued, and was to have charge of the general character of the 
 school, the entire scope of instruct^^, the methods, organization, 
 and discipline, as well as of the superintendence of the training 
 of apprentices, and of the examinations by which the progress of 
 their education was tested. As the results of this inspection,
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 'H 
 
 two classes of grants might be obtained wlien the state of the 
 school was satisfactory. One was adjusted to the average attend- 
 ance of scholars — the other was dependent on the employment 
 of one pupil-teacher for every 30 scholars, or of one assistant for 
 every 60. The Central and the County Grants were not toge- 
 ther to exceed either the fees and subscriptions, or 15s. per child 
 in average attendance. As a whole, the recommendations of the 
 Royal Commission confirmed with its sanction the operations of 
 the Committee of Council, and cautiously sought to co-ordinate 
 the voluntary religious agencies with national action, through 
 the local, as well as the central civil power. These suggestions 
 evinced a wise sympathy with the labours and sacrifices which 
 had built up what then existed of the framework of a national 
 system of education, and especially with the machinery of 
 instructed teachers who had charge of the difficult task of 
 training the children of a hardy, energetic, but unlettered and 
 often sensual people. If adopted, these plans would, at least, 
 have caused no discouragement or shock. They would rather 
 have enriched than impoverished the schools, while they diffused 
 the grants more equally : and under them the Managers would 
 have had sufficient motives to keep up the efficiency and num- 
 bers of the teaching staff. 
 
 The objects sought to be attained by the Royal Commission 
 are summed up in the following words (pp. 827-8) : — '' We 
 " shall propose means by which, in the first jplacef the present 
 " system may be made applicable to the poorer no less than the 
 " richer districts throughout the whole country : secondly, by 
 *' which the present expenditure may be controlled and regu- 
 " lated: thirdly, by which the complication of business in the office 
 *' may be checked : fourthly, by which greater local activity and 
 " interest in education may be encouraged : fifthly, by which the 
 *' general attainment of a greater degree of elementaiy know- 
 ** ledge may be secured than is acquired at present." 
 
 To the Committee of Council, as the executive department, 
 fell the duty of reviewing these recommendations, and of pro- 
 posing to Parliament a modification of the existing system 
 founded upon them. This gave rise, in 1862, to the Revised 
 Code. 
 
 The provisions of the Revised Code — though introduced with 
 great ability — had a very different tendency. All that part of 
 the recommendations of the Royal Commission which related to 
 the localization of the administration, and the employment of 
 Examiners in addition to Inspectors, was omitted. 
 
 The Grants which had been given to maintain the number 
 and efficiency of the l^eachers were withdrawn. The conditions
 
 12 MEMOKANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 of the Capitation Grant substituted for them were such as to cut 
 down the rate of aid (as we shall see) from 12s. Sd» per head to 
 Ss, 6d,, or to nearly half the maximum proposed by the Commis- 
 sioners. The amount of this reduction has, however, exceeded 
 the intentions of the authors of the Eevised Code, who expected 
 that the average rate would amount to 10s. per scholar. 
 
 The conditions as to the employment of Pupil Teachers 
 were so relaxed, that a master might have 89 scholars without 
 the aid of an apprentice or assistant teacher. The Inspectors, 
 instead of a separate class of examiners, were charged with the 
 individual examination of the scholars in reading, writing, and 
 ciphering. Their attention was thus withdrawn from the higher 
 subjects of instruction and the general condition of the school. 
 The Capitation Grant was so apportioned according to the results 
 of this examination as practically to discourage higher instruction. 
 The provisions securing the training of the Pupil Teachers, and 
 making it the interest of the teachers to give them regular 
 instruction, were injuriously relaxed. According to the popular 
 interpretation of this Code, the limits of elementary instruction 
 were — so much knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic as 
 could be attained before eleven years of age ; — and the best 
 means to attain this end were the concentration of the work of 
 the school on a drill in these three rudiments. 
 
 We may conceive that a statesman who had deliberately 
 made this change, had conceived that the material necessities of 
 the manual-labour class rendered hopeless any higher result of 
 primary education, than a fair proficiency in reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic, and that the machinery, created by the Minutes 
 of 1846, prepared teachers too highly instructed for so useful yet 
 humble an object. It might therefore have been the intention 
 of the Committee of Council to make the education of the Pupil 
 Teachers and Certificated Masters less comprehensive, and to in- 
 troduce a humbler order. At the same time the Department may 
 have hoped that a part of the burthen of the Parliamentary Grant 
 could be shifted onto the local Managers, and that their greater 
 exertions and sacrifices would supply from local sources what 
 was withdrawn from central. Moreover, it might have been 
 intended that the intelligence and zeal of the Managers should 
 be tested by confiding to them many details which had hitherto 
 been the subject of official regulation. If the local administra- 
 tion failed in these particulars, it would fall into discredit, and 
 the way would be cleared for a change of system. 
 
 If the authors of the Kevised Code expected that local intel- 
 ligence and zeal would supply by increased contributions the 
 income withdrawn by the Government from the schools, or 
 would keep up the efficiency and numbers of the teaching-staff
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 13 
 
 when tlie conditions of the grants wore relaxed, that expectation 
 was by no means fulfilled. 
 
 No scheme of public education is likely to obtain sanction 
 which does not recognize and define the functions of the Edu- 
 cation Department, and enable it by Minutes laid before Par- 
 liament to provide for the training of teachers, and the main- 
 tenance by various means of the standard of instruction. The 
 Manchester and Salford Education Bill of 1852, Lord KusseU's 
 Boroughs Education Bill of 1853, and the measure introduced 
 last session by Mr. Bruce, while they all provide in a similar 
 manner for a local rate in aid of the resources of schools, like- 
 wise contemplate the continuance of the system of public grants 
 from the Committee of Council on Education. The principles 
 on which such grants are administered, and the details of the 
 regulations by which they are to be carried out, are therefore, 
 under such a system, as important as when the schools other- 
 wise depended only on local spontaneous agencies. It is on this 
 account important that the results of the change made by the 
 Eevised Code should be carefully analyzed, for from these results 
 we may ascertain how far it is possible, without injurious conse- 
 quences, to relax the conditions of the public grants. 
 
 One of the principal objects of the Kevised Code obviously 
 was to introduce an economy in the administration of the Parlia- 
 mentary Grant* With a reduced rate of aid, the efficiency of the 
 schools could still be maintained, if the voluntary contributions 
 and school-pence supplied the proportion of public grant with- 
 drawn. Eegarded as a financial attempt to adjust, in this way, 
 the incidence of the charge for elementary education without 
 crippling its resources, we have to inquire whether or in what 
 degree, the aid withdrawn by the Eevised Code from elementary 
 schools has been replaced from local and voluntary sources. 
 
 The expenditure of the Committee of Council reached its 
 maximum in the year ending December 31st, 1861, when it 
 amounted to 813,441?. In that year 6,764 schools, under 
 separate management, with an average attendance of 855,077 
 scholars,! were inspected. The grants made to these elementary 
 day-schools amounted to 525,425/., J or they were at the rate of 
 12s. Zd. per scholar. § In the year preceding December 31st, 
 
 * Mr. Lowe, in introducing the Kevised Code on the 13th February, 1862, is 
 reported to have said, " I cannot promise the House that this system will be an 
 *' economical one ; and I cannot promise that it will be an efficient one : but I can 
 •* promise that it shall be either the one or the other. If it is not cheap, it shall be 
 " efficient ; if it is not efficient, it shall be cheap."— ITawsarc?, p. 229, vol. clxv. 
 
 t See Minutes, 1861, p. 3 and p. 7. % I^i^., 1861-2, p. xlvii. 
 
 § See Minutes, 1859-60, where it is stated to be lis. 6d. per scholar in England 
 and Wales. Also Report of Commissioners on Popular Education, p. 67.
 
 14: MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 1866, the whole expenditure had been reduced to 622,730?. But 
 though the outlay was less by 190,711Z. in 1866 than in 1861, 
 1,539 more schools in receipt of annual grants had been inspected, 
 and there was an average attendance of 141,633 more scholars. 
 The grants made directly to elementary day-schools in 1866* 
 amounted to 445,714/. for an average attendance of 1,048,493 
 scholars, or they were at the rate of 8s. 6d. per scholar. The 
 rate of aid from the Grovernment towards the support of 
 elementary day-schools had therefore been reduced at the 
 rate of 3s. 9d. per scholar between 1861 and 1866 ; but the 
 income of the schools from local and voluntary sources had, 
 in the same period, increased only at the rate of Is. Id. per 
 scholar, so that the annual resources of the schools had been 
 reduced at the rate of two shillings and eightpence (2s. 8d.) per 
 head. The reduction of three shillings and ninepence in the 
 Government grant, with an average attendance of 1,048,493 
 scholars in 1866, represents 196,592?., withdrawn by the Com- 
 mittee of Council from what would have been the annual 
 income of the day-schools, if the rate of aid per scholar had con- 
 tinued to be as high as in 1861. Of this loss, one shilling and 
 one penny per scholar was returned by voluntary local agencies, 
 leaving the annual resources of the schools diminished by 
 139,799?., which these voluntary agencies had been unable to 
 supply. The whole increase from local resources did not amount 
 to one-third the loss from the public grants. 
 
 The sources from which the increase of Is. Id. per scholar 
 was derived, are apparent from an inspection of Table No. 1. 
 
 The school-pence increased from about 7s. Id. per scholar in 
 1861 to 8s. 6d. in 1866, or about elevenpence per head ; and the 
 local income from endowments, voluntary subscriptions, and other 
 sources, from about 9s. 9|c?. per scholar, in 1861, to 10s. O^d., in 
 1866, or about twopence halfpenny per head. If the reduction 
 of the annual grants effected by the Kevised Code was made 
 with the intention of stimulating local exertions, and the ex- 
 pectation that the amount of public aid withdrawn would be 
 replaced by private contributions, the failure was complete, for 
 such increased contributions amounted only to one-eighteenth 
 part of the amount of grants withdrawn. From school-pence, 
 however, one-fourth was derived. Nevertheless, the resources of 
 the schools were crippled, and before analyzing the effects of 
 the Code on the machinery of schools, it may be well to examine 
 the direct influence of the reduction of income, and of the 
 conditions of tiie Capitation Grant, on the instruction of the 
 scholars. 
 
 * Minutes, 1866-7, p. civ.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 15 
 
 The expedient of making the aid of the Committee of Council 
 mainly depend on Capitation Grants, the amount of which is to 
 be determined by the individual examination of the scholars, is 
 open to some fundamental objections. 
 
 The deductions on examination for failures in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic are by no means a sufficient test of the 
 efficiency or teaching power of a school. The number of 
 scholars who pass in the Standards of the Kevised Code is rela- 
 tively less in a migratory population — like that of the poorest 
 parts of cities, and the outskirts of the manufacturing districts 
 — for in such places, the children enter the school ignorant, and 
 stay so short a time as to be unable to acquire the rudiments. 
 Thus a school in an apathetic district, supported only by the 
 lowest resources from voluntary agencies, may have the hardest 
 task, and receive the lowest rate of aid ; or, a school in which 
 the intelligence and liberality of the Managers has maintained 
 the teaching power in the utmost efficiency as to numbers and 
 skill, may, from the ignorance and migratory character of the 
 population, earn a grant far below the ratio of its outlay or merit, 
 and even below the average. Any grant, the amount of which 
 is determined by individual examination after a certain attend- 
 ance at School, tends to cause the neglect of the irregular, 
 dull, and migratory scholars whom it does not ]pay to teach; 
 while, on the other hand, grants proportionate to the average 
 attendance of scholars are a direct inducement to fill the School, 
 but not to teach the children, if such grants are not a'ccompanied 
 by conditions as to the number of the teaching staff,* 
 
 * lu a letter to Lord Granville, dated April 24th, 1861, the author thus stated, 
 in anotlier form, some of these difficulties ; — " Any Capitation Grant, the distribu- 
 *• tion of wliich is to be determined by the results of instruction in schools, is 
 *• liable to the fundamental objection, that the average period of the attendance of 
 ** the majority of scholars is so short, that, as far as that majority is concerned, 
 *' few schools would be paid for the results of their own work. In the specimen 
 *' districts, 42*3 per cent, of the scholars ( p. 659) had been in the same public week- 
 *• day school less than one year, and 22'7 per cent, had been one year, but less than 
 *' two years. These proportions for England and Wales are 41*65 per cent, of the 
 '' scholars who had attended the same school less than one year, and 22*58 who 
 ** had been one year, and less than two years. With such migratory scholars, it is 
 ♦' impossible justly to pay for work done in schools on any plan constructed to 
 " embrace those three-fifths of the scholars who attend less than two years. The 
 *' remaining 35*77 per cent, who attend more than two years are alone subjects for 
 ** an examination of the results secured by the work in any school. This, however, 
 ** is not the proposal of the Commission. Their proposal is to pay a Capitation 
 " Grant on every scholar who has attended 140 days in the preceding year, and can 
 " read, write, and cipher. A scholar cannot learn to read, write, and cipher, so as 
 " to pass a public examination in two years, much less in 140 days. Any examina- 
 " tion of the majority of more than three-fifths who attend less than two years 
 " must, therefore, obviously fail to ascertain how far even these elements have been 
 *' tauglit to that majority in any school. If the remaining two-fifths who have 
 " been in the school more than two years were separated from the other scholars, 
 " and examined apart, some approximate estimate might be thus made of the work
 
 JQ MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 Thus the Kevised Code fails to penetrate the poorest, most 
 ignorant, and migratory districts, which are also generally the 
 most apathetic* And its grants are by no means proportionate 
 to the intelligence and zeal of the Managers. 
 
 On the other hand, schools which contrive their machinery 
 strictly with a view to enable their scholars to pass mechanically 
 the examination of the Kevised Code in the Standards of read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic, without cultivating their general 
 intelligence, may earn a Capitation Grant considerably above the 
 average, though the civilizing power of such schools is low.f 
 
 The Committee of Council thus describe another conse- 
 quence of the increase of the pecuniary risks of the Managers, 
 consequent on the substitution of the Capitation Grant, and 
 of the reduction of the rate of aid to schools. This has, at least 
 in some districts, become common. " In some cases, the Mana- 
 " gers exhibit an inclination to throw the whole pecuniary risk 
 " on the teachers, thereby reducing the schools to the level of a 
 " private adventure ; placing themselves in a highly questionable 
 " position as to the worth of the certificates of character which 
 
 *' done in the school. If any Grant could be devised, founded on the results of the 
 " school work, it must be proportionate only to the proficiency of this two-fifths of 
 " the scholars. But the working of such a Grant was long ago examined and 
 *' rejected as full of diflSculties which appeared insuperable." — Four Periods of 
 Public Education. Longman, pp. 568-569. 
 
 * The Kev. John Menet, in a pamphlet, published by Rivington in 1865, 
 remarks on the unequal distribution of a Capitation Grant between town and 
 country schools, and on the Registers of the attendance of scholars, as follows : — 
 " It would be easy to show, if this were the place for it, that a Capitation Grant 
 " is essentially vicious in principle, and that the assistance given upon this basis 
 " must always be in inverse proportion to the need, inasmuch as large town-schools 
 " with the most regular attendance would receive far more in proportion than the 
 " smaller country schools, or town-schools with shifting populations, whUe, in fact, 
 " they need it far less. Nor is it right that large Grants of public money should 
 " be paid by the State upon the vouchers of those interested in receiving the Grants 
 " without the possibility of checking those vouchers. And yet this must be done in 
 " the case of a Capitation Grant on attendance ; for the money must be paid upon 
 " the returns of the School Registers marked by the teachers themselves."* 
 
 X The Rev. John Menet, in the pamphlet already quoted, thus describes the 
 eifect of the inspection on the methods and character of instruction in schools 
 (p. 7) : — " The results which are paid for under the Revised Code, are to a great 
 " extent, produced mechanically. Children may be taught to read correctly out of 
 *' a book in use in the school (which they may know nearly by heart), and be 
 *' taught to write a sentence from dictation correctly, out of one of the reading 
 *' books, without any development of their intelligence, and without any approach 
 " to cultivation of mind. It would not be difficult to avoid any gross failure in 
 " the religious knowledge. It might be less easy to secure the children from 
 " failure in arithmetic ; but even supposing that they were less successful in this 
 *' subject, a grant would still be payable upon the reading and writing. The 
 " fact is, that the ' results ' under the Revised Code may be, and are produced 
 *' to a very great extent, by mechanical means. And the result is, that the State 
 *' is daily paying grants in aid of schools which do, or need do, scarcely anything 
 " towards the real work of a school properly so called. It is a condition of 
 " existence that these 'results' should be produced, because they are worth so 
 " much money."
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 17 
 
 " are required from them ; and lastly, surrendering all power to 
 ** direct the instruction and practice of the school in any other 
 " course than that which appears, however shortsightedly, to lead 
 " the nearest way to a grant." Nor is it possible to overlook 
 in such cases the dependence of a part of the Grant on the 
 accuracy of the register of attendance, and the absence of the con- 
 trol of the managers to ensure that accuracy, when the teacher's 
 interests are directly concerned in increasing the number of 
 scholars apparently attending the school. At least the Eevised 
 Code ought not to place obvious temptations in the way of the 
 teacher to record the presence of every scholar, however late, or 
 when merely the bearer of an excuse for absence. 
 
 But passing from these general objections. The system 
 under the Revised Code is, as we have seen, cheaper. Is it 
 more or less efficient? In his very able and exhaustive state- 
 ment of the principles of the Revised Cede, Mr. Lowe said,* 
 " We deal with schools on this principle : — If they are effective 
 *' in their teaching, they shall receive public aid to the amount 
 " which the commissioners have declared to be sufficient ; but 
 " if they are not effective, they shall not receive it. In this way 
 " we make a double use of our money. It not only enables the 
 *' schools to afford instruction, but it encourages them to aug- 
 " ment the quantity of that education. It is a spur to improve- 
 ** ment ; it is not a mere subsidy, but a motive for action ; and I 
 " have the greatest hopes of the improved prospects of education, 
 " if this principle is embraced." The method of examination, and 
 the mode of distributing the annual grants under the Revised Code, 
 were intended to secure more constant attention to the instruction 
 of junior classes, and greater proficiency in reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic. For this purpose, the grants which had been pre- 
 viously awarded directly to the teachers for the purpose of 
 maintaining a sufficient staff of efficient teachers and assistants, 
 were commuted into Capitation Grants, given partly for a 
 certain number of days' attendance, and partly in proportion to 
 the number of scholars who might pass in each of the three 
 rudimentary subjects of instruction. 
 
 It may be expedient, first, to observe the effects of the 
 Code on the instruction in the school apart from its influence on 
 the machinery of education. The authors of the Code were 
 warned by many who had much experience in elementary 
 education, that the plan adopted would discourage the cultiva- 
 tion of any instruction higher than the rudiments,! and would 
 introduce a mechanical method of teaching. They also urged 
 that a school from which the higher subjects were excluded, 
 
 * Hansard, p. 230, vol. clxv. f See Miniitei3, 18u5-6, p. 16, 
 
 C
 
 18 
 
 B^TEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 would be generally less successful in the lower. The Committee 
 of Council now say* — '* The Eevised Code has tended, at 
 " least temporarily, to discourage attention to the higher 
 *' branches of elementary instruction : Geography, Grammar, 
 " History. There are signs of recovery, and those schools do 
 " best in the elementary subjects where the higher are 
 *' not neglected." But the intentions of the authors of the 
 Eevised Code have not been fulfilled by the greater proficiency 
 of the scholars in the rudiments of reading, writing, and 
 ciphering. 
 
 The percentages of failure in the Standards in 1863-4, when 
 compared with those of 1866, show an increase of failures in 
 1866, in all of the Standards above Standard I., except in reading 
 under Standard VI., and in writing in Standards II. and VI. 
 'J he following table exhibits the amount of this failure in each 
 Standard of examination :t — 
 
 
 READrNG. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Standard I. 
 Standard II. 
 Standard III. .. 
 Standard IV. .. 
 Standard V. .. 
 Standard VI. .. 
 
 20-2 
 10-85 
 6-4 
 4-6 
 5-35 
 5-93 
 
 13-73 
 11-73 
 8-24 
 6-22 
 5-44 
 4-76 
 
 17-68 
 8-05 
 15-35 
 19-62 
 14-11 
 12-85 
 
 10-61 
 5-26 
 21-10 
 27-28 
 17-40 
 12-55 
 
 26-77 
 25-25 
 18-95 
 18-25 
 16-98 
 16-49 
 
 20-15 
 26-63 
 24-11 
 31-61 
 25-11 
 23-92 
 
 * Keport, Minutes, 1865-6, p. xiii. 
 
 t I have been furnished by a clergyman who has great practical knowledge 
 of the working of the Revised Code, with the following remarks on the system of 
 the individual examination of the scholars by standards rather than, as tbrmerly, 
 by classes : — " But one great and fatal bar to the real progress of education tin 
 *' elementary schools under the Revised Code is the system of individual examina- 
 " tion by standards, to determine the amount of the Capitation Grant, and for the 
 *' following among other reasons : — 
 
 " 1. A measure of attainment to be required of all schools must of necessity be 
 " the minimum of attainment. 
 
 '• 2. But it is equally clear that as that amount will secure the Grant, the 
 *' minimum becomes the maximum, 
 
 " 3. There arises a direct temptation, or perhaps necessity, to organize the school 
 " by standards instead of classes. The effects are that as an advance of only one 
 ** standard per year is necessaiy to earn the. Grant, it is the interest of the teacher 
 •' to keep the child in the standard during the whole year, though he Ujight be, 
 " both by ability and acquirements, entitled to be placed far above it. It is also 
 " the teacher's interest to place every scholar in the lowest standard on entrance. 
 
 " 4. Take the case of a draft of fifteen children from an efficient Infant School 
 " into an Upper School. They have passed Standard I., and their work for the 
 •' next year is to pass Standard II. If the Teacher were unfettered by standards 
 *' some few of these scholars would be placed in the lowest class, but the greater 
 " number would pass into Class III., and some would rapidly pass towards the 
 " upper part of the school. But if the Standards are to be considered, with a view
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 10 
 
 The failure in writing and arithmetic above the Second 
 Standard is especially remarkable, excepting only in the Sixth 
 Standard in writing.* In its principal object, viz. a greater 
 degree of proficiency in the three rudimentary subjects of in- 
 struction, the Eevised Code has been followed by the injurious 
 results which were predicted by its opponents. These results 
 cannot have been clearly before the Committee of Council on 
 Education, when they authorized the insertion of the following pas- 
 sage in their Eeport (in 1866-67, pp. xx., xxi.), though the latter 
 
 *' to the earning of the largest Capitation Grant, all must stay in the lower part 
 " of the school, so as to pass in Standard 11. 
 
 " 5. The fact is, that no two schools should really be judged by the same 
 " standard. The requirements which are absurdly below the proper mark in one 
 " school would be severe in another." 
 
 * Mr. Stewart (pp. 210-5) reports a general decline, throughout his district, not 
 only in the extent of the. subjects of instruction, but in the success with which the 
 purely elementary ones are taught. The passage refen-ed to is as follows : — Keport 
 of Comm. of Council on Education. — " The failures in the examination prescribed 
 " by the Revised Code have been consequently greater in 1866 than in 1865 ; and 
 ** there are very few schools in wliich the old rate has been maintained. 
 
 " The extent to which schools are failing to prepare their children for this test 
 *• may be seen at once by comparing the columns of figures in the following table, 
 " which represents the percentage of children presented for examination upon 
 " which annual grants have been paid in two successive years : — 
 
 
 No. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 
 
 No. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent.* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 96 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 78 
 
 23 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 93 
 
 87 
 
 24 
 
 90 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 98 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 77 
 
 85 
 
 26 
 
 75 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 71 
 
 27 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 28 
 
 94 
 
 91 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 89 
 
 29 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 97 
 
 88 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 88 
 
 55 
 
 31 
 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 87 
 
 86 
 
 32 
 
 84 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 91 
 
 89 
 
 33 
 
 62 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 97 
 
 74 
 
 34 
 
 98 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 35 
 
 96 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 78 
 
 36 
 
 88 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 85 
 
 73 
 
 37 
 
 96 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 92 
 
 80 
 
 38 
 
 97 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 82 
 
 44 
 
 39 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 97 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 93 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 69 
 
 41 
 
 99 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 95 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 *' The falling oflf in the standard of the work done in these schools may, I 
 " tliink, be traced without much difficulty to the following causes : — 
 " 1, The employment of inferior teachers, 
 *• 2. The reduction of the teaching staff in each school. 
 *' 3. The employment of monitors instead of pupil-teachers." 
 
 c 2
 
 20 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 portion of the paragraph points to one of the chief characteristics 
 of schools which earn the largest rate of grants under the Kevised 
 Code : — ^^ The Kevised Code continues to answer the object of 
 " its authors by compelling teachers to attend to their scholars 
 " generally, and not mainly to the most clever or regular among 
 ** them, as represented by the first class. The first class, no 
 " longer receiving the same attention as before, is often less 
 " good than it was ; and, throiighoui the schools, the minimnm 
 " which each child must learn, in order to pass for a Grant under 
 " Article 48, is apt to he of a mechanical character, and to efface 
 " that more intellectual aspect which, under the old system, struck 
 ** a visitor loohing at one of the hest schools as a whole, rather than 
 ** at each of its scholars. So far as instructions could guard 
 " against this drawback, they were emphatically given by our 
 " predecessors on the occasion (September, 1862) of notifying 
 " the introduction of the Kevised Code to Your Majesty's 
 " Inspectors."^ 
 
 When the light of the preceding table is thrown on the re- 
 sults of examination under each Standard in 1863 and in 1866, 
 the present condition of instruction in the rudiments will not be 
 found to justify the '* drawback'' which in guarded language is 
 here partially confessed. 
 
 The instructions referred to left the radical defect of the 
 method of inspection untouched. The separate examiners of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic recommended by the Koyal Com- 
 mission have not been appointed. This examination has^been 
 imposed on the Inspector, aided by an assistant, but as now em- 
 ployed, the time of the Inspector is exhausted in examining in 
 the three rudiments of learning. He has no opportunity for a 
 general survey of the organization and discipline — for the school 
 is not assembled in its classes, but re-arranged according to the 
 Standards of the Kevised Code. He cannot ascertain the tone 
 and method of the religious teaching, nor test the general intel- 
 ligence of the scholars by the skill of the first class in reading 
 with expression ; nor in an understanding of what they have 
 read ; nor in their proficiency in grammar, geography, or his- 
 tory, if he is previously to do the work assigned to him in pages 
 XX. and xxi. of the Instructions upon the administration of the 
 Kevised Code* (Minutes of 1862-3). Mr. Cook is there reported 
 
 * The Rev. John Menet calls attention to the following effects of the Minute of 
 May 19, 1863, and to the contrast between that Minute and the Instructions of 
 September, 1862, sec. 7, p. ix. :—'* The Minute of May 19, 1863 (see Postscript) has 
 " tied the Inspector's hands, by requiring that in all schools not examined for 
 " the first time, the Examination in the three subjects shall precede the Inspection 
 *' properly so called. Any one who is interested in the subject will find some forcible
 
 THE QUESTION OP POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 21 
 
 to have said that this examination required from four to six hours 
 for 150 children. If, however (where there are two departments 
 of schools), the merely mechanical v/ork of mustering and regis- 
 tering the scholars in their Standards, and the testing of the 
 reading, writing, and ciphering were confided to his assistant 
 in one department, the Inspector might readily inspect another 
 department in all the above-mentioned particulars. Then a 
 second grant might be made, to depend partly " upon the school's 
 ** whole character and work," and partly upon the adequacy of the 
 teaching staff, as suggested by the Royal Commission. There 
 would then be a reason for " the inspection of each school by a 
 ** highly educated public officer," while the "general test" would 
 be fortified by individual examination.* 
 
 " remarks upon it in the Report of M. Arnold, Esq., in the last Report of the Com- 
 *' mittee of Council on Education (1863-4), pp. 186-189. The effect of this Minute 
 *' in relation to schools under Uncertificated Teachers, as in all other schools, is to 
 *' make it almost impossible for the Inspector to judge accurately of the general 
 " state of a scliool, and its value as a whole, in its ordinary daily working. Real 
 " inspection, with this end in \dew, is impossible after -an examination for which 
 ** the school has been broken up into the several standards, and by which both 
 ** children and teachers are tired. Inspection is simply impossible under such 
 *• circumstances. 
 
 " P.S. The following Statement will show how far the Revised Code and the 
 ** Instructions of September, 1862, have been superseded by the Minute of May 
 "19, 1863 :-> 
 
 Revised Code, 
 Article 50, p. J. 
 
 The Inspector 
 does not proceed 
 to examine scho- 
 lars in reading, 
 writing, and 
 arithmetic, for 
 the grant, until 
 he has first ascer- 
 tained that the 
 state of tlie 
 school does not 
 require it to be 
 withbeid. 
 
 Instructions 
 
 of September, 1862, 
 
 Section 7. 
 
 The grant to be made 
 to each school depends, 
 as it has ever done, upon 
 the sdiool's whole cha- 
 racter and work. The 
 grant is offered for 
 attendance in a school 
 with which tlie Inspec- 
 tor is satisfied. . . You 
 will judge every school 
 by the same standard 
 that you have hitherto 
 used as regards its reli- 
 gious, moral, and intel- 
 lectual merits. The ex- 
 amination under Article 
 49 does not supersede 
 this judgment but pre- 
 supposes it. . . . It does 
 not exclude the inspec- 
 tion of each school by a 
 highly -educated public 
 officer, but it fortifies 
 this general test by indi- 
 vidual examination. 
 
 MrNUXE 
 of May 19, 1863. 
 
 To make it an in- 
 struction to the In- 
 spectors to perform 
 their duties in each 
 school, not inspected 
 for the first time, in 
 the following order, 
 viz. : — 
 
 (a) Examination of 
 the children m re- 
 ligious knowledge, 
 where the Inspectors 
 have to report upon 
 it. 
 
 (b) Examination in 
 the subjects pre- 
 scribed by the Re- 
 vised Code. 
 
 (c) General inspec- 
 tion of the school, 
 allowing for previous 
 acquaintance with it. 
 
 REMARga 
 
 Column 3 contradicts columns 
 I and 2, i.e. both the Revised 
 Code and the Instructions of Sep- 
 tember, 1862, 
 
 The Examination on which the 
 Grant depends is begun and 
 fini^hed without an inquiry into 
 the school's whole character and 
 work. 
 
 The Inspector does proceed to 
 examine without first ascertain- 
 ing the state of the school. 
 
 Under Minute of May 19, Ex- 
 amination does supersede this 
 judgment. 
 
 Examination does practically 
 exclude the inspection of each 
 school by a highly - educated 
 public officer. 
 
 Examination does not fortify 
 this test, for the test is practically 
 done away with, and the grant 
 settled by the Inspector or his 
 deputy without it. 
 
 The provisions of Revised Code 
 that money should be paid only 
 after due inquiry into the merits 
 of each school are practically made 
 void by Minute of May 19. 
 
 * The Royal Commissioners proposed that the examination in reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic should be made by examiners appointed by the County Board,
 
 22 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 The scholars fail to pass even the low Standards under the 
 Revised Code, partly because the principal and assistant-teachers 
 lose heart under their work. The methods by which the teach- 
 ing of the rudiments is, in the best schools of Holland, Prussia, 
 and Switzerland, refined and elevated above a mechanical 
 drudgery are here generally falling into disuse, since the object of 
 the schools has been contracted to those " results " which have 
 been interpreted to be the goal fixed by the State for elementary 
 education. 
 
 It wdll be found that the Committee of Council have not 
 simplified the Administration of the Annual Grants. They will 
 have to superadd the former inspection to the present mechanical 
 examination.* 
 
 One of the objects proposed to be accomplished by the 
 Revised Code was the simplification of the details of adminis- 
 tration. If, however, this result may be tested by the ratio of 
 the expense of office-work and of inspection to the average 
 attendance of scholars in the aided and inspected schools, the 
 commutation of the several grants to teachers into a Capitation 
 Grant paid to the Managers has had little effect. The cost of 
 the office administration alone was 6^d. in 1860, and 5^d. in 
 1866 ; and that of the office administration and inspection com- 
 bined was Is. 6^d. per scholar in 1860, and Is. iy^d. in 1866. 
 
 The failure of the Revised Code to improve the rudimentary 
 instruction in schools is not, however, solely due to the foregoing 
 causes ; it is, in a great degree, also to be attributed to the dimi- 
 nution of the number and the reduction of the skill of the 
 teaching staff. The Committee of Council had found in those 
 parts of Europe in which primary education had been success- 
 fully organized, that a fixed number of scholars, not to be 
 exceeded, had been assigned to each teacher, and assistant or 
 pupil teacher. They were thus led to conclude that, where a 
 school had more than thirty scholars, the teacher should be 
 aided by a pupil teacher. The Minutes of 1846 prescribed that 
 ^* the number of pupil teachers apprenticed to any school" 
 should " not exceed one to every twenty-five scholars ordinarily 
 " attending." There is no allowance made in these Minutes 
 for the numbers supposed to be taught by the principal teacher 
 to qualify the foregoing maximum number of pupil teachers. 
 
 while the general Inspection continued to be conducted by H.M. Inspectors, and 
 that an additional grant of 2s. 6d. a child on the average attendance should be 
 given vpherever the Pupil Teachers were in the proportion of one to every thirty 
 scholars. 
 
 * Minutes, 1862-3, p. xviii,, Instructions to Inspectors on Administration of 
 Revised Code. This individual examination was contemplated in the Minute 
 regulating the Capitation Grant of 1853.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 23 
 
 Practically, the grants under these Minutes were intended to 
 encourage the appointment of one pupil teacher to every twenty- 
 five scholars after the first twenty-five ordinarily attending the 
 school. The Revised Code seriously diminished these induce- 
 ments.* The conditions of the Grant only stipulated that one 
 pupil teacher should be employed for every forty scholars, or an 
 assistant-master for every eighty scholars, in both cases after 
 fifty scholars had been assigned to the principal teacher. So 
 that the first eighty-nine scholars might be taught by one prin- 
 cipal teacher without help, but every complete addition of forty 
 scholars to the first fifty was to have the aid of one pupil teacher. 
 The princij)al teacher was, under the Minutes of 1846, " to give 
 *' the pupil teachers instruction in the prescribed subjects during 
 " one hour and a-half at least on five days in the week, either 
 ** before or after the usual hours of school -keeping." Under the 
 Revised Code, these 7^ hours per week were reduced to 5 — two 
 of them may be given on the same day — and the pupil teachers 
 may receive their instruction in the evening school, which was 
 not previously permitted. Those only, who know what evening 
 schools are, can estimate the fatally injurious influence of such 
 an arrangement on the instruction of pupil teacliers. 
 
 The ejffect of recent changes is to confide the appropriation 
 of the Capitation Grant under the Revised Code to the managers, 
 with only minimum requirements as to pupil teachers. Have 
 the managers, then, with a reduction of assistance maintained 
 the previous relative number of pupil teachers and t!ie efficiency 
 of their education? The Royal Commissioners reported in 
 1861 that the pupil-teacher system was then, " on the whole, 
 " excellent " (p. 106). They said, " It appears to be one of the 
 ** most important contributions made to popular education by 
 " the administration of the Privy Council Grants" (p. 107).t 
 By inspecting Table No. III. in the Appendix it will be seen 
 that, in 1861, the average attendance of scholars in inspected 
 schools for the year preceding the December 31, 1861, was 
 919,935, and that they were taught by 8,698 certificated teachers, 
 381 assistant, 491 probationary, and 16,277 pupil teachers. 
 Reckoning each assistant and probationary teacher as equal to 
 
 * The condition (6) of clause 52 of the Kevised Code is: — The Grant is 
 reduced — 
 
 By sums of lOZ. for every 40 or 80 after the first 50 of the average number of 
 scholars in attendance, unless there be either one pupil teacher fulfilling the con- 
 ditions of Articles 81-9 for every 40 scholars, or one certificated or assistant master 
 fulfilling the conditions of Articles 67 and 91-3 respectively for every 80 scholars. 
 
 t They suggest for its improvement that the system should be graduated to 
 the rate of wages in different parts of the country : that the labours imposed on 
 pupil teachers, especially girls, should be reduced : and that some change should 
 take place in the subjects of study, substituting English Literature and Physical 
 Geography for one or two books of Euclid.
 
 24 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 two pupil teachers, and assigning thirty scholars to the principal 
 teacher, there was in 1861 one pupil teacher to every thirty- 
 six scholars. Thus the Committee of Council had made a fair 
 advance towards the accomplishment of their intention, that one 
 pupil teacher should be employed for every twenty-five scliolars. 
 They had also educated a large body of teachers trained in 
 colleges after five years' apprenticeship in schools. Moreover, 
 up to 1860 the progress of extension proceeded ][>ari joassu with 
 the supply of trained teachers and assistants. This co-ordina- 
 tion of the extension with the maintenance of the quality of 
 education ceased with the Revised Code. 
 
 In 1866* an average of 1,082,055 scholars was taught by 
 12,179 principal, 1,061 assistant, and 10,971 pupil teachers, 
 which, under the same conditions as before, shows a proportion 
 of one pupil teacher to every 54 scholars. The Managers had, 
 therefore, failed to keep up their teaching staff. Every pupil 
 teacher had 18 more scholars to teach in 1866 than in 1861, 
 though it is preposterous to conceive that a pupil teacher, even 
 in the fifth year of his apprenticeship, could keep in order, much 
 less teach, 54 scholars.! It is to be observed also that, though 
 the number of schools under principal teachers had increased 
 from 6,258 to 8,303, the number of pupil teachers had diminished 
 by 5,306, or from 16,277 to 10,971. 
 
 If the Managers of Schools were so discouraged as to sanction 
 this reduction, we may readily conceive that they might permit 
 their interests and those of the schools to be sacrificed, by 
 accepting the minimum of time for the instruction of pupil 
 teachers in the Evening School, when, with reduced grants, 
 they had to enter into fresh agreements for service with the 
 principal teacher, and therefore, not seldom, to make injurious 
 concessions. The interest of the master in carefully training 
 and instructing the pupil teachers was diminished when the 
 Government withdrew the direct annual payment to him for- 
 the discharge of that duty. Mr. Cowie (p. 398, Minutes, 1865-6) 
 says : — " The schoolmaster also does not care to have pupil 
 " teachers, because he gets no pay for teaching them." Again, 
 " he has not only no inducement to bring forward boys as pupil 
 " teachers, but positive inducements to keep them back." More- 
 over, the substitution of agreements liable to be dissolved by 
 six months' notice for the indenture of five years' apprenticeship 
 
 ♦ See Table No. III. in Appendix. 
 
 t It would be difficult to exaggerate the disorganizing influence of such a 
 reduction of the staff of teachers in elementary schools, or the consternation with 
 which this inevitable consequence of the Revised Code was foreseen by all qualified 
 by experience to form an opinion as to the consequences of this administrative 
 change.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 25 
 
 rendered the relations of the pupil teacher and his master more 
 uncertain, and, in many cases, weakened the pupil's motives for 
 zealous application.* 
 
 Other causes have also been in operation to make the 
 training of the pupil teachers less successful. The school has 
 become a scene of mechanical drudgery, quite unlike the work 
 of the best Swiss, Dutch, and Prussian Schools, f The substitu- 
 tion of monitors for pupil teachers down to the minimum 
 requirements of the Code, has too often limited the aims of the 
 school to the standard of rudiments which earn the Capitation 
 Grant. Consequently, the daily work of the pupil teachers is 
 of a humbler character, which — though not necessarily — has 
 become less instructive in method. The pupil is discouraged and 
 spends his life in a dull and mean routine, in which he has 
 nothing but ihe rudiments to exercise his skill in teaching. The 
 quality of the pupil teachers has consequently so grievously 
 
 * " The principal reduction continues to be in the number and quality, or 
 *' both, of male pupil teachers. This reduction is not due so much to deficiency 
 •' in the number admitted, as to removals in tlie course of apprenticeship. The 
 " boys, as they grow up, are tempted with iiigher wages in other employments, 
 " and the Managers are isposed to let them go as they become more expensive." 
 —Min. of C, p. ix., 1866-7. 
 
 The School Manager finds it unprofitable to compete with " the demand for 
 " intelligent lads ; he cannot give sufficiently high pay." (P. .S98, 1865-6.) 
 
 t It has not been difficult (1) to improve the plans and internal construction of 
 schools and the arrangement of their desks and classes ; nor (2) to introduce a 
 class-organization based on the principle of free individual progress, with such 
 groups for collective instruction as are consistent with attention \o the laggard 
 and dull and witli the recognition of personal merit ; (3) nor to bring to the 
 teacher's aid some of tlie best apparatus. (The system of Standards under the 
 Kevised Code tends to derange all this organization.) (4) The discipline has also 
 been to a great extent based on a law of gentleness, and the teacher has been 
 trained to despise an appeal to fear rather than to conscience. (5) But the part 
 which the most refined methods of teaching play in making learning attractive to 
 children, and thus securing a willing obedience, is not generally appreciated. Even 
 many of the most able of the Principals of Training Colleges do not struggle 
 against the extreme imperfection of the metliods still in use in the instruction 
 of infants and of the lower classes of the boys' and girls' schools. All that can here 
 be said is, that the imitative faculties and the imagination, so strong in very young 
 children, are too little employed ; that the course of instruction is not delicately 
 progressive ; that the exaggerated methods of Pestalozzi have not passed through 
 the alembic of a practical English mind, by which their subtleties might 
 be exhaled and invaluable method remain; and in the higher classes, the 
 methods of teaching Grammar, Geography, History, and even Arithmetic, culti- 
 vate the memory too much at the expense of the intelligence. This is not 
 the place for further details. But those who are disposed to avail themselves 
 of such excellent suggestions as are contained in Mr. Menet's ' Practical Hints on 
 Teaching ' (Bell & Daldy, 1867) will find that this Manual was intended for an 
 organization of the school by classes, and not by standards, for the presence of a 
 due proportion of well-instructed Pupil Teachers, and for the cultivation of the 
 intelligence by graduated instruction — awakening the reason and appealing to the 
 imagination; and not at all for a dull, mean, mechanical drill in the humblest 
 elements of learning. Such methods as I found in 1839 in the Canton of Zurich, 
 in the schools of Holland, and in some parts of Germany, could not co-exist with 
 the Kevised Code.
 
 26 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 fallen off, that such Principals of Training Colleges as have had 
 19 years' experience find that the pupil teachers who now enter 
 those institutions are approaching every year the low standard 
 of the qualifications of the untrained candidates who formed the 
 only sources of supply to Training Colleges before 1848. 
 
 The Koyal Commissioners thus describe the contrast up to 
 1861 between pupil teachers and the untrained candidates for 
 admission into Training Colleges: — "The utmost extent of the 
 " attainments of the untrained students, on their admission to the 
 " Training Colleges, was an imperfect acquaintance with reading, 
 " writing, and arithmetic. The pupil teachers, on the other 
 " hand, have furnished a constant and sufficient supply to all 
 " the Training Colleges, and their acquirements and general 
 ** fitness for the posts for which they have been selected are best 
 '' attested by the fact, that only 12*68 per cent, of the total num- 
 " ber admitted, are removed during their apprenticeship, either 
 " by death, failure of health, failure in attainments, misconduct 
 " or other causes, including the adoption of other pursuits in life.* 
 " Considering the stringency of the tests applied to ascertain the 
 '^ qualifications — moral and intellectual — of each individual in 
 " every year of his apprenticeship, this is a most successful result." 
 —(Report, p. 106.) 
 
 These are no longer the characteristics of the Pupil Teachers 
 who seek to enter Training Colleges. Since the Revised Code, 
 the deterioration of their qualifications has been so rapid that it 
 was found necessary, at the Christmas examinations for admission 
 into the Training Colleges in 1865 and 1866, to reduce the 
 standard of attainments, in order to admit such numbers as might 
 approach to the probable demand for Certificated Teachers in 
 Schools. 
 
 Nevertheless, the discouragement to the choice of the 
 teacher's profession as a career has been so great, that the num- 
 ber of students in the Training Colleges has steadily diminished 
 since 1863. In December, 1862, there were 2,972, and at Christ- 
 mas, 1863, a maximum of 3,109 students in the Colleges. But 
 in 1866 there were only 2,403, or 706 fewer in three years. 
 
 According to returns moved for by Mr. Adderley (see Table 
 
 * Minutes, 1858-9, p. xxxii. 
 
 The Commissioners of Inquiry thus describe the pupils prior to the introduc- 
 tion of the Pupil-Teacher system: — "Most of the pupils on their entrance were 
 " exceedingly ignorant. The reading of a few was good, and all read with fair 
 " fluency, though seldom with correctness or 'good expression. The writing of 
 " about half was good, of one-fourth inferior, and of the remaining one-fourth very 
 " deficient. The arithmetic of about one-fourth was good as far as vulgar fractions, 
 '• about one-half could go as far as compound multiplication, whilst the remainder 
 " were ignorant even of these rules. Most of them, however, had a considerable 
 " knowledge of the Bible, derived principally from teaching at Sunday Schools." 
 — Report, p. 112.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 27 
 
 No. IV.), 2,513 Candidates presented themselves for examination 
 at the Training Colleges at Christmas, 1862, of whom 1,983 
 passed, and 1,755 entered in 1863. Whereas at Christmas, 1866, 
 ouly 1,584 Candidates were examined, of whom only 1,207 passed, 
 and 1,121 entered the Colleges in 1867. At Christmas, 1867, 
 the Candidates were only 1,478 in number, of whom 1,160 passed ; 
 and of these last 963 had been Pupil Teachers.* 1'his failure in 
 the supply of well-trained Pupil Teachers to the Colleges is a 
 grievous discouragement to institutions which are indispensable 
 to the maintenance of an adequate supply of efficient teachers. 
 This blow has fallen on them after an outlay of 308,010?. by 
 the subscribers on the buildings, which was met by grants of 
 137,9 67Z. from the Government, or, together, after an expendi- 
 ture of 445,977Z.t Though the Training Colleges have accom- 
 modation for 2,471 resident^ students, they contained only 
 1,922 in February, 1867. Their income was 133,113/. in 
 1863, and only 102,693Z. in 1866, owing to the withdrawal of 
 Parliamentary aid.§ 
 
 Regarding the diminution of the supply of Candidates, ab- 
 stractly from the deterioration of their qualifications, Mr. Cowie 
 says — " At present, the number of youths who apply for admis- 
 " sion to Training Colleges has been diminishing yearly. I 
 " give the numbers which relate to the 14 schools which I have 
 " inspected. This looks as if the current had set strongly in 
 " one direction. I see but slender probability of its changing 
 " at present" (p. 399). Again (p. 400, in 1865-6)—^' If the 
 "Managing Committees of Training Colleges * cannot' secure 
 " competent Teachers for * school managers ' from the want of 
 " persons to train for the office of teacher, all they can claim 
 " from the Committee of Council seems to be, that the regula- 
 " tions shall he revised which have cut off the supjoly of students ; 
 "and if, from other causes, this cannot he done effectually, the 
 ** estahlishments must he either permanently or temjporarily con- 
 " tracted, and perhaps some closed" The founders of Training 
 Colleges will scarcely regard this catastrophe with so much 
 complacency. 
 
 Mr. Cowie reports, in 1866-7 (p. 396), that '' two Colleges — 
 " Highburv and Chichester — have been given up." 
 
 But in'l865-6, Mr. Cowie states (p. 397) that "the waste 
 
 * I am informed that only 224 male candidates passed for Churcli of England 
 Colleges. St. Mark's College had 52 of these, and Battersea College 40, leaving 
 only 132 to be divided among all the other Colleges in England and Wales. This 
 is a disastrous result. 
 
 t See Minutes, 1866-67, p. 370. 
 
 J " In the Presbyterian Scotch Colleges the students, with the exception of a 
 •' small part of the females, are not boarded in Colleges, but provide their own 
 " lodgings.' — Minutes, 1866-7, p. xi. 
 
 § See Table VI. in Appendix.
 
 28 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OP 
 
 " of teachers is assumed to be about 7 per cent. — i.e. of the whole 
 " number now employed, it may be conjectured that 7 per cent. 
 *' will, in the course of 1866, leave the profession either by death 
 " or by change of occupation. To supply this waste, taking the 
 " number of certificated male teachers at about 6,300, about 440 
 ** w^ould be required to fill up vacancies, and therefore the num- 
 ** ber of new schools which would be supplied would be nil; 
 " whereas, it will appear, that a considerable number of new 
 " schools were placed under inspection in 1865." Again, in 
 1866-7 (p. 395) : — " The extension of the ' system of education * 
 ** which is so loudly called for, is impossible without a ready 
 " supply of teachers. Schoolmasters are not to be had. If we 
 " scarcely make good the annual waste, to talk of extension is 
 " out of the question." 
 
 " The quality of the young men now under training in point 
 " of intelligence and culture, compared with their predecessors of 
 " some years back, has," Mr. Cowie says (p. 394, 1866-7), '^ been 
 " generally noticed in unfavourable contrast." The circum- 
 stances which have operated injuriously on the education of 
 Pupil-Teacher candidates have been explained. " The reduc- 
 " tion of the minimum requirements which took place soon after 
 " the Eevised Code was passed " is, according to Mr. Cowie 
 (p. 394), " by some considered a cause of deterioration in the 
 *' class of certificated teachers." There were two motives 
 alleged for this reduction. One was, as Mr. Cowie intimates 
 (see p. 394, Min., 1866-7), to bring the salaries of masters 
 wdthin the range of the resources of schools ; the other, to faci- 
 litate the introduction of masters wdth lower stipends to apathetic 
 and rural districts. 
 
 The first of these objects could not be admitted as a motive 
 of public policy, unless we were to adopt the maxim of certain 
 American school managers, who are reported by Mr. Fraser 
 to say, " that the cheapest schoolmaster is the best." It is 
 obvious that tlie standard oi the elementary education, in a 
 great country, ought not to depend on the intelligence, disposi- 
 tion, or resources of such local managers. 
 
 The second object, as is shown in the Keport of the Committee 
 of Council for 1866-7 (pp. xii., xiii., xiv.), was rather, to a great 
 extent, to be met by increasing the supply of mistresses for 
 mixed schools, in small rural parishes. But it should not be 
 forgotten, that Mr. Matthew Arnold reports that in Prussia the 
 qualifications of a Teacher in any district in which there is only 
 a primary, and not a superior school, are required to be higher 
 than where both exist. 
 
 If the qualifications of the Candidate Pupil Teachers on 
 entering the Training Colleges had been kept up, these expe-
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 29 
 
 dients might have rendered the reduction of the minimum 
 requirements for teachers' certificates (of which Mr. Cowie 
 speaks) as unjustifiable as they were injurious. As it is, 
 a lower kind of teacher has been trained, in numbers so dimi- 
 nished as to be unequal to more than the annual waste. 
 " The failure in the supply of trained teachers is a very great 
 " blow to the maintenance of the Certificate ; for the increasing 
 " difficulty of finding suitable persons to fill vacancies in schools 
 " will add to the number of those who are opposed to the condi- 
 '* tion of the Certificate."— (Cowie, p. 395, 1866-7.) 
 
 The Committee of Council had intended, by the Minutes of 
 1846, to create and sustain a scheme of education for teachers 
 equal to that possessed by any other country. The plan of the 
 apprenticeship and Training Colleges obtained the deliberate 
 approbation of the Royal Commission in 1861, and the " nine 
 " years' training of teachers — five as Pupil Teachers, two at tlie 
 " Normal School, and two years under Probation," — appeared to 
 Mr. Fraser especially to excite admiration in America (p. 50, 
 Mr. Eraser's Report). The existence of this system has been 
 endangered by the Revised Code, because its efficiency has been 
 impaired. The whole scheme originated with the Government, and 
 was by them proposed to Parliament. The Managers of Schools 
 were encouraged to adopt it by direct grants. Whatever exten- 
 sion took place in our elementary school system, and whatever 
 degree of efficiency it attained, were the immediate 'offspring of 
 the Minutes of 1846. The period of failure and decline dated 
 from the substitution of the Capitation Grant of the Revised 
 Code, with its conditions, for the grants under these Minutes. 
 That change Ijas proved that the voluntary zeal of the Managers 
 of Schools had already been loaded with burthens which it was 
 scarcely able to bear, and that it could not supply the amount of 
 money grants withdrawn, nor fulfil much beyond the minimum 
 conditions on which these grants were administered under the 
 Revised Code. The whole system of public aid has thus been 
 shaken to its very centre — the Managers of Schools have been 
 discouraged — the emoluments of the teacher have been lessened, 
 and his hopes disappointed. Pupil teachers are therefore scarce, 
 and are easily attracted to other employment. Their education 
 is not well cared for, because it has ceased to be the interest of 
 the principal teacher ; their qualifications at the end of their 
 five years' engagement are much lower than formerly. The 
 Training Colleges have an insufficient supply of inferior students, 
 who pass a lower examination for their certificates, but, even 
 though thus imperfectly qualified, they are not trained in greater 
 numbers than are required to supply the annual waste. The
 
 80 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 extension even of a deteriorated system of instruction is impeded 
 by the effect of the Revised Code in discouraging the apprentice- 
 ship, and the supply of Students to Training Colleges. 
 
 Grave changes made in the character of the inspection have not 
 secured the expected improvement of the scholars in the know- 
 ledge of the three rudiments. 'J lie inspection has been converted 
 into a mechanical examination of these rudiments, contrary to 
 the suggestions of the Royal Commission, who intended that 
 the examination in these subjects should be conducted by 
 separate officers.* The attention of the Managers and Teachers 
 has, by the conditions of the Capitation Grant, been injuriously 
 concentrated on a routine of daily drill in reading, writing, and 
 ciphering. The result has been a larger amount of failures 
 among the scholars when examined in these subjects, and the 
 general neglect of the higher subjects of instruction, and of 
 cultivation of the general intelligence of the children. The 
 schools are lower in their aims, the scholars worse instructed, 
 and there is a tendency to deterioration in the whole machinery 
 of education. 
 
 The Revised Code has constructed nothing; it has only 
 pulled down. It has not simplified the administration. It did 
 not pretend to accelerate the rate of building schools, or to im- 
 prove their structure. It has not promoted the more rapid 
 diffusion of annual grants and inspection to the apathetic parts 
 of cities, or the founding of schools in small parishes and for 
 the sparse population of rural districts. It has generally dis- 
 couraged all instruction above the elements and failed in teach- 
 ing them. It has disorganized and threatens to destroy the whole 
 system of training teachers and providing an efficient machinery 
 of instruction for schools. These ruins are its only monuments. 
 It has not succeeded in being efficient, but it is not even cheap ; 
 for it wastes the public money without producing the results 
 which were declared to be its main object. 
 
 This analysis of the disorganizing tendencies of the Revised 
 Code has been a painful but necessary duty, because the machi- 
 nery of Training Colleges, Teachers, and Pupil Teachers created 
 by the Minutes of 1846 must be regarded, not merely in its 
 existing relations to the denominational system in co-operation 
 with the State, but as a means of supplying that teaching staff 
 without which no system of education can exist. To impair or 
 to destroy this is therefore a blow, not only to the denomina- 
 tional system of schools, but to any scheme of national educa- 
 
 * I should prefer tliat the preseut Inspectors should be responsible for both 
 examination and for inspection, and that their reports should be so ordered that 
 they could not neglect either duty.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 31 
 
 tion, for none can exist without competent teachers, and it would 
 not be an easy task to replace the Training Colleges now existing. 
 
 Some other indications may likewise be gathered from the 
 effects of the Eevised Code which it may be desirable to note. 
 
 Up to 1861-2 progress had been made to a great extent, 
 attained by the action of the Government, in forming public 
 opinion — stimulating local activity, guiding this by means of 
 inspection and by the conditions of aid, and sustaining local 
 exertions by proportionate assistance. The Kevised Code may, 
 from one point of view, be considered as an effort on the part 
 of the Government to withdraw from this position of active 
 sympathy and consequent responsibility, in the hope and expec- 
 tation of thereby evoking a greater amount of local activity. 
 Bearing in mind that the local initiative never had been assumed 
 by the Government, the Eevised Code has settled the question 
 whether the Committee of Council can shift on to the local 
 managers a greater share of the annual charge for the support 
 of schools, and whether the regulations ensuring the efficiency 
 of schools can be safely relaxed. It has clearly established the 
 principle that whatever power be delegated to local authorities, 
 and whatever discretion be confided to the School Managers, tlie 
 standard of elementaiy educatioQ will not be maintained, unless 
 the Committee of Council on Education make this its chief and 
 immediate concern, and frame the conditions of its Grants in aid 
 of Schools so as to ensure this result. This conclusion implies 
 the primary necessity of the maintenance of a Central Inspection, 
 and of aid from the Parliamentary Grant. 
 
 It is clear that the Education Department had been in 
 advance of public opinion as to the outlay required for the effi- 
 ciency of schools ; as to the number and skill of the teaching 
 staff; and as to the nature of the instruction. When the amount 
 of aid was reduced, and the conditions of the grants were relaxed, 
 local intelligence and zeal failed to keep up the efficiency of 
 the schools. If, therefore, the Committee of Council have not 
 intended to supersede the existing denominational system by 
 some other, they must bear in mind that, before the Kevised Code, 
 the strain on the local exertions and contributions was as great 
 as could be borne — and that the appeal to local intelligence and 
 zeal for greater sacrifices has failed. Apparently this conviction 
 has at length established itself in the Education Department. 
 
 The Committee of Council have recently adopted a Minute, 
 the intention of which is to prevent the further reduction of the 
 number of the Pupil Teachers and the neglect of their education. 
 But I fear that the Minute is so complicated, and the interest 
 which the Managers have in availing themselves of it is so
 
 32 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OP 
 
 obscure, that it will have little, if any, effect. Before, however, 
 describing simpler and more efficacious expedients, it is desirable 
 that the provisions of this Minute should be explained. 
 
 In their Minutes of 1866-7 (p. x.) the Committee show that 
 the loss of Pupil Teachers annually increases during the term 
 of their engagement. The table given exhibits the following 
 progressively greater deficiency in each year : — 
 
 
 2iid Year. 
 
 3rd Year. 
 
 4th Year. 
 
 5'h Year. 
 
 Males 
 
 43 
 
 93 
 
 130 
 
 145 
 
 Females 
 
 * 
 
 63 
 
 79 
 
 199 
 
 The whole loss during the five years of apprenticeship was 752 
 in 11,221 pupil teachers. " It was to check this falling away 
 " in the most valuable years of service, that the third and fourth 
 " paragraphs of the Minute of 20th February, 1867, were framed." 
 " The effect of this Minute is that a male pupil teacher who gets 
 " to the middle of his apprenticeship represents an extra grant 
 " of 5Z., 10/., 13/., 15/., or 18/. to his school if he completes his 
 " apprenticeship, and gains admission into a Training College, 
 " the amount varying according to the proficiency which he has 
 " acquired and maintains. If it were not for the increasing ex- 
 " pense of the pupil teachers as they grow older, the managers and 
 " principal teachers of schools have every motive to retain them 
 " because their efficiency in upholding discipline and imparting 
 " instruction, being much greater than that of novices, tends to 
 " produce a better and more agreeable school, and to qualify it 
 " for a larger grant by passing more of its children. The extra 
 " grant offered by the Minute comes in aid of the increasing 
 " expense of the later years of the pupil teacher's service, and 
 " we entertain a confident hope that the prospect of obtaining 
 " a share of it will help to retain apprentices in their schools, 
 " and to stimulate both them and their masters in vigorously 
 " applying themselves to the lessons out of school-hours whereby 
 " those prizes are to be earned." 
 
 It is, however, clear that these results will not be obtained 
 unless the managers, either voluntarily or in obedience to regu- 
 lation, require that the pupil teachers shall receive one hour and 
 a half of instruction daily — not in the evening school — nor unless 
 the master obtain a separate remuneration dependent upon the 
 success of the pupil teachers. 
 
 Another part of the Minute of the 20th of February, 1867, 
 encourages an increase of the number of Pupil Teachers by 
 *' an additional grant of Is. 4:d. per pass in reading, writing, 
 " and arithmetic up to a sum not exceeding 8/. for any one 
 ** school (Department)," on certain conditions specified. 
 
 * In this year there is an apparent gain of 181, who entered on their engage- 
 ment by passing the examination of the second y^r.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 33 
 
 This Minute is intended to correct acknowledged defects 
 which threaten the efficiency, if not the existence, both of 
 the Pupil-Teacher system, and of the Training Colleges. The 
 improvement, thus introduced, is in the right direction, but this 
 Minute ought to be stripped of technicalities, — the limitations 
 on the grants ouglit to be less restricted, and the encourage- 
 ment, both to the teachers and managers, more certain, obvious, 
 and direct. 
 
 I have already expressed my opinion that the individual 
 examination should be regarded as superadded to the general 
 Inspection which preceded the Revised Code. This combination 
 was intended by the Minute of 1853, relating to the Capitation 
 Grant of that date. The individual examination might be 
 chiefly confided to the assistant, under the occasional superin- 
 tendence of the Inspector, while he inspected a separate depart- 
 ment of the same group of schools. The grant contemplated 
 under the Minute of Feb. 2Uth, 1867, but with a higher rate of 
 aid, should be given, without any complicated conditions, on 
 proof of efficiency of instruction in the higher subjects, and on 
 condition of the employment of one pupil teacher for every 25 
 or 30 scholars after tlie first 25. 
 
 This cursory notice of a mode of adjusting the Capitation 
 Grant so as to supply the Managers with motives to maintain 
 in efficiency the teaching machinery of the schools and the 
 higher subjects of instruction, may for the presentv suffice. It 
 will receive more detailed attention in a subsequent part of this 
 Memorandum. 
 
 Among the objects which the Royal Commissioners sought to 
 accomplish, was to render the present system " applicable to the 
 " poorer, no less than the richer, districts throughout the whole 
 "country" (p. 328). They estimated that, "in round numbers, 
 " the annual grants in 1860 promoted the education of 920,000 
 " children, whilst they left unaffected the education of 1,250,000 
 " others of the same class" (p. 83). The number of aided Day 
 School groups inspected in the year ending Aug. 31st, 1866, 
 was 8,049, with 12,504 Departments or schools, and an average 
 attendance of 1,048,403 scholars, while there were 1,510,871 
 on the books, and 1,234,491 were present at the examination. 
 The school-rooms could accommodate 1,668,294 scholars, at 
 eight square feet of superficial area for each child. 
 
 It is not my intention to attempt an exhaustive estimate of 
 the number of children taught only in unaided schools, or 
 receiving little or no education. 
 
 The number in 1866 whose education is affected by aided 
 schools may be fairly reckoned by the attendance on the day 
 
 D
 
 34 MEMOEANDUM ON THE PEESENT STATE OF 
 
 of examination, or 1,234,491. These scholars form a very large 
 proportion of those attending the schools supported by religious 
 denominations, which, according to the Commissioners, amounted 
 in 1860 to 1,549,312 children. Besides these, there were 
 43,098 scholars taught in schools not specially connected with 
 religious denominations : — 47,748 in schools supported by 
 taxation, and 35,000 in collegiate, superior, or richer endowed 
 schools. They further concluded that 860,304 scholars were 
 taught in private schools, one-third of whom belonged to the 
 upper and middle classes : leaving 573,536 who are children of 
 the classes usually educated in primary schools. Satisfactory 
 means to arrive at similar exhaustive statistics in 1867 do not 
 exist. But we may fairly conclude that at least 350,000 
 children attend unaided denominational primary day-schools, 
 and 600,000 are in elementary private schools, or nearly one 
 million of children are in schools of the same class as those 
 aided, but which receive no assistance from the annual grants. 
 In the uninspected schools, the education generally obtained is 
 of a much inferior character to that given in the schools aided 
 by the public grants. The number of children who obtain no 
 education either in denominational, or public, or private schools, 
 or whose education is limited to so short a time, and is so 
 meagre, as to be almost worthless, is probably very great. 
 
 It would, therefore, probably be a fair estimate of the present 
 state of the education of the manual labour class if we were to 
 reckon 1,250,000 to be on the average in attendance on aided 
 and inspected day-schools. But that their attendance is often 
 so irregular, so rapidly intermittent, and so capriciously changed 
 from school to school, as to minimize the advantages which such 
 children might otherwise derive from the most efficient class of 
 existing day-schools. Some of these evils can only be corrected 
 by the growth of a sense of parental obligation as to the educa- 
 tion of children. They certainly are not to be cured at once by 
 a compulsory system of school attendance which no vigilance 
 could enforce on migratory and apathetic parents. Then we 
 may safely reckon that at least one million of children are in 
 unaided and uninspected schools. These scholars are subject to 
 all the hindrances affecting the improvement of the class just 
 described, and to the further grave disadvantages of attendance 
 at schools of an exceedingly inferior type — in which, at best, 
 only a very imperfect acquaintance with the rudiments could 
 be obtained. We should thus account for 2,250,000 children 
 out of upwards of 3,500,000* — if w^e were sanguine enough 
 
 * This estimate is obtained by adding six years' increase to the population, as 
 ascertained at the last census — the increase being supposed to be at the same rate 
 as in the last decennial period, or 1*19 per cent, per annum.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 35 
 
 to adopt the Prussian standard of one-sixth. After due allow- 
 ance for the children belonging to the middle and upper classes, 
 and for those in various ways now educated at the public 
 expense, according to the estimate of the Koyal Commission, 
 it is at least clear that there are always many children who are 
 of school age and not at work, but who are in no schools at all.* 
 The inquiries of the Committee of the Manchester and 
 Salford Education Bill in 1851-2, and of the Manchester Educa- 
 tion Aid Society, and the Diocesan Board of London, in 1865-6, 
 disclose a condition of ignorance and apathy among the poorest 
 portion of great cities which requires some heroic remedy. 
 
 Various causes have combined to retard the growth of the 
 denominational system. It has failed to satisfy the wants of 
 the poorest districts of large cities and of remote rural districts. 
 Where the sensuality, indigence, or apathy of the parents is 
 greatest, the zeal of the religious bodies has encountered a task 
 beyond its strength. Those who would promote popular educa- 
 tion on account of its social and political bearing, demand that 
 opportunity should be given to the national forces outside the 
 pale of the religious organization, at least so far as to enable 
 municipal and other bodies to contribute to the annual resources 
 of the schools — to found more schools in neglected districts — 
 and to provide for their support. Meanwhile, the Government, 
 by a wise extension of the principle of the Factories' Jlegulation 
 Acts, has rendered the provision of the means of education 
 necessary to the successful working of the new Acts.f 
 
 It may therefore be expedient first to examine the obstacles 
 to the extension of the present denominational system, aided by 
 the Parliamentary Grants. 
 
 Some of these obstacles are giving way before the gradual 
 influence of time and experience. In an address delivered at a 
 Meeting of the Congregational Union of England and Wales, 
 at Manchester, on Friday, October 11th, 1867, Mr. Baines, the 
 member for Leeds, avowed a complete change in his own opinion, 
 and that of a large part of the Congregational Communions, as 
 to the scruples which had prevented their accepting aid for their 
 schools from the Government Grants, and had made them earnest 
 and persevering opponents of the interference of the State in 
 public education. He urged that the Congregationalists should 
 seek to be admitted to participate in the school grants, without 
 
 * Since the above estimate was in type, I have received from an able member 
 of the Manchester Education Bill Committee the results of an exhaustive local in- 
 quiry in two wards of that city, which I print in Appendix IX. 
 
 t See, in Appendix No. VIII., abstract of recent legislation — communicated by 
 Mr. Redgrave, H.M. Inspector of Factories. 
 
 D 2
 
 36 MEMOEANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 any such condition as to tlie constitution, government, instruc- 
 tion, or inspection of their schools as would imply that the 
 Government were cognizant of a religious element in them. 
 They would then accept aid, and admit lay inspection, and 
 comply with all the administrative conditions solely as means 
 of promoting the efficiency of the secular instruction, which, 
 with a view to political and social improvements, they regard as 
 a legitimate object of the State. 
 
 I attach great value to this adhesion, for, in the first place, 
 the Congregationalists number 5,500 congregations, above half- 
 a-million communicants, and assemble, in 5,000 Sunday-schools, 
 more than half-a-million scholars.* None of these communions 
 have yet devoted much of their energy to the founding of day- 
 schools, but their contributions to missionary enterprise show 
 what sacrifices they are capable of making for any cause which 
 deeply stirs their sympathies and awakens their zeal. 
 
 Their congregations contain many of the most intelligent 
 and wealthy of the middle classes, whose influence was severely 
 felt by the Government of Sir Kobert Peel, in 1842, in the defeat 
 of the education clauses of Sir James Graham's Factory Eegula- 
 tion Bill. But their congregations are also, both in the great 
 towns and in villages and remote hamlets, often the missionaries 
 of the manual-labour class. Some consist almost exclusively of 
 artisans, and others contain a large proportion among their com- 
 municants. 
 
 Many of the less known sects will follow the lead of the 
 Congregationalists. The Primitive Methodists have 3,118 
 chapels, besides 3,192 places rented for Divine worship. Their 
 communicants number 135,247 ; they have 2,934 Sunday- 
 schools, in which they teach 234,794 scholars. Their congrega- 
 tions consist almost solely of humble tradesmen, and families 
 supported by manual labour. The amount of the contributions 
 of factory hands, colliers, quarrymen, masons, and other handi- 
 craftsmen, in their sects, towards the building of their chapels 
 and Sunday-schools, is very remarkable. 
 
 Thus the admission of the Congregationalist Dissenters to 
 the benefit of the school grants is not an insignificant event. 
 It points also to the early co-operation of the humbler sects of 
 Dissenters which are mainly composed of the religious portion 
 of the manual-labour class. 
 
 Through the position which the deacons and class-leaders of 
 such congregations will come to hold in the Committees of the 
 
 * The following statistics of the Baptist Denomination are extracted from their 
 * Handbook for 1868/ In Great Britain there were 2610 chapels, 2381 "churches'* 
 (i. e. organized religious congregations), 220,163 " members," i,e. communicants, and 
 191,551 Sunday scholars.
 
 ^ THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 37 
 
 day-schools, parents of the manual-labour class will be more 
 fully awakened to a concern for the education of their children. 
 They will more and more desire to assist in superintending it, 
 and they will make sacrifices proving the sense they have of 
 parental obligation.* 
 
 Whatever may ultimately be the result of the co-operation 
 of the Congregationalists and other communions with the Govern- 
 ment, it is obvious that the progress must be gradual. The 
 charge of an efficient day-school will greatly increase the bur- 
 thens which these congregations have to bear. The annual 
 cost of the education of each scholar is about 30s., and of this 
 outlay 12s. were in 1860 provided by Government Grants. If 
 this rate of aid were renewed, 18s. per head would remain as a 
 charge on local resources. Of this, a larger part would be 
 derived from school-pence in the day-schools of these sects than 
 in other schools. If the weekly pence averaged 3d. per scholar, 
 12s. per annum might be derived from this source, leaving 6s. to 
 be subscribed by the congregation. 
 
 The obstacles to the founding of day-schools by these reli- 
 gious bodies have hitherto been twofold. The day-school has 
 not formed, so distinctly as the Sunday-school, a part of their 
 conception of the accessories of a religious congregation. In the 
 humbler of these communions, the outlay on their chapels and 
 on the support of their ministers has absorbed their resources 
 
 • 
 
 * The small proportion which the school-pence bear to the whole income of 
 primary schools is a sign of the small interest which the parents take in the 
 education of their children. They have little opportunity of forming an intelligent 
 interest. They are* seldom present at the Inspector's visit or invited to any genuine 
 examination of the school, or even to a display of the children's acquirements. 
 Few persons have had the foresight which Dr. Temple showed when he proposed 
 that the parents should select a certain number from their body to act on the 
 School Committee. (There would be no difficulty in finding sagacious and thought- 
 ful parents to co-operate as managers on the School Committee in the manufacturing 
 districts, nor in those agricultural parishes in which the farmers and tradesmen 
 send their children to the parochial school. Where the school is attended only by 
 the children of rural labourers, it is to be feared that such representation would at 
 present be useless.) The parents can select the school, when the opportunity for 
 choice exists, and can withdraw their child — if not required by the factory law to 
 send him as the condition of his employment to the only existing school. But 
 when these things have been taken into consideration, is it uncharitable to say, 
 that families which earn from 30s. to 60s., or 6s. per head weekly, on the average 
 of the entire factory population of the cotton and woollen districts, ought to make 
 greater sacrifices than an average payment of 2^d. per week, or 10s. a-year, for each 
 child's education ? If they paid more, their right in the management of the school 
 would become more apparent. The present meagre payment is the ground from 
 which, with greater intelligence and virtue, they will step into the discharge of 
 the parental right to, at least, assist in regulating their children's education. 
 
 On the other hand, if the time should come when the political relations of 
 primary education rise into a clearer light, the school-rates which reach the 
 labourer's or artisan's cottage, would remind him that this tax is collected for the 
 etlucation of his child, and inspire him, if he be a worthy and intelligent man, with a 
 desire personally to aid in securing its efficiency.
 
 38 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 They have had scruples which prevented their accepting Govern- 
 ment aid, and without that assistance they were unable to 
 establish schools which could hope to compete with the aided 
 schools. If they are now to succeed, they will owe that success 
 — as the Wesleyans do — to the income which they will obtain 
 from school-pence, unless they also obtain aid from local rates. 
 
 But threepence per week will only be paid by the most 
 thoughtful and prudent of the manual-labour class. Below that 
 class stagnate the lees of the city population, which missionary 
 zeal itseli* cannot reach. 
 
 But it is not only in cities that the system of Parliamentary 
 Grants to the schools of the religious communions finds limits. 
 There are, everywhere, districts in which the zeal that has 
 created the denominational system is languid. The non-resi- 
 dence of proprietors — the indifference of the residents — the 
 smallness of parishes, the sparsity of the population have been 
 truly enumerated as reasons for this apathy. But the principle 
 on which the present system rests, could only procure the com- 
 pletion of the whole fabric of national education, within that 
 time to which the political wants of the nation now point, if the 
 Government were clothed with the power of the initiative, and 
 if the rate of public grants were considerably increased. There 
 remains the obvious expedient, suggested in 1852-3, and renewed 
 in the Bill which Mr. Bruce introduced in the last session, of 
 awakening the municipal spirit and power in aid of the voluntary 
 zeal which has created the denominational system. 
 
 When the Government, by the Minutes of 1846, entered 
 vigorously into co-operation with the religious communions, it 
 had determined, after seven years of trial, that no other prin- 
 ciple than that of religious zeal could then be relied upon for the 
 promotion of popular education. There were no signs that public 
 opinion had been aroused to a sense of the political importance 
 of the education of the manual-labour class. The Town Councils 
 had only languidly, and by no means generally, availed them- 
 selves of such powers as those conferred on them by Mr. Ewart's 
 Free Libraries Act. The measure, carried through Parliament 
 by the present Speaker of the House of Commons, permitting 
 Boards of Guardians to pay, from the poor-rates, the school- 
 pence of children of outdoor paupers, has, even to this day, been 
 almost everywhere neglected. Boards of Guardians have been, 
 step by step, induced to make the education of pauper children 
 in workhouses fairly efficient, but only since Sir Eobert Peel 
 provided, by a public grant, for the salaries of teachers in work- 
 house schools.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 39 
 
 It may be doubted whether, even if extensive powers, such as 
 those contemplated by the Manchester and Salford Education 
 Bill of lS5!i, or Lord Russell's Boroughs Bill of 1853, had been 
 then conferred on Town Councils without the obligation of 
 carrying them into execution, the rate-payers and the municipal 
 bodies had at that time attained so thorough a conviction of the 
 nature and extent of the measures necessary to secure the educa- 
 tion of the neglected classes, that such measures would have been 
 at once carried out, except in the great centres of manufacturing 
 and commercial activity. It is even now questionable whether 
 if the same principle of a local rate in aid of the denomina- 
 tional system — now embodied in the Bill introduced last session 
 by Mr. Bruce, Mr. Forster, and Mr. Algernon Egerton — be 
 adopted, merely permissive powers will have much effect. It 
 may rather be expedient to render the adoption of the Act a 
 matter of discretion with the Privy Council. 
 
 While therefore the analysis of these proposals is reserved 
 for a later portion of this Memorandum, it is expedient here to 
 consider the means by which the present system can be enabled 
 to overflow its apparent limits. Happily, all plans for deriving 
 aid from local rates contemplate the support of the existing 
 system of denominational schools, and propose to incorporate the 
 authority and regulations of the Committee of Privy Council. 
 
 The Koyal Commission reported * " that the small parishes 
 " are, in most respects, in a less advantageous position with 
 " regard to education than the large ones. It is certain they 
 " have, in point of fact, far less availed themselves of the 
 " Government assistance ; and the proof of this is, that the 
 " average numbers in uninspected schools are 34, those in in- 
 *' spected schools are 75. If we wanted further evidence, it would 
 " be found in the conditions of the schools, as they have been 
 " recently described, in different parts of the country. In the 
 " Diocese of Oxford, out of 339 parishes, with a population 
 " below 600, and containing a population of 125,000, only 24 
 " schools two years since (1858) were in receipt of Government 
 " aid ; in Herefordshire, out of 130 parishes with a similar 
 *^ population, only five received such aid ; in Somerset, out of 
 ** 280 such parishes, only one ; in Devon, out of 245, only two ; 
 " in Dorset, out of 179, ten ; in Cornwall, out of 71, one ; and 
 " in the Archdeaconry of Coventry, Birmingham excepted, out 
 " of 70, seven. And these facts become more significant if we 
 " bear in mind the large proportion of schools in parishes, whose 
 " population exceeds 600, which have connected themselves with 
 " the Committee of Council. * If we look,' says Mr. Nash 
 
 * P. 317-318.
 
 40 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 " Stephenson, *at the average of all parishes over 600 that are 
 " * under inspection, we shall find it to be 1 in 2*97 ; and if 
 ** * we look at the average of all parishes under 600, we shall 
 « ' find it only to reach 1 in 2644.' " 
 
 Since the Eoyal Commission reported, progress has been 
 made in the building of Schools and the extension of annual 
 grants in these small parishes, but the general complexion 
 of the facts remains unchanged. The number of Poor-Law 
 Districts in England and Wales containing above 500 inha- 
 bitants is 6,619, and of these 4,204, or nearly tAvo-thirds, 
 contain schools aided by annual grants, whereas the Poor-Law 
 Districts containing less than 500 inhabitants numbered 8,219, 
 of which 7,295 districts, with a population of 1,772,276, and 
 563,849 children of school age, received no aid from annual 
 grants, or only one in about nine of these small districts 
 obtained such assistance. 
 
 The Duke of Marlborough, in the House of Lords, called 
 attention to the fact that these parochial divisions for poor 
 relief are not ecclesiastical parishes or school districts. " While 
 " in the public return the unaided parishes are stated at 11,024, 
 " the real number of school parishes unaided is 8,866. And 
 " when we come to the parishes with less than 500 population, 
 ** where the greatest amount of destitution is felt, we find, that 
 " whereas the Poor-Law parishes unaided having a population 
 " under 500 amount to 7,996, the school parishes unaided with 
 " a population under 500 amount to 5,392. That was the state 
 " of things in 1863-4 ; but in 1866, to which year the Keport 
 " of the Committee of Council now on the Table reaches, I find, 
 " ' that the total number of Poor-Law parishes unaided has been 
 " ' reduced from 1 1,024 to 10,404 ; and giving the same pro- 
 *' * portion of difference between the Poor-Law parishes and the 
 " * school parishes, the entire number of unaided parishes is 
 " ' 8,368.' " 
 
 Mr. Warburton* reported to the Eoyal Commission that out 
 of 159 schools in parishes having less than 500 inhabitants in 
 Wiltshire, only nine were then in receipt of annual grants. " In 
 " stating these facts,f indeed," say the Commissioners, *' we 
 " must remember to take into account that a number of these 
 " parishes, probably amounting to 15 per cent., possess each a 
 " population of less than 100, and therefore could scarcely 
 " support any school beyond a Dame's School." In 1866-7 the 
 Committee of Council report,:]: that out of 8,219 Poor-Law 
 Districts with less than 500 inhabitants, 1,783 had less than 
 
 * P. 318. t P. 318. X P. cix.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 41 
 
 100, and 3,923 less than 200, while 5,641 had less than 300 
 inhabitants.* 
 
 Among the obstacles to the extension of Government aid, 
 therefore, is the smallness of the population of many of the 
 rural districts. Before examining the nature of these obstacles, 
 it may be well to call to mind that many of these small parishes 
 contain schools. Mr. Bellairs reports, that in his district, out of 
 a total of 429 schools, there are 141 aided and 288 unaided. 
 Among the schools thus without grants are not a few founded 
 by proprietors or other wealthy inhabitants, or by clergy, 
 who are unwilling to accept aid or admit inspection. Of such 
 schools some are comparatively efficient. But when all such 
 schools are enumerated, there still remains a large class of 
 unaided schools, respecting which the Eoyal Commissioners 
 report, " Mr. Fraser, who has not been sparing in his strictures 
 *' on the shortcomings of many assisted schools, statesf broadly 
 " ' that it seems impossible to bring a school into a good state of 
 " * efficiency unless the managers avail themselves to the fullest 
 " * extent — particularly in the employment of pupil teachers — 
 *' * of the resources offered by the Committee of Privy Council. 
 " * I only met with two exceptions to this rule.' Mr. Vv'ilkinson 
 " sums up his examination of the state of education in the 
 " schools in the conclusion J that * the degree of efficiency of 
 " * inspected schools is very much greater than that of schools 
 " ' which are not inspected,' while of 35 witnessed whom he 
 " examined, 33 answered in favour of inspected schools. Mr, 
 " Winder says as explicitly, * the best public inspected schools 
 " * achieve, I suppose, something like the maximum of success 
 " * possible under the present conditions of attendance ;' adding, 
 " * No unassisted public school, and no private school under 
 *' ' chcumstances which admit of a fair comparison, could com- 
 " * pare with the best assisted schools, but the indifferent 
 " * assisted schools are no better than those which are un- 
 " ' assisted.' Mr. Hare, speaking§ of the great seaport towns 
 " on the East of England, tells us that * none of the unassisted 
 " ' schools in Hull, excepting the Boys' British School, will 
 " ' bear comparison with the assisted achools.' And finally, 
 " Mr. Cumin speaks in similar terms of the western seaports, 
 *' Bristol nnd Plymouth. He says,|| 'The private scholars 
 " ' whom I did examine were very inferior to the best public 
 
 * The distribution is as follows: — Number of Poor-Law Districts having 
 between 400 and 500 inhabitants, 1,140 ; between 300 and 400 inhabitants, 1,438 ; 
 between 200 and 300 inhabitants, 1,718 ; between 100 and 200 inhabitants, 2,140 ; 
 less than 100 inliabitants, 1,783. Total, 8,219 Poor-Law Districts. 
 
 t Report, p. 277. X P. 277. § P. 277. |1 P. 278.
 
 42 MEMOKANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 " * scholars. At Bristol ... I found only one good public 
 " * school T^hich was conducted by voluntary efforts alone.' " 
 
 The extension of the annual grants and of inspection to the 
 unaided school districts is therefore desirable. The Royal 
 Commissioners reported, in 1860, that * " The unassisted public 
 " schools are far more numerous than those which are assisted, 
 " amounting to 15,952 schools, exclusive of 115 factory schools, 
 " containing 17,000 scholars, whereas the assisted public schools 
 " are only 6,897. They are inferior, however, in the number of 
 " the scholars ; those on the books of the assisted public schools 
 " being 917,255, those on the books of the 15,952 unassisted 
 " public schools, only 654,393. Some of these schools are 
 " unassisted, because the managers or patrons reject assistance, 
 " either from religious scruples, or because their patrons dislike 
 " interference. These obstacles, however, are comparatively 
 " rare, and are rapidly diminishing. The great cause which 
 " deprives schools of Government assistance is their non-per- 
 *' formance of the conditions on which that assistance is offered, 
 " a non-fulfilment of which the principal causes a^re poverty, 
 " smallness of population, indifference, or, as it has been lately 
 " called, apathy." Since the Report of the Commission, the 
 number of assisted and inspected schools had risen, in 1866, to 
 8,303, and the number of scholars present on the day of exami- 
 nation to 1,234,491, while accommodation was provided in the 
 schools (at 8 square feet per child) for 1,688,294 scholars. 
 
 But the question how the denominational system aided by 
 public grants can be extended so as to provide for the education 
 of the lowest classes of the great cities, and for the population 
 of the small and apathetic parishes, has not been solved by the 
 degree of advance made in the last seven years. To the condi- 
 tion of these unaided parishes, Mr. Walter has perseveringly 
 called the attention of Parliament and the public. 
 
 The object to be obtained is twofold. First, to raise the 
 efficiency of the unaided schools at least to the level of those 
 which receive assistance and are inspected. Mr. Fraser points 
 out the conditions indispensable to this result. Then secondly, to 
 found schools where they do not exist, and to evoke the local 
 resources necessary to meet the public grants. 
 
 The Committee of Council, in their Report for 1866-7, p. xii., 
 point out the way in which many of the unaided small parishes 
 might comply with the conditions of the present Minutes by 
 placing mixed schools in charge of a mistress. They estimate! 
 
 * P. 278. 
 
 t See in Appendix Extract from pp. xii., xiii., xiv. of the Keport of the Com- 
 mittee of Council on Education, 1866-7
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 43 
 
 the annual outlay in such a school for 60 or 70 children at 67Z., 
 — certainly at too low a rate — and show that half that expendi- 
 ture might be obtained from the Government grants. The 
 passage is quoted in the Appendix in order that the whole 
 details may be examined. By the introduction of mistresses 
 trained at Hockerill, the greater part of the small parishes of 
 Hertfordshire,* and of other neighbouring districts, have thus 
 been enabled to participate in the public grants. And there 
 can be no doubt that such arrangements afford great facilities 
 for the support of most useful schools. 
 
 Miss Burdett Coutts has also proposed a plan, now success- 
 fully in operation in several districts, by which a group of schools 
 in a district of small parishes may be organized, taught, and 
 visited by an ambulatory teacher holding a certificate. The 
 Minutes admitting these schools to the benefits of grants need 
 simplification, and the removal of some restrictions.f If these 
 changes were made, it is probable that this plan would be much 
 more generally adopted. 
 
 * The progress of the settlement of Certificated Teachers in Hertfordshire was 
 as follows in each succeeding year. In August, 1857, there were 55 Certificated 
 Teachers in this county;' in 1858, 65. On December 31, 1859, there were 75 ; 
 in 1860, 88; in 1861, 93; in 1862, 105. In 1855 Certificated Teachers were 
 employed in only 22 parishes in Hertfordshire, whereas in 1861 there were at least 
 67 parishes employing them. The following list illustrates the operation of this 
 system : — 
 
 Schools in Rural Districts to which Hockerill Students have been appointed 
 in Parishes under 1000 Population. 
 
 Hunsdon, Herts 516 
 
 Albany, Ditto 700 
 
 Furneaux Pelham, Ditto . . . . 620 
 
 Ickleford, Ditto 546 
 
 Arton, Hunts 311 
 
 Farnham, Essex . . 556 
 
 Foxearth, Ditto 400 
 
 Yeldham, Ditto 696 
 
 Bayford, Herts 297 
 
 Tetworth, Beds 416 
 
 Clothall, Herts 492 
 
 Hertingfordbury, Ditto .. .. 799 
 
 Datchworth, Ditto 635 
 
 Flitwick, Beds 773 
 
 Comberton, Cambridge .. .. 562 
 
 Herongate, Essex 475 
 
 Bramfield, Herts 191 
 
 Sandon, Ditto 771 
 
 Heath, Beds 953 
 
 Birchanger, Essex 358 
 
 Sedgeford, Norfolk 742 
 
 St. Ippolyts, Herts 952 
 
 Thornhaugh, Northampton . . 243 
 
 Calmworth, Beds 527 
 
 Berden, Essex 414 
 
 Stilton, Hunts 724 
 
 Sandon, Essex 771 
 
 Kilshall, Herts 318 
 
 Great Pamdon, Essex . . . . 491 
 
 Teversliam, Cambridge .. .. 231 
 
 Dunton, Beds 518 
 
 Sutton, Suffolk 618 
 
 Seer Green, Bucks 334 
 
 Hazlemere, Ditto 996 
 
 Hyde, Herts 419 
 
 Kingsey, Bucks 237 
 
 Hadham, Little 884 
 
 Heveningham, Suffolk . . . . 354 
 
 PuUoxhill, Beds 704 
 
 Latimer, Herts 244 
 
 Witchford, Cambridge .. .. 559 
 
 Elyworth, Hunts 787 
 
 Greenstead, Essex 789 
 
 Litlington, Cambridge .. .. 693 
 
 t Among these restrictions are Sections (6) and (c), Article 135. Code of 
 1866-67, p. Ixxxvi., Minutes.
 
 44 MEMOEANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 Mr. Walter, however, contends for the adoption of a proposal 
 which has probably been misunderstood. He seeks the exten- 
 sion of public grants to schools not taught by certificated teachers. 
 He has been understood to contend that, as the principle regu- 
 lating the distribution of Government grants is, under the 
 Revised Code, "payment for results,''' equity requires that the 
 production of those results should, without other conditions, 
 establish a valid claim for all the aid granted to other schools. 
 I do not conceive that this has ever been Mr. Walter's intention ; 
 but, on the other hand, he does not appear to have defined the 
 conditions and limits of this aid to schools taught by uncertifi- 
 cated teachers. 
 
 The misconceptions grounded on the popular view of the 
 Capitation Grant under the Revised Code have been mischievous. 
 According to these misconceptions, the Government have defined 
 the " results'' for which they will make grants to be a certain 
 standard of attainment in reading, writing, and arithmetic. The 
 intention of the interference of the State, by means of inspection 
 and pecuniary aid, is satisfied when these " results " are attained. 
 If this were literally true, then the production of the *' results," 
 however brought about, would constitute an equitable claim to 
 the whole of the Government assistance. But we have seen 
 that these '' results" have never been any other than the minimum 
 of the amount of instruction sought by the State, and that instruc- 
 tion is only a part of the civilizing influence of a school. The 
 Government grants have not been given to secure the power to 
 read, write, and cipher only, but by means of certificated teachers, 
 and a certain proportion of pupil teachers, to attain higher 
 " results." Though too much reliance has been placed on the 
 zeal and intelligence of the local managers to secure the highest 
 results, by keeping the teaching staff of the schools in a state of 
 efficiency, it is not to be conceived that the Government deli- 
 berately adopted the conclusion that the " be all and the end all " 
 of primary instruction was such a proficiency in reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic as is defined in the Standards of the Examination 
 under the Revised Code. Mr. Lowe speaking on the introduction 
 of the Revised Code said, " We fix a minimum of education, 
 " not a maximum. We propose to give no grant for the attend- 
 " ance of children at school unless they can read, write, and 
 " cipher ; but we do not say that they shall learn no more. 
 " We do not object to any amount of learning." * 
 
 Nevertheless, the neglect to adopt the recommendation of the 
 Royal Commissioners, as to the means by which an examination 
 in the three rudiments should be conducted — separately from 
 
 * ' Hansard,' pp. 237-8, vol. clxv.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 45 
 
 the general inspection of the school — the omission of a separate 
 Capitation Grant for the maintenance of a sufficient staff of 
 pupil teachers — and the absence of any grant to encourage the 
 higher forms of instruction, have given rise to the mischievous 
 popular impression that the whole object of Government aid is 
 the attainment of a certain meagre proficiency in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic ; for which " results " ^^ payment " is made. 
 No severer condemnation of the Kevised Code could be uttered 
 if this were true. But it is by no means true. The grants 
 under the Kevised Code are also given, as we have said, for the 
 maintenance of a machinery by which highea- results may be 
 attained. This would have been clearer if it had been declared 
 that the annual grant given on the average attendance of the 
 scholars was specially intended for the maintenance of a trained 
 teaching staff in proportion to the number of the scholars. A 
 large part of the evils might have been avoided if the following 
 rates and classes of Capitation Grant had been adopted and their 
 objects declared. 
 
 The aid of the Committee of Council might have been divided 
 into the four following forms of Capitation Grant, viz. : — 
 
 1. A Capitation Grant of five shillings* for every child who 
 had attended more than 200 meetings of the school in the pre- 
 ceding year, and had passed an examination (conducted by 
 special examiners) in reading, writing, and arithmetic — one 
 shilling and eightpence being deducted for failure in each of 
 these subjects. 
 
 2. A Capitation Grant of five shillings per head on the average 
 attendance in the preceding year in all schools in which the 
 buildings and arrangement of the desks were approved — the appa- 
 ratus and books were declared to be sufficient, and, besides a 
 certificated teacher, one pupil teacher for every 40 scholars after 
 the first 30 was employ ed.| 
 
 * The Capitation Grant which correspondes to this in the Eevised Code is 
 eight shillings, subject, in like manner, to a deduction of one-third for every child 
 wlio fails to pass either in reading, writing, or arithmetic, according to the standard 
 of the Code (Article 48). Tlie reason for reducing the amount of the grant, de- 
 pendent on this examination, from 8s. to 5s., consists in the fundamental objections 
 to this mode of testing tlie work done in a school {vide ante, p. 15) and arises out 
 of all the injurious consequences which have been proved to have followed these 
 Articles of the Eevised Code. 
 
 f The average per scholar of grants for Certificated, Assistant, Probationary, as 
 well as Pupil Teachers in the year ending 31st December, 1861, was lOg. 5d., and 
 the average of grants for Pupil Teachers alone was Qs. \\\d. per scliolar. In the 
 Clauses 2 and 3 in the text, it is proposed ^to restore 9s., to be appropriated to the 
 maintenance of the Staff of principal and assistant teachers in schools. The reasons 
 for this form the substance of the argument in the preceding pages. It remains 
 to be remarked, that by dividing this 9s. into two Capitation Grants, with more 
 stringent conditions for the second, opportunity is afforded for the play of the dis- 
 cretion of the Managers. If (under Clause 2) they prefer to have one Principal
 
 46 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 3. An additional Capitation Grant of four shillings in schools 
 in which one pupil teacher for every 30 scholars after the first 
 25 was employed. 
 
 4. A further grant of four shillings for every scholar who 
 should succeed to the satisfaction of the Inspector in a gra- 
 duated examination in any two of the following subjects, viz. : 
 in grammar, English history, geography, book-keeping, or vocal 
 music. 
 
 Among the subordinate conditions of the second and third 
 forms of the Capitation Grant should be regulations as to the 
 teaching of the apprentices, and a conditional payment to the 
 principal teacher for such services. The other conditions should 
 be as simple as possible. 
 
 If the principles and arrangements of such a Minute had 
 been adopted, instead of those of the Eevised Code, the average 
 rate of aid would not have exceeded that granted in 1860, viz. : 
 12s. per head on the average attendance of the scholars,* audits 
 maximum might have been limited to the 15s. proposed by the 
 Koyal Commission. The managers would probably have had 
 sufficient inducements to maintain a due proportion between the 
 number of the teachers and pupil teachers, and the scholars. 
 The instruction of the apprentices would have been properly 
 cared for ; the supply of pupil teachers to the Training Colleges 
 would have been maintained ; and the mischievous popular inter- 
 pretation of the phrase ^' payment for results' would not have 
 practically reduced the level of elementary education to a meagre 
 standard of proficiency in reading, writing, and arithmetic. More- 
 over, the first form of aid for the attainment of the minimum 
 results of instruction might have been extended to schools not 
 having certificated teachers, during a period of transition extend- 
 ing over two years. t 
 
 Teacher for the first thirty scholars, and one Pupil Teacher only for every succeed- 
 ing forty, they will earn only five shillings. If, on the contrary, they appoint one 
 Principal Teacher for the first twenty-five scholars, and one Pupil Teacher also 
 for every succeeding thirty scholars, they will earn nine shillings, or one shilling 
 and fivepence per head less than under the old Code. 
 
 * This calculation is made on the presumption : first, that three-fourths of the 
 scholars would earn the first grant. Less than two-fifths earn that form of capita- 
 tion grant now. The grant under the first head would be three and ninepence on 
 the average. Secondly, all schools would probably earn the next five shillings. 
 Thirdly, probably half the schools would earn the next four shillings, or the 
 average would be two shillings. Fourthly, certainly not one-third of the scholars 
 would earn the grant under the fourth form. The average would therefore be 
 Is. 4c?. These several grants would amount to 12s. Id. 
 
 t I am reminded of a similar provision which existed in Mr. Adderley's Minute 
 of July 26th, 1858, and which was incorporated in Article 143 of the first Code, 
 but has disappeared from the Revised Code. By this Minute and Article students 
 who had passed the examination for certificates might receive, but only in their 
 first engagements after leaving the Training School, a stipend of 25Z. per annum
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 47 
 
 Whatever steps be taken to bring the spirit and power of 
 local or municipal government and the resource of local rates in 
 aid of elementary education, the same necessity will exist — as 
 we have previously urged — for the maintenance of the regulations 
 of the Privy Council as to the character, capacity, knowledge and 
 skill of the teacher, and of the proportion of the teaching staff to 
 the number of the scholars. It is for this reason that we have 
 painfully analyzed the consequences of the Eevised Code, which 
 first relaxed the conditions of public aid. We have shown that 
 the tendency of the local management is, with such relaxation, to 
 introduce inferior teachers — a smaller staff — and a lower standard 
 of training for pupil teachers and of instruction for scholars. In 
 like manner, any relaxation of the conditions of the public grants, 
 or of the aid from local rates as to the certificate, would cause 
 the introduction of ill-taught, unskilled teachers, for whose life 
 and character there would be no sufficient guarantee. 
 
 The entire public service — civil, military, and naval — has, 
 of late years, taken precautions to ensure the competency of its 
 servants, both by initiatory and competitive examinations, which, 
 in several departments, are repeated at each step of promotion. 
 The same principle pervades the learned professions, and every 
 year adds to the stringency of the examinations and regulations 
 which determine what previous education, what learning, and 
 what proofs of reputable life shall be required, both from those 
 who are entrusted with public duties, and from those who have 
 to do the work of professions in which the interests of the public 
 require the greatest learning and skill. So it will be found 
 that wherever, from elementary education. Governments have 
 reaped truly national advantages, they have taken the most 
 jealous precautions that the teaching of youth shall be confided 
 to none, with the sanction and aid of the State, who have not 
 given proofs of character, learning, and skill. 
 
 if males, or of 201. if females, instead of the ordinary angmentation, provided that 
 they were employed in a rural school, (a) not containing more than 1,200 square feet 
 of superficial area in the whole of its school-rooms and class-rooms, or (6) which 
 could be certified as not needing, nor likely to be attended by, more than 100 
 scholars. 
 
 This payment was made for two years only. 
 
 II. Teachers working under these regulations were exactly in the same 
 position as students working under the usual provisions of the Minutes. 
 
 1. They were inspected and reported on exactly in the usual manner. 
 
 2. TJiey might receive their parchment certificate at the end of two years 
 under the usual conditions. 
 
 3. They might have Pupil Teachers and receive the gratuity for instructing 
 them. 
 
 4. The only difference was that for two years they received a sum instead of 
 augmentation, and at the end of the two years, if they had two favourable reports, 
 they received their augmentation according to the class of their certificate.
 
 48 MEMOKANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 Such a system is consistent with complete liberty of teach- 
 ing. There is no monopoly of instruction in Great Britain. It 
 is free to all religious communions, to every political party, to 
 every form of social organization. Any one may become a 
 teacher. Any one may obtain a certificate by passing the 
 requisite examination. With a certificate, any one may derive 
 whatever advantage the State confers on schools taught by 
 competent persons. What is denied is, that it is for the inte- 
 rest of the country that the standard of instruction, by which 
 the aid of the State can be obtained, shall be determined by 
 local managers rather than by Parliament, moved to action by 
 the Education Department. 
 
 The report of Mr. Fraser on America is full of proofs that 
 the local management in the United States cannot be depended 
 upon to fulfil any of the requirements of the law. It often 
 chooses the cheapest schoolmaster as the best, it provides unsuit- 
 able buildings and meagre apparatus. It keeps open the school 
 no longer than the allowance from the State fund will provide 
 for its. maintenance. It is satisfied with almost any ^^ results." 
 On the other hand, the Keports on Prussia, Switzerland, and 
 Holland, by Mr. Matthew Arnold and the Eev. M. Pattison on 
 the state of elementary education in Germany, give abundant 
 evidence of the remarkable results obtained, when the State — 
 jealous of the public interest — requires that sufficient proof of 
 ability, knowledge, and skill, shall be given by everyone who 
 has charge of the education of youth.* 
 
 Nor can inspection, however conducted, supply the place of 
 the certificate. An individual examination of the scholars may 
 determine whether they can read, write, and cipher, but even 
 in this, an examiner may be greatly deceived by a teacher who 
 is an adept in special preparation. But no inspection can ascer- 
 tain the relative merits of schools in all that relates to the moral 
 
 * On this subjef't, the following authorities may be consulted. See particularly 
 Vol. IV. of 'Keport of Education Commission,' p. 72, "the indispensable guarantee 
 " of a certificate of capacity, without which, in France, no man may teach." 
 
 " Teachers must be certified, and their examination for the certificate is con- 
 " ducted by the Central Board of Public Instruction." — Beport on Education in 
 the French Cantons of Switzerland, page 124. 
 
 •' The law of 1806 was very short and simple. It adopted the existing schools ; 
 " but it did two things which no other school-law had yet done, and which were the 
 " foundations of its eminent success ; it established a thorough system of inspection 
 •' for the schools, a thorough system of examination for the teachers. ' — Page 149. 
 
 " The certificates of morality and capacity are still demanded " {i.e. by the law 
 of 1857) "of each teacher, public or private." — Report of M. Arnold, Esq., on 
 Schools in Holland, page 149. 
 
 " In no State can a person, unprovided with a certificate of fitness, be appointed 
 
 " master of, or teach in any primary school, whether public or private 
 
 " This is not a recent institution anywhere." — Rev. M. Pattison's Report on Edu- 
 cation in Germany, page 244.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION". 49 
 
 discipline — the order springing from a willing and intelligent 
 obedience — the power of thought which is awakened only by 
 the skill of a trained teacher, and all the other effects of those 
 forms of teaching which alone civilize. For these " results" there 
 is no test. Yet these are not only the most valuable, but they 
 are the results without which all mere attainments are valueless. 
 Dr. Temple, in his evidence before Sir John Pakington's Com- 
 mittee, insists with great vigour that, for such results, the 
 certificate is a guarantee much higher than any inspection. 
 
 So also as to character. To have been five years an appren- 
 ticed pupil teacher, whose whole conduct was under the eye of 
 the teacher and the clergyman, — to have passed, every year, a 
 stringent examination and obtained certificates of good conduct, 
 — to have entered a training college, after a searching examina- 
 tion, and to have pursued studies in it for two years — passing a 
 further examination at the end of each year, — all this training 
 under vigilant guardianship affords a warrant for reliance on 
 character which the conduct of the teachers so educated has 
 justified. No sufficient substitute has been proposed for this 
 prolonged trial of character and conduct. 
 
 If the bare unqualified proi^osition of reducing all aid to a 
 ^^ payment for results^' (so called) and determining the amount 
 simply by examination were adopted, any cunning adventurer who 
 could cloak the shame of a misspent life might set up an '' adven- 
 *' ture" school anywhere in ri\^lry with the parochia-l, and earn, 
 by success in drilling children in the three rudiments, the aid of 
 the Government as a schoolmaster. Thus the support and implied 
 sanction of the Government might come in aid of a parochial 
 nuisance, perhaps introduced designedly to worry the proprietor 
 or clergyman. And the education of the cliildren might be con- 
 fided to the care of a man in the secret practice of low vices, of 
 no faith, disloyal, or corrupt. 
 
 The Committee of Council report (1866-7, p. 5) that the 
 salaries of uncertificated teachers are about one-third lower than 
 the certificated, but as a salary of 407, to 457. will secure the 
 services of a certificated mistress, and 607. to 857. those of a 
 certificated master, it is clear that the stipends cannot be 
 reduced by the competition of uncertificated teachers without 
 a further, and perhaps a fatal, discouragement to pupil teachers 
 to enter this profession. 
 
 The immediate consequences of such discouragement would 
 be felt in the Training Colleges. The resort to them for two 
 years' training would rapidly come to an end. Moreover, the 
 change would remove the motives which, under the existing 
 Minutes, have induced uncertificated teachers in charge of 
 schools to prepare themselves for examination for certificates. 
 
 E
 
 50 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 The clergy often aid their studies, and with such encouragement 
 1,486 teachers between 1862 and 1866 presented themselves 
 for examination, and 1,093 obtained certificates. 
 
 On these various grounds, the extension of the Capitation 
 Grant on equal terms to schools, whether taught by certificated 
 teachers or not, would not simply be a waste of public money, 
 but would undermine and soon destroy the whole system of 
 training by which the certificated teachers and the apprenticed 
 pupil teachers now employed have been brought into the 
 public service. Instead of so mischievous a waste of the public 
 resources, it would seem better to withdraw public aid altogether, 
 and to leave all schools solely to the support which can be 
 derived from purely local agencies. 
 
 It is not conceived that the object which Mr. Walter had in 
 view was that which has here been thus objected to. Much 
 more probably it was the extension of such aid as would enable 
 rural schools to avail themselves of the benefits of inspection, 
 and to raise themselves to the level of a full participation of the 
 benefits of aid from the Parliamentary Grant. The managers 
 of a school might declare their intention either to prepare their 
 teachers for examination, or within a limited period to obtain a 
 certificated teacher. The school would then be inspected, — 
 they would receive the aid and advice of the Inspector as to the 
 steps which they had to take. Meanwhile, and during two 
 succeeding years, the scholars would be examined individually 
 in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and the school would receive 
 aid under the first form of the Capitation Grant above described, 
 according to the degree of the success of the scholars in each 
 of the three rudiments. If, after the lapse of two years, the 
 Managers failed to appoint a certificated teacher, the grant 
 would be withdrawn. 
 
 But these expedients for the extension of the existing system 
 of public grants and inspection into the districts into which it 
 has not penetrated, depend on the power of the religious com- 
 munions to co-operate successfully. Now it is clear that unless 
 authority to take the initiative be conferred on the Committee 
 of Council, much time must elapse before any such extension 
 can occur as will satisfy the political wants of the country. 
 
 From his lucid and able address on Primary and Classical 
 Education, delivered last November in Edinburgh, Mr. Lowe 
 would thus cut the knot of these difficulties : — '* I would say, 
 " commence a survey, and report upon Great Britain parish by 
 " parish ; report to the Privy Council in London the educational 
 ** wants in each parish, the number of schools, the number of 
 f * children, and what is wanted to be done in order to place within
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 51 
 
 " the reach of the people of that parish a sufficient amount of 
 " education. When that has been done, I think it should be the 
 *' duty of the Privy Council to give notice to that parish that they 
 " should found a school, or whatever may be wanted for the 
 " purposes of that parish. If the parish found a school, then it 
 " would be the duty of the Privy Council to assist it, and that in 
 *' the same way as it assists the schools already in existence. I 
 " would say, in passing, that I do not think we should disturb the 
 " schools already existing, except that they must submit to unde- 
 " nominational inspection, and to a conscience clause. If the 
 " parish does not agree to what is done, then I think there ought 
 " to be power vested in the Privy Council, or the Secretary of 
 " State, or some other great responsible public officer, to make a 
 " compulsory rate on them to found that school. I think the 
 " schools they found should be entitled to the same inspection 
 " and examination as the schools already in existence, and 
 " receive the same grants for results. That simple machinery 
 " would, in a short time, alter the whole face of the question, 
 ** and place education within the reach of every one of Her 
 " Majesty's subjects." 
 
 Parliament would probably not confer such power on tlie 
 Privy Council Committee. But it may be well worthy of consi- 
 deration whether the Privy Council should not, in concert with an 
 intelligent District Board, have authority to act after due inquiry 
 and report. The co-operation of the Central with ,a Provincial 
 Board in this initiative would be more in harmony with our Eng- 
 lish ideas of government. Such co-operation would be founded 
 on the appeal for interference from an intelligent and influential 
 minority in the district, and would not take place until after 
 due inquiry and report, nor without a well-ascertained and 
 sufficient amount of local concurrence. When these had first 
 been obtained, Mr. Lowe's proposal to confide the power of 
 initiatory action to the Government might be co-ordinated with 
 that of an intelligent minority. But Mr. Lowe has not said from 
 what sources he would derive the income of the schools thus built. 
 In the present inspected schools, 18s. 6d. are voluntarily pro- 
 vided from local sources to meet the 8s. 6d. per head from public 
 grants. Of this, in rural districts, from 6s. to Ss. consist of school- 
 pence. Probably, where the remaining ten or twelve shillings 
 were not spontaneously subscribed, Mr. Lowe would also charge 
 this part of the income on the local rates. In that case, 
 more than one-third of the annual school expenditure would be 
 derived from local, and less than one-third from general taxation, 
 and about one-fourth from school-pence. There would remain 
 tlie critical question of the constitution and management of the 
 chools thus founded, and their relations to the Committee of 
 
 E 2
 
 52 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 Council on Education as to examination, inspection, and the con- 
 ditions of the public grants. All these are the subjects of such 
 anxious vigilance, that the financial features of such a plan 
 present the least of the difficulties to be surmounted. On the 
 other hand, Mr. Lowe has, with characteristic clearness and 
 vigour, pointed to the need of a greater power in the Govern- 
 ment to take the initiatory steps. 
 
 In order to apply to popular education the aid, spirit, and 
 power which have, in the municipalities, effected so much for 
 the improvement of our borough towns, Lord Eussell introduced,* 
 in 1853, his Borough Schools Education Bill. This measure pro- 
 ceeded, in a great degree, upon the results of the investigations 
 of the local Committee w^hich had prepared the Manchester 
 and Salford Education Bill, and the general principles of both 
 these measures are now revived in the Bill introduced in the 
 last session of Parliament by Mr, Bruce, Mr. Forster, and Mr. 
 Algernon Egerton. 
 
 Both Lord Kussell's and the Manchester Bill were intended 
 for the support of the denominational system of schools. Both 
 left the management in the hands of the present school com- 
 mittees, without reserving any power of interference with the 
 organization, discipline, or instruction of the schools, otherwise 
 than by inspection. Both left unchanged the general inspection 
 and the grants of the Committee of Council, with its authority 
 to alter the conditions of its grants. The Town Council Educa- 
 tion Committee had power to appoint local inspectors to observe 
 that the conditions of aid from the borough rates were fulfilled. 
 These conditions secured the right of parents to select the 
 school in which their children should be educated, and to with- 
 draw them from any instruction of which they disapproved on 
 religious grounds. But the Manchester and Salford Bill in- 
 tended to make this education free from charge to the parents ; 
 and provided fivepence per week for boys, and fourpence per 
 week for girls and infants, to meet the Government grants, 
 which amounted to threepence per week — thus superseding 
 subscriptions and school-pence. tOn the other hand. Lord 
 Russell's Bill provided, from the borough rates, twopence per 
 week to meet threepence per week, which were still to be 
 derived from subscriptions and school-pence, and threepence 
 per week from the grants of the Committee of Council on 
 Education. Both contemplated an outlay of 8(Z. per week, 
 or 32s. for 48 weeks' schooling, on the average attendance of 
 the scholars. 
 
 * See volume ' On Public Education,' Longman, 1853, pp. 313 to 321. 
 t • Public Education,' pp. 314 to 318.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION, 53 
 
 These measures differed in other very important particulars. 
 The Manchester and Salford Bill was intended for those two great 
 boroughs alone. Lord Russell's Bill might be adopted in any- 
 corporate town, but not in other urban, nor in any rural districts. 
 In the former Bill, provision was made, after due notice, and in 
 default of the action of any voluntary assistance, for the building 
 of schools in those districts of the two boroughs which were 
 found to need them. This involved the difficult question of 
 the constitution and management of schools founded by the 
 municipality. In Lord Russell's Bill, no such power was given, 
 and the erection of new schools was left to spontaneous agencies. 
 Therefore, the aid granted under the latter Bill was to be con- 
 fined to schools whose constitution had already been recog- 
 nized by the Committee of Privy Council. 
 
 Similar principles are embodied in the Bill of Mr. Bruce, 
 Mr. Forster, and Mr. Algernon Egerton. This measure has also 
 been prepared in concert with a Committee on Education sitting 
 in Manchester. The programme issued by that Committee 
 describes its provisions in the following general terms : — 
 
 " The Bill is permissive in its character, and when passed it may 
 *' be adopted by the Eate-payers in any borough or district. When 
 " so adopted, it places the administration of the funds in the hands of 
 " a School Committee, elected by the Town Council in Municij)al 
 " Boroughs, and by the Rate-payers in other districts, who have power 
 " to call upon the Overseers, or other Local Authority, to levy a rate 
 " for Educational purposes. 
 
 " It adopts existing Schools as the basis of its operation, and only 
 " contemplates the establishment of new Schools on the failure of 
 " voluntary effort to supply, after due notice, any deficiency of school 
 " accommodation. 
 
 " Trustees or Managers may, under the provisions of the Bill, 
 " place their Schools in union with the School Committee, either as 
 " Free Schools, or Aided Schools, and receive payment per head for 
 " the attendance of the scholars on compliance with such conditions 
 " as will secure the efiiciency of the Schools, and protect the 
 " rights of conscience ; but without the School Committee acquiring 
 " thereby any right to interfere with the internal management, disci- 
 " pline, or instruction in such Schools, otherwise than to see that the 
 " conditions of Union are complied with by the Managers, and thus 
 " what is commonly called the religious difficulty is entirely avoided. 
 
 " The principle of the Bill is Local Rating, for the support of 
 " Free and Aided Schools, with Local Administration of the funds : 
 " Union of existing Schools, without interference in their internal 
 " management ; and security for the rights of conscience, without 
 "violating the convictions of School Managers; a power of appeal 
 " being given in all cases to the Queen in Council." 
 
 This Bill also proposes to extend the same principle of aid
 
 54 MBMOEANDtJM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 from the local rates from Boroughs (to which Lord EusselFs 
 Bill was confined) to the rural districts. The education iQay 
 be either free from charge to the scholars, or the weekly school 
 fee may amount to any charge not exceeding ninepence. The 
 allowance to a free school is to be from fourpence to sixpence 
 per week, according to the age and sex of the scholar ; or nine- 
 pence per week, when some trade, business, or manual occupation 
 is taught. But where school-pence are paid, they must equal 
 the amount of assistance from the rate. One-third of the 
 resources of the " aided schools'' would therefore be derived from 
 school-pence, one-third from local rates, and one-third from the 
 grants of the Committee of Council on Education. The schools 
 would be independent of local subscriptions. 
 
 When the Education Committee, created by this Bill, are of 
 opinion that any part of their district is not sufficiently provided 
 with schools conducted in accordance with the conditions and 
 regulations, they may publish a report stating the amount and 
 description of the additional school accommodation required. 
 Within sixty days, any persons may then undertake to provide 
 for the need, and the CJommittee may accept an undertaking to 
 that effect. i3ut if no such agreement is entered into, the Educa- 
 tion Committee of the District may proceed to lease or purchase 
 land, and to erect such school-buildings as are needed. The 
 schools, so built, are to be conducted by the School Committee 
 as "/ree schools" or as " aided schools'' under the general con- 
 ditions and regulations ; or the District Committee may, from 
 time to time, delegate such control and management — with or 
 without conditions or restrictions — to a body of Managers duly 
 qualified. 
 
 The same general intention pervades these three measures. 
 Their principal and common object is to bring the aid of 
 resources, derived from local rates, in support of the annual 
 expenditure of the schools founded by the religious communions. 
 The two later measures preserve the income derived from 
 school-pence, but the Bill of last Session would make the schools 
 independent of subscriptions.* All require the introduction of a 
 
 * The necessity of providing some other source for the income of schools, 
 besides the Privy Council grants and the local voluntary agencies and the school- 
 pence, has long been apparent to those who apprehended that some measure like 
 the Revised Code would otherwise be adopted to restrain the growth of the Parlia- 
 mentary Grant. This was one of the motives for the labours of the Committee 
 which framed the Manchester and Salford Education Bill in 1851 — the responsibility 
 of all whose proceedings I gladly and fully partook. The necessity of providing 
 some initiatory power to found schools in the neglected districts, and to improve 
 such as exist though unaided, justifies an appeal to the local and provincial spirit 
 to aid voluntary religious zeal and the central action of the Government. But, in 
 all these proposals, it ought to be borne in mind that to the extent to which the 
 public charge is placed on the local rates it is a tax on a more limited area of
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION, 65 
 
 conscience clause, and reserve the right of examination by local 
 inspectors. The three measures also concur in placing under 
 the authority of the Education Department the regulations 
 which determine the Standard of popular education, as main- 
 tained by the character and number of the teachers, and the 
 provisions respecting the training of apprentices and teachers. 
 
 This is not the place in which to enter into a critical 
 examination of the machinery by which it is proposed that this 
 general scheme of a rate in aid of existing schools is proposed 
 to be carried into execution. 
 
 It may, however, be remarked, that Lord Russeirs Bill sought 
 to avoid awakening alarm among the supporters of the denomi- 
 national system, by limiting to one-fourth the proportion of 
 income to be derived from the local rates, and by omitting all 
 provisions as to the building of new schools in neglected and 
 apathetic districts. By thus reducing to a minimum the amount 
 of interference, it was hoped that the support of the religious 
 communions might be more readily obtained. 
 
 Fifteen years have now elapsed since Lord Russeirs Bill was 
 laid on the table of tlie House of Commons. The Report of 
 the Royal Commission, and the experience of the comparatively 
 slow growth of the denominational system, aided only by public 
 grants, have now revived, in a similar form, the proposals for 
 aid from local rates made in 1852-53. There is, however, 
 now a more general sense of the political necessity^ that Parlia- 
 ment should make adequate provision for the education of the 
 people. This conviction is so strong, that the passage of some 
 such measure for education in borough towns as that introduced 
 last session by Mr. Bruce, Mr. Forster, and Mr. Algernon Egerton 
 is likely to obtain an early and attentive consideration from 
 Parliament. 
 
 The provisions for the extension of the powers given in this 
 Bill to the rural districts will, however, require re-consideration. 
 That which has to be chiefly borne in mind in such revision is, 
 
 assessment. This is one of the reasons why, in Lord Russell's Boroughs 
 Education Bill, the burthen on the local rates was not allowed to exceed one- 
 fourth of the whole estimated outlay. In my letter to Lord Granville, dated April 
 24th, 1861 (see ' Four Periods of Education,' Longmans, p. 559), I represented 
 that this local rating should in no degree affect the proportion of the charge on the 
 Consolidated Fund. For it would in that case be "a removal of a charge" "from 
 " an area of 550,000,000^. to one of 86,000,000Z." The proportions in Lord Russell's 
 Bill of the three sources of the income of schools were : — one-third from the Parlia- 
 mentary Grant ; one-foui-th (or Qs. Sd.) from the local rates ; and the rest (10s. Srf.) 
 from voluntary agencies and school-pence. These last would thus be relieved, 
 and, the Privy Council Grants remaining without any change in their relative 
 proportion, a charge on the Consolidated Fund would be more extensively diffused.
 
 56^ MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 that in order that any such measure should pass through 
 Parh' anient, it should be clear — 
 
 1. That the education committee of the district (whether a 
 Poor-Law Union or other group of parishes) will represent intel- 
 ligence and property. The provisions for its appointment should 
 be far less complicated than those in the Bill of last Session. 
 The selection and appointment of the District Education Com- 
 mittee by the votes ol the v^^hole body of rate-payers in a 
 parochial union appears a very questionable means of securing 
 a committee representing the intelligence of the union. If this 
 District Education Committee were to partake with the Privy 
 Council the authority of the initiative, such power could only be 
 confided to men qualified by position, education, and experience 
 for the discharge of difficult and important public duties. 
 
 2. That the schools to be built in the numerous small rural 
 parishes will bear a constitution resembling those now aided, or 
 such as may be recognized by future Minutes of the Committee 
 of Council on Education. 
 
 3. That the local managing committee, of schools built 
 by funds derived chiefly from the rates, will not represent 
 simply the rate-payers, who will probably adopt too low and 
 meagre a standard of instruction. The constitution of Englisli 
 society requires that the clergy, and the resident proprietors, as 
 well as rate-payers and parents, should be members of this man- 
 aging committee. The power of the rate-payers to appoint the 
 managing committee should therefore be confined to a selection 
 in certain proportions from these representative classes. 
 
 4. In those rural parishes in which the wages of labour are 
 low, the district education committee might remit the school- 
 pence, and require that two-thirds of the school income should 
 be derived from the rates. But one-third should still assume the 
 form of weekly pence paid from the rates on behalf of poor 
 parents. It would thus represent the parental obligation unful- 
 filled on account of indigence. 
 
 5. It is very difficult to conceive that "/ree schools" (i.e. 
 schools in which no school-pence are paid) and ''aided schools'' 
 (in which school-pence are paid) could work side by side. The 
 adoption of the idea of "free schools " has in part arisen from the 
 desire to provide education for the children of indigent, sensual, 
 or apathetic parents. These classes are essentially paupers as 
 respects the education of their children. The faults or mis- 
 fortunes of the parents may entitle them to the same aid in 
 discharge of their parental obligation to educate as in that 
 of their duty to feed and clothe them. But the distinction 
 between the unfortunate or thriftless classes and the inde- 
 pendent labourer should not be lost. The Guardians of the
 
 tHE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 57 
 
 Poor are now enabled, by jMr. Denison's Act, to pay the school- 
 pence of the children of pauper parents ; but perhaps the time 
 is come when, as a condition of out-door relief, the education of 
 every child, not at work, should be required, and made an im- 
 perative charge on the poor-rates. 
 
 6. The amount to be raised in each parish for the support 
 of a school should be determined by the district education com- 
 mittee, and not by the parochial school committee. 
 
 There are also certain general considerations which apply 
 equally to urban and to rural districts. 
 
 The establishment of free schools — as proposed in the Bill 
 of 1867 — or schools in which no school-pence will be paid, 
 appears very questionable. To confound the obligations of the 
 parent with those of the citizen is dangerous. The parent is not 
 simply a rate-payer, having a right to claim education for a child 
 whom it is the interest of the community to train for the dis- 
 charge of future social duties. He has also a personal obligation, 
 out of which springs his right to choose the school for his child, 
 and his claim to be represented in the Managing Committee. 
 He cannot neglect to fulfil the obligation without weakening, if 
 not abandoning, this claim. But it is the interest of the State 
 to strengthen every moral tie which unites families. 
 
 We owe to Mr. Walpole the extension of the principle of the 
 Factories Eegulation Acts to almost all forms of manual labour, 
 excepting agricultural. The law now interferes to .enforce the 
 parental obligation to provide education for children, by making 
 the fulfilment of it a condition of the employment of children for 
 wages. It is lamentable that the ignorance and apathy of por- 
 tions of the population should render this necessary ; and it is 
 greatly to be regretted that only, at the best, half-time instruc- 
 tion is secured for children in the associated employments 
 affected by these Acts, and, in some of them, much less than 
 half-time. There is, on account of the necessarily imperfect* 
 
 * Much industry has been expended on the advocacy of the doctrine, that as 
 much or even more can be taught in the half-time which the law secures for factory- 
 children, than in tlie full time of schooling enjoyed by children whose parents 
 enable them to attend school both in the morning and the afternoon of every day. 
 A very simple test is sufficient to expose this fallacy. In a factory district, schools 
 generally contain both half-time and full-time scholars. In proportion to the 
 number of the half-time scholars, the organization and instruction of the classes 
 become more and more difficult. Full-time scholars, therefore, ceteris paribus, 
 make most progress in a school in which there are no half-time children. But, 
 notwithstanding the hindrance thus created to the success of the education of full- 
 time scholars in a mixed school, the following result is always disclosed by an 
 impartial inquiry. In a group of six or ten schools in which the half-time children 
 amount to at least one-third, and do not exceed one-half the number of scholars, 
 the full-time children will be found, at similar ages and after a corresponding 
 number of days of school attendance, higher in the classes than the half-time 
 scholars ; and the half-time children will be found gravitating towards the lower
 
 58 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 instruction of half-time scholars, a strong reason for raising to 14 
 the age to which these Acts extend their protection. One other 
 form of legal compulsion is an obvious consequence of these 
 recent Acts. It will be easy to define the circumstances in which 
 the education of children, not at work, shall be made a condition 
 of out-door relief. In order that the extent to which educa- 
 tion is now made obligatory by law may be understood, I have 
 printed in the Appendix* a memorandum, with which Mr. 
 Eedgrave has furnished me, describing the progress and present 
 state of legislation on these subjects. From this it will be seen 
 how important is the advance made in the Session of 18G7, and 
 to what extent the fact, that education is now a condition of 
 employment for wages in almost all excepting farming occupa- 
 tions, necessitates the completion of onr national-school system. 
 The extension to agricultural districts of the principles of Mr. 
 Walpole's recent comprehensive legislation may present diffi- 
 culties, but none of them are insurmountable. And the founding 
 and support of schools in the small and apathetic parishes is the 
 obvious concomitant of such legislation. 
 
 The proportions of the school income which are to be derived, 
 in urban and rural districts respectively, from the three sources 
 proposed in the rate-in-aid Bill, deserve attentive consideration. 
 The maintenance of the authority of the Committee of Managers 
 is allied to that of the claim of the parents for representation on 
 the School Committee. To merge both of these in the power 
 of the rate-payers to elect a Scliool Committee would be a rash 
 change, likely to be followed by the withdrawal of the support 
 of the religious communions from the schools, and would 
 probably be fatal to the quality and character of the education 
 given. On these accounts Lord Kussell's Boroughs Education 
 Bill provided that only one-fourth of the income of schools 
 should be derived from local rates, while it proceeded on the 
 expectation that three-eighths would be granted by the Privy 
 Council Committee, leaving three-eighths to be furnished from 
 school-pence and voluntary agencies. This limitation of the 
 income to be derived from local rates might interfere with the 
 rate of progress in founding schools in neglected districts. 
 In such cases, the District Education Committee might have 
 power to supply, from the local rates, the school-pence of poor 
 parents, though they were not in receipt of out-door relief. A 
 measure for establishing a rate in aid of school incomes cannot 
 
 part of the school. This is so obviously probable a result, that I should not have 
 thought it important to ascertain the facts had not the opposite doctrine been 
 asserted with so much pertinacity. These inquiries were, however, made before 
 the purely artificial arrangement of the school according to the Standards of the 
 Kevised Code was introduced by teachers. 
 * See p. 76.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 59 
 
 he successful in opposition to the feelings and opinions of the 
 religious communions ; and it would lack both stability and 
 efficiency, if it did not obtain the active co-operation of the 
 landed proprietors and of the intelligent and educated portions 
 of tlie middle classes of rural parishes. A District Education 
 Committee and a Local Committee, both elected by the rate- 
 payers, would think more of economy in the administration of 
 the school fund than of the efficiency of the schools, and would 
 soon be in direct conflict with the clergy and gentry. Every 
 precaution therefore should be adopted, to place the district 
 administration in the hands of the most intelligent and influen- 
 tial persons, and to ensure that the parochial school Committee 
 should be composed of elements which would work in harmony 
 with the regulations of the Committee of Privy Council. 
 
 Considering, also, how very recent is the growth of anything 
 like a local, civil, or political interest in education, it may be 
 well to co-ordinate the authority of the Privy Council with that 
 of the locality in the initiatory steps necessary for the introduc- 
 tion into any district of the power to raise rates towards the 
 expense of founding and supporting schools. This mingling of 
 the central and provincial power might be brought about by 
 such preliminary inquiries and reports as those suggested by 
 Mr. Lowe in his speech at Edinburgh. The Privy Council would 
 not proceed without the certainty of sufficient local co-operation. 
 
 The consent of the tenant-farmers and tradesmen to the intro^ 
 duction of the school-rate in any district will be more readily 
 obtained in proportion as they have any prospect of deriving 
 benefit from the schools for the education of their children. 
 These classes send their children to the schools aided and in- 
 spected by the Privy Council Committee when they are within 
 their reach, and often in preference to the endowed grammar 
 schools, because they prefer that their children should be tho- 
 roughly grounded in the common elements of a sound English 
 education, rather than that they should obtain an imperfect 
 knowledge of the classical languages. They would the more 
 readily assent to the expenditure from the rates required to 
 render the parochial school efficient — and to the regulations of 
 the Education Department as to the qualifications and number of 
 the teachers, and the subjects to be taught — if they could thus 
 be more certain of obtaining a thoroughly useful education for 
 their children. These, again, are among the reasons why the 
 Education Department should not relax its requirements as to 
 the certificate. They bring to mind the regulations reported by 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold to be enforced by the Prussian law, that 
 where a superior elementary school does not exist in any com- 
 mune, the teacher of the common elementary school shall hold a 
 higher certificate.
 
 60 MEMORANDUM ON THE PEESENT STATE OF 
 
 The maintenance of the standard of elementary education is 
 the chief duty of the Education Department. The recent legis- 
 lation making education a condition of employment, defines the 
 period to which such instruction can be extended in the day 
 school. The Education Department has to determine what are 
 the qualifications and numbers of the teachers required to secure 
 the largest amount of instruction attainable within this period. 
 If the standard of education which can thus be given is below 
 the political and industrial wants of the country, the instruction 
 of youth may be continued in the evening school. Many of our 
 principal manufacturers have, from the reported results of the 
 Universal Exhibition at Paris, arrived at a conviction that a 
 superior elementary education is necessary to enable our artisans 
 to proceed to acquire such a knowledge of the scientific relations 
 of the arts in which they are employed as may enable them to 
 continue a successful competition with foreign rivals. The or- 
 ganization of the evening school is therefore a matter scarcely 
 inferior in importance to that of the day school. 
 
 The evening school has, however, hitherto received little 
 encouragement from the Education Department. The old code 
 wisely forbade the Teacher to give instruction in an evening 
 school, in order that his attention might be concentrated on the 
 day school and on the instruction of his apprentices. This 
 regulation arose from the conviction that five or six hours' teach- 
 ing in the day school, and one hour and a half devoted to the 
 instruction of the pupil teachers, together with the preparation 
 of lessons for the following day's work, were an exhaustive labour. 
 
 No aid was, however, given to evening schools until 1855, 
 when a grant was made to encourage the employment of local 
 teachers in them when connected with inspected day schools, 
 and taught by certificated teachers. Three years later (July 
 26th, 1858) the Capitation Grant of 1853 was extended to 
 evening schools, in order " to provide the means of engaging a 
 " second certificated teacher, who may assist in the morning 
 " school, singly take the afternoon school, and, if not employed 
 " in the special instruction of the pupil teachers, assist in the 
 " night school which the principal teacher himself will be able 
 " to conduct." 
 
 By the Kevised Code all these regulations are changed. The 
 teacher of the day school is not prevented from also conducting 
 the evening school. He may instruct his pupil teachers in this 
 school. He is thus relieved of the labour of teaching them 
 separately during one hour and a half daily. But he is not pro- 
 vided with any help in the management of the evening school, 
 and the pupil teachers have to take their chance of getting 
 what instruction they can when the teacher is overtasked with
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 61 
 
 night work in a school of rough youth. There is, however, the 
 inducement of a Capitation Grant of five shillings " for every 
 " scholar who has attended more than twenty-four evening 
 " meetings of their school, subject to examination."* This 
 examination may be conducted by the Managers, who are for 
 that purpose furnished with printed papers and instructions, after 
 forty or more meetings of the school have occurred since the last 
 visitt of the Inspector. 
 
 It is important first to ascertain what inducements these 
 articles of the Ke vised Code give teachers to found evening 
 schools. That Code has reduced their salaries. The average 
 salaries of masters were in 18 62-3 J reported to be 94^. 18s. Id.y 
 and in 1866-7, 87Z. 3s. ; while those of mistresses were (1862-3) 
 62^. 13«. Id. and (1866-7) 55?. Os. 2d. The Committee of 
 Council report in 1865-6§ that " in some cases the managers 
 " exhibit an inclination to throw the whole pecuniary risk on 
 " the teachers — thereby reducing the schools to the level of 
 '* private adventure." I have already said that there are dis- 
 tricts in which this arrangement is common. The obvious 
 result is to create a strong motive for the establishment of an 
 evening school by the teacher, in order that he may increase 
 his income. But in a former part of this memorandum it is 
 shown that the teaching staff of the day school has been so far 
 reduced, that, whereas in 1861 there was one pupil teacher for 
 every 36 scholars, in 1866-7 there w^as only one ]3upil teacher 
 for every 54 scholars. The teaching power in the day school 
 is further impaired by the comparative neglect of the instruc- 
 tion of the pupil teachers, who become less efficient assistants, 
 and by the exhaustion of the energy of the principal teacher 
 in the evening school. Under such circumstances, the night 
 school can succeed only in proportion as the principal teacher 
 reserves his strength for it, at the expense of the day school, 
 and of the instruction of his pupil teachers. The degree in 
 which evening schools are founded in any district, and the 
 number of their scholars, may now be regarded as a pretty 
 accurate measure of the deterioration of the day schools. 
 
 It has been with much pain that I have witnessed the 
 growth of this system in a district with which I am famih'ar. 
 Before the adoption of the Kevised Code, there were in East 
 Lancashire few evening schools which were not connected with 
 Mechanics' Institutions, or which were not purely supplemen- 
 tary to Sunday Schools, and then taught solely by voluntary 
 
 * Kevised Code, Article 40, clause (c), p. xliv.. Minutes, 1866-7. 
 
 t Ibid., p. Ixxxvii., Articles 142-*142 to 149. 
 
 X Minutes, 1862-3 (p. 4), and 1866-7 (p. 5j. § Ibid., p. xvi.
 
 62 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 teachers. There was also an average attendance of nearly 
 1,800 young persons and adults in the evening classes of the 
 Mechanics' Institutions. In 1867 there were in East Lancashire 
 (forty-six for males and thirty-two for females) seventy-eight 
 evening schools, most of them connected with inspected day 
 schools, taught by certificated teachers. 
 
 These evening schools were conducted by sixty certificated 
 and nineteen other paid teachers, besides voluntary assistants. 
 The scholars on the registers amounted to 4,867, and the 
 average attendance was 8,289, or there was one paid teacher for 
 every 41*63 scholars. The evening classes of the Mechanics' 
 Institutions had still 1,219 scholars on their registers, and an 
 average attendance of 842. 
 
 Such a system of evening schools is illusory. Whatever suc- 
 cess it obtains is at the expense of the day schools, and in spite 
 of the insufficient preparation of the scholars who leave the day 
 schools to enter the evening schools. The day school sufiers, 
 because the teacher is exhausted in the night school ; which in 
 its turn suffers, both because it is conducted by an over-taxed 
 teacher, and because it receives ill-educated scholars. Neither 
 of these classes of schools can succeed without an adequate staff 
 of trained teachers, whose energies are not worn out hy excessive 
 work. 
 
 Apparently, the public are in earnest in the expression of 
 their desire that the day and evening schools shall be so efficient 
 as to lay the basis of popular instruction firmly. They thus 
 hope that some of our youth may be prepared to receive in- 
 struction in superior schools, and that a selected portion of them 
 may acquire such knowledge as may promote the success of our 
 industry by the influence of science and art. If the desire so 
 loudly expressed arise from a deliberate and settled conviction 
 that such higher education is necessary to the continuance of 
 the success of our competition with foreign rivals, then the 
 Committee of Council on Education will have to adopt such 
 regulations as will secure a thoroughly efficient staff of well- 
 trained teachers, both in day and in evening schools. The in- 
 fluence of the Revised Code has been to diminish both the 
 number and the skill of this staff, and to wear out their strength 
 in almost fruitless labour. 
 
 In the evening schools of Mechanics' Institutions, the plan 
 of grouping schools for greater economy in the introduction of 
 a trained teaching staft' has been successfully in operation for 
 ten years in the East Lancashire Union of Institutions. The 
 idea of this organization included the following arrangements in 
 each evening schooL A Candidate Teacher to correspond with 
 the Pupil Teacher of the day school. A paid Local Teacher
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 63 
 
 to correspond with the Assistant Teacher of the day school 
 when selected from the Pupil Teachers at the close of their 
 apprenticeship. An itinerant Certificated Teacher who visited, 
 organized, and taught three separate evening schools, each on 
 two evenings in every week, and superintended the studies of 
 the Candidate and Local Teachers. This Itinerant (called the 
 Organizing) Master also held certificates from the Science and 
 Art Department, and conducted science classes. The Committee 
 of Council on Education during one year aided this scheme by 
 grants in aid of the salaries of the Local Teachers, and by 
 allowing the Organizing Master to obtain the augmentation then 
 given to all Certificated Masters. Then, during the winter of 
 economy which preceded and followed the Kevised Code, this 
 aid was withdrawn. Now the evening schools of the Mechanics* 
 Institutions have, without any aid from the Government, to 
 compete with the evening schools founded by the teachers of 
 day schools, and .aided by the Capitation Grant, to the great 
 injury of the day schools. These are certainly not skilful com- 
 binations, if the intention of the Education Department be to 
 promote the efficiency of primary instruction, and to encourage the 
 spontaneous efforts of the manual-labour class for self-improve- 
 ment. It is difficult to conceive how any one with a knowledge 
 of the facts can have permitted such combinations to exist, or 
 when their mischievous tendency was proved, can have per- 
 mitted them to continue. A system which depends on spon- 
 taneous zeal for the initiation, if it be without syifipathy and 
 without generosity, is suicidal. A mere red-tape administration 
 of the Parliamentary Grant by rigid rules, with the intention, 
 before all things, of preventing the growth of the charge, meets 
 all the new claims of spontaneous zeal with insurmountable 
 technical difficulties, and is soon the antagonist of the initiatory 
 power. It is possible to combine a statesmanlike providence 
 of the national fund with a wise and farsighted policy in the 
 encouragement of all true and earnest voluntary efforts. 
 
 The same plan of grouping might be applied to the evening 
 schools connected with day schools, and without any other objec- 
 tion than that arising from expense, provided no part of the 
 teaching staff of the day school were employed. But all such 
 expedients as the employment of the Certificated Night School 
 Teacher to conduct tlie day school during half the day, and so 
 release the principal teacher during that half of the day, in 
 order that he may teach in the evening, are not found to work 
 well. The Certificated Teacher who has not a personal respon- 
 sibility for the day school does not, however able, adequately 
 supply the place of the responsible teacher. A conscientious 
 teacher refuses to do more under such circumstances than accept
 
 •M MEMOKANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OP 
 
 the aid of the Certificated Night School Teacher, but continues 
 also to labour without intermission in his day school, and also 
 takes his part in the night school. The intention of the arrange- 
 ment, which is to prevent the exhaustion of the principal Day 
 School Teacher, is thus frustrated. I give in a note an estimate 
 of the cost of such an organization of evening schools indepen- 
 dently of day schools.* 
 
 Mr. Mundella and Mr. Samuelson t both claim, at least for 
 the youth who are to be trained to become the overlookers of 
 skilled labour, first, that our day schools shall turn out their 
 scholar well prepared for superior instruction. Secondly, that 
 the most promising pupils shall be enabled to avail themselves of 
 whatever means exist for higher education by such encouragement 
 as has been provided by a recent minute of the Science and Art 
 Department. It is obvious that the night school ought to be 
 regarded as an indispensable link in this chain, especially in 
 consideration that labour is allowed to claim one half of the 
 time of children until they are thirteen years of age, and often 
 their whole time after they are twelve years old. 
 
 As my chief object in this Memorandum is an analysis of 
 that which exists, and has been subjected to the test of ex- 
 perience, or has undergone discussion in Parliament, I make no 
 comments here on the recent minute of the Science and Art 
 Department, except that, as that Department is, equally with 
 
 * The cost of a group of these night schools, organized independently of day 
 schools, may be estimated as follows, if the use of the school books, apparatus, 
 school-rooms, fuel, and cleaning be granted by the committee of the day school 
 without charge : — 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 Average stipends of three Local Teachers, graduated at an in- 
 creasing annual rate, 15Z. each 45 
 
 Average graduated stipends of three Candidate Teachers . . 30 
 Salary of one Certificated Teacher, with liberty to conduct 
 science classes, or to employ one half the day as a school 
 assistant 75 
 
 £150 
 
 If sixty scholars attended each school, there would be one teacher for every 
 twenty scholars„and the average cost per head would be 16«. 8d. At present the 
 payments of the night scholars do not exceed 2d. per wet-k, or 2s. per quarter, but 
 schools are often open during nine months. In such cases, 6s. might now be 
 derived from school-pence. If 7s. 6d. were available from the Parliamentary Grant, 
 much progress would soon be made. If one Local Teacher and one Candidate 
 Teacher only be employed on every night in the week in the three schools, their 
 services might be engaged for Ml. and 12Z. respectively, or at most for 30Z. and 15/. 
 Thus sol. would be saved, and the cost reduced to 13s. 4d. per night scholar. 
 
 t See copy of letter from B. Samuelson, Esq., M.P., t^ the Vice-President of 
 the Committee of Council on Education, concerning 'Technical Education in 
 * various Countries Abroad,' p. 57.
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAK EDUCATION. 65 
 
 tlie Education Department, under the direction of the Committee 
 of Council on Education, they ought to work in harmony. And 
 further, to proceed simply on the guarantee of inspection, and 
 the idea that the minimum of results can determine what schools 
 ought to be entrusted with the training of youth for higher 
 instruction, is, if the analysis of this Memorandum has brought 
 out correct issues, a fallacy which should cease to have any form 
 of public sanction* 
 
 Nor do I think it convenient here to point out tlie natural 
 way in which day schools, for the higher instruction of youth 
 taught until thirteen years old in the elementary schools, are 
 arising out of the impulse to education given by the Minutes of 
 1846, and the first Code embodying them. 
 
 Owen's College, at Manchester, under the guidance of able 
 professors, and an enlightened body of Trustees, is exploring the 
 path towards the foundation and support of provincial Schools 
 for technical instruction, according to the wants of the several 
 centres of our manufactures and commerce. As respects Mining, 
 the Grovernment have founded a Model School in Jermyn-street, 
 capable of being developed into a College teaching what are the 
 Radical relations of science and art to our industry and commerce. 
 But all these separate efforts requu^e to be co-ordinated by 
 some presiding intelligence. For this reason, and because of 
 the work which has to be done in the Reform of Charitable 
 Endowments* of Education — in the public and private schools 
 of the Middle Classes — and in the great foundation * schools of 
 the wealthiest and most aristocratic, the time is arrived when 
 the proposal pressed in the Report submitted by Sir John 
 Pakington to the Parliamentary Committee over which he pre- 
 sided should be adopted, viz. that the Department of Education 
 and Charitable Endowments should be presided over by a 
 Minister of State, who should be a member of the Cabinet. 
 
 The extension of the electoral power to the mass of the 
 J)eople must be followed by grave consequences, as well in the 
 action of the legislative as of the executive authority. It is not 
 within the functions of a constituency to settle the details of 
 legislation. To refer such matters to it would be to give it 
 credit for knowledge, foresight, and judicial calmness, which are 
 the rare attributes only of the few men, whose genius, after years 
 of training, enables them to guide Parliament, and to give saga- 
 cious counsels in the Cabinet. But the instinctive impulses of 
 the popular electoral body will be strong ; sometimes they may 
 
 * See paper on "Charitable Endowments for Education" in volume of 
 * Transactions of Social Science Association,' 1866-7. 
 
 F
 
 66 MEMORANDUM ON THE PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 even be uncontrollable. They will discern an end which they wish 
 to attain. They will select the men in whom they most confide 
 as their surest and ablest instruments to attain this end. To 
 their experience, wisdom, earnestness, and patriotism — according 
 to their estimate of these qualities — they will entrust the accom- 
 plishment of this work. They will invigorate them with their con- 
 fidence, and invest them with all the power which can be derived 
 from popular support. They will demand that the strength thus 
 given shall be used promptly, vigorously, effectually. All this 
 tends, as all real democratic government has ultimately tended, 
 to strengthen the Executive, Parliament, as a deliberative body, 
 will have to give form and expression to the instinctive will of 
 the constituency, but the Executive will have a doable duty: 
 First, to supply Parliament with all necessary information, and 
 to place before it projects of law for discussion, as well as to aid 
 and guide its deliberations : Secondly, to carry firmly and faith- 
 fully the decisions of Parliament into execution, as the articulate 
 expressions of the national will. 
 
 The instinctive cry of this will is now to be the voice, not of 
 the middle classes, as it has been since 1832, but of the entire 
 mass of the people, including the wealthiest and most privileged, 
 but also — as never before — the humblest classes. If there be an 
 earnest, eager, persevering cry for anything within the limits of 
 Parliamentary power, that object of desire will have to be con- 
 ceded. But to statesmen is reserved the function of giving that 
 form to the execution of the instinctive national desire which 
 shall be most consistent with the traditions and the permanent 
 interests of the country. 
 
 To apply these anticipations to the subject of national 
 education. If there be a deep-seated, earnest conviction in the 
 new electoral body, that the education of the mass of the people 
 can be no longer safely deferred, every obstacle to the accom- 
 plishment of this enterprise will be swept away, like barriers 
 of sand before the tide, and every institution which resists 
 will be like a vessel, the sport of a raging and overwhelming 
 surf. 
 
 It may be well before concluding to summarize some of the 
 chief results of this analysis. 
 
 1. The system of promoting the extension and improvement 
 of elementary education by the Schools of the religious Com- 
 munions has provided better means for the instruction of one 
 million and a quarter of children than any which have yet been 
 brought into operation. 
 
 2. The grants of the Committee of Council on Education 
 have created a system for the training of teachers, and for
 
 THE QUESTION OF POPULAR EDUCATION. 67 
 
 supplying a teacliing staff to schools, deficient only in the im- 
 perfection of the conditions of assistance, and in a distinct and 
 clear perception of the fact, that the chief function of that Com- 
 mittee tends to be the maintenance of the efficiency of the 
 instruction by means of a highly instructed and complete teach- 
 ing machinery, and that this function cannot be, without mischief, 
 delegated by the central to any local authority. 
 
 3. This combined system of State grants, in aid of the contri- 
 butions and exertions of local voluntary agencies, is too deeply 
 rooted in the social organization, traditions, and sentiments of 
 the country to yield either to any temporary storm of opinion, 
 or to the shock of administrative innovation. It is stronger than 
 anything which could be substituted for it, and may calmly defy 
 all adverse forces, 
 
 4. But this combined system is weak in the power of the 
 initiative, and in order to supply the wants of the country, if 
 education is to be made universal, it may be expedient to give 
 to the Privy Council and to the provincial district a regulated 
 and limited authority to take initiatory steps. 
 
 5. As the consequence and form of the expression of this 
 initiatory power, facilities to raise a school-rate, in aid of tlie 
 existing resources of schools, may have to be granted, but 
 these must be so ordered as not to disturb the connection 
 of schools with the religious Communions, nor the authority 
 of the present Committees of Management, nor the religious 
 constitution of the schools, but also so as to render their income 
 less precarious, their efficiency greater, and the means of pro- 
 viding them more abundant. 
 
 6. By the force of this new power we might hope to extend 
 the benefits of aid and inspection to all the now unaided schools, 
 and to found similar schools in all neglected or apathetic 
 districts. 
 
 7. There would then co-exist : {a) The Committee of Council 
 on Education providing one-third of the income of schools from 
 the Parliamentary Grant, and regulating by its Code of Minutes 
 and Inspection the standard and objects of National Education 
 and the training of teachers, (h) The Committees of Managers 
 superintending and directing all the details of school discipline, 
 organization, and instruction, and providing from school-pence 
 and voluntary agencies a second third of the income, (c) The 
 remaining third would be furnished by the District Education 
 Committee, who would derive it from a school- rate, and who, 
 besides being primarily responsible for making provision for 
 neglected districts, and for the education of the children of indi* 
 gent parents, would also have local charge of the impartial 
 distribution of the school-rate fund on recognized public prin- 
 
 F 2
 
 68 MEMORANDUM ON POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 ciples, and of tlie representation of the interests of the rate-, 
 payers, and of the parents of scholars. 
 
 * 8. The principle of securing for children under thirteen or 
 fourteen years of age a sufficient time for education should be 
 extended to farming occupations, and to the children — not at 
 work — of parents receiving out-door relief. But no other mode 
 of compulsory education should at present be adopted. 
 
 9. The Code of Minutes of the Committee of Council would 
 continue to regulate the distribution of the Parliamentary Grant, 
 but it would be necessary to modify this so as to secure the fol- 
 lowing objects : — 
 
 (a) That the Inspectors should have time, as well for the 
 general inspection of the school, and for an examination of the 
 higher subjects of instruction, as for the individual examination 
 of the scholars in the elements. 
 
 (b) By the graduation of the Capitation Grants, to give to 
 the Managers adequate motives to appoint a sufficient number of 
 Pupil Teachers, and to the principal teachers an interest in 
 their successful education. To afford a reward for the successful 
 cultivation of the higher as well as the lower subjects of instruc- 
 tion. To reduce to the minimum the fundamental objections to 
 a Capitation Grant, by making the amount which depends on 
 individual examination smaller. 
 
 (c) To adopt every method to encourage and make stable 
 the apprenticeship of Pupil Teachers — as distinguished from their 
 hiring — and thus to provide a sufficient supply of well-educated 
 Candidates for the Training Colleges, and of efficient teachers 
 for the extension of the present school system. 
 
 (d) To promote the spread of sound education in the 
 neglected districts and small parishes, by making Provisional 
 Grants to schools for two years, dependent on the results of ex- 
 amination, and on the fulfilment of the usual terms of aid at the 
 end of two years. 
 
 {e) To encourage by the Minutes, as a primary intention, 
 the founding and support only of thoroughly good and efficient 
 schools, and to regard every inferior result as a waste of- public 
 resources. 
 
 James P. Kay-Shuttleworth. 
 
 38, Oloucester Square, Hyde Park, W. 
 January 24:th, 1868.
 
 APPENDIX NO. I. 
 
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 APPENDIX NO. VII 75 
 
 Appendix No. VII. 
 
 Extract from Rtport of Committee of Council on Education for 1866-7, 
 
 pp. xii., xiii., xiv. 
 
 Mistresses are cheaper to employ than masters. In schools generally, salaries 
 bear the ratio of 75 per cent, to the total expenditure ; and, inasmuch as the 
 salaries of competent teachers cannot descend below a certain minimum, whether 
 few children have to be taught by them or many, this minimum bears an increased 
 ratio to tlie rest of the expenditure in very small schools. The minimum salary of 
 a certificated mistress may be set down as a guaranteed receipt of 40Z. per annum, 
 with a furnished house or lodgings. Mr. Tinling, in his Keport of last year 
 (pp. 430-6), gives the salaries obtained by female students on leaving 13 out of 
 the 14 colleges inspected by him, and in five colleges he sets it down as 40Z. with a 
 furnished house. The experienced mistresses of important schools obtain higher 
 rates, which raise the average (infra, p. 5), but mistresses quite competent to 
 manage, with the help of a female pupil teacher, schools of 60 or 70 children 
 where the boys do not stay much beyond their tenth year completed, may be 
 engaged towards the end of each year, for commencement of service in the next, at 
 the rate of 40Z. per annum and furnished lodgings, from the training colleges 
 (infra, p. 369;. The cost per annum therefore of such a school will not be less 
 than : — 
 
 Mistress's Salary £40 
 
 Female Pupil Teacher's (average) .. .. .. 10 
 
 Other Expenses.. .. .. .. .. .. 17 
 
 £67 
 
 If the scholars do not exceed 64, there is nothing in our Code, nor in our recent 
 Minute, which requires a pupil teacher to be maintained. Up to this limit, 
 managers are at liberty to supplement the teacher's eflbrts with their own, or 
 with any other unpaid assistance they can command. Assumin* then a school 
 attended on the average by 64 children, including the ordinary proportion of 
 infants, the cost per annum might be reduced to bll., and the grants might very 
 well be as follows : or if so much was not actually paid, the reason would be that 
 the amount must not (under Article 52, c. 1) exceed half the expenditm-e : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 Grants of 4s. each on 64, average number attending school 
 
 (Article 40a) 12 16 
 
 Grants of 4s. per pass on 103 passes, being the average number 
 now obtained by schools of this size (Article 40, b. 1, and 
 
 Minute 20 February, 1867) 20 12 
 
 24 infants at 6*. 6(Z. each (Article 40, b. 2) 7 16 
 
 £41 4 
 
 The half, however, of 57Z. is only 28Z. 10s., and therefore while the grant is not 
 to exceed this latter amount, the above calculation shows how little likely it is to 
 fall below it. The fees paid by 64 scholars ought to average not less than 2d per 
 week for 40 weeks in the year ; and they yield, on this estimate, 21Z. Qs. Sd., 
 leaving only 71. 3s. 4d. to be raised by subscription. If, in deference to the 
 custom which remains in some parishes of charging only Id. per week, the fees be 
 reduced to one-half, or lOZ. 13s. 4d„ the sum remaining to be subscribed is 
 111. 16s. 8d. A school attended on the average by 64 children will have about 
 85 on its books (Report of Royal Commission, 1861, p. 573), and will suffice 
 for a population of about 500 or rather more. If the number of children is 
 assumed to be 40 instead of 64, the item of " salary " will remain the same, and 
 little more of " other expenses " will be reduced than represents books— say 21. in
 
 76 APPENDIX NO. VIII. 
 
 the whole. Towards raising then the sum of 551. wanted to educate 40 children, 
 
 the grant may be estimated to yield ; — 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 4s. per child attending . . . . . . . . 8 
 
 4s. on 64 passes .. .. .. .. .. 12 16 
 
 6s. 6d on 16 infants 5 4 0. 
 
 £26 
 
 The fees Tas above) will yield either Gl. ISs. 4(1., or 131. Bs. 8d., and the sub- 
 scriptions will have to be either 151. 13s. 4d!. or 221. 6s. 8d. to make up the total 
 of 551. 
 
 Appendix No. VIII. 
 
 Memorandum communicated by Alexander Eedgrave, Esq., owe of Htr 
 Majesty's Inspectors of Factories, as to the Ft ogress of Legislation for the 
 Frotection of the Labour of Women, Young J'ermns, and Children j and 
 as to the Education of Children. 
 
 The first Factory Act (42 Geo. III. c. 73, 1802) was an attempt to remedy the 
 evils of excessive labour in Cotton and Woollen Factories only ; and for years after- 
 wards the manufacture of textile fabrics only was placed under Legislative restric- 
 tions. Thus the Factory Acts of 1883 and 1844, with their amending Acts, dealt 
 only with labour in the actual spinning and manufacture of textile fabrics, as they 
 existerl at the time, viz. : of Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Hemp, Flax, Tow, Silk, or 
 Jute. The next series of Acts had still reference only to textile fabrics, viz. : 
 Printworks, and the Bleaching, Dyeing, and finishing of textile goods. Various 
 modifications of the Factory Eegulations were conceded to these works, on the 
 ground of their inapplicability to the peculiarities and necessities of the trades. 
 An inquiry is now being made into the validity of the grounds upon which these 
 modifications were permitted, with a view to remedy many defects which have 
 been greatly complained of. Another Act, the first fruits of the Children's 
 Employment Commission, was passed in 1864. This extended the Factory Regu- 
 lations to a variety of trades, viz. : to the manufacture of earthenware, of lucifer 
 matches, of percussion caps and cartridges, to the employments of paper-staining 
 and of fustian-cutting. In all these trades the greatest satisfaction has been 
 expressed by the masters at the results of the application to their premises of Fac- 
 tory Regulations. They co-operate with the Inspectors, and have experienced 
 none of tbe inconveniences and difiiculties which they had anticipated, while the 
 operatives are no less satisfied at the beneficial operation of the new system. 
 
 Following very closely tlie outline of the Act of 1864, the Legislature endeavoured 
 in the Session of 1867 to cope with every kind of labour, exercised in the way of 
 trade, for the production of an article for sale. 
 
 First, the "Factory Acts Extension Act, 1867,'' which places under the regula- 
 tions of the Factory Acts the following premises, viz. : — 
 
 Blast furnaces, copper mills, iron mills and forges, foundries ; premises whereon 
 steam or water power is used to manufacture machinery, or any article of metal, or 
 of India-rubber or gutta-percha ; premises in which are carried on paper, glass, or 
 tobacco manufactures ; letter-press printing or bookbinding. In addition to the 
 preceding, any other premises on which at least fifty persons are employed on any 
 manual labour, for any process in the preparing or finishing of any article for sale. 
 
 The Government, in the first instance, and afterwards the Committee of the 
 House of Commons, considered with great attention the representations made from 
 the different trades proposed to be brought under restrictions, of the inconveniences 
 and injuries which would be caused to many trades, by a strict and close adherence 
 to the Factory Regulations as in force in cotton and other factories, and various 
 temporary modifications were granted for the purpose of making the transition from 
 unlimited to limited labour more gradual. Other permanent modi&csitiona were 
 also agreed to, in order to provide against very serious interruptions to processes
 
 APPENDIX NO. Vllt. 77 
 
 of manufacture, and disturbance of existing customs and habits, wbicli were threat- 
 ened by the strict Factory Law. 
 
 But the following regulations are absolute : — 
 
 1. The prohibition of the night-work of women and children. 
 
 2. The limitation of the night-work of young persons in some specified trades, 
 such as blast-furnaces, paper-mills, &c., to not more than six nights in a fortnight, 
 and the prohibition of day-work during the night turn. 
 
 3. The limitation of the hours of work of children to half the day, with the obli- 
 gation of daily school attendance. 
 
 4. The limitation of the hours of work of young persons and women to 10.30 
 hours per day, and 60 hours per week. 
 
 5. The other ordinary rules as to meals and holidays, dangerous machinery and 
 accidents. 
 
 6. The original Factory Acts made no provision for securing proper ventilation 
 and cleanliness, but by the two last Acts, 1864 and 1867, these two important con- 
 ditions must be observed; and by the last Act, 1867, the further obligation is 
 enacted, that means shall be provided for preventing the inhalation by workmen 
 of dust, gas, or other impurities caused by any process of manufacture. 
 
 The preceding Acts embrace all the large and important classes of Factories. 
 Their administmtion has been placed under the supervision of the Inspectors of 
 Factories, and the machinery of the Factory Acts applies to tliem all. The 
 details as to Surgical Certificates as proof of age — the registration of names, 
 &c., in Factories of the smallest class would be u-ksome and to a great extent 
 unnecessary. The Legislature therefore proceeded to lay down rules to be ob- 
 served in all these minor classes of labour, which are not included in any of 
 the above Factory Acts, without the minute details to which the larger Works are 
 subjected, and passed the "Workshops Kegulation Act, 1867." 
 
 This Act applies to all manual labour exercised by way of Trade in preparing 
 or finishing any article for sale. 
 
 The main features of the " Factory Acts Extension Act, 1867," are adopted, 
 except that tlie labour of Young Persons and Women may be extended to 12 hours 
 per day, between wider limits than under the Factory Acts : i. e., they may 
 commence at 5 a.m. and need not cease until 9 p.m. ; and on Saturdays work 
 may be continued after the regular hours in shops wherein more than five persons are 
 employed in repairing articles ; the school attendance of cliildren need not exceed 
 10 hours per week instead of 15, as under the Factory Acts. Temporary and 
 permanent modifications very similar to those in the '* Factory Acts Extension 
 Act, of 1867," are also included in the Workshops Act. 
 
 The administration of the Workshops Act is not placed in the hands of the 
 Inspectors of Factories, but is enjoined upon the Local Authority, whether Mayor, 
 Provost, Board of Health, Vestry, or whatever may be the Governing Body of the 
 locality. It is of great importance that these various bodies should accept the 
 *' duty " imposed upon them by the Act, for in their hands now rests the power of 
 creating a school-seeking race of children. Every child who performs any manual 
 labour (except in agriculture) is bound now to attend school concurrently witli its 
 daily occupation, but the system cannot be inaugurated unless by the influence and 
 pressure of some governing body. The Inspectors of Factories are empowered to 
 enter Workshops and consequently to enforce the provisions of the Act, but the 
 intention of the Act seems rather that they should ascertain whether the Kcgula- 
 tions of the Act have been administered by the Local Authorities. There is one 
 provision of the Workshops Act which may be of great importance. It is tliat 
 relating to the disqualifying of Schoolmasters. Undev the Factory Acts, an 
 Inspector is empowered to disqualify a Schoolmaster *' by reason of his incapacity 
 " to teach the childr«^n to read and write, from his gross ignorance, or from his not 
 " having the materials necessary to teach reading and writing, or because of his im- 
 " moral conduct,' ' &c. The cause for disqualification is here clearly enough defined, 
 but it reaches only the very worst class of cases, about which there could be no 
 kind of doubt in tlie mind of the Inspector. The Workshops Eegulation Act 
 enlarges very much the grounds of disqualification, and it shoiild be observed that 
 no authority is given in respect to Schools, and School Certificates, to the Local 
 Authority, these subjects being placed entirely under the control of the Inspectors
 
 78 APPENDIX NO. IX. 
 
 of Factories. After repeating as grounds for disqualification the not filling up^of 
 certificates and immoral conduct, the Schoolmaster may be disqualified, if in the 
 opinion of the Inspectors " he is unfit to teach children by reason either of hia 
 " ignorance or neglect, or of his not having the necessary books and materials/* 
 Under these terms there would be ample ground to disqualify many Schoolmasters, 
 who cannot be interfered with under the Factory Acts, but whose continuance as 
 Schoolmasters is disastrous. This power of disqualification, however, must be exer- 
 cised with great caution and discretion, and should be used in most cases as a 
 hidden source of influence, rather than as a direct act of authority. 
 
 The above Acts form a Code of Legislation, unexampled in any country in the 
 world. The young and the weaker sex are absolutely secured from excessive 
 labour : Children must and do attend School — all are protected from injuries, and 
 the unhealthiness of processes is lessened. These great objects are obtained by the 
 good feeling evinced by the Masters ; by their appreciation of the just objects of the 
 Legislature ; and by their ready acceptance of the obligations placed upon them. 
 
 Appendix IX. 
 
 Educational Inquiry in Manchester. 
 
 This Inquiry was undertaken by the Education Bill Committee, with a view to 
 clear up some of the matters raised by the discussion upon the last Eeport of the 
 Education Aid Society. The locality comprises two Wards of the Municipal 
 Borough of Manchester, containing 92,517 Inhabitants. 
 
 It is bounded by the River Irk, Miller Street, Swan Street, Great Ancoats Street, 
 Holt Town, the Borough Boundary at Miles Platting, across Oldham Eoad, and 
 back to the Irk River. The method adopted was to copy the rate-books upon 
 sheets ready ruled for the difierent headings, so that each line of a sheet would 
 represent one house. 
 
 The Canvassers (who were all Ex-Police Inspectors or Relieving Officers, 
 familiar with statistical inquiries) were simply instructed to study the headings of 
 the sheets, and to see that all the questions were answered. 
 
 When the inquiry was nearly finished, the sheets were examined, and where 
 errors appeared in any sheet from the figures not agreeing, were handed back to 
 the Canvassers for a second visit, to insure their correction ; so that the return from 
 every house can be referred to, if necessary, at any time. 
 
 St. Michael's Wakd 
 comprises a population of 42,007 persons. 3,911 are from three to six years of age, 
 and 50 per cent, of them have never been to a day-school, 4,289 are from six to 
 ten years, and 10*2 per cent, of them have never been to a day-school; 3,837 
 are from ten to fourteen years of age, and of these 7 per cent, have never been to a 
 day-school. So that there appears to be only a small proportion of the popula* 
 tion of this ward who, according to their own showing, do not, at some time or 
 other, make an effort to secure instruction : — The total of children between three 
 and fourteen years of age is 12,037, and of these 48 per cent, profess to be now 
 going to school, 12 • 3 per cent, are at work (about one-tenth of whom are half- 
 timers), and 39*2 per cent, are neither at school nor at work. 
 
 Of the 9,347 who are now, or have been to school, 
 
 20 • 8 per cent, are from three to six years of age. 
 41*1 „ six to ten ,, 
 
 38 '1 ,, ten to fourteen „ 
 
 Of this number 2,580 have attended less than one vear at school. 
 2,409 
 1,778 
 
 1,288 „ „ 
 
 684 
 370 
 136 „ ,^ 
 
 66 » ,. 
 
 29 „ „ 
 
 5 ?s » 
 
 two „ 
 
 three ,, 
 
 four „ 
 
 five „ 
 
 SIX „ 
 
 seven „ 
 
 eight „ 
 
 nine ,, 
 
 ten „ 
 
 eleven „
 
 APPENDIX NO. IX. 
 
 79 
 
 27 • 51 per cent, of the whole have therefore averaged half-a-year only ; 25 • 5 per 
 cent, have averaged one and a half year, and 1 9 per cent, two and a half years ; so 
 that 72 per cent, of the whole have averaged 1'38 year each, whilst the average 
 of the whole number is 2*2 years, which, seeing that 38 per cent, of them have 
 left school, will probably represent about the term of instruction reached by two- 
 thirds of the pupils. 
 
 Only 28 per cent, have averaged 4*38 years, and this term has been very 
 unequally shared, for 2 • 5 per cent, have had upwards of seven years of instruction 
 each. 
 
 The value of the instruction received is tested by the condition of the youths 
 of fourteen years of age and upwards, of whom there are 6,773. Of tliese youths 
 76*5 can read, and 62 per cent, only can write; so that whilst, according to the 
 parents' account, only 7 per cent, completely escape day-school instruction, 23 • 5 
 per cent, fail even to learn to read, and 38 per cent, fail to acquire the power to 
 write their own names. 
 
 Of the children at school in this ward 22 per cent, were, at the end of September, 
 assisted by the Education Aid Society. 
 
 The result of the inquiry is, therefore, that 52 per cent, of the children of the 
 school age are not now at school, that work only hinders 12 '3 per cent., and that 
 of those who go to school 38 per cent, do not attain the ability to write their names, 
 and 23 '5 per cent, do not even learn to read. 
 
 New Cross Ward. 
 
 The population of this ward is 50,510. Of this number 3,944 are from three to 
 six years of age, and 51*8 per cent, of them have never been to a day-school, 
 4,444 are from six to ten years of age, and 13 • 8 per cent, have not been to a day- 
 school; and 4,214 are from ten to fourteen years of age, and 9-6 pel' cent of these 
 have not been to a day-school. So that in this, as in St. Michael's Ward, an 
 effort is made at some time or other by 90 per cent, of the population to get instruc- 
 tion ; but much of this etFort is evidently spasmodic, and therefore fruitless. The 
 total of children from three to fourteen years of age is 12,602, of whom 37*4 per 
 cent, are returned as now at school, 17*6 per cent, at work (about a quarter of 
 whom are half-timers), whilst 44*9 per cent, are neither at school nor at work. 
 
 Of 9,549 who are returned as being now, or having been at some* former time, at 
 school — 
 
 2623 have attended less than one years 286 have attended less than seven years 
 
 2123 „ „ two „ 138 „ „ eight 
 
 1795 „ „ three „ 56 „ ,, nine „ 
 
 1238 ,, ,, four „ 25 „ ,, ten „ 
 
 769 „ „ five „ 16 ,, „ eleven „ 
 
 480 „ „ six „ 
 
 Of the whole number 27*4 per cent, have averaged half-a-year only, 22*2 per 
 cent, have averaged one and a half year, and 18*7 per cent, two and a half years 
 each; so that 68*3 per cent, of the pupils have avernged only 1-37 year each, 
 whilst the average of the whole is 2-3 years; and as 62*6 of the pupils are not 
 now at school, it is difficult to see how any considerable proportion can get more 
 than two years of instruction. 
 
 Under these circumstances it is not wonderful that, out of 8,102 youtlis of 
 fourteen years and upwards, only 74 per cent, have learned to read, and 56-5 per 
 cent, only have learned to write. Of the children at school in this ward, on the 
 29th September last, 1,559, or 33 per cent., were assisted by the Education Aid 
 Society. 
 
 General Summary. 
 
 The population of the two wards reported upon is 92,517. There are 7,855 
 children from three to six years of age, of whom 51 per cent, have never been to a 
 day-school ; 8,733 are from six to ten years of age, and 12 per cent, of these have 
 never been to a day-school ; 8,051 are from ten to fourteen years, and 8*3 per cent, 
 of these have never been to a day-ischool. Thus, out of the total of 24,639 children 
 between three and fourteen years cf age, 76* 6 per cent, have been for seme short 
 period to school, and only 8*3 per cent, ruach fourteen years without seeing the
 
 80 APPENDIX NO. IX. 
 
 inside of a day-school ; but 9,592, or 50 per cent, of the whole, have been at some 
 time chargeable to tlie Education Aid Society, so that, in the absence of that 
 association, the state of things would have appeared mucli worse. Owing in great 
 measure to want of funds, and owing also in a considerable degree to the careless- 
 ness of parents in not using orders when granted, only about 13 per cent, of the 
 present pupils are due to the Education Aid Society. 
 
 Whilst the present number returned as at school is 1 in 8*8 of the population, 
 if we subtract the children sent by the Education Aid Society, it would be 1 in 
 11-3 only. 
 
 The difficulties of the Education Aid Society are illustrated by returns obtained 
 from one school. Thus— from 1st May, 1865, to the present time — 622 orders 
 have been issued for that school. Of these orders, notwithstanding the utmost 
 vigilance of the master in looking up the children, 53, or 10 per cent., have never 
 been used ; and of tlie 569 which have been used, only 143 are now in use. 
 
 But the saddest fact is, that the result of all our educational efforts, with 
 Sunday Schools, Night Schools, and Literary Institutes included, still leaves 24-8 
 per cent, of our youths unable to read, and 58 • 4 per cent, unable to write. 
 
 LONDON: FEINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
 
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